Ife OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ^ REFERENCE & BiBLIOG. ^11 4 4 HARPER'S BOOK OF FACTS A CLASSIFIED HISTORY OF THE WORLD EMBRACING SCIENCE, LITERATUKE, AND ART COMPILED BY JOSEPH H. WILLSEY EDITED By CHARLTON T. LEWIS NEW YORK HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS 1895 5^ 66^//^ Copyright 1895, by Harper & Brothers. KAll^jfi^hts reserved. PREFACE 0^^ Perhaps the most useful of all books of reference for the general read.er and the family circle is the Dictionary of Dates, first prepared by Joseph Haydn in 1841. His design was " to attempt the compression of the greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single volume, and to produce a book of reference whose extensive usefulness may render its possession material to every individual." It has passed through twenty large editions, each new one carefully corrected as to the past and brought down by additions to its date, until it is esteemed by those to whom London is the world's centre as the model repertory of facts in history, science, art, and literature. It has also had a large sale in the United States. But the usefulness of the work in America has been limited by its comparative neglect of the Western Hemisphere. The insular mind of the mother-country has never yet fully awakened to the change in the centre of civilization which has resulted from the growth of the New World. ^To residents of this continent it is surprising that Europe and its dependencies still seem to so many intelligent minds of the older nations substantially to comprise humanity in its present interests and hopes, as well as in its memorable past. Multitudes who have long made the Dictionary of Dates a constant companion, illustrating their reading and satisfying curiosity on the thousand and one questions which conversation and study hourly suggest, have felt this limitation of its field of view as a defect. They have wished for the ideal Book of Facts, which should represent the greater civilization of both hemispheres as fully as the earlier work repre- sents that of Europe and the East. It has been the ambition of the compiler of the present work, Mr. J. H. Willsey, of Buffalo, N". Y., to make such a book, y Taking from the magnificent compilation of Haydn and his successors every fact which has more than a narrow and local interest, he has added, in a form so minutely classified as to be accessible in all detail at a glance, the events worth notice in the entire history of the Western Hemisphere and of each of its political divisions. The United States, for example, and every State singly, are represented by chronological tables in which the origin, foundation, political changes, and economic activities of each may be read. Each of the principal cities is similarly treated. Events of national importance ^5 1 1 1 PREFACE are themselves independently recorded. Inasmuch as the curiosity of the American reader is commonly much more varied than that of his British cousin, it has been found expedient to extend the field of view, especially in literature, science, and art, by insert- ing in each of these departments of knowledge whole classes of facts, more recondite or more detailed than bad seemed necessary in the London work. No attempt, of course, is made to embody the systematic elements of any branch of study, such as are presented in educational treatises; but apart from this it has been the aim of the compiler to make a hand-book of universal knowledge, which will furnish ready and accurate answers to the questions of fact which are likely to arise in active inquiring minds. If this ideal is too high to be attainable, it will still be found, as the editors and the publishers confidently believe, that the Book of Facts contains by far the largest amount of precise and accurate information on subjects of general interest that has ever been condensed into a single volume. N.B. — In a work of this character endless repetition can be avoided only by cross references. These are made in this book by printing in small capitals the article referred to. Whenever a word appears in small capitals it is a title to be consulted for further information. ;' •■' -'. i <.. X J.- X. HARPER'S BOOK OF FACTS A CLASSIFIED HISTORY OF THE WORLD A. Etre marque a fA^ to be of first-class quality. A is ! the distinctive mark of money minted in Paris, which is purer i and freer from alloy than any other in France. j Aa (from Latin aqua, water), the name of about 40 small | rivers in Europe. A 1, Symbol used in the Record of American and Foreign Shipping and in Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping, in rating vessels for insurance. A 1 is the highest. Hence A 1 is used of the highest mercantile credit, and, col- i loquially, A 1 or A No. 1 is equivalent to first-class— first- rate. "An A number one cook, and no mistake." — Mrs. Stowe. Aaroll'§ Breastplate, described Exod. xxviii. 15-29 (1491 B.C., Usher), contained precious stones emblem- atic of the several tribes of Israel, thus : First row.. ( Zebtjlon. •• 1 Carbuncle. ISSAOHAB. Topaz. JrnAH. Sardius. Second " . . ( Gad. •• ( Diamond. Simeon. Sapphire. Reuukn. Emerald. Third " . . t Bknjamin. •• \ Amethyst. Manassbui. Agate. Epjiraim. Ligure. Fourth " .. i Naphtali. • • \ Jasper. ASHEE. Onyx. Dan. Beryl. *' As the Hebrew is written from right to left, the stones with their inscribed names would probably appear as above. This is the order of the tribes as they were arranged in their camp and on the march." — " The Tabernacle," Henri/ W. Saltan, p. 206. A. B. Plot. Ninian Edwards, ex-United States sena- tor from III, attacks William H. Crawford, sec. of the Treas- ury, candidate for president, in letters signed A. B., reflecting ■on his integrity. Edwards is sent on a public mission to Mex- ico, and while on his way, Apr. 1824, avers the authorship and makes new accusations. Recalled for investigation, he fails to sustain the charges. United States, Ap?: 1824. abacus, the uppermost part ot tKe capital of a column, usually a slab or tile, just under the architrave. That on the Corinthian column is ascribed to Callimac'nus, about 540 b.c. {2) A frame traversed by stiff wires, on which beads are strung. Used by the Greeks, Romans, and Chinese. Abae, N. Greece, early celebrated for its oracle of Apollo, •of greater antiquity than that at Delphi. abattoirs {a-hat-wor''), slaughter-houses for cattle. First erected near Paris in 1818; at Edinburgh, 1851; Lon- don, 1855 ; and in the United States, 1866. Abbassides, descendants of Mahomet's uncle, Abbas- Ben-Abdul-Motalleb. Merwan H., the last of the Ommiades, was defeated and slain by Abul Abbas in 750, who became ■caliph. 37 Abbasside caliphs (including Haroun al-Raschid, 786-809) reigned from 750 to 1258. They settled at Bag- dad, built by Al-Mansour about 762. Their color was •black ; that of the Fatimites green ; that of the Ommiades Avhite. Abbaye {ab-hay'-ie), a military prison in Paris, where 164 prisoners were murdered by republicans led by Maillard. At this time, 2-5 Sept. 1792, 1200 persons in all were murdered, ^mong them the princess de Lamballe. Fran'Ce, Sept. 1792. 1 ■ ABD Abbe, Cleveland. Weather Bureau. abbess, the head of a convent or abbey for women. In England they attended ecclesiastical councils as early as 694, when they took precedence of presbyters in signing the acts. Abbeville {dbh-veeV), N. France, an ancient city fa- mous for the Gothic church of St. Wolfram. Here Henry HL of England met Louis IX. of France and made peace, re- nouncing Normandy and other provinces, 20 May, 1259. abbeys, monasteries for men or wonaen. Monachism and Convents. The first abbey founded in England was at Bangor in 560 ; in France, at Poitiers, about 360 ; in Ireland in the 5th century; in Scotland in the 6th century. 110 alien priories were suppressed in England, 2 Henrj' V. 1414. — Salmon. The disorders in these establishments led to their destruction in Britain. After visitations of inquiry, king Henry VIII. began to suppress small monasteries to raise rev- enues for Wolsey's colleges at Oxford and Ipswich, 7 June, 1525 ; many were suppressed in 1536 ; and all religious houses by parliament, 1539-40. Many abbeys were suppressed in France in 1790, in Spain in 1837 and 1868, and in Italy in 1866-73. After Henry VIII. suppressed the English monas-r^ teries, many of the buildings were made private dwelling still called abbej's — for example, "Newstead Abbey," tl home of lord Byron. abbot (from ah, father), the head of an abbey. In England, mitred abbots were lords of parliament ; 27 ahbots and 2 priors thus distinguished, 1329 ; the number reduced to 25 in IS^Q.—Coke. The abbots of Reading, Glastonbury, and St. John's, Colchester, were executed as traitors ♦ r d<^nying the king's supremacy, probably for not surrender ig tlieir ab- beys, 1539. Glastonbury. In the reign of ^' nry V^III. 26 abbots sat in the House of Lords. Abbot«ford, the residence of sir W .iter Scott, on the Tweed, begun in 1817 and finished in Wl-i. Sir WnUer de- vised the name, fancying that the abli^' '•■»'^^- ~- - icient tiir.'^s. forded the Tweed here. He ' < one year when his reverse oan.e V's \ . The projierty was, hcv ever, wholly disencumbered in j647. Here sir Walter died, 1832 ; and his son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart, 1854. ABC Club, a name adopted by certain republican en- thusiasts in Paris, professing to relieve the abaisses, or de- pressed. Their insurrection, 5 June, 1832, suppressed with bloodshed, 6 June, is described by Victor Hugo in " Les Miserables"(1862). Abd-el-Kader, general of the Algerians against the French invasion, born near Mascara, 1807 ; emir of Jlac^ara, 1831; defeated and captured by the French, 22 Dec. 1847; released by Napoleon HI., 1852; d. at Damascus, 1883. Al- giers. Abde'ra, a city in Thrace, where was born, about 490 B.C.. Democritus, known as the "laughing philosopher." but in truth of the materialistic school and a theorizer in the di- rection of the modern doctrine of Atomism. Ato.ms. abdication!* of sovereigns, voluntary or compulsory, have been numerous; the chief are those of ABE 8ulU, Roman dictator. vohmUry B.c. 79 Diocletiau, Rt)man oniiHTur, volunury a.d. 306 Stepheo II. uf Hungnry. voluutary, fW)m a bed of sickness; as- sumes the hat)it ot li monk, and dies the same year 1131 Albert the Bear, of UrundonburK, vohmUry 1168 John Balliol of ScotlHud. coiniwllod by Kdward I. of England. . 1296 Eric VII. of IK^umark, and XIII. of Sweden, virtually deposed. 1439 Charles V. as emperor, voluntary 16S5 "as ruler of the Netherlands, in fkvor of bis son Philip 26 Oct 1666 Charles V., as king of S|>ain, in fkvor of his son Philip.. 16 Jan. 1666 Christina of Swc*len, voluntary 6 June, 1664 John Casimer of Poland, voluntary ; retires to a cloister 1668 James II. of England, fled 11 Dec. 1688 His flight declared an abdication by lords and commons. Frederick Augustus II. of Poland, compelled by Charles XII. of Sweden 1706 Philip V. of S()ain, voluutary, in fkvor of his son, who, after a reign of eight months, dies; Philip resumes 1724 Tictur .'Vintideus II. of Sardinia, voluntary, in fkvor of his son, Clwrlos Emmanuel 1730 Amadous alnlicates to marry the countess of San Sebastian. Afterwards repenting, and attempting to regain power, he dies in prison 1732 Charles of the Two Sicilies, voluntary, on accession to the throne of Spain as Charles III 1759 Stanislaus II. of Poland, compelled by the partition of the kingdom 1795 Charles Emmanuel IV. of Sardinia, in favor of his brother, Victor Emmanuel 4 June, 1802 Francis II., emperor ot Germany, to become emperor of Austria 11 Aug. 1804 Charles IV. of Spain, compelled by the people, in favor of his son 19 Mch. 1808 Restored by Napoleon, then abdicates in favor of Napo- leon 11 May, 1808 Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples (for Spain), at request of Napo- leon 1 June, 1808 Oustavus IV. of Sweden, compelled 29 Mch. 1809 Louis of Holland, brother of Napoleon, at his order, Holland annexed to France 1 July, 1810 Napoleon I. of France, compelled 5 Apr. 1814 Napoleon I. of France, compelled 22 June, 1815 Victor Emmanuel, of Sardinia, compelled, in favor of his brother, Charles Felix 13 Mch. 1821 Pedro IV. of Portugal (Pedro I. of Brazil), in favor of his daughter 2 May, 1826 Charles X. of France, compelled, in favor of his grandson, Henry, duke of Bordeaux, later count of Chambord (Henry v.), who is not accepted by the French 2 Aug. 1830 Pedro I. of Brazil (IV. of Portugal), in favor of his son, Pedro II ; 7 Apr. 1831 William I. of Holland, in favor of his son. William II. . . .8 Oct. 1840 Louis Philippe of France, compelled by the people, in favor of his grandson, the count of Paris; not accepted 24 Feb. 1848 Ferdinand of Austria, compelled, in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph 1 2 Dec. 1848 \ Charles Albert of Sardinia, in favor of his son. Victor Em- S manuel II 23 Mch. 1849 Isabella II. of Spain, fled to France 25 June, 1870 Amaileus of Spain (second son of Victor Emmanuel II.), vol- untary 11 Feb. 1873 Milan I. of Servia, voluntary, in favor of his son 6 Mch. 1889 Pedro IL of Brazil, compelled by the people 15 Nov. 1889 Brazil o'eclares a republic. Abecedarians, followers of Nicholas Storch, an Ana- baptist iji the 16th century, named from rejecting worldly knowledge, even of the alphabet, lest it impede the soul in apprehe:ision of divine truth. abecedarium, a logical machine, constructed by Mr. William Stanley Jevons, and described in his " Principles of Science," 1874 ; designed, by symbolic terms, to perform all the processes of aiialytrc-reasoning with infallible awurac^. A Becket, Thomas. Becket. Abelard, a teacher of theology and logic, in 1118 fell in love with Helolse, niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris, became her tutor, and seduced her. After compulsory marriage, lie placed her temporarily in a convent. Having been cruelly mutilated at the instigation of her relatives, he entereil the abbey of St. Denis, whence he was driven, accused of heresy, for censuring the dis.soluteness of monks. He then built and leetured at the oratory of the Paraclete (or Comforter) which eventually he made a convent, with Heloise for the abbess. He died under charge of heresy, 21 Apr., 1142, and was buried in the Paraclete, where also Heloise was laid, 17 May, 1164. Their ashes were removed to the garden of the Museum Fran- ^ais in 1800, and to the cemetery of Pere la Chaise in 1817. Their epistles, etc., were published in 1616. Philosophy. Abenakis or Abnakis, a tribe of Indians of the Algonquin class, inhabiting at the time of the first English settlements lands now in Maine. The river Penobscot bears the name of one tribe, Androscoggin of another. Indians. 2 ABO Abeiieerra'fi^eM, a powerful Moorish tribe of Grana- da, opposed to the Zegris. From 1480 to 1492 their quarrels deluged Granada with blood and hastened the fall of the kingdom. They were exterminated by Boabdil (Abu Abdal- lah), the last king, who was dethroned by Ferdinand and Isa- bella in 1492; his dominions were annexed to Castile. Abeniiberg, Bavaria. The Austrians were here de- feated by Napoleon I., 20 Apr., 1809. Abcreronibic, James, I7O6-8I. Fort Ticondkr- OGA. Aberdeen, N. Scotland, said to have been founded in the 3d century, and made a city about 893. Old Aberdeen was made a royal burgh in 1154; it was burned by the Eng- lish in 1336; and soon after New Aberdeen was built. The university was founded by bishop William Elphinstone, who had a buU from pope Ale.xander VI. in 1494. King's college was erected in 1600-6. Marischal college was founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scotland, in 1593; rebuilt in 1837. In 1858 the university and colleges were united. Aber EdlV, S. Radnorshire. Near here Llewelyn, the last independent prince of Wales, was surprised, defeated, and slain by the lords marchers, 11 Dec. 1282. aberration of light ; discovered by James Bradley,, observing an apparent motion of the fixed stars, 1727. Abhorrer§, a name given in 1679 (reign of Charles II.) to the court party in England, the opponents of those (af- terwards Whigs) who addressed the king for the immediate assembly of parliament, which was delayed because it was adverse to the court. The court party (afterwards Tories) expressed abhorrence of men who would encroach on the royal prerogative, 1680. — Hume. The commons expelled several Abhorrers, among them sir Francis Withens, whom they sent to the Tower, and prayed the king to remove others from places of trust. They resolved, "that it is the undoubted right of the subject to petition for the calling of a parliament,, and that to traduce such petitions as tumultuous and sedi- tious is to contribute to the design of altering the constitu- tion." Oct. 1680. Abingfdon Law. In 1644-45, lord Essex and Waller held Abingdon, an ancient abbey town in Berks, against Charles I. It was unsuccessfully attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, and by prince Rupert in 1645; when the defenders put every Irish prisoner to death without trial; hence the term "Abingdon law " — " first hang the offender, then try him." abiog^eneiis (a, not, l3iog, life, yevemg, origin), the production of living from non-living matter, proposed by pro- fessor Huxley in his British Association address, 1870, instead of the less accurate phrase "spontaneous generation." abjuration of the pope was enjoined by statutes of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and James I., that of certain doctrine* of the church of Rome by Charles II. 1673. The oath of ab- juration of the house of Stuart was enjoined by stat. Will. III. 1702 ; the form was changed in after- reigns. By 21 & 22^ Vict. c. 48 (1858) one oath was substituted for the three oaths- of abjuration, allegiance, and supremacy. Oaths. Abner, cousm Vl Saul, first king of Israel ; after Saul died, 1055 b.c., supports his son Ishbosheth against David; alienated from Ishbosheth, he a; ranges secretly with Davitt to bring Israel over to him, but is treacherously slain, 1048 b.c, by Joab, almost immediately after. The celebrated dirge ever his grave by David has been thus translated : "Should Abner die as a villain dies? — Thy hands— not bound, Thy feet— not brought into fetters; As one falls before the sons of wickedness, fellest thou. ' ' Abo (a'boo or o'-boo), a port of Russia, founded before 1157, was till 1809 capital of Swedish Finland, but then ceded to Russia. The university, erected by Gustavus Adolphua and Christina, 1640 et seq., was removed to Helsingfors, 1827.. By the peace of Abo Sweden ceded part of Finland to Russia, 18 Aug. 1743. abolition of slavery in the United States. Slavery.. AbolitioniitS, a term applied to those desiring the immediate abolition of slavery in the United States. Most of the northern states passed law? before 1800 for gradual ABO 3 emancipation, and the disposition of the whole country then, and some time after, towards slavery was mere toleration with hope of its ultimate extinction. But the more southern states, under climatic, productive, and territorial influences, gradually came to regard slavery as not only right, but a blessing. The slavery agitation had two periods : during the first, 1780-1819, it was general and spiritless; during the sec- ond, 1820-65, it became sectional and aggressive. During the latter period the term Abolitionists was first applied to the agitators for emancipation. The Abolitionists, in the pream- ble to the Constitution of the American Anti-Slavery Society, organized at Philadelphia, Dec. 1833, advocate "The imme- diate emancipation of the slaves ; elevation of the race, rec- ognition of their equality in civil and religious privileges"— all to be accomplished without physical force. Immediate abolition being their supreme aim, both Church and State were subordinate to this idea. Restive under delay, they often tried the patience of their more conservative but no less humane coadjutors. Slaveky. abori^'ine§ (without origin), a name given to the earliest known inhabitants of Italy (whence the Latini) ; now applied to the original inhabitants of any country. Indians. AbOUkir (d-boo-keer'), Egypt, the ancient Canopus. In the j:)ay Nelson defeated the French fleet, 1 Aug. 1798. Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was defeated here by 5000 French under Honaparte, 25 July, 1799, A British expedition to Egypt, under general sir Ralph Abercromby, landed, and Aboukir surrendered after a sanguinary conflict with the French, 8 Mch. 1801. Alexandria. Abracaclab'ra, a magical word once used as a charm against ague and fevers. Its meaning and origin are dis- puted. As a charm it was written so as to form an inverted triangle by dropping the last letter at each successive repeti- tion. Abrabam or Abram, father of the Israelites, first- born son of Terah, a Shemite, who left Ur of the Chaldees, in northeast Mesopotamia, with Abram and Lot, and moved westward, entering Canaan 1921 b.c. (Usher). Sojourned in Egypt one year, 1920 b.c. •, died in Canaan, 1821 b.c. The era of Abraham, used by Eusebius, began 1 Oct. 2016 b.c. Abraham, Heights or Plains of, near Quebec, named " from Abraham Martin, a pilot known as Maitre Abraham, who owned a piece of land here in the early times of the col- ony."— F. Parkman ("Montcalm and Wolfe," vol. ii., p. 289.) On this plateau was fought a battle between French and English, 13 Sept. 1759, gaining Canada for the English. Both commanders, Montcalm and Wolfe, were killed, the latter at the moment of victory. Abrahamites, a sect holding the errors of Pau'.us, suppressed by Cyriacus, the patriarch of Antioch, early in the 9th century. (2) A sect in Bohemia professing the faith of Abraham, and accepting from the Scriptures only the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer. Being required to unite with some one of the religions tolerated in the empire, and refusing, thev were banished by emperor Joseph II. in 1783. Abrailte§, Portugal. By a treaty between France and Portugal, signed here 29 Sept. 1801, the war was ended, and the French army withdrew ; money compensation was fixed, and territories in Guiana ceded to France. At the conven- tion of Cintra, 22 Aug. 1808, it was surrendered to the English by the French. Junot, one of Napoleon's marshals, derived his title of " duke of Abrantes" from this town. Ab§alOIIl, one of the sons of David, king of Israel, re- bels, is defeated and slain by Joab (1024-23 b.c.). 2 Sam. xv.-xix. abiinthe, a strong liquor made by steeping flowers and leaves of wormwood in alcohol, chiefly at Neufchatel in Switzerland, but also in many places in France. It became popular in France during the war with Algiers (1844-47), when the French soldiers mixed it with wine to keep off fever. It is the most dangerous of the favorite liquems, and the French government has forbidden its use in the army and navy. absolution. Till the 3d century the consent of the ABY congregation was necessary to absolution ; but soon after the power was reserved to the bishop ; and in the 13th century the form " I absolve thee " was general, though it remained for the Council of Trent, in the 16th century, to decree this form, instead of " The Lord absolve thee." Holy Cross. abstinence, it is said that St. Anthony lived to the age of 105 on 12 ounces of bread and water daily, and James the hermit to the age of 104; that St. Epiphanius lived to 115; Simeon the Stylite to 112; and Kentigern, commonly called St. Mungo, to 185 years of age.— Spottiswood. Cicely de Ridgway, said to have fasted 40 days rather than plead when charged with the murderof her husbaud, John; discharged as miraculously saved, 1347. Ann Moore, the " Fasting Woman of Tutbury," Staffordshire, said to have lived 20 months without food; her imposture was de- tected by Dr. A. Henderson, Nov. 1808. An impostor named Cavanagh, at Newry in Ireland, reported to have lived 2 years without meat or drink, Aug. 1840; was ex- posed in England, and imprisoned, Nov. 1841. Sarah Jacobs, the Welsh fasting girl, aged 13, said by her father to have lived more than a year without food; after close watch for a week, died from exhaustion, 17 Dec. 1869. Her parents were sentenced at Carmarthen to imprisonment for fraud 15 July, 1870. Dr. Tanner, at New York, fasted 40 days, drinking a little water; losing 36 lbs. from 157><^ lbs. ; noon 28 June to noon 7 Aug. 1880. Louise Lateau, Belgian fanatic, at Bois d'Haine, said to have lived 12 years without food ; died, aged 33, Aug. 1883. She had wounds resembling the stigmata of the crucifix. The members of the Arctic Expedition of 1881-84, lieut. Greely commanding (Northeast and Northwest Passage), passed the winter of 1883-84 at lat. 78° 45' N., Jong. 74° 15' W. From 1 Nov. to 1 Mch. the daily allowance for each man was 14.88 ounces of solid food, the army ration being 46 ounces. From 1 Mch. to 12 May the daily ration was 10 ounces of bread and meat, with 1 to 3 ounces of shrimps. From 12 May to 22 June, when the survivors were rescued, there was no food to serve: only a few shrimps, reindeer moss, and black lichen scraped from the rocks were found. There was water, but brack- ish. But 7 were alive when found, out of 25, and 1 died soon after. Average loss in weight, about 48 lbs. each. Average at- mospheric temperature, 5 to 10° Fahrenheit. Giovanni Succi, an Italian, ended a fast of 40 days at the Westmin- ster Aquarium, London. Eng., 26 Apr. 1890. He was permitted to drink water and to smoke. His loss of weight averaged }4 lb. a day. Succi began a 45 days' fast in city of New York, 5 Nov. 1890, ended successfully 20 Dec. 1890. His weight fell from 147^ lbs. to 104% lbs. He drank 21 qts. of mineral water and 9X qts. of Croton water. At the Westminster Aquarium, London, he engaged to fast 52 days, but stopped on the 44th day, 29 Jan. 1892. Other recent cases of still longer abstinence are not sufficiently at- tested. Abu, a famous mountain in W. India, with ancient jain temples, attracting pilgrims for Buddhist worship. Abu Klea Wells, about 120 miles from Khartoum. Here gen. sir Herbert Stewart defeated the Mahdi's troops, 17 Jan. 1885. Soudan. Aby'dos, an ancient city of Upper Egypt, now Arabat- el-Matfoon. Here are the ruins of the temple of Osiris in which Mr. Bankes discovered in 1818 the " Tablet of Abydos," dedicated to his ancestors by Pharaoh Rameses H. (1311-1245 B.C.), bought for the British Museum, 1837. A second tablet, the " New Tablet of Abydos," more complete, was discovered here (1864-65), by M. Auguste Mariette (Mariette Bey), bear- ing names or partial records of 76 Pharaohs prior to Rameses II. Egypt; Hellespont. Abyssinia, a country of Eastern Africa, having Nubia on the north and northwest, the Danakils on the east-south- east, the Gallas on the south, and on the west the region of the Upper Nile. Its one seaport, Massowah, on the Red sea, is controlled by Italy. It contains about 168,000 square miles and a population between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000. The name Abyssinia is derived from the Arabic word Uabesck, signi- fying mixture or confusion ; changed by the Portuguese into Abassia, and so into Abyssinia. The chief ruler is styled Ne- gus, and the governors of the three chief provinces— Tigre, in the north ; Amhara, central ; and Shoa, in the south— are termed Ras. Abyssinia was included in the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia. The Hebrews had intercourse with the Ethio- pians, and after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans many Jews settled here, bringing the Jewish religion. The kingdom of Auxumite (its chief town Auxume) flourished in the 1st and 2d centuries. The religion of the Abyssinians is a corrupt Christianity, introduced about 329 by Frumen- ABY tiiw, and during the 6th centun' the monastic system sproail largely. About 627, instigated by the (ireek emperor Justinian, Abyssinia conquered Yemen, Arabia, and held it 67 years. Judith, a Jewish princess, about 960, murdered part of the royal family and reigned 40 years. The young king, however,* escapetl, and the royal house was restored in 1268 in his descendant,- Icon Amlac A belief long prevailed in Europe of a Christian kingilom in the Far East whose mon- arch was " Trester John," and the Portuguese who arrived here in 1490 identitied it with Abyssinia, and presented the emperor a letter from the king of Portugal. The Portuguese missions commenced soon afterwards, and after much opposi- tion were ex|>elled in 1633. The encroachment of the Gallas and intestine disorders soon broke the empire into petty gov- ernments, and kept Europeans away, until the visits of James Bruce, 1768-78; Henrj' Salt, 1809-10; Dr. Edward RUppell, 1831-34; major Harris, 1841 ; Mansfield Parkyns, 1844-47. Treaty of commerce with king of Sboa concluded by capt. Harris 16 Nov. 1841 Mr Flowdeo (made British consul at Massowab, 1848) coQ- cladfls treaty with Ras Ali, ruler of Ambara 2 Nov. 1849 Ras Ali deposed by his son-in-law Theodore, who is crowned as tMyio, or king of kings 11 Feb. 1856 Protestant missionaries received, replaciug Itomau Catholics, " Mr. Plowden (who bad Joined the parly of Theodore) killed by rebels, Fel). ; Theodore overcomes the rebels 1860 Capt C. D. Cameron succeeds consul riowden Nov. 1861 Received by Theodore, 7 Oct. ; is sent with a letter for the queen, desiring alliance against tbo Turks, which arrived 12 Feb. 1863 This letter is not answered; Cameron, ordered by earl Russell to remain at Massowab. returns to Al>yssinia June, " Rev H. Stern, missionary, beaten and imprisoned for alleged intrusion uiwn Theodore Oct. " Cameron, and all British subjects and missionaries, impris- oned for pretended insults, 3 Jan. ; report of imprisonment reached Ix)ndou, 7 May ; prisoners sent to Magdala. and chained like criminals Nov. 1864 Mr Hermuzd Ras8;im, a Cbaldee Christian, first assistant Britisb political resident at Aden, sent to Abyssinia; arrives at Massowab, 24 July ; lieut. Prideaux and Dr. Blanc ap- pointed to accomi>any him " Mr. Rassani having negotiated without effect for a year, Mr. Giflbnl I'algrave appointed by earl Russell to Abyssinia, July; but stopped learning that Theodore has invited Rassam, 12 Aug. 1865 Mr. Rassam, lieut. Prideaux, and Dr. Blanc at Matemma from Massowab, 21 Nov. 1865; well received by Theodore. .28 Jan. 1866 Prisoners released 12 March; seized and imprisoned about 13 Apr. " Mr. Flad sent to England by Theodore for British workmen, April; arrives, July; introduced to queen ; receives from her autograph letter dated 4 Oct. " Mr. Flad returned with workmen to Massowab, 29 Oct. ; Theo- dore received the queen's letter about 19 Dec. " Lord Stanley's ultimatum to Theodore, demanding release of captives in three months (not received), sent 16 Apr. 1867 Mr. Flad received by king, sent to his family in prison. .May, " Preparations for war ; sir Robert Napier appointed commander ; force sails from Bombay 14 Sept. " Formal letter trom British government to Theodore (never arrived) 9 Sept. " Advanced brigade (3500) sail from Bombay, 7, 8 Oct. ; land at Zulla 21 Oct. " Napier's proclamation issued in Abyssinia 26 Oct. " British parliament meets ; queen's speech announces war, 19 Nov. : 2,000,000/. voted 26, 27 Nov. " Third ultimatum sent by sir R. Napier; intercepted by a rebel chief and given to Mr. Rassam, who suppressed it as likely to endanger the lives of the captives 1868 Arrival of sir R Napier at Annesley bay 4 Jan. ' ' Battle of Arogee ; Theodore's troops attack British first bri- gade; defeated with much slaughter (Good Friday) .. 10 Apr. " Mutiny of Abyssinian troops ; Magdala bombarded and stormed ; Theodore kills himself 13 Apr. " Magdala burned to the ground (Magdala) 17 Apr. " Returned troops arrive at Plymouth 21 June, " [Cattle employed in the expedition: 45 elephants, 7417 camels, 12,920 mules and ponies. 7033 bullocks, 827 donkeys. Many natives in transport service.] Theodore's son Alamayofi, aged7, arrives at Plymouth.. 14 July, " Pension of 350Z. to col. Cameron [died 30 May, 1870] ; 5000/. given to Mr. Rassam ; 2000/. to Dr. Blanc ; 2000/. to lieut. Prideaux; announced 23 Dec. " Prince Alamayou sailed to India for education (returned to England end of 1871) 26 Jan. 1869 'Expenses of the war: 5,000,000/. voted 18 Dec. 1868; 3,300,000/, more voted 4 Mch. " [Total : 8,977,500/., Feb. 1880] Kassa, king of Tigr6, proposes to be crowned emperor and ne- gus of all Abyssinia, 21 Nov. ; punishes Catholic missionaries for partisanship; forms alliance with Egypt July, 1871 Kassa crowned at Axum as Johanni II 12 Jan. 1872 War with Egypt; Khedive's troops enter Abyssinia; natives retire, but surprise and defeat Egvptians at Kherad Iska (a massacre) and at Gonda Gouddi (desperate fight) 16 Oct 1875 ACA Abyssinians defeated in three days' conflict 17-19 Feb. 1876 Johanni defeats Menelek, king of Shoa June, 1877 Prince Alamayo6 dies at Leed-s. 14 Nov. ; buried at Windsor . . 1879 Johanni receives admiral Hewitt from Suakim and signs treaty with English about 26 May, 1884 Abyssinian envoys arrive at Plymouth, Eng Aug. Ib84 Italians occupv Massowab and hoist their Uag, 6 Feb. 1885 The Mahdists "invade Abyssinia 1885-86 Detachment of 540 Italian troops near Dogali destroyed by 20.000 Abyssinians under Ras Aloula Jan. 1887 Italian government determines on war " British government appealed to by Johanni; ineffectual nego- tiation " Italian army at Massowab consists of 238 oflicers, 4772 men, and 160 pieces of artillery 1888 Further re-enforced by 13,000 oflicers and men " Overtures of peace by Johanni, who rejects conditions offered by Italian government 31 Mch. " France, Greece, and Turkey protest against occupation of Mas- sowab by Italians " Italian government annexes Zulla Aug. " Johanni repulsed and mortally wounded in attack on der- vishes' stronghold at Metumneh on the frontier of Soudan, 10 Mch. 1889 The king's camp taken and his army routed 12 " " The Italians take formal possession of Keren 2 June, " King Menelek of Shoa crowned as negus at Adira, the sacred city of Abyssinia Sept " The Italians treat with Menelek, who accepts Italian protec- torate over Ethiopia; ratified by king of Italy 25 Sept " Italian government assumes protectorate of Abyssinia.. 13 Oct. 1889 Under treaty of 1889 and a convention ratified 25 Feb. 1890 Abyssinia is wholly under Italian influence. Abys§illiail Era is reckoned from the creation, 5493 B.C., 29 Aug. old style. To reduce Abyssinian time to the JULIAN YEAR, Subtract 5492 years, 125 days. Aca'cian§, followers of Acacius, bishop of Caesarea, in the 4th century, in peculiar doctrines of Christ's person. (2) Partisans of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, promoter of the Henoticon, 482^84. academiei. A cademia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed by Academus for gymnastic ex- ercises), where Plato first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics, 378 b.c. — Stanley. This school of philosophy lasted till Cicero's time, gradually branching, however, into several schools. Ptolemy Soter, Greek con- queror of Egypt, established at Alexandria an academy about 314 B.C. — the origin of the library at Alexandria, the most famous of the ancient world. The Saracens, after the con- quest of Spain, established academies at Granada, Cordova, and as far east as Samarcand. Charlemagne founded an acad- emy at the instigation of Alcuin, and Alfred one that grew into the university of Oxford. The modern academy is not always a school, but often an association of learned men for the advancement of science, literature, and the arts, sometimes aided, if not endowed, by the State. There are many such organizations known as societies, associations, lyceums, insti- tutes, museums, etc., but this list contains only those known as academies. PRINCIPAL ACADEMIES ARRANGED BY DATE. YsiT'lS, Sorhonne (suppressed 1790; on the reorganization of the university of France in 1808, it became the seat of the acad- emy of France) 1255 Florence, Belles-lettres 1272 Toulouse, Floral Games (Jeaux Floraux); still bears the name. 1323 Milan, Architecture 1380 Paris, Painting 1391 Basel 1460 Naples, Rossana 1540 Paris, Music 1543 Verona, Music 1543 Parma, Innominati 1553 Naples, Mathematics 1560 Perosa, Insensati 1561 " Filigirti 1574 Florence, Delia Orusca, now united with the Fiorentina (estab- lished by Cosmo I. 1549) under that name 1582 Rome, Lined 1600 Faenza, Philoponi 1611 Padua, Poetry 1612 Rome, Umoristi 1613 " Fantascici 1625 Brescia, Erranti 1626 Paris, the French, established by Richelieu 1635 Ancona, Caglinosi 1642 Palermo, Medical 1645 Paris, Fine Arts 1648 Vienna. Academia Naturae Curiosorum 1652 Rome, Infecondi 1653 Florence, Del Cimento (by Cardinal de' Medici) 1657 ACA Germany, Naturce Curiosi, now Leopoldine 1662 Paris, Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, established by Colbert 1663 Rome, Painting 1665 Paris, Sciences, established by Colbert 1666 Paris, Architecture 1671 " Music 1672 Soissons 1675 Nimes, Royal 1682 Angers, Belles-lettres 1685 Bologna, Ecclesiastical 1687 Rome, Arcadi 1690 Bologna, Mathematics 169(f Naples, Science 1695 Dresden, Fine Arts 1697 Berlin, Royal, Leibnitz first President 1700 Venice, Medical 1701 Berlin, Princes 1703 Bordeaux, Arts, Science, and Belles-lettres 1703 Mantua, Vigilanti, Science 1704 Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts 1705 Caen, Science and Belles-lettres 1705 Montpellier, Royal Academy of Sciences 1706 Lyons, Science, Belles-lettres, and Art 1710 Bologna, Science and Art 1712 Bordeaux, Ethnology and Science (suppressed 1793, restored 1816) 1712 Madrid, Royal 1V13 Geneva, Medical 1715 Milan, Science 1719 Upsala, Sweden, Science 1720 St. Petersburg, Science, established by Catherine 1 1725 Marseilles, Belles-lettres (suppressed 1793, reorganized 1802).. 1726 Cortona, Italy, Etruscan Antiquities 1726 Madrid, History 1730 London, Music 1734 Gottingen 1734 Rouen, Science and Art 1737 Stockholm, Fine Arts, etc 1739 Dijon, Science, Belles-lettres, and Arts (suppressed 1793, re- stored 1800) 1740 Stockholm, Science 1741 Dublin, Arts 1742 Copenhagen, Science, established by Count Holstein 1743 Montauban, France, Archaeology 1744 Amiens, France 1750 Genoa, Painting 1751 Rome, English 1752 Madrid, Painting and Arts 1753 Valladolid, Spain, History and Geography 1753 Stockholm, Belles-lettres 1753 Warsaw, Language and History 1753 Erfurt, Germany, Science 1754 Vienna, Oriental Language 1754 Mannheim, Baden, Science, founded by elector Chas. Theodore 1755 Naples, Herculaneum, Archaeology and History 1755 Turin, Italy, Science 1759 Munich, Arts and Science 1759 Haerlem, Science 1760 St. Petersburg, Arts 1764 London, Royal, Fine Arts (reorganized 1865) 1768 Brussels, Belles-lettres, Science, and Fine Arts (reorganized 1845) 1773 Mannheim, Sculpture 1775 Turin, Fine Arts, " The Albertine " (see above, 1759) 1778 Naples, Science and Belles-lettres 1779 Munich, Science 1779 Lisbon, Science 1779 Boston, U. S. , Arts and Science 1780 Verona, Science 1780 Stockholm, Agriculture 1781 Toulouse, Science, Inscriptions, Belles-lettres 1782 Dublin, Royal, Science 1782 Genoa, Science , 1783 Stockholm, Royal, 1753; reorganized, History and Antiquities added 1786 Padua, Science, Letters, and Arts 1792 I'aris, Natural Philosophy 1796 Berlin, Architecture 1799 Connecticut, New Haven, U. S., Arts and Science 1799 Pennsylvania, Phila., U. S., Fine Arts 1807 Florence, Antiquities, Tuscan 1807 Philadelphia, Pa., U. S., Natural Science 1818 Dublin, Sculpture 1823 New York, National, of Design 1828 Paris, of Morals and Politics. (The "Institute of France," established by Louis XVL, at first consisted of 4 Academies.) This was added 1832 Rome, Nuovi Lincei (see above, 1600) 1847 Washington, D. C, U. S., National, incorporated by Congress 1863 New York, Science (formerly Lyceum of Natural History, 1817) 1876 Philadelphia, American, of Political and Social Science 1889 Societies and Institutions of Art and Science. academy, an educational institution, in grade between a school and a college. Educational Institutions. academy, military. Annapolis and West Point. Aca'dia, the British provinces now known as Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, especially the former, so called by ACC the French who planted a colony at Port Royal, now Annap- olis, under Pourtrincourt, 1605;' the English make an easy conquest of it, 1654; Acadia restored to France by the treaty of Breda, 1667 ; Massachusetts fits out a small fleet under sir William Phipps, which retakes Acadia, 1690; retaken by the French under Villabon, 1692; restored to the English bv the treaty of Utrecht, 1713. Under these changes the French in- habitants remained undisturbed (settled along the bay of Fundy from Annapolis to the basin of Minas) up to 1755. New England, apprehensive of the French from this quarter —they having established forts at the isthmus connecting Nova Scotia with New Brunswick, and also at the mouth of the St. John's river, N. B.— sent an expedition under John Winslow, of 3000 troops from Boston, and seized the forts, with little resistance, 16 June, 1755. The French inhabitants of Acadia were then between 14,000 and 15,000. By the terms granted them when the British authorities took pos- session of the province, 1713, they were excused from any obligation to bear arms against France, and were thence known as "French Neutrals." New England insisted that they were not really neutral, but dangerous neighbors, being French and Roman Catholics. It was argued that these peo- ple could not remain, and if ordered to quit the country would retire to Canada and strengthen the enemy there. A pitiless scheme was therefore devised, whereby the inhabitants could be captured, or rather kidnapped, without being able to resist, and transported to the English colonies along the Atlantic. Assembled, under various pretences, at their parish church, they were surrounded by troops, made prisoners, and hurried on board the ships. In the intentional hurry and confusion, wives were separated from husbands, children from parents, and thus carried away, never again to be united. Their lands, crops, cattle, and money — everything except the scantiest wardrobe — were declared forfeit to the crown ; and to impov- erish those who escaped capture, the growing crops, houses, barns, and cattle, as far as possible, were destroyed. More than a thousand of these exiles were carried to Massachusetts, and others scattered from Massachusetts to Georgia. From these uncongenial localities survivors wandered — some in search of lost relatives, others of their native tongue — to France, to St. Domingo, to Canada, to Louisiana. To such as reached Louisiana, lands were assigned in the district west of New Orleans, bordering on the " Bayou Teche," still known as the "Acadian Land," and the inhabitants- as "Cajuns." These, from a few thousands, now number over 200,000. The "Evangeline" of Longfellow is founded on this event. Acale'phae (Gr. aKoXrjcprj, nettle), the scientific name for jelly-fish, sea-nettles, etc. AcailtllU§, a genus of plants of the natural order J con- thacece, whose foliage is supposed to have suggested the dec- oration of the Corinthian capital ascribed to Callimachus, about 540 b.c. Acapul'CO, Mexico, a city on the Pacific coast almost directly south of the city of Mexico. During the 18th cen- tury it traded largely with Manilla, capital of the- Philippine islands. Com. George Anson, in the British ship Centurion, captured a Spanish galleon, from Acapulco to Manilla, laden with gold and precious wares, estimated at $5,000,000, June, 1743. He returned to Spithead, Eng., having circumnavi- gated the globe, 15 June, 1744. Acarna'llia, N. Greece. The people were prominent in the Peloponnesian war, and had asked help from Athens against the Ambracians, 432 B.c. They were subdued by Sparta in 390 ; took part in 200 with Macedon against the Romans, by whom they were defeated in 197 and subjugated in 145. Acca'dians, the primitive inhabitants of Babylonia. The city " Accad " was grouped with Babel, Erech, and Calnch in the land of Shinar (Gen. x. 10). They are believed to have been of Turanian origin, and to have come from the north of Europe and Asia, their language antedating the proper Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions. Such scholars as Rev. A. H. Sayce, Prof. Paul Haupt, M. Francois Lenormant, and Geo. Smith, of the department of oriental antiquities of the British museum, and other distinguished philologists and antiquarians, have thrown much light on the history of those primitive times, by deciphering the cuneiform writing of the AGO brick-legends of their earliest kinjpi. These people are now coiwideretl the earliest civilizers of eastern Asia, the source of the philo*)phv and arts of the Assyrians and the Phanucians, and hence of lircece. " Whole sciences that have dominated the thought of men and changed the face of the world are found to have had their beginnings and an astonishing devel- opment among this giftetl and retieclive peo|de." — ^ w«r. Jountal ofnUologjf, voL iiu p. 469, 1882. Assyria and Tu- R.\MAX. acCCIllM were first intnxluced in (Ireek by Aristophanes of Bvzantium. a grammarian and critic who taught at Alex- antlria about 264 B.C. Accents were first used by the French in the reign of Ixmis XIII. (about 1610). AeceSRion, The, i. e. that of the House of Hanover to the throne of Great Britain, in the person of George I. elector of Hanover, son of Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. He succeeded, 1 Aug. 1714, by the act of settle- ment passed under William III. 12 June, 1702, which limited the succession to his mother (as a Protestant) if queen Anne should die without issue. ac'cessory is one who participates in a crime, not as principal, but by aid, counsel, or concealment. In treason and in misdemeanors, the law regards all guilty as principals. Ac'ClU§, a tragic poet of Rome born about 190 b.c. Cic- ero, when a boy, knew him. Few fragments of his writings remain. acclimatization, the adaptation to changed cli- mate of any organic life. That of men has been most fully tested by immigration into America. Dr. W. H. Thomson reported to the surgeon-general in 1862, after examining 9000 men, a far higher average of physical strength and endurance in native Americans than in any class of immigrants. accordion, a small free-reed wind-instrument with keys, invented at Vienna by Damian about 1828, and now made chiefly in Paris. accuscri. Occult writers, such as Agrippa, make ac- cusers the eighth order of devils, whose chief is called Aste- roth, or Spy. In Rev. xii. 10, the devil is called " the ac- cuser of the brethren." False accusers were to be hanged by 24 Henry VI. 1446, and burned in the face with an F by 37 Henry VIII. 1645.— ^^ow. Acel'dania, a field said to have been bought with thirty pieces of silver given to Judas for betraying Christ, is shown to travellers. Matt, xxvii. 8; Acts i. 19.— This name was g^ven to an estate purchased by judge Jeffreys after the " bloody assizes " in 1685. ace'tylene, a luminous hydrocarbon gas resembling coal gas, discovered by Berthelot, and made known in 1862. Achaia (a-ka'-ya\ N. Peloponnesus, Greece, said to have been settled by Achaeus, the son of Xuthus, about 1330 B.C. (?). The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the iEtolians, until about 284 b.c. The Achaei, descendants of Achaeus, originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos ; but when the Heraclidae drove them thence, they retired among the lonians, expelled the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Pellene, iEgira, ^Egium, Bura, Tritaea, Leontium, Rhypes, Cerynea, Olenos, Helice, Patrae, Dyme, and Pharae, forming the Achaean League. B.C. Achaia invaded by Epaminondas 366 The Achaean League revived by 4 cities about 280, and by others. 275, 274 Aratus made prsetor 245 The league joined by Corinth (captured 243), Megara, etc. . 242-228 Supported by Athens and Antigonus Doson 229 The Achaeans defeated at Ijidocea, by the Spartans, under Cle- omenes III., 226; defeat them at Sellasia 221 Social war begun ; battle of Caphyse in Arcadia ; Aratus defeated, 220 The Peloponnesus ravaged by the ./Etolians 219 Peace of Xaupactus 217 jfratus poisoned at iEgium 213 Philopoemen, head of the league, defeats the Spartan tyrant .Machanidas 208 Alliance of the league with the Romans 198 Philopoemen defeated by Nabis in a naval battle 194 All the Peloponnesus joins the league 191 War with Messenia: Philopoemen made prisoner and slain. . . 183 The Achaeans overrun Messenia with fire and sword 182 The Romans enter Achaia, and carry off numbers, including Polybius the historian 165 AGO War with Rome, 160; Metollus enters Greece 147 The Achaeans defeated by Mummius at Leucopetra, 147; the league dissolved ; Corinth taken; Greece subjected to Rome, , and named the province of Achaia 146 i A.D. Achaia made a I^tin principality by William oi Champlitte. . 1205 Obtained bv Geoflrey Villehardouin, 1210; by GeoflVey II 1218 By his broihcr William, 1246; who conquers the Moors, 1248; makes war with the emperor Michael, 1259; and gains three fortresses 1262 Succoodod by Isabella, 1277; who marries Florenzof Hainault. 1291 Their daughter Maud, princess, 1311; thrice married; forcibly married to John do Gravina, and dies in prison 1324 Achaia, a fief of Naples 1246-1430 Conquered by the Turks. about 1540 Acheen', AtChCCn', or Achin', a kingdom in the north of the island of Sumatra. Visited by the Portu- guese, 1506. The Dutch established factories, 1599 ; the Eng- lish, 1602. The French sought a foothold here in 1621, but failed. By a formal understanding between the English and the Dutch in 1824, the latter agreed not to begin hostilities against the Acheenese. This understanding was abandoned, 2 Nov. 1871. The Dutch land a force at Acheen, Apr. 1873. Capture the capital 24 Jan. 1874 Acheen reported subdued by the Dutch 1881 War breaks out afresh 1882 Ship Nisero stranded on the territory of the chief of Pangah, a Malay dependant of Tuku Iman Muda, the rajah of Tenom, subject to the sultan of Acheen 16 Nov. 1883 18 British and 6 other sailors made prisoners, the captain released to negotiate; efforts to secure release fail; Dutch storm Tenom ; the prisoners carried away 7 Jan. 1884 Rajah demands free trade and subjection to Great Britain; British government counsels conciliation May, " Prisoners released. 11 Sept. ; Dutch pay 100,000 guilders and raise the blockade as ransom; 20 prisoners released, the others having died of hardship and ill-treatment; arrived in Thames 24 Oct. " The officers of the Nisero, set free, were tried in Holland for culpable negligence, and were convicted, but sentence was suspended on account of suffering 1885 Coast blockaded by the Dutch " Great Britain urged to interfere to protect the pepper trade.. 1886 Tuku Omar, an Acheenese, captures a steamship, killing all but captain's wife and engineer; the Dutch pay $25,000 for ransom " The Dutch government plans a railroad to the coal-fields on the Umbile river to be completed in six years; coal beds sup- posed to contain 200,000,000 tons 1887 The strongest foe to the Dutch, the berri-berri disease 1888 Reverses to the Dutch army during 1889 The Dutch government, after great sacrifice of life, and ex- penditure of 200,000,000 guilders, has not subdued Acheen. . 1890 The Dutch gain some successes, and blockade the entire north coast " War continues 1891 Acll'onry, Sligo, N. Ireland, a bishopric founded by St. Finian, who built the church of Achad, or Achonry, about 520, for his disciple Nathy (Dathy, or David), first bishop. The see, held with Killala since 1612, was united with Tuara in 1834. achroma'tiC tele§COpes, in which different kinds of glass are so combined as to correct one another's irregularities of refraction, and transmit pure, uncolored light, were invented by John DoUond, and described in Phil. Tynans. of the Royal Society, London, 1753-58. acid§ (now defined as salts of hydrogen) are generally soluble in water, redden organic blues, decompose carbonates, and destroy alkalies, forming alkaline salts. The number of acids was increased by the Arabs ; Geber (8th century) knew nitric and sulphuric acid. Theories of acids were put forth by Becher (1669), Lemery (1675), and Stahl (1723). After the discovery of oxygen by Priestley, 1 Aug. 1774, Lavoisier (1778) concluded that oxygen was a constituent of all acids ; but about 1810, Davy, Gay-Lussac, and others proved acids to exist without oxygen. In 1816 Dulong proposed the binary or hydrogen theory of acids, and in 1837 Liebig applied the theories of Davy and Dulong to explain the constitution of several organic acids. In 1852 oxygen acids were termed anhydrides by Gerhardt, Many acids have been discover- ed in the advance of organic chemistry. — Watts. Scheele (1742-86) discovered most of the vegetable acids, or suggested methods for their discrimination. ac'oiyte§ (Gr. dKuXovBoi^, attendant), an inferior order of clergy in the Latin church, unknown to the Greek church for 400 years after Christ. AGO aCOll§'tiC§ (from the Greek aKovu), I hear), the science of sound, was so named by Sauveur in the 17th century. To Pj'thagoras, about 500 b.c., is ascribed the doctrine of different sounds produced by vibrating strings of varied length, and the communication of sound to the ear by the vibrating at- raospliere. It was mentioned by Aristotle, 300 b.c., explained by Galileo, 1600 a.d., and investigated by Newton in 1700. Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, Henry, Tyn- iurna, a kind of Roman gazette containing an authorized account of daily transactions. Its origin is at- tributed to Julius Caesar; by some to Servius TuUius, 550 B.C. Acta Sanctorum ("acts of the saints"), a publica- tion of the Jesuits, begun in 1643 ; interrupted in 1794, when 54 volumes, bringing the work down to 15 Oct., had been pub- lished ; it was resumed in 1837, and 6 more volumes had been published in 1867. The writers have been named Bollandists, from John Boiland, who published the first two volumes. actinometer, an instrument to mea.sure the heating power of solar rays, invented by sir John F. Herschel, and de- scribed by him in 1825. Sun. Actium, a promontory of Acarnania, W. Greece, near which, 2 Sept. 31 b.c., the fleet of Octavianus Caesar and that of Marc Antony and Cleopatra fought and decided the fate of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Caesar. This victory made Octavianus master of the world, and the Roman empire is commonly dated 1 Jan. 30 b.c. (the Action Era). The con- queror built Nicopolis (the city of victon,')* and instituted the Actian games. actre§se§ appear to have been unknown to the an- cients, men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged the appearance of women on the stage in England in 1662; but Anne, queen of James I., had previously performed in a theatre at court.— Theat. Biog. Mrs. Davenport as Roxalana and Mrs. Saunderson (afterwards Mrs. Betterton) as Ianthe,m Davenant's "Siege of Rhodes," in 1661, were the first English public actresses, although Mrs. Coleman ACT cnact«d JiMthe in ihe same pUy to a select audience in 1C56. Trkatrbs. Acts, in dramatic poetry, first employed by the Romans. Am aeca are mentioDed by Uoraoe (" Art of Poetry ") as the rale (aboot 8 b.c). Acts or the Apostles, Luke's continuation of his Gaapel« ending 63 a.d. aets of the British Parliament. Parlia- MRNT. The foUoiring are celebrated early sututes : ProrisloiM of Merton, 133ft-3& StAtttte of Marlborough, IMT. " of Btgann-, l'i76-7d. «' of Gloucester, the eartleat sutute of record, 6 Edw. 1. 1278. " of Mortmain, 1279. Qoo Warrwito, Oct lasa Statute of MerohanU or AotonBomel, 1388. Sututea of Walea, 1384. " ot Wlncheater, Oct 1384. •• of Westminster, 1375, 1385, 1390. ^_^ Statute forbidding taxes without consent of parliament, 1297. '« of Pmroonire, 1306. . first printed in the reign of Richard III., 1483. of the Realm, ttom Magna Cbarta to George I., printed from original records and MSS. in 12 vols, folio, under direction of commissioDers appointed in 1801, 1811-28. Publication of the revised edition of the Statutes (1326-1878), 18 vol- umes, published, 1870-85. Adamites, a sect said to have existed about 130 a.d., and to have been naked in their religious assemblies, asserting that if Adam had not sinned there would have been no mar- riages. Their chief was named Frodicus ; they deified the ele- ments, rejected prayer, and said it was not necessary to confess Chnat.—Eusfbius. ' A sect of this name arose at Antwerp in the 12th century, under Tandemus or Tanchelin, whose fol- lowers, 8000 soldiers and others, committed many crimes. It became extinct soon after his death ; but a similar sect, named Turinpins, appeared soon after in Savoy and Dauphiny. Pic- ard, a Fleming, revived it in Bohemia, about 1415 ; it was suppressed by Ziska, 1420. Adams, Fort, one of the three chief fortresses of the United States, mounting 500 guns ; built 1824-39 at the en- trance of Newport harbor, R. I. Forts. Adams, John, administration of. United States, 1797. Adams, John Quincy, administration of. United States, 1825. Adamses, The Three. John Adams (1735-1826), sec- ond president of the United States; his son, John Quincy Adams (1767-1848), sixth president of the United States; and his son, Charles Francis Adams (1807-86), distinguished diplomatist, minister to England, 1861-68, Adelaide, capital of South Australia, founded in 1836. It contained 14,000 inhabitants in 1850, and 18,259 in 1855; about 30,000 in 1875; 133,220 in 1891. It was made a bish- opric in 1847. University founded, 1876. Aden, a free port on the southern coast of Arabia, near the entrance to the Red sea, where in Dec. 1836 a British ship was wrecked and plundered. The sultan promised compensa- tion and agreed to cede the place to the English. His son repudiating this agreement, a British force, under capt. H. Smith, of the Volage, seized Aden, 19 Jan. 1839. It is now a garriison and coal depot for Indian steamers, etc. Adige (d'-de-je), a river of the Austrian Tyrol and N. Italy, near which the Austrians defeated the French on 26 30 Moh. and 5 Apr. 1799. ' Adirondack Mountains, in the N. of the state of New York. Mount Marcy, the highest,is 5344 ft. high. Ex- tensive deposits of magnetic iron ore were discovered, 1835. A topographical survey by the state, under Verplanck Colvin,was begun, 1872. New York, 1885. Administrations of England and of Great Brit- ain. Until the Restoration, 1660, there was no cabinet in the modern sense. The sovereign was aided by privy-council- lors, varying in number, the men and offices being frequently changed. The cabinet as distinct from the privy council be- came prominent under William III., and the control of the chief, now termed the premier, began in the reign of Anne. "The era of ministries may most properly be reckoned from ADM the day of the meeting of the parliament after the general election of ]69ii."—Macuiday. Till 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of 12 members. In 1850 the number was 15. In 1868 the Gladstone cabinet consisted of the same number; that of Disraeli, in Feb. 1874, of 12 ; that of Gladstone, 1892^ 17, as follows : 1. First lord of the treasury and lord of privy seal. William K Oladstone, premier. 2. Lord high chancellor. 3. Lord president of the council and secretary of state for India. 4. UoTne secretary. 6. Foreign " 6. Colonial " 7. War "• 8. First lord of the admiralty. 9. Chancellor of the exchequer. 10. Chi^ secretary for Ireland. 11. Secretary for Scotland. 12. President of the board of trade. 13. President of the local government board. 14. First commissioner of works. 16. Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster. 16. Postmxister-general. 17. Vice-president of the committee of council on education. The average duration of a ministry has been set down at four,, five, and six years; but some ministries have lasted much longer: sir Robert Walpole was minister from 1721 to 1742 (21 years) ; Mr. Pitt, 1783 to 1801 (18 years) ; and lord Liver- pool, 1812 to 1827 (15 years). Several ministries have not lasted beyond a few months, as the Coalition Ministry in 1783, and the " Talents " Ministry in 1806. The " Short-lived " Ad- ministration lasted 10 to 12 Feb. 1746. Henry VIII.— Archbishop Warham; bishops Fisher and Fox; earl of Surrey, etc 1509 Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, etc 1514 Earl of Surrey ; Tunstall, bishop of London, etc 1523 Sir Thomas More; bishops Tunstall and Gardiner, and Cranmer (afterwards archbishop of Canterbury) 1529 Archbishop Cranmer; lord Cromwell, afterwards earl of Essex; Thomas Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, etc 1532 Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; Henry, earl of Surrey; Thomas, lord Audley ; bishop Gardiner; sir Ralph Sadler, etc 1540 Lord Wriothesley; Thomas, duke of Norfolk; lord Lisle; sir William Petre; sir William Paget, etc 1544 Edward VI.— Lord Wriothesley, earl of Southampton, lord chancellor (expelled) ; Edward, earl of Hertford, lord protec- tor, created duke of Somerset; John, lord Russell; Henry, earl of Arundel; Thomas, lord Seymour; sir William Paget; sir William Petre, etc 1547 John Dudley, late lord Lisle and earl of Warwick, created duke of Northumberland; John, earl of Bedford ; bishop Goodrich, sir William Cecil, etc 1551 Mary. — Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester; Edmund Bonner, bishop of London; William, marquess of Winches- ter; sir Edward Hastings, etc 1554 Elizabeth. — Sir Nicholas Bacon; Edward, lord Clinton; sir Robert Dudley, afterwards earl of Leicester; sir William Cecil, afterwards lord Burleigh 15.5g William, lord Burleigh (minister during nearly all the reign); sir Nicholas Bacon, etc 1572. Lord Burleigh ; sir Thomas Bromley ; Robert Devereux, earl of Essex (a favorite); earl of Leicester; earl of Lincoln ; sir Wal- ter Mildmay ; sir Francis Walsingham, etc 1579 Lord Burleigh; Robert, earl of Essex; sir Christopher Hatton, etc 158T Thomas Sackville, lord Buckhurst, afterwards earl of Dorset; sir Thomas Egerton, afterwards lord EUesmere and viscount Brackley ; sir Robert Cecil, etc 1599 James I.— Thomas, earl of Dorset; Thomas, lord EUesmere; Charles, earl of Nottingham; Thomas, earl of Suffolk; Ed- ward, earl of Worcester; Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury, etc leOS Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, lord EUesmere ; Henry, earl of Northampton; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk, etc 1609 Henry, earl of Northampton; Thomas, lord EUesmere; Ed- ward, earl of Worcester; sir Ralph Winwood; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Robert, viscount Rochester, afterwards earl of Somerset, etc 1612 Thomas, lord EUesmere ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; Charles, earl of Nottingham; sir George Villiers (a favorite), afterwards vis- count Villiers, and successively earl, marquess, and duke of Buckingham 1615- Sir Henry Montagu, afterwards viscount Mandeville and earl of Manchester 1620 Lionel, lord Cranflield, afterwards earl of Middlesex ; Edward, earl of Worcester; John, earl of Bristol; John Williams, dean of Westminster; George Villiers, marquess of Buckingham ; sir Edward Conway, etc 1621 Charles I. — Richard, lord Weston, afterwards earl of Portland ; sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coventry; Henry, earl of Manchester (succeeded by James, earl of Marlborough, who gave place to Edward, lord, afterwards viscount, Conway); William Laud, bishop of London; sir Albert Morton, etc 162S William Laud, archbishop of Canterbury; Francis, lord Cotting- ADM ton; James, marquess of Hamilton; Edward, earl of Dorset- sir John Coke ; sir Francis Windebank, etc .' 1635 William Juxon, bishop of London; sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch; Francis, lord Cottington; AVentworth, earl of Strafl'ord; Algernon, earl of Northumberland; James, mar- quess of Hamilton; Laud, archbishop of Canterbury; sir Francis Windebank ; sir Henry Vane, etc 1640 [The king beheaded, 30 Jan. 1649.] Commonwealth. — Oliver Cromwell, protector, named a council, not to exceed 21 members, or be less than 13 1653 Richard Cromwell, his son, succeeded on Oliver's death. A council of officers ruled at Wallmgford house 1658 Charles II.— Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon; George Monk, created duke of Albemarle ; Edward Montagu, created earl of Sandwich ; lord Saye and Sele ; earl of Man- chester; lord Seymour; sir Robert Long, etc 1660 Cteorge Monk, duke of Albemarle, first commissioner of the treasury, etc 1667 '■'■CabaV^ Ministry: CliiTord, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, Lauderdale (Cabal) 1670 Thomas, lord Cliflbrd; Anthony, earl of Shaftesbury; Henry, earl of Arlington; Arthur, earl of Anglesey; sir Thomas Os- borne, created viscount Latimer; Henry Coventry; sir George Carteret ; Edward Seymour, etc 1672 Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterwards earl of Danby, lord high treasurer 26 June, 1673 Arthur, earl of Essex (succeeded by Lawrence Hyde, afterwards earl of Rochester) ; Robert, earl of Sunderland, etc 1679 [The king nominated a new council on 21 Apr. 1679, of 30 members only, chiefly the great officers of state and of the household.] Sidney, lord Godolphin; Lawrence, earl of Rochester; Daniel, earl of Nottingham; Robert, earl of Sunderland; sir Thomas Chicheley; George, lord Dartmouth; Henry, earl of Claren- don ; earls of Bath and Radnor 1684 James II. — Lawrence, earl of Rochester; George, marquess of Halifax ; sir George Jeffreys, afterwards lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Clarendon; sir John Ernley; viscount Preston, etc.. 1685 The earl of Rochester displaced, John, lord Belasyse, made first commissioner of the treasury in his room, 4 Jan. ; earl of Sun- derland president of the council; viscount Preston, secretary of state, etc 1687-88 [King left Whitehall by night 11 Dec. 1688 ; fled from Roch- ester 18 Dec, and landed at Ambleteuse, in France, 20 Dec] William III. and Mary. — Charles, viscount Mordaunt ; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, created marquess of Carmarthen, afterwards duke of Leeds; George, marquess of Halifax; Arthur Herbert, afterwards lord Torrington; earls of Shrews- bury, Nottingham, and Sunderland; earl of Dorset and Mid- dlesex; William, earl (afterwards duke) of Devonshire; lord Godolphin ; lord Montagu ; lord De la Mere, etc 1689 Sidney, lord Godolphin; Thomas, earl of Danby; Richard Hampden; Thomas, earl of Pembroke; Henry, viscount Sydney ; Daniel, earl of Nottingham, etc 1690 Sir John Somers became lord Somers in 1697, and lord chan- cellor; Charles Montagu, afterwards lord Halifax, made first commissioner of the treasury, 1 May, 1698, succeeded by Ford, earl of Tankerville 1699 PREMIERS OF ENGLAND FROM 1700, AND LENGTH OF ADMINISTRATIONS. Anne. — Sidney, earl of Godolphin 8 May, 1702 Robert Harley, earl of Oxford 29 May, 1711 Charles, duke of Shrewsbury (made premier three days before the queen's death) 29 July, 1714 •George I.— Charles, earl of Halifax (dies 19 May, 1715; suc- ceeded by the earl of Carlisle) 5 Oct. " Robert Walpole Oct. 1715 James, earl Stanhope 15 Apr. 1717 Charles, earl of Sunderland Mch. 1718 Robert Walpole, earl of Orford 1721 George II.— Robert Walpole, earl of Orford 1727 Earl of Wilmington (dies 26 July, 1743) Feb. 1742 Henry Pelham 25 Aug. 1743 Henry Pelham, Broad-bottom administration Nov. 1744 Earl of Bath, Short-lived administration 10-12 Feb. 1746 Henry Pelham (again) 12 Feb. " Thomas H. Pelham, duke of Newcastle Apr. 1754 Duke of Devonshire (William Pitt virtually premier). . .16 Nov. 1756 Duke of Newcastle (and William Pitt) June, 1757 George III.— Duke of Newcastle (and William Pitt) 1760 John, earl of Bute May, 1762 George Grenville 8 Apr. 1763 Charles, marquess of Rockingham 13 July, 1765 William Pitt, earl of Chatham Aug. 1766 Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton Dec. 1767 Frederick, lord North. (Lord North was minister during the whole of the American war) Jan. 1770 Marquess of Rockingham (dies 1 July, 1782. Charles James Fox and Edmund Burke were members of this cabinet), Mch. 1782 William Petty, earl of Shelburne July, " William Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland (called the "Coa- lition Ministry ") 5 Apr. 1783 William Pitt (second son of the earl of Chatham) 18 Dec. " Henry Addington Mch. 1801 William Pitt pt. same year; occupied by the Russians, with- out leaisunce, 20 Jan. 1878. Pop. 1890, 150,000. Turkey. Adriatic. The annual ceremony of the doge of Venice wetttling the Adriatic sea (instituted about 1173 ; first omitted, 1797) took place on Ascension day. The doge dropped a ring into the sea rn>m his Bucentaur, or state barge, attended by his nobility and foreign ambassadors. Adlllllllll, a cave to which David fled from the persecu- tion of Said about 1062 luc. (I Sam. xxii. 1, 2). As a gather- ing place for "every one that was in distress," or " in debt," or "discontcnteil," it has often been humorously alluded to, as by the baron of Bradwardine in " Waverley," chap. 57. adultery was punished with death by the law of Moses (1490 ac. ; Lev. xx. 10), and by Lycurgus (884 b,c.). The early Saxons burned the adulteress and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Adultery was made capital by parliament, 14 May, 1650, but there is no record of this law taking effect, and it was repealed at the Restoration. In New England adultery was made capital to both parties, and several suflTered for itj 1662.— I/ardie. Till 1857 in Great Britain the legal redress against the man was by civil action for money com|)en8ation, the woman was liable to divorce. By 20 and 21 Vict. c. 85 (1857), the "action for criminal con- versation " was abolished, and the Court for Divorce and Mat- rimonial Causes established with power to grant divorce for adultery and ill-usage. Divokck. An act was passed, 1869, permitting parties to give evidence. In the United States adultery is variously punished under state laws, usually by tine or imprisonment or both. It is also a cause for absolute divorce in nearly all the states. Advent (adventus, arrival). The period of the approach of the Nativity. The season includes four Sundays, previous to Christmas, the first the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day (Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies respecting Advent are mentioned prior to 378, and it has been recognized since the 6th century as the commencement of the ecclesiastical year. Adventi§t§. An American sect who look for the early second coming of Christ, which is spoken of in the New Testa- ment, It arose from the preaching of William Miller from 1836 to 1843, when he predicted the coming. Millerites. ad¥er'tiseinent§ in newspapers were not general in England till the beginning of the 18th century. A penalty of 50/. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward for stolen goods with " No questions asked," and on the printer, 1754. The advertisement duty (first enacted 1712), formerly charged by lines, was afterwards fixed in England at 3s. 6c?. and in Ire- land at Is. 6d. each advertisement. The duty (further reduced, in England to \s. 6d. and in Ireland to Is. each, in 1833) was abolished in 1853. Early advertisements are found in Perfect Occurences of every Date, 26 Mch. to 2 Apr. 1647, and Mercurius Elencticus, 4 Oct. 1648 The American system of advertising agencies was originated by Orlando Bounie in 1828, and was followed in 1840 by V. B. Palmer, who established agencies in Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. The system was vastly extended about 1860. iCdile§. Roman city officers of three degrees, named from their charge of the cedes, or temi)le, of Ceres. (1) Two plebeian lediles were appointed with the tribunes to look after buildings, weights and measures, the supply of provisions and water, etc., 494 b.c. (2) The (ediles curules, at first patricians, were appointed 365 b.c. (3) Julius Caesar appointed cedUes cere- ales for watching over the supply of corn. The aediles became a police under the emperors. JBdui or Hedui, a Celtic people, N.E. France, who were delivered from subjection to the Sequani by Julius Caesar, 58 B.C.; but afterwards, opposing him, were subjugated by him, 52. Their insurrection, headed by Julius Sacrovir, 21 a.d., was quelled by C. Silius. ^ga'te§ I§ie§, west of Sicily ; near these, during the 10 ^TO first Punic war, the Roman consul C. Lutatius Catulus gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno, 10 Mch. 241 B.C. Peace ensued, the Romans obtaining Sicily and a tribute of 3200 talents. iKlJCi'lia, a (ireck island, rival of Athens, was humbled by Themistocles, 485 n.c, and its works destroyed, 455. Its in- habitants expelled, 431, were restored by Sparta, 404; they renewed war witli Athens, 388, and made peace, 387. iEllC'id, the great Latin epic poem on the adventures of yEneas, written about 24 b.c. by Virgil {Publius Vergilius Maro), who died 22 Sept. 19 B.C., aged 51, leaving it unfin- ished. Was first printed in 1469 at Rome. cenilipnia. Samson's riddle (about 1141 r.c. ; Judg. xiv. 12) is the earliest on record. Gale attributes aenigmati- cal speeches to the Egyptians. The ancient oracles occasion- ally gave responses admitting of contrary interpretations. In Nero's time the Romans had recourse to this method of con- cealing truth. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond (mistress of Henry II. of England, about 1173) is a mediaeval specimen : " Hie jacet in tombsi Rosa mundi, non Rosa mun- da ; Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet." iHo'lia, in Asia Minor, was colonized by a principal branch of the Hellenic race about 1124 B.C. The JEolians built several large cities, both on the mainland and the neigh- boring islands; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered the cap- ital. ^^Oiian Harp (from Aeolus, god of the wind), A stringed instrument, upon which the wind produces musical sounds, first described by Kircher, about 1650. seoll'na, a free-reed wind-instrument, invented by Wheatstone in 1829. seol'opile, a hollow ball with an orifice in which a tube might be screwed, used in 17th century as a boiler for experimental steam-engines ; a similar apparatus is described by Vitruvius, 1st century a.d. ^QUi, an ancient Italian race, inhabiting the upper valle\' of the Anio (now Teverone), a branch of the Tiber, were finally subdued by the Romans and their lands annexed^ 302 B.C. A 'crated VTateri, Apparatus for combining gases with water were patented by Thomson in 1807, F. C. Bakewell in 1832 and 1847, Tylor in 1840, and by others. Bread. Ae'rlans, followers of Aerius, a presbyter in the 4th cen- tury, who held bishop and presbyter the same; that there was no Pasch to be observed by Christians, that Lent and other fasts should not be observed ; and that no prayers be offered for the dead. — Epiphanius. a'erolttes. Meteors. a'eronautici and a'erostatics. Balloons and Flying. a'eropliore, an apparatus invented by M. Denaj'rouze to furnish pure air in the midst of smoke and fire. It comprises an air-pump, lamp, and flexible tubing. It was tried at Chat- ham, Eng., 12-14 Jan. 1875, and reported successful. A gold medal was awarded to the inventor at the Vienna Exhibition^ 1873. ^SCUla'pill§, god of medicine ; his worship introduced at Rome about 291 b.c. iCI§op'§ Fable§. Fables. se§tiiet'ic§ (from Gr. aicrOrjcng, perception), the science of the beautiful and sublime (especially in art); a term in- vented by Baumgarten, a German philosopher, whose work "iEsthetica" was published in 1750. iEtO'lia, in Greece, named for ^tolus of Elis, who is said to have accidentally killed a son of Phoroueus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, and settled here. After the ruin of Athens and Sparta, the ^Etolians became the rivals of the Achaeans, and were alternately allies and enemies of Rome. B.C. ^tolians join Sparta against Athens 455 .^tolian league of tribes opposes Macedon 323 Invaded by Antipater during the Latnian war 322 Aid in expulsion of the Gauls 279 Invade the Peloponnesus, ravage Messenia (Social war), and de- feat the Achaeans at Caphyse 220 AFF 11 Philip V. of Macedon invades ^tolia, and takes Thermum- peace of Naupactus concluded J 217 Alliance with Rome .........'.'..'.'. 211 Deserted by the Romans, the ^tolians make peace with Philip. 205 War with Philip, 200; he is defeated at Cynoscephalje 1s, and all the vessels returned and cast anchor at Clarence Cove. Fernando Po, 17 Oct. 1841. James Richardson explored the Sahara in 1845-46, and in 1849 (by direction of Foreign Office) he left England to explore central Aft-ica with Drs. Barth and Overweg. He died 4 Mch. 1851; Overweg died 27 Sept. 1852. Dr. VOgel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. Barth, 20 Feb. 1853; in Apr. 1857, said to have been assassinated. Dr. Barth returning to England, received Royal Geographical Socie- ty's medal, 16 May, 1856. His travels were published in 5 vols, in 1858. Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary, returned to England in Dec. 1856, after 16 years of travel, mostly on foot, in the heart of south Africa. He walked about 11,000 miles, principally over country hitherto unexplored. His book was published in Nov. 1857. In Feb. 1858, he was appointed British consul for Portuguese pos- sessions in Africa, and left England soon after. Du Chaillu's travels in central Africa, 1856-59, excited much con- troversy, 1861. Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, Mch. 1858. Capt. John H. Speke discovers lake Victoria Nyanza, 1858. Capta Speke and Grant announce the discovery of a source of the Nile in lake Victoria Nyanza, 23 Feb. 1863. They also discover Albert Nyanza, 140 miles long and 40 broad. Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863; returned to London late in 1865. He described his journey to the Royal Geo- graphical Society, 8 Jan. 1866. Livingstone returns 23 July, 1864. Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, 30 Nov. 1864. [As spe- cial envoy to negro tribes near the Niger from the Foreign Office, about 1854, he opened commercial relations with central Africa.] Sir Samuel Baker visits the lake discovered by Speke, and called it lake Albert Nyanza, 14 Mch. 1864. Livingstone British consul for inner Africa, 24 Mch. 1865. Narrative of Livingstone's Zambesi expedition, 1858-64, published 1866. Livingstone left Zanzibar to continue his search for the sources of the Nile, Mch. 1866. Expedition of E. D. Young in search of Livingstone, sailed 9 July, . 1867; returning, reported to Royal Geographical Society belief that Livingstone was alive, 27 Jan. 1868. Letter from Dr. Livingstone dated Bembo, 2 Mch. 1867; heard of down to Dec. 1867. His despatch to lord Clarendon dated 7 July, 1868; read to Royal Geographical Society, 8 Nov. 1869. Letter dated 30 May, 1869, published Dec. 1869. Expedition of sir Samuel Baker to suppress slave-trade on the Upper Nile (Egypt), Jan. 1870. Expedition to seek Livingstone, under lieut. Dawson, organized by Royal Geographical Society; started 9 Feb. 1872. [Returned hearing that Stanley had found Livingstone.] Dutch Guinea settlements purchased and transferred (Elmina), 6 Apr. 1872. Expedition to seek Livingstone sent by James Gordon Bennett of the Xew York Herald, at a cost of 8000/. Henry M. Stanley, chief of expedition, left Zanzibar, found Living- stone at Ujiji, near Unyanyembe, 10 Nov. 1871, remained with him till 14 Mch. 1872, and brought away his diary and other documents. Stanley reported Livingstone at Ujiji. Reports that Livingstone is alive. May, June, 1872. AFR Controversy between Stanley, members of lieut. Dawson's expedi- tion. Dr. Livingstonu, Dr. Kirk, the Royal Geographical Society, aud others, Aug. -Oct. 1872. Letter ft^m Dr. Livingstone at lijiji, dated Nov. 1871, to Mr. Ben- nett {New York Herald, 26 July, reprinted in Times, 27 July, 1872), describes his explorations and painful journey to Ujiji; meeting SUinley ; ho speaks of the Nile springs as about 600 miles south of south end of lake Victoria Nyanza; and of about 700 miles of water-shed in central Africa, of which he had explored about (WO; and of waters gathered into four, aud then into two, mighty rivers in the great Nile valley (?) between 10° and 12° S. lat. Sec- ond letter (dated Feb. 1872) describes horrors of slave-trade in east Africa, printed in Times 29 July, 1872. Livingstone's despatches of 1 and 16 Nov. 1871, received by Foreign Office, 1 Aug. 1872; letter of 1 July, 1871, received 2 Oct. 1872. Stanley described discovery of Livingstone to British Association at Brighton before ex-emperor and ex-empress of the French, 16 Aug. ; received a gold snuff-box from queen about 30 Aug. 1872. New expedition, under sir Bartle Frere, to Zanzibar, to suppress east African slave-trade; lieut. Verney Lovett Cameron's offer to aid Livingstone's expedition was accepted; sailed 20 Nov. 1872. Zanzibar. Expedition to explore upper part of Congo (Mr. Young of Kelly to - subscribe 2000/., Royal Geographical Society to aid) proposed Nov. 1872. Lieut. Verney Cameron, after the finding of Livingstone, continued his explorations, 1872-73. Livingstone died of dysentery in Ilala, central Africa (his pupil Jacob Wainwright, a young negro mi.ssionary. present), 1 May, 1873, aged 60; remains interred in Westminster Abbey, 18 Apr. 1874; last journals published Dec. 1874. Leaving Ujiji, 14 May, 1874, Cameron followed Livingstone's route; explored 1200 miles of fertile country; arriving at Portuguese set- tlements, 4 Nov 1875. He was received by Royal Geographical Society, and gave account of his journey, 11 Apr. 1876. Stanley (supported by Daily Telegraph and New York Herald) sur- veyed lake Victoria Nyanza (about 300 miles by 180), 1875. Stanley reports survey of lake Tanganyika; he left Ujiji, crossed Africa from east to west, identified the Lualaba with Congo river, which has an uninterrupted course of over 1400 miles, 24 Aug. 1876-6 Aug. 1877. Arrives at Cape Town, 21 Oct. 1877; in London, 22 Jan. 1878; pub- lished "Through the Dark Continent," May, 1878. Italian expedition of marchese Antinori well received by king of Scida; announced 2 Dec. 1876; his death reported, Nov. 1877. Portuguese government grants 20,000/. for expedition into the in terior, announced Dec. 1876. Dr Gussfeld, a German, entered southwest central Africa, 1873; de- clared difficulties insuperable, 1875. Portuguese government send major Serpa Pinto through AlVica; discovers affluents of the Zambesi, 1877. Stanley, with an international Belgian expedition, explored the Con- go, 1879-80. Royal Geographical Society's expedition into east Africa, under Mr. A. Keith Johnston, leaves England 14 Nov. 1878; starts from Zan- zibar about 14 May, 1879. Mr. Johnston dies 28 June; succeeded by Joseph Thomson, who returns to England, Aug. 1880. Trade route with 4 stations on the Congo reported established by Stanley, 14 Aug. 1882. Royal Geographical Society grants 2600/. for an expedition to Africa: Joseph Thomson starts 13 Dec. 1882; after successful exploration arrives at Zanzibar in June, 1884; describes his travels to the Royal Geographical Society, 3 Nov. 1884. Death of Dr. Moffat, missionary and traveller, aged 87, 9 Aug. 1883. H. H. Johnston arrives at Kilimanjaro, June, 1884; builds village at height of 11,000 feet, Oct. ; ascends to 16,200 feet from summit of KibO, Nov. 1884. Stanley's ' ' Explorations of the Congo and Founding of its Free State ' ' published by Harper k Bros., 1885. Emin Pasha, associate of gen. Gordon, holds Wadelai as governor of equatorial Africa since 1878 with black troops; news brought by Dr. Junker, who reports to Royal Geographical Society his travels in central Africa in 1885-86, 9 May, 1887. Expedition of Stanley on behalf of the Emin Pasha Committee starts from London, 21 Jan. 1887. [They embarked with natives at Zanzibar for the west coast, 25 Feb. , and sailed up the Congo. After danger and suffering through famine, disease, and native opposition, Stanley met Emin Pasha on lake Nyanza, 29 Apr. 1888; and with him and remains of his party arrived at the German station Bogamoya, 5 Dec. 1889. Dur- ing this expedition Stanley makes important discoveries— locat- ing the "Mountains of the Moon," the race of pigmies, and dis- covers lake Albert Edward Nyanza, 16 June, 1889. He and his officers (except maj. Barttelot, killed by one of his carriers, 19 July, 1888) arrived at Cairo, 14 Jan. 1890; at Rome, 11 Apr. ; at Brussels, 19 Apr. ; in London, 26 Apr. ; dined with the queen, 6 May; with his companions, lieut. Stairs, surgeon Thomas H. Parke, capt. Nelson, A. M. Jephson, and Bonny, received gold medals of the Royal Geographical Society, from the prince of Wales, 5 May. He received the freedom of the city of London, 13 May; of Edinburgh, 11 June; and of Glasgow, Dundee, Aberdeen, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and Manchester, in June. His book, entitled "In Darkest Africa; or, the Quest, Rescue, and Retreat of Emin, governor of Equatoria," was published 28 June. He married Miss Dorothy Tennant at Westminster Abbey, 12 July, 1890.] Emin Pasha, after a long illness occasioned by a fall from a veran- da at Bogamoya, 5 Dec. 1889, arrives at Zanzibar, 2 Mch. 1890. Enters the German service, and proceeds with a military expedi- tion to Victoria Nyanza, 31 Mch. 1890. Maj. Gaetani Casati, born in 1838; left Italy for Africa, Dec. 1879; at AGA Khartoum, May, 1880; with Emin Pasha, 1883-89; received by the khedive at Cairo, 4 May, 1890; by the king of Italy, 17 July. His book, "Ten Years in Equatoria— the return with Emin Pasha," published Mch. 1891. The principal nations of Europe claim enormous possessions in Africa, which may be said to be divided among them. British Africa comprises Briti.sh Guinea, British South Africa, British East Africa, with an area of 2,570,926 square miles, and a population of over 40,000,000. French Africa comprises most of the Mediterranean coast, Sahara, western Soudan, French Congo, island of Madagascar, with an area of 2,902,624 square miles, and a population of 24,000,000. Portuguese Africa, East and West Africa and islands ; area, 850,000 square miles. Spanish Africa, northwestern coast; area, 204,000 square miles. German Africa, East and Southwest Africa; area, 822,000 square miles. Italian Africa, Abyssinia, Somal, Galla, etc. ; area, 602,000 square miles. Turkish Africa, Egypt and Tripoli; area, 836,000 square miles. Anglo-Frknch Agreements, etc. Ag^amen'tiClli, now York county, Maine, settled by the English, 1636. Maine. agapse (ag'-q-pe; Gr. ayairr], love, charity), "feasts of charity," referred to Jude 12, and described by Tertullian, held by early Christians of all ranks as one family. Disorders creeping in, these feasts were forbidden in churches by the councils of Laodicea (366) and Carthage (390). They are still recognized by the Greek church, and are held weekly by the Glasites or Sandemanians, and in a modified form by Mo- ravians, Wesleyans, Methodists, and others. Ag^apemone {ag-a-pem'-d-ne; Greek, the abode of love), an establishment at Charlinch, near Bridgewater, Somer- setshire, founded in 1845, where Henry James Prince and his deluded followers, formerly persons of property, lived in com- mon, professing to seek innocent recreation and to maintain spiritual marriage. It is described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in his " Spiritual Wives," published in Jan. 1868. Meetings of the sect were held at Hamp, near Bridgewater, Dec. 1872. Ag^'awam, Indian name of Ipswich, Mass., settled by colonists from Boston, 1633. Incorporated as Ipswich, 1634. Age. Annalists have divided the time between the crea- tion and the birth of Christ into ages. Hesiod (about 850 b.c.) described the Golden, Silver, Brazen, and Iron ages. Dark Ages. b.c. First Age (from the Creation to the Deluge) 4004-2349 Second Age (to Abraham's entrance into Canaan) 2348-1922 Third Age ^to the Exodus from Egypt) 1921-1491 Fourth Age (to the founding of Solomon's Temple) 1490-1014 Fifth Age (to the capture of Jerusalem) 1014- 588 Sixth Age (to the birth of Christ) 588- 4 Seventh Age, to the present time. ag^e. In Greece and Rome 25 was full age for both sexes, but a greater age was requisite for holding certain offices— e.^. 30 for tribunes, 43 for consuls. In England the minority of a male terminates at 21, and of a female in some cases, as that of a queen, at 18. In 1547, the majority of Edward VI. was, by the will of his father, fixed at 18 years; his father, Henry VIII., had assumed the reins of government, in 1509, when still younger. A male at 12 may take the oath of allegiance, at 14 maj' consent to marriage or choose a guardian, at 17 may be an executor, and at 21 is of age ; but according to the stat- ute of wills, 7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will made under the age of 21 is valid. K female hX 12 may consent to marriage, at 14 may choose a guardian, and at 21 is of age. In the United States the legal age of majority is 21 years, but in some states 18 is the legal age for women. Men of 18 and wom- en of 16 may devise property by will, and at 14 and 12, respec- tively, in some states, may contract marriage. The president and vice-president of the United States must be 35 years of age, senators 30, and members of the House of Representatives 25. " Age of Rea§011," by Thomas Paine (b. England, 1737; d. New York, 1809), written while in France, 1792-94, a work at that time celebrated for freedom of thought. " Crisis " and " Common Sense." Aghrim {awg-rim'), a small village in Galway, Ireland, where the forces of William III., under gen. Ginkell, defeated those of James II., under St. Ruth, numbering 25,000, 12 July, 1691, and broke the power of James in Ireland. St. Ruth was killed. Gen. Ginkell was created earl of Athlone. 13 AGR Agincourt (ii-zhang-koor') or Azlncour, N. France, a village where Henry V. of England, with about 9000 men, defeated about 60,000 French on St. Crispin's day, 25 Oct. 1415. Of the French there were, according to some accounts, 10,000 killed, including the dukes of Alen9on,Brabant,and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, 1 marshal, 13 earls, 92 barons, and 1500 knights; and 14,000 prisoners were taken, among whom were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen. The English lost the duke of York, the earl of Suffolk, and about 20 others. St. Remy asserts, with more probability, that the English lost 1600 men. Henry V. soon after obtained the kingdom of France. AgnadellO (dn-ija-M'-lo), N.E. Italy. Here Louis XII. of France routed the Venetians, some of whom were ac- cused of cowardice and treachery, 14 May, 1509. This is also termed the battle of the Rivolta. agnoi'tae (Gr. ayvoia, ignorance), a sect founded by Theophronius of Cappadocia about 370; said to have doubted the omniscience of God. (2) Followers of Themistius of Alex- andria, about 530, who held peculiar views of Christ's body and doubted his divinity. agno§tie§, philosophers who deny all knowledge but that acquired by the senses. Comte ; Philosophy. agonis'tiei (Gr. ayiov, a conflict) were African ascetics, a branch of the Donatists in the 4th century. They preached with boldness and incurred persecution. A'gra, N.W. India, founded by Akbar in 1566, was the capital of the great Mogul. Mausoleums. In 1658 Aurung- zebe removed to Delhi. The fortress of Agra, " the key of Hin- dostan," in the war with the Mahrattas surrendered to the Brit- ish, under gen. Lake, 17 Oct. 1803, after one day!s siege ; 162 pieces of ordnance and 240,000/. were captured. In June, 1857, the city was abandoned to mutineers by the Europeans, who took refuge in the fort, whence they were rescued by maj. Montgomery and col. Greathed. Allahabad was made capital of the northwest provinces of India, instead of Agra, in 1861. A'gram. Zagrab. agrarian laiV (Agraria lex) decreed an equal di- vision among the Roman people of all lands acquired by con- quest, limiting the possessions of each person. It was first pro- posed by the consul Spurius Cassius, 486 b.c., and occasioned his judicial murder when he went out of office in 485. An agrarian law was passed by the tribune Licinius Stolo. 376; and for demanding extensions Tiberius Gracchus, in 133, and his brother Caius, in 121, were murdered. Livius Drusus, a tribune, was murdered for a like cause, 91. Julius Caesar pro- pitiated the plebeians by an agrarian law in 59. In modern times the term has been applied to a division of the lands of the rich among the poor, frequently proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus Babeuf, editor of the Tribim du Peuple, in 1794. Babeuf Conspiracy. agrieulture. Cain and Noah were agriculturists, Gen. iv. 2 ; ix. 21. The Egyptians were from the first an agri- cultural people. The Babylonians, Romans, and Israelites were also great agricultural nations of antiquity. Cato the censor (died 149 b.c.) and Varro (died 28 b.c.) were eminent Roman writers on agriculture. Virgil's "Georgics," 30 B.C. Agriculture in England improved by the Romans after 44 a.d. Fitzherbert's "Book of Husbandry," printed 1524. Tusser's "Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 1562. Googe's "Whole Art of Husbandry," 1578. Blythe's "Improver," 1649. Hartlib's "Legacy," 1650. Mortimer's "Whole Art of Husbahdry," 1706. Jethro Tull's "Horse-hoeing Husbandry," 1731. Arthur Young's " Agricultural Works,'' 1783-86. Dickson's "Practical Agriculture or Complete bystem of Modern Husbandry," 1805. Neither Indian corn, potatoes, squash, carrots, cabbage, nor turnips wereknown in England until aftertheboginniugof the Kith centiir\\ About the end of the 18th century following was gradually superseded " SLtorT&gHcSKrnTfrices in England(1259-1400),''b^ aJriotlSa^lSoSSies. -The first mentioned in Great Britain was ^X SoSv onmprovers of Agriculture in ^f.^'l^^- •"^•'":j,<^ '° 1723 A Dublin agricultural society (1749) stimulate^ agruulture ?n Ireland its origin is attributed to Mr. Prior of Rathdowney, O^ieen's countv in 1731. The Bath and We.^t of England Society ?stSsheS mV; and the Highland Society of Scotland. 179a County agricultural societies are now numerous. AGR London Board of Agriculture psiablishcd by purliainent, 1793. Royal AgriouUural Soi-lely t)f England csUiblished in 18HH by tho chief landtHl propriotors ; inror|K»natHl by royal i-lmrler, 26 Mch. 1840; tiolds two meetings annually— one in lA)ndon, the other in the country; avvanis priios. and publishes a valuable journal. Royal Agricultural Stxioiy oflrelaud instituted, 1841. ♦'Chambers of Agriculture" were e.^ttablished in France in 1861. In tSreat Mntain, l^G-s, they had increased from 36 to 70. A Journal oonimenc.Ht «'arly in 186K. Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester chartered, 1845. AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES 14 AGR Suffolk Agricultural College at Bury St. Edmunds opened, 1874. Other colleges opened. Royal Agricultural Benevolent Institution.— It relieves farmers and their widows and orphans; founded chiefly by Mr. Mechi, 18(H). Agricultural returns of Great Britain were issued for the first time by tho newly constituted AKiicullural Department, 1883. Second return presented 21 Oct. 1884, and continued annually. Board of agriculture established at Paris, 1889; at Vienna, 2 Sept 184H); and at The Hague, 7 Sept. 1891. -CROPS. I Wbmt (bu.). Au.stria, 1890. Belgium -* Denmark " Franco " Germany " Holland, 1S87 Hungar>-, 1890 Italy, 1890 Sweden, 1890. Russfa in Europe, 1890 Great Britain and Ireland, 1891. Barley (bu.). 42,701.286 62,766,396 101,009,177 18,969,600 3,978,018 29,639,210 19,087,760 8,910,302 22,980,283 36,666,185 16,207,205 321.618.670 47,182,492 267,497,070 66,468,372 66,710,252 44,934,680 96,691,527 115,472,499 6,677,421 6,076,833 11,750,183 13,349,911 143,463,476 61,278,649 51,f)35,589 48,632,463 127,380,000 10,623,250 18,425,000 4,290,000 3,834,050 15,599,100 70,840,275 21,579,525 206,329,430 158,077,228 523,996,203 652,389,089 72,127,263 72,129,095 112,386,261 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES Honw. Milch Cows. Other Cattle OhU (bu.). Rye (bu.). Maize (bu.). 18,628,940 Potatoes. 23,080,788 87.132,554 72,649,500 23,476,399 162,042,311 cwt. 54,687,470 CWt. 11,956,274 bu. 217,247,479 cwt. 458,923,(530 bu. 74,393,368 bu. 81,826,253 bu. 11,877,943 cwt. 33,914,375 bu. 320,565,621 bu. 6,090,047 tons LIVE - STOCK. Sheep. Swine. Hay (tons). 11,357,953 5,830,223 649,300 20,823,768 24,561,252 6,578,040 17,144,660 1,805,500 12,671,447 Austria, 1890. . . . Belgium, 1880. . . Denmark, 1888. . France, 1890. . . . Germany, 1883. . Holland, 1887... Hungary, 1884.. Italy, 1890 Sweden, 1889. . . , 1,548,197 271,974 375,533 2,8«;2,273 3,522,545 274,300 1,748,859 720,000 479,992 19,663,336 2,026.170 4,254.303 796,178 954,250 6,509,325 9,087,293 907,200 1,752,406 1,864,827 1,542,281 Russia in Europe, 1888 Great Britain and Ireland, 1891 Aurrieulture in the United States. Cattle first brought to America by Columbus in his second voyage, 1493. Swine brought into the territory of southern U. S. by De Soto, 1538. Firstslave labor in this territory at the founding of St. Augustine, 1565. Tobacco carried to England from America by Raleigh, 1586. Pota- toes introduced into England from America, 1586, by Raleigh. Wheat, barley, rye, and oats introduced into the United States by the earliest settlers, 1607-20; buckwheat by Swedes and Dutch. First cattle and swine brought to Massachusetts, 1624. Hops first introduced about 1628. First horses in Massachusetts, 1629-30. First apples picked in the colonies in Boston, 1639. Jared Eliot, a clerg>'man of Connecticut, published valuable essays on agriculture, 1747. New Jersey first in wheat production of the colonies, 1750. Sugar-cane brought into Louisiana, 1751. First improved cattle brought to the United States, 1783. South Carolina and Philadelphia agricultural societies founded, 1784. New York State Agricultural Society founded, 26 Feb. 1791. Robert R. Livingston, first president. Incorporated, 1798. Massachusetts Agricultural Society established, 1792. [Most states have them now, and i.ssue annual reports.] First cotton (8 bales) sent from United States to England, and seized by custom-house on the ground that the United States cannot have produced so much, 1784. First recorded United States thresher patent, 1791. Whitney's cotton-gin invented, 1793. First caJst-iron plough patent to Newbold of New Jersey, 1797. Jeflerson investigates scientifically the mould-board question, 1798. First agricultural exhibition in the United States at Georgetown, D.C, 10 May, 1810. Plough patent to Jethro Wood of Scipio, N. Y., issued, 1810-19. The American Farmer, oldest agricultural paper in the United States, pub. Baltimore, 1819. The State Board of Agriculture for New York established at Albany, 1819. American Institute of Agriculture, New York, incorporated, 1829. First useful mowing-machine (Manning's) patented in the United Sutes, 1831. First useful reaper patents in the United States (Schnebley's and Hussey's, both of Maryland) granted, 1833. E. C. Bellinger of South Carolina obtains a patent for a steam plough, 1833. Guano begins to come into use about 1840. Cattle. 24,609,264 11,343,686 4,389,633 3,186,787 586,637 365,400 505,277 1,225,196 7,053,360 21,658,416 6,699,471 19,189,715 618,400 804,300 3,126.632 10,594.831 2,918,400 6,900,000 789,152 1,338,193 1 44,465,454 33,533,988 3,549,700 646,375 770,785 6,017,238 9,206,195 490,254 4,803,639 1,800,000 621,635 9,242,997 4,272,764 first The American Agriculturist, Geo. Peter, publisher, New York, issue. Apr. 1842. Pennsylvania the first state in the production of wheat; yield, 15,000,000 bushels, 1850. Yale College Agricultural Department established. 1852. World's Fair, New York, promotes use of agricultural machinery, 1853. Sorghum introduced into France from China, 1851, and from France into the United States, 1854. Trial of threshing, reaping, and mowing machines in France— Amer- ican machines preeminent, 1855. Ohio first state in the production of wheat, 1855. First agricultural college established in the United States at Cleve- land, Ohio, 1855. One at Lansing, Mich., 1857. Illinois first state in the production of wheat, 1860. Agricultural college established at Bellefonte, Centre county, Pa. , 1862. Agricultural college act passed by congress; granting to the several states 30,000 acres of land for each senator and representative in congress under the apportionment of 1860, to endow at least one college, 1862. Education. Department of Agriculture established by coneress, 15 May, 1862, under a commissioner of agriculture. Organization of the Grangers (an association of farmers to protect their interests), 1867. Farmer^s Bulletin, published to notify farmers of weather changes, 1872. Poultry World, first published, 1873. Great sale of .short-horned neat cattle at New York Mills, 1873. [Cow sold for $4600; a five-months calf for $2700; and 109 an- imals for $382,000, or $3587 each.] Connecticut establishes the first agricultural experiment station at Sheffield Scientific School; first report published, 1877. [Most of the states now have them. J First great cotton fair at Atlanta, Ga., 1881. Department of Agriculture created an executive department, 21 May, 1888 ; approved, 11 Feb. 1889. [The secretary of this department a member of the cabinet.] North and South Dakota the first states in the production of wheat, 1890. United States Weather Bureau transferred from the War Depart- ment to the Department of Agriculture, and Mark W. Harrington appointed chief, 30 June, 1891. R.G.Dyrenforthandhisstaffexperiment in artificial rainproduction by dynamite bombs,etc., near Midland,Tex.,andotherplaces,Aug.l891. TABLE SHOWING PRODUCTION OF CEREALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Com (bu.). Wheat " . Oats " . Barley " . Rye " . 1840. 377,531,875 84,823.272 123,071,341 4,161,504 18,645,567 692,071,104 100,485,944 146,584,179 5,167,015 14,188,813 1860. 1870. 1,717,434,543 498,549,868 417,885,380 4.5,165,346 24,540,829 TABLE SHOWING PRODUCTION OF COTTON, HAY, ETC., IN THE UNITED STATES. I I«40. I 1850. I860. 1870. 838,792,740 173,104,924 172,643,185 15,825,898 21,101,380 1,094,2.55.000 235,884,700 247,277,400 26,295,400 15,473,600 2,060,154,000 611,780,000 738,394,000 75,000,000 33,000,000 Cotton (bales). Hay (tons) Tobacco (lbs.). Potatoes (bu.). 1,976,198 10,248,108 219,163,319 108,298,060 2,469,093 13,838,642 199,752,655 65,797,896 5,387,052 19,083,896 434,209,461 111.148,867 3,011,996 24,525,000 262,735,341 114,775,000 5,757,397 31,925,233 449,880,014 167,659,570 7,313,726 1893 65,766,158 565,795,000 1888. 201,984,140 AGR 15 ALA TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF HORSES, CATTLE, ETC., IN THE UNITED STATKS. Horses I .. Mules ) . . Milch Cows Cattle Sheep . Swine. U,971,586 19,311,374 26,301,293 4,336,719 559,331 6,385,094 11,993,813 21,723,220 30,354,213 6,249,174 1,151,148 8,581,735 17,034,284 22,471,275 33,512,867 1870. 1880. 1894, 8,248,800 11,201,800 16,081,139 1,179,500 10,095,600 1,729,500 12,027,000 2.352,231 15;4S7,400 15,388,500 40,853,000 26,751,400 21,231,000 40,765,900 34,034,100 36,608,168 45,048,017 45,206,498 See, also, the various staples separately — viz. : Cotton, Sugar, Tobacco, etc. AgrigentUin (now Girgenti), a city of Sicily, built about 582 B.C. It was governed by tyrants from 566 to 470 ; anaong these were Phalaris (Brazen Bull) ; Alcamanes; Theron, who, with his stepfather Gelon, defeated the Carthaginians at Hi- niera, 480; and Thrasydaeus, his son, expelled in 470, when a republic was established. It was taken by the Carthaginians in 405 B.C., and held, except during short intervals, till gained by the Romans in 262 b.c. From 825 till 1086 it was held by the Saracens, Allith'opliel, counsellor of king David, and afterwards of Absalom. His wise counsel being slighted in the pursuit of the king (2 Sam. xvii. 14), he retires to his home and hangs himself, 1023 b.c. (2 Sam. xvii. 23). The only deliberate suicide in the Old Testament. air or atmosphere. Anaximenes of Miletus (530 B.C.) declared air a self-existent deity, the first cause of every- thing. Philosophy. Posidoiiius (about 79 B.c.)estimated the height of the atmosphere at 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 15 lbs. to the square inch, was discovered by Galileo, 1564; demonstrated by Torricelli (who invented the barometer) about 1643 A.D. ; and was found bj-^ Pascal, in 1647, to vary with the height. Halley, Newton, and others have illustrated the agency and influences of the air by various experiments, and numerous inventions have followed — among others, the Air-gun of Guter of Nuremberg about 1656; the Air-jmmp, invented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about 1650; improved by Robert Boyle in 1657, by Robert Hooke about 1659 (Sprengel's air- pump, invented 1863, converts the space to be occupied into a Torricelian vacuum); and the Air-pipe, invented by Sut- ton, a brewer of London, about 1756. The density and elas- ticity of air were determined by Boyle; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The atmosphere is supposed to extend above the earth about 45 miles. Its composition, about 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 2 of other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapor, a trace of ammonia, etc.), was ascertained by Priestley (who discov- ered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele (1775), Lavoisier, and Cav- endish. ' Under the investigations of Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., it is found that the percentage of oxygen in sea- shore air and in the Scotch moors and highlands is 20.999 ; while in the free air of towns it may sink to 20.92, sitting-room which feels close 20.89, lighted by petroleum lamp 20.83, gal- lery of theatre 20.36, when candles go out 18.5, scarcely main- taining life 17.2. The laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. The researches of Dr. Schonbein, a Ger- man chemist of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, discovered two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and anto- zone. Dr. Stenhouse's Air-Jilters (in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set up at the Mansion-house, London, in 1854. In 1858 Dr. R. Angus Smith made known a chemical method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air, and published his " Air and Rain" in 1872. Raoul Pictet of Geneva and Cailletet of Paris, by means of great pressure and intense cold, compressed air into the liquid state, Dec. 1877; Jan, 1878. At the Royal Institution, London, prof. James Dewar exhibited liquid air obtained at the temperature of — 192° Cent,, 5 June, 1885, Acoustics, Atmospheric Rail- way, Balloons, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Ozone, and Pneu- matic Despatch. The Aero-steam Engine, the invention of George Warsop, a mechanic of Nottingham, who. by employing compressed air united with steam, was said to save 47 per cent.- of fuel. The plan was re- ported to the British Association at Exeter in Aug. 1869, and was said to act successfully in a tug steamer (for China) in the Thames, 26 Mch. 1870. . ^ , Col. Beaumont's air-engine for propelling railway-carnages, tried at Woolwich, reported successful (a little steam is used), 6 Oct. 1880. Victor Popp applies compressed air as a motive power to clocks, 1881. An Air-telegraph, employing waves of air in a tube instead of elec- tricity, invented by sig. Guattari, was exhibited In London in 1870. It obtained a gold medal in Naples. Isaac Wilkinson patented a method of compressing air by a column of water in 1757, and William Mann patented stage-pumping by compres.sed air in 1829. The force of compressed air was employed in boring the Cenis tunnel, and is now in general use in mining, etc. Aix-la-€liapelle (aks-la-shd'-peW ; Ger, Aachen, i, e,, "waters" or "fountains"), a Roman city, now in RJien- ish Prussia. Several ecclesiastical councils held here (799- 1165). Here Charlemagne was born, 742, and died, 814; having built the minster (796-804) and conferred many priv- ileges on the city, in which 55 emperors have since been crowned. The city was taken by the French in Dec. 1792; retaken by the Austrians, Mch, 1793 ; by the French, Sept 1794; ceded to Prussia, 1814. First treaty of peace signed here was between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche-Comte, but retained her conquests in the Netherlands, 2 May, 1668. Second celebrated treaty between Great Britain, France, Holland, Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance in 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed.) Signed for England by John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas Robinson, 7 Oct. 1748. Austrian Succession. Congress of sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, with minis- ters from England and France, here signed a convention, 9 Ocu 1818, for withdrawal of army of occupation from France. Ajaccio {d-ydt'-cho), chief town in Corsica, noted as the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte, born (5 Feb. 1768, bap- tismal register; doubtful), 15 Aug. 1769. Ajnadin' or Aiznadin', Syria. Here the Ma- hometans defeated the army of the emperor Heraclius, 13 July, 633. They took Damascus in 634. Akerman, Bessarabia. After being several times tak- en, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. Here a treaty between Russia and Turkey was concluded, 4 Sept. 1826, which secured the former navigation of the Black Sea, recognized the Dan- ubian principalities, etc. Aklialzikll (d-kal-zeeF), Armenia. Near here prince Paskiewitch and the Russians defeated the Turks, 24 Aug., and gained the city, 28 Aug. 1828. Alabama (an Indian word, meaning " Here we rest"), a southern state of the Union, the 22d in order of admission. It lies between lat. 30° 15' and 35° N., and between Ion. 84° 56' and 88^48' W.from Greenwich. Its length north to south is 336 miles ; its greatest breadth, 200 miles; area, 52,230 square miles. Pop. 1890, 1,513,017. Number of counties, 66. Capital, Mont- gomery. A.D. De Soto leads about 1000 men from Florida to the Missis- sippi 1540 France claims all the Missis- sippi valley (Louisiana). . . 1697 De Bienville (Louisiana) builds fort St. Louis on the west side of Mobile Bay }l^ Colony removed to present site of Mobile 1»11 Fort Toulouse built by French at the confluence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers y-"V:"*:r All the territory now Alabama north of 31° and west to the Mississippi ceded to England by France • . • • 1 '63 [West Florida from 1764 to 1781 included much of the pres- ent territory of Alabama and Mississippi. The British prov- ince of west Florida was bounded by 3-l° 28' N., while all Ala- bama north of 32° 28' was in the British province of Illinois.] Spain declares war against Great Britain. ............ .8 May, mw Don Bernardo de Galvez Spanish governor of Louisiana. Cap- tures Mobile ,•,: •••;••• ^* ^!^h ^^^ Great Britain cedes to the United States all territory east of the Mississippi except Florida, the boundary of west Florida ALA again flxod at 31° N. ; and codes Florida back to Spain by treaties of 1783 A treaty bt>t\vt'ou the Federal Kovornment and the Choctaw Indians cuutlnninK the cession of the territory obtained by the British from that tribe 3 Jan. 1786 Georgia cluiins to include by royal charter what is now Ala- bama and Mississippi, and creates Houstoun county out of pari of Alubatna north of the Tennessee river 1785 Spain claims west Florida, S'i" '28' N., and occupies the terri- tory, but relinquishes her claims north of 31° ufler tedious negotiations Mch. 1798 This region ttom 31" to 3*2° 28' N. lat, between the Mississippi and Uie Chattahoochee, is formed by congress into the Mis- sissippi territory " Winthrop Sargent of Massachusetts appointed by president Adams first governor '« [Seat of government, Natchez on the Mississippi.] ^Mtnish garrison at Fort St. Stephen relieved by Federal troops, May, 1799 Washington county, comprising all eiist of the Pearl river to the ChiUUihoocboe. formed by gov. Sargent Juno, 1800 First census of Washington county, showing 733 whites, 494 negro slaves, and 23 H-oe negroes " (Mobile not included, being under Spanish rule.] Congress provides a legislature for the territory " President Jeflerson appoinu William C. C. Claiborne of Ten- nessee governor 1801 Georgia cedes to the U. S. all between the 31st and the 35th parallels for $1,250.000 24 Apr. 1802 Congress extends the Mississippi territory to 35° N 1804 Robert Williams of North Carolina governor. 1805 Madison county treated 1808 David Holmes of Virginia governor 1809 Baldwin county created " The three counties in what is now Alabama have 6422 whites and 2624 negroes 1810 Madimn OazetU started at Huntsville 1812 Spanish garrison at fort Charlotte (Mobile) surrenders to the U. S. forces under gen. Wilkinson 13 Apr. 1813 U. S. forces occupy Spanish west Florida, and the district E. of Pearl river and S. of 31" N. is added to the Mississippi territory 1812-13 First engagement in the war with the Creek (so called by the whites because of the numerous creeks within their terri- tory) or Muscogee Indians on Burnt Corn creek 27 July, 1813 [The whites under col. Caller repulsed.] Fort Mimms. a stockade near the R. bank of the Alabama river (now Baldwin county), is surprised at midday by 1000 Creek warriors led by Weatherford and the prophet Francis. There were in the fort 245 men with arms, and 308 women and children. After a stubborn resistance till 5 p.m. they are overpowered— about 50 escape 30 Aug. " Battle of Tallasahatchie (now in Calhoun county). The Ind- ians defeated by gen. Coffee 3 Nov. " Battle of Talladega. Gen. Jackson defeats the Indians, 9 Nov. " Capt. Sam Dale's " Canoe fight " with Indians 12 Nov. " Hiilabee Town. Massacre of Indians by gen. White. This attack was made without the knowledge of Jackson. 18 Nov. " Aattose towns. Indians defeated by gen. Floyd and towns de- stroyed 29 Nov. " Econochoca or "Holy Ground" Indians defeated by gen. Claiborne 23 Dec. " Battles of Emuckfau and Enotochopco (now in Tallapoosa county). The Indians atUck and are repulsed. . .22, 24 Jan. 1814 Calebee river. Indian attack repulsed by gen. Floyd. .27 Jan. " Gen. Jackson, re-enforced, attacks Indians fortified at Great Horse-shoe Bend (Tohopeka) of Tallapoosa river 27 Mch. " [By this, the bloodiest battle of the war, the power of the Indians was destroyed.] Indians by treaty cede to the U. S. nearly half the present state of Alabama. 9 Aug. " Gen. Jackson captures Pensacola, Fla 7 Nov. " Chickasaw Indians, by treaty, relinquish all claim to the country south of the Tennessee for $65,000 14 Sept. 1816 Territory east of what is now Mississippi organized as the ter- ritory of Alabama 3 Mch. 1817 William Wyatt Bibb appointed governor by Monroe; " Territorial legislature first meets at St. Stephens 19 Jan. 1818 Congress authorizes Alabama to form a state constitution, 2 Mch. 1819 Convention at Huntsville to frame a constitution, conclude their labors 2 Aug. " First general assembly at Huntsville, 45 representatives and 22 senators 25 Oct. " William W. Bibb chosen governor 9 Nov. " Joint resolution of congress admitting Alabama into the Union approved by president Monroe 14 Dec. " The seat of government removed to Cahaba 1820 Pop. of the state (whites, 85,451 ; negroes, 42,450) . . 127,901 " Rank as to pop 19 " Pop. per sq. mile 2.4 " Act to establish a state university at Tuscaloosa passed. . 18 Dec. " [It was not opened until 18 Apr. 1831.] State bank established and located at Cahaba " The principal towns in Alabama were Huntsville, Claiborne, Mobile, Cahaba, St. Stephens, Florence, and Montgomery in " Gen. Lafayette received at the capital 1824 Seat of government removed to Tuscaloosa 1826 William Weatherford, the Indian warrior and chief at the fort Mimms massacre, dies in Monroe county " 16 ALA Spring Hill college (R. C.) at Mobile opened 182^ University of Alabama (non.-sec ) at Tuscaloosa opened 1831 First cotton factory erected in Madison 1832 Creeks cede to the U. S. all their lands east of the Mississippi for $210,000 by treaty " First railroad completed from Tuscumbia to Decatur, 44 miles. 1834 Cherokees cede their lands to the state by treaty 29 Dec. 1835 [They receive $5,000,000 and 7,000,000 acres beyond the Mississippi— to remove within 2 years.] Great financial convulsion in 1837 Howard College (Baptist) at Birmingham opened 1842 Seat of governuient removed to Montgomery 1847 Medical college of Ala. founded at Mobile 1859 Pop. of the state about the time of its secession (whites, 526,431; negro slaves, 435,080; free negroes, 2690) 964,201 186(> Rank as to pop 13 " Pop. to the sq. mile 18.7.... " Per cent, of increase 24.9 " The general assembly by resolution requires the governor, if a Black Repi'blican be elected president of the U. S., in No- vember, to order elections of delegates to a constitutional convention 24 Feb. '* Alabama passes an ordinance of secession by 61 to 39; the fourth state to secede 11 Jan. 1861 Alabama seizes U. S. arsenal and arms at Mobile, and occupies forts Morgan and Gaines at entrance of Mobile bay Jan. " Provisional congress of delegates from 6 seceded states meet at Montgomery 4 Feb. " Adopt a provisional constitution 8 Feb. " Jeflerson Davis inaugurated president of the Confederacy at Montgomery 18 Feb. " Seat of confederate government removed from Montgomery to Richmond, Va July, " There were liberated by the Emancipation Proclamation 435,132 slaves in Alabama 1 Jan. 1863 Confederate fleet defeated in Mobile bay by admiral Farragut, 5 Aug. 1864 [State furnishes to the confederate service 65 regiments of infantry, 12 regiments of cavalry, and 22 batteries of ar- tillery. Brewer's "History of Alabama."] Mobile evacuated by confederate forces 12 Apr. 1865 State convention meets and annuls ordinance of secession, 25 Sept. " New constitution adopted 5 Nov. " [This constitution was not ratified until Nov. 1875.] State was admitted to a representation in congress by act passed over president's veto 25 June, 1868 Under proclamation of gov. -elect W. H. Smith, 26 June, the legislature a.ssembles and ratifies the 14th Amendment to the Constitution of the U.S 13 July, " State turned over to civil authorities by gen. Meade. . .14 July, " Immigration convention meets at Montgomery 2 June, 1869 Gov. Smith, claiming majority in state election of 8 Nov., files injunction restraining president of senate from counting votes for governor 25 Nov. 1870 Votes for lieut. governor being counted, E. H. Moren is declared elected and is inaugurated; as ex-offlcio president of the sea- ate he then counts the votes for governor— R. B. Lindsay, 77,721 ; W. H. Smith, 76,292 26 Nov. " An amicable settlement of dispute after suit to recover books, papers, etc., of the governor's office begun by gov. Lindsay, 7 Dec. " Birmingham founded (chief iron centre of Ala.) 1871 University of Alabama reorganized and opened 4 Oct. " George Goldthwaite, dem., elected U. S. senator, 7 Dec. 1870; qualifies 15 Jan.- 1872 Legislature passes a new election law, provides for an agricul- tural college, and adjourns 26 Feb. " State Agricultural and Mechanical College at Auburn chartered and opened " Election returns of 5 Nov. disputed. Republican membersof leg- islature organize at U. S. court-house in Montgomery; demo- cratic members at state capitol, each claiming a constitutional quorum. Gov. Lindsay recognizes the latter 18 Nov. '* David P. Lewis, rep., declared elected governor, 23 Nov., and assumes the office, recognizing the court-house legislature, 25 Nov. " Legislative dispute referred to attorney-general of the U. S., who proposes a compromise to take effect 18 Dec. when the senate organizes at the capitol, the courthouse assembly continuing its sessions 18 Dec. '* Pursuant to adjournment, 21 Dec, both houses meet 13 Jan. 1873, to examine contested seats and transact business inde- pendently until a joint resolution passed by the lower house is agreed to, informing the governor of the organization of the general assembly 1 Feb. 1873 State normal college at Florence opened , " State normal and industrial school opened at Huntsville " Colored labor state convention meets at Montgomery. .18 Nov. " Constitutional convention meets at Montgomery 6 Sept. 1875 New state constitution ratified by 95,672 to 30,004 16 Nov. " Act to fund state debt in new bonds at reduced interest and sur- render certain securities held by the state, approved.. 23 Feb. 1876 First biennial session of legislature under new constitution, begins 15 Nov. " Act to establish a public-school system ; a superintendent of education to be elected every two years, etc 1876-77 John T. Morgan, dem., senator, presents credentials in the U. S. senate 27 Feb. 1877 Act granting $75 to any resident of the state who lost an arm or leg in the confederate army 1879 ALA 17 George S. Houston qualifies as U. S. senator 18 Mch. 1879 U. S. senator George S. Houston dies 31 Dec. " Luke Pryor, dem., qualifies as U. S. senator under executive appointment to fill vacancy 15 Jan. 1880 James L. Pugh, U. S. senator-elect, qualities 6 Dec. " State normal and industrial school opened at Tuskegee 1881 State treasurer I. H. Vincent absconds, leaving a deficit of about $212,000 Jan. 1883 State agricultural department goes into operation with E. C. Betts of Madison county as commissioner 1 Sept. " Alabama normal college for girls at Livingston opened " State normal school at Jackson opened " Congress grants the state 46,080 acres of land for the benefit of the university 23 Apr. 1884 Foundation of a monument to the confederate soldiers of the state laid on the grounds of the capitol in Montgomery by Jefferson Davis 29 Apr. 1886 State agricultural and mechanical college burned; loss $100,000, 24 June, 1887 State normal school at Troy opened " Lease of convicts in state penitentiary awarded to the East Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railroad company, the convicts to be employed in the Pratt coal mines near Birmingham 1888 Alabama academy for the blind opened at Talladega " Southern interstate immigration convention, nearly 600 dele- ALA gates from all the southern states meet at Montgomery, 12 Dec. 1888 Mardi Gras, Good Friday, and 26 Apr. added to the legal holi- days, and $.";o,000 appropriated for relief of disabled confed- erate soldiers or their widows by the legislature of 1888-89 Southern interstate farmers' association meets in Montgomery, 21 Aug. 1889 Rube Burrows, a notorious criminal and murderer, breaks jail and is shot and killed at Birmingham 8 Oct. 1890 Ex-gov. E. A. O'Neil dies at Florence 7 Nov. " Eleventh annual convention of American federation of labor at Birmingham, meets 14 Dec. 1891 4955 disabled confederate soldiers apply for pensions, each re- ceived $26.50 from a fund of $131,362.02 raised by special tax 189a [38 blind applicants received each $38.57.] Conference of colored people at Tuskegee, in the "black belt," to consider the condition of the race; regretting the pov- erty of the South, and lack of means for education, inability to build school-houses or furnish teachers, etc., it admitted the friendliness and fairness of the whites, etc " Two state tickets in the field— gov. Thomas G. Jones heading Conservatives, and ex -commissioner of agriculture R. F. Kolb, the " Jeflersonian Democrats." Two platforms issued; Kolb defeated, charges frauds at the polls Aug. " GOVERNORS OF THE MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY. Including the present States of Alabama and Mississippi. Names. Term of Office. Remarks. Winthrop Sargent 1799 to 1801 1801 " 1805 1805 " 1809 1809 " 1817 Appointed by president Adams from Massachusetts. " " " Jefferson" Tennessee. Wm C G Claiborne Robt Williams . " " North Carolina. David Holmes " " Virginia. Wm. Wyatt Bibb. GOVERNOR OF THE TERRITORY OF ALABAMA. ,...| Mch. 1817 to Nov. 1819 | GOVERNORS OF THE STATE OF ALABAMA. Wm. Wyatt Bibb Thomas Bibb Isreal Pickens John Murphy Gabriel Moore Saml. B. Moore John Gayle Clement C. Clay Hugh McVay Arthur P. Bagby Benj. Fitzpatrick Joshua L. Martin Reuben Chapman Henry Watkins Collier. John A. Winston Andrew B. Moore John Gill Shorter Thomas H. Watts Nov. 1819 to July, 1820 July, 1820 " Nov. 1821 Nov. 1821 " 1825 " 1829 Mch. 1831 Nov. 1831 " 1835 July, 1837 Nov. 1837 " 1841 " 1845 " 1847 " 1849 " 1853 " 1857 " 1861 " 1863 Lewis E. Parsons. Robt. M. Patton . . Wm. H. Smith... Robt. B. Lindsay. David B. I,ewis. . . Geo. S. Houston . . Rufus W. Cobb. Edward N. O'Neal. Thomas Seay Thomas G. Jones . . William C. Gates . . " 1825 " 1829 Mch. 1831 Nov. 1831 " 1835 July, 1837 Nov. 1837 " 1841 " 1845 " 1847 " 1849 " 1853 " 1857 " 1861 " 1863 Apr. 1865 Interregnum of two months. June, 1865 to Dec. 1865 Dec. 1865 " July, 1868 Julv, 1868 " Nov. 1870 Died in office. Elected U. S. senator. Elected U. S. senator. Elected U. S. senator, 1841. Elected U. S. senator, 1853. Confederate government. Nov. 1870 1872 1874 1876 1878 1880 1882 1884 1886 1888 1890 1892 1894 1872 1874 1876 1878 1880 1882 1884 1886 1888 1890 1892 1894 1896 Appointed provisional governor by president Johnson, Appointed by an act of congress. No republican ticket placed in nomination. UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM ALABAMA. Names. William R. King. . John W. Walker. . William Kelley... Wm. R. King John W. Walker. . Wm. Kelley Wm. R. King Henry Chambers . Wm. R. King Israel Pickens. . . John McKinley.. Wm. R. King.... John McKinley.. Wm. R. King John McKinley. . Wm. R. King Gabriel Moore.. . Wm. R. King Gabriel Moore . . . No. of Congress. Sixteenth Seventeenth Eighteenth Nineteenth (( Twentieth Twenty-first Twenty-second Twenty-third Date. 1819 to 1821 1821 " 1823 1823*" 1825 1825 " 1827 1827 " 1829 (( U (1 1829 " 1831 1831 " 1833 1833 " 1835 Elected in place of Walker. Seated 21 Jan. 1823. Resigned. Died 25 Jan. 1826. Appointed in place of Chambers. Seated 10 Apr. 1826. Elected in place of Chambers. Seated 21 Dea 182& 18 UNITED STATBSg SENATORS FROM ALABAMA A.— (Continued.) N«»«. 1 No. of CouKTuii. \ Date. 1 Remarks. Wm R. King Twenty-fourth Twenty-fifth Twenty-sixth Twenty-seventh Twenty-eighth 11 Twenty-ninth Thirtieth t( ti Thirty-flrst Thirty-second Thirty-third Thirty-fourth Thirty-fifth Thirty-sixth Thirty-seventh Thirty-eighth Thirty-ninth Fortieth Forty-first Forty-second Forty-third Forty-fourth Forty-fifth Forty-sixth Forty-seventh II Forty-eighth Forty-ninth Fiftieth Fifty-first Fifty-second Fifty-third 1835 to 1887 1837 " 1839 11 It II 1889 II 1841 1841 " 1843 II II II 1843 " 1845 1845 " 1847 ii II II 1847 " 1849 tt II (1 1849 '« 1851 1851 " 1853 11 (( ti It K 11 1853 *' 1855 11 It II 1866 " 1867 1857 » 1859 II II II 1859 " 1861 1861 " 1863 1863 " 1865 1865 " 1867 1867 " 1869 It ti II 1869 " 1871 1871 " 1873 II It II 1873 " 1875 II U II 1875 " 1877 11 II u 1877 " 1879 It II u 1879 " 1881 1881 " 1883 II II It 1883 " 1885 II II II 1885 " 1887 1887 " 1889 1889 " 1891 II ti II 1891 '1 1893 1893 " 1895 Elected president pro tern. 1 July, 1836, and 28 Jan. 1837. Gubriel Mtwre Wm K. King Elected president pro tern. 2 July, 1838. Clemoul C Clav Wm K King President pro tem. Resigned 1841. Wm. R King Arthur P. Bagby Arthur P. Bagbv Elected in place of Clay. Seated 27 Dec. 1841. Wm R King Resigned 15 Apr. 1844. Dixon H Lewis. Appointed in place of King. Seated 7 May, 1844 Dixon H. Lewis. Arthur P Bagby Resigned, 16 June, 1848. Died -25 Oct. 1848. Wm. R King ( Appointed in place of Bagby. Seated 13 July, 1848, afterwards ( elected by legislature. Appointed in place of Lewis. Seated 11 Dec. 1848. Bei^. Fitzpatrick Wm. R King President pro tem. Jeremiah Clemens Resigned. Elected vice-president of the U. S. Died 18 Apr. 1853. Appointed in place of King. Seated 20 Jan. 1853. Elected in place of King. Seated 19 Dec. 1853. Benj. Pitzpatrick Clement C. Clay, jun Beiy. Fitzpatrick Clement C. Clay, jun Benj. Fitzpatrick Clement C. Clay, jun Beiy. Fitzpatrick Elected president pro tem. 7 Dec. 1857. Retires from the senate, 21 Jan. 1861. Died 9 Sept. 1866. President pro tem. 9 Mch. 1859. Retires from the senate, 21 Jan. 186L State seceded. [Died 25 Nov. 1869. Clement C. Clay, jun Benj. Fitzpjitrick Vacant ii t( Seated 25 July, 1868. Williard Warner u 21 " " George E. Spencer Williard Warner George Goldthwaite <}eorge E. Spencer Seated 15 June, 1872. George Goldthwaite George Goldthwaite Oeorge E. Spencer. 4 Seated 27 Feb. 1877. John T. Morgan See State Record, 1879. James L. Pugh Seated 6 Dec. 1880. John T. Morgan James L. Pugh John T. Morgan James L. Pugh John-T. Morgan . . . James L. Pugh Alabama, a steam-vessel of 1040 tons, with 2 engines of 300 horse-power, built by the Lairds at Birkenhead, Eng., and launched 15 May, 1862, for the confederate service. She was first known as " 290," her number on the list built by the Lairds. She carried 8 guns — 1 Blakely 100-pound rifled, 1 ^-inch solid shot, and 6 32-pounders — and a crew of 144 men under capt. Semmes. She did great damage to the Ameri- can mercantile shipping. On 19 June, 1864, off Cherbourg, France, she encountered the federal war-ship Kearsarge, capt. Winslow, carrying 7 guns— 2 11-inch pivot smooth-bores, 1 28-pound rifled, 4 32-pounders — with a crew of 163. After an engagement of one hour S'^Q Alabama surrendered, and soon after sank. Her loss was 9 men killed and 21 wounded; the Kearsarge lost 3 wounded, 1 mortally. Alabama €laim§ and Award. Claims against Great Britain for losses sustained by the U. S. through depreda- tions on her commerce by confederate vessels fitted out or sup- plied in English ports. As finally presented they were as follows: Alabamxi Boston , Chickamauga 3 Florida 38 Georgia 5 Nashville 1 Retribution 2 tiallie 1 Shenandoah 40 Sumter 3 Tallahassee 17 No. of Vessels Destroyed. .... 58 $6,547,609.86 400.00 95,654.85 ,698,609.34 383,976.50 69,536.70 20,334.52 5,540.00 ,488,320.31 10,695.83 579,955.55 For losses from increased war premiums 1,120,795.15 $19,021,428.61 Discussion between the two governments respecting claims for damage by the Alabama and other confederate cruis- ers 1865 A fruitless convention for their settlement by a commission signed at London 10 Nov. 1868 Second convention, signed by earl of Clarendon and Mr. Rev- erdy Johnson, 14 Jan. ; rejected by U. S. senate 13 Apr. 1869 ALA 19 Joint commission (British, earl de Grej% sir Stafford Northcote, and others; American, sec. Fish, geu. Schenck, and others) to settle fishery disputes, Alabama claims, etc. Announced, 9 Feb. ; met at Washington, 27 Feb. ; signed a treaty at Washington 8 May, 1871 Commission for Anglo-American claims met at Washington, 25 Sept. " Formal meeting of the arbitration commission at Geneva (ad- journs to 15 June) 18 Dec. " The British and American cases presented 20 Dec. Excite- ment in England at introduction of claims for indirect losses into the American case; loss by transfer of trade from Amer- ican to British ships, increased rates of marine insurance, and losses by prolongation of war Jan. 1872 Correspondence between the governments; British despatch, 3 Feb. ; reply, 1 Mch. ; continued ; counter-cases presented at Geneva 15 Apr. " Continued correspondence, supplementary treaty, both nations agree to abstain from claims for indirect losses, presented to American senate; approved 25 May, " British government object to certain modifications; further correspondence; excitement in parliament; proposed ad- journment of meeting of arbitration commission ; differ- ences about mode of procedure; congress adjourns, leaving affair unsettled 10 June " Arbitration tribunal, consisting of count Frederic Sclopis for Italy, president; baron Staempfli for Switzerland; vicomte d'ltajuba for Brazil; Mr. C. F. Adams for United States; and sir Alexander E. Cockburn for Great Britain, meet at Geneva. The British government presents a note of existing differ- ences; the conference adjourns 15 June, " Further adjournment, 17 June; the arbitrators declare indirect claims contrary to international law, 19 June; president Grant consents to their withdrawal 25 June, " British government withdraw application for adjournment of conference 27 June, " Tribunal records decision against indirect claims and long ad- journment, and adjourns to 15 July 28 June, " Final meeting; all the arbitrators agree to award damages for injuries done by the Alabama; four for those done by the Florida; and three for those done by the Shenandoah. The judgment not signed by sir A. Cockburn. whose reasons were published; the damages awarded (including interest), about 3,229,166i. 13s. 4d. ; those claimed, 9,476,166i. 13s. 4d. (De- cision based on admission of a new ex-posl-facto international law, by Great Britain by treaty of Washington) 14 Sept. " Judgment of sir A. Cockburn admitting award for the Ala- bama, opposing other awards, yet counselling submission to the judgment, signed 14 Sept., and published in London Ga- zette with other documents 20 Sept. " 3,200,()00Z. were voted; the receipt of 3,196,874^. ($15,500,000) acknowledged by sec. Fish Sept. 1873 All awards made ; about $8,000,000 surplus 1876 Increased by interest to $9,500,000 1885 Alabama Letter, The. Henry Clay, whig can- didate for president in 1844, had a fair prospect for election when his letter to a friend in Alabama on the annexation of Texas appeared in the North Alabamian on 16 Aug. It was^ represented by his adversaries as a complete change of policy on his part. The whig campaign became " defensive " from this time and resulted in defeat. United States. Aladja Dag^ll (a-la'-ja dag), near Kars, Armenia. Here the Turks, under Ahmed Mukhrar, after severe conflicts, were defeated by Russians, under grand-duke Michael and gens. Loris Melikoff, Lazareff, and Heimaun, 14, 15 Oct. 1877. The Turkish army was divided and broken up, the strong camp taken, with many prisoners, including 7 pashas, and 88 guns. The Russian strategy was highly commended. This disaster, which led to the investment of Kars, was attributed to Mukhtar s main- taining too extended lines, which were turned (20 miles with only 40,000 men, when 200,000 were required). A'lamo, a fort, originally a Spanish mission, in Texas, near San Antonio. Here occurred the massacre of the Alamo, 6 Mch. 1836, when a Mexican force of 1500 or 2000 men, under Santa Anna, after having besieged and bombarded its garrison of 140 Texans, under col. Travis, from 23 Feb., stormed the place and took it, after being twice repulsed. Col. David Crockett was killed here. But 6 Texans were left alive after the assault, and these were murdered in cold blood in Santa Anna's presence, by his order, after surrender on promise of protection. Mexican loss, 500. Texas. Ala'ni, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75 a.d. They joined the Huns in invading the Roman empire, and were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. They were subdued by the Visigoths, 452, and eventually incorporated with them. Alarcos, central Spain. Here the Spaniards, under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally defeated by the Moors,19 July, 1195. Ala§'ka, formerly Russian America, is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean, on the east by the British posses- ALB sions, on the south by the Pacific ocean, and on the west by the Behring sea and straits. From the main portion of the territory a narrow strip with a breadth of about 50 miles ex- tends southeast along the Pacific coast, and terminates at the confines of British Columbia in 54° 40' N. lat. From north to south the extreme length is 1100 miles, and greatest breadth, 800 miles. It contains about 577,390 sq. miles. The distance between Portland channel, 52° n. lat. 130° w. Ion., separating the lower part of Alaska from British America and Atoo, the westernmost island of the Aleutian chain, is 2100 miles. If Atoo be accepted as the western extremity of the United States, San Francisco is nearly its geographical centre of long- itude. Capital, Sitka. This territory was first discovered by a Russian expedition under command of Behring 1741 Territory granted to a Russian-American fur company by em- peror Paul 1799 This charter renewed 1839 [New Archangel, now Sitka, on the island of Sitka, was and is the principal settlement and capital.] Privileges of the fur company expired 1863 Ceded by Russia to the United States for $7,200,000, by treaty signed 30 Mch. and ratified 20 June, 1867 Formal possession taken by the United States 9 Oct. " Alaska made by congress a military and collection district 1870 Congress provided a civil government 17 May,' 1884 Rev. Sheldon Jackson appomted general agent of education for the territory Apr. 1885 A. P. Swineford arrives at Sitka as governor 15 Sept. " Gold first discovered at Silver Bay, near Sitka, in 1887 Expedition sent by the U. S. Coast and Geodesic Survey, under J. E. McGrath, to determine the exact boundary between Alaska and the British possessions June, 1889 The North American Commercial company secures the Alaskan fur-seal rights for 20 years 28 Feb. 1890 Population reported by the census Agent, 31,000, consisting of 900 Aleuts, 5000 Indians, 18,000 Esquimaux, 2300 Chinese, aitd 4800 whites 29 Aug. 1S91 Governors.— John H. Kinkea'd, 1884-85; Alfred P. Swineford, 1885-89; Lyman E. Knapp 1889-93 Alba Long^a, an ancient city of Italy, said to have been founded by Ascanius, son of ^neas, 1152 b.c. Its history is mythical. Ascanius, son of ^neas, 1152 B.C.; Sylvius Posthumus, 1143; jEneas Sylvius ^ b.c. 1114 Reign of Latinus, 1048;^lba, 1038; Atys, or Capetus, 1002; Capys, 976; Capetus 916 Reign of Tiberinus, 903; being defeated in battle near the river Albula<^ie throws himself into the stream, is drowned, and hence this river is called the Tiber 895 Agrippa, 894; Romulus Silvius, 864; Aventinus, 845; Procas, 808 ; Numitor 795 ,• Am uli us. brother of Numitor, seizes the throne, 794; killed by ' Romulus, who restores his grandfather Numitor 754 Romulus builds and fortifies Rome 753 Alba conquered by Tullus Hostilius. and incorporated with Rome '. 665 Alba'nia, a province of European Turkey, part of an- cient Epirus. The Albanians became independent during the decline of the Greek empire. They were successfully at- tacked by the Turks in 1388. From 1443, under George Cas- triot (Scanderbeg), they baffled the efforts of Amurath II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, when they sub- mitted to his successor, Mahomet II., Ali Pacha of Janina, in 1812, defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed Albania ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. 1822, when he and two sons were slain, after surrendering under promise of safety. A revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. Area, about 18,944 sq. miles; pop. about 1,300,000. An Albanian league (favored by the Turks) formed to resist ces- sion of any part of the country to Austria and Montenegro in April, said to have caused the death of Mehcmet Ali.. 7 Sept. 1878 Country semi-independent Apr. 1879 Army formed rebel against Turkey .Apr. 1880 League forces defeated in attack on Dervish Pacha m Uskub between Pristma and Prisend, 19 Apr.; he reported the coun- try settled, but asked reinforcements; more fighting; Alba- nians said to be defeated, struggle almost over 12 Maj', 1881 Revolt of chiefs, severe fights, 2, 3 June, 1883. Turks defeated with loss ; reported dispersion of chiefs about 8 June. Continued fighting 12 June et seq. Turks successful m fight; Albanians submit, announced 21 June. Unsettled 25 June. Insurrection subsiding about 19 July. Albanians appeal to the powers for annexation to Greece, about 3 Nov. General disorder and much brigandage reported, Aug. 1884. Continued disturbance 18JU-»i All>an§, St., Hertfordshire, England, near the Roman Verulam, named for Alban, the British protoraartyr, said to have been beheaded during the persecution by Diocletian, 23 June, 286. A stately monastery to his memory was erected ALB about 795, by Offa, king of Mercia, wbo granted it many priv- ileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in parliament till tbe dissolution in 1539. Francis Bacon made baron Verulam, July, 1018, and viscount St. Albans, Jan. 1621. A meeting was held 22 June, 1871, U) raise funds to restore the abbey, the earl of Verulam chairman. The results were favorable, and the work was confided to Mr. G. Gilbert Scott, who is- sued a report in June, 1872. Verulam was built on the site of the capital of Cassivelaunus taken by Julius Caesar, 54 B.C. It was reuken, after much slaughter, by Boadicea or Boudicea, queen of the Iceni, 61 a.d. First battle of St. Albans, lAncastrians defeated, their loader, Ed- mund, duke of Somerset, slain, and king Henry VI. taken by duke of York and partisans, 22 or 2:{ May, 1456. Second battle, queen Margaret toUUly defeated Yorkists under earl of Warwick, and rescued llio king, Shrove-Tuesday, 17 Feb. 1461. St. Albans incoriwratod by Edward VI. 1553. Disfranchised for bribery, 17 June, 1852. Alban§, St., raid (Vkkmont), Oct. 1864. Albany or Albaillll, ancient name of the Scottish Highlands. Robert Stewart, brother of king Robert III., was created first duke of Albany in 1398, and the title has since be- longed to the crown of Scotland. Albany, capital of the state of New York. Pop. 1890, 94,923. State of New York throughout, Albemarle, the confederate iron-clad ram, was built by John L. Porter in the Roanoke river in 1863. She was 152 ft. long, 45 ft. wide, with a draught of 8 ft., 2 engines of 200 horse-power each, and armed with 2 rifled Brooke's guns, each worked through 3 port-holes as occasion required. In Apr. 1864, the ram sank the U. S. vessel Norikjield, and on 5 May engaged 7 U. S. war vessels in Albemarie sound, among them'the /S'«s«acMS, which attempted to sink her by ramming, but failed; the fight continued until dark, when both retired, the Albemarle returning to Plymouth badly damaged, where on the night of 27 Oct. 1864, she was sunk by lieut. W. B. Gushing of the U. S. navy by a torpedo. Subsequently raised and towed to the Norfolk navy yard, where, stripped of her armament, machinery, etc., she was sold 15 Oct. 1867, for $3200. Albigren'§e9, a name given to persons who opposed the church of Rome, living at Albi, in Languedoc, and at Toulouse, in the 12th century. They were persecuted as Manichaeans, 1163, and a crusade (proclaimed by pope Innocent III.) against them began in 1207. Simon de Montfort commanded 500,000 men, and at Bezieres, 1209, he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the sword, saying, " God will find his own I" At Minerba he burned 150 of the Albigenses alive; and at La Vaur he hanged the governor and beheaded the chief people, drowning the governor's wife and murdering other women. He defeated Raymond, count of Toulouse, but was himself killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and IX., kings of France, sup- ported the crusade; count Raymond was subdued, and abdi- cated in 1229 ; and the heretics were given up to the Inqui- sition. They had little in common with the Waldenses. Albion. Britain is so called by Aristotle. Julius Caesar and others are said to have. named it (from albus, white) from its chalky cliffs. Albion, Xew, name given to California by sir Fran- cis Drake when he took possession in 1577. Albue'ra or Albuhe'ra, Estremadura, Spain. Here the French, under marshal Soult, were defeated by the British and Anglo-Spanish army, under marshal (afterwards lord) Beresford, 16 May, 1811. Albufera, E. Central Spain, a lagoon near which the French marshal Suchet (afterwards duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under Blake, 4 Jan. 1812 ; this led to his cap- ture of Valencia on 9 Jan. Aleala', Spain, near the Roman Complutum. At the uni- versity here was printed the Complutensian Polyglot Bible, at the expense of cardinal Ximenes, 1502-15. Cervantes was born here, 1547. Alcan'tara, a town on the Tagus, W. Spain. A fine bridge was built here by Trajan about 104. The duke of Alva acquired Portugal for Spain by defeating the Portuguese army here, 24 June, 1580. The Spanish military order of knight- 20 ALD hood of Alcantara was established in 1156. The sovereign of Spain has been grand master since 1495. Aleaz'ar-Kebeer' (the great palace) near Fez, N.W. Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the Portu- guese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, 4 Aug. 1578. The Portuguese disbelieved his death and long expected his return — this led to the appearance of five impostors. al'Ctaemy, the forerunner of chemistry ; its chief ob- jects being the discovery of the philosopher's stone (which was to effect the transmutation of metals into gold), an alka- hest, or universal menstruum, and the elixir of life. M. Martin Ziegler patented a method of jiroducing a " vital fluid" by com- bining nitrogen and carbon in a porous cell containingammonia, immersed in a vessel filled with molasses. The current was to flow through silk threads attached to the vessel; about 18G8. The alchemists asserted that their founder was Hermes Tris- megistus (thrice greatest), an ancient Egyptian king. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the first who prepared natural arsenic, to make gold of it, but desisted, because the charge ex- ceeded the profit. Modern science dates from three discover- ies : First, that of Copernicus in astronomy, which served to destroy astrology; second, the weight of the atmosphere bj' Torricelli and Pascal ; and third, oxygen. Zosimua wrote on the subject about 410. The Arabians cultivated alchemy and were followed (in the 13th cen- tury) by Roger Bacon, Albert Groot, commonly known as Albertus Magnus, Aquinas, Raymond Lullius, Basil Valentine (born 1394), Paracelsus (died 1541), and others. In 1404 the craft of multiplying gold and silver was made felony by 5 Henry IV. c. 4 ; repealed in 1689. A license to practise alchemy with all metals and minerals was granted one Richard Carter, 1476. — Rymer''s Fcedera. Dr. Price, of Guildford. England, in 1782, published his experiments, and brought specimens of gold to the king, alflrmkig that they were made by means of a red and white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, under pain of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before members of the society, but after much equivocation he took poison and died, Aug., 1783. alcohol. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated alcohol ia said to have been obtained by the distillation of fermented liquors by Abucasis in the 12th century, and made anhydrous by Raymond Lullius in the 13th century by carbonate of po- tassium. Alcohol has never been solidified, but becomes viscid at very low temperatures. In 1820, Faraday ahd Hennell ob- tained traces of alcohol by passing olefiant gas (bicarburetted hydrogen) through sulphuric acid, and in 1862 this process was examined and confirmed by Berthelot. Brandy, Dis- tillation, Gin, Rum, and Spirits. About 250 medical men, including the president of the Royal College of Physicians and many hospital officials, issued a caution concerning the use of alcohol in medicine, Dec. 1871. Temperanck. Alden, John, one of the first passengers in the May- Jlower, 1620. Marries Priscilla Mullens, " The Puritan Maid- en." Characters in Longfellow's " Miles Standish." Massa- chusetts. alderman. The Saxon ealdorman was next to the king and frequently a viceroy, but after the Danes came the title was gradually displaced by earl. Aldermen in corpora- tions are next in dignity to the mayor. The}' were appointed in London (where there are 26) in 1242, and in Dublin (where there are 24) in 1323. Aldermen chosen for life instead of an- nually, 17 Rich. II. 1394. Present mode of election established, 11 Geo. 1. 1725. Aldermen made justices of the peace, 15 Geo. II. 1741. London aldermen are elected by wards. The cor- responding term in Scotland is baillie. In most cities of the U. S. the aldermen are elected by wards and form a legislative common council. Al'derney, an island in the English Channel, with Jersey, etc., was acquired by William the Conqueror, 1066. The strait called " The Race" is celebrated for two fatal oc- currences : William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of England, and many young nobles (140 youths of the principal families of France and Britain), were overtaken by a storm and lost, 25 Nov. 1120. The British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and 1160 men, was wrecked here, 5 Oct. 1744; the admiral, sir John Balchen, and all his crew, perished. Through it the French escaped when defeated at La Hogue by admirals Rus- sell and Rooke, 19 May, 1692. The construction of a break- water, to make Alderney a naval station, was begun in 1852, but was suspended by parliament in 1871. In 1874 the con- ALD trol of the harbor and lands was transferred from the board of trade to the admiralty and the war department. The island is about 8 miles in circumference, and is noted for its breed of cows. Alder§hOt Camp, on a moor near Farnham, about 35 miles from London. In Apr. 1864, the war-office, with a grant of 1,000,000/., purchased 4000 acres of land for a per- manent camp for 20,000 men. Additional land purchased in 1856. Barracks since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, and several batteries of artillery. Aldine I*re§S, that of Aldo Manuzio (Aldus Manu- tius) at Venice, produced many first editions of (Jreek, Latin, and Italian classics, beginning in 1494 with Musaeus. ale, l>eer, and wine, according to fable, invented by Bacchus. Ale was known in 404 b.c. Herodotus ascribes the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris, and such a beverage is mentioned by Xenophon, 401 b.c. The Romans learned from the Egyptians to prepare fermented liquor from corn. — Tacitus. Ale-houses are mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex. Booths were set up in England, 728, and laws passed for their regulation. None but freemen were allowed to keep ale-houses in London, 13 Edw. I. 1285. They were further regulated by 5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. 25, 1551. By i James I. c. 9, 1603, one full quart of the best, or two quarts of small ale, were to be sold for one penny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed by parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles II., 1660 ; repealed, 1 Will. IV. c. 51, 1830. Porter, Victuallers, and Wine. Alemanni or All Men («. e. men of all nations), hence Allemand, German. A body of Suevi, who took this name, were defeated by Caracalla, 214. After several repulses they invaded the empire, but Aurelian subdued them in three battles, 271. They were again vanquished by Julian, 356, 357 ; by Jovinus, 368 ; and were subjugated by Clovis at Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. The Suabians are their descendants. Aleppo, N. Syria, a large town named Beroea by Seleu- cus Nicator, about 299 b.c. The pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of Syria. It was taken by the Saracens, 638 A.D., who restored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb; b}' Saladin, 1193 ; and sacked by Timour, Nov. 1400. Its depopu- lation by plague has been frequent : 60,000 persons were said to have perished by it in 1797 ; many in 1827. The cholera raged here in 1832. Aleppo suffered from terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830, and has been the scene of fanatical massacres. On 16 Oct. 1850, Mahometans attacked the Christians, burn- ing everything. 3 churches were destroyed, 5 plundered, and thousands of persons slain. The loss of property amounted to about a million sterling; no interference was attempted by the P^^^^* "In Aleppo once, Where a malignant and a turban'd Turk Beat a Venetian, and traduc'd the state." Shakespeare, "Othello," act v. sc. ii. Ale§ia, a strongly fortified city of the Mandubii, a tribe of ancient Gaul near the head-waters of the Seine (central France), where the final struggle between the Romans, under Caesar, and the united Gauls, under Vercingetorix, took place, 52 B.C., ending in the complete overthrow of the Gauls. Caesar destroyed the city. It was rebuilt, but again destroyed by the Normans in the 9th century. Alessandria, a city of Piedmont, built in 1168 under the name of Caesar by the Milanese and Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against Frederick Barbarossa, emperor of Germany, and afterwards named after pope Alexander III. It has often been besieged. The French took it in 1796, were driven out by Suwarrow, 21 July, 1799, recovered it after Marengo, 14 June, 1800, and held it till 1814, when the fortifications erected by Napoleon were destroyed. These have been restored since June, 1856. Aleutian Isles, in the N. Pacific ocean, discovered by Behring, 1741 ; visited by Cook, 1778 ; settled bj' Russians, 1785 ; included in cession of Alaska to U. S. 1867. Alexander, £ra of, dated from the death of Alex- ander the Great, 12 Nov. 323 B.C. In computing it the Crea- tion was dated 5502 years before Christ, our year 1 a.d. being reckoned 5503, and our year 284 a.d. was called 5786. But 21 ALE after this 10 years were omitted, and the next was called 5777. This is still the Abyssinian era. The date is reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 before 5786, and by sub- tracting 5492 thereafter. Alexandria, Egypt, with walls 15 miles in circuit, founded by Alexander the Great, 332 b.c.; buried here, 322; later, the residence of Greek sovereigns of Egypt, the Ptole- mies, 323. 17 councils were held here, 231-633 a.d. Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, Serapeum, Pharos, and other b. c. edifices, and begins the library about 298 These works completed by his son, P. Philadelphus, and grand- son, P. Euergetes 283-222 Alexandria taken by Julius Caesar; when a iibrary fabled to contain 700,000 vols., including every known literary work, whether Egyptian, Jewish, Greek, Latin, Phoenician, Chaldee, Syriac, or Persian, is burned 43 Which Antony replaces by one brought from Pergamus! ...... 36 City restored by Hadrian 122 Massacre of the youth by Caracalla in revenge for an insult. '. '. 215 Alexandria, supporting the usurper Achilleus, is taken bv Dio- cletian after a long siege \ 297 Disturbed by feuds between Athanasians and Arians .*.'.*. 321 George of Cappadocia killed, 362, Athanasius finally restored. . 363 50,000 persons perish by an earthquake 365 Paganism suppressed by Theodosius; a second library burned (the Serapeum) 390 Alexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia 616 And by Amrou, general of the caliph Omar, who ordered the library burned, supplying the baths with fuel for six months 22 Dec. 640 [The saying ascribed to Omar — "That if the books agreed with the book of God, they were useless; it they disagreed, they were pernicious" — is denied by Mahometans. It is also attributed to Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria (390), and to cardinal Ximenes (1500).] Recovered by the Greeks ; retaken by Amrou 644 Cairo founded by Saracens; hastening decay of Alexandria. . . 969 Alexandria plundered by the crusaders 1365 French capture Alexandria July, 1798 Battle of Alexandria, or Canopus: the British under gen. sir Ralph Abercromby defeat the French under Menou..21 Mch. 1801 Abercromby dies of his wounds, 28 Mch. ; Menou surrenders it with 10,000 French to the British 2 Sept. " Alexandria taken by British under Fraser, 20 Mch. ; evacuated by them 23 Sept. 1807 By the convention of Alexandria, Egypt was guaranteed to Me- hemet Ali and his successors 1841 Railway to Cairo built 1851 New port, first stone laid by the khedive 15 May, 1871 The fellow of the obelisk of London (reared at Heliopolis about 1500 B.C. by Thothmes III. and removed to Alexandria about 25 B.C.) was ottered to the U. S. in 1877 Offer confirmed May, 1879 Steamer bearing the obelisk sailed from Alexandria. . .12 June, 1880 Arrives at New York 20 Julj^, " Alexandria, a city of Virginia on the Potomac, 7 miles below Washington. Here on 24 May, 1861, E. E. Ells- worth, col. of the New York Fire Zouaves, was shot, after tak- ing down a confederate flag from the roof of the Marshall house, by Jackson, the proprietor. Jackson was immediately after shot by a soldier of the regiment. Virginia, 1861. Alexandrian Codex, a MS. of the Septuagint said to have been written by a lady named Thecla in the 6th century, and to have belonged to the patriarch of Alex- andria in 1098 ; was presented to Charles I. of England in 1628 by Cyrillus Lascaris, patriarch of Constantinople ; placed in the British museum in 1753, and printed in facsimile, 1786- 1821. • Alexandrian Era. Mundane. Alexandrian Liibrary. Alexandria and Li- braries. Alexandrian Schools of Philosophy. The first school arose soon after the foundation of Alexandria, 332 B.C.; flourished under the Ptolemies till about 100 B.C.; including Euclid (300), Archimedes (287-212), Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose about 140 A.D., and lasted till about 400. Its most eminent members were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system^ (150), Diophantus the arithmetician, and Pappus the geome- ter (350). Philosophy. Alexandrines, verses of 12 syllables, forming six iambic feet, named from Alexander of Paris, who introduced it into French literature about 1164. It corresponds with the iambric trimeter, the principal metre of dramatic dialogue in Greek and Latin, and is the heroic verse of French classic writers, but is not suited to German or English poetry, ex- ALF cept in briugtng to an end a sonorous stanza or system of verses. The last line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In Pope's " Essay on Criticism" it is thus exemplified : " A noodless Alexandrine ends the song, That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along." The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine verse is Drayton's " Polyolbion," pub. 1612-22. Alftftlfto, a species of Chilian grass or clover well fitted from its long "tap root'' to live and grow where other grass- es would wither through excessive droughts. Grown exten- sively in the western United States, especially in California, Colorado, Washington, Arizona, etc. Excellent forage for cat- tle, of rapid growth, yielding under favorable circumstances 3 crops a year and from 6 to 10 tons per acre; Alford, N. Scotland, liattle of. Gen. Baillie, with a large bodv of covenanters, was defeated by the marquess of Montrose, 2 July, 1645. Al'l^ebar, an Arabic and poetical name of the constella- tion Orion. *' Begirt with many a blazing star Stood tho great giant Algebar, Orion, hunter of the beast!" — Longfellow, "Occult of Orion." al'irebra, the generalized method of computation, called by Newton "universal arithmetic," in which signs represent operations and symbols stand for quantities; Diophantus, the reputed inventor, wrote about 350 a.d. The Arabs, who brought algebra to Spain, ascribe the invention to Mohammed of Buziana, about 850 a.u. Leonardo Bonaccio of Pisa intro- tluced Indian algebra into Italy in 1220. In 1494 Luca Paccioli published the first printed book on algebra in Europe. — Serret. Some algebraic signs were introduced either by Christophe Rudolph (1522-26) or Michael Stifelius of Nuremberg, 1544, and others by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general use. — MoreH. Jerome Cardan published his "Ars Magna," containing his rule, 1545. The first treatise in the English language on algebra was written by Robert Recorde, teacher of mathematics, Cambridge, about 1557; here, for the first time, the modern sign for equality was used. Thos. Har- riot's important discoveries appeared in his " Artis AnalyticaB Praxis," 1631. Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the doc- trine of fiuxions, and the new analysis, 1666. " The Greek algebra was as nothing compared with the Greek geometry; and the Hindu geometry was as little worthy of comparison with the Hindu algebra." — Calcutta Review (1846), p. 540. Important writers on algebra : Harriot 1631 Descartes 1637 Pascal 1654 Isaac Newton (binomial the- orem) 1666 Leibnitz 1677 Lagrange 1767 Euler 1770 Budan 1807 Horner 1819 Sturm 1835 Bourdon 1840 Diophantus 350 Bonacci 1220 Paccioli or De Borgo 1494 Rudolph 1522 Stifelius 1544 Cardan 1545 Ferrari (flrst to resolve bi- quadratic equations) 1545 Tastalea 1546 Recorde 1557 Vieta. 1590 Girard. 1629 [But the most wonderful development of algebraic anal- ysis has taken place in recent years; the works of Whit- worth, Salmon, Todhunter, and others in England; of Bar- nard, Bartlett, and others in America, and of scores of great investigators in Germany and France, form a library of prob- lems successfully solved by algebraic methods in all branches of science.] Algeilras or Old Gibraltar, S. Spain. Here the Moors entered Spain in 711, and held it till taken by Al- fonso XI., Mch. 1344. Algiers, now Algreria, N.W. Africa, part of the an- cient Mauritania; conquered by Romans, 46 b.c. ; by Van- dals, 439 A.D. ; recovered for the empire by Belisarius, 534 ; and subdued by Arabs about 690. Pop. of Algeria in 1866, 2,921,146; in 1886, 3,817,465. Sq. miles, 122,867. Town of Algiers founded by Arabs near site of Icosium.. .about 936 Becoming seat of Barbary pirates, cajptured by Ferdinand of Spain, 1509; retaken by Horuc and Haydreddin Barbaros-sa, and made capital of a state; governed by a dey, nominally subject to Turkey 1516-20 Emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and an army in an expe- dition against Algiers 1541 Algiers terrified into pacific measures by Blake, 1655; by Du Quesne 1633-84 22 ALI Treaty with the U. S 1795 War declared against tho U. S 1815 Commodore Decatur enters tho bay of Algiers wiih a r. S. lleet and dicUites a peace "iH June, " British fleet, under lord Exmouth, bombards the pirate city, 27 Aug. 1816 A new treaty ; Christian slavery abolished " Treaty of peace with the U. S. .'. 22 Dec. " French armament under Bourmont and Duperrd captures Al- giers; dey deposed.barbarian government overthrown, 5 July, 1830 Arab chief Abd-el-Kuder preaches a holy war, and attacks the French, at first successfully 1833 He is recognized as emir of Mascara by the French 1834 France announces intention to retain Algiers 20 May, " War renewed 1835-36 Abdcl-Kadcr submits to French supremacy 30 May, " War renewed ; French defeated Dec. 1839 Algeria annexed to France, the emir declared a rebel Feb. 1842 He is defeated by Bugeaud at Isly 14 Aug. 1844 500 Arabs in a cave at Karthani refuse tosurrender; sufTocatedby smoke; said to have been ordered by gen. Pelissier .18 June, 1845 Abd-cl-Kader surrenders to Lamoricidre 23 Dec. 1847 [He, with suite, embarked at Oran, landed at Toulon 28 Dec. following; was removed to castle of Amboise, near Tours, 2 Nov. 1848, and released by Louis Napoleon, 16 Oct. 1852, after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa again. He was to reside at Broussa, in Asia Minor; but in consequence of the earthquake at that place, 28 Feb. 1855, removed to Constantinople. In July, 1860, Ahd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, and protected Christians whom he had rescued fVom massacre by the Turks. He received honors from the English, French, and Sardinian sovereigns. He visited Paris and liOndon in Aug. 1865. He offered to serve in the French army in July, 1870. Died at Damascus, 26 May, 1883, aged 75 years.] Arab tribes attack French; defeated 31 Oct. and 6 Nov. 1859 Algiers visited by Napoleon III Sept. 1860 Marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakhofl", appointed governor-gen- eral of Algeria Nov. " Death of marshal Pelissier, 22 May; MacMahon, duke of Ma- genta, succeeds him 8 Sept. 1864 Fresh revolts; insurgents defeated by Jolivet 2 Oct. " 10,500 refugees from Alsace-Lorraine emigrate to Algeria 1871 Gen. Chanzy gov. ; replaced by Albert Gr(5vy 1878 Dispute with Tunis; outrages by savage tribes, Kroumirs, etc. (Tunis) Apr. 1881 Troops sent from France in anticipation of insurrection.. . Aug. " Resignation of gov. A. Grevy 6 Nov. " M. Louis Tirman appointed Dec. " Annexation of the province Mazab to Algeria Dec. 1882 Algonquins. Indians. Alhambra, a Moorish palace and fortress near Grana- da, S. Spain, founded by Mohammed I. of Granada about 1253, surrendered to the Christians about Nov. 1491. The ruins are described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and Jules Goury, pub. 1842-45. Washington Irving wrote of the pal- ace and its surroundings a pleasing work, entitled "The Al- hambra," pub. 1832. All, sect of (Shiites, or Fatimites). All (a son of Abu Talib, uncle of Mahomet), one of the prophet's earliest sup- porters, becoming his vizier, 613, when quite young, and mar- rying his daughter, Fatima, about 632; caliph, 655; assassi- nated, 23 Jan. 661. He was called by the prophet, As'ad Allah Al-ghalib, " the lion of God, always victorious." All's right to succeed to the caliphate divided the Mahometan world into two great sects, the Sonnites and the Shiites, the for- mer denying and the latter affirming it. The Turks belong to the former, the Persians to the latter sect. The first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in establishing his religion and extirpat- ing unbelievers, and whom he styled the "cutting swords of God"— all died violent deaths; and his family was extirpated within thirty years after his decease. Alien and (Sedition L^anrs. In 1798, when war between France and the United States was threatened, there were in the United States, by estimate, 30,000 Frenchmen or- ganized in clubs, and 50,000 sympathizers with France who had been British subjects. In apprehension of danger, con- gress, 25 June, authorized the president to banish alien ene- mies at his discretion during the ensuing two years. Another I act authorizing the president to apprehend and remove alien enemies was passed 6 July. These alien laws were never actively enforced. The sedition act of 14 July, 1798, defined sedition and affixed severe penalties to it. These laws were very unpopular, and helped to drive the federal party from power. Resolutions of 1798. alien§ or foreigners were banished from England in 1155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 they were ex- cluded from ecclesiastical benefices. By 2 Rich. II. st. 1, 1378, ALI '. they were much relieved. In 1353, under Edward III., half of each jury empanelled to try an alien must consist of for- eigners. — " The Encyclopaedic Diet.," Jury. They were re- strained from exercising any trade or handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition relaxed in 1663. Alien priories (cells and estates belonging to foreign persons) sup- pressed in England. 1414:. The alien act passed, Jan. 1793. Act to register aliens, 1795. Baron Geramb, a fashionable foreigner, known at court, ordered out of England. 6 Apr. 1812. Bill to abolish naturalization by holding stock in the banks of Scot- land, June, 1820. 3few registration act, 7 Geo. IV. 1826. This last act was repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV. 1836. The rigor of alien laws mitigated in 1844 and 1847. "Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained our fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges and harbors." — Smiles, 1861. Their status defined by naturalization act, 12 May, 1870. An act of congress relieving from alienage children of cit- izens of the United States, born elsewhere, was passed 1855. In 1857 the attorney-general held that a citizen of the United States may renounce his citizenship. Aliens are readily nat- uralized in the United States. Naturalization. In the United States aliens may sue and be sued, but cannot serve a process, vote, or hold office. Some states restrict the power of aliens to hold real estate, others do not. The inheritance of property of aliens has been the subject of several treaties between the United States and foreign nations. United States, 1855, etc. Aliiwal, a village of N.W. India, site of an obstinate battle, 28 Jan. 1846, between the Sikh army under sirdar Runjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, with 68 guns, and British under sir Harry Smith, 12,000 men with 32 guns. The Sikhs were defeated, with nearly 6000 killed or drowned. alizar'ine, a crystalline body, the coloring principle of madder, discovered by Robiquet and Colin in 1831. Schunck showed that the finest madder colors contained only alizarine combined with alkalies and fatty acids. Graebe and Lieber- mann obtained anthracene from alizarine in 1868, and aliza- rine from anthracene in 1869. The crystalline body anthra- cene was discovered in coal oils by Dumas and Laurent in 1832. Madder. Aljubarrota, Portugal. Here John I. of Portugal defeated John I. of Castile, and secured his country's inde- pendence, 14 Aug. 1385. al'kalles (from kali, Arabic name for the plant from which an alkaline substance was first procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and lithia. Black explained the difference be- tween caustic and mild alkalies in 1736. Fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed, and the metals potas- sium and sodium freed by Humphry Davy at the Royal Institu- tion, London, 1807. Dr. Ure invented an alkalimeter, 1816. Alkalies are extensively manufactured in Lancashire and Cheshire, by decomposing common salt (chloride of sodium) by a process in- vented by a Frenchman, Le Blanc, about 1792. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about 1814. Various modifications of these processes are now in use. "Alkali works" are works for manufacturing alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of potash, and in which muriatic gas is evolved. William Gossage's process for condensing muriatic-acid gas pa- tented in 1836. "Ammonia process" of making soda invented by Dyer and Hem- ming in 1838; patents respecting it taken out by Solvay, 1863, 1867, 1872; Gossage, 1854; Schloesing, 1854, 1858; Young, 1871, 1872; Weldon, 1872, 1873; and by others. Walter Weldon received French Lavoisier medal for important im- provements in the alkali manufacture, July 1877. To stop injury to vegetation by alkali works in Lancashire and Cheshire, the alkali works act " for the more effectual condensa- tion [of 95 per cent.] of muriatic-acid gas" (or hydrochloric acid) was passed 28 July, 1863; came into operation 1 Jan. 1864; proved successful, was re-enacted 1868, and amended 1874. James Greenwood produced caustic soda and chlorine from common salt by electrolytic process, Jan. 1892. Allahabad' (city of God), N.W. Hindostan, the " holy city " of the Indian Mahometans, at the junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The province of Allahabad was succes- sively subject to the sovereigns of Delhi and Oude, but in 1801 was partly and in 1803 wholly incorporated with the British possessions. By treaty here, Bengal, etc., was ceded to the English in 1765. During the Indian mutiny several sepoy regiments rebelled and massacred their officers, 4 June, 1857 ; col. Neil marched promptly from Benares and suppressed ^ ALL the insurrection. In Nov. 1861, lord Canning made this city the capital of the N.W. provinces. Allatoo'na Pass (Ga.), battle of, fought 6 Oct. 1864. After his evacuation of Atlanta, Hood covered the road to Macon. Soon, however, he shifted southward to the West Point road, and then boldly pushed northward against Sherman's communications. Sherman followed him with the bulk of his army, but on 6 Oct. had onlv reached Kenesaw. Hood, farther north, that day attacked *Allatoona Pass, the most important station on the road, stored with one and a half million of rations, defended by 1944 men. Gen. Corse conducted the defence successfully until Sherman arrived, when Hood was compelled to withdraw. Corse was severely wounded. Union loss, 707. allegiance, in the United States the paramount alle- gianceofacitizenisdueto thegeneral government and nottothe particular state in which he was born or is domiciled. Oath. allegory abounds in the Bible and in Homer: see Ja- cob's blessing upon his sons, Gen. xlix. (1689 b.c), Ps. Ixxx., and all the prophets. Spenser's " Faerie Queene " (1590) and Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress " (1678) are allegories through- out. The SjJectator (1711), by Addison, Steele, and others, abounds in allegories. The allegorical interpretation of Scripture is said to have begun with Origen in the 3d cen- tury : " But he who was of the bondwoman was born after the flesh ; but he of the freewoman was by promise. Which things are an allegory.^'' — Gal. iv. 23, 24. Allen, Ethan. Fort Ticonderoga and Vermont. Allia, Italy, a small river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and the Gauls defeated the Romans, 16 July, 390 b.c. The Gauls sacked Rome, and the day was thereafter held to be unlucky (nefastus), and no public business was permitted to be done thereon. alliance, treaties of, between the high European pow- ers. The following are the principal : Of Leipsic 9 Apr. 1631 Of Vienna 27 May, 1657 The Triple 28 Jan. 1668 Of Warsaw 31 Mch. 1683 The Grand 12 May, 1689 The Hague 4 Jan. 1717 The Quadruple 2 Aug. 1718 Of Vienna 16 Mch. 1731 Of Versailles. 1 May, 1756 Germanic 23 July, 1785 Of Paris 16 May, 1795 Of St. Petersburg 8 Apr. 1805 Austrian 14 Mch. 1812 Of Sweden 24 Mch. " Of Toplitz 9 Sept. 1813 Holy Alliance 26 Sept. 1815 Of England, France, and Turkey (at Constantinople).. 12 Mch. 1854 Of England and France ratified 3 Apr. " Of Sardinia with the western powers (at Turin) 26 Jan. 1855 Of Sweden with the western powers 19 Dec. " Of Prussia and Italy June, 1866 Of Germany, Austria, and Italy 13 Mch. 1887 Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties, United Kingdom. Alliance, Farmers'. Political Parties. Alloto'roges, Gauls, defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus, near the confluence of the Rhone and the Saone, 121 b.c. All-saints' Day (l Nov.) or All-Hallon s, a festival common to the Roman Catholic, English, and Lu- theran churches, said to have been begun by pope Boniface IV. about 607, celebrated in the Pantheon at Rome, and established by pope Gregory IV. (about 830) for commemoration of saints and martyrs in whose honor no particular day is assigned. The reformers of the English church, 1549, struck out of their cal- endar many anniversaries, leaving only those at their time connected with popular feeling or tradition. Halloween. All-souls' Day (2 Nov.), a festival of the Roman Catholic church to commemorate the souls of the faithful, in- stituted, it is said, at Cluny about 993 or 1000. Allsman, Andrew, The case of. A confederate, coL Porter, during a raid upon Palmyra, Mo., in Sept. 1862, cap- tured, among others, an old and respected citizen of that place, Andrew Allsman, who was not paroled as- the others were, but carried off and it was believed would be put to death by his captors. Gen. John McNeil, then in command or ALM of the district of N.E. Missouri, hearing of this, circulated widely a notice, 8 Oct. 1862 (even leaving a copy with the wife of col. Porter), that if AUsman was not returned un- harmed within ten days, ten prisoners of col. Porter's band would be shot. As Allsman was not returned, ten men were selected to pay the penalty, and were shot at Palmyra, 18 Oct. A vindictive reuliatory order was issued by president Davis, 17 Nov. 1862, but was never carried out. AlUia, a river in the Crimea, near which was fought a battle on 20 SepL 1854. The allied armies — English, French, and Turkish (about 57,000 men)— crossed the Alma and at- tacked 40,000 Russians, driving them back with a loss of about 5000. Total loss of the allies, 3400. almanac (borrowed from the Arabic al manaW), a cal- endar; a word of unknown origin, which appeared in Arabic in the 16th century. The Egyptian^ computed time by in- struments. An almanac was published by the Greeks at Alex- andria about the 2d century. In the British museum and universities are specimens of early almanacs. Michael Nostra- damus, the astrologer, wrote an almanac in the style of Merlin, 1556. — Diifresnoy. Prof. Augustus de Morgan's valuable "Book •of Almanacs, with an index of reference, by which the almanac may be found for every year," was published in March, 1851. Among the earlier and more remarkable almanacs were Solomon Jarchus 1150 John Somer's Calendar, written iu Oxford 1380 Purbach 1450-()1 One in Lambeth palace, written in 1460 First printed one, published at Buda 1472 Shepheard's Kalendar (first printed in England) by Richard Pynson 1497 Regiomontanus 1475-1506 Tybalt's Prognostications 1533 Almanac Li^geois 1636 Lilly's Ephen^eris 1644 Poor Robin's Almanac t 1652 British Merlin 1658 Counaissance des Temps (by Picard) 1679 Edinburgh Almanac 1683 Almanach de France 1699 Moore's Almanac 1698 or 1713 Lady's Diary 1705 Season on the Seasons 1735 Gentleman's Diary 1741 Almanach de Gotha 1764 Nautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Maskelyne (materially improved, 1834) 1767 British Imperial Kalendar 1809 Hone's Everyday Book 1826 British Almanac and Companion 1828 Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd 1832 Chambers's Book of Days 1862-63 Whitaker's Almanack 1869 [The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of pub- lishingalmanacs by letters-patent from James L to them and the two universities ; but the monopoly was broken by the court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill to renew the privilege was lost in 1779. The Stamp Duty on English almanacs, first imposed in 1710, was abolished in Aug. 1834; since when almanacs are innumerable, being issued by tradesmen with their goods.] almanacs, American. No copy is known to exist of the almanac of 1639, the first published in America, calculated for New England by William Pierce, mariner; another, the " Boston Almanac," by John Foster, 1676. William Bradford at Philadelphia published an almanac of 20 pages, 1685, com- monly received as the first almanac published in the colonies (Pennsylvania) ; a copy from the Brinley librarv sold in New York, Mch. 1882, for $555.00. First in New York, by J. Clap 1697 " " Boston, " Samuel Clough 1700 New England Almanac, B. Green & J. Allen 1703 Nathaniel Ames's (father of Fisher Ames) Astronomical Diary and Almanac, for 50 years from 1725 Leeds's American Almanac, Philadelphia 1726 First almanac in Rhode Island, Newport, James Franklin 1728 " " " Virginia, Warne's, Williamsburg 1731 Poor Richard's Almanac, Philadelphia, Benj. Franklin 1732-86 Father Abraham's Almanac, Philadelphia 1759-99 Low's Almanac, Boston 1762-1827 First almanac in Providence, R. I., Benj. West 1763 " " " Md., Annapolis 1763 Webster's Calender or the Albany Almanac (the oldest family almanac still published in the U. S.).^ .' 1784 Thomas Farmer's Almanac, Boston, still continues 1793 Family Christian Almanac 1821 First church almanac (Prot. Epis. ) 1830 Catholic Almanac and Directory 1833 First comic almanac about 1834 " Methodist almanac 1834 " Baptist almanac 1842 24 ALP Nautical almanac 1855 First Presbyterian almanac 1858 American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge, pub. Cambridge, Mass. 1830-61. Continued as Spoffbrd's Ameri- can Almanac, pub. Washington, D. C 1878-90 Whig Almanac, 1838, Horace Greeley. Continued as the Trib- une Almanac from 1866 Evening Journal Almanac, Albany (discontinued 1893) 1860-92 New York World Almanac 1868 Daily News Almanac, Chicago 1885 [Many daily journals in the United States publish almanacs containing elaborate political and industrial statistics.] Almanza, S.E. Spain. Here on 25 Apr. 1707, Eng- lish, Dutch, and Portuguese forces under the earl of Galway were defeated by French and Spanish commanded by James ■ Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son of James II.). Most of the English were killed or made prisoners, the Portu- guese fleeing at the first charge. Almeida (dl-md'e-da), Portugal, a frontier town, capt- ured by Massena, 27 Aug. 1810. The French entered Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida; blockaded by the English, 6 Apr. 1811; retaken by Wellington, 11 May, and Massena re- tired from Portugal. Almena'ra, a village, N.E. Spain, where, on 28 July, 1710, an English and German army defeated the Spanish army supporting Philip V. Stanhope, the English general, killed the Spanish general, Amezaga, in single conflict — an event unparalleled in modern warfare. AFmoliad[C§, a faction of Mahometans in Africa, fol- lowers of Mohammed ben Abdalla, surnamed El-Mehedi, about 1120; subdued Morocco, 1145 ; entered Spain and took Seville, Cordova, and Granada, 1146-56; founded a dynasty and ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till 1278. al'moner, anciently a clergyman who gave the poor the first dish from the royal table or alms in money. By an ancient canon all bishopswere required to keep almoners. InFrancethe grand-almoner was the highest ecclesiastical dignitary before the revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria's almoner (rev. dr. Wel- lesley, dean of Windsor, appointed 28 May, 1870), or the sub- almoner, distributes the queen's gifts on Maundy-Thursday. Almo'raTldes, Mahometan partisans in Africa, rose about 1050; entered Spain by invitation, 1086; were over- come by the Almohades in 1147. almshoUiCS for aged and infirm persons have been founded in large numbers in England since the abolition of religious houses at the reformation in the 16th century. A list of those in London will be found in Low's " Charities of London." Poor. Alnivick (an'nick ; Saxon Ealnwic), on the river Alne in Northumberland, England, was given at the Conquest to Ivo de Vesci. It has long belonged to the Percies. Malcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick, and he and his sons were killed 13 Nov. 1093. It was taken by David L in 1136, and attempted in July, 1174, by William the Lion, who was de- feated and taken prisoner. It was burned by king John in 1215, and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854 the castle has been splendidly repaired and enlarged. alpa'ca or paco, a species of the llama; its soft hairy wool is largely used in cloths. It was introduced into Eng- land, about 1836, by the earl of Derby. An alpaca factory (covering eleven acres), with a town, park, almshouses, etc., for the work-people, was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, Yorkshire, by Titus Salt in 1852. A statue of him at Brad- ford was unveiled 1 Aug. 1874. He died 29 Dec. 1876. Fac- tories erected in several parts of the United States. alphabet, from d\^a (alpha) and (SrJTa (beta), the first two of the Greek letters; Hebrew, aleph and beth. Our alphabet has a history which may be traced as follows : Characters. Time. Peoples. Egyptian (Hieroglyphic). " Hieratic. Old Semitic (written from right to left, without true vowels, and in- variably 22 letters). Phoenician (written from right to left, without true vowels, and invaria- bly 22 letters). Old Greek. Latin. English. 4000 B.C. 1900 B.C. Adopted from ) the Egyptian, j About 1100 B.C. Close of 9th > century b.c. j About 600 A. D. Hamitic. Semitic. Semitic. Aryan. ALP 25 About 1900 B.C. a Semitic people, probably the Israelites in Egypt, adopted the Egyptian symbols, using them for what is known as old Semitic, as seen in the Siloam inscription at Jerusalem and the Moabite stone now in the Louvre at Paris. Though no writings in the Phcenician language have de- scended to our time, we have sufficient authority for the num- ber and form of their letters. The opinion of De Rouge and others, that the Phoenicians adopted the old Semitic symbols, is generally accepted. It is instructive to see what truth there is in the old Greek legend of Cadmus, son of Agenor, of Egyp- tian descent, introducing into Greece from Phoenicia or Egypt an alphabet of 16 letters : viz.. A, dX^a ; B, /3j)ra ; F, yafifxa ; A,^£Xra; E, t^tXov; F, /^au; I,«wra; K,Kcnnra; A,\afi^^a', M, jxv ; N, ru ; O, fiiKpov ; n, 7rT ; P, pS) ; 2, alyp,a , T, rav. Additions were made to these later by the Greeks them- selves, until about 400 b.c. they had 24 letters. " That the Greek alphabet is derived from the Phoenician, the analogy of the two proves beyond dispute.'' — Grote, "History of Greece," vol. iii. p. 340. The Greek alphabet thus acquired was carried by the Chalcidians of Euboea, at the end of the 9th century b.c., to Cumae in Campania, Italy, where, reach- ing the earl}'^ Romans, it was transmitted by them to Latin Christendom, and so became the literary alphabet of Europe and America. It is now, except the Arabic, the onlj' alpha- bet with any claim to cosmopolitan extension. Of nearly 200 alphabets known, about 50 are now in use, mostly derived from those named above. The alphabets of the principal nations contain the following number of letters : Hebrew 22 Arabic 28 Persian 32 Turkish 28 Sanscrit 44 Chinese radical characters.. 214 Chinese alphabet said to be invented by bishop Eligius Cosi of Canton (1880) 33 Taylor's learned work, " The Alphabet," was published y, 1883. Egypt; Hieroglyphics. iLlphonsine Tal>le§, astronomical tables, com- led by Spanish and Arab astronomers, and collected in j3 under Alphonso X. of Castile (the Wise), who is said to have expended 400,000 crowns upon the work, and wrote the preface. The Spanish government began a republication, 1863. Alp§, European mountains. Those between France and Italy were passed by Hannibal, 218 b.c. ; by the Romans, 154 B.C.; and by Napoleon I., May, 1800. Roads over Mont Cenis and the Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were constructed by order of Napoleon, between 1801-6. Simplon. The Al- pine club of British travellers in the Alps was founded in 1858, and published its first work, " Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers," 1859 ; and a journal since. Matterhorn ; Mont Blanc. They are named, English 26 French 25 Italian 22 Spanish 27 German 26 Slavonic 42 ian 35 1 22 k 24 Maritime, Cottian (Mt. Cenis Tunnel), Dauphine, Graian, f Great St. Bernard, Mt. Blanc and Rosa, Matterhorn, [ Simplon Pass, Bernese, North Swiss, Pennine Lepontine (St. Gothard Tunnel), Rhoetian, Lombard, Vindelician, Northern Noric, Central Tyrol, Styrian, South Tyrol, Venetian, and South Eastern. Al§ace' or El§a§§, formerly part of the kingdom of Austrasia, afterwards the French departments of the Upper and Lower Rhine, was incorporated with the German empire in the 10th century. A portion was restored to France, 1648, and th^ whole, including Strasburg, in 1697. Alsace was reconquered by the Germans, Aug.-Sept. 1870. The Alsatians were per- mitted to choose their nationality, before 30 Sept. 1872. 45,000 emigrated into France. The German system of compulsory education was introduced. Alsace-Lorraine was constitut- ed a province of the German empire by law of 9 June, 1871, having been ceded by France by the treaty of peace concluded 10 May, 1871. Belfort. The province sends 15 members to the German parliament. Al§a'tia, a name given to the precinct of Whitefriars, London, is described in Scott's " Fortunes of Nigel." Its priv- ilege of sanctuary was abolished in 1697. ALU Al§eil, Denmark, besieged by the Prussians, and heroic- ally defended, 26 June; taken, 29 June, 1864. altar. One was built by Noah, 2348 b.c. (Gen. viii. 20) ; others by Abraham, 1921 (Gen. xii. 8). Directions for mak- ing an altar are given, Exod. xx. 24 (1491 b.c.). Altars were raised to Zeus, in Greece, by Cecrops, 1556 b.c. He intro- duced among the Greeks the worship of the deities of Egypt. —Herodotus. The Lord's table was called " altar " for 300 years after Christ (Heb. xiii. 10). Christian altars in churches Were instituted by pope Sixtus I., 135 A.r>.; and were first conse- crated by pope Sylvester. The Church of England terms the table on which the elements are placed an altar. Since the time of Elizabeth there has been much controversy on the subject, and the Puritans in the civil war destroyed many an- cient stone altars, substituting wooden tables. In Jan. 1845, it was decided, in the Arches court, that stone altars were not to be erected in English churches. Altenkirchen, Prussia. Here the French defeated the Austrians, 4 June, 1796 ; but were defeated, and their gen- eral, Marceau, killed, 19 Sept. following. alter ego {another or second /), applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising regal power; used at Naples when the crown-prince was appointed vicar-general during an in- surrection in July, 1820. Alton riot. Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy established the St. Louis Observer in the city of St. Louis, Mo., 22 Nov. 1833. Taking decided grounds against slavery^ Apr. 1835, he is obliged to remove his paper, going to Alton, 111., 8 Sept. 1836. Here his press is destroyed on the night of 21 Aug. 1837 ; another press destroyed by a body of disguised men 21 Sept., as soon as landed. A third press arrives 7 Nov., and is stored for safe keeping in a stone building guarded by citizens, who are attacked by an armed mob the same night. During the siege, which lasted several hours, Mr. Lovejoy is shot and in- stantly killed, and the press destroyed. The leaders of the mob were tried but acquitted. Illinois and United States, 1837. AltO'na, Holstein, N. Germany, acquired by the Danes, 1660, and made a city, 1664. It was occupied first by the German federal rroops, 24 Dec. 1863, and then by the Prus- sians (the federal diet protesting), 12 Feb.4864. Alt-Ranitadt, Prussia, where the treaty of peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden to Frederick Augustus of Poland was signed 24 Sept. 1706, o. s. alimi, a salt, is said to have been first discovered at Roccha, in Syria, about 1300 ; found in Tuscany about 1470 ; its manufacture perfected in England by sir T. Challoner, in large alum works near Whitby in 1608; discovered in Ire- land, 1757 ; in Anglesey, 1790. Alum is used as a mordant in dyeing, to harden tallow, to whiten bread, and in the paper manufacture. Alumbag'll, a palace with other buildings near Luck- now, Oude, India, taken from the rebels, 23 Sept. 1857, and heroically defended by the British under sir James Outram. He defeated an attack of 30,000 sepoys on 12 Jan. 1858, and of 20,000 on 21 Feb. and was relieved by sir Colin Campbell in March. alumin'iuni, a metal, the base of the earth alumina, which is combined with silica in clay, and which was distin- guished from lime by Marggraff in 1754. Oerstedt in 1826 obtained the chloride of aluminium ; in 1827 the metal was obtained from it by F. Wohler, but was long a scientific curi- osity, the process being expensive. It is never found in a 'metallic state, but always with oxygen in the form of AljOg. The production was afterwards simplified by Buiisen and others, especially by H. Ste.-Claire Deville, who in 1856 suc- ceeded in procuring considerable quantities. First bar ex- hibited at Palais de ITndustrie, 1855. It is very light (sp. g. 2.25), malleable, and sonorous; its atomic weight 27.4 to 27.5; density 2.5 to 2.67 when hammered; electrical conductivity 4 times that of iron; when pure does not rust, and is iipt acted on by sulphur or any acid except hydrochloric. The eagles of the French colors have been made of it, and many other ornamental and useful articles. Helmet made for the king of Denmark, 1856. Deville's work, « De I'Aluminium," AMA was published in 1859. An aluminium manufactory was es- tablished at Newcastle, Eng., in 18G0, by Messrs. Bell. They obtain the metal from a French mineral, bauxite. Their alu- minium bronze, an alloy of 10 per cent, of aluminium and 90 per cent, of copper, invented by dr. John Percy, F.IJ.S., was made into watch-cases, etc., by Messrs. Reid of Newcastle, in 1862. Other important works are established in England. One at Birmingham produces the metal on a large scale. The principal works in the United States are the Cowles Electric Smelting and Aluminium Works at Cleveland, O., and another at Lockport, N. Y. — the latter running 2 dynamos of 217 horse-power. The alloys of aluminium are numerous and useful. Aluminium brass has been selected by the United States government for propeller blades of the war-vessels now in course of construction. The cost of the production of the metal is constantly lessening. Ainadi§ of Gaul, a Spanish or Portuguese romance, stated to have been written about 1342 by Vasco de Labeira. It was enlarged by De M<»ntalvo about 1485; and first printed (in Spanish), 1519; in French, 1540-5(3. Litkkatukk, Spanish. Am'alckite^ (descendants of Amalek, grnndson of Esau, the brother of Jacob) attacked the Israelites, 1491 b.c., when perpetual war was denounced against them. They were subdued by Saul about 1079 ; by David, 1058 and 1056; and by the Simeonites about 715 B.c. Amaru, a city on the gulf of Salerno, Naples, in the 8th century became the seat of a republic and of flourishing com- merce till 1075, when it was taken by Roger Guiscard and eventually incorporated with Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of the town in 1135, are said to have found the Pandects of Justinian, and thus revived the study of Roman law ; the story is now doubted. Flavio Gioia, a native of Amalfi, is the reputed discoverer of the mariner's compass, about 1302. Am'ana In8pirationi8t§. A Pietist community •which came from Germany in 1842, under Christian Metz, and settled at Ebenezer, near BufiFalo, N. Y. In 1855, " com- manded by inspiration," they removed to Iowa and settled at Amana, on the Iowa river, about 75 miles from Davenport They are one of the largest and richest communities in the United States. Am'azoil, a river in S. America, discovered by Vicente Yanez Pinzon in ihOO, explored by Francisco Orellana in 1540. Coming from Peru, he sailed down the Amazon to the Atlan- tic, and, observing armed women on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and the river, previously called Maranon, the Amazon. Ainazon§, fabled tribes or warlike communities of women in Scythia, Asia, and Africa. They were said to be descendants of Scythians of Cappadocia, where their husbands, having made incursions, were all slain in ambuscades. The widows formed a feminine state, declaring matrimony a shame- ful servitude.— Quin^Ms Curtius. They were said to have been conquered by Theseus, about 1231 b.c. According to Homer they were allies of the Trojans in the siege of Troy, where their queen Penthesilea was slain by Achilles. Theseus and Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons, are characters in Shake- speare's "Midsummer-Night's Dream," in which Theseus al- ludes to his defeat of Hippolyta in battle : "Hippolyta, I woo'd thee with my sword, And won thy love doing thee injuries; But I will wed thee in another key. With pomp, with triumph, and with revelling." —Act I. so. i. The Amazons were constantly at war ; and, for ease in hand- ling weapons, their right breasts were destroyed, whence their name from the Greek — d, without, fiaZSt;, breast. Others de- rive the name from maza, the moon, which they are supposed to have worshipped. About 330 b.c. their queen Thalestris visited Alexander the Great, in Asia, with 300 women in her train. — Quintus Curtius. aillba§§a€lor§. Accredited agents and representatives between monarchs are referred to in nearly ages. In most countries they have great privileges, and in England they and their servants are secured against arrest. England has now (1893) 8 ambassadors, 27 ministers, and about 36 chief consuls, resident at foreign courts, besides inferior agents. The dip- lomatic agents of the different governments rank thus: (1) 26 AMB ambassadors; (2) envoys and ministers plenipotentiary; (8) ministers resident; (4) charges d'affaires. The United States sent none of higher rank than envoys extraordinary and min- isters plenipotentiary, until 1893, Thomas F. Bayard, of Dela- ware, to Great Britain being the first ambassador. Unitku Statks, 1893. The Russian ambassador's imprisonment for debt to a lace-mer- chaut, '27 July, IToS, led to the statute of 7 Anne for the protec- tion of ambassadors, 1708. Two men, convicted of arresting the servant of an ambassador, were sentenced to bo conducted to the house of the ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to a.sk his pardon; one of them was also imprisoned for three months, and the other fined, 12 May, 1780. The first ministers of the United States to France were Dr. Frank- lin, Silas Deano, and Arthur Lee, 1778. Deane and Lee were soon recalled, and Franklin made sole envoy. The first minister plenipotentiary from the United States to Eng- land, John Adams, presented to the king, 1 June, 1785; the first from Great Britain to America was Mr. Hammond in 1791. First ministers, under the constitution, to the principal pow- ers of Europe : Gouverneur Morris, N. J., commissioner. Great Britain. .13 Oct. 1789 William Short, Va., charge d'affaires, France (first commission signed by Washington) 6 Apr. 1790 William Carmichael. Md., charge d'affaires, Spain 11 Apr. *' David Humphrey, Conn., minister resident, Portugal. . .21 Feb. 1791 Thomas Pinckney, S. C. minister plenipotentiary, Great Brit- ain 12 Jan. 1792 Gouverneur Morris, N. J., minister plenipotentiary, France, 12 Jan. " William Short. Va., minister resident, Netherlands 16 Jan. " John Jay, N. Y., envoy extraordinary. Great Britain. . .19 Apr. 1794 John Q. Adams, Mass., minister plenipotentiary, Prussia, 1 June, 1797 John Q. Adams, minister plenipotentiary, Russia 27 June, 1809 Jonathan Russell, R. L, minister plenipotentiary, Norway and Sweden 18 Jan. 1814 Henry Wheaton, N. Y., charge d'affaires, Denmark 3 Mch. 1827 David Porter (admiral), charge d'affaires. Turkey 1831 John Nelson, Md., charge d'affaires, Roman States and king- dom Two Sicilies " Henry A. Muhlenberg, Pa., minister plenipotentiary, Austria. . 1838 George P. Marsh, Vt., minister plenipotentiary, Italy 1861 George Bancroft, N. Y., minister plenipotentiary, German Em- pire 1871 Thomas F. Bayard, Del., ambassador (the first) to Great Britain 1893 James B. Eustis, La., ambassador (the first) to France 1893 amber, a carbonaceous mineral, of great repute from the earliest time, principally found in northern Europe, also in southern Europe, in the United States, and in Asia; anciently esteemed as medicine. Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b.c. 150 tons were found in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. The origin of amber is much disputed. It is considered by Berzelius to have been a resin dissolved in volatile oil. It often contains perfect insects. Sir D. Brewster regards it as indurated vegetable juice. When rubbed it evolves electricity, and from its Greek name, ijXiKTpop, the word elec- tricity is derived. aillbergri§, a solid fatty inflammable substance of a dull gray or blackish color, variegated like marble, and of a sweet earthy odor. It is a morbid secretion formed in the in- testines of the spermaceti whale, as was first satisfactorily established by Dr. Swediaur in a communication to the Royal Society (^Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ixxiii.). Amblef, near Cologne, Germany. Here Charles Martel defeated Chilperic II. and Ragenfroi, mayor of the Neustri- ans, 716. AlIlt)Oi§e (am-bwaz'), C. France. Here a conspiracy of the Huguenots (here first so called) against Francis II., Cath- erine de' Medicis,and the Guises, was suppressed in Jan. 1560; 1200 massacred. On 19 March, 1563, the Pacification of Am- boise was published, granting toleration to the Huguenots. The civil war was, however, soon renewed. Amboy'na, chief of the Molucca isles, discovered about 1512 by the Portuguese, but not wholly occupied by them till 1580 ; taken by the Dutch, 1605. The English factors were cruelly tortured and put to death, 17 Feb, 1624, by the Dutch, on an accusation of a conspiracy to expel them from the isl- and, where the two nations shared in the pepper trade of Java. Cromwell compelled the Dutch to give £300,000 to the de- scendants of the sufferers. Amboyna was seized by the Eng- lish, 16 Feb. 1796, but was restored by the treaty of Amiens in 1802. It was again seized by the British, 17ll9 Feb. 1810; and again restored at the peace of May, 1814. ai]lbulance§. Wheeled ambulances for the rapid AME 27 transportation of wounded soldiers from the battle-field are due to the French surgeon, Larrey, who employed them in the army of the Rhine in 1792. Ambulance wagons did not exist in the British army even during the Crimean war; they were introduced into the service, however, by lord Hubert's commission in 1857-58. Congress establishes a uniform system of ambulances in the United States 11 Mch. 1864 Bellevue hospital ambulance service established in New York, at the suggestion of the commissioners of public charities, by M. T. S. Brennan 1869 St. John's Ambulance Association established in England by the duke of Manchester for the purpose of disseminating general information' as to first aid to the sick and injured . . 1877 Street ambulance branch of the London hospital association established with 55 stations 1889 amen, an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, faithful, certain, used in Jewish and Christian assemblies at the end of prayer : see 1 Cor. xiv. 16 (59 a.d.). It is translated " vei'- ily" in the Gospels. amende honorable, in France, in the 9th cen- tury, a punishment for traitors and sacrilegious persons: the offender was delivered to the hangman ; stripped of his shirt, a rope round his neck, and a taper in his hand, he was led into court to beg pardon of God and the country. Death or ban- ishment sometimes followed. The term is often applied to a recantation or an apology to an injured person. Amendmenti of the Constitution of the United States. Constitution. Amer'ica, the western continent comprising North, Central, and South America. From its northern point, Point Barrow, 71° 24' n. lat., to its southern. Cape Horn, 55° 58' s. lat., it extends 127° 22' of latitude; while from Cape Prince of Wales, 167° 30' w. Ion., its western limit, to Cape St. Roque, 35° 20' w. Ion., its eastern, it extends 132° 10' of longitude, with an area of 17,598,220 sq. miles. North America being 9,537,154, Central 305,531, and South, 7,755,535, including the islands. Pop. 1890: N. America, including Central, about 88,500,000; S. America, 33,300,000. Its name is derived from Amerigo Ves- pucci, a Florentine merchant, who, born in 1451, died in 1512. He accompanied Ojeda in his voyage on the eastern coast in 1498, and described the country in letters to friends in Italy. He is charged with presumptuously inserting "Tierra de Amerigo " in his maps. Irving discusses the question in the Appendix to the " Life of Columbus," but comes to no conclu- sion. Humboldt asserts that the name was given to the con- tinent in the popular works of Waldseemiiller, a German ge- ographer, without the knowledge of Vespucci. America is the native place of maize, the turkey, the potato, Peruvian bark, tobacco, and the tomato. Of its history prior to Columbus little is known. The Spaniards found in Mexico and Peru a people far more civilized than elsewhere on the continent, but wheth- er their civilization was advancing or receding is conjectural. Ruins of cities in Central America and Mexico seem to be rel- ics of still higher civilization. CONJECTURAL HISTORY. B.C. (1) The Pre-Toltec period, semi-mythic traditions of the earliest civilization, to about 500 a.d. (2) The Toltec period, to the 11th century a.d. (3) The Chichimie period, to the establish- ment of the Aztec power. (4) The Aztec period, ending in 1523 by the Spanish conquest. Civilization of aborigines of Mexico and Central America begun by the advent of Votan about 955 Zamna introduces the Maya civilization and founds Mayapan, capital of what is now Yucatan about 800 Pirna dynasty probably begins in Peru 476 [The Toltecs arrive in Mexico and Central America about the Christian era, and displace the previous government.] [The lunar calendar introduced.] a.d. Mexican history begins according to Ixtli'lxochitl 503 Toltecs established throughout Mexico 600 Pirna dynasty declines in Peru 830 End of the Toltec power in Mexico 1050 Incas' rule begins in Peru 1240 Rise of Aztec power and founding of city of Mexico 1325 Overthrow of Aztec power by Spaniards under Cortez 1523 Hieroglyphic documents containing traditions of the Pre-Toltec or Votan period, said to have been publicly destroyed by Francisco Nunez de la Vega, bishop of Chiapas 1691 [The best connected account of the histories of the ancient peoples of Central America and Mexico is by abbe Brasseu de Bourbourg, 4 tomes, 8vo, 1857-59.] THE NORSEMEN IN ICELAND, GREENLAND, AND AMERICA. Iceland discovered by Nadodd, a Norse rover 861 AME First settlement by Norsemen 875 Grumbiorn sights a western land 876 Land discovered by Eric the Red, and named Greenland 982 Second voyage from Iceland to Greenland by Eric 985 Bjarni sails from Iceland for (ireenland, but is driven south by a storm and sights land at Cape Cod or Nantucket, also at Newfoundland, and returns to Greenland 985 Voyage of Leif, son of Eric the Red. He sails in 1 ship with 35 men in search of the land seen by Bjarni 1000 Touching the Labrador coast, stops" near Boston, Mass., or farther south, for the winter. He loads his vessel with tim- ber ; he returns to Greenland in the spring of 1001 [He calls the land Vinland, from its grapes.] [Thorwald, Lief s brother, visits Vinland in 1002, and win- ters near Mt. Hope bay, R. I. In the spring of 1003 he sent a party of his men to explore the coast, perhaps as far south as Cape May.] Thorwald explores the coast eastward, and is killed in a skir- mish with the natives (skraelings) somewhere near Boston.. 1004 His companions return to Greenland 1005 [Thornflnn Karlsefne sails with 3 ships and 160 persons (5 of them young married women) from Greenland to es- tablish a colony about 1007-8. Landing in Rhode Island, he remains in Vinland three years, where he has a son, ancestor of Albert Thorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor.] Icelandic manuscripts mention a bishop in Vinland in 1121, and other voyages there in 1125, 1135, and 1147 [The fullest relation of these discoveries is the " Codex FlatOiensis," written 1387-95, now preserved in the Royal Li- brary at Copenhagen, found in a monastery on the island of Flato, on the western coast of Iceland.] [Nicolo Zeno, a Venetian, in Greenland about 1390 ; met fishermen who had visited the coast of America.] Latest tidings of Vinland 1347 Esquimaux appear in Greenland 1349 Communication with Greenland ceases about . .r 1400 ERA OF PERMANENT DISCOVERY. Pizigani's map of the Atlantic 1367-73 Berthancourt settles the Canary islands 1402 Madeira islands re-discovered by the Portuguese 1418-20 These islands previously discovered by Machan, an English- man, 1327-78. Madeira. The " Claudius Clavus " map, giving the earliest delineation of any part of America (Greenland) 1427 "Narrative and Critical Hist, of America," vol. i. p. 117. Columbus born 1435-36 (?) 1445 Visits England and Iceland prior to 1470 Columbus in Portugal 1470-84 Marco Polo's travels first printed 1477 Columbus in Spain. Announces his views to Ferdinand and Isabella 1485-86 The views of Columbus referred to a junto of ecclesiastics, which declares them vain and impracticable. Salamanca . 1487-90 Columbus leaves Spain for France Jan. 1492 [But is recalled while on his journey.] Ferdinand and Isabella arrange with Columbus 17 Apr. " Columbus sailed on his first expedition from Palos in Anda- lusia on Friday, with 3 vessels supplied by the sovereigns of Spain— the Santa Maria, a decked vessel with a crew of 50 men, with Columbus in command, and 2 caravels— the Pme a new continent, naming it Isla Sant^t. . . 1 Aug. H98 Discovers the mouth of the Orinoco Aug. " Alonso de Ojeda discovers Surinam, Juno; and the gulfof Veno- ^ suela. Amerigo Vespucci accompanies him on this voyage, 1499 Amerigo Vespucci's tlrst voyage Vicente Vaflcz I'iuzon discovers Brazil, 20 Jan., and the river Amazon 26 Jan. 1500 Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, of Portugal, discovers Brazil 22 Apr., and takes possession of for the king of Portugal 3 May, '• Gasper Corteroal, in the service of Portugal, discovers Labrador, " Franoisio de Bobadilla appointed governor of Hispaniola and leaves SjNiin July, " Bobadilla arrests Columbus on his arrival at Hispaniola and sends him to Spain in irons. He is received with honor at court and the charges dismissed without inquiry. . . 17 Dec. " The first map to show " America " is Las Casas's «' Columbus sails on his fourth and last voyage with 4 caravels and 150 men from Cadiz '. 9 May, 1602 Discovers the island of Martinique 13 June, " Discovers various islands on the coast of Honduras and ex- plores the coast of the Isthmus July, '« Amerigo Vespucci on the South Ainerican coast 1501-3 Columbus finally leaves the New World for Spain I'i Sept 1504 Queen Isabella of Spain dies 26 Nov. " Columbus dies at Valladolld 20 May, 1606 [He was buried at Valludol d, but his reuiuius were soon after transferred to Seville, where his son Diego was buried. In 1536 the remains of both were carried to San Domingo and reburied in the cathedral. On the cession of that island to the French in 1795-96 they were (as was supposed) taken to the cathedral in Havana. But many believe they still rest in San Domingo. The "success of Columbus as a discoverer was "a conquest of reflection " (Humboldt).] Juan Diaz de Soils and Vicente Yaflez Plnzon are on the southeast coast of Yucatan " [De Cordova, 1517; Grljalva, 1518; Cortez, 1519.] WaldseemQller's or the " Admiral's " map probably 1507 Cuba found to be an Island 1508 First English publication to mention America 1509 Francisco Pizarro reaches Darien " Alonso de Ojeda founds San Sebastian, the first colony in South America 1510 Diego Velasquez subjugates Cuba and founds Havana 1511 Juan Ponce de Leon discovers Florida 27 Mch. 1512 I>auds near St. Augustine 8 Apr. " Vespucci dies at Seville, Spain, aged 61 years " Vasco Nufiez Balboa, crossing the isthmus of Darien, discov- ers the Pacific and takes possession of It for the king of Spain, calling it the "South Sea " 25 Sept. 1513 Juan Diaz de Solis discovers the La Plata '. Jan. 1516 [He is killed by natives in an attempt to land. This river named in 1527 from silver plate possessed by natives.] Spaniards at Darien hear of the empire of the Incas 1512-17 Ferdinand of Spain dies 23 Jan. 1516 Las Casas made " Universal Protector of the Indians " " Francisco Fernandez de Cordova discovers Mexico 1517 Vasco Nufiez Balboa executed at Darien " Ancient ruins in Cozumel observed by the Spaniards " Grijalva at Cozumel and Vera Cruz, penetrates Yucatan and names it New Spain 1518 Hernando Cortez sails from Cuba to conquer Mexico. . .18 Feb. 1519 First letter of Cortez on the conquest of Mexico to Charles V. of Spain 10 July, " Panama founded by Pedrarias " Montezuma, emperor of the Mexicans, dies 30 June, 1520 Magellan discovers the straits which bear his name, and passes into the Pacific ocean 21 Oct. 27 Nov. " Cortez accomplishes the conquest of Mexico 1521 Pizarro sails from Panama for Peru, but returns for supplies and repairs 14 Nov. 1524 Francis de Hoces, in command of one of the ships of Loyasas, discovers cape Horn 1525 Narvaez's expedition to the upper gulf of California 1527 Pizarro enters Peru and destroys the government (Peru). . .1531-33 Jacques Cartler enters the gulf of St. Lawrence and sails to the present site of Montreal. French in America 1534-5 Grijalva's expedition, equipped by Cortez, discovers Cali- fornia 1535 Antonio de Mendoza appointed viceroy of Mexico, the first in the New World 1535-50 Francisco Orellana explores eastward from Peru, down the Amazon, reaching the ocean (voyage of seven months). Aug. 1541 Don Pedro de Valdivia invades and conquers Chill " Cortez returns to Spain, 1540; and dies there, aged Gi 1547 Las Casas returns to Spain " Davis discovers the strait that bears his name 1585 Falkland islands discovered by Davis 1592 [For the further settlement and history of America, see the countries of North and South America, the United States, and the several states.] PRINCIPAL PERSONS CONNECTED WITH THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA, AND WHY KNOWN. Almagbo, Diego de, Spanish adventurer, b. Spain, 1463 (?), with Pizarro in Peru ; put to death by Pizarro July, 1538 Ayllon, Lucas Vasqcez de, Spanish explorer, d. Virginia, 18 Oct. 1526 [Sailing, with 3 vessels and 600 persons, with supplies for a colony, along the coast, he enters Chesapeake bay and AME attempts a settlement near Jamestown, where he died. His colonists returned to San Domingo in the spring of 1527.] Balboa. Vasco Ni-rez. Spanish adventurer, b. Spain, 1475; ex- ecuted at Darien on a charge of treason, 1517 ; the discoverer of the Pacific otean 25 Sept. 1618 BoHADiLLA, Francisco, b. Spain, sent to San Domingo to re- lieve Columbus, sent Columbus and his brother Diego back to Spain in chains. He loses his life by shipwreck on his return voyage 29 June, 1502 Cabot, John, Venetian, date of birth and death unknown. In the .service of Henry VII. of Eng., discovers the mainland of North America (supposed coast of Labrador) 24 June, 1497 Cabot, Sebastian, son of John, b. Venice, 1475 (?), d. London about 1557; the discoverer of Newfoundland and explorer of the North American coast 1498-1517 Cabral, Pedro Alvarez de. Portuguese navigator, d. about 1626; the discoverer of Brazil 22 Apr. 1500 Cartier, Jacqi'es. b. St. Malo, France, 1494, d. about 1555; the discoverer of the river St. Lawrence 1534-35 CoLUMBi's, Christopher, b. Genoa, 1435-45 (?); died at Valla- dolld, Spain, 20 May, 1506. The discoverer of the New World (America) 1492-98 Cordova, Francisco Fernandez de, d. Cuba, 1518; discovers Mexico and explores the coast of Yucatan 1517 CoRONADO, Francesco Vasquez de, d. 1542 ; explorer of the ter- ritory north of Mexico, now New Mexico, Arizona, and Col- orado 1540-42 Cortereal, Gasper, Portuguese navigator, b. Lisbon d. 1501 [Sails along the coast of North America and names Labra- dor; returns to Lisbon and sails on his second voyage, 1501, but never returns.] Cortez, Hernando, Spanish adventurer, b. Spain, 1485 ; d. Spain, 2 Dec. 1547 ; conqueror of Mexico 1519-21 Davis, John, b. Eng. 1550; d. coast of Malacca, 1605; discoverer of Davis's strait, 1585 ; of the Falkland islands 1592 De Soto, Fernando, b. Spain, 1496 (?); d. on the banks of the Mississippi, June, 1542; explorer of the southern U. S. ; dis- coverer of the Mississippi 1540-42 Drake, Sir Francis, b. Eng. 1537 (?) ; d. Puerto Bello, 27 Dec. 1595; explores the coast of California, 1578-79; first English- man to sail around the globe, reaching England 1580 Frobisher, Sir Martin, b. Eng. 1536; d. Plymouth, Eng. 7 Nov. 1594 ; discovers Frobisher's strait 21 July, 1676 Gomez, Esteban, Spanish navigator, b. Spain, 1478 (?) ; d. at sea, 1530 (?) ; explores the eastern coast 1525 [Perhaps as far north as Conn.] Grijalva, Juan de, b. Spain; d. Nicaragua, 21 Jan. 1527. Ex- plores Yucatan and hears of Mexico and Montezuma 1518 Hudson, Henry, b. Eng. ; discoverer and explorer of the Hud- son river in the interests of the Dutch, Sept. 1609, and Hud- son bay, 1611. Sent adrift in an open boat by his crew and never heard of afterwards 1611 Las Casas, Bartholomew, b. Seville, Spain, 1474 ; d. Spain, July, 1566. Accompanies Columbus to America, 1493, and during the next 50 years crosses the Atlantic 14 times in the interest of the natives. Made " LTniversal Protector of the Indians " by the Spanish government 1516 [His whole life was spent in trying to assuage the suffering of the Indians and free them from the cruelty of the Spaniards.] Magellan, Fernando, Portuguese navigator, b. 1470 . Discov- ers the strait of Magellan, which he enters 21 Oct. 1520, and names, passing through into the ocean, 27 Nov. 1520, to which he gave the name Pacific. He was killed at one of the Philippine islands, by the natives, 17 Apr. 1521. Only one of his ships, under Sebastian del Cano, reached Seville (the first ship to circumnavigate the globe) 8 Sept. 1522 Ojeda, Alonso de, Spanish adventurer, b. Spain, 1465; d. His- paniola, 1515. Accompanies Columbus on his second voyage. With Amerigo Vespucci he explores the northern coast of South America, 1499, and established a settlement at San Se- bastian 1510 PiNzoN, Martin Alonso, Spanish navigator, b. Spain, 1441 ; d. Spain 1493 [Commander of the Pinta in the first voyage of Columbus. Attempts to deprive Columbus of the discovery, is baffled and disgraced.] PiNZON, Vicente Yanez; brother of Alonso, b. Spain, 1460; d. Spain, 1524. Commands the Nina in Columbus's first voy- age. Discovers cape St. Augustine, Brazil, 20 Jan. 1500, and the mouth of the Amazon, 26 Jan. Explores the east coast of Yucatan 1506 Pizarro, Francisco, Spanish adventurer, b. Spain about 1471; assassinated at Lima, Peru, 26 June, 1541. The destroyer of the Peruvian government 1531-33 Ponce de Leon, Juan, Spanish soldier, b. 1460 (?) ; d. Cuba, 1521. The discoverer of Florida, 27 Mch. 1512 ; landing at St. Augustine 2 Apr. 1512 [Sailing south he discovers the Tortugas and explores the western shores of Florida.] SoLis, Juan Diaz de, Spanish navigator, b. Spain, 1471 ; d. South America, 1516. Reputed the most experienced navi- gator of his time. Discovers the river La Plata, S. A., Jan. 1516 [Killed by Indians on that river.] Verazzano, Giovanni de, Florentine navigator, b. near Flor- ence, 1470; d. either at Newfoundland or Puerto del Rico, 1527. Explores for France the North American coast as far north as New York and Narragansett bays 1524 Vespucci, Amerigo, b. Florence, 1451; d. Spain, 12 Feb. 1512. Explorer of the South American coast 1499-1504 [The western continent is named for him, as is believed, unjustly. Amkrica.] AME America, Central, that part of America which lies between the isthmuses of Tehuantepec and Panama, orig- inally one state under Spain, the kingdom of Guatemala ; now divided into the republics of Guatemala, San Salvador, Hon- duras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and the territory of Balize or British Honduras. The total area of these States is 175,865 sq. miles, with a pop. of about 3,000,000. The States declared their independence 21 Sept. 1821, and seceded from the Mex- ican confederation, 21 July, 1823. They made a treaty of union, 21 March, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy and bloodshed. In Jan. 1863, a war began be- tween Guatemala (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and San Salvador (afterwards supported by Honduras). The latter were defeated at Santa Rosa, 16 June, and San Salvador was taken 26 Oct. ; the president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled ; and Carrera, the dictator of Guatemala, became master of the confederacy. In Feb. 1885, gen. Barrios, president of Guate- mala, attempts the union of the five states with himself as dictator. He is, however, opposed by all except Honduras. He is defeated and killed in an engagement at Chalchuapas, 2 Apr. 1885, and a peace is concluded the 16th of same month. Darien, Panama, and the States separately. America, Soutfl, the western continent south of the isthmus of Darien. It lies mostly in the torrid zone, but ex- tends to 56°^. lat. It contains 6,900,000 sq. miles, with about 26,400,000 people. Its extreme length is 4800 miles, and its greatest width 3760. It includes the Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Brazil, Chili, Colombia, Ecuador, Guiana, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela. For its history see each state. American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, resembling the British association, held its first meeting at Philadelphia, 1848, and annually since, as follows : 1. Philadelphia, Pa., W. C. Redfleld, pres Sept. 1848 2. Cambridge, Mass., prof. Jos. Henry, •• Aug. 1849 3. Charleston, S. C, " A. D. Bache, " Mar. 1860 4. New Haven, Conn., " '• " Aug. " 5. Cincinnati, 0., " " " .May, 1851 6. Albany, N Y., " L. Agassiz, " Aug. " 7. Cleveland, 0., " Benj. Peirce, " July, 1853 8. Washington, D. C, " J.D.Dana, " Apr. 1854 9. Providence, R. I., " John Torrey, " Aug. 1855 10. Albany, N. Y., " Jas. Hall, " " 1856 11. Montreal, Ont., " J.W.Bailey, " " 1857 12. Baltimore, Md., " A.Caswell, " Apr. 1858 13. Springfield, Mass., " S. Alexander, " Aug. 1859 14. Newport, R. I., " Isaac Lea, LL.D., " '^ 1860 15. Buffalo, N. Y., " F. A. P. Barnard, " " 1866 16. Burlington. Vt., " J.S.Newberry, " " 1867 17. Chicago, 111., " B.A^ Gould, " " 1868 18. Salem, Mass., " J.lV. Foser, " " 1869 19. Troy, N. Y, '• William Cbauvenet. " " 1870 20. Indianapolis, Ind., " Asa Gray, '" " 1871 21. Dubuque, Iowa, " J. Lawrence Smith, " " 1872 22. Portland, Me., " Joseph Levering, " " 1873 23. Hartford, Conn., " J. L. Le Conte, " " 1874 24. Detroit, Mich., " J. E. Hilgard, " " 1875 25. Buffalo, N. Y., " W B. Rogers, " " 1876 2(). Nashville, Tenn., " Simon Newcomb, " " 1877 27. St. Louis, Mo., " O. C. Marsh, " " 1878 28. Saratoga, N. Y., " G. F. Barker. " " 1879 29. Boston, Mass., " L.H.Morgan, " " 1880 30. Cincinnati, 0., " G. J. Brush, " " 1881 31. Montreal, Ont, " J. AV. Dawson, " " 1882 32. Minneapolis, Minn., " C.A.Young, " " 1883 33. Philadelphia, Pa, " J.P.Lesley, " Sept. 1884 34. Ann Arbor, Mich., " H.A.Newton, " Aug. 1885 35. Buffalo, N.Y., " E.S.Morse, " " 1886 36. New York, N. Y. " S. P. Langley, " " 1S87 37. Cleveland, 0., " J W. Powell, " " 1888 38. Toronto, Ont.. '^ T. C. Mendenhall, " •' 1889 39. Indianapolis, Ind., " G. L. Goodale, " " 1890 40. Washington, D. C, '• Joseph Le Conte, " " 1891 41. Rochester, N. Y, " William Harkness, " " 1892 42. Madison, Wis., " 1893 American Institute of Instruction, in- corporated in Massachusetts, 1831. Meets annually in vari- ous cities for educational discussion. Francis Wayland, first president. American org^an, a free-reed keyed wind instru- ment, somewhat like the harmonium as a principle, discovered about 1835 by a workman of Alexandre of Paris. The inven- tion was taken to America, where instruments were made by Mason & Hamlin of Boston about 1860. American Party. Political Parties. American System. Tariff. 29 AMN Americanisms explained in a dictionarv bv John R. Ba_rtlett, first published in 1848; reprinted, 1859*; revised ed. 18/8. amethyst, the ninth stone upon the breastplate of the Jewish high-priest, 1491 b.c. Aaron's Breastplate. It is of a rich violet color. One worth 200 rix-doUars, rendered colorless, equalled a diamond in lustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns.— Z)e Boot. Amethysts discovered at Kerry, in Ire- land, in 1775. Amiens (am'e-enz), a city of Picardy, N. France; the cathedral was built in 1220. Taken by the Spanish, 1 1 Mch., retaken by the French, 25 Sept. 1597. The formal " Peace of Amiens" between Great Britain, Holland, France, and Spain was signed here 27 Mch. 1802, by the marquis of Corn- wallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schiramelpenninck for Holland. After a conflict, in which the French were defeated, 27 Nov. 1870, the German general, Von Goeben, entered Amiens, 28 Nov. Here Peter the Hermit was born about 1050. Pop. 1886, 80,288. Amistad, Case of the. A Portuguese slaver land- ed a cargo of kidnapped Africans near Havana; a few days afterwards they were placed on board the Amistad to be taken to Principe. On the voyage the negroes, led by Cinque, captured the vessel, but killed only the captain and the cook. They then ordered the white crew to take the ship to Africa ; but the sailors brought her into American waters, where she was seized by lieut. Geding, of the U. S. brig Washington, and brought into New London, Conn., 29 Aug. 1839. A commit- tee, consisting of S. S. Jocelyn, Joshua Leavitt, and Lewis Tappan, was appointed in New York to solicit funds and em- ploy counsel to protect the rights of the negroes. After a great struggle the court, through justice Story, pronounced them free. Their return to Africa founded the Mendi mis- sion. United States and Connecticut, 1839. ammonia, a volatile alkali, mainly produced by or- ganic decomposition ; named by reputed production from heat- ed camels' dung near the temple of Jupiter Ammon in Libya. Shown to be a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen by Joseph Priestley, 1774. By the recent labors of chemists both the oxide of the hypothetical metal ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been formed; and specimens of each were shown at the Royal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. Hofmann. An apparatus to improve the voice and lungs by inhaling combinations of ammonia, hydrogen, etc., called the ummo- niaphone, was invented by Dr. Carter Moffat of Edinburgh, 1883. Ammonites, descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (1897 B.C.), invaded Canaan and made the Israelites trib- utaries, but were defeated by Jephthah, 1143 b.c. On a sec- ond invasion, with threats to put out the right eyes of all they subdued, Saul overthrew them, 1095 b.c. They were after- wards many times vanquished ; and Antiochus the Great took Kabbah, their capital, and destroyed the walls, 198 b.c. — Jo- sephus. In natural history, ammonites are a large genus of extinct cuttle-fish, so called from fancied resemblance to the horns of Jupiter Ammon, the Egyptian sun-god. " Huge ammonites and the first bones of time. " — Tennyson. amnesty (a general pardon) was granted by Thrasybu- lus, the Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants, 403 B.C. Acts of amnesty were passed after the civil war in 1651. and after the two rebellions in England in 1715 and 1745. — After his victorious campaign in Italy, Napoleon III. of France granted an amnesty to all political offenders, 17 Aug. 1859. — President Lincoln issued a proclamation of conditional amnesty to former rebels. 8 Dec. 1863. President Johnson issued amnesty proclamations on 29 May, 1865 ; 7 Sept. 1867 ; 4 July, 1868; 'and 25 Dec. 1868. This 'last offered complete amnesty to all who had been in rebellion ; its validity was contested. An amnesty was granted by act of congress, 10 Apr. 1871, and another, 22 May, 1872, which restored the po- litical privileges of all participants in the rebellion, except- ing only about 600 persons. — An amnesty for political offences was granted by the emperor of Austria at his coronation as king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867. — An amnesty association on behalf of the Fenians was active in Great Britain, Oct. 1873. — 2245 French communists pardoned by decree, published 17 AMO ' Jan. 1879; manyothere during the year. A general amnesty for political offences passed by the chain ber(33iJ-140) 2lJune,1880. amoeba (a-mi'bd). Protoplasm. Anipllictyon'iC Council, according to tradition founded 1498 [1113, Clinton] b.c. at Thermopylae, by Amphic- tyon, for the general interests of Greece, and composed of 12 of the wisest and most virtuous men of various cities; still ex- isted 31 B.C. Its special office was to attend to the temples and oracles of Delphi. It required the Greek states U) punisli the Phocians for plundering Delphi, and thus caused the sacred wars, 595-586 and 356-346 ii.c. Amphip'ollS, Macedon, N. Greece. Founded by the Athenians, 437 B.C. ; seized by Brasidas the Spartan, 424 ; both he and the Athenian general, Cleon, were killed in Cleon's fruitless attempt to capture the city, 422. ampllitlie'atres, round or oval buildings said to have been first constructed by Curio, 76 b.c., and by Julius Caesar, 46 ac, to exhibit combats of gladiators with wild beasts, etc. They were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Caesar ; the Fla- vian amphitheatre (capable of holding 87,000 persons) was built between 70 a.d. and 80. Coliseum. The amphitheatre at Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. Amphltrite {a)n-Ji-tri'te),di\ Greek mythology the supreme goddess of the sea, wife of Poseidon (Neptune). amputation, in surgery, was greatly improved by the invention of the tourniquet by Morel, a French surgeon, in 1674, and of the flap-method by Lowdham of Exeter, in 1679. Surgery and Medical Science. Am'iterdam, Holland. The castle of Amstel was commenced in 1100; the building of the city in 1203. Its commerce grew at the expense of Antwerp after 1609. The exchange was built in 1634; the stadthouse, in 1648, cost 3,000,000 guilders; it stood on 13,659 piles, 282 ft. long, 235 wide, and 116 high. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, who invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, 18 Jan. 1795. The Dutch government was restored in Dec. 1813. A crystal palace for an industrial exhibition was opened by prince Frederick of the Netherlands, 16 Aug. 1864. The canal, from Amsterdam to the North sea, opened by the king, 1 Nov. 1876. A new university opened, Dec. 1877. Pop. 1890, 417,539. amyl (am'if), a chemical alcohol radical (first isolated by professor Edward Frankland in 1849). amylene {am'-i-ken), a hydrocarbon, a colorless, mobile liquid, first procured by M. Balard of Paris, in 1844, by distil- ling fusel oil (potato-spirit) with chloride of zinc. The vapor was first used as an anaesthetic by Dr. Snow, in 1856, and has since been tried in many hospitals, but is more unpleasant than chloroform, and very dangerous to life. anabaptists, opponents of baptism, usually applied to those who reject infant baptism. Baptists. The name was first given to Thomas MUnzer, Storck, and other fanatics who preached in Saxony in 1521, and excited a rebellion of the lower classes in Germany. The allied princes of the empire, led by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, put down the rebellion, and Miinzer was defeated, captured, put to the torture, and ulti- mately beheaded in 1525. A similar insurrection took place in Westphalia, headed by Matthias, 1533 ; and, after his assas- sination, by John Boccoldt of Leyden, who was crowned " king of Sion" in MUnster, 24 June, 1534, Munster was taken in June, 1535 ; and John was put to death in the most cruel man- ner that could be devised, 13 Feb. 1536. It was in the year 1534, when Boccoldt was in the height of his glory in Miin- ster, that Ignatius Loyola took the first steps towards founding the order of the Jesuits, and the extension and rapid success of that celebrated fraternity are to be attributed in a very large measure to the reaction against Protestantism produced by the share which the anabaptists took in^he peasants' war and the character of the spiritual sovereignty which they set up at Munster while it was in their hands. Several anabaptists were executed in England in 1535, 1538, and 1540. On 6 Jan. 1661, about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, head- ed by their preacher, Thomas Venner, a wine-cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many soldiers brought against > ANA them. Their leader and IG others were executed 19 and 21 Jan. Anab'asiN ((Jr. avajiamQ, a march into the interior), the title of Xeiioplion's narrative of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger ai;;iinst his brother, 401 B.C. Retreat of the Ten Thousand Gueeks. Anacreontic ver§e, of the bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon of Teos, the (Jreek lyric poet, died about 559 b.c. His odes have been frequently translated ; Thomas Moore's version was published in 1800. " We sang the songs of Anacreon — the songs of the son of Teos." — Poe. Literature. anaesthetics. Amylene, Chloroform, Cocaine^ Ether, Kerosolene, Nitrous Acid, Opium. Intense cold has been employed in deadening pain. anag^rams, formed by the transposition of the letters of a word or sentence (as ai-my from Mary), are said to have been made by ancient Jews, Greeks, etc. On the question put by Pilate to our Saviour, '■'■Quid est Veritas f" (What is truth?) we have the anagram, " Est vir qui adest" (The man who is here) ; from " Horatio Nelson " is " Honor est a Nilo " (Honor is from the Nile) ; William Noy, attorney-general to Charles I., / moyl in lav). Such trifles began to be popular in Europe in the 16th century. Anam' or Annam', an empire of Asia, to the east of India, comprising Tonquin, Cochin China, part of Cambodia,. and various islands in the Chinese sea ; said to have been con- quered by the Chinese, 234 b.c., and held by them till 263 a.d. In 1406 they reconquered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After much anarchy, bishop Adran, a French missionary, obtainetl the friendship of Louis XVI. for his pupil Gia-long, son of the nominally reigning monarch, and with a few of his country- men established Gia-long on the throne, who reigned till his death, in 1821, when his son became king. In consequence of the persecution of Christians, war broke out with the French, who defeated the army of Anam, 10,000 strong, about 22 Apr. 1859, when 500 were killed. On 3 June, 1862, peace was made; 3 provinces were ceded to the French, and per- secution ceased. An insurrection in these provinces against the French, begun about 17 Dec. 1862, was suppressed in Feb. 1863. Ambassadors from Anam to regain the ceded provinces reached Paris, Sept. 1863 ; had no success. These provinces were annexed to the French empire by proclamation, 25 June, 1867. Several native Christians were massacred by order of a bonze, July, 1868. Hoang-Nam succeeded his father, Thicutri as king 1847 By treaty at Saigon, France recognized the independence of the king of Anam, his ports were opened to commerce, and toleration of Christians was secured 15 Mch. 1874 Tu Due, emperor 34 years, resists the French in Tonquin, 1883; dies, aged 54, 17 July, 1883; Heiphnea succeeds. French protectorate recognized by treaty at Hu€ 25 Aug. 1833 King assassinated by enemies of the French; succeeded by Yoe Due about 14 Dec. " A prince who promoted massacre of Christians in Dec. and Jan. executed about 2(5 xVIay, 1884 King dies; succeeded by his brother Kienphuoe; announced 2 Aug. " The French repulse an attack on their camp at Hud, and capt- ure the regent Thu-Hong 5-6 July, 1885 Chanl Mong proclaimed king 14 Sept. " The king dies; his son, 10 years old, called Thau Khai, pro- claimed 31 Jan. 1889 Taken by the French to Algeria as a prisoner June, 1892 anath'ema (Gr. dvaOrj^ia, a votive offering), the sen- tence of excommunication (1 Cor. xvi. 22) used by the early churches, 365. Excommunication. Pope Pius IX. propound- ed a series of anathemas, Feb. 1870. AnatO'lia, Asia Minor, comprises the ancient Lycia^ Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Phrygia. anat'omy (Gr. dvuTOixr], a cutting up). The struct- ure of the human body became a branch of medical education under the second Hippocrates, who was born 460 B.C. and died about 377. Aristotle made his chief anatomical investigations between 334 and 327 b.c. Herophilus' and Erasistratus of Alexandria first applied dissection to men, previously confined to animals, 300 and 293 b.c., followed by Celsus early in the 1st, and by Galen in the 2d century a.d. Pope Boniface VIII. forbade human dissection, 1297. In modern times the revival of anatomical study began in Italy with Mondini ot ANC 31 Bologna, flourished about 1315, and Eustachi, about 1495- 1500, after whom are named a tube in the ear and a valvu- lar membrane in the heart. Fallopio or Fallopius, 1523-62, gave name to the Fallopian tubes of the uterus. The first anatomical plates designed by Titian were employed by Ve- salius about 1538. Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo studied anatomy. Of the early English anatomists the most illustrious was Harvey, born 1578. He discovered the circulation of the blood, 1616, and published his great work, 1628; died 1657. William and John Hunter, 1718-83 and 1728-93. Quain's and Wilson's large anatomical plates, pub. 1842, and Bourgery's work by Jacob, 1830-55. Com- parative anatomy has been treated systematically in the pres- ent century by Cuvier, Owen, Mliller, Huxley, and others. In England the schools were long supplied with bodies un- lawfully exhumed from graves, and, until 1832, the bodies of executed murderers were surrendered for dissection. In the reign of Henry VIII. of England surgeons were granted four bodies of executed malefactors for " anathomyes" and the privilege was extended in following reigns; but crimes committed by resurrection-men to supply surgical schools (robbing churchyards and even murder — Burkikg) led to a statute in 1832 which abated the ignominy of dissection by prohibiting that of executed murderers, and provided for the wants of surgeons by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of persons dying in workhouses, etc. The act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, and required persons practising anatomy to obtain a license. Medical Sciknce, Surgery. anchorets and anchorites. Monachism. anchors were invented by the Tuscans. — Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis the Scythian (592 B.C.). — Straho. Anchors are said to have been forged in England 578 a.d. The admiralty anchor was introduced about 1841. Anchors improved by Pering and Rodgers about 1828; by Porter, 1838 ; by Costell", 1848 ; by Trotman, 1853; and by others. Trotman's is attached to the queen's yacht Fairy. Acts for the proving and sale of chain cables and anchors were passed in 1864 and 1871. ancient buildings of England. A society for their protection from injudicious restoration, etc., was estab- lished in 1877 ; lord Houghton, prof. S. Colvin, Thomas Car- lyle, and many eminent artists, members. ancient history beginning in the Scriptures 4004 B.C., and with Herodotus about 1687 b.c. ; is considered to end with the fall of the Eastern empire, 476 a.d. ancient monuments in Britain. Bills to pre- serve these (especially the prehistoric ones) have been long de- layed in parliament. One by sir John Lubbock, read second time, 7 March, 1877, was withdrawn ; again read second time, 19 Feb 1878; read second time in the lords, 11 Mch. 1880. Such bills became laws at last, 1882 and 1892. Ancient Order of United l¥orkmen. United Workmen, Ancient Order of. ancients. Councils, French. Anco'na, an ancient Roman port on the Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 107. After many changes of rulers (Lombards, Saracens, Greeks, and Germans), Ancona was an- nexed to the papal states in 1532 ; taken by the French, 1797 ; retaken by the Austrians, 1799; reoccupied by the French, 1801 ; restored to the pope, 1802 ; occupied by the French in 1832 ; evacuated in 1838 ; and, after an insurrection, was bom- barded and captured by the Austrians, 18 June, 1849. The Marches (comprising this city) rebelled against the papal government in Sept. 1860. Lamoriciere, the papal general, fled to Ancona after his defeat at Castelfidardo, but surrendered with the city and garrison, 29 Sept. The king of Sardinia entered soon after. Andalu'sia, a province of S. Spain, once part of ancient Lusitania and Baetica. The name is corrupted from Vandalitia. it having been held by the Vandals from 419 to 429, when it was acquired by the Visigoths, whom the moors expelled in 711, establishing the kingdom of Cordova, which stood till 1236. An'daman Islands, bay of Bengal, inhabited by dwarfs in lowest barbarism. At Port Blair, on South island, ANE made a penal settlement for Sepoy rebels in 1858, the eari of Mayo, viceroy of India, was assassinated by Shere Alee, a con- vict, 8 Feb. 1872, when going on board the Glasyow. Andernach, Rhenish Prussia, once an imperial city. Near here, the emperor Charies I., while attempting to de- prive his nephews of their inheritance, was defeated by one of them, Louis of Saxony, 8 Oct. 876. Anderson, Major Robert. Fort Sumter. Andersonviile prison. An open pen on a hill- side field, 1540 by 750 feet, surrounded by a stockade, near An- dersonviile, Ga., in which prisoners of war were first lodged by the Confederates, 15 Feb. 1864. In one year 44,882 prisoners were received, of whom 12,926 died of "starvation and want of proper care. Henry Wirz, one of the prison officers, was hanged 10 Nov. 1865, for his cruelty to prisoners under hia charge. There is a national cemetery here which contains 13,714 graves. Cemeteries. Andes, Cordillera de los, the great mountain system of South America, forms a continuous line of mountainous high- lands along its western coast, and under different names trav- erses the North American continent, terminating at Point Barrow. Volcanoes. Chimborazo, Ecuador, 21,420 ft, perpetually snowclad, was as- cended by Alexander von Humboldt to the height of 19,286 ft., 23 June, 1802; by Boussingault and Hall, 19,695 ft., 16 Dec. 1831; by Edward Whymper, 20.545 ft., 3 Jan., and 20,489 ft., 3 July. 1880. Colopaxi^ Ecuador, volcanic; ascended by Ed.'Whymper, 19,600 fl.. 18 Feb. 1880. He also first ascended Antisana, Ecuador, 19.260 ft, 10 Mch.; and Cayambe„ Ecuador, 19.200 ft, 4 Apr. 1880. In Bolivia the volcano of Sahama is 23,000 ft in elevation, the peak of Illimani 21,300, and Sorata, 24,800. The culminating peak of the Andes in Chili is Aconcagua (22,427 ft); the other principal summits are the Cima del Mercedario (22.302 ft), the volcanoes of Tapungato (20,269 ft), and San Jo8€ (20.0JO ft); several others range from 16,000 to 19,000 ft Andorra, a small republic in the Pyrenees, with the title "the valleys and sovereignties of Andorra," made inde- pendent by Charlemagne about 778, reserving certain rights to the bishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, long belong- ing to the counts of Foix, reverted to the French king, Henry IV., in 1589 ; but was given up in 1790. On 27 Mar. 1806, an imperial decree restored old relations between Andorra and France. The republic is governed by a council elected for four years; but magistrates are appointed alternately by the French government and the Spanish bishop of Urgel, to both of whom tribute is paid. The population is about 10,000. Andorra, though neutral, was attacked by Carlists in Sept. 1874. Andre, Major John, born London, 1751. Execution of, 1780. New York. Andrew, St., said to have been martyred by cruci- fixion, 30 Nov. 69, at Patrse, in Achaia. His festival was instituted about 359. The Royal Society's anniversary is kept on St. Andrew's day. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted in 1698 by Peter I. For the British order, see Thistle. Andrew's, St., E. Scotland, made a royal burgh in 1140. Here Robert Bruce held his first parliament in 1309; and here Wishart was burned by archbishop Beaton, 1546, who was murdered here, 1546. The university was founded, 1411, by bishop Wardlaw. The cathedral (built 1159-1318) was destroyed by a mob, excited by a sermon of John Knox, June, 1559. Sir R. Sibbald's list of bishops commences with Killach, 872. The see became archiepiscopal in 1470, but ceased in 1688. Bishops. Andros, sir Edmund. Connecticut, 1687; Massa- chusetts, 1686; New York, 1674, etc. AndrUSSOV, Peace of (30 Jan. 1667), between Russia and Poland, for 13 years, with mutual concessions, although the latter had been generally victorious. anemom'eter (Gr. iivefiog, the wind), to measure the velocity of wind, was invented by Wolfius in 1709. The extreme velocity was thought by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per hour. Osier's and Whewell's anemometers were highly ap- proved of in 1844. " Robinson's anemometer is the simplest and best." — Buchan. 1867. ANE aneroid. Baromktkr. ang'Cl, a gold coin, impressed with an angel, weighing four pennyweights, valued at 6s.8rf. in the reign of Henry VI., and at 10s. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot, a gold coin, value lialf an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the English, 1431. — Wood. Coin. Ang'Crs, W. Central France, the Roman Juliomagus, possessing an amphitheatre ; afterwards Andegavum, the cap- ital of Anjou. It was frequently besieged, and many c»)uncils were held in it between 453 and 1448, for ecclesiastical disci- plme. « yqj, ,„eQ ^f Angers open wide your gates, And let young Arthur duke of Bretagne in." —Shakespeare, " King John," act. ii. sc. ii. Ang^evin or Allgpevine, pertaining to Anjou, espe- cially applied to the family of Hlantagenets, descended from Greoffrey Plantagenet, coiuit of Anjou, and Maud or Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of England. They reigned in England from Henry II.'s accession, 1154, to Richard III.'s death, 1486. Anjou. Anglesey, a small island containing 193,511 acres, called by the Romans Mona, separated from N. Wales by the Menai strait, seat of Druids, who were massacred in great numbers when Suetonius Paulinus ravaged the isle, 61 A.D. It was conquered by Agricola in 78 ; occupied by Normans, 1090 ; and, with all Wales, annexed by Edward I. in 1284. He built the fortress of Beaumaris in 1295. The Menai sus- pension bridge was erected 1818-25, and the Britannia tubu- lar bridge 1849-50. Ang^liean Church. Church of England. angling'. Allusion is made to it in the Bible; Amos iv. 2 (787 B.C.). Oppian wrote his "Halieutics," a Greek epic poem on fishes and fishing, about 198 a.d. In the book on " Hawkynge and Huntynge," by Juliana Berners, or Barnes, prioress of Sopwith, near St. Albans, " emprinted at Westmestre by Wynkyn de Worde " in 1496, is "The treatise of fysshyng with an Angle." Izaak Walton's "Compleat Angler" was first published in 1653. Anglo-French agreements, etc., with Great Britain respecting Africa. Axglo-French Agrkemext signed by marquis of Salisbury and M. Waddington, French ambassador in Loudon, 5 Aug. 1890; recog nizing British protectorate over Zanzibar and French over Mad agascar. The delimitation of territories in Africa subject to the influence of France to be settled by two commissioners at Paris. Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 determined the boundaries of British and German territories in E. Africa ; the protectorate of Zanzibar, Witii, Somaliland or V^tu, was given to Great Britain; Heligoland ceded to Germany; signed at Berlin by sir Edward Malet and sir Henry Percy Anderson for England; by gen. von Caprivi and Dr. Krauel for Germany, 1 July; ratified by act of parliament approved, 4 Aug. 1890. Anglo-Italian Agreement respecting Africa. Sir Evelyn Baring and gen. sir Francis Grenfell received at Rome by sig. Crispi, 24 Sept. 1890. Conference at Najiles, lord Diifferin and sig. Crispi present; no result, 4-10 Oct. 1890. . Treaty for the delimitation of British and Italian spheres of influence in E. Africa; signed at Rome, 15 Apr. 1891. Anglo-Portuguese Agreement delimiting territories subject to the influence of Great Britain and Portugal in E. Africa; text of agreement settled in London, 20 Aug. and published in The Times. Free navigation of the Zambesi, and uninterrupted com- munication between British territories insured, 26 Aug. 1890. Portugal gives up claim to Zambesi and Nyassaland. Agreement annulled, and a modus vivendi agreed to, 14 Nov. 1890. New modified treaty, signed at Lisbon, 11 June, 1891, and afterwards ratified. Anglo-I^axons or Angles, named from a village near Sleswick, called Anylen, whose population (called Angli by Tacitus) joined the first Saxon freebooters. East Anglia was a kingdom of the heptarchy founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, 571; the king- dom ceased in 792. Britain. Caedmon paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo-Saxon about 680 ; a translation of the gospels was made by abbot Egbert, of lona, 721 ; of Boethius, Orosius, etc., by Alfred, 888. The Anglo-Saxon laws were printed by government in 1840. The Anglo-Saxon language was spoken in England from about 450 to 1066 a.d. A professorship of Anglo-Saxon was founded at Oxford by Dr. Rich- ard Rawlinson in 1795; one at Cambridge by Dr. Joseph Bosworth in 1867. AngO'la, S. W. Africa, settled by the Portuguese soon after the discovery by Diego Cam, about 1484. Loanda, their capital, was built 1578. These possessions of the Portuguese 32 AN I in west Africa extend from the mouth of the Congo, 6^ S. lat., to the mouth of the Cunene, lat. 18° 30' S., and consist of the smaller districts of Ambriz, Benguela, and Mossamedes. Area about 600,000 sq. miles ; pop. 10,000,000. AngO'ra, a city and province of Turkey in Asia. As the ancient city Anc3'ra it belonged to Phrygia, and after- wards became the chief town in Galatia. It was the seat of one of the earliest Christian churches, and councils were held here, 314, 358, 376. Near it, on the 28 July, 1402, Tamerlane defeated and captured the Turkish sultan Bajazet. In 1415 it was recovered by Mahomet I., and since has belonged to the Turkish empire. The province is famous for its Angora goats, which produce the mohair of commerce. AngOUl^nie, the Roman Iculisma, capital of the prov- ince of Angoumois, Central France, W., was a bishopric in 260. Angouleme became an independent country about 856; was united to the French crown in 1308; was held by the Eng- lish, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. The count of Angouleme became king of France as Francis I. in 1515. Anguilla, Snake island. West Indies, settled by the British, 1666. Valuable deposits of phosphate of lime were found here in 1859. Anhalt, House of, in Germany, deduces its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon the Thuringians in the 6th century. In 1606 the principality was divided among the four sons of Joachim Ernest by the eldest, John-George. Thus began the four branches — Anhalt- Dessau (descended from John-George); Zerbst, extinct, 1793; Plotsgau, or Coethen, extinct, 1847 ; and Bernburg, extinct, 1863 (the last duke died without issue, 22 Aug. 1863). The princes of Anhalt became dukes in 1809. Anhalt, though a duchy of the German em- pire, is internally an hereditary constitutional monarchy (by law 19 Feb. 1872) ; area, 870 sq. miles; pop. in 1871, 203,437; in 1875, 213,565; 1886, 230,000. Anhalt joined the North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 1866. Anholt, Island of, Denmark, occupied by England, 18 May, 1809, in the French war, because Danish cruisers injured British commerce. The Danes made a fruitless attempt to re- gain it, 27 March, 1811. an'iline, an oily alkaline body, discovered in 1826 by Unverdorben among the products of distillation of indigo. From benzole Bechamp, in 1856, obtained it by treatment with concentrated nitric acid and reducing agents. The Sci- entific relations of aniline have been carefully examined by several chemists, especially by Dr. A. W. Hofmann. It was long known to yield colored compounds, but it was not till 1856 that W. H. Perkin showed how a violet oxidation- product (mauve) could be applied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufactured on a large scale for the commercial production of "mauve"' and "magenta" (rosaniline), and other coloring matters— aniline blue, 1861 ; violet, 1863 ; " night" green, etc. animal magnetism (to cure diseases by sympa- thetic affection) was introduced by father Hehl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 1774, and had its dupes in France and England about 1788-89. Hehl for a short time associated with Mes- mer, but they soon quarrelled. Mr. Perkins (died 1799) in- vented " metallic tractors for collecting, condensing, and ap- plying animal magnetism," for the cure of rheumatism, etc. ; but drs. Falconer and Haygarth put an end to his pretensions by performing the same cures with a pair o^ wooden tractors. — Brande. Mesmerism. Animal magnetism exposed by corn-^ missions of the French Academy of Sciences, 1837-38 ; inves- tigation closed as of a "dead letter," 1840. animarcules. Leeuwenhoek's microscopical discov- eries were published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society for 1677 ; in his " Arcana Naturae," at Leyden, 1696. The works of Ehrenberg, of Berlin, on the " Infusorial Animalculae," etc., were issued 1838-57. Pritchard's " Infuso- ria," ed. 1861 ; and W. Savile Kent's "Manual of Infusoria," 3 vols. 1880-82, are valuable. The Rev. W. H. Dallinger and Dr. Drysdale have made microscopical observations of bac- teria and other low forms of life, 1873-89. animals, cruelty to. Mr. Martin, M.P., zealously la- bored to repress it; and in 1824 the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was instituted. Its new ANI 33 iTiouse in Jermyn street, London, was founded 4 May, 1869. It opposed vivisection in 1860 in unison with a French socie- ty, and in Oct. 1873, offered premiums for improved trucks for conveying cattle. A jubilee congress of this and similar so- cieties met in London, 17 June, 1874. Convictions obtained by the society, 1835 to June, 1876, 28,209. Viviskction. Martin's act was passed 1822, and similar acts in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs were forbidden to be used for draught in 1839. Fellowship of Animals^ Friends, organized about 10 July, 1879; earl of Shaftesbury, president. The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Henry Bergh, president) was organized in New York city, 1865. It has branches and auxiliary societies in many cities of the Union, and nearly all the states have passed laws punishing cru- elty to animals with fine and imprisonment. Sheltering Home of Animals, established at Brighton, Mass., by Ellen M. Gilford, where homeless and maimed dogs and cats are taken to be cured and protected. aili]Ili§IIl, the doctrine that the soul is the only cause • of life, and that the functions of animals and plants depend upon vitality and not on mere chemical and mechanical ac- .tion, was opposed by Descartes and others. Materialism, Philosophy. Alljoil {an-zhoo'), a province, W. France, was taken by Henry IL of England from his brother Geoffrey, in 1156 •, ■their father Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou, having mar- ried the empress Matilda in 1127. Angevin. It was taken bj'^ king John from Philip of France in 1205 ; reconquered by Edward III. ; relinquished by him at the peace of Bretigny in 1360, and given b}'- Charles V. to his brother Louis with the title of duke. The university was formed in 1349. 1360. Louis I., duke, invested by the pope with the dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381; his invading army destroyed by the plague, 1383; he dies, 1384. 1384. Louis II. , his son, receives the same grant, but is also unsuc- cessful. Louis III., adopted by Joanna, dies 1434. 1434. Regnier or Ren6 le bon (a prisoner) declared king of Naples, 1435 ; his daughter, Margaret, married Henry VI. of England, 1445 ; he was expelled from Anjou by Louis XL, 1474, and his estates confiscated. .Francis, duke of Alenp on, brother to Henry III. of France, became duke of Anjou ; at one time he favored the Protestants, and vain- ly offered marriage to Elizabeth of England, 1581-82; died 1584. Anjou or Beauge, Battle of, between the English and French ; the latter commanded by the dauphin of France, 22 Mch. 1421. The English were defeated ; the duke of Clar- ence was slain by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 men fell ; the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntington were taken. This battle turned the tide of success against 'the English. annal§ (annales, from annus, a year). A record of historical events arranged year by year. The annual record of the Roman state for its first 6 centuries said to have been kept by the Pontifex Maximus. Many modern books bear the title of annals, as Grotius's "Annales,"in imitation of Tacitus, 1557 ; Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici," for the first 12 cen- turies of the Christian era ; Hailes's " Annals of Scotland from the Accession of Malcolm HI. to the Accession of the House of Stuart "; " Annals of the Congress of the United States," 1789-1824; changed to Congressional Register, 1825-36; to ■Congressional Globe, 1837. Annap'olii, capital of Maryland. The United States Naval Academy was founded here in 1845 by George Bancroft, then sec. of the navy. It was removed to Newport, R. I., in May, 1861, owing to the civil war, but re-established at An- napoHs in Sept. 1865. Maryland, 1696, Navy, U. S., etc. annexation, United States. The area of the United States at the close of the revolution, 1783, was 827,844 sq. miles. Since that time have been added : Sq. miles. Cost. Louisiana, purchased of France. 1803 1,171,931 $15,000,000 Florida, " "Spain.. 1819 59,268 5,000,000 Texas, by asking for admission . 1845 376, 133 Mexican Cession 1848 545,783 *28,250,000 •Gadsden Purchase, from Mexico. 1853 45,535 10,000,000 Alaska, purchased of Russia.... 1867 577,390 7,200,000 * Paid to Mexico, $18,250,000 ; to Texas, $10,000,000. Anno Domini, A.D., the year of our Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Circumcision, and of the Crucifixion ^(J'rabeaiionis). The Christian era begins Jan. 1 in the mid- 2 ANT die of the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 763d year of the building of Rome, and in 4714 of the Julian period' This era was invented by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus, or Denys le Petit, about 532. It was introduced into Italy in the* 6th century, and ordered to be u.sed by bishops by the council of Chelsea, in 816; but was not generally employed for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany was the first who added " in the year of our Lord " to his reign, in 879. Some believe that Christ was born Friday, 5 Apr. 4 b.c. Annual Reg^i§ter, a summarj' of the history of England for each year (beginning with 1758, and continued to the present time), commenced by R. <^ miles of masonry bridges, the flnesl of which is the MOdling, crossing a narrow gorge from tunnel to tunnel. Aqueduct begun, 1869, and completed, at a cost of nearly $11.000,000 Sept 1873 Conduit supplying Boston from Sudbury river, crosses the Charles by a granite aqueduct bridge 475 ft. long and 75 ft. high ; length of aqueduct, 16 miles. Aqueduct built 1875-78 AQU ' Aqueduct to supply Baltimoro with water from Gunpowder rivor, a continuous tunnel 7 niilos long, begun 1876; opening celebrated Oct. 1881 Aqueduct !(» miles long to supply Venice with water, begun in 1880; completed and inaugumted '2;id July, 1885 Aqueduct to supply Liverpool with water from the Vyrnwy valley. North Wales, (W miles in length; authorized 188(); water let into the distributing reservoir at Proscott, 19 June, 1891 Croto.v Aqi'kdcct, Tunnkls. Aqtlid'aban, Paraguay. Here the war with Brazil eniletl with the defeat and death of president Lopez, 1 Mch. 1870. Aq'llila, S. Italy. Near here the Arragoncse under the coudottiere Braccio Forte-Braccio were defented by the allied papal, Neapolitan, and Milanese army under Jacob Caldora, 2 June, 1424. Braccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take foot!, and died, 5 June. AQUilC'ia, Istria, made a Roman colony about 180 b.c. and fortitied 168 a.i>. Constantino II. was slain in a battle with Onstans, fought at Aquileia towards the close of Mch. 340. Maxiraus defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aqui- leia, 28 July, 388. Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbo- gastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained sole emperor, 6 Sept. 394. Eugenius was put to death, and Arbogastcs died by his own hand. St Ambrose held a synod here in 381. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 Theodoric and the Ostrogoths totally de- feated Odoacer, the king of Italy. AQUitaine', the Roman province Aquitania (S.W. France), so called from its inhabitants, the Aquitani, conquered by the Romans, 28 b.c. ; by the Visigoths, 418 a.d. ; taken from them by Clovis in 507. Henry II. of England obtained it with his wife Eleanor, 1152. It was made a principality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362; but annexed to^^France in 1370. The title, duke of Aquitaine, was assumed by Henry V. of England, by right of conquest, in 1418. The province was lost in the reign of Henr}' VI. Ara'bia, W. Asia. The terms Petrcen (stony), Felix (happy), and Deserta are said to have been applied to its di- visions by Ptolemy, about 140 a.d. The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the eldest son of Abraham, born 1910 b.c. (Gen. xvi.). Arabia was unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, Roman governor of Egypt, 24 b.c. In 622 A.D., Arabians under the name of Saracens, followers of Mahomet (b. at Mecca, 570), their general and prophet, commenced their conquests. Ma- hometan ism. Arabia was conquered by Ottomans, 1518-39. The Arabs fostered literature and science, especially mathe- matics, astronomy, and chemistry. The Koran was written in Arabic (622-632). The Bible was printed in Arabic in 1671. Wahabeks. The aggression of the Turks on the South Arabs excited jealousy in England, and was checked by the sultan, Nov. 1873. An Egyptian commission for the preservation of Arab monuments was appointed Jan. 1882. Area, 173,700 sq. miles; pop. estimated, 6,000,000. Arabian Blights' Entertainnienti (or looi Nights) are the "Contes Arabes " collected by Antoine Gal- land, a French Orientalist who travelled under the patronage of Colbert. They were published in Paris in 12 vols, in 1704-8, but their authenticity was doubted for many years. It is now admitted that they were composed in substantially their pres- ent form not long after 1500 a.d.; but scholars have found in various languages much older originals for many of the best of them. The best English translation is that of E. W. Lane, published 1839, with notes and illustrations. Sir Richard Burton in 1887 found two of these tales in Arabic in a Per- sian library. Arabic fig^ures (i, 2, 3, etc.). Ahithmetic. Ar'a^on, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a kingdom, N. E. Spain, was conquered by the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans about 200 b.c. It became an inde- pendent monarch}' in 1035 a.d. Spain. Aram, Aramaea, from the Hebrew Aram (" high land," as distinguished from Canaan, "low land"), a name given to the country N, E. of Palestine, including Syria, Baby- lonia, and Mesopotamia. The people used two dialects: in the west, Syriac; in the east, Aramaic (improperly termed Chaldee), called Hebrew at the time of Christ. ARB AraiVlUCZ (a-ran-hweth'), C. Spain, contains a fine royal palace, at which several important treaties were con- cluded. On 17 Mch. 1808, an insurrection against Charles IV. and his favorite, (iodoy, the prince of peace, compelled Charles to abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII., 19 Mcli. Arap'ahoCN. Indians. Ar'arat, a mountain in Armenia (about 17,112 feet above the sea-level), on which Noah's ark is supposed to have rest- ed, 2349 B.C. The Persians call it Koh-i-Nuh (Noah's moun- tain) ; the Armenians, Masis ; the Turks, Agri-Dagh. It was ascended by Dr. Parrot, 27 Sept. 1829; by major Stuart, 1856, and by others since. Mr. James Bryce, who ascended 11, 12 Sept. 187('). describes the summit as a little plain of snow, silent and desolate, with a bright, green sky above; the view, stern, green, and monotonous. Arauea'nia, a district on the Pacific coast of South America, extending northward about 190 miles from the par- allel of 40 S. lat. Its inhabitants waged intermittent war with the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their independence was recognized. They are now nominally subject to Chili. Arau'HiO, now Orailg'e, S. E. France. Through the jealousy of the Roman proconsul, Q. Servilius Cfepio, who would not wait for the army of the consul C. Manlius, both were routed here by the Cimbri, 105 b.c. Arbe'la. The third and decisive battle between Alex- ander the Great and Darius Codomanus decided the fate of Persia, 1 Oct. 331 b.c., on a plain in Assyria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. — A?-rian. The gold and silver found in Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster- ling; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 camels.— P/m- tarch. arbitration (in law). Submission to arbitration was authorized and made equivalent to the decision of a jury by 9 and 10 Will. IIL (1698). Submissions to arbitration may' be made rules of any court, and arbitrators may compel attend- ance of witnesses, 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (1833). The Com- mon Law Procedure act (1854) authorizes judges of superior courts to order compulsory arbitration ; and, by an act of 1859, railway companies may settle disputes with each other by arbitration. The Arbitration (Masters and Workmen) act was passed 6 Aug. 1872. In New York and some other state.'j, arbitrations and references are provided for by law, and the awards may have the force of judgments of courts of record. Alabama Claims, Fisiiekies. Arbor Day, for restorng forest trees ; devised and rec- ommended by gov. Morton of Nebraska, especially to raise a bar- rier of trees to protect the land from the fierce winds of the west and south. Owing to the rapid disappearance of forest trees, and the desire to extend the forests, the day became exceed- ingly popular, and most of the states have legalized it. Its observance may be said to be entirely under tlie control of the public schools. The date of the observance of Arbor Day in the states where established is as follows: Hirst observed California 27 Nov. 1886 Colorado 3d Friday in Apr. 1884 Connecticut, day designated by gov 1886 Florida " " '• Illinois " " " 1887 Indiana, 2 days Apr. , Nov. 1884 Iowa Apr. or iMay, 1882 Kansas, day fixed by gov. Kentucky, instituted by joint resolution of Gen. Assembly 1886 Maine 1887 Maryland, legalized 1884 1888 Massachusetts, last Saturday in Apr. by proc 1886 Michigan, by proc. of gov 1885 Minnesota, not established by law " Mi.ssouri, legalized Apr. 1886 Nebraska, originator, legalized 22 Apr. 1872 [Since starting, up to 1890, 400,000,000 trees planted.] Nevada, legalized Apr. 1887 N'ew .Jersey. " " 1884 New York, legalized Friday following 1 May 3 May, 1889 Ohio, legalized 26 Apr. 1882 Oregon. " " 1889 Pennsylvania, legalized 2 days Apr., Oct. 1885 Rhode Island, " not observed. Tennessee, " Nov. 1887 ARB 39 Texas, legalized 22 Feb. 1889 Vermont, not legalized, but observed 1885 Wisconsin, legalized 30 Apr. 1889 Arbutlmot and Aiiil>ri§ter, €a§e of. Alex- .ander Arbuthnot, a Scotchman, then nearly 70 years of age, came to Florida from New Providence in his own schooner in 1817, to trade with the Indians. Ambrister, born in London in 1785, was a lieutenant in the English marine service, and was present at the battle of Waterloo. For fighting a duel with a brother officer he was suspended for one A'ear. While with his uncle, the governor of New Providence, he m.et Arbuthnot, with whom he visited Florida. Here it was alleged they be- came implicated in Indian difficulties that gen. Jackson was sent to quell in 1818. By order of gen. Jackson, Arbuthnot ^nd Ambrister were seized and tried by a military court con- vened 26 Apr. 1818, at Fort St. Marks, Fla., gen. Ed. P. Gaines president, for inciting the Creek Indians to war against the United States. Ambrister made no defence, but threw him- self on the mercy of the court. Arbuthnot was sentenced to be hanged. Ambrister was first sentenced to be shot, but his sentence was commuted to fifty stripes on the bare back, and confinement at hard labor, with ball and chain, for one year. Gen. Jackson disapproved the commutation, and ordered the •original sentence in both cases to be carried out, which was ^done, 30 Apr. 1818. This arbitrary act of Jackson created .great excitement at the time, and the attention of Congress ■was called to it. United States, 1819. ar'butUi. The Arhutus Andrachne, Oriental straw- berry-tree, was brought to England from the Levant about 1724. Flowers and Plants. Arca'dia, a country in the centre of the Peloponnesus, •Greece. The Arcadians regarded their nation as the most ancientof Greece, and older than the moon {rrpoasXijvog, ante- lunar, though Doderlein thinks it may mean pre-Hellenic). Pelasgus is said, in their mythology, to have taught them to feed on acorns, as more nutritious than herbs, their former food ; for which they honored him as a god, 1521 b.c. Areas afterwards taught them agriculture and the art of weaving. From this second benefactor the people and their country were respectively called Arcades and Arcadia. Here Pan, their tutelary deity, invented the flute. "And round us all the thicket rang To many a flute of Arcady " — Tennyson, " In Memoriam," xxiii. The early history of Arcadia is that of the separate towns, ^vhich had no common political interests till the time of Epaminondas. All dates and events earlier than the 7th cen- tury B.C. are mythical. Aristocrates I. (of Orchomenus) put to death for ofifering vio- lence to the priestess of Artemis 715 Aristocrates II. stoned ; a republic founded 681 Arcadians fight under Sparta in the Persian wars 490-475 Supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) abolished by the The- bans ; Megalopolis founded by Epaminondas 371 Arcadians allied with Athens, defeated by Archidamus 367 Arcadia, having joined the Achaean league, on its suppression is annexed by Rome 146 arcll. It appears in early Egyptian and Assyrian ar- chitecture. The oldest arch in Europe is probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, constructed under the early kings, about 588 B.C. The ancient Chinese bridges are of great mag- nitude, and are built with stone arches much like those of the Romans. Triumphal arches were a leading feature of Roman architecture ; especially those of Titus (80 a.d.), of Trajan (U-i), and of Constantine (312). The arches in London parks were erected about 1828. The Marble arch, formerly before Buckingham palace (whence it was removed to Cumberland ^ate, Hyde park, in 1851) was modelled from the arch of Con- stantine. Bridges. arell£eolOg°y, thescienceof antiquities. Antiquaries. arcliaeop'teryx (ancient bird), the earliest known Dird, found in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, by Her- man von Meyer and dr. Haberlein in 1861, closely resembling •a reptile. It was described by Owen in 1863. Areliangel, N, Russia, a city, named from a monastery founded here, and dedicated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Archangel was discovered by the English navi- gator Richard Chancellor in 1553 ; it was the only seaport of Jiussia till the formation of the docks at Cronstadt, and foun- ARC dation of St. Petersburg in 1703. A fire destroved the cathe- dral and upwards of 3000 houses in June, 1793. Pop. 1890, 20,000. ' arcllbi§llop (Gr. apxniriaKO'Trdi;), a title given in the 4th and 6th centuries to bishops of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople, who presided over other metropolitans and bishops in surrounding districts. The word is first found in the Apology against the Arians, by Athanasius, who died 373. The Eastern archbishops have since been styled patriarchs.— Riddle. Before the Saxons came to England, there were 3 archbishops Lon- don York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk; but soon after St. Augustin settled the metropolitan see at Canterbury, 602. CAJfTERBURY York continued archiepiscopal ; but London and Caerleon lost the dignity. St. David's. The bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of the arch- bishop of York until the archbishoprics of St. Andrew's and Glas- gow were created in 1470 and 14.91; these last were discontinued at the Revolution of 1688. Glasgow, St. Andrew's. The bishop of Moray, etc., is now styled Primus. The rank of archbishop was early in Ireland. 4 archbishops were constituted. Armagh, Cashel. Dublin, and Tuam (until then the archbishop of Canterbury had jurisdiction over Irish as well as English bishops, as the archbishop of York had over those of Scotland), 1151. Of these 4 archbishoprics 2 were reduced to bishoprics (Cashel and Tuam) under the stat. 3 and 4 Will. IV. (leaving Armagh and Dub- lin), which also reduced the 22 sees in Ireland to 12, 1833. arclldeacoil, originally the first or eldest deacon, who attended the bishop without power;' but since the council of Nice his function has become a dignity above a priest's. The appointment in Great Britain is referred to the 8th cen- tury. There are 75 archdeacons in England (1878), 2 or more to assist each bishop in the inspection and management of his diocese. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polit}' ; an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, by 24 Henry VIII. (1532). A few dioceses of the Protestant Epis- copal church in the United States have introduced the title of archdeacon. archery, the art of using the bow and arrow, especially the long-bow, as distinguished from the cross-bow or arbalist, is ascribed to Apollo, who communicated it to the Cretans. Ishmael "became an archer " (Gen. xxi. 20) 1892 Philistine archers overcame Saul (1 Sam. xxxi. 3) 1056 David commanded the use of the bow to be taught (2 Sam. i. 18). 1055 Aster of Amphipolis, slighted by Philip, king of Macedon, at the siege of Methone shot an arrow, inscribed, "Aimed at Philip's right eye," which it put out; Philip drew out the arrow with these words, " If Philip take the town, Aster shall be hanged," and kept his word 353 A.D. Archery introduced into England previous to 440 Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows from cross- bows of Norman soldiers at battle of Hastings 1066 Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, himself kliled by an arrow while besieging the castle of a vassal in Nor- mandy 1199 [The victories of Crecy (1346), Poictiers (1356), and Agin- court (1415), were won chiefly by archers.] 4000 archers of the king surrounded the houses of parliament ready to shoot; pacified by the king, 21 Richard II. — Slow. . 1397 Citizens of London formed companies of archers in the reign of Edward III. ; and a corporate body called "The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII 1538 Roger Ascham's "Toxophilus, the School of Shooting." pub. . 1571 Scorton Annual Arrow Meetings — a silver arrow shot for; ar- ticles agreed to 14 May, 1673 Royal company of archers, instituted by the marquess of Athol, as the king's body-guard for Scotland 1676 The longbow was 6 ft. long, the arrow 3 ft. ; usual range from 300 to 500 yards. Robin Hood is said to have shot from 600 to 800 yards. The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and dis- charged with a trigger. The use of the long-bow was taught in Kenyon College, Ohio, as early as 1833. The archery revival in America dates ft-om the year 1877, when the first club was organized in Oakland, CaL Artillery Company, Toxophilites. architecture (Lat. architectma, from Gr. apxiTtKTuiv, chief artificer). The five great orders are, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (Greek); the Tuscan and Composite (RoTnan). Gothic as well as Saracenic or Arabian arose about the 9th century. Orders and Gothic. The architecture of a peo- ple is an index of their mental and moral qualities, and of the state of civilization which they have reached. It may be considered more trustworthy than language in settling the question of race.— Etiq/clopfBdic Dictiotiuiry. The five great orders of architecture do not include all known styles. The Chinese have one in eastern Asia, and in India are several, ARC and there existed more or less remote a Phoenician, a Jewish, an Assyrian, a Babylonian, a IVrsepolitan, nnd a Sassanian, and in America the Mexican ami IVrtivtan, while Europe has the CyclojHjan, Etruscan, and nniidioal. The following are the leading styles or phases of English architecture, arranged in clironological order; I. Korman 10f>6-1154 II. Trausitioual fVom Norman to Poiiittd 1154-1189 III. Karly Kuglish; First Pointed or l.iiiu.t 1189-1272 IV. Trausiiion from Early Pointed to Comil.U' 1272-1307 V. nwonited i:J07-1377 VI. Transitiomd from Docoratcearing§ became hereditary at the close of the 12th century. They were emploj'^ed by the crusaders, 1100. The lines to denote colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum- biere in 1639. The armorial bearings of the English sov- 46 ARM ■ ereigns are given under England. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The tax produced 64,515/. in the year ending 31 March, 1868; 1878, 83,104/.; 1884, 78,766/. The tax is now 21. 2«. ; if not on carriages, it is 1/. la. annually (1889). Sir Bernard Burke's "General Armory," 1883, contains the arms of above 66,000 British fam- ilies. Armorica, now Brittany, N. France, was con- quered by Julius Caesar, 66 b.c. Many Gauls are said to have retired thither and preserved the Celtic tongue,584 a.d. Brit- arms. The club was the first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians. See article on each weapon. army. Egypt was the first country to have a military organization. Trained by his father, Sesostris or Rameses III. seems to have been the first military organizer of Egypt, about 1620 B.C. The first guards and regular troops of a standing army were formed by Saul, 1093. — Eusebim. Cyrus, founder of the Persian empire, devised the military organization which established his power, 557 B.C. Xerxes was three years pre- paring to invade Greece, and. his army is represented to have numbered 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse. The Greeks orig- inated the " phalanx," which became the basis of all their tac- tics, and was perfected in the Macedonian phalanx by Philip of Macedon, about 360 b.c. This phalanx, as finally formed by Alexander, numbered 16,384 heavy-armed infantry. It was formed 16 deep. The principal weapon was the pike, 24 ft. long. The nucleus of the Roman army was the legion, ascribed to Romulus, but reorganized by Servius Tullius and lasting until the disruption of the Roman Empire. It consisted of 10 co- horts, each of 6 centuries. At first the legion contained 3000 in- fantry and 300 cavalry, but it was gradually increased to 4500 and finally to 6000. The number of the legions varied. Under Augustus there were 45. They were usually designated by numerals in the order in which they were levied. — The his- tory of armies (European) since the overthrow of the Roman empire may be divided into four periods: (1) The barbarous stage, when the armies were national and denominated hordes, being without tactics or organization ; (2) the feudal period, when the army was made up of well-equipped knights and men-at-arms, followed by peasants or slaves ; (3) the standing- army period, the army forming a distinct class, tactics and organization becoming a science (1400 to 1800); (4) armies once more national under conscription embracing the whole male population between certain ages, trained and organized with science and skill. (See Table.) The first modern stand- ing army was maintained by Charles Vll.of France, 1445. The British army mainly arose in the reign of Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the extinction of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of British infantry were established between 1633 and 1680. James II. established several regiments of dragoon guards (1685-88). In 1685 the army consisted of 7000 foot and 1700 horse. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638; were declared illegal in England, 31 Car. II. 1679; but one was then gradually forming, which was maintained by William III., 1689, when the mutiny act was passed. Grose's " History of the British Army " was published in 1801. ESTIMATED NUMBER OF SOLDIERS IN THE CHIEF EUROPEAN ARMIES, 1892. Nation. Peace-footing. All branches. Active Army and Field Reserve. Possible War- footinp. All branches. Remarks. Austria Gt. Britain.. British Col.. France Germany.... Italy 309,187 140,968 " 570,000 513,983 241,722 1,554,479 204,626 225,000 2,376,588 2,471,925 1,053,934 4,000,000 \ 1,179,626 3,240,000 2,977,629 2,586,437 ^Military service is obligatory on all men who have completed their 20th year. \ Only certain family conditions and physical and mental incapacity cause ex- ( emption. No substitutes are allowed. The distinction between the British army and that of almost every other state of Europe is that the service is voluntary. Enlistments are by free choice for a definite term. The active army is composed of all the young men not exempt who have reached the age of 20, and the reserve of those who have passed through the active army. In 1887 all exemptions were abolished. No substitution is allowed. Every German capable of bearing arms must serve in the standing army for 7 years from the 20th of his age, 3 in active service and 4 in the reserve, f Universal liability to arms forms the basis of the military organization. The J time of service in the standing army for the first category of recruits is 5 years 1 in infantry, 4 in cavalry, and 3 in other arms. Period of service in standing t army and reserve 19 years. ARM 47 ARM Nation. Spain. . Turkey Eussia . ESTIMATED NUMBER OF SOLDIERS IN THE CHIEF EUROPEAN ARMIES, 1892. -{Continued.) Peace-footing. All branches. 89,908 185,000 840,500 Active Army and Field Reserve. 154,388 479,864 2,606,592 Possible War- footing. All branches. 1,135,196 Remarki. AH Spaniards past 20 are liable to be drawn for the permanent army, in which they serve 3 years; they then serve 3 years in the first or active reserve, and 6 years in the second reserve. By a payment of 1500 pesetas any one can pur- chase exemption. mt j ^ By a law of 1869 the military service is compulsory for all Turks, and is carried out either by recruiting or by ballot The length of service is 20 years 4 in the active army, 2 in the first reserve, 6 in the second reserve, and 8 in the Land- sturm. All men must serve from the 21st year, 4 years in the active army 13 years in the reserve, and 5 years in the Zapas or second reserve. In the European armies the troops are divided into field, fortress, local, reserve, second reserve and auxiliary. ' army, United States, the Continental, or army of the revolution, was organized by the continental congress, 15 June, 1775. George Washington commander-in-chief with the rank of maj.-gen. This congress at the same time chose 4 maj-gens. and 8 brig. -gens., and appointed 1 adj. -gen., 1 quartermaster-gen., 1 commissary- gen., 1 paymaster- gen., and 1 chief-engineer. Congress established a board of war and ordnance consisting of 6 members, 12 June, 1776. United States. During the continuation of this board from 1776 to 1781 there were 6 secretaries. In Feb. 1781, congress created the office of sec. of war, with gen. Benjamin Lincoln as secretary, from 30 Oct. 178L Continental army was disbanded, 5 Nov. 1783. 1000 men were however retained until the peace establishment cotild be organized. United States, 1775-89. TROOPS (CONTINENTAL AND MILITIA) FURNISHED BY THE THIRTEEN STATES DURING THE REVOLUTION, 1775 TO 1783 INCLUSIVE. 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 Toul. TotaL State. Cont'Is. Cont'Is. Militia. Cont'Is. Militia. Cont'Is. Militia. Cont'Is. Militia. Cont'Is. Militia. Cont'Is. Militia. Cont'Is. Cont'Is. Cont'Is. Militia. N. H. . . . 2,824 3,019 1,172 1,111 1,283 1,004 222 1,017 760 700 .... 744 733 12,496 2,093 Mass. . . . 16,444 13,372 4,000 7,816 2,775 7,010 1,927 6,287 1,451 4,553 3,436 3,732 1,566 4,423 4,370 68,007 15,155 R. I 1,193 798 1,102 548 630 2,426 507 756 915 464 481. 372 5,908 4,284 Conn.... 4,507 6,390 5,737 4,563 4,010 3,544 3,133 554 2,420 1,501 1,732 1,740 32,039 7,792 N. Y. . . . 2,075 3,629 1,715 1,903 921 2,194 2,256 2,179 668 1,728 .... 1,198 1,169 18,331 3,304 N.J 3,193 5,893 1,408 1,586 1,276 1,105 162 823 660 675 10,726 6,055 Penn.... 400 5,519 4,876 4,983 2,481 3,684 3,476 3,337 .... 1,346 1,265 1,598 25,608 7,357 Del 609 145 229 349 317 325 231 89 .... 162 235 2,317 376 Md 637 2,592 2,030 1,535 3,307 2,849 2,065 770 1.280 974 13,912 4,127 Va 6,181 5,744 1,289 5,236 3,973 2,486 1,215 4,331 1,204 629 26,668 5,620 N. C .... 1,134 1,281 1,287 1,214 2,706 545 1,105 697 7,263 2,706 s. c 2,069 1,650 1,650 .... .... .... .... 139 5,508 .... Ga 351 1,423 673 .... 87 .... .... .... .... 145 2,679 Total.... 27,443 1 46,901 26,060 34,750 10,112 32,899 4,353 26,790 5,135 21,115 5,811 13,832 7,398 14,256 13,476 231,462 58,869 Conjectural estimate of militia employed from the different states in addition to the above. 1775 from 3 to 9 months 10,180 16,700 23,800 13,800 12,350 16,000 1781 8,750 1782 3.750 1776.... " 4 " 8 1777.... " 2 " 8 1778.... " 2 " 6 1779.... " 2 " 9 1780.... " 2 " 12 Additional militia 105,330 Militia proper 58,869 Continentals.... 231,462 Total.... 395,661 Army under the Constitution. The constitution of the United States, art. 1, sec. 2, empowers congress " to raise and support armies," and art. 2, sec. 2, designates the president as commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the militia when called into the service of the United States. The War dept. was established by act of 7 Aug. 1789 The standing army was first organized under the code of the continental congress of 1776, the basis of the present articles of vmr, though greatly modified in 1806. Congress fixes the rank and file at 1216, comprising 1 regiment of infantry (12 companies) and 1 regiment of artillery (4 companies).. 3 Sept. 1790 An additional regiment of 900 men was authorized 1791 The army consisted of 4 regiments of infantry, of 8 companies each, 2 companies of light dragoons, and a corps of artiller- ists and engineers, with 1 maj.-gen. and 1 brig. -gen 1796 The maj.-gen. was discharged as unnecessary 1797 A provisional force of 10,000 men raised owing to the threat- ening attitude of France 1798 [Washington made commander-in-chief, with rank of lieut.- gen. As the danger passed, the army was reduced to. its for- mer size.] Office and title of lieut. -gen. abolished by congress 3 Mch. 1799 A provisional volunteer force of 25,000 authorized by congress for the war with England, besides volunteers and militia 1812 [This did not affect the regular army.] Force disbanded 1815 1 regiment of dragoons, the first, authorized 1833 2 regiments of dragoons authorized 1836 The whole number of troops of the line was 7244 men at the breaking out of the Mexican war 1846 The regular army was increased to 20,000 by enlistments aside from volunteers; 9 new regiments of infantry, 1 of dra- goons, 1 of mounted rifles, were added during the war, but discharged except the mounted rifles 1849 H regiments of infantry and 2 of cavalry added to the army. . . 1855 Total number of line troops, 12,931 in 1860 The grade of lieut.-gen. was revived in " brevet, ' ' and held by gen. Winfield Scott from 15 Feb. 1855, until his retirement . .Nov. 1861 [The rank was revived in 1864, and conferred upon gen. Grant.] The president by proclamation added to the regular army 11 regi- ments, viz., 1 of cavalry, 1189 officers and men; 1 of artillery of 12 batteries, 6 pieces each, 1909 men; and 9 of infantry of 3 battalions of 8 companies each, 22,068 officers and men. .4 May, 1861 Flogging abolished in the army 5 Aug. 1861 TROOPS FURNISHED THE GOVERNMENT DURING THE CIVIL WAR FROM 1861 TO 1865. Under call of 15 Apr. 1861, for 75,000 men for 3 mos 91,816 Under call of 3 May, 1861, for 500,000 men for 6 mos., 1 yr., 2 yrs. , 3 yrs 700,680 Under call of 2 July, 1862, for 300,000 men for 3 years 421,465 Under call of 4 Aug. 1862, for 300,000 men for 9 mos 87,588 Under proclamation, 15 June, 1863, men for 6 mos 16,361 Under call of 17 Oct. 1863 (including drafted men of 1863), and call of 1 Feb. 1864, for 500,000 for 3 yrs 317,092 Under call of 14 Mch. 1864, for 200,000 for 3 yrs 259,515 Militia for 100 days, mustered in between Apr. 23 and July 18,1864 83,612 Under call of 18 July, 1864, for 500,000 (reduced by excess credits of previous calls) for 1 yr., 2 yrs., 3 yrs., and 4 yrs.. 385,163 Under call of 19 Dec. 1864, for 300,000 men for 1 yr., 2 yrs., 3 yrs., 4 yrs 211,762 Other troops furnished by states and territories which, after first call, had not been called upon for quotas when gen- eral call for troops was made 182,367 By special authority granted May and June, 1862, New York, Illinois, and Indiana furnished for 3 mos. 15,007 Total 2,772,408 Number of men who paid commutation • 86, t24 Grand total 2,859,132 Aggregate reduced to a 3 yrs. ' standard 2,320,272 ACTUAL STRENGTH OF THE ARMT BETWEEN 1 JAN. 1860, AND 1 MAY, 1865. Date Regulars. Volunteers. TotaL 1 Jan.1860 16,435 16,435 1 " 1861 16,367 ,15'^fJ Jjulv " 16422 170,329 186,751 iiarf'1862 22 425 553,492 575,917 oi Mch " ... .23,308 613,818 b3<,126 ' Jan 1863::::.......25 463 892:728 918,191 1 u iQfiA 24 636 aS6,101 860,737 ; u r^ ■.■.■.::22,oi9 937441 959,460 3iMch." :::::. .:::.2i:669 958;4i7 ,.98o,o86 IMay, " ,1,000,51S ARM There were absent (Vom the army, volunteers and regulars, 338,536, or about one third of the total force 1 Jan. 1866 The regular army reached its maximum strength, 66,815, Oct. 1867 Hazimam strength fixed by congress at 26,000 enlisted men, 16 Aug. 1876 STRENGTH OF THE REGULAR ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES, 1 JAN. 1893. M^. -generals 3 Brig, -generals 6 Staff- department 2,467 r. 1^ in »»in.<.n*a JCommissioned 432 Cavalry, 10 regiments, ^£^,53^^^, ^^^ A-.jii«-» K «i (Commissioned 280 Artillery, 6 lEnlisted 3,675 ini.nt.7,26 " |gSr"r'.::: "i; i:!:: i! ! ! i! ! i2,?5J Military academy, {^52^"::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 34? Various others unattached, etc 2,233 Total 28,602 Retired oflQcers 607 " enlisted men 736 STRENGTH OF THE MILITIA FORCE OF THE UNITED STATES, 48 ARM SALARIES PAID COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF THE U. S. ARMY. SUte. Alabama Arkansas. California Colorado Connecticut Delaware. Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts.. Michigan Minnesota. Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada. New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina. North Dakota... Ohio Oregon. Pennsylvania . . Rhode Island... South Carolina.. South Dakota... Tennessee Texas . Vermont Virginia. Washington West Virginia . . Wisconsin Wyoming Territories Total Organised Aggregate. Unorf^anited but Available. 2,958 1,094 4,218 825 2,687 601 1,021 4,577 308 4,389 2,459 2,443 1,738 1,319 1,152 1,114 2,094 5,611 2,515 1,838 1,712 2,387 570 1,073 575 1,229 4,233 13,539 1,686 513 5,373 1,506 8,469 1,434 5,616 526 1,357 3,368 786 2,844 1,145 728 2,737 309 2,297 110,673 160,000 116,620 153,389 86,000 91,766 38,000 47,705 264,021 10,000 650,000 468,608 243,299 250,000 395,000 138,439 96,937 125,000 339,691 400,000 154,000 233,480 350,000 34,350 125,000 10,540 34,000 284,887 650,000 235,000 36,178 600,000 40,796 735,622 47,000 116,000 60,000 290,246 300,000 44,164 220,000 59,600 90,000 308,717 13.000 74,203 9,121,258 STAFF-DEPARTMENT OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY. With the exception of the quartermaster - general's department the highest rank in the staff-department of the Army prior to 1861 was colonel. From that date the rank of the heads of the differ- ent departments has been gradually changed to that of brig. -gen., until now they all bear that rank. The following is a list of the names of those who first ranked as brig. -gen. in the different depart- ments. Thomas S. Jessup, q. m. -gen. , as brig.-gen. fi-om 8 May, 1818 Lorenzo Thomas, adjt.-gen., " " 3 Aug. 1861 Jas. W. Ripley, chief of ord., " " 3 Aug. " Wm. A. Hammond, surg. -gen., " " 25 Apr. 1862 Joseph P. Taylor, commissary-gen., " " 9 Feb. 1863 Joseph G. Totten, chief of engineers, " " 3 Mch. " Joseph Holt, judge- advocate gen., " " 22 June, 1864 Benj. W. Brice, paymaster- gen., " " 28 July, 1866 Randolph B.Marcy, inspector-gen., " " 12 Dec. 1878 Albert J. Myer, chief sig. off., " " 16 June, 1880 MlU-gen.. Brig.-gen. Colonel . . Lt. Col. Major Capt m'fd., " not " . , Regt adjt. . . , " q.m Ist Lt. m't'd., " not " 2d Lt. m't'd. , " not " Chaplain AmoQDt per J ear. $7,600 5,500 3,500 3,000 2,600 2,000 1,800 .1,800 1,800 1,600 1,500 1,500 1,400 1,500 {Increase of 10 per cent, every 5 years of service up to $4,500, the limit. ( Increase of 10 per cent, every 5 years ( of service up to $4,000, the limit. J Increase of 10 per cent, every 5 years \ of service for 20 years. Retired officers receive 75 per cent, of pay (salary and increase) of their rank {act July 15, 1870, sec. 24) with the exception of the chaplain, who receives 90 per cent. The pay of privates to sergeants inclusive ranges from $13 to $45 per month the first year, and from $16 to $48 per month the next four years, and after that from $18 to $50 a month. PRINCIPAL DEPARTMENT ARMIES OF THE CIVIL WAR. Army of thk Cumberland organized 30 Oct. 1862. First command- er, maj.-gen. Wm. S. Rosecrans— 3 corps, 14th, 20th, 21st. Battle of Stone river or Murfreesboro. 31 Dec. 1862-2 Jan. 1863, viclori ous. Battle of Chickamaiiga, defeated, 19 -20 Sept. 1863. 20th and 21st corps consolidated, forming the 4th corps, Oct. 1863; maj.- gen. George H. Thomas 2d commander, relieving gen. Rosecrans, Oct. 1863. 11th and 12th corps of the army of the Potomac united with the army of the Cumberland,Oct. 1863. Defeats confederates in a series of battles around Chattanooga, Nov. 1863-llth and 12th corps consolidated, Jan. 1864, forming the 20th. Participates in the Atlanta campaign, 1864. The 14th and 20th corps accompany gen. Sherman on his "march to the sea. " The 4th corps, return- ing to Nashville, engages in the battle of Franklin, 30 Nov. 1864, and of Nashville, 15-16 Dec. 1864. Army of the Gulf organized 1863, including the troops within the dept, of the Gulf Mostly comprised of the 19th corps, maj.-gen, N. P. Banks commander. Engaged in the siege of Port Hudsox and in the Red river campaign, Mch., Apr. 1864. Army of the James (i. e. the James river) comprised the 10th and 18th corps, and cavalry under command of maj.-gen. Benj. F. Butler; and acting in conjunction with the army of the Potomac, operated south of Richmond around Petersburg," 1864. Army of the Middle Military Div., organized Aug. 1864, com- prised the 6th, 8th, and 19th corps, with 2 divs. of cavalry under command of maj.-gen. Philip H. Sheridan. Battle of Winchester, 19 Sept. 1864; battle of Fisher's Hill, '25 Sept. 1864; and battle of Cedar Creek, 19 Oct. 1864. In all victorious. Army of the Ohio organized 9 Nov. 1861, mnj.-gen. Don Carlos Buell 1st commander. Aids in securing victory at the battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, 6-7 Apr. 1862; Perrysville, 8 Oct. 1862. Gen. Buell relieved, 30 Oct. 1862, Wm. S. Rosecrans in command. Changed to Army of the Cumberland. Reor- ganized, maj.-gen. H. G. Wright in command, 1862; maj.-gen. Am- brose E. Burnside, 1863, operating in east Tenn. ; maj.-gen. John G. Foster, 1864; maj.-gen. John M. Schofleld, 28 Jan. 1864. Atlanta campaign. Battles of Franklin and Nashville, 1864; Fort Fisher, 186,5. Army of the Potomac organized July, 1861, maj.-gen. George B. McClellan 1st commander. 7 days' battles before Richmond, June and July, 1862. Battle of Antietam, 17 Sept. 1862; vic- torious. Maj.-gen. Ambrose E. Burnside 2d comihander, 5 Nov. 1862. Battle of Fredericksburg, 10 Dec. 1862; defeated. Gen. Burnside relieved, 25 Jan. 1863; maj.-gen. Joseph Hooker 3d com- mander. Battle of Chancellorsville, 2, 3, and 4 May, 1863; de- feated. Gen. Hooker relieved, 27 June, 1863; maj.-gen. George G. Meade 4th .commander. Battle of Gettysburg, 1-3 July, 1863; victorious. Under gen. Grant, general - in - chief, fought the battles of the Wilderness, 5-6 May, 1864; Spottsylvania, 11 May, 1864; Cold Harbor, 3 June, 1864. Siege of Richmond, 1864-65. Army op the Tennessee organized Apr. 1862, maj.-gen. H. W. Hal- leck commander; maj.-gen. U. S. Grant in command,17 July, 1862. It comprised the 13th, 15th, 16th, and 17th corps, 18 Dec. 1862. Vicksburg campaign and capture of Vicksburg, 4 July, 1863. Maj.-gen. William T. Sherman in command, 27 Oct. 1863. Par- ticipates in the battles around Chattanooga, Nov. 1863. Maj.- gen. J. B. McPherson in command, 12 Mch. 1864. Atlanta cam- paign. Maj. -gen. O. 0. Howard appointed to the command on the death of gen. McPherson, killed 22 July, 1864. With Sherman on the march through Ga. John A. Logan in command, 19 May, 1865. Army of Virginia Organized 26 June, 1862, maj.-gen. John Pope commander. It comprised 3 corps and about 5000 cavalry. With the army of the Potomac it fought the battles of Groveton and second Bull Run, 29 and .30 Aug. 1862; defeated. Gen. Pope re- lieved at his own request, and the army merged in that of the Potomac. 49 5^ •s d'"' Mh s &S. ^ 1 ^ 1?^ 1 >> 1 ^ tu g;2i CO e6 ""a .s: 3.5Pa3 1? 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II 5 a 2 S •-9 O s§?§i i s CSV •s= ^- -c • ■ ^ iz (M !Z t> > «< OP-!?5CL, « o t- w in "ft 00 t- t- I 50 05 &f^ a S(Xt>a ^ WSr;u c8 © 3 s ::: ::€::|-3::: ::::::::: :::::::: ^ ^ ___^ oios«o->*<«&eo«o •»« 00 «o OOt-0000000000 00 0000 : • : : ja j' § : t; bb : t: : : : : : : : : : : : 2" .c « : : : : •©• 'i^iis .OD.P. go©.... oo •*'*»oooc<>-* a>««5 ** eq r-l r-H C^ r^ 00 00 0> 00 «0 »H 01 eO tot- Its iH 0» 00 OS «D 00 tH h- «0 «D «£i «0 tO «0 -.11 * 2 2 2 « 00 t- 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ooooooooaoao f»<*2; »^ Jz S H, M ^t^ Q >^ ss^SQ fa ss fa ►?o-5;Sfa>^ SeOlMxnnr, «™ m„ ^ WARS SERVICE OP THE UNITED STATES IN ITS SEVERAL Revolution. Northwestern Indians. . France Tripoli , Creek Indian England Seminole Black Hawk Cherokee Florida Indian Aroostook disturbance. Mexican Civil War Length of war. 19 Apr. 1775 to 11 Apr. 19 Sept. 9 July, 10 June, 27 July, 18 June, 20 Nov. 21 Apr. 23 Dec. 24 Apr. 12 Apr. 1790 to 1798 " 1801 " 1813 " 1812 " 1817 " 1831 '< 1836 " 1835 " 1838 " 1846 " 1861 " 3 Aug. 30 Sept. 4 June, 9 Aug. 17 Feb. 21 Oct. 31 Sept. 14 Aug. 4 July, 9 Apr. 1795 1800 1805 1814 1815 1818 1832 1837 1843 1839 1848 Regula 231,462 85,000 1,000 1,339 935 11,169 30'954 Number of troops employed. 58,869— proper. ^ 105,332 — conjecturaL I 164,201 J 13,181 471,622 6,911 5,126 12,483 29,953 1,500 73,776 396,663 13,781 556,622 7,911 6,466 13,418 41,122 1,500 104,730 2,772,408 GENERALS-IN-CHIEF OF THE ARMIES OF THE UNITED STATES UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. Names. Term of Service. Rank. Josiah Harmar Sept. 1789 to Mch. 1791 Lt.-col. Arthur St. Clair 4 Mch. 1791 ' 5 Mch. 1792 Maj.-gen. Anthony Wayne 5 Mch. 1792 ' 15 Dec. 1796 James AVilkinson 15 Dec. 1796 ' ' 3 July, 1798 Brig. -gen. George Washington, . . 3 July, 1798 '14 Dec. 1799 Lt.-gen. .James Wilkinson 15 June, 1800 ' ' 27 Jan. 1812 Brig. -gen. Henry Dearborn 27 Jan. 1812 ' '15June,1815 Maj.-gen. Jacob Brown 15June,1815 ' 24 May, 1828 ' ' 24 Feb 1828 Alexander Macomb. . . ' 25 June,1841 " Winfield Scott 25 June, 1841 ' ' 1 Nov. 1861 ( Maj.-gen. & ( brev. It. -gen. Maj.-gen. George B. McClellan.. 1 Nov. 1861 ' ' 11 Mch. 1862 Henry W.Halleck.... 11 July, 1862 ' 12 Mch. 1864 Ulysses S. Grant 12 Mch. 1864 ' 25 July, 1866 Lt-gen. " 25 July, 1866 ' 4 Mch. 1869 General. William T. Sherman. . . 4 Mch. 1869 ' INov. 1883 " Philip H.Sheridan.... 1 Nov. 1883 ' ' 5 Aug. 1888 Ltgen.&gen. John M. Schofleld 14 Aug. 1888 Maj.-gen. Arnold, Benedict, treason of. United States and New York, 1780. SiroinatiCi. Acron of Agrigentum is said first to have made great fires and burned aromatics in them, to purify the air; thus stopping the plague at Athens, 429 B.C. Aroo'StOOk disturbance. In 1837-39 the un- settled boundary between Maine and Nevir Brunswick nearly led to active hostilities on the Aroostook river. Maine sent armed men to erect fortifications, and congress authorized the presi- dent to resist the encroachments of the British. Gen. Scott arranged a truce and joint occupation. The boundaries were finally adjusted by treaty, Aug. 9, 1842. Ashburton Treaty and U. S. Record, 1839. Arpi'num, now Arpi'no, S. Italy. Originally a Volscian town, it passed into the hands of the Samnites, and thence under the dominion of Rome. Its inhabitants became Roman citizens in 302 b.c., and received the right of voting, 188 B.C. Here Caius Marius was born, about 157 b.c., and Cicero, 3 Jan. 106 b.c. Arques (Arc), N. France. Near here the league army, commanded by the due de Mayenne, was defeated by Henry IV., 21 Sept. 1589. arraig^nment consists in reading the indictment and calling upon the prisoner to plead to it. In England, formerly, persons who refused to plead in cases of felony were pressed to death by weights on the breast. A person standing mute was declared convicted by an act passed 1772 ; but in 1827 the court was directed to enter a plea of " not guilty " in such cases. Mute. Arras, N. E. France, the country of the ancient Atre- bates, the seat of a bishop since 390. Here a treaty was con- cluded between the king of France and duke of Burgundy, the latter abandoning his alliance with England, 21 Sept. 1436. By another treaty of Maximilian of Austria with Louis XI. of France, Burgundy and Artois were given to the dau- phin as a marriage portion, 23 Dec. 1482. — Fe%. Arras was held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when it was taken by Louis XIII. arrest for debt practically abolished in England, 1869. For the United States, Debtors. Arsac idae, a Parthian dynasty, from Arsaces, about 260 B.C. to Artabanus, killed in battle with Artaxerxes, found- er of the Sassanidae, 226 a.d. arsenal, a military or naval repository. The principal one in England is at Woolwich. Nearly every state in the United States has at least one arsenal or armory for its militia. New York has 14. The Rock Island arsenal. 111., is the most completely equipped arsenal of the U. S. Most of the U. S. arsenals are designed for construction an4 repairs as well as supply; but not the state or city arsenals. The national ar- senals are at : Name. Place. E.Ub Allegheny Pittsburg, Pa 1814 Augusta Augusta, Ga * i826 Benicia Benicia, Cal '. 186I Columbia Columbia, Tenn 1889 Frankford Philadelphia, Pa .' ." '1815 Indianapolis Indianapolis, Ind 1863 Kennebec Augusta, Me '. 1827 Monroe Old Point Comfort, Va. 1838 New York Governor's Island * 183^ Rock Island Rock Island, 111 ' 1863 San Antonio San Antonio, Tex 1855 Watervliet West Troy, N. Y 1814 Watertown Watertown, Mass I8I6 Arsenians, partisans of Arsenius, patriarch of Constan- tinople, who excommunicated the emperor Michael Palseolo- gus for blinding his colleague, young John Lascaris, 1261, and was deposed 1264. arsenic, a steel-gray colored brittle metal, used with lead in making small shot. The name is popularly applied to arsenious add, a compound of the metal with oxygen, which is highly poisonous. It was known in early times, being mentioned by Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher, b. 382 b.c. Brandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments on its chemical nature. Arsenic acid, prepared from the white ar- senic or arsenious acid of commerce, is largely used in making aniline dyes. Brilliant greens on wall-papers often contain this acid, but the popular notion that such colors can poison the air has no foundation. arson, punished with death by the Saxons, remained a capital crime on the consolidation of the laws in 1827 and 1837. It is punishable in England by penal servitude for life and minor degrees of imprisonment. In some states the law remains as in England; others punish firing an inhabited house by imprisonment for life. There are various degrees of arson, with minor punishments for minor degrees. Arsouf, Syria. At a battle here Richard L of England, commanding the Christian forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels, on 6 Sept. 1191. Ascalon surrendered and Richard marched tow- ards Jerusalem, 1192. Ar'temis, a Greek goddess; called by the Romans Di- ana. — An asteroid, the 106th. It was discovered by J. C. Watson, 16 Sept. 1868. Arteniis'ilim, a promontory in Eubcea, near which in- decisive conflicts took place between the Greek and Persian fleets for three days, 480 B.C. The former retired on hearing of the battle of Thermopylae. artesian ^ivells (from Artesia^ now Artois, in France, where there are many) are formed by boring through upper ART aoil to strata containing water which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises to that level through the boring- 66 ART tube. The following are some of the deepest wells in the world : EUROPE. Depth. Passv, France lA Chapelle, Paris Grenelle, " Neusalwerk, near Minden. KissiDgen, Bavaria Sperenberg, near Berlin. . . Pestb, Hungary 2000 ft. 2950 " 1798 " 2288 " 1878 J " 4194 " 3182 " 1855-61 1866-69 1833-41 1858 1850-78 1868-79 6,682,000 gals, daily; rises 64 ft. Warm, 82° Fahr. ; 743,040 gals, daily; rises 32 ft. 1,077,000 gals, daily. Mineral; rises 58 ft. Salt. Sait-bod reached at 280 ft. and not passed. The deepest well in the world. Hot, 165° Fahr. LocAUon. UNITED STATES. Depth. Bored. Remark.. St Louis, Mo 2197 ft. 3843 " 2086 " 2775i " 206 '« 1250 " 1849-62 1866-70 1856-67 1848 108,000 gals, daily. Salty. Does not rise to the surface. Salty. 330,000 gals, daily. Mineral. Water saline, 91° Fahr. ; no force. 72,000 gals, daily. 28,800 gals, daily. Saline. Charleston, S. C : South Dakota, sometinaes called the "Artesian state," has many powerful artesian wells in the valley of the James river, from 800 to 1600 ft. deep, affording a bountiful supply of pure water. The water from great depths is always warmer than at the surface. Arthur, king of Britain, said, raythicallv, to have lived 502-632 A.D. The events of his life and the conflicts of the knights of his RorND Table, as sung by the Welsh poets Taliesin, Llywarch Hen, and Aneurin, were incorporated into a Latin history by Geoffrey of Monmouth, about 1115, who died 1154; put into French verse by Geoffrey Gaisnar, and by Wace soon after; and into an English poem called Brut by Layamon about 1205 Walter Map, by incorporating in his version the legend of the Holy Grail, introduced the religious element about 1171 Sir Thomas Malorys •' Morte d' Arthur," printed 1485 Lord Lyttoa's " King Arthur," pub 1848 Tennyson's " Idyls of the King " 1859-69 Arthur's, Chester A., administration. United States, 1881. artichokes are said to have been introduced from the East into western Europe in the 15th century, and to have reached England in the 16th. articles of confederation for the American Colonies. Confederation, Articles of, and United States, 1778. articles of religion. On 8 June, 1536, after long disputes, the English clergy in convocation published "Articles decreed by the king's highness," Henry VIII., who in 1539, by the " Statute of Six Articles," proclaimed the ac- knowledgment of transubstantiation, communion in one kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of the clergy, and auricular confession. Offenders were punishable as heretics. In 1551 42 were prepared, and published in 1653. These were modified by the convocation, and reduced to 39 in Jan. 1563 ; which received the royal authority (queen Eliza- beth's) and the authority of parliament in 1571. These arti- cles may be classified thus: (I) articles i.-v., the doctrine of the Trinitj' ; (2) vi.-viii., the rule of faith ; (3) ix.-xviii., doctrines concerning sin, redemption, and their cognate notions; (4) xix.-xxxix., the general theory of the church and the doctrine of the sacraments. They also give prom- inence to the tenets which distinguish the church of England from that of Rome. The supremacy of the pope is denied in art. xxxvii. ; the infallibility of the church of Rome and of the general councils, xix., xxi. ; the enforced celibacy of the clergy, xxxii. ; the denial of the cup to the laity, xxx. ; tran- substantiation, xxviii. ; 5 out of 7 of the alleged 7 sacraments, XXV. ; purgatory, relics, and the worship of images, xxii, ; and works of supererogation, xiv. The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic character, proposed by archbishop Whitgift, were withdrawn because of the displeasure of queen Eliza- beth, 1595. 104 articles were drawn up for Ireland by arch- bishop Usher in 1614; but in 1635 the Irish church adopted the English articles. Perth Articles. The 39 articles were excluded from the studies at Oxford in Nov. 1871. articles of war were decreed bj' Richard I. and John. Those made by Richard II. in 1385 appear in " Grose's Military Antiquities." The British articles now in force are based upon an act, passed b)' William III. in 1689, to regulate the army about to engage in his continental warfare. In the United States, congress only can make articles of war. These have been based on the English articles and mutiny act. They were first adopted by the continental congress, July 30, 1775, and extended Mch. 20, 1776 ; enacted again, with little alteration, Apr. 10, 1806. Some additions were made from 1861-65, and in 1874 they were codified as section 1342 of the Revised Statutes of the U. S. artificers and manufacturers. Their affairs were severely regulated by the statutes of laborers in England, 1349, 1350, 1360, 1549, and especially 1562. They were prohibited from leaving the country, and those abroad were outlawed if thej' did not return within 6 months after notice. A fine of 100/. and imprisonment for 3 months were penalties for seducing them from the realm, by 9 Geo. II. 1736, and other statutes. The law was modified in 1824. artillery, a term once including all heavy military en- gines for projectiles now restricted to cannon. A small piece was contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery is said to have been used by the Moors of Algesiras, in Spain, in 1343 ; and at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, when Edward III. had 4 pieces of cannon. The English had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347, and the Venetians against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Voltaire. Said to have been cast, with mortars for bomb- shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543. — Rymer^s " Foe- dora." Made of brass, 1635; improvements by Browne, 1728. Bombs, Cannon, Carronades (under Carron), Fire-arms, Howitzers, Mortars, Petard, Rockets. The royal artil- lery regiment was established in the reign of Anne. Honorable Artillery Company of London, instituted in 1585, having ceased, was revived in 1610. It met for military ex- ercise at the Artillery ground, Finsbury, where the London archers had met since 1498 (Archkry). In the civil war, 1642-48, the company sustained parliament with great eflfect. It numbered 1200 in 1803, and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 officers are appointed by the queen. The Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company, of Boston, Mass., the oldest military organization in the U. S., organ- ized 1638 Its printed series of annual sermons begins with the discourse of Urian Oakes 1672 Artois (_A r-twa'), N. France, a province once held by the Atrebates, conquered by the Franks in the 5th century, given by Charles the Bold, with Flanders, as a dowry to his daugh- ter Judith, on her marriage with Baldwin Bras-de-fer in 863. Louis XV. created his grandson, Charles Philippe, count of Artois, who became king as Charles X., 16 Sept. 1824. Reunited to the crown by Philip Augustus 1180 Formed into a county for his brother Robert, by Louis IX 1237 Acquired, with Flanders, through marriage, by the duke of Burgundy 1384 Passed, by marriage of Mary of Bifl-gundy to Maximilian, to the house of Austria 1477 Restored to France 1482 Reverted to Austria 1493 Conquered for France 1640 Finally confirmed to it by the treaty of Nimeguen. . .10 Aug. 1678 arts. In the 8th century, the circle of sciences was composed of 7 liberal arts — the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, logic), the quadi-ivium (arithmetic, music, geometry, and as- ARU 57 tronoray). — Harris. Aside from the arts of the races of Egypt and the East, the history of the manual arts of archii- tccture, sculpture, and painting falls naturally into 4 peri- ods : (1) the Greek and Roman period, from about 700 B.C. to 400 A.D. ; (2) the Christian period, from 400 to 1 260 in Italy, and about 1460 in northern Europe.; (3) the Renaissance pe- riod, till about 1620 ; (4) the modern period. — " Fine Arts," Encyc. Brit, 9th ed. The Royal Society of England obtained its charter 2 Apr. 1663 First public exhibitiou by the artists of the British metropolis took place at the rooms of the Society of Arts 1760 Repeated there for several years, till the Royal Academy was founded 1768 Society of British Artists was instituted 21 May, 1823 Their first exhibition opened 19 April, 1824 Art Union of London, 444 West Strand, was founded 14 Feb. 1837 ; and chartered 1 Dec. 1846. The Art Union Indemnity act was passed i 3 Aug. 1844 Arundel Society for the promotion of the knowledge of art, established in England 1848 Pre- Raphael ites became prominent about 1850 Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts, founded in Dec. 1858 Art unions began in France and Germany early in the present century. (First in Britain was established at Edinburgh.) Burlington Fine Arts Club, for exhibition of works of art, etc. , founded 1868 A memorial of a convention for promoting reproductions of works of art for museums of all countries, signed by prince of Wales, crown princes of Prussia, Russia, Denmark, Swe- den, Italy, Saxony, and others, sent to the duke of Marl- borough 12 Mch. 1868 National Association for the advancement of art, first meeting in Liverpool (meets annually) 3-7 Dec. 1888 Arts and Crafts Society, begun " Society of Portrait Painters, founded 1891 In the United States ; Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Phil., organized l)ec. 1805; incorporated 28 Mch. 1806 [Two or more exhibitions held every year. The oldest in- stitution of its kind in the U. S.J National Academy of Design, N. Y. ; instituted 1826; incor- porated 1828 [Academicians limited to 100, associates to 100.] Philadelphia School of Design for Women, founded 1847; in- corporated 1853 [Object, instruction of women in decorative art.] Cooper Union, N. Y., for the advancement of science and art; founded by Peter Cooper 1857 [Aim, to afford instruction in the art of design to women.] America7i Water Color Society, N. Y. ; organized 1868 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston ; incorporated 1870 [Object, preservation and exhibition of works of art.] Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y. ; chartered 13 Apr. " [To encourage the study of the fine arts.] Corcoran'' s Gallery o/^r«, Washington, D. C. ; chartered 24 May, 1870; opened 1874 [With an endowment of $900,000.] Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, Phil. ; in- corporated 26 Feb. 1876 [Similar in plan to the South Kensington museum and school in London, Eng.] Society of American Artists, N. Y. ; organized 1878 [Object, the advancement of the fine arts.] Art Institute of Chicago; organized 24 May, 1879 Cincinnati Museum Association ; incorporated 15 Feb. 1881 [General plan similar to that of South Kensington, Eng.] American Art Union, N. Y. ; incorporated 11 May, 1883 [Object, to promote interest in the fine arts by establish- ing galleries for the exhibition and sale of works of art, holding art exhibitions in different parts of the country, publishing engravings and other artistic works, and an art journal, establishing an artists' benevolent fund, and pro- moting social intercourse among members.] National Academy of Art, established in the District of Co- lumbia by an act of the 52d congress 1892 Academies, Architecture, National Gallery, Painting, Royal Academy, Sculpture, etc. Arundel Ca§tle, Sussex, built by the Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk enjoys the earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honor, by inheritance and possession of the castle, without other creation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted duke of Norfolk, was made earl of Arundel, by summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It was thoroughly repaired by a late duke. Arundelian Marble§, one containing the chro- nology of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to have been sculptured 264 b.c. They consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, found in the isle of Paros about 1610. They were collected by W. Petty, purchased by lord Arundel, and given by his grandson, Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, to the university of Oxford in 1667; and are therefore called also Oxford Marbles. The inscriptions are ASH Greek. A variorum edition of the inscriptions, by Maittaire, appeared, 1732, a fine one by Chandler, 1763 ; and translation* by Selden, 1628 ; by Prideaux, 1676. Ar'yan, in Sanscrit signifying (1) a tribe or nation ; (2> noble. A family of nations sometimes inaccurately called Japhetic, more commonly Indo-European or Indo-Germanic. " The ancestors of most modern Europeans lived together a» one people, speaking the primeval Aryan tongue, in central Asia and apparently near the Pamir steppe. Their separa- tion took place at so remote a period that while thev seem to have known gold, silver, and copper, they were unacquainted with iron."— iJ/ax Midler, « Science of Language," vol. ii. p. 258. The Aryan race invaded India in remote antiquity, possibly 1700 B.C., and still remain the dominant race there.' The Ar- yan stock not Asiatic but European. This view is supported by canon Ii»aac Taylor, A. H. Sayce; by the Germans, O. Schra- der, Karl Peuka, Posche, Geiger; and in France by M. de La- ponge. " The conclusion may be accepted that the Aryan peo- ple originated in western Europe and migrated eastward."— Brinton's " Races and Peoples," p. 147. Language. a§, a Roman weight; a pound; also a coin of varying^ weight. Originally, about 400 b.c., it was nominally 12 ounce* of copper, but gradually fell to 2 ounces, and at last", in 80 ac.^ to ^ ounce, worth about 1^ cents. Asaph, St., N. Wales, a bishopric said to have been founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. , On returning into- Scotland, about 560, he left St. Asaph his successor, from whom the see is named. It is valued in the king's books at 187/. 11*. &d. The present cathedral was erected by bishop Redman^ 1472-95. By an order in council, 1838, the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to be united on the next vacancy in either,, and the bishopric of Manchester created. This order was an- nulled in 1846. Present income 4200/. Manchkster. The cathedral, restored by sir Gilbert Scott, reopened 2 Sept. 1875. a§be§tO§, a native fossil stone regarded as a variety of hornblende, which may be split into threads and filaments, and is unconsumed by fire. Cloth was made of it by the Egyptian* {Herodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, 74 a.d.; and also paper. The spinning of asbestos known at Venice about 1500. — Porta. The finest asbestos was discovered in Canada in 1874, but it is found in all parts of the globe. It is mined iu Virginia, North and South Carolina, Maryland, Delaware, and Staten Island in N. Y. It is steadily increasing in usefulness. A§'calO]l, Syria, a city of the Philistines, shared the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The Egyptian army was defeated here by the crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon, 12 Aug. 1099. Ascalon was besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1163, and again in 1191. Its fortifications were destroyed for fear of the crusaders by the sultan, 1270. A§ceil§iOIl, an island in the Atlantic ocean, 800 miles northwest of St. Helena, discovered by the Portuguese on As- cension day, 20 May, 1501 , and seized by the English, Oct. 1815. Ascen§ion Day or Holy Thursday, when the church celebrates the ascension of Jesus, the fortieth day after his resurrection, 14 May, 33 ; first commemorated, it is- said, 68. Aschaflfenburg, on the Maine, Bavaria, S. W. Ger- many. Here, on 14 July, 1866, the Prussians defeated the German Federal arm}', captured the town, and took 2000 pris- oners. As'CUlum, now As'COli, Apulia, S. Italy. Near it Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the Romans, 279 b.c. Asculum, a city of the Piceni, with all their country, was conquered by the consul Sempronius, 268 b.c. Here Andrea, general of the em- peror Henry VI., endeavoring to wrest Naples from Tancred,. was defeated and slain, 1190 a.d. Aslian'tee§, a warlike negro people inhabiting the coun- try above the Gold Coast, W. Africa. Trouble arising between the English of the Gold Coast and the Ashantees, sir Garnet Wolseley, sent by the English government with troops into- their country, 4' Oct. 1873, took and destroyed their chief town, Coomassie, 6 Feb. 1874. Treaty of peace— terms : per- petual peace; indemnity of 50,000 oz. of gold; supremacy over other tribes renounced; free trade guaranteed; and humaa ASH 68 ASS sacrifices prohibited— signed, 13 Feb. 1874. Expedition cost A»illburtOIl Treaty, so called from lord Ashburton ^Alexander Baring, head of the house of Baring brothers), commissioner for Great Britain, who with Daniel Webster, secretary of state under president Tyler, framed the treaty; signed at Washington, 9 Aug. 1842 ; ratified, 20th same month ; and proclaimed 10 Nov. Besides providing for the extradition of criminals, etc., it settled the boundary line between Canada and Maine. Aroostook. Ashdod or Azo'tU§, seat of the worship of the Phoe- nician god Dagon, which fell before the ark of the Lord, capt- ured by the Philistines from the Israelites, about 1141 n.c. (1 Sam. v.). Ashdod was taken by the Egyptians after 29 years' siege, the longest recorded. A§hdOAVIl or A§§endune, now thought to be As- ton, Berks, where Ethelred and his brother Alfred defeated the Danes in 871. At Ashdown, near SafFron-Walden, Essex, Ca- nute defeated Edmund Ironside with great slaughter, 1016. Tradition says that the day after the battle in 871 Alfred caused his army to carve the figure of a white horse, the standard of Hengist, by cutting out the sod from the face of the chalk rocks, at the side of the valley. Thomas Hughes ('-Tom Brown"), in his book, "The Scouring of the White Horse" (1859), describes the work and festival on 17 and 18 Sept. 1857, a ceremony performed at in- tervals from time immemorial. Records are found of the " scour- ing," 27 May, 1755; 15 May, 1776; 1780, 1785, 1803, 1812 or 1813, 19, 20 Sept., 1825; Sept. 1843. Ashmolean Museum (books, manuscripts, coins, ■etc.), presented to the university of Oxford by Elias Ashmole, heraid and antiquary, was opened 1682. It included the col- lections of the Tradescants, to whom he was executor. He died at Lambeth in 1692. The Ashmolean Society, Oxford (scientific), was established in 1828. A§h'taroth, a Phoenician goddess, occasionally wor- shipped by the Israelites (see Judg. ii. 13), about 1406 b.c. ; by Solomon, about 984 B.C. (1 Kings, xi. 5). Astl-l¥edne§day, the first day of Lent, which in •early times began on the Sunday now called the first in Lent. It is said that pope Felix III., in 487, added the four days pre- ■ceding the old Lent Sunday to make number of fasting days 40 ; that Gregory the Great (pope, 590) introduced the sprink- ling of ashes on the first additional day, and hence the name Dies Cinei-um, or Ash- Wednesday. The Reformers rejected this practice " as being a mere shadow, or vain show." A§ia, the largest division of the globe, so called bj' the Greeks from the nymph Asia, daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world peopled — here the law of God was first promulgated; here many of the greatest monarchies had their rise ; and hence most of the arts and sciences have been derived. Its early history is found in the Bible and in Herodotus, who relates the wars of Croesus, Cyrus, and others. Its enormous area (17,300,000 sq. miles), nearly five times that of Europe, is .a third of the land of the earth's surface. It is 5300 miles from the southern point of the Malay peninsula to the most ■northern cape, and from the isthmus of Suez to the East cape it is 6700 miles. Two great progressive European powers, Russia and Great Britain, now hold sway over more than two fifths of Asia, and the principal political changes in Asia for two centuries have had their origin in the steady growth of these powers. The British have extended their empire tow- ards Burmah and inner China, and northwestward to Afghan- istan. The Russians have passed southward through the ■Caucasus and have occupied the region about Mero and Sa- marcand. A belt of about 200 miles separates these two Eu- ropean powers from each other. Afghanistan, China, India, Jews, Persia, Siberia, Turkey, etc. Asia Minor, now AnatO'lia, comprised the Ionian •colonies on the coast, the early seats of Greek civilization, and the countries of Cappadocia, Caria, Bithynia, Galatia, Lycia, Lydia, Mysia, and Phrj'gia, with the cities of Ephesus, Smyr- na, and Troy. From the rise of the Assyrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., to that of the Turks under Osman, Asia Minor might ■be called the battle-field of the East. ^ ^ First settlement of the Ionian Greeks about 1043 Asia Minor subdued by the Medes " 711 Conquered by Cyrus about 54 Contest between the Greeks and Persians begins 54 Asia Minor conquered by Alexander 33 Contended for by his successors ; separate kingdoms established, 321-27 A.r Gradually acquired by the Romans 188 b.c. to 1 Possessed by the Persians 60 Partially recovered by the emperor Basil 87 Invaded by Timour 140 Taken from the Greek emperor by the Turks under Mahomet I., 141 Turkey. Asiatie societies. The Asiatic Society of Benga at Calcutta, was established by sir William Jones in 1784, th bounds of its investigation to be the geographical limits o Asia. The Royal Asiatic Society, which has several branche in India, was founded in 1823. It established the Orient? Translation Fund in 1828, which had published 83 volumes o Eastern literature in 1865; the Literary Society of Madras 1845. Asmonseans, the proper name of the family terme Maccabees. Asperne, Oreat, a town, and Essling, a village nea the Danube and Vienna, the scene of desperate conflicts be tween the Austrians under the archduke Charles and th French under Napoleon, Massena, etc., on 21-22 May, 180! ending in the retreat of Napoleon. The Austrian loss exceede 20,000 men, and the French 30,000. Marshal Lannes mortall wounded, 22 May; died, 31 May. The bridge of the Danub was destroyed, and Napoleon's retreat endangered ; but th success of the Austrians was fruitless. asphalt, a solid bituminous substance, probably derive from decayed vegetable matter; used as building material i ancient Babylon. Its application for this purpose was revive by Eyrini d'Eyrinis, a Swiss physician of Greek origin, wh discovered beds of it near Neufchatel in 1712. Asphalt ston was found at Seyssel, near Geneva, in 1802 ; and, after seven failures, count Sassenaj' brought it into use for pavement aboi 1832. The artificial asphalt from gas-works began to be use as pavement about 1838. Claridge's patent asphalt was lai down in Trafalgar square, Jan. 1864. Various kinds of aspha pavement have been since laid in London and New York. Tl most celebrated deposit of natural bitumen is on the island c Trinidad, whence the United States obtains its chief suppl; Extensively used in paving cities throughout the U. S. Aspromon'te, Naples. Here Garibaldi was defeatei wounded, and taken prisoner, 29 Aug. 1862, having rise against the French occupation of Rome. As'sam', N. E. India, acquired by the British in 1825, ar surrendered by the king of Ava in 1826. The tea-plant wi discovered here by Mr. Bruce in 1823. A superintendent c tea-forests was appointed in 1836, cultivation of tea havin been recommended by lord William Bentinck in 1834. Tl Assam tea company, which imported Chinese laborers ar coolies, was established in 1839. In later years the planti tions declined through over-speculation and neglect of the L borers ; as a remedy, a labor act was passed at Calcutta aboi July, 1867, assassins or assassinians, fanatical Mahometan following Hassan-ben-Sabah, settled in Persia about 1090. 1 Syria the}' possessed a large tract of land among the moui tains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquess of Montfe rat in 1192, Lewis of Bavaria in 1213, and the khan of Ta tary in 1254. They were extirpated in Persia about 1258 ar in Syria about 1272. The chief of the corps was named " Ai cient of the Mountain " and " Old Man of the Mountain." The trained up young people to assassinate persons designated I their chief. — Henault. From them came the word assassin. REMARKABLE ASSASSINATIONS AND ATTEMPTS, ARRANGE BY DATES. B Artaxerxes III. of Persia, by Bagoas about 3: Philip II. of Macedon, by Pausanias 3; Darius III. of Persia, by Bessus July, 3: Julius Caesar, by Brutus and others 15 Mch. A. Edmund the Elder of England, ."r 26 Mch. 9 Edward the Martyr of England 18 " 9 Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury 29 Dec. 11 Albert I., emperor of Germany, by his nephew John. . .1 May, 13( Edward II. of England 27 Sept. 13; ASS 59 Xouis Valois, duKe of Orleans, by Burgundians 23 Nov. 1407 John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, by Orleanists. . .10 Sept. 1419 James I. of Scotland, by nobles 21 Feb. 1437 Edward V. of England, by oider of Richard, duke of Gloucester, July, 1483 James lii. cf Scotland, by nobles 11 June, 1488 David Beaton cardinal, by Reformers 29 May, 1546 James Murray, earl, regent of Scotland, by Hamilton of Both- wellhaugh, at Linlithgow, 21 Jan. 1570 William, prince of Orange, by Balthasar Gerard (Torture), 10 July, 1584 Henry, duke of Guise, by order of Henry III. of France.. 23 Dec. 1588 Louis of Guise, cardinal of Lorraine, by order of Henry IIL of France 24 Dec. '« Henry in. of France, by Jacques Clement 2 Aug. 1589 Henry IV. of France, attempt, by Jean Chatel 27 Dec. 1594 " " " " killed by Ravaillac (Torture) 14 May, 1610 'George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, by John Felton..28 Aug. 1628 William III. of England, plot to assassinate 14 Feb. 1696 Louis XV. of France, attempt, by Damiens (Torture) 5 Jan. 1757 ■Gustavus III. of Sweden, AnkarstrOm 16 Mch. ; d. 29 Mch. 1792 Marat, by Charlotte Corday 13 July, 1793 €eorge III. of England, mad attempt by Margaret Nicholson, 2 Aug. 1786; again, by James Hatfield 15 May, 1800 Napoleon I., attempt by an infernal machine 24 Dec. " Paul, czar of Russia, by nobles 24 Mch. 1801 Spencer Percival, premier of England, by Bellingham. .11 May, 1812 George IV. (when regent), attempt 28 Jan. 1817 August Kotzebue, German dramatist, for political motives, by Karl Sand 23 Mch. 1819 Charles, due de Berri (father of the comte de Chambord), 18 Feb. 1820 €apo d'Istria, count, Greek statesman (Torture) 9 Oct. 1831 Audrew Jackson, president U. S., attempt 30 Jan. 1835 Louis Philippe of France, manv attempts, by Fieschi, 28 July, 1835; by Alibaud, 25 June, 1836; by Meunier, 27 Dec. 1836; byDarmte, 15 Oct. 1840; by Lecomte, 14Apr. 1846; by Henry, 29 July, 1846 Denis Aflfre, archbishop of Paris 27 June, 1848 Rossi, conte Pellegrino, Roman statesman 15 Nov. " Frederick William IV. of Prussia, attempt, by Sofelage. . . 22 May, 1850 Francis Joseph of Austria, attempt, by Libenyi 18 Feb. 1853 Ferdinand, Charles III., duke of Parma 27 Mch. 1854 Isabella II. of Spain, attempts, by La Riva, 4 May, 1847; by Merino, 2 Feb. 1852; by Raymond Fuentes 28 May, 1856 Napoleon III., attempts, by Pianori, 28 Apr. 1855; by Belle- marre, 8 Sept. 1855; by Orsini and others (France). . .14 Jan. 1858 Daniel, prince of Montenegro 13 Aug. 1860 Abraham Lincoln, president of the U. S., at Ford's theatre, Washington, by John Wilkes Booth, on the evening of 14 Apr. ; d 15 Apr. 1865 Michael, prince of Servia 10 June, 1868 Prim, marshal of Spain, 28 Dec. ; d 30 Dec. 1870 Georges Darboy, archbishop of Paris, by communists. .24 May, 1871 Richard, earl of Maj'o, gov. -gen. of India, by Shere Ali, a con- vict, in Andaman islands 8 Feb. 1872 Amadeus, duke of Aosta, when king of Spain, attempt.. 19 July, " Bismarck, prince, attempt, by Blind, 7 May, 1866 ; by KuUman, 13 July, 1874 Abdul Aziz, sultan of Turkey 4 June, 1876 Hussein Avni and other Turkish ministers, by Hassan, a Cir- cassian officer 15 June, " William I. of Prussia and Germany, attempts, by Oscar Becker, 14 July, 1861; by HOdel, 11 May, 1878; by Dr. Nobiling, 2 June, 1878 Mehemet Ali, pacha, by Albanians 7 Sept. " Humbert I., king of Italy, attempt, by John Passananti..l7 Nov. " Lytton, lord, viceroy oflndia, attempt, by Busa 12 Dec. " Alfonso XII. of Spain, attempts, by J. 0. Moncasi, 25 Oct. 1878; by Francisco Otero Gonzalez 30 Dec. 1879 Loris MelikofT, Russian gen., attempt 4 Mch. 1880 Bratiano, premier of Roumania, attempt, by J. Pietraro..l4 Dec. " Alexander II. of Russia, attempts, by Karakozow at St. Peters- burg, 16 Apr. 1866; by Berezowski at Paris, 6 June, 1867; by Alexander SoloviefT, 14 Apr. 1879; by undermining a railway train, 1 Dec. 1879; by explosion of Winter palace, St. Peters- burg, 17 Feb. 1880; killed by explosion of a bomb thrown by a man who is himself killed, St. Petersburg. .. 2 p.m. 13 Mch. 1881 Garfield, James A., president of the U. S., shot by Charles Jules Guiteau, Washington, 2 Julj', 1831; d. from his wounds, 19 Sept. 1881; Guiteau convicted of murder in the first degree, 26 Jan. 1882 ; sentenced 2 Feb. ; hanged on 30 June, 1882 Marie Franpois Sadi Carnot, president of France, stabbed mor- tally at Lyons by Cesare Santo, an anarchist, Sunday, 24 June, 1894 assay of gold and silver originated with the bishop of Salisburj'-, a royal treasurer in the reign of Henry I. — Du Cange. But some kind of assay was practised as early as the Roman conquest. Assay, early established in England, was regulated by statutes, 1238, 1700, and 1705. The alloy of gold is silver and copper, that of silver is copper. Britisli standard gold is 2 carats of alloy to 22 of fine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper to 11 oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver. Pyx. The U.S. assay office. New York city, receives from $20,000,000 to $5100,000,000 in crude bullion of gold and silver to be assayed every year. There are also oflftces at Boise City, Idaho ; Hele- na, Mont. ; and St. Louis, Mo. Coinage. ASS Assaye (as-sa'), E. Indies. The British armv, under gen. Arthur Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wellington), entered the Mahratta states on the south ; took the fort of Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug. ; and defeated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, 23 Sept. 1803. This was Welleslev's first great battle with only 4o00 men against 50,000. The enemy fled, leaving artil- lery, etc. *' assessed taxes. By some the date is referred to Ethelbert, in 991; to Henry VIII. 1522; and to William III. 1689, when a land-tax was imposed in England. Land-tax Taxks. ' assien'tO, a contract of the king of Spain with other powers to supply negro slaves to Spanish America, began with the Flemings. By treaty of Utrecht, 13 July, 1713, Great Brit- am engaged to furnish 4800 negroes atniuallv for 30 vears. The contract was renewed in 1748, but given up' in 175o'. Guinea. assig^natS {as-seen-ijah'), a forced paper currency, first issued by the revolutionary assembly of France, Apr. 1790. At one period 8,000,000,000 francs, or nearly $1,600,000,000 of this paper were in circulation.—^ lison. Assignats were su- perseded by mandats in 1796. Assiniboines. Indians. assize eourtS (from assideo, I sit), ancient in Eng- land, in old law-books defined as an assembly of knights and other substantial men, with the justice, to meet at a certain time and place : regulated by Magna Charta, 1^15. The pres- ent justices of assize and nisiprius are derived from the stat- ute of Westminster, 13 Edw. 1. 1284.— CoA:^, Blackstone. "The king doth will that no lord, or other of the country, shall sit upon the bench with the justices to take assize in their ses- sions in the counties of England, upon great forfeiture to the king." 20 Rich. H. 1^^.— Statutes, Brovyh act. Assizes are general or special; general when the judges go their circuits, and special when a commission is issued for one or more causes. Bloody Assizes. assize of Jerusalem, a code of laws compiled under Godfrey of Bouillon, king of Jerusalem, in 1100. associations. British National Associations, Christian Societies, etc. Assumption, Feast of the, 15 Aug., observed by the church of Rome in honor of the Virgin Mary, said to have been taken up to heaven, body and spirit, on this day, 45 A.D., in her 75th year. It was instituted in the 7th cen- tury, and enjoined by the council of Mentz, 813. Assyria, originally Assur, an Asiatic country be- tween Mesopotamia and Media, the seat of the earliest record- ed monarchy. Till recently its history- was mainly derived from Greek historians, Ctesias, Herodotus, and Diodorus Sicu- lus, Berosus, a Graeco-Chaldean priest, and the Holj^ Scriptures. The discovery by sir Austin Layard of the Ninevite antiqui- ties, now in the British museum, and the deciphering of cu- neiform inscriptions b\^ Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson,and other scholars, have thrown much light upon Assyrian history. The chronologers, Blair, Usher, Hales, and Clinton, differ much in the dates. The results of recent investigations are given in the rev. G. Rawlinson's " Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient World," prof. A. H. Sayce's " Assyria : its Princes, Priests, and People," 1885, and W. Boscawen's article " Assy- ria, " in " Chambers's Encyclopaedia," 1888. g c. Nimrod or Belus reigns [2554 H. 2235 C] 2245 '■ Asshur builded Nineveh " (Gen. x. 11) about 2218 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names his capital Nineveh [2182 C] 2069 Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having subdued the Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, establishes the As- syrian monarchv, with Nineveh as seat of empire. — Blair. [2233 C] 2059 Ninyas, an infiint, succeeds Ninus 2017 Seniiramis. mother of Ninyas, usurps the government, enlarges and embellishes Babylon [2130 C] 2007 She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and \xxA\B..—Lenglet 1975 She is put to death by her son Ninyas 1965 Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns 1927 Reign of Aralius 1897 Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus 1446 He makes his daughter Atossa, surnamed Semiramis IL, his associate on the throne 1*33 Atossa procures the death of her father, and marries Belatores (or Belaperes), who reigns 1*21 AST Sardanajwlus. luxurious and effeniinato when attacked by Ar- baces, sitrap of .Media, suddenly becomes energetic and war- like, defends Nineveh for '2 years; when overcome, burns himself in his palace, with his wives and treasures, ending the first Assvriau empire.— C<«»ta» 876 [All given "above is mythical. The following is based u|H)U the records in the ancient Assyrian tablets and the Bible.] Assyria, a province of Babylonia, becomes independent; tlrst king, Bol-kapkapi; under his successors the kingtloin is greatly enlarged; Rimmon-nirari I. becomes i)owerrul about 1320 His son. Shalmaneser I., founds Calah, and his grandson. Tig- lath Adar I., captures Babylon 1280 His descendant, Tiglath-pileser I., a groat conqueror and the real founder of the Assyrian empire 1140 His son, Assur bel-Kala, a weak prince 1110 Empire falls into decay for nearly 2 centuries. Empire revives under Assur-dan 11., and is fully restored by his successors, Himmon-nirari II ....911-889 And Assur-natsir-pal 883-^88 His son, Shalmaneser II., makes large conquests in W. Asia 858 et seq. At Karkar he defeats Benhadad, king of Damascus, Ahab, king of Israel, and Irkhuleni, king of Hamath 854 Empire enlarged by his sou, Samas-Rimmon II 823-810 Assyrian eponym canon records a solar eclipse, and is thereby the basis of Assyrian chronology 763 Assur-uirari king; many revolts 753 et seq. Pulu, or Pul, usurps the throne and styles himself Tiglath- Pileser. Ho consolidated the empire, reformed government, quelled revolts, and enlarged his dominions by conquest of Babylon, etc 745-727 His weak son, Shalmaneser IV., king, 727; died or was mur- dered by Sargon the Tartan, who continues the war in As- syria, captures Samaria, and replaces the inhabitants by col- onists (2 Kings xvii. ) 720 At the battle of liaphia he checks the advances of Egypt, and captures the rich Hittite capital, Carchemish 717 Merodach-baladan III. raises a revolt against Sargon, who, after a severe campaign, captures Babylon and is proclaimed king 710 Sargon is killed in his new palace July, 705 His son Sennacherib, succeeds him. Babylonia revolts; Merodach-baladan returns, but is defeated at Kisu ; Sennacherib conquers Phoenicia, and, offended by Hezckiah, ravages Judaea and besieges Jerusalem, which is saved by the sudden destruction of his army (Isa. xxxvii. 36- 38); he is killed by his sons Dec. 681 His son Esar-haddon defeats his brothers, reigns at Nineveh, and reorganizes the empire 680 et seq. He invades Judaea, makes Manasseh prisoner. He invades Egypt, captures Memphis, and after a long cam- paign subdues and becomes ruler of nearly all the ancient world 675 et seq. Disturbed by a rising in Egypt and conspiracies at home, he makes his son Assur-bani-pal king at Nineveh, Apr. 669, and dies during a campaign, Oct. 667. Assur-bani-pal, weak but ambitious, continues war in Egypt, captures Thebes, in- vades Phoenicia, and takes Tyre. He appoints his brother, Samas-sum-yukin, viceroy of Baby- lon, who heads a revolt, which lasts five years; Babylon is taken, and the rebel burns himself in his palace with many followers 647 Gradual fall of the empire; new revolts; Egypt independent ; Kandanalu, viceroy of Babylon, and his successor, father of Nebuchadnezzar, independent; Assur-bani-pal succeeded by his son Assur-etil-iliyukinni 640 Essar-haddon II. (the Sarakos of Ctesias) the last king; the N.E. provinces invaded by a vast confederation under the command of Kazaril (Cyaxares the Mede). Disruption and anarchy closed by siege and destruction of Nineveh about 606 Assyria becomes a Median province. Assyria subdued by Alexander the Great 332 Afterwards part of the kingdoms of Syria, Parthia, and Persia, a.d. Conquered by the Turks 1637 Explored by col. Chesney and the Euphrates exploring expedi- tion 1835-37 I^ayard's "Discoveries," publ 1848-53 Mr. George Smith, of British Museum, began to study inscrip- tions, 1866 (received aid from Daily TeUgraph), and started to explore Assyrian remains, 20 June, 1873 ; worked in 1873-74; publ. "Assyrian Discoveries" Mch. 1875 Classes for the study of Assyrian language formed; A. H.Sayce publishes Assyrian grammar " Smith started to renew explorations, Oct. 1875; died at Aleppo, 19 Aug. 1876 Explorations resumed by Hormusd Rassam. Nineveh. a§teroid§. Planets. A§tor Library, New York. John Jacob Astor (b. at Waldorf, near Heidelberg, 17 July, 1763 ; d. in New York, 29 Mch. 1848) left by will $400,000 to establish " a public library in the city of New York." It was opened 9 Jan. 1854, with about 80,000 volumes. In Jan. 1856, William B. Aster, son of the founder, gave land to double the building. In 1879 John Jacob Astor (the second) gave land and an additional building ; also built a central vestibule, frescoed, and orna- mented with 24 classic busts in marble. The co.st of these im- provements was about $250,000. The number of books in 60 AST the library is 300,000, very few of them duplicates, while fu tion, except of the highest order, is excluded. The librar is rich in books of value to scholars, and it is maintained s a scholar's, not a popular, library. Aitor- place riOt§, made by friends of Edwi Forrest to interrupt Mr. Macready's acting at the Astor-plac Opera-house in New York, 10 May, 1849. Nkw Yokk. A§torfi|[a, N.W. Spain, the ancient Asturica August was taken by the Frencli, 22 Apr. 1810, and treated with grei severity. Astoria, Oregon, at the mouth of the Columbia rive founded in 1810 by John Jacob Astor as a station for his fi trade. It is the subject of a picturesque descriptive worl entitled " Astoria," by Washington Irving, 1836. Irving ne^ er visited the station, but wrote from documents furnish( by Astor, and from recollections of another northwestern fu trading post. Oregon. Astracan, S.E. Russia, a province acquired from tl Mogul's empire in 1554; visited and settled by Peter tl Great in 1722. astrolabe, an instrument for observing stars, said i have been employed by Hipparchus about 130 b.c., and I Ptolemy about 140 a.d. The modern astrolabe was describe by Fabricius in 1513. astrolog'y. Judicial astrology was cultivated by tl Chald£eans, and transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, an Romans. It was much in vogue in Italy and France in tl time of Catherine de' Medicis (married to Francis I. of Franc 1533).— HenauU. It is said that Bede, 673-735, was addictf to it ; and Roger Bacon, 1214-92. Lord Burleigh is said 1 have calculated the nativity of Elizabeth, who, like other cot temporary princes, was a dupe of Dee the astrologer. At tl birth of Louis XIV. of France (1638) a certain Morin de VilL franche was placed behind a curtain to cast the nativity of tl future king. It is said that Lilly was consulted by Charles of England respecting his projected escape from Carisbrook ca tie in 1647. — Ferguson. In England Swift may be said to ha\ given the death-blow to astrology by his famous squib ent tied " Predictions for the Year 1708," by Isaac Bickerstal Esq. Astrological almanacs still published in London, 1892 astronomer-royal. Greenwich. astronomy. The earliest astronomical observatioi were made at Babylon, it is said, about 2234 b.c. The stud was much advanced in Chaldaea under Nabonassar; was know to the Chinese about 1100 t?.c. ; some say many centuries b* fore. Comets, Eclipses, Moon, Observatories, Planet Stars, Sun, Telescopes. b_ Lunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and recorded by Ptolemy, about li Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales about 6( Anaxamander erects the first sun-dial at Sparta 5^ Phamenides of Elea said to have discovered the identity of morning and evening star 520-4( Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the plurality of habitable worlds ; died about 41 Diogenes of Apollonia states that the inclination of the earth's axis causes the seasons 4f Meton erects the flrst sun-dial at Athens 4£ Meton introduces the luni-solar cycle of 19 years 4S Eudoxus introduces into Greece the year of 3653^ days 31 Treatises of Aristotle " concerning the heavens." and of Au- tolycus "on the motions of the sphere " (earliest extant works on astronomy) „ about 3S Aratus writes a poem on astronomy 2S Archimedes observes solstices, etc 21 Hipparchus, the "Newton of Greece," determines mean motion of sun and moon; discovers precession of equinoxes, etc. . .160-12 The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and a.i distances of the planets discovered, by Ptolemy 139-16 Omar Khayyam, a Persian astronomer, proposed to reform the calendar by interpolating 1 day every 4th year, postponing to the 33d year the interpolation belonging to the 32d year. This would have produced an error of only 1 day in 5000 years; the error of the Gregorian calendar is 1 day in 3325 years 105 Astronomy and geography cultivated by the Arabs about 760; brought into Europe about 120 Am'honsine Tables composed. . > about 125 Clocks first used in astronomy about 150 ^\w doctrine of the solar .system revived by Copernicus, nwhder of modern astronomy; his " Revolution of the Heav- enly Bodies " publ 154: AST 61 Astronomy advanced by Tycho Brahe, who adheres to the Ptol- emaic system about 1582 Cialileo constructs a telescope, 1609; and discovers Jupiter's satellites, etc 8 Jan. 1610 True laws of the planetary motions announced by Kepler; 1st and 2d, 1(509; 8d 1618 Various forms of telescopes and other instruments used in as- tronomy invented 1608-40 Oassendi observes the first recorded transit of Mercury over the sun, and measures the diameter of the planet 1631 Cartesian system published by Descartes 1637 Transit of Venus first observed by Horrox 24 Nov. 1639 Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn's ring 1654 Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante (Bologna). 1655 Huyghens discovers the first satellite (Titan) of Saturn " Aberration of light discovered by Horrebow 1659 Gregory invents a reflecting telescope 1663 Discoveries of Picard 1669 Charts of the moon constructed by Scheiner, Langrenus, Heve- lius, Riccioli, etc. . . .about 1670 Discoveries of ROmer on the velocity of light, and his observa- tion of Jupiter's satellites 1675 Greenwich observatory founded " Motion of the sun round its own axis proyed by Halley 1676 Four satellites of Saturn discovered by Cassini 1671-84 Newton's "Principia" puhTTsIied; and the system, as now taught, demonstrated 1687 Catalogue of the stars made by Flamsteed 1688 Cassini's chart of the full moon executed 1692 Halley predicts the return of the comet (of 1758) 1705 Flamsteeo'S'^Historia Cselestis" publ ,^^_^ 1725 Aberration of the light of the stars discovered anSexplained by Dr. Bradley rTT; .Trr.T.- 1727 John Harrison produces chronometers for determining the lon- gitude, 1735 et seq., and obtains the reward (Harrison's Time- piece) .Trrrr 1764 "Nautical Almanac" first publ 1767 Sir \Vm. Herschel's first observation of the nebula in Orion — 1774 Wilson proves sun-s'potB to be depressed "' The earCtrsTnean density jiscertained by Maskelyne " Celestial inequalities founVbyXagrange 1780 URAxrs discove red b y^Hcrschel (Georgium Sidus) 13 Mch. 1781 Herschel''s"Tllst CUlillOgue of double stars " £e i{ ivestigate s the earth's motion in space 1783 Herschel's iirst catalogue of nebulae 1786 He di.scovers two moons of Uranus 11 Jan. 1787 AccStewttfo'n'of the moon's mean motion explained by Laplace, -^ 19 Nov. " Herschel's second catalogue of nebulae 1789 ^HiS.40 foot reflector finished. "Two inner mooirsrof Saturn, ■irn gt^pij i^Y i' " Atmospheric refraction in \ enus oy SchrOler 1792 Saturn's rotation 10 h. 16 min., shown by Herschel 1794 " Nebular Hypothesis," by LapTacc7publ 1796 Herschel first measures comparative brightness of stars " 0n)ers^sinWh2At3Erf-caruputing comets' orbits 1797 "IBecauTtlTTeC^leste," Laf^ace, 2 vols, publ 1799 Meteoric shower at Cumanea, seeo-by Humboldt '• Ceres discov ered by Piazzi T?". . .TTTr>,.,. 1 Jan. 1801 Pallas ZT^^"-—^' Olbers 28 Mch. 1802 Binary staTSTHsgovered by Juno^Jiscoveredby "Harding 2 Sept. 1804 Vesta^^::;;;;;;:;::::;;" Olbers 29 Mch. 1807 Perihelion passage of great comet 12 Sept. 1811 .^^raunhofer maps 324 dark lines in the sun's spectrum 1815 T!i5>«rTh pa'^cS'through a comet's tail 26 June, 1819 FirsL -calculated return of a comet (Encke's) 24 May, 1822 Sir Wm. HerscleT djes 25 Aug. " Correction for '-personal equation " introduced by Bessel 1823 Spectra of fixed stars exj3Jiiia£d by Fraunhofer " Sux's distance det.ccuiliis(l bylTncke, 95,250,000 miles 1824 Schwabe's observa'tionsoTsun-spots begu n 1826 Jfela discovers •' BJela's comet " 27 Feb. " ObservatoryaTCape of Good Hope finished 1829 First magnetic observatory ai uoitingen 1833 Star-shower in N. America 12, 13 Nov. " Sir John Herschel lands at Cape of Good Hope 16 June, 1834 Halley's comet passes perihelion 16 Nov. 1835 Annular eclipse of sun, " Baily's beads" seen 15 May, 1836 Eta Argus bursts out into brilliancy, seen by Herschel Dec. 1837 Parallax of 61 Cygni measurei.by Bessel, the first fixed star. . . 1838 " of Alpha CeritaTiTrannounced by HenH^Srson 9 Jan. 1839 J. AV. Draper attempts to phcftOgrapii the moon 1840 LChange in light-^waTeTby motion proved by Doppler 1842 V B^il^ completes experiments on weight of the earth " Total ecTT^e of sun, corona obServeTt by "Baily, Struve, and others 8 July, " Great comet seen at noon by the naked eye 28 Feb. 1843 Spiral nebulae discovered by the earl of Rosse's Parsonstown reflector Apr. 1845 Sun daguerreotyped by Foucault and Fizeau 2 Apr. " NEPTrNE's ^ce assigned by calculations by .Ad»***s Dec. " Duplicate divTsion of »iela's comet seen at Yale college.. 29 Dec. '' Heat found in moon's rays by Melloni 1846 Neptune discovered by Galle at I.everrier's direction. . 23 Sept. " Satellite of Neptune discovered by'Lasseli:. ". . . . .'.' 10 Oct. " Third satellite of Uranus discovered by Lassell 14 Sept. 1847 Fourth discovered by 0. Struve 8 Oct. " Sir J. Herschel's cyclone theory of sun-spots " Displacement of Fraunhofer's lines by motion, noted bj' Fizeau, 1848 New star in Ophiuchus seen by Hind 27 Apr. " ASY Hyperion (a satellite of Saturn) discovered by Bond and Lassell, c. . , , 29 Sept. 1848 Speed of light first determined by experiment by Fizeau 1849 \ ega photographed at Harvard college 17 July, 1850 Saturn's dusky ring discovered by Bond 15 Nov. " Periodicity of sun spots ascertained by Schwabe 1851 Magnetic period of sun-spots proved by Sabine 6 May 1852 Variable nebula in Taurus discoTCTed by Hind 11 Oct. " Estimated distance of sun reduced by Hansen " 1854 Saturn's rings shown to be meteoric by Clerk Maxwell .',*.* 1867 Double-star photography begun at Harvard college 27 Apr. '• Photography of the sun begun at Kew ig5g Spectrum analysis taught by KirchhofT and Bunsen. ...'." .' .' ." .* " 1869 Kirchhotr describes the chemical constitution of the sun.. 15 Dec. " New star found in Scorpio by Auwers 21 May, 1860 The earth in the tail of a great comet 30 June' 1861 Kirchhoffs map of the sun's spectrum 1861-62 Hydrogen discovered in the sun by AugstrOm i862 Companion of Sirius discovered by Alvan Clark, jr 31 Jan " Sun's distance determined by velocity of light, Foucault " Rotation period of Mars ascertained by Kaiser 5 Mch. 1864 Spectra of Betelgeux and Aldebaran examined by Huggins. ... " " of Tempers comet examined by Donati 5 Aug. " Gaseous nebulae discovered by Huggins 29 Aug! " Comet of 1862 proved to have identical orbit with August me! teors by Schiaperelli igeg Lunar crater Linnd disappears, announced by Schmidt Oct. " Meteoric shower in Europe, as predicted by H. A. Newton, 13 Nov. " Period of November meteors determined by Adams 1867 Velocity of Sirius from the earth determined by Huggins 1868 Death of sir John Herschel ll May, 1871 Line displacements by sun's rotation proved by Vogel .' '< liOrd Rosse's investigations of the moon's heat published 1872 Cornu's experiments on velocity of light " Meteoric shower ascribed to Biela's comet '. . .27 Nov. " Earth's mean density ascertained by Cornu and Bailie 1873 Transit of Venus 8 Dec. 1874 New star in Cygnus discovered by Schmidt 24 Nov. 1876 Spectrum of Vega photographed by Huggins " Oxygen lines in the sun's spectrum found by H. Draper 1877 Two satellites of Mars discovered by Hall at Washington, 16, 17 Aug. " Canals of Mars discovered by Schiaparelli " Changes in Trifld nebula announced by Holden " Spectra of sun-spots observed at South Kensington 1879 Early history of the moon by G. H. Darwin " Great southern comet seen at Cordoba 31 Jan. 1880 Draper photographs the nebula in Orion 30 Sept. ' ' Tidal retardation investigated by G. H. Darwin 1881 Spectrum of Tebbutt's comet photographed by Huggins, 24 June, " Saturn's ring-system measured by Struve 1882 Sodium rays found in spectrum of comet at Dunecht, 27 May, '• Great comet disappears at perihelion, Cape of Good Hope, 17 Sept " Iron lines in sun's spectrum seen by Copeland and Lohse, 18 Sept. " Doubling of canals in Mars discovered by Schiaparelli " TTdal observations prove the earth rigid, G. H. Darwin " Great comet of 1882 seen from Cordom, 470,000,000 miles away, 1 June, 1883 Sirius found to be returning towards the earth, Greenwich, 16 Nov. " Parallaxes of 9 soutl^ern stars found by Gill and Elken ' • Pickering's photometric catalogue of 4260 stars 1884 Moon's heat spectrum measured by Langley Feb. 1885 Orbit of 61 Cygni computed by Peters " Paul and Henry discover nebula in the Pleiades by photographv, 16 Nov. " Meteoric shower from Biela's comet 27 Nov. " New variable star in Orion found by Gore 13 Dec. " Rotation period of Mars determined by Bakhuysen «' Pleiades (40) photographed together at Harvard 26 Jan. 1886 " photographed with large nebula around, three hours' exposure, by Roberts 24 Oct. " Great comet found by Struve to have same orbit with those of 1843, 1880, and 1882 18 Jan. 1887 G. F. Chambers's "Handbook of Astronomy," new edition. 1889-90 C H F. Peters, of Hamilton College observatory, N. Y. ; b. Schleswig, 19 Sept. 1813; d 19 July, 1890 Norman Lockyer announces his theory of the constitution of the heavenly bodies (Meteors) 17 Nov. 1891 Fifth satellite of Jupiter discovered by E. E. Barnard, of the Lick observatory 9 Sept. 1892 A8tu'ria§ (Ovie'dO since 1833), N. W. Spain, an an- cient principality. Here Pelayo collected the Gothic fugitives, about 713, founded a new kingdom, and checked Moorish con- quest. For his successors, Spain. The heir -apparent has borne the title "prince of Asturias" since 1388, Avhen it was assumed by Henry, son of John I., king of Leon, on his mar- riage with a descendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808 the junta of Asturias began organized resistance to French usurpation. a§ylum§ or privileged plaees, at first, were places of refuge for those who by accident or necessity had violated the law. God commanded the Jews to build cities of refuge, 1451 b.c. (Numb, xxv.) The Heraclidae are said to ATE have built one at Athens to protect themselves against their enemies; and Cadmus one at Thebes, 1490 b.c. ; and Romulus one at Mount Palatine, 751 Kc. Sanctuaries. ateliers nationailX {at'le-a nas'yo-nd, national workshops) were established by the French provisional gov- ernment in Feb. 1848. They interfered with private trade, about 100,000 workmen throwing themselves upon the gov- ernment for labor and payment. The breaking-up of the system led to fearful conflicts in June following, and it was abolished in July. Athanaslan Creed. Athanasius. of Alexandria, was elected bishop, 326. He opposed the doctrines of Arius (who denied Christ's divinity), was several times exiled, and dietl in 373. Lumby, in "History oftho Creeds" (1874), asserts that this creed, beginning '' Quicunque vult,'^ was not composed by Athanasius ; that it is made up of two distinct parts, and was originally written in Latin and put into its present shape between 813 and 850 ; not connected with Athanasius's name by any trustworthy authority before 809; set forth first in Gaul, about 870; gradually extended into lUily, Britain, etc. ; accepted by the Greek church about 1200. This creed asserts the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son. Fiuoque. Dr. Waterland's "Critical History" of this creed, publ. 1723. He ascribes it to Hilary, bishop of Aries, from 430 to 449 a.d. Much agitation against the general use of this creed has arisen in the church of England among both clergy and laity, 1870-73. Modifications approved by several bishops were negatived by the lower house in convocation (62-7), early in May, 1S72. The vote was rejected by the bishops, and the agitation continued. In a letter to the earl of Shaftesbury, 22 July, 1872, the archbishops of Canterbury and York expressed their hope of devising a way for rendering the reading of the creed during public worship not compulsory. Great meeting of laity at St. James's Hall in defence of the creed, 31 Jan. 1873. atheism (from the Greek a, without, Oeog, God. — Psa. xiv. 1). The writings of Epicurus, Lucretius, and many mod- ern philosophers deny the existence of a personal deity. Phi- losophy. AtlienSB'a were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of Pallas-Athene. One was called Panathenaea, the other Chalcea; they are said to have been instituted by Erichthonius about 1495 b.c., and revived by Theseus, who caused them to be observed by all the Athenians, the first every fifth year, 1234 b.c. — Plutarch. Atlienae'lini, a place at Athens, sacred to Pallas- Athene, where the poets and philosophers recited their com- positions. That of Rome, of great beauty, was erected by the emperor Hadrian, 125. — The Athenaeum club of London was formed in 1823. The club-house was erected in 1829-30 on the site of the late Carlton palace; it is of Grecian architecture, and the frieze is an exact copy of the Panathenaic procession which formed the frieze of the Parthenon. — The Boston Athenaeum, Boston, Mass., originated in the Anthology club, and dates from 1804. It was incorporated 1807. It is an association of private persons, but its art gallery and its librarj^, among the finest in the United States, are practically open to scholars and students not members of the society. First public ex- hibition in 1826. — The A thenceum, an English weekly literary and scientific journal, first appeared in 1828. Athens, the capital of ancient Attica and of modern Greece. The first mythical sovereign is Ogyges, who reigned in Bceotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign (about 1764 b.c.) a deluge laid waste the country, which so remained till the arrival of the Egyp- tian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land was re-peopled and 12 cities founded, 1556 b.c. The chief city, first called Cecropia, was afterwards named Athens in honor of Pallas- Athene, her worship having been introduced by Erichthonius, 1495 B.C. Athens was ruled by 17 successive kings (487 years), by 13 perpetual archons (316 years), 7 decennial archons (70 years), and lastly, by annual archons (760 years). It attained great power, and the number of its illustrious citizens has never been equalled by any other city in the same time. The ancients called Athens Astu^ the city, by eminence, and one of the ej'es of Greece. Greece. p p Arrival of Cecrops [15.58 Hales, 1433 Clinton]. — Usher 1556 Areopagus established 1507 Deucalion arrives in Attica 1502 Reign of Amphictyon [1499 //.] 1497 Panathenaean games ; [1481 H.] 1495 62 ATH Erichthonius reigns , . . . 1487 Erechtheus leaches hu.sbaudry 1383 Eleusiiiian mysteries introduced by Eumolpus 1356 Erechtheus killed in battle with the Eleusinians 1347 .*:geus invades Attica, and ascends the throne 1283 Ho throws himself into the sea and is drowned ; hence the name of the ^Egean sea.—Eusebius 1235 Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years " He collects his subjects into one city, and names it Alliens 1234 Reign of Mnestheus, 1205 ; of DemophoOn 1182 Court of Epheles established 1179 I'rianopsa) instituted 1178 Melanthus conquers Xuthus in single combat and is chosen king 1128 Reign of Codrus, his son, the last king 1092 In a battle with the Heraclidie, Codrus is killed. He had re- solved to perish, the oracle having declared that the victory should be with the side whose leader was killed 1070 Royalty abolished ; Athens governed by archons, Medon the first [1070 H] 1044 Alcmeon, last perpetual archon, dies 753 Cherops, 1st decennial archon 748 [Perhaps the first trustworthy date in Athenian history.] Hippomenes deposed for his cruelly 713 Erixias, 7th and last decennial archon, dies 684 Creon, Isl annual archon 683 Draco, 12lh annual archon, publishes his laws, said "to have been written in blood " 621 Revolution of Cylon 612 Sacked War (the first), Cirrha in Phocis near Delphi destroyed, 595 Solon supersedes Draco's laws by his excellent code 594 Pisistratus, the " tyrant," seizes the supreme power, 560; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus establishes his government, 537; collects a public library, 531 ; dies 527 First tragedy acted at Athens, on a wagon, by Thespis 535 Hipparchus assassinated by Harmodius and Arislogeiton 514 Law of ostracism adopted; Hippias and the Pisistratidse ban- ished 510 Lemnos taken by Miltiades 504 Persian invaders defeated at Marathon 490 Death of Miltiades 489 Aristides, surnamed the Just, banished 483 Athens taken by Xerxes 480 Burned to the ground by Mardonius 479 Rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles ; Piraeus built. 478 Themistocles banished 471 Cimon, son of Miltiades, overruns all Thrace 469 Pericles takes part in public affairs, 469; he and Cimon adorn Athens, 464 ; the latter banished 461 Athens begins to tyrannize over Greece 459 Long wall built 457 Sacred War (the second) 448 Tolmidias conducts an expedition into Bceotia, and is defeated and killed near Coronea 447 30 years' truce between Athenians and Lacedaemonians 445 Herodotus said to have read his history in the council at Athens, " Pericles obtains the government 444 " subdues Samos 440 Satirical comedies prohibited at Athens " Alliance between Athens and Corcyra, then at war with Cor- inth, 433; leads to the Peloponnesian war (lasted 27 years); it began 431 A dreadful plague, which had ravaged Ethiopia, Libya, Egypt, and Persia, extends to Athens, and continues for 5 years 430 Death of Pericles of the plague 429 Disastrous expedition again.st Sicily; death of commanders De- mosthenes and Nicias; Athenian fleet destroyed by Gylippus, 415-413 Government of the " 400 " 411 Alcibiades defeats the Lacedaemonians at Cyzicus 410 Alcibiades, accused of aspiring to sovereign power, banished. . 407 Athens victorious in a sea-fight at Arginusae 406 Athenian fleet destroyed by Lysander at ^gospotami 405 He besieges Athens by land and sea; its walls are destroyed I and it capitulates, and the Peloponnesian war terminates. . . 404 Rule of the 30 tyrants, who are overthrown by Thrasybulus. . . 403 Socrates (aged 70) put to death 399 Corinthian war begins 395 Conon rebuilds the long walls and fortifies the Piraeus 393 Plato founds the Academy 388 War against Sparta 378 Lacedaemonian fleet defeated at Naxus by Chabrias 376 General peace 371 Philip, king of Macedon, opposes the Athenians (Macedon). . . 359 Sacred War (the third) 357-55 First Philippic of Demosthenes 352 Peace with Macedon 346 Battle of Cheronaea ; Athenians and Thebans defeated by Philip 7 Aug. 338 Philip assassinated by Pausanias 336 Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the orators 335 Death of Alexander 323 Lamian war; the Athenians and others rise against Macedon, 323; defeated at Cranon ; Demosthenes poisons himself 322 Athens surrenders to Cassander, who governs well, 318; execu- tion of Phocion 317 Demetrius Poliorcetes expels Demetrius Phalereus, and restores the Athenian democracy, 307; the latter takes the chair of philosophy 296 League between Athens, Sparta, and Egypt 277 Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedon, 268; re- stored by Aratus 256. ATH 6 Athenians join the Achaean league 229 They join the ^tolians against Macedon, and send for assist- ance to Rome 215 Roman fleet arrives at Athens 211 Romans proclaim liberty at Athens 196 Subjugation of Greece 144 Athenians implore assistance against the Romans from Mithri- dates, king of Pontus, whose general, Archelaus, makes him- self master of Piraeus. about 87 Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general; it is reduced to surrender by famine 86 Cicero studies at Athens, 79 ; and Horace 42 Athenians desert Pompey, to follow the interests of Csesar 47 A.D. Athens visited by the apostle Paul 52 Many temples, etc., erected by Hadrian 122-3.'i Athens taken by Alaric, and spared from slaughter 396 Acquired by Otho de la Roche, and afterwards made a duchy.. 1205 Subjected by the Turks 1444 " " Mahomet II 1456 " " the Venetians 1466 Restored to the Turks 1479 Athens suffers much during the war of independence, 1821-27. Taken by the Turks (Greece) 17 May, 1827 Becomes the capital of the kingdom of modern Greece 1833 Pop. 41,298, 1861 ; 44,510, 1871 ; 68,677, 1879 ; 107,251 1889 AthertOIl SSLg, To prevent discussion of slavery in the House of Representatives, C. G. Atherton, of New Hamp- shire, introduced a resolution, passed 11 Dec. 1838, that all petitions and papers relating to that subject should be " laid on the table without being debated, printed, or referred." It was rescinded in 1845. Petitions, United States. Athlone, Roscommon, Ireland, was burned during the civil war in 1641. After the battle of the Boyne, col. R. Grace held Athlone for James II. against a besieging army, but fell when it was taken by assault by Ginkell, 30 June, 1691. Aghrim. Atlanta Campaign (6 May-2 Sept. 1864), in which gens. Sherman and Johnston were antagonists, until the latter was relieved by Hood, is one of the most interesting of the American civil war. Gen. Sherman, at the instance of gen. Grant, succeeded him in command of the military division of the Mississippi, 14 Mch. 1864. This division embraced 4 departments — the Cumberland, Ohio, Tennessee, and Arkansas. The objective point of the campaign was Atlanta, Ga. The forces under gen. Sherman comprised The army of the Cumber- ) infantry. Cavalry. Artillery. Total. land, under maj.-gen. [ . . . .54,568 3828 2377. . . .60,773 George H. Thomas. ) OftheTenn.,maj.-gen.Jas.i 00437 624 1404 24 465 B. McPherson. p • • •^^)*^' • • • • t»^* ^*"*- ■ • -^^'^^^ ^ M^ S^hoflS"'' "^''°' '^*'^° 1 • • • • l^:^- • • • 1^ • • • •_^ • • • -13,559 Total .,..'. 88,188 6149 4460. . . .98,797 with 254 guns. Estimated strength of the confederate forces, 60,000, under gen. Joseph E. Johnston. The confederate posi- tion was at Dalton, about 90 miles from Atlanta, its front cov- ered by a ridge or mountain known as " Rocky Face." The following are the important events of the campaign, during which the opposing forces constantly confronted each other, the one falling back, the other advancing, but with no general engagement. Gen. Sherman advances on Dalton, 4 May, with the army of the Cumberland in the centre; that of the Tennessee on the right; that of the Ohio on the left. The army of the Cumberland demonstrates in front of the confederate position at Rocky Face ridge, while McPherson is sent with the army of the Tennessee to turn the confederate left and seize Resaca or some other point in the rear of the confederates. McPherson thinking his force not strong enough to occupy Resaca, forti- fies himself at Snake-Creek Gap. Sherman reinforces him with gen. Schofleld's command and a portion of the army of the Cumberland. This compels Johnston to evacuate Dalton and fell back on Resaca 6-14 May, 1864 Battle of Resaca, partial engagement of the troops under How- ard, Hooker, and Schofield, beginning about 3 p.m. . .15 May, " This engagement, coupled with the continued flanking move- ment of McPherson, compels the confederates to fall back from Resaca to Cassville 16-19 May, " Jeff. C. Davis with a division of the army of the Cumberland oc- cupies Rome, destroying the mills and founderies. . . 17 May, " Johnston retreats across the Etowah on the night of 19 May, " and occupies a fortified position covering the Allatoona pass. Sherman crosses the Etowah and moves on Dallas 23 May, " Gen. Hooker, moving from Burnt Hickory towards Dallas with the 20th corps, meets the confederates at Pumpkinvine creek in a severe but indecisive engagement 25 May, " Confederates occupy a strongly intrenched position from Dal- las to Marietta, including Kenesaw, Lost, and Pine mountains, 26 May, " Confederates attack McPherson at Dallas; repulsed.. . .28 May, " ATM Gen. Sherman, moving his army to the left, envelopes Allatoona pass and compels the confederates to evacuate it as well as their intrenched positions at Ackworth and NewHope church, ,,„ , 1-6 June. 1864 [Allatoona pass made a depot of supplies by gen. Sherman.] Gen. Frank Blair joins Sherman with 2 divisions of the 17th corps and a brigade of cavalry, raising his effective force to quite Its original strength g June " Gen. Sherman moves his troops to Big Shanty and close up to Kenesaw... llJune. •' Durmg an artillery duel the confederate general Leonidas Polk is killed on Pine mountain 14 June " Confederates retire from Pine mountain, 15 Jiine, and Lost mountain 17 j^,^^ u Confederates attempt to break Sherman's line at the intersec- tion of Thomas's right and Schofleld's left near what is known as " the Kulp house. " The attack falls on Williams's division of the 20th corps and Haskell's of the 23d; repulsed with se- vere loss to the confederates 22 June **■ Sherman's unsuccessful assault on Kenesaw (battle of Kenesaw mountain) with loss of 3000, including gens. Harker and Dan McCook, killed. Confederate loss, 442 27 June "■ Gen. Sherman again orders McPherson forward on the confed- erates' left flank, threatening to cross the Chattahoochee at Turner's ferry. The confederates abandon Kenesaw and fall back to the Chattahoochee 2 July, "■ Gen. Sherman shifts his troops from the right to the left— the army of the Tennessee being now on the extreme left— and crossing the Chattahoochee at three points, compels John- ston to abandon the Chattahoochee and establish a new line covering Atlanta 4-17 July. " Confederate gen. Johnston relieved, and gen. J. B. Hood of Texas appointed in his place 17 July, "■ Battle of Peach-tree Creek. Newton's division of the 4th corps, the 20th corps, and Johnson's division of the 14th corps, on crossing Peach-tree creek are attacked in force by confed- erates about 2 p.M 20 July, "^ [The confederates are repulsed with a loss of not less than 2000, while the union loss is 1500.] Rousseau starts from Decatur, Ala., with 2000 cavalry upon his raid against the West Point railroad (10 July); crosses the Coosa, and defeats Clanton (13 July); strikes the railroad, de- stroys a portion of it, and joins Sherman 22 July. " Battle of Decatur or Atlanta. This is the severest battle of the campaign and results in the loss to the union army of 3722 and the death of gen. McPherson 22 July, " [Hood surprises the extreme left of the army of the Ten- nessee about noon on the 22d, and for several hours prospects vary, but as the union troops consolidate, he is repulsed. Gen. McPherson falling, gen. John A. Logan assumes temporary command of the army of the Tennessee.] Maj.-gen. 0. 0. Howard appointed to the command of the army of the Tennessee 27 July. " [Maj.-gen. Joseph Hooker of the 20th corps, feeling slighted at the appointment of gen. Howard, is relieved at his own re- quest, maj.-gen. Henry W. Slocum succeeding.] Army of the Tennessee moves from the extreme left to the extreme right, with the general aim of driving Hood out of Atlanta by flanking him 26-27 July, " Gen. Hood, taking advantage of this movement, attacks the extreme right of the army of the Tennessee, 15th corps, Logan's — well supported, however, by Blair's and Dodge's corps, at Ezra's church 28 July, "^ [This battle commences in earnest about noon and con- tinues until 4 P.M., when the confederates retire with a loss of 2000. The un ion loss 600. ] Gen. Sherman sends gen. Stoneman on a raid towards Macon, Ga., with about 5000 cavalry 28 July, " [Stoneman is captured with part of his command.] Siege of Atlanta 1-26 Aug. "^ Gen. Kilpatrick raids around Atlanta, destroying the West Point and Macon railroad 18-22 Aug. " Gen. Sherman discontinues the direct siege of Atlanta, with- drawing the 20th corps (Slocum's) to an intrenched position on the Chattahoochee, and moves the rest of the army south of Atlanta 25-28 Aug. " Army of the Tennessee, attacked by the confederate gen. Hardee at Jonesboro, about 20 miles south of Atlanta, re- pulses him. A counter attack is made by the 14th corps under gen. Jeff'. C. Davis late in the afternoon, but owing to the lack of support and the lateness of the hour it fails to take the confederates' position 31 Aug. " Confederates retire to Lovejoy during the night of 31 Aug. " Gen. Hood, blowing up his magazines and destroying his stores, evacuates Atlanta 1-2 Sept. " Atlanta occupied by gen. Slocum with 20th corps 3 Sept. " Gen. Sherman returns to Atlanta from Lovejoy with his army, 5-7 Sept. " A truce of 10 days between Hood and Sherman to remove the remaining inhabitants from Atlanta, 446 families, 2035 per- sons, being sent south, fully accomplished by 21 Sept. " Allatoona Pass, Shkrman's Great March. Atlantic Ocean. Deep-sea sounding, Oce.vns. Atlantic telegraph. Electric telegraph, under Electricity. atniory§i§, a method of separating the constituent gases of a compound (such as atmospheric air) by passing it through a vessel of porous material (such as graphite); made ATM 64 known in Aug. 1863, by tlie discoverer, tlie late prof. T. Oraham, F.R.S., master of the mint. atmoipherlc railiray§. The idea of atmos- pheric pressure as a motor was conceived by Papin, the French engineer, about 1680. Experiments were made on a line of rail across Wormwood Scrubs, London, between Shepherd's Bush and the Great Western railroad, to test atmospheric tubes, the working of the air-pump, and speed of carriages upon this principle in June, 1840, and then on a line between Croydon and London, 1845. Atmospheric pressure was tried and abandoned in 1848, on the South Devon line. An atmos- pheric railway was commenced between Dalkey and Killiney, in the vicinity of Dublin, in Sept. 1843; opened 29 Mch. 1844; Willis and Carteret 1763-66 Capt. Cook, sir Joseph Banks, and others land at Botany Bay, and name the country " New South Wales " 28 Apr. 1770 Exploration of Furneaux 1773 Governor Phillip founds Sydney near Port Jackson, with 1030 persons 26 Jan. 1788 [The 82d anniversary of this event was kept with much festivity, 26 Jan. 1870.] ' AUS Great distress in consequence of the loss of the store-ship Guardian, capt. Uiou 1790' Voyages of Bligh 1789-92 First church erected Aug. 1793 Government gazette first printed 1795- Bass's strait discovered by Bass and Flinders 1798 First brick church built 1802 Colony of Van Diemen's Laud (now Tasmania) established 1803 Grant, 1800, and Flinders survey the coasts of Australia 1801-5 Insurrection of Irish convicts (luelled — 1804 Gov. Bligh. for his tyranny, deposed and sent home 1808 Superseded by gov. Macquarie 1809 Population, 29,783 (three fourths convicts) 1821 Expeditions into the interior by Wentworth, Lawson, Blox- land, 1813; Oxley, etc 1817-23 West Australia formed into a province 1829 Legislative council established " Sturt's expeditions into S. Australia 1828-31 South Australia erected into a province Aug. 1834 First Roman Catholic bishop (Polding) arrives Sept. 1835 Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonized Nov. " First church of England bishop of Australia (Broughton) ar- rives June, 1836 Sir T. Mitchell's expeditions into E. Australia 1831-36 Colony of South Australia founded Dec. " Eyre's expedition overland from Adelaide to King George's sound 1836-37 Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 Capt. Grey explores N. W. Australia 1837-3&' Count Strzelecki explores New South Wales and Tasmania, 1838-43; discovers gold-fields iu Bathurst, Wellington, etc. (kept secret by sir George Gipps). 183^ Suspension of transportation " Strzelecki explores the Australian Alps ; discovers Gipps's Land ; Eyre explores W. Australia 1840' Census— 87,200 males; 43,700 females 1841 Incorporation of city of Sydney 1842 Leichhardt's expedition (never returns) 1844 Sturt proceeds from S. Australia to the middle of the conti- nent 1845 Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establishment of "Home for Female Emigrants " 1841-4ff Census (including Port Phillip)— 114, 700 males; 74,800 females. 1846 Kennedy's expedition, 1847 ; killed ■. 1848 Agitation against revival of transportation by earl Grey 1849 Port Phillip erected into a separate province as Victoria 1850 Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, etc 1851 Census— males, 106,000; females, 81,000 (exclusive of Victoria, 80,000) " Mints established March, 1863- Transportation ceases " Gregory's explorations of interior 1848, 1855-58 Death of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after about fifty years' residence July, 1858 Queensland made a province 4 Dec. 1859 Expedition into the interior under Mr. Landells organized, Aug. I860' Robert O'Hara Burke, William John Wills, and others start from Melbourne 20 Aug. " Burke, Wills, and two others cross Australia to gulf of Carpen- taria; all perish on their return except John King, who ar- / rives at Melbourne Nov. 1861 J. McDouall Stuart's expeditions 1858-62 Stuart, McKinlay, and Landsborough cross Australia from sea to sea 1861-62 Remains of Burke and Wills recovered; public funeral. .21 Jan. 1863 General resistance throughout Australia to the reception of British convicts in W. Australi;\., about June, 1864 Cessation of transportation to Australia in 3 years announced amid much rejoicing 26 Jan. 1865 Total population of Australia, exclusive of natives, 1.298.667, Jan. 1866- Capt. Cadell discovers mouth of the river Roper on the west coast of the gulf of Carpentaria, and fine pastoral country, lat. 14° 45' S Nov. 186T Great drought, 1,000,000 animals perish 1868 Ernest Morrison walks across the continent from the gulf of Carpentaria to Melbourne in 120 days, starting about 18 Dec. 1882 Gradual formation of a defensive Australian fleet and army. . . 1883- Intercolonial conference of delegates on proposed annexation of New Guinea at Sydney recommended 6 Dec. " Formation of Australasian federal commission 7-8 Dec. " Charles Winnicke's exploring party map 40,000 miles of un- known country; announced Jan: 1884 Victoria, Tasmania, and Queensland accept the scheme of fed- eration Aug. " Opposed by New South Wales about 1 Nov. " Several states protest against the German annexations in New Guinea, etc Dec. " British flag hoisted on Woodlark and other islands Jan. 1885- Australian colonies proffer military contingents for the Sou- dan ; thanked by the queen Feb. " Government of Victoria introduces irrigation bill to borrow 4,000,000/. for supplying water to 3,242,000 acres of arid land. 1886- Rabbit pest continues, although the government has expended over 100,000/. Government offers a prize of 25,000/. for a sat- isfactory specific ; without definite results 188T Exploring expedition sent into Britisk New Guinea from Queens- land ; discoveries valuable " M. Pasteur sends three delegates from Paris with a supply of microbes du choldra des poules, with which he hopes to win the 25,000/. prize for the extermination of rabbits 188ft AUS 67 Workingmcn of Australia remit to England 50,000i. to aid Iho London dock-strikers jggg [No deflnite account ever rendered of it.] Great financial depression; many bank failures throughout the difl'erent provinces Jan.-May, 1893 Austra'sia, Oesterreich (Eastern Kingdono), also called Metz, a French kingdom from the 6th to the 8th century. It began with the division of the realm of Clovis by his sons, 511, and ended when Carloman became a monk, yielding the throne to his brother Pepin, as sole king of France, 747. Austria, Oesterreich (Eastern Kingdom), anciently No- ricum and part of Pannonia, was annexed to the Roman em- pire about 33 A.D.; overrun by the Huns, Avars, etc., during the 5th and 6th centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne, 791-96. He divided the government, establishing margraves of eastern Bavaria and Austria. Louis the German, son of Louis le Debonnaire, about 817, subjugated Radbod, margrave of Austria ; but in 883 the descendants of the latter rose in Bavaria against the emperor Charles the Fat, and eventually the margraves of Austria were declaredimmediate princes of the em- pire. In 1156 the margraviatewasmadean hereditary duchy by the emperor Frederic I. ; and in 1453 it was raised to an arch- duchy by the emperor Frederic III. Rudolph, count of Haps- burg, elected emperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria in 1278 ; and from 1493 to 1804 his descendants were emperors of Germany. On 11 Aug. 1804, the emperor Francis II. renounced the title of emperor of Germany, and became hereditary em- peror of Austria as Francis I. The political constitution of the empire is based upon (1) the pragmatic sanction of Charles VI., 1734, which declares the indivisibility of the empire and regulates the succession ; (2) the pragmatic sanction of Francis I.,l Aug. 1804, when he became emperor of Austria only; (3) the diploma of Francis Joseph, 20 Oct. 1860, granting legisla- tive power to the provincial states and the council of the em- pire (Reichsrath) ; (4) the law of 26 Feb. 1861, on national rep- resentation. Self-government was granted to Hungary, 17 Feb. 1867. The empire was named the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, by decree, 14 Nov. 1868. The empire is now di- vided into two parts, separated by the river Leithe. The Cis- Leithan section comprises 14 provincial diets : Galicia, Bohe- mia, Silesia, Moravia, lower and upper Austria, Styria, Tyrol and Voralburg, Salzburg, Carinthia, Carniola,Trieste, and Istria, Dalmatia, and the Bukovina. The Trans-Leithan section com- prises Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and the city of Fiume. Area, 241,000 sq. miles, with a pop. 1886, of 38,- 680,000 ; including Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1890, 41,345,329. Frederic II., the last male of the house of Bamberg, killed in battle with the Hungarians 15 June, 1246 Disputed succession; the emperor Frederic II. sequesters the provinces, appointing Otto, count of Eberstein, governor for the emperor; they are seized by Ladislaus, margrave of Mo- ravia, in right of his wife, Frederic's niece, Gertrude; he dies childless 1247 Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Gertrude, and holds the provinces till his death 1250 Premislas Ottocar of Bohemia acquires the provinces 1254 Compelled to cede Styria to Hungary, he makes war and recov- ers it, in consequence of a great victory 1260 He inherits Carinthia, 1263; refuses title of emperor of Ger- many, 1272 ; and does homage to Rudolph of Hapsburg, elect- ed emperor 1273 War against Ottocar as a rebel ; he is compelled to cede Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to Rudolph 1274 War renewed; Ottocar perishes in battle of Marchfeld. . 26 Aug. 1278 Albert I. assassinated by his nephew while attempting to en- slave the Swiss 1 May, 1308 Successful revolt of the Swiss 1307-9 They totally defeat the Austrians under duke Leopold at Mor- garten 16 Nov. 1315 Tyrol acquired 1363 Duke Leopold imposes toll on the Swiss; they resist; he makes war, and is defeated and slain at Sempach July, 1386 Duke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, and is elected emperor of Germany 1437 Emperor Frederick III., head of house of Hapsburg, creates the archduchy of Austria with sovereign power 6 Jan. 1453 Austria divided between him and his relatives, 1457; war en- sues between them till 1463 Low Countries accrue to Austria by marriage of Maximilian with the heiress of Burgundy 1477 Also Spain, by marriage of Philip I. of Austria with the heir- ess of Aragon and Castile 1496 Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria under Ferdinand I. . . 1526 Austria harassed by Turkish invasions 1529-45 Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bohemia, Hun- gary, Spain, the Netherlands, and their dependencies; abdi- cates (Spain) ." 1556 Thirty Years' War 1618-48 AUS War of the Spanish Succession 170114 Mantua ceded to the emperor V jkn i708 By treaty of Utrecht he obtains part of duchy of MilaiL.'il Apr' 1713 Rastadt he acquires the Netherlands 17U Naples, etc added to his dominions 15 Nov 1715 i urther additions on the east (Temeswar, etc.) by peace of Pas- sa,rowitz i^iu Naples and Sicily given up to "spain '.'.'.".*.*,■.■. 1735 Death of Charles VI., last sovereign of the male'line'of house of Hapsburg; his daughter, Maria Theresa, becomes queen of Hungary ^ ^ -^. ._^ Maria Theresa attacked by Prussia, France,' BaVar'l a, and Sax- ony; supported by Great Britain (Austrian Succession, war ^T-r'ifJ^' ?"^^*^^ Lorraine,whoha(i mkVried'MaVia ThVrVsk'in "*^ 1736, elected emperor of Germany, as Francis I 1745 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Parma, Milan, etc., ceded to Spain! ' " 1748 Seven Years' War ; part of Silesia ceded to Prussia. . . . . V15<^ Gahcia, etc., acquired from Poland.. " ' 1770 War with France (Battles) .''.".'.'.'.".'." 1792-97 By treaty of Campo Formio, the emperor gives up Lombard v and obtains Venice ^ 15 Oot 1707 Treaty of Luneville (more losses) V.'.V.'.".'.'. . " . . I8OI P^rancis IL, emperor of Germany, becomes Francis L hered- itary emperor of Austria n Aug I804 His declaration of war against France '.'.'..' 5 Aur 1805 Capitulation of his army at Ulm .'.*.".'. .20 Oct " Napoleon enters Vienna *.*.."...".'...". 14 Nov " Austrians and Russians defeated at Austerlitz... V.'.V. .2"Dec. " Treaty of Presburg, Austria loses Venice and TyroL 1 Jan 1806 Vienna evacuated by the French 12 Jan. " Dissolution of the German empire, and formal abdication of the emperor. q ^ug. " French again take Vienna '.'. .'.'.'.'..13 May. 1809 Restore it at peace y 24 Oct! " Napoleon marries archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor 1 Apr. 1810 Congress at Vienna. 2 Oct 1814 Treaty of Vienna 25 Feb. 1815 [Italian provinces restored with additions — Lombardo- ' Venetian kingdom established, 7 Apr.] Francis I. dies; Ferdinand I. succeeds 2 Mch. 1835 Insurrection at Vienna; flight of Metternich 13 Mch. 1848 " in Italy (Milan, Sardinia, Venice) 18 Mch. " " at Vienna; emperor flies to Innspruck, 15-17 May, '« Revolution in Hungary ii Sept " Insurrection at Vienna; murder of count Latour 6 Oct. " Emperor abdicates in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, 2 Dec. " Attempted assassination of emperor by Libenyi, 18 Feb. ; who was executed 28 Feb. 1853 Austrians enter Danubian principalities Aug. 1854 Alliance with England and France on Eastern question. .2 Dec. " Concordat grants the pope great power in the empire. .18 Aug. 1855 Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-49 12 July, 18.56 Austrians quit the Danube principalities Mch. 1857 Diplomatic relations between Austria and Sardinia broken off in consequence 23-30 Mch. •' Excitement throughout Europe, caused by the address of the emperor Napoleon III. to the Austrian ambassador. . . 1 Jan. 1859 Emperor of Austria replies in a similar tone 4 Jan. " Austria enlarges her armies in Italy, and fortifies the line of the Ticino between her provinces and Sardinia. . .Feb. and Mch. " Intervention of Russia; proposal for a congress; disputes on admission of Sardinia; Sardinia and France prepare for war, Mch. and Apr. " Austria demands disarmament of Sardinia and dismissal of volunteers from other states within three days 23 Apr. " This demand rejected 26 Apr. " Austrians cross the Ticino 26 Apr. " French troops enter Piedmont 27 Apr. " France declares war (to expel Austrians from Italy) 3 May, " Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May; at Palestro, 30-31 May ; at Magfenta, 4 June ; at Malegnano (Marignano), 8 June, •' Prince Metternich dies, aged 86 (he had been active in wars and negotiations of Napoleon I. ) 11 Ju ne, " Austrians defeated at Solferino (near the Mincio); emperors of Austria and France and king of Sardinia present. 24 June, " Armistice agreed upon, 6 July; emperors meet, 11 July; pre- liminaries of peace signed at Villaft-anca (Lombardy given to Sardinia; an Italian confederation proposed) 12 July, " Manifesto justifying the peace issued to the army, 12 July; to the people 15 July, " Patent issued, granting greatly increased privileges to the Protestants; announced Sept " Treaty of Zurich, confirming the preliminaries of Villafranca, signed 10 Nov. " Decrees removing Jewish disabilities 6, 10 Jan., 18 Feb. 1860 Patent issued for summoning imperial council (Reichsrath) of representatives elected by provincial diets 5 Mch. " Austria protests against annexation of Tuscany, etc., by Sar- dinia Mch. " Proscribed Hungarian count Teleki, at Dresden, given up to Austria about 20 Deo. ; released on parole 31 Dec. " Amnesty for political offences in Hungary, Croatia, etc.. 7 Jan. 1861 New constitution for Austrian monarchy publ 26 Feb. '* Civil and political rights granted to Protestants throughout ^^ empire, except Hungary and Venice H -^pr. Meeting of Reichsrath — no deputies fW)m Hungary, Croatia, ^^ Transylvania, Venetia, or Istria. 29 Apr. Amnesty to political offenders in Hungary 18 Nov. 1863 AUS ^ Reduction in tho army assMited to; and a personal-liberty law passed Pec. 1862 Insurrection in Russian Poland. Jan. ; Austria joins in the in- tercession of Kngiand and France Apr. 1863 Transylvanian deputies accept constitution, and take scats in Reiohsrath 20 Oct. " Austria joins Prussia in war with Denmark Ian. 1864 Galicia and Cracow declared in state of siege J'.i Feb. " Archduke Maximilian emperor of Mkxico Apr. " Peace with Denmark, signed at Vienna M Oct. " Emperor opens Reiohsrath, 14 Nov. ; flree debate; slate of siege in (Jalicia censured Dec. " Convention of Gastkix signed 14 Aug. 1865 Emperor's rescript suppressing the constitution, with tho view of giving autonomy to Hunuary 20 Sept. " Rejoicings in Hungary; dissatisfaction in Austria. Croatia, etc Nov., Dec. " Amnesty for Italy issued 1 Jan. 1866 Disputes with Prussia on Holstein Jan., Mch. " Preparations for war begin Mch. " Archduke Albrecht commander of southern army, 6 May ; Ben- edek of northern 12 May, " War declared by Prussia, 18 June; by Italy 20 June, " Austrians enter Silesia, 18 June ; and Prussians Bohemia, 23 June, " Italians defeated by archduke Albrecht at Custozza. . .24 June, " Prussian victories at Nachod. etc 27-29 June, " Benedek defeated at KOniggratz and Sadowa 3 July, " [For deUiils of the war, Italy, Prussia.] Emperor cedes Vonetia to Napoleon, and requests interven- tion 4 July, " Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg 26 July, " Treaty of peace with Prussia at Prague 23 Aug. " " " " Italy at Vienna, ceding Venetia, 3 Oct. ; the iron crown given up 11 Oct. " Quadrilateral and Venice surrendered to the Italians, 11-19 Oct. " Baron Ferdinand von Beust, late Saxon minister of foreign affairs, made Austrian foreign minister 30 Oct. " Extraordinary diet convoked (for 25 Feb.) 3 Jan. 1867 Autonomy for Hungary announced; resignation of Belcredi, 4 Feb. ; Von Beust president of council 7 Feb. " Rescript restoring a separate ministry for Hungary, count Andrassy president 17 Feb. " Reiohsrath opened at Vienna 20 May, " Czechs (of Bohemia and Moravia), Croats, Slavonians, Serbs, Roumans (of Transylvania), and Poles (of Galicia), protest against absorption, and demand national legislative powers, May and July, " Emperor and empress crowned king and queen of Hungary at Buda 8 June, " Von Beust chancellor of the empire 23 June, " Arrangements for dividing the financial affairs of Austria and Hungary, signed 13 Sept. " Changes (respecting marriage and education) in the concordat proposed Sept. " 28 bishops demand maintenance of concordat 28 Sept. " Letter from emperor to cardinal Rauscher, for liberty of con- science in opposition to the concordat; concordat almost an- nulled by lower' house Oct. " Dualism accepted by the Reichsrath at Vienna Nov. " Civil-marriages bill (annulling clerical jurisdiction over them) passed by upper bouse, after sharp resistance, 21-23 Mch. ; received emperor's assent 25 May, 1868 Continued opposition of clergy to government Jan. 1869 Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war announced 18 July, 1870 Concordat with Rome suspended because of promulgation of doctrine of papal infallibility 30 July, " Ministry support Great Britain in opposing the Russian repu- diation of treaty of Paris (Russia) Nov. " Austrian army, 864,869 regulars; 187,527 landwehr (militia), Dec. " New German empire recognized by the emperor JafK 1871 Resignation of count Beust, arch-chancellor; much excite- ment 6 Nov. " Count Andrassy appointed minister of imperial household and of foreign affairs; Von Beust ambassador at London; Lon- yay, premier of Hungary 13-14 Nov. " Reichsrath opened by the emperor with speech announcing political and educational reforms 28 Dec. " Kew constitutional law promulgated, giving the emperor power to order new elections of the chambers 13 Mch. 1872 Reform bill passed changing the Reichsrath into a national representative assembly 10 Mch. 1873 Elections for Reichsrath: 228 constitutionalists, 125 federals, 30 Oct. ; Reichsrath opened by the emperor, 5 Nov. ; 25th anniversary of the emperor's accession celebrated; amnesty for political offenders 2 Dec. " Encyclical letter from the pope condemning the new ecclesi- astical laws, dated 7 Mch. 1874 Protest of Austrian bishops; both parties adopt Cavour's cry, "A free church in a free state " Apr. " New bed of Danube inaugurated by emperor 30 May, 1875 Death of ex-emperor Ferdinand " 29 June, " Declaration of neutrality in Russo-Turkish war by Austria and Hungary; foreign policy to be for "the interest of the mon- archy, to the exclusion of all antipathies and sympathies," M. de Tisza (Hungarian) 26 June, 1877 €ount Andrassy at the Berlin conference 13 June--13 July, 1878 Austria to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina, by treaty of Berlin 13 July, " Austrians enter, and war ensues (Bosma) 29 July, " AUS Bosnia occupied (except Novi-Bazar) Oct. 1878 Andrassy resigns; baron Haymerle made foreign minister and president of council 8 Oct. 1879 Marriage of archduke Rudolph and princess Stephanie of Belgium 10 May, 1881 Sudden death of baron Haymerle 10 Oct. " Insurrection in Herzegovina, etc. ; skirmishes with Austrians, ir>-31 Jan. ; insurgents defeated 1882 Provisional government said to have been formed by insur- gents about 9 Feb. " Mahometans sympathize with Christian insurgents Feb. " Successful advance of the Austrians; capture of Dragali an- nounced 14 Mch. " Insurgents adopting guerilla warfare about 12 May, " "New German People's party " formed; manifesto published, about 29 May, " Execution of Overdank, a soldier, for attempted assassination of emperor 20 Dec. " 600th anniversary of establishment of house of Hapsburg cele- brated 27 Dec. " Slavonic agitation against Germans and Magyars and taxation (Croatia), Aug.-Sept. ; conciliatory policy of government, Sept. 1883 Birth of princess to archduke Rudolph and the princess Ste- phanie 2 Sept. " Much social disaffection at Vienna; 2 detective policemen assassinated, Hlubek, Bloch Jan. 1884 Corpl. Hermann Stellmacher, assassin of Bloch, captured, 25 Jan.; a great conspiracy suspected; law decreed by count Taaffe repressing public meetings, the press, trials by jury, etc., 30 Jan. ; many arrested or expelled Jan. " Government measures pass the chambers 15 Feb. " Hugo Schenk and Schlossarck executed for murder of several servant-girls 22 Apr. " Stellmacher executed 8 Aug. " Reichsrath dis.solves Apr. 1885 Czar of Russia meets the emperor at Kremsier in Moldavia, 25 Aug. " A bill for creating a Landsturm introduced in the Reichsrath and passed 16 Apr. 1886 [Giving the nation a war-footing of 1,500,000.] Count Beust dies at Altenberg, near Vienna 24 Oct. " The crown-prince Franz Karl Joseph Rudolph dies at Meyer- ling 30 Jan. 1889 [Supposed suicide in consequence of a love-affair with the young baroness Vetsera— physicians report mental aliena- tion.] Resignation of the prime-minister Koloman Tiszo, for 15 years at the head of the ministry 7 Mch. 1890 [Succeeded by count Julius Sazapary.] MARGRAVES OF AUSTRIA. Leopold I., 928; Albert I., 1018; Ernest, 1056; Leopold TL 1075; Leopold III., 1096; Albert IL, 1136; Leopold IV., 1136; Henry IL, 1142 (made a duke, 1156). 1150. Henry IT. DUKES. 1177. Leopold V. He captured Richard I. of England when return- ing incognito from the crusade, and was compelled to sur- render him to the emperor Henry VI. 1194. Frederic I., the Catholic. 1198. Leopold VI., the Glorious. Killed in battle. 1230. Frederic II., the Warlike. Killed in a battle with Hungarians, 15 June, 1246. Interregnum. 1276. Rudolph I. 1282. Albert I. and his brother, Rudolph II. Albert, emperor of Germany, 1298. 1308. PYederic I. and Leopold I. 1326. Frederic L 1330. Albert II. and Otho, his brother. 1339. Albert II. 1358. Rudolph IV. 1365. Albert III. and Leopold II. or III. (killed at Sempach). 1395. William I. and brothers, and their cousin Albert IV. 1411. The same. The provinces divided into duchies of Austria and Carinthia, and county of Tyrol. 1411. Albert V., duke of Austria; obtains Bohemia and Moravia; elected king of Hungary and emperor, 1437; dies, 1439; succeeded by his posthumous son. 1439. Ladislaus, who dies childless, 1457. 1457. The emperor Frederic III. and Albert VI. 1493. Maximilian I., son of Frederic III. (archduke), emperor; Ger- many, 1493-1804. KMPERORS. 1804. Francis I., b. 1768 (late Francis II. of Germany), styled em- peror of Austria only, 11 Aug. 1804; resigned empire of Germany, 6 Aug. 1806 ; d. 2 Mch. 1835. 1835. Ferdinand, his son, 2 Mch. ; abdicated in favor of his nephew (his brother Francis Charles having renounced his rights), 2 Dec. 1848 ; b. 1793 ; d. 29 June, 1875. 1848. Francis Joseph (son of Francis Charles), b. 18 Aug. 1830; succeeded, 2 Dec. 1848; married 24 Apr. 1854, to Elizabeth of Bavaria; crowned king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867. Heir presumptive: archduke Franz Ferdinand, b. 18 Dec. 1863; nephew of the emperor and/Son of archduke Karl Ludwig. Au§trian Succe§§ioii, War of (1740-1748). Charles IV., emperor of Germany, without male heirs, desirous of securing the succession to his daughter, Maria Theresa, AUT 69 queen of Hungary and Bohemia, in 1731 framed the prag- matic sanction. England and most powers of Europe, ex- cept France, Spain, and Sardinia, acceded. The emperor died 20 Oct. 1740, when Maria Theresa assumed the title. Imme- diately counter-claims to the succession were advanced by the electors of Bavaria and Saxony and the kings of Poland and Spain, while Sardinia claimed a portion of the empire, and Frederick II. of Prussia wanted Silesia. France espoused the cause of Bavaria, while England alone offered assistance to the queen. The war that ensued is termed that of the Austrian suc- cession, in which nearly allEurope took part. The succession was confirmed to the queen by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748. autllor§. Literature. auto-da-fc (" act of faith "), the term given to the punishment of a heretic (generally burning alive), inflicted by the Inquisition. The first auto-da-fe was held by Torque- mada at Seville, in 1481. The last was probably that men- tioned by Llorente, the historian of the Inquisition, as solem- nized in Mexico in 1815. automaton fig^ure§ or androides, made to imitate the actions of living beings, are of early invention. Archytas's flying dove was formed about 400 B.C. Friar Bacon is said to have made a brazen head which spoke, 1264 a.d. Albertus Magnus spent 30 years in making another. A coach and 2 horses, with a footman, a page, a lady inside, were made by Camus for Louis XIV. when a child, 1649 ; the horses and figures moved naturally, variously, and perfectly. Vaucanson, in 1738, made an artificial duck, which performed many func- tions of a real one — eating, drinking, and quacking; and he also made a flute-player. The writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a pentagraph worked by a hidden confederate. An automaton chess-player, invented by baron Kempelen, of Presburg, Hungary, 1769, and known as "Maelzel's chess- player," excited intense curiosity wherever exhibited for many years ; this was also worked by a concealed person ; so was the "invisible girl," 1800. Maelzel made a trumpeter about 1809. Early in this century an automaton was exhibited in London which pronounced several sentences with tolerable distinctness. The"anthropoglossus,"an alleged talking-machine, exhibited at St. James's hall, London, July, 1864, was proved to be a gross imposition. The exhibition of the talking-machine of prof. Faber, of Vienna, in London, began 27 Aug. 1870, at the Palais Royal, Argyll street, W. The automatic chess-player at the Crystal Palace, 1873. Psycho, an automaton card-player, in- vented by J. N. Maskelyne and John Algernon Clarke, ex- hibited in London, Jan. 1875. An automaton hare was hunted at Hendon, near London, 9 Sept. 1876. autOtypog-'raphy, a process of producing a metal plate from drawings, made known by Mr. Wallis in Apr. 1863 ; it resembled Nature-printing. Auttose tOWll§. Indian villages in the Creek country, Alabama, attacked and destroyed by brig.-gen. John Floyd, with 950 Georgia militia, 29 Nov. 1813. Georgia. Av'alon or Avilion, the earthly paradise of Celtic Mythology, a " green island" in the Atlantic far to the west- ward. " I am going a long way ... estimated at 2 or 3 per cent. The Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, founded to foster and develop aeronautics and aerology, by the duke of Argyll, James Glaisher, sir Charles- Bright, and others, 12 Jan. 1866. Francis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate air in a boat raised by four hollow balls of thin copper, exhausted of air. . 1670' Joseph Galien suggests tilling a bag with fine diffuse air of the upper atmosphere ' 1755 Henry Cavendish discovered that cotnmon air is 14.5 times heavier than hydrogen gas !7T>: 1766. Black of Edinburgh fills a bag with hydrogen which rose to the ceiling of the room 1767 Cavallo fills soap-bubbles with hydrogen 1782. Joseph Montgolfler makes a silken bag ascend with heated air (first fire balloon) Nov. " Joseph and Stephen Montgolfler ascend safely in a fire balloon at Annonay 5 Juno, 1783' First ascent in a hydrogen balloon, Paris, by MM. Robert and Charles 27 Aug. " Joseph Montgolfler ascends in a balloon inflated with smoke of burned straw and wool 19 Sept. ' ' First aerial voyage in a fire balloon — Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis d'Arlaudes 21 Nov. " Second ascent of Charles in a hydrogen balloon, 9770 ft. . 1 Dec. " Mr. Tytler, in a Montgolfler balloon, Edinburgh 27 Aug. 1784 Ascents of Andreani, 25 Feb. ; Blanchard, 2 Mch. ; Guyton de Morveau, the chemist, 25 Apr. and 12 June; Fleurant and Madame Thibl^ (first female aeronaut). 28 June; duke of Chartres (Philippe Egalite) 19 Sept. " First ascent in England, Lunardi, Moorflelds, London. .15 Sept. " Blanchard and Jeff'ries ascend at Dover; cross the Channel; alight near Calais 7 Jan. 1785- First ascent in Ireland, Ranelagh gardens, Dublin 19 Jan. " Rozier and Romain killed in their descent near Boulogne; the balloon takes fire 15 June, «' Parachutes constructed and used by Blanchard Aug. " Garnerin's narrow escape descending in one in London, 2 Sept. 1802 Sadler, after many ascents in England, falls into the sea, near Holyhead, but is rescued 9 Oct. 1812 Madame Blanchard ascends from Tivoli at night; the balloon, surrounded by fireworks, taking fire, she is thrown down . and killed 6 July, 1819 Charles Green's first ascent (he introduces coal-gas in balloon- ing) 19 July, 1821 Lieut. Harris killed in a balloon descent 25 Maj', 1824 Sadler, jun., killed, falling from a balloon 1825 Great Nassau balloon, previously exhibited in ascents from Vauxhall gardens, carries 3 persons thence, and after 18. hours in the air descends at Weilburg, duchy of Nassau, 7 Nov. 1836- Mr. Cocking ascends from Vauxhall to try his parachute; in its descent it collapses, and he is thrown out and killed, 24 July, 1837 An Italian aeronaut ascends from Copenhagen ; his corpse is found on the shore of an island, dashed to pieces 14 Sept. 1851 Ascent from Adrian. Mich., Ira Thurston killed Sept. 185S J. B. Lassie's model of an "aerial ship," with a screw, sub- mitted to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, 1859; and ex- hibited at Washington .- 1859 Mr. Wise and 3 others ascend from St. Louis (travel 1150 miles, and descend in Jeflferson county, N. Y., nearly dead), 23 June, " BAL Nadar's balloon (largest ever made), capacity 215,363 cubic feet of gas; the car, a cottage in wicker work, raises 35 soldiers at Paris; Nadar Lopes to steer by a screw; first ascent, with 14 persons, successful 4. Oct. 1863 Second ascent; voyagers injured; saved by presence of mind of Jules Godard; descend at Nienburg, Hanover 12 Oct. " :Nadar with balloon at Crystal palace, Sydenham •. . Nov. " Society for Promoting Aerial Navigation formed at M. Nadar's, at Paris; president, M. Barral 15 Jan.' 1864 ■Godard's Montgolfier or Are balloon ascends.. 28 July and 3 Aug. " Nadar and others ascend in his balloon at Brussels 26 Sept. " Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new balloon; it is lost and several persons injured 3 July, 1865 .Ascent of Nadar in his Geant balloon, Paris 23 June' 1866 Mr. Coxwell claims 550 successful ascents to Apr! 1867 j^erial screw machine (helicopteric) suggested, Paris, 1863; de- scribed by Dr. J. Bell Pettigrew, at the Royal Institution, Lon- don 22 Mch. " Mr. Hodsman crosses the Channel from Dublin, and descends in Westmoreland 22 Apr. " •Great balloon exhibited at Ashburnham park, London ; escapes ; captured at Bouldon, Bucks 25 May, 1869 •Charles Green, aeronaut, said to have made about 600 ascents', d. aged 84 27 Mch. 1870 Dupuy de L6me at Vincennes ascends in "navigable" bal- loon, with 13 persons; reported success 2 Feb. 1871 Mr. Wise proposes to cross the Atlantic from New York to Liverpool in a balloon, 100 feet in diameter, 110 feet high, with supplementary balloon 36 feet in diameter; entire lift- ing power 15,900 lbs., carrying-power 9500 lbs., disposable ballast 7500 lbs., July; balloon reported imperfect, Sept. ; a smaller one, under W. J. Donaldson, starts (with a life boat) 9.19 A.M., 6 Oct., and descends in a storm in Connecticut; narrow escape 7 Oct. 1873 Tincent de Groof, Belgian ("flying man "), makes a parachute to imitate a bird in flight; ascends from Cremorne gardens, Xiondon, and descends with it more than 300 feet in Essex, 29 June; at his next attempt the parachute becomes disar- ranged and he is killed 9 July, 1874 TJnder the Government Balloon Committee, Mr. Coxwell ascends atWoolwichtotryC.A.Bowdler'sapparatus(basedonthescrew- propeller) for steering balloons; failure reported 25 July, " fit has been proved that a vertical screw can raise or de- press a balloon, saving gas and ballast.] TH. and Mme. Duruof ascend from Calais to cross the Channel, 31 Aug.; carried out to sea; balloon falls in and drifts towards Norway ; rescued by a smack (the Grand Charge) ; aeronauts land at Grimsby 4 Sept. " Duruof, etc., ascend from Crystal palace 14 Sept. " Menier's hot-air balloon fails on trial 5 Sept. and 16 Oct. " Ascent of capt. Burnaby at Crystal palace with machine to trace course of wind above clouds; reported success 10 Nov. '' MM. Tissandier, Croce Spinelli, and Sivel ascend in the "Ze- nith" from La Villette, near Paris; at 26,160 feet Croce throws out ballast; ascend rapidly; he and Sivel are suffo- cated; Tissandier recovers 15 Apr. 1875 Washington J. Donaldson, aeronaut, perishes in lake Michigan during a storm 18 July, " Failure of Carrol's directing apparatus at Paris July, 1878 Frequent ascents in a "captive balloon" Aug. " Giflard's captive balloon, "Paris," burst 16 or 17 Aug. 1879 5 balloons from places near London compete for a silver medal of Balloon Society; the "Owl," Mr. Wright and commander Cheyne, travels 48 miles in 1 hour 4 Sept. 1880 International balloon contest at Crystal palace; England ("Eclipse"), Mr. Wright; France, M. de Fonvielle; both alight near Portsmouth 21 Oct. " ■Giffard and De L5me's aerial ship said to be successful for di- rection, speed, etc Jan. 1881 UIt. Eugene (after about 2000 ascents) narrowly escapes death in a storm at Vienna 21 Aug. " "Walter Powell, M.P., crosses Bristol channel, descending at Dingeston, goes on to Hereford, 3 Nov. ; Powell, Templer, and Gardner ascend at Bath in war-oflBce balloon "Saladin" ; de- scend near Bridport; 2 fall out; Powell drifts to sea; not found 10 Dec. " Hemains of the balloon said to have been found on Sierra del Piedroza mountain, Spain about 20 Jan. 1882 •Col. Brine and Mr. Simmons start across Channel; picked up half way 4 Mch. " Col. Burnaby crosses and lands at Caen 23 Mch. " Mr. Simmons goes from Maldon, Essex, to Arras (140 miles), 1 b. 20 m 10 June, " Mr. Simmons and sir Claude C. de Crespigny cross from Maldon, Essex, to Oudekgrk, near Flushing (140 miles in 6 hours) 1_2 Aug. 1883 Mr. Simmons and Mr. Smale go from Hastings to cape la Hague (6h. 40 m.) 13 Sept. " Electrical balloon constructed by Gaston and Albert Tissandier, successful trial reported 8 Oct. » M. L'Hoste, from Boulogne to Folkestone, 9 Sept. ; from Bou- logne to Romney, 1 h. .30 m 7 Aug. 1884 Gen. Brine crosses from Hythe to Hervelinghen 15 Aug. " A^erial navigation said to be effected by M. Renard, director of the French military ballooning establishment at Meudon, with an air-ship — length of balloon, 50.42 metres; diameter, 8.40 metres; cubic capacity, 1864 metres; filled with hydro- gen; sustaining 2000 kilogrammes — the motors were Faure accumulator of 10 horse-power; after going 4 miles and de- scribing a curve of 300 metres radius it returns to the place ■of starting • ...9 Aug. " BAL Second trial ; result uncertain. 12 Sent 18JU Reported success by M. Tissandier ".■.'.*.■ 26 Sent '' Third trial by capt. Renard ; successful 8 Nov* " Aid to build a vacuum air-ship asked by A. de Boisset of U. S government—to be a steel cylinder 46 yards in diameter 218 ^fo^L'Vu'^'^^'^! weight, 260,680 lbs.; displacement of air, (19,709 lbs. ; ascensional force, 459,029 lbs., with perfect vacu! um electric motors, and compound exhaust screw to propel and guide *^ * ,ggg Reported that prof Samuel P. Langley of the Smithsonian in- stitution, Washington, D. C, is perfecting a working model 01 an air-snip Mch '"•'" Descent from balloons by means of a patachiite at first rarely perlormed; now common with practical aeronauts [Some descending from a height of 7000 feeL] MILITARY AND POSTAL APPLICATIONS. Guyton de Morveau ascends twice at the battle of Fleurus ob- taining information for Jourdain 17 June 1794 Balloons devised for postal purposes by G. Shepherd C E ' 1851 Balloons used at battle of Solferino, 24 June, 1859- by the Fed- eral army, near Washington July iggi Balloon corps of U. S. army employed by gen. McClel'lan at first siege of Richmond 1862* M. Duruof conveys mail-bags from Paris to Toiirs during the siege 23 Sept 1870 Postal balloons from Metz and Paris .Sept. -Dec. " " balloon from Crystal palace,Sydenham ; successful, 6 Oct. " Gambetta escapes from Paris in a balloon to Rouen 8 Oct. " Many balloons from Paris and other places Oct. 187b-Feb 1871 Military experiments; ascent of "Univers"; very cold weather ■ valve bursts; severalhurt; near Vincennes; nodeaths, 8 Dec' 1875 Military ascents and balloon equipment for military purposes adopted at Woolwich, announced Apr. 1879 Captive balloon at the volunteer review, Brighton 29 Mch 1880 Royal Engineers Balloon Corps arrives at Suak'im 7 Mch! 1885 France and Germany adopt captive balloons for naval pur- poses 189Q SCIKNTIFIC ASCENTS. Gay-Lussac and Biot at Paris, 23 Aug. ; Gay-Lussac (to the height of 22,977 feet) 15 Sept. 1804 Bixio and Barral at Paris (19,000 feet, traversing a cloud 9000 feet) 1850 Mr. Welsh ascends 17, 26 Aug. 21 Oct. and 10 Nov. 1852 Scientific balloon ascents recommended by the British Associa- tion, and funds provided; begun by James Glaisher, with suitable apparatus, in Mr. Coxwell's balloon, at Wolverhamp- ton; 5 miles 17 July, 1862 He ascends at Crystal palace, 18 Apr. 11, 21 July; at Wolver- hampton, 26 June; at Newcastle, during meeting of the Brit- ish Association 31 Aug. 1863 He ascends about 7 miles at Wolverhampton ; at 5% miles be- comes insensible; Mr. Coxwell loses use of hands, but opens valve with his teeth ; descent in safety 5 Sept *' Glaisher's 16th ascent; surveys London 9 Oct. " " 17th ascent at Woolwich; descends at Mr. Brandon's, Suf- folk 12 Jan. 1864 He ascends from Woolwich (24th time) 30 Dec. " His 25th ascent 27 Feb. 1865 Other ascents 2 Oct., 2 Dec. 1865 ; and in May, 1866 Glaisher's "Travels in the Air " publ Jan. 1871 "Astra Castra: Experiments and Adventures in the Atmos- phere. By Hatton Turner," a copious work, appeared 1865 Mr. Coxwell's scientific ascent in the " Nassau " at Hornsey, 22 Sept. 1873 BALLOON SOCIETIES. French Acad^mie d' Aerostation de Met^orologique, authorized, 20 Sept 1872 Balloon Society of Great Britain formed 21 July, 1880, by mem- bers of the aeronautical, geographical, astronomical, chem- ical, and meteorological societies, and other scientific bodies, to promote aeronautics and record and utilize observations made during ascents. Silver medals awarded for ascents, 4 Sept 1880 German Aeronautical Society founded at Berlin Sept 1881 ballot (Fr. ballotte, a little ball). Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks and Ronoaus (Tabellariae Leges) and modern Venetians; in the United States, in France, and, since 1872, in Great Britain and colonies. Scrutin. A ballot-box used in electing aldermen, London 1526 Its use by the Company of Merchant Adventurers in electing an agent, prohi bited by Charles 1 17 Dec. 1637 Ballot-box used by the "Rota," a political club at Miles's cof- fee-house, Westminster 1669 A tract called "The Benefit of the Ballot" ascribed to An- drew Marvell, publ. in the "State Tracts " 1693 Proposed, in a pamphlet, to be used in the election of mem- bers of Parliament 1705 Bill authorizing vote by ballot passes the commons, rejected by the lords 1710 George Grote introduced into the commons a ballot bill 6 times 1833^ House of Commons rejects the ballot— 257 being against, and 189 for it 30 June, 1851 Voting secret in the Chamber of Deputies in France from 1840 to 1845, and is so since the coup d'etat in Dec. " A test-ballot is adopted at Manchester, and Ernest Jones is chosen as a candidate for Parliament He dies next day, 22, 23 Jan.1869 BAL '4 For many years annually proposed by Henry Berkeley; re- jected (bv 1«1 to 112. 12 July, 1867). He die& 10 Mch. 1870 E. Leathaiii introduces a ballot bill in Parliament, Mch. • Mr. Gladstone speaks for it; bill withdrawn 27 July, " Ballot employed in electing the London school-board in 9 dis- tricts 29 Nov. '« Ballot recommended in queen Victoria's speech, 9 Feb. ; bill introduced, passed by commons; rejected by lords (97 to 48), 10 Aug. 1871 Ballot an open question in Whig governments 1836-72 Bill to amend the law relating to procedure at parliamentary and municipal elections, including the ballot, read in the commons. 2d time, 109-51, 15 Feb. ; passed, 271-21G, 30 May; read 2d time in the lords (86-5(>); amendments carried in committee, making secret voting optional (162-91); passed, 25 June; lords' amendments mostly rejected by commons; optional clause given up by the lords, 8 July; royal assent (to continue in force till 31 Dec. 1880. It has been regularly continued, and is now a permanent policy) 13 July, 1872 First election by ballot, at Pontefract, H. E. Childers reelected very peacefully 15 Aug. " Awtralian system of bal-loL This system first proposed by Francis S. Dutton, member of the Legislature of S. Australia, 1861. He is known as the father of the " Australian sys- tem." Adopted in Victoria, Australia, 1856; Tasmania, New South Wales, and S. Australia, 1858 ; Now Zealand, 1870; Eng- land, 1872; British Columbia, 1873; Ontario, 1874; Quebec and Nova Scotia. 1875 Ballot reform on Australian or English system first advocated in the U. 8. in a pamphlet entitled "English Elections," 1882, by Henry George 1883 George W.Walthaw introduces in the lower House of the Mich- igan Legislature a bill embodying the Australian ballot sys- tem (the first presented in the U. S.) Jan. 1887 It is again introduced, and passes the House; and the Senate on the last dav of the session, 1888. Compromise measures adopted '. 1889 Ballot-reform measures vetoed in New York in 1888 and 1889 by gov. Hill; but a bill is approved to enforce the secrecy of the ballot, etc 1890 [The several State Records, 1888.] Ball'§ Bluff, Battle of. Gen. McClellan directed brig.- gen. Chas. P. Stone to make a slight demonstration towards Leesburg, Va., 20 Oct. 1861. Gen. Stone thereupon ordered col. Devens, of the 15th Mass., to cross the Potomac near Ball's Bluif. He did so early on 21 Oct., pushing to near Lees- burg with 625 men and 28 officers; meeting some opposition, he fell back to the place of crossing, where he is attacked about noon by confederates. Col. Devens retired to the edge of the bluflfs, where he was reinforced by col. E. D. Baker with a California regiment and the N. Y. Tammany, increasing his force to 19(X). Col. Baker assumed command, fighting con- tinued until about 5 o'clock p.m., when col. Baker was killed, and the federals gave way ; loss about 1000, being 300 killed and 700 wounded, drowned, and prisoners — there being no proper means of transportation in the retreat. Confederate loss, 155. The disaster was attributed to mismanagement, and in Feb. 1862, gen. Stone was arrested on charges of trea- son. Stone, Chas. P., Case of. Balmo'ral castle, Deeside, Aberdeenshire ; visited by queen Victoria in 1848, 1849, 1850. The estate was pur- chased for 32,000/. by prince Albert in 1852. In 1853 the present building, in the Scotch baronial style, was begun, from designs by W. Smith of Aberdeen. Baltic sea, Ost§ee, or Eastern sea, sepa- rates Sweden and the Danish isles from Russia and Germany. Declared neutral for commerce by treaty between Russia and Sweden, 1759, and Denmark, 1760. It is often partly frozen. Charles X. of Sweden, with an army, crossed the Belts in 1658, and the Russians passed from Finland to Sweden on the ice in 1809. BALTIC EXPEDITIONS. Against Denmark (Armed neitrality). — 1. Under lord Nelson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen bombarded, and 28 Danish vessels taken or destroyed 2 Apr. 1801 2. Under admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart, 18 sail of the line, 15 frigates, 31 brigs and gunboats surrender to the British, 26 July, 1807 Against Russia.—!. British fleet, sir Charles Napier, sails from Spithead in presence of the queen, who leads in her yacht. the Fairy 11 Mch. 1864 Arrives Wingo sound, 15 Mch. ; in the Baltic 20 Mch. " Gulf of Finland blockaded 12 Apr. " 10,000 French troops embark at Calais for the Baltic in Eng- lish ships of war, the emperor present 15 July, " Capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland islands, and surren- der of the garrison (Bomarscnd) 16 Aug. " English and French fleets start homeward to winter 15 Oct. " 2. Expedition of 85 English ships (2098 guns), under admiral R. S. Dundas. sails 20 Mch.-4 Apr. 1855; 16 French ships (408 guns), under admiral Pernand, join it June, 1855 BAL 3 vessels silence Russian batteries at Hogland island. .21 July, 1855:' Fleet proceeded towards Cronsladt. Many infernal machines discovered. Svoaborg attacked (Sveaborg) 9 Aug. " Fleet soon returns to England. Baltimore, the metropolis of Maryland, known as the " Monumental City," covers an area of 31 J sq. miles. A towiiJ of 60 acres, created by act of Assembly, 8 Aug. 1729, and bounded approximately by Liberty, Saratoga, and Frederick streets and the Basin, was laid out and called Baltimore in honor of Cecilius Calvert, lord Baltimore, 12 Jan. 1730. In 1752 the place contained 25 houses and 200 inhabitants; pop- ulation in 1790, 13,503; 1800, 26,114; 1810, 35,583; 1820,, 62,738; 1830, 80,620; 1840, 102,313; 1850, 169,054; I860,. 212,418; 1870,267,354; 1880,332,313; 1890,434,439. Baltimore laid out 12 Jan. 1730' Jones's Town, afterwards Old Town, east of the falls, laid out, 22 Nov. 1732. Parish church built on site afterwards occupied by St. Paul's church, cor. Saratoga and Charles sts., begun 1730, com- pleted 1739 Baltimore and Jones's Town consolidated and incorporated as Baltimore Town 28 Sept. 1745- Subscription of lOOl. by citizens for building a market-house and town-hall, erected 10 years later, on northwest cor. Gay and Baltimore sts 23 Apr. 1751 32 acres of Coles's harbor annexed 1753^ Mount Clare house erected by Charles Carroll; built of im- ported brick 1754 A number of Acadian exiles settle in Baltimore 175&- Made the county seat, and court-house erected where Battle monument now stands 1768 Mechanical Company organized, and a flre-engine purchased 1769^ First umbrella in the U. S. (brought from India) used here. Umbrella 1772 Baptist church erected cor. Front and Fayette sts. ; after- wards site of the shot-tower 1773 First newspaper, the Maryland Journal and Baltimore Adver- tiser, established by William Goddard; first issue 20 Aug. " Stage route opened to Philadelphia ; " First Methodist meeting-house in Baltimore built in Straw- berry alley Nov, " Capt. William Perkins arrives at Marblehead with 3000 bush, of Indian corn, 20 bbls. of rye, and 21 bbls. of bread sent by the people of Baltimore for the poor of Boston 28 Aug. 1774 Baltimore contains 564 houses and 5934 inhabitants 1775 St. Peter's church (Roman Catholic) on Saratoga and Charles sts. built and occupied 1770-75 Continental Congress holds its session in Congress hall, cor. Baltimore and Liberty sts 20 Dec. 1776 to 20 Jan. 177T First notable riot in Baltimore. Mr. Goddard of the Maryland Journal beset in his office by excited members of the "Whig Club," who took exception to an article in his paper lauding king George and Parliament 25 Mch. " Count Pulaski organizes his corps in Baltimore Mch. 1778 First custom-house erected 1780 Paving of the streets begun 1781 First brick theatre in Baltimore erected in E. Baltimore St., nearly opposite the Second Presbyterian church; opened with the play, "King Richard III." 15 Jan. 1782 Regular line of stage-coaches established to Fredericktown and Annapolis 178$ Policemen first employed " 3 new market-houses erected 1784 Streets first lighted with oil-lamps " Methodist church built on northwest cor. Light st. and Wine alley; begun Aug. 1785, dedicated by bishop Asbury, 21 May, 178& First destructive flood recorded 5 Oct. " St. Mary's college (seminary of St. Sulpice) established 1791 Presbyterian church erected on northwest cor. Fayette and North sts. (afterwards razed to give place to the U. S. court- house, 1860) " Bank of Maryland organized " Yellow-fever epidemic Aug. -Oct. 1794 Bank of Baltimore incorporated 24 Dec. 1795 First directory of Baltimore Town and Fell's Point pub 179* Act passed to lay out and establish a turnpike from the city of Washington to Baltimore Town 31 Dec. " Incorporated as a city; pop. 20,000 31 Dec. " First mayor, James Calhoun, elected 16 Jan. 179T Library Company of Baltimore, afterwards merged with the Maryland Historical Society, incorporated 20 Jan. " [Library contained 4000 vols, in 1800.] Maryland Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, and the relief of free negroes and others unlawfully held in bondage, formed in Baltimore; the 4th in the U. S.. .8 Sept. 1798'. Baltimore American and Daily Advertiser first issued. 14 May, 1799 Jerome Bonaparte married to Miss Elizabeth Patterson in Baltimore 24 Dec. 1803 Union bank of Maryland organized and chartered 1804 Mechanics' bank incorporated 1806 Corner-stone of Roman Catholic church laid 7 July, " Baltimore Water Company formed with capital of $250,000, 30 Apr. 1804, and water first supplied through cast-iron pipes May, 1807 New court-house building on North Calvert st. cor. Lexington, begun 1805, occupied 1809 Mob destroys the oflOice of the Federal Republican (United States) 27 July, 1812- BAL 75 •'New Theatre," afterwards called "Holliday Street Theatre," opened 10 May, 1813 First steamboat built in Baltimore, the Chesapeake, construct- ed by William McDonald & Co " British forces under gen. Ross advance against the city, 12 Sept. 1814 Engagement at North Point; gen. Ross killed 13 Sept. " Fort McHenry bombarded by British fleet 12-13 Sept. " The " Star-Si'angled Banner " printed in the Baltimore Amer- ican and Daily Advertiser 21 Sept. " Corner-stone of the Washington monument laid (height of monument 180 ft. ) 4 July, 1815 Corner - .stone of Battle monument laid; erected in honor of Baltimoreans killed in defending the city in 1814. 12 Sept. " Population of Baltimore increased 16,000 by annexation of the precincts 1816 Maryland hospital incorporated 29 Jan. " St. Andrew's Society incorporated 1 Feb. " Medical Society of Maryland incorporated 1 Feb. " New St. Paul's church erected on cor. Saratoga and Charles sts. ; corner-stone laid, 4 May, 1814, completed at cost of $126,140 1817 Disastrous freshet in Jones's falls ; part of the city called the "Meadows" overflowed to depth of 10 to 15 feet. 8 Aug. " First Odd Fellows' lodge in America, Washington Lodge No. 1, organized at Fell's Point, 13 Apr. 1819, through the efforts of Thomas VVildey. It receives a charter from the duke of York's lodge at Preston, Lancashire, Eng 1 Feb. 1820 First building lighted with gas, Peale's museum, on Holliday St., afterwards Old City Hall, 1816. First public building lighted with gas, the •' Belvidere theatre," northwest cor. North and Saratoga st.s., and flrst private house, that of Jacob J. Cohen on North Charles st " Exchange building opened for business June, " Roman Catholic cathedral, begun 1806, consecrated by arch- bishop Mareschal 31 May, 1821 Disastrous (ire; 3 lumber-yards and 25 to 30 buildings, mostly warehouses, burned 23 June, 1822 Statue placed on Battle monument 12 Sept. " Corner-stone of Baltimore Athenaeum at southwest cor. St. Paul and Lexington sts. laid 10 Aug. 1824 Gen. Lafayette visits Baltimore 7-11 Oct. " Mrs. Ellen Moale, first white child born within the city of Baltimore, dies Mch. 1825 Erection of Barnum's City hotel begun " Maryland Academy of Science and Literature incorporated (continued until 1844) 16 Feb. 1826 First exhibition of the Maryland institute 7 Nov. " Subscription books for stock of Baltimore and Ohio rail- road opened, $4,178,000 taken by 22,000 subscribers, 20-27 Mch. 1827 First bank opened by Evan Poultney in Baltimore st Tune, 1828 Foundation stone of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad laid by the Grand Lodge of Maryland, assisted by Charles Carroll of Carrollton 4 July, " Shot-tower, Phoenix Company, 234 feet high, circular, and of brick, built without scaffolding; completed 25 Nov. " Corner-stone of the Baltimore and Susquehanna railroad laid, and centennial of Baltimore celebrated 8 Aug, 1829 First public school opened 24 Sept. " Old Baltimore museum, cor. Baltimore and Calvert sts., opened, 1 Jan. 1830 [Building sold to B. & 0. R.R., Mch. 1874.] Epidemic of cholera July-Sept. 1832 Charles Carroll of Carrollton, aged 95, dies at Baltimore, 14 Nov. *' Bank of Maryland fails 24 Mch. 1834 Riot, growing out of failure of bank of Maryland Aug. 1835 First issue of the Sun 17 May, 1837 Sudden freshet in Jones's falls; 19 lives lost; Harrison and Frederick sts. 10 feet under water 14 July, " City of Kingston, first steam vessel from Baltimore to Europe direct, leaves port 20 May, 1838 Baltimore Academy of the Visitation opened, 1837 ; chartered " Greenmount cemetery dedicated 13 July, 1839 Mercantile Library Association organized 14 Nov. " St. Vincent de Paul's church, corner-stone laid by archbishop Eccleston 21 May, 1840 ; dedicated 7 Nov. 1841 Explosion of steamer Medora, just about to start on her trial excursion; 27 killed. 40 wounded 15 Apr. 1842 Historical Society of Maryland organized, Gen. John Spear Smith first president 27 Jan. 1844 Omnibus line established May, " Magnetic telegraph from Washington city to the railroad de- pot in Pratt st., wires covered with rope-yarn and tar, com- pleted; first communication, "What hath God wrought!" (Numbers xxiii. 23), received 27 May, " Corner-stone of St. Alphonsus's church laid, 1 May, 1842; church dedicated 14 Mch. 1845 Maryland Institute for the Promotion of the Mechanics' Arts organized 12 .Jan. 1848 Fire destroys 60 dwellings, breaking out in a cotton factory in Lexington st. above Fremont 28 May, " Howard Athenaeum and Gallery of Art, northeast cor. Balti- more and Charles sts., opened as a theatre 12 June, " Baltimore Athenaeum opened and edifice inaugurated. .23 Oct. " Baltimore Female college opened, 1848; chartered 1849 Edgar Allan Poe dies in Baltimore, aged 40 years 7 Oct. " Jenny Lind arrives in Baltimore (J. H. Whitehurst, " daguerreo- | BAL typist," bids $100 for flrst choice of seats at her first con- cert).... 8 Dec. 1850 Reception to Louis Kossuth 27 Dec. 1851 Loyola college, Calvert st. near Madison, opened .15 Sept 1862 Remains of Junius Brutus Booth, tragedian, arrive in Balti- more, his home, from Louisville, Ky., where he died, 2 Dec, Loudon Park cemetery dedicated 14 July 1853 Maryland School for the Blind opened >' Baltimore orphan asylum, Strieker st. near Saratoga,' opened, ... 10 Nov. " Excursion train returning to Baltimore from Rider's grove collides with accommodation train from Baltimore, near the Relay house; over 30 killed and about 100 wounded, Water works purchased by the city n Erection of the new First Presbyterian church' cor. Madison and Park sts. begun jajy^ u Trial of a steam flre-engine, the "Miles Greenwood," b'liilt at Cincinnati for the corporation of Boston; the first seen in Baltimore. 2 Feb. 1866 Melee among the firemen; 2 killed, many injured 18 Aug " St. Paul's church burned, 29 Apr. 1854; rebuilt and dedicated', Battle between the Rip Rap club and the New Market fire company, many wounded ; city election dispute 8 Oct. " Election riot; Democrats and Know-nothings 4 Nov " Baltimore Daily News established 1867 Disastrous fire, 37-41 S. Charles st. ; 14 persons killed "by a falling wall u Apr. " Strike on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, and encounter be- tween the militia and rioters 29 Apr. -2 May, " Banks suspend specie payment 28 Sept. " Maryland club incorporated 24 Feb. 1858 Clearing-house established 8 Mch. " Steam fire-engine, the "Alpha," the first ownefl by the Balti- more fire department, arrives in the city 18 May, " Flood almost as destructive as that of 1837 occurs 12 June, " Ordinance passed for a paid city fire department Sept. '' Reform Association organized at a mass-meeting in Monument square 8 Sept. " Peabody institute, endowed by George Peabody with $1,300,000, 1857; incorporated, 9 Mch. 1858; corner-stone laid. . .16 Apr. 1869 Police and fire-alarm telegraph, adopted June, 1858; flrst put in operation 27 June, '• First car placed on the city passenger railway on Broadway, and line opened 27 Oct. " Reception to Japanese ambassadors, guests of the United States government 8 June, 1860 Druid Hill park opened 19 Oct. " A secession mob attacks the 6th Massachusetts and 7th Penn- sylvania regiments while passing through the city on their way to Washington. 12 citizens and 3 soldiers killed, 23 soldiers and several citizens wounded 19 Apr. 1861 Gen. B. F. Butler takes military possession 13 May, " Thomas Wildey, the "father of Odd-Fellowship in the U. S.," dies in Baltimore, aged 80 yrs 19 Oct " Corner-stone of St Martin's Roman Catholic church, south- east cor. Fulton and Fayette sts., laid 9 July, 1865 The Wildey monument, erected by the Odd-Fellows, corner- stone laid, 26 Apr. 1865; is dedicated 20 Sept " Southern relief fair, in aid of the suffering poor of the Southern states, held at the hall of the Marvland institute; receipts, $164,569.97 '. 2-13 Apr. 1866 Maryland state normal school opened " Dedication of the Peabody institute 25 Oct " Corner-stone of the new Masonic temple laid 20 Nov. " Maryland Academy of Sciences incorporated 15 Mch. 1867 Corner-stone of the new city hall laid 18 Oct " Excessive heat; thermometer 97 to 101° in the shade; 30 cases of sunstroke, 21 fatal 16 July, 1868 Most disastrous flood on record. A street-car floats down Harrison street; the water reaches to the second story of buildings, and most of the bridges over Jones's falls, includ- ing the heavy iron bridge at Fayette st, are swept away, 24 July, " Maryland Institution for the Blind, on North av., near Charles st, dedicated 20 Nov. " Corner-stone of Mount Vernon Place Methodist Episcopal church laid 26 Sep*. 1869 Ford's Grand opera-house inaugurated. Shakespeare's "As You Like It" the opening play 3 Oct. 1871 Third National bank robbed between banking hours, Saturday and Monday; loss over $220,000 17-19 Aug. 1872 Initial number of the Evening News 4 Nov. " Thermometer 10° below zero, night of 'id Jan. 1873 Church of the Ascension, Protestant Episcopal, destroyed by fire 12 May, " Baltimore and Potomac tunnel, about 1)^ miles in length, begun June, 1871, and first passenger train passes through to Cal- vert station 29 June, " Union Railroad tunnel begun. May, 1871 ; completed Juno, 1873, and first train through 24 July, " Most extensive fire ever known in the city breaks out in a planing mill on Park and Clay sta ; 113 buildings destroyed, including 2 churches and 3 school-housea Loss, $750,000, 25 July, " Johns Hopkins dies, aged 79 24 Dec. " Morning Herald established 187<> City hail completed • • • • " Monument to Edgar Allan Poe unveiled. 17 Nov. BAM Johns Hopkins university incorporated, 24 Aug. 1867 ; endowed by its founder with f3,0O0,0OU; is opened 1876 160th anniversary of the foundation of the city celebrated, 10-15 Oct. 1880 Over 65 excursionists, principally from Baltimore, drowned by the giving way of the pier at North point, Tivoli, 23 July, 1883 Enoch Pratt free library, founded by Enoch Pratt with $1,250,000 in 1882, formally opened to the public 5 Jan. 1886 Croat lire in Hopkins place, loss $2,000,000, 7 Qremen killed and 6 injured 2 Sept. 1888 Asylum for Feeble-minded Children opened Jan. 1889 Johns Hopkins hospital, endowed with $3,600,000; opened, 7 May, " 6 days' celebration of 76th anniversary of the defence of the city begun 9 Sept. " 76 MAYORS. Saml. Rinks Thomas Swann Geo. Wm. Brown (Arrested and impris- oned by U. S. authori- ties, Sept. 12, 18(51.) John Leo Chapman Robert T. Banks Joshua Vansant Ferdinand C. Latrobe. . . Geo. P. Kane Ferd. C. Latrobe Wm. Pinkney Whyte. . . Ford. C. Latrobe Jas. Hodges Ferd. C. lAtrobe Robt. C. Davidson Ferd. C. liatrobe 1854-56 1856-60 1860-61 1861-67 1867-71 1871-75 1875-77 1877-78 1878-81 1881-83 1883-85 1885-87 1887-89 1889-91 1891-93 Jas. Calhoun 1797-1804 Thorowgood Smith 1804-08 Edward Johnson 1808-16 Geo. Stiles 1816-19 Edward Johnson 1819-20 John Montgomery 1820-23 Edward Johnson 1823-25 Jacob Small 1826 Wm. Stewart 1826-30 Jesse Hunt 1830-32 Saml. Smith 1832-iJ8 Sheppard C. Leakin 1838-40 Saml. Brady 1840-42 Solomon Hillin,jr 1842-43 Jas. 0. lAW 1843-44 Jacob G. Davies 1844-48 Elijah SUnsbury 1848-50 J. H. T. Jerome 1850-62 J. Smith Hollins 1852-54 Bamberg, Bavaria, said to have been founded by Saxons in 804, and endowed with a church by Charlemagne. Made a bishopric in 1007 ; the bishop was a prince of the em- pire till the treaty of Luneville, 1801, when Bamberg was sec- ularized. Incorporated with Bavaria in 1803. The cathedral, rebuilt in 1110, was recently repaired. Bamberg was taken and pillaged by the Prussians in 1759. Baniborough or Hamburg, Northumberland, Engl., according to the " Saxon Chronicle," built by king Ida about 547, and named Bebbanburgh. The castle suffered great- ly from the Danes in 933, was taken and retaken in 1463 by the forces of Edward IV. and Henry VI. It is one of the oldest in the kingdom, and has within its keep an ancient draw-well 145 feet deep, first known to modern times in 1770, it having been filled with sand and rubbish. The castle and estate, the property of the Forsters, and forfeited to the crown for aiding the rebellion in 1715, were purchased by Nathaniel lord Crewe, bishop of Durham, and bequeathed by him, 1720, for various charitable purposes, one of which is aid to ship- wrecked sailors. The library was founded by the trus- tees in 1778 ; books are lent to persons residing within 20 miles. Bampton lectures (theological), at Oxford annu- ally, began in 1780 with a lecture by James Bandinel, D.D. The lecturer is paid by bequest of rev. John Bampton (d. 1751) ; the lectures are published. Able courses bv White (1784), Heber (1815), Whately (1822), Milman (1827), Hampden (1832), Mansel (1858), Liddon (1866), etc. Banbury, Oxfordshire, Engl., a Saxon town. The cas- tle, built by Alexander de Blois, bishop of Lincoln, 1125, was •often besieged, as by parliamentary troops in 1644 and in 1646, ■when it was taken, and demolished a few years after. At Edgecot or Danesmore, near Banbury, during an insurrection, the army of Edward IV., under the earl of Pembroke, was de- feated, 26 July, 1469 ; the earl and a brother were soon after taken and executed. — Banbury cakes were renowned in the time of Ben Jonson, and Banbury Cross (that of the nursery rhyme) was destroyed by the Puritans. Cakes presented to the queen at Banbury, 30 Nov. 1866. Banda isles (10), Eastern archipelago, visited by Portuguese in 1511, who settled, 1521, but were expelled by Dutch about 1600. Rohun island ceded to English in 1616. The Bandas were taken by them in 1796 ; restored in 1801 ; retaken in 1811 ; and restored in Aug. 1816. They form one of the Dutch residencies of the Molucca group. Banda Oriental (the eastern side), S. America, part of the vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, of which, in 1828, BAN a division was incorporated with Brazil, while another became independent, as the republic of Uruguay. Uru- guay. Bangalore, S. India, besieged by British under lord Cornwallis, 6 Mch., and taken by storm, 21 Mch. 1791 ; re- stored to Tippoo in 1792, when he destroyed the strong fort, deemed the bulwark of Mysore. Bangor, Banelior Iskoed, or Monaclio- rum, Flintshire, N. Wales, the site of an ancient college, said to have been founded 180, and afterwards converted into a monastery; very populous, if it be true that 1200 monks were slain by Ethelfrid, king of the Angles, for pray- ing for the Welsh in their conflict with him in 607.— Tan- ner. Bangor, N. Caernarvonshire, N. Wales. The church is dedicated to St. Daniel, bishop, 516. Owen Glendower defaced the cathedral ; bishop Bulkeley alienated many lands, and even sold the bells, 1553. An order in council to unite the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph on the next vacancy in either was issued, 1838 ; rescinded, 1847. Bangorian controversy, result of a sermon of Dr. Benjamin Hoadley, bishop of Bangor, before George I., 31 Mch. 1717, on the text, " My kingdom is not of this world " (John xviii. 36), expounding the spiritual kingdom of Christ, exciting the indignation of most of the clergy, expressed in hundreds of pamphlets. Bank holidays. — ?7m7ecZ States: Christmas and New Year's day, 22 Feb., 30 May, 4 July, Thanksgiving day, and in each state all legal holidays. — England and Ireland: Easter Monday, Monday in Whitsun week, first Monday in Aug., 26 Dec. (if a week-day). — Scotland: New Year's day, Christmas day (if either falls on Sunday, the following Monday), Good Friday, first Mondays in May and Aug. Bank of England, projected by William Pater- son, a Scotch merchant (Darien), to assist William III. in raising supplies for the French war. Led bj^ Paterson and Michael Godfrey, 40 merchants subscribed 500,000?. towards 1,200,000?. to be lent to the government at 8 per cent., in re- turn for a bank charter. Passed against strong opposition, the bill was signed 25 Apr. 1694, and the charter, granted 27 July, made sir John Houblon first governor, and Michael Godfrey first deputy-governor. Business opened 1 Jan. 1695, at Grocers' Hall, Poultry, by issuing notes for 20?. and up- wards, and discounting bills for 4J to 6 per cent. The Bank of England does not allow interest on deposits. The average balance of the assets has been from the beginning between 3,000,000?. and 4,000,000?. The charter was renewed in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1716, 1721, 1724, 1746, 1749, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1808, 1816, 1833, 1844, 1861, \%m.—Lawson. Run on bank; notes at 20 per cent, discount; capital raised to 2,201,171i. 10s Nov. 1696 Bank monopoly established by forbidding a company exceeding 6 persons to act as bankers (Scotland excepted) 1708 Capital raised to 5,559,995^. 10s 1710 Bank post bills issued (1st record) 14 Dec. 1738 Run for gold upon rebellion in the North; bills paid in silver; the city supports the bank Sept. 1745 Richard W. Vaughan, first forger of Bank-of-England notes, hanged 1 May, 1758 101. notes issued 1759 Gordon riots; bank since protected by military 1780 bl. notes issued 1793 Cash payments suspended, by order in council 26 Feb. 1797 11. and 11. notes issued Mch. " Bank Resljriction act 3 May, " Voluntary contribution of 200,000^. to the government 1798 Loss by Aslett's frauds (Exchequer), 342.697i 1803 Abraham Newland, 50 years cashier, resigns 18 Sept. 1807 Bramah's machine for numbering notes adopted 1809 Bank issues silver tokens for 3s. and Is. M 9 July, 1811 . Peel's act for gradual resumption of cash payments July, 1819 Cash payments for notes to be in bullion at the mint price, 1 May, 1821; in current coin 1 May, 1823 Commercial panic— many 11. notes (accidentally found in a box) issued with beneficial effects Dec. 1825 Act authorizing joint-stock banks ends the monopoly 1826 By advice of government, branch banks opened at Gloucester, 19 July; Manchester, 21 Sept. ; Swansea, 23 Oct " And at Birmingham, 1 Jan.; Liverpool, 2 July; Bristol, 12 July; Leeds, 23 Aug. ; Exeter, 17 Dec 1827 Bank loses 360,000Z. by Fauntleroy's forgeries 1830 Statements of bank pub. quarterly 1833 BAN 77 Peel's Bank Charter act (7 and 8 Vict. c. 32) ; renews charter till 1 Aug. 1855, and longer, if public debt to the bank (11,015,- 100^. ), with interest, etc., be not paid after notice; establishes issue department; weekly returns to be published; limits issue of notes to 14,000,000^., etc 19 July, 1844 Commercial panic; lord John Russell suspends restriction of note issue ( not acted on) ; bank discount 8 per cent. .25 Oct. 1847 Clerks found library and fidelity guarantee fund Mch. 1850 Gold bullion in bank (largely from Australia), 21,845,390i. 10 July, 1852 Branch bank, Burlington gardens, London, W., opened, 1 Oct. 1856 Committee on the bank acts appointed 12 May, 1857 Bank discount 9 per cent. ; Palmerston authorizes further issue of notes (2,000,000/. were issued) 12 Nov. " Committee on bank acts reappointed, 8 Feb. ; report recom- mending no change of policy 1 July, 1858 Alarm at bank solicitor's report that bank paper had been stolen from makers (forged notes soon appeared) 16 Aug. 1862 Bank authorized (in accordance with the act of 1844) to in- crease issue of notes by 250,000/ • 11 Feb. 1890 Bank, aided by the Bank of France and others, assists Messrs. Baring and averts a panic 15 Nov. " AVERAGE AMOUNT OF BANK -OF -ENGLAND NOTES IN CIRCULATION. 1718 £1,829,930 1778 7,030,680 1790 10,217,000 1800 15,450,000 1810 23,904,030 1815 26,803,520 1820 27,174,000 1830 20,620,000 1835 £18,215,220 1840 17,231,000 1845 19,262,327 1850 19,776,814 1855 19,616,627 1859 22,705,780 1889 25,263,180 1891 25,851,565 PUBLIC DEBT TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND. 1742 £10,700,000 1746 11,686,000 1816 14,686,000 1844-89 11,015.700 1694 £1,200,000 1708 2,175,027 1716 4,175,027 1721 9,100,000 Bank of Ireland, established at St. Mary's abbey, Dublin, 1 June, 1783. The business removed to the late par- liament house, in College green, in May, 1808. Branches formed in most of the provincial towns in Ireland, all since 1828. Irish Banking act passed, 21 July, 1845. bank§ and banking^. The name is derived from banco, a bench in the market-place for the exchange of money. Banking reached a high development among the ancients. Bankers in Greece and Rome performed nearly the same ser- vices as now, but seem not to have issued notes. They received money on deposit, and repaid on demand, with or without interest. Banking reappears upon the revival of civilization ; first, in Italy, 808, among the Lombard Jews, of whom some settled in Lombard street, London, where many bankers still reside. The Mint in the Tower of London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles I. seized the money as a loan, and in 1640 the traders lodged their money with the goldsmiths in Lombard street. b.c. Egibe's bank at Babylon, mentioned about 700 Bank of England (1890) possesses a Chinese bank-note, supposed to be of the 14th century a. d. Bank of a.d. Venice formed 1157 Geneva 1345 Barcelona (the earliest existing bank) Genoa Amsterdam Hamburg Rotterdam Stockholm England Scotland Copenhagen Berlin d' Escompte, France North America, in Philadelphia Ireland Massachusetts New York St. Petersburg In the East Indies The United States France : laws passed, 1803, 1806 ; approved United States national banks Italy Imperial Bank of Germany (formerly of Prussia) 1 Jan. 1401 1407 1607 1619 1635 1688 1694 1695 1736 1765 1776 1780 1783 1784 1786 1787 1791 1876 ENGLISH BANKS. Samuel Lamb, I;ondon banker, advises Cromwell to establish a public bank 1656-58 Francis Child, goldsmith, opens a bank about 1663; d. 4 Oct. . 1713 Run on London bankers (said to be the first) 1667 Charles II. suspends payments to bankers of their deposits in the exchequer.; they lose ultimately 3,321,313/ 2 Jan. 1672 Hoare's bank begun about 1680 Bank of England established 1694 1716 1765 1824 1826 1834 1844 1855 1873 BAN Oldest county bank, Wood's at Gloucester, opened List of bankers given in the " Royal Kalendar " Forgeries of Henry Fauntleroy, banker; executed 30 Nov! Act authorizing joint-stock banks Rowland Stephenson, M. P., banker and treasurer of St. Bartholomew's hospital, absconds; defaulter to 200,000/ • 70,000/. in exchequer bills; shock to confldence in bankers, ' 27 Dec Establishment of joint-stock banks Rogers's bank robbed of nearly 50,000/. (bank-note's afterwards returned) ; 24 Nov Failure of Strahan, Paul & Bates (securities unlawful'ly used) •' private banking much injured. ; n juno Check bank in aid of persons not having a banker opened in Pall Mall ° \ 23 July Number of banks in London alone was 2*25 i'nV.V.'. i892 Bank of England, and Banks. bank§ in the United States. Before the first U.S. bank was chartered, in 1791, there were but 3 banks in the U. S., with an aggregate capital of $2,000,000: the Bank of North America, chartered by Congress in 1780 at the in- stance of Robert Morris, and by Pennsylvania in 1781, with a capital of $400,000 ; the Bank of Massachusetts, chartered 1784, and the Bank of New York, chartered the same year. The charter of the U. S. bank was limited to 20 years from 1791 ; its capital was $10,000,000, of which the government could subscribe one fifth, $5,700,000, to be held in Phila- delphia, and the remainder to be distributed among the 8 branches. Its headquarters were fixed in Philadelphia, with 20 directors. The government sold all its stock at a pre- mium in 1802. Congress was asked to renew the charter in 1808, 3 years before its expiration, but did nothing; and a few weeks before the charter expired the bill for re- chartering was defeated. United States, 1811. It was op- posed (1) as unconstitutional, (2) as in the hands of foreign- ers, (3) as injurious to local banks. Specie payments were suspended in 1814, owing largely to this failure to re-charter. An effort was made (1814) to establish a similar bank under another name. In 1815 president Madison vetoed a bill char- tering a second U.S. bank, but in 1816 he willingly approved a charter limited to 20 years, with a capital of $35,000,000, of which the government subscribed $7,000,000 and citizens the rest. In this bank the government funds were kept on deposit. This second U. S. bank transacted business in Phil- adelphia from 1817 until Mch. 1836. The Suffolk-bank sys- tem of redemption began in Boston, Mass., 1825; while the safety-fund system originated in New York in 1828. Presi- dent Jackson, in his first message, 1829, opposed the bank, and continued the attack in 1830 and 1831. The bank asked a renewal of its charter, 1831 ; the act passed, but Jackson ve- toed it, 1832. He recommended the removal of the U. S. de- posits from the bank and a sale of the stock (1832), but Con- gress refused to authorize the measure. President Jackson dismissed the sec. of treasury, Wm. Duane, for refusing to re- move the deposits, and appointed Roger B. Taney, who re- moved them, 1833. United States. The effect of the fail- ure to renew the charter was disastrous. 13 days before the original charter expired Pennsylvania re-chartered it, with the same capital as the U. S. Bank of Pennsylvania. It sus- pended specie payments in 1837, again in 1839, and in 1840-41 made a final suspension. The shares were quoted at 1.25 in 1837, in 1839 at 1.11, and in 1843, after its failure, at 1| per cent. It proved a total loss to the shareholders. New York adopted in 1838 a free-banking system (devised by rev. John McVickers, D.D., prof, of political economy in Columbia col- lege in 1827). Ohio, for its state bank, adopted the safety-fund system, under which 10 banks had failed in New York, with a loss of $2,500,000, including all their capital. Clearing- house in New York established Oct. 1853, and in Boston 29 Mch. 1856. Clearing-house. Financial embarrassment and suspension of specie payment throughout the L^ S. followed the failure of the Ohio Life and Trust Company, 1857. At the breaking out of the civil war, in 18(51. there were 1601 state banks, with aggregate capital of $429,000,000, with 10,000 different kind of notes in circulation, issued in the 34 states then existing ; their condition was generally sound, but sec- retary Chase devised a national-bank system similar to the New York " free-bank system "; and the act of 25 Feb. 1863 (United Statks), made the paper currency and the bank- ing laws of the country uniform. The state banks were in- duced by privileges, or forced by taxes, to surrender their BAN charters and become national banks. By an act approved 12 June, 1870, the circulation of the national banks was lim- ited to $354,(X)0,000, secured by the deposit of government bonds with the treasurer. This limitation was afterwards re- pealed. Although the national-bank system has overshadowed the state banks, many of the latter still exist (see table G sub- joined), mainly under the free-banking laws. The national banks in 22 principal cities — viz., New York, 47 ; Chicago, 19 ; St. Louis, 8; Boston, 56; Albany, 6; Brooklyn, 5; Philadel- phia, 45; Pittsburg, 26 ; Baltimore, 19 ; Washington, 11 ; New 78 BAN Orleans, 10; Louisville, 10; Cincinnati, 13; Cleveland, 10; Detroit, 8; Milwaukee, 3; St. Paul, G; Minneapolis, G ; Kansas City, 10; St. Joseph, 4; Omaha, 9; San Francisco, 2 — are obliged to keep a reserve of 25;^ on deposits. These are known as reserve cities. The banks elsewhere hold a reserve of 15% on deposits. The following tables, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, are subjoined to show the condition and growth of the national-bank system up to and including the year 1891-2; table G, the condition of the other banks : TABLE 1. Number and Amount of National-bank Notes Issued and Redeemed since the Organization of the System, and the Amount Outstanding, 31 Oct. 1890. Number of Note*. Amount of Notes. iMued. Redeemed. Outstanding. Issued. Redeemed. Outstanding. Ones 23,169,677 7,747,519 108,957,768 46,124.000 14,416,178 1,949,362 1,472,733 23,894 7,379 22,800.061 7,655,573 98,861,238 40,362,126 12,212,595 1,754.196 1,305,372 23,528 7,333 369,616 91,946 10,096,530 5,761,874 2,203,583 195,166 167,361 866 46 $23,169,677 15,495,038 544,788,840 461,240,000 288,323,560 97,468,100 147,273,300 11,947,000 7,379.000 $22,800,061 15,311.146 494,306,190 403,621,260 244,251,900 87,709,800 130,537,200 11.764,000 7.333,000 $3(59.616 183,892 Twos Fives 50,482,650 57,618,740 44.071,660 9.758,300 16 736 100 Fifties 183,000 46,000 One-thousands Total 203,868,510 | 184,982,022 | 18,886.488 Jnpresented fractions of notes to be dedacted deemed and added to amount of notes outstar 11,597,084.515 from notes re- iding $1,417,634,557 25,748 1179,449,958 25 748 I Total $1,417,608,809 $179,475,706 TABLE 2. Number and Authorized Capital of Banks Organized, and the Number and Capital of Banks Closed Each Year end- ing 31 Oct. Closed. Year. " In voluntary liquidation. 1 Insolvent. No. Capital. No. Capital. j No. Capital. 1863 134 $16,378,700 79,366,950 242,542,982 1864 453 3 1865 1014 6 $330,000 1 $50,000 1866 62 8,515,150 4 650,000 2 500,000 1867 10 4,260,300 12 2,160,000 6 1,170,000 1868 12 1,210,000 18 2,445.500 4 410,000 1869 9 1,500,000 17 3,372,710 1 50,000 1870 22 2,736,000 14 2,550,000 1 250,000 1871 170 19,519,000 18,988,000 11 1,450.000 2,180,500 1872 175 11 6 1,806,100 1873 68 7,602,700 21 3,524,700 11 3,825,000 1874 71 6,745,500 20 2,795,000 3 250,000 1875 107 12,104,000 38 3,820,200 5 1,000,000 1876 36 3,189,800 32 2,565.000 9 965,000 1877 29 2,589,000 26 2,539,500 10 3,344,000 1878 28 2,775,000 41 4,237,500 14 2,612,500 1879 38 3,595,000 33 3,750,000 8 1,230,000 1880 57 6,374,170 9 570,000 3 700,000 1881 86 9,651,050 30,038,300 26 1,920,000 16,120,000 1882 227 78 3 1,561,300 1883 262 28,654.350 40 7,736,000 2 250,000 1884 191 16,042,230 30 3,647,250 11 1,285,000 1885 145 16,938,000 85 17,856,590 4 600,000 1886 174 21,3.58.000 25 1,651,100 8 650,000 • 1887 225 30,546,000 25 2,537,450 8 1,550,000 1888 132 12,053,000 34 4.171,000 8 1.900.000 1889 211 21,240,000 41 4,316,000 2 250,000 1890 307 36,250,000 50 5,050,000 9 750,000 1891 193 20,700,000 41 4.485,000 25 3,662,000 1892 163 15,285,000 53 6,157.500 17 2,450,000 Total.. 4811 $698,748,182 844 $114,588,500 181 $33,070,000 Total in operation, 1892, 3786. TABLE 3. Number of National Banks whose Charters will expire dur- ing Each Year from 1891 to 1902. Year. No. of Banks- Capital. Circulation, 1891 95 $12,183,900 $3,997,935 1892 100 13,815,100 4,562,760 1893 38 4,701,000 1,982,925 1894 63 7,628,000 2,812.720 1895 76 11,259,000 4,431,610 1896 23 2,173,800 986,650 1897 24 3,419,000 1,171,295 1898 25 2,679,000 1.198,350 1899 39 4,995,000 2,270,700 1900 50 7,807,100 2.153,330 1901 108 14,669,150 3,702,350 1902 132 21,177,300 5,352,350 773 $106,507,350 $34,622,975 TABLE 4. Table showing the Number of National Banks, with their Earn- ings and Dividends, from Mch. 1, 1882, to Mch. 1, 1892. Year. No. of Banks. Capital. Surplus. Total Dividends. Total Net Earnings. 1382 2137 $460,354,485 $131,291,889 $19,915,375 $27,083,599 1883 2267 483,091,342 137,570,105 20,285,102 26,432,934 1884 2491 507,969,300 145,600,849 21,082,806 27,994,764 1885 2650 522,899,715 14S, 771,121 20,437,650 21,601,202 1886 2708 530,956,195 153,532,919 21,335,436 27,527,666 1887 2855 548,355,770 163.731,900 22,148,587 31,698,794 1888 3044 577,136,748 179,397,147 23.088,607 32,601.294 1889 3147 593,253,850 192,507,500 23.290.973 35,109,889 1890 3294 615,405,545 204,546,434 ■ 26.249,766 35,24«,S39 1891 3542 652,586,585 219,430,741 25,768,775 40,145,974 1892 3671 675,356,310 234,676,901 25,546,853 34,363,090 TABLE 5. Highest and Lowest Points reached bv the National Banks in the Principal Items of Resources and Liabilities, since the Establishment of the System (1866-92). Items. Capital Capital, surplus, and undivided profits Circulation , Total investments in U. S. bonds , Individual deposits Loans and discounts ( National-bank notes Cash J Legal-tender notes (Specie , January 1, 1866. $403,357,346 475,330.204 213,239.-530 440.380,350 520,212,174 500,650,109 20,406,442 187.846,548 16.909.363 Sept. 30, 1892. $686,573,015 1,027,097,194 143,423,298 183,439,550 1,765,422,983 2,153,498,829 19.557,474 104,267.945 209.116,379 Highest point reached. $686,573,015 1,027,097,194 341,320,256 712,437,900 1,765,422,983 2,153,498,829 28,809,699 205.793.579 209,116,379 Date. Sept. 30, 1892 Dec. 26, 1873 Apr. 4, 1879 Sept. 30, 1892 Dec. 31, 1883 Oct. 1, 1886 Sept. 30, 1892 Lowest point reached. Amount. $403,357,346 475,330,204 122,928.084 170,653,050 501,407.586 500,6.50,109 11,841,104 52,156,439 8,050,330 Date. Jan. 1,1866 Oct. 2, 1890 Oct. 8,1870 Jan. 1, 1866 Oct. 7. 1867 Mch. 11, 1881 Oct. 1, 1875 BAN TABLE 6. Number, Capital Stock, Surplus and Undivided Profits, and Deposits of all State Banks, Savings (Mutual and Stock), Private Banks, and Loan and Trust Companies (1890-91). 79 Classes. No. Banks. Capital. Surplus and Undivided Profits. Deposits. State banks Loan and trust ) companies ) Savings banks) (mutual) I Savings banksi (Stock) j Private banks 2572 171 647 364 1235 $208,564,841 79,292,889 32,106,127 36,785,458 $81,116,533 55,503,845 142,456,741 13,400,752 12,146,622 $556,637,012 355,330,080 1,402,332,665 252,493,477 94,959,727 Total 4989 $356,749,315 $304,624,493 $2,661,752,961 bank§, joint -stock. The Bank of England was the •only joint-stock bank in England until 1826, and in London until 1834. Since the act of 1826, a large number have been established. In Ireland, of similar banks, the first was the Hibernian bank, in 1825. By the new Companies act, passed 15 Aug. 1879, unlimited companies may register as limited. The total capital paid up and reserves of the various joint- stock banks amounted to more than 150,000,000?. in 1892. Chief London Banks. Founded. - London and Westminster (becomes limited, 1879) 1834 London Joint-Stock 1836 , Union Bank of London 1839 Commercial Bank of London '.*..*.*.*.'.'.*.*. " London and County (becomes limited, 1879) ......'.'. " City Bank (becomes limited, 1880) 1855 Bank of Loudon " bank§ of Scotland. The old Bank of Scotland was set up in 1695 at Edinburgh, and began 1 Nov., the second insti- tution of the kind in the empire ; lending money to the crown was prohibited. Royal Bank of Scotland chartered 8 Julv, 1727. ban'neret, knight, a dignity between baron and knight, anciently conferred by the king under the royal stand- ard on the field of battle. Its origin is uncertain ; Edmond- son dates it 736, but it was probably created by Edward I. John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret bj' the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Najara, 3 Apr. 1367. The dignity was conferred on John Smith, who res- cued the royal standard at Edgehill, 23 Oct. 1642. After long disuse, it was revived by George III. for sir William Erskine, in 1764, and for admiral Pye, and capts. Knight, Bickerton, and Vernon, in 1773. baillier§ were common to all nations. The Jewish tribes had standards or banners (Numb. ii. — 1491 B.C.). The standard of Constantine bore the inscription In hoc signo vinces ( " B}' this sign thou shalt conquer " ) under the cross. Cross. The magical banner of the Danes (a black raven on red ground) was taken by Alfred when he defeated Hubba, 878. St. Martin's cap, and afterwards the celebrated auri- flamme, or oriflamme, were the standards of France about 1100. AUHIFLAMME, STANDARDS, etC. Bannockburn', Stirlingshire, the site of 2 bat- tles ; (1) between Robert Bruce of Scotland, with 30,000 men, and Edward IL of England, with 100,000 (of whom 52,000 were archers), 24 June, 1314. The English crossed a rivulet to attack, fell into covered pits dug by Bruce, and were thrown into confusion and routed. Edward narrowly escaped, and -60,000 were killed or taken. (2) At Sauchieburn, near here, James III. of Scotland was defeated and slain on 11 June, 1488, by rebellious nobles. bann§, in feudal law, were any solemn proclamation; hence the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage; said to have begun in the English church about 1200. The proper time of publishing banns was much dis- cussed, 1867. Bantam', Java. Here a British factory was estab- lished by capt. Lancaster, in 1603. The English and Danes were driven from their factories by the Dutch in 1683. Bantam surrendered to the British in 1811, but was restored to the Dutch at the peace in 1814. Bantry bay, S. Ireland, where a French fleet in aid of adherents of James II. attacked the English under BAR admiral Herbert, 1 May, 1689; the latter retired to form and were not pursued. A French squadron of 7 sail of the line, 2 frigates, armed en fiute, and 17 transports, anchored here for a few days, without effect, Dec. 1796.— Mutiny of the Bantry bay squadron under admiral Mitchell was in Dec. 1801. In Jan. 1802, 22 of the mutineers were tried on the Gladiator, at Portsmouth; 17 were condemned to death, 11 were exe- cuted; the others sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The executions took place on board the Majestic, Centaur, For- midable, Temeraire, and UAchille, 8-18 Jan. 1802. bapti§]Il, the ordinance of admission to the church, practised by all Christians except Quakers. John the Baptist baptized Christ, 30 (Matt. iii.). Infant baptism is mentioned by Irenaeus about 97. In the reign of Constantine, 319 bap- tisteries were built, and baptism was performed by immersion. In the west sprinkling was adopted. Much controversy has arisen since 1831 (particularly in 1849 and 1850), in the church of England respecting baptismal regeneration, which the arches court of Canterbury decided to be a doctrine of the church of England. In 1849 the bishop of Exeter refused to install Mr. Gorham at Brampton-Speke, in Devonshire, because he denied spiritual regeneration by baptism. The case was brought before the court of arches. The bishop was justified in his refusal. Mr. Gorham appealed to the judicial commit- tee of the privy council, which pronounced its opinion (1850) that " the doctrine held by Mr. Gorham was not contrary or repugnant to the declared doctrine of the church of England, and that Mr. Gorham ought not, for the reason of the doctrine held by him, to have been refused admission to the vicarage of Brampton-Speke." In the end Mr. Gorham was instituted into the vicarage in question, 7 Aug. 1850. — Demanding fees for baptism was made unlawful in England by an act passed 18 July, 1872. Bai>ti§t§. A sect distinguished by holding that (1) the proper subjects of baptism are those who can make pro« fession of faith ; (2) the proper mode of baptism is total im- mersion. There are 7 sections of Baptists : Arminian, Cal- yinistic (or particular), etc. The first Baptist church formed in London was about 1608. The last execution for heresy in England by burning alive took place at Lichfield, 11 Apr. 1612, the condemned, Edward Wightman, being a Baptist. Baptists published their confession of faith in 1643; revised in 1689. Anabaptists. Roger Williams baptizes by immersion at Providence, R. I 1639 First Baptist church in the North American colonies erected at Dover, N. H 1639-40 John Clarke founds a Baptist colony on Rhode Island 1641 First Baptist church in Massachusetts at Swansey 1663 First Baptist church in Connecticut, erected at Groton 1705 First incorporated Baptist institution of learning in the (J. S. was founded at Warren, R. I., 1764; removed to Providence, 1770 Baptist college at Regent Park, Engl, founded 1810 First theological institution by Baptists, at Hamilton, N. Y 1820 Owing to the slavery agitation the Baptist church separates into north and south 1845 University of Rochester, at Rochester, N. Y., Baptist, founded, 1850 Rev. C. H. Spurgeon's (b. 19 June, 1834; d. 31 Jan. 1892) great Baptist tabernacle, Newington-Butts, Engl., opened 1861 GROWTH OF THE CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES. Year. Churches. Membetthip. 1784 471 2164 7771 12,279 26,060 33,588 35.101 1812 172i972 1840 571,926 I860 1,016,134 1880 2,296,327 1890 3.368,381 NUMBER OF CHURCHES AND MEMBERSHIP IN THE WORLD IN 1890. Location. Churches. MemWrship. 34,761 6 3940 743 44 186 3,600,626 ' '229 404,782 Agia^ 75.844 3.039 Australia 15,196 Total 39,680 3.999,716 These numbers do not include all who are called Baptists, viz., the Disciples, the Free-will, the Skvkxth-day, Sabbatariaxs, etc. Barata'ria, an island-city in Cervantes' romance of BAR " Don Quixote," of which Saucho Panza was made perpetual governor. Barataria bay, about 30 miles west of the mouth of the Mississippi river, on the coast of the gulf of Mexico, was the rendezvous of smugglers and pirates for sev- eral years prior to 1815. Three brothers, Frenchmen, named Jean, Pierre, and Dominique Laffite, ruled the band, which plundered Spaniards and Englishmen alike, and defied the laws. This resort was broken up without resistance by com- modore Patterson, 16 Oct. 1814. Laffite, Jean. Barba'doe§, a West India island, one of the Wind- ward isles, discovered by the Portuguese about 1600, taken possession of by the English 1605, and settled by sir Wm. Courteen, who founded Jamestown, 1625. As many royalists settled here, the island was taken by the parliamentarians in 1652. Area, 166 sq. miles. Pop. 1876, 162,042: white, 16,660 ; colored, 145,482. 1891, 182,322. A hurricane ; more than 4000 perished 10 Oct. 1780 A large plantation with buildings destroyed by a landslide, 17 Oct. 1784 A flood, Nov. 1795 ; and 2 great fires. May, Dec. 1796 Bishopric established 1824 Thousands of lives and much property destroyed by a hurri- cane 10 Aug. 1831 Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera 1854 Property about 300,000^. burned at Bridgetown 14 Feb. 1860 Great increase in growth of cotton 1864-65 Proposed confederation of the Windward isles; supported by governor's speech, 3 Mch. ; opposed by planters Mch. 1876 Blacks, ignorantly expecting advantage from confederation, rise, plunder and destroy much property and cattle; negroes killed and wounded by police 21, 22 Apr. " Panic among the planters; the governor and clergy said to have acted judiciously; peace restored 24 Apr. " Trial of 450 rioters; 82 punished (17 penal servitude; others light sentences) 12-21 Oct. " Barbary, N. Africa, includes Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and Tripoli, with dependencies. Piratical states (nominally subject to Turkey) were founded here by Barba- rossa, about 1518. barber§ lived in Greece in the 6th century, and at Kome iu the 3d century b.c. In England of old the barber and surgeon were one, a barber-surgeon. A London com- pany was formed in 1308, and incorporated 1462, partially dis- solved in 1540, wholly in 1745. " No person using any shav- ing or barbery in London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, except only drawing of teeth." — 32 Hen. VIII. 1540. Surgery. Barca, N. Africa, the Greek Barce, a colony of Cyrene, successively subjugated by Persians, Egyptians, and Saracens. In 1550 sultan Solyman added Barca to the newly conquered pachalic of Tripoli. Barcelo'na, N.E. Spain, an ancient maritime city, said to have been rebuilt by Hamilcar Barca, father of Hanni- bal, about 233 b.c. Held by Romans, Goths, Moors, and Franks, and with the province about it made independent about 864 a.d., and incorporated with Aragon, 1164, the last count becoming king. The city has suffered much by war. The siege by the French in 1694 was relieved by an English fleet under admiral Russell; but the city was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1706. It was bombarded and taken by the duke of Berwick and the French in 1714, taken by Na- poleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It revolted against the queen in 1841, was bombarded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Espartero. Pop. 1887, 272,481. bard§. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; and Strabo mentions them among the Romans before Augustus. The Welsh bards formed an hereditary order, regulated, it is said, by laws enacted about 940 and 1078. They lost their privileges at the conquest by Edward I. in 1284. The institu- tion was revived by the Tudor sovereigns; and the Eistedd- fods (or meetings) have been frequently held : at Swansea, Aug. 1863 ; at Llandudno, Aug. 1864 ; in the vale of Conway, 7 Aug. 1865 ; at Chester, 4 Sept. 1866 ; at Carmarthen, 3 Sept. 1867 ; at Ruthin, 5-7 Aug. 1868 ; at Rhyl, 8-12 Aug. 1870 ; at Portmadoc, Aug. 1872 ; at Mold, Aug. 1873 ; at va- rious places in 1874-76 : at Carnarvon, 21 Aug. 1877 ; at Llanrwst, 1-3 Aug. ; at Menai bridge, Aug. 1878 ; at Conway, 6 Aug., and at other places, 1879. The Cyramrodorion Soci- ety held an Eisteddfod at Carnarvon, 23 Aug. 1880. In 1880 80 BAR the bards decided that the Annual National Eisteddfod shouldJ be held alternately in North and South Wales. The Gwyn- eddigion Society of Bards was founded in 1770. Turlogh- O'Carolan, the last of the Irish bards, died in 1738. — Chambers. Barcbone'i parliament. Cromwell, supreme in the 3 kingdoms, summoned 122 persons, who, with 6 from Scotland and 6 from Ireland, met as a parliament, 4 July, 1653.. It bears a nickname of one of its members, a leather-seller,, named "Praise-God Barbon." The majority evinced much sense and spirit, proposing to reform abuses, improve the- administration of the law, etc. The parliament was sud- denly dissolved, 13 Dec. 1653, and Cromwell made lord pro- tector. Barflcur, N. France, where William, duke of Norman- dy, equipped his fleet to conquer England, 1066. Near it,. William, duke of Normandy, son of Henry I., in his passage from Normandy, was shipwrecked, 25 Nov. 1120; he, iiis sister, and many others perished. Barfleur was destroyed by the English in the campaign of Crecy, 1346. The French navy was destroyed near the cape by admiral Russell, after- the victory of La Hogue, 19 May, 1692. Bari, S. Italy, the Barium of Horace, in the 9th century a stronghold of the Saracens, was captured by the emperor- Louis II., a descendant of Charlemagne, in 871. In the 10th century it became subject to the Eastern empire, till taken by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, about 1060. An ecclesiastical council held here on 1 Oct. 1098, discussed the filioque article- of the creed and the procession of the Holy Spirit. Barings island, Arctic sea, discovered by capt. Penny- in 1850-51, and named after sir Francis Baring, first lord of the- English admiralty in 1849. barium (Gr. (3apvg, heavy), a metal found abundantly- as carbonate and sulphate. The oxide baryta was first recog- nized as an earth distinct from lime by Scheele in 1774; and the metal was first obtained by Humphry Davy in 1808. — Watts. Barmecides, a powerful Persian family, celebrated for virtue and courage, were massacred through the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al-Raschid about 802. His vizier Giafar was a Barmecide. The phrase Barmecide (or imaginar}') feast originated in the story of the barber's 6th brother, in tlie- "Arabian Nights' Entertainments." Barnburners. A name for the radical wing of the- Democratic party in the state of New York (1844-48). The- derivation is doubtful. Thurlow Weed, in a letter to George- W. Curtis (1873) assumes that it started in "the Dorr's re-^ bellion," when the followers of Dorr were termed " robbers," " rioters," " incendiaries," and " barnburners." The radicals^ called the conservative element " Old Hunkers," from their stubborn resistance to active reforms (probably from the Dutch word honk, a post or station) ; the latter retorted by calling the radicals " barnburners," as reckless law-breakers.. The story of the ignorant farmer who burned his barn to de- stroy the rats is another version of its derivation. During- the agitation arising out of the slavery question, the " Old Hunkers" maintained their usual conservative attitude, while most of the "Barnburners " joined the Free-soil party of 1848. Barnet, Hertfordshire, Engl. Here,at Gladsmore heath,. Edward IV. defeated the Lancastrians, Easter day, 14 Apr. 1471, when the earl of Warwick, his brother the marquess of Montacute, or Montague, and 10,000 men were slain. A col- umn commemorating this battle stands at the meeting of the St. Albans and Hatfield roads. barom'eters. Torricelli, a Florentine, first used mer- cury in a vacuum tube, resembling a pump, and made the firstj barometer, about 1643. Pascal (1649) made it useful in measuring heights. Wheel barometers were contrived ii> 1668 ; pendent barometers in 1696 ; marine in 1700 ; and many improvements have been made since. The aneroid barometer (from a, no, and vripug, watery) is without a liquid; the at- mospheric pressure acts on a metallic spring. Its invention (attributed to Cont6, in 1798, but due to Vidi, who died in Apr. 1866) excited much attention in 1848-49. The sj'mie- someter, a species of barometer, invented by Adie, of Edin- burgh, 1819. Barometers were placed at northeast coast sta- BAR 81 tions, England, in 1860 by the duke of Northumberland and others. James B. Jordan's very delicate glycerine barometer, in which 1 inch is expanded to nearly 11 inches, was described to the Royal Society, 22 Jan. 1880, and was set up during the year at Kew and other places. The publication of two-hourly variations begun in the London Times, 25 Oct. 1880. t>arOIl, formerly the only title in the English peerage, now the lowest. Its original name in England, vavasour, was changed by the Saxons into thane, and by the Normans into baron. Many had undoubtedly assisted in or been summoned to parliament (in 1205); but the first precept found is of 49 Hen. III. 1265. The first baron by patent was John de Beauchamp, baron of Kidderminster, by Richard IL, 1387. The barons took arms against king John, and extorted the charter of lib- erty and the charter of forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, June, 1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on his restoration, 1660. ba.ronet§, the first in rank among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is hereditary, were instituted by James I. of England, 1611. The rebellion in Ulster seems to have given rise to this order, it having been required of a baronet, on his creation, to pay into the exchequer as much as would maintain " 30 soldiers 3 years at 8d. a day, in the province of Ulster, in Ireland." It was further required that a baronet should be a gentleman born, and have a clear estate of 1000^. per annum. The first baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon (whose successor is therefore styled Primus Baronettorum Anglice), 22 May, 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created in 1619, the first being sir Francis Blundell. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625, sir Robert Gordon the first baronet. All baronets created since the Irish Union in 1801 are of the United Kingdom. Betham's " Baronetage of England," 5 vols. 4to, 1801-5. barons' war arose from the faithlessness of Henry III. of England, and the oppression of his favorites in 1258. The barons, headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted statutes to which the king objected. In 1263 their disputes were in vain referred to the decision of Louis IX. of France. War broke out, and on 14 May, 1264, the king's party was totally defeated at Lewes, and De Mont- fort became the virtual ruler of the kingdom. The war was renewed, and at the battle of Evesham, 4 Aug. 1265, De Mont- fort was slain, and the barons defeated ; but they did not sub- mit till 1268. A historv of this war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw in 1844 ; 2d'ed. 1871. Barren hill, near Valley Forge, Pa. Gen. Washing- ton detached gen. Lafayette, Is'May, 1778, with about 2100 men, to watch the British. He occupied Barren hill, where he was approached by about 5000 British troops on 20 May, intending a surprise. Lafayette, assuming to be preparing to meet the attack, skilfully passed the enemy, retreated across the Schuylkill, and occupied a strong position, whereupon the British retired. barrier treaty, by which the Low Countries were ceded to the emperor Charles VI. of Germany, was signed by the British, Austrian, and Dutch ministers, 15 Nov. 1715. barri§ter§ are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. of England, about 1291, but there is earlier mention of professional aclvocates. They are of various ranks, as king's or queen's counsel, sergeants, etc. Students for the bar must keep certain terms at the Inns of Court before being called, and by regulations of 1853 must pass a public examination. Irish students must keep 8 terms in England. Barro§a or Baros§a, S. Spain. The British army, under major-gen. sir Thomas Graham, afterwards lord Lyne- doch, defeated the French under marshal Victor, 5 Mch. 1811, who lost nearly 3000 dead, pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first taken by British ; the British lost 1169 men killed and wounded. Barrow islan»* Coronea (Argesilaus defeats Athenians and allies) • • ' V W oon AUia (Brennus and the Gauls defeat Romans) 16 Julj , wo Volsci defeated by Camillas ^^ Volsci defeat the Romans • • • " ' ' tin Naxus (('habrias defeats Lacedc-emonians) ^<«> or an Tegyra (Thebans defeat Spartans) |^» Leuctra " " " •••.• r." oon " Tearless victory " of Archidamus over Argives, etc 367 Camillas defeats the Gauls 84 BAT Cynosccphaljc {Thebans defeat Thessalians). 364 Manlineli (Thobuns viclors: Kpam.nondas slam) • J6| Tanivnje (.listhines there) • •. ooq Criraisi.8 (Timoleon defeats Carthaginians) auV 338 ChiBronea ^Philip defeats Athenians, etc. ) Aug. 33» Thebes destroyed by Alexander. • • • • • • • go . Oranicus (Alexander defeats Darius) "^ (S ^ I*ttU I,' u u * * V.V.V. V.V.'.V. 1 Oct. 331 Pa^ml^sia (Alexander of Epirus defteated and killed) 326 Cranon (.Vntiputer defeats Greeks) ^f^ SSe Forks (Roman army captured by Samnites) 321 Gaza (Ptolcin V defeats Demetrius) ■■••••••■••■-• V ;, ' ^{f Ecnomus or Himera (Carthaginians defeat Agathocles) 311 Fabius defeats the Etruscans. ^^ Perusia (Etruscans defeated) • • •,•••••,;•. qqi Ipsus (Seleucus defeats Antigonus, who is slain) 3"^ Sentinum (Romans defeat Samnites). . . . •••••••• • • • „:,• ..w:;, ' * " 283 Gauls defeat Romans at Arret ium 284; defeated by Dolabella. . 2M Vadimonian lake (Etruscans and Gauls defeated) Corus (Lysimachus defeated and killed) ^°J Pandosia (Pyrrhus defeats Romans) '.'.'.*",".'.'.* 279 Beneventum (Romans defeat Pyrrhus) 275 First Punic war begins ::•••', oaq Mylffi, n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians)............--- ••••••• ^ Carthaginians under Xantippus the Spartan defeat Regulus. ... 255 Panormus (Hasdrubal defeated by Metellus). f^ Drepanum, n. (Carthaginians defeat Romans) ^*:| Lilybaeum taken by Romans. ^^ iEgates, n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians) ^^^ I.Adocea (Achseans defeated) „„. Clusium or Pisse (Gauls defeated). ^ Sellasia (Macedonians defeat Spartans) ^^ CaphyjB (Achaeans defeat ^tolians) ^^ Srp"rw\?iSr;lnv;b.uVfea«uimai;,v.:;::::2i8 Tribia (Hannibal defeats Romans)^^^^^. '.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'. 217 BAT ..9 Aug. 378. .28 July, 388 . .OSept. 394 .29 Mch. 403 Adrianople (Gauls defeat Valcns) Aquileia (Ma.simus slain) (Eugenius slain) PoUentia (Slilicho defeats Alaric) . . ,,,, Rome taken by Alaric ^* '^"K- 4^^ Ravenna taken by Aspar „ Franks defeated by itltius Genseric takes Carthage • • • • • •.• • • ..^ • Chalons sur-Marne (Attila deleated by .Etiub) 40a Aylesford (Britons defeat Saxons; Horsa killed) *oo Crayford, Kent (Hengist defeats Unions) *^' Soissons (Clovis defeats Syagrius and Romaas) «» Verona (Theodoric defeats Odoacer). .- 27 bept. 4»» Tolbiach, or Zulpich (Clovis defeats Alemanni) *»» Vougl(S (Clovis defeats Visigoths) • • • • • o"| Baddesdown hill (Britons defeat Saxons) ^ *^ {^^ ' Ascalon (Crusaders victorious). ••••••••••• ^^ ■*"^- \{Z Tinchebray (Robert of Normandy defeated) • • • • ^f"" Brenneville (Henry L defeats French) \h^^^^^ im Fraga ( Moors defeat Spaniards) V ' * V. vi t Northallerton, or battle of the Standard (Scots under David I. defeated) • ok Tnw' IISO Ourique (Portuguese defeat Moors) ovlv! 1 Ul Lincoln (Stephen defeated) 2 1^ eD. ii4i Jaen (Moors defeated by Spaniards) •••••• Carcano (Frederic L defeated by Italians) • « Aug. 1157 1160 Alnwick VwiTliam the Lion defeated) 12 July, JJ^^ Legnano (Italians defeat emperor) • -^^ |W, j|^^ Tiberias (Saladin defeats Crusaders) ^-4 J»'y. ff°i Ascoli (Tancred defeats the army of Henry VI. of Germany - - " saders ^« ffl defeats Saracens) -o »epi. Acre taken by Crusaders 119C 12 July, 119] Arsouf (Richard I. Vaferian defeated and captured by Sapor. Arsoui (Kicnaru 1. ucio«i.= .^""^^— "/ ik T„i„ noj Naissus (Claudius defeats Goths, many slain) 269 j JJ^ou^.^j^ (Richard I. defeats Philip II.) 15 July, 119^ Chalons (Aurelian victor over rivals) 296 i Arcadiapolis (Bulgarians defeat emperor Isaac) • • • • • • • Allectus defeated in Britain IZ'Ai: 01 n I ,» lo^^^o ixunnra. ripfpat Snaniards) ^^ -{'"y ' . f„! Constantine defeats Maxec Adrianople (Constantine defeats ^. , . g^^ Aquileia (Constantine II. slam) 356-357 Julian defeats Alemanni VVTA: 3(>fi Thyatira and Nacolea (Procopius defeated) • • • • • Argentaria (Gratian defeats Alemanni) May , o . o Britain . .••••••-• 27 Oct 312 I Alarcos (Moors defeat Spaniards) ^^ •''">' \Y^ ''^:^^^'^'^(-:. •••••••fjS323Gisors(UardLdefeats French) ?^?, L" m (Richard 1. ucica.,0 ^ , ic thIv 121' Tolosa (Moors defeated). 1^ Juiy izi. Muret ( Albigenses defeated) 07 fniv 121 Houvines (French defeat Germans) 27 . July 12r Lincoln (French defeated) 20 Maj , i^i BAT 85 Corte Nuova (Frederic II. defeats Milanese) 27 Nov. 1237 Taillebourg (Freuch defeat Henry III.) 20 July, 1242 Carizmians defeated twice 1247 Fossalla (Ghibelliues defeated) 26 May, 1249 Mansourah (Louis IX. and Crusaders defeated) 1250 Largs (Scots defeat Northmen) 3 Oct. 1263 Lewes (English barons victorious) 14 May, 1264 Evesham (barons defeated; De Montfort killed) 4 Aug. 1265 Benevento (Charles of Anjou defeats Manfred) 26 Feb. 1266 Tagliacozzo (Charles defeats Conradin) 23 Aug. 1268 Marchfeld (Austrians defeat Bohemians) 26 Aug. 1278 Aber Edw (Llewellyn of Wales defeated) 11 Dec. 1282 Zagrab (defeat of Charles Martel) 1292 Dunbar (Scots defeated) 27 Apr. 1296 Cambuskenneth (Wallace defeats English) 10 Sept. 1297 ■Gcelheim (Adolphus of Nassau defeated) 2 July, 1298 Falkirk (Wallace defeated) 22 July, " Courtray (Flemings defeat count of Artois) 11 July, 1302 Roslin, Scotland (Comyn defeats English) 24 Feb. 1303 €ephisus (Brienne, duke of Athens, defeated). Mch. 1311 Bannockburn (Bruce defeats English) 24 June, 1314 Morgarten (Swiss defeat Austrians) 15 Nov. 1315 Athenry (Irish defeated) 10 Aug. 1316 Foughard, or Dundalk (Edward Bruce defeated) 5 Oct. 1318 Boroughbridge (Edward III. defeats barons) 16 Mch. 1322 Miihldorf (Bavarians defeat Austrians) 28 Sept. " Duplin (Edward Baliol defeats Mar) 11 Aug. 1332 Halidon hill (Edward III. defeats Scots) 19 July, 1333 Tarifa (Moors defeated) 28 or 30 Oct. 1340 Auberoche (earl of Derby defeats French) 19 Aug. 1344 * Crecy (English defeat French) 26 Aug. 1346 Durham, Nevil's Cross (Scots defeated) 17 Oct. " La Roche Darien (Charles of Blois defeated) 1347 * Poitiers (English defeat French) 19 Sept. 1356 €ocherel (Du Guesclin defeats Navarre) 16 May, 1364 Auray (Du Guesclin defeated) 29 Sept. " Najara (Navarrete, Logrofio) (Black Prince defeats Henry of Trastamare) 3 Apr. 1367 Montiel (Peter of Castile defeated) 14 Mch. 1369 Rosbecque (French defeat Flemings) 27 Nov. 1382 Aljubarrota (Portuguese defeat Spaniards) 14 Aug. 1385 Sempach (Swiss defeat Austrians) 9 July, 1386 Otterburn (Chevy Chase ; Scots victors; 10 Aug. 1388 Niifels (Swiss defeat Austrians) " Cossova (Turks defeat Albanians, and Amurath I. killed). Sept. 1389 Nicopolis (Turks defeat Christians) 28 Sept. 1396 Nesbit (Scots defeated) 7 May, 1402 Ancyra (Timour defeats Bajazet) 28 July, " Homeldon hill (English defeat Scots.) 14 Sept. " Shrewsbury (Percies, etc., defeated) 23 July, 1403 Bramham moor (Henry IV. defeats rebels) 19 Feb. 1408 Tannenberg (Poles defeat Teuton knights) 15 July, 1410 Harlaw (lord of the isles defeated) 24 July, 1411 * Agincourt (English defeat French) 25 Oct. 1415 Prague (Hussites under Ziska victors) 14 July, 1420 Anjou, Beauge (English defeated by Scots) 22 Mch. 1421 Crevant (English defeat French and Scots) 11 June, 1423 Aquila (Aragonese defeated by Italians) 2 June, 1424 Verneuil (English defeat French and Scots) 17 Aug. " Herrings " " " 12 Feb. 1429 Orleans (siege relieved) 29 Apr. " Patay (English defeated by Joan of Arc) 18 June, " Lippau, or BOhmischbrod (Hussites defeated) 28 May, 1434 Kunobitza (Hunniades defeats the Turks) 24 Dec. 1443 St. Jacob (French defeat Swiss) 26 Aug. 1444 Varna (Turks defeat Hungarians) . „ 10 Nov. " Cossova (Turks defeat Hunniades).!' 17 Oct. 1448 Formigni (English defeated by French) 15 Apr. 1450 Sevenoaks (Jack Cade defeats Stafford) 27 June, " Aibar (Agramonts defeat Beaumonts) 23 Oct. 1452 Brechin, Scotland (Huntley defeats Crawford) 18 May, " €astillon, Chatillon (French defeat Talbot) 17 or 23 July, 1453 Belgrade (Mahomet II. repulsed) 4 Sept. 1456 Montlh6ry (Louis XI. and nobles; indecisive) 16 July, 1465 WAR OF THE ROSKS — YORKISTS AND LANCASTRIANS. St. Albans (Yorkists victorious) 22 or 23 May, 1455 Bloreheath (Yorkists victors) 23 Sept. 1459 Northampton ( " " Henry VI. taken) 10 July, 1460 Wakefield (Lancastrians victors) 31 Dec. " Mortimer's Cross (Yorkists victorious) 2 Feb. 1461 St. Albans (Lancastrians victorious) 17 Feb. " Towton (Yorkists victorious) 29 Mch. " Hexham (Yorkists victors) 15 May, 1464 Edgecote, or Banbury (Yorkists defeated) 26 July, 1469 Stamford (Lancastrians defeated) 13 Mch. 1470 Barnet " " 14 Apr. 1471 Tewkesbury " " 4 May, " iJranson (Swiss defeat Charles the Bold) 3 Mch. 1476 Morat " " " •' " 22 June, " Nancy (Charles the Bold killed) 5 Jan. 1477 * Bosworth (Richard III. defeated) 22 Aug. 1485 Stoke (Lambert Simnel taken) 16 June, 1487 St. Aubin (Orleans defeated) 28 July, 1488 Sauchieburn, near Bannockburn (James III. defeated by rebels, " Fornovo (French defeat Italians) 6 July, 1495 Seminara (French defeat Spaniards) " Blackheatb (Cornish rebels defeated) 22 June, 1497 Seminara (Gonsalvo defeats French) 21 Apr. 1503 BAT Cerignola (Gonsalvo defeats French) 28 Apr Garigliano " " «< * '27 Dec* Agnadello (French defeat Venetians). ..'..". 14 May Ravenna (Gaston de Foix, victor, killed) '."'." ii April' Novara (Papal Swiss defeat French) 6 June' Guinegate (Spurs) (French defeated) , 16 Aug' Flodden (English defeat Scots) 9 SenL Marignano (French defeat Swiss) ia^is Sept Bicocca, near Milan (Lautrec defeated). . . 29 Aor' Pavia (Francis I. defeated) 24 Feb J'ran^enhausen (Anabaptists defeated) '. .'.".' ". " " 15 May' ^^ohaO (Turks defeat Hungarians) 29 Aue Cappel (Zwinglius slain) jj Qct' Lauffen (Hessians defeat Austrians) 13 May Assens (Christian III. defeats Danish rebels) . .'.'.","'.'.' " Abancay (Almagro defeats Alvarado, South America)'.*.'l2 July Solway Moss (English defeat Scots) 25 Nov' Ceresuola (French defeat Imperialists) '14 Apr Muhlberg (Charles V. defeats Protestants) '24 Apr Pinkey (English defeat Scots) , 10 Sept Ket's rebellion suppressed by Warwick Aug Marciano (Florentines defeat French) '. SAug St. Quentin (Spanish and English defeat French) .10 Aug. Calais (taken) 7 jjm^ Gravelines, n. (Spanish and English defeat French).*. ..13 July Dreux, in France (Huguenots defeated) 19 Dec! Carberry hill (Mary of Scotland defeated) 15 June St. Denis " " " 10 Nov. Langside " " " 13 May, Jarnac (Huguenots defeated) 13 Mch. Moncontour (Coligny defeated) 3 Oct. * Lepanto, n. (Don John defeats Turks) 7 Oct. Dormans (Guise defeats Huguenots) 10 Oct. Alcazar-quiver (Moors defeat Portuguese) 4 Aug. Alcantara (Spaniards defeat Portuguese) ^ 24 June, Zutphen (Dutch and English defeat Spaniards) 22 Sept. Coutras (Henry IV. defeats League) 20 Oct. * Spanish Armada defeated, n July, Aug. Arques (Henry IV. defeats League) 21 Sept. * Ivry, or Yvres (Henry IV. defeats League) 14 Mch. Epernay taken by Henry IV. of France 26 July, Fontaine Franpaise (Henry IV. beats Spaniards) 5 June, Blackwater (Tyrone and rebels defeat Bagnal) 14 Aug. Nieuport (Maurice defeats Austrians) Kinsale (Tyrone reduced by Mountjoy) Kirchholm (Poles defeat Swedes) Gibraltar (Dutch defeat Spaniards) THIRTY YEARS WAR, 1618-48. Prague (king of Bohemia defeated) 8 Nov. Dessau (Wallenstein defeats Mansfeld) 25 Apr. Rochelle (taken) 28 Oct. Stuhm (Gustavus defeats Poles) * Leipsic, or Breitenfeld (Gustavus defeats Tilly) 7 Sept * Lech (Imperialists defeated ; Tilly killed) 5 Apr. * Lippstadt, Lutzingen, or Lutzen (Swedes victorious; Gustavus slain) 16 Nov. Nordlingen (Swedes defeated) 27 Aug. Arras (taken by the French) 10 Aug. Leipsic (Swedes defeat Austrians) 23 Oct Rocroy (French defeat Spaniards) 19 May, Friedburg (Cond^ victor) 3-5 Aug. Nordlingen (Turenne defeats Austrians) CIVIL W^AR IN ENGLAND. Worcester (prince Rupert victor) 23 Sept Edgehill fight (issue doubtful) 23 Oct Bradock-down (Parliamentarians defeated) Jan. Bramham moor (Fairfax defeated) 29 Mch. Stratton (Royalists victorious) 16 May, Chalgrove (Hampden killed) 1« June, Atherton moor (Royalists victorious) 30 June, Lansdown " " ^Iv'J' Devizes, or Roundway-down (Royalists victorious) 13 July, Gainsborough (Cromwell victor) 27 July, Newbury (favorable to Royalists) ^ „P^ Cheriton, or Alresford (favorable to Royalists) 29 Mch. Cropredy bridge (Charles I. victor) 29 June, * Marston moor (prince Rupert defeated) 2 July, Tippermuir (Montrose defeats Covenanters) L « r Newbury (indecisive) .27 Oct Naseby (Charles I. totally defeated) -^t t ?®' Alford (Montrose defeats Covenanters) .2 July, Kilsyth " " " loAug. Philiphaugh (Covenanters defeat Montrose) 13 Sept Benburb (O'Neill defeats English) 5 June, Dungan hill (Irish defeated) •» Aug. Preston (Cromwell victor) i< ■*"»• Rathmines (Irish Royalists defeated) i^S Drogheda (taken by storm) 07 a nr Corbiesdale (Montrose defeated) q\^Vit * Dunbar (Cromwell defeats Scots). » »ePJ- Worcester (Cromwell defeats Charles II. ) » oeP^- Galway (surrendered) •;•••••••,•, oi" Vn'r Daventry (Lambert defeated by Monk) 21 Apr. 1503 1509 1512 1513 1615 1522 1625 1626 1531 1534 1535 1537 1542 1544 1547 1549 1554 1557 1558 1562 1667 1568 1569 1571 1576 1578 1580 1586 1587 1588 1589 1590 1592 1595 1598 1600 1601 1605 1607 1631 1632 1634 1640 1642 1643 1644 1645 1642 1643 1644 1646 1647 1648 1649 1650 1651 1652 1660 Arras, France (Turenne defeats Cond6) ;;'.'.'.u'J»me* 1658 Semoz (Don John defeated by Schomberg) 8 June, 16g St Gotthard (Montecuculi defeats Turks) l ^ug. 100* BAT villa Viciosa (Portuguese defeat Spaniards) 1666 Pentlond hills (Covenanters defeated) 28 Nov. 1666 Candia (taken by Turks) 6 Sept. 1669 Choczini (Sobieski defeats Turks) 11 Nov. 1673 SenefTe (French and Dutch; indecisive) 11 Aug. 1674 Ensisheim (Turenno defeats Imperialists) 4 Oct. " Miilhuusen " '• " 31 Doc. " Turckhetm " " " 5 Jan. 1675 Salzbach (Turenne killed) 27 July, " Drumdog (Covenanters defeat Claverhouse) 1 June, 1679 Bothwell Brigg (Monmouth defeats Covenanters) 22 June, " Vienna (Turks defeated by Sobieski) 12 Sept. 1683 Sedgemoor (Monmouth defeated) ;. .6 July, 1685 MohAc^ (Turks defeated) 12 Aug. 1687 Killiecrankio (Highlanders defeat Mackay) 27 July, 1689 Newtown butler (Jacobites defeated) 30 July, " * Boyne (William III. defeats James II. ) 1 July, 1690 Fleiirus (Charleroi, Luxembourg victor) " " Athlone taken by Ginckel 30 June, 1691 Aghrim (.fames II. 's cause ruined) 12 July, " Salenckemen (Louis of Baden defeats Turks) 19 Aug. " Enghien or Steenkirk (William III. defeated) 24 July, 1692 Landen (William III. defeated) 19 July, 1693 Marsaglia (Pignerol) (French victors) 4 Oct. " Zenta (prince Eugdne defeats Turks) 11 Sept. 1697 Narva (Charles XII. defeats Russians) 30 Nov. 1700 Carpi, .Modena (allies defeat French) 9 July, 1701 Chiari (Austrians defeat French) 1 Sept. " Clissau (Charles XII. defeats Poles) 20 July, 1702 Santa Vittoria (Frencli victors) 26 July, " Friedlingeu (French defeat Germans) 14 Oct. " Pultusk (Swedes defeat Poles) 1 May, 1703 WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION, 1702-13. Hochstadt (French defeat Austrians) 20 Sept. " Donauwerth (Marlborough victor) 2 July, 1704 Gibraltar (taken by Rooke) 24 July, " * Blenheim or Hochstadt (Marlborough victor) 13 Aug. " Tirlemont (Marlborough successful) 18 July, 1705 Cassano (prince Eugene; indecisive) 16 Aug. " Mittau (taken by Russians) 14 Sept. " * Ramillies (Marlborough defeats French) 23 May, 1706 Turin (French defeated by Eugene) 7 Sept. " Kalitsch (Russians defeat Swedes) 19 Nov. '* Almanza (French defeat allies) 25 Apr. 1707 Gudenarde (Marlborough victor) 11 July, 1708 Liesna, Lenzo (Russians defeat Swedes) .autumn, " Lisle (taken by the allies) Dec. " * Pultowa (Peter defeats Charles XII.) 8 July, 1709 * Malplaquet (Marlborough victor) 11 Sept. " Dobro (Russians defeat Swedes) 20 Sept. " Almenara (Austrians defeat French) 28 July, 1710 Saragossa " " " 20 Aug. " Villa Viciosa (Austrians defeated) 10 Dec. " Arleux (Marlborough forces French lines) 5 Aug. 1711 Bouchain (taken by Marlborough) 13 Sept. " Denain (Villars defeats allies) 24 July, 1712 Friburg (taken by French) 7 Nov. 1713 Preston (Scotch rebels defeated) 12, 13 Nov. 1715 Dumblane or Sheriff-Muir (indecisive) 13 Nov. " * Peterwardein (Eugfene defeats Turks) 5 Aug. 1716 Belgrade " " " 16 Aug. 1717 Bitonto (Spaniards defeat Germans) 27 May, 1734 Parma (Austrians and French ; indecisive) 29 June, " Guastalla (Austrians defeated) 19 Sept. " Erivan (Nadir Shah defeats Turks) June, 1735 Krotzka (Turks defeat Austrians) 22 July, 1739 WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, 1741-48. Molwitz (Prussians defeat Austrians) 10 Apr. 1741 Dettingen (George II. defeats French) 16 June, 1743 * Fontenoy (Saxe defeats Cumberland) 30 Apr. 1745 Hohenfreiburg (Prussians defeat Austrians) 4 June, " St. Lazaro (Sardinians defeat French) 4 June, 1746 Placentia (Austrians defeat French) 16 June, " Raucoux (Saxe defeats allies) 11 Oct. " Lafleldt (Saxe defeats Cumberland) 2 July, 1747 Exilles (Sardinians defeat French) 19 July, " Bergen-op-Zoom (taken) 15 Sept. " scots' REBELLION. Preston Pans (rebels defeat Cope) 21 Sept. 1745 Clifton Moor (rebels defeated) 18 Dec. " Falkirk (rebels defeat Hawley) 17 Jan. 1746 Culloden (Cumberland defeats rebels) 16 Apr. " INDIA. Calcutta (taken by Surajah Dowlah) 20 June, 1756 Plassey (dive's victory) 23 June, 1757 Wandewash (Coote defeats Lally) 22 .Jan. 1760 Buxar (Munro defeats army of Oude) 23 Oct. 1764 SEVEN years' WAR, 1756-63. Prague (Frederick defeats allies) 6 May, 1757 KoUin (Frederick defeated) 18 June, " Norkitten (Russians defeated) 13 Aug. " ♦Rosbach (Frederick defeats French) 5 Nov. " Breslau (Austrians victors) 22 Nov. " Lissa (Frederick defeats Austrians) 5 Dec. " Creveldt (Ferdinand defeats French) 23 June, 1758 1758 1759 1760 1761 176-2 1764 1745 1754 1755 1757 1758- 1759- ' BAT Zomdorff (Frodorick defeats Russians) 25, 26 Aug. Hochkirchen (Austrians defeat Prussians) 14 Oct. Bergen iFreuch defeat allies) 13 Apr. Zullichau (Russians defeat Prussians) 23 July, Minden (Ferdinand defeats French) 1 Aug. Cunncrsdorf (Russians defeat Prussians) 12 Aug. I^ndshut, Silesia (Prussians defeated) 23 June, Warburg (Ferdinand defeats French) 31 July, Pfadendorf (Frederick defeats Austrians) 15 Aug. Kloster Campen (English and Germans with French; indeci- sive) 15, 16 Oct. *Torgau (Frederick defeats Austrians) 3 Nov. Kirchdenkern (allies defeat French) 15 July, Schweidnitz (Frederick II. defeats Austrians) 16 May, Johannisberg (French defeat Prussians) 30 Aug. Freiberg (Prussians defeat Austrians) 29 Oct. RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. Choczim (Russians defeat Turks) 30 Apr. and 13 July, 17()9 Galatz (Russians defeat Turks) Nov. " Bender (taken by Russians) 28 Sept. 1770 Brailow (Russians defeat Turks) 19 June, 1773 Silistria (taken by Russians) 1774 FRENCH AND ENGLISH COLONIAL WAR IN AMERICA. Louisburg (taken from the French by the colonists). . .17 June, Pittsburg, Pa. (then a fort, surrendered to the French).. 17 Apr. Great Meadows (Washington defeats French ; Jumonville killed), 28 May, Fort Necessity (Washington surrenders to the French). .3 July, Braddock's Defeat (French and Indians defeat English). .9 July, Lake George, N. Y. (first engagement; French defeat English), 8 Sept. " " " (second engagement; English defeat French), 8 Sept. Oswego (English surrender to Montcalm) 11 Aug. Kittanning, Pa. (English defeat Indians) 8 Sept. Fort William Henry, N. Y. (English surrender to Montcalm), 6 July, Fort Ticonderoga (French repulse English) 6 July, Louisburg (French surrender to English) 26 July, Fort Frontenac (French surrender to English) 27 Aug. " Duquesne " evacuate 25 Nov. " Niagara " surrender to English 24 July, " Ticonderoga " evacuate 26 July, Montmorenci (Montcalm defeats English) 31 July, Quebec (Wolf defeats Montcalm) 13 Sept. AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1775-82. Lexington (the first conflict of the war) 19 Apr. Concord (British retreat to Boston) " Ticonderoga (captured by Ethan Allen) 10 May, *Bunker Hill (Americans retire for want of ammunition), 17 June, Montreal (taken by Montgomery) 13 Nov. Quebec (Montgomery killed) 31 Dec. Norfolk, Va. (burned by British) 1 Jan. Moore's Creek Bridge (Tories beaten) 27 Feb. Boston (evacuated by British) 17 Mch. Fort Sullivan, Charleston, S. C. (British repulsed) 28 June, Brooklyn, Long Island (Americans beaten) 27 Aug. Harlem Heights (Americans victorious) 16 Sept. White Plains (Americans retreat) 28 Oct. Fort Washington (captured by the British) 16 Nov. *Trenton (Americans victorious) 26 Dec. Princeton (Americans victorious) 3 Jan. Hubbard ton, Vt. (Americans beaten) 7 July, Oriskany, N. Y. (Americans defeat Tories and Indians). .6 Aug. *Bennington, Vt. (Americans victorious) 16 Aug. Brandywine, Pa. (Americans retreat) 11 Sept. First battle of Bemis''s Heights (Americans successful).. 19 Sept. Paoli (massacre of Americans) 20 Sept. Philadelphia (occupied by British) 25 Sept. German town (Americans retreat) 4 Oct. Forts Clinton and Montgomery (taken by British) 6 Oct. Second battle of Demises Heights (Americans victorious). .7 Oct. Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender) 17 Oct. Fort Mercer (British repulsed) 22 Oct. " Mifflin (Americans evacuate; gallant defence) 16 Nov. Monmouth (British retire at night) 28 June, Schoharie (Indian massacre) 2 July, Wyoming " " 3, 4 July, Quaker Hill, R. I. (gen. Sullivan repulses attack of gen. Pigot), 29 Aug. Savannah (taken by British) 29 Dec. Kettle Creek, Ga. (Tories defeated) 14 Feb. Brier " " (Americans defeated) 3 Mch. Stono Ferry, S. C. (Americans repulsed) 20 June, Stony Point (Americans victorious; brilliant exploit). .16 July, Paulus's Hook (Americans successful) 19 Aug. Bonhomme Richard and Serapis, n. (Americans victorious), 23 Sept. Savannah (Americans repulsed) 9 Oct. Charleston (surrender to British) 12 May, Washaw (massacre of Buford's men) 29 May, Springfield, N. J. (British repulsed) 23 June, Rocky Mount, S. C. (Americans repulsed) 30 June, Hanging Rock, S. C. (loyalists dispersed) 7 Aug. Sanders's Creek, near Camden, S. C. (Americans defeated), 16 Aug. King's Mountain (loyalists defeated) 7 Oct. Fish Dam Ford, Broad river (Americans victorious) 12 Nov. 1776. 177T 1780- BAT Blackstocks (Americans victorious) 20 Nov. Cowpens (British defeated) 17 Jan. Cowan's Ford, S. C. (Americans repulsed) 1 Feb. Haw (total defeat of the loyalists) 25 Feb. Guilford Court-house (Americans retreat) 15 Mch. Hobkirk's Hill, S. C. (Americans retire) 25 Apr. Ninety-six (besieged by Americans) May and June, Augusta " " " " " " Jamestown, Va. (Americans retreat) 9 July, New London (taken by Benedict Arnold) 5 Sept. Fort Griswold (captured by the British) " Eutaw Springs (undecided) 8 Sept. *Yorktown (Cornwallis surrendered) 19 Oct. Blue Licks (Indians victorious) 19 Aug. [Other but inferior actions took place, with varying success to both parties. ] MISCELLANEOUS. Arcot (Hyder defeats British) 31 Oct. Porto Novo (Coote defeats Hyder) 1 July, Rodney's victory over De Grasse, n 12 Apr. Arnee (Coote defeats Hyder) 2 June, Attack on Gibraltar fails 13 Sept. Bedmore (taken by Tippoo Sahib) 30 Apr. Martinesti ( Austrians defeat Turks) 22 Sept. Ismail (taken by storm by Suwarrow) 22 Dec. Bangalore (taken by storm) 21 Mch. Arikera (Tippoo defeated) 15 May, Seringapatam (Tippoo defeated) 6 Feb. FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. Qui^vrain (French repulsed) 28 Apr. Valmy (French defeat Prussians) 20 Sept. Jemappes (French victorious) 6 Nov. Neerwinden (French beaten by Austrians) 18 Mch. St. Amand (French defeated by English) 8 May, Valenciennes " " " " 23 May, 26 July, Lincelles (Lake defeats French) 18 Aug. Dunkirk (duke of York defeated) 7, 8 Sept. Quesnoy (reduced by Austrians) 11 Sept. Pirmasens (Prussians defeat French) 14 Sept. Wattignies (French defeat Coburg) 14, 15, 16 Oct. Toulon (retaken by British) 19 Dec. Cambray (French defeated) 24 Apr. Troisville, Landrecy (taken by allies) 30 Apr. Tourcoing (Moreau defeats allies) 18-22 May, Espierres (taken by allies) 22 May, Howe's naval victory 1 June, Charleroi or Fleurus (French defeat allies) 26 June, Misdon (Vendeans defeated) 28 July, Bois-le-Duc (duke of York defeated) 14 Sept. Boxtel " " " 17 Sept. Maciejowice (Poles defeated) 10 Oct. Nimeguen (French victorious), 28 Oct. ; (defeated) 4 May, Praga (Warsaw taken by Suwarrow) 4 Nov. Bridport's victory off I'Orient, n .22 June, Quiberon (emigrants defeated) 21 July, Mannheim (taken by Pichegru) 20 Sept. Loano (French defeat Austrians) 23, 24 Nov. Montenotte (Bonaparte victorious) 12 Apr. Mondovi " " 22 Apr. Lodi " " 10 May, Altenkirchen (Austrians defeated) v4 June, Radstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) 5 July, Altenkirchen (Austrians victors) 16 Sept. Roveredo (French defeat Austrians) 4 Sept. Bassano " " " 8 Sept. Biberach " " " 2 Oct. Lonato and Castiglione (French defeat Austrians) 3-5 Aug. Neresheim (Moreau defeats archduke Charles) 10 Aug. Areola (Bonaparte victorious) 14-17 Nov. Castelnuovo (Bonaparte victorious) , .21 Nov. Rivoli " " 14, 15 Jan. Cape St. Vincent, n. (Spaniards defeated) 14 Feb. Tagliamento (Bonaparte defeats Austrians) 16 Mch. Santa-Cruz, Canary islands, n. ; Nelson's unsuccessful attack; loses his right arm 25-26 July, Camperdown, n. (Duncan defeats Dutch) 11 Oct. IRISH REBELLION. Begins May, Kilcullen (rebels successful) 23 May, Naas (rebels defeated) .24 May, Tara (rebels defeated) 26 May, Oulart (rebels successful) 27 May, Gorey or New Ross (rebels defeated) 4 June, Antrim (rebels defeated) 7 June, Arklow (rebels beaten) 10 June, Ballynahinch (Nugent defeats rebels) 13 June, Vinegar Hill (Lake defeats rebels) 21 June, Castlebar (French auxiliaries defeated) 27 Aug. Ballinamuck (French and rebels defeated) 8 Sept. NAPOLEONIC WARS. Pyramids (Bonaparte defeats Mamelukes) 13, 21 July, Nile, n. (Nelson defeats French fleet) 1 Aug. El Arisch (French defeat Turks) 18 Feb. Jaffa (stormed by Bonaparte) 7-10 Mch. Stokach (Austrians defeat French) 25 Mch. Verona " " " 28-30 Mch. Magnano (Kray defeats French) 5 Apr. Mount Thabor (Bonaparte defeats Turks) 16 Apr. 87 1781 1781 1780 1781 1782 1783 1789 1790 1791 1792 1792 1793 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 BAT Ca^sano (Suwarrow defeats Moreau) o? Aor I7«l.' Adda (Suwarrow defeats French) '^ .. P'' ".r Seringapatam (Tippoo killed) 4 vf„„ u Zurich (h rench defeated) 5 JunA «» Trebia (Suwarrow defeats French). '. '. ". '. '. '. ". ', '. ", '. ', *. ', ". ' iylio jlal •« Alessandria (taken from French). . . . o. j"?f' ., Aboukir (Turks defeated by Bonaparte). . .' .' .' .' .* .' .* .' .' .' .' .' '5s July " Novi (Suwarrow defeats French) .V. . fn A«a u /uyper Sluys (French defeated) 9 ^"t « Bergen and Alkmaer (allies defeated). .'/.'.'.".'.'.w's^Dr M^ •• Zurich (Massena defeats Russians). . ..... ^ 258«nL •« Heliopolis(Kleber defeats Turks). MMch iflM Engen (Moreau defeats Austrians) .... 1, m,v " Moeskirch " » '« « S.t' u Biberach " " » ;; J "'J' ..* Montebello (Austrians defeated) *9 June •♦ *Marengo (Bonaparte defeats Austrians). .' .' .'.".'.'.'.'.'"" 14 J une' " Hochstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians). , . 'lo jnn«' •« Hohenlinden " " " _ » Dec* •• Mincio (French defeat Austrians) '.'" '^vi iw •« Aboukir (French defeated) g m-h imi Alexandria ( Abercrombie's victory). ,.*.', ', '.'.'.'."."*. 21 Mch. •« Copenhagen (bombarded bv Nelson) 2 Apr •• Ahmednuggur (Wellesley [Wellington] victoriouBV.!!*.!!i2 Aug. 18(» Assaye (Wellesley's [Wellington] first great victory). . .23 Sept '• Argaum (Wellesley [Wellington] victor) . . 29 Nov " Furruckabad (Lake defeats Holkar) 17 Nov' 1804 Bhurtpore (taken by I^ke) '. .', 2 Apr 180(^ Elchingen (Ney defeats Austrians) 14 Oct «• Ulm surrenders (Ney defeats Austrians) 17-20 Oct «' ♦Trafalgar, n. (Nelson destroys French fleet; killed) 21 Oct " *Austerlitz (Napoleon defeats Austrians and Russians). .2 Dec. " Buenos Ayres (taken by Popham) 27 June, 18M Maida (Stuart defeats French) 4 July, •« Saalfeld (French defeat Prussians) .* 10 Oct " Auerstadt " " '« 14 Oct •• Jena " «' " .'..| «» «« Halle stormed by French .'..'.'...'. .....n Oct ♦• Pultusk (French and allies; indecisive) 26 Dec. " Mohrungen (French defeat Russians and Pmssians). . . . 25 Jan. 1807 Montevideo (taken) 3 Feb. '* Eylau (indecisive) 7, 8 Feb. •• Ostrolenka (French defeat Prussians) 16 Feb. •• Friedland (French defeat Russians) 14 June, '* Buenos Ayres ( Whitelock defeated) 6 July, •* Copenhagen (bombarded by Cathcart) 2-6 Sept '• Medina de Rio Seco (French defeat Spaniards) 15 July, 1808 Baylen (Spaniards defeat French) 20 July, " Vimiera (Wellesley [Wellington] defeats Junot) 21 Aug. " Tudela or Ebro (French defeat Spaniards) 23 Nov. " Corunna (Moore defeats French) 16 Jan. 190^ Abenberg (Austrians defeated) 20 Apr. " Landshut " " 21 Apr. •• Eckmtihl (Davoust defeats Austrians) 22 Apr. " Ebersberg (French defeat Austrians) ^ May, " Oporto (taken) 29 Mch., 12 May, «* Aspern (Napoleon defeated) 21, 22 May, •' Essling " " " " *Wagram (Austrians defeated) 5, 6 July, " Talavera (Wellesley [Wellington] defeats Victor) 27, 28 July. «' Silistria (Turks defeat Russians) 26 Sept " Ocana (Mortier defeats Spaniards) 19 Nov. " Busaco (Wellington repulses Massena) 27 Sept 1810 Barrosa (Graham defeats Victor) 6 Mch. 1811 Badajoz (taken by the French) 11 Mch. " Fuentes de Onoro (Wellington defeats Massena) 3, 6 May, " Albuera (Beresford defeats Soult) 16 May, " Ximena (Spaniards defeat French) 10 Sept " Merida (Hill defeats French) 28 Oct " Albufera (Suchet defeats Spaniards) 4 Jao- 1812 Ciudad Rodrigo (stormed by English) 19 Jan. •' Badajoz (taken by Wellington) 6 Apr. ' Llerena (Cotton defeats Soult) 11 Apr. Salamanca (Wellington defeats Marmont) 21 July, " Mohilow (French defeat Russians) 2:? July, ' Polotzk (French and Russians) 30, 31 July, • Krasnoi, Smolensko (French defeat Russians) 15, 19 Aug. Moskwa (French defeat Russians) 7 Sept |^ ♦Borodino " " " • ' ,^ Moscow (burned by Russians) :«^L^. .» Polotzk (retaken by Russians) *®' ?S ^V « Malo-Jaroslawatz (French victors) :,i^ «. Witepsk (French defeated) i^,flv°3" Krasnoi " " Beresina .16-18 Nov. .25-29 Nov. Kalitsch (Saxons defeated) ^l^ MOckern (Eugene defeats Russians) .8 Apr. Castalla (.1. M urray defeats Suchet) 13 A pj. Lutzen (Napoleon checks allies . ••••••••. if (i^l' Bautzen (Napoleon and allies; mdeclsive) ^^ .20 M«.v, Ho"chki?chen (French defeat Austrians and Ru^i^).'.M M^i Vittoria (Wellington defeats king Joseph) ^ j -.-f „ aS Pyrenees (Wellington defeats Soult) 28 Julyj2 Aug. Katzbach (BlQcher defeats Ney) •• • « *»«• Dresden (Napoleon checks allies). "^ si am St. Sebastian (stormed by Graham) « *°8- Dennewitz (Ney defeated) ^^^ MOckern (French defeated) • :• _ ^. ♦Leipsic (Napoleon defeated) l*"" ^*' lais BAT 1814 lAapoMOB TOi i in Bmwmrmat) SO Oct 1813 «.J«n^l*-Lu(W«lllii«lM defeats Soali). lOKor. >• Fi— ifi nf ifcf Stit% f Dec ; sererml eBgacemeiiU bet w en the •UiMMMlFrwek 10 to IS Dec Si. INxier, Frmace (Praadi rictora) 26 Jan BrieBM (aUiw defSHOedjL 29 Jan. iM Rotni^r* (KapokKW defMOs alliee) 1 Feb. Bar mr AQbe (alliM Tkton) 7 Feb. Miaeio (priaoa Eaftae defeatt Aortrians) 8 Feb. •Champ Aabert (French deftat allies) 10-12 Feh M«ntmima 11 Feb. TasRhamp .. u Febi 17 Feb. ISFebi Oithsa (WeUlngton defeaU Soalt) 27 Feb. 1 (FreQch victors) 7 llch. (Graham defeated; 8 Mch. ijMm (French defeated) 9-10 Mch. l-2S«pt. ] .5 -Sept. 1") S«pt. ITSept. I (Napoleon defeats St. Priest) 13 Mch. (Wcili^ton defeats Soolt). 20 Mch. Fire Ckaamnoiae (French defeated) . A Disier (lyenA Tlelon) 25Mch. " 28 Mch. '• FteiB, Montmartre. RomainriUe ( Fraoch victors) 30 Mch. '' Bsttle of the Barriers, 90 Mch. (Marmont evacuates Paris, and thaaUiMi enter it) 31 Mch. " Tsnlonae (WeQington defeats Soult) 10 Apr. '■ 'Tolentino (Marat defeated) 3 May, 1815 Ugnr (Bllcher repulsed). 16 June, '• ■4)aatre Brss (Key repolsed) " "• •Waterloo (Xiqwleon ftnaUy beaten) 18 June, *'. WAR or 1812 BETWEKS THK USTTKn STATES ASD GBKAT BRITAIN. 19 June, 1812 (captured by the British). 17 July, •• (Americans retreat) 5 Aug. " Bga (British retreat) 9 Aug. " : and Alert, n. (U. & Essex captures Alert). 13 Aug. " •Chicifo (Indian masBacre). 15 Aug^ " Detroit (surrendered). 16 Aug. " 'Oana ti t nti on and Goecrlire, n. (Guerri^re destroyed) ... 19 Aug. '' Fort Harrison (defence of by capt Zachary Taylor) . .4, 5 Sept '' Fort Madison (defence of) 5, 6, 7, and 8 Sept " Daris's Creek 11 Sept " e and Cherub). 28 Mch. " La OoOe Mills (Anericans repulsed) SOMch. " Fort Oswego (British capture) 4. 5 Mav « aandy Creek (British snrrender). "... 30MaV' " ]rort&ie(AnMricans capture) 3Julr' " •Chippewa (Americans victorious) 5 July " Niagara Fans (Londy's Lane; indecisive) ! 25Julv " Black Rock (British repulsed) saue.' " Fort Madtinac (Americans repulsed) *4Au« " Fort Erie (bombarded by British). '.islisAut « T«t Erie (Amoicansrepalse assault) 15 Aug. " Bladensfanis (Americans defeated). 24Aait " W^ashington (Capitol burned bv British) '- « Moors Fields, Md. (British repulsed; sir Peter Paiier killed), 30 Aug. " Plattrfwrg and Lake CniampUin (British defeated) U Se^ " * BAT North Point, Bahimon (Americans retire Fort McHenry (defenoo of; British retire Fort Bowywr (British repnlBedi Fort Erie (soccessftd sortie h7 Americaivaj Lyon's Creek (skirmish at) 19 Oct Pensaoola (Jackson seises U from the Sponianis) 7 Nov. TUlerTs Plantation, New Orleans (JackHm eunpB the i^ipnaeh of the British). 28 Dea Chalmette's Plantatimi, New Orleans (British repulsed), 28 Dec Rodrigues*8Cnnal, New Orleans (Britidi artillery bentoi),! Jan. 1 •New Orleans (British defeated) .8 Jan Fort St PhUip (soccessfU defence oO 9-18 Jan Point Petre, Ga. (sorrenders to British) 13 Jan Constitution captures Cyane and Levant, «. 20 Feb. [For fuller account see separate articles and naval bnttle&] THE CEEEK. IXDIAST WAS. Burnt Com Creek, AU. (whites defeated). 27 July, 1 Fort Mimms (captured by Indians; massacre) 30 Aug. i Tsllasahatchie (Indians defeated by gen. Coffee) 3 Nov. TS»Uad^;a " " " gen. Jackson) 9 Nov. HiUabee Town (massacre of Indians by gOL White) 18 Nov. j Auttose Towns (Indians defeated by gen. Floyd) 29 Nov. I EcoiK>chaco, or ''Holy Ground" (Indians defeated by gen. I CUibome) 23 Dec I Emucfeu (Jackstm repulses Indians) 22 Jan. 1 , Enotochopco Cre^ (Jadcaon again repulses Indians) . .24 Jan. Calebee Creek (Indian attain repulsed by gen. Floyd). .27 Jan. Horse-shoe Bend ( Jacksm signally defeats the Indians), 27 Mcb. BLACK HAWK WAS— MISSISSIPPI WAB. Stillman^s Volunteers (defeat, Rock river). 14 May, 1 Pickatolica River 15 June, Kellogg's Grove (2 skirmishes). 16 June, 1 (Talena. 18 June, KeUc^s Grove. 24 June, Blue Mounds 21 July, Warrior, steamer (attack on) i Aug. Bad Axe (Indians defeated) 2 Aug. Black Hawk was. SKMCIOLE WAB. Fort King (massncre t^goi. Thompson and others) 28 Dec 1 Wahoo Swamp (near, massacre of maj. Dade and 100 menji 28 Dec Withlacoochee Ford (U. S. troops with Oscetda and Alligatorl 31 Dec Dnnlawton {maj. Putnam, with Indians under king PhUip), 18 Jan. II Withlacoochee Ford (gen. Gaines. 4 skirmishes), 27-29 FAl, 5 Mch. Oloklikaha 31 Mch. Cooper's Post (defence of by maj. Coc^mr) Apr. Thlonotosassa 27 Apr. Micanopy 9 June, Welika Pond 9 July, Ridgeley's Mill 27 July, Fort Drane 21 Aug. San Velasco Hammock 18 Sept Wahoo Swamp 17, 18, 21 Not. Hatcheeloskie .27 Jan. 11 Camp Monroe (Indian attack repulsed). 8 Feb. FortMellon " " " 9F^. Mosquito Inlet (2 camps of Indians captured) 10 Sept Osceola (seized by order of gen. Jesnp) 21 Oct Okechobee Lake (Indians, rooted by od. Tnylor). 25 Dec WaccasBusa River 26 Dec Jnpito- Credt 15 Jan. IJ Jupiter Inlet (gen. Jesup wounded) 24 Jan. NewmansviDe 7 June, Carkmeahatchee (coL Harney wounded) 23 July, If Fort King 28 Ape If Levi's Prairie 19 May, ' Wacahoota 6 Sept Ever^ades (expediticm into ; coL Hamey OHu'd'g) . . . 3-24 Dec ' Micanopy (lieut Sherwood kOIed) 28 Dec Fort Brooke (Indians driven ott) 2 Mch. If Hawe Creek 25 Jan. 18 Pilaklikaha (total drfjeat Isly (French defeat Abd-el-Kader) 14 Aug. 1844 Moodkee (Hardinge defeats Sikhs) 18 Dec. 1845 Ferozeshah '' " " 21, 22 Dec. " Aliwal (Smith defeats Sikhs) 28 Jan. 1846 Sobraon (Gough defeats Sikhs) 10 Feb. " St I'bes (Portugal) 9 May, " Flensborg (Danes defeat rebels) 9 Apr. 1848 Dannewerke (Prussians defeat Danes) 23 Apr. " Curtatone (Austrians defeat Italians) 29 May, " Custozza " " " 23 July, " Velencze (Croats and Hungarians) 29 Sept " Mooltan (Sikhs repulsed) 7 Nov. " Chilianwallah (Gough defeats Sikhs) 13 Jan. 1849 Goojerat " " " 21 Feb. " Gran (Hungarians victors) 27 Feb. " Novara (Radetzky defeats Sardinians) 23 Mch. " Velletri (Roman republicans defeat Neapolitans) 19 May, " Pered (Russians defeat Hungarians) 21 June, " Acs (Hungarians repulsed) 2 and 10 July, " Waitzen (taken by Russians) 17 July, " Schassberg (Russians defeat Bem) 31 July, " Teraeswar (Haynau defeats Hungarians) 10 Aug. " Idstedt (Danes defeat Holsteiuers) 25 July, 1850 Nankin (taken by imperialists) 19 July, 1853 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. Oltenitza (Turks repulse Russians) 4 Nov. 1853 Sinope, n. (Turkish fleet destroyed) 30 Nov. " Citate (Turks defeat Russians) 6 Jan. 1854 Silistria " " » 13-15 June-, " Giurgevo " " " 7 July, " Bayazid (Russians d.efeat Turks) 29, 30 July, *' Kuruk-Derek " " " 5 Aug. " Alma (English and French defeat Russians) 20 Sept " BAT Balaklava (English and French defeat Russians) 25 Oct Inkermann (Knglish and French defeat Russians) 5 ^'ov Eupatoria (Turks defeat Russians) 17 Feb Malakhoff Tower (allies and Russians; indecisive night corn- hats 22-24 Mav Capture of the Mamelon. etc .'.'.'.'.'.■.■ ' ' " " 7 June Unsuccessful attempt on Malakhoff tower and Redaii (allies and Russians) 18 June Tchernaya or bridge of Traktir (kilies defeat" Ru^ians). 16 Aug! Malakhoff t^iken bv the French n «?eDt Ingour (Turks defeat Russians) q Sov Baldar (French defeat Russians) ....'..'.*.'.'.".'.". 8 Dec. PERSIAN WAR. Bushire (English defeat Persians) 10 Dec Kooshab " " " 8 Feb' Mohammerah (English defeat Persians). ..."...'.'.'.".*.' .".".'26 Mch. INDIAN MUTINY. (IndIA.) Conflicts before Delhi. . . .30, 31 May; 8 June; 4, 9, 18 23 July Victories of gen. Havelock near Futtehpore, 11 July ■ Cawn- pore, etc 12 Juiyiic Aug. Pandoo Nuddee (victory of Neill) , . .15 Aug Niy uffghur (death of Nicholson, victor) 25 Aug Assault and capture of Delhi 14_20 Sept Victories of col. Greathed 27 Sept • 10 Oct Conflicts before Lucknow 25, 26 Sept ; 18,' 25 Nov." Cawnpore (victory of Campbell) 6 Dec Futtehghur '• " 2 Jan." Calpi (victory of Inglis) 4 peb. Alumbagh (victories of Outram) 12 Jan! and 21 Feb. Conflicts at Lucknow (taken) 14-19 Mch. Jhansi (Rose victorious) 4 Apr Kooneh " " 11 May Gwalior " " .'. . . .17 June, Bajghur (Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee) 15 Sept Dhoodea Khera (Clyde defeats Beni Mahdo) 24 Nov. Gen. Horsford defeats the begum of Oude and Nana Sahib, 10 Feb. ITALIAN WAR. (ItALY.) Austrians cross the Ticino 27 Apr. French troops enter Piedmont May, Montebello (allies victorious) 20 May^ 30, 31 May, 4 June, 8 June, 24 June, 1854 1855. 1866. 1867 1861 1858- 1859^ 186» Palestro ♦Magenta Malegnano *Solferino [Armistice agreed to, 6 July, 1869.] Taku, at the mouth of the Peiho or Tien-tsin-ho (English at- tack on the Chinese forts defeated) 25 June, 1859^ Taku forts taken (Chi.va) 21 Aug. 1860- Chang-kia-wan, 18 Sept ; and Pa-li-chiau (Chinese defeated), 21 Sept " Castillejo (Spaniards defeat Moors) 1 Jan. I860' Tetuan " " " 4 Feb. " Guad-el-Ras " " " 23 Mch. ♦' Calatiflrai (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 15 May, I860- Melazzo " " " 20, 21 July, " Castel Fidardo (Sardinians defeat papal troops) 18 Sept " Volturno (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 1 Oct " Isernia (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) .' IT Oct " Garigliano (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) 3 Nov. •' Sardinians defeat Neapolitan reactionists 22 Jan. 1861 Gaeta taken by the Sardinians. 13 Feb. " Insurrection in New Zealand; English repulsed, 14, 28 Mch. ; 27 June; 10, 19 Sept ; 9, 12 Oct 1860 Maohetia (Maoris defeated) 6 Nov. " AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. Fort Sumter, S. C. (fired upon by confederates) 12 Apr. 1861 Surrendered (by maj. Robert .Anderson) 13 Apr. " Big Bethel, Va. (federals repulsed) 10 June, " Booneville, Mo. (confederates defeated) 17 June, " . Carthage, Mo. (federals finally retire) 6 July, '* Rich Mountain, W. Va. (gen. Rosecrans defeats confederates), 11 July, " *Bull Run, Va. (confederates defeat federals) 21 July, " Wilson's Creek, Mo. (federals retire; gen. Lyon killed), 10 Aug. " Hatteras expedition (capture efforts Hatteras and Clark, N. C), 26-30 Aug. " Carnifex Ferry, Va (confederates retreat) 10 Sept. " Lexington, Mo. (taken by confederates) 20 Sept " Santa Rosa Island 9 Oct '« Ball's Bluff, Va. (federals defeated) 21 Oct " Port Royal expedition (capture of Hilton Head, S. C. ), 29 Oct. -7 Nov. " Belmont, Mo. (confederates reinforced, federals retire), 7 Nov. " Middle Creek, Ky. (Garfield defeats Humphrey Marshall), 10 Jan. 1862 Mill Spring, Ky. (gen. Thomas defeats confederates) 19 Jan. " Fort Henry, Tenn. (captured by com. Foote) 6 Feb. " Roanoke Island, N. C. (captured by gen. Burnside) 7, 8 Feb. " Fort Donelson, Tenn. (surrendered to gen. Grant) 16 Feb. " Pea Ridge, Ark. (gen. Curtis defeats Van Dorn) 7, 8 Mch. " Hampton Roads, Va. (Monitor and Merrimac; Merrimac re- tires) 9 Mcb. " BAT 90 Newberne, N. C. (captured by Burnside) 14 Mch. 1862 Kernslown or Winchester, Va. (geu. Shields defeats "Stone- wall " Jackson) 23 Mch. " Pittsburg Landing or Shiloh, Tonn. (federals defeat confeder- ates) 6, 7 Apr. " Island No. 10 (surrenders to Pope) 7 Apr. " New Orleans (com. Farragut passes forts St. Philip and Jack- son) 24 Apr. " New Orleans (occupied by federals) 25 Apr. " Yorktown, Va. (evacuated by confederates) 4 May, " Williamsburg, Va. (confederates retire) 6 May, '• Norfolk, Va. (occupied by federals) 10 May, " Merriinao (destroyed by confederates) 11 May, " Winchester, Va. (Stonewall Jackson defeats Banks) 25 May, " Hanover Court-house, Va. (gen. Fitz-John Porter defeats con- federates) 27 May, " Corinth, Tenn. (confederates evacuate) 30 May, " Seven Pines and Fair Oaks, Va. (confederate attack repulsed), 31 May, 1 June, " Memphis, Tenn. (surrendered to federals) 6 June, " Cross Keys, Va. (Stonewall Jackson defeats Fremont). .8 June, " Port Republic, Va. " " " Shields)... 9 June, " Mechanicsville, 26 June; Gaines's Mill, 27 Juno; Savage's Sta- tion, 29 June; Glendale, 30 June; Fnizier's Farm or White Oak Swamp. 30 June; Malvern Hill, 1 July (seven-days' bat- tles; federals change base) 26 June-1 July, " Baton Rouge,I.A.(confederate8repulsedbygen. Williams), 5 Aug. " Cedar Mountain, Va. (Banks opposes Stonewall Jackson, who retires) 9 Aug. " Bristow Station, Va. (Hooker defeats Ewell) 27 Aug. " Groveton, Va. (unfavorable to federals) 29 Aug. " Manassas or second Bull Run, Va. (federals defeated). .30 Aug. " Chantilly, Va. (confederate attack repulsed; federal gens. Kear- ny and Stevens killed) 1 Sept. " South Mountain, Md. (Crampton and Turner's Gap; confeder- ates retire) 14 Sept. " Harper's Ferry, Va. (surrenders to Stonewall Jackson; 10,000 federal prisoners) 15 Sept " Antietam, Md. (confederates retreat) 16, 17 Sept. " Munfordville, Ky. (surrenders to confederates) 17 Sept. " luka, Miss. (Rosecrans defeats Price) 19 Sept. " Corinth, Miss. (Rosecrans defeats Van Dorn and Price), 3-5 Oct. " Perry vi He, Ky. (confederates retire) 8 Oct. " Prairie Grove, Ark. (gens. Blunt and Herron defeat confeder- ate Hindman) 7 Dec. " Fredericksburg, Va. (Lee defeats Burnside) 13 Dec. •' Holly Springs, Miss, (captured and immense stores destroyed by V'an Dorn) 20 Dec. " Chickasaw Bayou, Miss. (Sherman fails to take Vicksburg), 27-29 Dec. " Stone River (Rosecrans defeats Bragg) 31 Dec. 1862-2 .fan. 1863 Arkansas Post, Ark. (captured by McClernand) 11 Jan. " ■Grierson's raid (from Lagrange, Tenn. , to Baton Rouge, La.), 17 Apr. -2 May, " Streight's raid through northern Alabama (Streight with his command captured) 7 Apr. -3 May, " Port Gibson, Miss, (confederates defeated by Grant). . . 1, 2 May, " Chancellorsville, Va. (Lee defeats Hooker; Stonewall Jackson mortally wounded) 1-4 May, ' ' Raymond, Miss. (McPherson and Logan defeat confederates), 12 May, " Jackson, Miss. (McPherson drives the confederates from Jack- son) 14 May, " Champion Hill, Miss, (confederates defeated) 16 May, " Big Black, Miss. " " 17 May, " Vicksburg, Miss, (invested) 19 May, " Port Hudson, La. (Banks assaults; repulsed) 27 May, " Milliken's Bend, La. (confederates repulsed) 7 June, " Winchester, Va. (Milroy driven out) 15 June, " Gettysburg, Pa. (Meade defeats hee) 1-3 July, " Vicksburg, Miss, (surrenders to Grant) 4 July, " Helena, Ark. (confederate assault repulsed) " " Port Hudson, lia. (surrendered to Banks) 9 July, " Fort Wagner, S. C. (confederates repulse assault). ..10, 18 July, " Morgan's raid— Ky., Ind., and Ohio (Morgan captured), 24June-26 July, " €hickamauga, Ga. (Bragg defeats Rosecrans) 19, 20 Sept. ' ' Wauhatchie, Tenn. (Hooker repels attack) 29 Oct. " Campbell Station, Tenn. (Burnside retires before Longstreet), 16 Nov. " Lookout Mountain, Tenn. (Hooker victorious) 24 Nov. " Missionary Ridge, Tenn. (Bragg defeated) 25 Nov. " Knoxville, Tenn. (Longstreet's attack repulsed) 29 Nov. " Olustee, Fla. (gen. Seymour defeated by confederates). .20 Feb. 1864 Sabine Cross Roads, La. (confederates defeat Banks) 8 Apr. " Pleasant Hill, La. (Banks repels attack) 9 Apr. " Fort Pillow, Tenn. (capture and massacre of colored troops), 12 Apr. " Wilderness, Va. (Grant attacks Lee ; indecisive) 5, 6 May, " Spottsylvania Court-house, Va. (Grant attacks Lee; indecisive), 7-12 May, " Petersburg, Va. (Butler's attack fails) 10 May, " Resaca, Ga. (confederates retreat) 15 May, " Pumpkin vine Creek, Ga. (Hooker attacks) 25 May, " Cold Harbor, Va. (gen. Grant's attack repulsed) 1-3 June, " Petersburg, Va. (W. F. Smith's attack on, repulsed), 16-18 June, " Kearsarge sinks the confederate Alabama off' Cherbourg, France 19 June, " Weldon Railroad, Va. (federals repulsed) 21-24 June, " Kenesaw, Ga. (gen. Sherman's attack repulsed) 27 June, " Monocacy, Md. (gen. Lew Wallace defeated) 9 July, ' ' BAT Peach-tree Creek, Ga. (confederate attack repulsed) — 20 July, Atlanta, Ga. - " " " (McPherson killed) 22 July, V/im'B Church, (Ja. " " " 28 July, Petersburg, Va. (mine explosion, failure) 30 July, Jonesborough, Ga. (confederates defeated) 31 Aug., 1 Sept. Atlanta, (Ja. (occupied by Sherman) 2 Sept. Winchester, Va. (Sheridan defeats Early) 19 Sept. Fisher's Hill, Va. " " " 22 Sept. Allatoona, Ga. (gen. Corse repels attack) 6 Oct. Cedar Creek, Va. (gen. Sheridan routs Early) 19 Oct. Hatcher's Run, Va. (Hancock retires) 27 Oct. •Franklin, Tenn. (Hood attacks SchoHeld; repulsed). . .30 Nov. Fort McAllister, Ga. (gen. Hazen captures) 14 Dec. Nashville, Tenn. (gen. Thomas defeats Hood) 15, 16 Dec. Fort Fisher, N. C. (captured by gen. Terry) 15 Jan. Hatcher's Run, V^a. (federals successful) 5 Feb. Averasboro, N. C. (confederates retreat) 15 Mch. Bentonvillc, " " " 18 Mch. Five Forks, Va. (Sheridan beats confederates) . .31 Mch., 1 Apr. Sailors' Creek, Va. (gen. Ewell surrenders) 7 Apr. Appomattox, Va. (gen. Lee surrenders to Grant) 9 Apr. Mobile, Ala. (taken by federals) 12 Apr. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston surrenders to gen. Sherman, 26 Apr. Jefferson Davis captured near Irwinsville, Ga 11 May, [For details of the important battles, see separate articles; also Atlanta Campaign, Bull Run Campaign, Chattanooga Campaign, Grant's Virginia Campaign, Maryland Cam- paign, Peninsular Campaign, Pope's Virginia Campaign, Red River Campaign, Sherman's Great March, and Vicks- burg Campaign.] DANISH WAR. Oeversee (Danes and allies) 6 Feb. Diippel (taken by the Prussians) 18 Apr. Alsen " " " 29 June, Rendsburg " " " 21 July, SOUTH AMERICAN WAR. (BRAZIL.) Santayuna (allies defeat Paraguayans; Uruguayana taken), 18 Sept. Paso de la Patria (indecisive) 25 Feb. Parana (allies victors) 16 Apr. Estero Velhaco (allies victors) 2 May, Tuyuty (allies defeated) 16, 18 July, Curupaiti " " 17, 19, 22 Sept. Tuyuty (allies victors) 30 Oct. Corumba (taken by Brazilians) 13 June, SEVEN weeks' WAR {Austria and Prussia). Custozza (Austrians defeat Italians) 24 June, Lissa, n. " " " 20 July, [Prussian victories (as inscribed on shield exhibited at Ber- lin, 30 Sept. 1866). Prussia.] Liebenau, Turnau, Podoll 26 June, Nachod, Langensalza, Osweicin, Hiihnerwasser 27 June, Miinchengratz, Soor, Trautcnau, Skalitz 28 June, Gitschin, KOniginhof, Jaromier, Schweinschadel 29 June, *KOniggratz and Sadowa 3 July, Dermbach, 4 July ; Hiinfeld 5 July, Waldaschach, Hausen, Hammelburg, Friedericshall, Kissingen, 10 July, Laufach, 13 July ; Aschaffenburg 14 July, Tobitschau, 15 July; Blumenau, 22 July; Hof 23 July, Tauber-Bischofsheim, Werbach, Hochhausen 24 July, Neubrunn, Helmstadt, Gerchsheim 25 July, Rossbrunn, Wiirzburg, Baireuth 28 July, Monte Rotondo (Garibaldians victors) 27 Oct. Montana (Garibaldi defeated) 3 Nov. Arogee or Fahla (Abyssinians defeated) 10 Apr. Magdala stormed 13 Apr. Russians defeat Bokharians and occupy Samarcand. . .25 May, Alcolea (Spanish royalists defeated) 27, 28 Sept. Villeta (Lopez defeated by Brazilians), etc 11 Dec. Lopez defeated 12, 16, 18, 21 Aug. Aquidaban (Lopez defeated and killed) 1 Mch. (Franco-Prussian War.) Saarbruck, taken by the French, and Prussians repulsed, 2 Aug. Wissembourg (French defeated) 4 Aug. worth (French defeated) (i Aug. Saarbruck or Forbach (French defeated) •' Courcelles or Pange " " 14 Aug. Strasburg (French defeated) 16 Aug. Vionville or Mars-la-Tour (French defeated) " *Gravelotte or Rdzonville " " 18 Aug. Beaumont (French defeated) 30 Aug. Carignan " " 31 Aug. Metz an (1 Sedan " " V. V. '.V. *.'.'.'.'.".'. ".'.".31 Aug., 1 Sept. Before Paris (French defeated) 30 Sept. Thoury (Germans surprised and repulsed) 5 Oct. St. Remy (French defeated) 6 Oct. Before Metz " " 7 Oct. Artenay " " 10 Oct. Cherizy (Germans repulsed) " Orleans (French defeated) 11 Oct. Ecouis (indecisive) 14 Oct. Chateaudun (French defeated) 18 Oct. Coulmiers, near Orleans (Germans defeated) 9, 10 Nov. 1864 1865 1865 1866 1867 1866 1867 1868 1870 1870 BAT 91 Near Amiens (French defeated) 27 Nov. 1870 Villiers, before Paris (French retreat) 30 Nov., 2 Dec. " Before Orleans (French defeated) 4 Dec. " Beaugency " " 7, 8 Dec. " Nuits (French defeated) 18 Dec. " Pont k Noyelles (French claim a victory) 23 Dec. " Bapaume (indecisive) 2,3 Jan. 1871 Le Mans " 6 Jan. " Le Mans (Chanzy defeated by prince Frederick Charles), 10-12 Jan. " Belfort (Bourbaki defeated) 15-17 Jan. " St. Quentin (Faidherbe defeated) 19 Jan. " Paris (Trochu's grand sortie repulsed) " " 1872 1873 1874 Oroquieta (Carlists defeated) 4 May, Elmina (Ashantees defeated by British) 13 June, Elgueta (Carlists said to be victorious) 5, 6 Aug. Maiieru (Carlists and republicans; indecisive) 6 Oct. Abrakampra (Ashantees defeated) 5, 6 Nov. Borborassie " " 29 Jan. Amoaful " " 31 Jan. " Bocquah " " 1 Feb. " Fommannah " " 2 Feb. " Ordahsa " " 4 Feb. " Before Bilbao (several days; Carlists retreat; Concha enters Bilbao) 2 May, " Estella (sharp conflicts; Carlists retreat; Concha killed), 25, 27 June, " Irun (Laserna defeats Carlists) 10 Nov. " Sorota, Peru (Pierota and insurgents defeated) 3 Dec. " Near Tolosa (Carlists repulse Loma) , 7, 8 Dec. " Khokand (Russians under Kaufman defeat the Khan's troops, etc.) 4, 21 Sept. 1875 Abyssinians defeat Egyptians Oct. " Assake (Khokand chiefs defeated) 30 Jan. 1876 SERVIAN WAR. Saitschar (severe conflicts; Servians retreat) 2, 3 July, 1876 Urbitza (Montenegrins defeat Turks) 28 July, " Turkish wars with Servia and Montenegro declared. . .2 July, " Zaicar, or Saitschar (Turks and Servians; indecisive). . .3 July, " Novi -Bazar (Turks said to be victors) 6 July, " Urbitza (Montenegrins victors) 28 July, " Ourgusovatz (Turks victors) 5-7 Aug. " Medun (Montenegrins victors) 7 or 14 Aug. " Morava valley, near Alexinatz (severe conflicts, favorable to Turks) 19-27 Aug. " Podgoritza (Montenegrins victors) 26 Aug. " Alexinatz (Turks victors), 1, 2, 28, 29 Sept. ; captured. . .31 Oct. " Peace between Turkey and Servia 1 Mch. 1877 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. Tahir (Turks defeated) 16 June, 1877 Nicopolis (stormed by Russians; severe fights) 15, 16 July, " Plevna (Russians defeated) 19, 20, and 30, 31 July, " Valley of Lom (Russians defeated) 22-24 Aug. " Kurukdara or Kizil Tepe (Russians defeated) 24, 25 Aug. " Shipka Pass (dreadful conflicts; Turks under Suleiman re- pulsed) 20-27 Aug. " Karahassankoi, etc., on the Lom (severe; Russians retreat), 30 Aug. " Lovatz or Luftcha (taken by Russians) 3 Sept. " Plevna (held by Osman Pacha; severe conflicts; Russians de- feated) 11, 12 Sept. !' Shipka Pass (Suleiman defeated) 17 Sept. " Near Kars (Russians defeated) 2-4 Oct. " Aladja Dagh, near Kars (Turks under Mukhtar totally defeated), 14, 15 Oct. " Deve-Boyun, Armenia (Turks under Mukhtar defeated after 9 hours' fighting) 4 Nov. " Azizi, near Erzeroum (Russians defeated) 9 Nov. " Kars (taken by storm by Russians) 17, 18 Nov. *' Elena (taken by Turks after sharp conflict) 4 Dec. " Plevna (Osman Pacha endeavors to break out; totally defeated; surrenders unconditionally) 9 10 Dec. " Senova in the Balkans (Turks defeated) 9, 10 Jan. 1878 Near Philippopolis " " 14, 15 Jan. " AFGHAN WAR. (AFGHANISTAN.) AH Musjid (captured by British) 22 Nov. 1878 Peiwar Pass (victory of gen. Roberts) 2 Dec. " Futtehabad (victory of gen. Gough) '.*.'. '.".".".'.2 Apr. 1879 Char-aseab (Afghans defeated) 6 Oct " Severe fighting near Cabul Dec' 1879-Apr. 1880 Ahmed Khel (Stewart defeats Afghans) 19-23 Apr " Kuschki-Nakhud or Maiwand (Ayoob Khan defeats Burrows', Mazra or Baba Wall (Roberts totally defeats Ayoob Khan),'l Sept " ZULU WAR. (ZULULAND.) Isandula (British surprised and defeated) 22 Jan 1879 Rorke's Drift (successfully defended by British) " " Ulundi (Cetewayo totally defeated by lord Chelmsford), 4 July, « CHILIAN AND PERUVIAN WAR. (ChILI.) Iquique (Chilians defeat Peruvians) Nov. 1879 Choukos and Miraflores (Chilians defeat Peruvians) 17 Jan. 1881 RUSSIAN WAR. Geok or Denghli Tepg (Russians and Turkomans; indecisive), 9 Sept. 1879 1882 BAV Geok Tepe (besieged by Russians; severe conflicts), 24 Dec 1880; 4, 9, 10 Jan. 1881; taken , .24 Jan. 1881 TRANSVAAL WAR. Laing's Nek (British defeated) 28 Jan " IngogoRiver " " g Feb! " MajubaHill " " 27 Feb. " WAR IN EGYPT. Bombardment of forts at Alexandria n July Tel-el-Mahuta and Masameh (natives defeated by' British), ' Kassasin (natives defeated by British) 28 Aug. and 9 Sept." Tel-el-Kebir " " " decisive). ...... .13 Sept. Soudan. * Arabs in the Soudan defeated by Hicks 29 Apr El Obeid or Kashgal (Hicks and his army destroyed')" 3-5 Nov Tokar (Egyptians defeated) ' s Nov Near Teb, Baker with Egyptians defeated by Ara'bs.'. .'.' " 4 Feb" Teb (Graham totally defeats Arabs) 29 Feb' Abu Klea (Stewart defeats natives) 17 jan Gubat (Arabs defeated) 19 Jan Kerkeben" " gen. Earle killed). ..'.! *.'.'.".'.■.■.!! 10 'Feb Hasheen (Arabs defeated) 20 Mch' Arab attack near Suakim repulsed ..."....'!! .22 Mch 1884 1885 Ak Tapa (Russians defeat Afghans) 30 Mar. 1885 Cualchuapa,Central America (Barrios defeated and killed), 2 Apr.' " Dagoli, near Massowah (Italians annihilated by Abyssinians), a , ■ ,A ^ . 25, 26 Jan.' 1887 Suakim (Arab dervishes defeated by British) 20 Dec 1888 Wounded Knee, S. Dak. (U. S. troops with Indians). . . .29 Dec. 1890 United States. Tokar Soudan (Osman Digna defeated) 19 Feb. 1891 Placilla, Chili (Balmaceda defeated by congressists) 28 Aug. " [For small conflicts and skirmishes, Basuto Land, Chili, Egypt, Franco- Prussian War, Herzegovina, India, Kafirs, Lagos, Manipur, Russo - Turkish Wars, Salvador, Sene- gal, Soudan, Spain, Sumatra, Tonquin, Turkey, United States, Zululand, etc., and for details of important en- gagements, see separate articles.] Bautzen, a town in Saxony, near which desperate battles were fought 20, 21, and 22 May, 1813, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, and the allies, under the emperor of Russia and the king of Prussia. The struggle commenced on the 19th, with a contest on the outposts, which cost each army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th (at Bautzen) the French were more successful ; and on. the 21st (at Wurschen) the allies were compelled to retire ; but Napoleon obtained no permanent advantage. Duroc was killed at Reichenbach by a cannon-ball, on 22 May. Bavaria (part of ancient Noricum and Vindelicia), a kingdom in S. Germany, conquered from the Celtic Gauls (Boii) by the Franks between 630 and 660. The country was afterwards governed by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tasillon II. was deposed by Charlemagne, who established margraves in 788. The margrave Leopold, 895, father of Ar- nulph the Bad, is styled the first duke. Bavaria was made a constitutional monarchy, 26 May, 1818. It joined the German empire, 22 Nov. 1870. Pop. 1886, 5,420,199 ; 1890, 6,589,382. Area, 29,632 sq. miles. Bavaria supports Austria in the contest with Prussia. . .June, 1866 Takes part in the war, and makes peace with Prussia.. 22 Aug. " Population (after cessions, 1866), 4,824,421 Dec. 186T An international exhibition in a crystal palace opened, 20 July, 1869 The Chambers dissolved, as, through a party struggle, no pres- ident was elected 6 Oct. '* Resignation of the ministry, 25 Nov. ; only partially accepted by the king 9 Dec. '* Vote of want of confidence in prince Hohenlohe the president, 12 Feb. ; he resigns 14 Feb! 1870 The king announces his intention of joining Prussia in the war with France about 20 July, " Bavarian contingent highly distinguishes itself in the war; Otho, duke of Bavaria, killed near Beglie 27 Jan. 1871 Dr. D511inger excommunicated for denying papal infallibility, 18 Apr. ; elected rector of the university of Munich, 29 July, " President of council, and foreign minister, A. de Pfretzsch- ner (Franco-Prussian War) 22 Aug. " Government protests against papal infallibility (Germany), 27 Sept. " " Old Catholic " church opened at Munich end of Sept. " The king, in a letter to the king of Saxony, proposes the king of Prussia for emperor of Germany, about 5 Dec. " The king charges Von Gasser to form an ultramontane minis- try, opposed to German unity, 3 Sept. ; he fails Sept. 1872 Queen dowager, Mary of Prussia, received into the Catholic church 12 Oct. 1874 New ultramontane ("popular Catholic ") party formed, 6 Mch. 1877 International exhibition at Munich opened 19 July, 1879 7th centenary of foundation of the dynasty (Otto of Wittels- bach made duke by Frederick Barbarossa) 25 Aug. 1880 The king (insane) drowns himself in a small lake, near one of his castles, after killing Dr. Gudden, his physician. .13 June, 1886 1331. 1294. 1347. 1375. 1397. BAY Hl« brother, Odu, heir to the throne, not being of sound mind, the govoruineui appoint as regent prince Lultpold, his undo, ..UKK8. 14 June, 1886 1071. Uoeiri.,au illustrious warrior. 1101. tiueiril. ; son; marries the countess Matilda, 1089. irw. Henry the Black ; brother. iri6. Henry tlio Proud; son. (He competed with Conrad of Ho- henstaufcn for the empire, foiled, and was deprived or Ba- varia. ) llSa Leopold, margrave of Austria ; d. 1142. 1142. Henry of Austria; brother; d. 1177. 1154. Henry the Lion (son of Heury the Proud), ancestor of the Brunswick family, restored by the emperor Frederick Bar- barussa, but e.xpollod by him 1180 (Bkinhwick); d. 1195. 1180. Otho, count of Wittelsbach, made duke; d. 1183. 1183. Louis; sou. Otho II.. the Illustrious; son; gained the palatinate; assassi- nated 1231. I.oui8 II., the Severe; son; d. 1294. Im\x\» III. ; son (without the palatinate), emperor; d. 1347. Stephen I.; son; d. 1375. John; brother; d. 1397. Ernest; brother; d. 14.sa 1438. Albert L; son; d. 1460. 1460. John II. and Sigismund; sons; resigned to 1465. Albert II.; brother; d. 1608. 1508. William I.; son; opposes the Reformation, 1522; d. 1550. 155a Albert III ; son; d. 1573. 1579. William II.; son; abdicates 1596 ; d. 1626. 1596. Maximilian the Great; son; the flrst elector of Bavaria, 26 Feb. 1623; the palatinate restored, 1648; d. 27 Sept. 1651. 1651. Ferdinand Mary ; d. 26 May, 1079. 1679. Maximilian Emanuel; sou; allies with France, 1702; defeat- ed at Blenheim, 1704; restored to his dominions, 1714; d. 26 Feb. 1726. 1726. Charles Albert; son; elected emperor, 1742; defeated, 1744; d. 20 Jan. 1745. 1745. Maximilian Joseph!.; son; as elector; d. 30 Dec. 1777 (end of younger line of Wittelsbach). 1778. Charles Theodore (the elector palatinate of the Rhine since 1743). French take Munich; he treats with them, 1796; d. 1799. 1799. Maximilian Joseph II. ; elector; territories changed by treaty of Luneville, 1801; enlarged when made king, by treaty of Presburg, Dec. 1805. • KINGS OF BAVARIA. 1805. Maximilian Joseph I. He deserts Napoleon, and has bis en- larged territories confirmed to him, Oct. 1813; grants a con- stitutional charter, 22 Aug. 1818; d. 13 Oct. 1825. 1825. Louis I.. 13 Oct. ; abdicates 21 Mch. 1848; d. 29 Feb. 1868. [His abdication w^as mainly caused by his attachment to a woman, known by the assumed name of Lola Montez; who, in the end, was banished for interference in state affairs. St^e de- livered lectures in London in 1859; thence proceeded to the United SUtes. and died in New York, 17 Jan. 1861.] 1848. Maximilian Joseph II. ; son; b. 28 Nov. 1811; d. 10 Mch. 1864. 1864. Louis II. ; son; b. 25 Aug. 1845; d. 13 June, 1886. 1886. Otto, b. 27 Apr. 1848. " Prince Luitpold, regent Bay I§lands (the chief, Rustan), in the bay of Hon- duras, belonged to Spain till 1821 ; then to Great Britain, which formed them into a colony in 1852, but ceded them to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859. Honduras. Bay State, popular name for Massachusetts ; so called from the settlements about Boston designated as '* The Mas- sachusetts Bay colony," to distinguish it from the " Pl^'mouth colony." Massachusetts, 1630. Bayeux (Bd'yu') tapestry, said to have been wrought by Matilda, queen of William I. (?). It is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and, in compartments, shows events from the visit of Harold to the Norman court to his death at Hast- ings ; now preserA'ed in the public library of Bayeux, near Caen. A copy, drawn by C. Stothard, and colored after the original, was published by the Society of Antiquaries in 1821- 23. A reproduction, by autotype process, was published by F. R. Fowke, with notes, 1875. Baylen, S. Spain, where, on 20 July, 1808, the French, under Dupont and Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards, under Reding, Coupigny, and other generals. Baylor's eavalry, massacre of. New York, 1778. bayonet, a sharp-pointed instrument of steel for thrust- ing, fixed at the end of fire-arms, said to have been invented at Bayonne (whence the name), in France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used at Killiecrankie in 1689, and at Mar- saglia by the French, in 1693, " with great success against the enemy, unprepared for the encounter with so formidable a novelty." It was at first inserted in the bore of the gun; but is now made with a ring to slip over the muzzle so that the 92 BEA gun can be fired with the bayonet fixed. The ring-bayonet was adopted by the British, 24 Sept. 1693. Bayonne', S. France, an ancient city, held by the Eng- lish from 1295 till it was taken by Charles VII. The queens of Spain and France met the cruel duke of Alva here, June, 1556, it is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bartholo- mew. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated here in favor of " his friend and ally " Napoleon, 4 May; and his sons, Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, don Carlos, and don Antonio, renounced the Spanish throne, 6 May, 1808. Near Hayonne was much fight- ing between the French and British armies, 9-13 Dec. 1813. Bayonne was invested by the British, 14 Jan. 1814; on 14 Apr. the French rallied and attacked the English vigorously, but were driven back. The loss of the British was consider- able, and lieut.-gen. sir John Hope was wounded and taken. Bayreuth {hVroyt), N. Germany, long a margraviate of a branch of the Brandenburg family, but with that of Anspach abdicated by the reigning prince in favor of the king of Prussia, 1790. The archives were brought (in 1783) from Plassenburg to Bayreuth, which was given to Bavaria bv Na- poleon in 1806. bazaar', or covered market, an Arabic word. The magnificent bazaar of Ispahan was excelled by that of Tauris, which has held 30,000 men in order of battle. Bazeille§ (ba-zaye), a village in the Ardennes, N.E. France. During the battle of Sedan, 1 Sept. 1870, Bazeilles was burned by the Bavarians, and atrocious outrages were said to have been committed. Of nearly 2000 inhabitants, it was asserted, scarcely 60 remained alive, and these indig- nantly denied having given provocation. Much controversv ensued, and in July, 1871, gen. von der Tann showed that the number of deaths had been grossly exaggerated, that there had been much provocation, and denied the alleged cruelties. Beachy Head, S.E. Sussex, Engl., a promontory near which the British and Dutch fleet, commanded by the earl of Torrington, was defeated by a superior French force under admiral Tourville, 30 June, 1690 ; the allies suffered severely. The Dutch lost 2 admirals, 500 men, and several ships — sunk to save them from the enemy ; the English lost 2 ships and 400 men. Both admirals were blamed— Torrington for not fighting, Tourville for not pursuing the victory. Beaeon hill, Boston. So called from a pole placed on its summit in 1635, with a torch, said to have been a barrel of tar, to alarm the country \n case of attack by the Indians. Boston, 1811. beads, early used in the East for reckoning prayers. St. Augustin mentions them in 366. About 1090 Peter the Her- mit is said to have made a series of 55 beads. To Dominic de Guzman is ascribed the invention of the rosary (a series of 16 large and 150 small beads), in honor of the blessed Vir- gin, about 1202. Beads soon af^ter were in general use. The bead-roll was a list of deceased persons, for the repose of whose souls a certain number of prayers was recited. Beads liave been found in British barrows. beam and scales. The apparatus for weighing goods was so called, "as it weighs so much at the king's beam." A public beam was set up in London, and all commodities or- dered to be weighed by the city officer, called the weigh-mas- ter, who was to do justice between buyer and seller (stat. 3, Edw. II. 1309).— /S'to^i'. Beams and scales, with weights and measures, were ordered to be examined by the justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. III. 1794. Weights and Measures. beans, black and white, were used by the ancients in gathering the votes of the people for the election of magis- trates. A white bean signified absolution, and a black one condemnation. The precept ascribed by later writers to Py- thagoras, abstain from beans, abstine afabis, has been various- ly interpreted. " Beans do not favor mental tranquillity." — Cicero. The finer kinds of beans were brought to England in Henry VIH.'s reign. We have no certain information that the species of bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, existed in the Old World prior to the discovery of America.— /I merican Nat- uralist, vol. 19, p. 447, 1885. The evidence for the antiquity of the bean in America is circumstantial and direct.— /fiew^ p. 448. The Lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus, is unquestionably BEA of American origin, and De Candolle assigns its original hab- itat to Brazil. This bean has been found in the mummy graves of Peru. — Idem, p. 452. The bean is mentioned by early explorers of America as in use by the aborigines ; and the young Indian corn and the unripe shelled bean, boiled together, make the savory dish called succotash, which is Indian in origin and name. toear-baiting', an ancient popular English sport, pro- hibited by Parliament in 1835. beardi. The Egyptians did not wear beards; the As- syrians did. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews, who were forbidden to mar their beards, 1490 B.c. (Lev. xix. 27). The Tartars waged a long war with the Persians, de- claring them infidels, because they would not cut their beards, after the custom of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest the beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 B.C. Beards were worn by the Romans, 390 B.C. The em- peror Julian wrote a diatribe (entitled "Misopogon") against wearing beards, 362 A.i>. In England they were not fashion- able after the Conquest, 1066, until the 13th century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. Peter the Great enjoined the Russians, even of rank, to shave, but was obliged to keep offi- cers on foot to cut off the beard by force. Since 1851 the custom of wearing the beard gradually increased in Great Britain. Before 1840 shaving was almost universal in the United States. — A bearded woman was taken by the Russians at the battle of Pultowa, and presented to the czar, Peter I., 1724; her beard measured IJ yds. A woman is said to have been seen at Paris with a bushy beard, and her whole body covered with hair. — Diet, de Trevoux. Margaret of Savoy, daughter of Maximilian I., emperor of Germany, and governess of the Netherlands, 1507-30, had a very long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. Mdlle. Bois de Chene, born at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was exhibited in London in 1852-53, when, conse- quently, 18 years of age ; she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black beard, large whiskers, and thick hair on her arms and down from her neck on her back, and masculine features. Beam, S. France, the ancient Benecharnum, was held successively by the Romans, Franks, Goths, and Gascons, and became an hereditary viscounty in 819, under Centule I., son of Loup, duke of Gascony. From his family it passed to the houses— of Gabaret, 1134; of Moncade, 1170; of Foix, 1290; and of Bourbon, 1550. Its annexation to France was decreed by Henry IV., 1594 ; affirmed by Louis XIIL, 1620. Beaulieu, Abbey of (reformed Benedictines), founded by king John, in the New Forest, Hampshire, Engl., in 1204, and dedicated to the blessed Virgin, had the privilege of sanc- tuary. It was the asylum of Margaret, queen of Henry VI., after the defeat of Warwick, at Barnet, 14 Apr. 1471 ; and of Perkin Warbeck, Sept. 1497. Beaumont, a village near Sedan, department of Ar- dennes, N.E. France. Near here a part of the army of mar- shal MacMahon under De Failly was surprised, defeated, and driven across the Meuse at Mouzon, 30 Aug. 1870, by the Germans under the crown-prince of Prussia, while retreating after vainly endeavoring to succor Metz. The French loss included about 7000 prisoners, many guns, and much camp equipage. The victory was chiefly gained by the Bavarians. Beaune-la-Rollande, a village in the Loiret, France. Here the French army of the Loire, under gen. D'Aurelle de Paladines, was defeated by Germans, under prince Frederick Charles, in an attempt to march by Fontainebleau to relieve Paris, 28 Nov. 1870. French loss' as reported by Germans was 1000 dead, 4000 wounded ; above 1700 prison- ers. German loss heavy. Beauval§ (bd'va'), N. France, the ancient Bellovaci, formerly capital of Picardy. When besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, with 80,000 men, the "women, under Jeanne Fourquet or Laine, also de la Hachette, from her wea- pon, distinguished themselves, and the duke raised the siege, 10 July, 1472, Hence the women of Beauvais head the pro- cession on the anniversary of their deliverance. Beaver Bams, Ont., now Homer, 3 miles east of '^ BEE St. Catharines, was the scene of an engagement, 24 June, 1813, between a body of United States troops over 500 strong, under lieut.-col. Charles G. Boestler, sent out from Fort (iEORGK by gen. Dearborn, and a body of British troops and Indians. The Americans, although outnumbering the British force, were de- ceived and surrendered. Becliuana-land, S. Africa, proclaimed British ter- ritory 8 Oct. 1885. Area, 170,000 sq. miles; chief industry, agriculture. Becket'§ murder. Thomas a Becket was born in 1119. His father, Gilbert, was a London trader, and his mother, it is said, a convert from Mahometanism. He was educated at Oxford, and made archdeacon by Theobald, arch- bishop of Canterbury, who introduced him to king Henry II. He became chancellor in 1155, but when made archbishop of Canterbury, in 1162, resigned the chancellorship, offending the king. He opposed the constitutions of Clarendon in 1164, fled the country, and in 1166 excommunicated all the clergy who agreed to them. He and the king met at Fretville, in Touraine, on 22 July, 1170, and were formally reconciled. On his return he recommenced his struggle with the king, which led to his murder at the altar, 29 Dec. 1170. The king was absolved of guilty knowledge of the crime in 1172, and did penance at the tomb in 1174. The bones of Becket were en- shrined in gold and jewels in 1220, but were burned in the reign of Henry VIII., 1639. The Merchant Adventurers were at one time termed " the Brotherhood of St. Thomas a Beck- et." A Roman Catholic church at Canterbury, dedicated to him, was opened by cardinal Manning, 13 Apr. 1875. bed. The ancients slept on skins. Beds were after- wards made of loose rushes, heather, or straw. The Romans are said to have first used feathers. An air-cushion is said to have been used by Heliogabalus, 218-222 ; air-beds were in use in the 16th century. Feather-beds were in use in Eng- land in the reign of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the Egyptians and later Greeks, like modern couches, became common among the Roman upper classes. The ancient great bed at Ware, Herts, capable of holding 12 persons, was sold, it is said, to Charles Dickens, 6 Sept. 1864. A bedstead of gold was presented to the queen of England on 2 Nov. 1859, by the maharajah of Cashmere. Air-beds and water-beds have been made since the manufacture of india-rubber cloth by Clark in 1813; and by Mackintosh in 1823. Dr. Arnott's hydrostatic bed invented in 1830. bed of jUitice, a French court presided over by the king, whose seat was termed a " bed." It controlled the ordi- nances of the parliament. The last was held by Louis XVI. at Versailles, 19 Nov. 1787, to raise a loan. Beder, Arabia. Here Mahomet gained his first vic- tory (over the Koreish of Mecca), 623. It was reputed mi- raculous. Battles. Bedford, a town, N.N.W. London, EngL, renowned for its many free educational establishments, endowed in 1561 by sir William Harpur, a London alderman. Here John Bunyan preached, was imprisoned, and wrote the " Pilgrim's Prog- ress." A statue of Bunyan, gift of the duke of Bedford, uncovered here, 10 June, 1874. Bronze gates for the Bunyan church, given by the duke, were inaugurated by him 5 July, 1876. Bedford L^evel, a portion of the fen districts in the eastern counties, Engl., drained earh"^ in the 17th century by the earl of Bedford, aided by the Dutch engineer, sir Cornelius Vermuyden, amid great opposition. Levels. Bedouins, wandering Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, etc. They profess Mahometanism, are governed by sheiks, and are called descendants of Ishmael. See the proph- ecy (Gen. xvi. 12), 1911 b.c. " Beeclier'§ bible§." During the " Kansas troub- le," 1854-60, Henry Ward Beecher declared that for the slave- holder of Kansas the Sharpe rifle was a greater moral agency than the Bible; and so those rifles became known as "Beech- er's bibles." bees. Mount Hybla, for its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abundant honey, is called the "empire of bees." Hy- mettus, in Attica, was also famous for bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages; Eumelus of Corinth wrote a poem on bees, 741 b.c. Bees were intro- BEE duced into Boston in 1670, and have since spread over North America. Mandeville's satirical "Fable of the Bees" ap- peared in 1723. Uuber published his observations on bees in 1792. The Apiarian Society had an establishment at Muswell hill, near London, Engl. (1800-62). The Ligurian honey-bee was successfully introduced into England in 1860. beet-root is of recent cultivation in England. Beta vulgai-is, red beet, is used as a salad. Margraff Hrst produced sugar from white beet-root in 1747. M. Achard produced good sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France, at the in- stance of Bonaparte, largely extracted sugar from beet-root in 1800. 60,000 tons of sugar, about half the consumption, are now manufactured in France from beet. It is also largely manufactureil in other countries. A refinery of sugar from beet- root has been erected at the Thames bank, Chelsea. The cul- tivation of beet-root in England and Ireland much advocated, 1871. Sugar. begr|i[ar§ were tolerated in ancient times, being often musicians and ballad-singers. In modem times severe laws have been passed against them. In 1672, by 14 Eliz. c. 5, sturdy beggars were ordered to be "grievously whipped and burned through the right ear;" the third offence capital. By the Vagrant act (1824), 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, all public beggars are liable to a month's imprisonment. The " Beggar's Opera," by John Gay, a satire against sir Robert Walpole's ministry, produced at Lincoln's-inn-fields theatre, 29 Jan. 1727-28, ran 63 nights. Gueux. be'i[Uin§ (princesses) of Oude. The spoliation of these princesses was one of the charges against Warren Hastings in his impeachment before the English House of Commons, 1788. Chunar and Sheridan's speech. Macaulay's review of Gleig's "Life of Warren Hastings," 1841, gives a full ac- count of the cruelties practised towards them. beheadings, the decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Normandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting criminals to death) by William the Conqueror, 1076. Waltheof, earl of Huntington, Northampton, and Northum- berland, was first so executed. This mode of execution be- came frequent, particularly in the reigns of Henry VIII., Mary, and Elizabeth, when even women of the noblest blood thus perished : Anne Boleyn, 19 Maj', 1536 ; the aged countess of Salisbury', 27 May, 1541 ; Catherine Howard, 12 Feb. 1542; lady Jane Grey, 17 years of age, 12 Feb. 1554 ; Mary, queen of Scots, 8 Feb. 1587 ; Marie Antoinette, queen of France, guil- lotined 16 Oct. 1793. Behi§tllll, in Persia. Here a rock has important in- scriptions in 3 languages, in cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) characters, which, deciphered and translated by sir H. Raw- linson in 1844-46, were published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Each paragraph begins, " I am Darius the Great King." Beliring'i sea lies south of Behring's strait and north of the Aleutian islands. Within and about this sea are the most important seal-fisheries in the world. Alaska was pur- chased from Russia by the United States in 1867, and, as this purchase was considered to include Behring's sea, the United States claimed jurisdiction over these waters, and seized a British Columbia sealer, the Black Diamond, as a trespasser, 3 July, 1889. The British government claimed, as heretofore, the right of fishing in waters beyond the territorial limits. The govern- ments agreed to refer the question to arbitration, Feb. 1890. President Harrison proclaimed the Behring sea closed to un- licensed seal fishing, 25 Mch. A blue-book was published, 15 Aug., containing the correspondence between the two governments from 1 Sept. 1886, to 2 Aug. 1890. The mar- quis of Salisbury demanded that, pending arbitration, Brit- ish sealing vessels should not be molested, adding that if so, they should be protected, 2 Aug. 1890. United States, 13 Mch., 17 Dec. 1890; 12 Jan., 15 June, 7 Aug., 2 Oct. 1891; 29 Feb 18 Apr. 1892 The 2 governments agree by treaty to submit the questions in dispute to a tribunal of arbitration 9 May, " [The court as finally constituted consisted of 7 members, viz. : justice John M." Harlan and senator John T. Morgan, United States; lord Hannen and sir John S. D. Thompson, Great Britain; baron de Courcel, France; marquis Emilio Viscounti Venosta, Italy; judge Gram, Sweden and Nor- way. Besides these seven there were others connected with the court, viz. : hon. John W. Foster, ex-sec. State, Ameri- can agent; and E. J. Phelps, James C. Carter, Henry W. 94 BEL Blodgett, F. R. Coudert, and Robert Lansing, counpol for the United States; C. H. Tuppcr, Canadian niiiiistcr of Marine, British agent; and sir Charles Russell, sir Henry \Vob.-ter, hon.W. H. Cross, and C. Robinson, counsel for Great Britain.] Commissioners of arbitration meet at Paris and acyourn until 23 Mch 23 Feb. 189J Court of arbitration held its first session at Paris " " Arguments commenced in the arbitration court 4 Apr. " Decision rendered 15 Aug. " While the legal questions submitted were decided against the formal claim of the U. S. , the policy prescribed for the future regulation of the seal-fisheries was satisfactory to the Amer- ican people. The principal points were: (1) The close sea- son fixed from 1 May until 31 July. (2) A protective zone estab- lished extending CO miles around the islands in the Behring's sea. Pelagic sealing allowed outside of this zone from 1 Aug. (3) The use of fire-arms prohibited in sealing, etc. Behring^'§ §trait, discovered by capt. Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the service of Russia. He proved that the continents of Asia and America are about 39 miles apart, 1728. He died at Behring's island in 1741. In 1778, capt, James Cook surveyed the coasts. Belfast, capital of Ulster, N. Ireland. Its castle, sup- posed built by John de Courcy, was destroyed by Scots under Edward Bruce, 1315. Orange. Belfast granted by James I. to sir Arthur Chichester, lord dep- uty, 1612 ; and erected into a corporation 1613 Long bridge (21 arches, 2562 feet long) built 1682-86- First edition of the Bible in Ireland printed here 1704 Bel fort or Befort, a fortified town in Alsace, E. France, invested by Germans 3 Nov. 1870; capitulated 16 Feb. 1871 ; reserved to France when Alsace was ceded, 26 Feb. ; quitted by Germans Aug. 1873. Belg^ilim, the southern portion of the Netherlands, an- ciently territory of the Belgae, finally conquered by Julius Caesar, 51 b.c. Its size is about one eighth of Great Britain, and it is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Its government is a liberal constitutional monarchy, founded in 1831. For previous history, Flanders, Holland, Netherlands. Pop., 31 Dec. 1862, 4,836,566; 1870, 5,087,105; 1890, 6,147,041. Area, 11,400 sq. miles. Revolution begins at Brussels 25 Aug. 1830 Provisional government declares independence (M. Van de Weyer active) 4 Oct. " Antwerp taken (except the citadel) 23 Dec. " Independence acknowledged by allied powers 26 Dec. " Duke de Nemours elected king (his father, the French king, refused consent) 3 Feb. 1831 Surlet de Chokier elected regent 24 Feb. " Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, accepts the crown, 12 July ; enters Brussels 19 July, " War with Netherlands begins 3 Aug. " France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium; an armistice ensues Aug. " Conference of ministers of 5 powers in London ; 24 articles of pacification accepted 15 Nov. " Convention; England and France against Holland 22 Oct. 1832 Antwerp besieged, 30 Nov. ; citadel taken by French. . .23 Dec. " French army returns to France 27 Dec. " Preliminary convention with Holland signed 21 May, 1833 Treaty of Holland and Belgium at London 19 Apr. 1839 [Result of a conference in London on Belgium, which de- cided to maintain the treaty of 15 Nov. 1831, and the com- pensation of 60,000,000 francs offered by Belgium for terri- tories adjudged to Holland was rejected.] Increase of army to 100,000 men voted 10 May, 1853 Opposition to religious charities bill June, 1857 [At the revolution in 1830, the Catholic clergy lost the ad- ministration of public charities, which they have since struggled to recover. In April, 1857, M. Decker, head of the ministry, brought in a bill for this purpose, but had to with- draw it, and eventually to resign.] The king proclaims neutrality in Italian war May, 1859 Rumors of annexation to France bring loyal addresses to the king 13 June, 1860 Octrois abolished 21 July, " Commercial treaty with France signed 1 Maj% 1861 " " " Great Britain, adopted by chambers, 22 Aug. 1862 Dissensions through Catholics, Jan. ; ministry resigns, but re- sumes office, 4 Feb.; dissolution of chambers, 17 July; Protestants succeed in election Aug. 1864 Death of Leopold I lO Dec. 1865 Mr. Phillips, lord mayor of London, and 1100 English volunteers visit Belgium under col. Lloyd-Lindsay; other foreigners attend; banquet by the king at Brussels 20 Oct. 1866 About 2400 Belgians (garde civique and volunteers) visit Eng- land; arrive, 10 July; received by lord mayor, 12 July; by prince of Wales at Wimbledon, 13 July; dine at Windsor, 16 July; ball at Agricultural hall, 18 July; received by Miss Burdett-Coutts,. 19 July; attend review at Wimbledon, 20 July; leave London 22 July, 1867 New ministry (under M. Fr^re-Orban) ; liberal 3 Jan. 1868 BEL 95 Monument to Charlemagne at Liege, inaugurated 26 July, 1868 International congress of workmen at Brussels 6-13 Nov. " Crown prince Leopold Ferdinand, duke of Brabant, d. . .22 Jan. 1869 Concession for a Luxembourg railway to a French company, without assent of state, prohibited by Assembly, 13 Feb. ; dispute with French government arranged May, " Treaty for neutrality between Great Britain and Prussia, signed 9 Aug. ; and France, signed 11 Aug. 1870 After Sedan, French soldiers enter Belgium ; disarmed and interned 1, 2 Sept. " Comte de Chambord arrives at Antwerp, 17 Feb. ; compelled to quit Belgium by popular demonstrations 27 Feb. 1872 France denounces the treaty of commerce 29 Mch. " Treaty of commerce with France signed 5 Feb. 1873 Czar at Brussels 22 May, " M. Van de Weyer, statesman; active in revolution of 1830; ambassador to England, 1831-67 ; d 23 May, 1874 International conference at Brussels on rights of neutrals — no results 27 July-28 Aug. " Notes from German government, complaining of publications favoring censured German ecclesiastics, Feb. ; respecting Duchesne's proposal to the archbishop of Paris to assassinate Bismarck 15 Apr. 1875 Dignified Belgian replies Mch. and May, " Popular opposition to religious processions; riots. . . May, June, " Catholic successes in elections; riots at Brussels and Antwerp, about 16, 17 June, 1876 Statue of Van de Weyer, at Louvain, inaugurated by the king, 1 Oct. " International congress on hygiene, etc. , at Brussels, 27 Sept. -2 Oct. " Catholic minority in elections; Malou ministry resign, 13, 14 June; M. FrSre-Orban forms a liberal ministry 20 June, 1878 Gigantic weir for water-distribution at La Gileppe, near Ver- viers, inaugurated by the king 28 July, " Eugene T' Kindt de Rooden Veke, a clerk, convicted of em- bezzling 20,000,000 francs of the Bank of Belgium (149 thefts); the governor Fortamps, of fraudulently repurchasing shares, etc 3 Dec. " King sanctions new education law 1 July, 1879 Pastoral of Roman Catholic hierarchy against government plan of mixed education (sacraments refused to teachers and parents, etc. ) publ. in Germany Sept. " Archduke Rodolph of Austria betrothed to princess Stephanie, Mch. 1880 Permanent international exhibition opened at Brussels. 1 June, " Elections for Parliament ; struggle between liberals and clericals on education; liberals retain moderate majority June, " National exhibition at Brussels opened by the king and queen, 16 June, " Representative at Vatican recalled through ecclesiastical dis- putes; diplomatic intercourse suspended 28 June, " Jubilee to celebrate national independence 18 July, " Statue of Leopold I. unveiled at Laeken 21 July, " Parliamentary reform-bill passed 17 Aug. 1883 Henri Conscience, national Flemish poet and novelist, dies, aged 73 9 Sept. " Death of cardinal J3eschamps, abp. of Mechlin, the primate, 29 Sept. " Elections; majority of clericals through dissension of moderate liberals and reformers, about 10 June; resignation of M. FrSre-Orban 11 June, 1884 M. Jules Malou forms conservative Catholic ministry, 12, 13 June, " Senate dissolved, June ; new Senate clerical July, " Meeting of burgomasters at Brussels to oppose M. Jacobs's reac- tionary education bill, 9 Aug. ; it is accepted by the deputies (80-49), 30 Aug. ; by the Senate (40-25) 10 Sept. " Royal assent to the bill 13 Sept. " Communal elections; great liberal majority 19 Oct. " MM. Malou, Jacobs, and Woeste (Catholics) resign ; M. Bernaert becomes premier 24 Oct. " Parliament meets 11 Nov. " Leopold proclaimed sovereign of Congo Free State 2 May, 1885 Universal exhibition at Antwerp, opened " " Death of Charles Rogier, aged 85, member of provisional gov- ernment 1830; 6 times minister 27 May, " Castle of Laeken, built 1728, burned; valuable works of art, and historical documents, etc., lost 1 Jan. 1890 Death of prince Baldwin, aged 21 years 23 Jan. 1891 Chamber of Representatives adopt universal suffrage, with a provision for a plural vote by property owners, 18 Apr., and the Senate approve 21 Apr. 1893 KINGS. 1831. Leopold, first king of Belgians; b. 16 Dec. 1790; crowned 21 July, 1831, at Brussels; married, 9 Aug. 1832, Louise, eld- est daughter of Louis Philippe of France (she d. 11 Oct. 1850). He d. 10 Dec. 1865. 1865. Leopold II., son; b. 9 Apr. 1835; married archduchess Maria Henrietta of Austria, 22 Aug. 1853. Daughter.— Princess Louise, b. 18 Feb. 1858; married duke Philip of Saxony, 4 Feb. 1875. Heir brother.— Philip, count of Flanders, b. 24 Mch. 1837; married Mary, princess of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, 25 Apr. 1867; son Baldwin, b. 3 June, 1869; d. 23 Jan. 1891; Albert, b. 8 Apr. 1875. ttelg^rade, an ancient city in Servia, on the right bank of the Danube, was taken from the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, in 1072 ; gallantly defended by John Hun- BEL niades against Turks, under Mahomet II., July-Sept. 1456^ who was defeated, with the loss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by sultan Solyman, Aug. 1521, and retaken by Imperi- alists in 1688, from whom it was again taken bv Turks, 1690. It was besieged in May, 1716, by prince Eugene ; the Turkish army, 200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and on 5 Aug., in a battle at Peterwaradein, the Turks lost 20,000 men. Eugene defeated the Turks here, 16 Aug. 1717, and Belgrade surrendered 18 Aug. In 1739 it was ceded to the Turks, after Its fortifications had been demolished ; was retaken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach, in 1790. The Ser- vian insurgents had possession 1806-13. In 1815 it was placed under prince Milosch, subject to Turkey. The fortifications were restored in 1820. On 19 June, 1862, the Turkish pacha was dis- missed for firing on the town during a riot. The university was established by private munificence, 1863. The fortress was sur- rendered by Turks to Servians, 18 Apr. 1867. The independ- ence of Servia proclaimed here, 22 Aug. 1878. Servia. bell, book, and candle. In the Roman Catholic ceremony of Excommunication, the bell is rung, the book is closed, and candle extinguished, to symbolize exclusion from the society of the faithful, divine service, and the sacraments. Its origin is ascribed to the 8th century. Bell Rock lig^ht-llOU§e, nearly in front of the Frith of Tay, one of the finest in Great Britain ; it is 115 ft. high, upon a rock 427 ft. long and 200 ft. broad, and is about 12 ft. under water. It was erected in 1806-10. It has 2 bells for hazy weather. Upon this rock, it is said, the abbots of Aberbrothock fixed the Inchcape bell, to be rung by the impulse of the sea to warn mariners. It is said that a Dutchman, who took the apparatus away, was here lost with his ship and crew. Bellei§le, an isle on the south of Brittany, France, made a duchy by Louis XV., for marshal Belleisle, in 1742, to reward military and diplomatic services. Belleisle was taken by the British, under commodore Keppel and general Hodgson, after a desperate resistance, 7 June, 176 1 , but restored to France in 176a, belle§-lettres or polite learning. Acade- mies, LiTEUATURE. belligerent act towards France. United States, 1798 ; Provisional army. bellmen in London proclaimed the hour at night be- fore public clocks became general; numerous about 1556. They were to ring a bell, and cry, " Take care of your fire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray for the dead." bellOW§. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have invented them, about 569 b.c. ; also tinder, the potter's wheel, anchors for ships, etc. Bellows were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. Great bellows were used in foundries in early times. Blowing-machines. bell§ were used among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The responses of the Dodonaean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Sti-abo. The monument of Porsenna was decorated with pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. — Pliny. Said to have been introduced by Paulinus, bishop of Nok, in Campagna, about 400 ; and first known in France in 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of France, was frightened from the siege of Sens by the bells of St. Stephen's church. The second excerp- tion of king Egbert of England commands every priest, at proper hours, to sound the church-bells. Bells were rung in churches by order of pope John IX., about 900, as a defence against thunder and lightning. Bells are mythically said to have been cast by Turketul, abbot of England, about 941. The celebrated " Song of the Bell," by SchiUer, has been frequently trans- lated, while " The Bells," one of Edgar Allan Poe's most finished poems, is as widely known. The following list is that given by E. Beckett Denison, with the exception of a few later ones, in his discourse on bells at the Royal Institution, 6 Mch. 1857 : Weight. Tons, cwt Moscow, 1736; broken 1737 250 — [The metal in this bell has been valued, at the lowest estimate, at 66,565^. Gold and silver are said to have been thrown in as votive offerings.] Another, 1817 110 — 3 others 16 to 31 — Novgorod 31 — Cologne, 1875. 26 — Olmutz 17 18 BEL Weight. Ton». cwt. 14 lOX 13 15 13 12 16 12 15 11 3 11 10 17 10 15 10 6 8 7 12 7 11 •7 10 7 3 7 IJ^ 6 1 5 8 18 18 10 8 — Vienna, 1711 17 London, 1883 (St. Paul's), "Great I>aul," note E flat; C08^300(U. 173tf— Weetmlnster. 18S6, " Big Ben " 16 S^tf [This bell, the largest in England (nnmed Big Ben, after sir Benjamin HhII, tho then chiur commissiuuer of works), caKt at Hougbtoulc Spring, Durhutn, by Messrs. Warner, under tho superintendence of K. Beckett Denisun and the rev. W. Taylor, cost 3343f. 14«. W. Tho comiKjsilion was 22 parts copper and T tin. The diameter was 9 ft, 5}^ in. ; the height 7 ft. lO^tfin. Theclapperweighedl2cwt.— /Je». W. Taylor.] Westminster, 1868, " St. Stephen" 13 [The bell " Big Ben" being cracked, on 24 Oct 1857, was broken up, and another cast with the same metal, in May, 1858, by .Messrs. .Mcars, Whitechapcl. It is diflerent in shape fVom its predecessor, and about 2 tons lighter. Its diameter is 9 ft. G in. ; the height, 7 ft. 10 in. It was struck for the first time 18 Nov. 1868. The clapper weighs 6 cwt. Its note is E nat- ural; the quarter bells being G, B, E, F. On 1 Oct. 1859, this bell was also found to be cracked.] Erfurt, 1497 , Sens Paris. Notre Dame, 1680. IS Montreal, 1847 <;ologne. 1448 Breslau, 1507 GOrlitz York, 184.5 Bruges, 1680 10 St. Peter's, Rome Oxford, " Great Tom," 1680 Lucerne, 1636 Halberstadt, 1457 Antwerp . Brussels Dantzic, 1453 Lincoln, 1834 St Paul's, 1716. The clapper of St. Paul's bell weighs 180 lbs. ; the diameter is 10 ft. (Mr. Walesby says 6 ft. 9)4 in.), and its thickness 10 in. The hour strikes upon this bell, the quarters upon 2 smaller ones. Clocks. •Ghent Boulogne, new Exeter, 1675 Old Lincoln, 1610 Fourth-quarter bell, AVestminster. 1857 Liberty bell, Philadelphia, first cast by Lester & Feck, 207 White- chapel, London, 1752, hung in the state house, Philadelphia. Same year— found to bo cracked in the rim — recast 3 times in Philadelphia before it was a success. 23 years afterwards it was rung on Independence day in that city. On 8 July, 1835, it was cracked while tolling for the death of chief- justice Marshall. In 1843 it was removed. It bore this in- scription, "Proclaim liberty throughout the land to all the inhabitantsthereof"(Lev. XXV. 10). Weight 2080 lbs. Taken to Chicago to be exhibited at the World's Fair. 29 Apr. 1893 Baptism of bells.— They were anointed and baptized in churches, it is said, from the 10th century.— i>M Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, Engl., were baptized by the names of St Michael, St John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, etc., in 1501. — Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame of Paris was bap- tized by the name of Duke of Angoulfime, 1816. On the Continent, in Catholic states, they baptize bells as the English do ships, but with religious solemnity. — Ashe. Ringing of bells, in changes of regular peals, is almost peculiar to the English. — Stow. " Companie of the Schollers of Chepeside," 1603 ; " Society of Col- lege Youths," 1637; "Society of Cumberland," 1683 ; the "So- ciety of Union Scholars," 1713; the " Society of Eastern Schol- ars," 1733 ; "London Youths," 1753 ; "Westminster Youths," 1776. Fabian Stedman, about 1650, invented "Stedman's principle." Benjamin Anable soon after invented " Grandsire Triples." 720 changes can be rung in an hour upon 12 bells; 479,001,600 changes rung upon them, require 75 years, 10 months, and 10 days. Nell Gwynne left the ringers of the bells of St Martin's-inthe- Fields money for a weekly entertainment, 1687, and many others have done the same. Carillons, a collection of bells, in 2 or 3 chromatic scales, played by pedals or keyboards, or by machinery. First said to have been made at Alost, in Flanders, in 1487, and that country and Holland are renowned for carillons. Matthias van den Gheyn was an emi- nent maker (1721-85). Excellent carillon machines are now made by Messrs. Gillet Bland & Co. , Croydon, Engl. One at Manchester, started 1 Jan. 1879, plays 35 tunes on 20 bells. Belmont, Mo., Battle of, opposite Columbus, Ky., fought 7 N0V.I86L Gen, Grant drove the confederates under gen. Pil- low from their first position, but they were reinforced from Columbus, finally compelling Grant to withdraw. Union force about 2500 men ; loss, killed, wounded, and missing, 485; confed- erate loss, 642. This was gen. Grant's first battle in the civil war. BelOO'elliStail' or BelUChiStan, the ancient Gedrosia, S. Asia, The country of the Baluchis, whose name is derived from Belus, king of Babylonia, the Nimrod of the 96 BEN Scriptures. — Keith Johnston. Area, 106,800 sq. miles. Pop. 350,000. Khelat, the capital, was taken by the British in the Afghan war, 1839; abandoned, Jul}', 1840; taken and held a short time, Nov. 1840. The khan was subsidized in 1854, under conditions which were not observed; the arrangement was broken up in 1873; the negotiations of major Sandeman, in 1875, were successful, and Quettah was occupied by the British in 1877, and has since become a pros- perous station. The khan prolfered assistance after the defeat ot gen. Burrows in July, 1880. Bel voir (bee'ver) castlC^ Leicestershire, Engl., built after the Conquest by Robert de Todeni. Its next owner was Robert de Ros, who died 1285. The castle fell into ruins during the wars of the Roses and reign of Richard III. The Manners' family obtained it in the 16th century, and hold it still. In the civil war it was defended for the king. In 1649 the Parliament ordered it demolished. The castle was rebuilt after the Restoration. The last general repairs cost 60,000/. It was visited by George IV. as regent, 1814, and by queen Vic- toria and the prince consort in 1843. Of the cost of living at the castle, the following is a published account of particulars from Dec. 1839 to Apr. 1840: Wine, 200 doz.; ale, 70 hogs- heads; wax-lights, 2330; sperm oil, 630 gals. Dined at his grace's table, 1997 persons : in the steward's room, 2421 ; in the servants' hall, nursery, and kitchen department, including com- ers and goers, 11,312 persons. There were consumed 8333 loaves of bread ; 22,963 lbs. of meats, exclusive of game. The money value of meat, poultry, eggs, and every kind of provision (ex- cluding stores on hand) consumed during this period amounted to 1323/. 7s. lift/., or $6700. There were killed during the season on the estate, 1733 hares, 987 pheasants, 2101 par- tridges, 28 wild ducks, 108 woodchucks, 138 snipes, 947 rabbits, 776 grouse, 23 black game, and 6 teal. — Timbs^ " Abbeys and Castles of England and Wales," etc. Be]]lis'§ Heig-htS, First Battle at. Gen. Gates, with the American army, in the autumn of 1777, established a for- tified camp on Bemis's heights, near Stillwater, N. Y., where he was attacked by British and Hessians, under gen. Burgoyne, on 19 Sept. Night ended the conflict' and both parties claimed the victory. Burgoyne, however, fell back a few miles to his camp, to wait for reinforcements. The British force engaged was about 3000, and the American about 2500. The former lost, killed, wounded, and missing, a little less than 500 ; the latter, 319. Bemis's Heig^htS, Second Battle at. Despairing of reinforcements, his army diminishing by desertions, Burgoyne decided to attack Gates, which he did on 7 Oct., almost upon the battle-ground of 19 Sept., but had to fall back to the heights of Saratoga, now Schuylerville, where he was compelled to surrender on 17 Oct. The number of troops surrendered was 5791, of whom 2412 were Hessians, under baron Riedesel; the remainder British regulars and Canadians. Nkw Yokk, United States, and Convention troops. Bena'res, in India, a holy city of the Hindoos, with many temples, was ceded by the nabob of Oude, Asoph-ud- Dowlah, to the English in 1775. An insurrection here nearly proved fatal to British interests in Hindostan, 1781. (De- scriptions of this insurrection introduced in Poe's " Tale of the Ragged Mountains.") The rajah Cheyt Sing was deposed in consequence in 1783. Mr. Cherry, capt. Conway, and others were assassinated at Benares by vizier Aly, 14 Jan. 1799. In June, 1857, col. Neil suppressed attempts of native infantry to join the mutiny. India. Benburb, near Armagh, N. Ireland. Here O'Neill defeated the English under Monroe, 5 June, 1646. Moore says, " the only great victory, since the days of Brian Boru, achieved by an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland." BencOO'leil, Sumatra. The English East India Com- pany made a settlement here, which preserved the pepper trade after the Dutch had dispossessed them of Bantam, 1682.— J w- derson. York fort erected by the East India Company, 1690. In 1693 dreadful mortality here, the town being built on a pestilent morass; the governor and council perished. The French, under count d'Estaing, destroyed the English settle- ment, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced to a residency under the government of Bengal, in 1801 ; was ceded to the Dutch in 1824, in exchange for possessions in Malacca. India. Bender, Bessarabia, European Russia. Near it Charles BEN 97 .3CII. of Sweden, was pennitted to reside by the Turkish sultan .after his defeat at Pultowa by Peter the Great, 8 July, 1709. The peace of Bender was concluded in 1711. Bender was taken from the Turks by the Russians in 1770, 1789, and 1809 ; re- stored at the peace of Jassy, but retained at the peace of 1812. Benedict. Fourteen popes have borne the name of Benedict, 573-1740. Popes. Beiieclictine§, an order of monks founded by St. Benedict (lived 480-543), who introduced monastic life into western Europe, in 529, founding the monastery on Monte •Casino, in Campania, and 11 others afterwards. His Regula Monachorum (rule of the monks) became the common rule of western monachism. No religious order has been so remarkable for extent, wealth, and men of note and learning ^s the Benedictine. Among branches, the chief were the 'Cluniacs, founded in 912 ; the Cistercians, founded in 1098, and reformed by St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 1116; and Carthusians, from the Chartreux (hence charter-house), founded by Bruno about 1080. The Benedictine order was introduced' into England by Augustin, in 596 ; and William I. built an abbey for it on the plain of the battle of Hastings, 1066. Battle-abbey. William de Warrenne, earl of War- renne, built a convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077 ; this or- der is said to have had 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 Jtings, 41 queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was canonized. — Baronius. The Benedictines have taken little part in poli- tics, but have produced many literary works. The congrega- tion of St. Maur published " L'Art de Verifier lea Dates," in 1750, and edited many ancient authors. Benedictines with other orders expelled from France by decree, 19 Mch. 1880 14th centenary of the birth of St. Benedict kept at Monte Casino and other places Apr. " benefice (literally, a good deed or favor) or fief, a terra first applied under the Roman empire to portions of land the usu- fruct of which was granted by the emperors to soldiers or others for life, as a reward or beneficium for past services, and as a re- tainer for future service. The same method was applied under the feudal system, and in the church, such grants being formally recognized by the council of Orleans, 511. Vicarages, rectories, perpetual curacies, and chaplaincies are termed benefices in dis- tinction from dignities, such as bishoprics, etc. A rector is en- titled to all tithes; a vicar, to a small part or none. — All benefices that should become vacant within 6 months were given by pope dement VH. to his nephew, in 1534. — Notitia Monastica. Beneventum, now Benevento, an ancient city j in S. Italy, said to have been founded by Diomedes the Greek, I after the fall of Troy. Pyrrhus of Macedon, during his invasion of Italy, was defeated near Beneventum, 275 b.c. Near it was erected the triumphal arch of Trajan, 114 a.d. Benevento was formed into a duchy by the Lombards, 571. At a battle here, 26 Feb. 1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was defeated and «lain by Charles of Anjou, who thus became virtually master of Italy. The castle was built 1323 ; the town was nearly de- «troyed by an earthquake, 1688, when the archbishop, after- wards pope Benedict XIII., was dug out of the ruins alive, and "helped rebuild, 1703. It was seized by the king of Naples, but restored to the pope on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de Perigord, Bonaparte's archchancellor, was made prince of Benevento, 1806. Benevento was taken by French, 1798, and restored to the pope in 1815. benevolences (aids, free gifts, actually forced loans) ■appear to have been claimed by Anglo-Saxon sovereigns. Such were levied by Edward IV., 1473, by Richard III., 1485 hy Henry VII., 1492, and by James I., 1613, on the marriage of princess Elizabeth with Frederick, elector palatine, afterwards king of Bohemia. In 1615 Oliver St. John, M.P., was fined 6000/., and chief-justice Coke disgraced, for censuring such exactions. Benevolences were declared illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689. BengRl, chief presidency of British India. Capital, Calcutta. Its governors were appointed by the sovereigns of Delhi till 1340, when it became independent. It was added to the Mogul empire by Baber, about 1529 ; it forms a lieu- tenant-governorship, with an area of 203,473 sq. miles and a pop. of 66,691,456. 4 BER English first permitted to trade to Bengal 1534 They establish a settlement at Hooghly about 1652 Factories of the French and Danes set up 1664 Bengal made a distinct agency 1680 English settlement removed to fort William 1698 Imperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal in the company, making it really sovereign 12 Aug. 1765 India bill; Bengal made chief presidency; supreme court of judicature established 16 June, 1773 Bishop of Calcutta appointed 21 July, 1813 Railway opened 15 Aug. 1854 Bennington, Battle of, took place at Hoosick, N. Y., 5 miles from Bennington, Vermont, on 16 Aug. 1777, be- tween British and (ierman detachments, under cols. Baume and Breyman, of Burgoyne's army, and gen. John Stark, with New Hampshire militia. British were defeated, with a loss, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, of almost 1000 men. Amer- icans had 100 killed and as manj' wounded. Burgoyne sent this expedition to procure cattle and stores. It was a severe blow to him, and led to his final defeat. It is counted one of the important battles of the Revolution. New York. Bentonville, N. C. Here on 18 Mch. 1865, the con- federates under gen. Joseph E. Johnston fiercely attacked part of Sherman's army under gen. Slocum, especially the corps of gen. Jeff. C. Davis, but were finally repelled. The concentra- tion of gen. Sherman's forces and the fear for his line of retreat compelled gen. Johnston to fall back on Raleigh. Federal loss, killed, wounded, and missing, 1643. benzole or benzine, a compound of hydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in oils (1825), and by C. B. Mansfield in coal-tar (1849). Mansfield died from a burn while experimenting on it (25 Feb. 1855). Benzole has become useful in the arts. Chemists have produced from it Aniline, the source of the modern dyes mauve, magenta, and many others. Alizarine. Aromatic essences and perfumes have been obtained from benzole by Perkin, Tiemann, Harrmann, and others. Febrifuge medicines, by 0. Fischer, Dewar, McKendrick, and others, in 1881. And saccharine, a principle 220 times sweeter than cane-sugar, by Fahlberg and Remsen, patented in Great Britain in 1886; not nu- tritious, and said to cause indigestion. Beoirulf, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic poem, describ- ing the deeds of Beowulf, a Scandinavian hero, who probably flourished in the middle of the 5th century ; supposed to have been written after 597. The preponderance of opinion now ascribes to this most important surviving monument of Anglo- Saxon poetry a west-Saxon origin, and a date between 705 and 750. An edition by Kemble was published in 1833. It has been translated by Kemble,Thorpe, and Wackerbarth. Manuscript. Bereng^arians, followers of Berengarius, archdeacon of Angers, who, about 1049, opposed the doctrine of transub- stantiation or the real presence. Several councils of the church condemned his doctrine, 1050-79. After much controversy, he recanted about 1079, and died, grieved and wearied, 6 Jan. 1088. Beresl'na, a river in Russia, crossed by the French main army after defeat by the Russians, 25-29 Nov. 1812. The French lost upwards of 20,000 men, and the retreat was ruinous. Berg", W. Germany, on the extinction of its line of counts, in 1348, was incorporated with Juliers. Napoleon I. made Murat grand-duke in 1806. The principal part is now held by Prussia. Berg^amO, N. Italy, a Lombard duchy, annexed to Venice, 1428 ; which chiefly held it till it revolted and joined the Cisalpine republic, 1797. It was awarded to Austria in 1814 ; ceded to Sardinia, 1859. Bergen, Norway, founded 1070; was the royal residence during the 12th and 13th centuries. Bergen, Germany, Battle of. French defeated allies, 13 Apr. 1752.— In Holland the allies, under the duke of York, were defeated by the French, under gen. Brune, with great loss, 19 Sept. 1799. In another battle, 2 Oct. same year, the duke gained a victory over Brune ; but on the 6th was defeated before Alkmaer, and on the 20th, by a convention, exchanged his army for 6000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. Bergen-op-Zoom, Holland. This place, deemed impregnable, was taken by the French, 16 Sept. 1747, and again in 1795. An attempt by the British, under gen. sir T. Graham to storm the fortress was defeated ; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut oflF, and nearly all were cut to pieces or taken, 8 Mch. 1814. ^..--•'^7;^ BER ' Berif crac, France. Here John of Gaunt, then earl of Derby, dfleatetl French in 1344 ; here a temporarj' treaty be- tween Catholics and Protestants, establishing liberty of con- science, was signed 17 Sept. 1577. Berkeley oastle, Ciloucestershire, Engl., begun by Henry I. in 1108, was Hnished in the next reign. Here Edward II. was murderetl,21 Sept. 1327, with circumstances of peculiar atrocity. His queen Isabella (princess of France) and her par- amour, Mortimer, earl of March, were held as accessories. Mor- timer was hanged at the Elms, near London, 29 Nov. 1330, by Edward III., who also confined his mother in her own house at Castle Rising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, till her death, 1357. " Mark tlie year, and mark the night. When Severn shall re-echo with affVlght The shrieks of death through Berkeley's roof that ring, Shrieks of an agonizing king." — Oray^s Ode, "The Bard." Berlin, capital of Prussia, province of Brandenburg, said to have been founded by margrave Albert the Bear, about 1163. Its 5 districts were united under one magistracy in 1714 ; it afterwards became the capital of Prussia and was greatly improved. It was taken and held by Russians andAustrians, 9-13 Oct. 1760. Establishment of Academy of Sciences, 1702; of the university, 1810. On 27 Oct. 1806, after the battle of Jena (14 Oct.), the French entered Berlin, whence Napoleon issued the famous Berlin Decree. Pop. 1890, 1,579,244. BERLIN CONGRESS ON THE EASTERN QUESTION. Representatives (with resident ambassadors): Germany, prince Bismarck, president; Russia, prince Gortschakoff; Turkey, Alexander Carathdodori ; Great Britain, lord Beaconsfleld and marquis of Salisbury (lord Odo Russell ambassador) ; Austria, count Andrassy ; France, M. Waddington; Italy, count Corti. First meeting, 13 June; 20th and last ; treaty signed. . l3 July, 1878 Articles 1-12. Bulgaria constituted an autonomous principal- ity, tributary to the sultan; the Balkans southern limit; the prince to be elected by the people, approved by the sultan and other powers; public laws, and other details. Articles 13-22. Eastern Rumelia made a province; partly au- tonomous; boundaries defined; Christian governor-general to be appointed by the sultan ; to be organized by an Austrian commission; Russian army of occupation for 9 months. Article 23. Bosnia and Herzegovina to be occupied and admin- istered by Austro- Hungary. Articles 24-30. Montenegro independent; new frontiers; An- tivari annexed. Articles 31-39. Servia independent, with new frontiers. " 40-49. Roumania independent, losing part of Bessa- rabia to Russia, with compensation. Articles 50-64. Regulation of navigation of the Danube, etc. " 55-57. Legal reforms in Crete, etc. Article 58. The Porte cedes to Russia Ardahan, Kars, and Batoum, and settles boundaries. Article 59. Batoum to be a free commercial port. " 60. Alasgird and Bayazid restored to Turkey. Articles 61, 62. The Porte promises legal reforms, religious liberty, etc. Article 63. The treaty of Paris (30 Mch. 1856) and of London (13 Mch. 1871) maintained when not modified by this treaty. Article 64. To be ratified in 3 weeks. Ratified 3 Aug. " Circular on delay in executing treaty from earl Granville, foreign secretary, to foreign powers May, 1880 Berlin conference 16 June-1 July, " Ambassadors: for Great Britain, lord Odo Russell; France, comte de St.Vallier, etc., president; prince Hohenlohe, Ger- man foreign minister. They agree to a collective note to the sultan of Turkey (urging surrender of Dulcigno and cession of provinces to Greece) ; presented 15 July, '• DcLciGNo; Turkey; Greece, 1880-81; Samoan Islands, 1889, etc. Berlin Decree. An interdict issued by Napoleon I. from Berlin against British commerce, 21 Nov. 1806; an attempt to destroy the foreign trade of England as well as a retalia- tory measure to offset the British Order in Council issued 16 May, 1806. It declared a blockade of British islands, and or- dered all Englishmen in countries occupied by French troops to be treated as prisoners of war. No letters in the English language were to pass through the French post-offices. All trade in English merchandise was forbidden. No vessel di- rectly from England or the English colonies was to be admitted into any French port, and by a later interpretation, all merchan- dise derived from England and her colonies, by whomsoever owned, was liable to seizure, even on board neutral vessels, and whether even the vessels themselves might not also be liable to confiscation was reserved for future consideration. British Orders in Council, Milan Decree, United States, 1806. Bermuda Hundred, Va., a peninsula between the Appomattox and James rivers, occupied by gen. B. F. Butler, BET 6 May, 1864, with between 15,000 and 25,000 men, threatening- Petersburg and Richmond on the south. Army of the James. An attack by Beauregard 17 May, 1864, stopped the advance, and the confederates erected a line of works across the penin- sula. Soon after gen. Butler's force was depleted by sending reinforcements to gen. Grant across the Jame.s, so that he could not assume the offensive, and his condition was aptly expressed in his own words, " The necessities of the army of the Potomac have bottled me up at Bermuda Hundred." Berinu..•••• it (i (1 n u Shock, <( it BEST ROAD RECORDS (Safety) C.T. Knisely W. B. Hurlburt.... 24 June, 1893 li (( 20 Sept " 24 June, '< 1 Nov. " 23 Oct «' 26 Aug. " 12 Sept 1892 21 Oct 1893 22 Oct " 12 Sept 1892 4-6 Sept 1893 1-19 June, 1885 liOUlsville, Ky 10 miles. 16 " 20 " 26 » 25 " 26 *' 60 " 60 «' 53 " 100 " 100 " 100 " 1000 " 2054 " 26 20 43 18 67 46 — 1 01 — — 1 11 59 — 1 04 — — 2 21 46 — 2 32 '20 — 3 19 30 — 5 12 02 — .5 37 15 — 7 12 04 4 23 30 — 19 Detroit, Mich 41 H. B.James W. B. Hurlburt .... Melbourne, Sydney R'd, Australia. Detroit, Mich " E. Oxborrow Great North Road, Engl A. Pellant K t> tl u F. A. Foell Buffalo, N. Y Hiss Dudley Great North Road, Engl 11 E Hale . . J. W. Linnemann.. Miss Dudley Newark, N.J Great North Road, Engl H L. Fletcher England H. R. Goodwin 1 Land's End to John O'Groat's and ( back, and then to London i Biddendeil inaid§. A distribution of bread and cheese to the poor takes place at Biddenden, Kent, on Easter Mondays, supported by the rental of 20 acres of land, in 1875 yielding about 20/., the reputed bequest of two Biddenden maids, sisters nanaed Chulkhurst, joined like the Siamese twins, who died in the 12th century. In 1656, William Hor- ner, the rector, was nonsuited in an attempt to add the " Bread and Cheese lands " to his glebe. Bigr Bethel, Va., Battle of, fought 10 June, 1861. Gen. Pierce attacked the confederates in their fortifications, and was repulsed, after a partial success, losing about 40 men. Among them maj. Theodore Winthrop, killed, author of " Cecil Dreeme," " John Brent," etc. Big Black River, Miss., Battle of. Here the con- federates, under Peraberton, made their last stand before re- tiring into Vicksburg, 17 May, 1863. They were driven from their position and retired into Vicksburg on the 18th. Vicks- burg Campaign. bigamy. The Romans branded bigamists with an in- famous mark ; and in England the punishment, formerly, was death. An act respecting it was passed 5 Edvv. I. 1276. — Viner's Statutes. Made felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 James 1. 1603. Punishable by imprisonment or transporta- tion, 35 Geo. HI. 1794 ; by imprisonment, 24 and 25 Vict. c. 100 (1861). In the United States, by imprisonment. Bilbao, N.E. Spain, founded about 1300; taken by the French and held a few days, July, 1795; delivered from Carlists by Espartero, assisted by British, 24 Dec. 1836 ; besieged by Carlists from Feb. to May, 1874 ; relieved by mar- shal Concha, who entered Bilbao 2 May. bill of excepti011§. The right of excepting by bill to errors in a judge's charge, or any definition of the law, at a trial provided by the 2d statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284, was abolished by the Judicature act, 1875. The practice is maintained in American courts. bill of right§. The Convention Pariiament that gave the crown of England to William and Mary adopted a bill of rights, 13 Feb. 1689, which the new monarchs confirmed by their signatures. It asserted the right of subjects to petition ; the right of Parliament to freedom of debate ; the right of electors to choose representatives freely, and other privileges. This bill of rights contained the fundamental principles of political liberty, yet the crown would not apply them to the American colonists. Had the bill of rights been extended to the American colonies the principal cause of their final sepa- ration would have been removed. billiard§. The origin of the game is uncertain; it was introduced into Europe by knights templars on their return from the first crusade (about 1100), and brought into France in the time of Louis XI. (1461-83). Billiard-tables with bed of stone covered with cloth, made by Henrique de Vigne, of Paris about 1571 M. Mingaud, of Paris, invents the leather-tipped cue 1823 Slate billiard-tables introduced into England 1827 Micliael Fhelun (American) invents the improved vulcanized rubber cushion 1854 First public match of importance in the U. S. at San Francisco, Michael Phelan defeats M. Damon (French) Feb. 1855 First billiard tournament in New York i860 BEST BILLIARD RECORDS, 5X10 TABLE. Three-ball, straight rail. Highest average 333>^,.Jacob Schaefer, Music hall, Chicago, game with George F. Slosson . . .15 May, 1879 Three-ball, straight rail. Highest run 1531, by Maurice Vig- naux, at Paris, against George F. Slosson 10-14 Apr. 1880 Cushion carroms, highest run 77, made by William Sexton at Tammany Hall, N.Y., against Jacob Schaefer 19 Dec. 1881 Champion's game (corner-play barred), highest run 398, made by George F. Slosson at Paris, against Maurice Vignaux, 30 Jan.-3 Feb. 1882 Highest run in America, J. R. Heiser, 351, New York city, in contest with Ed. McLaughlin 11 Feb. 1884 Balk-line (8 in.), highest run 329, made by Maurice Vignaux at Paris Jan. " Balk-line (14 in.), highest run 230, by Jacob Schaefer at Cos- mopolitan Hall, N. Y., against Maurice Vignaux. .8-13 Mch. 1886 Three-ball, straight rail; table, 4^X9. Harvey McKenna, high- est run 2572 points; game with F. Eames; average, 416%, Boston 20, 21 Dec. 1887 [Tables of this size are, however, barred from records.] Amateur championship of the U. S. and a silver tankard val- ued at $1000, won by Orville Oddie, Jr., at New York Rac- quet Club 23-28 May, " Jacob Schaefer (800) beat George F. Slosson (592), match for championship at 14-inch balk-line. New York citv. . .22 Jan. 1892 Frank C. Ives (800) beat Jacob Schaefer (499), 14-inch balk-line, championship. Chicago, 111 19 Mch. " Frank C. Ives (800} beat Geo. F. Slosson (488),balk-line billiards, Chicago, 111 21 May, " Frank C. Ives beat John Roberts at London, Engl., game of 6000 points, in 6 days. 1000 at each meeting; spot and push shots barred. Ives won by 2100 points; highest run, 1540. Roberts highest run, 249 29 May-3 June, 1893 Frank C. Ives beat John Roberts at Chicago, 111. Game, 6000 points; table, 6x12, with pockets; spot and push shots barred. Ives won by 698 points; highest run, 434. Roberts highest run, 166 Sept. 18-24, " BiIling[Sgate, the fish-market in London, is said to be named from Belinus Magnus, a British prince, father of king Lud,400 b.c., but Stow thinks from a former owner. It was the old port of London, and customs were paid here under Ethelred II., 979 a.d. — Stow. Billingsgate was made a free market, 1699. bills of exehang'e were invented by the Jews as a means of removing property from nations where they were persecuted, 1160. — Anderson. Said to have been used in Eng- land, 1307. The only legal mode of sending money from England, 4 Richard II. 1381. Regulated, 1G98 \ first stamped, 1782 ; duty advanced, 1797 ; again, June, 1801 ; and since. It was made capital to counterfeit them in 1734. In 1825, the year of" bubble " speculation, it was computed that there were 400,000,000/. represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. Days of grace were abolished in Great Britain for sight bills of exchange in Aug, 1871 ; in New York, Jan. 1895. For the laws and regulations in force in the U. S., see Harper's "Cyclopaedia of Commerce, "p. 167 et seq. bimetallism, the system of 2 standard metallic cur- rencies in a country — gold and silver — advocated by MM. H. Cernuschi and E. Lavellye and others since 1867. By BIN 103 56 Geo. III. c. 68 (1816), "gold coins only should be legal- tender in all payments of more than 40s." in Great Britain. A bimetallic currency was established in France in 1803 ; was recommended for Germany in 1879, and discussed at the mon- etary conference at Paris, Apr. 1881. A conference of dele- .gates from the United States and the principal countries of Europe on bimetallism met at Brussels,Belgium,22 Nov. 1892. The proposals and views of the various countries were so di- vergent that no satisfactory method could be decided upon, and the conference suspended its sittings 17 Dec, and ad- journed to 13 May, 1893. The tendency of the conference was unfavorable to bimetallism. Silvek. binary arithmetic, counting by twos, used in as- •certaining the property of numbers and constructing tables, -was invented by Leibnitz of Leipsic, about 1703. For the binary theory in chemistry, compound radical, binomial expre§§ion, in algebra, composed of 2 terms connected with the sign -|-(plus) or —(minus); a term first used by Recorde about 1557, when he published his *'' Algebra." The binomial theorem of Newton is said to have been first presented in 1666. Algebra. biogpraphy (Gr. ^ioq, life, and ypcKpto, I write), de- fined as " history teaching by example." Genesis contains the biography of the patriarchs, the Gospels that of Christ. Plutarch wrote the "Lives of Illustrious Men;" Cornelius ^epos, "Lives of Military Commanders;" and Suetonius, "Lives of the Twelve Caesars" (all three in the first century after Christ) ; Diogenes Laertius, " Lives of the Philosophers " «9. Founded. I Sees. Founded. . .4th cent. Llandafl" 5th cent. . . " I St. David's '" York (abpc. ) . . Sodor and Man. BIS 104 BIS Beet. Founded. Bangor about 616 8t Asaph " 660 CANTKRBrRT (ObpC.) 698 Rochester 604 London 609 East Auglia (afterwards Nor- wich, 1091) 630 Lindisfarne, or Holy Island (afterwartls Durham, 995), 634 We8tSaxons(aflerwardsWin- chester, 705) 636 Mercia (afterwards Lichfield, 669) 666 Hereford. 676 Worcester 680 Lindisse (afterwards Lin- coln, 1067) " Sherborne (afterwards Sal- isbury, 1042) 705 8e«i. Fonnd«d. Cornwall (afterwards Dev- onshire, afterwards Exe- ter. 1050) 909 Wells " Bath 1088 Ely 1108 Carlisle 1132 Peterborough 1641 Gloucester " Bristol 1642 Chester. " Oxford '« Ripon 1836 Manchester 1847 St. Alban's 1876 Truro 1877 Newcastle, authorized 1878 Southwell " " Liverpool 1880 blstaop§ in Ireland are said to have been consecrated in the 2d century. Church of Ireland. Prelacies constituted, and divisions of bishoprics in Ireland by cardinal Paparo, legate of pope Eugene III 1151 Several prelates deprived by queen Mary 1554 Bishop Atherton suffered death ignominiously 1640 Two bishops deprived for refusing oaths to William and Mary, 1691 Church Temporalities act, reducing number of bishops in Ire- land. 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 37 ; passed 14 Aug. 1833 [Of the 4 archbishoprics of Armagh, Dublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last 2 were made to terminate at the deaths of the incumbents; 8 of the then 18 bishoprics should, as they became void, be united to other sees, which was completed in 1850. The Irish church at present has 2 archbishops (Ar- magh and Dublin) and 10 bishops.] See*. Founded. Sees. Founded. 598 604 606 612 618 620 631 j Leighlin 632 Mayo about 665 402 I Ferns about 432 j Cloyne before Ossory Trim Killala about 434 I Cork about Armagh, 445 ; abpc 1152 Glandalough before JImly about 448 ( Derry before Elphin 450 Kilmacduach about Ardagh 454 j Lismore " Clogher before 493 Down about 499 , ....... „ „^v/u., Ardfert and Aghadoe, before 500 I Raphoe before Connor about " i Cashel, before 901 ; abpc. . . 1152 Tuam, about 501 ; apbc 1152 I Killaloe (abpc.) 1019 Dromore about 510 Kildare before 519 Meath 520 Achonry 530 Louth 534 Clonmacnois 548 Clonfert 558 Ross about 570 Waterford 1096 Limerick before 1106 Kilmore 1136 Dublin {abpc.) 1152 Kilfenora before 1254 [For the new combina- tions, see the separate ar- ticles. 1 bi§hop§ in Scotland were probably nonoinated in the 4th century. The Reformers, self-styled "the Congregation of the Lord," having in arms defeated the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, called a parliament, which set up a new church polity on the Genevese model, replacing bishops by "superintendents ". . 1561 Episcopacy restored by regent Morion 1572-73 Three Scottish prelates consecrated at Lambeth (.John Spottis- wood, Gawin Hamilton, and Andrew Lamb) for Glasgow, Gal- loway, and Brechin 21 Oct. 1610 Episcopacy abolished, the bishops deposed, 4 excommunicated by parliament elected by the people (Covenanters), at Glas- gow Dec. 1638 Episcopacy restored; archbishop (James Sharp) and 3 bishops consecrated by Sheldon, bishop of London 15 Dec. 1661 Scottish convention expels the bishops; abolishes episcopacy; declares throne vacant; draws up a claim of right; proclaims William and Mary 11 Apr. 1689 Episcopacy abolished, the bishops' revenues sequestrated, 19 Sept. " The Episcopal church was thus reduced to a Nonconformist body, at first barely tolerated. Its first congress met. 19 May, 1874 Bishop Rose connected the old Episcopal church of Scotland with later tolerated form of it; he was bishop of Edinburgh from 1687 till 1720, when, on his death, Dr. Fullarton became the first post- revolution bishop of that see. Fife (St. Andrews, so called in 1844) now unites the bishopric of Dunkeld (reinstituted in 1727) and that of Dunblane (reinstituted in 1731). Ross (of uncertain date) was united to Moray (reinstituted in 1727) in 1838. Argyll and the Isles never existed independently until 1847, having been conjoined to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously to that year. Galloway has been added to the see of Glasgow. Seei. Founded. Orkney Uncertain. Isles 360 Galloway before 500 St. Andrews, 800; a^pc 1470 Glasgow, about 560; abpc, 1488 Caithness about 1066 Brechin before 1155 Moray 1115 Ross 1124 Sees. Founded. Aberdeen 1125 Dunkeld 1130 Dunblane , .before 1153 Argyll 1200 Edinburgh 1633 POST-REVOLUTION BISHOPS. Edinburgh 1720 Aberdeen and the Isles .... 1721 Seet. Founded. I Sees. Fonnded., Moray (and Ross), primus. . 1727 St. Andrews (Dunkeld, Dun- Brechin 1731 blane, etc.) 1733: Glasgow (and Galloway), . . " | Argyll and the Isles 1847 Roman Catholic bishoprics revived by pope Leo XIII. . .4 Mch. 1878^ Scotch Protestant bishops protest 13 Apr. " bi§llop§, British colonial, etc. By 15 and 16 Vict. c. 52 (1852), and 16 and 17 Vict. c. 49 (1853), colonial bishops may perform all episcopal functions in the United Kingdom, but have no jurisdiction. Between 1847-59, Miss (now baroness) Burdett-Coutts gave 60,000^;. to endow colonial bishoprics. In 186(5 she petitioned Parliament, because some of the bishops claimed independence of the church of England. Colonial bishops are since appointed without inter- vention of the civil power. Much discussion took place in 1867, through the deposition of Dr. Colenso, bishop of Katal, by his metropolitan. Dr. Gray, bishop of Cape Town, and the attempts of the latter to consecrate a new bishop, in opposition to the law. Africa, Church op England. Nelson, N. Z 1858 Brisbane, Queensland 1859t British Columbia " Goulbourn, N. S. W " St. Helena " Waiapu, N. Z " Ontario, Canada 1861 Nassau, Bahamas " Grafton, Australia 1863 Dunedin, N. Z. 1866 Maritzburg, S. Africa 1869- Auckland, N. Z " Bathurst " Huron 1871. Trinidad 1872: Ballarat " Nova Scotia 1787 Quebec 1793 Calcutta 1814 Barbadoes 1824 Jamaica " Madras 1835 Australia (Sydney) 1836 Montreal " Bombay 1837 Newfoundland 1839 Toronto " Gibraltar 1841 New Zealand ( Christ- church) " Antigua 1842 Guiana, S. America. " Huron, Canada " Tasmania ** Colombo, Ceylon 1845 Fredericton, N. B " Adelaide, S. Australia 1847 Cape Town " Melbourne " Newcastle, N. S. W " Sydney (metrop. of Aus- tralia) " Rupert's Land 1849 Victoria, Hong Kong " Sierra Leone 1852' Graham's Town 1853 Natal, S. Africa " Mauritius 1854 Labuan 1855 Christchurch, N. Z 1856 Perth, W. Australia " Wellington, N. Z 1858 Algoma 1873. St. John's, Kaffraria " Athabasca 1874 Saskatchewan " Niagara 1875- Rangoon 1877 Transvaal " Lahore " North Queensland 1878 Travancore and Cochin 1879^' New Caledonia (British Co- lumbia) " New Westminster " Mid China 1880- Riverina 1883 Mackenzie River 1884 Qu'Appelle " Chota Nagpur 1890^- Selkirk 1891 MISSIONARY BISHOPS. Jerusalem 1841 1 Bloemfontein 1870- Melanesia 1860 Zululand 1871 Honolulu 1861 North China 1872 Zanzibar and Central Africa, 1863 Japan 1883" Niger Territory 1864 E. Equatorial Africa 1884 Falkland Isles 1869 Corea 1889 Madagascar 1870 Cochin 1890' bi§hops, Episcopal, in the United States. The first was Samuel Seabury,consecrated bishopof Connecticut at Aberdeen, Scotland,by the nonjuring bishops KiIgour,Petrie,and Skinner,. 14 Nov. 1784. William White, of Pennsylvania, and Samuel Pro- voost, of New York, consecrated bishops in the chapel of Lam- beth palace, London, Engl., 4 Feb. 1787, by the archbishop of Can- terbury, assisted by the archbishop of York, the bishop of Bath, and Wells, and the bishop of Peterborough. James Madison, con- secrated bishop of Virginia 19 Sept. 1790, in the chapel of Lam- beth palace, by the archbishop of Canterbury, assisted by the bishop of London and Rochester. Madison was the third and last bishop consecrated by bishops of the Anglican church. Thomas John Claggett, consecrated bishopof Maryland, 1792, in Trinity church, N. Y., by bishop Provoost, assisted by bishops- Seabury, White, and Madison; first consecration of a bishop ia. the U. S. Church ; Methodism in the U. S., 1784-87. bishops, suffragan, to assist metropolitans, existed in- the early church. 26, appointed by Henry VIIL 1534, were abolished by Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 1558. The last appointed is said to have been Sterne, bishop of Colchester, 1606. The appointment of suffragan bishops was- revived in 1869, and archdeacon Henry Mackenzie, suffragan bishop of Nottingham (diocese of Lincoln) was consecrated 2: Feb. 1870, and archdeacon Edward Parry, suffragan bishop of Dover (diocese of Canterbury), 23 Mch. 1870. Others have been appointed since : Guildford, 1874; Bedford, 1879. BIS 105 bi§iniltll, recognized as a distinct metal by Agricola in 1529, is fusible and brittle, and of a yellowish-white color. I>ii§extile. Calendar, Leap-ykar. Bitliyilia, a province in Asia Minor, previously called Bebricia, is said to have been invaded by the Thracians under Bithynus, son of Zeus, who gave it its name. It was subject :successively to Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. Most of the cities were rebuilt by Grecian colonists. g p. Dydalsus revolted and reigned about 440-430 Botyras. bis son, succeeds 378 Bas, or Bias, son of Botyras, 376; repulses the Greeks 328 Zipsetes, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus 326 He dies, leaving 4 sons, of whom the eldest, Nicomedes I., suc- ceeds (he invites the Gauls into Asia) 278 He rebuilds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia 264 rZielas, son of Nicomedes, reigns about 250 Intending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls at a feast. Zielas is detected, is himself put to death, and his son Prusias I. made king about 228 Prusias defeats the Gauls, and takes cities 223 Prusias allies with Philip of Macedon, and marries Apamea, his daughter 208 He receives and employs Hannibal, then a fugitive, 187; who poisons himself to escape betrayal to the Romans 183 Prusias II. succeeds 180 Nicomedes II. kills his father Prusias and reigns 149 Nicomedes III., surnamed Philopator 91 Deposed by Mithridates, king of Pontus 88 Restored by the Romans : 84 Bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans 74 A.D. Pliny the Younger proconsul 103 ■Oghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia 1231 •Othman Turks take Prusa, the capital, and fix their court here till they possess Constantinople 1327 BLA BitontO, Naples. Here Montemar and the Spaniards, defeating the Germans, 27 May, 1734, acquired the kingdom •of the Two Sicilies for don Carlos. black art. Alchemy, Witchcraft. Black Book (Liber Niger), a book in the exchequer, -which held the orders of the court ; publ. by Hearne in 1728. A book doubtfully said to have been kept in monasteries, wherein details of enormities practised in religious houses were entered for inspection of visitors, under Hen. VIII. 1535. The name was given to the list of pensioners, printed 1831; and to other books, Italy, 1876. The title "Black Book" was given to a list of ha- bitual criminals, 1869-76; pub. by lieut.-col. Du Cane of Brixton, Engl., Mch. 1877. black death. Plagues, 1347. Black Flags. Tonquin. Black Friar§. Dominicans. Black Friday, ll May, 1866, the height of the com- mercial panic in London, through the stoppage of Overend, Gurne}-- & Co. (limited), on 10 May. Messrs. John Henry and Edmund Gurney and their partners, committed for trial for conspiracy to defraud, 21 Jan. 1869, were tried and acquit- ted, 13-23 Dec. 1869. In the United States the term Black Friday is applied to Friday, 24 Sept. 1869, when a group of speculators in New York advanced the price of gold suddenly to 1621^, causing a panic. Black Hawk war, the, was an outbreak of the Sacs and Foxes, under the leadership of Black Hawk, one of their chiefs, in 1832. The encroachment of whites on their territory was the principal cause. Black Hawk resisted the survey of the land at Rock Island, 111., although most of the Sacs and Foxes were west of the Mississippi. The trouble commenced in 1831, and after several skirmishes culminated at Ihe battle of Bad Axe river. Wis., 1-2 Aug. 1832. Shortly after. Black Hawk was captured by a party of friendly Indians, and taken to the principal cities of the East, to impress him with the greatness of the country. He died in 1838. Black Prince, Edward, eldest son of king Edward in., born 15 June, 1330; victor at Poictiers, 19 Sept. 1356 ; at Najara, 3 Apr. 1367; died 8 June, 1376. Black Republican, a term of reproach applied to members of the Republican party by the Democrats and Southerners 1856-70, for their advocacy of the abolition of slavery and rights of the blacks. Black Rock. Buffalo; New York, 1813. black rod with a gold lion at top, is carried by the usher of the Knights of the Garter (instituted 1349), instead of the mace. He also keeps the door when a chapter of the order is sitting, and during the sessions of Parliament attends the lords and acts as messenger to the commons. Black §ea, the Fuxine {Pontus Euximsofihe an- cients), a large inland sea between the S.W. provinces of Rus- sia and Asia Minor, connected with the sea of Azof by the strait of Yenikale, and with that of Marmora by the Bos- porus. It is about 720 miles in length, and 380 in breadth. Its total area, including the Sea of Azof (14,000 sq. miles) is about 172,500 sq. miles. It was much frequented by Greeks and Italians, till closed to all by the Turks after the fall of Constantinople 1453 Russians obtained admission by treaty of Kainardji. . .10 July, 1774 Partly opened to British and 'other traders (since when the Russians gradually obtained the preponderance) 1779 Entered by British and French fleets, on requisition of the Porte. after destruction of Turkish fleet at Sinope by Russians, 30 Nov. 1853 3 .Tan. 1854 Black sea opened to commerce by treaty of 1856 A treaty was signed by all parties to the treaty of Paris, 30 Mch. 1856, by which the neutralization of the sea was abro- lanket§ are said to have been first made at Bristol by Thos. Blanket, in the 14th century. This is doubtful. Blarney §tone, said to confer on the person kissing it the power to speak agreeably. It is built in the wall on the summit of Blarney castle (about 4 miles northwest from Cork). This castle was built by Cormick McCarty, 1449. The true Blarney stone recognized by the natives is not the one com- monly saluted, but is in the wall several feet from the top, and can only be kissed with great difficulty and with assistance by leaning over the parapet. bla§plieni^ was punished with death by the law of Moses (Lev. xxiv.), 1491 b.c. ; and b}-^ the code of Justinian, 529 A.D. It is punishable by the civil and canon law of Eng- land, regulated by 60 George III. c. 8 (1819). Daniel Isaac Eaton was tried and convicted in London of blasphems', 6 Mch. 1812. Robert Taylor, a Protestant clergyman, was tried twice for the same crime. He was sentenced to 2 years' im- prisonment, and heavily fined, July, 1831. In Dec. 1840, 2 publishers of blasphemous writings were convicted. In the case of Cowan vs. Milbourn in 1867, the defendant had broken his lease of a lecture-room to the plaintiflF, on discovering that the lectures were to maintain that " the character of Christ is defective, and his teaching misleading, and that the Bible is no more inspired than any other book." The court held that the publication of such doctrine was blasphemy, and the contract illegal, reaffirming the dictum of C. J. Hale that " Christianity is part of the laws of England." - bla§tingr g^elatine (a mixture of nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton), a violent explosive prepared by Alfred Nobel, and modified by prof. Abel, 1879. blazonry. Coats-of-arms were introduced and be- came hereditary in France and England about 1192, the knights painting their banners with different figures, to dis- tinguish them in the crusades. — Dugdale. bleaching was known in Egypt, Syria, India, and Gaul. — Pliny. The Dutch introduced chemical improvements into England and Scotland in 1768. There were large bleach- fields in Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and Renfrew, and in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The application of chlorine gas to bleaching is due to Berthollet's discovery, about 1785. Its BLI combination with lime (chloride of lime) was devised by Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who patented the process in 1798, and by his firm it is still extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. Ure published elaborate experiments on this substance. In I860' bleaching and dyeing works in Great Britain were regulated, by the Factories act. Blenheim or Plintheim, a village in Bavaria on the left bank of the Danube, near Hochstett, where, on 13. Aug. 1704, the English and Austrians, commanded by the- duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene, defeated the French and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard and the elector of Ba- varia, the latter losing about 12,000 killed and wounded, and. 13,000 prisoners (including Tallard). Bavaria fell to the con- querors. Parliament gave Marlborough the honor of Wood- stock and the hundred of Wotton, and built for him the^ house of Blenheim. " 'Great praise the Duke of Marlborough won, And our good prince Eugene.' ' Whv, 't was a very wicked thing !' Said little Wilhelmine. ' Nay, nay, my little girl 1' quoth he, ' It was a famous victory.' " —Southey, "Battle of Blenheim." Blennerha§sett's i§land, an island in the Ohio^ river, a few miles below Parkersburg, W. Va., purchased in 1798 by Herman Blennerhassett. He was born in Hampshire,. Engl., 8 Oct. 1764, married a daughter of lieutenant-governor Agnew of the isle of Man, 1796, disposed of his estate and came to the United States, 1797. On this island he erected a spacious mansion, where he was visited in 1805 by Aaron Burr, who en- listed him in his schemes of western colonization. He was ar- rested as an accomplice of Burr's, his house and grounds entirely ruined ; finally, discharged without trial, he purchased a planta- tion near Port Gibson, Miss. This venture proving unfortunate^ he removed to Montreal in 1819, where he began the practice of law, hoping to obtain a judgeship; failing in this, he sailed for Ireland in 1822, to recover, if possible, a part of his estate ;. unsuccessful, he retired to the island of Guernsey, where he died 1831. In 1842 his wife returned to the U. S. and petitioned Congress for compensation for the ruined island home. The petition was presented by Henry Clay, and in the Senate a fa- vorable report was made; but she died in New York in destitu- tion before a vote on the bill, and was buried by Sisters of Charity. Burr's Conspiracy. blind. The first public school for the blind was estab- lished by Valentine Haiiy, at Paris, in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool in 1791 ; in Scotland, at Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. Printing in raised or embossed characters for the blind was begun at Paris by Haliy in 1786. The whole Bible was printed at Glasgow in raised Roman characters about 1848. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, edited by rev. W. Taylor, F.R.S., so eminent for his 40 years' exertions on behalf of these sufferers, was pub- lished in 1855-56. By his aid a college for the wealthy blind was founded at Worcester, Engl.,in 1866. In many department* of knowledge blind persons have obtained distinction. Laura Bridgman, born at Hanover, N. H., 21 Dec. 1829, became through sickness dumb and blind 2 years after. She was so well taught by Dr. Howe, of Boston, Mass., as to become an able instructor of blind and dumb persons. She died at South Boston, 24 May, 1889. James Holman, the "blind traveller" (b. 1786, d. 1857), vis ted all parts of the world. His travels were publ. in 1825. In Apr. 1858, a blind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, was elected chaplain to the Mercers' Company, London, and read the service, etc., from embossed books. Viscount Cranborne (blind) wrote interesting historical essays. He died in June, 1865. On 13 July, 1865, Henry Fawcett, the blind professor of political economy at Cambridge, was elected M.P. for Brighton ; for Hackney, 1874 and 1880; appointed postmaster-gen- eral, Apr. 1880. F. J. Campbell (blind) ascended Mont Blanc in 1880. blinding^, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, was inflicted anciently on adulterers, per- jurers, and thieves. In the middle ages the penalty was fre- quently changed from total blindness to a diminution of sight. A whole army of Bulgarians were deprived of sight by the emperor Basil. Bulgaria. blisters, used by Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.), made, it is said, of CANTHARIDES. blizzard. Storms. BLO 107 BOA Block i§lancl, Long Island sound. Massachusetts and Connecticut, 1636; Manisees; New York, 1614. blockade is the closing an enemy's ports to com- merce ; a practice introduced by the Dutch about 1584. The principle recognized by European powers is that a blockade, to be binding, must be effective. The Elbe was blockaded by Great Britain, 1803 ; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864; the gulf of Finland by the allies, 1854; and the ports of the confederate States by president Lincoln, 19 Apr. 1861. The naval force of the United States then consisted of 90 ves- sels ; only 42 were in commission, mounting between 500 and 600 guns. The home squadron consisted of 12 vessels. The proclamation of the blockade was a recognition of belligerent rights in the confederates. Many vessels succeeded in running the blockade during the war ; 1143 were captured by block- ading squadrons, valued at $24,500,000 ; and 355 destroyed, valued at $7,000,000. Alabama Claims, Berlin Decree, British Orders in Council, Milan Decree, United States. Bloi§, France, the Roman Blesum. Stephen of England was earl of Blois through his father, count of Blois, who mar- ried Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror. The count Guy n. sold it witli his domains to Louis, duke of Orleans, in 1391, and eventually it accrued to the crown. The States- general were held here 1576 and 1588, on account of the re- ligious wars ; and here Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, I the cardinal, were assassinated by order of Henry HL, 23 Dec. 1588. Maria Louisa, wife of Napoleon, retired here in 1814. blood. The circulation of the blood was a fact ob- scurely conjectured by Aristotle, Nemesius, Mondino, and Berenger, and partly taught by Caesalpinus, Fabricius, and Michael Servetus (b. 1509, burnt at Geneva, 1553). The latter first maintained the imperviousness of the septum and the ^transition of the blood by what he terms an unknown route, ^namely, from the right ventricle by the pulmonary artery to the lungs, and thence into the pulmonary vein and left auricle and ventricle, from which, he adds, afterwards it is conveyed by the aorta to all parts of the body; but the honor of fully ! explaining the circulation belongs to William Harvey, who first announced it in 1619, and published his first work in 1628. A memorial window in the church at Folkestone, Kent, Engl., the place of his birth (1578-1657), was uncovered 9 Apr. 1874. plating blood was prohibited to Noah (Gen. ix.); to the Jews (Tjev. xvii., etc.); and to the Gentile converts by the apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, 52 a.d. (Acts xv.) Blood-drinking was anciently tried to give vigor to the system. Louis XI. in his last illness drank the warm blood of infants, iu the vain hope of restoring his decayed strength, 1483. — Henault. In the 15th century an opinion prevailed that the declining vigor of the aged might be repaired by transfusing into their veins the blood of young persons. It was countenanced in France by physicians about 1668, and prevailed for many years, till, fatal effects having ensued, it was suppressed by an edict. "An English physician (Louver, or Lower) practised in this way; he died in 1691."— i^remd. It was attempted again in France in 1797, and more recently there, in a few cases, with success; and in England (but rarely) since 1823. Tried at Philadelphia, Pa., Apr. 1877; in London, unsuccessful, 10 May, 1877. Bl00d'§ COn§piracy. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's household, with confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, intending to hang him, and took him to Tyburn, when he was rescued by his friends, 6 Dec. 1670. Blood afterwards, disguised as a clergyman, attempted to steal the royal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower, 9 May, 1671 ; yet, was not only pardoned by Charles H., but re- ceived a pension of 500/. per annum, 1671. He died 24 Aug. 1680. " bloody assize§," held by Jeffreys in the west of England, in Aug. 1685, after the defeat of Monmouth at Sedgmoor. Upwards of 300 persons were executed after short trials; many were whipped, imprisoned, and lined ; and n^krly 1000 were sent as slaves to American plantations. Bloody Marsh, Battle of. Georgia, 1742. bloomer costume, introduced in the United States in 1849 by Mrs. Ann Bloomer. It consisted of an open-fronted jacket and loose trousers, the latter wide like those of the Turks, but gathered at the ankles. It never became popular and was soon totally disused. Blorelieath, Staffordshire, Engl., where, 23 Sept. 1459, the earl of Salisbury and the Yorkists defeated the Lan- castrians, whose leader, lord Audley, was slain with many- Cheshire gentlemen. A cross commemorates this conflict. blowing-machines. The large cylinders used in blowing-machines were erected by Mr. Smeaton at the Carron Iron-works, 1760. One to supply air for 40 forge- fires was erected at the king's dockyard, Woolwich. The hot-air blast, an important improvement, economizing fuel, was invented by James B. Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented in 1828. The inventor died 18 Jan. 1865. blow-pipe. An P^gyptian using one is among the paintings on the tombs at Thebes. The blow-pipe was em- ployed in mineralogy by Antony von Swab, a Swede, about 1733, and improved by Wollaston and others. In 1802, prof. Robert Hare, of Philadelphia, Pa., invented the compound blow-pipe, in which intense heat is produced by a flame of mixed oxygen and hydrogen. By Newman's improved blow- pipes, in 1816, Dr. E. D. Clarke fused the earths, alkalies, metals, etc. Books on the blow-pipe, by Plattner and Mus- pratt, pub. 1854 ; by G. Plympton, 1874. blue was the favorite color of the Scotch covenanters in the 17th century. Blue and orange or yellow became whig colors after the revolution of 1688; and were adopted on the cover of the whig periodical, the Edinhurgh Review, first publ. in 1802. Prussian-blue dye was discovered by Diesbach, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine blues are now obtained from coal-tar. Aniline. Blue-coat schools, so called fr(Jm the costume of the children. The Blue-coat school in Newgate street, Lon- don, was instituted by Edward VI. in 1552. Christ's Hos- PITAU Blue is the prescribed color of the uniform of the army of the United States. Blue-stocking, a term applied to a literary lady, was originally conferred on a society compris- ing both sexes (1760 et seq.). Among its active members was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the naturalist, who wore blue worsted stockings ; hence the name. The beautiful Mrs. Jer- ningham is said to have worn blue stockings at the conversa- ziones of Mrs. Montagu. blue-books, reports and other papers printed by order of the British Parliament ; so named from their wrappers ; 70 vols, were printed for the lords, and 76 vols, for the commons in 1871. Blue-book, U. S. government, contains lists of all persons under the government in the civil, military, and naval departments, including the law office. So called from the color of the cover. blue laws of Connecticut, a code adopted by the set- tlers as early as 1639-42. "True Blue Laws," edited by J. Hammond Trumbull, 1876, gives the several codes of the Connecticut colonies, and S. A. Peters's " History of Connecti- cut," edited by S. J. McCormick, New York, 1877, gives an exaggerated account of them. Connecticut ; Massachu- setts, 1631. Blue liicks, Battle of, in Nicholas county. Ky., be- tween 182 Kentucky pioneers and a strong body of Indians imder Simon Girty, 19 Aug. 1782. Through haste and rash- ness the Kentuckians were drawn into an ambuscade and de- feated with great slaughter, losing 62, among them a son of Daniel Boone. blue lights. During the summer and autumn of 1813, commodore Decatur, with the frigates United States and Mac- edonian and the sloop-of-war Hot-net, was closely blockaded in New London harbor, Conn., by sir Thomas Hardy, with 2 74's, 2 frigates, and several smaller vessels. Decatur prepared to run this blockade with great secrecy on the night of 12 Dec. Everything was favorable, and he was about to weigh anchor when word was brought that blue lights were burning on both sides of the river. Decatur had no doubt they were sig- nals to warn the enemy ; so the ships remained imprisoned during the rest of the war. The Federalists, as the party op- posed to the war, were reproached for exhibiting the lights. United States, 1814. Blue Bidge. Appalachian Mountains. Blue-Stocking^. Blue. Board of War. United States, 12 June, 1776. boat-races. Thomas Doggett, an eminent actor of Drury lane, at the first anniversary of the accession to the throne of George I., 1 Aug. 1715, gave a waterman's coat BOC and silver badge to be rowed for by 6 young watermen in honor of the day, and bequeathed, at his death in 1722, a sum of money to continue the custom. Coat and badge won by Wm. A. Barry, 1 Aug. 1891. On 10 June, 1829, 8 OARS-HARVARD-YALE 108 BOD was rowed the first boat-race between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, Engl.; and boat-racing between Har- vard and Yale began in 1852. The following is a list of the Harvard-Yale, Oxford-Cambridge, and international boat-races: DftU. Count. DliUnca. winner. Time. 1 Won by Min. Sec. 3 Aug. 185a Centre harbor, lake Winnepesaukee, N. H. 2 miles straight. Harvard. — 2 lengths. ai July, 1855 Connecticut river. Springfield. 3 miles with turn. 22 — 1 mill. 38 sees. 26 " 1859 Worcester, lake Quiusigaiuoud, Mass. tl tt 19 18 1 min. 24 " 1860 tl tl " 18 53 12 sees 29 " 1864 ({ ii It (t tl 11 Yale. 19 1 42>s^ sees. 28 " 1865 (( 11 it tt tl It '• 17 i'2y, 261^ " 27 " 1866 (t It tt tt 11 It Harvard. 18 43 27 " 19 •' 1867 4 50 sees. 23 " 1869 It It It It 11 If " 18 2 9 " 30 June, 1876 80 " 1877 Connecticut river, Springfield, Mass. 4 miles straight. Yale. Harvard. 2'2 24 3 36 31 " 8 " 28 " 1878 Thames river. New London, Conn. tl 11 '• 20 44% 44^ sees. 27 " 1879 " 22 15 1 miu. 43 sees. 1 July, 1880 It It K tt tt tt Yale 24- 27 42 sees. 1 " 1881 II It tt It " 22 13 6 " SO June, 1882 It It II (t It tl Harvard. 20 47 3J^ sees. 28 " 18H3 tt It II il " 24 26 1 min. 33 sees. 26 " 1884 It it II (t It tl Yale. 20 31 15 sees. 26 *' 1885 It 11 II tl It 11 Harvard. 25 1^^ 1 min. UX sees. a July, 1886 It II It II It Yale. 20 413^ 24X sees. 1 " 1887 " 22 56 14X " 29 June, 18S8 U tl tt II It " 20 10 1 min. 14 sees. 28 " 1889 tt t( tt It " 21 30 25 sees. 27 " 1890 II It tt tt It u Yale. 21 29 11 sees. 26 " 1891 11 11 tl It tt tl Harvard. 21 23 34 sees. IJuly, 1892 II tt tt tt tl It Yale. 20 48 54X sees. 80 June, 1893 It tl tt tt tl tt " 25 ly. 13X sees. 28 Ju^p, 1894 tt tt tt tt It tl " 22 47 53 sees. 8 OARS— OXFORD-CAMBRIDGE. ENGLISH. FIRST RACE, 1829 ; ANNUAL parties were equal ; up to 1880, Oxford SINCE 1856. was 1 ahead.) (In 1864, after 20 contests, the opposing D»W. Course. Distance. Winner. Time. Won by 22Mch. 1880 Putney to Mortlake, Thames, Engl. 4 mis. and 440 yds. Oxford. 21m. 23 s. 33^ lengths. 8 Apr. 1881 It It 11 It " 21 "51 " 3 1 " 1882 It 11 It It t' 20 " 12 " 7 " 15Mch. 1883 It It It K " 21 " 18 " 3>^ " 7 Apr. 1884 tl tl 11 (f Cambridge. 21 "39 " 2^ " 128 Mch. 1885 11 11 tl If Oxford. 21 " 36 " 2>^ 9 Apr. 1892 tl 11 It l< II 19 " 21 " 2K " 22 Mch. 1893 II tt It It 18 "47 " 2^ " 17 " 1894 tl 11 tt l( tt 21 " 39 " 33 " 4 OARS-INTERNATIONAL. HARVARD-OXFORD Date. 1 Oonrse. Distance. Winner. Time. Won by 17 Aug. 1869 1 Putney to Mortlake, Thames, Engl. iX miles. Oxford. Min. Sec. 22 17 3 lengths. LONDON R. C.-ATALANTA B. C, NEW YORK, AMATEURS. Date. Course. Distance. | Winner. Time. 10 June, 1872 4-5 July, 1878 Putney to Mortlake, Thames, EngL Henley, Thames, Engl. 41^ miles. London R. C. 2X " Columbia. Min. Sec. 21 16 8 42 Wins Visitors' Challenge cup. LONDON R. C. AND THE SHO-WAE-CAE-METTES, OF MONROE, MICH. Date. 1 Course. 1 Distance. Winner, Time. 4-5 July, 1878 Henley, Thames, Engl. | 2J^ miles. Min. Sec. London R. C. 8 26 Wins Steward's Challenge cup. VIENNA, AUSTRIA-CORNELL UNIVERSITY, U. S. 11 Aug. 1881 Winner. Vienna, Danube. | 3 miles. Vienna THAMES R. C. -HILLSDALE, MICH., R. C, AMATEURS Min. Sec. 28 30 Won by Thames, Engl. i}^ miles. Thames R. C. Min. Sec. 20 40 Won by Alfi-ed Johnson, a young man, started from America" in the boat Centennial, 20 feet long, 15 June, and landed at Abercastle, Pembrokeshire, Wales 11 Aug. 1876 Boccaccio's (bok-kat'cko) Dccamcronc, a collection of 100 stories (many immoral), severely satirizing the clergy, feigned to have been related in 10 days, during the plague of Florence in 1348. A copy of the first edition (by Valdarfer in 1471) was sold at the duke of Roxburghe's sale to the duke of Marlborough for 2260/., 17 June, 1812, and was afterwards sold by public auction for 875 guineas, 5 June, 1819. Lite RAT UBE. Bodleian ^Library, Oxford, founded in 1598, and opened in 1602 by sir Thomas Bodley (d. 28 Jan. 1612). Is open to the public, and receives by the copyright law a copy BCE 109 of every book published in Great Britain. In 1868 it con- tained about 250,000 vols. For rare works and MSS. it is said to be second only to the Vatican. Mr. Macray's " Annals of the Bodleian Library," publ. 1868. BCBO'tia, a division of Greece, north of Attica, known previously as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia, and Cadmeis. Thebes, the capital, was celebrated for the exploits and mis- fortunes of its kings and heroes. The term Boeotian was used by the Athenians as a synonym for dull ; but unjustly — since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminondas, and Co- rinna were Boeotians. The early history and dates are myth- ical. Thebes. Arrival of Cadmus, founder of Cadmea (Hales, liM; Clinton, b.c. 1313) 1493 Reign of Polydore 1459 Labdachus ascends the throne 1430 Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and dethrone Laius 1388 Myth of (Edipiis; he kills in an affray his father Laius; con- firming the oracle foretelling his death by the hands of his son, 1276; resolves the Sphinx's enigmas 1266 War of the 7 captains 1225 Thebes besieged and taken 1213 Thersander reigns, 1198; slain 1193 Thebans abolish royalty (ages of obscurity follow) about 1120 Thebans fight with Persians at Plataea 479 Spartans aiding Thebans defeat Athenians near Tanagra 456 Battle of Coronea, Thebans defeat Athenians 447 Thebans, under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, enroll their sacred band, and join Athens against Sparta 377 Epaminondas defeats Lacedsemonians at Leuctra, and restores Thebes to independence 371 Pelopidas killed at Cynoscephalae — 364 Epaminondas victorious at Mantinea, but slain 362 Philip, king of Macedon, defeats Thebans and Athenians near Chseronea 338 Alexander destroys Thebes, but spares Pindar's house 335 Boeotian confederacy dissolved by the Romans 170 Bceotia henceforth partakes of the fortunes of Greece; and is a.d. conquered by the Turks under Mahomet II 1456 Boer§ (peasants), a name given to the Dutch settlers in South Africa, since the 16th century, who still retain their national character. Discontented with British rule in the Cape, since 1814 large numbers of them emigrated northward in 1836-37, and founded the Orange Free State (1836) and the Transvaal Republic (1848). bog's, probably the remains of forests, covered with peat and loose soil. An act for drainage of Irish bogs passed Mch. 1830. The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres; that of Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000; and that of England at near 1,000,000 acres. In Jan. 1849, Rees Reece patented certain products from Irish peat. Candles and other articles made from peat have been sold in London. Fuel for railway engines and other purposes was made from peat (Apr. 1873) ; and a peat, coal, and charcoal company established. Much destruction has been caused by the motion of bogs. Leland (about 1546) speaks of Chat Moss shifting. Mischief was done at Enaghmore, Ireland, 3 Jan. 1853; and farm-houses and fields near Dunmore were covered, Oct. 1873. Botieinia, formerly the Hercynian forest (Boiemum, Tacitus), derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic tribe. It was governed by dukes (Borzivoi I. 891), till Ottocar assumed the title of king, 1198. The kings at first held their territory from the empire; and the crown was elective till it became hereditary in the house of Austria. The original Bohemians term themselves Czechs, and, imitating Hungary, now call for autonomy. Prague, the capital, is famous for sieges and battles. Pop. in 1857, 4,705,525 ; in 1870, 5,140,544 ; in 1890. 5,843,250. Area, 20,060 sq. miles. Prague. ^ ^ Czechs (Slavonians) seize Bohemia about 550 City of Prague founded 795 Introduction of Christianity 894 Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry III., who devastates the country 1041 Ottocar (Premislas) I. , first king of Bohemia 1198 Ottocar II. rules over Austria, and obtains Styria, etc., 1253; refuses the imperial crown 1272 Ottocar vanquished by Kudol|)h, and deprived of Austria, Styria, and Carniola, 1277; killed at Marchfeld 26 Aug. 1278 King John (blind) slain at Crecy 1346 John Huss and Jerome of Prague, early reformers, burned for heresy ; an insurrection follows 1415-16 Ziska, Hussite leader, takes Prague, 1419; dies of plague 1424 Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter of the late em- peror, receives the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary 1437 Succession infringed by Ladislas, son of the king of Poland, and George Podifebrad, a Protestant chief 1440-58 Ladislas, king of Poland, elected king of Bohemia on the death of Podiebrad 1471 BOI Emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister of Louis, late king, and obtains the crown 1527 Thirty years' war begun !.!.!!!.'!'.!!!*.!!!.'. 1618 Emperor Ferdinand II., oppressing Protestants, is deposed- Frederic, elector- palatine, elected king 5 Sept. 1619 Frederic, defeated at Prague, flees to Holland 9 Nov 1620 Bohemia secured to Austria by treaty 1648 Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia !!!!!.*.'!!!! 1742 Prague taken by the Prussians .'.".*.'.'!!!!! 1744 Prussians defeat Austrians at Prague; 7 years' war begins,' " ' Revolt of the peasantry _ _ 1775 Edict of toleration promulgated... '..'....'. 1781 French occupy Prague 1806 Insurrection at Prague, 12 June ; submission, siege raised, r. • ^ , 20 July, 1848 Prussians enter Bohemia, which becomes the seat of war , (Germany, 1866) 24 June, 1866 Agitation of Czechs that the emperor be crowned king of Bo- hemia with the crown of St. Wenceslas at Prague, .autumn, 1867 Riots at Prague ; habeas-corpus act suspended 10 Oct. 1868 Bohemian agitation for self-government; addresses to the em- peror... . 14 Sept and 5 Oct. 1870 Manifesto of the emperor 14 Sept. 1871 Bohemian deputies absent from the Reichsrath Dec. '• " Young Czech " party defeated in elections July, 1874 Czech deputies enter Reichsrath 8 Oct. 1879 Motion of the Young Czechs in the assembly for the coro- nation of the emperor as king of Bohemia negatived, after several days' warm debate 9 Nov. 1889' Diet reopened 14 Oct.; the Young Czechs obstruct legisla- tion Oct. 1890 Young Czechs ask for autonomy like Hungary Dec. " Gradual dissolution of the Old Czechs party (moderates). . " " Austrian government will make no more concessions to the Czechs; announced in the Diet 5 Jan. 1891 Young Czechs victorious in the elections; the Old Czech party totally defeated Mch. '• KINGS. 1198. Premislas Ottocar I. 1230. Wenceslas III. 1253. Premislas Ottocar II. 1278. Wenceslas IV., king of Poland. 1305. Wenceslas V. 1306. Rudolph of Austria. 1307. Henry of Carinthia. 1310. John of Luxemburg (killed at Crecy). 1346. Charles I., emperor (1347). 1378. Wenceslas VI., emperor. 1419. Sigismund I., emperor. '1438. Albert of Austria, emperor. 1440. Ladislas V. 1458. George von Podiebrad. '147L Ladislas VL, king of Hungary (in 1490). 1516. Louis, king of Hungary (killed at Mohatz). 1526. Bohemia united to Austria under Ferdinand I., elected king ; Germany, emperors. Bohemian Brethren, a body of Christians in Bohemia, appear to have separated from the Calixtines, a branch of the Hussites, in 1467. Dupin says, " They re- jected the sacraments of the church, were governed by simple laics, and held the Scriptures for their only rule of faith. They presented a confession of faith to king Ladislas in 1504 to jus- tify themselves from errors laid to their charge." Though perhaps in sympathy with the Waldenses, they were distinct from them. ' Luther, in 1533, testifies to their purity of doc- trine, and Melanchthon commends their discipline. They were dispersed during the religious wars of Germany in the 17th century. Boii, a Celtic people of N. Italy, who emigrated into Italy, were defeated at the Vadimonian lake, 283 B.C., and were subdued by Scipio Nasica, 191 b.c. Recrossing the Alps they betook themselves to what is now Bohemia, but their existence as a separate people was soon lost. boilings of liquids. Dr. Hooke, about 1683, as- certained that liquids cannot increase in heat after beginning to boil, hotter fire only making them boil more rapidly. The following are boiling-points ; Fahr. Phosphorus 554« Fahr. Sulphuric acid 600 " Mercury 662 " Sulphur 822 " Ether 93° Alcohol 173 Nitric acid 187 Water 212 Oil of turpentine ... 312 boilings to death, a capital punishment in Eng- land, bv Stat. 22 Hen. Vin. 1531 (repealed 1547), passed when 17 persons had been poisoned by Richard Rosse, otherwise Coke, the bishop of Rochester's cook, 2 of whom died. Mar- garet Dav}', a young woman, suffered this penalty for a sim- ilar crime,* 28 Mch. 1542.— *S7ozy. Boi§-le-due, Dutch Brabant, where the British were BOE 110 BON defeated by a French republican army, and driven from their position to' Schyndel, 14 Sept. 1794. The place was capturod by the French, 10 Oct. following ; surrendered to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in Jan. 1814. Boklin'rn, central Asia, the ancient Sogdiana, after successively forming part of the empires of Persia, of Alex- ander, and Bactriana, was conquered by the Turks in the 6th century, by the Chinese in the 7th, and by the Arabs about 705. After various changes of masters, it was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, its present possessors, in 1505. The British envoys, col. Stoddart and capt. ConoUy, were murdered at Bok- hara, the capital, by the khan, about June, 1843. In the war with Russia, begun 1866, the emir's army was defeated several times in May et seq. Peace was made 11 July, 1867. The Russians were again victors, 25 May, 1868, and occupied Sa- marcand the next day. Further conquests were made by the Russians, and Samarcand was secured by treaty, Nov. 1868. A new political and commercial treaty with Russia was pub- lished Dec. 1873. Pop. 2,030,000 ; area, 83,980 sq. miles. Bolivia, a republic in South America, formerly part of Peru, population in 1875 about 2,000,000; in 1880, 2,325,000; 1890, 2,333,350; area, 784,554 sq. miles, between lat. lO'' and 22° S., Ion. 58° and 70° W. An insurrection of the ill-used Indians, headed by Tupac Amaru Andres, takes place here 17S0-82 Country declares its independence 6 Aug. 1824 Secured by the victory of Ayacucho 9 Dec. " Named Bolivia, in honor of gen. Bolivar 11 Aug. 1825 First congress meet 25 May, 1826 General Sucre governs ably 182(5-28 Slavery abolished 1836 Santa Cruz rules 1828-39 Free trade proclaimed 1853 General Cordova, president 1855-57 Succeeded by the dictator Jos6 Maria Linares 31 Mch. 1859 George Cordova, constitutional president 1860 Succeeded by Jos6 M. de Acha May, 1861 Gen. Melgarejo defeats president De Acha 28 Dec, 1864 Becomes dictator Feb. 1865 Puts down an insurrection under Belzu Mch. " Routs Arguedas at Viacha and proclaims amnesty 24 Jan. 1866 Suppresses a revolt 17 Oct. " Proclaims amnesty 21 Dec. 1867 Civil war 1867-70 President A. Morales, 1871, said to have been murdered. . .Jan. 1873 President, Dr. Tomas Frias 14 Feb. 1874 Corral's insurrection suppressed Sept. " Gen. Hilarion Daza, president 4 May, 1876 Bolivia joins Chili in war against Peru (Chili) Apr. 1879 Revolution; Daza deposed; flees; Campero president. .1 June, 1880 Peace with Chili finally arranged; loses all of her coast terri- tory Dec. 1883 Bollandi§t§. Acta Sanctorum. BolOg^na, central Italy, the ancient Felsina, after- wards Bononia; distinguished for its architecture; made a Roman colony, 189 b.c. University said to have been founded by Theodosius about 433; really in 1116 Bologna joins the Lombard league 1167 Pope Julius II. takes Bologna; enters in triumph 11 Nov. 1506 Added to the states of the church 1513 In the church of St. Petronius, remarkable for its pavement, Cassini draws his meridian line (over one drawn by father Ignatius Dante, 1575) 1653 Taken by French, 1796; by Austrians, 1799; by French, after battle of Marengo, 1800; restored to the pope 1815 Revolt suppressed by Austrian interference 1831 Rebellion, 1848; taken by Austrians 16 May, 1849 Austrians evacuate; cardinal Ferretti departs; citizens rise and form a provisional government 12 June, 1859 It decrees that all public acts shall be headed " Under the reign of king Victor Emmanuel," etc 1 Oct. " He enters Bologna as sovereign 2 May, 1860 bolometer (Gr. l36\og, a throw or cast), an electrical instrument invented by prof. S. P. Langley, who also terms it an " actinic balance." By means of it he made discoveries in the ultra red rays of the spectrum. It is much more sensitive to radiant heat than the thermopile. Bomariuncl, a strong fortress on one of the Aland isles in the Baltic sea, taken by sir Charles Napier, with his Baltic expedition, and a French contingent under gen. Bara- guaj'^ d'Hilliers, 15 Aug. 1854. Gov. Bodisco and the garrison, about 2000 men, prisoners ; the fortifications destroyed. Bombay, the most westerly and smallest of the Indian presidencies, was visited by the Portuguese, 1509, acquired by them, 1530 ; given (with Tangier in Africa, and 300,000/. in money) to Charles II. as the marriage portion of the infanta Catherine of Portugal, 1662. In 1668 it was granted to the East India Company, " in free and common socage," as of the manor of East (ireenwich, at an annual rent of 10/. Confirmed by William III., 1689. The 2 principal castes at Bombay are Parsees (descendants of ancient Persian fire-worshippers) and Borahs (sprung from early converts to Islamism) ; both re- markable for commercial' activity. Pop. 1891, 26,960,421 ; area, 188,195 sq. miles. First British factory established at Ahmednuggur 1612 Mr. (Jyfford, deputy-governor, 100 soldiers, and other English die under the climate Oct. 1675-Feb. 1676 Capt. Keigwin usurps the government 1681-84 Bombay made chief of company's settlements 1687 The island, except the fort, seized and held for a time by the mogul's admiral 1690 Bombay a distinct presidency 1708 Additions to the Bombay territory: Bancot river, 1756; island of Salsette ; . . 1775 Bishopric established 1837 Lord Elphinstone governor 1853 Pop. of the presidency, 12,0:U.483 1858 Benevolent s r Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, a Parsee (who erected hospitals, etc.) dies 15 Apr. 1859 His son sir Cursetjee visits England 1860 Sir G. R. Clerk, governor " Rioting against the income tax suppressed Nov. and Dec. " Sir Henry Bartle Frere governor Mch. 1862 Great speculation in the cotton trade Nov. 1864 Failure of Byramjee Cama, a Parsee, for 3,300,000Z. ; and others; great depression ; project of international exhibition in 1867 abandoned May, 1865 Recovering from commercial crisis Aug. " W. R. Seymour Fitzgerald appointed governor, Nov. 1866 ; ar- rives 28 Feb. 1867 Holds a durbar of native princes at Poena 6 Oct. 1868 Reception of the duke of Edinburgh 11 Mch. 1870 Sir Philip Wodehouse governor Apr. 1872 Riots: Mahometans attack Parsees for publishing part of Washington Irving's " Life of Mahomet;" several lives lost and property destroyed 13-15 Feb. 1874 Culprits punished by British " Prince of Wales welcomed, 8 Nov. 1875; sails homeward, 13 Mch. 1876 Loyal Mahometans petition queen Victoria in favor of the s'ultan 24 Sept. " Famine relieved by government and private subscriptions: 1877 Statue of prince of Wales (given by sir Albert Sassoon) uncov- ered 26 or 27 June, 1879 Sir James Fergusson nominated governor Feb. 1880 A patriotic fund for sufferers by Afghan war subscribed by na- tives and others Aug. " Lord Reay appointed governor Dec. 1884 Native troops sail for the Soudan 23 Feb. 1885 New Bombay water- works opened 31 Mch. 1892 bombs (iron shells filled with gunpowder), said to have been invented at Venlo in 1495. and used by the Turks at the siege of Rhodes in 1522, came into general use, 1634 (previously used only by the Dutch and Spaniards). Bomb- vessels were invented in France in 1681. — Voltaire. The shrapnel shell (invented by col. Henry Shrapnel, d. 1842) a bomb filled with balls, exploded by a fuse in its flight. Bonaparte family. The name appears at Flor- ence and Genoa in the 13th century; in the 15th a branch settled in Corsica. Carlo Maria Bonaparte, b. 29 Mch. 1746; d. 24 Feb. 1785; married, 1767, Letitia Ramolina (b. 24 Aug. 1760; d. Feb. 1836); issue, 1. Joseph, b. 7 Jan. 1768; king of Two Sicilies, 1805; of Naples alone, 1806; of Spain. 1808; in United States, 1815: comes to Eng- land, 1832; settles in Italy, 1841; dies at Florence, 28 July, 1844. 2. Napoleon I., emperor, b. 15 Aug. 1769; d. 5 May, 1821. France. 3. Lucien, prince of Cauino, born 1775; at first aided his brother's ambition, but later opposed it. He was taken by the English on his way to America, aud resided in England till 1814. He died at Viterbo, 30 June, 1840. His son Charles (b 1803, d. 1857) was an eminent naturalist, and ranks with Audubon and Wilson in ornithology. He resided for some years in the United States, re- turning to France, 1828. Another son of Lucien was prince Pierre, (b. 1815. In 1870 he shot Victor Noir, and though acquitted, was obliged for a time to leave France, owing to the strong feeling against him; d. 1881). 4. Marie Anne Elisa, b. 3 Jan. 1777, married Felix Bacciochi, 1797; after the fall of Napoleon she lived at Santo Andrea, near Trieste, where she died, 1820. 5. Louis, b. 2 Sept. 1778; king of Holland, 1806; d. 15 July, 1846. Married in 1802 Hortense Beauharuais (daughter of empress Jo- sephine) ; had 3 sons : 1 Najwleon Louis (b. 1803, d. 1807) ; 2. Louis Napoleon (b. 1804, d. 1831) ; and 3. Charles Louis Napoleon, b. 20 Apr. 1808 ; educated under his mother at Arenberg, Switzerland, and at Thun, under gen. Dufour. Shared in Carbonari insurrection in Papal states. ..Mch. 1831 Attempted a revolt at Strasburg 30 Oct. 1836 Sent to America 13 Nov. " BON 111 BOO Jlepairs to London 14 Oct. 1838 Lands at Boulogne with 50 followers 6 Aug. 1840 Condemned to imprisonment for life 6 Oct. " Escapes from Ham 25 May, 1846 Arrives at Boulogne 2 Mch. 1848 Elected deputy, 8 June, and takes his seat, 27 Aug. " (France, 1848-71) ; d. at Chislehurst 9 Jan. 1873 Son : Napoleon Eugene Louis Jean Joseph, b. 16 Mch. 1856; educated at Military academy, Woolwich; killed in Zululand 1 June, 1879 «. Marie Pauline, b. 1780; married gen. Leclerc and went to San Do- mingo, 1801, but returned to France on his death in 1802. On 28 Aug. 1803, she married Camillo, prince Borghese. As Napoleon's fa- vorite sister, she wished to share hise.xile at St. Helena. She lived estranged from her husband nearly until her death, 9 June, 1825. She was extremely beautiful and her statue as Venus Victrix, by Canova, is well known. 7. Marie Annonciade Caroline, b. 1782; married to Murat, 1800; queen of Naples, 1808. She afterwards resided at Trieste with her sister Elisa. In 1838 pensioned by the French government; d. 18 May, 1839. .S. Jerome, b. 15 Nov. 1784; d. 24 June, 1860; king of Westphalia, 1 Dec. 1807-14, married : L Elizabeth Patterson, in America, 24 Dec. 1803 (she died, aged 94, 4 Apr. 1879; sou Jerome, born at Camberwell, London, 7 July, 1805; married Miss Williams, Rox- bury, Mass.; d. 1870; his children — .lerome, b. 1832, graduate of West Point, serves U. S. army, 1854; goes to France, serves through Crimean war, Algiers, etc. Charles Joseph, b. 9 June, 1851; graduate Harvard University, 1871; lawyer at Baltimore). IL Princess Catherine of Wurtemberer. 12 Aug. 1807. Governor -of the invalides, 184S; and marshal, 1850; issue— Mathilde, b. 27 May, 1820; married to prince A.Demidoffin 1841. Napoleon, Joseph Chaiies Paul Jerome, b. 9 Sept. 1822; d. 17 Mch. 1891 (nicknamed •' Plon-Plon," from his own habitual exclama tion in the Crimean war — " Du Plomb ! du Plomb !" — at every sound like the whizzing of a bullet; others say it was a name he gave himself when young); married princess Clothilde of Savoy, daughter of Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia, 30 Jan. 1859; issue: Victor, b. 18 July, 1862; Louis, b. 1^ July, 1864; Marie, b. 20 Dec. 1866; after the death of the Prince Im- perial, 1879, prince Victor separates from his father, and is accepted as chief of the Bonapartists; his father publishes painful correspondence. June, 1884 ; expelled from France, June, 1886; disinherited, Mch. 1891; accepted as head of the family, 31 Mch. 1891. bondage. Villanage. l>ones. The art of softening bones was discovered about 1688, and they are made into handles for cutlery, etc. Bone- dust has been used as a fertilizer since Liebig's researches in 1810. boneietting' cannot be said to have been practised scientifically until 1620.— Bell. Boniface, the nanae of 9 popes ; first, 418^22, ninth, 1390-1404. PoPKS. Bonn, a town on the Rhine (the Roman Bonna), in the ■electorate of Cologne ; often besieged ; assigned to Prussia, 1814. The academy founded by the elector in 1777 ; made a university, 1784; abolished by Napoleon; re-established and enlarged, 1818. bOOR§ (Anglo-Saxon, boc ; Ger. Buck), were originally ■made of boards, or the inner bark of trees ; afterwards of skins and parchment. Papyrus, an indigenous plant, was adopted in Egypt long before Herodotus. Books (i. e., rolls or volumes), with leaves of vellum were invented by Attains, king of Per- gamus, about 198 b.c. The MSS. in Herculaneum are papyrus Tolls, charred and matted together by fire, about 9 in. long, and 1, 2, or 3 in. in diameter, each a separate treatise. The most Ancient books are the Pentateuch of Moses and the poems of Homer and Hesiod. Wax tablets continued in use in Europe during the middle ages ; the oldest specimen, now in the mu- seum at Florence, is of 1301 a.d. The first printed books were not from movable types, but from solid carved wooden blocks, •and consisted of a few leaves only, bearing images of saints or historical pictures with a few explanatory lines. The block was wetted with a thin ink, and the paper then laid on and rubbed with a smooth burnisher till an impression was made. The sheet could be printed only on one side. These are known AS "Image" or "Block" books, and form a distinct group in the history of the invention of printing. The best known of the earlier block-books are, "Ars Moriendi " Biblia Pau- PEKUM, "Apocalypse," and the "Canticum Canticorum ;" the first and third (ierman, the second and fourth Dutch. The lat- est block-book of any size, the " Figure del Testaraento Vec- «hio," was printed at Venice, 1510. But the " Speculum Hu- manae Salvationis " is the most perfect in design and execution. It was translated into German, Flemish, and other languages, ;and often reprinted, 1440-50, The "Letters of Indulgence" of pope Nicholas V., printed 1454, fix tlie earliest period of the im- pression of metal types with a date subjoined. — Dibdin. Prob- ably the first book printed from movable types was the undated edilioprinceps of the Bible (called the " Mazarin Bible," from a copy found in the cardinal's library). It is usually ascribed to a date between 1450 and 1455. It is in 2 volumes of 324 and 317 pages, each page double columns, 42 lines to column, char- acters Gothic, large and handsome, resembling manuscript. No fewer than 20 copies are known. Before the discovery of this Bible, the Bamberg Bible of Pfister, 36 lines to the page, gen- erally passed for the first. The first printed book with date is the " Psalter" of Faust and Schoffer, printed at Mentz, 1457. Titles of chapters were first used in the " Epistles of Cicero," 1470. The Gothic characters, which were at first uniformly used, were supplanted in 1467 by the Roman type, which was first used in England by Richard Pynson, 1509. Hallam asserts that the price of books was reduced four-fifths by the invention of printing. Jerome (who d. 420) says that he ruined himself by buying the works of Origen. From a letter of Andreas, bishop of Aleria, to the pope, it would seem that 100 golden crowns was the maximum demanded for a valuable MS., and the first printed books were sold for about 4 golden crowns a volume. Much of the value of editions of the 15th century arises from the limited number of impressions. They were seldom more than 300. At the sale ofthe McCarthy library, the "Psalter "of Faust and Schoffer, on vellum, was bought by Louis XVIII. for 12,000 francs. The Naples edition of "Horace," of 1474, is called by Dibdin the " rarest classical volume in the world," and it was chiefly to possess this book that earl Spencer bought the famous library of the duke of Cassano. At the sale of the duke of Roxburghe's library, 17 June, 1812, a copy ofthe first edition of Boccaccio's Decamerone (that of Valdarfer, 1471) fell to the duke of Marlborough, after a spirited competition with earl Spencer, for 2260/. (about fl 1,300). At the sale of the Perkins library, 6 June, 1873, a copy of the Mazarin Hible (see above) on vellum sold for 3400/. ; one on paper sold for 2690/. A copy belonging to sir John Thorold, of Syston-park, sold for 3900/., 13 Dec. 1884 ; a copy belonging to the earl of Crawford, sold for 2650/., 15 June, 1887; lord Hopetoun's copy sold for 2000/., 25 Feb. 1889 ; sir John Thorold's copy of the " Book of Psalms" (by Faust and Schoffer, 1457), on vellum, sold for 4950/., 19 Dec. 1884 (formerly sold for 136/.). At the duke of Marlborough's sale, 1881, a Bible of 1462 sold for 1600/. TITLES OF THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE Vi'ORDE. The Game and Plate of the Chesse. Translated out ofthe Frenche and emprynted by me William Caxton. Fynysshid the last day of Marche the yer of our Lord God a thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij. (Probably printed at Cologne.) [A fac-simile was printed by Vincent Figgins in 1859.] The Dictes and Wise Sayings of the Philosophers is said to be the first book printed by Caxton in England, 1477. (Fac-simile published by Elliot Stock, 1877.) The Boke of Tulle of Olde Age Emprynted by me simple per- sone William Caxton into Englysshe as the playsir solace and reverence of men grouing in to old age the xij day of August the yere of our Lord M. cccc. Ixxxj. — Herbert. The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges and Dedes of many Tymes in eyght Bokes. Imprinted by William Caxton after having someivhat chaunged the rude and olde Englysshe, that is to wete [to wit] certayn Words which in these Dayes be neither vsyd ne understanden. Ended the second day of Jvyll at Westmestre the xxij yere of the Regne of Kynge Edward the fourth, and of the Incarnacion of owe Lord a Thousand four hondi-ed four Score and Tweyne [US2].—Dibdin's " Typ. Ant." The Cronicles of Englond Empnted by me Wyllyam Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre by london the v day ofJuyn the yere of thincama- cion of our lord god m. cccc. lxxx. Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth daye of Apryll the tenth yere of the reyne ofkinge Harry the seuenthAnd ofthe Jncarnacyon of our lord MCCCCLXxxxv. Emprynted by Wynkyn The worde at The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance of the reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior ofthe hous of St. Ann, the order of the charterouse Accomplysshe[d] they fynysshe[d] att Westmynster the uiii day of Janeuer and ere of our lord Thousande cccc. Lxxxxvir. And in the xii yere of kynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de worde. — Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. The Descripcyon of Englonde Walys Scotland and Irlond speaking of the Noblesse and Worthynesse of the same Fynysshed and em- prynted in Flete strete m the syne ofthe Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde the yere of our lord a m ccccc and ij. mensis Mayiis [mense Mali].— Dtftdin's "Typ. Ant." The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and holidais taken out ofUie golden legend enprynted at london in Flete- strete at y sygne of y Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the yere of our Lord m. ccccc. viii. And ended the xidaye of M aye.— Ames. BOO Thk u)ri>*8 prayer, f As printed by Caxton in 1483.] Father our that art in heav^ts, hallowfd be thy name: thy hingdome come to us ; thy will t>e done in earth as is in heavei\ : our everp day bread give us to day ; ami forgive us oure trespasses, as we Jorgive them that trespass against us; and lead us not in to temptation, but deliver iisfrom all evil sin, amen. — Lewises " Lifo of Caxton." A Placard. [As printed by William Caxton.] If it plese ony man spirituel or temperel to bye ony pies of two or three comemoracitis of Salisburi use enprynted after tt£ forme of this preset lettre whiche ben wel and truly correct, latt him come to westmonesler in to the almonestye at the rted pale [red pale] and he shail have them good there. — Dibilin^s "Typ. Ant." First book (Almanac) printed in the U. S. at Cambridge, Mass. 1639 Bay State Psalm book, Cambridge, Mass 1G40 First books printed in the U. S. {Stephen Daye, publisher). . 1639-49 '* " " " " " (Samuel Green, publisher).. 1649-92 [Thomas's ''History of Printing in America," pub. 1810.] Blumenbach's "Physiology by Eliotson," the first book printed by machinery, 1817. The machine employed was Konig's, one which printed both sides in one operation at the rate of 900 sheets an hour. BiBuooRAPHT, Libraries, LaxKRATfRK, XfA-NrscRiPTS, Printing, etc. Book-collect or§. Libraries. " Book of the Dead." A collection of prayers and exorcisms written in Egj'ptian hieroglyphic or hieratic characters, composed for the benefit of the pilgrim soul in his journey through Amenti (the Egyptian Hades). Portions of these papyri were placed with the mummy in his tomb. They are said to form fully one half of the thousands which are ex- tant. The " Book of the Dead " is dated from the 4th dynasty, 8733-3566 b.c. Aft«r much toil a pure text with illustrations was published by M. Edouard Naville, 1886. Translations in several European langtiages have appeared. A fac-simile of the papyrus of Ani in the British museum was printed in 1890. book-keeping. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book-keeping, was first taught in the course of algebra published by Luca di Borgo, in 1495, at yenice. John Growgne, a printer, published a treatise " on the kepyng of the famouse reconynge . . . Debitor and Creditor," I^ndon, 1543. This is the earliest English work on book-keeping. James Peele published his "Book-keeping" in 1569. John Mellis published "A Briefe Instruction and Manner how to Keepe Bookes of Accompts," in 1588. Improved systems were pub- lished by Benjamin Booth in 1789 and by Edward Thomas Jones in 1821 and 1831. book-plate, an engraving as a mark of ownership, often elaborate. The earliest book-plates are probably Ger- man, of the beginning of the 16th century. Many were fine examples of wood-engraving. Albert Dlirer designed book- plates, some earlier than 1524. It is said that one of the earliest English book-plates is that of cardinal Wolsey, about 1525. They have multiplied in later years, and often exhibit quaint and beautiful designs. bOOk8eller§. "The trade in bookselling seems," says Hallam, "to have been established at Paris and Bologna in the 12th century ; it is very improbable that it existed in what is known as the Dark Ages. Peter of Blois mentions a book which he bought of a public dealer. These dealers were denominated stadonarii, perhaps from their practice of having booths or stalls at the corners of streets and in markets." The modern system of bookselling arose soon after the introduction of printing. The earliest printers were also editors and book- sellers. Schoffer, about 1469, printed a catalogue of books for sale by himself or agents. It was printed on one side of a sheet, and was meant to be posted as an advertisement in towns visited ; the name of the place where the books could be obtained being written at the bottom ; there were 21 books thus advertised." — DuJ^, "Early Printed Books." Antony Koburger, who introduced printing into Nuremberg in 1470, was more a bookseller than a printer, for besides his own 16 shops, we are informed by his biographers, he had agents for the sale of his books in every city in Christendom. Wynkyn de Worde, who succeeded the Caxton press in Westminster, had a shop in Fleet street, London. Ix>ndon Company of Stationers incorporated 1556 Earliest bookseller's catalogue is said to be that published by Andrew Maunsell, of Lothbury, dedicated to queen Elizabeth, 1595 "A catalogue of the most vendible books in England" was publ. 1658 The chief publishers in London formed an association and fixed the discount, 29 Dec. 1829, and for some years restricted retail booksellers from selling below the publishing price. A dispute arose as to the right of the retailers to sell purchased stock at 112 BOO such less profit as might satisfy them, which was referred to lord chief justice Campbell, at Stratheden house, 14 Apr. 18>Vi. He dc cided against the association, which disbanded, 19 May following. Booiieville, Mo., Battle of, 17 June, 1861. Gov. Jackson of Missouri, a confederate sympathizer, had abandoned Jefferson City, which was immediately occupied by gen. Lyon. Before the confederate forces could concentrate about Booiie- ville, 50 miles above Jefferson City, Lyon moved upon Booiie- ville, and with 2000 men defeated Marmaduke, who offered little resistance, in 20 minutes. This compelled the confeder- ate detachments to move to the southern border of the state. Boothia Felix, a large peninsula, northwest point of America, discovered by sir John Ross in 1830, named after sir Felix Booth, who had given 20,000/. to fit out his polar expedition. Sir Felix died at Brighton, Feb. 1850. Booth's conspiracy. On the morning of 16 Apr. 1865, the whole northern United States was appalled by the intelligence of the assassination of president Lincoln the pre- vious evening (14 Apr.) at Ford's theatre, Washington, by- John Wilkes BootJi ; and at the same time a murderous attack. was made upon Mr. Seward by another assassin, the secretary then lying almost helpless from injuries received by the up- setting of his carriage a few days previous. It soon became- evident that the head of the conspiracy to assassinate the pres- ident, vice-president, gen. Grant, and the secretary of state,, was John Wilkes Booth, aided and abetted by George A. Atze- rodt, chosen to assassinate vice-pres. Johnson; Lewis Payne- (Powell), chosen to assassinate Mr. Seward; Michael O'Laugh- lin, chosen to assassinate gen. Grant; David E. Herold, John H. Surratt, his mother, Mary E. Surratt, Edward Span^der,, Samuel Arnold, and Dr. Samuel A. Mudd. The following is a. summary of the events connected with this tragedy : President Lincoln's messenger engages a private box for the evening for the president, his wife, and gen. and Mrs. Grant, to witness the play of ''Our American Cousin," at Ford's theatre morning, 14 Apr. 1865. Atzerodt engages a room at the Kirkwood House, where vice- president Johnson lodges, paying in advance for one day, morning, 14 Apr. " [Gen. Grant being called to Philadelphia on business by telegram, president Lincoln takes maj. Rathbone and Miss Harris into the presidential party in place of gen. and Mrs. Grant, and they arrive at the theatre about 9 p.m.] Booth enters the president's box unnoticed shortly after 10 o'clock, and immediately shoots the president, the ball pen- etrating his skull on the back of the left side of his head and lodging behind the right eye. Maj. Rathbone. who oc- cupied the box with the president, attempting to seize Booth, is severely wounded with a dagger. Booth then leajis from the box to the stage; in so doing his spur catches in the drapery (folds of the American flag), causing him to miss his footing and stumble, fracturing his left leg; cro.ssing the stage brandishing his dagger, and crying "Sic semper tyran- nis," he escapes on a horse in waiting in an alley in the rear of the theatre, his exit made easy by Spangler. President Lincoln, unconscious from the moment of shooting, dies at about half past 7 a.m 15 Apr. "' The attempt upon the life of Mr. Seward is made about the same time by Lewis Payne (Powell), who enters the sec- retary's house in the guise of a messenger with a parcel from his physician, Dr. Verdi, and demands a personal inter- view. Payne succeeds in passing the porter and ascends the stairs, where he is met by the secretary's son Frederick, who refuses his demand. The assassin strikes him down with his pistol, fracturing his skull. He then rushes into the room where the secretary lies. Serg. George F. Robinson meets him at the door; Payne attacks him with his knife, and, rushing to the bed, attempts to stab the secretary, but only succeeds in inflicting several serious cuts about the face and neck, when he is seized by serg. Robinson and maj. Augustus Seward, who enters from an adjoining room. After a severe struggle Payne escapes to the street, wounding E. W. Hansel, a nurse, on the stairs, as he passes out. A horse is in waiting at the door, on which the assassin escapes. Booth and Herold arrive at Surrattsville, stopping at Lloyd's tavern, about midnight 14 Apr. '*' Booth and Herold reach the home of Dr. Samuel Mudd, near Bryantown, Md., about 30 miles from Washington, about 4 A.M. Here Booth has his broken leg roughly bandaged, and remains until about 3 p.m 15 Apr. " Samuel Arnold arrested at fortress Monroe 17 Apr. "■ Michael O'Laughlin arrested in Baltimore " " Payne, who has been in hiding on the outskirts of the city, returns to the house of Mrs. Surratt in the guise of a work- man seeking a job, and is arrested by government military police then in charge of the house midnight, 17 Ai)r. «» Funeral services of president Lincoln held at the executive mansion at noon 19 Apr. " Atzerodt arrested. in Montgomery county, Md. ..'...".*'. .20 Apr. "- [Dr. Mudd placed under arrest about the same time.] Booth and Herold are hidden in the pine woods near Port BOO 113 Tobacco by Thomas Jones, a contraband trader, for a week. They then cross the Potomac, go to Port Conway, cross the Rappahannock, and take shelter in a barn on the Garret farm, 3 miles from Port Royal, on the road to Bowling Green, 24 Apr. 1865 A cavalry squad detailed from the 16th New York regiment, commanded by lieut. Dougherty and accompanied by E. J. Conger and L. B. Baker, detectives, trace Booth to his hiding- place; Herold surrenders; the barn is fired, and Booth, re- fusing to surrender, is shot in the head by serg. Boston Cor- bett, about 2 a.m 26 Apr. " Booth dies from the effects of his wound about sunrise. .26 Apr. " Executive order for trial by military commission of the alleged assassins of president Lincoln, issued 1 May, " Military commission designated as follows: maj.-gen. David H. Hunter, president; maj.-gen. Lewis Wallace; brevet maj.- gen. August V. Kautz; brig. -gen. Albion P. Howe; brig. -gen. Roberts. Foster; brevet brig. -gen. James A. Elkin (appointed 10 May); brig.-gen. T. M. Harris; brevet col. C. H. Tompkins (appointed 10 May); lieut. -col. David R. Clendennin, 8th HI. cavalry ; brig.-gen. Joseph Holt, judge advocate 6 May, " ' Trial of conspirators begins 11 May, " Trial closes, and sentence pronounced by the commission and confirmed by president Johnson — Herold, Atzerodt, Payne, and Mary E. Surratt to be hanged; O'Laughlin, Arnold, and Mudd imprisoned for life; and Spangler for 6 years in mili- tary prison at Dry Tortugas 30 June, " Herold, Atzerodt, Payne, and Mrs. Surratt hung under direction of gen. Hancock in the yard of the old Capitol 7 July, " John H. Surratt seen in Washington, 14 Apr. 1865; next heard of at Burlington, Vt., and Montreal, Can., 18 Apr. ; sails on the Peruvian for Liverpool, 16 Sept. ; enlists in the army of the pope in Italy, Apr. 1866; is arrested, but escapes to Alex- andria, Egypt, where he is apprehended, and brought to the U. S. on the U. S. man-of-war Swatara. His trial begins, 10 June, 1867 Hearing of evidence in the Surratt case begins, 17 June; con- cludes, 26 July; argument concluded, 7 Aug., and the jurj', failing to agree, are discharged 10 Aug. " Surratt released from custody 22 June, 1868 A second indictment is afterwards found against him, and, the district-attorney entering a nolle prosequi, the prisoner is set at large 22 Sept. " Dr. Mudd pardoned 11 Feb. 1869 Arnold and Spangler pardoned 1 Mch. " bOOt§, said to have been invented by Carians, were mentioned by Homer, 907 b.c., and often by Roman histo- rians. Many forms appear in Fairholt's " Costume in Eng- land." An instrument of torture formed " the boot " was used in Scotland upon the Covenanters about 1666. borax (boron), known to the ancients, used in solder- ing, brazing, and casting gold and other metals, was called chrysocolla. Borax is found in the mountains of Thibet, and was brought to Europe from India about 1713. Homberg, in 1702, discovered in borax boracic acid, which was decomposed, 1808, by Gay-Lussac, Thenard, and H. Davy into oxygen and the new element, boron. Borax has lately been found in Saxony. It is largely manufactured from boracic acid, found by Hoefer in gas from certain lagoons in Tuscany, which have enriched their owner, M. Lardarel, since 1818. Its pro- duction on the Pacific coast of the United States is confined to California and Nevada. The purest crystallized borax is found in the lakes and springs of Lake county, Cal. 10,000,000 pounds were produced, 1887. Bordeaux, W. France, the Roman Burdigalla, in Aquitania, was taken by the Goths, 412; by Clovis, 508. It was acquired by Henry II. of England on his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, 1151. Edward the Black Prince brought John, king of France, captive hither after the battle of Poic- tiers, 19 Sept. 1356, and here held court 1 1 years ; his son, Richard II. of England, was born at Bordeaux, 1366. After several changes Bordeaux surrendered to Charles VII. of France, 14 Oct. 1453. An equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bordeaux was entered by the victorious British after the battle of Orthes, 27 Feb. 1814. 13 vessels were burned and others injured in the port by burning petro- leum, 28 Sept. 1869. The French delegate government re- moved here from Tours, 11 Dec. 1870. M. Gambetta remained for a time with the army of the Loire. The " pacte de Bor- deaux," among parties of the national assembly, made M. Thiers chief of the executive, 17 Feb. 1871. The" French As- sociation for the Advancement of Science held its first meet- ing here, 5 Sept. 1872 ; M. Quatrefages, president. Borgne lake, La., naval battle on. Here, 14 Dec. 1814, the British with about 60 barges and 1200 men under capt. Lockyer, defeated 5 American gunboats with 182 men un- der lieut. Thomas A. C. Jones. The British, losing about 300 men, gained control of the lake. BOS Borneo, in the Indian ocean, disputes with Nkw Guin- ea the title of the largest island in the world. It was dis- covered by the Portuguese about 1618. It extends more than 800 miles from north to south, is more than 600 miles wide, and contains about 289,000 sq. miles. Dutch trade here in 1604; establish factories, 1609; abandon them, 1623 ; re-establish them , 1775 Sarawak settled by sir James Brooke; appointed rajah 1841 Pirates of Borneo chastised by British, 1813; by capt. Keppel', By treaty with the sultan, negotiated by sir James Brooke the island of Labooan, or Labuan (northwest of Borneo), and its dependencies, ceded to Great Britain and formally occupied in presence of Bornean chiefs 2 Dec 184ft James Brooke, rajah of Sarawak (1846), governor' of Labuan and consul-general of Borneo, visits England Oct 1847 He destroys many Bornean pirates "' 1849^ Labuan made a bishopric; F. J. MacDougall consecrated' bishop at Calcutta, the first English bishop consecrated out of Eng- land. .... 18 Oct. 1855. Chmese m Sarawak rise and massacre Europeans; sir James Brooke escapes by swimming; returns with Malays, etc. and chastises the insurgents; 2000 are killed 17, ISFeb. 1857 He comes to England for help from government, without success 185» His health being broken, a subscription for him asked " Deputation of merchants proposes to the earl of Derby the purchase of Sarawak, which is declined 30 Nov. " Sir James Brooke returns to Borneo 20 Nov 1860 Returns to England; d ■.■.'.'n June" 1868 Rajah of Sarawak, with Malays and Dyaks, suppresses a ma- rauding decapitating tribe of Dyaks June, 1870 Freedom of trade in the archipelago agreed on by Great Brit- ain, Germany, and Spain, 1877, and further with Spain 1884 N. Borneo, with Sarawak and Brunei, constituted a British protectorate 1885- Governor appointed !..!!!.!..!.* 1892 Bornou, an extensive kingdom in central Africa, ex- plored by Denham and Clapperton (sent out by the British government) in 1822. Population estimated by Denham at 6,000,000, by Barth at 9,000,000 ; area, 62,000 sq. miles. Borodino, a Russian village on the river Moskwa,. near which one of the most sanguinary battles of history was fought, 7 Sept. 1812, between the French under Napoleon, and the Russians under Kutusoff, 240,000 men being en- gaged. Loss 80,000. Each party claimed the victory ; but the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which the French entered, 14 Sept. 1>Oroi1g°ll or burgll, anciently a company of ten families living together; now a town represented in Parlia- ment, since the election of burgesses in the reign of Henry III., 1265. Charters were granted to towns by Henry I., 1132 ; which were remodelled by Charles II. in 1682-84, but restored in 1688. 22 new English boroughs were created in 1553. Burgesses first admitted into Scottish Parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 ; into the Irish, 1366. Acts to amend the repre- sentation of the people in England and Wales passed 7 June,, 1832, and 15 Aug. 1867; and the act for the regulation of mu- nicipal corporations, 9 Sept. 1835. In the United States borough is a corporate town, not a city. — Worcester, Borougll-bridg^e, W. R. of York, Engl. Here Ed- ward II. defeated the earls of Hereford and Lancaster, 16 Mch, 1322. Lancaster was mounted on a lean horse, led to an em- inence near Pontefract, and beheaded. Bo§eobel, near Donington, Shropshire, Engl. Charles II. (after his defeat at Worcester, 3 Sept. 1651), tlisguised in the clothes of the Pendrills, remained from 4 to 6 Sept. at White Ladies ; on 7 and 8 Sept. he lay at Boscobel house, near an oak, said to be the scion of the royal oak in which the king was part of the time hidden with col. Careless. — Sharpe. The "Boscobel Tracts" were published in 1660. In 1861 Mr. F. Manning published " Views," illustrating them. W. H. Ains- worth's " Boscobel," an historical novel, publ. 1872. Bosnia, in European Turkey, formerly part of Panno- nia, was governed by chiefs till a brother-in-law of Louis, king of Hungary, was made king, 1376. He was defeated by the Turks in 1389, and became their vassal. Bosnia was in- corporated with Turkey in 1463. Many efforts have been made by the Bosnians to recover their independence. A re- bellion, begun in 1849, was quelled by Omar Pacha in 1851. The Bosnians joined the insurgents in Herzegovina, Sept. 1875 ; revolt was subdued, Aug. 1877. Pop., 1889, 1,504,091. About 100,000 Bosnian fugitives said to be in Austrian territo- ries..... July- 1878 BOS 114 BOS Proclamation of the emperor before entering Bosnia (in pur- suance of the Treaty of Berlin, 13 July) 27 July, 1878 Advance of Austrians", 'Id July, resisted by Bosnian bogs, aided by Turks. 4-C Aug. " Bosnians defeated Iwtween Zej)ce and Maglai 7, 8 Aug. " Austrians occupy Travnik, the old capital, 11 Aug. ; repulsed, 16 Aug. " Victories of rhilippovich at Han Belalovich, 16 Aug. ; of Teg- ethoff. 18 Aug. " Ser^evo, the capital, bombarded and taken by storm, 19 Aug. ; other successes 30 Aug., 5 Sept. " Fortress Trebinje voluntarily surrenders 7 Sept. " Behacs firmly resists, 10 Sept. ; taken 19 Sept. *' Seukovics, a fortress, with arms and ammunition, taken. •21 Sept. " Zwornik, a stronghold, surrenders. about 25 Sept. " I.ivno bombarded and taken 28 Sept. " Other places surrender about 12 Oct. " Resistance ended ; general amnesty issued about 9 Nov. " Austrian loss estimated 5000 killed, wounded, missing Nov. " •Country adopted gradual political reforms Jan. 1880 Bo§'porU8 (improperly Bosphorus), Thraciaii, now strait of Constantinople, connecting the Black sea with the sea of Marmora, is about 16 miles in length, and varies from 2 miles to 550 yards in width. Darius Hystaspes crossed it on 41 bridge of boats to invade Greece, 493 b.o. Bo§porus, now Circa§§ia, near the Bosporus Cim- anerius, now the strait of Kertch or Yenikale, connecting the Black sea with the sea of Azof or Azov. It was named Cim- merian, from the Cimmerii who dwelt on its borders about 750 B.C. It is spoken of by Herodotus, is conquered by the Scythians, 285 b-C, by Mithridates-VI. of Pontus, 80 b.c., and ■comes under Roman influence, 47 b.c. BOiton, the principal city of New England, and capital of Massachusetts, lies at the head of Massachusetts bay, on peninsula called "Shawmut" by the Indians, meaning "liv- ing fountains." It was first named Trimontaine by the Eng- lish, but soon afterwards Boston, in compliment to Mr. Isaac Johnson, from Boston, Engl., one of the principal promoters of the colonv. Pop. 1790, 18,038 ; 1800, 24,937 ; 1810, 33,250; 1820,43,298'; 1830,61,392; 1840,93,383; 1850,136,881; 1860, 177,840; 1870,250,526; 1880,362,839; 1890,448,477. By this census it stands the 6th city in the U. S. in point of popula- tion. Present area, 37 sq. miles. Lat. 42° 21' 28" N., Ion. 71° 04' W. First settlement at Boston dates from 17 Mch. 1630 First vessel. Blessing Vie Bay, launched 4 July, 1632 Hade the capital of the Massachusetts colony «' First meeting-house built in Boston on south side of State st., Aug. " Castle island fortified 1633 [These works subsequently rebuilt and named Castle William, in honor of William III. Site now occupied by fort Independence.] Boston Commons, 48 acres set apart for public use 1634 First Latin school established on part of the ground on School St., afterwards occupied by King's chapel 1635 First military company formed (now known as the "Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Boston ") 1638 Vost-oflice established at the house of Richard Fairbanks for "all letters which are brought from beyond the seas or are to be sent thither " 1639 First printing-press at Cambridge, Stephen Daye, printer " First printing done in the colonies, "Freeman's Oath " and an almanac for New England (liooKS, Massachusetts, Pkinting), " Ship Trial built; makes a voyage to Spain 1644 First mint established, "pine-tree shilling " coined (Coinage), 1651 Water company incorporated 1652 First town-house erected; built on pillars, the space under- neath used as a market 1658 'General court grants Boston 1000 acres for the support of free schools 1660 First local Baptist church organized 1662 Old South church, foundation laid 12 May, 1669 [This stood until 1729, when the present brick one was erected on the same site.] Oldest man in New England, Boniface Burton, dies at Boston, aged 113 years " Colonial court establish a post-office in Boston, appointing John Hey ward postmaster 1676 Florida. It is called, indifferently, boxwood or dogwood. The \> ood is largely used by engravers and by mathematical-instrument makers. boycotting, Ireland, 1880. A fund to assist capt. Boycott in his trouble was subscribed in 1880-81. Trades unions and Knights of I^bor in the U. S. adopted boy- cotting to enforce demands and punish opponents about 1885 Mrs. Gray and Mrs. I-andgrafl", two bakers in New York, were boycotted Apr. and May, 1886 [Citizens assisted Mrs. I-andgraff by large orders for bread for charity hospitals.] Paul Wilzig convicted in Xew York of conspiracy, for boycot- ting George Theiss, and extorting $1000 from him . . 26 June, <•* George Ehret, a brewer of New York, boycotted for testimony against conspirators June, " [Boycott ineffective, public sentiment resisting it.] Boydell'§ lottery for the Shakespeare gallery of paintings (1786) of alderman Boydell, lord maj'or of London. Every ticket was sold, when the alderman died, 12 Dec. 1804, before the drawing. Boyle lectures, instituted by will (18 July, 1691), by Robert Boyle (son of Richard Boyle, earl of Cork), a distin- guished natural philosopher, who died 30 Dec. 1691, leaving 50/. a year for lectures to be delivered in London in vindica- tion of the Christian religion ; eight lectures to be delivered by each incumbent. The ofBce of lecturer tenable for 3 y^ars. Boyne, a river in Ireland, near which William III. de- feated his father-ill-law, James II., 1 July, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of 30,000) men; the Protestant army lost about a third of that number (out of 36,000). James fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The duke of Schomberg was killed by mistake by hi^ own soldiers in cross- ing the river ; here also was killed the rev. George Walker, who defended Londonderry in 1689. Near Drogheda is a splendid obelisk, 150 feet in height, erected in 1736 by Prot- estants to commemorate this victory. Boyton's s\iriinining apparatus. Life- boat. Brabant, part of Holland and Belgium, an ancient duchy in Charlemagne's empire, fell to his son Charles, 806. It became a separate duchy (called at first Lower Lorraine) in 959. It descended to Philip II. of Burgundy, 1429, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the 17th cen- tury it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant and the Walloon provinces, and underwent many changes through the wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French in 1746 and 1794. It was united to the Nether- lands in 1814, but South Brabant was given to Belgium, 1830. The heir of the throne of Belgium is styled duke of Brabant. Belgium. bracelets were worn by the ancients, and armillie were Roman military rewards. Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies. Bradlaugph case. Parliament, 1880-81. Braganza, a city in Portugal, gave title to Alfonso, natural son of John I. of Portugal (in 1422), founder of the house of Braganza. When the nation, in a bloodless revolu- tion in 1640, threw off the Spanish yoke, John, duke of Bra- ganza, was called to the throne as John IV., and his descend- ants now reign over Portugal and until 1889 in Braziu Bragrs's Kentucky campaig^n. Early in the summer of 1862, the confederatep^ auer their evacuation of Corinth, Miss., 29 May, concentrated about Chattanooga, Tenn., where by August they had between 55,000 and 65,000 men under gen. Braxton Bragg with 3 corps commanders — Hardee, Polk, and Kirby Smith. Deciding to invade Ken- tucky, Bragg crossed the Tennessee at Harrison, above Chat- tanooga, 24 Aug., while Kirby Smith advanced from Knox- ville more directly across the Cumberland mountains, through, Big Creek gap. The Union forces, about 40,000, under maj.- gen. Don Carlos Buell, then stretched from Bridgeport, Ala., to Nashville, Tenn. Concentrating around Nashville, Buell prepared to guard that point or advance into Kentucky. Over difficult mountain-roads Bragg's army entered Kentuck}', 5 Sept. Gen. Buell, leaving Nashville strongly garrisoned, 15 Sept., marched towards Louisville, distant 170 miles. Mean- while Kirby Smith, with his corps, having defeated the LTnion troops at Richmond, Ky., 30 Aug., seized Frankfort, the capi- tal, apparently holding both Cincinnati and Louisville at his- raercy, while Bragg compelled J. T. Wilder to surrender Mun- fordville, Ky., a fortified post, with its garrison of 4000 men, 17 Sept. Elated with these successes, on the next day the confederate commander issued a proclamation, calling the peo- ple of Kentucky to his assistance, and declining a battle with Buell, united his forces with Kirby Smith's at Frankfort, 1 Oct. Here on the 4th tliey inaugurated Richard Hawes pro- visional governor of Kentuck\'. By 29 Sept. the Union army reached Louisville. Whence, reinforced by 20,000, mainly new troops, Buell moved his army (now formed into 3 corps under McCook, Gilbert, and Crittenden), 1 Oct., against Bragg, who slowly retreated, covering his immense trains. Nearing Perryville on the afternoon of 7 Oct., Crittenden's corps from scarcity of water was obliged to move some 5 or 6 miles from his intended camp. Bragg, made aware of this separation of the federal troop, now prepared to strike a blow that would, he hoped, defeat, or at least retard, his adversary's advance suffi- ciently for him to withdraw his trains in safety. On the morn- ing of the 8th there were sharp minor engagements near Perry- ville, and about 2 p.m. the confederates successfully attacked, the left flank of McCook's corps, and for a while seriously threatened the whole left wing, but before night were repulsed. at all points. The engagement, though not general, was se- vere, the federals losing 4348, 916 being killed (among them gens. Jackson and Terrell), 2943 wounded, and 489 missing; and the confederates 510 killed, 2635 wounded, and 251 miss- ing. Next morning (9 Oct.) Buell, having concentrated his forces, expected to renew the battle, but the confederates had retired during the night, leaving 1200 wounded and sick be- hind. They retreated by Crab Orchard, Mount Vernon, and London to Cumberland gap, and so into E. Tennessee with their immense trains of plunder, the pursuit by the federals stopping at London, 22 Oct. The federal government, dissat- isfied with the campaign, superseded Buell, 30 Oct., by maj.- gen. William S. Rosecrans. Murfreesborough, Battle of. Brabma, the first person of the Hindu triad. Brahma (neuter) is not a personality, but designates the universal spir- it, the reality and cause of all existence — the creator — andi Brahma (masculine) the personality and supreme being of that creation. Brahma was never worshipped by the people, and. only one temple sacred to him is known. He is represented with 4 heads and 4 arms, seated. Brahmins. Brahmins, Hindu priests, the highest of the 4 castes. It is said that Pythagoras learned from them his doctrine of metempsychosis, and that some Greek philosophers went to India to converse with them. The Brahmins derive their name from Brahma, one of the 3 beings (the others being Vishnu and Siva) whom God, according to their theology,, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. — Vedas. Brahmo iSomaJ. The new theistic church in India owes its origin to Raja Ram Mohan Rai, born 1772. In 1816 he founded a society, and in 1830 the present Brahmo Somaj. Their principles resemble those of Christianity. (1) They be- lieve in one God with attributes of personality, etc. ; (2) in the immortality of the soul ; (3) in repentance as the only way to salvation; (4) in prayer; (5) in good works as worship; (6) in the providential care of God over his creatures; (7) they reject distinctions of caste. This new society or church grows- rapidly in India, especial.y in Bengal, aided by English edu- cation and the labors of Christian missionaries. Deism. Bramba'nan, a village in Java, notable for exten- sive and remarkable ruins of Hindu temples, ascribed by tradi- BRA 119 BRA tion to 1266 and 1296 a.d. But their chronology and history- are very obscure, and probably some of them are much older. Bramliam, W. K., York, Engl. Near here the earl of Northumberland and lord Bardolf were defeated and slain by sir Thomas Rokeby, general of Henry IV., 19 Feb. 1408 ; and Fairfax was defeated by royalists under the earl of Newcastle, 29 Mch. 1643. Brandenburg^, a city in Prussia, founded by Slavo- nians, who named it Banher (variously explained as mean- ing Guard of the Forest ; burg, or city, of the Brenns). Henry I., the Fowler, after defeating the Slavonians, fortified " Bran- nibor," 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and bestowed it on Sigefroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of margrave, or protector of the marches or frontiers. The emperor Sig- ismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nu- remberg, of the house of Hohenzollern, ancestor of the royal family of Prussia, made elector in 1417. For a list of the margraves since 1134, Prussia. brandy (Ger. Branntwein, burned wine), spirit distilled from wine. Alcohol appears to have been known to Raymond Lully in the 13th century, and to have been manufactured in France early in the 14th. It was at first used medicinally, and miraculous cures were ascribed to its influence. The per cent, of alcohol in brandy is 58.4. Manufacture of genuine French brandy almost ceased. Announced, 1885. Fruit bran- dy produced in the United States in 1880, 129,086 gals. ; in 1891, 1,223,725 gals. Brandy station, Va., affairs at. (l) A spirited reconnoissance made here, under direction of gen. Hooker, by gen. Pleasanton with gens. Buford's and Gregg's cavalry di- visions, 9 June, 1863, which, although forced in the end to re- treat with a loss of about 500 men, disclosed the fact that gen. Lee had concentrated his army for an advance north. (2) Gen. Buford with his division of cavalry met the confed- erate gen. Stuart, 1 Aug. 1863, compelling him to retreat until reinforced, when Buford fell back in turn. (3) Desultory fighting between the Union and confederate forces in this vicinity with cavalry and infantr}' from 10 to 16 Oct. 1863. Gen. Meade retired. Brandywine (corruption of Branntwein, Ger. for brandy), a small river emptying into the Delaware near Wil- mington, on the banks of which, near Chadd's ford, was fought a battle, 11 Sept. 1777, between 18,000 British, under gens. Howe, Cornwallis, and Knyphausen, and 11,000 Americans, under gen. Washington. It began about 3 p.m. and the Amer- icans were defeated, with a loss of about 1200 men, the British losing about 800. Here gen. Lafayette was wounded. Soon after the battle the British occupied Philadelphia. Penn- sylvania. bra§§, an alloy of copper and zinc. That mentioned in the Bible was most probably bronze. When Lucius Mummius burned Corinth, 146 b.c., he found immense riches, and, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, which, running together, formed the valuable composition Corinthian brass. But in fact Corinthian artists had long been known for combining gold and silver with copper. — Du Fresnoy. Some of the English sepulchral engraved brasses are said to be as old as 1277. Brass was manufactured in England during the reign of Henry VIII., and Parliament prohibited the export of it under severe pen- alties, repealed 1799. A white brass produced by P. M. Parsons, 1875. Brauronia, festivals in Attica, at Brauron, now Vra- ona, where Artemis had a temple ; they were attended by young virgins, dedicated to Diana, in yellow gowns, about 10 years of age, and not under 5 ; and therefore their consecration was called deKareveiv, from Ssku, 10 ; 600 b.c. Bray, Berks. Fuller says that its vicar, Symon Sy- monds, was twice a papist and twice a Protestant — in the reigns of Henry VI IL, Edward VL, Mary, and Elizabeth (1533-58). When called a turn-coat, he declared his principle, that " of living and dying the vicar of Bray." The modern song called " The Vicar of Bray " refers to political changes of the 17th and 18th centuries. brazen bull, said to have been contrived by Perillus, at Athens, for Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, 570 b.c. An opening in the side admitted victims, and a fire underneath roasted them to death ; their groans resembled the roaring of a bull. Phalaris admired the invention, but ordered the artist to suffer first. The Agrigentes revolted against Phalaris, cut his tongue out, and roasted him in the brazen bull, 549 b.c. Brazil, a country in South America, extending between lat. 4° 30' N. to 33° 45' S., and long. 34== 45' to 72° 30' W., being about 2600 miles north and south, and nearly the same distance east and west, with a coast-line on the Atlantic of 3700 miles, was discovered by Vicente Yanez Pinzon in Feb. 1500. Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upon its coasts by a tempest, Apr. following, called it the land of the Holy Cross ; the name Brazil refers to its red wood. The French seized Portugal in 1807, the royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and landed 7 Mch. 1808. The dominant religion is Roman Catholic, but others are tolerated. New constitution ratified 25 Mch. 1824 ; modified 12 Aug. 1834, and 12 May, 1840 ; new constitution (republican) adopted, 22 June, 1890. Pop. about 14,000,000 ; area, 3,219,000 sq. miles. Portugau Brazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci about 1.504 Divided into caplainfiies by the king of Portugal 1530 Marline Aflfonso de cjouza discovers Rio, and founds the first European colony at San V'incente 1531 Jews banished from Portugal to Brazil I54g San Salvador (Bahia) founded by Thome' de Souza 1549 French Protestants occupy bay of Rio de Janeiro 1555-60 Sebastian founded 1567 Brazil, with Portugal, becomes subject to Spain 1580 James I^ancaster captures Pernambuco 1593 French establ ish a colony at Maranham .* 1594 Belem founded by Calderia 1615 French expelled " Dutch seize the coast, and hold Pernambuco 1630 Defeated at Guaranipes, 1646 ; give up Brazil 1661 Gold-mining commences 1693 Destruction of Palmares 1697, French assault and capture Rio de Janeiro 1710-11 Diamond-mines discovered in Sezzo Frio 1729 Jesuits expelled 1758-60 Capital transferred from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro 1763 Royal family of Portugal arrive at Brazil 7 Mch. 1808 P'irst printing press established " Brazil becomes a kingdom 1815- King John VI. returns to Portugal, dom Pedro regent 1821 Brazil declares its independence 7 Sept. 1822 Pedro I. crowned emperor 1 Dec. " New constitution ratified 25 Mch. 1824 Independence recognized by Portugal 29 Aug. 1825 Revolution at Rio de Janeiro; abdication of dom Pedro I., 7 Apr. 1831 Reform of the constitution 12 Aug. 1834, and 12 May, 1840- Pedro II. declared of age 23 July, " Steamship line to Europe commenced 1850 Suppression of the slave-trade ; railways commenced 1852 Rio de Janeiro lit with gas 1854 The British ship Prince of Wales wrecked at Albardas, on coast ; plundered by natives; some of the crew killed, about 7 June, 1861 Reparation long refused; reprisals made; 5 Brazilian mer- chant ships seized by the British 31 Dec. 1862 Brazilian minister at London pays 3200i. as an indemnity, under protest 26 Feb. 1863- Brazilian government request the British to express their regret for reprisals; declined; diplomatic intercourse sus- pended 5-28 May, " Dispute v/ith Great Britain respecting arrest of British officers at Rio de Janeiro (17 June, 1862) referred to arbitration of the king of the Belgians, who decides in favor of Brazil, 18 June, " New ministry; F. J. Furtado, president; prospect of recon- ciliation with Great Britain 30 Aug. 18G4L U. S. war steamer Wachusett seizes the confederate war-vessel Florida, in the port of Bahia, under protection of Brazil, 7 Oct. ; after remonstrance, the U. S. government disavowed the act (United Statks, Oct. 7) 26 Dec. " War with Uruguay; Brazilians take Paysandu, and march upon Montevideo 2 Feb. 1865. Lopez, president of Paraguay, declares war against the Argen- tine Republic Apr. " Treaty between Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic against Paraguay, signed 1 Ma.y, " Scientific expedition underAgassiz favored by the emperor, July, " Emperor joins the army against Lopez Aug. " Allies under Flores defeat the Paraguayans at Santayuna on the Uruguay 18 Sept. " War continues with varied success, though generally in favor of the allies, through 1865-66-67-68-69- liOpez defeated and killed near the Aquidaban 1 Mch. lS7a Treaty of peace; Paraguay subdued 20 June, " New ministry under viscount St. Vincent 29 Sept. " Emperor and empress in Europe; visit public and scientific institutions, manufactories, etc June-Aug. 1871 Gradual slave-emancipation bill passed by the senate; great rejoicings 27, 28 Sept. 1872 Treaty with the Argentine Republic Jan. 1873t Prosecution of the archbishop of Pernambuco and other prelates for infraction of the constitution Sept. -Dec. " Emperor and empress at opening of Philadelphia exhibition, 10 May, 1876; in Europe, etc. ; return to Rio de Janeiro. ..Sept. 187Tf 1884 1885 1892 BRA Ministerial crisis concerning emancipation o( slaves (of whom there were 1,200,000) Sept. Daulas, anlisiavery minister, resigns 5 May, Bill for the toU»l u"boIiiion of slavery passed by the chambers, 10-U May; about 700,000 persons freed May, Revolution at Uio de Janeiro; republic proclaimed; marshal Deodoro da Frousera head of provisional government: emiwror and family forcibly conveyed to the Alagoas; sail for Kurope 15 Nov. F.mpert)r refuses the oiler of the provisional government of 500,000/. a year Nov. Republic recognized informally by France, United States, and Switzerland 29 Nov. Peiree for the separation of church and state 7 Jan. Republic formally recognized by the United States 29 Jan. New constitution" promulgated 22 June, Republic formally recogniJ'.ed by (Jreat Britain 20 Oct. Marshal D. da Fonseca elected president for i years; installed, 26 Feb. Pres. Fonseca resigns and is succeeded by gen. Floriano Peixoto, 23 Nov. Death of gen. Deodoro da Fonseca 23 Aug. Growing discontent towards the administration of pres. Peixoto on account of his alleged despotic rule throughout Southern province in open rebellion , Rio dk Jankiro bombarded by the opposition fleet, under adm. Custodio de Mello Sept. Commanders of the foreign war-ships request that he refrain from further bombardment; request acceded to 30 Sept. EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. 1822. Dom Pedro (of Portugal) ; abdicated in favor of his infant son, 7 Apr. 1831 ; d. 24 Sept. 1834. 1831. Dom Pedro II. (b. 2 Dec. 1825); assumed the government, 23 July, 1840; married, 4 Sept. 1843, princess Theresa of Naples (b. 14 Mch. 1822; d. Oporto, Portugal, 28 Dec. 1890). Brazil declared a republic and dom Pedro banished; sails for Por- tugal, 15 Nov. 1889 ; d. in Paris, 4 Dec. 1891. PRESIDENTS OF THE REPUBLIC. Deodoro da Fonseca (resigns, 23 Nov. 1891) 26 Feb. 1891 Floriano Peixoto 23 Nov. " Prudente de Moraes " 1894 BrBZitO, Chihuahua, Mexico. Here col. Doniphan defeated the Mexicans, 25 Dec. 1846. bread. Ching-Noung, successor of Fohi, is reputed the first who taught the Chinese the arts of husbandry, and of mak- ing bread from wheat and wine from rice, 1998 b.c. — " Univ. Hist." Baking was known in patriarchal ages (Ex. xii. 15). A profession at Rome, 170 b.c. After the conquest of Mace- don, 148 B.C., Greek bakers came to Rome, acquired special privileges, and soon obtained a monopoly. Public bakeries were throughout the city, and grain was distributed directly to the bakers from public granaries ; the grain was pounded and sifted at the bakeries. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV., owing to famine, bread, which had been sold while any remained for a crown a pound, was made from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, 1694 a.d. — Henault. In the time of James I., barley-bread was used by the poor; and now in Iceland, codfish, beaten to powder, is made into bread ; potato-bread is used in Ireland. The London Bakers' Com- pany was incorporated in 1307. Bread street was once the London market for bread. Until 1302 London bakers were not allowed to sell in their own shops. — Stow. Bread was made with yeast by the English bakers in 1634. In 1856 and 1857 Dr. Dauglish patented a mode of making " aerated bread," in which carbonic-acid gas is combined with water and mixed with flour. Aerated bread in the United States successfully produced, 1854. Wages. bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus indsa), a native of the South Sea islands. The attention of the English govern- ment was directed to the fruit in 1688 by capt. Darapier and later by capt. Cook, who recommended its transportation to the West Indian colonies. A vessel under capt. Bligh was fitted out to convey some of these trees to various British colonies in 1787 (Bounty), and again in 1791. The number taken on board at Otaheite was 1151. Some were left at St. Helena, 352 at Jamaica, and 5 were reserved for Kew gardens, 1793. The tree was successfully cultivated in French Guiana, 1802. break'Water§ consist generally of stones or blocks of concrete, deposited or built in deep water to protect an anchor- age for vessels during storms. There are 3 types of break- waters : 1. Sloping. — Deposits of rubble-stone forming a mound are often made when material is plenty. 2. Composite.— De- posits of rubble-stone surmounted with a vertical wall of solid masonry. 3. Vertical— Wa)l of solid masonry from the bot- 120 BRE torn of the sea. The Plymouth breakwater, Engl., an exam> pie of the first class, begun 12 Aug. 1812, extends a mile across the soinid, in water 68 ft. deep at high tide. It is 360 ft. broad at the bottom, 30 ft. at.the top, 3 ft. above high water. The architects were John Rennie and his son. It cost 1,700,000/. The Portland breakwater, an example of the second class (be- gan 1849), has a vertical wall rising 25 ft. above high water. Another at Alderney island, English channel, of the same kind, cost 1,250,000/. The Dover breakwater, Engl., 1847-71, cost 679,300/., and that at Aberdeen, Scotland, are examples of the third class. There is also an extensive breakwater at Holy- head. The Cherbourg breakwater, France, is of the second class, with a wall rising \2\ ft. above high water (1784-1830). Cost about $16,000,000. An extensive one at Marseilles, the " Joliette," was begun 1844, and finished 1852. One at Bou- logne, 1879, cost $6,400,000. That at Alexandria, Egypt, be- gan 1870, cost nearly $13,000,000. The English have also erected breakwaters at Madras, India, at Colomba, on the island of Ceylon, 1874-86, cost 706,000/., and at Table bay, S. Africa, began 1860. There is also a fine breakwater at Kingstown, at the entrance of Dublin bay, Ireland. The principal break- water in the United States is the Delaware breakwater, first- class type, at the entrance of .Delaware bay (1829-39). Al- though incomplete it has a surf-breaker of 2748 ft., and an ice-breaker of 1710 ft. Cost over $2,000,000. There are others at Galveston, Texas, and on the great lakes at Buflfalo, Chicago, and Oswego. There is a natural breakwater at Pernambuco, Brazil, formed by a reef of coral. brea§tplate. One was worn by the Jewish high- priest, 1491 B.C. (Ex. xxxix.). Goliath " was armed with a coat of mail," 1063 B.C. (Sam. xvii.). Breastplates dwindled to the diminutive gorgets. Ancient breastplates are mentioned as made of gold and silver. Aaron's Breastplate. Brecllin, Scotland, sustained a siege against Edward III., 1333. The battle of Brechin or Huntly-hill was fought between earls Huntly and Crawford (the latter defeated), 18 May, 1462. The see of Brechin was founded by David I. in 1150. One of its bishops, Alexander Campbell, was made prel- ate when a boj', 1566. The bishopric, discontinued soon after the revolution in 1688, was revived in 1731. Breda, Holland, was taken from the Spaniards by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; retaken by the Spaniards, under Spinola, June, 1625; and by the Dutch, Oct. 1637. The " Compromise of Breda " was a proposal to Philip II., depre- cating his harsh measures in the Netherlands, presented and refused in 1566. Here Charles II. of England resided at the time of the restoration, and issued his declaration of am- nesty, 4 Apr. 1660. Restoration. Breda was taken by the French in 1793. The French garrison was expelled by the burgesses in 1813. breeches, among the Greeks, were a badge of slaverj'. They were worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other north- ern nations ; and in Italy, it is said, in the time of Augustus. In the reign of Honorius, about 394 a.d., the braccarii, or breeches-makers, were expelled from Rome. The " Geneva Bible " termed the " Breeches Bible " (from the rendering in Gen. iii. 7), pub. 1560. Bible. brelions, ancient judges in Ireland, said to have ad- ministered justice with religious impartialitj'-, but later with a patriotic bias. The statute of Kilkenny forbade English subjects to submit to the brehon laws, 40 Edw. III. 1365 ; but they were recognized by the native Irish till 1660. A translation was proposed in 1852, and a commission appointed. The publication of the "Ancient Laws of Ireland," by the government, began 1865. Bremen, N. Germany, said to have been founded in 788, and long an archbishopric, one of the leading towns of the Hanseatic league, had a seat and a vote in the college of imperial cities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularized and made a duchy, and held by Sweden till 1712, when it was taken by Denmark, who sold it to Hanover in 1731. It was taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled by the Hanoverians in 1768. Bremen was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810; but its independence was restored in 1813, and its old franchises in 1815. It entered the North German Confederation in 1866. International agricultural exhibition BRE 121 BRI opened 13 Jnne, 1874. Population of the province, 1871, 122,402 ; 1890, 180,443 ; of the city, 125,684. Hanse Towns. Brenneville, N.W. France. Here Henry I. of Eng- land defeated Louis VI. of France, -v^o supported William Cliton, son of Robert, duke of Normandy, 20 Aug. 1119. Brentford, county town of Middlesex, Engl. Here Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, May, 1016. It was taken by Charles I., after a sharp fight, 12 Nov. 1642. BresciB (bresh'e-a), N. Italy (the ancient Brixia), im- portant under the Lombards, suffered by the wars of Italian re- publics, being attached to Venice. It was taken by the French under Gaston de Foix, Feb. 1512, when it is said 40,000 of the inhabitants were massacred. It was retaken, 26 May, 1516. It surrendered to the Austrian gen. Haynau, 30 Mch. 1849, on severe terms. It was annexed to Sardinia in 1859. Breilail, Silesia, was burned bj' the Mongols in 1241, and conquered by Frederick II. of Prussia, Jan. 1741. Here the Austrians routed the Prussians, under prince Bevern, 22 Nov. 1757. Breslau was taken, but was regained 21 Dec. the same year. It was besieged by the French, and surrendered to them, Jan. 1807, and again in 1813. Bressa prize. Dr. Cesare Antonio Bressa, by will of 4 Sept. 1835, bequeathed to the Royal Academy of Sciences, Turin, means for a prize (about $6000) every 2 years for some important discovery or valuable work in physics, natural his- tory, geography, history, statistics, etc. ; 1st in 1879 to a for- eigner, the 2d to an Italian, and so on alternately. Brest, a seaport, N.W. France, was besieged by Julius Caesar, 54 b.c. ; possessed by the English, 1378 a.d. ; given up to the duke of Brittany, 1390. Lord Berkeley and a Brit- ish fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burned, to the value of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with 50 galley- slaves, burned, 1766. The magazine again destroyed by fire, 10 July, 1784. From this French naval depot numerous squadrons were equipped against England during the long war, among them the fleet which lord Howe defeated on 1 June, 1794. England maintained a large blockading squad- ron off the harbor from 1793 to 1815, but with little injury to France. It is now a chief naval station, and is considered impregnable. Bretig'ny (pret'i-ny), Peace of, concluded with France, 8 May, 1360; England retained Gascony and Guienne, and acquired other provinces ; renounced Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy ; was to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to re- lease king John, taken prisoner at Poictiers, 1356. The treaty not being carried out, the king remained and died in England. Bretwalda. A title bestowed upon Egbert in the old English chronicles (cir. 855), and (retrospectively) upon seven earlier kings of various old English states, viz. : Ella, king of Sussex ; Ceawlin of Wessex ; Ethelbert of Kent ; Redwald of East Anglia ; Edwin, Oswald, and Oswy of Northumber- land. " Its sense can only be ' lord (or ruler) of the Britons,' or *of Britain.' " — The New English Dictionary. Britain. breviary (i. e., an abridgment of the offices used in the Roman Catholic service) contains the 7 canonical hours, viz., matins about midnight ; lauds (when not joined to matins, about 3 A.M.), primes (about 6), tierce (about 9), sexts (about 12), nones (about 3 p.m.), vespers (4 or 6), complines (about 9). Lord Bute published a translation of the breviary, 1879. The breviary is ascribed to pope Gelasius I. about 492. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary; came into use among ecclesiastical orders about 1080 ; and was re- formed by the councils of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. The type in which it was first printed gave name to hi-evier type. brewers and brewing". The art of brewing was practised by the ancient Egyptians, and afterwards by the Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. All nations, whether civilized or savage, have in every age prepared intoxicating drink of some kind, under as many names as there are peoples. Brewing was known to the Anglo-Saxons, and the English have long been pre-eminent in this art. It is mentioned in the old English chronicles (cir. 893). British monasteries were remarkable for the strength and purity of their ales. brewed from malt prepared by the monks with care and skill. As early as the 13th century the waters of Burton-pn-Trent began to be famous for brewing purposes, and in 1630 " Bur- ton beer" found its way to London, being sold at "Ye Pea- cocke " in Gray's Inn lane, and according to the Spectator was in great demand among the visitors at Vauxhall. Fool. " When brewers mar tbeir malt with water." — Shakespeare, "King Lear," act iii. sc. 2. In 1585 there were 26 brewers in the city of London, the sub- urbs, and Westminster, who brewed 648,960 barrels of beer, of which 26,400 barrels were exported to Embden, the Low Countries, and Dieppe.— AStow. The best English colonial beer is made in Tasmania, and shipped frozen to Australia and India. The quantity of beer brewed in Great Britain in 1869 was 25,542,664 barrels, of which 521,272 barrels were export- ed. In 1892 over 32,000,000 barrels were brewed in Great Britain and Ireland, and the government collected as taxes on the manufacture and sale more than 9,000,000/. More beer is brewed in Germany than in any other country, amounting in 1892 to over 46,000,000 barrels. Every brewer in the United States pays a tax of $100 if producing 500 barrels or more, and $50 if less. Total production in 1863, 1,765,827 barrels of 31 gallons; 1873, 9,633,323 barrels; 1880, 13,347,110 bar- rels ; 1892, 39,180,250 barrels. Briar Creek, Battle of. Georgia, 1779. bribery forbidden (Dent. xvi. 19). .Samuel's sons were guilty of it, 1112 b.c. (1 Sam. viii. 3). In England, Thomas de Weyland banished for bribery in 1288, was chief-justice of the common pleas. William de Thorpe, chief-justice of the king's bench, was convicted of bribery in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000/. for the like offence, 1616. Mr.Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the Tower for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords for soliciting a bribe, Jan. 1784. In 1854 an important act was passed consolidating and amending pre- vious acts relating to bribery at elections. By statute of the United States, chap. 287, 15 Aug. 1876, 19 stat. at large, p. 160, § 6, bribery is made punishable. Revised statutes of the U. S., §§ 5506-8, prohibit and punish bribery. Mr. Swan, M. P. for Penryn, fined and imprisoned, and sir Manasseh Lopez fined lO.OOOL with 2 years' imprisonment for bribery at Grampound Oct. 1819 Sudbury disfranchised, 1848 ; St. Albans also 1852, Elections at Derby, etc., voided for bribery 1853 In Cooper v. Slade, payment of travelling expenses held brib- ery 17 Apr. 185& Commissions of inquiry on bribery sit at Great Yarmouth, Totnes, Lancaster, and Reigate ; disgraceful disclosures, Aug. -Nov. 1866. Reform bill, disfranchising boroughs, passed 15 Aug. 1867 Parliamentary Elections act ; election petitions to be tried by a special court, passed 31 July, 1868 First trials under this act; Mr. Roger Eykyn (at Windsor) de- clared elected, 15 Jan., and sir H. Stracey (at Norwich) un- seated 18 Jan. 1869 Dr. Kinglake, Mr. Fenelly, and others, fined for bribery in parliamentary elections 10 May, 1870> Beverly, Bridgewater, Sligo, and Cashel disfranchised for brib- ery and corruption " New York aldermen, in the year 1884, granted a street- rail way franchise for Broadway under suspicious circumstances. Long discussions in the press led to investigation by the Leg- islature in 1886, and little by little the facts were brought out before an investigating committee and in the courts. Some of the implicated persons fled the country ; some were con- victed; some turned informers. Following are the dates: A group of aldermen conspire, calling it a "combine," to vote together on railroad franchises 13 May, 1884 Broadway railroad company applies for franchise 15 July, " Application approved by railroad committee of aldermen, 10 Aug. " Franchise granted at a special meeting at 9 o'clock a.m. by 18 aldermen, named Cleary, De Lacy, Dempsey, Duffy, FuUgraff, Rothman. Waite, McQuade, O'Neill. Jaehne, Miller, Shiels, Farley, Sayles, McCabe, Wendel, Reilly, and Pearson, 30 Aug. "^ Validity of the franchise being technically doubtful, the com- pany applies anew 15 Sept. " Franchise granted ; 13 Nov. " Vetoed by the mayor 20 Nov. " Passed over the veto 6 Pec. " State Senate directs its railroad committee (senator Low, chair- man) to investigate 26 Jan. 1886- Committee begins its sittings 6 Feb. ' Preliminary report recommends that the franchise be an- nulled for fraud • • . .9 Mch. " [Franchise annulled and road placed in the hands of a re- ccivcr. 1 Henry Jaehne, vice-president of the board of aldermen, ar- rested on charge of bribery 18 Mch. "■ BRI 122 BRI Committee closes investigation 21 Apr. 1886 Jaehne put uiwn trial 10 May, " Jaehne convicted, 16 May, sentenced to 9 years and 10 mouths in state-prison 20 May, " Jaehne lodged in prison at Sinj; Sing 21 May, " Alderman McCabc at^udged iiisaiu' 4 Nov. " Alderman McQuad" put upt>n his trial, Waite, Fullgrall', and Duffy giving testimony for the people 15 Nov. " Jury disagree 2-t Nov. " Second trial begun 26 Nov. " McQuade convicted. 15 Dec. ; sentenced to 7 years' imprison- ment and $.")000 flne 20 Dec. " Alderman O'Neill put upon trial 24 Jan. 1887 O'Neill convicted, 1 Feb. ; sentenced to 4 years' imprisonment and $2000 flne 11 Feb. " James W. Foshay, formerly president of the Broadway road, under indictment for bribing aldermen, d 17 Feb. '« Jacob Sharp, one of the principals in bribing aldermen, found guilty of bribery, sentenced to 4 years' imprisonment and fined $500 14 July, " Alderman Cleary put uiwn trial 28 Feb. " Arthur J. McQuade, the convicted ex-alderman, brought from Sing Sing to New York, and released on $20,000 bail. . .4 Oct. 1888 bric-a-brac (Fr.), old curiosities, such as cabinets, pieces of ironwork, etc. Collection became a fashion under queen Anne, 1702-14. The publication of Bric-a-Brac, a monthly price-list, began in 1869. brick. Over 2000 years b.c. the men on the plains of Shinar said, "Go to, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly. And ... let us build us a city, and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven" (Gen. xi. 3). The bricks of Thoth- mes III. (believed to be the prince who reigned in Egypt at the time of the exodus of the Hebrews) are impressed with his cartouch, cir. 1500 b.c. Nebuchadnezzar had his name stamped on the bricks used in erecting his colossal palaces; they are red or pale yellow, and from 12 to 19| in. square, and about 3 in. thick. The palaces of Croesus, king of Lj'dia (548 b.c) ; of Mausolus of Halicarnassus (352 b.c.) ; the bath of Titus (70 A.i>.) ; the pillar of Trajan (98 a.d.) ; and the bath of Cara- oalla (212 a.d.) were of brick. Early English brick buildings were Hurstmonceaux castle, Sussex (cir. 1425); Tattershall castle, Lincolnshire (1440); Lollards' tower, Lambeth palace {1454); and the old part of Hampton court (1514). ^^ p Bricks introduced into England by the Romans cir. 44 Made under direction of Alfred the Great about • 886 Regular masonry introduced into England shortly before the Norman conquest 1066 Size of bricks regulated by order of Charles I 1625 Bricks substituted for wood in the erection of buildings in Lon- don after the great fire 1666 Tax levied on bricks in England 1784 Machine for making bricks patented in the U. S. as early as 1792, and about 122 patents granted previous to June, 1836 Duties and drawbacks of excise on bricks in England repealed, 1850 F. H. Smith pateots in the U. S. a machine capable of making 30,000 bricks in a day of 10 hours 9 July, 1868 Chambers's brick machine, with a capacity of 50.000 bricks per 10 hours, at a cost from the clav bank to the shed of only IIU cts. per 1000, first patented, 20 Aug. 1878, and perfected, 1887 BridCIWCli. Once a palace of king John, near Fleet- ditch, London, 1210; was given to the citj' for a work-house by Edward VL, 1553. The new Bridewell prison, erected in 1829, was pulled down in 1864; that of Tothill-tields was re- built in 1831. bridg^CS. The first bridge at Rome, called the Pons Sublicius, was built across the Tiber on piles by Ancus Mar- tius about 620 b.c. ; noted for the (mythical) defence by Hora- tius Codes against Lars Porsenna about 508 b.c. Abj'dos is famous for the bridge of boats Xerxes built across the Helles- pont, 480 B.C. Trestle-bridge on piles built by Julius Caesar across the Rhine, 55 b.c., in 10 days, described in his commen- taries. The bridge of Trajan, crossing the Danube, was about 4000 ft. in length, and was built of timbers resting on stone piers by Apollodorus of Damascus, 105 a.d. About the same time the bridge at Alcantara, Spain, in honor of Trajan, was built ; this bridge was part destroyed by the English in 1809, and by the Carlists in 1836. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, Switzerland, was built on two high rocks ; many stories have been invented to account for it. At Schaff- hausen an extraordinary bridge was built over the Rhine, 400 feet wide ; there was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of light weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons heavily laden passed over without danger. The bridge was destroyed by the French in 1799. Trezzo bridge, over the Adda, Italy, built by order of Bernabo Visconti, duke of Milan, in 1380, was the largest masonry arch known, having a span of 251 feet. Destroyed by Carmagnola. The largest existing masonry arch is in the United States, a span of 220 ft., carrying the Washington Aqueduct,over Cabin John creek (Aqueducts); and next in size is the Grosvenor bridge over the Dee at Chester, England, with a span of 200 feet. Triangular masonry bridge at Cory land abbey, referred to in a ^^■ charter dated 943 Stone bridge erected at Bow, near Stratford, by queen Matilda, about 1100-18 Religious brotherhoods for building and repairing bridges ex- isted in France during the 13th century; one of theui, the Fratres Ponlis, headed by St. Benezet, built a bridge auOO ft. long, of 18 stone arches, over the Rhone at Avignon 1180 Cast iron for bridges introduced in England 1777 U. S. patent granted for a wooden bridge, since known as the Burr bridge, to Theodore Burr 14 Feb. 1806 James Finley of Fayette county, Pa., erected chain cable sus- pension bridges as early as 1797. He patented his improve- ments, 1808, and 2 years later there were 8 of these bridges in existence in the U. S., the longest at the falls of Schuyl- kill, Philadelphia, Pa., 306 ft. span, with an intermediate pier, 1810 Town, or lattice truss bridge, patented by IthielTown of Conn., 20 Jan. 1820 Tension iron bridge, believed to be the first of the kind in the U. S., patented by Augustus Canfield, of Plainfield, N. J., 29 June, 1833 Howe truss bridge, patented by William Howe, of Warren, Mass 10 July, 1840 American boilerplate tubular bridge, built at Bolton depot, and put in place on the Baltimore and Susquehanna railroad by its inventor, James Millholland Apr. 1847 Niagara gorge, 2 miles below the falls, crossed by an iron basket or cradle hung on a wire cable suspended over the chasm. It was constructed by Charles EUet, and soon replaced by a slight bridge, a second cable being constructed the same year. The first step in the construction of this bridge was the flying of kites across the gorge; one being successfully landed, its string served to carry over a rope and then a cable 1848 Chief Thames bridges freed from toll, 24 May, 1879, and 26 June, 1880 NOTED BRIDGES OF THE WOKLD. — MASONRY ARCH BRIDGES. London bridge. One is said to have existed, 978. A bridge built of wood, 1014, was partly burned in 1136. The late old bridge was commenced about 1176 by Peter of Colechurch, with houses on each side, connected by large arches of timber which crossed the street ; completed 1209 Fire at the Southwark end brought crowds on the bridge; the houses at the north end caught Are, and shut them in ; up- wards of 3000 persons were killed, burned, or drowned. .July, 1212 Bridge restored in 1300, again destroyed by fire in 1471 ; 13 Feb. 1632, and Sept. 1725 All the houses pulled down 1750 Water- works begun, 1582 ; destroyed by fire 1774 Toll discontinued : 27 Mch. 1782 New London bridge, designed by John Rennie, and built by his sons, John and George; total cost, 1,458,311/,. ; length of cen- tral span, 152 ft. The first pile was driven 200 ft. to the west of the old bridge, 15 Mch. 1824; the first stone was laid by the lord mayor, alderman Garratt 15 June, 1825 Opened by William IV. and his queen 1 Aug. 1831 Karlsbriccke (Charles's bridge), over the Moldau at Prague. Built by. emperor Charles IV. of Germany, 1348. 1855 ft. long. Gate towers at either end, ornamented with groups of statuary. Greatly damaged by flood, Sept. 1890; since repaired. Rialto. Masonry arch bridge at Venice over the Grand canal. Single span of 98)^ ft. ; rise of span, 20 ft. ; width of foot- way, 72 ft. Built by Antonio da Ponte (Rialto, Venice) 1588 Westminster bridges. Old bridge was built of Portland stone, after a design of M. Labelye. Begun 13 Sept. 1738 ; opened for passengers, 18 Nov. 1750; length, 1223 ft.; cost, 426,650/. Commissioners of works empowered to rebuild 4 Aug. 1853 Work on the new bridge suspended by failure ot the contractors, Messrs. Mare. The government eventually undertook the building, which was intrusted to Thomas Page. One half of the bridge opened early in 1860, the whole 24 May, 1862 Waterloo bridge over the Thames at London. Length within abutments, 1242 ft. ; width within balustrades, 42 ft. ; span of each arch, of which there are 9, 120 ft. ; commenced, 11 Oct. 1811 The present site, plan, and dimensions of the bridge given by G. Dodd under act of Parliament in 1806 ; he was super- seded by John Rennie, who completed the structure. It was opened on the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo, the duke of Wellington and others being present 18 June, 1817 Bought for 475,000/. by metropolitan board of works; opened, toll free, 5 Oct. 1878; lit by electric light 10 Oct. 1879 Grosvenor bridge, over the Dee, at Chester. A masonry arch having a span of 200 ft. ; act for its construction obtained. . . 1825 IRON AND STEEL ARCH BRIDGES. Colebrookdale bridge, over the Severn, between Madeley and Brosely, the first cast-iron arch bridge erected in England. It has a span of 100 ft., and was completed after designs of Abraham Derby 1777 Sunderland bridge. A cast-iron arch 100 ft. high, with a span of 236 ft., crossing the Wear, built under superintendence of Thomas Wilson 1796 BRI 123 BRI JSouthwark bridge, South London, was designed by John Ren- nie. It consists of 3 cast-iron arches of 210, 240, and 210 ft. span, resting on massive stone piers and abutments ; cost about 800,000^. ; begun 23 Sept. 18U; completed Apr. 1819 Victoria bridge over the Thames at Pimlico, London, consists of 4 very wide wrought -iron arches. Begun, 1859 ; com- pleted, 1860; and widened 1865-66 St. Louis bridge across the Mississippi at St. Louis, Mo. 3 arches formed of tubes of cast steel, and built out from the piers without scaffolding; the centre span, 520 ft, the others 502 ft. each. 2200 tons of steel and 3400 tons of iron were used in its construction. Built by col. James B. Eads at a cost of .$10,000,000. Begun, 1867; and completed 4 July, 1874 Douro bridge, an arched iron structure near Oporto, Portugal; total length, 1150 ft., span of arch, 520 ft., height from low- water to crown of arch, 198 ft. Begun, 1875; opened to travel by the king of Portugal Nov. 1877 Garabit viaduct, over the Truyere, in the south of France. The total length is 1849 ft. ; the main portion, 1469 ft. in length, is of steel, and consists of 5 openings of from 170 to 182 ft., spanned by lattice girders and a trellis parabolic arch with a span of 541 ft., and a clear height above the river ol 356 ft. The rail level is 401 ft. above the river. (Highest bridge in the world.) Designed by M. Eiffel, and built without scaflbld. Begun, 1879; completed 1884 Highway bridge over the Harlem river at New York. A cen- tral stone pier and 2 steel arches having a span of 510 ft. each and a clear headway of 150 ft. under the centre of each arch 1888 TUBULAR GIRDER BRIDGKS. €onway (Wales) tubular bridge. A miniature of the Britannia; a single span of 400 ft. ; erected 1846-48 Britannia tubular bridge, carrying the Chester and Holyhead railway across the Menai straits, consists of 2 parallel rectan- gular wrought- iron tubes resting on 3 piers. There are 2 central spans of 459 ft. , and 2 shore spans of 230 ft. The cen- tral pier is built on the Britannia rock, and its erection was begun May, 1846. The height of the tube within is 30 ft. at the centre, diminishing to 23 ft. at the shore ends. The bridge has a clear headway above high-water of 1033i^ ft. The 4 tubes of the central spans were floated into position and gradually raised to the required height by hydraulic presses. First locomotive passes through Mch. 1850 Victoria railway bridge, over the St. Lawrence river at Mon- treal, was erected by James Hodges under the superintend- ence of Robert Stephenson and A. M. Ross, engineers. It is about 2 miles in length and rests on 24 piers, the height be- ing 60 ft. above summer level of the river; cost, 1,700,000Z. ; work begun, 24 May, 1854; bridge damaged by floating ice while under construction, 5 Jan. 1855; formally opened by the prince of Wales -. 25 Aug. 1860 SUSPENSION BRIDGES. Menai suspension bridge. A chain bridge built by Telford across the Menai straits, 102 ft. above high-water. The en- tire length of the chains is 1710 ft. ; length of span, 570 ft. ; bridge begun, July, 1818; and opened for traffic 30 Jan. 1826 Freiburg suspension bridge, over the Sarine valley, Switzerland. 870 ft. span; 167 ft. above the river; built by M. Chaley. ... 1833-34 Suspension bridge, crossing the Dnieper at Kieflf. Nearly half a mile in length, having 4 principal spans of 440 ft. each; erected 1S51 Niagara Falls suspension bridge, across the gorge, 2 miles below the falls. Built by John A. Roebling. Length of span be- tween towers, 800 ft. ; supported by 4 wire cables, each con- taining 3640 No. 9 wires; height of track above the water, 245 ft.; carriage-way beneath the track; cost of bridge, $400,000; work begun, 1852; first locomotive crosses, 8 Mch. 1855 Clifton suspension bridge. A chain bridge crossing the Avon below Bristol, Engl. It was partly constructed of the Hun- gerford foot-bridge, which was taken down in July, 1862. It is said to have the longest span of any chain bridge in the world (702 ft.), and is 250 ft. above high-water. Begun in 1862; opened '. 8 Dec. 1864 Cincinnati and Covington suspension bridge, over the Ohio river, - at an elevation of 91 ft. above low- water and with a span of 1057 ft. Built by Roebling; and completed 1867 Clifton suspension bridge at Niagara Falls, a short distance be- low the falls; built for carriage and foot-passengers; has a span of 1260 ft. Begun, 1867 ; completed 1869 Blown down, 10 Jan. 1889, and new structure of iron hung on steel cables; opened 7 May, 1889 Brooklyn bridge. A wire cable suspension bridge connecting New York city with Brooklyn; designed by John A. Roebling, and built by his son W. A. Roebling. It has a total length of carriageway, 5989 ft., and including extensions, 6537 ft., a cen- tral span of 1595 ft., and 2 side spans of 930 ft. each, with a clear headway under the centre of the bridge of 135 ft. above high- water; total height of towers above high-water, 278 ft. ; there are 4 suspension cables, composed of 5296 galvanized steel wires, bound together, but not twisted; width of bridge, 85 ft. ; cost, $15,000,000; bridge begun, 1870; opened. 24 May, 1883 CANTILEVER BRIDGES. Niagara Falls cantilever, over the gorge, a short distance above the old suspension bridge ; the first true metal cantilever bridge erected, comprising 2 cantilevers, 395 ft. each in length, extending from the shores to piers and reaching out over the river, supporting a central girder 120 ft. in length; distance between piers, 495 ft. ; height of bridge, 180 ft. above the wa- ter ; opened 20 Dec. 1883 Hooghly bridge, India, carrying the East Indian railway across the Hooghly river at a height of 53 ft. above low-water. It has 1 central span of 95>^ ft., and 2 end spans of 520 ft. It was begun in 1883, and completed at a cost of $1,305,000 1886 Kentucky and Indiana bridge, over the Ohio, at Louisville, has 2 cantilever spans of 480 and 483 ft. ; begun, 1883 ; completed. . " Sukkur cantilever bridge, crossing the Rori branch of the Indus at Sukkur, with a single span of 790 ft. ; opened June, 1889 Firth cantilever bridge, a steel railway bridge across the Firth of Forth at Queensferry, Scotl., has a total length of 8098 ft., or over a mile and a half. It is composed of 3 double canti- levers; a central one of 1620 ft. resting on a pier built on the island of Inchgarvie; 2, 1514 J^ ft. in length, joined to the cen- tral cantilever by girders of 350 ft. si)an, thus affording 2 open- ings of 1700 ft. each side of the central pier, and 2 approach viaducts of 15 girders from 168 to 179 ft. in length, resting on masonry piers. The highest elevation of the bridge is 361 ft. (over the piers), and there is a clear headway under the cen- tral spans of 152 ft. There were 51,000 tons of steel used in its construction, and 56 lives were lost during its erection, which occupied 7 years and gave employment to as many as 5000 men at one time. Total cost of the bridge, 3,250,000Z. ; work begun, Jan. 1883 ; opened , 4 Mch. 1890 Poughkeepsie bridge, crossing the Hudson river at Poughkeep- sie, is composed of 2 cantilever spans on each shore of 523 ft. and a central cantilever span of 521 ft. , joined by 2 ordinary girders of 500 ft. span with projecting cantilever ends. Work begun, 1886 ; opened 1888 DRAWBRIDGES. Newcastle swing bridge, over the Tyne, Engl., is 281 ft. long, weighs 1450 tons, and is lifted by a hydraulic crane. Work begun, 1868; completed June, 1876 Arthur Kill bridge, between Staten Island and New Jersey, con- sists of 2 shore spans of 150 ft. each, covered by fixed trusses, and a draw 500 ft. in length. It can be opened and closed in 2 minutes. Bridge authorized by act of Congress, 16 June, 1886 ; completed at a cost of $450,000 13 June, 1888 Tower bridge, a bascule bridge crossing the Thames below Lon- don bridge. It has a central opening of 200 ft. between 2 high towers, connected near the top by a fixed foot-bridge 139)^ ft. above the river and reached by elevators or stair- ways in the towers. There are 2 side spans of 270 ft. covered by chain suspension bridges, and between the towers, at a height of 29>^ ft. above high-water, a double bascule, each leaf 100 ft. in length and forming a flat arch when down, at a level with the main bridge. Foundation laid, 1886; opened, 1894 GIRDER BRIDGES AND MISCELLANEOUS. Wittingen timber bridge, a trussed bridge with a span of 390 ft., was destroyed by fire in 1799 after standing 41 years. Erected; 1758 Wooden bridge, over the Connecticut at Hanover, with a single arch of 236 ft. ; erected 1796 Ci'umlin viaduct, a Warren girder iron bridge over the Ebbw in Monmouthshire, 1800 ft. long, with 10 spans o.f 150 ft. raised 200 ft. above the river. Begun, 1853; completed 1857 Saliash lenticular girder bridge, built by I. K. Brunei, across the river Tamar. 2 spans of 455 ft. with a headway of 100 ft. above high-water. The platform is supported by small girders carried by suspension chains below and a large arched tube above, strongly braced together. It is of wrought iron and has a total length of 2240 ft. ; opened for traffic 1859 Potomac Run bridge, a famous trestle work 400 ft. long and 80 ft. high, built in 9 days by soldiers of the army of the Po- tomac, under the supervision of gen. Herman Haupt. It con- tained more than 2,000,000 ft. of lumber, chiefly round sticks, fresh cut from the neighboring woods; erected May, 1862 Kuilenburg bridge, a wrought-iron girder across the Leek in Holland, has a span of 492 ft. ; G. Van Diesen, architect 1868 Verrugas viaduct, an iron Fink truss bridge on the Oroyo rail- road in Peru, crosses the valley of the Agua de Verrugas at an altitude of 5478 ft. above the sea level. Total length, 575 ft., comprising 3 iron piers connected by Fink trusses at a height of about 250 ft. from the water. Work begun, 17 Sept. 1872, and completed in 88 working days early in 1873 Portage bridge, over the Genesee river on the line of the Erie railroad at Portage, N. Y. An iron truss bridge on iron tres- tles, built in 1875, to replace the original wooden trestle bridge, completed, 14 Aug. 1852, and burned down, 6 May, 1875. The total length is 800 ft., comprising 1 span of 180 ft., 2 of 100 ft., and 7 of 50 ft. ; height, 230 ft. above the river. Contract let, 10 May, 1875 ; opened for traffic. 31 July, 1875 Tay bridge, the longest girder bridge in the world, crosses the Tay at Dundee, Scotl. The original bridge consisted of 85 spans, some over 90 ft. above water level, and had a total length of 10,612 ft. Engineer, sir Thomas Bouch. Over 20 lives lost during its construction. Work commenced, June, 1871 ; completed, 30 Aug. 1877 ; and opened 31 May, 1878 Bridge much injured by a gale while building 4 Feb. 1877 Partly destroyed by a gale while a N. British mail-train was passing over it; the train and 75 to 90 jiassengers disappeared, none escaping. A gap of about 3000 ft. was made in the bridge; about 7.15 p.m., Sunday 28 Dec. 1879 46 bodies recovered up to 27 Apr. 1880 After the Board of Trade inquiry Mr. H. C. Rothery reported BRI 124 •• that the bridge had been badly deBlgned, badly constructed, and badly maintained ". 3 July, 1883 Sir Thomas Bouch, engineer, d 30 Oct. " New Tay bridge; length, 10,700 ft. ; the 11 longest spans being 346 ft. each ; built. 1882 to 1887 Wrought-iron girder bridge, at Cincinnati, over the Ohio river, with a span of 519 ft. ; 105 ft above low water; built 1877 KeKbutky River bridge, a trussed girder bridge of iron, on the line of the Cincinnati Southern railroad; 3 spans of 375 ft. ; built without fulso work ; begun, 1« Oct. 1876, and completed, at a cost of $404,'230 20 Fob. " Railvoay bridge over the Severn, connecting the forest of Dean with Sharpness Point, Engl, over ^ of a mile in length. Built at a cost of 1,000,000/., and formally opened 17 Oct. 1879 Moerdyk 6rt(^, a wrought-iron girder bridge carrying the Ant- werp and Rotterdam railway across the HoUands-Diep by 14 spans of 328 ft; completed 1880 Sintua viaduct, iron girder and trestle bridge, Warren county, Pa., 301 ft. in height (prior to the Garabit viaduct the highest bridge in the world), and built in less than 4 months. Work begun, 5 May ; opened 29 Aug. 1882 Hawkesbury bridge, a steel girder bridge over the Hawkesbury river. New South Wales, 7 miles from the sea. It has 7 open- ings between piers about 416 ft from centre to centre and 40 ft headway at high-water. Work begun, 1886; girders float- ed into position on pontoons at high-water and allowed to rest on the piers as the tide went out. Opened for traflQc. . .May, 1889 Loa vicuiuct, a lattice girder iron bridge by which the Anto- &gasta railway of Bolivia crosses the cafion of the Loa at an altitude of 10,000 ft. above the sea level. The bridge was put together in 9 months under the supervision of Peter and John Fisher, who went from England for the purpose " Cfincinnati iron truss railway bridge, across the Ohio river, planned for a double-track railroad and 2 roadways and 2 sidewalks in addition. Total structure 1 mile in length; the centre span 550 ft., and 2 spans flanking the main channel 490 ft. each. Caissons sunk in 1887 ; completed 1890 If ridge'Water, Sonaersetshire, Engl., was incorporated by king John in 1200. In the war between Charles I. and the Parliament, the king's forces burned part of the town, 1643. Here stood an ancient castle in which the ill-advised duke of Monmouth lodged when proclaimed king in 1685. The town disfranchised for bribery, 1870. Brid^e^water canal, the first great canal in Eng- land, 29 noiles long, begun by the duke of Bridgewater, the father of canal navigation in Great Britain, in 1759 ; opened 17 July, 1761. James Brindley was the engineer. Starting at Worsley, 7 miles from Manchester, it crosses the Irwell at Barton bridge by an aqueduct upwards of 200 yards long. Canals. Bridgeivater treatises. The rev. Francis, earl of Bridgewater, died Apr. 1829, bequeathing 8000^. to the au- thor or authors, appointed by the president of the Royal So- ciety, who should write an essay " on the power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the creation." The essays (by sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckland, William Prout, Peter M. Roget, and the revs. Will- iam Whewell and William Kirby) were pub. 1833-35. briefs are the letters of the pope despatched to princes and others on public affairs, and usually written short, with- out preface or preamble, and on paper ; thus distinguished from BULLS, which are ample, and written on parchment. Briefs are sealed with red wax and the seal of the fisherman, or St. Peter in a boat, always in the presence of the pope. Queen Elizabeth's letters, called "briefs," authorizing collec- tions in churches for charitable purposes, are now discon- tinued. A lawyer's brief is an abridgment of his client's case. Brienne, N.E. France. Here the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, under Blucher, were defeated by the French, 29 Jan. 1814. Bright's disease, a degeneration of the tissues of the kidneys into fat ; investigated about 1830 by Richard Bright. Brill or Briel, Holland. A seaport, seized by the ex- pelled Dutch confederates, became the seat of their indepen- dence, 1572. Brill, given to the English in 1585 as security for advances made by queen Elizabeth to Holland, was re- stored in 1616. Bristol, W. England, built by Brennus, a British prince, 380 B.C., is mentioned 430 a.d. as a fortified city. It was called Caer Oder, a city in the valley of Bath ; and sometimes Caer Brito, the British city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, pleasant place. Gildas and Nennius speak of Bristol in the 5th and 7th centuries. From the 12th century to the 18th it BRI was, next to London, the most flourishing port in England; since surpassed by Liverpool. Taken by earl of Gloucester, in his defence of his sister Maud, the empress, against king Stephen 1138 Eleanor of Brittany (daughter of Geoffrey, son of Henry II.) dies in the castle after 39 years' imprisonment 1241 St. Mary's church built 1292 Bristol made a distinct county by Edward III 1373 Bishopric founded by Henry VIII 1542 Taken by prince Rupert, 26 July, 1643; by Cromwell. .10 Sept. 1645 Riot on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the recorder, he opposing the reform-bill; the mansion house, bishop's pal- ace, several merchants' stores, some prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses burned ; above 500 persons killed 29-31 Oct. 1831 Trial of rioters (4 executed; 22 transported), 2 Jan. ; suicide of col. Brereton, during trial by court-martial 9 Jan. 1832 Proposed college for science and literature here for the south and west of England; meeting, 13 June, 1874; opened as University college 10 Sept. 1876 • Bristol, See of, one of 6 bishoprics erected by Henry VIII. out of spoils of dissolved monasteries, 1542. The ca- thedral was church of the abbey of St. Austin, founded by Robert Fitz-Harding, son to a king of Denmark, and a citizen of Bristol, 1148. The see is valued in the king's books at 338/. 8a. 4cZ. Paul Bushe, provincial of the Bons-hommes, was the first bishop, in 1542 — deprived for being married, 1554. The see was united by an order in council with Gloucester, in 1836, The cathedral (under repair since 1844) was reopened in 1861 j a new nave opened, 23 Oct. 1877. BristOW station, Va., affairs at. (1) Here gen. Hooker's division encountered and defeated that of the confed- erate gen. Ewell, 27 Aug. 1862, with a loss of about 300 on each side. (2) Here, on 14 Oct. 1863, A. P. Hill's corps (con- federate) attacked the 2d corps, maj.-gen. Warren's, while re- treating, but gained no advantage. Brandy Station. Britain (called by the Romans Britannia, from its Cel- tic name Prj'dhain, Camden). "The nearest Celtic form is the Irish plural Bretain." — The Neio English Dictionary. The earliest records of its history are the manuscripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh, were the first inhabitants of Britain. It is referred to as the Cassiterides or tin-islands by Herodotus, 450 B.C. ; as Albion and lerne (England and Ireland) by Aris- totle, 350 B.C., and Polybius, 260 b.c. The Romans divided Britain into Britannia Prima (country south of the Thames and Severn); Britannia Secunda (Wales) ; Flavia Ccp.sariensis (between the Thames, Severn, and Humber) ; Maxima Coesa- riensis (between the Humber and Tyne); and Valentia (be- tween the Tyne and Firth of Forth). Britain, including Eng- land, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to only one.— Pliny. Albion, England, Scotland, Wales. Divitiacus, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, said to have su- b.c. premacy over part of Britain 57 First invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar 26 Aug. 55 Second invasion ; he defeats Cassi velaunus 54 Cymbeline (Cunobelin), king of Britain 4 A.D. Aulus Plautus defeats the Britons 43 He and Vespasian reduce S. Britain 47 Caractacus defeated by Ostorius, 50; carried in chains to Rome, 51 Romans defeated by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni ; 70,000 slain, and London burned; she is defeated by Suetonius; 80,000 slain 61 Agricola, governor, conquers Anglesey, overruns Britain in 7 campaigns, and reforms the government 78-84 He defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus; surrenders the islands 84 Emperor Hadrian visits Britain, 120; builds a wall from the Tyne to the Solway (Hadrian's Wall) 121 Lucius, king of the Britons, said to have sent an embassy on religion to pope Eleutherius about 181 Britons (allies of Albinus) defeated at Lyons by Severus 197 Southern Britain subdued and divided by the Romans into 2 provinces 204 Severus keeps his court at York, then called Eboracum, 208; finishes his wall, and dies at York 4 Feb. 211 Carausius usurps the throne of Britain 286 He is killed by Allectus, another usurper 294 Constantius recovers Britain and kills Allectus 296 St. Alban and 17,000 Christians martyred (Bede) 304 Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York 25 July, 306 British bishops at the council of Aries 314 Scots and Picts invade Britain, 360; routed by Theodosius 368 Romans gradually withdraw from Britain 402-436 Reign of V^ortigern 425 Saxons and Angles aid in expelling Picts and Scots 429 BRI 125 Bomans quit Britain 436 Anglo-Saxon invaders drive the Britons into Wales 449-455 Many Britons settle in Armorica (Brittany) 388-457 Saxon heptarchy ; Britain divided into 7 or more kingdoms 457 Ella invades S. Britain, 477 ; founds kingdom of Sussex 491 ■Great Saxon invasion under Cerdic 495 Supposedreignsof Vortimer, 464; Vortigern again, 471 ; Aurelius Ambrosius, 481 ; and Arthur Pendragon 500 'King Arthur said to reign 500-532 Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and re-establishment of Christianitj- 597 •Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, reigns 678 I.indisfarne church destroyed by the Northmen 794 Egbert, king of Wessex, virtually king of England 827 KINGS OF THE HEPTARCHY. (Bretwalda.) KENT. [The shire of Kent.} 454. Hengist. [473, Saxon Chronicle.] 488. ^sc, Esca, or Escus, son of Hengist; in honor of whom kings of Kent were often called ^scings. S12. Octa, son of Msc. 542. Hermenric, or Ermenric, son of Octa. 560. St. Ethelbert; first Christian king (styled ijex JlnpZorwrn). 616. Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. •640. Ercenbert, or Ercombert, son of Eadbald. 664. Ecbert, or Egbert, son of Ercenbert. 673. Lothar, or Lothair, brother of Ecbert. ■685. Edric; slain in 687. [The kingdom distracted.] 694. Wihtred, or Wihgtred. 725. Eadbert, ) 748. Ethelbert II., [ sons of Wihtred, succeeding each other. 760. Alric, ) 794. Edbert, or Ethelbert Pryn ; deposed. 796. Cuthred, or Guthred. 805. Baldred; who lost his life and kingdom to 823. Egbert, king of Wessex. SOUTH SAXONS. [Sussex and Surrey.] 491, Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded by 514. Cissa, his son, peaceful reign exceeding 70 years. [The South Saxons became dependent on the kingdom of Wes- sex.] 648. Edilwald, Edilwach, Adelwach, or Ethelwach. 686. Authun and Berthun, brothers ; reigned jointly; vanquished by Ina, king of Wessex, 689 ; kingdom conquered in 725. WEST SAXONS. [Berks, Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset, Dorset, Devon, „„ „ ^. and part of Cornwall.] 519. Cerdic. 534. Cyuric, or Kenric, son of Cerdic. 560. Ceawlin, son of Cynric; banished; dies in 593. 591. Ceolric, nephew to Ceawlin. 597. Ceolwulf 611. ) Cynegils, and in 614. I Cwichelm, his son, reigned jointly. 643. Cenwal, Cenwalh, or Cenwald. 672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of Mercia; of great qualities; probably deposed. 674. Escwine, with Centwine ; on his death 676. Centwine rules alone. 685. Csedwallo : went to Rome, to expiate murders, and died there. 688. Ina or Inas, brave and wise; visited Rome; left an excellent code of laws. 728. Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. 740. Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard. 764. Sigebright, or Sigebert, murdered his friend Cumbran, govern- or of Hampshire, and was slain by one of his victim's retain- ers. 755. Cynewulf, or Kenwulf, or Cenulpe, a noble youth of the line of Cerdic; murdered. j^784. Bertric, or Beorhtric ; poisoned by a cup his queen had prepared for another. «00. Egbert, afterwards sole monarch of England. EAST SAXONS. [Essex, Middlesex, and part of Herts.] 626, 527, or 530. Erchenwin, or Erchwine. 587. Sledda, his son. 597. St. Sebert, or Sabert; son; first Christian king. 614. Saxred, or Sexted, or Serred, jointly with Sigebert and Seward; all slain. 623. Sigebert II. the little; son of Seward. 655. Sigebert III. the good; brother of Sebert ; murdered. 661. Swithelm (or Suidhelm), son of Sexbald. 663. Sigher. or Sigeric, jointly with Sebbi, or Sebba, who became a monk. 693. Sigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 700. Offa ; became a monk at Rome. 709. Suebricht, or Selred. 738. Swithred, or Swithed; a long reign. 792. Sigeric; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. 799. Sigered. 823. Kingdom seized by Egbert of Wessex. NORTHUMBRIA. [Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, and Northumberland.] *sit* Northumbria was at first in 2 governments, Bernicia, from the Tweed to the Tyne, and Deira, from the Tyne to the Humber. 547. Ida, a valiant Saxon. 560. Adda, his eldest son; king of Bernicia. " Ella, king of Deira; afterwards sole king of Northumbria (to 587). 567. Glappa, Clappa, orElapea; Bernicia. 572. 573. 580. 588. 593. 617. 635. 642. 670. 685. 705. 716. 718. 729. 737. 757. 759. 765. 774. 778. 789. 790. 794. 806. 841. a great prince. Slain BRI Heodwulf; Bernicia. Freodwulf; Bernicia. Theodoric; Bernicia. Ethelric; Bernicia. Ethelfrith, surnamed the Fierce. Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in • in battle wiih Penda, of Mercia. Eanfrid rules in Bernicia, and Osric in Deira; both killed. Oswald, slain in battle. Osweo, or Oswy ; a reign of great renown. Ecfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. Osred, or Ealdferth. Cenric ; sprung from Ida. Osric, son of Alcfrid. Ceolwulf; died a monk. Eadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monastery, Oswulf, or Osulf; slain in a sedition. Edilwald, or Mollo; slain by Aired. Aired, Ailred, or Alured; deposed. Ethelred, son of Mollo ; expelled. Elwald, or Celwold; deposed and slain. Osred, son of Aired ; fled. Ethelred restored; afterwards slain. Erdulf, or Ardulf ; deposed. Alfwold. Erdulf, restored. Eanred. Kingdom annexed by Egbert. EAST ANGLES. [Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely.] 526. Ufla lands. 571 or 575. Ufifa, a German, said to be first king. 578. Titilus, or Titulus; son of Ufla. 599. Redwald, son of Titilus; greatest priqce of the East Angles. 624. Erpwald, Eorpwald, or Eordwald. 627. Richbert. 629. Sigebert, half-brother to Erpwald. 632. Egfrid, or Egric ; cousin to Sigebert. 635. Anna, or Annas; a just ruler; killed. 654. Ethelric, or Ethelhere; slain in battle. 655. Ethelwald; his brother. 664. Aldulf, or Aldwulf 713. Selred, or Ethelred. 746. Alphwuld. 749. Beorna and Ethelred, jointly, 758. Beorna alone. 761. Ethelred. 790. Ethelbert, or Ethelbryght ; treacherously killed in Mercia, 792, when Ofl'a, king of Mercia, overran the country, which was finally subdued by Egbert. 870. St. Edmund (vassal king) slain by the Danes. MERCIA. [ Gloucester, Hereford, Chester, Stafford, Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, Bvxiks, Northampton, Notts, Lin- coln, Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, and part of Herts.] 586. Crida, or Cridda, a noble chieftain, [Interregnum— Ceolric] Wibba, a valiant prince, his son. Ceorl, or Cheorl ; nephew of Wibba. Penda; fierce and cruel; killed in battle. Penda, son of Penda; killed to make way for Wulfhere (brother) ; slew his 2 sons. Ethelred ; became a monk. Cenred, or Cendred ; became a monk at Rome, Ceolred, Celred, or Chelred ; son of Ethelred. Ethelbald; slain in a mutiny by his successor, Beornred, or Bernred; himself slain. Ofl'a; formed the great dike near Wales. Egfrid, or Egferth, son of Ofl'a; died suddenly. Cenulph, Cenwulf, or Kenulph; slain. Kenelm, or Cenelm, a minor; reigned 5 months; killed by his sister Quendreda. Ceolwulf, uncle to Kenelm; expelled. Beornwulf; killed by his own subjects. Ludecan; a valiant ruler; slain. Withlafe, or Wiglaf Berthulf, or Bertulf Burhred. or Burdred. 874. Ceolwulph ; deposed by the Danes, 877. [The kingdom merged in England.] Britannia tubular bridg^e. Bridges. Briti§ll America comprises the dominion of Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, and Prince Ed- ward Island, Labrador, British Columbia, and Vancouver's Island. Pop. 1891, 4,823,344. Delegates from the first 6 provinces met at Quebec, 10 Oct., and formed a federal union, with the queen of England as executive (represented by a governor-general), a legislative council of 96 members for life, and a house of commons of 194 members 20 Oct. 1864 Secretary for the colonies, Mr. Cardwell, approved the plan, 3 Dec. " Plan opposed by New Brunswick 7 Mch. 1866 Messrs. Cartier and Gait came to England to advocate it. .Apr. " Act for union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, as "the dominion of Canada," introduced by the earl of Car- narvon, 19 Feb. : nassed 29 Mch. 1867 593. 597. 615. 626. 655. 656. 675. 704. 709. 716. 755. 794, 819. 821. 825. 852. BRI [British government guaranteed a subsidy of 3,000,000i. to complete the intercolonial railway.] By the British North America act, the Parliament of Canada may establish new provinces 29 June, 1871 British Asuoclation fur the Advancenaent of Sci- ence was established by sir David Brewster, sir R. I. Murchi- 8on,etc., in 1831. Prof. Johii Phillips was secretary till 1863. It holds annua] meetings; the first at York on 27 Sept. 1831. A main object is " to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science with each other." It appoints commissions, makes pecuniary grants for scientific research, and publishes annual reports of proceedings. Kew observatory presented to the association by queen Victoria in 1842. Amekican Association. British Collimbia, N. America. In June, 1858, news came to California that in April much gold had been found on the. mainland of North America, just north and east of Vancouver's Island. A great influx of gold-diggers (in a few weeks above 50,000) from all parts followed; and Mr. Douglas, governor of Vancouver's Island, ably preserved order. The territory' with adjacent islands was made a British colony with the above title, with Mr. Douglas as governor, under 21 and 22 Vict. c. 99 (Aug. 1858) ; a bishop was nominated in 1869. Vancouver's Island was incorporated with the colony in 1866, and Victoria made the capital, 24 May, 1868. The colony was annexed to Canada, 1871. Pop. 1891, 92,767. British East Aft*ica. Anolo-French-German AOREEMKNT, ZANZIBAR, etC. British museuin, originated with the grant by Par- liament (5 Apr. 1753) of 20,000/. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his fine library and collection of the productions of nature and art, valued by himself at 80,000/. The library contained 50,000 volumes,4100 valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of virtu enumerated in the catalogue. Montagu House was obtained by government as a place for their recep- tion. The museum (including the Cottonian, Harleian, and other collections) was opened 15 Jan. 1759, and has since been enormously increased by gifts, bequests, and purchases. The total expenditure by the government on the British museum for the year ending 31 Mch. 1860, was 78,445/. ; 1861, 92,776/. ; 1864, 95,500/.; 1867, 110,756/. ; 1877, 108,947/. ; 1884, 152,133/. The number of visitors to the general collection in 1851 (ex- hibition year), 2,524,754; in 1859, 517,895; in 1862 (exhibi- tion year), 895,007 ; in 1863,440,801; in 1866, 516,550; 1871, 418,094; 1875,663,891; in 1878,448,516; in 1879,606,394; in 1880, 655,688: readers, 133,842; 1883, 660,557: readers, 152,983. Additions to library in 1880, 27,543 volumes and pamphlets (including books of music and volumes of newspa- pers). Expenditure on purchases, 1753-1875, 1,070,934/. New buildings erected by sir R. Smirke 1823-47 Iron railing completed 1852 Great reading-room erected by Sydney Smirke, on a plan by Antonio Panizzi, the librarian (cost about 150,000?. ; height of dome, 106 ft. ; diameter, 140 ft. ; contains about 80,000 volumes, and accommodates 300 readers), opened. . .18 May, 1857 Incorporation of the i library ciitalogues into one alphabet be- gun ; 3 copies made 1861 Proposed separation of the antiquarian, literary, and scientific collections was disapproved by a commission in 1860; a bill to remove natural history collections to South Kensington rejected by the commons 19 May, 1862 A refreshment- room for readers opened 21 Nov. 1864 Number of books (estimated), 1,600,000 Jan. 1870 6000?. voted for a natural history museum at South Kensing- ton 2 Aug. " Photographs of above 5000 objects of antiquity (illustrating man's progress in civilization) published for about 116/., Aug. 1872 Act of Parliament authorizing removal of natural history col- lections to South Kensington ; passed 13 Aug. 1878 Museum partly opened daily after 11 Feb. 1879 Electric light tried in reading-room, 25 Feb. et seq. ; adopted for even ngs in the winter months 20 Oct. " White bequest (60,000?.) 1880 New British Museum for Natural History, Cromwell road. South Kensi ngton ; bu i Iding completed Nov. " Part of the collection removed and opened to the public, Easter Monday 18 Apr. 1881 John Gould's humming birds, etc., bought about Apr. " New building in Montague st. founded (by means of Wm. White's legacy of 63.941?.) 23 Sept. 1882 New Assyrian room (including Mr. Rassam's collection) opened, Jan. 1884 New catalogue, 74 volumes, ready Dec. " New galleries, glass and pottery, Greek sculpture, opened 1889 Open evenings from 8 to 10 Feb. 1, 1890 126 BRI important ADDITIONS {bought or given).— [Edwards.) Those marked * were gifts or bequests. * George II. , old royal library 175T * Solomon Da Costa. Hebrew library 1759' * G. Thomason, collection (political) from George III 1762 * Solander, fossils 1766 * Birch, library and MSS " Hamilton vases, etc 1772. * Musgrave library 1790-99 * Cracherodo library 1799 Hatchett minerals.'. " * Alexandrian collection (trom George III.) 1802 Townley marbles 1805-17 Lansdowne MSS. (state papers) 1H04 Greville minerals 1810 Roberts, English coins " Hargravo library 1813 Phigaleian marbles 1815 Elgin marbles 1816 Burney library 181& * Banks's archaeological collections " * George I II. 's library, given by George IV 1823-25 * Payne Knight's collections 1824 * Sir J. Banks's library and collections 1827 * Egerton MSS 1829^ *Arundelian MSS 1831 Mantell, fossils 1839' SyriacMSS 1841-47 * Lycian marbles (by sir C. Fellows) 1845- * Grenville library, collected by right hon. Thomas Grenvllle (20,240 vols.) 184T Morrison's Chinese library " Assyrian collections (by A. Layard) 1851-6C Halicarnassian and Cnidian marbles (by C. T. Newton) 1855-60 Carthaginian antiquities (by N. Davis) 1859^ Cyrene marbles (by Smith and Porcher) 186C Cureton, Oriental MSS 1864 Duke of Blacas's museum (bought for 48,000?.) 1866 * Abyssinian antiquities 1868 * Slade collection (glass, etc. ) " * George Smith's (of Daily Telegraph) Assyrian collections. . . . 1873- * Elamite antiquities, by col. Ross 187& * Urns, implements, ornaments, etc., from 234 British barrows (Barrows), by rev. canon Greenwell 1879^ 300 Babylonian tablets purchased June, 1882 1000 Stowe MSS.. part of the Ashburnham library 1883 * Slavin and Godman's collection of American birds 1885 * Indian birds and eggs from A. 0. Hume " * Marquis of Tweeddale's collection of birds Oct. 1887 * Morgan's collection of watches, clocks, key-rings, etc Oct. 188» PKINCIPAL LIBRARIANS. Dr. Gowin Knight 1753 Dr. Matthew Maty 1772 Dr. Charles Morton 1776 Joseph Planta 1799 Henry Ellis 1827 Antonio Panizzi 1856 J. Winter Jones 1866 Edward Augustus Bond, Aug. 1878 ; resigned, June, 1888 Edward Maunde Thompson, 1888 British orders in council. As the sovereign of the United Kingdom can only act through privy-councillor* or upon their advice, the more formal acts of administration must proceed from the authority of the sovereign in council, and their performance be directed by orders issued by the sov- ereign at a meeting of the privy council. — Todd's " Parliamen- tary Law of Engl.," vol. ii. p. 621. Every '* order in council" shall be published in the London Gazette, and shall be laid before both Houses of Parliament within 30 days after the making thereof, if Parliament is sitting, and if not, 30 daya after the next meeting of Parliament. "British orders in council " of 8 June, 1793, relative to "neutrals," called forth the first embargo act on the part of the United States, 1794. British orders in council of 11 Nov. 1807, prohibited any direct trade from the U. S. to any port or country in Europe from which the British flag was excluded; it allowed direct trade in American productions only between the U. S. and Sweden ; it or- dered all articles of domestic or colonial production exported by the U. S. to Europe to be landed in England, when their re-exportation on paying duties would be permitted and regulated, and it de- clared any vessel and cargo good prize if it carried a French con- sular certificate of the origin of the cargo. Berlin and Milait Decrees; Embargo; United States, 1807-09-13. Brittany, Britanny, or Bretag^ne, N.W. France, the ancient Armorica, formed part of the kingdom of the Franks. Nomenoe revolts and becomes the first count 841 Brittany ravaged by Northmen, 907; ceded to them 921 Geoffroy I. the first duke 992 Alan v., 1008; Conan II 104a Hoel v., 1066; Alan VI 1084 Conan III 1112 Hoel VI. expelled ; Geoffroy of Anjou duke 1155' Conan IV. duke, 1156; on the death of Geoffroy, cedes Brittany to Henry II. of England, and betroths his daughter, Con- stance, to Henry's son, Geoffroy (both infants) 1159- Geoffroy succeeds, 1171 ; killed at a tournament. . . . , 118& BRI 127 BRO His son, Arthur, murdered by his uncle, John of England; his daughter, Eleanor, imprisoned at Bristol (for 39 years). .Apr. 1203 Alice, daughter of Constance by her second husband, Guy de Thours, proclaimed duchess, 1203 ; marries Peter of Dreux, made duke 1213 John I., duke, 1237; John II 1286 John III., 1312; dies without issue 1341 Succession disputed between John of Montfort (John IV.), supported by Edward of England, and Charles of Blois, made duke by Philip VI. of France. John is made prisoner; his wife, Jane, besieged at Hennebonne, is relieved by the English, 1343; John dies 1345 Charles of Blois defeated and slain at Auray, 29 Sept. ; John v., son of Montfort, duke 1364 John VI., duke, 1399; Francis 1 1442 Peter II., 1450; Arthur III 1457 Francis II., 1458; takes part with the Orleanists in France; defeated at St. Aubin, 28 July, 1488 ; dies 1488 Anne, his daughter and heiress, marries, 1st, Charles VIII. of France, 1491 ; 2d, Louis XII., 1499; her eldest daughter, Claude (b. 1499), marries Francis, count of Angouleme, 1514; king of France 1 Jan. 1515 Brittany formally united to the monarchy 1532 Brittany held by Spaniards, 1591 ; recovered by Henry IV 1594 Bretons take part in the Vendean insurrection (La Vendee). . . 1791 '' Britton," an ancient treatise on English law written in French by or in the name of king Edward L, about 1291. Coke attributed the work to John le Breton, bishop of Hereford, who died in 1275. An edition of "Britton," with translation in English by Mr. F. Nicholls, was pub. in 1865. broad arrow. Origin of this mark is unknown. It is said that timber trees fit for shipping in the forest of Dean in 1639 were marked with the crown and broad arrow. It is said to have been the device of viscount Sydney, earl of Rom- ney, master-general of the ordnance, 1693-1702. — Brewer. ^' Broad-bottom " adiiiini§tration. The Pelham administration was so called because formed by a co- alition of parties (Administrations of England), Nov. 1744. Broad-church §chool in the church of England, with a tendency to reject traditional creeds, became prominent about 1836, through the lectures of Dr. Hampden, and still more through the " Theological Essays " of F. D. Maurice, in 1853 ; the " Essays and Reviews," in 1860 ; the works of bishop Colenso on the Pentateuch, etc., 1862 et seq. ; and of Dr. Arnold, dean Stanley, canon Kingsley, and others. brocade, a silken stuff, variegated with gold or silver, and enriched with flowers and figures, originally made by the Chinese ; the manufacture was established at Lyons in 1757. broccoli, a variety of the common cabbage resembUng the cauliflower, said to have been brought to England from Italy in the 16th century. brokers, of money and merchandise, known early in England. Appraisers. They were licensed, and their deal- ings regulated by law in 1695-96, 1816, and 1826. The deal- ings of stockbrokers were regulated in 1719, 1733, and 1736, and subsequently. Brokers in London placed under the super- j vision of the lord mayor and aldermen, in 1707 ; relieved from it by act of 9 Aug. 1870. Pawnbroker. In the United States they are not licensed, nor do they give bonds. bromine (from the Gr. jSpiofiog, a stink), a poisonous vol- atile liquid element discovered in salt-water by M. Balardin 1826. It is found in combination with metals and mineral waters, bronze was known to the ancients, some of whose bronze statues, vessels, etc., are in the British museum. The bronze equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Vendome at Paris (demolished 10 Aug. 1792), the largest ever made, contained 60,000 pounds. Bronze is composed of copper and tin, with sometimes a little zinc and lead. Coinage. Brook farm, the location of a society near West Eoxbury, Mass., formed in 1841 for a practical test of Chris- tianity as taught by its founder. Up to 1842 it had nothing in common with " Fourierism, " after vhich it became a com- munity and lasted until 1846. It is notable for members eminent in literature : Dr. Channing, Geo. Ripley, Margaret Fuller, Theo. Parker, Geo. W. Curtis, Miss E. P. Peabody, Haw- , thorne, W. Burton, Chas. A. Dana, R. W. Emerson, etc. It suggested Hawthorne's " Blithedale Romance." Brooklyn, N. Y., popularly called the "city of churches," ranks (1890) as the fourth city in the United States in point of population, manufacture, and commerce. It is situ- ated on Long Island, opposite New York, and the two cities are practically one. Area, 26.46 sq. miles. The settlement of the present city began at 3 points : In 1636 William A. Bennet and Jacques Bentyn purchased from the Indians 930 acres at Gowanus (between 27th st. and New Utrecht), and John (George) Jansen de Rapalie purchased the piece of land now occupied in part by the U. S. Marine hospital, 16 June, 1637. Jan Evertse Bout in July, 1645, followed in 1646-47 by others, established themselves on what is now Fulton st., near the city- hall, calling the settlement Breuckelen. In 1660 Breuckelen contained 134 inhabitants, disposed in 31 families. In 1738 a census showed a pop. of 721, which increased by an- nexation, etc. In 1800 it was 2378. Since then bv decades it has been: 1810, 4402; 1820,7175; 1830, 12,406; 1840,36,233; 1850, 96,838 ; 1860, 266,661 ; 1870, 396,099 ; 1880, 566,663 i 1890, 806,343. Cornelis Dircksen, first regular ferryman, mentioned as propri- etor of a ferry between Long Island and New Amsterdam, from the present Fulton St., Brooklyn, to the foot of Peck slip. New York, known as the "old ferry " 1642 Breuckelen organized as a town by the colonial council, and Jan Eversen Bout and Huyck Aertsen elected as "schepens," 1646 [Named Breuckelen after a village in Holland, 18 miles from Amsterdam.] First ferry ordinance, requiring license and establishing fees, enacted, July, 1654, and first ferry-house in Breuckelen built.. 1655 Henricus Selyns, Breuckelen's first minister, formally installed, 7 Sept. 1660 First schoolmaster, Carel de Beauvois, arrives, July, 1661, and a school- house soon after erected at crossing of nresent North 2d st. and Bushwick ave '. 1661 First Protestant Reformed Dutch church organized, 12 Mch. 1660, and first church edifice in Breuckelen built in the middle of what is now Fulton st. , near Lawrence 1666 [Pulled down and rebuilt, 1766.] Gov. Nicolls grants a patent to the inhabitants of Brooklyn, 18 Oct. 1667 Patent confirming that of 1667, obtained from gov. Dongan, under seal of the colony 13 May, 1686 Fulton St. and Fulton ave. laid out by commissioners, and known as the main road of the " King's highway "...28 Mch. 1704 General Assembly of the province sits in Brooklyn, owing to the prevalence of small pox in New York 20 Mch. -8 Oct. 1746 During session of the colonial legislature held in Brooklyn, on account of small-pox in New York, the colonial commission- ers cancel 2541 bills of credit issued by the colony of New York, amounting to about 3600Z 4 June, 1752 Battle of Long Island. New York 27 Aug. 1776 Fort erected by the British near the junction of Pierrepont and Henry sts 1780-81 A newspaper called the Brooklyn-Hall Super-Extra Gazette, the first in the city; only one copy known; pub 8 June, 1782 First fire-company organized, for which was built the first fire- engine, the •' Washington, No. 1," by Jacob Roome of New York 30 Apr. 1785 First Methodist church, built on Sands st. and dedicated, 1 June, 1794 New ferry, afterwards Catharine St. ferry, established by William Furman and Theodosius Hunt 1 Aug. 1795 First fire-alarm bell hung on the storehouse of Jacob Remsen (pulled down 1816), on the cor. of present Fulton and Front sts. 1796 First printing-press established by Thomas Kirk, printing the first regular newspaper in Brooklyn, the Courier and New York and Long Island Advertiser 26 June, 1799 Fortitude Lodge No. 19, first permanent Masonic lodge in Brooklyn, organized 4 Dec. " Brooklyn navy- yard purchased for the U. S. ; price paid, $40.000 5 Feb. 1801 Settlement of Brooklyn incorporated as a fire-district.. . .2 Apr. " St. Ann's church, Episcopal, built 1805 Interment with military and civic honors in 13 coffins, one to represent each state, of the bones of the martyrs of the British prison ships, in a vault erected by the Tammany Society, in Jackson St., adjoining the navy-yard 26 May, 1808 Loisian Semi nary established, to teach poor children " reading, writing, arithmetic, knitting, and sewing gratis " 1813 First steam ferry-boat, the Nassau, com mences running between Brooklyn and New York 10 May, 1814 Brooklyn Sunday-school Union Society organized 8 Apr. 1816 That portion of Brooklyn included in the fire-district of 1801, incorporated as a village by act 12 Apr. " First district school. No. 1, opened on lower floor of Thomas Kirk's printing-office, with 73 scholars (school conducted on the Lancasterian plan and soon removed to cor. Concord and Adams sts.) 6 May, " Corporate seal adopted 27 June, " Village trustees sue Jacob Patchen, for refusing to relay the pavement in front of his house in Old Ferry st Dec. " Old Ferry st. renamed Fulton st June, 1817 First Episcopal Sunday-school opened spring of 1818 Guy's "Snow Scene of Brooklyn " preserved in the Brooklyn Institute, painted 1^20 Daily mail to New York and Jamaica established May, First village directory pub. by Alden Spooner May, 1822 [An incomplete list of residents in Brooklyn appeared in a New York city directory issued in 1796.] Corner-stone of the first Roman Catholic church (St. James's) laid in .Jay st 25 July, '' Fire department of the village of Brooklyn incorporated, 16 Apr. 1823 BRO First Presbyterian church incorporated, 13 Mch. 1822, and brick chun-h in Cranberry st. dedicated 20 Apr. Brooklyn receives (Vuni the stale $413.13 for its share of the public-school lund Apprentices' Library Association organized, 7 Aug., and consti- tution adopte*! U Aug. Yellow-fever epidemic 22 Aug. -22 Sept. St James church dedicated 28 Aug. First liiiptist church incorporated 15 Oct Corner-stone of new St Ann's church laid 31 Mch. Long Island bank incorporated with capital stock $300,000. by act 1 Apr. Board of Health established 9 'Apr. Village watch organized and municipal court established Corner-stone of the Apprentices' Library laid by gen. Lafayette, 4 July, [It stood on the cor. of Cranberry and Henry sts. , afterwards occupied by the armory buildings, and conUiined the village trustees' room and the postofBce, and was used for preach- ing service by Elias Hicks and others.] First parade of the lire department 4 July, Brooklyn Savings-bank chartered 7 Apr Village of Williamsburg incorporated 14 Apr. First night-boat on the Fulton ferry commences running, 28 Sept Brooklyn Amphitheatre erected on Fulton st, below Concord, and opened by an equestrian company 10 July, Explosion of the powder-magazine of the steam frigate Fulton at ilio navy yard; 33 killed, 29 wounded 4 June, Protostaiit (n-phau Asylum Society instituted (incorporated 18;<.-.) Roman Catholic Orphan asylum opened in a house on Jay st. . Brooklyn incorporated as a city 8 Apr. George Hall elected by the board 'of aldermen, first mayor, 20 May, First steam railway in Brooklyn, the Brooklyn and Jamaica railroad, completed and opened 18 Apr. Comer-stone of the city-hall laid (completed 1849) 28 Apr. Musical instruction introduced in district school No. 1, by Theodore Dwight Brooklyn Orphan asylum, opened 1833, incorporated 13 Feb 1835, and corner-stoneof building in Cumberland st laid, 6 Oct, Greenwood cemetery incorporated First lodge of Odd Fellows in Brooklyn organized; Brooklyn Lodge No. 26 12 Nov. First election of mayor by the people; Cyrus P. Smith chosen, 14 Apr. First burial in Greenwood cemetery; John Hanna, near the base of Ocean hill 5 Sept Brooklyn Eagle, daily, established 26 Oct Board of Education ofthecity of Brooklyn created by act, 23 Mch. Line of omnibuses established between Fulton ferry and E. Brooklyn Sept Riot between native Americans and Irish 4 Apr. Atlantic Dock Company organized, 8 July, 1840; dock construc- tion begun, 3 June, 1841, and building of first warehouse begun 25 May, Long Island railroad tunnel in Atlantic st opened to travel, 3 Dec. Holy Trinity church, cor. Clinton and Montague sts., erected. . Improvement of Washington park begun Rev. Henry Ward Beecher begins his pastorate in Plymouth church < 10 Oct Brooklyn Times established as the Williamsburg Daily Times, 28 Feb. €as first introduced in Brooklyn 27 Mch. Last of 9000 piles for the Brooklyn dry dock driven 12 May, Fire breaks out on Fulton st. near Sands, burns over 7 blocks; loss over $1,500,000; 3 churches and the post office burned. 9 Sept. Cypress Hills cemetery dedicated 21 Nov. Cholera epidemic; 642 deaths, or one to every 155 inhabitants, 29 May-22 Sept. Cemetery of the Evergreens incorporated 3 Oct Plymouth church burned, 13 Jan. 1849; corner-stone of new building laid, 29 May, 1849; house first occupied by the con- gregation 6 Jan. Brooklyn museum, cor. Fulton and Orange sts., opened, 1 July, Police department organized; John S. Folk, chief of police Williamsburg chartered as a city 7 Apr. Brooklyn Heights Seminary established by prof Alonzo Gray, LL.D Brooklyn City hospital incorporated, 8 May, 1845; corner- stone of building on old fort Greene laid, 11 June, 1851, and centre building completed and opened 28 Apr. Packer Collegiate Institute incorporated under name of the Brooklyn Female Academy, 1845, and first building dedicated, 4 May. 1846. Building destroyed by fire, 1 Jan. 1853, and interest therein transferred to the Brooklyn Polytechnic In- stitute Brooklyn Young Men's Christian As.sociation organized. .Sept Pierrepont house, cor. Montague and Hicks sts., oi)ened. .May, Brooklyn City Railroad Company, incorporated 17 Dec. 18.53, and first street-cars run 3 July, Packer Collegiate Institute; new buildings erected and opened, 11 Sept Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute incorporated and opened Williamsburg and Bushwick annexed to Brooklyn (act of leg- islature, 17 Apr. 1854) 1 Jan. New building of the Brooklyn City hospital opened 31 Jan. 128 BRO 1822 18-24 1825 1827 1829 1833 1834 1836 ,. 1838 1841 1843 1844 1847 1849 u 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 Truant Home founded, 12 Apr. 1853 ; opened 1856 Plan prepared by William J. McAlpine for supply of water to the city adopted, 28 Apr. 1853, and inaugural celebration of building of reservoir in Prospect park occurs 31 July, " Board of sewer commissioners created 15 Apr. 1857 Philharmonic Society of Brooklyn organized 5 May, '> Mercantile Library Association organized, 17 Dec. 1857, and library opened with 7000 volumes 7 May, 1858 Long Island College hospital opened May, " Apprentices' Library sold to the city for $11,000 (1836), occupied until the completion of the city-hall (1848) as the city building ; torn down and replaced by the city armory buildings " Plans for sewerage and drainage system reported and adopted, 16 Apr. 1859 Water from Ridgewood reservoir first let into the city mains, 4 Dec. 1858; event celebrated by the city 28 Apr. " Boiler explosion in hat factory on Nostrand ave., between Myrtle and Park aves. ; out of 35 persons in the building at the time, 9 killed and 18 wounded 7 a.m., 3 Feb. 1860 Brooklyn Art Association instituted 5 Jan. 1861 Brooklyn Academy of Music erected at a cost of over $206,000; opened 15 Jan. " Corner-stone of the new county courthouse (completed Mch. 1865) laid 20 May, 1862 Long Island Historical Society, organized 10 Mch. 1863 ; incor- porated Apr. 1863 Park theatre, Fulton st, the first regularly established theatre in Brooklyn, opened with the comedy by Buckstone, " Mar- ried Life " 14 Sept " Brooklyn and Long Island fair; net result $402,943.74; held, 22 Feb. -8 Mch. 1864 Construction of the Erie Basin and Brooklyn Basin begun, June, " Standard- Union established " Brooklyn Academy of Design instituted • 1866 Distribution of medals prepared by order of the common coun- cil, to every Brooklyn soldier who had returned from the war with an honorable record 25 Oct " Corner-stone of Roman Catholic cathedral on Lafayette ave., between Clermont and Vanderbilt aves., laid by bishop Loughlin 21 June, 1868 Mercantile Library building, corner-stone laid, 27 Oct 1867; opened 18 Jan. 1869 John A. Roebling, b. Prussia, 12 June, 1806; d 22 July, " [Designerof the Brooklyn Bridge.] Metropolitan paid fire department created " Prospect park provided for by act of legislature, 17 Apr. 1860; improvements begun, June, 1866; completed about 1871 City ambulance service organized 1873 New city charter , June, " Tabernacle Presbyterian church destroyed by fire, Dec. 1872, and new^ tabernacle erected and dedicated 22 Feb. 1874 Brooklyn theatre burned; 295 lives lost 5 Dec. 1876 Ground broken for municipal building, 21 June, 1876; first occupied May, 1878 Electric light introduced in Brooklyn by F. Loeser in his store on Fulton st 14 Dec. " Farewell service in old St Ann's church 1880 [It was demolished to make way for the approach to the Brooklyn bridge.] New building of Long Island Historical Society opened, 2 Nov. " St Mary's General hospital, corner-stone laid, 12 Oct. 1879; opened for reception of patients 17 Dec. 1882 Work on Brooklyn bridge begun, 3 Jan. 1870, and bridge opened (Bridges) 24 May, 1883 Panic on Brooklyn bridge; 12 killed, many injured 30 May, " Brooklyn elevated railway opened 14 May, 1885 Training-school for teachers opened (Brooklyn Institute) " Brooklyn Citizen, daily, established 1886 Rev. Henry Ward Beecher d 8 Mch. 1887 Street-railway strike and tie-up begins 26 Jan. 1889 Brooklyn Tabernacle destroyed by fire 13 Oct " Dr. Lyman Abbott installed pastor of Plymouth church, 16 Jan. 1890 New Brooklyn Tabernacle completed 25 Apr. 1891 Statue of Henry Ward Beecher unveiled 24 June, " New Brooklyn Tabernacle destroyed by fire May, 1894 Street-railway (trolley) strike and tie-up begins 10 Jan., and terminates 2 Mch 1895 MAYORS. Samuel S. Powell 1857 Martin Kalbfleisch 1861 Alfred M. Wood 1864 Samuel Booth 1806 Martin Kalbfleisch 1868 Samuel S. Powell 1872 John W. Hunter 1874 Fred. A. Schroeder 1876 James Howell 1878 SethLow 1882 Daniel D. Whitney 1886 Alfred C. Chapin 1888 David A. Boody 1892 Charles A. Schieren 1894 George Hall 1834 Jonathan, Trotter 1835 Jeremiah Johnson 1837 Cyrus P. Smith 1839 Henry C. Murphy 1842 Joseph Sprague 1843 Thomas T. Talmage 1845 Francis B. Stryker 1846 Edward Cojjeland 1849 Samuel Smith. , 18.50 Conklin Brush 1851 Edward A. Lambert 1853 George Hall 1855 Brook§, Preston S. Representative from S. C, 34th Congress. United States, 1856. Brother Jonathan, origin of. Connecticut, 1769. hroug'ham, a popular vehicle said to have been in- vented in 1839, and adopted by lord Brougham. BRO 129 BRU Brown, Fort, a work partly completed by the Americans on the Rio Grande, opposite Matamoras, in the spring of 1846, and commanded by major Brown, for whom it was named. It was cannonaded from Matamoras on 3 May, 1846. Major Brown was mortally wounded. Gen. Taylor marched from Point Isabel and relieved it after a cannonade and bombardment of 160 hours. This was the opening of the Mexican VVak. BrO\rn In§titUte, Battersea, Engl., with a hospital for quadrupeds and birds useful to man, established by a be- quest of Thomas Brown, of Dublin ; first professor. Dr. Burdon- Sanderson; opened 2 Dec. 1871. Dr. Greenfield, professor, Dec. 1878. Bro WIl'§ Ferry, Tenn. Chattanooga Campaign, 27 Oct. 1863. Bro-wn'S (John) iniUrrection. An attempt of John Brown to incite the slaves of the south to assert their freedom b}' force. Brown had been zealous in making Kansas a free state, and was known as a bitter enemy of slavery. Kansas, 1855-56. He brought a few followers to near Harper's Ferry, Va., in the summer of 1859, secretly collecting arms and ammunition to arm the slaves whom he expected to join him. His party, 23 in number, 17 white and 6 colored men, on Sunday night, 16 Oct. 1859, entered the village of Harper's Ferry about half-past 10 p.m., seized without opposition the government armory and railroad bridge, and had the place in their power before* daylight. Brown arrested many principal citizens as hostages; a desultory combat ensued as soon as the citizens procured arms, and by the afternoon of the 17th Brown was on the defensive and cut off from escape. Still he successfully re- sisted every attempt to dislodge him from the armory. In the afternoon col. Robert E. Lee arrived from Washington with 90 U. S. marines and 2 pieces of artillery, too late for attack. On the morning of the 18th Brown, still refusing to surrender, although but 4 of his men remained unhurt, an attack was made onthearmoryandit was easily forced. In the final attack Brown was severely wounded. The following shows the fate of each of the participants in this enterprise. The survivors captured were tried at Charlestown, Va., and executed as follows : John Brown, leader, b. 8 May, 1800 hung 2 Dec. 1859 JohnE.Cook " 1« Dec. " Edwin Coppoc " " " " John A. Copeland, negro " " " " Shields Green, negro " ^' " " Aaron C. Stephens " 16Mch. 1860 Albert Hazlett " " " " John Henry Kagi killed at Harper's Ferry Watson Brown, son of John " " " " Oliver Brown, son of John " " " " William H. Leeman " " " " Jeremiah G. Anderson. " " " " William Thompson " " " " Dauphin Thompson " " " " Stewart Taylor " " " " Dangerfleld Newby, negro " " " " Lewis Leary, negro " " " " Charles Plummer Tidd escaped Owen Brown " Barclay Coppoc " Francis Jackson Merriam " Osborn P. Anderson, negro " John Anderson, negro " Browniail motion, so called from Robert Brown, the celebrated botanist, who in 1827, by the aid of the micro- scope, observed in drops of dew a motion of minute particles which at first was attributed to rudimentary life, but was after- wards decided to be due to currents occasioned by inequalities of temperature and evaporation. BrOWniniS; Society, of England, for the study of the works of Robert Browning, the poet, was organized by F. J. Furnivall and Miss Hickey. It held its first meeting in London, 28 Oct. 1881. BrowniitS or Barroivi§t§, the first Independ- ents, named after Robert Brown, a schoolmaster in Southwark, about 1580. Henry Penry, Henry Barrow, and other Brown- ists were cruelly executed for alleged sedition, 29 May, 1593. t)f this sect was Mr. Robinson, elder Brewster, and the congre- gation that settled at Plymouth, Mass., 1620. BrownitOWn, Mich., 26 miles below Detroit. Here 2(\0 Ohio volunteers, under major Van Home, were defeated by some British and Indians on 4 Aug. 1812. The Americans lost 17 killed and 8 wounded. 5 Bruee'§ travel§. James Bruce, the " Abyssinian traveller," set out in June, 1768, to discover the source of the Nile. Proceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the desert to the Red sea, and, arriving at Jedda, passed some months in Arabia Felix, and, after va- rious detentions, reached Gondar, the capital of Abyssinia, in Feb. 1770. On 14 Nov. 1770, he obtained asight of the sources of the Blue Nile. " A wanderer proudly stood Beside the well-spring, deep and lone, Of Egypt's awful flood." — Hemans, " Bruce at the source of the Nile." He returned to England in 1773, and died 27 Apr. 1794. Brilge§, Belgium, in the 7th century, was capital of Flanders, and in the 13th and 14th centuries almost the com- mercial metropolis of the world. It suftered much through au insurrection in 1488, and the consequent repression. It was subjected to France in 1794, to the Netherlands in 1814, and to Belgium in 1830. " In the market-place ot Bruges stands the belfrey, old and brown ; Thrice consumed and thrice rebuilded. still it watches o'er the town. —Longfelloiv, "The Belfrey of Bruges." Brumaire revolution. Directory. Brunanburg (supposed by some to be near Ford, Northumberland). Anlaf, with an army pf Northmen from Ireland, and Constantine HI., king of Scots, landed at the mouth of the Humber, and were defeated with very great slaughter at Brunanburg by Athelstan, 937. Brundisium, now Brin'di§i, a seaport on the Adriatic sea, S. Italy, a Greek city, taken by the Romans, 267 B.C. ; and made a colony, 244. Here Virgil died, 22 Sept. 19 B,c. Since the establishment of the overland route to India it has become, as the terminus of the Mount Cenis and other railroad routes, a great point of departure of passengers for the East. Briinn, capital of Moravia since 1641 ; was entered by the French under Murat, 18 Nov. 1805; and by the Prussians, 13 July, 1866. BrunS'iW'icii, House of. The duchy of Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered by Charlemagne, and governed afterwards by counts and dukes. Albert-Azzo II., marquess of Italy and lord of Este, died in 1097, and left by his wife Cunegonde (heiress of Guelph, duke of Carinthia in Bavaria), a son, Guelph, who was invited into Germany by Imitza, his mother-in-law, and invested with all the possessions of his wife's step-father, Guelph of Bavaria. Bavaria. His de- scendant, Henry the Lion, married Maud, daughter of Henry II. of England, and founded the Brunswick family. His do- minions were very extensive ; but, having refused to assist the emperor Frederick Barbarossa against pope Alexander III., through the emperor's resentment was proscribed at the diet at Wurtzburg, in 1180. The duchy of I3avaria was given to Otho of Wittelsbach, ancestor of the family of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt; his other territories to different persons. He retired to England ; but, at the intercession of Henry II., Brunswick and Luneburg were restored to him. The house of Brunswick in 1409 divided into several branches. Brunswick was included by Napoleon in the kingdom of Westphalia in 1806, but was restored to the duke in 1815. Area, 1441 sq. miles. Pop. in 1871,312,170; in 1876, 327,493 ; in 1890, 372,580. Brunswick joined the North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 1866. DUKES OF BRUNSWICK. 1136. Henry, duke of Bavaria. 1139. Henry the Lion (son). 1195. Henry the Long and William (sons). 1213. Otho I. (son of William). 1252. Albert I. (son of preceding). 1278. Albert II. (son). 1318. Otho, Magnus L, and Ernest (sons). 1368. Magnus II. [Torquatus (son of Magnus L)]. dukes of brunswick-wolfenbuttel. First Branch. 1409. Henry L (son of Magnus II.). 1416. William I. and Henry IL (sons). 1482. Frederic and William II. ) g^^g ^j ^jUiam L 1495. Henry III. and Eric. ) 1514. Henry IV. (son of Henry II.). 1568. Julius (son of preceding). Bril$§el§, once capital of Austrian Brabant, now of Belgium (since 1831), founded by St. Gery, of Cambray, in the 7th century, is celebrated for fine lace, carpets, and tapes- try. The Hotel de Ville has a turret 364 ft. in height; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 ft. high, which turns with the wind. Pop. 1890, 448,088. Belgium. Cathedral of St. Gudule (begun 1010 ? ) completed 1273 Made capital of the Low Countries 1507 Ruled tyrannically by Alva 1567 " Union of Brussels " to expel the Spaniards 1577-T8 Bombarded by marshal Villeroi ; 14 churches and 10,000 houses destroyed , Aug. 1695 Taken by the French, 1701; by Marlborough, 17(»6; by Saxe, 16 Feb. 174:6 ; and by Dumouriez Nov. 1792 Revolution commences 25 Aug. 1830 Maritime conference to obtain uniform meteorological observa- tions held here 1853 International philanthropic congress Sept. 1856 " association for social sciences meet... 22-25 Sept. 1862 Brussels Conference. The Society for the Amelioration of the Condition of Prisoners of War sent circulars (dated 28 Mch.) to the great powers. On 17 Apr. Russia issued a programme for the conference, consisting of 71 articles, embracing all the " usages of war." Lord Derby (for Great Britain), in a de- spatch, declined the discussion of international law, 4 July. Gen. sir Alfred Horsford was sent delegate for Great Britain without active powers, reserving liberty of action. Congress opened 27 July ; baron Jomini (from Russia) president. United States not represented. Sittings were secret. Con- ference closed without important results, 28 Aug. 1874. Brit- ish report published in London Gazette 24 Oct. 1874 Belgian industrial exhibition opened 5 Sept. " International exhibition of objects relating to public health and safety, opened by the king, 26 June; congress met 27 Sept. -2 Oct. 1876 International congress of commerce and industry. . .6-10 Sept. 1880 Antislavery conference meets 18 Nov. 1889 Arrival of Stanley ; entertained by the king 19-25 Apr. 1890 Bruttium, now Calabria Olta, S. Italy. The Bruttians and Lucanians defeated and slew Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 326 B.C. Thev were conquered by Rome, 277. BRU 180 1689. Henry Julius (son). 1613. Frederic Ulric (son), died without issue. Second Branch. 16S4 Augustus (son of Henry of Luneburg). 1868. Rwiolph Augustus ; associated his brother, Anthony Ulric, in the govornmeut. from l(i85 ; d. 1704. 1704. Anthony Ulric now ruled alone ; became a Roman Catholic in 1710; d. in 1714. 1714. Augustus William (son). 1731. Lewis Rodolph (brother). 1735. Fertlinand Albert, duke of Brunswick-Bevern. marrH'd Antoi- nette Amelia, daughter of Lewis Rodolph, and succeeded him. " Charles (son). 1T80. Charles William Ferdinand (son) ; a great general (served under his uncle Ferdinand in the 7 years' war, 1756-(W); married princess Augusta of Kngland; mortally wounded at Auerstadt, 14 Oct., d. 10 Nov. 1806 ; succeeded by his fourth sou (his elder sons, being blind, abdicated). 1806. William Frederick, whose authority practically began with the battle of Leipsic-Oct 1813; foil at Quatre-Bras, com- manding the avantgardo under the duke of Wellington, 16 June, 1815; succeeded by his eldest son. 1815. Charles Frederick William (eccentric); assumed government, 30 Oct. 1823. [Revolution at Brunswick; the duke (declared incapable of reigning by the German diet) retired to England, 7 Sept. 1830 ; died at Geneva, bequeathing his immense property to that city, 18 Aug. 1873.] 1830. William (brother); b. 25 Apr. 1806; succeeded provisionally, 7 Sept. 1830 ; and, on the demand of the German diet, definitively, 20 Apr. 1831; unmarried. (His palace was de- stroyed by fire, 24 Feb. 1865.) His jubilee celebrated 25 Apr. 1881; d. 17 Oct. 1884. 1884. Prince Albert of Prussia, nephew of the emperor, elected, 21 Oct. 1885. DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG. 1409. Bernard (son of Magnus II., duke of Brunswick; see a^ove). 1434. Otho and Frederic (his sous). 1478. Henry (son of Otho). 1532. Ernest I. (son of Otho). His sons were 1546. Henry (founder of second branch of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel) and William, whose seven sons cast lots to determine who should marry. The lot fell on George, sixth son. Four of the brothers reigned, viz. : 1592. Ernest II. ] len. Christian. I . 1633. Augustus. f "" '^^"®- 1636. Frederic II. J 1648. Christian Lewis (son of George above mentioned). 1665. George William (brother of Christian Lewis), d. in 1705, leaving as heiress Sophia Dorothea, his daughter, who married in 1682 her cousin, prince George Lewis of Han- over, afterwards George I. of England (son of Ernest of Hanover, youngest son of the above mentioned George). Ha.nover, England. BUD bubble conipanie!!*. Co.mi'anies, Law .s . .bble, South Ska Bubble. bUC'caneerii, piratical adventurers, French, English, and Dutch, who began plundering Spaniards of America soon after the latter had taken possession of this continent and the West Indies. Their numbers were much increased by a 12 years' truce between the Spaniards and Dutch in 1609, when many discharged sailors joined the buccaneers. The first levy of ship-money in England, in 1636, was for chastising these pirates. The principal commanders of the first buccaneers were Montbar, I^lonois, Basco, and Morgan. Van Horn, of Ostend, captured Vera Cruz, 1603 ; Morgan took Panama, 1670; Gra- mont seized Campeachy, 1685 ; and Pointis took Carthagena, 1697 ; all gained enormous booty. The buccaneer confederacy was broken up through the peace of Kyswick, 10 Sept. 1697. Bucen'taiir, the vessel in which the doge of Venice wedded the Adriatic, from the 12th to the 18th centur\'. Bll'Chare§t, Wallachia. Preliminaries of peace were ratified here between Russia and Turkey, agreeing on the Pruth as their frontier, 28 May, 1812. Subsequent war be- tween these powers altered many provisions of this treaty. Bucharest was occupied by Russians, Turks, and Austrians, successively, in the Crimean war. The last quitted it in 1856. It is now capital of Roumania, established 26 Mch. 1881. Buckingham palace, the London residence of the English sovereign. Old Buckingham house was built on the " Mulberry gardens," by John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, in 1703. In 1761 it was bought by George III., who in 1775 settled it on his queen, Charlotte. She made it her town res- idence ; and here all her children, except the eldest, were born. Here were married the duke of York and princess Frederica of Prussia, in 1791 ; the duke of Gloucester and princess Mary, 1816; the prince of Hesse-Homburg, and princess Elizabeth, 1818; and the duke of Cambridge and princess of Hesse the same year. The house was pulled down in 1825, and the present palace begun on its site. After an expenditure of nearly a million sterling it was completed, and occupied by queen Victoria, 13 Julv, 1837. Further improvements were made in 1853. The marble arch, from the exterior of this palace, was re-erected at Cumberland Gate, Hyde park, 29 Mch. 1851. bUCkleri (shields intended to parry blows but not so large as to cover the body), used in single combat, are said to have been invented by Proetus and Acricius of Argos, about 1370 B.C. Lucius Papirius defeated the Samnites, taking from them bucklers of gold and silver, 309 b.c. buckles were worn instead of shoe-strings in the reign of Charles II., and became fashionable and expensive ; about 1791 they fell out of use. Ornamental buckles became fash- ionable, 1873, Buckshot 'war. Pennsylvania, 1838. Buda or Ofen, the ancient Aquincum, on the west bank of the Danube, opposite Pesth, and with it (termed Buda- Pesth) the capital of Hungary. It was taken by Charlemagne in 799; and sacked by Solyman II. after the battle of Mohacz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed and 200,000 of his subjects carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hungary an- nexed to the Ottoman empire, 1541. Retaken by imperialists, under the duke of Lorraine, and Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. It suffered much in 1848; was entered without resistance by the Austrians, 5 Jan. 1849; stormed, 20 May ; given up by Russians to Austrians, July, 1849. Here the emperor Francis Joseph was crowned king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867. Hungary. Buda-Pesth made capital of Hungary, Nov. 1873. Buddhism, the chief religion in Asia beyond the Ganges, and in China, Japan, and Ceylon, originated with Gautama Siddartha, the Sakya Muni, generally termed Bud- dha, or " the enlightened," a prince of Kapalivastu, in central India, said to have been born 623, and to have died 543 b.c. In July. 594 b.c, disgusted with the behavior of the Brahmins, he retired from the world for a time, and, on coming forth, preached a new religion so successfully that it predominated in India till the 10th century, a.d. Buddhism inculcates strict morality; forbids killing, stealing, adul- tery, lying, and drunkenness, even in purpose and thought, and BUD 131 declu^j charity or love to be the source of virtue. Some writers assert that Buadhisin includes belief in the transmigration of souls, and the absorption of the good into God, from whom they have emanated; others reckon annihilation or eternal sleep (the Nir- vana) among Buddhist tenets. A form of Buddhism, the religion of F6, exists in China, besides the systems of Confucius and Laot se. It is said to have been introduced in the reign of Ming-ti, a.d. 68-Hl. <'Le Bouddha et Ses Religions," by M. J. B. St. Hilaire, was pub. in 1860. T. Rhyl Davids's "Buddhism," in 1878. Buddhists in the world are estimated at 455,000,000. Sir Edwin Arnold's " Light of Asia," a poem, 1879. JSllde lig^ht (named from Biide, in Cornwall, Engl., the residence of Mr. — afterwards sir Goldsworthy — Gurney, its inventor) consists of 2 or more concentric argand gas- burners, one rising above another, like petals in a rose, pro- ducing a brilliant flame. Its illuminating powers were in- creased by subjecting manganese, etc., to the flame, producing oxygen and hydrogen gas. This light was patented 1839 and 1841. budg^Ct (from the Fr. bougette, Lat. bitlga, a small bag), a terra applied to the English chancellor of exchequer's annual statement of the finances of the country, the docu- ments having been formerly presented in a leather bag. In the United States the sec. of the treasury has made an annual report to Congress of receipts and expenditures of the govern- ment since 1790. In 1789 the House of Representatives ap- pointed a committee to see that the government is supplied with sufficient revenues, and to devise waj's and means for obtaining it, whence the name of •' Ways and Means Commit- tee." In 1865 the duties of this committee had become ex- cessive, and a committee of appropriations was appointed to share the work. Estimates for appropriations are prepared by the heads of the several departments and bureaus of the public service for the year ending 30 June, but are often re- duced by the House. No a[)propriatious can be made for pur- poses not sanctioned by the Constitution. Appropriations OF Congress. Buena Vista, Battle of, 22 and 23 Feb. 1847. Gen. Taylor, with only about 5000 men (500 regulars), confronted a Mexican army of 20,000 under gen. Santa Anna, near San Luis Potosi. There was slight skirmishing on the 22d, but on the morning of the 23d the battle opened. The Amer- icans held the field, and that night the Mexicans withdrew, leaving their dead and wounded. The Americans lost 267 killed, 456 wounded, and 23 missing ; the Mexicans lost near- ly 2000, leaving 500 dead on the field. Mexican War. Buenos Ayres {bway'nos Vrez), a province of S. America, now part of the Argentine Republic, was explored by Sebastian Cabot in 1526, and the capital, Buenos Ayres, founded by don Pedro de Mendoza in 1535. In 1585 the city was rebuilt and recolonized, and made a bishopric, 1620, and a viceroyalty, 1775. La Plata, the -new capital of the province, founded 24 Nov. 1882 ; made seat of government, Apr. 1884. Pop. of the province in 1888, 3,793,800; city, 500,000. Argentine Confederation. A British fleet and army, under sir Home Popham and gen. Ber- esford, take the city easily, 27 June ; it is retaken by the Spaniards, 12 Aug. ; by the British 29 Oct. 1806 Montevideo stormed by sir Samuel Auchmuty, 3 Feb. ; evacu- ated 7 July, 1807 Gen. Whitelock and 8000 British enter Buenos Ayres; repulsed with loss 5 July^ " Independence declared 19 July 1816 Recognized as part of the Argentine confederation Feb.' 1822 [A prey to civil war through the intrigues of Rosas, Oribe, Urquiza, and others, for many years.] Urquiza overthrows Rosas; is provisional dictator 1851 Oribe defeated by gen. Urquiza, to whom Buenos Ayres capitu- „ lates 3 Feb. 1852 Rosas flees, arrives at Plymouth, Engl 25 Apr. " Urquiza deposed, 10 Sept. ; invests the city; after some suc- cesses retires Dec. " Constitution voted '.'.'.* .'.23 May. 1853 Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine confederation, and is independent; 1st governor. Dr. D. Pastor Obligado, elected, _ ,^ , 12 Oct. " Dr. Valentin Alsina elected governor May, 1857 Warbreaksout; Urquiza,gen.oftheArgentineconfederatiou,has an mdecisive conflict with the Buenos Ayres gen. Mitre, 23 Oct. 1859 Buenos Ayres is reunited by treaty with the Argentine con- federation 11 ^'ov. " Fresh contests: Mi^re defeats Urquiza in an almost bloodless contest at Pavon ; Urquiza retires 17 Sept. 1861 National congress at Buenos Ayres 25 May, 1862 Mitre installed president 12 Oct " BUF Jesuits' college and archbishop's palace burned, priests killed by a mob; martial law proclaimed 28 Feb. 1875 International exhibition May 1890 Buffalo. N. Y., situated at the eastern end of lake Erie and at the western terminus of the Erie canal, lat. 42"^ 53', long. 78° 55', is the 3d city in the state in wealth and pop- ulation, and the 11th in the U. S. Pop. 1810, 1,508 ; 1820, 2,095; 1840,18,213; 1860,81,129; 1880,155,134; 1890,255,- 664. Area, 42 sq. miles. Griffin sails past the future site of Buffalo, 7 Aug 1679 First dwelling built on the site of Buffalo by Corne'lius winne' 1789 Buff'alo laid out as "New Amsterdam," by the Holland Land Company jgOll Bufl^alo creek made a port of entry 3 Mch 1806 Subscription for first school-house, $127.87J^, raised." "30 Mch" I8O7I Town of Buff'alo established Laud deeded to county for first court-house ! .21 Nov. Black Rock made a port of entry ..." ." igll ' First newspaper, the Buffalo Gazette, now the Commercial Ad- vertiser, started 3 o^t. " First church (Presbyterian) organized by the rev. Mr. Osgood, 2 Feb. 1812 Incorporated a village 2 Apr. 1813 Buffalo and Black Rock burned by British and Indians, 30 Dec. " [This force, under command of lieut-gen.Drummond, ad- vanced to nearly opposite Black Rock, 29 Dec. ; during the night gen. Riall crossed the river with about 1000 British, Canadians, and Indians, 2 miles below Black Rock; next day- he was reinforced by about 800 British regulars. Americans numbered about 2000 men— militia— under gen. Amos HalL During the night of the 29th nearly half of them decamped and the remainder made a poor defence, so that Black Rock and Buff'alo were soon in possession of the British; when they withdrew, but 4 buildings were left, the rest had been burned.] Village reorganized I8I6 First library organized 10 Dec. 1816 St. Pauls parish organized 10 Feb. 1817 First vessel registered 26 May, " First steamboat, Walk-in-the-Water, on lake Erie, built at Black Rock, and launched 28 May, 1818 [Although a steam vessel, a yoke of oxen was used in get- ting the boat into the lake from Black Rock.] Steamer's first trip to Detroit 23 Aug. " First church built (Methodist) 24 Jan. 1819 First work on Buff'alo harbor 1820 Steamer Walk-in-the-Water wrecked 1 Nov. 1821 New charter 1822 First Presbyterian church built 1823 Lafayette visits Buff'alo 4 June, 1825 Execution of the "Three Thayers " for the murder of .lohn Love, near Buff'alo. Dec. 1H24 17 June, " First billiard table made in the state, by B. I. Staats. .21 June, " Erie canal opened for navigation 26 Oct. " Ship Michigan descends Niagara Falls (New York) 8 Sept. 1827 Buffalo Republican (dem. ), a pioneer of the Courier, established, 1828 Universalist and Unitarian churches organized. 1831 Incorporated as a city 20 Apr. 1832 [Kbenezer Johnson, first mayor.] Daily Star, now the Courier, the oldest daily in the city, started Apr. 1834 First issue of the Daily Commercial Advertiser 1 Jan. 1835 Eagle Street theatre opened 21 July, " First railroad, " Buffalo and Niagara Falls;" locomotive put on, 19 Aug. 1836 Young Men's Association incorporated 3 Mch. 1837 Western Literary Messenger started 1841 [Ceased 1857.] Burning of steamboat Erie, 33 miles out, 249 lives lost, 9 Aug. " Buff'alo Board of Trade organized 18 Jan. 1844 [Incorporated, 7 Mch. 1857.] Great flood in lower part of city 18 Oct. " University of Buff'alo incorporated 11 May, 1846 Bank of Attica established at Attica, 1836; removed to Buffalo, " Morning Express first issued 14 Jan. " Diocese of Buff'alo (Catholic) established 1847 St Louis' church (Catholic) dedicated 21 Nov. " Gas first manufactured 7 Nov. 1848 St John's church (Episcopal) begun, 1846; completed " First case of cholera 30 May, 1849 [2000 deaths in 3 months.] Old " Eagle Tavern " burned 14 Nov. " Corner-stone of St. Paul's church laid 12 June, 1850 [Spire completed, 1870.] Forest Lawn cemetery dedicated 15 Aug. " Corner-stone of St. Joseph's cathedral laid 6 Feb. 1851 [Finished, 6 June, 1855.] Jenny Lind sings at the North church 28 July, " Buff'alo Female Academy opened 15 Sept. " Great fire in lower part of city, 200 buildings burned. .26 Sept. " Y. M. C. A. incorporated 9 Mch. 1852 Metropolitan theatre, now Academy of Music, opened. . . 11 Oct. " Erie County savings-bank chartered 10 Apr. 1854 Corner-stone of the Westminster church laid 26 Aug. 1858 Grosvenor library chartered 11 Apr. 1859 First horse-car run. Main st H June, 1860 Society of Natural Sciences organized 5 Dec. 1861 Buff'alo Fine Arts Academy incorporated 4 Dec. 1862 Historical Society incorporjited 10 Jan. 1863 BUF 182 BUL TUl hoase opened. 16 Jan. 1865 American bold burned 26 Jan. " Decoration day first observed 31 May, 1808 Normal scbool first opened 13 Sept. 1871 Corner-stone of city and county hall laid 24 June, 1872 [Completed, 1876.] Comer-stone St^ite Insane Asylum laid 18 Sept *' International bridge across Niagara river completed 31 Oct. 1873 Ex-president Fillmore dies 8 Mch. 1874 [Born, Caynga Co., N. Y., 7 Jan. 1800.] Delaware Avenue Methodist Kpiscopal church dedicated, 11 Sept. 1876 U. S. life boat station opened 1 July, 1879 MfO-'geo- S. P. Heiutzelman, U. S. A., buried at Forest Lawn, (Died at Washington, 1 May) 4 May, 1880 Brig, gea A. J. Meyer, chief signal officer, d. at Buffalo, 14 Aug. " First issue of the Evening Xews 11 Oct. " M. H. Birge & Co.'s manufactory destroyed by fire 17 Dec. " [13 lives lost] Pierce's Invalid.s' hotel burned 16 Feb. 1881 Main st first lighted by olectricity 1 July, 1882 Soldiers' monument completed 4 July, " [85 ft. high; cost $50,000.] Music hall (built 1883) and St Louis' church burned. , .25 Mch. 1885 [Fire began at 7.30 p.m.] First incineration at the crematory 27 Dec. " Great storm; part of new music, hull (in construction) blown down ; nearly 200 persons homeless by flood 14 Oct. 1886 Natural gas introduced 1 Dec. " Buffalo library building dedicated 7 Feb. 1887 Richmond hotel (Young .Men's As.sociation building, remodeled) opened 21 Feb. 1887, and totally destroyed by fire, with loss of 15 lives 18 Mch. " Corner-stone of the Church of the Seven Dolors, cor. Genesee and Rich sts., laid 19 June, " Niagara hotel opened 10 Oct. " New music hall; corner stone laid 31 May, 1886; opened with a grand music.il festival, Walter J. Damrosch, leader, 18 Oct 1887, and formally dedicated 7 Feb. 1888 Electric motor tried experimentally on the street railroad, 10 Feb. " St Paul's church. Episcopal, burned ; fire caused by natural gas 9 May, " Fort Porter begun, 1841; finished, 1844; demolished and site graded Oct.-Nov. " Fire starting (;or. Wells and Carroll sts., destroys 30 building.s, burning over nearly 6 blocks; loss, $1,453,500 2 Feb. 1889 First annual commencement of the Buffalo law school, 29 May, " Trial trip on the electric surface railroad from Cold Springs to the park 20 July, " Hotel Iroquois opened on site of St James's hall 2 Aug. " New St Louis's church; corner stone laid, 30 May, 1886; dedi- cated 25 Aug. " Old First church and its site sold to the Erie County savings- bank, 28 Mch. 1889, and ground broken for new bank build- ing 11 Sept 1890 New temple, Beth Zion, dedicated 12 Sept •• Fire destroys the clothing exchange— loss, $350,000; 2 firemen killed by falling walls 23 Jan. 1891 Free kindergarten movement organized 12 Apr. " New city charter goes into effect 4 Jan. 1892 Masonic temple; corner-stone laid, 26 July, 1890; dedicated, 19 Jan. " First board of school examiners appointed 1 Feb. " Bronze statue of Red Jacket (d. 20 Jan. 18.J2, aged 78) unveiled in Forest Lawn cemetery 22 June, " Failure of the National savings bank, through the defalcation, continued for several years, of its president, Edward S. Dann, (about $.500,000 stolen) 29 June, " Strike of switchmen on the Erie, Lehigh Valley, and Buffalo Creek railroads begins 14 Aug. " 7000 of the National Guard of New York state arrive to pro- tect railroad property against destruction by strikers, 19 Aug. " Strike declared at an end and troops, except the 4th brigade, leave for their homes 26 Aug. " New medical college opened ., Apr. 1893 New Erie County savings bank occupied May, " James Wadsworth 1851 Hiram Barton 1852 Eli Cook 1853 F. P. Stevens 1856 T. T. Lockwood 1858 Franklin A. Alberger 1860 William G. Fargo 1862 C. J. Wells 1866 William F. Rogers 1868 Alexander Brush 1870 L. P. Dayton 1874 Philip Becker 1876 Solomon Scheu 1878 Alexander Brush 1880 Grover Cleveland 1882 John B. Manning 1883 Jonathan Scoville 1884 Philip Becker 1886 Charles F. Bishop 1890 Edgar B. Jewett 1895 Johnson 1832 Major A. Andrews 1833 Ebenezer Johnson 1834 Hiram Pratt 1835 Samuel Wilkeson 1836 Josiah Trowbridge 1837 Ebenezer Walden 1838 Hiram Pratt 1839 Sheldon Thompson 1840 Isaac R. Harrington 1841 George W. Clinton 1842 Joseph G. Masten 1843 William Ketchum 1844 Joseph G. Masten 1845 Solomon G. Haven 1846 Elbridge B. Spalding 1847 Orlando Allen 1848 Hiram Barton 1849 Henry K. Smith 1850 Buffoons were originally ntiountebanks in Roman thea- tres. Their shows abolished by Trajan, a.d. 98. Jesteks. Blllg[nriil, the ancient Mcesia Inferior, a principality tributary to Turkey. The Bulgarians were a Slavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire and Italy from 499 to 678, when they established a kingdom. They defeated Justinian II., 687 ; but were subdued, after several conflicts, by the em- peror Basil, in 1018. After defeating thera in 1014, and tak- ing 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every hundredth man, to conduct his countrymen home. The kingdom was re-established in 1186; but after several changes was conquered by Bajazet and annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1396. Bulgaria was a chief site of the Kusso-Turkish War, 1877-78. It con- tains 6 fatnous Turkish fortresses, Widdin, Rustchuk, Silistria, Schumla, and Varna. Area, 38,562 sq. miles; pop. 1890, 3,154,000. Bulgarians said to support the revolt in Hkrzegovi.va 187.5-76 Insurrection in Bulgaria cruelly suppressed (-'Bulgarian Hor- rors," Engl.\nd, 1876). TURKKY May-Sept 1876 Zancoffand Balabanow, Bulgarian delegates, in London. .9 Oct " Bulgaria made self-governing as a i)rincipality, tributary to the sultan, by Bkrlin Theatv 13 July. 1878 First parliament opened at Tirnova by prince Dondoukoft' Korsakoff"; new constitution 22 Feb. 1879 Prince Alexander of Hesse elected prince as Alexander I. , 29 Apr. " visits European courts; received by queen Victoria 5 June, " Takes oath to the constitution at Tirnova 9 July " Bulgaria said to be quitted by the Russians 17 July| " Ministerial difficulties; Parliament dissolved 18 Dec' " The prince announces a national assembly, and threatens to resign 9 May, 188X Zancoff and other liberal ministers arrested for insulting the prince in election addresses (soon released) 21 June, " Elections for National As.sembly; rumored coercion of voters,' 27 June et seq. " Meeting of assembly; prince's propoisals unanimously ac- cepted; he promises reforms and adherence to the constitu- tion 13 July, '« Late liberal ministers, Zankoff and Slaviekoff, arrested, about 23 Julv, « Prince virtually dictator; opposes Russia, who promotes a lib- eral reaction against him; a new constitution is proposed; National Assembly meets 16 Sept.' 1883 Prince restores Tirnova constitution ; Zunkoff minister, 20 Sept. " Dismisses col. Redigher, war minister, and other Russian offi- cers 26 Oct '^ Harmony with Russia restored about 15 Nov. " Constitutional changes proposed by government adopted, 17 Dec. " Dispute with Servia. on refugees and boundaries May-June, 1884 Declaration of war by Servia, 13 Nov. ; Bulgaria invaded by Servia 14 Nov. 1885 Cessation of hostilities, after several engagements, through Austrian intervention 28 Nov. " Peace between Bulgaria and Servia signed at Bucharest, 3 Mch. ; ratified by the sultan 13 Mch. 1886 Conspiracy at Sofia; prince Alexander carried off a prisoner, 21-23 Aug. " Provisional governmeht formed by M. Zankoff and others, 21 Aug. " Rebel government overthrown 25 Aug. " Prince Alexander retwrns; triumphant reception at Rustchuk; issues a proclamation, 29 Aug.; he submits to Russia; an- nounces his intention to abdicate, 4 Sept ; regency ap pointed 6 Sept " Prince Waldemar of Denmark elected prince by the Sobranje; declined 10 Nov. " Gen. Kaulbers, the Russian agent, and Russian consuls quit Bulgaria 26 Nov. " Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha invited for election as prince of Bulgaria by delegates, 15 Dec. ; prince Nicholas of Mingrelia recommended by Russia " Prince Alexander definitely declines re-election 12 Junej 1887 Sobranje elect prince Ferdinand of Saxe-CoburgGotha as prince, 7 July; accepts 8 July, " Prince Ferdinand signs constitution 14 Aug. " Russia declares prince Ferdinand's position illegal; supported by France and Germany; Austria, England, and Italy main- tain reserve Feb. -Mch. 1888 Maj. Panitza and 6 others arrested on charge of plotting against the prince and government (in 1887 et seq.) l Feb. 1890 Tried by court-martial and Panitza sentenced to be shot, and others imprisoned from 3 to 9 years 30 May, " Government requests of Turkey the recognition of prince Ferdinand and the rel^ious autonomy of .Macedonian Bul- garia 26 June, " Maj. Panitza shot at Sofia 28 June, " Prince Ferdinand partially recognized by the Porte 5 Feb.' 1891 PRINCES. Alexander (.Joseph) I. (son of prince Alexander, uncle of Louis IV., grand duke of Hesse), b. 5 Apr. 1857; elected 29 Apr. 1879 Deposed 4 Sept 1886 Ferdinand, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, b. 26 Feb. 1861 ; elected, 7 July, 1887 bull, or edict of the pope. The bulla is prop- BUL 133 BUN erly the seal, whether of gold, silver, lead, or wax. On one side are represented the heads of St. Peter and St. Paul, with the letters S.PE. and S.PA., and on the other the name and year of the pope. A bull against heresy was issued by Greg- ory IX., in 1231. Pius V. published a bull against Elizabeth, 25 Apr. 1570 ; in 1571 bulls were forbidden to be promulgated in England. The bull Unigenitus (beginning with this word) against the Jansenists was issued by Clement XL, 1713 ; con- firmed by Benedict XIII., 1725. The Golden Bull, of the emperor Charles IV., so called from its golden seal, was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet of Nuremberg, 1356. Pius IX. published an encyclical letter censuring modern errors, 8 Dec. 1864. Rome, Stocks. bull-baitin;; or bull-fig^llting^ was an amuse- ment at Stamford, Engl., in the reign of John, 1209 ; and at Tutbury, 1374. In the " Sports of England " we read of the " Easter fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and huge bears were baited with dogs;" and near the Clink, London, was the Paris, or bear-garden, celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to suppress bull-baiting was thrown out in the commons, chiefly through the influence of Mr. Windham, who defended the custom, 24 May, 1802. It was made illegal in 1835. Cruelty to Animals. Bull- fights were introduced into Spain about 1260; and while abol- ished " except for pious and patriotic purposes," in 1784, they are still common there as well as in Mexico. A bull-fight at Lisbon, attended by 10,000 spectators, on Sunday, 14 June, 1840 ; one took place at Havre, 5 July, 1868. Theatrical fights with Spanisli bulls, at Agricultural hall, London, were stopped 28 Mch. 1870, for cruelty. bulleti. In 1418,4000 bullets for cannon were ordered from the quarries of Maidstone, Engl. Bullets of stone were in use certainly as late as 1514. Iron ones are mentioned in the " Foedera," 1550. Leaden bullets were made before 1600 a.d. The round ball was the only form in use until 1830. The conoidal cup rifle-ball was invented by capt. Minie in 1847 ; a modification (conoidal without cup), by Mr. Pritchett (1853), is used with the Enfield rifle. Many forms of bullet have since been devised. The tendency is towards smaller diame- ters. FlR?:-ARMS. Bull Run campaig^n and First Battle of. The first important campaign and battle of the civil war. Gen. G. T. Beauregard, the confederate commander, selected the plateau at Manassas Junction as the best position to cover Virginia and menace Washington. .Strong in itself, it was further strengthened by the stream " Bull Run," which cov- ered the front. A detachment occupied Centreville, about 3 miles from Bull Run and some 30 from Washington, another was at Fairfax Court-house, still nearer that city. The federal army, led by gen. Irvin McDowell, but directed from Wash- ington by lient.-gen. Winfield Scott, was ordered, 9 July, 1861, to assume the offensive within 8 days. Gen. Robert Patterson occupied Martinsburg, in the Shenandoah valley, with 18,000 men, while some 8000 confederates under gen. Joseph E. John- ston were at Winchester. With the promise from gen. Scott that Patterson would prevent Johnston from joining Beaure- gard, McDowell advanced from Washington with 4 divisions, 16 July, 1861. The 1st division, 9936 men, brig.-gen. Daniel Tyler commanding, had 4 brigades under col. E. D. Keyes, col. William Tecumseh Sherman, brig.-gen. Robert Schenck, and col. I. B. Richardson. The 2d division, 2648 men, col. David Hunter commanding, had 2 brigades under col. Andrew Porter and col. Ambrose E. Burnside. The 3d division, 9777 men, col. S. P. Heintzelman commanding, had 3 brigades — those of unds. 313.345.306 459,681,372 514,092,683 806,672,071 1,205,508,384 1850 313,345,306 I860 459,681,372 i 1870 514,092,683 j 1880 777,250,287 29,421,783 1890 1,024,223,468 181,284,916 buttons, an early manufacture in England ; those cov- ered with cloth were prohibited, to encourage the manufact- ure of metal buttons, 8 (ieo. I. 1721. Samuel Williston began the manufacture of covered buttons at Easthampton, Mass., about 1825-26, and removed his works to Haydenville in 1834. It is said that Abel Porter began the manufacture of gilt buttons in one end of a grist-mill, at Waterbury, Conn., in 1802. Waterbury has now (1893) the largest button factory in the U. S. Buxar, a town in Bengal, near which, 23 Oct. 1764, major, afterwards sir Hector Monro, with 857 Europeans and 6215 Sepoys, routed 50.000 troops of the nabob of Oude, etc.; 6000 were killed, and 130 pieces of cannon taken. The Eng- lish loss was trifling. bye plot, of lord Gray of Wilton and others, to im- prison James L, and extort libertj' of worship to Romanists, was suppressed 1603; called also the "surprise plot." Byng[, Hon. Admiral John, was charged with neglect of duty in a fight off Minorca, 20 May, 1756 ; condemned for an error of judgment, and shot on the Monarch at Spithead, 14 Mch. 1757. Byron national memorial. The erection of a national memorial to lord Byron was determined on, at a meeting in London, 16 July, 1875; Mr. Disraeli in the chair. About $15,000 subscribed. The statue, by Richard Claude Belt, on a pedestal near Hamilton place, Hyde park, London, was uncovered privately by lord Houghton, 24 Blay, 1880. A marble pedestal was promised b}' Greeks. Byron's voyage. Commodore Byron (grandfather of the poet) left England on his voyage round the globe, 21 June, 1764, and returned 9 Mav, 1766. He discovered the BYZ 1 populous island in the Pacific which bears his name, 1(5 Aiijj. 17G5. Though brave and intrepitJ, he was uiihicky, and was called by »ailt>rs " Koid-woather .lack." Byziiiitiiiiii, n(»w CoiiNtaiitinople, and StnillhOlll* in ancient Tliraco. foinnied by a colony of Megarians, under Byzas,(567 u.o. ; but various dates and persons are given. It was taken succes-sively by the Medes, Athenians, and SpartJins. In 340 b.c., in alliance with the Athenians, the Byzantines defeateti the fleet of Philip of Macedon. During wiiiv with Macedon, Syria, etc., it became an ally of the Ro- 5 CAD mans, by whom it was taken, 73 a.d. Rebelling, it was taken after 2 years' siege, and laid in ruins by Severus in 1%. It was refounded by Constantine in 324, and deilicated on 22 May, 330, and the heathen temples destroyed; from him it received its name, Constantinople. Byzantine «rt flourished from tiie time of Constantine to about 1204. The Byzantine or Eastern empire really commenced in 395, when Thepdosius divided the Roman empire. The "Byzantine Historians," from 32.5 to 1453, were published at Paris, 1646-1711; and at Venice, 1722 4J3. EAstiiKN Kmimkk. Ca'aba, a sacred black stone, kept in a temple at Mecca, and venerated by the Arabs, long before the Christian era. Its guanlians, the tribe of Koreish, were defeated by Mahomet and the worship abolished, 623-30. Cabal'. In English history a term applied to the cabi- net of Charles II. 1667-74, formed from the initials of their names: sir Thomas, afterwards lord Clifford (C) ; lord Ashley (A), (afterwards earl of Shaftesbury) ; George Villiers, duke of Buckingham (B); Henry, lord Arlington (A); and John, duke of Lauderdale (L). Cab'ala, a Jewish sj'stem of philosophy or theosophy, so called from a Hebrew word signifying reception or tradition, said to have been given by God to Adam, transmitted from father to son by his descendants, lost at the Babylonian cap- tivity (587 B.C.), but revealed again to Ezra. Its supporters assert that the cabalistic book "Sohar," or "Splendor," a mystic commentary on the Pentateuch, was Hrst committed to writing by Simon Ben-Jochai, 72-110 a.d. But the books containing the cabala are believed to have originated between the 9th and the 14th centuries, by mingling Talmudism with the Greek phi- losophy termed neo-Platonism. Some of their dogmas are akin to Christian tenets, such as the trinity, the incarnation, etc. The cabala exercised much influence upon the Jews, and even captivated great thinkers of the 16th and 17th centuries. eabba^e§. Some new kinds were brought to England from Holland about 1510, it is said by sir Arthur Ashley of Dorset, and introduced into Scotland by Cromwell's soldiers. ■ Truck fakming. Cabeiba, Asia Minor. Here Mithridates, king of Pon- tus, was defeated by LucuUus, 71 b.c. cabinet council. In the United States govern- ment the heads of the departments are the president's constitu- tional advisers, and constitute a cabinet. Each with a salary of $8000 a year. They are appointed by the president with the consent of the Senate, hold office at the president's will, and are, under him, the executive officers of the general gov- ernment. Each department has its official seal for pub- lic documents. The departments of state, treasury, and war were created in 1789, and the secretaries were members of the cabinet. The navy department was added in 1798, with its secretary a member of the cabinet. The office of attorney- i general was created in 1789, but the attorney-general was not | a member of the cabinet until 1814, when " Richard Rush was i appointed to the attorney-generalship, which now became a I cabinet office."— Hildreih's " Hist, U. S.," vol. vi. p. 458. The | post-office department was a branch of the treasury until 1829, i when W. T. Barry, the first recognized postmaster-general, was called to the cabinet by president Jackson. Department of the interior created, 3 Mch. 1849, and its secretary a mem- ber of the cabinet. Department of agriculture created, 11 Feb. 1889, the secretary a member of the cabinet. United States. — There were councils in England as early as the reign of Ina, king of the West Saxons, 690; OfTa, king of the Mercians, 758; and in other reigns of the Heptarchj'. State councils are referred to Alfred the Great. — Spelman. Administrations. Cabinet noir, or "dark closet," the chamber in which letters intrusted to the French post were opened for state purposes. The system, which began with Louis XL, was organized under Louis XV.; and is said to have been discontinued in 1868. cabinet, kitchen. A term applied to certain politi- cal advisers in the confidence of president Jackson. Called " kitchen " because devoid of the public dignity pertaining to the cabinet, and entirely separate and distinct from the cab- inet proper. The principal members of this " cabinet" were Amos Kendall, Wm. B. Lewis, Isaac Hill, Duff Green, and Francis P. Blair. Cabin -John Creelt bridge. Aqueducts, BRIDGES. cable, Atlantic. Electricity. cables. A machine was invented in 1792 for making them, by which human labor was reduced nine tenths. Chain cables were introduced into the British navy about 1812; di- rections for testing them enacted, 1864 and 1874. CabOChicns, an armed Burgundian faction, including 500 butchers, named from their leader Simonet Caboche, a skinner, 1412. They ruled Paris with violence, and con- strained the doctors of the Sorbonne to become their allies and the dauphin to recognize them as the "White Hoods" and reformers. They were exterminated by the citizens in 1418, Cabool', on the river Cabul, was made capital of Af- ghanistan about 1774 by Timsur Shah. cabriolCt§ (vulgo cabs), one-horse vehicles. 12 were introduced into the streets of London in 1822. In 1831 they had increased to 165, and then the licenses were thrown open. The number in 1862 running in the English metropolis ex- ceeded 6000 (of which about 1800 only plied on Sunday). Pre- vious to throwing open the trade, the number of hackney- carriages was limited to 1200, when there were few omnibuses. Cabs running in London ; in 1855, 3296; in 1867, 6149; in 1874, 7864; in 1877, about 8000; in 1891, 11,129. cache (kash), a concealed place of deposit made for an article or articles — especially a food deposit — and located so as to be easily found by the makers or others informed of it. The word was adopted into English from the Canadian voy- agers of the Hudson bay country, . cachet (ka-shd'). Lettres de cachet. Caddee, or League of God's House, the league of inde- pendence in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons to resist do- mestic tyranny, 1400-19. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gray League (Graubtindten), 1424. A third league, the League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in 1436. (Grisons.) They united in 1471. Cade's insurrection. In May, 1450, Jack or John Cade, an Irishman, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed about 20,000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil minis- ters, and procure a redress of grievances." He defeated and slew sir Humphry Stafford, at Sevenoaks, 27 June , entered London in triumph, and beheaded the lord treasurer, lord Saye, and sev- eral'other persons of consequence, 3 July. When the insur- gents lost ground, a general pardon was proclaimed, and Cade, deserted by his followers, fled. A reward having been offered for his apprehension, he was discovered, and, refusing to sur- render, was slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, 11 July. For recent biographical notice consult"Dictionary of National (English) Biography." Cadiz, W. Spain, anciently Gadiz, the Roman Gades said to have been built by the Phoenicians about 1100 b.c. CAD 137 100 vessels of the Spanish armada destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake 1587 Cadiz taken by English under earl of Essex, and plundered, 15 Sept. 1596 Vainly attacked by sir George Rooke 1702 Bombarded by the British July, 1797 Blockaded by lord St. Vincent for 2 years 1797-99 Again bombarded by the British Oct. 1800 French squadron of 5 ships of the line and a frigate surrender to the Spanish and British U June, 1808 Besieged by the French, but the siege was raised after the bat- tle of Salamanca July, 1812 Insurrection, 1819; massacre by the soldiery 9, 10 Mch. 1820 Taken by the French in Oct. 1823, and held till 1828 Declared a free port 1829 cadmiUIIl, a metal, discovered by Stroraeyer and Her- mann in 1818. Cueu {kon), N. France, a place of importance before 912, when it became the capital of the possessions of the Normans. It was taken bj'^ the English in 1346 and 1417 ; but recovered by the French, 1 July, 1450. Here were buried, in the cathe- dral of St. Etienne, William the Conqueror (1087), who found- ed it (J 066), and his queen (1083). Caerleon {ker-h'on), i. e. "castle of the legion," Mon- mouthshire, Wales, the Isca Silui'um of the Romans, and one of their oldest stations in Britain, and made the seat of an archbishopric by Dubritius. His disciple and successor, St. David (522), removed it to Menevia, now St. David's, 577. Celebrated in Tennyson's "Idylls of the King" as the chief city of king Arthur's kingdom. Caernarvon {ker-nar'von), N.Wales. In the cas- tle (founded in 1282) Edward II. was born, 25 Apr. 1284, the first F'.nglish Prince of Wales, and the town was then char- tered by Edward I. That Edward II. was born in the castle is disputed by Timbs in his " Abbeys and Castles of England and Wales," but he concedes that he was born somewhere in the town. The town suffered by the civil war of Charles, but was finally retained for the Parliament. Cse§area, Roman capital of Judaea, built by Herod the Great 10 b.c. Eusebius the historian was bishop about 315. €aB§arean section, which, it is said (with scarcely sufficient evidence) first gave the name of Caesar to the Ro- man family, is performed by cutting the child out of the womb. The case of Alice O'Neal, an Irishwoman, who survived the operation, which was performed by a woman, is authenticated by Dr. Gabriel King,.of Armagh, and surgeon Duncan Stewart, of Dungannon. In Jan. 1847, the operation was performed in St. Bartholomew's hospital, London, on a young woman of di- minutive stature, under the infiuence of ether; but she died the next day. On 9 Dec. 1860, a similar operation was successfully performed by Dr. James Edmunds at Bethnal Green. On the continent the operation is said to have been more frequent and more successful. Cooper's " Surgical Dictionary " (ed. 1861) has a table of 2009 cases, with a mortality of 55.4 per cent, of mothers and 29.45 per cent, of children. Mkdical science. Caesars, Era of. Spanish Era. Caesars, the Twelve. 1. Caius Julius CcBsar, dictator; b. 100 B.C. ; assassinated, ii B.C. 2. Caius Octavius, Augustus Coesar, b. 63 b.c. ; emperor, 27; d. 14 A.D. ; grandson of Julia, sister of Julius Caesar; adopted by him and made his principal heir. 3. Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, b. 41 b.c. ; emperor, 14 a.d. ; d. 37; son of Livia, wife of Augustus, by her former husband Tiberius Claudius Nero; adopted by Augustus. 4. Caligula, Caius Csesar Augustus Germanicus, b. 12 a.d. ; emperor, 37 ; assassinated, 41 ; son of Germanicus and Agrippina and great-grandson of Augustus. 5. Tiberius Claudius, Drusus Cfesar, b. 10 B.c. ; emperor, 41 a.d. ; d. 54; uncle of Caligula and grand-nephew of Augustus. 6. Nero, Claudius Cicsar Lucius Domitius, b. 38 a.d. ; emperor, 54; killed, 68; great-grandson of Augustus and of Mark Antony, [With Nero ended the line of the Julii.] 7. Galba, Servius Sulpitius, b. 4 b.c. ; emperor, 68 a.d. ; killed, 69; soldier of distinction, commander in Spain; selected by his army for emperor before the death of Nero, and confirmed by the senate after. 8. Otho, Marcus Salvius, b. 31 a.d. ; emperor, 69; kills himself, 69. 9. ViteUius Aulus; emperor, 69 a.d. ; reigns about 8 months; over- thrown by Vespasian, 69; and killed at Rome. 10. Titus Flavins Vespasian, distinguished soldier, b. 10 a.d. ; at the solicitation of his soldiers and of citizens of Rome he overthrows Vitellius and becomes emperor, 69; d. 79. 11. Titus, Flavins Vespasian, son of Vespasian, emperor, 79 a.d. ; d. 81. During his reign Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius, and the Coliseum finished. 5* CAL 12. Titus Flavins Sabinus Domitian, 2d son of Vespasian b 51 a d • emperor, 81; assa.ssinated, 96. ' •> [These are termed the "Twelve Caesars;" the last 3 the Flavian emperors.] eaesium (Lat. bluish), a rare alkaline metal, found in mineral waters by Bunsen in 1861, by spectrum analysis. cafeine, an alkaline bod}-, discovered in coffee by Rinige in 1820, and in tea (and named th^ine) by Oudry in 1827. Their identity was proved by Jobst and Mulder in 1828. Cag'Ots (ca-gds), an outcast race in the Pyrenees, sup- posed to be descendants of the ancient Goths. Thcv were subjected to superstitious persecution so lately as 1755. ca ira ! {sah-ee-rah') the burden of a popular song dur- ing the French revolution, first heard at Paris 5 Oct. 1789 : " Ah ! pa ira, pa ira, fa ira ! Malgr6 les mutins, tout reussira. " ( It will proceed! etc. In spite of mutineers, all will succeed ") An after-addition was " Les aristocrates a la lanterne '" ("Hang the aristocrats!") Cairo {ki'ro) or €rrand Cairo, 5 miles from the Nile delta .and on right bank, the modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for its mosques and the sepulchres of its Fatimite caliphs. Lat. 30° 2' 4" N., Ion. 31° 15' 36" E. Pop. 1883 368,108. Egypt. Present city founded by the Saracens .j(;9 Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans ."..'...'. 1517 Ruined by an earthquake and a fire, when 40,000 persons per- ished * Juj^e jyg^ Taken by the French under Napoleon .23 July' 1798 Taken by the British and Turks; 6000 French capitulated. ., „ , , 27 June, 1801 Massacre of the Mamelukes i Mch 1811 Visit of the prince of Wales ..Mch. 1862 Riots against Nubar Pacha and the British ministers. . .18 Fel)! 1879 Cala'bria, the ancient Messapia of S.E. Italy, was con- quered by the Romans, 266 b.c. It formed part of the king- dom of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, 493 a.d. ; was recon- quered (for the Eastern empire) by Belisarius, 536 ; subdued by the Lombards and joined to the duchy of Benevento, 572. After various changes, it was conquered by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who became duke of Calabria, and even- tually king of Naples. Earthquakes, Naples. Calais {ka-W), N.W. France, fortified by Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, 997; taken by Edward IIL after a year's siege, 4 Aug. 1347. It was at this time that queen Philippa, wife of Edward, prevailed on hei husband to spare Eustache St. Pierre and 6 of the chief citizens, who had given themselves up as a sacrifice for the rest of the inhabitants. It was retaken by the duke of Guise, in the reign of Marv, 7 Jan. 1558, and its loss, it was said, occasioned her death, 17 Nov. same year. " When I am dead," said the queen, " Calais will be found written on my heart." It was taken by the Spaniards, Apr. 1596; restored, 1598. Here Louis XVIIL landed after his long exile from France, Apr. 1814. Tunnels. Calatrava. Knighthood. caieium, the metallic base of lime, discovered at the Royal Institution, London, by Davy, in 1808. ealeulating-niachines. To avoid errors in com- puting and printing logarithms and tables of figures, ma- chines to calculate and print have been devised. Pascal, when 19 years of age, invented one (about 1650). C. Bab- bage's differential machine, begun at the cost of the British government in 1821, was continued till suspended in 1833, after an expenditure of above 15,000/. The portion completed was placed in the library of King's college, London ; it is now at South Kensington. Prof. Clifford, in a lecture at the Royal In- stitution, 24 Maj^ 1872, stated that Babbage expended 20,000/. upon his machines, and that the analytical machine was nearly finished and would eventually be much used. In 1857 E. and G. Scheutz, two Swedish engineers, published in London specimen tables, calculated and printed by machiner}'^ constructed between 1837 and 1843, after a study of the account of Mr. Babbage's machine. Messrs. Scheutz brought their machine to England in 1854, It was bought for 1000/. by J. F. Rath bone, an American, to be presented to Dudley observatory, in Albany. In 1857 Messrs. Scheutz were engaged to make one for the British government, which is now completed. Mr. Wiberg's machine, exhibited at Paris, Feb. 1863, was much commended. Tables constructed by Scheutz's machine, and edited by Dr. CAL 138 CAL W. Farr, were published by the British governraent in 1864. The arithmometer, patented by M. Thomas (de Colmar) in 1822 (?), was exhibited at the international exhibitions, 1851 and 1862. George B. Grant described a simpler machine in the American Journal of Science, Oct. 1874. Calcutta, capital of Bengal and British India; the first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. Pop. 1876, 77G,.-)79; 1891,840,130. Purchased as a zemindary, and fort William built 1698 Made the head of a separate prosideiuy 1707 Fort attacivod and taken by au army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants (14U of the British crammed into the Black-hoi.k) 20 June, 1756 Calcutta retaken by Clive 2 Jan. 1757 Great cyclone, followed by a "bore" or spring -tide in the Hoojihly; water rises 30 feet ; immense damage to shipping and houses 5 Oct. 1864 Another cyclone; about 30,000 small houses unroofed; much small shipping injured; crops in Lower Bengal destroyed (:ibout 90,000 persons drowued ; 75,000 die of cholera) . . 1 Nov. 1867 Caledonia, now Scotland. As its ancient in- habitants appear to have been Celts from the opposite coast of Gaul, the name is perhaps derived from Gael, Gaelmen, or Gadeldoine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, who died 99 A.D., uses the name Caledonia, and it retained this name un- til about the beginning of the 4th century, when it was in- vaded by the Scoti from the north of Ireland, who, having driven the Picts northward, settled in the Lowlands, giving their name, Scots, to the whole country. Caledonian monarchy, siiid to have been founded by Fergus I., '*^- about 330 Picts from England settle in the south 140 A.D. Agricola. the Roman, invades Caledonia 79 Defeats (Jalgacus, builds a wall between the Forth and Clyde. . . 84 Wall of Antoninus built 140 Ulpius Marcellus repels their incursions 184 Christianity introduced in the reign of Donald 1 201 Caledonians invade south Britain, 207; repelled by the empe- ror Severus, who advances to the Moray Firth • 209 Caledonia invaded by the Scoti, from Ireland about 306 Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II 404 Kenneth II., king of the Scoti, subdues the Caledonians and Picts, and founds one monarchy, named Scotland 838-843 Caledonian canal, from the North sea to the Atlantic ocean. Canals. calendar. The Roman calendar was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into 10 months, comprising 804 (lays, 738 b.c. This year was 50 days shorter than the lunar year, and 61 than the solar year, and its commencement did not correspond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 B.C., added 2 months; and Julius Caesar, 45 b.c., fixed the solar year at 365 days, 6 hours, every 4th year being bissextile, or Leap-year. This calendar was defective, as the solar year consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, and not of 365 days, 6 hours. This difference, in the 16th century, amounted to 10 days, the vernal equinox falling on 1 1 in- stead of 21 Mch. To obviate this error, pope Gregory XIII. ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 355 days only (5 Oct. became 15 Oct.) ; and that a year ending a cen- tury should not be bissextile, except that ending each 4th century; thus 1700, 1800, and 1900 are common years, but 2000 will be a leap-year. Thus 3 days are retrenched in 400 years, or about 11 minutes for each year. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year. French Revolutionary Calen- dar, Jewish Era, New Style. correspondence of calendars with 1891 A.D. Julian period 6604 Year of the world (Jewish year) 15 Sept. 1890-2 Oct. 1891 5651 Hegira (17 Aug. 1890-6 Aug. 1891) 1308 Foundation of Rome ( Varro) 2644 United States' independence 115-116 Year of queen Victoria 54-55 Comte. in his "Syst^me de Politique Positive" (instituting the "Religion of Humanity"), published a calendar of 13 months, dedicated successively to Moses, Homer, Aristotle, Archimedes, Caesar, Paul, Charlemagne, Dante, Guttenberg, Shakespeare, Des- cartes, Frederic, and Bichat; an eminent person was commemo- rated every day. Philosophy. calender, a machine used in glazing cloth, introduced into England by the Huguenots, who were driven by persecu- tion from France, Holland, and the Netherlands, about 1685. — A nderson. Calendi were the first davs of the Roman months. The Nones of Mch., May, July, and Oct. fell on the 7th, and their Ides on the 15th. The other months had the Aones on the 6th and the Ides on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, ad Grcecas Caletidas ("on the (ireek Calends"), meant never. Ides. Call Yugra, the Hindu era of the Deluge, dates from 3101 B.C. (according to some, 3102), and begins with the en- trance of the sun into the Hindu sign Asvvin,nowon UApr. n.s. In 1600 the year of this era began on 7 Apr. n. s., from which it has now advanced 4 days, and from the precession of the equinoxes, is still advancing at the rate of a day in 60 years. The number produced by subtracting 3102 from any given year of the Call Yuga era will be the Christian year in which the given year begins. cal'iCO, cotton cloth, named from Calicut, a city of India, visited by the Portuguese in 1498. Calico was first brought to England by the East India Company in 1631. Calico- printing and the Dutch loom-engine were first used in 1676, when a Frenchman established a factory at Richmond, near London. — Anderson. In England, Calicoe^ were prohibited to be printed or worn in 1700 ; and in 1721 a penalt}' of 5/. was laid on the wearer, and 20/. on the seller of calico. In 1831, by the exertions of Poulett Thpmpson, afterwards lord Sydenham, and others, the dutj' of 3Jd on the square j'ard of printed calico was taken off. Since 1834 the manufacture has been greatly in- creased by inventions. Cylinders for printing are now en- graved by galvanism, and many new dyes have been intro- duced by the discoveries of Liebig, Hofmann, Perkin, etc. The consumption of calico in the United States is greater than in any other country. Cotton, Dyeing. Calicut, now Korikod, S.W.India, the first Indian port visited by Vasco da Gama, 20 May, 1498. It was seized by Hyder Ali, 1766; taken by the English, 1782; destroyed by Tippoo Saib, 1789; ceded to the English, 1792. Calico. California (Sp. calida formax, meaning a hot fur- nace), a Pacific coast state, lies between lat. 32° 28' and 42° N., and Ion. 114° 30' and 124° 45' W., having a coast line of over 700 miles. It is bound- ed on the north b}^ Oregon, east by Nevada and Arizona, south by Mexico, and west by the Pacific ocean. Pop. 1890, 1,208,130; area, 158,- 360 sq. miles, in 54 counties. Capital, Sacramento. Hernando d' Alarcou sails to the head of the gulf of Califoruiii, and sends boats up the Colorado river Msiy, 1540 Juan Cabrillo, sailing north, discovers a harbor, supposed to be San Diego bay, 28 Sept. 1542, and reaches Monterey, 14 Nov. 1542 After Cabrillo's death at San Miguel, 3 Jan. 1543, Farallo, his pilot, reaches a point recorded as 44° N., but now believed to have been cape Mendocino, 40° 30' N 10 Mch. 1543 English explorer sir Francis Drake touches the coast at 43° n. lat., June, 1579; sailing south, he lands in a bay at "Cape of the Kings," about 30 miles northwest of San Francisco, 17 June; received kindly by natives, and calls the country New Albion. Drake leaves July, 1579 Spanish voyageur Sebastian Vizcaino vBiscayer) sails from Aca- pulco, and is said to bave visited the bays of San Diego and Monterey during the latter part of. 1602 After 150 years, with little furthet exploration, the Spaniards, aroused by priests and by reports of Russian advances south- ward from Alaska, send to the Pacific coast Jos6 de Galvez, who leaves Mexico 9 Apr. 1768 Galvez, in Lower California, fits out an expedition for Francis- can fathers, by sea and land; 2 vessels reach San Diego, 11 Apr. and 1 May, 1769 Portola, with land expedition, reaches San Diego, 9 July ; leaves 5 days later, arrives at San Pedro, 30 Oct., and thence pro- ceeds nearly to San Francisco bay, but, provisions being ex- hausted, returns to San Diego 11 Nov. " Portolas second expedition from San Diego reaches Monte- rey bay 24 May, 1770 Mission and presidio of San Carlos at Monterey founded, 3 June, " Missions of San Antonio de Padua and San Gabriel founded 1771 Don Pedro Fages, successor to Portola, sent by viceroy of .Mex- ico, from Monterey, 27 Mch. 1772, with an exploring party, to secure the harbor of San Francisco from foreign aggres- sion; they advance along the sliore to San Joaquin river, and unable to cross, return to Monterey 4 Apr. 1773 OAL 139 First interior expedition from Sonera, under Juan Bautista de Anza, readies San Gabriel 22 Mcb. 1774 Fernando Javier de Rivera y Moncada appointed lieut gov. of California 25 May, " Juau Perez, in the Santiago, explores coast north to lat. 45'^, 9 July, " Lieut. Juan Bautista de Ayala anchors oflTSan Francisco, sends a boat in, 1 Aug. 1775; he explores the bay for 40 days, re- turning to Monterey, then the capital 22 Sept. 1775 Settlement on the Colorado, opposite mouth of the Gila, 17 Dec. " Presidio of San Francisco founded 17 Sept. 1776 Mission established at San Francisco 9 Oct. " I'lieblo of San Josd established 29 Nov. 1777 Pueblo of Concepcion established 1780 Indian massacre at San Pablo and Concepcion; Rivera slain, 17 July, 1781 Pueblo of Los Angeles founded 26 Aug. " A fleet fitted out by the French government for scientific ex- ploration, under Jean Francois Galaup de la Perouse, sailing south from lat. 58° 37' enters Monterey bay, 14 Sept. 1786; entertained 10 days by gov. Fages and the padres of San Carlos mission Sept. 1786 Mission of Santa Barbara founded 4 Pec. " A Spanish scientific expedition from Cadiz, under Alejandro Malaspina, explores the coast, anchoring at Monterey, 13 Sept. 1791 Capt. George Vancouver with an exploring party, sent by Great Britain around the world, commissioned also to settle the boundary question on the north of California, anchors his vessel, the Discovery, in San Francisco harbor 14 Nov. 1792 With 7 officers, Vancouver, on horseback, visits Santa Clara, under Spanish escort; the fli-st foreigners to penetrate so far into the interior 20 Nov. " Vancouver anchors at Monterey, 27 Nov. 1792; visits San Car- los, 2 Dec. ; puts to sea 15 Jan. 1793 Returns from the Hawaiian islands in 1793 and again in 1794; is suspected by the Spanish governor, and coldly received; anchoring at Monterey, he visits the Salinas valley; sails away 2 Dec. 1794 First vessel from the U. S. in a Californian port, the Otter, from Boston, arrives at Monterey, 29 Oct. 1796. The captain, Ebenezer Dorr, after obtaining supplies, secretly lands 10 Englishmen and 1 woman, stowaways from Port Saxon, and sails away 6 Nov. 1796 By royal orders, the Californias are divided into 2 provinces, Antigua (the peninsula, then under the control of the Domin- ican missions) and Nueva California 26 Mch. 1804 Russian chamberlain, Nikolai Petrovich Rezanof, royal in- spector for Sitka, finding that colony in great need of food, sails to San Francisco with a cargo of goods, which he ex- changes for provisions, despite the Spanish restrictions oh trade ; he wins also the affections of Dofia Concepcion, daugh- ter of the commandant, don Jose ArguBllo 21 May, 1806 Indians across the bay from San Francisco troubling Spanish, AlQrez Moraga marches against them and defeats and scat- ters the tribe 22 May, 1810 Russians establish a fort at Ross, 18 miles north of Bodega, having settled the vicinity in 1807-10 30 Sept. 1812 <3ov. Jos6 Joaquin de Arrillaga dies at Soledad mission; capt. Jose Arquello succeeds 24 July, 1814 Rumors of revolutions in S. Anierica; proclamation from gov. Pablo Vincente de Sola, and preparations for defence, 23 June, 1816 Mission of San Rafael founded 14 Dec. 1817 French capt. Hippolyte Bouchard ("the pirate Buchar") ap- pears with 2 vessels of 38 and 26 guns under the flag of Buenos Ayres; his real purpose is unknown, but, after sum- moning Monterey and other places on the coast to surrender, and pillaging the towns, he sails away Dec. 1818 ■California becomes a province of Mexico under the regency of don Augustin Iturbide, 1821, and gov. Sola is elected deputy to the new Cortes; Iturbide proclaimed emperor 18 May, 1822 Russians warned to abandon California within 6 months, 21 Oct. " Iturbide surrenders his crown, Mch. 1823, and is banished from America, May. 1823 ; California is substantially independent until the new constitution of the Mexican republic is ratified by the Junta of California 26 May, 1825 Electors, summoned by gov. Jose Maria Escheandia, choose capt. Jose de la Guerra y Noriega delegate to Mexican Con- gress 18 Feb. 1826 Jedediah S. Smith, a trapper from the U. S., the first to make the trip from Salt lake, reaches San Gabriel 26 Dec. " Territorial Diputacion, 7 members an« 3 substitutes chosen by the junta of electors at San Diego in Feb. , meets at Monterey, 14 June, 1827 Joaquin Solis, a convict ranchero, instigates the troops to re- volt against the governor, with a view to give all offices to Californians; soldiers at Monterey seize the presidio, 12-13 Nov., and later meet no opposition at San Fraecisco 1829 Oov. Escheandia by proclamation calls on the Monterey insur- gents to surremler, 7 Jan. 1830 ; recaptures Monterey, 20 Jan. ; apprehends Solis and other leaders, and sends 15 of them on the bark Volunteer, for San Bias 9 May, 1830 Decree for secularization of missions; San Carlos and San Gabriel to be organized as towns, surplus property, after dis- tribution to neophytes, passing to secular administrators; other missions the same as far as possible 6 Jan. 1831 Secularization accomplished 1834 Los Angeles made a city— capital of California 23 May, 1835 After various attempts at negotiation with the authorities, the warnings of 1822 not being heeded, Russians at Ross, Bode- ga, and other points on the coast, sell th«ir rights to col. John A. Sutter for |30,000, and leave the country Jan. 1842 CAL Placer gold discovered on the San Francisco rancho formerly belonging to the San Fernando mission Mch. Commodore Thomas Ap Catesby Jones, with the U. S. Pacific squadron of 5 vessels, believing war to exist with Mexico, enters Monterey harbor, seizes the fort, and declares Cali- fornia a territory of the U. S.. 20 Oct. 1842; learning next day that there is no war, he restores the territory, 21 Oct. Col. J. C. Fremont, with exploring expedition, reaches Sutter's fort 1842 8 Mch. 1844 About 50 Californians, under Manuel Castro, Jesus Pico, and others, seize arms and munitions stored at San Juan Bautista, and instigate revolt against gov. Manuel Micheltorena and his army of convicts from Mexico 14-15 Nov. Micheltorena is supported by Sutter and other foreigners, but concludes a treaty, agreeing to send away his battalion and return to the capital i Dec. First immigrants to California in wagons, the "Murphy com- pany," under Elisha Stevens, reach Sutter's fort 13 Dec. Micheltorena having broken the treaty of 1844, the revolution is renewed; on the field of Cahuenga he capitulates, and Pio Poco becomes governor in his stead 21 Feb. Col. Fremont on a third expedition obtains permission from Mexico, through U. S. consul Thomas 0. Larkin, at Mon- terey, to continue his explorations of the coast 27 Jan. Col. Fremont, in Oregon, receives orders to watch the Mexi- can and British relations in California, 9 May, 1846. Re- turning to California, he finds gen. de Castro prepared to resist American invasion. American settlers begin the so- called "Bear-flag revolt " by occupying Sonoma, with a flag bearing a star and bear and the words, "California Repub- lic" 14 June, Fremont assumes command of insurgents at Souoma. .5 July, Stars and Stripes raised at Monterey, 7 July, by order of John D. Sloat, commanding U. S. Pacific squadron; at Sonoma they replace the bear flag, 9 July, and over Sutter's fort, 11 July, Fremont embarks in the schooner Ch/ane, commodore Dupont, and occupies San Diego 29 July, 200 Mormon emigrants, recruited in the U. S., arrive at Saa Francisco in the ship Brooklyn, under elder Brannan, 31 July, Americans, under commodore Robert F. Stockton and major Fremont, capture Los Angeles 13 Aug. First number of an American newspaper, the Californian, issued at Monterey by Robert Semple and Walter Colton 15 Aug. Commodore Stockton proclaimed governor 17 Aug. Mexicans recapture Los Angeles 29-30 Sept. Gen. Stephen W. Kearney, under orders from Washington to proceed from New Mexico to California and establish a pro- visional government, arrives at Santa Maria 5 Dec. Indecisive battle at San Pascual between Mexican general don Andres Pico and gen. Kearney, who is twice wounded, 6 Dec. Battle of San Gabriel; decisive defeat of the Mexicans, 8-9 Jan. Los Angeles regained by the Americans 10 Jan. Col. Fremont assumes the civil government under commission from commodore Stockton 19 Jan. Gen. Kearney, under instructions from the president, issues a proclamation from Monterey as governor, and directs col. Fremont to deliver in person, at Monterey, all public documents in his charge, which he does with hesitation, IMch. Col. Richard B. Mason appointed governor 31 May, First steamboat in California waters leaves San Francisco, reaching Sacramento in 6 days and 7 hours 28 Nov. Gold discovered near Coloma on col. John Sutter's land, by James Wilson Marshall 19 Jan. California and New Mexico ceded to the U. S. by treaty of Guad- alupe Hidalgo, 2 Feb. 1848; proclaimed in California Aug. First emigrants from China, 2 men and 1 woman, arrive in the bark Eagle First gold from California, 1804.59 oz., deposited in the U. S. mint by David Carter 8 Dec. Brig. -gen. Bennett Riley, instructed by the secretary of war to assume the civil administration, arrives by sea at Monterey, 12 Apr. 1849. He issues a proclamation for a temporary government to replace the local provisional governments, / 3 June, A convention to form a state constitution sits at Monterey-, 1 Sept. 1849, until 13 Oct. The constitution adopted and state officers chosen by the people 13 Nov. New Almaden quicksilver mines opened California admitted to the Union (the 31st state; pop. 92^597) by act approved 9 Sept. Assay-office established at San Francisco Of 5 extensive fires in San Francisco since 24 Dec. 1849, the greatest destroys a large part of the city (22 blocks). . .4 May, Act of legislature establishing public schools Democratic and Whig parties organized in California May, Prevalence and immunity of crime, and corruption of officials, prompts the formation of a vigilance committee of leading citizens in San Francisco. 5 criminals hanged by them, and nearly 20 banighed from the state. Gov. McDougall issues a proclamation against the committee, 21 July. A convicted murderer, reprieved by the governor, is hung by the people at Sacramento • 21 Aug. State prison at San Quentin, Marin co., opened University of the Pacific at St. Jose chartered and opened California Academy of Sciences founded at San Francisco 1845 1846 1847 1849 1850 1862 1863 OAL 140 8Ut« lanatic asylum established at Stockton 1853 Fllibustore under col. Walker sail from San Francisco for Lower California (FiunrsTKKS) 17 Oct. " Pniled States bnincn mint opened at San Francisco Apr. 1854 Panama niilroad o])ened, facilitating immigration to California, 23 Jan. 1855 College at Santa Clara opened, 1851 ; chartered " Law excluding from the courts negro and Indian evidence, amended by adding Chinese " James King of William, editor of the San Francisco Evening Bulletin, a chanipion of reform, is shot in the street by James Casey, editor of the Sunday Times, a noted politician, 14 May, 186(5; d. '20 May. The vigilance committee is revived 15 May, and some 8000 members are enrolled. Casey is taken from jail, 18 May; tried and hung with another man named Cora, convicted of murder 22 May, 1856 Discovery of goldmines on the Fmzer river 1 May, 1858 First overland mail west leaves St. I.^ui8, Mo., 16 Sept. 1858; arrives at San Francisco 10 Oct. " 42 prisoners escape from state prison in open day, and 100 others following are flred upon and driven back 27 June, 1859 David C. Broderick, wounded by David S. Terry in a duel 12 Sept., d 16 Sept. " St Ignatius college at San Francisco opened, 1855; chartered. . " Industrial school opened at San Francisco " First pony express leaves Sacramentojfor St. Joseph, Mo. .4 Apr. 1860 A Japanese embassy of 72 men are the guests of San Francisco, 29 Mch. " State Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind opened at Berkeley " California regiment, col. E. I). Baker, organized 21 Apr. 1861 Citiz«ns' meeting in Sau Francisco declares for Union, 11 May, " Daily overland mail established from the Missouri river to San Francisco over the central route, to replace that througli northern Texas. New Mexico, Arizona, and Southern Califor nia, established in 1858 1 July, " Telegraph line from Denver, Col, to Sacramento, Cal. ; com- pleted Sept. " Ex-senator Gwin and attorney-general Benham arrested by gen. Summer, charged with complicity in rebellion, 14 Nov. " State reform school at Marysville opened Dec. " 150 convicts escape from the state prison. In their recapture 3 are killed and 22 wounded 22 July, 1862 Pacific Methodist college at Santa Rosa opened, 1861 ; chartered, " Ground broken for the Central Pacific railroad at Sacramento by gov. Stanford (Pacific railroads) 22 Feb. 1863 At San Francisco, U. S. officers seize the schooner Chapman, about to sail, as a confederate privateer 15 Mch. " Congress grants the Yosemite valley and the Mariposa Big-tree grove to California for public use, resort, and recreation; to be inalienable 30 June, California ratifies the constitutional amendment abolishing slavery 18 Dec. State Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind established at Oakland St Vincent's college at Los Angeles opened, 1867; chartered. . University opened at Berkeley, near San Francisco. . .23 Sept Riot in Los Angeles; 15 Chinamen hanged and 6 shot by a mob 24 Oct. State normal school opened at San Francisco, 1862 ; is removed to San Jose " Mills college at Mills Seminary, Cal., opened " University of California permanently located at Berkeley, 16 July, 1873 Gen. E. R. S. Canby and commissioner Thomas, while negotiat- ing under a flag of truce for the removal of the Modoc Indians to a reservation, are massacred by capt. Jack and his war- riors in the lava beds near fort Klamath 11 Apr. " Assassins are captured 1 June, tried, and capt Jack and 2 as- sociates are hung 3 Oct " Insane asylum established at Napa " Central Pacific railroad attempts to obtain from Congress a grant of Goat island, the property of the U. S., on San Francisco bay, opposite Oakland; an independent party in opposition is formed, and Newton Booth, its candi- date, elected for the long term to Congress, with judge John- son S. Hayes, anti- railroad Democrat, for the short term, 20 Dec. " Law empowering juries to determine between death and im- prisonment for life in convicting of a capital crime 1874 Compulsory education law passed and school laws revised; a state superintendent of instruction to be elected " State temperance convention at San Francisco 19 Nov. " State Capitol at Sacramento completed 1875 "O'Connor bill " becomes a law, authorizing 3 commissioners of transportation to inspect railroads and require them to be kept in safe condition. 3 Apr. 1876 Society for the prevention of cruelty to children chartered ... " Permanent organization of the workingmen's party of Califor- nia, Dennis Kearney, "the sand-lot orator," president, head- quarters at San Francisco 5 Oct. 1877 Dennis Kearney arrested and imprisoned 2 weeks for incendi- ary speeches and threats .3 Nov. " Act amending the code of civil procedure concerning attorneys, by striking out the words " white male;" Mrs. Clara S. Foltz of San Jose is admitted to the bar 1878 Act providing for a state labor bureau " Convention to revise the constitution meets, 28 Sept 1878; ad- journs, 3 Mch. 1879; new constitution takes effect 4 July, 1879 Yacht Jeannette sails from San Francisco for the Arctic regions (Northeast and Northwest Passage) 8 July, " 1864 1865 1866 1869 1871 1879 1880 1886 1887 CAL Popular vote for governor: for Geo. C. Perkins, Hep., 67,970; Hugh J. Glenn, Dem. and new constitution, 47,562; William F. White, workingmen's party, 44,620 3 Sept Normal school at San Josd destroyed by fire 10 Feb. Work begun on the Lick Observatory on mount Hamilton, 4250 a. above llio sea, lat 37° 21' 3" n., and Ion 121° 3(;' 40" w., 13 miles east from San Jos6 Dennis Kearney arrested for sedition; sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment and a fine of .$1000 . .(San Francisco) 15 Mch. State viticultural commission founded State i)ri80u at FoLsom opened University of Southern California chartered and opened at Los Angeles "Young ddbris relief bill" passed, imposing, with a general tix, a special tax on miners, to repair damage done to agri- culture by ddbris washed into the valleys by hydraulic min- ing; such debris, it is estimated, has destroyed 43,500 acres of good farming land Convention of miners in Nevada City, 22 July, 1882, to con- sider the debris question; anti-ddbris convention of 110 dele- gates, residents and property holders in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, at Sacramento 26 Sept State normal school at Los Angeles opened Acts passed creating a horticultural, sericultural, and forestry commission, and a bureau of labor statistics California Home for the Care and Training of Feeble-minded Children opened at Santa Clara 36 in. lenses for the great refractor of the Lick Observatory safely brought by rail from Cambridgeport, Mass., and de- posited in the observatory vaults 27 Dec. Legislature appropriates $5000 for a monument to James W. Marshall, the discoverer of gold, at his grave in Coloma, El- dorado county Tax enacted of 1 cent on each $100 of property for the Univer- sity of California Corner-stone of Stanford University laid at Palo Alto, 20 May. Asylum for Chronic Insane in Santa Clara county completed. . Lick Observatory transferred by the trustees to the regents of the University of California 1 June, Monument erected in Golden Gate park to Francis S. Key, for which James Lick, who died 1 Oct 1876, bequeathed $60,000 Acts passed establishing the South California Stale Hospital for the Insane, the Mendocino Insane Asylum at Ukiah, and a state reform school for juvenile offenders at Los Angeles Act passed recognizing the veterans' home at Yountville as a state home for disabled veterans and as a beneficiary under the act of Congress providing aid David S. Terry, assaulting judge Stephen Field at Lathrop, is shot dead by U. S. marshal Nagle 14 Aug. Pioneer woollen mills close; the last of the large woollen man- ufactories in the state State normal school at Chico opened Preston School of Industry for Youthful Criminals founded at lone City Gabriel, the famous mission Indian, dies at Salinas, Monterey county, aged 151 years 16 Mch. 29 persons drowned in a train which falls through a draw- bridge at Oakland 30 May, 40th anniversary of the admission of California into the Un-on. celebrated 6, 8, and 9 Sept, the latter day being a legal holi- day in the state by governor's proclamation 6-9 Sept. Act of Congress to reserve as a public park the Big-tree groves in townships 18 and 17 south 25 Sept King David Kalakaua of the Sandwich islands lands at San Francisco from the U. S man-of-war Charleston 4 Dec. Comer-stone of the Mendocino County Insane Asylum laid at Ukiah 9 Dec. Corner-stone of the insane asylum at San Bernardino laid, 16 Dec. King David Kalakaua. b. 1836; d. at San Francisco 20 Jan. Hon. George Hearst, U. S. senator, d. in Washington, D. C, 28 Feb. Charles N. Felton, elected U. S. senator 19 Mch. Dr. David S. Jordan, president of Indiana State University, ac- cepts the presidency of Leland Stanford, jr. University, 23 Mch. Chilian insurgent transport, the Itata, seized at San Diego (United States) 6 May, First shipment of block-tin (7 tons) from the Temescal mines, in San Bernardino county, received in gan Francisco, 15 June, Australian ballot law takes effect 1 July, Leland Stanford, jr. University at Palo Alto opened 1 Oct Earthquake; slight elsewhere; damage at Woodland, $50,000, 19-21 Apr. Train, guarded by U. S. soldiers, with $20,000,000 of govern- ment gold leaves San Francisco for New York ; has the right of way 5 Aug. 350th anniversary of the di.scovery of San Diego bay. .28 Sept Leland Stanford, governor, 1862, U. S. senator, 1893, and found- er of Leland Stanford, jr. University, d 20 June, From 1767 up to 1821, California being under Spanish rule 10 governors were appointed by that power. From 1822 unt 1845, being under Mexican domination, her governors (12] were appointed from Mexico. From 1846 her governors hav< been as follows : 189 OAL 141 CALIFORNIA REPUBLIC GOVERNORS. Term. I CAL John C. Fremont 1846 By the people under the " Bear flag. PROVISIONAL OR MILITARY GOVERNORS UNDER THE UNITED STATES. •Com. Robert F. Stockton,. John C. Fremont ■Gen. Stephen W. Kearney. Richard B. Mason Gen. Porsifer F. Smith Bennett Riley 1847 1847 1847 1847 to 1849 1849 13 .Ian. , date of the surrender to the U. S. government. By appointment of com. Stockton. Fremont di.>*placed by Kearney, Mch. Appointed from Washington. Temporarily. In office at the adoption of the state constitution. STATE GOVERNORS. Name. Term. Remarks. Name. ( Term. Remarks. Peter H Burnett 1849 to 1851 1851 " 1852 18.52 " 1856 1856 " 1858 1858 " 1860 1860 " 1860 1860 " 1862 1862 " 1863 1863 " 1867 1867 " 1871 Resigned. Lt. gov. acting. Resigned. Lt.-gov. acting. Newton Booth 1871 to 1875 1875 " 1875 1875 " 1880 1880 " 1883 1883 " 1887 1887 " 1887 1887 " 1891 1891 " 1895 1895 " 1899 Resigned. (Lieut. -gov. act- William Irwin ( ing. T/^>1in R Wpllpr George C Perkins vrilt(>n c; T ntliam George Stoneman . . Washington Bartlett Died in office. Robt. W. Waterman J. H. Budd UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM CALIFORNIA. Name. No. of Congress. Date. Remarks. .John C Fremont Thirty-first Thirty-second Thirty-third Thirty-fourth Thirty-fifth Thirty-sixth u Thirty-seventh Thirty-eighth Thirty-ninth Fortieth Forty- first Forty-second Forty-third Forty-fourth Forty-fifth Forty sixth Forty-seventh Forty-eighth Forty-ninth Fiftieth Fifty-first Fifty-second Fifty-third 1849 to 1851 1851 " 1853 1853 " 1855 1855 " 1857 1857 " 1859 1859 " 1861 (( li u 1861 " 1863 1863 " 1865 u a u 1865 " 1867 1867 " 1869 1869 " 1871 1871 " 1873 1873 " 1875 1875 " 1877 1877 " 1879 1879 " 1881 1881 " 1883 1883 " 1885 1885 " 1887 u u . u 1887 " 1889 1839 " 1891 1891 II 1893 1803 II 1895 Seated, 10 Sept. 1850. " 11 " " William M Gwin William M Gwin John B Weller Seated 17 Mch. 1852. William M Gwin John B. Weller John B Weller David C. Broderick William M Gwin Seated 4 Mch. 1857. David C. Broderick Died of a wound received in a duel with David S. Terry, 16 Sept. 1859. Pro tem. in place of Broderick. Elected in place of Broderick. Seated, 5 Mch. 1860. Jas A. McDougall John Conners First Republican senator. Jas A McDougall Democrat. Jas. A. McDougall Eugene Casserly Democrat. ■Cornelius Cole Eugene Casserly Cornelius Cole Eugene Casserly Resigned, 29 Nov. 1873. Elected in place of Casserly. Seated, 9 Feb. 1874 Republican. Independent. John S. Hager Newton Booth Newton Booth Aaron A. Sargent Newton Booth Jas T. Farley Democrat. John F. Miller Republican. Jas. T. Farley John F. Miller Jas. T. Farley John F. Miller Leland Stanford Republican. Democrat. George Hearst Leland Stanford George Hearst Died 28 Feb 1891 Leland Stanford Charles N. Felton Republican. Leland Stanford Leland Stanford Died, 20 June, 1893. Democrat. Stephen M. White •George C. Perkins Republican. Elected in place of Stanford. caliper COnipa§§, to measure the bore of cannon, I small-arms, etc., is said to have been invented by an artificer of Nuremberg in 1540. Ca'lipti (Arabic), vicar, or lieutenant, the title assumed by the soli of Persia, as succes.sor of Ali, and, since 1517, by the sultan of Turkey, as successor of Mahomet and sov- ereign of Mecca and Medina. The caliphate began with Abubeker, the father of the prophet's second wife. The Fati- mite caliphs ruled in Egypt, 908-1171. Ali, Mahometan- .IS.M. CALIPHS OF ARABIA. 632. Abubeker. 634. Omar I. 644. Othman. 655. Ali. The Ommiades ruled 661-750. The Abbassides ruled 750-1258. In 775 they were styled caliphs of Bagdad. Haroun-al-Raschid ruled 786-809. CalippiC period, invented by Calippus about 330 B.C., to correct the Metonic cycle, consists of 4 cycles, or of 76 years, at the expiration of which he incorrectly supposed the iiew and full moons return on the same day of the solar year. This period began about the end of June, third year or 112th Olympiad, year of Rome 424, and 330 b.c. Calixtin§. l. A sect derived from the Hussites, about 1420, demanded the cup (Gr. KaXv^) in the Lord's supper. They were also called Utraquists, as partaking of both ele- ments. They were reconciled to the Koman church at the CAL 142 CAM council of Basle, 1433.— 2. The folio were of George Calixtus, a Lutheran, who died in 1656. He wrote against the celibacy of the priest htKMl, and proposed a reunion of Catholics and Protestants under the Apostles' Creed. Cul'lao, Peru. After an earthquake the sea retired from the shore, and rotnrned in preat waves, destroying the city, in 1687, and on 28 Oct. 174G. Attempt of the Spanish admiral Nuftez to bombard Callao, 2 May, 1866, defeated by the Peruvians; blockaded by Chilians, Apr. 1880. Ciiii>i. callinr'rttphy ("beautiful writing"). Callicrates is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472 b.c. In the I6th century Peter Bales wrote legibly the Lord's Prayer, Creed, and Decalogue, 2 short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth (to whom he presented them at Hampton court), all within the circle of a silver penny, en- chased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crys- tal — Holinshed. Culmar, Union of. The treaty whereby Denmark, Sweden, and Norway were united under one sovereign, Mar- garet, queen of Sweden and Norway, " the Semiramis of the North," June, 1397. The union was dissolved by Gustavus Vasa in 1523. Rulers, table of; Sweden. Calniucki. Tartary. cal'Oinel ("beautiful black"), a compound of mercury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of sodium, first mentioned by Crollius early in the 17th century. The first directions given for its preparation were by Beguin in 1608. calorescence. In Jan. 1865, prof. Tyndall rendered the ultra-red rays of the spectrum of the electric light visible by focussing them on a plate of platinum, which they raised to a white heat. He termed the phenomenon calorescence. Fluorescence. caloric. Heat. calotype procC§§ (from the Gr. KoKoQ, beautiful), by which negative photographs are produced on paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry Fox Talbot, about 1840. Also called Talbotype. Photography. Caloy'eri (meaning good old men). The monks of the Greek church, of the order of St. Basil. Their most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount Sinai, endowed by Justinian (d. 565) ; the European one is at Mount Athos. Calvary, Mount, the place where the Redeemer suffered death, 5 Apr. 30 A.jy. (ff ales, 31; Clinton, 29; others, 38); see Luke xxiii. 33. Hadrian, at the time of his persecution of the Christians, erected a temple of Jupiter on mount Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, 142. The empress Helena built a church here about 326. Holy places. Calvi, Corsica. The British forces besieged the fortress of Calvi, 12 June, 1794. After 69 days, it surrendered on 10 Aug. It surrendered to the French in 1796. Calvinisti, named after John Calvin (or Chauvin), who was bom at Noyon, in Picardy, 10 July. 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines, he fled to Angouleme, where he com- posed his "Institutio Christianae Religionis" in 1533; pub. in 1536. He retired to Basle, and settled in Geneva, where he died, 27 May, 1564. He took part in burning Servetus for denying the Trinity in 1553. The Calvinists and Lutherans separated after the conference of Poissy in 1561, where the former rejected the 10th and other articles of the Confession of Augsburg, and took the name of Calvinists. In France (Huguenots) they took up arms against their persecutors. Henry IV., originally a Calvinist, on becoming king, secured their liberty by the Edict of Nantes in 1598. Calvinistic doctrines appear in the articles of the church ol England and in the confession of the church of Scotland, and are held by many Protestant sects. The}'^ include predestination, partic- ular redemption, total depravity, irresistible grace, and the certain perseverance of saints. Cambodia, a region lying to the southwest of Anam, and south of Siam. Its king, Norodom, recognized French protection by treaty, Oct. 1883. Pop. 1,800,000 ; area, 38,000 sq. miles. Cambray, N. France, the ancient Camaracum, was ii the middle ages the capital of a prince bishop subject to th€ emperor. It gives its name to Cambric. Councils held hei 1064, 1303, 1383, 1565. Held by Louis XI. of France 1477-78 Taken by Charles V.. . : IE By the Spaniards 159 By the French and annexed 166| Fdndlon made archbishop 169 French wore defeated at Caesar's camp, in the neighborhood, by the allied army under the duke of York 24 Apr. 178 Invested by the Austrians, 8 Aug., the republican general, De- clay, replied to the summons to surrender, "he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to fight." It was taken by Clairfait, the Austrian general 10 Sept. 179f Seized by British under sir Charles Colville 24 June, 181{ League of Cambray against the republic of Venice, comprising pope Julius II., the emperor Maximilian, and Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand of Spain, formed 10 Dec. 1506 Treaty between Francis I. of France and Charles V. of Germany (called Paix des Dames, because negotiated by Louisa of Savoy, mother of the French king, and Margaret of Austria, aunt of the emperor) 152J Treaty between Charles VI. and Philip V. of Spain 1724- Cambria, ancient name of Wales. cambric, a.fine thin fabric of linen or cotton, first made at Cambray ; worn in England, and accounted a great lux- ury, IbS^.—Stow, Its importation restricted in 1745 ; proliil ited in 1758; readmitted, 1786 ; prohibited, 1795. Cambridg^C, the Roman Camboricum and the Saxoq Granta bricsir, capital of Cambridge co., Engl., frequently mea tioned by the earliest British historians, was burned by th< Danes in 870 and 1010. CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. The university, said to have been founded by Sigebert, king of the East Angles, about 630 a.d. ; neglected during the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much; restored by Edward the elder in 915 ; began to revive about Henry I. bestows many privileges Henry III. grants a charter to the university; about which time the students begin to live together in hostels, which afterwards become colleges named after saints 1230 or Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebels enter, seize university records, and burn them in the market place University press set up Incorporated by Elizabeth University authorized to send 2 members to Parliament University refuses the degree of M.A. to father Francis, a Benedictine monk, recommended by the king; and the pres- idency of Magdalene college to Farmer, a Roman Catholic, notwithstanding the king's mandate Mathematical tripos instituted University tests act passed 1(5 June, New code of statutes for the university approved by queen Victoria in council St. Paul's hostelry for Indian students chartered 18 July, New museum of classical art and archaeology opened. . .6 May, Miss A. F Ramsay, of Girton, senior and alone in first division of classical tripos. Miss B. M. Hervey, of Newnham, alone in first division of mediaeval and modern languages tripos, 18 June, Prof. G. G. Stokes, P.R.S., elected M.P for the university, 17 Nov. Miss G. P. Fawcett, Newnham (daughter of the late profes-sor), above the senior wrangler in mathematics 7 June, Senate supports compulsory study of Greek (525-185). .29 Oct. Establishment of an engineering school proposed Dec. SEVENTEEN COLLEGES. Peterhouse college, by Hugo de Balsham, bishop of Ely, founded Clare hall or college, first founded by Dr. Richard Baden in 1326; destroyed by fire and re-established by Elizabeth de Bourg, sister to Gilbert, earl of Clare about Pembroke college, founded by the countess of Pembroke Gonville and Caius, by Edmund Gonville Trinity hall, by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich Enlarged by Dr. John Caius Corpus Chri.sti, or Benet King's college, by Henry VI Queea's college, by Margaret of Anjou, 1448; and Elizabeth Woodville ,.. St. Catherine's college or hall, founded Jesus college, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely Christ's coljego, founded 1442; endowed by Margaret, countess of Richmond, mother of Henry VII St. John's college, endowed by Margaret, countess of Rich- mond Magdalene college, by Thomas, baron Audley Trinity college, by Henry VIII Emmanuel college, by sir Walter Mildmay Sidney-Sussex college, founded by Frances Sidney, countess of Sussex Downing college, by sir George Downing by will, in 1717 ; its charter luq 1231 1680 1747 187 1885 1884 188T 125T 1345 1347 134 1350 1558 1352. 144» 147» 1496. 1505- 1511 1519 1546 1584 159S 180O CAM 143 Non-Coil, students, founded 1869 Cavendish college, opened by duke of Devonshire 1876 Selwyn college, founded 1 June, 1881 Ayerst's Hostel, founded 1884 [Cambridge University Calendar, 1891.] CHANCELLORS. Charles, duke of Somerset, elected 1688 Thomas, duke of Newcastle 1748 Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton 1768 H. R. H. William Frederick, duke of Gloucester 1811 John, marquis Camden 1834 Hugh, duke of Northumberland 1840 Prince Consort (d. 14 Dec. 1861) 28 Feb. 1847 William, duke of Devonshire 31 Dec. 1861 PRINCIPAL PROFESSORSHIPS. Divinity (Margaret), 1502; Regius.. Laws, Hebrew, Greek, and Physic. Founded. ... 1540 Arabic 1632 Mathematics (Lucasian) 1663 Music 1684 Chemistry 1702 Astronomy :.. ..1704, 1749 Anatomy 1707 Modern History, Botany 1724 Natural and Experimental Philosophy 1783 Mineralogy 1808 Political Economy 1863 Slade (fine art) 1869 (Cambridge and Oxford recognize each other's degrees, also those granted by Dublin university, but no others). U.vivkrsities. Cambridge, Mass. The town was founded by e;ov. Winthrop in 1630, and called Newtown. During the British occupation of Boston the American army occupied Cambridije, and there Washington assumed command in 1775. The city of Cambridge, the seat of Harvard University, was incor- porated in 1846. Pop. in 1880, 52,740; 1890, 70.028. €aillbu§kenneth, near Stirling (central Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English under Warrenne and Cres- singham, 10 Sept. 1297. The abbey, one of the richest in Scotland, was founded by king David I. in 1147 ; was spoiled and nearly destroyed by the re- formers in 1559. Camden, S. C. Here, 16 Aug. 1780, about 3600 Amer- icans, under gen. Gates, were defeated by from 2000 to 2500 British, under lord Cornwallis, losing 700 men, among them baron de Kalb mortall}' wounded, nearly all their baggage and artillery. Camel, Day of the, 4 Nov. 656 (according to some, 658 or 659), when Talha and Zobeir, rebel Arab chiefs, were defeat- ed and slain by caliph Ali. Aj'esha, Mahomet's widow, friend of the chiefs, was present in a litter, on a camel \ hence the name. Cam'elot, a legendary city of Britain, famous in king Arthur's time. "And thro''the field the road runs by To many-tower'd Camelot." —Tenmjson, '^The Lady of Shalott." eamera-lucida, invented by Dr. Hooke about 1674; another by Dr. Wollaston in 1807, to facilitate the delineation of distant objects. eamera-ol>§eura or dark chamber, con- structed, it is said, by Roger Bacon in 1297 ; improved by Baptista Porta, about 1500 ; and remodelled by sir Isaac New- ton. By the invention of M. Daguerre, in 1839, the pictures of the camera are fixed. Photography. Cameroilian§, a name frequently given to the Re- formed Presbyterian church of Scotland, the descendants of the Covenanters of the 17th century, the established church, 1638- 1650. They assumed the name of the ' ' Reformed Presbyterian church " on 25 May, 1876, and soon after united with the Free church of Scotland. Charles II. signed the league and cove- nant in 1650, in hopes of recovering his kingdoms, but re- nounced it in 1661, and revived episcopacy. A revolt ensued in 1666, when many Covenanters were slain in battle (in the Pentland hills, etc.) ; and many, refusing to take the oaths re- quired, and declining to accept the king's indulgence, died on the scafibld, after undergoing cruel tortures. The name Cam- eronian is derived from Richard Cameron, one of their minis- ters, who was killed in a skirmish in 1680. On 22 June in that year he and others issued at Sanquathar a declaration for re- ligious liberty. The bi-centenary was kept in 1880. In 1689 they raised a body of soldiers to support William III., who en- CAM rolled them under the command of lord Angus, as the 26th regiment, since so famous in British annals. In 1712 they re- newed their public covenants, and are described in one of their tracts as '• the suffering anti-popish, and anti-prelatical, anti- erastian, true Presbyterian church of Scotland." They have now between 30 and 40 congregations in Scotland.— The 79th regiment (Cameron Highlanders), raised in 1793 by Allan Cameron, has no connection with the Cameronians. Cameroon, a region in Africa, made a German pro- tectorate in 1884. It has a coast line on the Bight of Biafra, north of the French Congo region, of 120 miles. Its area is about 130,000 sq. miles. Pop. 2,500,000. Cami§ard§ (from chemise, Lat. camisa, a shirt, which they frequently wore over their dress in night attacks), a name given to the French Protestants in the neighborhood of the Cevennes (mountain-chains in S. France), who, after enduring much persecution after the revocation of the Kdict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, took up arms in July, 1702, to rescue some im- prisoned brethren. They revenged the cruelties of their ene- mies, and maintained an obstinate resistance against the rov- alist armies commanded by marshal Montrevel and other distinguished generals till 1705, when the insurrection was sup- pressed by marshal Villars. After futile conciliatory efforts, several of the heroic leaders suffered death rather than sur- render. Cavalier, an able general, unable to earryout a treaty made with Villars, seceded in 1704, entered the British service, and died governor of Jersey, 1740. camlet, formerly made of silk and camel's hair, but now of wool, hair, and silk. Oriental camlet first came from Portuguese India in 1660. — Anderson. camp. The Hebrew encampment was first laid out by Divine direction, 1490 B.C. (Numb.ii.). The Romans and Gauls had intrenched camps in open plains; and vestiges of such exist to this day in England and Scotland. Campag^na (Cam-pan'ya) di Roma, near Rome. A district mostly uncultivated and unhealthy, including the greater part of ancient Latium. The vapors arising from the land produce the pestilential atmosphere called Aria CaHiva. This province was not always so unhealthy, but in the early days of the republic contained such cities as Veil and Fidenae, and under the empire many fine villas were built here. Its drainage and planting were authorized by the Italian senate, 31 May, 1878, but little, however, has been done. Campania, S. Italy, was occupied by Hannibal, and various cities declared in his favor, 216 B.c. ; conquered by the Romans, 213. Its capital was Capua. Campbellite§ or Ro\¥ite§, the followers of the rev. John McLeod Campbell, minister of Row, Dumbartonshire, deposed 24 May, 1881, by the general assembly of the church of Scotland for teaching universal atonement, and other doc- trines contrary to the church's standard. Dr. Campbell estab- lished a congregation in Glasgow in 1833. The Disciplks of Christ are also sometimes termed Campbellites, after Alexan- der Campbell, their founder. Campeachy bay, Yucatan, Central America, dis- covered about 1517, and settled by Spaniards in 1540: taken by the English in 1659, by the buccaneers in 1678, and l)y the freebooters of St. Domingo in 1685, who burned the town and blew up the citadel. The English logwood-cutters settled here about 1662. Camperdown, south of the Texel, Holland, near which admiral Duncan, of the English fleet, defeated the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral De Winter ; the latter losing 15 ships, either taken or destroyed, 11 Oct. 1797. The British admiral was made lord Duncan of Camperdown. He died suddenly on his way to Edinburgh, 4 Aug. 1804. Also the name of an English armored battle-ship. Wrkcks, 1893. Campo Formio, N. Italy. Here a treaty was con- cluded between France and Austria ; the latter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic, 17 Oct. 1797. By a secret article the emperor gained the Venetian dominions. Campu§ RaudiU§, near Verona, N. Italy. Here the Cimbri were defeated with great slaughter by Marius and Catulus, 101 15.C. (XTKIVBRSITT CAN 144 CAN Canaan (kelled by Carleton Mch. 1776 Canada divided into Upper and Lower 1791 "Clergy reserves" established by Pari lament— one seventh of the waste lands of the colony appropriated for the main- tenance of the Protestant clergy (during the debates on this bill the quarrel between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose) " United States army, under gen. Hull, invade Canada from De- troit, 12 July, but retire across the river to Detroit — 8 Aug. 1812 United Statks. 1812-14. First railway in Canada opened July, 1836 Papineau rebellion commences at Montreal by a body called Fils de la Libi-rle 1837 Rebels defeated at St. Eustace 14 Dec. " Repulsed at Toronto by sir F. Head 5 Jan. 1838 Lount and Mathews (rebels) hanged 12 Apr. " Rebellion in Beauharnais, 3 Nov. ; the .insurgents at Napier- ville, under Nelson, routed, 6 Nov. ; rebellion suppressed, 17 Nov. " Acts for government of Lower Canada passed, Feb. 1838, and Aug. 1839 Upper and Lower Canada reunited 10 Feb. 1840 Riots in Montreal; parliament house burned 26 Apr. 1850 Treaty with the U. S 7 June, 1854 Grand Trunk railroad of Canada (850 miles), from Quebec to Toronto, opened 12 Nov. 1856 On reference to queen Victoria, Ottawa, formerly Bytown, made the capital; this decision unpopular Aug. 1858 Canada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one of the line, and called the 100th) " Prince of Wales, duke of Newcastle, etc., arrive at St. John's, Newfoundland, 24 July; visit Halifax, 30 July; Quebec, 18 Aug. ; Montreal, 25 Aug. ; Ottawa, 1 Sept. ; leave Canada, 20 Sept. ; after visiting the U. S. embark at Portland, 20 Oct. ; and arrive at Plymouth 15 Nov. 1860 In consequence of the Trent affair (United States, 1861), 3000 British troops sent to Canada; warlike preparations made, Dec. 1861 British Parliament grant 50,000i. for defence of Canada, 2 Mch. " British N. American Association founded in London Jan. 1862 J. Sandfleld Macdonald premier 20-23 May, " Assembly vote only 5000 militia and 5000 reserve for the de- fence of the country ; discontent in England July, " Macdonald again premier 20 May, 1863 Meeting of delegates from N. American colonies at Quebec, to deliberate on a confederation, 10 Oct. ; agree on the bases. Oct 1864 Between 20 and 30 armed confederates quit Canada and enter St. Albans, Vt. ; rob tlie banks, steal horses and stores, flre, kill one man, and wound others, return to Canada, 19 Oct. ; 13 are arrested, 21 Oct. ; but are discharged on technical grounds, by judge Coursol 14 Dec. " Confederation scheme rejected by New Brunswick 7 Mch. 1865 St. Albans raiders discharged, 30 Mch. ; Mr. Seward gives up claim for their extradition Apr. " Threatened invasion of the Fenians, 9 Mch. ; 10,000 volunteers called out 15 Mch. 1866 Canadian parliament first meets at Ottawa ; the habeas-corpus act suspended ; many Fenians flee ; 35,000 men under arms (Fenians) 8 June, " Discovery of gold in Hastings county, Canada West Nov. " Act for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick as " the Dominion of Canada," the executive authority be- ing vested in the sovereign of Great Britain, represented by a gov.-gen. (salary 10,000i. per annum) and privy council, with parliament, to consist of a senate, members chosen for life, and a house of commons, members chosen for 5 years, passed 29 Mch. 1867 Canada railway loan act passed 12 Apr. " Lord Monck sworn as viceroy of Canada, under the Union act, 2 July, " New parliament meets at Ottawa; senate, 72 members; house of commons, 181 6 Nov. " Agitation against the confederation in Nova Scotia .Jan. M urder of Darcy McGhee 7 Apr. A Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by the militia, about 24 May, Hudson's bay territories purchased, subject to conditions, for 300,000/. (HuD.soN's HAY) Nov. Some of the settlors resisting (Rupert's Land) an expedition, under col. Wolseley, arrive at fort Garry, and a conciliatory proclamation is issued 23 July, Rupert's Land made the province of Manitoba ; Adams G. A. Archibald first governor lAug. Disputes with U. S. respecting fishing Nov. Opposition to the fishery clauses in the treaty of Wa.shington, June, By the British North America act, the Parliament of Canada "may establish new provinces 29 June, British Columbia united to the " Dominion " Departure of last battalion of royal troops Nov. Mr. Arch, on behalf of British laborers, visits Canada.. autumn, Canadian and U. S. fishery commission (sir Alexander Gait for Canada, E. T. Kellogg for U. S., and M. Delfosse, Belgian U. S. minister) meet at Halifax, 15 June; award $"),.'>00,000 to Canada, Mr. Kellogg dissenting 23, 24 Nov. American fishermen in Fortune bay attacked for breaking laws respecting fishing 6 Jan. Marquis of Lome appointed governor general 14 Oct. Resignation of ministry ; sir John Macdonald forms a new one, about 19 Oct. Halifax award paid by the U. S. (Fish, Fisheries) 21 Nov. Marquis of Lome and princess Louise land at Halifax. . .25 Nov. Fortune bay affair (Jan. 1878), compensation refused by the earl of Salisbury, granted by lord Granville, but rules affirmed, 2(> Oct. Contract for new Pacific railway ratified by the assembly, 1 Feb. P'ortune bay affair ; 15,000/. awarded 28 May, Northwest territory beyond Manitoba divided into 4 new terri- tories— Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Athabaska; by order in council : July, Marquis of Lansdowne arrives at Quebec as governor- general, 22 Oct. Canada offers military assistance in the Soudan Feb. Insurrection in northwest territories, led by Louis David Riel, supported by French half-breeds and Indians, claiming po- litical and social rights alleged to have been promised in 1870; government stores seized about 24 Mch. Col. Irvine evacuates and burns fort Carleton 25-27 Mch. Battleford besieged by Indians 1 Apr. Col. Otter, after a fight, relieves Battleford 24 Apr. Gen. Middleton defeats the Indians at Fish creek after a severe conflict 24 Apr. Col. Otter defeats Riel's followers near Battleford 3 May, Gen. Middleton attacks and captures Batoche, on the Saskatch- ewan, well defended by Riel with rifle-pits, etc. ; British success largely due to the skill and courage of capt. Howard, U. S. A., with a Catling gun 9 May, Indian chief Poundmaker, having captured a supply train of 31 wagons, is defeated, but supplies are not recovered, 14 May, Riel surrenders with many of his followers 15 May, Poundmaker surrenders 26 May, Gen. Strange attacks Big Bear's" intrenched camp, 20 miles from fort Pitt, but retreats 28-29 May, Big Bear retreats 7 June, Riel tried, convicted, and hanged 30 July-16 Nov. Fisheries dispute between Canada and U. S. ; Canadians put the harshest construction upon the treaty of 1818, seeking to force the U. S. to a more favorable treaty spring, U. S. Congress passes a bill authorizing retaliation against Ca- nadian commerce at the president's discretion 2 Mch. Fisheries Retaliation bill passed by the U. S. Congress. .3 Mch. Wm. O'Brien, editor of United Ireland, arrives at Montreal on a mission, 11 May; visits Ottawa, Toronto, etc. ; generally un- successful, and frequently stoned; leaves 28 May, Joint commission on fisheries dispute (3 British, including J. Chamberlain, and 3 U. S.) appointed about 30 Aug. British vessels seized by U. S. authorities in N. Pacific waters, 2, 9, 12; 17 Aug. Great railway bridge over the St. Lawrence at Lachine com- pleted 30 July, Arrangements made for a fortnightly mail service, etc., from London to the east by the Canadian Pacific railway by govern- ment subsidies. Sept. Bill for trade reciprocity with U. S. negatived after 15 days' debate 7 Apr. Commissioners report the capability of the great Mackenzie basin, etc. (about 1,260,000 sq. miles) for colonization; an- nounced Sept. Proposed extension by Manitoba of Red River railway across Canadian Pacific railway; opposed by that company as inter- fering with their monopoly, and disallowed by the Dominion parliament; a compromise agreed to ; Manitoba government determine to proceed; Canadian company resists, Oct. ; con- flict, the company successful, 26 Oct. ; decision of the supreme court in favor of Manitoba announced, 23 Dec. ; leave given to cross the line 28 Jan. Proposed petition to queen to make the governor-general inde- pendent in foreign affairs negatived by Parliament (94-66), 18 Feb. Dominion commons unanimously resolve on adhesion to the mother country; a copy to be sent to the queen 29 Jan. 1870 1871 1873 1877 1878 18S0 1881 1890 CAN Manitoba railway named the Great Northern railway of Canada, Jan. John Reginald Birchall, an educated Englishman, tried at Wood- stock, Ontario, for the murder in Niagara swamp of F. J. Ben- well (whom he had decoyed from England into a farming part- nership), 17 Feb. Birchall wrote a forged letter to col. Benwell, requesting him to send 5001. to his son ; evidence circumstan- tial; 8 days' trial; convicted 11.45 p.m., 29 Sept. ; executed, 14 Nov, Indians of Ontario and Quebec, at a meeting on 21 Nov., agree to petition the government to release them from the political franchise, and to permit them to elect their own chiefs as formerly, still remaining subject to the government; petition presented, and reserved for consideration, Dec. 1890; Parlia- ment dissolved 4 Feb. ;Sir John Macdonald, premier, and conservatives, propose reci- procity with the U. S., only of natural products; Mr. Laurier and liberals propose unrestricted reciprocity •Canadian Pacific railway completed by agreement with New York Central for an entrance to New York 28 Mch. First steamer of the Pacific mail service arrives at Vancouver from Yokohama 28 Apr. Death of sir John Macdonald, aged 76, greatly lamented, 6 June; public funeral at Kingston 10, U June, Hon. John Joseph C. Abbott becomes premier 14 June, Motion in favor of unrestricted reciprocity with the U. S., after 15 days' debate, rejected in the commons, by a government majority of 26 29 July, Sir Hector Louis Langevin, minister of public works, and his friend, the hon. Thomas McGreevy, an active ministerialist M.P.,and other officials, charged by Mr. Tarte, M.P., a jour- nalist, with corruption in contracts for government works in 1890; referred to standing committee on privileges and elec- tions, which met 21 July ; sir H. Langevin makes his defence, 11 Aug.; his resignation as minister accepted, 7 Sept.; T. McGreevy makes damaging admissions, and retires to the U. S. ; the committee exonerate sir H. I,angevin from all charges, except that of negligence; they censure T. McGreevy, and certain officials 14 Sept. Report adopted by the House 25 Sept. St. Clair tunnel connecting the Canadian and the U. S. rail- ways running to Chicago opened by sir Henry Tyler, chair- man of the Grand Trunk railway 19 Sept. Lady Macdonald, widow of sir John Macdonald, premier, cre- ated a peeress as baroness Macdonald of Earnscliffe by the British Parliament Oct. Meeting at Washington of the representatives of Canada and the U. S. to consider reciprocity; no result 10-15 Feb. By order in council, the Dominion discriminates against the U. S. in the use ot the Welland canal 4 Apr. United States, 20 Aug. 1892. Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, originally a Scotch mason, came to Canada and gradually rose till he became liberal premier, 1873-78; he passed several important acts and promoted great public works; visited Great Britain and was received at Windsor, 1875 ; d. aged 70 17 Apr. Motion for a new reciprocity tariff with Great Britain, adopted by the commons at Ottawa (98-64) 25 Apr. Canal tolls arranged with the U. S 14 Jan. 145 CAN 1891 CANADA PACIFIC RAILKOAD. British Columbia, on entering the confederation, exacts a pledge that a railway to the Pacific shall be built 1871 Government, having begun the work, transfers it to Canada Pacific railroad company, which agrees to complete the work by the year 1891 ; subsidy 25,000,000 acres of land, exemption from tax for 20 years; free entry for materials imported and exemption from rival lines for 20 years 1881 Government further aids the company, guaranteeing sk* interest for 10 years on $()5,000,000 of stock 1883 Parliament authorizes loan of $22,500,000 to the company tili 1891, on mortgage _ ^ _ jgg^ Company embarrassed ; government gives 5 years'' credit "on $7,300,000 due <« Company still unable to fulfil contract; ParYiainent cancels' the government lien on the property, authorizes a first-mortgage loan of $35,000,000 at 5%; takes $20,000,000 of the mortgage bonds, and renders further aid „.„„ J LeiiethJ Depth, Width Begun, Opened, j^.f ' j./ ' j. 1817 1825 1825 1836 1817 1826 1825 1821 1827 1828 1827 1827 1828 1787 1825 1825 1828 1828 1849 1824 1829 1836 1829 1830 1834 1833 1834 1840 1850 1794 1832 1834 1848 35L8 38 22.8 35 66 108 102 48 60 144 35 14 45 184.5 29.1 308 41 25 264 97.2 50-60 Locks. Locks in 72 18 11 109 23 108 33 55 25 35 12 4 30 73 5 144 19 11 93 15 208x18 208X18 98x18 78.5X15 98x18 92X15 90X11 87.5X22 87.5X22 176X17 81X17 81X17 170.7X17 90X15 98X17.6 78X15 78X15 78X15 78X15 100X18 Aire and Calder navigation Leeds and Liverpool Gloucester and Berkeley Grand Junction Forth and Clyde Grand Canal Royal Canal , Shropshire Union canals Chester Ellesmere Birmingham and Iiiverpool. Montgomeryshire Shrewsbury (UNITED KINGDOM.) Leeds to Goole Leeds to Liverpool Sharpness to Gloucester Brentford to Braunston Bowling bay to Grangemouth Dublin to the Shannon Dublin to Cloondara Union formed River Dee to Nantwich Carreghofa to Hurleston Autherly to Nantwich Carreghofa to Newton Wombridge to Shrewsbury 1699 .... 36 10 66 10 1770 1816 127 4 42 91 1793 .... 17 18 70 1873 .... 92 .... .... 1768 1790 35 10 66 39 1765 1788 89 6 40 6 1789 1822 92 6 1846 .... .... 1772 1776 20 1793 1806 86 1826 1835 53 1794 1820 25 1793 1797 22 215X22 76X15 100X24 80X14.6 74X20 70X14.5 CAN 146 CAN SHIP CANALS. (Suez, Panama, Nicaragua.) United States. —S&»\t Ste. Marie canal | Cape Cod canal Harlem canal CofKM/o.— Wclland «'anal A^/«n<^— Manchester ship canal.. . ;S<».", part rebuilt and burned again under Titus, 80 A.u. ; rebuilt for the last time by Doraitian, 82 A.i)., more grandly than over; sacked by Genseric, June, 465. Tlie Ro- man consuls made large donations to this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed on it at one time 2000 pounds' weight of gold, of which metal the roof was composed. The gilding of the arch of the temple, which was undertaken after the destruction of Carthage, cost 21,000 talents. The gates were of brass covered with plates of gold ; its thresholds were of brass, and ita interior was all of marble, decorated with vessels and shields of solid silver. The Capitoline games, insti- tuted 387 B.C., to commemorate the deliverance from the Gauls, were revived by Domitian, 86 A.n. The Campidoglio contains palaces of the senators, erected on the site of the Capitol by Michael Angelo soon after 1646. CapitlllariC!*, the laws of the Prankish kings, com- mencing witli Charlemagne (801). Collections have been published by Haluze (1677) and others. Cappad<»eia, Asia Minor. Its early history is in- volved in obscurity. b.o. Phamaces said to hiive founded tho kingdom 744 Cappadocia conquered by PerdiccJis. regent of Mucedon ; the king, Ariaralhes I. , agod 82, crucified 322 Recovers its independence 315 Conquered by Mithridates of Ponlus 291 Held by Seleucus, 288; independent 288 Aritintthes V., Phiiopator, reigns, 162; dethroned by Holopher- nes, 158 B.C., but assisted by Attalus, king of Pergamus, he regains his throne, 155 B.C. ; killed with Crassus in the war against Aristonicus 130 His queen, Laodice, poisons 5 of her sons; the 6th (Ariarathes VI.) is saved; she is put to death " Ariaralhes VI. murdered by Mitliridates Eupator, who sets up various pretenders; the Roman senate declares the country free, and appoints Ariobarzanes I. king 93 He is several times expelled by Mithridates, etc., but restored by the Romans ; d 64 Ariobarzanes II. supports Pompey. and is slain by Crassus ... 42 Ariarathes VI I. deposed by Antony 36 Archelaus is favored by Augustus 20 e.g. ; but, accused by Ti- a.d. berius, he comes to Rome and dies there 15 Cappadocia becomes a Roman province 17 Invaded by Huns 515 And by Saracens 717 Recovered by emperor Basil 1 876 Conquered by Soliman and the Turks 1074 Annexed to Turkish empire 1360 Cappel, Switzerland. Here the reformer Ulric Zwin- gliiis was slain in a conflict between Catholics and the men of Zurich, 11 Oct. 1531. Capri (Capreae), an island near Naples, the sumptuous residence of Augustus, and particularly of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he committed during his last years, 27-37. The whole island is full of Roman remains, and has yielded to the archaeologist a rich harvest of coins, inscriptions, etc. capitan, used to work a ship's anchor, perhaps invented, certainly improved, by sir Samuel Morland, who died 30 Dec. 1695. Capua, Naples, capital of Campania, took the part of Hannibal when his army wintered here after the battle of Cannae, 216 b,c. In 211, when the Romans retook the city, they scourged and beheaded the surviving senators — many had poisoned themselves after a banquet previous to the sur- render of the city. Only 2 persons escaped ; one woman who had prayed for the success of the Romans, and another who succored some prisoners. During the middle ages Capua was successively subjugated by the Greeks, Saracens, Normans, and Germans. Restored to Naples in 1424, captured by Caesar Borgia, 24 July, 1501 ; taken by Garibaldi, 2 Nov. 1860. Capuchin friar§, Franciscans, so named from wear- ing a capuchon, or cowl, hanging down the back. The order was founded by Matthew Baschi about 1525, and established by pope Clement VII., 1629. Cara'ca§, S. America, part of Venezuela, discovered by Columbus, 1498. It was reduced by arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, German merchants, by Charles V. ; but for their tyranny they were dispossessed in 1550, and a crown governor appointed. The province declared its inde- pendence, 9 May, 1810. In the city Leon de Caracas, on 26 Mch. 1812, nearly 12,000 persons perished by an earthquake. Venkzukla. caravel, a small sea-going vessel of about 100 tons' bur- den, built somewhat like a galley, formerly used by the Spanish and Portuguese ; two of the vessels of Columbus on his first voyage to America were caravels. Ameuica. Carberry llili, S. Scotland. Here lord Hume and the confederate barons dispersed the royal army under Both- well, and took Mary queen of Scots prisoner, 15 June, 1567. Bothwell fled. carbo-dynamitC, a powerful explosive of the nitro- glycerine class, invented by Reid and Borland ; tried in 1888 and 1889 ; said to be perfect. carbolic acid or plienic acid, obtained by dis- tilling pit-coal by Laurent, 1846-47, is a powerful antiseptic. It is largely manufactured for medical purposes, and has been used in England at Carlisle and Exeter to deodorize sewage (1860-61); and as a disinfectant during the prevalence of cholera in London in 1866, and of yellow fever in the Southern States in recent years. IJsed for embalming by prof. Seely in 1868. carbon (symbol, C; atomic weight, 12) was shown to be a distinct element by Lavoisier in 1788. He proved the diamond to be its purest form, and produced carbonic-acid gas by burning it. It is a constituent of all animal and vegetable tissues and coal. Carbona'ri (charcoal-burners), a powerful secret so- ciety in Italy, which became prominent, 1808-14. It sought to drive foreigners, especially the French, from Italy, and establish civil and religious liberty. In Mch. 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined the society, and an insurrection soon after broke out in Naples, gen. Pepe taking the command. The king, Ferdinand, made political concessions, but the allied sovereigns at Laybach induced him to annul them and sup- press the liberal party, Jan. 1821, when the Carbonari were denoimced as traitors. The society spread in France, and doubtless hastened the revolutions in 1830 and 1848. carbonic-acid gai^i, a gaseous compound of carbon and oxygen, found in the air; a product of combustion, respi- ration, and fermentation. The (irotto del Cane yields 200,000 lbs. per annum. No animal can breathe this gas. The brisk- ness of champagne, beer, etc., is due to its presence. It was liquefied by atmospheric pressure by Faraday in 1823. On exposing the liquid to the air part of it evaporates so rapidly that the remainder is frozen to a solid much like snow. Carca§§onnC (A;ar-A;<7s.sonw'), the chief town of the de- partment of Aude, France, the site of Carcaso, an ancient city of Gaul. From the 9th century till 1300 A.n. it formed a sep- arate countship, and was captured by Simon de Montfort in his crusade against the Albigenses, 1209. Since the 12th century it has been noted for its manufacture of woollen cloth. The old town has been restored as a fortress of the middle ages, by the French government, and is the best preserved exam- ple of a stronghold of the days before artillery was invented. cardamom, the fruit of an Indian plant, largely used in flavoring cakes and liqueurs. The seeds are chewed with betel in the East. Cardiff castle, S. Wales, built in the 11th centur}\ Here Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William L, is said to have been imprisoned from 1106 till his death, 10 Feb. 1135. Cromwell (1648) got possession of the castle through treachery, after bombarding it for 3 days ; he afterwards hanged the traitor as a warning to his own soldiery. — Cham- bers' Encyc. cardinals, princes in the church of Rome, the council of the pope, and the conclave or " sacred college," at first were the principal priests or incumbents of the parishes in Rome, and said to have been called cardinales in 853. They claimed the exclusive power of electing the pope about 1179. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they ought to shed their blood for religion, if required, and were declared princes of the church by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. Paiil II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1623 or 1 630. In 1586 Sixtus V. fixed their num- ber at 70, viz., 6 cardinal bishops, 60 cardinal priests, and 14 CAR 151 cardinal deacons, but there are generally vacancies. In 1860 there were 69 cardinals; in 1864, 59 ; in Nov. 1867, 52; in 1873, 5 of the order of bishops, 3-4 priests, 6 deacons ; 45 in all. 9 car- dinals (one a Bonaparte) were made 13 Mch. 1868. 11 new cardinals appointed 12 Mch. 1877. In 1880, 6 cardinal-bish- ops, 47 priests, 11 deacons; in all 64 (including archbishops Manning, McCloskey, Ledochowski, Edward Howard, and John Henry Newman. English cardinals: Henry Stuart, created 1747;' Charles Erskine, 1801; Thomas Weld, 1830; Charles Acton, 1839 ; Nicholas Wiseman, 30 Sept. 1850-65 ; Henry Ed- ward Manning, 1875 (d. 14 Jan. 1892) ; Edward Howard, 12 Mch. 1877; John Henry Newman, 12 May, 1879 (d. 21 Aug. 1890); Edward McCabe, 27 Mch. 1882 (d.\l Feb. 1885). In the United States: first cardinal, John McCloskey, 15 ]\Ich. 1875 (d, 10 Oct. 1885) ; second cardinal, James Gibbon of Bal- timore, 7 June, 1886. car Bianconi successfully introduced cars into Ireland about 1815. G. A. Thrupp's " History of Coaches," pub. 1877. Cab- riolets, Coaches, etc. CarriekfergUS, Antrim, Ireland. Its castle is sup- posed to have been built by Hugh de Lacy in 1178. The town surrendered to the duke of Schomberg, 28 Aug. 1689 ; the castle to the French admiral Thurot, Feb. 1760. Carrick'§ ford, W. Va. Here, 14 July, 1861, the confederate gen. Robt. S. Garnett, having been defeated at Rich Mountain by gen. McClellan, attempted on the retreat to check the Union advance, lost his life, and his command was routed. Gen. Garnett was a graduate of West Point, and the first general killed in t;he war. carrocium, a vehicle containing a crucifix and a banner, usually accompanied Italian armies in the middle ages. The Milanese lost theirs at Cortenuova, 27 Nov. 1237. Carron ironworks, on the banks of the Carron, in Stirlingshire, established in 1760. The works in 1852 em- ployed about 1600 men. Here, since 1776, have been made the pieces of ordnance called carronades or smasheis. carrot§ and other edible roots were imported into Great Britain from Holland and Flanders, about 1510. cartes de Visite {kdrf-di-vl-zU'). The small photo- graphic portraits thus termed are said to have been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 1857. The duke of Parma had his portrait placed upon his visiting-cards, and his example was soon followed in Paris and London. Cartesian doctrines. Philosophy. Cartliag^e, north coast of Africa, near Tunis, founded by Dido or Elissa, 878 b.c. (869, Blair ; 826, Niebuhr) . She fled from her brother Pygmalion, king of Tyre, who had killed her husband, and took refuge in Africa. Carthage disputed the empire of the world with Rome, hence the Punic wars. The Carthaginians were reputed faithless, hence the term Punic faith. Cato the censor (about 146 b.c.) always ended his speeches in the senate with " Carthago delenda est! " (Carthage must be destroyed !) Many councils held here, 200-535 a.d. B.C. First alliance of Carthaginians and Romans 503 Carthaginians in Sicily defeated at Himera bj' Gelo; the elder Hamilcar perishes 480 They send 300.000 men into Sicily 407 Take Agrigentum 40& Siege of Syracuse ' ;i96 Carthaginians land in Italy 379 Their defeat by Timoleon at the Crimesus 339 Defeated by Agathocles, they immolate their children on the altar to Saturn 310 First Punic war begins (lasts 23 years) 2fi4 Carthaginians defeated by the Roman consul Duilius in a naval engagement , 260 Xanthippus defeats Regulus 25.5 Hasdrubal defeated by Metellus at Panormus 251 Regulus put to death ", 250 Romans defeated before Lilybaeum The great Hannibal born 247 Hasdrubal founds New Carthage (Carthagena) 242 End of first Punic war; Sicily lost by Carthage 241 War between the Carthaginians and African mercenaries Hamilcar Barcas sent into Spain ; takes his son, Hannibal, at the age of 9 years, having first made him swear an eternal enmity to the Romans 238 Hamilcar killed 229 Hasdrubal assassinated 220 Hannibal conquers Spain, as far as the Iberus 219 Second Punic war begins (lasts 17 years) 218 Hannibal crosses the Alps, and enters Italy " He defeats the Roman consuls at the Ticinus and Trebia, 218 ; at the lake Thrasymenus, 217 ; and at Cann^ 2 Aug. 216 Publius Scipio carries war into Spain and takes New Carthage. 210 Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, arrives in Italy with his army; defeated and slain at the Mktaurus 207 Carthaginians expelled from Spain by Scipio 206 Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege to Utica 204 Hannibal recalled to Carthage 203 Totally defeatedat Zama 202 End of the second Punic war 201 Third Punic war; Scipio invades Africa 149 CAR 153 CAT Carthage taken and burned, by order of the senate July, 14(5 Colony settled at Carthage by C. Gracchus 122 Its rebuilding planned by Julius CsBsar 46 And executed by his successors 19 et seq. A.D. A Christian bishopric 200 Cyprian holds a council here 252 Taken by Genseric the Vandal 9 Oct. 439 Retaken by Belisarius 533 Ravaged by the Arabs 647 Taken and destroyed by Hassan, the Saracenic governor of Egypt 698 Carthaginian antiquities (excavated by Nathan Davis) brought to the British museum 1861 His excavations about to be renewed Aug. 1876 Bosworth Smith's "Carthage " pub 1878 Carthage, Mo., Battle of, fought 6 July, 1861. Sigel attacked the confederates under Price, Hains, and Jackson. Until 2 P.M. it was an artillery duel, and confederates were worsted. Sigel was then obliged to retreat, which he did skil- fully, saving his baggage. Carthagena or New Carthag^e, S.E. Spain, built by Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian general, 242 b.c. ; taken by Scipio, 210 b.c. The modern Carthagena was taken by a British force under sir John Leake, June, 1706 ; retaken by the duke of Berwick, Nov. It was the last place held by the Intransigentes and Internationalists of Spain ; was besieged by gen. Martin Campos, about 22 Aug. 1873. Bombardment begun 26 Nov., taken by gen. Lopez Dominguez, 12 Jan. 1874. Spain. Carttiag^eiia, Colombia, South America, was founded in 1533 by Pedro de Heredia ; in 1544 it was taken by the French : it was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; pillaged by the French buccaneers in 1697, who obtained from it over $5,000,000. The English admiral Vernon unsuccessfully be- sieged the town in 1741. €arthu§ian§, a religious order (springing from the Benedictines) founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired with 6 companions about 1084 to Chartreuse, in the moifntains of Daujjhine. Their austere rules were formed by Basil VII., their general. They appeared in England about 1180, and a monastery was founded by sir William Manny, 1371, on the site of the present Charter-house, London. Charter-housk. The Carthusian powder of father Simon, at Chartreuse, was first compounded about 1715. cartOOn§, large chalk drawings preparatory to oil painting. Those of Raphael (25 in number) were designed (for tapestries) in the chambers of the Vatican, under Julius IL and Leo X. about 1510 to 1516. The 7 preserved (what became of the other 18 has never been ascertained) were pur- chased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton-court palace in 1629. They were removed to South Kensington, 28 Apr. 1865. The tapestries executed at Arras from these designs are at Rome. They were twice carried away by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were restored in 1815. Besides the cartoons of Raphael, were those executed in competition by Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo, two of which, the " Battle of the Standard," by the former, and the " Cartoon of Pisa "—soldiers bathing, surprised by the ap- proach of the enemy— by the latter, were justly celebrated in art history. Both have perished, but the general design of them has been preserved. Cartoons for the British Houses of Parliament were exhibited in July, 1843. Raphael's cartoons. 1. The Miraculous Draught of Fishes. 2. The Charge to Peter. 3. Peter and John Healing the Lame at the Gate of the Temple. 4. The Death of Ananias. 5. Elymas the Sorcerer Struck with Blindness. 6. The Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, at Lystra. 7. Paul Preaching at Athens. Cashmere. Kashmir. €a§§ano, N. Italy. Site of an indecisive conflict be- tween prince Eugene of Savoy and the French, 16 Aug. 1705. Cassation, Court of, a supreme court of appeal in France, established 10 Nov. 1790, by the National Assembly. Cassel, formerly the capital of Hesse-Cassel, central Germany, acquired importance by becoming the refuge of French Protestants after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685. It was the capital of Jerome Bonaparte, king of West- phalia, 1807-13, and Wilhelmshohe, a neighboring castle, be- came the residence of Napoleon IIL after his surrender to the king of Prussia, 2 Sept. 1870, arriving at 9.35 p.m. 5 Sept. He went to England in 1871. Castel Fidardo, near Ancona, central Italy. Near here gen. Lamoriciere and the papal array of 11,000 men were totally defeated by the Sardinian general, Cialdini, 18 Sept. 1860. Lamoriciere with a few horsemen fled to Ancona then besieged. On 29 Sept. he and the garrison surrendered, but were soon set at liberty. castes, distinct classes of societv in India. By the laws of Menu, the Hindus are divided 'into the Brahmins, or sacerdotal class; the Kshatrya or Chuttree, military class; the Vaisya, or commercial class; and the Sudras, or Sooders' servile class. ' Castiglione (kas-teel-yo'-na), N. Italy. Here the French, under Augereau, defeated the Austrians, commanded by Wurmser, with great loss, 5 Aug. 1796. Castile, central Spain. A Gothic government was es- tablished here about 800. Roderick, count of Castile, 860 ; Ferdinand, a count, became king, 1035. Ferdinand, king of Aragon, married Isabella, queen of Castile, in 1474, and formed one monarchy, 1479. Spain. Castillejos (cas-Hl-k'-kos), N. Africa. Here, on 1 Jan. 1860, was fought the first decisive battle in the war between Spain and Morocco. Gen. Prim, after a vigorous resistance, repulsed the Moors under Muley Abbas, and advanced tow- ards Tetuan. Castill€»n, Guienne, S. France. Here the army of Henry VI. of England was defeated by that of Charles VII- of France, and an end put to the English dominion in France* Calais alone remaining, 17 or 23 July, 1453. Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, was killed. Castine, Me. Maine, 1814. Castiebar, Ireland. About 1100 French troops, under Humbert, landed at Killala and, assisted by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king's troops, under Lake, to retreat, 27 Aug. 1798 ; but surrendered at Ballinamuck, 8 Sept. castles. The castle of the Anglo-Saxon was a tower keep, either round or square, with an entrance so elevated that a long flight of steps was necessary to reach it. William I. erected 48 strong castles. Several hundreds, built by permis- sion of Stephen, between 1135 and 1154, were demolished by Henry II. 1154. Many were dismantled in the civil wars. Richborough, Studfall, and Burgh are existing specimens of Roman castles. For the history of the different castles of England, consult Timbs, "Abbeys and Castles of England," 3 vols., London, 1872. catacombs (Gr. Kara, down, and KiififBr], hollow), early depositories of the dead. The first Christians at Rome met for worship in the catacombs; and here are said to have been the tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul. Belzoni in 1815- 18 explored many Egyptian catacombs, built 3000 years ago. He brought to England the sarcophagus of Psammetichus, of oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured. In the Parisian catacombs (formerly stone quarries) bones from the cemetery of the Innocents were deposited in 1785 ; and many victims of the revolution in 1792-94 are interred in them. On 31 May, 1578, some laborers digging on the Via Salaria, 2 miles from Rome, discovered the celebrated catacombs described, with en- gravings, by Antonio Bosio, in his " Roma Sotteranea" (1632), and by Aringhi (1659), and others. Elaborate accounts have been published recently by De' Rossi, an abstract of whose re- searches will be found in the " Roma Sotteranea " of the rev. J. S. Northcote and W. R. Brownlow, 1869 and 1879. catalog[Ues. Books, Libraries. Catalonia, N.E. Spain, was settled by the Goths and Alani about 409 ; conquered by the Saracens, 712 ; recovered by Pepin, and by Charlemagne, 788. It formed part of the Spanish marches and the territory of the count of Barcelona. The natives were able seamen ; being frequently unruly, their peculiar privileges were abolished in 1714. CAT catalytic (Gr. KaToKvuKog, able to dissolve) Torco. The discovery in 1819, by Thenard, of the decomposition of peroxide of hydrogen by platinum, and by Diibereiner in 1825 of its property to ignite a mixture of hydrogen and oxygon, formed the groundwork of the doctrine of catalytic force, also termed "action of contact or presence," put forth by Berzelius and Mitscherlich. Their view has not been adopted by Liebig and other chemists. cat'aniarailS or carcasses, fire-machines for de- stroying ships; tried in vain by sir Sydney Smith, 2 Oct. 1804, on the Boulogne flotilla destined by Bonaparte to invade England. Also a vessel with 2 keels used on the coast of Ceylon, of India, the eastern coast of South America, etc., and of late years common in the lumber districts of northwestern America. Cata'nia (the ancient Catana), a town near Etna, Sicily, was founded by a colony from Chalcis, about 753 b.c. Ceres had a temple here, open to none but women. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna in 1669, and in 1693 was nearly swallowed up by an earthquake ; in a mo- ment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried in the ruins. An earthquake did great damage, 22 Feb. 1817. In Aug. 1862, the town was held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, against Italian troops. He was captured on 29 Aug. catapliryi^iailS, heretics in the 2d century, who fol- lowed the errors of Montanus. They are said to have bap- tized their dead, forbidden marriage, and mingled the bread and wine in the Lord's supper with the blood of children. Catapultse, military engines of the crossbow kind, for throwing arrows, javelins, and sometimes stones. Said to have been invented by Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, 399 b.c. These engines are often confounded with the ballista, which was more used to hurl huge stones either into a city or against its walls. These engines were in use until the invention of gunpowder, the catapults being mentioned by Irving as oper- ative in the siege of Granada, 1492. CataM^bas. Indians. Cateau Cambrcsis, N. France, where, on 2, 3 Apr. 1559, peace was concluded between Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and Elizabeth of England. France ceded Savoy, Corsica, and nearlv 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries to Philip. catechisms are said to have been compiled in the 8th or 9th centurj'. Luther's were published 1520 and 1529. The catechism of the church of England in the first book of Ed- ward VI., 7 Mch. 1549, contained merely the baptismal vow, the creed, the ten commandments, and the Lord's prayer, with explanations ; but James I. ordered the bishops to add an ex- plication of the sacraments, 1612. The catechism of the coun- cil of Trent was published in 1566 ; those of the assembly of divines at Westminster, 1647 and 1648. Cathari (from the Gr. KuOapot;, pure), a name given to the Novatians (about 251), Montanists, and other early Christian sects. Puritans. Cathay', an old name for China. "Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay." —Tennyson, " Locksley Hall." cathedral, the chief church of a diocese, as containing the cathedra, or seat of the bishop; obtained the name in the 10th century. Canterbury, Cologne, Durham, Lincoln, Notre Dame, Rouen, Salisbury, Strasburg, St. Stephens, Vienna, Ulm, York, and others throughout. Catherine. The order of knights of St. Catherine was instituted in Palestine, 1063. An order of ladies of the highest rank in Russia was founded by Peter the Great, 1714, in honor of the bravery of his empress Catherine. They were to be distinguished, as the name implied (from Ka9ap6gf pure), ^ fjjr purity of life and manners. Catholic majesty. This title was given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonso I. of Spain, 739, and to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474 by Innocent VIII. in recognition of their zeal for religion and the establishment of the inquisition. Catholic Union of Oreat Britain ; pres- ident, the duke of Norfolk ; constituted in 1871. A Catholic union in Dublin was formed Dec. 1873. Roman Catholics. 154 CAT Catiline's conspiracy. Lucius Sergius Catiline, a Roman citizen of patrician rank, having been refused tlie consulship (65 b.c.), conspired to overthrow the government. This conspiracy was discovered and frustrated. A second plot for the same purpose, and in which he was again the principal, was detected by Cicero, then consul, in 63. Catiline's daring appearance in the senate-house, after his guilt was known, drew forth Cicero's celebrated invective, " Quousque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra ?" 8 Nov. On the arrest of 5 of his accomplices, Catiline left Rome and joined his forces already collected. The 5 conspirators arrested were put to death, and Catiline defeated by Fetreius, and himself slain, at Pistoria in Etruria, Jan. 62 b.c. CatO-Street Cl^nspiracy. A gang of desperate men, headed by Arthur Thistlewood, assembled in Cato street, Edgware Road, and proposed to assassinate the ministers at a cabinet dinner. They were betrayed and arrested, 23 Feb. 1820; and Thistlewood, Brunt, Davidson, Ings, and Tidd were executed as traitors on 1 May. Catskill mountains, N. Y. A group of the Ap- palachian range on the west bank of the Hudson river. Highest point. Round Top, 3804 ft. On a terrace of Pine Or- chard mount is the Mountain house, 2400 ft. higher than the Hudson. Catti, a German tribe, attacked but not subdued by the Romans 15 and 84 a.d. ; absorbed by the Franks, 3d century. cattle. Of horned cattle only the buffalo or bison is native of America, and this has never been domesticated. Columbus, in 1493, brought the first tame cattle to America, a bull and several cows. As the various parts of North and South America were settled by Europeans, cattle were intro- duced, and from these have descended all the vast herds which now roam over the plains of Texas and South America. Of improved neat-cattle there are 2 distinct classes, (1) beef stock, (2) dairy. Of the first, the short-horns or Durham, Herefords, Aberdeen-angus, Galloways, Sussex, West Highland, and De- vons are the principal, although the short-horns and Devons are also included in the second or dairy stock, with the Jerseys, I Guernseys, Ayrshires, Holstein-Frisian, Brown-Swiss, and the different kinds of polled (without horns) cattle. In 1611 Sir Thomas Yates brought into Virginia fr<»m England 100 cows and other cattle, and in 1624 1 bull and 3 heifers were brought into Massachusetts, the first neat-cattle in New England. Im- ported short-horns from England introduced into South Caro- lina by Wade Hampton, 1782, and into Virginia by Mr. Miller, 1797, and from Virginia into Kentucky the same year. Stock greatly improved in New England by importations, 1818-20. In 1816 Henry Clay imported 2 Hereford cattle into the U. S. for his farm at Ashland, Ky., but this stock was largely in- creased by the importations of Erastus Corning, of Albany, N. Y., in 1 841. First record of the importation of Devons into the U. S. was for Caton and Patterson, of Baltimore, Md., 1817. Herd-book opened 1851. Jerseys were imported early in this century into the U. S., but notably in numbers by John A. Taintor, of Hartford, Conn., in 1850. They are sometimes in- correctly called Alderneys (the cattle of that island are rarely exported). The Jersey stock require the utmost care, and do not mature under 4 or 5 years. The stock is maintained pure in the island of Jersey by the strictest exclusion of foreign im- portation. Guernseys imported into the U.S. about the same time as the Jerseys, Ayrshires first brought to the U. S. in 1831. J. P. Gushing, of Watertown, Mass., imported largely of this stock in 1837. Brown-Swiss brought to the U. S. by Henry M. Clark, Belmont, Mass., 1869. Holstein-Frisian, Holland cattle, long known in the U. S., as they were brought over by the Dutch settlers of New York, about the beginning of the 18th century. Lewis F. Allen, of Buffalo, N. Y., began the publication of the American Association's Herd-book in 1846 i since 1883, published in Chicago. Through the ex- traordinary attention given to the selection and crossing of the best breeds in Great Britain and in the U. S., great im- provement has been made both in weight of carcass, quality of meat, and in abundance and richness of milk, since the beginning of this century. The importation of horned cattle from Ireland and Scotland into England was prohibited by a law, 1663 ; but the export of cattle from Ireland became very extensive. In 1842 the importation of cattle into England CAU 156 CED from foreign countries was subjected to a moderate duty; in 1846 they were made duty free, and since then the numbers im- ported have enormously increased. The export trade of U. S. in neat-cattle for the year 1880 amounted to $13,344,195; in 1890 it was $31,261,131 ; in 1892, $35,099,095. Agricult- ure. For sums paid for improved stock at some of the great cattle sales in the U. S., see Nkw York, 1873. During the years 1865-70 there raged an epidemic among cattle, especially in England, so deadly there as to be termed the plague. Its seriousness is shown by the following English statistics: Cattle plague appears at Laycock's dairy, Barnsbury, London, N. ; rapidly spreads about 24 June, 1865 27,432 beasts had been attacked; 12,680 died; 8998 slaughtered up to 21 Oct. " A royal commission to inquire into the causes of cattle plague and suggest remedies met first. 10 Oct. ; majority consider the disease to have been imported, and recommend slaughter of animals and stringent prohibition of passage of cattle on public roads, etc., 31 Oct. 1865: second report, 6 Feb. ; third report '. 1 May, 1866 Orders in council for regulating the cattle plague (in conform- ity with the act of 1850), 23 Nov. and 16 Dec. 1865 ; and 20 Jan. " Disease raging; official report : cattle attacked, 120,740; killed, 16,742; died, 73,750; recovered. 14,162; unaccounted for, 16,086 1 Feb. " Cattle Disease acts passed 20 Feb. and 10 Aug. " Orders in council making uniform repressive measures through- out the country 27 Mch. " Disease materially abates Apr. " Privy council return: Cattle attacked, 248,965; killed, 80,597; died, 124,187; recovered, 32,989; unaccounted for, 11,192, 22 June, " Disease nearly "stamped out " 27 Oct. " Cailca:§llS, a lofty mountain, a continuation of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas. In mythology, Prometheus was said to have been tied on the top of Caucasus by Jupiter, where his vitals were continually de- voured by vultures (1548 b.c.). The passes near the mountain were called Caucasim Portce^ and it is su{)posed that through them the Sarmatians or Huns invaded the provinces of Rome, 447 A.D. ClUCASSIA. CailCll§, an American term. A private meeting of poli- ticians to make plans for an election or session of a legislative body. The word is now applied to private meetings of the members of Congress, or of a legislature, belonging to one political party, to determine its policy or select its candidates. The word is said to be derived from " ship "- caulkers' meet- ings. A " caucus club " is mentioned by John Adams, in 1763. — Barilett. Similar meetings are occasionally held in London by conservatives and liberals; one was held by Mr. Gladstone respecting the ballot bill, 6 July, 1871. Jealou.s}' respecting the system was aroused in 1878, Caudine fork§, according to Livy, the Furculce Caudince (in Samnium, S. Italy), were 2 narrow defiles or gorges, united by a range of mountains on each side. The Romans went through the first pass, but found the second blocked up; on returning they found the first similarly ob- structed. Being thus hemmed in by the Samnites, under the command of C. Pontus, they surrendered at discretion, 321 b.c. (after a fruitless contest, according to Cicero). The Roman senate broke the treaty. cauliflower (Lat. cauUs, cabbage, and flower), a plant of the cabbage family, whose young flowers are eaten as a vegetable ; said to have been brought from Cyprus to England about 1603. cau§tiC, in painting, a method of burning colors into wood or ivory, invented by Gausias of Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glycere sitting on the ground making garlands with flowers; the picture was hence named Stephanoplocon. It was bought by LucuUus for 2 talents, 335 b.c— Pliny. cautionary towns, Holland (the Briel, Flush- ing, Rammekins, and Walcheren), were given to queen Eliza- beth in 1585 as security for their repaying her for assistance in their struggle with Spain. They' were restored to the Dutch republic by James I. in 1616. Cavalier. The appellation given to the supporters of Charles I. of England during the civil war, from a number of gentlemen forming, themselves into a body-guard for his pro- tection in 1641. They were opposed to tiie Roundheads, or parliamentarians. cavalry. Used by the Canaanites in war, 1460 B.a (Josh. xi. 4). Attached to each Roman legion was a body of 300 horse, in 10 turmae; the commander always a veteran. The Persians had 10,000 horse at Marathon, 490 b.c.; and 10,000 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b.c.— Plu- tarch. In the wars with Napoleon I. the British cavalry reached 31,000 men. Army of the Unitkd States. Cavendish experiment. In 1798 the hon. Henry Cavendish described his experiment for determining the mean density of the earth, by comparing the force of ter- restrial attraction with that of the attraction of leaden spheres of known magnitude and density, by the torsion balance.— Brande. The Cavendish Society, for the publication of chem- ical works, which ceased with Gmelin's "Chemistry" (1848-67) was established 1846. Cave-of-tlie-winds, Niagara falls, a cave so called formed by the solid wall of rock on one side and a wall of rushing water as it pours over and down the fall on the other side. With proper water-proof clothing it can be visited with safety. caves are frequently mentioned in the Bible as dwell- ings, refuges, and burying-places. W. B. Dawkins's " Cave- hunting: Researches on the Evidence of Caves respecting the Early Inhabitants of Europe," was published 1874. The Mam- moth Cave, Kentucky, the largest in the world ; Weyer's cave, Virginia, discovered 1804; Wyandotte' cave, Indiana; Oreston cave, Devon, Engl., 1816; Kirkdale, Yorkshire, 1821; Kent's hole, Torquay, 1825; Brixham cave, 1858; Wookey hole, Somerset, 1859; and many others, have been well ex- plored. Cawnpore, a town in India, on the Doab, a penin- sula' between the Ganges and Jumna. During the mutiny in June, 1857, it was garrisoned by native troops under sir Hugh Wheeler. These revolted. An adopted son of the old Peishwa Bajee Rao, Nana Sahib, who had long lived on friendly terms with the British, came apparently to their assistance, but joined the rebels. The English residents, about 1000 in num- ber, of whom 465 were men of all ages and professions, the rest women and children, attempted to defend themselves in an entrenched camp. After sustaining a siege for 3 weeks, they were compelled to surrender, 26 June, and, in spite of a treaty, were all massacred except 2 officers and 2 privates, who escaped. Gen. Havelock defeated Nana Sahib, 16 July, at Futtehpore, and retook Cawnpore, 17 July, but too late to rescue any prisoners. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the rebels here on 6 Dec. following. A column was erected here, in memory of the killed, by their relatives of the 32d regiment. India, 1857. Caxton Society, for the publication of chronicles and literature of the middle ages, published 16 volumes, 1844-54. Cayenne, capital of French Guiana, South America, settled by the French, 1604-35. It afterwards came successive- ly into the hands of the English (1654), French, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken b\- the British, 12 Jan. 1809, but was restored to the French in 1814. Here is produced the Capsicum baccatum, or cavenne pepper. Many French political prisoners were sent here in 1848. Pop. in 1880, 10,000. Cayugas. Indians. Cedar Creek, Va., Battle of. Here, 19 Oct. 1864, the confederates, under gen. Early, were signally defeated by the federals, under gen. Sheridan. The confederate forces, pre- viously defeated at Winchester and Fisher Hill, being strongly reinforced. Early, smarting under his recent defeats, and hearing that Sheridan was away in Washington, resolved to surprise the federal force. This he succeeded in doing on the morning of the 19th. The result was the discomfiture and retreat first of the 19th and then of the 6th corps, by 10 a.m., with a loss of 24 guns and 1500 prisoners. At this juncture Sheridan, who had stopped at Winchester over-night on his return from Washington, met the first of the retreating troops. With words of cheer he halted the fugitives, and, slowly re- forming the line, was ready to advance at 3 p^m. ; the final re- sult being a complete overthrow of the confederates, so that there was no more fighting in the Shenandoah valley. Fed- CED 150 eral loss 3000 in both engagements. This battle furnishes the subject of " Sheridan's Ride," a poem by Thomas Buchanan Read. Cedar IVIountain, Va., Battle of. Popb's Yiroinia Campaign. cedar-tree. The red cedar {Juniperus Virginiana) introduced into England from North America before 1664 ; the liermudas cedar from Bermudas before 1683 ; the cedar of Lebanon {IHnns Cedrus) from the Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of venerable cedars, about 40 ft. high, remained on Lebanon. The cedar of Goa (^Ciipi-essus lusitanica) was brought to Europe by the Portuguese about 1683. Cypkess. celery is said to have been introduced into England by the French marshal, Tallard, during his captivity in Eng- land, after his defeat at Blenheim by Marlborough, 2 Aug. 1704. celibacy (from coelebs, unmarried) was preached by St, Anthony in Egypt about 305. His early converts lived in caves, etc., till monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected in the council of Nice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 692. The decree was opposed in England, 958-78. The Romish clergy generally were enjoined to vow celibacy by pope Gregory VII. in 1073-85; sustained by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Marriage was restored to the English clergy in 1547. The marriage of the clergy was proposed, but negatived, at the council of Trent (1563); also at a conference of the Old Catholics at Bonn, June, 1876. Sir Bartle Frere termed the Zulu army " a celibate man-slaying machine," 1878. cell theory (propounded by Schwann in 1839) sup- poses that the ultimate constituents of all animal and vegetable tissues are small cells. The lowest forms of animal and vege- table life are said to consist of merely a single cell, as the ger- minal vesicle in the egg and the red-snow plant. Celt§ or Kelt§, a group of the Aryan family. Gauls. Above 8000/. subscribed to found a Celtic professorship at the university of Edinburgh, Oct. 1876 ; 11,937/. subscribed Apr. 1879. One was established at Oxford in 1876. ceilieterie§. The burying-places of the Jews, Greeks, Romans, were outside their towns (Matt, xxvii. 60). Many public cemeteries, resembling " Pere- la -Chaise," at Paris, have been opened in all parts of Great Britain since 1856. Catacombs. cemeteries in the United States. By an act of the legislature of New York state, 27 Apr. 1847, land devoted to cemetery purposes in that state is exempt from taxation. Statistics of 6 of the largest cemeteries in the neighborhood of New York city show a total area of 2288 acres, and a total of 1,336,546 burials up to 1891, distributed as follows; Calvary, 585,000; Greenwood, 259,893; Lutheran, 208,000; Cypress Hills, 130,000; Evergreens, 115.701; and VVoodlawn, 37,952. The principal cemeteries of the larger cities in the U. S. are here mentioned, with name, date of opening, and estimated area as near as can be ascertained. As a rule these cemeteries are so beautified and kept in such perfect order under per- petual contracts with the lot owners as to be an ornament to the cities to which they belong, CEMETERIES. CEN C R M ETER I ES— Continued. City. Brooklyn, N. Y. New York, N. Y. Philadelphia, Pa. Chicago, IlL. Baltimore, Md . Buffalo, N. Y.. . Name. Area in acres. Established. Greenwood Cypress Hills Calvary 474 400 214 400 400 400 125 22.5 100 106 80 SO 200 500 100 125 .300 350 200 280 1840 1848 1848 Evergreens 1851 1852 1865 Mount Auburn Forest Hills Woodland 1831 1848 1851 Mount Hope Laurel Hill Woodlands West Laurel Hill... Rose Hill 18.52 1836 1851 1869 1859 Calvary 1859 1861 1864 Green Mount Park.. Loudon Park Forest Lawn 1839 1853 1850 City. Name. Area in acre*. tCstablisbed. Cincinnati, Spring Grove Lake View 600 300 200 35 254 360 200 80 200 60 108 360 250 95 217 332 300 40 1845 1870 Detroit, Mich Woodmere Oak Hill 1869 Georgetown, D. C Hartford, Conn 1849 Cedar Hills Crown Hill Cave Hill 1868 Indianapolis, Ind .. Louisville Ky .... 1863 1846 1852 Milwaukee, Wise Newark, N.J New Orleans, La Pittsburg, Pa Providence, R. I Forest Home Fairmount Metairie Ridge Allegheny 1860 1855 1836 1846 Swan Point Hollywood Mount Hope Belle Fontaine Lone .Mountain Congressional 1858 1847 Hocliester, N. Y Si Louis, Mo 1854 1849 San Francisco, Cal Washington, D. C 1865 1812 cemeteries, national. The United States gov- ernment has established national cemeteries in various parts of the country for the burial of men who died in the naval or military service. There are 82 national cemeteries scattered throughout 21 states and territories, mostly in the southern states ; 21 of these have over 2000, not exceeding 5000, graves;- 9 have over 5000, not exceeding. 10,000; 11 have over 10,000. Total number of graves in all the cemeteries, 322,851 ; of these 9438 are confederates. A marble headstone marks each grave, with name and rank of occupant when known. The following is a list of the 11 largest, each containing over 10,000 graves -• Andersonville, Ga Arlington, Va Chalmette, La Chattiinooga, Tenn Fredericksburg, Va Jefferson's Barracks, Mo. Marietta, Ga Memphis, Tenn Xashville, Tenn Salisbury, N. C Vicksburg, Miss Known. Unknown. Total. 12,781 9-21 13,702 11,8.53 4,349 16,202 6,851 5,674 12,525 8,012 4,963 12,975 2,487 12,771 15,2.58 8,647 2,906 11,553 7,192 2,963 10,155 5,163 8,818 13,981 11,825 4,701 16, .526 97 10.032 11,129 3,899 12,701 16.600 The national cemetery at Gettysburg, Pa., while not contain- ing as many graves as those mentioned, there being only 3575, is noted as having been dedicated by President Lincoln, 1863. It is adorned with numerous memorials of the dead, among them a national monument. The government took charge of the ceraeterj' in 1872. Cenis, Hount. Tunnels. censors, Roman magistrates, to survey and rate the property, and correct the manners of the people. The first two censors were appointed, 443 b.c. Plebeian censors were first appointed, 131 b.c. The office, abolished by the emperors, was revived by Decius, 251 a.d. Press. censuring the President of the United States. Congress has twice censured the president : Jack- son in 1834, and Tyler in 1843. United States. census. The Israelites were numbered by Moses, 1490 B.C. , and by David, 1017 b.c. ; Demetrius Phalereus is said to have taken a census of Attica, 317 b.c, Servius Tullius enact- ed that a general estimate of every Roman's estate and personal effects should be delivered to the government upon oath every 5 years, 566 b.c. A census of the people is said to have been taken at Florence, 1527; at Venice, 1584; in France, 1700; in Sweden, 1794. The proposal in England for a census in 1375 was opposed as profane. In the United Kingdom the census is now taken at decennial periods since 1801 ; 1811, 1821, 1831, 1841, 1851, 1861 (7 Apr.), 1871 (3 Apr.), 1881 (3 Apr.), 1891 (5 Apr.). The first United States census was made in 1790. The constitution requires that a new census shall be made every 10 years. The latest census year was 1890. Population. centennial exhibition, an international exhi- bition, in celebration of the hundredth year of American inde- pendence, was held at Philadelphia, 1876. 33 foreign countries were represented by their products. 5 principal buildings, with "annexes," or supplementary buildings, were erected; and, including foreign and state buildings, the total number of structures was 199. The main building covered 21 acres, and the 5 principal buildings, with their annexes, covered CEN 157 CHA 75 acres. Number of persons admitted to the exhibition, 9 910,966; largest number admitted on one day, 274,919. First bill providing for the exhibition signed by the president, 3 Mch. 1871 Centennial commission formed 24 Mch. 1872 Centennial board of finance created by act of congress, 1 June, •' Exhibition opened by president Grant 19 May, 1876 Exhibition closed 10 Nov " Central America. America , Wrecks, 1857. centre of population. Population, U. S. centurion, the captain, head, or commander of a sub- division of a Koman legion, which consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. By the Roman census, 556 b.c., each hundred of the people was called a centuria. century. The Greeks computed time by the Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the Roman church by Indictions, the first of which began 24 Sept. 312 a.d. The reckoning of time by centuries from the incarnation of Christ was adopted in chronological history first in France. — Dupin. Cephalo'nia, one of the Ionian islands, was taken from the J^tolians by the Romans, 189 b.c., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian, 135 a.d. Ionian isles. Ceplli'§U§, a river in Attica, near which Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated and slain bv the Cata- lans, 1311. Cerenionie§, ]W[a§ter of, an office instituted for the more honorable reception of ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James I. 1603. The order maintained by the master of ceremonies at Bath, " Beau Nash," the " king of Bath," led to the adoption of the office in ordinary assemblies. " Beau Nash " died, 1761, in his 88th year. — Ashe. Ceres, an asteroid, 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, Italy, 1 Jan. 1801 ; he named it after a goddess highly esteemed by the ancient Sicilians. Cere§UO]a {ce-re-swo'-la), N. Italy. Here Francis de Bourbon, count d'Enghien, defeated the imperialists under the marquis de Guasto, 14 Apr. 1544. Cerig'UOla {ce-Hn' -go-la), S. Italy. Here capt. Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards defeated the due de Nemours and the French, 28 Apr. 1503. Cerinthiail§, followers of Cerinthus, a Jew, who lived about 80 AM., are said to have combined Judaism with pagan philosophy. cerium, a very rare metal, discovered by Klaproth and others in 1803. Cerro Oordo, Battle of. With about 8500 men, gen. Scott, after capturing Vera Cruz, marched towards the Mexi- can capital. At Cerro Gordo, a difficult mountain pass at the foot of the eastern chain of the Cordilleras, he found Santa Anna strongly posted and fortified, with 12,000 men. Scott attacked him 18 Apr. 1847, drove him from his position, and dispersed his army. Santa Anna escaped on the back of a mule. More than 1000 Mexicans were killed, or wounded, and 3000 were made prisoners. The Americans lost in killed and wounded 431. Scott pushed on towards the Mexican capital. Mexican War, Ceuta (the ancient Septa), a town on north coast of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient Abyla, the southern pillar of Hercules. It was taken from the Vandals by Belisa- rius for Justinian, 534 ; by the Goths, 618 ; by the Moors, about 709, from whom it was taken by the Portuguese, 1415. With Portugal, it was annexed in 1580 to Spain, which retains it. Ceylon (the ancient Taprobane),an island in the Indian ^ocean, called by the natives the Seat of Paradise. It became a seat of Buddhism, 307 b.c., and was known to the Romans about 41 A.D. Area, 25,364 sq. miles; pop. 1873, 2,323,760; 1891, 3,008,239. Invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda 1505 Dutch land in Ceylon, 1602; capture the capital, Colombo 1603 Frequent conflicts; peaceful commercial relations established. 1664 Intercourse with the British begun 1713 A large portion of the country taken by them in 1782 ; restored, 1783 Dutch settlements seized by the British; Trincomalee, 26 Aug. ; Jalfnapatam Sept. 1795 Ceylon ceded to Gref^t Britain by the peace of Amiens 1802 British troops treacherously massacred or imprisoned by the adigar of Candy, at Colombo 26 June, 1803 Complete sovereignty of the island assumed by England 1815 Chaerone'a, Boeotia. Here Greece was ruinea bv Philip ; 32,000 Macedonians defeating 30,000 Thebans, Athe"- nians, etc., 6 or 7 Aug. 338 b.c. Here Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappado- cians were slain, 86 b.c. Coronea. chain, the great. This chain was stretched across the Hudson river at West Point just below fort Clinton, 1 May, 1778, to prevent the British war-ships from ascending the river. Its links were 2J in. square, and over 2 ft. long, each weighing 140 pounds. Total weight, 180 tons; length, 450 yds. Portions of this chain are still at West Point. chain-bridges. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of one mountain to the top of another. Mr. Telford constructed the first chain-bridge on a grand scale in England over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of Wales, 1818-25. Menai strait. chain-cables, pumps, and shot. Iron chain- cables were in use by the Veneti, a people intimately connected with the Belgae of Britain in the time of Caesar, 57 b.c. These cables came into use generally, in the navy of England, in 1812. Acts for the proving and sale of chain-cables and anchors in England were passed in 1864, 1871, and 1874:.— Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ship, were invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt in 1666.— Chain-pumps were first used on board the British frigate Flora, in 1787. chains, hanging; in. By 25 Geo. II. 1752, it was en- acted that judges should direct the bodies of pirates and mur- derers to be dissected and anatomized, or hung in chains. The custom of hanging in chains was abolished in England in 1834. Chalce'don, Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, colo- nized by Megarians, about 684 b.c. It was taken by Darius, 505 B.C. , by the Romans, 74 , plundered by the Goths, 269 A.D. ; taken by Chosroes, the Persian, 609; by Orchan, the Turk, 1338. Here was held the " Synod of the Oak," 403 ; and the fourth general council, which annulled the act of the " Rob- ber Synod," 8 Oct. 451. Chalcis-Euboea. Alphabet. Chaldse'a, the ancient name of Babylonia, but after- wards restricted to the southwest portion. The Chaldaeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology (Dan. ii. etc.). — The Chaldcean Registers of celestial observations, said to have commenced 2234 b.c,, were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 b.c. (1903 years). These registers were sent to Aristotle by Calisthenes.— CAoWceaw characters: the Bible was transcribed from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra, about 445 b.c. Clialgrove, Oxfordshire. At a skirmish here with prince Rupert, 18 June, 1643, John Hampden, of the parlia- ment party, was wounded, and died 24 June. A column was erected to his memory, 18 June, 1843. " Challenger." Deep-sea soundings. Clialmette plantation. La., a few miles below New Orleans on the Mississippi river, where gen. Jackson re- pulsed an advance of the British, 28 Dec. 1814. Chalons -SUr-Harne (sha-lon'-sur-mam'), N.E. Franee. Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the last of the pretenders to the throne, termed the Thirty Tyrants, 274 ; and here in 451 Aetius, the Roman general, assisted by the Visigoths, under their king Theodoric, checked the ad- vance of Attila the Hun, causing him to retire into Pannonia, after one of the most desperate and gigantic contests recorded in history. chamberlain, early a high court officer in France, Germany, and England. The office of chamberlain of the ex- chequer was discontinued in 1834. Hereditary Lord Great Chamberlain oj England.— The sxnih great officer of state, whose duties, among others, relate to coronations and public solemnities. Lord Chamberlain of the Household.— An ancient office. The title is from the Fr. chambellan, in Lat. camerarim. Chambersburg, Pa. Pennsylvania, 1862-64. " Chambers's Journal " was first pubfished at Edinburgh in Feb. 1832. CHA Ctaainbre Ardeilte ("fiery chamber"), an extraor- dinary French tribunal, so named from the punishment fre- quently awarded by it. Francis I. in 1535, and Henry II. in 1549, employed it for the extirpation of heresy, which led to the civil war with the Huguenots in 1560 ; and in 1679 Louis XIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning cases which tHJCurred after the execution of the marchioness Brinvilliers. Cliailip ics first published 20 Dec. " Exposition building opened 1877 Union club organized Feb. 1878 Calumet club organized 4 Apr. " Illinois club organized Apr. " Art Institute incorporated as the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts, •29 May, 1879 Central Music hall opened 5 Dec. " U. S. government building, post-office and customhouse, com- pleted at a cost of St>.(XH),t)00 3 May, 1880 St James's church (Roman Catholic) dedicated 24 May, " St Jolin's church (Roman Catholic) established, 29 June, 1859; present edifice dedicated 1881 Immanuol Baptist church dedicated 25 Pec. " First puMic trial of now cable street railway on State St. 28 Jan. 1882 Washington I'ark club organized 1883 McCoy's European hotel opened 1 June, 1884 Third" Presbyterian church destroyed by fire 9 Oct " County court-house and city-hall, begun, 1877; completed and occupie8 nntt bisltop? (signed by Dr. Church, dean of St Taul's, and other deans and canons) against Pub- lic Worship Hegulalion act, etc., requiring legislation in oc- clesiastiail affairs to \hs made by church synods and adopted bv Parliament 3 Apr. *' Both arvhbishoivs vote for permitting dissenters' fUneral ser- vice in churth yards 17 May, '« Bishop of lA)ndon"8 Fund ret-eivod 571,697/ lune, " Declaration of above 41,000 (clergy and laity) and pro|)08od pe- tition to queen Victoria against judgment in the Kid.sdHlo case, July, «' Ninety-six i^eers (duke of Westminster and others) address arch- bishop of Canterbury against auricular confession, " Priest In Absolution," etc about 9 Aug. " Pan-Auglitan Congress at Lambeth, etc 2-27 July, 1878 New rubrics in pniyorlwok agreed to by the convocation, 4 July ; act passed bv oonvtH-ation Aug. 1879 Dr. Julius V. bishop" of Oxford (for not prosecuting rev. Mr. Carter, of Clewer), Queen's Bench; verdict against bishop, 1879; reversed by House of Ix)rd8; bishop may, but is not compelled to, prosecute 22 Mch. 1880 John Baghot de la Bere, jun., vicar of Prestbury, Gloucester- shire, deprived for disobedience in ritualism, etc., by Court of Arches 21 Dec. 1880, and 8 Jan. 1881 Memorial to archbishop of Canterbury from 5 deans (Dr. Church, dean of SL Paul's, and other clergymen) for toleration of di- vergence in ritualistic practice 10 Jan. " Counter-memorial firom bishops Parry and Ryan, dean Close, and other deans and clergymen, opposing toleration of un- sortptural practices 31 Jan. " Mr. Mai-konochie's appeal to the lords dismissed; sentence of 3 years' suspension aflSrmcd 7 Apr. " Catholic league formed June, 1882 Death of Dr. K. B. Pysey 16 Sept. " Rev. A. Mackonochie resigns living of St. Alban's, Holbom, at request of archbishop of Canterbury 1 Dec. " "Official Year book of the Church of England " first pub 1883 Church of England Purity Society (White Cross Army) 1884 Proposed disestablishment of the church of Wales negatived in the commons (241-220) 9 Mch. 1886 Twenly-eighth Church Congress at Manchester; disputed ques- tions boldly discussed 1 Oct. 1888 Thirty-first Church Congress at Rhyl 6 Oct. 1891 A declaration of faith in the inspiration of the Bible on the testimony of the universal church, independently of human criticism. Signed by dean Goulburn and 37 other eminent clergymen " Ctaurcll of France. St. Pothinus preached Chris- tianity to the Gauls about 160; became bishop of Lyons, and suffered martyrdom with others, 177. For the reformed church, HUGUKNOTS, PbOTESTANTS. Mission of 7 bishops arrived in 245; followed by severe perse- cution. 286-288 Christianity tolerated by Constantius Chlorus 292 Council of Aries convoked by Constantine, about 600 bishops present; the Donatists condemned 314 Christianity established by Clovis 496 Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis restraining the pope's imposi- tions, and restoring the election of bishops, etc 1269 Pragmatic sanction of Bourges, setting general councils above pope, and prohibiting appeals to him 1438 Concordat of Leo X. and Francis L annulling the pragmatic sanction 18 Aug. 1516 Disputes between Jesuits and Jansenists 1640 Declaration of clergy (drawn by Bossuet) in accordance with pragmatic sanctions, confirmed by king 23 Mch. 1682 Jansenists excommunicated by bull Unigenitus 1713 Concordat with Pius VII. and Napoleon 1801 and 1813 Principles of concordat of Leo X. restored by Pius VII. and Louis XVIII 1817 Archbishop of Paris and other prelates resist dogma of papal- infallibility at council at Rome 1870 Clergy at first support Napoleon III. ; but oppose his Italian policy, 1852-70; support MacMahon's ministry, in elections, Sept., Oct. 1877 Eighteen archbishops, 77 bishop& «« Abb6 Bongaud reckons 2658 parishes without priests, and 3000 parishes without churches 1878 Church of Ireland, founded by St. Patrick in 5th century; accepted Reformation about 1650; United Church of England and Ireland formed in 1800. Bishops; Irkland, 1868. '* An act to put an end to the establishment of the church ol Ireland," introduced by Mr. Gladstone, 1 Mch. ; vote for sec- ond reading, 368; against, 250; 2 a.m., 24 Mch.; for third reading, 361 ; against, 247 31 May, 1869 Introduced in lords by earl Granville, 1 June; read third time, 12 July; some amendments by the lords accepted, others rejected by the commons; royal assent (to come into eff"ect, 1 Jan. 1871) 26 July, " Address of bishops to clergy and laity dated 18 Aug. " Meeting of general synod of Irish church in St. Patrick's cathe- dral, Dublin, for reorganization of general council. . .14 Sept. " 172 CHU Conference of laitv ; duke of Aborcorn chairman 13 Oct. 1869' Church of Ireland'disestablished 1 Jan. 1871 A sustonlation fund established (well supported) •' First elected bishop (Dr. Maurice Day, bishop of Cashel) con- secrated at St. Patrick's, Dublin 14 Apr. 1872' New ecclesiastical court meets; tries a case of ritual practices, 26 June. " Irish Church act amended Juno, " Received for the sustonUition ftind, 33,573?. up to 31 Doc. " First bishop oloctod l)y clergy and laity of Kilmore, etc., arch- deacon Darloy (12 <-andidales) 23 Sei)t. 1874 Alleged migration of clergy to England autumn, " Warm discussion upon revision of the liturgy May, 1878- Church of iScotland. Bishops in Scotland. On the abolition of Episcopacy, in 16S8, Presbyterian ism be- came the established religion. Its formulary of faith, said to have been compiled by John Knox in 1660, was approved by Parliament and ratified in 1567, settled by act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and secured by treaty of union with England in 1707. The church is regulated by 4 courts — the general assembly, the synod, the presbytery, and kirk sessions. Pres- BYTKKiANS. For important secessions, Buugher.s,1732; Free Church, 1843. First general assembly of the church 20 Dec. 1560- [General assembly is the highest ecclesiastical court; it meets annually in Iee erected, 1844. 1st bishop, John Mar- tin Henni. Archdiocese, of Milwaukee.— EsXabWsheA, 1875. 1st archbishop, John Martin Henni. Diocese. Established. 1st bishop. Green Bay 1868 Joseph Melcher. La Crosse " Michael Heiss. Marquette 1857 Frederic iBt bishop, Luis 1st archbishop Ut bithop. .John Mary Oden. .Andrew Byrne. .Michael Porticr. .John M. J. Chanche. .Augustus M. Martin. .Anthony 1). Pellicer. , 1808. Isl bishop, R. Luke 8. 1st bishop, Patrick 1875. 1st archbishop, Ist bishop. .Jas. McGolrick. .John Shanley. .OttoZardetti. .M. Martin Marly. .J. B. Cotter. 1st bishop, Francis 6. Established, 1853. 1st archbishop, Province of California.— See erected, 1840. D. y Moreno. Archdiocese of San Francisco. Joseph Sadoc Alemany. Diocese. Established. Ist bishop. Monterey and Los Angeles . . . .1850. . . .Jos. Sadoc Alemany Sacramento 1886. . . .P. Manogue. Province of Santa Fe.—See erected, 1850. 1st bishop, J. B I^my Archdiocese of Santa fe.— Established, 187.5. 1st archbishop, J. B. Diocese. Established. 1st bishop. Oenver. 1887. . . .Nicholas Chrysostome Matz. There are also the vicariate apostolics of North Carolina, of Browns- viUe Tex. of Idaho, of Uttih, and of Arizona, and the prefecture- ?£S? .u^ ^^ *^® '°*^'*° Territory. According to the census of ™iof'L®,.'^®''® ^^-^21 churches. Value of church property 1118,381,516; number of communicants, 6,250,045. church SCrviCCi were ordered bv pope Vitellianus to be read in Latin, 663; by queen Elizabeth, in 1558, to be read in English. .Church-ratC§. Church repairs, in the church of England, belong to the parishioners, who alone, in vestry, tax thenoselves for the cost. Payment, which is continually dis- puted by dissenters and others, was enforced by ecclesiastical courts. Many attempts were made to abolish church-rates before Mr. Gladstone's "Compulsorv Church-rate Abolition" bUl passed, 31 July, 1868. Compulsory church-rates for Scotland repealed in the com- mons (204-143) llJuly, 1877 CHU 174 JFVoetiiee of New Orleotu.— See erected, 1793. Penalver y Cardenaa. ArdUKocete of New Orleatu. — Established, 1835. Anthony Blanc. DIoMM. Established. Galveston 1847... LitUe Rock 1843. . . Mobile 1824... Natchez 1837. . . Natchitoches 1853. . . San Antonio 1874. . . Province of New York. — See erected. Concunen (Dominican). Artkdiocese of New ForJIc— Established, 1850. 1st archbishop (1850), John Hughes. Diocese. EsUblished. let bishop. Albany 1847 John McCloskey. Brooklyn 1853 John Loughlin. Buffalo 1847 John Timon. Newark 1863 Ja.s. R, Bavlev. Ogdensburg 1872 Edgar P. Wadhams. Rochester 1868 Bernard J. McQuaid. Syracuse 1886 P. A. Ludden. Trenton 1881. . . .M. J. O'Farrell. Province of Ort-fjon. See erected (archbishopric), 1846, including portions of British America. 1st archbishop, Francis N. Blanche!. Archdiocesf of Oregon City. Ist archbishop under the United States, 1853. Francis N. Blanchet. Diocese. EsUblished. Ist bishop. Helena, Mont 1884 John B. Broudel. Nesqually, Wash 1850. , . . A. M. A. Blanchet Vancouver's Island, B. C 1847 Modesto Demers. Province of Philadelphia. — See erected, 1» Michael Egan. Archdiocese of PAt7adcZpftta. — Established James Frederic Wood. Diocese. Established. 1st bishop. Erie 1854 Michael O'Connor. Harrisburg 1868 J. F. Shanahan. Pittsburg. 1843. . . .Michael O'Connor. Scranton 1868. . . .Wm. O'Hara. Province of Si. Louis.— See erected, 1826. 1st bishop, Joseph Rosati. Archdiocese of St. Z-oui«.— Established, 1847. 1st archbishop, Peter Richard Kenrick. Diocese. Established. Ist bishop. Cheyenne 1887.... M. F. Burke. Concordia, Kans " Richard .Scannell. Davenport 1881 . . . .John McMullen. Dubuque 1837. . . .Mathias Loras Kansas City and St. Joseph's, 1}^} ..John J. Hogan. I^avenworth 1877. . . .Louis M. Fink. I'incoln 1887. . . .Thos. Bonacum. Omaha. 1885. . . .Jas. O'Connor. Wichita 1887. . . .John Joseph Hennessy. Province of St. Paul. —See erected, 1850. 1st bishop. Joseph Cretin. Archdiocese of St. Paui.— Established, 1888. 1st archbishop, John Ireland. Diocese. Established. Duluth 1889. . . Jamestown, N. Dak " St. Cloud " '/,', Sioux Falls " *." Winona " CIN Church-wardeil»i, officers of the church of Enj! land, appointed by the first canon of the synod of Loudon ii> 1127. Parish overseers were appointed by the same body, and they continue nearly as then constituted. — Johnson's Canons. Church-wardens, by canons of 1603, are chosen annually. In the U. S. annually at Easter. Ciborilini, in early Christian times, a protection to the altar-table, first a tabernacle, afterwards a baldachin over the altar, and a canopy in solemn processions; also a vessel, for the eucharist. cider (Ger. Zider), first made in England and called wine, about 1284. The earl of Manchester, ambassador in France, is said to have passed off cider for wine. It was subjected to excise duty in 1763; taken off in 1830. Many orchards were planted in Herefordshire by lord Scudamore, ambassador from Charles I. to France. John Philips published his poem " Cy- der" in 1706. The cider of Newark, N. J., is superior, and much of it is sold as champagne. Cilicia, in Asia Minor, became a Roman province about 64 B.C., and was conquered by the Turks, 1 387 a.d. Cimbri, a Teutonic race from Jutland, invaded the Ho- man empire about 120 b.c. They defeated the Romans, under Cneius Papirius Carbo, 113 b.c. ; under the consul Marcus Si- lanus, 109 b.c., and under Caspio Manlius, at Arausio, on the banks of the Rhine, where 80,000 Romans were slain, 105 b.o. Their allies, the Teutones, were defeated by Marius in 2 bat- tles at Aquae Sextiae (Aix) in Gaul; 200,000 were killed, and 70,000 made prisoners, 102 b.c. The Cimbri were defeated by Marius and Catulus, at Campus Raudius, when about to enter Italy; 120,000 were killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 B.C. Afterwards merged in the Teutones or Saxons. CimentO (It. experiment). The " Accademia del Ci- mento," at Florence, held its first meeting for scientific experi- ments, 18 June, 1657. It was patronized by Ferdinand, grand duke of Tuscany. The Nuovo Ciinento, a scientific periodical,, first issued at Pisa, 1855. cinchona. Chinchona. Cincinnati, the ist city in Ohio and the 9th in the United States (1890) in point of population, is situated on the north bank of the Ohio river; first known as Losanteville (I'os- ante-ville), " the town opposite the mouth," being established opposite the mouth of the Licking river, in the winter of 1788- 1789. It received its present name in 1790. In 1795, it con- tained 94 cabins, 10 frame houses, and about 500 inhabitants,, and in 1800 its population was 750; 1810, 2540; 1820, 9602; 1830,24,831; 1840,46,338; 1850,115,436; 1860,161,044; 1870, 216,239; 1880, 255,139; 1890, 296,908. Area, 24^ sq. miles; lat. 39° 9' N., Ion. 84° 25' W. . Israel Ludlow and about 20 others cross the Ohio from the mouth of the Licking and commence the settlement of Lo- santeville 28 Dec. 1788 First log-cabin erected; on present Front, east of Main St., Jan. 1789 Major Doughty arrives with about 140 men from fort Harmar, on the Muskingum, June, 1789, and erects fort Washington on line of Third si., between Broadway and Lawrence sts. ; fort completed Nov. " A Presbyterian house of worship erected on lot bounded by Main, Walnut, Fourth, and Fifth sts 1792 First post-offlce established ; Abner Dunn, postmaster 1793 William Maxwell establishes the Centinel of the North-Western Territory, first newspaper 9 Nov. " Nova Cesarea Harmony Lodge of Free Masons organized, 27 Dec. 1794 Western Spy and Hamilton Gazette first pub 28 May, 1799 First recorded celebration of Independence day 4 July, " Contract made for a new court-house, to replace the old one of logs, on west side of Main, near Fifth st 1801 First sea-going vessel to descend the Ohio; built at Marietta, and of 100 tons, passes Cincinnati bound for the West Indies, (Ohio) 27 Apr. " Cincinnati theatre established 30 Sept. " Bill passes legislature to remove seat of government from Chil- licothe to Cincinnati, by vote of 12 to 8 19 Dec. " Town of Cincinnati incorporated. Jan. 1802 Town library company formed 6 Mch. " Plat of town of Cincinnati recorded 29 Apr. '* U. S. reservation around fort Washington sold by direction of the secretary of the treasury 180ft First steamboat built in Cincinnati 181ft Branch of U. S. bank opened 28 Jan. 1817 Christ church, the oldest Episcopal society in Cincinnati, of which William Henry Harrison, afterwards president of the ^, U. S., was a vestryman, organized 18 May. " Cincinnati college incorporated by legislature at session 1818-11> Cincinnati incorporated as a city 181* CIN 175 Col. Samuel W. Davis obtains a charter, May, 1817, granting the exclusive privilege of laying water-pipes, etc., in the streets of the city for 99 years, and erects a pumping-station on the river above Deer creek, supplying wrater to the city through wooden pipes 1819 Western Methodist Book Concern established 1824 Residence of Jacob Burnet, distinguished citizen, on northwest cor. of Seventh and Elin sts., built " Medical college of Ohio chartered Dec. 1825 Cincinnati Gazette issued as a daily 1826 Cincinnati Water Company incorporated " Ohio Mechanical Institute chartered and established in north wing of Cincinnati college 1828 First lodge of Odd Fellows in Ohio instituted in Cincinnati, 23 Dec. 1830 Common-school system founded 1831 St. Xavier college established " Flood which submerged the whole lower level of the city so that steamboats passed through Second St., winter of 1831-32 Pearl st. first opened 1832 Cincinnati Orphan asylum at Mount Auburn, the oldest charity of the kind in the west, chartered 1833 Lane theological seminary incorporated, 1829; opened *' First city bonds issued 1834 Locks on the Miami and Erie canal at Cincinnati completed. . . " Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company bank incorporated; banking-house cor. Main and Third sts '' Young Men's Mercantile Library Association chartered, 5 Jan. 1836 Daily paper, the Cincinnati Times-Star, established. " Daily Volksbtatt established 1838 Superior court established " Cim'innati Academy of Fine Arts organized 18 Oct. " Chamber of Commerce instituted 22 Oct. 1839 Little Miami railroad built 1840 Cincinnati Gaslight and Coke Company, with exclusive right to lay gas-mains in the city for 25 years, incorporated 1841 Cincinnati Commercial Gazette, daily, established " Cincinnati Enquirer first issued 1842 Cincinnati Wesleyan college founded " Cincinnati Astronomical society organized. May, 1842, and cor- ner-stone of observatory laid by John Quincy Adams, on sum- rait of Mount Adams 9 Nov. 1843 [Building sold in 1872 to the Passionist Fathers.] St. Peter's cathedral begun, 1839; consecrated 1844 [The altar, of Carrara marble, is the work of Hiram Powers.] Spring Grove cemetery consecrated 1845 Cincinnati Law library chartered, 1834; established 1846 Pleasant Hill academy founded, 1833; incorporated as Farmer's college. " Law enacted to prevent hogs running at large in the streets. . . 1848 Burnet house, on northwest corner Third and Vine sts., built, 1849 German Protestant Orphan asylum established " Literary club organized " Cincinnati Relief Union founded 1850 Cincinnati House of Refuge opened " Cincinnati Volkafreund established " Chime of 13 bells presented to St. Peter's cathedral by Reuben R. Springer " Miami Medical college established 1852 Jacob Burnet dies 27 Apr. 1853 City building erected " Court-house of Hamilton county erected " . Hughes's High-school built at a cost of $25,000 " Erection of Woodward high-school begun '' Paid steam fire department organized " Cincinnati public library and reading-room established 1S56 Mount Auburn Young Ladles' Institute chartered and opened. . " Erection of Masonic temple begun 1859 Gen. Kirby Smith advances on Cincinnati, and martial law is proclaimed and citizens prepare for defence 2 Sept. 1862 Soldiers' monument in Spring Grove cemetery erected 1864 Old Pike's opera-house destroyed by fire 1866 Cincinnati Clearing-house Association organized " Cincinnati and Covington suspension bridge, 1057 ft. span, com- pleted and opened 1 Jan. 1867 Cincinnati normal school established 1868 New building of Cincinnati Wesleyan college, on site of the old Catherine St. burying-ground, completed " Cincinnati hospital first occupied Jan. .1869 Harmonic society organized " College building burned, 1845; rebuilt, and damaged by fire, and remodelled " Cincinnati College of Pharmacy organized 1870 Total area of city, 19.75 sq. miles, 12.75 being annexed " First Cincinnati industrial exposition held Sept. " University of Cincinnati organized under Act 16, Apr. 1870, and University board appointed Jan. 1871 Unveiling of the Tyler- Davidson fountain on Fountain square; designed toy August von Kreling of Nuremberg, and cast by Ferdinand von Muller, director of the Royal bronze foundery of Bavaria; cost $105,000 6 Oct. " Reading-rooms of the public library first opened on Sunday, 12 Mch. " Union Railroad Stockyards Company incorporated " Cincinnati cotton exchange established " Eden park, 206 acres, first improved 1872 Pork Packers' Association of Cincinnati organized 30 Oct. " St. Mary's hospital established, 1869; building completed 1873 Total area of city increased to 24 sq. miles by annexation of 4.25 sq. miles " Queen City club organized ...............* 1874 CIP Grand hotel opened 1874 Woman's Christian Temperance Union organized 1875 Buruet-woods park purchased, 1873; improvements begun '• Miami stock-yards opened 1876 Hotel Emery opened Nov. 1877 Wrought-iron girder bridge across the Ohio built '> St. Francis de Sales church, corner-stone laid 30 June, 1878 Eden Park middle-service reservoir begun, 1866; completed, upper basin, 1875 ; lower " College of Music of Cincinnati incorporated " Corner-stone of Widows' and Old Men's Home on Walnut Hills laid 2 July, 1879 Cincinnati Daily Post established 1880 A 6 days' riot begins, after a verdict of manslaughter in the Berner and Palmer murder trial, both having confessed the murder, there being about 20 untried murderers in jail in the city ; the court-house is set on fire, etc. ; 45 killed, 138 wound- ed 28 Mch. 1884 MAYORS. J. G. Burnet 1827-31 Elisha Hotchkiss 1831-33 Samuel W. Davies 1833-43 Henry E. Spencer 1843-51 Mark P. Taylor 1851-53 D. T. Snellbaker 1853-55 James J. Farran 1855-57 N. W. Thomas 1857-59 p. M. Bishop 1859-61 George B. Hatch 1861-63 L. A. Harris 1863-67 Charles F. Wilstach 1867-69 John F. Torrence 1869-71 S.S.Davis 1871-73 George W. Johnston 1873-77 R. M. Moore 1877-79 Charles Jacob, jr 1879-81 William Means 1881-83 Thomas J. Stephens 1883-85 Amos Smith, jr 1885-89 John B. Mosby 1889-91 1891-94 All the above for 2 years' term ; except the last, as under the new charter (1891) the term is for 3 years. Cincinna'ti, Order of, formed in 1783 by officers Of the American army. New York, 1783. The first general meeting, held at Philadelphia, May, 1784, made amendments to the constitution, which were ratified by the state societies. At the second general meeting, 1787, Washington was chosen president-general, and was re-elected every 3 years while he lived; he was followed by Alex. Hamilton. The society was accused of tending to establish an hereditary military aristoc- racy, and the state societies of Connecticut, Delaware, New Hampshire, Virginia, and Georgia were dissolved about 1804. The general society and 7 state organizations still exist — viz. : those of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and South Carolina. The general society meets triennially. Next meeting, Boston, Mass., 1893. Number of living members reported 1890, 439. Cill'liaillOIl, a species of laurel, mentioned among per- fumes of the sanctuary (Exod. xxx. 23), 1491 b.c. ; found in American forests by don Ulloa, 1736 ; cultivated in Jamaica and Dominica, 1788 ; and now in Ceylon. Cinque Ports, on the south coast of England, were originally 5 (hence the name)— Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Rom- ney, and Sandwich; Winchelsea and Rye were afterwards added. — Jeake. Their jurisdiction was vested in barons, called wardens, to protect the coast, these ports being nearest France, and considered the keys of the kingdom; said to have been instituted by William I. in 1078. — Rapin. Their peculiar juris- diction was abolished in 1855, the lord-wardenship being now a merely honorary dignity. Cilltra, a town of Portugal. Here was signed an agree- ment on 22 Aug. 1808, between the French and English the day after the battle of Viraeira. As the basis of a convention of 30 Aug. following, it is called the convention of Cintra. It permitted Junot to evacuate Portugal free, in British ships. The convention was denounced, but a court of inquiry at Chel- sea exonerated the British commanders. Both Wellington and Napoleon justified sir Hew Dalrymple. cipher, secret writing. Julius Caesar and Augustus in secret despatches are said to have used for each letter the sec- ond or third after it. , This cipher was in use till Sixtus IV. (1471-84), when it was divulged by Leon Battista Alberti, and a new cipher devised. The father of Venetian cipher was Zuan Soro, who flourished about 1516.— Rawd*sia ceiled to Kii8»ia by lurkoy by the treaty of Adrianoplo (but Circassians, under Schuniyl, long resist) 14 Sept. 1829 Victories of OrbeUiani over them June, Nov., Dec. 1867 Hp subilues nmch country, and expels the inhabitants. . .April, 1858 Sfhamyl, Circassian leader, captured, and treated with respect, 7 Sept. 1859 About 20,000 Circassians reach Constantinople in distress, and arc relieved 28 Apr. 1860 Vaidar, last Circassian stronghold, captured; grand - duke Michael declares the war at an end 8 June, 1864 Many thousjiud Circassians enter Turkey, partly relieved by the governiiieut June et scq. " Schamyl and his son at marriage of czarowitch, 9 Nov. 1866; Schamyl d March, 1871 Revolt against Russia; suppressed; many Circassians flee to Turkey and join the army July, Aug. 1877 Circeiisian IpailieN were combats in the Roman circus (at rirst in honor of Consus, god of coiuicils, afterwards of Jupiter, Neptune, Juno, and Minerva), said to have been instituted by Evander, and established at Rome, 732 B.C., by Romulus, i'arquin named them Circensian; they lasted from 4 to 12 Sept. circle. Its quadrature, or ratio of the diameter to the circumference, has exercised mathematical ingenuity in all ages. Archimedes, about 221 b.c, gave it as 7 to 22; Abra- ham Sharp (1717) as 1 to 3 and 72 decimals ; and Lagny (1719) as 1 to 3 and 122 decimals. circles of Oermany (formed by Maximilian I. about 1500, to distinguish the members of the diet of the em- pire) were, in 1512, Franconia, Bavaria, Upper Rhine, Suabia, Westphalia, and Lower Saxony ; in 1789, Austria, Burgundy, Lower Rhine, the Palatinate, Upper Saxony, and Brandenburg were added. AH were merged in the Confedkration of the Rhine, in 1806. circuits in England were divided into 3, with 3 justices in each, 1 176. They were afterwards 4, with 5 justices in each, 1180. — Ropin. They have been frequently altered. England and Wales long had 8 judges travelling in spring ami summer to try civil and criminal cases; the larger towns are visited in winter for trials of criminals only; this is called "going the circuit." The circuits were settled by order in council, 5 Feb. 1876. The courts sit monthly for the city of London and county of Middlesex. Courts in the United SxArES. circular letter. Massachusetts, 1768. circulating library. Stationers lent books on hire in the middle ages. A public circulating library in Eng- land, opened by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740, failed; but similar institutions at Bath and in London succeeded, and others were established through- out the kingdom. There was a circulating library at Crane court, London, in 1748, and a catalogue in 2 vols, was pub- lished. — No books can be taken from the British museum ex- cept for judicial purposes, but the libraries of the Royal Society and the principal scientific societies, except that of the Royal Institution, London, are circulating. The London library (circulating), which was founded 24 June, 1840, is useful to literary men. Of private subscription libraries, that founded by C. E. Mudie, in New Oxford street, London, is remarkable for quantity and quality — sometimes thousands of copies of a new work being in circulation. It began 1842, and gained celeb- rity, Dec. 1848, by supplying the unprecedented demand for the first 2 vols, of Macaulay's " History of England." The hall, its walls covered with shelves of new books, was opened Dec. 1860. The " Circulating Library Company," London, was founded Jan. 1862, and other companies since. The Boston Public library, the largest collection of books in the United States, except the Congressional library, was organized 1852, and its building delivered to the trustees 1 Jan. 1858. It is a free circulating library. Boston, 1894. Libraries. 176 CIT CircuniClMion (instituted 1897 B.C.) was the seal of the covenant made by God with Abraham. It was practised by the ancient Egyptians, and is still by Jews, the Copts, and ^ some Oriental nations. The custom is also found among some ' of the savage tribes of Africa, South America, ami islands the Pacific. The Festival of the Circumcision (of Christ)| originally the octave of Christmas, is mentioned about 487, angor...Pint>. M 'Inlosb Boxwood. M*K«y Bulrush. M'Keniie . . . neer-grass. M'Kinnon. . .St-John's-wort. MMAChlan . .Mountain ash. M'l^an Blackberry heath. U'l^eod Red whortleborriea. If 'Nab Rose blackberriea M'Nell Sea-ware. M'Pberson . .Variegated box- wood. Nun*. Badge. M'Quarrie . . . Blackthorn. M'Rae Fir-club moss. Menzies Ash. Munro Ragle's feathers. .Murray (tiiiipor. Ogilvic Hawtliorno. Oliphant . . . .(ireat maple. Robertson. . . Fern, or brecbans. Rose Brier-rose. Ross Bear- berries. Sinclair Clover. Stewart Thistle. Sutherland. .Cat's-Uil grass. Clare was Uie first place in Ireland since 1689 to elect a Roman Catholic M.P. (Roman Catholics), when, at Ennis, the county town, Daniel O'Connell was returned, 5 July, 1828. He did not sit till after the Catholic Emancipation act in 1829, being re-elected 30 July, 1829. Clare and Clarence, Suffolk, Engl. Richard de Clare, earl of Gloucester, is said to have seated here a monastery of the order of Friars Eremites, the first of these mendicants who came to England. 1248. — Tanner. Lionel, 3d son of Edward III., obtaining the honor of Clare by marriage, was created duke of Clarence, a title since in a branch of the royal family. Clarendon, Constitutions of, enacted at a council held 25 Jan. 1164, at Clarendon, in Wiltshire, Engl., to retrench the power of the clergy. They led to Becket's quarrel with Henry H., were annulled bv the pope, and abandoned bv the king, Apr. 1174. I. All suits concerning advowsons to lie in civil courts. II. Clergy accused of crime to be tried by civil judges. III. No person of nink to leave the realm without royal license. IV. Laics not to be accused in spiritual courts, except by legal and reputable promoters and witnesses. V. No chief tenant of the crown to be excommunicated, nor his lands put under interdict. VI. Revenues of vacant sees to belong to the king. VII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to be protected in churches. VIII. Sons of villeins not to be ordained clerks without the consent of their lord. IX. Bishops to be barons, with the burdens of that rank. X. Churches belonging to the king's see not to be granted in per- petuity against bis will. XI. Excommunicated persons not to be bound to give security for continuing in their abode. XII. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommunicated for non-ap- pearance in a spiritual court. XIII. If any tenant in capite refuse submission to spiritual courts, the case to be referred to the king. XIV. The clergy to abandon all right of enforcing debts contracted by oath or promi.se. XV. Causes between laymen and ecclesiastics to be determined by a jury. XVI. Appeals to be ultimately carried to the king, and no further without his consent. Clarendon Pre§§, Oxford, Engl. The building was erected by sir John Vanbrugh, in 1711-13, out of the copy- right of lord Clarendon's " History of the Rebellion," given to the university by his son. The original building was con- verted into a museum, lecture-rooms, etc., and a new printing- office erected by Blore & Robertson, 1825-30. clarion, said by Spanish writers to have been invented by the Moors in Spain, about 800 ; at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding tenor and bass. — A she. clarionet or clarinet, a wind-instrument of the reed kind, said to have been invented by Johann Christoph Denner, in Nuremberg, about 1690. Cla8§i§, a name first used by Tullius Servius (6th king) for a division of the Roman people, 573 B.C. The first of the 6 classes were called dassici, by way of eminence, and hence authors of the first rank (especially Greek and Latin) came to be called classics. Clav'icliord, a keyed stringed musical instrument of various forms, in use in France, Spain, and Germany, in the 16th and 17th centuries. Piano, Spinet, Virginals. Clavicyttie'rium, an upright musical instrument, probably like the harpsichord of the 16th century. Clearin^-llOU§e. The Chambre de Compensation de Lyon as reorganized in 1667, it is claimed, was similar to the modern clearing-house. The London Bankers' clearing-house was instituted previous to 1773; the building in Lombard street, since known as the clearing-house, was opened in 1810. Joint stock-brokers were admitted in 1854, and country check clear- ing was begun in 1858. The Bank of England entered in 1864, but only clears against the other banks. The association consists of 27 banks. The records show as the amount of clearings for various vears as follows : 1839, 954,000,000^. ; 1868, 3,425,000,000/.; 1874, 5,937,000,000/.; 1881,6,357,000,000/.; 1888,6,942,000,000/.; 1890, 7,801,000,000/. There are now clearing-houses in most of the large towns of England. The London railway clearing-house was organized in 1842, and the Stock Exchange clearing-house in 1874. La Chambre de Compensation des Banquiers de Paris was formed Mch. 1872; the clearing-house in Vienna in 1864, and in Berlin in 1883. The first clearing-house in the United States was started in New York city, 11 Oct. 1853. The membership of the New York Clearing-house Association, in 1892, comprised 46 national banks, 18 state banks, and the sub-treasury of the U. S. at New York. The total clearing-house transactions in the 57 associations existing in the U. S. for the year ending 30 Sept. 1892, was $61,017,839,067, an increase over the corresponding year ending 30 Sept. 1891, of $3,836,491,783, and this volume of bu.siness was accomplished with the use of only about 8 per cent, in currency or money. Of the 57 associations in the U. S., those showing transactions amounting to over $1,000,000,000 in 1892 are as follows : New York, $36,279,905,236 ; Bo.s- ton, $4,901,096,976 ; Chicago, $4,959,861,142 ; Philadelphia, $3,671,149,047; St. Louis, $1,211,370,719. A Stock clearing-house association was organized in the city of New York 17 May, 1892 ClementinCi, apocryphal pieces, attributed to Cle- mens Romanus, a contemporary of St. Paul, and said to have succeeded St. Peter as bishop of Rome. He died 102. — Niceron. Also the decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor. — Bowyer. AlsoAugustin monks, each of whom, having been a superior 9 years, became a common monk. — Clementines were the adherents of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who, as Clement VH. succeeded Gregory XL, 1378; and Urbaiiists, those of pope Urban VL Christendom was divided, France, Castile, Scotland, etc., adhering to Clement; Rome, Italy, and England to Urban. The schism ended in 1409, when Alexander V. was elected pope, and his rivals re- signed. Anti-pope. Cleopatra's BiTeedle. Obklisks. clergy (from the Gr. KXrjpog, a lot or inheritance), in tl first century termed presbyters, elders, or bishops and deacons." The bishops (sTriaKOTroi or overseers), elected from the pres- byters, assumed higher functions about 330, and, under Con- stantine, obtained the recognition and protection of tlie secular power. Under the Lombard and Norman-French kings in the 7th and 8th centuries, the clergy acquired temporal power as owners of lands ; and after monachism arose, regular clergy, who lived apart from the world, by a regula, or rule, were dis- tinguished from secular (worldly) or beneficed clergy. The English clergy write clerk after their names in legal docu- ments. Bishops, Church of England. Clergy were first styled clerks, judges being chosen from them after the Norman custom, and the officers being clergy ; they keep the name to this day. — Blackstone. As the Druids kept the keys of religion and of letters, so did tlie priests keep both to themselves ; they alone profess letters, and a man of letters was called a clerk; hence learning was called clerkship. — Pasquier. Benefit of clergy, privilegium clericale, arose in regard of princes to the church, aud consisted of: 1st, an exemption of places con- secrated from criminal arrests, as sanctuaries ; 2d, exemption of persons of clergymen from criminal process before the secular judge, in particular cases — the original meaning of the priiu- legium clericale. The benefit of clergy was afterwards extended to every one who could read ; and it was enacted that if any man who could read were condemned to death, the bishop of the diocese might claim him as a clerk, and dispose of him in certain places as he might deem meet. The ordinary gave the prisoner a I^atin book, in a black Gothic character, to read a verse or two; and if the ordinary said, '^ Legit ut clericus " (" He reads like a clerk "), the offender was burned in the hand; otherwise he suffered death (3 Edw. I. 1274). Privilege was restricted by Henry VII. in 1489, and abolished, for murderers and great criminals, by Henry VIII., 1512.— Stow. Reading was discontinued, 5 Anne, c. 6 (1706). Benefit of clergy was repealed, 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 28 (1827). CLERGY CHARITIES IN ENGLAND. William Assheton, theological writer, first proposed a plan to pro- vide for families of deceased clergy. He died Sept. lin.—WcUts^s " Life of Assheton." Festival of " Sons of the Clergy," held annually at St. Paul's, insti- I CLE 179 tuted about 1655; from it sprang the charity called " Sons of the Clergy " (Clergy Orphan and Widow Corporation), incorporated 1 July, 1678. Clergy Orphan Corporation, 1749. Friend of the Clergy Corporation, 1849. St. John's Foundation School for Sons of Poor Clergy, 1852. Poor Clergy Relief Corporation, established 1856; incorporated 1867. There are other charities for relatives of t^e clergy. Clergy excluded from Parliament, 1801. A bill to repeal this lost in the commons (110-101), 11 May, 1881. Clerkenwell, a parish, N.E. London, from a well (^fons clericoruni) in Kay street, where parish clerks occasion- ally acted mystery-plays; once before Richard II. in 1390. Hunt's political meetings in 1817 were held in Spa-fields in this parish. In St. John's parish are remains of the priory of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem. Clerkenwell prison was built in 1615, in lieu of that called " the Cage," taken down in 1614, the then Bridewell being insufficient. The House of Detention, erected in 1775, was rebuilt in 1818 ; again, 1844. For an explosion here, Fenians, Dec. 1867. At Clerkenwell- close stood the house of Oliver Cromwell, where some suppose the death-warrant of Charles I. was signed, Jan. 1649. Clermont, a town of France. Here was held the council under pope Urban II. in 1095, which approved the first crusade against the infidels, and named Godfrey of Bouillon to com- mand it. In this council the name pope, previously assumed by other bishops, is said to have been limited to the bishop of Home; and Philip I. of France was (a second time) excom- municated.— ^«rtttM^<. Cleveland, the most important port of Ohio, on lake Erie, was named after gen. Moses Cleaveland, director of the Connecticut Land Company, who arrived at the present site of Cleveland, 22 July, 1796, and began the settlement at the mouth of Cuyahoga river. In 1800 the population was only 7; in 1810 it was 57; 1820, 150; 1830, 1075; 1840, 6071 ; 1850, 17,034. In 1854, Ohio City, on the opposite bank of the river, was united with Cleveland, and in 1860 the population of the united cities was 4.8,838 ; in 1870,92,829; 1880, 159,404; and 1890, 261,353. By this census the 2d city in the State and the 10th of the U. S. in point of population. In 1890 the city covered an area of 26^ sq. miles. Lat. 41° 36' N., Ion. 81° 38' W, Meeting of fontiac with maj. Rogers and his rangers occurs at the mouth of Cuyahoga river, the present site of Cleveland (Parkman) 7 Nov. 1760 Gen. Moses Cleaveland and party arrive 22 July, 1796 Sirrveys begun, 1(5 Sept., and first plat of the city of Cleveland made by Amos Spaflbrd 1 Oct. " Storehouse for the Connecticut Land Company erected a short distance south of St. Clair St., and a cabin built on the east side of Bank St., for Job P. Stiles, who was left in charge of the company's stores fall of " First white child in Cuyahoga county born to Mr. and Mrs. Stiles Second surveying party arrives, 1797 ; one of the party, David Eldridge, drowned the day previous to their arrival, and buried in the cemetery lot cor. Ontario and Prospect sts., 4 June, Edward Paine opens a general store W. W. Williams and maj. Wyatt build a grist-mill at Newburg.. Miss Sarah Doan opens a township school Celebration ball held at maj. Carter's double log-house.. 4 July, 1801 City re-surveyed by maj. Amos Spafford, and corners of the streets marked by oak posts " Elisha Norton opens a store in Carter's house under the hill, near the west end of Superior st " First town meeting held at the house of James Kingsbury ; Ro- dolphus Edwards chairman of the board of trustees. . .5 Apr. 1802 First permanent frame house built by Amos Spallord, near west end of Superior St., on south side, 1802. A house erected by maj. Carter previously was burned before completion " Mouth of the Cuyahoga made a port of entry 1805 First postmaster, Elisha Norton, appointed 2 Oct. " A 30 ton schooner, the Zephyr, built by maj. Carter and launched at the foot of Superior st 1808 Cleveland chosen as the seat of justice for Cuyahoga county. . . 1809 Alfred Kelly, the first lawyer, and David Long, the first doctor in Cleveland, arrive 1810 Maj. Carter erects the first warehouse, a log structure, on the lake shore, near the junction ot Meadow and Spring sts " Elias and Harvey Murray, first regular merchants, open a store on Water st ; " Court of common pleas holds its first session in the store of E. and H. Murray 5 June, " The Ohio, a vessel of 60 tons, built and launched " A court-house which served also as country jail and residence erected on the public square (it stood till 1828) 1812 Omic, an Indian, fot murder of 2 trappers, Buel and Gibbs, near Sandusky, is hung on the public square 24 June, " Village of Cleveland incorporated by charter dated 23 Dec. 1814 First village election; Alfred Kelly chosen president June, 1815 1797 1799 1800 CLE Total assessed value of real estate in Cleveland, $21,065 Commercial Bank of Lake Erie opened ; Leonard Case, president, First frame warehouse built by Leonard Case and capt. William . Gaylord a little north of St. Clair st. on the river about Euclid St. laid out First school-house, a 1-story frame, owned by the corporation, erected cor. Bank and St. Clair sts First religious organization, holding services in private resi- dences, organized, with rev. Roger Searls (Episcopal) as pastor, I First number of the first newspaper, the Cleveland Gazette and I Commercial Record, issued by Andrew Logan. 31 July, First steamboat on lake Erie, the Walk-in-the-Water, enters the harbor, from Bulfalo, N. Y i Sept. Cleveland Herald first issued by Ziba Wiles , Joseph Barber erects a cabin in Brooklyn First stage coach line between Cleveland and Columbus estab- j lished, 1820. and between Cleveland and Bufialo, N. Y Ohio canal opened to Akron Coal first used for fuel j New court-house erected on southwest quarter of the square, a 2-story brick ^ Improvement of harbor begun Old Trinity church, cor, St. Clair and Seneca sts., built Market house established First fire-engine purchased Prospect St. laid out First iron- works, a foundery, erected by John Ballard & Co. . . Brooklyn '"boom" begins; Massasoit house erected, ship-canal built, etc New jail built on Champlain St. , in rear of court house Presbyterian society organized, 1820, and build their first church, the "'Stone church," cor. Ontario St. and the square First Catholic church built, a frame structure, ouColumbus St., Village of Brooklyn incorporated as Ohio City 3 Mch. Cleveland incorporated as a city 5 Mch. John W. Willey elected first mayor, and first meeting of city council 15 Apr. Public-school system adopted Fire department organized ; Henry Cook, chief "City Watch " established Baptist society (organized 1832) erect a church cor. Champlain and Seneca sts Columbus St. bridge war, 1837; James S. Clark builds a bridge over the river, and gives it to the city; Ohio City people object and attempt to destroy the bridge ; they are met by residents of Cleveland with fire-arms and force; the matter is finally settled in court St. Clair St. academy purchased for $(5000 [Site afterwards occupied as fire department headquarters.] Ohio and Pennsylvania canal opened to Pittsburg Cleveland Plain Dealer established Cuyahoga Steam Furnace Company organized, 1835; builds the first locomotive west of the Alleghany mountains State bank of Ohio created by act of legislature, and Commer- cial, Merchants', and City banks organized Lake Erie Telegraph Company file the first request to erect poles and wires in the streets Cleveland Leader established Wedell house erected Case library founded Cleveland Gas-light and Coke Company, incorporated, 6 Feb. 1846; lays its first pipes in Superior and other streets Young Men's Christian Association organized Cleveland, Columbus, and Cincinnati railroad opened to Colum- 1816 1817 1818 1819 1821 1827 1829 1831 1834 1835 1836 bus. Cleveland, Painesville, and Ashtabula railroad chartered, 1849; opened 20 Nov. Cleveland, Norwalk, and Toledo railroad chartered, 1850; opened 24 Jan. [Completing line between New York and Chicago.] Cleveland and Ohio City united 6 June, Government buildings, post-office, etc., erected Kennard house erected Waterworks begun, 1849, and water first supplied 10 Sept. Cleveland Rolling Mills Company founded by Henry Chisholra, Third court-house erected Central high-school building erected on Euclid ave., near Erie st Board of Education created First line of street-cars on Woodland ave. starts 10 Sept. Statue of commodore Perry unveiled. Public sq., Superior st., on the 47th anniversary of the battle of lake Erie 10 Sept. Western Reserve Historical Society organized Bessemer steel first made at the Cleveland rolling mills Standard Oil Company founded Cleveland public library founded First iron vessel on the lakes launched from Blaisdell's shipyard, Cleveland Evening News and Herald established Lake View cemetery established Village of East Cleveland annexed 14 Oct. Lake View park purchased and improved Newburg annexed as the 18th ward 16 Sept. Waterworks tunnel, under lake Erie, begun, 1869; completed, Oct. Cleveland training school opened Harbor improvement begun Iron and stone viaduct, connecting east and west sides, com- pleted Cleveland Press established High-school on AVilson ave. first occupied, and old high school on Euclid ave. given to Board of Education and public library. South Side park purchased 1837 1839 1841 1842 1845 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1856 1807 1868 1870 1872 1873 1874 1875 1878 1879 CLE 180 OLO OMe School of Applied Science, chartered, 1800; opened 1881 Western ReBerve college removes from Hudson to Cleveland, and re-named Adelberl college (Ohio) 1882 Electric car begins regular lrii)8 over the East Cleveland at. railway ; the first in regular oiwrution in the U. S. . .27 July, 1884 Case School of Applied Science and Adelbort College building erected 1885-86 City treasurer Thomas Axworthy embezzles half a million dollars of city funds 1888 Contract for new waterworks tunnel let 24 Mch. " Clevolaud Daily World established 1889 (iarUeld Memorial dedicated at Lake View cemetery. . .30 May, 1800 MAYORS. John W. WiUey 1836-38 Joshua Mills 1838-40 Nicholas Dockstader. , . . 1840-41 John W.Allen 1841-42 Joshua Mills 1842-43 Nolson Hay ward 1843-44 Samuel Starkweather... 1844-46 George Hoadlv 1846-47 Josiiih A Harris 1847-48 lA)reiizo A. Kelsey 1848-49 Flavel W. Bingham 1849-60 William Case 1860-62 Abner C. Brownell 1862-66 William B. Castle 1856-67 Samuel Starkweather... 1857-69 Edward S. Flint 1861-( Irvine W. Master) George B. Seuter J ' * Herman M. Chapin 1866-67 Stephen Buhror 1867-71 Frederick W. Pelton... 1871-73 Charles A. Otis 1873-75 Nathan P. Payne 1875-77 William G. Rose 1877-79 R. R. Herrick 1879-83 John H. Farley 1883-85 George W. Gardner 1885-87 B. D. Babcock 1887-89 George W. Gardner.... 1889-91 William G. Rose 1891-93 Robert Blee 1893-95 Qeorge B. Seuter 1859-61 Cleveland's administration. United States, 1885-89, 1893-97. Cleves, a town of Germany about 40 miles north of Dlisseldorf and the birth-place of Anne of Cleves, one of the wives of Henry the VIII. of England. Rutger, count of Cleves, lived at the beginning of the 11th century. Adolphus, count of Mark, was made duke of Cleves by emperor Sigis- mund, 1417. John William, duke of Cleves, Berg, Juliers, etc., died without i.ssue, 25 Mch. 1609, which led to a war of succes- sion. Cleves was assigned to the elector of Brandenburg in 1666 ; seized by the French in 1757 ; restored at peace in 1763, and now belongs to Prussia. Clifton suspension bridge, over the Avon. BRinuES. ellmaeteric, the term applied to any j'car of life (a multiple of 7 or 9), when great changes in the health and con- stitution are supposed to occur. Cotgrave says, ^' Every 7th or 9th or 63d year of a man's life all very dangerous, but the last most." The grand climacteric is 63. Hippocrates is said to have referred to these periods, 383 b.c. elimate. Meteorology, Temperature. Clinton and montg^oinery, forts (about 6 miles below West Point, on the Hudson), Surrender of. Sir Henry Clinton, wishing to make a diversion in favor of gen. Burgoyne, who was hard pressed by gen. Gates, advanced up the Hudson on 4 Oct. 1777, with about 3000 men, and deceiving gen. Put- nam as to his purpose, took these forts, feebly garrisoned, before they could be reinforced. They were commanded by gens. James and George Clinton, who escaped in the darkness with about 200 men. American loss, 300 ; British, 140. Clio, the muse of history. The letters C. L. I. O., in consecutive order, were signed to the best papers of Addison, in the London Spectator, in 1713. — Cibber. Cloaea Maxima, one of the ancient sewers of Rome, still in existence, said by Livy to have been constructed by Tarquinius Priscus (assassinated, 578 b.c.) and Tarquinius Su- perbus. It was originally 12 ft. 4 in. high, and 10 ft. 8 in. wide, but one third is now choked with mud. It was intended as a sewer and drain for the marsh of the Velabrum, and the land springs of the Forum. It extends from near the church of S. Giorgio, where it is fed by 7 cloacae, to the Tiber, near the Ponte Rot to. Cloclc. The clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome about 158 b.c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were placed in it by Ctesibius, about 140 b.c. The only clock then known was sent by pope Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, 760 a.d. Pacificus, archdeacon of Genoa, invented one in the 9th century. Originally the wheels were 3 ft. in diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is certain record was made by a Saracen mechanic in the 13th century. Escapement ascribed to Gerbert 1000 A clock placed in the old palace yard, London, that remained until the 16th century 1288 A great clock put up at Canterbury cathedral, cost 30i r292 One made by Richard, abbot of St. Alban's about 1326 John Viscouti sets up a clock at Genoa 1353 One put up at Bologna 1356 A striking clock in Westminster 1368 A iwrfoct one made at Paris by Vick 1370 A clock placed on the Strasburg cathedral, 1370; greatly im- proved by Conradus Dasypodus (Strasburg) ' 1571 First portable one made 1530 First accurate clock in England at Hampton Court (maker's initials, N. O.) 1540 " like a German clock, Still a- repairing; ever out of frame; And never going aright." — Shakespeare^ " Love's Labor's Lost," 1698 Pendulum in clocks ascribed to the younger Galileo, 1639; and Ricliard Harris (who erected a clock at St. Paul's, Covent Garden, Loudon) i64l Christian Huyghens said he made his pendulum clock previ- ous to 1658 Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the pendulum about 1659 Repeating clocks and watches invented by Barlow about 167() Spiral pendulum spring invented by Robert Hooke, about 1658; cylinder and e.sciipement, by Thomas Tompion 169,') Dead-beat and horizontal escapements, by Graham, about 1700; compensating pendulum . 1715 A spiral balance spring suggested, and the duplex escapement invented, by Dr. Hooke; pivot-holes jewelled by P'acio; de- tached escapement invented by Mudge and improved by Berthould, Arnold, Earnshaw, and others in the 18th century. Harrison's time-piece constructed 1735 First illuminated church clock, St. Bride's, London 2 Dec. 1826 Horological institute established 1858 Great Westminster clock set up 30 May, 1859 Barraudand Lund's electric synchronizing clocks; city of Lon- don circuit of 108 clocks Nov. 1878 Victor Popp of Vienna applies compressed air as a motive power to clocks; announced Mch. 1881 One of the earliest clock-makers in the U. S. was William Tenny, who made brass clocks at " Nine Partners," Dutchess county, N. Y., about 1790; Eli Terry began to make wooden clocks about the same time, and in 1802 to make them by machinery with water-power, at Plymouth, Conn., and in 1816, shelf and mantel clocks, selling for $2 and upwards. Electricity, Time, Watches. ClOgher, Ireland. St. Macartin, a disciple of St. Pat- rick, fixed a bishopric at Clogher, where he built an abbey " in the street before the royal seat of the kings of Ergal." He died in 506. Clogher is named from a golden stone, from which, in times of paganism, the devil gave juggling answers, like the oracles o{ Apollo Pythius.—Sh- James Ware. In 1041, the cathedral was rebuilt, and dedicated to its founder. Clog- her merged, on the death of its last prelate. Dr. Tottenham, into the archiepiscopal see of Armagh, by the act of 1833. Clonfert, Ireland. St. Brendan founded an abbey at Clonfert in 558; his life is extant in jingling monkish metre in the Cottonian librarj' at Westminster. In his time the cathedral, famous in ancient days for its seven altars, was erected, and Colgan makes St. Brendan its founder and first bishop ; but it is said in the " Ulster Annals," under the year 571, "Maena, bishop of Clonfert-Brenain, went to rest." Clon- fert is Irish for a " wonderful den," or retirement. In 1839 the see merged in that of Killaloe. Clontarf, near Dublin, site of a battle, Good Friday, 23 Apr. 1014, between Danes and Irish, headed by Bryan Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland, who, though victorious, was mortally wounded ; his son Murchard also fell, with many nobles ; 13,000 Danes are said to have perished. Closterseven, Hanover, Convention of, 8 Sept. 1757, between the duke of Cumberland, 3d son of George II., hardly pressed, and the duke of Richelieu, commanding the French ; by it 38,000 Hanoverians surrendered, and were dispersed. The treaty was disavowed bj'^ the king ; the duke resigned his commands, and the convention was soon broken. cloture, in 6th of new rules of British Parliament put forth, 9 Feb. 1881, power given the speaker of the House of Commons to close debate, under rules adopted, Nov. 1882. First used in Parliament, 24 Feb. 1884. Parliament. Cloud, St., a palace near Paris, named from prince Clodoald, or Cloud, who became a monk there in 533, after the murder of his brothers, and died in 560. In the present pal- ace, built in the 16th century, Henry II. was assassinated by Clement, 2 Aug. 1589. Long the property of the dukes of Orleans, it was bought by Marie Antoinette, 1785. It was a favorite residence of the empress Josephine, of Charles X. and his family, and of Napoleon HI. It was burned, 13 Oct. 1870, having been fired upon by the French. CLO 181 COA cloud-burst§. Storms. ClOUd§ consist of minute particles of water, often frozen, floating in the air. In 1803, Mr. Luke Howard published a classification of clouds, generally adopted, in 3 primary forms — cirrus, cumulus, and stratus; 3 compounds of these forms ; and the nimbus, or black rain-clouds (cumulo-cirro-stratus). A new edition of his " Essay on the Clouds " appeared 1865. ClOVesllOO, now Cliff, Kent, Engl. Here was held a council of nobility and clergy on government and discipline of the church, Sept. 747; and others, 800, 803, 822, 824. Cloy ne, S. Ireland, a bishopric, founded in the 6th century by St. Coleman, in 1431 united to Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It was united with Cork and Ross, 1834. Bishops. club-foot, a deformity due to the shortened muscles. Lorenz, in 1784, cut the tendo A chillis, to relieve it, but the cure was not effectual till 1831, when Strohraeyer, of Erlangen, cured Dr. Little by dividing the tendons of the contracted muscles with a very thin knife. cllll>§, originally a few persons of kindred tastes and pur- suits, meeting at stated times for social intercourse. The club at the Mermaid tavern, London, late in the 16th century, consisted of Raleigh, Shakespeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a club at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, frequently met at Button's coffee-house, as described in the Spectator. London clubs, often of from 300 to 1500 members, have many luxuriously furnished edifices in or near Pall Mall. The members obtain choice yiands and wines at moderate charges, and many clubs possess excellent libraries, particularly the Athkn^um. They may be political, literary, scientific, fine- arts, business or commercial, athletic, etc.; and clubs of these classes are established in all of the principal citiee of the United States and Europe. Political clubs often exert great influence in public affairs. Cobden, Jacobins, etc. The oldest club in the U. S. is the Wistar club, Philadelphia, 1833, and the next, the Union club of New York city, 1836. See the Record of the different cities of the U. S. elut>§, French. The first arose about 1782. They were mainly political, and concerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des Cordeliers comprised Danton and- Camille Desmou- lins. From these two came the Mountain party, which over- threw the Girondists in 1793, and fell in 1794. The clubs dis- appeared with the Directory in 1799. Many were revived in 1848, but with less importance, and were suppressed by de- crees, 22 June, 1849, and 6 June, 1850. — Bouillet. ClUgny or Cluny, abbey of, in France, formerly mag- nificent, founded by Benedictines, under abbot Bern, about 910 ; sustained afterwards by William, duke of Berry and Aquitaine. Its library, one of the richest in France, was greatly injured when the abbey was sacked by the Huguenots, 1562, and almost destroyed by the revolutionists in 1793. English foundations for Cluniac monks were instituted soon after. Clyde and Forth \rall was built by Agricola, 84. Hadrian's Wall. The Forth and Clyde canal was commenced by Mr. Smeaton, 10 July, 1768, and was opened 28 July, 1790. It connects the seas on the east and west of Scotland. CntdllM (ni'dus), in Caria, Asia Minor. Near here Conon the Athenian defeated the Lacedaemonian fleet under Peisander, 394 B.C. coach (from Sp. coche). Beckmann states that Charles of Anjou's queen entered Naples in a caretta (about 1282). Under Francis I. there were but 2 in Paris: one the queen's, the other that of Diana, natural daughter of Henry II. There were but 3 in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry lY. had one without straps or springs. John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach to carry his enormous bulk. The first coach in England was about 1553. Others were introduced by Fitz-Alan, earl of Arundel, in IbSQ.—Stow. A law in England forbade riding in coaches as effeminate, 43 Eliz. 1601.— Ca?-/e. Repealed 1625. The coach of the duke of Buckingham had 6 horses, that of the earl of Northumberland 8, 1619. The English coach- tax commenced in 1747. Of recent years there has been a re- vival especially in England of the fashion of journeying by coach ; as it is not a necessity, and more expensive than by rail, it is not indulged in except for pleasure. G. Thrupp's "History of Coaches," pub. 1877. Carriages, Chariots^ Stage-coach KS, etc. coal. There are 4 kinds of the fossil fuel called ** cole " in old English, now known as coal : anthracite, bituminous, cannel or gas-coal, and lignite or brown coal. The composition of wood is about 49.1 carbon, 6.3 hydrogen, 44.6 oxygen ; while the best anthracite coal contains more than .90 of carbon, with about .03 of hydrogen and .025 of oxygen. " Ic is plausibly contended that coal, although not mentioned by the Romans in notices of Britain, was used by the ancient Britons." — Brandt. Henry III. is said to have granted a license to dig coals near Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234 ; some say earlier, others in 1239. Burning sea-coal was prohibited in and near London, as " prej- udicial to human health;" and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. — Stow. In 1306 the gentrj' petitioned against coal. Coal was first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Rich. II. 1381. — Rymer's Foedera. Notwithstanding many previous complaints against coal as a public nuisance, it was generally' burned in London in 1400; but was not in common use in England until Charles I., 1625. Coal was brought to Dublin from Newry in 1742. Anzin coal- mines, near Valenciennes, N. France, first worked 24 June, 1734 ; output in 1872, 2,200,000 tons. Anthracite coal, mined chiefly in Pennsylvania, was first used as fuel by two Connecticut blacksmiths, named Gore, in 1768-69 ; firsj used as domestic fuel by judge Jesse Fell, of Wilkesbarre, Pa., in 1808. Penn- sylvania, 1791, 1812, '20, '21, '22, '39. Except the diamond, anthracite coal is the purest natural carbon. The coal-fields of Great Britain are estimated at 5400 sq. miles ; of Durham and Northumberland, 723 sq. miles. — Bakewell. MINED IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1861. 83,635,214 tons. 1870. 110,431,192 " Value, 27, 607, 798i. 1879. 133,808,000 " " 46,832,000?. 1890. 181,614,288 " " 74,953,997?. Women were prohibited from working in English colleries 1842 A commission (duke of Argyll, sir R. 1. Murchison, Dr. John Percy, prof. Ramsay, and others) appointed to investigate the probable quantity of coal in the United Kingdom, etc., 28 June, 1866, reported, 27 July, 1871: Attainable quantity in known coal-fields. . .90,207,000,000 tons. Probable available coal in other places 56,273,00 0,000 " Total 146,480,000,000 " A commission to inquire into causes and remedies for coal- mine explosions appointed (Messrs. W. Warington Smyth, Tyndall, F. A. Abel, and others) Feb. 1879 Accidents. — About 1000 lives are lost annually by accidents in mines (1856-76). 1877, 1208; 1878, 1413; 1879, 973; 1880, 1318; 1885. 1150; 1890,1206; 1891, 1030. IN THE UNITED STATES. Anthracite is found m\)stly in Pennsylvania, while the bituminous is widely distributed. Cannel is found in Pennsylvania, Virginia, Kentucicy, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. Lignite in Ver- mont and west. No workable coal is found in Maine, New Hamp- shire, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, South' Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, Minnesota. The anthracite coal-fields of Pennsylvania are estimated at 382 sq. miles, and this is practically all there is in the U. S. The bituminous coal-fields are estimated at 203,336 sq. miles. The anthracite output in Pennsylvania from 1820 to 1880 was 409,597,748 tons. The amount of coal mined was : 1869. Anthracite, Pa 13,866,180 tons Bituminous, Pa. and other states 17,211,814 " Total 31,077,994 " 1876. Anthracite, Pa 21,436,667 " 27,569,081 " Bituminous, Pa. and other states. Total 49,005,748 " 188L Anthracite, Pa. 31,500,000 " Bituminous, Pa 20,000,000 " " other states 28,405,000 " Total 79,905,000 " 1889. Anthracite, Pa 45,544,970 '• Bituminous, Pa 36,174,089 " " other states 59,011,229 " Total 140,730,288 " 1890. Anthracite, Pa 46,468,641 " Bituminous, Pa 42,302,173 " " other states 69,017,842 " Total 157,788,656 " coalUion§ against France mostly promoted by British subsidies of other powers. Treaties. Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain 1793 Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey. signed 22 June, 1799 Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples 5 Aug. 1805 Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony 6 Oct. 1806 COA 182 COF Qnul BrtUin and Austria 6 Apr. 1809 Russia and Prussia ; treaty nitilled at Kalisch 17 Mch. 1813 cotiMt Hiirvcy of the United States. A complete survey upon a unifi)rm system, of the whole coast was first proposed by the late prof. Patterson in 1806. Its objects were the astronomical determination of prominent points, triangulation to connect those points, and a hydro- graphic survey based upon this triangulation. Mr. (ialhitin, secretary of the treasury, encouraged the project, and con- sultfd learned men as to the best methods. He adopted the plaa* of Mr. F. R. Ilassler, first superintendent of the coast survey. The work Avas begun in 1817, on a small scale; only since 1832 has it been actively pressed. While the gov- ernment neglected it, commerce was chiefly indebted to the hytlrographers Messrs. Blunt of New York (father and son), for charts, etc In 1844, the first year of prof. A. D. Bache's superintendence, 9 states on the Atlantic seaboard were reached by the coast survey; in 1845, 13 states; in 1846, 15; and in 1847, 18 states. It has since been extended to the Pacific coast, to Alaska, and through the great lakes, under prof. Benjamin Peirce, He was succeeded by capt. Carlile P. Patterson, who carried the work into the interior, and it is now extending across the continent. The present superintendent, T. C. Mendenhall, succeeded prof. J. E. Hilgard, long the general manager, 1889. Capt. Patterson died in 1882, and Hilgard in 1891. The whole work is under the control of the treasury department, while a superintendent directs all the details, governs the movement-s of parties, and controls the expenditures. cobalt, a rare mineral, early found among veins of ores, or in fissures of stone, in Cornwall mines, where workmen call it mnndic— Hill. It was classed as a metal by Brandt in 1733. Cobden club, instituted to spread and apply Cob- den's principles ; held first dinner, London, W. E. Gladstone in the chair, 21 July, 1866. The statue of Richard Cobden, at Camden Town, was inaugurated, 27 June, 1868. 12 out of 14 cabinet ministers were members, July, 1880. It has for honorary members several American economists and statesmen. coca, a powerful medicinal agent found in the Erythoxy- Inn coca, a South American plant, the leaves of which are chewed by the people of South America. A little of the coca taken internally is said to enable one to endure hard labor without food for 6 or 7 days and nights. The poet Cowley wrote in 1700 : " Our Varicocha first this coca sent, Endowed with leaves of wondrous jjourishment, Whose juice succ'd in, and to the stomach tak'n, Long hunger and long labor can sustain." Dr. Mantegazza's prize essay in German on coca was published at Vienna in 1849. cocaine (ko-ka-in), a powerful anaesthetic obtained from the coca plant, first used in ophthalmic and other surgical operations, 1884. Cocceian§ (cox-e'-ans), a small sect founded by John Cocceius (d. 1665), of Bremen, in the 17th century. They look for a visible reign of Christ on earth, after conversion of the Jews and all other people to Christian faith. Cocherel, near Evreux, N. W. France. Here Bertrand du Guesclin defeated the king of Navarre, and took prisoner the captal de Buch, 16 May, 1364. Cochin, India, held bv the Portuguese, 1503 ; bv the Dutch, 1663 ; by Hyder Ali, 1776 ; taken by the British, 1796 ; ceded to them, 1814. For Cochin China, Annam. cochineal insect (Coccus cacti), deriving its scar- let color from feeding on a certain kind of cactus, became known to the Spaniards soon after the conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe about 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, althou|;h the art of dyeing 1 hen flourished there. In 1858, it was cultivated successfully in Teneriffe, the vines in Europe having failed through dis- ease. Cock-lane ghost. In 1760-62, great excitement was produced in London by unaccountable noises in a house occupied by William Parsons, No. 33 Cock lane. A luminous figure, resembling a deceased lady who formerly resided in the house, was said to have been seen. The duke of York, Mr. Walpole, Dr. Samuel Johnson, and many others visited the house and investigated. Imposition was detected, and the parents of the medium (a girl of about 12) were condemned to the pillory and imprisonment, 10 July, 1762. cocoa (ko-ko) or cacao {ka-ka-o), the kernel or seed of Theobrormi cacao (Linn.), was brought to England soon after the discovery of Mexico, where it is an article of diet. From cocoa is produced chocolate. cocoa-nut palm (Cocoa HMC?/era, Linn.) supplies the natives of Central America with almost all they need, as bread, water, liquor, vinegar, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cordage, covering for houses, etc. — Ray. In Sept. 1829, Mr. Soaraes patented a mode of extracting stearine and elaine from cocoa-nut oil. cod (Mon-hua vulgaris), the most common species of anaranthine fishes, is caught in immense numbers in many parts of the northern temperate zone, most largely on the banks of Newfoundland, and about the outer Hebrides. The Dutch, English, and French engaged in this fishery before 1350, codes. Laws. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, first col- lected the Roman laws about 66 b.c. ; and Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, codified them about 53 b.c. The Gregorian and Hermoginian codes were published 290 A.r>. ; the Theodosian code commenced by order of Theodosius II. in 429, and pub- lished for the eastern empire in 438. In 447 he transmitted to Valentinian his new constitutions, promulgated as the law of the west in 448. The code of the emperor Justinian in 529 — a digest from it made in 533 ; Basilica. Alfred's code, a selection from existing laws, is the foundation of the comraon- law of England, 887. The Code Napoleon, the civil code of France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. The emperor considered it his most enduring monument. It was prepared under his supervision by eminent jurists, from 400 earlier sys- tems, and has been adopted by other countries. A conference of jurists and publicists to consider an interna- tional code at Brussels July, Aug. 1874 codex. Bible, Manuscript. cod-liver oil, an oil obtained mostly from the liver of the cod, and recommended as a remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1833. De Jongh's treatise on cod-liver oil was published in Latin, 1844 ; in English, 1849. Great improve- ment made in its preparation since 1853, and very important discoveries as to its constituents, 1891. Coeur de Lion, or the Lion-hearted, a surname of Richard I. of England, on account of his courage, about 1192 ; and of Louis VIII. of France, distinguished in crusades, and in wars against England, about 1223. coffee, seeds of the tree Coffea araUca. The tree was conveyed from Mocha, in Arabia, to Holland about 1616, and to the West Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch, 1718. The culture was encouraged in the plantations about 1732, and British and French colonies now grow coffee abundantly. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. Not known to the Greeks or Romans. It came into great repute in Arabia Felix, about 1454 ; and passed into Egypt and Syria, and thence (in 1511) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house was opened, 1551. M. Thevenot, the traveller,first brought it to France, 1662.— CAam&ers. Cafeink. Coffee brought to England by Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common beverage at Baliol college, Oxford (Anderson) 1641 First coffee-house in England kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, in v Oxford 1680 Mr. Edwards, a Turkey merchant, brought home with him Pasquet, a Greek servant, who opened the first coffee-house in London, George yard, Lombard st 1652 [Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the first house in that country. — Anderson.] Rainbow coffee house, Temple Bar, represented as a nuisance. . 1657 Coffee-houses suppressed by proclamation, 1675; the order re- voked on petition of traders 1676 Licenses to sell coffee abolished 1869 Duty on coffee reduced in England to \}4d. the pound from 2 May, 1872 U. S. duty removed from coffee 6 June, " i COF 183 COI Importations of coft'ee into U. S. for 1880 valued at $60,360,769; for 1891, 519,528,432 lbs., value, $96,123,777; 1892, 640,210,788 lbs., value, $128,041,930. Total production in the world, 1889, 1,249,000,- • 000 lbs., of which Brazil produced, 812,000,000 lbs. ; other parts of America, 253,000,000 lbs. ; East Indies and Africa, 184,000,000 lbs. COffln§. Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of cedar, owing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities.— T^m- cydides. Coffins of nnarble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold ; and glass coffins have been found in England. — Govyh. The ear- liest record of wooden coffins in England is that of king Arthur, an entire trunk of oak hollowed, 542. — Asser. Patent coffins were invented in 1796; air-tight metallic coffins advertised at Birmingham in 1861. cohort, a division of the Roman army consisting of about 420 men, with 300 cavalry, divided into centuries. It was the 6th part of a legion. Legion. coif. The coif was introduced before 1259, and used to hide the tonsure of renegade clergymen, who acted as advo- cates in the secular courts, notwithstanding their prohibition by canon. — Blackstone. The coif was at first a thin linen cover gathered in the form of a skull or helmet, the material after- wards changed for white silk, and the form eventually becom- ing a black patch at the top of the forensic wig, now the dis- tinguishing mark in England of the sergeant-at-law. — Foss's " Lives of the Judges." Coimbra was made capital of Portugal by Alfonso, the first king, 1139. The only Portuguese university was transferred from Lisbon to Coimbra in 1308 ; finally settled in 1527. In a convent here, Alfonso IV. had Inez de Castro, once mistress and afterwards wife of his son Pedro, murdered in 1355. coin and COinag^C. Homer speaks of brass money, 1184 B.C., but says nothing of coined money. Herodotus tells us that the Lydians first coined gold, and the " Parian Chronicle " (Arundelian Marbles) records that Pheidon of Argos first coined silver in ^gina about 862 b.c. The most ancient known coins bearing the name of a prince are those of Alexander I. of Macedon, 500 to about 460 b.c. Very little if any gold is supposed to have been coined in Athens or Greece proper until after Alexander the Great, 356-23 b.c. The Romans coined copper or bronze under Servius TuUius, 578-34 B.C. Silver first coined by them, 269 b.c., and gold about 206 b.c. — Dye^s " Coin Encyclopaedia." The earliest Ro- man coinage was that of the republic. The imperial coinage of Rome began with Augustus, 16 b.c, and lasted to the fall of the western empire, 476 a.d. The material of the earliest coins of Lydia was a compound of gold and silver. When Caesar landed in Britain, 55 b.c., coins of brass and iron were found in use among the natives. There is no absolute proof that the Jews coined money before the Maccabees, 139 b.c. The earliest coins known among the Anglo-Saxons were the sceattcB of silver, and the sfycas of brass or copper — the latter equal to about one half-farthing. The coins of Norway begin with the pennies of Harold Haardrada,slain at Stamford Bridge, 1066, and those of Denmark with Canute. Russian coinage be- gan in the 15th century. Copper, Gold, Silver, and coins under their names. An international conference upon a uni- versal system of coinage met in Paris, 1867, and a royal com- mission was appointed in London, Feb. 1868. At present the great monetary systems of (1) France and her allies, (2) Eng- land and the larger part of her colonies, and (3) the United States are firmly established in their several countries ; no one of them is likely to become universal. The arguments in favor of the franc are its perfect decimal divisions, and the wide area of the Latin union ; those in favor of the British unit of value, the pound, are its greater value, and the immense extent of the English colonies and trade ; and the arguments in favor of the dollar are its convenient size, and the prospective growth of the U. S. The gold and silver coinage of France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and the U. S., contains nine tenths of pure metal, that of Great Britain and Russia containing eleven twelfths. A mint was established at Camulodunum (Colchester) by Cunobelinus(the Cymbeline of Shakespeare), about the time of Augustus Caesar. The coins of this king far surpass those of other early British kings, both in workmanship and artistic design.—" Diet, of National Biog." (English). coinage in ENGLAND. English coins made sterling (Penny, Sterling) 1216 First English gold coin on certain record struck, reign of Henry III 1275 Edward III. introduced a regular gold currency, first, of florins (name of the gold coin of Florence), 1337; second, of gold six- shilling pieces, and nobles of six shillings eightpence; also half and quarter nobles (Nobles) 1344 Edward IV. coined angels with the figure of St. Michael and the dragon, the original of St. George and the dragon 1465 Pound sovereign first minted by Henry VII., 1489; shillings. .1503-4 Crowns and half-crowns coined, Edward VI 1553 Queen Elizabeth causes the base coin to be recalled and gen- uine issued 1560 [In the reign of Elizabeth the coins of England attained their highest number, Including 20 distinct denominations.] Modern milling introduced 1631 Guineas (value 20s.), 2-guinea, and 5-guinea pieces coined. . .1663-64 [The sovereign, first called the broad under James I., was valued at 21 silver shillings under Charles II., and as the gold then came mostly from Guinea, this coin was called Guinea.] Half-pence and farthings first coined 1665 Pennies, half-pennies, and farthings {copper) coined 1672 Quarter-guinea coined, George 1 1716 Twopenny copper pieces coined 1797 Gold 7-shilling pieces authorized " George III. reintroduces the sovereign, new coinage, St. George and dragon 1817 [The guinea was abandoned save as money of account.] Fourpenny pieces (Groat) coined 1836-56 Half-farthings first coined, 1843; silver florin (j,wo shillings). . 1849 Bronze coinage first issued, 1860 ; threepenny pieces first coined 1861 St. George and the dragon sovereigns reissued 14 Jan. 1871 Sale of Whittall's great collection of Greek and other coins, 1668 lots, realized about $20,000 July, 1884 COINAGE IN ENGLAND FROM 1196 TO 1890 INCLUSIVE. Reii Henry 111 Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Henry VII Henry VIII Elizabeth James I Charles I Cromwell Charles II James II William and Mary. . Anne George I (ieorge II George III George IV William IV Victoria up to 1890. £3,898 38,603 46,756 85,701 2,228 314 6,924 404,677 89,704 138,280 355,403 6,359,583 1,641,005 8,776,544 1,000,000 3,722,180 518,316 7,093,074 207,095 233,045 304,360 6,827,818 2,216,163 1,111,298 32,791,443 £11,340 3,988 396 19,746 38,317 230,760 189,232 292,916 795,138 3,666,390 3,319,677 154,512 4,177,254 2.113,639 3,418,889 2,484,531 8,492,876 11,662,216 75,447,489 36,147,701 11,435,334 323,807,622 Total £561,884,375 £3,898 38,603 46,756 97,041 6,216 710 26,670 442,994 320,464 327,512 648.319 7, 154; 721 5,307,395 12,096,221 1,154,512 7,899,434 2,631,955 10,511,963 2,691,626 8,725,921 11,966,576 82,275,307 38,363,864 12,546,632 J56,599,065 Equal to $2,729,758,062. COIN AND COINAGE IN THE UNITED STATES. Earliest coinage for America (for the Virginia company), about 1612-15 [The coin was used in the Bermudas, and is known as the "Hogge money," a hog being shown on it. It was issued in shillings and sixpences. But 2 of the shillings are known to exist, and but 1 sixpence.] General court of Massachusetts passes an act establishing at Boston the first mint in the U. S, 27 May, 1652, John Hull, mint-master. Denominations, shilling, sixpence, and three- pence. This is known as the "Pine-tree money." Coining discontinued on the death of the mint-master 1 Oct. 1683 Maryland has shillings, sixpences, and pennies coined in Eng- land for her use, by lord Baltimore May, 1661 William Wood, of Wolverhampton, Kngl, obtains a monopoly for coining "tokens" for currency in America 1722 [These tokens were made of a mixed metal resembling brass. (It was also coined for Ireland.) This is known as the " Rosa Americana" coinage or "Wood's money," and obtained quite a circulation (Wood's Half-pence).] Connecticut had in circulation a private or unauthorized coin- age, issued by John Higley of Granby, known as the "Gran- by " or Higley token ^"^^"^ Copper coin, one cent, issued by Vermont 1785 Copper coined in New Jersey by act of legislature 1 June, 1786 A law of Massachusetts establishes a mint to coin gold, silver, ^^ and copper 16 Oct. [No gold or silver ever coined in this mint.] Coinage discontinued 21 Jan. 1789 Following coins were decided upon by Congress: Gold: eagle, half-eagle, and quarter-eagle. Silver: dollar, half-dollar, '^% COI qiuurter dullar, dime, and half dime. Copper: cent and half- cent {Tahlk or V. S. CoiSAOK) ... 1786 Firel I'. S. iniul eetablished '2 Apr. 1792 FJret U. S. coluago 1793 No gold coincHl iu the years 1816 and 1817 No minor coinage in the years 1816 and 18*23 First steam-power press in the V. S. mint 1836 [Previous to this the mill and screw were used.] Rare coins of the U. S. are the double eagles of the issue of . . . . 1849 [But one is known: iu the cabinet of the U. S. mint; this is the rarest U. S. coin] Half eagles of the issue of 1816 [But 7 of this date are known.] Silver dolliirs of 1794 Silver dollars of 1804 [There were issued from the mint in 1804, 19,570 silver dollars, and it has been a "sUnding mystery " why the dol- lar of this issue is so scarce (it being styled the l shows an issue of but $321. Others assert that a vessel bound for China with almost the entire mintage was lost at sea] Half dollars of 179«-97 Quarter-dollars of 1827 184 OOI Dimes of. 1804 Halfdimos of 1802 The following; statistics of coinage are estimates from the report of the director of the mint to the secretary of the troas ury from 1793-1890: Greatest amount of gold coined in one year, $90,850,890.00 " " silver " " " 39,202,908.20 " " minor coin coined in one year 1,819,910.00. Greatest amount of gold, silver, and minor coin coined in one year.. 125,219,205.60. Least amount of gold coined in one year " " silver " " ' " " " minor coin (cents and half- cents only) coined in one year Least amount of gold, silver, and minor coin coined in one year 1881 1890- 1867 1881 3,175.00.... 1815- 14,550.45.... 1797 2.495?95.... IMll 20,483.00.... 1815 Total coinage of the U. S. from 1793 to 1890 inclusive : Gold $1,531,999,915 Silver 623,746,536 Minor coin 22,634.500 Total $2,178,380,951 COINS OF THE UNITED STATES, AND THE YEARS OF ISSUE. Ve«r« of Issue. Kind of Metal. Present Weigiit. Double eagle. F4»gle Half-eagle Three dollars. . Quarter-eagle . Dollar Trade dollar. Dollar. Half dollar. 'Quarter-dollar. Twenty cents . Dimes. Half-dimes. . Three cents. Five cents. . Three cents. Two cent& . . One cent. . One cent . Half-cent , -99 1 -^8 1850 et seq. (1795-1804 > \ 1838 et seq. f ( 179.5-1815 I \ 1818 et seq. ) 1854-90 r 1796-99 1802-08 ■i 1821 I 1824-27 (^ 1829 et seq. 1849-90 1874-78 fl79:i^l805 I 1836 — i 1839-57 I 1859-73 ( 1878 et seq. ( 1793-96 ] 1801-14 ( 1816 et seq. f 1796, 1797 1804-07 I 1815, 1816 i 1818-23 I 1825 — I 1827, 1828 ( 1831 et seq. 1875-78 f 1796-98 1800-1805 I 1807 — I 1809-11 1 1814 — 1820-23 I 1825 — U827 et seq. ( 1793-97 J 1800-1803 1 1805 — [ 1829-73 1851-56 ( 1858-73 1806 et seq. ( 1865-76 1 1878-90 1864-72 (1793-1814 -l 1816-22 (1824-63 1864 et seq. 1793-97 1799, 1800 1802-11 1825, 1826 1828, 1829 1831 — 1833-36 1849-51 \ 18.5.3-57 j gold silver 516 grs. 258 129 77.4 " 64.5 " 25.8 420 Act of Congress, 28 June, 1834. 412.5 77.16 21 Feb. 1853. Coinage discontinued, li 28 June, 1834. " " 3 Mch. 1849. Coinage discontinued, 189 Coinage discontinued, 1878. Act of Congress, Jan. 1837. Act of Congress, 1873. Act ot Congress, 1873. Coinage discontinued, 1878. copper and nickel bronze copper bronze copper 11.52 77.16 30 96 Coinage discontinued, 1873. Coinage discontinued, 1873. Act of Congress, 16 Mch. 1866. " " 3 Mch. 1865. Coinage discontinued, 1890. Coinage discontinued, 1872. As nickel from 1857 to 1864, 72 grs. ; both discontinued, 1864. Act of Congress, 22 Apr. 1864. Coinage discontinued, 1857. COINAGE OF CONFEDERATE STATES. When Louisiana seceded and seized the U. S. mint at New Orleans, there were thousands of dollars' worth of gold and silver bullion in store. The state issued jointly with the confederate govern- ment a gold coinage of .f;254,820 in double eagles, and a silver coinage of $1,101,316.50 in half-dollars, using the U. S. dies of 1861, the dies of 1860 having been destroyed. The bullion, when nearly exhausted, was transferred to the confederate government. May, 1861, and all the U. S. dies were destroyed, the confederate gov- ernment ordering a new die for its use. When completed it was of such high relief as to be useless in the press. As there was but little if any bullion to coin, no attempt was made to engrave another. Four pieces, however, half-dollars, were struck, which formed the entire coinage of the Confederate States. The coip shows— obvei-se : A goddess of liberty within an arc of 13 stare. Exergue, 1861. Reverse: An American shield beneath a liberty- cap, the upper part of the shield containing 7 stars, the whole surrounded by a wreath: to the left, cotton in bloom; to the right, sugar-cane. Ze/yend : Confederate States of America. Ex- ergue, Half Dol. Borders, milled; edge, serrated. 001 185 COL VALUE OF FOREIGN COINS IN UNITED STATES MONEY. Country. Argentine Republic Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Canada Chili China Cuba Denmark Egypt France German Empire.. .. Great Britain Greece Guatemala Hayti Honduras India Italy Japan Liberia Mexico Netherlands Nicaragua Norway Peru Portugal Russia Spain Sweden Switzerland U. S. of Colombia.... Turkey Value in Monetary Unit. U. S. Money. 100 centesimos=: 100 kreutzers = 100 centimes = 100 centavos = 1000 reis = 100 cents = 100 centavos = 1000 cash = 100 ore = 100 piastres = 100 centimes = 100 pfennig = 20 shillings = 100 leptas = 16 annas 100 centesirai 100 sen 100 cents 100 " 100 " 100 ore = 100 centesimos = 1000 reis 100 copecks = 100 centesimos: 100 ore 100 centimes x: 100 centavos = 100 piastres = 1 peso 1 florin 1 franc 1 peso 1 milrei 1 dollar 1 crown 1 pound 1 franc 1 mark 1 pound 1 drachma peso gourde peso 1 rupee 1 lira 1 yen 1 dollar 1 dollar 1 florin peso 1 crown Isol 1 milrei 1 ruble 1 peseta 1 crown 1 franc 1 peso llira $0,965 0.48 0.193 0.96 0.55 1.00 0.91 1.61 0.93 0.27 4.94 0.193 0.24 4.86 0.193 0.70 0.965 0.70 0.40 0.193 IJOO 1.00 0.98 0.40 0.70 0.27 0.96 1.08 0.77 0.193 0.27 0.193 0.96 4.40 Present system introduced in 1870. System the same as France. [Most of the South American states issue standard coin corre- sponding to the peso of Chili, which is identical with the 5-franc [ piece of France. Has no national coin. (The substitution ot the mark for the older thaler came into force I 1 Jan. 1875. Monetary system same as France. Monetary system same as France. Monetary system recast in 1871. Monetary system same as Denmark. Monetary system same as France. " " •' Denmark. " " " France. In the table above, the value assigned to the monetary unit of each nation is that which its gold coinage has in the gold coin of the United States, by comparison of the amounts of pure gold con- tained in each. The actual value of the silver coins of all nations, such as Italy, Mexico, and Russia, which do not redeem these coins at their nominal equivalent in gold, depends on the current value of silver bullion, and fluctuates widely. In July, 1893, it fell to less than half the values assigned above. The present coinage system of France came into force 6 May, 1790, and was extended to Belgium, Italy, and Switzerland in the con- vention of 1865. It has since been adopted by Greece, Roumania, Servia, and Spain. The units in the different states have different names: in France, Belgium, and Switzerland, franc and centime; in Italy, lira and centesimo; in Greece, drachma and lepta ; in Roumania, lei and bani; in Servia, dinar and para; in Spain, peseta and centesimos; butthe value is the same. — •' Encyclopaedia Britannica." coining^. Originally the metal was placed between 2 steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill was in- vented by Antoine Brucher, introduced into England, 1562. An engine invented by Balancier, 1617. Great improve- ments effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, London, 1788. The erection of the mint machinery, London, began 1811. The machinery was reorganized in 1869. Coin and Coinage. coke, the residue obtained from bituminous coal by distillation, or by heating with the air almost entirely ex- cluded — used largely in melting pig-iron; first successfully used for this purpose by Darby at Coalbrookdale, Engl., 1735, its use soon became general there. First successfully used for the same purpose in the United States, 1835, but not exten- sively until about 1860. The principal producing state is Pennsylvania, which, in 1889, produced nearly 7,000,000 tons. Colchester, Essex, Engl. The Camulodunvm of the Koraans obtained its lirst charter from Richard L, 1189. It was captured by the parliamentary forces under Fairfax, after a 10 weeks' siege, June-Aug. 1648. Two of its defenders, sir George Lisle and sir Charles Lucas, were tried and shot after surren- dering. The baize manufacture was established here, 1660. — A nderson. cold. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce similar perceptions on the skin; and the touch of mercury frozen at —40° is like that of red-hot iron. Tem- perature. Cold Harbor, Va. Here gen. Grant, after much fighting on 1-2 June, 1864, for position, assaulted the confed- erates, under gen. Lee, behind defences, at sunrise, 3 June, along the whole line. It resulted in a bloody repulse, although Grant advanced his line somewhat and held it. The federal loss, while occupying this position, 1-12 June, was 14,931, of whom 1905 were killed, 10,570 wounded, and 2456 missing. Confederate loss, 1700. On the night of 12 June the army of the Potomac was withdrawn towards the James. Of this as- sault gen. Grant says, " I have always regretted that the last assault at Cold Harbor Avas ever made." — " Autobiography." Grant's Virginia Campaign. Coldillg^liam, near Berwick, Engl., celebrated for the heroism of its nuns, who, on the attack of the Danes, to pre- serve their chastit}', cut off their noses and lips. The Danes burned them all, with the abbess Ebba, in their monastery, 870. Coldstream g^uards. Gen. Monk, before marching from Scotland into England to restore Charles II., raised this regiment at Coldstream, at the confluence of the Leet and Tweed, 1660. For its services in suppressing Venner's insur- rection in 1661 it was not disbanded, but constituted the 2d regiment of foot-guards. Colise'um, more properly ColOiSeum, an elliptical amphitheatre at Rome, commenced by the emperor Vespasian and finished by his son Titus, 75-80 a.d. Its height is 160 ft., its major diameter 615 ft. and its minor diameter 510 ft. The length and breadth of its arena are 281 and 176 ft. re- spectively. 87,000 spectators were accommodated by it. The name Colosseum first occurs in the writings of Bede in the 7th century. It is probably derived from the Colossus of Nero, which stood in the square before its entrance. The name of its architect is not known. It is said to have cost 10,000,000 crowns, and 12,000 Jews, who were made slaves at the con- quest of Jerusalem, were employed upon it. — Anthon, "Classi- cal Diet." collar, a very ancient ornament. The Roman hero Titus Manlius slew a gigantic Gaul in single combat, and put his torques (twisted chain or collar) on his own neck, and was surnamed Torquatus, 361 b.c. — A collar is part of the ensigns of the order of knighthood. collects, short prayers, very ancient, introduced into the Roman service by pope Gelasius, about 493, and into the English liturgy in 1548. The king of England, coming into Normandy, appointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, nm.—Rapin. COL 186 OOL eollei[e§ (from the LaU collegium, assemblages of per- sons for 8acreP GAX <1> AG * r A 1 *K 2 j <1'K4' X * i 2X 2AE A T A 1 A Tii K A K2 2N Union ' 1825 1827 1832 Hamilton Union Williams Miami Union I 1841 Yale j 1844 New York University i 1846 Columbia 1847 Union Miami Jefferson University of Pennsylvania. Jefferson Princeton Miami Alabama Bethany Virginia Military Institute..! 1865 Washington and Lee ' 1867 Virginia " Virginia Military Institute. 1869 1834 1848 1852 1854 1855 1856 i COL 187 COL COlIo'dion, a film obtained from the solution of gim- cotton in ether. Iodized collodion, for photography, invented by F. Scott Archer, was announced in the London Chemist, in Mch. 1851. On the premature death of himself and wife, a pension of 50/. was granted to his 3 orphan children. Colinar, W.Germany; an imperial city, 13th century; taken by the Swedes, 1632; by Louis XIV. of France, who destroyed the fortifications, 1673; ceded to France, 1697; with Alsace, restored to Germany, 1871. ColOg^ne (Ger. Koln; Lat. Colonia AgHppind), on the Rhine, a colony founded by the empress Agrippina, about 50 A.D. ; an imperial town, 957; a member of the Hanseatic League, 1260. Many ecclesiastical councils held here, 782-1 536. The Jews were expelled from it in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it fell into decay. It was taken by French under Jourdan, Oct. 1794. The archbishopric secularized, 1801, as- signed to Prussia, 1814. Pop. 1890, 281,273. Cathedral or Dom (containing many supposed relics, such as the heads of the magi, or 3 kings), founded by archbishop Conrad von Hochstade or Hochstettin ; architect, Gerhard von Riehl or Rile 15 Aug. 1248 Building intermittent; suspended 1509 Collections made for resuming it by Prussia 1814 et seq. Repairs completed ; new buildings founded 4 Sept. 1842 Body of the cathedral opened in the presence of the king, 600th anniversary of the foundation 15 Aug. 1848 International industrial exhibition opened by the crown-prince, 2 June, 1865 Dispute between the king and chapter on election of an arch- bishop, settled; the pope appoints Melchers Jan. 1866 Congress of Old Catholics meet 20, 22 Sept. 1872 Archbishop Melchers arrested by government 30 Mch. 1874 A colossal statue of Frederick William III., 22 ft. high, with pedestrian figures at the base (Rlucher, Humboldt, and oth- ers), the work of Blaser and Calendrelli, subscribed for by Rhinelanders ; unveiled by the emperor William I. . .26 Sept. 1878 Cathedral reported finished, 14 Aug. ; height, 510 ft. ; solemnly opened by the emperor and other German sovereigns, 15 Oct. 1880 Colombia, a republic of South America, formed of states which declared their independence, Dec. 1819; civil war ensued and the union was dissolved. Union of New Granada and Venezuela ; . .17 Dec. 1819 Rovalists defeated at Carabobo 24 June, 1821 Bolivar named dictator 10 Feb. 1824 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 30 June, " Independence of Colombia recognized 1825 Alliance with Guatemala Mch. " Congress at liima names Bolivar president, Aug. ; dictator, 23 Nov. 1826 Padilla's insurrection 9 Apr. 1828 Consspiracy of Santander against the life of Bolivar. . 25 Sept. " Venezuela separates from New Granada Nov. 1829 Bolivar resigns, 4 Apr. ; d 17 Dec. 1830 Santander d 26 May, 1840 Republic named Colombia instead of New Granada 1871 New constitution, term of president 6 years 1885 Area, 504,773 sq. miles. Pop. 1864, 2,794,473; 1870, 2,910,329; 1880, 3,878,000; 1892,4,200,000. New Graxada, Venezuela. Colombo, Ceylon, fortified in 1638 by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 1666 ; the latter surren- dered it to the British, 15 Feb. 1796. Ceylon, 1803, 1845. colon (:). The colon and period were adopted by Thra- symachus about 373 b.c. {Suidas\ and were known to Aristotle. The colon and semicolon (;) first used in English in 16th century. colonel (kur'nel, from It. colonna, a column), the title of the highest rank in a regiment. It was common in Eng- land in the 16th century. COlonie§. The Phoenician and Greek colonies, often founded by political exiles, soon became independent. The Roman colonies continued in close connection with Rome, governed almost entirely by militarj' law. Spain for over 200 years heUl possession of a large part of South America, the whole of Central America, Mexico, the territory of Louisiana (now the western United States), and most of the Wast Indies, but ultimately ]£A them all except Cuba. Great Britain ranks first among mooern nations in the number and importance of her colonies and her successful maintainance of their loj'alty, though she lost the 13 original colonies of the United States. Her colonial population was estimated, in 1861, at 142,952,- 243 ; 1888, 275,520,216. The act to abolish slavery in her col- onies, and compensate the owners (20,000,000^. sterling), was passed in 1833 : all slaves becoming free 1 Aug. 1834. E. J. Payne's"History of European Colonies " was pub. 1877. Bish- ops (Colokial), and separate articles. BRITISH Colony or possession. Aden COLONIES. Date of settlement, etc. .... 1ft3« African forts .. about 1618 Anguilla Antigua Ascension Australia, S Australia, W. (Swan river) Bahama islands .Settlement .Occupied... .Settlement about 1666 1632 1815 1834 1829 1629 et seq Barbadoes Basutoland " 1605 1871 Bechuanaland 1885 Bengal Berbice Bermudas .Settlement .Capitulation .Settlements about 1652 Sept. 1803 ....1609 et seq. . . 1662 British Burmah .(Pegu) .Settlement 1862 1858 1888 British Columbia Brunei Canada Cape Breton Cape Coast Castle •Capitulation .Ceded . By cession ..Sept. 1759-60 1763 1667 Cape of Good Hope Ceylon .Capitulation .AH acquired .Ceded (under cond .Capitulation .Ceded by France. .By cession Jan. 1806 Demerara and Essequibo Dominica Sept. 1803 1763 Elmina and Dutch Guinea Feb. 1872 1833 Fiji Gambia .Ceded .Settlement...!... .Capitulation .Settlement .Capitulation .Ceded by France. Settlement 1874 1631 Gibraltar Gold Coast Gozo Grenada Griqua-land S Africa Aug. 1704 about 1618 Sept. 1800 1763 27 Oct 1871 Guiana, British Heligoland .Capitulation .By treaty .Ceded .Capitulation 1803 1807 Honduras . . . 1670 Hong-Kong (Victoria) Jamaica 1841 1655 1857 1886 Labuan I-agos Leeward isles . (Borneo) .Ceded 1846 1861 1626 Madras 1639 Malacca Malta Mauritius Montserrat Natal Nevis .Ceded .Capitulation .Settlement... 1825 Sept. 1800 Dec. 1810 1632 1823 1628 New Brunswick 1622-1713 about 1500 1884 New South Wales New Zealand Niger districts .Settlement 1787 1840 . . . 1885 Norfolk islands 1787 North Borneo . . 1840 Nova Scotia .Settlement .Conquered.. .Capitulation .Settlement 1622 Pegu Port Philip (Victoria). 1852 1745 Prince of Wales island (Penang) 1786 I860 1888 Sierra Leone Settlement [United with other settlements as West Africa, Singapore Purchased Socotra . . 1787 Feb. 1866.] 1819 . ... 1886 St. Christopher's St. Helena St. Lucia .Settlement .Capitulation .Capitulation .Ceded by France. .Ceded by France. . .Settlemeiit ..Annexed .Capitulation .Settlement 1623 1600 June, 1803 1763 Swan River (West Australia). Tobago Tortola Transvaal Trinidad Van Diemen's Land 1666 1877 Feb. 1797 1803 Vancouver's island 1781 Victoria (Port Philip) <4 1850 Victoria (Hong-Kong). Virgin isles Settlement . . . . 1666 1605-1803 Zululand 1886 color is to light what pitch is to sound, according to the undulatory theory of Huyghens (about 1678), established by Dr. T. Young, and others. The shade varies with the num- ber of vibrations. 458 trillions of vibrations in a second at- tributed to the red end of the spectrum ; to the violet, 727 trillions. Spectrum. Some persons (about 65 out of 1154) cannot distinguish colors, and are termed color-blind ; a defect first described by Priestley. — Phil. Trans., 1777. In 1859, prof. J. Clerk Maxwell invented spectacles for what is called " Dal- COL after John Dalton, the chemist, to whom scarlet ap- peared drab-color. Dr. George Wilson, '' Kesearclies on Color- blindness," 1847 ; Dr. Joy Jeffries, " Color-blindness," 1879. Colora'dO, one of the United States, lying between 87° and 41^ of N. lat. and between 102^ and 109<^ W. Ion. The name is derived from the Spanish verb colorar, and was tirst given to the river and later to tl>e state. Wyoming and Ne- braska lie on the north, Nebras- ka and Kansas on the east. New Mexicoand the IndianTerritory on the south, and Utah on the west. It extends east and west about 380 miles; north and south, 280 miles. Area, 10.3,925 sq. miles, in 55 counties. Pop. 1890,412,198. Capital, Denver. ExjKHliilonof VasiiuezCorouadofrom Mexico, supposed to have entered this rejjion 1541 Padn» Krauciscu Escalaulo of New Mexico makes an expedition into this territory 1776 Lieut. Zebulon Mouigoinery Pike with 23 soldiers explores it and discovers Pikes i»eak 15 Nov. 1806 He was b<>ru in New Jersey, 5 Jan. 1779; killed at the taking of York, now Toronto, Canada 1812 MiOer ."Stephen H. Long visits this region, and reports to Con- gress that all the country drained by the Missouri, Arkansas, and Platte rivers is unfit for cultivation and uninhabitable 1819 [This impression aided to delay seltleuient of Colorado until Oregon and California had both been settled. Ban- croft's ''Colorado," p. 3-lit.l Beut brothers erect a stockade called fort William on the north branch of the Arkansjis river 1832 John C. Fremont's ex|)edition touches Colorado 1842-44 Fort Massiichusetis erected on Ute creek 1850 Discovery of gold in what is now Colorado, reported 1852-57 W. Creen Riis.sell, a miner of Dah Iomega, Ga., organizes an ex- pedition to search for gold in Colorado 1858 De|>\-er founded " [Named after the governor of Kansas.] Oold d iscovered at Boulder creek 15 Jan. 1859 First saw mill erected on Plum creek by D. C. Oakes, and lum- ber furni.shed for building the town 21 Apr. " Great inllii.\ of gold seekers " John H. (Jregory discovers gold on the north fork of Clear creek, the lichesl mine in Colorado, and one of the richest in the world 10 May, " [{Jregory, a lazy fellow from Gordon county. Ga., drove a government team from Leavenworth to Fort Laramie in 1858. He sells his claim for$22,000, expecting easily to find another; disappears in 1862, and is never seen again. — Bancroft.] Discovery of silver in Colorado " Pueblo laid oil" on the site of the old town of Pueblo 1859-60 Increased immigration into Colorado 1860 Act erecting a new territory to be called Colorado 28 Feb. 18G1 [Name suggested by William Gilpin, first governor.] William Gilpin commissioned governor " Hiram P. Bennett first delegate to Congress " First legislature meets at Denver " Great suffering from cold during the winter and drought during the summer of 1863 Great flood at Denver Apr. 1864 Col. Chivington with 900 men attacks an Indian camp at Sand creek, I^rimer county, and kills 131 persons, men, women, and children 27 Nov. " First national bank at Denver established 1865 Alexander Cummings, governor Oct. " Nathaniel P. Hill organizes the " Boston and Colorado Smelting Company, "' and erects a furnace at Black Hawk, near Central City 1866 [This furnace (removed to Denver, 1879), reduces refractory ores and makes abandoned mines of value.] The sUte adopts for the courts the "Illinois practice code." The capital was Colorado City, but changed to Golden City in 1862, and back to Denver 1P68 Greeley, Weld county, located and settled First street railroad at Denver completed Act admitting Colorado as a state 3 Mch. Admission of Colorado proclaimed by president Grant. .1 Aug. [38th in order. ] Leadville settled Aug. University of Colorado incorporated 1860, and opened at Boulder Massacre at White River agency of N. C. Meeker and 12 others by Indians 29 Sept. On the same day the Ute Indians ambush and attack 160 troops at Milk creek, in Rio Blanca county. Capt. Thornbury, the commander, killed ; capt. Payne of the 5th cavalry takes command. After being invested 5 days, they are relieved by col. Merritt 5 Oct. [The troops lost 14 killed and 43 wounded.] First important discovery of silver in Giinnison county, the Forest Queen, lode, made near Crested Butte State Industrial school at Golden City provided for by act of legislature 188 COM I 1870 1872 1875 1876 1877 1879 Denver selected as permanent capital of the state 4 Nov. Henry M. Teller appointed secretary of the interior in presi- dent Arthur's cabinet 6 Apr. Act passed providing for the establishment of a State Home and Industrial School for Girls at Denver, and the first Mon- day in September of each year designated as '• labor day," a public holiday, by legislature in session 5 .Ian. -4 Apr. A Soldiers and Sailors' home at Monte Vista, a State Normal school at (Jreeley, and a State reformatory in Chalfee county provided for l)y legislature in session 2 Jan.-l Apr. Last spike of the Pike's Peak mountain railroad driven, 20 Oct. Troops called out to suppress disorder in the leg slature owing to collision of rival factions in the lower house 14 Jan. Australian ballot law passed in session 7 Jan.-7 Apr. Verdict of "Not guilty" in the Millington murder trial at Denver 29 Apr. Trans-Mississippi Commercial congress, 1200 delegates, oi)ens at Denver 19 May, First i)asi5enger train ascends Pike's Peak 30 June, National Mining congress, 10,000 delegates, opens at Denver, 18 Nov. Forest preserve. Pike's peak, set apart by proclamations of president Harrison, 11 Feb., and supplementary 18 Mch. Conclave of the grand encampment of the Knights Templar of the U. S. formally opens at Denver 9 Aug. Death at Wilmington, O., of gen. James W. Denver, in whose honor Denver was named 9 Aug. TKRRITORIAI. GOVERNORS OF COLORADO. Niiuies. Date. Remarks. William Gilpin 1861-62 Appointed by president Lincoln. John Evans 1862-65 " " " " Alexander Cummings. 1865-67 " " " Johnson. A. C. Hunt 1867-69 1869-73 a u u Edward M. McCook. . . Grant. Samuel H. Elbert 1873-74 1( u (( Edward M. McCook. . . 1874-75 (( (( i( u John L. Routt 1875-76 U l( (( u Names. GOVERNORS OF THE STATE. Date. John L. Routt. 1876-78 Fred. W. Pitkin 1879-82 James B. Grant 1883-85 Benj. H. Eaton 1885-86 Alva Adams 1887-88 Job A. Cooper 1889-90 John L. Routt 1891-93 Davis H. Waite 1893-95 A. W. Mclntyre 189.5-97 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF Names. No. of Congress. Date Jerome B. Chaffee. . Henry M. Teller. . . . Nathaniel P. Hill. . . Thomas M. Bowen.. Henry M. Teller... Edward 0. Wolcott. 44th to 45th 44th " 47th 46th " 48tl) 48th " 50th 49th 51st COLORADO. Remarks. Republican. Colo§§U§ of RtlOCie§, a brass statue of Apollo, 70 cubits high, one of the " wonders of the world," erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, by Chares of Lindus, dis- ciple of Lysippus, 290 or 288 b.c. ; throw^i down by an earth- quake about 224 B.C. The figure is said to have stood upon 2 moles, a leg on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could enter between. The statue was in ruins for nearlv 9 centuries, when the Saracens, taking Rhodes, pulled it to "pieces, and sold the metal, 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have taken it, on 900 camels, to Alexandria about 653. — Dufresnoy. Columbia. District of Coi>iimi?ia. Colunibiad. Cannon in the U. S. Columbian Exposition. World's Columbian Exposition. COlum'bium, a metal discovered by C. Ilatchett, in the mineral columbite, in 1801. It is identical with niobium, not with tantalum, as some suppose. — Watts, Comanclie§. Indians. combat, single, trial by, began among the Lombards, 6o9.—Baromiis. It was introduced into England for treason cases, if neither accuser nor accused had good evidence. Ap- peal OF BATTLE, CONSTABLE OF ENGLAND. A single combat was fought before the king. William II., and the peers, between Geoffrey Baynard and William, earl of Eu, accusea by Baynard of high-treason ; Baynard conquering, P^u was deemea convicted, bliftded and mutilated, 1096. One proposed between Henry of Bolingbroke (afterwards Henry iv.) and Thomas, duke of Norfolk, was forbidden by Richard II., Sept. 1398. Shakespeare introduces this incident in "King Richara 11." act i. sc. iii. COM 189 COM A trial was appointed between the prior of Kilmainham and the earl of Ormond, whom the urior impeached of high-treason; but the quarrel was settled by the king without fighting, 1446. A combat was proposed between lord Reay and David Ramsey in 1631, but the king prevented it. In a combat in Dublin castle, before the lords justices and council, between Connor MacCormack O'Connor and Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O'Connor, the former's head was cut ofif, and presented to the' lords, 1553. COlllbinatiOll, Laws were enacted in England from the time of Edward I. regulating prices of labor and relations between masters and workmen, and prohibiting workmen's combinations, but all were repealed, 6 Geo. IV. c. 129, 1825, protection being given to both parties. The act was amended in 1859 by 22 Vict. c. 34, when attention was drawn to the subject by strikes in building trades. Sheffield, Strikes. C011lb§, found in Pompeii. Comb-makers' company in- corporated in England, 1636 or 1G50. comedy. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion and Dolon, supposed inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b.c., performed the tirst comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on 4 wheels, and were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine. Drama, Litera- ture, Shakespearean Plays. Comedy prohibited at Athens as libellous, 440 b.c. Aristophanes, prince of old comedy, 434 b.c, Menander of new, 320 B.C. Of Plaijtus, 20 comedies are extant; he flourished 220 b.c. Statius Csecilius wrote more than 30 comedies; at Rome 180 B.C. Comedies of Laelius and Terence first acted 154 b.c. First regular comedy in England about 1551 a.d. Sheridan said to have written the best comedy ("The School for Scandal "), best opera (" The Duenna "), and best afterpiece (" The Critic") in the language, 1775-79. eometi (Or. ko/i?/, a hair). "... A blazing star Threatens the world with famine, plague, and war; To princes death; to kingdoms many crosses; To all estates inevitable losses; To herdmen rot; to ploughmen hapless seasons; To sailors storms; to cities civil treasons. '' —Sylveste r, " D u Bartas. ' ' "... Satan stood Unterrified, and like a comet burned. That fires the length of Ophiucus huge In the arctic sky, and from his horrid hair I Shakes pestilence and war." —Jtfi7e Protestants in one association, 3 Dec. \bbl .—Tytler. CoilJjreifatlOliallstS. English Congregationalism is not merely a development of English Puritanism ; it is an independent system of church government, as distinct from Episcopacy and I*resbyterianism as they are from each other. —Svhttff-Herzog's " Encyc of Religious Knowledge," p. 534. Robert Brownodefendsseparalionffomtho English church.. 1576-82 (Termed Browuists or Separatists— uulike Puritans, who Ritned to reform the church of England, they denounced it as iUolHtrous, false to Christianity and to truth.] Henrv Bnrrowe, Greenwood, and Penry, leaders in the move- ment, executed 6 Apr. 1593 Church retires to Amsterdam 1593-1600 Here under John Robinson (1575-1625), they plan a settlement in America, and a part of his congregation under elder Brewster sUrt 22 July, 1620 Arrival of the Man/lower at Plymouth 16 Dec. ' ' 1. Church in America at Plymouth 1620 2. •• " •' "Salem 6 Aug. 1629 3. " " " "Dorchester June, 1630 4. ♦« " " "Boston 30 July, " 6. •' " *' " Watertown " " 6. •• " " " Roxbury 1632 7. '• " " "Lynn July, " 8. '• " " " Duxbury, 9. Marshfleld, 10. Charles- 11. Church in America at Cambridge 1633 12. " " " "Ipswich 1634 First churches in New Hampshire at Dover and Exeter. 1638 In Connecticut at New Haven and Milford 1639 Ten years after the arrival of the3/ai(^M>ej- there were but 5 Con- gregational churches on the continent, and 20 years after, 35. Creative era of American Congregationalism 1620-48 Leading writers and ministers of this time were John Cotton, 1586-1652 ; Thomas Hooker, 1586-1647 ; John Norton, 1606- 1663 ; John Davenport, 1597-1670; Richard Mather. .. .1596-1669 General synods have been held : in 1637, at Newtown, now Cambridge, Mass., on the antinomian teachings of the rev. John Wheelwright and Mrs. Ann Hutchinson. Massachc- SKTTS. At Cambridge, 1646-48, when the Westminster Con- fession was adopted, and a platform of church discipline framed ; at Albany in 1852, abrogating a plan of union with tlie Presbyterians; at Boston, 1865, dealing particularly with the growth of the church. Important local synod at Boston, 1662, and another on reform at Boston , 1679 Saybrook. platform adopted by a synod called at Saybrook, Conn., by the, legislature of Connecticut 1708 National council meets triennially since 1871 The following are the principal theological seminaries : Andover, Mass., opened 1808; Bangor, Me., 1817 ; Yale, 1822 ; Hartford, 1834; Oberlin, 0., 1835; Chicago, 1858 ; Pacific, Oakland, Cal.,1869. In 1880 the Congregational churches in the U. S. were 3743; mem- bers, 384,332; in Sabbath-schools, 444,628 ; ministers, 3577. In 1890, churches, 4868 ; members, 512,771 ; value of church prop- erty, $43,335,427. Independents. COng^re§8. An assembly of representative men, to con- fer on the affairs of one or more nations. Among the chief congresses of Europe were those of Munster 1643-48 Nimeguen 1676-78 Ryswick 1697 Utrecht 1713 Soissons 1728 Antwerp 8 Apr. 1793 Rastadt 9 Dec. 1797-99 Chatillon 5 Feb. 1814 Vienna , ; 3 Nov. " Aix-la-Chapelle 9 Oct. 1818 Carlsbad 1 Aug. 1819 Troppau 20 Oct. 1820 l^ybach 6 May, 1821 Verona 25 Aug. 1822 Paris 16 Jan. -22 Apr. 1856 Frankfort (Germany) 16-31 Aug. 1863 Constantinople 23 Dec. 1876-20 Jan. 1878 Berlin 13 June-13 July, " Alliances, Church, Conventions, eta Congress, Confederate. Confederate States. Congress, United states. United States throughout. Representatives and Senate. Congress, United §tate8, eharaeter- ized. United States. 1st congress, 1791 ; Slst, 1849 ; 34th, 1855 ; 37th, 1868. Congreve rockets. Rockets. conic sections. Certain properties were probably known to the Greeks 4 or 5 centuries before the Christian era. and their study was cultivated in the time of Plato, 390 b.c. The earliest treatise on them was written by Aristaeus, about 330 B.C. ApoUonius's 8 books were written about 240 b.c. The investigation of the parabola of projectiles was begun by Galileo, that of the ellipse in the orbit of planets by Kepler, and of comets by Newton. '* Connaissance des Temps " (ko-ne'-sm-s de tan), the French nautical almanac, continuing Hecker's " Ephemerides," first published by Picard, 1679. Connaught, W. Ireland ; long a nominal kingdom, divided into counties, 1590. Connecticut, U. S. (Ind. Quonecktacut, i.e. Long River or River of Pines), one of the 6 New England and of the 13 original states, lies between 41° and 42° 3' N. lat. and 71° 55' and 73° 50' W. Ion. Mas- sachusetts lies on the north, Rhode Island on the east, Long Island sound on the south, and New York on the west. The southwest corner projects along the sound, south of the state of New York, for about 13 miles. Area, 4990 sq. miles, in 8 counties; pop. 1890, 746,258. Capital, Hartford. Adrian Block, a Dutch navigator, first explores the Connecticut river as far as Hartford 1614 Robert, earl of Warwick, president of the council of Plymouth, grants to lord Say and Seal, and 11 others, among them John Hampden and John Pym, all that part of New England which lies west from the Narragansett river, 120 miles on the coast, and thence in latitude and breadth aforesaid to the Pacific ocean 19 Mch. 1631 [The council of Plymouth the previous year had granted the whole tract to the earl of Warwick, and the grant had been confirmed to him by a patent fcom king Charles I.] Wahquimacut, a sachem from the Connecticut river, visits Plymouth and Boston, asking colonial governors to send set- tlers to that river " [Governor Winthrop of Massachusetts does not favor the movement.] John Oldham, from Dorchester, Mass., and 3 others visit the Connecticut Sept. 1633 William Holmes of Plymouth prepares the frame of a house with a board covering, places it on a vessel, and sails for the Connecticut river; passes a small Dutch fort, "The House of Good Hope," at Hartford, and landing on the west bank.erects the first English house in Connecticut (now Windsor), Oct. " Dutch at New Netherlands,with 70 men, make a feeble attempt to drive the settlers away 1634 Rev. Thomas Hooker, of Newtown (now Cambridge), Mass., ad- vocates new settlements on the Connecticut river " About 60 men, women, and children, with horses, cattle, and swine, start through the wilderness from near Boston to the Connecticut river 15 Oct. 1635 They reach the river about the middle of Nov. " Colonists from Massachusetts, led by John Winthrop, son of gov. Winthrop, fortify the mouth of the Connecticut, and call the fort Saybrook, in honor of lords Say and Brooks. .9 Nov. " A Dutch vessel appears off" the mouth, but is not suffered to land Nov. " Great sufl"ering at Windsor, on the Connecticut, during the win- ter of 1635-36 [Some return through the wilderness to Massachusetts set- tlements, others by water. A few remain. The settlers lose in cattle alone about $1000.] First court in Connecticut held at Newtown (Hartford), 26 Apr. 1636 Rev. Thomas Hooker, "the light of the western churches," and rev. Mr. Stone, with 100 men, women, and children, and 160 head of cattle, leave Cambridge, Mass., for the Connecti- cut river through the wilderness June, " They reach the river early in July " John Oldham murdered by the Indians near Block island (Mas"- SACHUSETTS) July, " War with the Pequots " [The Pequots, with at least 700 warriors, then occupied eastern Connecticut, and ruled part of Long island.] An expedition against the Pequots and Indians on Block island is sent from Massachusetts under John Endicott, 25 Aug. -14 Sept. " [It exasperated but did not subdue the Indians.] Roger Williams of Rhode Island prevents a league between the Pequots and Narragansetts " Fort at Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut, beleagured by the Pequots all the winter of 1636-37 About 30 colonists of Connecticut killed by the Pequots during the winter of (HiLDRETH, U. S.) " " Court at Newtown (Hartford) applies to Massachusetts for aid against the Pequots 21 Feb. 1637 i CON [The name Newtown is changed to Hartford, Watertown to Wethersfield, and Dorchester to Windsor by this court. Hart- ford was so named in honor to the rev. Mr. Stone, who was born at Hartford, Engl.] Wethersfleld attacked by the Pequots, several killed Apr. The court at Hartford, bent on offensive war against the Pe- quots, call for 88 men— 42 from Hartford, 30 from Windsor, 16 from Wethersfleld 1 May, These are joined by Uncas, sachem of the Mohegans, with 70 warriors, at Say brook fort 15 May, [The plan was to attack the Pequots in their 2 strongholds; one on Fort hill, in Groton, about 4 miles east of New Lon- don; the other on the west side of Mystic hill, near Mystic village. ] Captain John Mason of Windsor commanding, the expedition sails from fort Saybrook for Narragausett bay, to surprise the Pequot fort 19 May, At Narragausett bay about 200 Narragansett warriors join him. He approaches the Pequot fort on the evening of 25 May, and next morning, at early light, he attacks and completely de- stroys it, together with about 600 Indians, men, women, and children; losing 2 killed and about 20 wounded, 26 May Court of Connecticut calls for 40 more men for the war against the Pequots 26 June, Pequots attempt to escape into the wilderness westward. Capt. Stoughton, with a Massachusetts company, pursues along Long Island sound. With Sassacus, their sachem, the Pequots take shelter in a swamp near Fairfield, and after another se- vere fight surrender, but their sachem and a few followers escape 13 July, [These fled to the Mohawks, who treacherously murdered them. The prisoners were sold into slavery or incorporated with other tribes. "There remained not a sannup nor a squaw, not a warrior nor a child."] The Heclor lands at Boston rev. John Davenport, Theophilus Eaton, and Edward Hopkins 26 July, Mr. Eaton and others explore the lands and harbors of Connec- ticut on the sea-coast, and select Quinipiack (now New Haven) for a settlement in the autumn of Rev. John Davenport, Mr. Eaton, and others sail from Boston and arrive at Quinipiack about the middle of Apr. Gloomy prospects of the colonists. Great earthquake. .1 June, Colonists purchase land in and about New Haven of the Ind- ians 24 Nov. [The New Haven colonists were the most Opulent company that came into New England.— rrwrnfewW's " History of Con- necticut."] All free planters convene at Hartford and frame a constitution for civil government 14 Jan. First constitution of Connecticut adopted at Hartford Apr. General election held at Hartford " [John Haynes chosen governor.] General election held at Quinipiack (New Haven) 25 Oct. [Theojihilus Eaton chosen governor.] Milford and Guilford purchased of the Indians and settled [Laws founded upon and administered according to the Scriptures.] Settlement made at Saybrook by George Fenwick Fourteen capital laws of Connecticut enacted, founded on pas- sages of Scripture 2 Apr. Boundary-line between Connecticut and Massachusetts first run by Woodward and Saflfery Colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven confederate under the name of the United Colo- nies of New England 19 May, Connecticut purchases of col. George Fenwick the old Connec- ticut patent for 1600i., and assumes jurisdiction over the whole territory New London settled Governors and magistrates receive no salaries in Connecticut up to [Then the governor's salary was fixed at 30/.] Governor Stuyvesant, of the New Netherlands, visits Hartford to settle certain boundary questions with the New England United Colonies 11 Sept. Norwalk settled Middletown settled French agents from Quebec visit the Connecticut colonists, asking aid against the 5 nations of New York (the Iroquois) Alarm and distress of the colonists owing to trouble with the Dutch Commissioners are for war, but Massachusetts refuses assist- ance They address Parliament and Cromwell for aid Colony, ordered by Parliament to treat the Dutch as enemies, seize the Dutch house and lands at Hartford Death of gov. Haynes Law against Quakers: to be fined and sent out of jurisdiction, Oct. Gov. John Winthrop obtains for Connecticut a charter, with ample privileges, from Charles II 20 Apr. [This charter united New Haven with Hartford in one col- ony, extending from Narragansett river to the Pacific, and gave the colonists entire self-government.] Charles II. grants a patent to his brother, the duke of York, of extensive tracts, including the west side of Connecticut river, 12 Mch. Col. Richard Nichols, governor of New York, and commission- ers from Connecticut, fix the western boundary of Connec- ticut, beginning on the east side of Mamaroneck creek and thence north - northwest to the Massachusetts line. The 195 CON 1637 1638 1639 1643 1644 1648 1650 1651 1656 1662 1664 southern line was determined to be the sound, Connecticut losing her possessions on Long island 30 Nov. United colony elects John Winthrop governor [This union was at first opposed by New Haven, under the rev. Mr. Davenport.] Lyme made a town May, Haddam made a town Oct. Maj. Andros, the new governor of New York, claims under the duke of York all land west of the Connecticut river Maj. Andros appears before the fort at Saybrook with an armed force, and demands its surrender 11 July, [It is refused by capt. Bull, and the patent and commission forbidden to be read.] War with Philip, sachem of the Wampanoags - Connecticut furnishes 315 men in the fight at Narragansett fort (Massachusetts) 19 Dec. Death of gov. John Winthrop 5 Apr. Boundary between Connecticut and New York of 1664 super- seded by that of [At this time the quadrilateral at the southwest corner of the state first appears.] Sir Edmund Andros, the royal governor, comes to Hartford and demands the charter in the name of king James II. . .31 OcL [After a long discussion in the assembly, early in the even- ing the lights are extinguished, and the charter is taken from the table and secreted by capt. William Wadsworth of Hart- ford in a hollow oak-tree, known since as the "charter oak," on the estate of the Wyllyses, across the river.] Sir Edmund Andros assumes the government, selects councillors, seizes the records of the colony, and rules arbitrarily. 31 Oct. Quo Warkanto act. Overthrow of sir Edmund Andres's government at Boston on hearing of the revolution in England and flight of James II., 18 Apr. Charter recovered and free government restored in Connecticut, 9 May, William and Mary proclaimed at Hartford with great ceremony and joy 13 June, Col. Benjamin Fletcher, governor of New York, comes to Hart- ford while the assembly is in session and demands command of the militia under commission from the king 26 Oct. [The assembly refusing, he orders the militia under arms, and attempts to read his commission to them and assume com- mand. Capt. Wadsworth prevents this by ordering the drums to beat, threatening death to the governor if he persists,] Charter ratified by William III Apr. Boundary of 1683 between New York and Connecticut con- firmed by William III Charter for a college at New Haven granted by the general court (Yalk college) 9 Oct. First Baptist church formed in Connecticut at Groton First issue of bills of credit by Connecticut, 8000^. for an antic- ipated expedition against Canada First printer in the colony, Thomas Short, from Boston, at New London He publishes the " Saybrook Platform of Church Discipline ".. [He was followed by Timothy Green, 1714, a descendant of Samuel Green, of Cambridge, Mass., the first jiriuter in North America. — TiumbuWs " History of Connecticut."] Settlement of the boundary with Massachusetts [Massachusetts grants to Connecticut 107,793 acres, the amount that Massachusetts had encroached upon Connecticut. The tract was sold by Connecticut in 1716 for about $2274; given to Yale college. Boundary run as it now is, 1826, leav- ing indentation to Massachusetts about 2 miles square, as compensation for towns previously lost.] First state house built at Hartford ["A condition of societj'- so happy as that enjoyed by Con- necticut at this period has been rare in the experience of mankind."— JW/rei/'s " History of New England," vol. iv.] Gurdon Saltonstall, governor for 16 years, d 20 Sept. First church steeple raised in Connecticut at Guilford Final boundary established with Rhode Island Joint survey made between New York and Connecticut Connecticut furnishes 1000 men for land and marine service against Louisburg First silk coat and stockings of New England production were worn by governor Law of Connecticut Phineas Lyman maj. -gen. of the Connecticut forces; second in command at the battle of lake George 6 Sept. [Sir William Johnson being disabled, gen. Lyman conduct- ed the engagement successfully to Dieskau's defeat.] Citizens of Connecticut, known as the Susquehanna company, purchase from the 6 nations land, 70 miles in length, on the Susquehanna river, and extending from 10 miles east of that river west 140 miles, for about $10,000, 11 July, 1754. It in- cludes the Wyoming valley, where they make a settlement. [This leads to a long controversy between Connecticut and Pennsylvania. " But for the Revolution and the check occa- sioned by the Wyoming massacre, and the appearance of popular government in place of Penn's, nothing could have prevented the establishment of Connecticut's authority over all the region embraced in her western claim.''' —Alexander Johnston's " Connecticut." Susquehanna settlers.] Connecticut Courant, published by Thomas Green, at Hartford, first issued 26 Oct. [Continued till now without interruption or change of name.] Jared Ingersoll sent by Connecticut to England to oppose the stamp-act • • He accepts the position of stamp-master, and is compelled by the citizens to resign 19 Sept. 1664 1665 1667 1668 1675 1687 1694 1700 1701 1705 1709 1710 1713 1720 1724 1726 1728 1731 1745 1747 1755 1763 1766 CON 190 CON Gov. Thomaa Filch consents to Uke the oath for the support of the stamp act • ;•••.•••: • ' "^** ilie 18 dismissotl at tho next election.] 'oumal tlrst pnblishfil at Now Haven 1767 Jonathan Trmnbull electeU governor 1769 [The only coiuuial governor who favored independence in 1776. He waa elected governor annually until 1784. The name " Brother Jonalhiin," humorously bestowed upon him by gen. Waishington, has been applied to the U. S.] First manufiuiur© of .tin ware by Kdward Patterson, com- mence«l at Berlin, Conn 1770 Eliphalct Dyer, Koger Sherman, and Silas Deane, elected at Norwich to the first Continental Congress 6 June, 1774 Israel Putnam, of Pomfirel, Conn., hastens to Boston on hearing of the battle of Lexington; arrives "21 Apr. 1776 f Riding on one horse 100 miles in 18 hours.] CoL Samuel H. Parsons and Benedict Arnold, at Hartford, plan the capture of Ticonderogii 27 Apr. " Benedict Arnold marches from New Haven with his company and reaches Boston 29 Apr. " Surrender of Ticondkrooa to col. Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold 10 May, " General assembly authorize bills of credit to $500,000 to equip 8 regiments 1^,'^*^' .nL £x gov. Tryon with 2000 men destroys Danbury 26 Apr. 1777 l«en. David Wooster of Connecticut is mortally wounded.] Gen. Tryon lands at New Haven with about 3000 men and plunders it 5 July, 1778 Fairfield. (Jreen's Farm, and Norwalk burned " Gen. Trvon. from Kiugsbridge, N. Y., with 1500 troops destroys the salt works lit Horseneck, Conn. Here gen. Putnam is said to have ridden down a declivity in escaping 26 Mch. 1779 Benedict Arnold plunders and burns New London 6 Sept. 1781 [Fort Griswold across the river is captured the same day, and out of a garrison of 150 men, 73 are killed, including their commander, col. I^dyard, and 30 wounded, mostly after the surrender. Connecticut Airnished during the Revolution 31,959 troops, only Massachusetts furnishing more] Army. Samuel Seabury, D.D., seeks in England consecration as bishop of Connecticut; being refused, he is consecrated by 3 bishops of the Episcopal church in Scotland 14 Nov. 1784 Connecticut frees her slaves " Connecticut makes a qualified cession to the U. S. of all ter- ritory south of 41° N. lat. and west of a line 120 miles west of Pennsylvania 14 Sept. 1786 [The space left to Connecticut in Ohio is known as the West- ern Reserve, and is claimed as a compensation for the terri- tory relinquished in Pennsylvania.] Constitution of the U. S. ratified by Connecticut; vote 128 to 40, 9 Jan. 1788 First Methodist church established in Connecticut at Stratford, 26 Sept. 1789 Wooden clocks first made at Waterbury 1790 Gen. Israel Putnam dies at Brookline, Conn 19 May, " Connecticut bestows upon citizens, especially those of Danbury, Fairfield, Groton, New London, and Norwalk, who had suf- fered during the Revolution, half a million acres at the west end of the Western Reserve in Ohio, hence known as " Fire lands " 1792 Connecticut sells to the Connecticut Land Company, of 320 citizens, 3,200,000 acres, the remainder of the tract between lake Erie and 41° N. lat 1795 [The price, $1,200,000, was made a state school fund.] Connecticut through gov. Trumbull, executes surrender to the U. S. of jurisdiction over the Western Reserve, Ohio. 30 May, 1800 Connecticut opposed to war of. 1812 New London blockaded by sir Thomas Hardy with British ships for 20 months June, 1813 Stonington bombarded by sir Thomas Hardy's fleet. .9-12 Aug. 1814 Delegates from the several New England legislatures meet in convention at Hartford to consider the grievances caused by the war, and to devise measures for its termination. .15 Dec. " [This convention remained in secret session 3 weeks. The war ended before the convention published its resolutions. "The convention was legitimate in its origin, in no respect violating any provisions ofthe Constitution of the U. S., either in its letter or its spirit. "—Theo. Dwight's "Hist. Hartford Convention."] Connecticut adopts a state constitution in place of the royal charter, by a vote of 13,918 to 12,361 5 Oct. 1818 Washington college (Episcopal) chartered at Hartford 1823 [Name changed to Trinity. 1845.] Wesleyan university at Middletown (Methodist) chartered 1831 Prudence Crandall opens a school for colored children at Can- terbury, Windham county T 1833 [She is arrested and sent to jail. On failure to convict her, the school-house issacked by a mob, and the inmates expelled.] Henry Barnard first state superintendent of public instruction, 1838 Ship Amistad, Spanish, brought into New London by lieut. Ceding, of the U. S. brig Washington (Amistad) 29 Aug. 1839 John W. Niles appointed postmaster-general in Van Buren's cabinet \ 25 May, 1840 Amendment to art. viii. ofthe state constitution abolishing free- hold qualification for electors, etc., ratified Oct. 1845 State Teachers' association organized 7 Apr. 1846 Sheffield Scientific school of Yale university opened 1847 Act passed for registering births, marriages, and deaths 1848 Isaac Toucey appointed attorney-general 21 June, " Connecticut normal and training school opens at New Britain, 15 May, 1850 Samuel Colt begins the manufacture of revolvers at Hartford. 1852 Samuel D. Hubbard appointed postmaster-general 31 Aug. 1852 Slate reform school at Meriden opened 1 Mch. Ib54 Legislature establishes the Supreme Court of Errors and the Superior court, and abol shes llic county courts May, 185& Amendment to state constitution ratified, making ability to read the 0; for Marshall Jewell, Republican, 47,473; for James E. English, 47,373; scattering, 14; and de- clare Jewell elected 10 May, 1871 Gov. Jewell assumes office 16 May, " Morgan school at Clinton opened " Noah Porter elected president of Yale university in place of Theodore D. Woolsey, resigned " Temperance party, represented by about 100 delegates, meets at New Haven, and nominates a full state ticket 13 Dec. " Labor -reform party holds a state convention at Bridgeport, and nominates a state ticket 3 Jan. 1872 Jesse Olney, geographer, b. 1798 ; d. at Stratford 30 July, " State constitution amended; all sessions of the General As- sembly, from May, 1875, to be held at Hartford 7 Oct. 1873 Ex-gov. andU. S. senator W.A. Buckingham,d.atNorwich,4Feb. 1876 State constitution amended: Tuesday after 1st Monday in Nov. made general election day; Wednesday after 1st Monday in Jan. the day of meeting of General Assembly 2 Oct. " Orris S. Ferry, U. S. senator from Connecticut, d. in Norwalk, 21 Nov. " "Greenback men" meet in convention at New Haven, 22 Feb. 1876 William H. Barnum, Democrat, elected to fill the unexpired term of U. S. senator Ferry, deceased 17 May, " Agricultural experiment station established by law 1877 Gideon Welles, ex-secretary of navy, d. at Hartford 11 Feb. 1878 Act passed for state board of health, of 6 members 13 Mch. " Legislature occupies the new capitol for the first tirhe, 26 Mch. " There being no choice for state officers, Nov. 1878, the legis- lature elects Charles B. Andrews governor 9 Jan. 1879 Boundary dispute between New York and Connecticut, begun in 1856, is settled, the southern boundary being fixed through the middle of Long Island sound; the "oblong tract," 4.68 sq. miles in area, lying 20 miles east ofthe North river, goes to New York 1880 Board of Pardons, consisting of the governor, a judge of the Su- preme Court of Errors, and 4 persons appointed by the Gen- eral Assembly, who must all concur in a pardon, is created by legislature 3 Jan. -3 May, 1883 Bronze memorial statue of William A.Buckingham, Connecti- cut's war governor, is unveiled in Hartford 18 June, 1884 State constitution amended : biennial legislative sessions to be- gin in 1887 ; ratified by 30,520 to 16,380 6 Oct. " Benjamin Silliman, chemist, b. 1816; d. at New Haven, 14 June, 1885 President Noah Porter of Yale university resigns 1886 Republican candidates for state offices elected by the legisla- ture, there being no choice in state election of 2 Nov. 1886, Jan. 1887 First text-book ever published by the state, a small treatise on the effect of alcohol- on the human system, is issued and dis- tributed to the schools Sept. " Equestrian statue of gen. Israel Putnam erected at Brooklyn, Windham county, and unveiled 14 June, 1888 CON 197 First Monday in Sept. designated a public holiday (Labor-day), a state normal school established at Willimantio, and an "anti-screen" saloon law, and modified Australian ballot law passed by legislature in session 9. Jan. -22 June, 1889 Alfred H. Terry, maj.-gen. U. S. A., b. 1827; d. at New Haven, 16 Dec. 1890 Deadlock between the two houses of the legislature on the governorship 7 Jan. 1891 Democratic candidates for state offices sworn in by the Senate, refused possession by Republican incumhents 13 Jan. " ■Gov. Bulkeley by proclamation warns the citizens against rec- ognizing the Democratic state officers 19 Jan. " P. T. Barnum, b. 1810 ; d. at Bridgeport 7 Apr. " Superior court decides in favor of gov. Bulkeley 24 June, " Both claimants to governorship agree to take the matter into the State Supreme court 1 Oct. " Ex-gov. Hobart B. Bigelow d. at New Haven 12 Oct. " * In the suit of Morris, Democrat, versus Bulkeley, Republican, the Supreme court holds Bulkeley to be governor 5 Jan. 1892 Daniel Grant, one of the famous triplets of Torrington, dies, aged 71 years, his 2 brothers surviving 5 Oct. " Celebration of the 250th anniversary of the founding of Stam- ford 16 Oct. " GOVKRNORS OF THE CONNECTICUT COLONY. Name. Date. John Haynes .• 1639 to 1640 Edward Hopkins 1640 " 1641 John Haynes 1641 " 1642 George Wyllys 1642 " 1643 John Haynes and Edward Hopkins, alternately from.. 1643 " 1655 Thomas Welles 1655 " 1656 John Webster 1656 " 1657 John Winthrop 1657 " 16.58 Thomas Welles 1658 " 1659 John Winthrop 1659 " 1665 Until this time no person could be elected to a second term im- mediately following the first. GOVERNORS OF THE NEW HAVEN COLONY. Name. Date. Theophilus Eaton 1639 to 1657 Francis Newman 1658 " 1660 William Leete 1661 " 1665 GOVERNORS OF CONNECTICUT. CON Name. John Winthrop William Leete Robert Treat Edmund Andros Robert Treat Fitz John Winthrop. Date. 1665 to 1676 1676 " 1683 1683 " 1687 1687 " 1689 1689 " 1698 1698 " 1707 Royal governor. GOVERNORS OP CONNECTICUT.— ( Con^mwed ) Name. Date. Remarks. Gurdon Saltonstall 1707 to 1724 Joseph Talcott 1724 ' 1741 1741 ' 17.50 ' 1750 Roger Wolcott Thomas Fitch 1754 ' 1766 William Pitkin 1766 ' 1769 C The only one of the co- lonial governors that Jonathan Trumbull 1769 ' 1784 ■I remained true to the people against Great Britain. Mathew Griswold 1784 ' 1786 Samuel Huntington 1786 ' 1796 Federal. Oliver Wolcott 1796 ' ' 1798 " Jonathan Trumbull 1798 ' ' 1809 u 1809 ' 1811 ' ' 1811 ' 1813 n Roger Griswold u John Cotton Smith 1813 ' ' 1817 u Oliver Wolcott 1817 ' ' 1827 Democrat- Republican. Gideon Tomlinson 1827 ' ' 1831 John S. Peters 1831 ' ' 1833 H. W. Edwards 1833 ' ' 1834 Samuel A. Foote 1834 ' ' 1835 H.W. Edwards 1835 ' ' 1838 u W. W. Ellsworth 1838 ' ' 1842 Whig. C. F. Cleveland 1842 ' ' 1844 Democrat. Roger S Baldwin 1844 ' ' 1846 Whig. Clark Bissell 1846 ' ' 1849 Joseph Trumbull 1849 ' ' 1850 If Thomas H. Seymour 1850 ' ' 1853 Democrat. Charles H. Pond 1853 ' ' 1854 u 1854 ' ' 1855 Whig. Republican. W. T. Minor ' 18.57 A. H. Hollev 1857 ' William A. Buckingham.. 1858 ' ' 1866 " war governor. Joseph R. Hawley 1866 ' ' 1867 '< James E. English 1867 ' ' 1869 Democrat. Manshall Jewell 1869 ' ' 187^ Republican. Democrat James E English 1870 ' ' 1871 Marshall Jewell 1871 ' ' 1873 Republican. Charles R. Ingersoll 1873 ' ' 1876 Democrat. ( " Governors chosen R. D. Hubbard 1876 ' ' 1879 ] annually until 1876, ( and bi-annually since. Charles B. Andrews 1879 ' ' 1881 Republican. H. B. Bigelow 1881 ' ' 1883 >i Thomas M. Waller 1883 ' ' 1885 Democrat. Henry B. Harrison 1885 " 1887 Republican. Phineas C. Lounsbury. . . . 1887 ' ' 1889 " Morgan G. Bulkeley 1889 ' ' 1891 " *' 1891 ' ' 1893 " Luzon B. Morris 1893 ' 1895 ' ' 1895 ' 1897 Democrat Vincent Coffin Republican. UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF CONNECTICUT No. of Confi^ess. Date. Oliver Ellsworth William S. Johnson . . . Roger Sherman Stephen Nix Mitchell. James Hillhouse Jonathan Trumbull... Uriah Tracy Chauncey Goodrich . . . Samuel W. Dana David Daggett James Lanman Elijah Boardman Henry W. Edwards — Calvin Willey , Samuel A. Foote. Gideon Tomlinson Nathan Smith John M. Niles Perry Smith , Thaddeus Betts Jabez W. Huntington John M. Niles Roger S. Baldwin... Truman Smith Isaac Toucey Francis Gillett Lafayette Foster James Dixon Orris S. Ferry William A. Bucki William W. Eaton James E. English... William H. Barnum OrvilleH. Piatt.... Joseph R. Hawley. . 1st to 4th 1st 2d 3d 4th to 11th 4th 4th to 9th 10th " 12th 11th " 16th 13th " 15th 16th " 18th 17th 18th to 19th 19th " 21st 20th " 22d 22d '' 24th 23d 24th to 25th 25th " 27th 26th 26th to 29th 28th " 30th 30th " 31st .Slst " 33d 32d " 34th 33d 34th to 39th 35th " 40th 40th " 44th 41st " 43d 43d " 46th 44th 44th to 45th 46th 47th 1789 to 1797 1789 " 1791 1791 " 1793 1793 " 1795 1796 " 1811 1795 " 1796 1796 " 1807 1807 " 1813 1810 " 1821 1813 " 1819 1819 " 1825 1821 " 1823 1823 " 1827 1825 " 1831 1827 " 1833 1831 " 1837 1833 " 1835 1835 " 1839 1837 " 1843 1839 " 1840 1840 " 1847 1843 " 1849 1847 " 1851 1849 " 1854 1852 " 1857 1854 " 1855 1855 " 1867 1857 " 1869 1867 " 1875 1869 " 1875 1875 " 1881 1875 " 1877 1875 " 1879 1879 Term expired 3 Mch. 1791. Reappointed. Resigned 1796. Resigned 1791. Elected in place of W. S. Johnson. Died 1793. Elected in place of Sherman. Seated Dec. 1793. I Elected in place of Ellsworth. Seated 6 Dec. 1796. Elected president ( pro tern. 28 Feb. 1801. Resigned 1810. , Resigned 1796. ( Elected in place of Trumbull. Seated 6 Dec. 1796. Elected president \ pro tern. 14 May, 1800. Died, 1807. Elected in place of Tracy. Seated 27 Nov. 1807. Resigned 1813. Elected in place of Hillhouse. Seated 3 Dec. 1810. Elected in place of Goodrich. Seated 24 May, 1813. Died 1823. Appointed in place of Boardman. Seated 1 Dec. 1823. Elected in place of Lanman. ( Democrat. Senator Foote offered the resolutions " on the publiclands," \ in the 21st Congress, 29 Dec. 1829, the principal subject of the great ( debate between Hayne of South Carolina and Webster, 1830. Whig. Democrat. Elected in place of Smith, 1835. " Democrat. Died 1840. Whig. Elected in place of Betts. Seated 2 June, 1840. Died 1847. Democrat. Whig. Appointed in place of Huntington, 1847. Whig. Resigned 1854. Democrat. Seated 14 May, 1852. Elected in place of Truman Smith, 1854. Whig. Elected president 2)ro n troopM. When Uurpoync's army sur- rendered to gen. dates, these generals agreed that the prison- ers (over 5000) (Nkw Yokk) siionld be marched to Cambridge, near lioston, to embark for England, on their parole not to serve again against the Americans. Suspecting that the pa- role would be violated, Congress, after ratifying, revoked it. As the British government (lid not recognize the authority of Congress, these troops remained near Itoston until Congress, owing to the scarcity of supplies in New England, ordered them to Virginia, whither they went, Oct. and Nov. 1778, 4000 remaining at Charlottesville until Oct. 1780, when the British were removed to fort Frederick, in Maryland, and the (iermans to Winchester, their numbers reduced to 2100. Soon after they were removed to Lancaster, and some to East Wind- sor, Conn. In the course of 1782 they were dispersed by ex- change or desertion. eon¥ention§. Treaties. convocation, a general assembly of clergy in Engl., called by the sovereign's writ, on the affairs of the church ; the writ, directed to the archbishops, requires them to sum- mon all the bishops, archdeacons, etc. The convocation is in 2 houses — the upper, of bishops ; the lower, of deans, preben- daries, archdeacons, and delegates from the inferior clergy. The clergy were summoned to meet the king by writ, 23 Edw. I. 129it. The power of convocation was limited at its reorgan- ization by a statute of Henry VIII. It was deprived of various privileges in 1716, and ceased to meet. The clergy have held formal meetings annually during the sessions of Parliament since 1854, and have in vain sought power to deal summarily with ecclesiastical affairs ; but in Feb. 1872, convocation was authorized to consider changes in the Liturgy; upon which it acted, 5 Mch. ; and again in 1889. CO]IVOl'vulU§ (Lat. convohere, to twine together). The Canary convolvulus {Convolvulus canariensis) came to England from the Canary isles, 1690; the many-flowered, 1779. The Convolvulus japonicus, another elegant variety, is a native of China. Flowers and Plants. Conway cabal, the. Thomas, count de Conway, was born in Ireland, but taken to France while young. In 1777, through the influence of Silas Deane, he came to the United States, was commissioned brig.-gen., 13 May, 1777, and fought at Brandywine and Germantown, 1777. Washington's defeats caused widespread discontent in 1777, especially when the British occupied Philadelphia. Burgoyne's surrender gave Gates the prestige of a great success. Such men as John Ad- ams, Samuel Adams, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Mifflin, etc., began to doubt Washington's fitness for the chief command. Conway did not originate the cabal for Washington's removal, but was so active in it that it bears his name. Gates willingly lent his influence, in the hope of obtaining the command him- self. There was correspondence derogatory to Washington between Gates, Mifflin, and Conway during the summer and autumn of 1777. In the new board of war, organized Nov. 1777, the faction was represented by Gates as president, and Mifflin and others as members. Conway, against Washing- ton's remonstrance, was promoted maj.-gen., and made in- spector-general of the army. A vain attempt was made to win Lafayette by offering him an array to invade Canada; but these intrigues, when known to the army, were heartily repro- bated, nor did the state legislatures approve them. In spite of disasters to the army, Washington retained the confidence and affection of soldiers and people ; and most of the conspira- tors shrank from avowing their share in the plot. Conway, ordered to the northern department, complained to Congress, and offered his resignation. It was accepted, and he tried in vain to obtain a reinstatement. He was wounded soon after in a duel with gen. Cadwallader, and, believing his end near. COP wrote an apology to Washington for his course. He recovered, however, and returned to France. COOiiCry, as an art, belongs to civilized life. Anitnals were granted as food to Noah, 2348 b.c., but eating blood was forbidden (Gen. ix. 3, 4). In 1898 b.c. a calf was cooked by Abraham to entertain his guests (Gen. xviii. 7, 8). " Tl)e Forme of Cury" (i.e. cookery) is dated 1390. An English cookery-book was printed 1498. Cottager's stove. Three medals were uwarded to tho Norwegian self acting cooking ap- |)aratus (Soren-son's patent) at the Paris Exhibition, 1867. Cook- ing is effected by boiling water, tho heat of which is maintained by enclosing it in a non conducting substance. In the U. S., schools of cookery have become common in large cities since 1874. Cook's excursions. Thomas Cook in 1841 be- gan his tourist system by arranging with the INIidland HaH- way Company (England) for the conveyance of a party of 570 persons from Leicester to Loughborough and back for is. each. He gradually extended the system to the Continent, to Amer- ica, India, Egypt, Holy Land, etc. He died 18 Julv, 1892, aged 83. Cook's VOyag^es. James Cook, accompanied by Joseph Banks (afterwards sir), sailed from England in the Endedvor on his first voyage, 30 July, 1768; and after cir- cumnavigating the globe, arrived at Deal 12 June, 1771. This expedition was proposed by the Royal Society to observe the transit of Venus, 3 June, 17G9. Capt. Cook sailed to explore the southern hemisphere 13 July, 1772. In his last expedi- tion (begun 12 July, 1776) he was killed by the savages of Owhyhee, "14 Feb. 1779. His ships, the Resolution and JHs- covery, arrived at Sheerness 4 Oct. 1780. coolies (Hiodu, kuli, laboror), the hill-tribes of India, are much employed as laborers in Ai^istralia and California, especially since 1861 ; about 30,000 of them were brought, conveyed by M. Koopmanschap to work on the great Pacific railway. He proposed in 1869 to replace the negroes of the cotton states with coolies, but the proposition was not accepted. " The Coolie, his Rights and Wrongs," by E. Jenkins, was pub. 1871. Coolie emigration has been the subject of negotiation between the British and Chinese governments since 1855. " In spite of his utility, the coolie has become an offence to the working classes of the United States and Australia. He is accused of various bad habits; but his principal offence is in working for low wages, and thus lowering the market value of labor." — Chambers's Kncy. cooperage, the art of making casks and barrels out of staves bound by hoops, to hold liquids, etc. It was practised in ancient times, being mentioned by Pliny. It is only in very recent times that machinery' has largely superseded hand labor in cooperage. The coopers of London were incorpo- rated in 1501. co-operative societies (England) of working- men sell articles of daily consumption to members at low prices. The Rochdale Equitable Pioneers' Society began in 1844, with a capital of 28/. In 1860 the business done amounted to 152,063/., the profits being 15,906/. These societies (332 in 1862) are registered pursuant to 13 and 14 Vict. c. 115 (1849). On 31 Dec. 1866, 749 industrial, provident, and co-operative societies were registered. By an act of 1867 they must make a return. A congress of delegates is held annually. Inter- national congress held at Bologna, 1 Oct. 1888. Co operative cotton-mills in south Lancashire were reported suc- cessful in 1875. Ouseburn Co-operative Engineering Works, established 1871, failed through want of capital; wound up, 1875. Much discontent among London tradesmen on account of the numer- ous CO operative stores, 1878-80. Co operative Union included 1500 societies with a share capital ot 11,000,000^., Nov. 1890. Copan', Ruins of, situated in the extreme western part of Honduras, supposed to be those of a city of unknown antiquity, first discovered in 1576. America. Baldwin's "Ancient America," Charnay's "Ancient Cities of the New World," and Stephens's " Travels in Central America," are the best works published on these and other ruins of America. Copenhagen, Denmark, built by Waldemar I., 1157; made the capital, 1443; the university founded, 1479. In 1728 more than 70 streets and 3785 houses were burned. Its COP 203 COP I palace, valued at 4,000,000^., was burned, Feb. 1794; 100 per- ions lost their lives. In a fire which lasted 48 hours, the ar- senal, adrairaltv, and 50 streets were destroyed, June, 1795. A new national* theatre was founded by the king, 18 Oct. 1872. Copenhagen was bombarded by English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker; and of 23 Danish ships of the line, 18 were taken or destroyed by the British, 2 Apr. 1801. Again, after a bombardment of 3 days, the city surrendered to admiral Gambler and lord Cathcart,''7 Sept. 1807, with the fleet of 18 sail of the line. 15 frigates, 6 brigs, 25 gunboats, and immense naval stores. Pop. with suburbs, 1880, 273,727 ; 1890, 375,251. Copernican §y§teill, from its ^author, Nicolag Co- pernicus, born at Thorn, west Prussia, 19 Feb. 1473; died, 24 May, 1543, a few days after the printing of his book on the ■«< Revolution of the Celestial Bodies," which marks one of the greatest steps ever taken in science. The system, which re- sembles " the Pvthagorean," was condemned by pope Paul V. in 1616; decree* revoked 1818 by Pius VII.. It has been ad- vanced from time to time by Kepler, Galileo, Newton, and the -whole body of modern astronomers. COpophoiie, a musical instrument formed of glass tumblers on a sounding-board. The sounds are produced by wet fingers on the edge of the glasses. It was played at par- ties in London in June, 1875, by chevalier Furtado Coelho, the inventor. copper. One of the 6 primitive metals, said to have been first discovered in Cyprus.— P^%. We read in the Scriptures of 2 vessels of fine copper (or brass), •' precious as gold," 457 B.C. (Ezra viii. 27). The mines of Fahlun, in Swe- den, are surprising excavations. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561 ; there are more than 50 mines in Cornwall, where mining has grown from the reign of William III. In 1857, 75,832 tons of copper ore were taken to England, and 25,241 tons mined. In 1865, 198,298 tons of copper ore were extracted from British mines, and 11,888 tons smelted; -S2,562 tons were imported. In 1856, 24,257 tons of pure cop- per (worth 2,983,61 U.) ; in 1870, 8291 tons (worth 644,065^.); ill 1875, 4332 tons (worth 388,934/.); in 1876, 4694 tons (worth 391,130;.) ; in 1879, 3462 tons (worth 222,507/.) ; in 1890, 936 tons were produced in the United Kingdom. The Burra- Burra copper-mines in S. Australia, discovered 1842, are valu- able. The copper production of the United States for 10 years (1880-89) was over 733,061 tons, valued at $192,237,714; for 1891, 147,905 tons, valued at $38,455,300. The richest mine in the world is the Calumet and Hecla on lake Superior, Michigan, having paid in dividends $32,000,000 in 20 years. Copper money. The Romans, before Servius TuUius, used rude pieces of copper for money. Coin. Id England copper money was made at the instance of sir Robert Cotton, in 1609; but was first coined (when Miss Stewart sat for the figure of Britannia) 1665 Its regular coinage began 1672 ; largely issued 1689 In Ireland, copper was coined, 1339;- in Scotland, 1406; in France 1580 Wood's coinage in Ireland commenced 1723 Copper coinage largely manufactured at Birmingham, by Boul- ton and Watt l'^92 Penny and twopenny pieces extensively issued 1797 Half-farthing was coined, but disused (Farthing) 1843 10,000i. voted for replacing the copper coinage July, 1855 Cooper coinage discontinued in U. S., a mixed metal substituted, *^^ 21 Feb. 1857 Bronze coinage issued Pec. 1860 French syndicate formed to raise the price of copper by a mo- nopoly, Feb. 1888; fails Mch. 1889 ■Copper-plate printing invented in Germany, about 1450; roll- ing-presses for working the plates about 1545 Messrs. Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented engraving on soft steel, from which, when hardened, copper plates and impres- sions are made indefinitely (Engraving) 1819 Copper sheathing first applied to the British ship Alarvi, at Woolwich, 1761; all the navy copper-bottomed by 1780 Electrotyping with copper printing types and casts from wood- cuts, began about 1850 •Copper-zinc couple, a voltaic arrangement of Dr. J. H. Gladstone and A. Tribe in 1872; a mixture of the 2 meUls is finely sub- divided, with points of junction exposed; any binary liquid con- taining this is rapidlv decomposed, its resistance being greatly reduced. The couple is formed by immersing zinc-foil in a solu- tion of sulphate of copper; the copper being deposited on the zinc in minute particles. By this couple impurities in water are read- ily detected, many peculiar analyses have been made, and new organic bodies formed. eopperRS, a mineral composed of copper or iron with ■sulphuric acid (vitriol), found in copper-mines, commonly of a green or blue color ; said to have been first produced in Eng- land by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. Copperheads. In and after 1863 members of the Democratic party in the U. S. who favored peace on any terms. — Copperhead, a poisonous serpent, the Trigonocephalus contortrix, also named dumb-rattlesnake, red viper, etc. Copt§, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and Persians. .Their relig- ion is a form of Christianity derived from the Eutychians. eopying-maetlines (for letters, etc.) were invent- ed in Engl, by James Watt in 1778; patented in May, 1780; and 150 machines were sold before the end of the year. Wedgwood's '■ manifold writer " was patented in 1806 ; and in 1855 Terry patented a copying-machine to be combined with the cover of a book. Other inventions patented since. Zuccato's papyrograph is much esteemed. copyright in England. Decree of the star-chamber regarding it, 1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 1.585. Ordinance forbids printing of any work without the consent of the owner 1649 First copyright act (for 14 years, and for the author's life if then living), 8 Anne 1709 This act sustained by the lords, and the claim of perpetual copy- right overruled ^ 22 Feb. 1774 Copyright in prints and engravings, 17 Geo. Ill 1777 Copyright Protection act (for 28 years, and for the author's life), 54 Geo. Ill 1814 Dramatic Authors' Protection act, 3 Will. IV. c. 15 1833 Act protecting lecturers, 6 Will. IV. c. 65 ; 1835 International Copyright bill, 1 Vict. c. 59 1838 5 and 6 Vict. c. 45 (Talfourd's or lord Mahon's act), to amend the Copyright act, passed 1842 [Copyright is for the life of the author, and 7 years after; but for 42 years in any case; posthumous works protected for 42 years. ] Colonies' Copyright act, 10 and 11 Vict. c. 95, passed 1847 Canada Copyright act, passed 2 Aug. 1875 Copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpture 1798, 1814 Photographs protected as works of art July, 1862 INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. First movement in the U. S. for international copyright in 1837, when Henry Clay presented a petition. Referred to Senate committee, including Clay, V/ebster, and Buchanan who re- ported for full protection. Lord Palmerston invites the U. S. to co-operate 1838 British acts secure to authors, in certain cases, international copyright (1 and 2 Vict. c. 59, 7 and 8 Vict. c. 12, and 15 Vict, c. 12) ; conventions entered into with France, Prussia, etc. ,1838, 1852 Proposal again before the U. S. Congress, supported by Edward Everett, secretary of state 1853 Claim of a foreigner to British copyright negatived by the House of Lords, reversing the court of exchequer, on appeal by defendant in Boosey v. Jeffrey. (In 1831 Mr. Boosey pur- chased the copyright of Bellini's opera, "La Sonnambula," from which Mr. Jeffrey published a cavatina. 6 judges for the copyright; 7 against) Aug. 1854 Baldwin's bill introduced in British Parliament 1868 International copyright bill introduced in the U. S. Congress, 21 Feb. " In Routledge v. Low, the House of Lords on appeal uphold copy- right of a foreign author 29 May, " Discussion at the Literary Congress, Paris 18 June, ** Sir Edward Thornton submits a proposed treaty to publishers in the U. S 1870 Copyright Association of England, founded by eminent London booksellers 19 Mch. 1872 Senator Morrill, chairman of joint library committee, report against international copyright 1873 Messrs. Harper & Brothers, N. Y., submit a suggestion to the department of state of a treaty on the subject 25 Nov. 1878 Harper treaty approved by prominent American authors. Aug. 1880 Congress passes an international copyright law 3 Mch. 1891 President Harrison proclaims that Switzerland, France, Bel- gium, Great Britain, Germany, and Italy, having complied with the conditions, the benefits of copyright in the U. S. are extended to their citizens 1 July, " [There is no treaty of international copyright between the U. S. and other countries. A citizen of the U. S., to secure copyright in Great Britain, must (1) enter the title at Stationer's Hall, London, fee. 5«. ; (2) the work must be first published in Great Britain. A foreigner may copyright a publication in France by depositing 2 copies at the Ministry of the Interior at Paris. In Germany, by entering the work in the general copyright registry at Leipzig and publishing it within the German empire. In Canada, by registry with the minister of agriculture, fee |1, and publication in Canada.] COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED STATPZS. First copyright law passed • ^"^^ Copyrights granted for 28 years, with a renewal for 14 years. . . 1831 Copyrights granted in plays for exclusive representation 1856 Law granting any author, inventor, designer, or proprietor a copyright for his work for 28 years, with renewal for himself, his widow, or children for 14 years 1870 COR 204 COR An an of Congross amending sections 4952, 4964, 4958, 4968, 4969, 4963, 4904, 4966, and 4967, Revised Statutes passed. A Mclj. 1891 To take effect 1 July, " [As an lutenmtioiml copyright law it '-only applies to « citizen or subject of ii foreign state or nation, when such foreign slate or nation jwrmiis to citizens of the U. 8. of America the benellt of copyright on sul)8t4Uitially the sitnio basis as its own citizens; or when such foreign state or nation is a party to an international agreement which provides for reciprocity in the granting of copy- right, l)y the terms of which agi-eemont Iho U. S. of America may at its pleasure beconie a pj>rty to such agreement. The existence of either of these conditions aforesjiid shall be deternjinod by the president of the V. S. by prmMiimation made from time to time as the purp^)ses of this act may require.") Ofiral, a prtiduction of the AcHhozou coralligena^ ami conHnc«l to the warmer latitude of the globe. The most val- uable kind is the Corallium rubrum of the Mediterranean sea, having been from remote times greatly prized for personal or- namentation and decorative purposes generally. The most iin()ortant tisheries extend along the coast of northern Africa; but it is also obtained near Naples, Leghorn, and (ienoa, and off the coasts of Sardinia, Corsica, etc. The price of the finest tints varies from $400 to $t500 per oz. Ccirbiesclale, Caithness, N. Scotland. Here, on 27 Apr. 1650, the marquis of Montrose was defeated by Covenant- era. He was taken soon after, treated with contumely, and hangeil at Edinburgh, 21 May. Corey 'ra, now Corfti, chief of the Ionian isles, a col- ony founded by Corinthians about 73-i ii.c. It had frequent wars with the mother-country; one for Kpidamnus (431 ii.c.) led to the rcloptMuiesian war. It was subdued by the Spartans in 373, and by the Romans, 230. At the decline of the eastern empire it fell to the Venetians, about 1149 A.i>. The Turks vainly attacked Corfu in 1716. It was taken from the French by the allied Russian and Turkish tleets,3 iNIch. 1799, and formed (with the other isles) into the Ionian republic. Ionian isi.,ks. Cor€lelier§ (kor'-de4yar')y friars of the order of St. Francis d'Assisi (the Minorites) instituted about 1223; wearing coarse gray cloth and a girdle of cord, hence the name, first given by St. Louis of France, about 1227. Cordeliers, a political club formed in Paris, 1790, so called for its meeting in the chapel of that name. It included among its leaders some of the most violent of the revolutionists, viz.: Danton, Marat, Ilebert, Camille Desmoulins, and others. It was first allied with, but afterwards opposed, the Jacobins ; was overthrown in ^Mch. 1794, and several members guillo- tined ; formally closed 23 Aug. 1795. eorclillerns (Sp. kor'-dH-yd'-m), a continuous range of mountains. Andes. Cor'dova, the Roman Corduba, S. Spain, founded about 152 B.C., taken by the (ioths, 572 A.n., and made capital of an Arab kingdom by Abderahman in 756, who founded the great mosque (now the cathedral), 786. Here Seneca, Lucan, and the Arabian physician Averrhoes were born. In the 10th cen- tury it contained nearly 1,000,000 inhabitants and 3l)0 mosques. It was rescued from the Arabs by Ferdinand IIL of Cas- tile, in 1236, taken by French luuler Dupont and ravaged, 7-9 June, 1808; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte, Jan. 1810, abandoned by the French in 1813; plundered by Carlists, Oct. 1836. Pop. 1890 about 66,000. Corc'a or K€>re'a, a peninsula, E. Asia, tributary to China, which excludetl all foreigners until 1882, when 4 ports were opened to commerce through the agency of the United States and China by treaty. Area, 82,000 sq. miles; pop. es- timated about 10,000,000. President Arthur receives ofncially at the Fifth Avenue hotel. Now York, the Corean ambassiulors 18 Sent 1883 Treaty with Great Britain ^ isS With Germany u With Italy and Russia .'.".".'.".".".'!'.." «» With F'nince .'.'.*..'..*.*.*.'.".'.*.'.' 1886 Invaded by Japanese troops, and Chinese "drVven out, Julyl^pt 1894 Corees. Indians. Corfu. COROYRA. Cor'illth, Greece, a city said to have been built 1520 B.G, anil named Ephyra. It was defended by a lofty and strongly walled fortress called Acrocorinth. Cicero natiied it the Eye ofGrefCf. Its history is fabulous or legendary, and all dates in it are conjectural, until the 7th century iu\ Isthmian games, mythically ascribed to Sisyphus, who founded Be a kingdom la'jt; Return of the Heraclidi© or Dorians 1107 Their dynasty established by Aletes 1074 Corinthians in vent 0-i»riMe.t (.ships with 3 benches of oars), 786 or 758 Reign of Bacchis. 925 ; oligarchy of Macchidai 747-657 Thelestes deposed; government of Prytanes instituted; Auto- menes, first alwut 74r> Corinthian colonies, Syracuse and Corcyra, founded about 1M Corcyreans revolting, defeat Corinthians at sea WA Cypselus, a despot, sots aside the Prytanes f).">."> His son Periander rules, and favors learning (V2T .">s."> Psammotichns deposed, and a republic formed .">S0 Corinth engaged in the Persian war 48o Defeated by Corcyreans 4:15 Corinthian war 395 Timoloon kills his usurping brother Timophanes 344 Acrocorinth lakou by Aratus. given to (ho Achsean league 243 Roman ambassiuUu-s lirst mipear at Corinth 228 (Jreeks defoatcd at Cynoscephala) 197 Corinth sacked by Lucius Mummius, who sends to Italy the first lino paintings there seen (Lix>y) 146 Rebuilt by Julius Ca)sar 46 A.D. Visited by St. Paul (Actsxviii.) 54 His two Epistles to Uie Corinthians about 59-60 Ravaged by Alaric. 396 Plundered by Normans from Sicily 1146 Taken by Turks, 1446; by Venetians, 1687; by Turks, June, 1714; ft-om them l)y Greeks 1823 Nearly destroyed by an earthquake 21 Feb. 1858- A concession for 99 years to a French company for canal through the isthmus, to be completed in 6 years, by .MM. K. G. Pial and ChoUet, Anr. 1870; transferred to baron de I.es- sops and gen. Turr (to bo begun in spring, 1882) 28 May, 1881 Work begun 5 May, 1882 Completed 1893 Canals. Corilltll, Miss. After the battle of Shilol), or Pitts- burg Lani)IN(}, 6, 7 Apr. 1862, gen. Halleck took command of the forces, about 120,000 men, ami 3 weeks later moved tow- ards Corinth, then held by the confederate gen. Beauregard, taking from 30 Apr. to 30 May for the advance of 20 miles, lie was unopposed until within 4 or 5 miles of Corinth, and while be prepared for a siege IJeauregard quietly evacuated the place on the 29th May, taking his stores, and Halleck oc- cupied it on the 30th. Corinth was also the scene of a severe battle, when 35,000 or more confederates, under Price and Van Dorn, attacked Ro.secrans's army of 20,000, in a strong and for- tified position, 3 Oct. 1862, in the afternoon. The main fight- ing was next forenoon, when the attack was repulsed. Fed- eral loss, 315 killed, 1812 wounded, 232 missing. Confederate loss, supposed about 1423 killed, 5692 woiuuled, and 2225 pris- oners. Corilltlliail order, the richest order of ancient architecture, called by Scamoz.-ji the virginal order, attributed to Calliniacluis, 540 n.o. Abacus. Corilltlliail ivav began 395 B.C.; so called because mostly fought near Corinth, by a confederacy of Athenian.-*, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against the Lacediemoni- ans. It was closed by the peace of Antalcidas, 387 b.c. Tlio chief battles were at Coijonka and LKUCTitA. Cori'oli, a Latin city, capital of the Volscian.s, taken hy Romans, 493 B.C. The exploits of Caius Marcius or Coriolanus are mythical. Cork, S. Ireland, built in the 6th century. The princi- pality of the M'Cartys was converted into a shire by king John, as lord of Ireland. The foundation of the see is ascribed to St. Barr, or Finbarr, early in the 7th cetitury. About 1431 it was united to Ch)yne, but in 1678 separated, Ross having been added to Cork, 1582. Cork and Clovne were reunited (by the act of 1833), 1836. Garrisoned by Henry II 1172 First charter, from Henry II 1185 Supiwrted Perkin Warbeck, who landed here 1492 A largo part of tho town burned 1621 Taken by Cromwell 164'.) Marlborough took Cork bv siege; tho duke of Grafton, a son of Charles II.. was slain 1690 Cathedral rebuilt from a coal duty between 1725 and 1735 Ono of 3 colleges, endowed under act 8 and 9 Vict. c. 66, passeri4-trec (^Qnercus suber), a species of oak ; cork is part of its bark. The Egyptians made coffins of cork. The tree COR 205 COR ^rows in abmidaiice on the Tyrences and in other parts of Spain and in France. It was bronght to England about 1690. A coik- New England Cremation Society organized 1892 Cremera, Battle of. Fabh. Creino'na, N. Itah^, a city founded by the Romans, 221 B.C. It became an independent republic in 1107, but was fre- quently subjugated by its neighbors, Milan and Venice, and partook of their fortunes. In Nov. 1859, it became part of the kingdom of Italy. Cremona was eminent for violin-makers from about 1550 to 1750. cre'Ole. In the United States (Louisiana), any native of French or Spanish descent by either parent, especially French. Creole (the ship), Case of. United States, 1841. ere§ceilt, a symbol of sovereignty among the Greeks and Romans, and the device of Byzantium, now Constantino- ple. While besieged, 340 b.c., by Philip, father of Alexander the Great, in a night attack their danger was revealed to the Greeks by the light of the moon, then in crescent; in gratitude they assumed the crescent as a symbol of their city. It is also a symbol of certain tribes of Central Asia, among them the Turks. The crescent has given name to 3 orders of knighthood: founded by Charles I. of Naples, 1268; by Rene of Anjou, in 1448; by the sultan Selim, in 1801. The last is still in existence. Cre§py, a town of N. France. Here was signed a treaty between Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France, 18 Sept. 1544. The former renoiniced Burgundy and the latter Italy. crests are ascribed to the Carians. Richard I. (1189) had a crest on the helmet like a plume of feathers. The Eng- lish kings generally had crowns above their helmets; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dig- nity. Crecy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a plume of feathers; the helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 ; and that of James I. by a lion, 1424. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the crest was described as a figure placed upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of maintenance. — Gtcillim. Crete, now Candia. Cribba^e, a game at cards, usually played by 2 per- sons in 61 points. Probably of English origin, formerly called noddy, mentioned 1616. The earliest description of the game| is in " The Compleat Gamester," 1674. cricket, the national game of England. The earliest allusion to the game is found in the wardrobe account of king Edward Lin 1300. The word "cricket" occurs first about 1550. It was played at Winchester college as early as 1650. First recorded match between Kent and All England, held at the Artillery ground, Finsbury 4 Aug. 1746 Hambledon club, which existed 21 years, founded 1750 First collection of rules for playing framed 1774 Marylebone Cricket-club organized 1787 Round or straight arm bowling accepted and comes into use. . 1825 Union Cricket club of Philadelphia, Pa., organized 1832 All England Eleven commence playing 184d CRI International matches, generally won by English team, held in America, in 1859, 1868, 1872, 1881, and 1882 Australian club victors in a match with the " Players of Eng- land " at the Crystal palace 27, 28, 29 Sept. 1880 Australians defeated at Manchester, Engl., by the North of England team 16 Sept. 1882 crime, England and Wales. From the "Judicial Sta- tistics" of England and Wales it is shown that during the 20 years previous to 1890 there was a notable increase in tlie fol- lowing crimes: murder, assault with intent to ravish and abuse, burglary and house-breaking, breaking into shops and warehouses, etc., and attempts to commit suicide, the latter crime having more than quadrupled. On the contrary, a marked decrease took place in attempts to murder, shooting, stabbing, etc., with intent to maim, assault on officers, receiv- ing stolen goods, and larceny. In 1887 it was announced that the number of female convicts had fallen nearly 50 per cent, in 10 years. The number of criminals in England and Wales at various periods, and the number and classification of sentences passed, is shown in the following tables : NIIMBKR OF CRIMINALS IN ENGLAND AND WALKS AT VARI- OUS PKKIODS, AND PROPORTION OF POPULATION TO CRIM- INALS. 211 CRI NUMBKR AND NATIVITY OF PRISONERS IN THE UNITED STATES FROM CENSUS STATISTICS, 1850-90. CrimiiiiiJ class. | 1868-69 1872-73 1877-78 1882-83 j 1887-88 At large, suspected, etc In local prisons, except debt- [ or and military prisons. .. ) 54,249 19,927 8,864 4,318 45,201 17,511 9,582 4,515 40,626 17,625 10,358 4,883 38,420 16,751 9,640 4,517 32,910 13,973 5,583 In reform schools 4,203 Totals 87,358 76,809 73,492 69,328 56,669 Proportion of total popula- ) tion to each criminal — ) 254.3 304.3 340.6 386.1 506.3 Showing a large decrease in crimes in relation to the increase of population. NUMBER AND CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCKS PASSED ON OFFENDERS IN ENGLAND AND WALES IN YEARS NAMED, AND MEAN OF 20 YEARS. Criminals sentenced. To death Life imprisonment. . Over 15 years Under 15 years Sent to Reforma- | tory j Fined, etc Totals. 15 13,728 257 314 1873 18 10,608 201 11,089 1878 20 14 25 11,813 210 391 1883 23 10 28 10,795 331 12,473 I 11,347 1888 i Mean for 36 4 4 9,930 103 484 10,561 10.25 19.5 10,975 339.45 Sentenced. 1 June, 1880. 1 June, 1890. 80 1,615 1,112 29,258 11,100 2,031 "5; .564' 7,849 162 2,766 1,697 43,442 18,539 3,691 "10,83.5' 1,197 " 20 years and over Held for trial, witnesses, etc Totals 58,609 82,329 Date. Native. Foreign. Totals. 1 June, 1850 4,326 10,143 24,173 45,802 65,070 2,411 8,943 8,728 12,807 17,259 6,737 " 1860 19,086 " 1870 32,901 " 1880 58,609 82,329 " 1890 The number of executions and lynchings reported by the sheriffs as taking place in the U. S. during the calendar year 1890 was as follows : crime, United States. The total number of prisoners on 1 June, 1890, was 82,329. As to parentage, there were 57,310 of purely white blood, 24,277 negroes, 407 Chinese, 13 Japanese, and 322 Indians ; and from carefully prepared statistics of the nativity of both parents of the 57,310 white prisoners, it is found that 43.19 per cent, of crime committed in the U. S. bj'^ white men and women is chargeable to the native white element of the population, and 56.81 per cent, to the foreign element. The distribution of the 82,329 prisoners in the U. S. 1 June, 1890, was as follows : In penitentiaries, 45,233 ; county jails, 19,861; city prisons, 3264; workhouses, 9968; leased out, 2308; in military prisons, 794; in insane hospitals, 901. The statistical table given below shows in the aggregate the number convicted and under various sentences, according to the U. S. census of 1880 and 1890. PRISONERS OF ALL KINDS IN THfi: UNITED STATES, 1880-90. Of the above number for 1890, 7351 were in prison for the crime of homicide (6958 males and 393 females), and not in- cluded in the above table (1890) were 14,846 juveniles in re- formatories (11,535 boys and 3311 girls). Locality. Executions. Lynchings. 17 43 28 51 17 40 12 54 Western Division 11 Totals 156 117 Crimea (hrim-ee'-a) or Crim Tartary, a peninsula in the P^uxine or Black sea, area about 10,000 sq. miles, pop. 1890,- about 250,000. The ancient Taurica Cheisonesus, colo- nized by Greeks about 550 B.C. The Milesians founded the kingdom of Bosporus, now Kertch, which, about 108 b.c., was subject to Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants ruled it, under Roman protection, till th^ irruption of the Goths, Huns, etc., about 258 a.d. About 1237 it fell to the Mongols under Genghis Khan ; soon after the Venetians es- tablished commercial stations, with lucrative trade, but were supplanted by the Genoese, who were permitted to rebuild and fortify Kaffa about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. expelled the Genoese, and the Ottomans, leaving the government to the native khans, closed the Black sea to western Europe. In 1774, by the intervention of the empress Catherine II., the Crimea recovered its independence; but on the abdication of the khan in 1783 the Russians took possession, after a war with Turkey, and retained it by the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 1792. The Crimea (now a part of the province of Taurida) was divided into 8 governments in 1802. War having been declared against Russia by England and France, 28 Mch. 1854, large masses of troops sent to the East, after remaining some time at Gallipoli and other places, sailed for Varna, where they disembarked 29 May. The allies deciding to at- tack the Crimea, British, French, and Turkish forces of 58,000 men (25,000 British), under lord Raglan and marshal St. Ar- naud, sailed from Varna 3 Sept., and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, without opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40,000 and 50,000 strong (under prince Menschikoff), intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed impregnable, and after a sharp contest routed them. Alma and Russo-TuRKisii Wars. Peace was proclaimed Apr. 1856, and the allies quitted the Crimea 12 July following. Crimi'§US, a river in Sicily, near which Timoleou de- feated the Carthaginians, 339 b.c. Crin'oline (a French word, meaning stuff made of crin, hair), is the modern name of the "farthingale" of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop- like petticoats made of whalebone, steel, etc. ; fashion revived, 1855-70, since disappeared entirely. Hoops frequently extended to 12 and 15 feet in circumference. In No. 116 of the Tatler, pub. 5 Jan. 1710 in London, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion. Cripplegate, London, was so called from the lame beggars who sat there, so early as the year 1010. The gate was newly built by the brewers of London in 1244; and was pulled down and sold for 91/. in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried in the church near it, 12 Nov. 1674. London. " Crisi§, The," a series of 14 patriotic papers by Thomas Paine during the Revolution, extending from 1775 to 1783. The first, in reply to gen. Gage's proclamation, is dated 9 Aug. 1775; the second, written just after Congress leaves Philadelphia, fearing its capture by the British, to meet at Baltimore, is dated 19 Dec. 1776. It begins with the well- known words, "These are the times that try men's souls." The third is dated Jan. 1777; most, if not all, were published in Philadelphia. Pennsylvania, 1776. CRI crisis, commercial ami monetary. TItose that have most affeoteii England were in the following years, to wit : 176.% 1783, 1793, 1797, 1810, 1816, 1825, 1837-38, 1847, 1857, 1864-66. 1875. In the United States, 1816, 1825, 1837, 1847, 1857, 1873, 1893. A crisis in Holland was caused by the Tulip ft|)eculation, which lasted from 1634-39, and during which a certain kind of tulip was quoted at 55(M) florins. The state put a stop to the craze. A crisis in trance, 1(!20,. caused by the Mississippi scheme of John Law. Law's Bubble. The crisis of 1837, the most disastrous in the U. S., followed general and excessive land speculation. Crispin and Crlsplail are said to have been 2 saints, born at Home, who travelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the Christian religion. They worked as shoemak- ers (hence the patron saint of that trade) ; but the governor of the town, discovering them to be Christians, ordered them to be Ueheaded, about 288. Tiieir day is 25 Oct., the date of the battle of Agincourt. "This day is culled— the feast of Crispian." —ShaJcespeare, "Henry V.,"act. iv. so. iii. crith (from the Gr. KpiOli, a barleycorn, or small weight), a term suggested by dr. A. W. Hofmann (about 1864) to ex- press the volume-weight of gases; a cube containing 1 litre of hydrogen (0.0896 gramme) to be the unit. Hydrogen be- ing 1 crith, oxygen will be 16, nitrogen 14 criths. crillcs. The first society of them was formed 276 B.c. — Blair. Varro, Cicero, Apollonius, and Aristarchus were an- cient critics. In modern times the Journal des Sgavcws, the earliest critical periodical, founded by Denis de Sallo, ecclesi- astical councillor in the parliament of France, was first pub- lished at Paris, 30 May, 1655, and is still continued. Jean le Clerc's " Ars Critica," pub. 1696, is said to be the earliest sys- tematic treatise. The first work of this kind in England was the " Review" of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by him- self), pub. in Feb. 1703. The Works of the Learned began 1710, and the Waies of Literature in 1714; discontinued in 1722. Kk VIEWS. The legality of fViir criticism was established in the English courts in Feb. 1794, in an action that excited great attention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique. Judgment was given for the defendant, on the principle that criticism is allowable, however sharp, if just, and not malicious. Croa'tia, conquered by Coloman, king of Hungary, in 1102, was with that country united to Austria in 1526. The Croatian Diet was abolished Nov. 1861. The Croats protested against incorporation with Hungary, 25 May, 1867, and their diet (including Croatia and Slavonia) at Agram was dissolved 27 May. The union of Croatia with Hungary was recognized by a Croatian deputation 27 May, 1868, and Croatian delegates entered the Hungarian Diet 24 Nov. Area of Croatia and Slavonia about 16,785 sq. miles ; pop. 1890, about 2,184,419. crofteri and cottars, the holders of small portions of land, and the laborers in the highlands and islands of Scotland. A royal commission appointed 22 Mch. 1883 (Francis, baron Napier and others), to inquire into their condition, report their state as not worse than formerly, but disclose maiiv grievances relating to the tenure of land, liigh rents, defi- ciency of education, of postal communication, of roads, etc. They recommend, among other remedies, the revival of an- cient highland townshii)s with common privileges, limiting the power of superior lords, etc 28 Apr. 1884 Meeting at Inverness of chief landlords; conciliatory favorable changes proposed 14 Jan. 1885 Crotters colonization commission appointed by British and Canadian governments Dec. 1888 Canadian settlements reported prosperous 1891 Croix, St. (sent kroi'), St West India island, purchased from the French by Christian VI., king of Denmark, in 1733 ; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, 22 Dec. 1807 ; restored in 1814. CromicctlS, ancient monuments, formerly considered to be Druidical altars, but now believed to be connected with burials. One is in Anglesey; similar structures have been found in Ireland, India, Arabia, and other countries. Ave- BURY, CaRNAC, StONEHENGE. €ron§tadt, Russia, founded by Peter the Great, 1710, and received its name (Crown-town) in 1721. It was not at- tacked by the fleets in the war with Russia, 1854-55. -JJ-i CRO Croprcdy Brldg^C, near Banbury, Oxfordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir William Waller and the army of the parliament, 29 June, 1644. croquet (ho-kay'). This game, which became com- mon in Britain about 1850, is said to be a revival of the old " pall-mall." It has been largely superseded by lawn-tenni.s, 1887-93. crosier, a staff supporting a cross, borne before an arch- bishop, was in use in the 4th century. The bearing of a cro- sier before ecclesiastics is mentioned in the life of St. Cie;iarea of Aries about 600. cross (Lat. crux), an instrument for inflicting the punish- ment of death ; originally a tree, on which the culprit was tied or impaled, and left to perish ; later, an upright stake with a horizontal bar, to which the victim was bound and nailed with spikes through the outstretched extremities. Cuuct- KixiON. The cross on which the Redeemer suffered on Cal- vary was said to have been found buried at Jerusalem, with 2 others, by St. Helena, 3 May, 328 (termed the Invention of the Cross); Christ's, it is alleged, being distinguished by the cure of a sick woman from its touch. It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, on plundering Jerusalem ; but recovered by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in bat- tle), 14 Sept. 615, a da\' since commemorated in some churches as " the festival of the Exaltation of the Cross," established in 642. Church writers say that a great shining cross, seen in the heavens by Constantino, led him to adopt it on his standard, with the inscription "/n hoc signo vinces^^ — "Under this sign thou shall conquer." With this (labarum) he advanced to Rome, where he vanquished Maxentius, 27 Oct. 312. — Lenglet. Signing with the Cross first practised by Christians to distin- guish themselves from pagans about 110 In the time of Tertulliau, it was deemed efficacious against poison, witchcraft, etc ' 260 Crosses in churches and chambers were introduced about 431; and set up on steeples about 568 Crosses in honor of queen Eleanor were set up in places where her hearse rested, between 1296 (when she died) and 1807 Crosses and idolatrous pictures removed from churches, and crosses in streets demolished, by order of Parliament 1641 Maids of the C7-oss, a community of young women who made vows of poverty, chastity, and oliedience, instituted 1625 Order of Ladies of the Star of the Cross, instituted by the era- press Eleonora di Gonzaga, wife of Leopold I '. . . . 1668 Cross-Keys, Va. Here on 8 June, 1862, gen. Fremont engaged part of "Stonewall" Jackson's command under gen. Ewell, with indecisive results. Ewell retired during the night. Peninsular campaign. Croton aqueduct, which supplies New York city with water from the Croton river, was begun in 1837, and fin- ished in 1842 at a cost of $12,500,000. It is of brick, and ex- tends from Croton river dam about 30 miles from Harlem river along the Hudson, crossing the Harlem by the High bridge. Its capacity is about 98,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. The population of the city when it was finished was quite 350,000. By 1880 the rapid increase of population made an increased water supply necessary. A plan was submitted to the mayor b\' the commissioners of public works, 22 Feb. 1882, for a new aqueduct. A resolution of the state senate, 9 Jan. 1883, requested the mayor of New York to appoint 5 commis- sioners to examine plans, etc. The commissioners reported 7 Mch. 1883, recommending a new aqueduct. The Aqueduct act passed by the legislature authorizing the work, 1883. The aqueduct commission permanently organized, 8 Aug. 1883. Benj. S. Church appointed chief engineer, 15 Aug. 1883. Ex- pense of the commissions, 1883, $22,747.90 ; 1884, $185,730.63 ; 1885, $2,265,147.58; 1886, $5,029,684.21. Total from 8 Aug. 1883, $7,503,310.32 ; 1887, $7,242,293.75. Total from the first to Jan. 1888, $14,745,604.27. The work of sinking the first shaft began about 15 Jan. 1884, and the new aqueduct was opened for use 15 July, 1890. Total cost, $24,767,477.25. The cross-section of the aqueduct is equal to a circle 14 feet in diameter; in its length of 33J miles its fall is 33.8 feet. Its discharging capacity is 318,000,000 gallons in 24 hours; or with the old aqueduct, 415,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. In connection with the aqueduct the dam at Quaker Bridge was built, 1887-91, at a cost of $3,000,000. It is 1350 feet long, 277 feet high, and 216 feet wide at the bottom. The capacity I CRO 213 CTE of this dam is nearly 70,000,000,000 gallons, and it impounds the water of 800 sq. miles. Croto'na, S. Italy, a city founded by the Achaean Greeks about 710 B.C. Here Pythagoras taught about 520. The Crotons destroyed Sybaris, 510. Its medical school was, in the days of Herodotus and long after, the most renowned in Greece. crown. An Amalekite brought Saul's crown to David, 1056 B.C. (2 Sara. i.). The (irst Roman who wore a crown was Tarquin the Elder, 616 b.c. The crown was first a fillet tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flow- ers, and also of stuffs adorned with jewels. Tiaua. Crown of Alfred bore 2 little bells (872) ; it is said to have been long preserved iit Westminster, and perhaps was that described in the parliamentary inventory oflGli). Athelstan's crown resembled an earl's coronet, 929. William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with points, 1066. Richard III. introduced the crosses, 1483. Henry VII. introduced the arches, 1485. Crown and regalia of England were pledged to the city of London by Richard II. for 20001. in 1386; see the king's receipt on re- deeming them. — Rymer. Crown of Charles II., made in 1660, is the oldest existing in Eng- land. Blood's Conspiracy. Imperial state crown of England was made by Rundell & Bridges in 1838, principally of Jewels from old crowns. It contains 1 large ruby, 1 large sapphire, 16 sapphires, II emeralds, 4 rubies, 1363 brilliant diamonds, 1273 rose diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 drop- shaped pearls, and 273 pearls. —Pro/ Tennant. crown landi. The revenue from those in England is now nearly all subject to Parliament, which appropriates to the sovereign and government about 375,000/. a year. The revenue of the duchy of Cornwall belongs to the prince of Wales even during minority. Henry VII. (1485) resumed the lauds given to followers by sovereigns of the house of York. The hereditary crown estates were largely bestowed on court- iers by sovereigns — especially by the Stuarts. CrOW^n of India, Imperial Order of, instituted by queen Victoria (on assuming the title of empress, 1 Jan. 1877), for princesses of the royal family, distinguished Indian and Briti.'ih ladies, and wives of viceroys and governors and sec- retaries of state for India, 31 Dec. 1877. Twelve ladies (the marchioness of Salisbury and others) invested, 29 Apr. 1878. Crown Point, on lake Champlain, Essex county, N. Y. First fortified by the French in 1731 as fort Frederick ; evacuated by them and occupied by the English under gen. Amherst, 1759; fortified at a cost of f 10,000,000, but fortifica- tions never completed, and after the peace of 1763 not kept in repair. It was occupied by 1 sergeant and 11 men, with 114 cannon (61 serviceable), when captured by "Green Moun- tain Boys" under col. Seth Warner, from the British, 12 May, 1775. Abandoned by the Americans on the approach of Bur- goyne, 1777. Reoccupied same year. crowns and half-crowns of silver were coined in England by Edward VI., 1553; none in 1861, and they were gradually withdrawn from circulation. The coinage of half- crowns was resumed, 1874, after an inquiry as to their utility. CroiVS, Indians. crucifix, an imitation of the cross bearing the figure of Christ, first known in the 4th, came into general use in the 8th century. crucifixion, A cruel mode of execution among the Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Jews, and Romans. Ariarathes, of Cappadocia, aged 80, vanquished by Perdiccas, when identified among the prisoners, was flayed alive and nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, 322 b.c. Jesus Christ was crucified 3 Apr. 33 a.d. by the Romans, in- stigated by the Jews, in its most cruel form, namely, by piercing the hands and feet with nails. — Ushe?- (15 Apr. 29 A.D., Clinton; 28 Mch. 31 a.d., Hales). Crucifixion discon- tinued by Constantine, SSO.—Lenglef. cruelty to animals. Animals, Vivisection. crusades (Fr. croisades), wars to drive infidels from Jerusalem and the " Holy Land." Peter Gautier, the Hermit, an officer of Amiei\s, returning from pilgrimage, incited pope Urban II. to expel infidels from the holy city. Urban con- vened a council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, ambas- sadors of the chief Christian potentates assisting, and gave Peter commission to summon Europe to a general war, 1094. The first crusade was proclaimed ; an army of 300,000 men raised, with Godfrej' de Bouillon as commander under Peter's guidance, 1095. The warriors wore a red cross on the right shoulder, and their motto was Volente de Dieu—^'- God's will." The French government has published chronicles of the cru- sades in a magnificent form (1844-77). I. Crusade (1095) ended, Jerusalem taken by assault, 15 July, 1099; Godfrey de Bouillon made king. II. Preached by 8t. Bernard in 1146, headed by emperor Conrad II. and Louis V^II. of France. Crusaders defeated; Jerusalem lost in 1187. III. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. etc., in 1188, joined by Philip II. of France and Richard I. of England in 1190. Glorious, but fruitless. IV. 1195, by emperor Henry VI. ; successful till his death in 1197. V. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. Baldwin, count of Flanders, attacked the (i reeks, and took Constantinople in 1203. His com- panions returned. VI. In 1216. In 1229, emperor Frederick II. obtained possession of Jerusalem by truce for 10 years. VII. In 1240 Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at Palestine, but soon departed. VIII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), 1248; defeated and taken prisoner at Mansourah, 5 Apr. 12.50; released by ran.som ; truce of 10 years. IX., and last, 1270, by St. Louis, who died of a contagions disease, at Carthage, in Africa, 25 Aug. Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. of England, was at Acre, 1271. In 1291, the sultan took Acre; Christians driven out of Syria. In 1212 occurred the " children's crusades." In France, under the boy Stephen, 30,000 encamped around Vendome. and in moving to Marseilles 10,000 were lost. Thence about 5000 sailed for Pales- tine, only in the end to be sold into slavery. In the same year 20,000 (icrman boys and girls set out from Cologne for Palestine, under the peasant lad Nicholas; 5000 reached Genoa; the rest mostly dispersed ; some sailed for Palestine from Brindisi, only to be soon forgotten. The (icnoese persuaded their visitors to re- main, and some rose to distinction in the stale. Albigenses. cry'olite, a Greenland mineral, a fluoride of aluminium and sodium, used in extracting aluminium in 1855. Cryopll'orus, an instrument (invented by dr.Wollas- ton about 1812) to demonstrate the effects of evaporation in producing cold. Cryp'togram, The Great. Shakp:speake's plays. cryp'tograpll, an apparatus for writing in cipher, in- vented by sir Charles Wheatstone, and made known in 1868, designed, by using different key-words, to insure absolute se- crecy. A cryptographic machine was patented 1860. Cipiib:h. a system of secret writing described in "Archiv der .Mathe- matik " 1795 Prof. J. F. Lorenz published a system at Magdeburg 806 Joseph Ludwig Kluber published " Kryptographik " 1809 Messrs. Thos. De la Rue published Wm. Henry Rochfort's sys- tem of secret writing termed " Arcanography," resembling Lorenz's 1836 A. L. Flamm patented an improvement on this system, about Oct. 1875 Crystal palace, New York. This building, in Res- ervoir square, was opened 14 July, 1853, hy president Pierce, for a universal industrial exhibition. Its main buildings and galleries covered 173,000 sq. feet. After the exhibition the American Institute fairs and other meetings were held there. On 5 Oct. 1858, it was destroyed by fire, with many articles for exhibition at the Institute. The palace, built by a stock company, was designed by Messrs. Carstensen & Gildemeister, of New York, and was considered a beautiful piece of architect- ure. Crystal palace, Sydenham, Engl. The exhibition building of 1851 was surrendered to Messrs. Fox & Henderson, 1 Dec. 1851, and the materials sold for 70,000/. to a companj', who soon rebuilt the Crystal palace on its present site, near Sydenham in Kent, under the direction of sir Joseph Paxton, Owen Jones, Digby Wyatt, and others. The proposed capital of 500,000/. (in 100,000 shares of 5/. each) was increased Jan. 1853, to 1,000,000/. crystallog'raphyisthe science of symmetrical forms assumed by substances passing from the liquid to the solid state. Rome de Lisle published his "Essai de Cristallogra- phie " in 1772 ; but Rene-Just Haiiy is regarded as the found- er of the modern school of crystallography (1801). — Whewell. Dana, Dufresnoy, and Miller are eminent modern writers on this subject. Ctes'iphon (afterwards Al Madayn), on the Tigris, the capital of Parthia, was taken by Trajan in 116, and by Alex- CUB 214 andor Severus (who made 100,000 captives), 198. Its defences deterred Julian from siege, 303. It was taken by Omar and Saracens, 637, and destroyed, and Cufa, near it, built of the remains. Cuba (the original name), an island in the Caribbean sea. the largest of the Antilles, discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, 28 Oct. 1492 ; settled by Velasquez, 1 511-12. Area, 43,220 sq. miles. Population, 1870,'7G5,000 whites, 250,000 col- oreav- ■enant. In 1671 commissioners were appointed. The customs were consolidated by Mr. Pitt in 1787. Many changes have been made since. Revknue. Customs in Ireland: a sack of wool, 3d ; a last of hides, M. ; a barrel of wine, Id 1224 Customs business of Ireland was transferred to the London board ; 6 Jan. 1830 ^ CUT Customs receipts in Great Britain from 1872 to 1890 vary be- tween 19,000,000^. and 21,000,000^. yearly. CUSTOMS AND CUSTOM-HOUSES IN THE UNITED STATES. Act of Parliament establishing custom-bouses in the American colonies under English commissioners of customs 1672 Further enforced 1676-77 Customs collected in New York prior to 1677 First custom-house in Boston, Edward Randolph, couimissioner 1680 First custom-bouse in Charleston, S. C 1685 " Plantation duties " collected in the colonies paid the custom'- house expenses, leaving a surplus of from $5000 to $6000. (Hildreth) 1690-1700 Court of vice-admiralty established 1696-97 Enumerated articles greatly increased 1767 LOCATION OF CUSTOM-HOUSES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1890. Alabama— Mobile. Alaska— Sitka. California— Eureka, San Diego, San Francisco, Wilmington. Colorado— Denver. Connecticut— Fairfield, Hartford, New Haven, New London, Ston- ington. Delaware— Wilmington. District of Columbia— Georgetown. Florida — Appalachicola, Cedar Keys, Fernandina, Jacksonville, Key West, Pensacola, St. Augustine, Tampa. Georgia— Atlanta, Brunswick, St. Marys, Savannah. Illinois— Chicago, Galena. Indiana — Evansville, Indianapolis, Michigan City. Iowa — Burlington, Dubuque. Kentucky — Louisville, Paducah. Louisiana— Brashear, New Orleans. Maine— Bangor, Bath, Belfast, Castine, Eastp'ort, Ellsworth, Houl- ton, Kennebunk, Machias, Portland, Saco, Waldoborough, Wis- casset, York. Maryland— Annapolis, Baltimore, Crisfield. Massachusetts — Barnstable, Boston, Edgarton, Fall River, Glouces- ter, Marblehead, Nantucket, New Bedford, Newburyport, Plym- outh, Salem. Michigan— Detroit, Grand Haven, Grand Rapids, Marquette, Port Huron. Minnesota— Duluth, St. Paul. Mississippi— Natchez, Shieldsborough, Vicksburg. Missouri — Kansas City, St. Joseph, St. Louis. Montana— Fort Benton. Nebraska— Omaha. New Hampshire — Portsmouth. New Jersey— Bridgeton, Newark, Perth Amboy, Soraers Point, Trenton, Tuckerton. New York— Albany, Buffalo, Cape Vincent, Dunkirk, New^ York, Ogdensburg, Oswego, Patchogue, Plattsburg, Port Jefferson, Rochester, Sag Harbor, Suspension Bridge. North Carolina — Beaufort, Edenton, Newberne, Wilmington. Ohio— Cincinnati, Columbus, Cleveland, Sandusky, Toledo. Oregon— Astoria, Empire City, Portland, Yaquina. Pennsylvania— Erie, Philadelphia, Pittsburg. Rhode Island — Bristol, Newport, Providence. South Carolina — Beaufort, Charleston, Georgetown. Tennessee— Chattanooga, Memphis. Texas— Brownsville, Corpus Christ!, Eagle Pass, El Paso, Galveston. Vermont — Burlington. Virginia — Alexandria, Cherrystone, Newport News, Norfolk, Peters- burg, Richmond, Tappahannock. Washington— Port Townsend. West Virginia— AVheeling. Wisconsin — La Crosse, Milwaukee. For custom receipts in the U. S., Revexue. CUStOS rotulorum, keeper of the rolls or records of the sessions of the peace, England, previously nominated by the lord chancellor, was in 1545 directed to be appointed by a bill signed by the king. The act was confirmed in 1689. CustOZZa {hoos-tot'-za), near Verona, N. Italy. Here ' the Italians were defeated by marshal Radetzky, 23 July, 1848; and here they were again defeated, 24 June, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on the Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians by the archduke Albrecht. The Italian loss was computed to be 720 killed, 3112 wounded, and 4815 missing; the Austrian loss, 960 killed, 3690 wounded, and nearly a thousand prisoners. The Italians soon recrossed the Mincio. CutCh (hutch), W. India, a principality under the gov- ernment of Bombay. In consequence of the depredations of the natives, the East India government resorted to hostile measures, which resulted in a stringent treaty with the rao in Jan. 1816. In 1819 he was deposed for misgovernment, and replaced by his infant son, supported by a British contingent. The traffic in children, detected in Dec. 1835, was suppressed by the British. Many persons perished by an earthquake in July, ISi'd.— Thornton. Cuttack (ka-tah'), E. India, a British province ceded to the East India company in 1803. Cuttack, the capital, was CUT taken by col. Harcourt, 14 Oct. same year. The Mahrattas conquered it in llbO.—Thot^itott. CllttlllK-OUt niaclllliet*. Wearing apparel was first cut «)iit by machinery in Kngland by ^lessrs. llyams in 1853. The machine, invented by Frederick Osbourn, consists of a reciprocating vertical knife working through a 8U)t in the table that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The cloth is pressed by the attendant up to the edge of the knife, which divides it along lines marked on the upper layer. CUZCO {ki>os'-ko), capital of Peru, was entered by Pi- zarro in Nov. 1533, and taken by him in Aug. 1536, after 5 months' siege. eyail'Og^en, a colorless gas (composed of nitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose and eyes, derived from Prussian blue, was tirst obtained in the free state by Gay-Lussac in 1815, being the first instance of the isolati()n of a compound radical. cycle of the sun, the 28 years before the days of the week return to the same days of the month ; that of the moon is 19 lunar years and 7 intercalary months, or 19 solar years. The cycle oV Jupiter is GO years. ' The Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years by Victorius, ^63.— Blair. Calippic Pkriou, Mktonic Cycle. cyclone§. Storms. Cyclope'an, from Cyclopes, a fabled race of gigantic size, a term given to certain ancient works of masonry from the great size of the stones, found in Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor, erected probably before 1000 b.c. cymbal, the oldest known musical instrument, made of brass. Xenojihon says the cymbal was invented by Cybele, and used in her feasts about 1580 b.c. Cyinri or Kymri (hence Cambria), the great Celtic family to which the Britons belonged, came from Asia and occupied much of Europe perhaps before 1500 b.c. About 640 A.D. Dyvnwal Moelmud reigned " King of the Cymry." Wales. cynics, a sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes (about 396 b.c, IHofj. Laert., Clinton), who professed to con- temn all worldly things, even sciences, except morality ; and lived in public. Diogenes, the eminent cynic, died 323 b.c. Philosophy. Cynoscepii'aliie (dogs' heads, so named from the shape of the heights), in Thessaly, where Pelopidas and the Thebans defeated Alexander, tyrant of Pherae and the Thes- salians, 364 b.c. Pelopidas was slain. Here also the consul Flaminius defeated Philip V. of Macedon, 197 b.c, and ended the war. Phalanx. CypreSi, Cupressns sempervirens, a tree of Cyprus. The Athenians buried heroes in coffins of cypress, of which Egyp- tian mummy-chests were also made. The ancients planted it in cemeteries. The cypress was taken to England about 1441. The deciduous cypress, C.disticha, exported from North Amer- ica before 1640. Cyprui, an island 148 miles long and about 40 wide, in the Mediterranean, near the coasts of Asia Minor and Syria ; present capital Levkosia or Nikosia ; seaports, Larnaka and Famagosta. Here the ancients found copper (ces Cyprium), silver, and precious stones. The country was fertile and well- 216 DAC wooded in ancient times, and under Venice its commerce wan important. Area,3584 8q. miles. Population, two thirds (J reek, 1891, 209,300 ; under Venice, said to have been 1,000,000. Phttjuician colonists introduced the worship of Ashtaroth (Gr. ^•^'• Aphrodite, Rom. Venus) about 56S> Conquered by Amasis, king of Kgypt; revolted at the invasion of Cumbyses, and submitted to Persia 525 Kovolled and subjected 500-4fl9 Partly independent under Evagoras and Nicocles, kings of Saiamis .387 et scq. Supported Alexander tlie Great 33S Taken from Demetrius by Ptolemy of Kgypt 296 Became a Roman province 58 A.D. Visited by Paul and Barnabas (Acts xiii.) 45 Great revolt of the Jews 117 Seized by A rabs, 646 ; recovered by Greeks 648 Isaac Comnenus, king 1184 Seized by Richard I. of England, 1191; and given to Guy de Lusignan, as king 1192 " Order of the Sword " established (ceased with 8th king) 1195 Guy's descendant, Catherine de Cornaro, sold it to Venice 1487 Cruelly subdued by the Turks 1570-71 Insurrections suppressed, 1764; with massacre 182» Gen. di Cesnola, a Genoese, American consul, by excavations discovers Babylonian, Egyptian, Phoenician, and Greek gold and silver ornaments and relics (sold to Metropolitan Museum, New York) 1866 et seq. His work, "Cyi)rus: its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples," pub. iu London and New York Dec. 187T Given to Great Britain for administration by the Anglo-Turkish convention 4 June, 1878 Possession taken by admiral lord John Hay, 12 July; by sir Garnet J. Wolseley, as lord high commissioner 22 July, " British buy the government lands excei)t the sultan's estate. . 187& Excavations on ihe site of the temple of Aphrodite, discoveries of inscriptions, etc 1888 Cyr, St., near Versailles, France. Here a college for la- dies was founded by Madame de Maintenon, in 1686, and here she died, 15 Apr. 1719. It was made a military college in 1803. Cyrena'iC Sect, founded by Aristippus the Elder, 365 B.C., taught that the supreme good is pleasure, particularly of the senses; and virtue is commended only as causing pleasure. Cyreiie (si-ree'-nee), N.W. Africa, a Greek colony, founded by Battus about 630 b.c Aristaeus, chief of the col- onists, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentapolis, from its 5 towns — Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Arsinoe. It was conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., who placed many Jews here (286 B.c). It was a Jew of Cyrene whom Roman soldiers compelled to bear the cross of Jesus. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Komans, 97 B.C It is now a desert. Some Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the British museum in July, 1861. Cyz'icil§, Asia Minor. In the Peloponnesian war, the Lacedaemonian fleet under Mindarus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, was defeated by Athenians under Alcibiades, with great slaughter, near Cyzicus, Mindarus being slain, 410 b.c — Plutarch. czar (the title of the emperor of Russia), probably from Caesar, said to have been assumed by Ivan Basilowitz after defeating the Tartars, about 1482. The empress is termed czarina, and the eldest son czarowitch. Czecll§ {tcheks), a branch of the Slavonic race, native in Bohemia and Moravia. The antagonism between Germans and Czechs is milder in Moravia than in Bohemia. Czech representatives entered the Reichsrath at A^ienna, 8 Oct. 1879. Austria. D D in the English alphabet is the fourth letter, as it also is in the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Greek, and Latin alphabets. Its form is the same as that of the Latin, and the Latin is no other than the Greek A. This symbol is again from the an- cient Phoenician, and so from the Egyptian. Alphabet, Grimm's law. Dacca, N.E. India, a province of Bengal, acquired by the East India company in 1765, and ruled under them by a. nawab till its annexation in 1845.— Thornton. Da'cia, a Roman province including parts of Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Galicia, after many contests, was subdued by Trajan, 106, when Decebalus, the Dacian leader, was killed. Dacia was abandoned to the Goths by Aurelian, in 270; subdued by Huns, 376; by Scyth- ians, 566 ; by Charlemagne, and by Magyars, in the 9th cen- tury. dacoitK', hereditary robbers of N. India, formerly em- ployed in war by native sovereigns. DAG 217 DAN FoRMio in 1797 it was given to Austria, but in 1805 it was in- corporated with Italy, and gave the title of duke to marshal Soult. In 1814 it reverted to Austria. Area, 4937 sq. miles. Pop. 1890, 527,426. DaltOll, northern Ga. Here the confederates, under gen. Jose{)h E. Johnston, strongly fortified, checked the ad- vance of gen. Sherman, until forced to evacuate by a flank movement by gen. McPherson, 10-12 May, 1864. Atlanta CAMPAIGN. Daltonism. Color. Dam'araland. German East and West Africa. Damascus, Syria, a city in the time of Abraham, 1913 B.C. (Gen. xiv.) ; now the capital of a Turkish pachalic. Taken by David (1040 B.C.), but soon retaken; capital of Syria ^^• under Benhadad and bis successors 951 Recovered by Jeroboam II about 822 Taken by Tiglath-Piloser, king of Assyria 740 From tbe Assyrians it passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks, under Alexander 333 To the Romans about 64 A.D. Paul, converted, preaches here (Acts ix.) 52 Taken by the Saracens, 633; by the Turks in 1075; destroyed by Tamerlane Jan. 1401 Taken by Ibrahim Pacha 1832 Disappearance of a Greek priest, named father Tpmmaso, here, 1 Feb. 1840, led to torture and persecution of the Jews, who were accused of his murder, which caused remonstrances from many states of Europe 1840 Damascus restored to Turkey 1841 In a dispute between Druses and Maronites, the Mahometans massacred above 3000 Christians and destroyed houses, ren- dering vast numbers of persons destitute; many rescued by Abd el Kader, who held the citadel 9, 10, 11 July, I860 These crimes punished by Fuad Pacha; 160 persons executed, including the Turkish governor; and 11,000 made soldiers, Aug. -Sept. " damask linens and silks, first manufactured at Damascus, have been beautifully imitated by the Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture was brought to England by arti- sans who fled from the persecutions of Alva, 1571-73. The damask rose was brought to England from the south of Europe bv dr. Linacre, phvsician to Henry VIII., about 1540. Damicns's attempt. Louis XV. of France was stabbed with a knife in the right side by Robert Fran9ois Damiens, a native of Arras, 6 Jan. 1757. The culprit endured frightful tortures, and was then broken on the wheel, 28 Mch. Torture. Damiet'ta, a town of Lower Egypt, was taken by the crusaders, 5 Nov. 1219 ; lost, 1221 ; retaken by Louis IX., 5 June, 1249; surrendered as his ransom when a prisoner, 6 May, 1250. The present town was built soon after. Here, it is said, dimity was first manufactured. Pop. 1888, 34,044. Da'mon and Pyth'ias (or Phintias), Pytha- gorean philosophers. Damon was condemned to death by Dionysius of Syracuse, about 387 b.c. He obtained leave to settle some domestic affairs, promising to return at the time of execution, and Pythias became his surety. When Damon did not appear, Pythias surrendered and was led to execution ; but at this moment Damon returned. Dionysius remitted the sentence, and desired to share their friendship. Dan'ai, a name originally given to the Argives, as hav- ing been subjects of Danatis, king of Argos, 1474 b.c. In con- sequence, however, of the warlike character of the race and their high renown, Homer uses the name Danai (Aavaoi) as a general appellation for the Greeks. Danee of Death. The triumph of death over all men was a favorite subject with artists of the middle ages, in rude carvings and pictures in various countries. Chorea MachabcBorum or Danse Macabre, the first printed rep- resentation, published by Guyot Marchand, a bookseller of Paris 1485 Holbein's " Dance of Death " (53 distinct sketches for engrav- ing, called " Imagines Mortis." They are now at St. Peters- burg; the authorship has been much controverted), printed at Lyons in 1538, and at Basel 1594 Many editions have since appeared; one with introduction and notes by Russell Smith 1849 in turn bv the Goths Hune-arians and The term Z>anceo/7?eaane§ or Northmen. Denmark. During their attacks upon Britain and Ireland they made a descent on France, where in 895, under Rollo, they received presents un- der the walls of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Normans (Northmen); hence Normandy, in 911. The invasions of England and Ireland were as follows : First hostile appearance of the Danes 783 They land near Purbeck, Dorset 787 Descend in Northuraberland; destroy the church at Lindis- farne; are repelled, and perish by shipwreck 8 Jan. 794 Invade Scotland and Ireland 795, 796 Enter Dublin with 60 sail, and seize also Fingal, etc 798 Take the isle of Sheppey 832 Defeated at Hengeston, in Cornwall, by Egbert 835 Land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take Canterbury and Lon- don 851 Descend on the north, and take York 867 Defeat the Saxons at Merton 871 Take Warehara and F>xeter 876 Take Chippenham ; but 120 ships are wrecked 877 Defeated: Guthrum, their leader, becomes Christian, and many settle in England 878 Alfred enters into a treaty with them 882 Their fleet destroyed by Alfred at Appledore 894 Defeated near isle of Wight 897 Invade and waste Wales 900 Defeated by Edward the Elder 922 Defeat the people of Leinster , 956 Ravage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset .* 982 Ravage Essex and Suffolk 990 Said to assume the title lord dane about 991 Their fleet defeated after a breach of treaty, purchased by money 992 Anlaf and Sweyn ravage Kent and the south (erroneously said to have been paid 16,000^. for peace) 994 A general massacre of the Danes, by Ethelred II 13 Nov. 1002 Sweyn revenges it, and receives 36,000i. (as annual tribute) to depart 1003 Their fleet anchors at isle of Wight 1006 They make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons in Suffolk, 1010; sack Canterbury and kill the inhabitants, 1011; re- ceive 48,000i. as tribute, and murder Alphege, archbishop, 1012 Vanquished at Clontarf, Ireland (Glo.ntarf) — 1014 Conquest of England completed ; Canute king 1017 Settle in Scotland 1020 lAinl again at Sandwich, carrying plunder to Flanders 1047 Defeated by Harold II. at Stamford bridge 25 Sept. 106G Burn York and kill 3000 Normans 1069 Once more invade England to aid a conspiracy; but compelled to depart 1074 Dan'ite (" Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path," Gen. xlix. 17), a member of an alleged secret society or order of the Mormons connected with the early history of that people; accused of various crimes in the interest of Mormonisra. Denied by the Mormons. Danne'ivcrlic or Danna'ivirlic, a series of earthworks, considered almost impregnable, stretching across the long, narrow peninsula of Schleswig, Holstein, and Jutland — said to have been constructed during the " stone age," long before the art of metal-working. They were rebuilt in 937 by Thyra, queen of Gormo the Old, for which she was named " Dannabod," the pride of the Danes. Repaired by Olaf Tryggveson between 995 and 1000. Near here the Prussians, helping the duchies, defeated the Danes, 23 Apr. 1848. The retreat of the Danes from it, 5 Feb. 1864, occasioned much dissatisfaction at Copenhagen. I>ante'§ "Divlna Commeclia"Avas first print- ed in 1472. Dante was born 14 May, 1265 ; died at Ravenna, 14 Sept. 1321. A festival in his honor, at Florence, was opened by the king, 14 May, 1865, when a large statue of Dante by Pazzi of Ravenna was uncovered. Litekaturk. Dantzic, N. Germany, a commercial city in 997; built, others say, by Waldemar I. in 1165. Poland obtained the sovereignty in 1454. It was seized b}' the king of Prussia, and annexed in 1793. It surrendered to the French, May, 1807 ; and by the treaty of Tilsit was restored to indepen- dence, under the protection of Prussia and Saxony, July, 1807. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and surrendered 1 Jan. 1814. By the treaty of Paris it reverted to Prussia. The Vistula breaking through its dikes, destroyed many lives, 10,000 heads of cattle, and 4000 houses, 9 Apr. 1829. Danube (Ger. Donau ; anciently Ister, in its lower part), the largest river in Europe except the Volga, rises in the Black forest and falls into the Black sea. Trajan's bridge at Gladova was destroyed by Hadrian, to prevent the barbari- ans crossing south. Bridges. Steam navigation was pro- jected on this river, by count Szechenyi, in 1830; the first steamboat was then launched at Vienna, and the Austrian company was formed soon after. The Bavarian company was formed 1836. A canal between the Danube and the Maine was completed by Louis I. of Bavaria. Charlemagne, in the J 8th century, contemplated uniting the Danube and Rhine by l a canal. At the peace of 30 Mch. 1856, the free navigation * of the Danube was secured, and an independent European commission, appointed to make it navigable from Isaktchi to the sea, has worked with good effect. The British govern- ment, in 1868, lent 135,000/. to complete the works. The treaty respecting the navigation of the Danube renewed for 12 years, 13 Mch. 1871. The river suddenly took possession of a new bed, near Vienna, 17 Apr., which was formally opened 30 May, 1875. Navigation of the Danube was regulated by articles 50-54 of Berlin treaty 13 July, 1878 f " Iron Gates," huge rocks in the lower Danube, blown up, * 15 Sept. 1890 f Great bridge commenced at Tchernavoda 21 Oct. " Danubian principalities. Wallachia and Moldavia (capitals, Bucharest and Jassy) were united and named Roumania, 1859. Population of the two, 1860, 3,864,848 ; 1866, 4,424,961 ; 1887, 5,500,000. These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia. Part of Moldavia ceded to Russia 1812 Provinces having joined in the Greek insurrection in 1821, were oppressed by the Turks; but by the treaty of Adriano- ple were placed under the protection of Russia 1829 Porte appointed as hospodars prince Stirbey for Wallachia, and prince Ghika for Moldavia June, 1849 They retire from their governments when the Russians enter Moldavia (Rl'SSO-Turkish waks) 2 July, 1853 Russians quit the provinces and Austrians enter, Sept. 1854; retire Mch. 1857 Government of the principalities finally settled at the Paris conference (there were to be 2 hospodars, chosen by elective assemblages, but under the suzerainty of Turkey) 19 Aug. 1868 DAR 219 DAV Alexander Couza elected hospodar of Moldavia, 17 Jan. ; of Wallachia 5 Feb. 1859 Election acknowledged by the allies Sept. " Union of the provinces (as Roumania) proclaimed and acknowl- edged by the Porte Dec. 1861 [For continuation, Roumania.] Dardanelles', a narrow strait, about 47 miles in length and from 3 to 4 in width, between Europe and Asiatic Turkey, connecting the sea of Marmora with the Ji^gean sea, named Dardanelles from the contiguous town Dardanus. The passage of the strait is easily defended by the fortifications built on its banks ; especially by the two castles, Sestos on the European and Abydos on the Asiatic shore, built by Mahomet IV". in 1659, and commanding the entrance to the sea of Mar- mora at Gallipoli. The strait was passed by the British squad- ron under sir John Duckworth, 19 Feb. 1807; but he repassed with great loss, 3 Mch,, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurl- ing stone shot upon the ships. The allied English and French fleets passed the Dardanelles, at the sultan's request, Oct. 1853. The British squadron passed the Dardanelles against the protest of the Porte, 13 Feb. 1878. Hellespont, Xekxes. Dar'dani, inhabitants of the territory about the ancient city of Troy. Their first king was Dardanus, whence the name, from whom was descended Priam, king of Troy at the time of its siege and capture by the Greeks. Troy. darie, a Persian gold coin, issued by Darius, about 538 B.G, About $bM.—Knowles. It weighed 2 grains more than the English guinea. — Dr. Bernard. Da'rien, Isthmus of, Central America, discovered by Columbus, 1494. Crossed by Balboa, 1513. In 1694 William Paterson, founder of the Bank of England, published his plan for colonizing Darien. A company was formed in 1695, and in 1698-99 3 expeditions sailed thither from Scotland, where 400,000/. had been raised. The first consisted of 1"200 young men of all classes, besides women and children. The enter- prise not being recognized by the English government, the settlements were threatened by the Spaniards, tp whom they were surrendered, 30 Mch. 1700.- Paterson and a few survivors from famine and disease left just before the arrival of the sec- ond expedition. Several years after, 398,085/. were voted by Parliament to the survivors as " equivalent money." 18,000/. were also voted to Paterson ; but the bill was rejected in the House of Lords. Tiie average breadth 40 miles ; least breadth 30 miles. America, Panama. darR ages, a term applied to the middle ages ; ac- cording to Hallam, about 1000 years — from the invasion of France by Clovis, 486, to that of Naples by Charles VIII., 1495. Learning was at a low ebb. Hallam's " View of the Middle Ages," pub. 1818, supplement 1848. dark day. Massachusetts, 19 May, 1780. Dartford, Kent, Engl. Here commenced the insurrec- tion of Wat Tyler, 1381. A convent of nuns, of the order of St. Augustin, endowed here by Edward III., 1355, was convert- ed by Henry VIII. into a royal palace. The first paper-mill in England was erected at Dartford by sir John Spielman, a Ger- man, in 1590 {JSfow), and about the same period the first mill for splitting iron bars. Dartmoor prison^ Devonshire, Engl., founded Mch. 1806. At the close of the war 1812-14, this prison con- tained several thousand U. S. prisoners, as well as impressed U. S. sailors, who would not serve against their country. On Apr. 6, 1815, several months after peace was declared, a dis- turbance took place among the prisoners-, the prison authori- ties fired on them, killing 7 and wounding 33. This act, re- garded by the citizens of the U. S. as a wanton outrage, was justified by the British authorities. Dartmouth, Devon, Engl. Burned by the French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. In a third attempt (1404), the invaders were defeated. The French commander, Du Chastel, 3 lords, and 32 knights, were made prisoners. In the war of the parliament Dartmouth was taken after a siege of 4 weeks, by prince Majrice, who garrisoned the place for the king (1643) •, but gen. Fairfax retook it by storm in 1646. Dartmouth eollei^e, N. H., grew out of an earlier school established by rev. Eleazar Wheelock, D.D., a Congre- gationalist, at Lebanon, Conn., 1754-55, designed for Indian children. To carry the design out more fully, it was trans- ferred to Hanover, N. H., in 1770, having been chartered by gov. Wentworth in 1769. It was named Dartmouth in honor of lord Dartmouth, one of its first patrons. In 1816 it suc- cessfully resisted, under the leadership of Daniel Webster, the creation of a new corporation called Dartmouth university. Colleges, Trials. Darwinism. This term is commonlj' used to mean the doctrine of the origin of species by " natural selection," or the "survival of the fittest;" first taught by the British natural- ist Charles R. Darwin and A. R. Wallace in 1858, and elaborate- ly expounded by Darwin in his book on "The Origin of Spe- cies," 1859. Development, Evolution theory. Species. dates were affixed to grants and assignments, 18 Edw. I. 1290. Before this time it was usual, at least, to pass lands without dating the deed. — Lewis. Many assignments enrolled among earh" records in England establish this. The date is then determined by the names of the parties, particularly that of the grantor: the possession of land was proof of title. — Hto'die. A useful glossary of dates given in old charters and chronicles will be found in Nicolas's " Chronology of History. "^ J. J. Bond's "Handy-book for Verifying Dates," pub. 1866. Dauphin^ (do-fee-na'), a province of S.E. France— so called from the fact that one of the counts otVienne placed a dolphin (dauphin) in his coat-of-arms and assumed the title of dauphin — was successively held by the Allobroges, Bur- gundians, and Lombards. In 732-34 it was delivered from the invading Saracens by Charles Martel. After forming part of the kingdom of Aries, it was much subdivided among counts. One of these, Humbert II., ceded Dauphine and the Viennois to Philip VI. in 1343, for his eldest son, on condition that the prince should be styled dauphine, which took effect in 1349, when Humbert became a monk. Louis Antoine, duke of Angoulerae, son of Charles X., the last dauphin who as- sumed the title at his father's accession, 16 Sept. 1824, died 3 June, 1844. Dav'cntry, a town of Northamptonshire, Engl. Near here Lambert, having escaped from the Tower, was defeated and retaken in his attempt to enkindle war, bv Monk, 21 Apr. 1660. The dissenting academy removed here from Northamp- ton in 1752, was transferred to Wymondley in 1789, thence to London as Coward college, and finally united with Homerton and Highbury colleges as New college, in 1850. David's, St., S.W. Wales, the ancient Menapia, now a poor, decayed place, but once the metropolitan see of Wales, and archiepiscopal. When Christianity was planted in Brit- ain, 3 archbishops' seats were appointed — viz., London, York, and Caerleon upon Usk, in Monmouthshire. That at Caerleon, being too near the dominions of the Saxons, was removed to Mynyw, and called St. David's, in honor of the archbishop who removed it, 522. St. Sampson was the last archbishop of the Welsh ; for he, withdrawing himself on account of a pes- tilence to Dole, in Brittany, carried the pall with him. In the reign of Henry I. the archbishops submitted to the see of Canterbury. — Beat son. Present income, 4500/. David's day, St., l Mch., is annually commemorated b}' the Welsh, in honor of St. David. Tradition states that on St. David's birthday, 540, a great victory was obtained by the Welsh over their Saxon invaders ; and that the Welsh soldiers were distinguished, by order of St. David, by a leek in their caps. Davis, Jefferson, Capture of. United States, 1865. Davis's, Jefferson, order regarding gen. Benj. F. Butler and the officers of his command. United States, 23 Dec. 1862. Davis's strait, North America, connects Baffin's bay with Atlantic ocean; discovered by John Davis, 11 Aug. 1585, on his voyage to find a northwest passage, 1585-87. He made 2 more voyages for this purpose, and 5 to the East Indies; but was killed bv Japanese pirates, on the coast of Malacca, 27 or 29 Dec. 1605'. Davy lamp, etc. Safety lamp. Davy medal, furnished by the sale of sir Humphry Davy's plate, was first awarded (Nov. 1877) by the Royal society to profs. Bun- sen and Kirchhoff for their discovery of Spectrum analysis. DAV 220 DEA dB'Tyum, a new metal, announced as discovered by Sergius Keni, 28 June, 1877, in the residuum of platinum ore; said Ui be hard, infusible, and rather ductile. It has been suspected to be ruthenium. day. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, at sunset among the Athenians and Jews ; and among the Romans at midnight as with us. The Italians in some places reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks strike 24 hours. The Chinese divide the day into 12 parts of 2 hours each. The astronomical day begins at noon, is divided into 24 hours (instead of 2 parts of 12 hours), and is used in the nautical almanac. Thus the astronomical day 8 Dec. begins at noon of 8 Dec. and ends at noon 9 Dec. At Greenwich, from 1 Jan. 1885, the day of 24 hours began at midnight ; the reckoning was recommended for railways, etc. The Washington Prime Meridian Conference adopted a reso- lution declaring the universal day to be the mean solar day, beginning, for all the world, at the moment of mean midnight of the initial meridian, coinciding with the beginning of the civil ilay, and that meridian to be counted from zero up to 24 hours, 21 Oct. 1884. The scheme for universal time was ad- vocated by W. H. M. Christie, the astronomer royal at the Royal British institution, 19 Mch. 1886. Standard Timk. cleacone§ses, or ministering widows, have their qual- ifications given in 1 'rim. v. 9, 10 (65). Their duties were to visit the poor and sick, assist at the agapre or love-feasts, ad- monish the j'oung women, etc. The office was discontinued in the Western church in the 5th and 6th centuries, and in the Greek church about the 121 h, but again revived by pastor Fliedner, of the United Evangelical church of Prussia, at Kaiserswerth, in 1836. The appointment of deaconesses in th« Anglican church, subject to the parochial clergy, was advocated by the bishop of Ely, Englan'd, about 1853, and some were ap- pointed. The Diocesan Deaconess institution, London, was established in 1861. The largest institution in the United States is in the Episcopal diocese of Long Island, established in 1872. deacon§ (literally, servants), an order of Christian min- isters, began with the Apostles, about 53 (Acts vi.). Their qualifications are given by St. Paul (65),.l Tim. iii. 8-14. This order or office is established in the church of Rome, Anglican, Presbyterian, Congregational, Baptist, Methodist, and others. dead. Prayers for their benefit were probably offered in the 2d century, being referred to by Tertullian, who died 220. The practice was protested against by Aerius, and de- fended by Epiphanius, who died 403. It is generally objected to by the church of England, but is not expressly forbidden; 80 decided in the court of arches, 1873-76. dead "iweight loan acquired its name from its locking up the capital of the Bank of England, which in 1823 advanced 11,000,000/. to the government (to construct new ordnance, etc.), in exchange for an annuity of 585,740/. for 44 years, which ceased in June, 1867. deaf and dumb. Comparing the figures of 1885, there were in the United States, Great Britain, and France, 179 schools for the deaf and dumb, employing about 1200 teach- ers and having over 12,500 pupils. Of these schools, 61 were in the U. S., 48 in Great Britain and Ireland, and 70 in France. There were in the U. S. in 1891, 73 schools with an aggregate attendance of 8000 scholars, and employing over 600 teachers; the value of the buildings and groinids belonging to these 73 institutions is about $10,000,000. The estimated deaf popula- tion of the U. S. is 40,000, about 2000 of whom live in New York and Brooklyn. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedic- tine monk of Spain, on Jerome Cardan's system, about 1570. Bonet, a monk, publishes a system of deaf-mute instruction at Madrid 1620 Dr. John Wallis, Savilian professor of mathematics in the uni- versity of Oxford, taught the deaf and dumb, and published a work on the subject 1650 "Didascalocophus, or Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor," by George Dalgrano (the first English writer who gives a manual alpha- bet) pub 1680 Abb6 de I'Ep^e establishes his school in Paris 1765 First school for deaf-mutes in Great Britain started in Edin- burgh by Thomas Braidwood 1773 Dr. W. Thornton, of Philadelphia, Pa., published an essay on "Teaching the Deaf to Speak" 1793 Unsuccessful attempts made by Braidwood to establish schools for the deaf in Now York and Virginia Asylum for deaf-and-dumb children opened in Loudon through the exertions of Mr. Townsond in 17y'2; one in Edinburgh by J. Braidwood in 1810; and one in Birmingham by T. Braidwood, Asylum at Claromont, Dublin, opened First institution for the instruction of deaf-mutes in America, opened under dr. T. H. Gallaudet, at Hartford, Conn.. 1.5 Apr. New York institution chartered, 15 Apr. 1817 ; Pennsylvania institution, 1820 ; Kentucky institution [Provision for the education of deaf-mutes is now made In every stale.] Rev. dr. T. H. Gallaudet, vicar of St. Ann's church, New York, begins holding services in the sign language in his church. . Statue to the memory of rev. T. H. Gallaudet. erected at a cost of $2500 by the deaf of the U. S., is unveiled at Hartford, 6 ~ Conn. Sei)t. 1811 1815 1816 1817 1852 1854 1864 1866 1869 1870 1871 1872 1874 1876 ItSO 1885 National college for deaf mutes, dr. E. M. Gallaudet, president, established at Washington, D. C Alex. Melville Bell expounds his system of Visible speech to the Society of Arts, London 14 Mch. An English deaf-and-dumb debating club (Wallis club) closed its :Jd session Apr. Foundation stone of St. Saviour's church, near Oxford St., Lon- don, for the deaf and dumb, laidby the prince of Wales, 5 July, A.ssociation for the oral instruction of deaf and dumb, founded in England on the German system introduced by William van Praagh [Taught by speech and lip movement only, the finger al- phabet and artificial signs excluded] Oral Association school and Training college on Fitzroy sqnnre, London, Engl., established 16 July, Church mission to deaf mutes incorporated in the U. S Monument to Laurent Clerc erected in Hartford, Conn., and unveiled 16 Sept. Ordination of the first deaf person to the ministry of the Epis- copal church, rev. Henry Winter Syle, occurs in Philadelphia, International congress at Milan ; great majority in favor of oral teaching of deaf-mutes Sept. A deaf mutes' home, begun as a branch of the church mission, removed to Wappinger's Falls, N. Y., and established as the Gallaudet home for aged and infirm deaf-mutes Bronze statue, emblematic of the meeting between Gallaudet and Alice Cogswell, and called the "Gallaudet Centennial Memorial," is unveiled at Washington, D. C 26 June, 1889 Convention of deaf-mutes from all parts of the world at Paris, " dean (decanvs), a name commonly given to the arch- presbyter, or eldest [jresbyter, in the 12th century ; originally a military title, an officer over 10 soldiers. In the church of England the dean and chapter of a cathedral nominally elect the bishop and form his council. By 13 and 14 Car. IL (1662), a dean must be in priest's orders. The office had sometimes been held by a layman, under special dispensation. The an- cient office of " rural dean," often revived in England since 1850. The Deans and Canons' Resignation act passed 13 May, 1872. The Five Deans' memorial, and counter- memorial. Church of England, 1881. Dean, Forest of, Gloucestershire, Engl., anciently all wooded, in the last centurj^, though much curtailed, was 20 miles long and 10 wide. It was famous for its oaks, the ma- terial of ships of war. Riots in this district, when more than 3000 persons assembled in the forest, and demolished upwards of 50 miles of wall and fence, throwing open 10,000 acres of plantation, took place on 8 June, 1831. The Dean Forest (mines) act passed 16 Aug. 1871. death penalty, ordained for murder, 2348 B.C. (Gen. ix. 6). B.C. Jews generally stoned their criminals (Lev. xx. 2) 1490 Dracos code punished every offence with death 621 It was limited to murder by Solon 594 Maurice, son of a nobleman, hanged, drawn, and quartered, for a.d. piracy, the first such execution in England, 25 Hen. Ill 1241 Capital punishment abolished in Russia by Catherine II., ex- cept for treason 1767 Abolished for most offences in England by sir Robert Peel's acts, 4 to 10 Geo. IV ; 1824-29 By the Criminal Law Consolidation acts, death was confined to treason and wilful murder 1861 British commission on capital punishment (appointed 1864) recommend penal servitude instead of death for unpremedi- tated killing, and that executions be private Dec. 1865 Capital punishment practically abolished in Italy Apr. " Its proposed abolition in Belgium negatived 18 Jan. 1867 ["Capital Punishment within Prisons bill" passed May, 1868; 1st case, 13 Aug. 1868. Exkcutions.] Capital punishment abolished in Saxony 1 Apr. 1868 Vote for its abolition in Switzerland, 1874; for its restoration (191,197-177,263) May, 1879 Abolition of it in Great Britain proposed by Mr. Gilpin in the commons; negatived (127-23), 21 Apr. 1868; negatived (118- 58), 29 July, 1869; negatived (167-54), 24 July, 1872; (155- 50), 12 June, 1877; (263-64), 13 Mch. 1878; proposed by Mr. Pease, negatived (175-79) 22 June, 1881 V DEB 221 DEC Capital punishment by electricity ordered to be adopted by the state of New York from • • -1 Jan. 1889 Execution of William Kemmler by electricity was ordered, but deferred, on appeal H Oct. Execution by electricity declared constitutional by the court of appeals 22 Mch. 1890 Execution of Kemmler stopped by habeas corpus 29 Apr. ' Effected with some difficulty 6 Aug. " Four men executed by electricity at Sing Sing, N. Y. . . .7 July, 1891 There were 123 legal executions in the U. S " [Of these 52 were white, 65 negroes, 1 Mexican, 4 Indians, 1 Jap- anese. The most in any state— Georgia, 16 ; Texas, 12 ; Louisiana, 9; .Mississippi, 8. Ckimk.] Practically ceased in Belgium, Prussia, Bavaria, Denmark, and Swe- den, though not abolished. In France, 126 convictions for murder— 4 executed in one year; simi- lar proportion in Italy. Abolished in some of the U. S. Maine, 1876; Rhode Island, Michigan, and WLsconsin, since. Modes of execution (1889) :— Austria, gallows, public; Bavaria, guil- lotine, private ; Belgium, guillotine, public; Brunswick, axe, pri- vate ; China, sword or cord, public ; Denmark, guillotine, pub- lic ; Ecuador, musket, public ; France, guillotine, public ; Great Britain, gallows, private; Hanover, guillotine, private; Italy, cap- ital punishment aboli.shed; Netherlands, gallows, public; Olden- burg, musket, public ; Portugal, gallows, public ; Prussia, sword, private; Russia, musket, gallows, or sword, public; Saxony, when executed, guillotine, private; Spain, garrote, public ; Switzerland, 15 cantons, sword, public ; 2 cantons, guillotine, public ; 2 canton.s, guillotine, private; United States (other than New York), gallows, mostly private. debtor§ have been subjected to imprisonment in almost all countries and times. In 18 months after the panic of Dec. 1825, 101,000 writs for debt were issued in England. In the year ending 5 Jan. 1830, there were 7114 persons sent to the prisons of London ; on that day 1547 of the number were yet confined. On 1 Jan. 1840, there were 1732 prisoners for debt in England and Wales, less than 1000 in Ireland, and in Scot- land under 100. Statutes of relief and other causes reduced the number of imprisoned debtors. When the new Bankruptcy act (abolishing imprisonment for debt, except when fraudu- lent) came into operation, Nov. 1861, many debtors were re- leased. "Arrest of Absconding Debtors bill," 14 and 15 Vict, c. 52, 1852. In 1863 nearly 18,000 persons were imprisoned by the county courts : average time, 15 days ; amount of debt, 3^. 10s. By act passed 9 Aug. 1869, the imprisonment of fraud- ulent debtors was abolished, with certain exceptions, and nearly a hundred debtors were released by a judge's order in Jan. 1870. An act to facilitate the arrest of absconding debt- ors, passed 9 Aug. 1870. Imprisonment for debt in Ireland was abolished by an act passed 6 Aug. 1872, and in Scotland (after 31 Dec.) by Dr. Cameron's act, passed 7 Sept. 1880. In the United States, even as late as 1829, it is estimated that there were 3000 debtors in prison in Massachusetts, 10,000 in New York, 7000 in Pennsylvania, 3000 in Maryland, and a like proportion in the other states, many of them imprisoned for the sum of $1. In 1828 there were 1085 debtors imprisoned in Philadelphia, their debts amounting to $25,409 ; the expense of keeping them was $362,076, paid by the city ; amount of debts recovered by this process, $295. Imprisonment for debt abolished in the U. S. by an act of the 22d Congress, 2d session, 1833, though not fully enforced until 1839. Kentucky had previously abolished the law, 1821 ; Ohio, 1828 ; Maryland, 1830 ; New York, 1831 ; Connecticut, 1837 ; Alabama, 1848, etc. The imprisonment of col. William Barton (who captured the British gen. Prescott, 10 July, 1777) for debt, drew from Whittier his fine poem, " The Prisoner for Debt." de'busscope (from Debus, the inventor, and scope, Gr. fjKOTrdv, view), an instrument of French origin, some- what similar to the kaleidoscope, said to be useful for devising patterns for calico-printers, etc., appeared in 1860. Decam'erone' (10 days). Boccaccio, Literature. Decean, Dekhan, or Dakhan, S. India, was invaded by the Mahometans in 1294. The first independent sultan was Alaudin. The natives revolted, and the dynasty of Bahmani was founded by Hasan Ganga in 1347. About 1686-90, Aurungzebe I. recovered the Decean, but soon lost great part of it to the Mahrattas. The Nizam al Mulk, his viceroy, became independent in 1717. A large part of the Decean was ceded to the English in 1818. December (from decern, ten), the tenth month of the year of Romulus, commencing in March. In 713 b.c., Numa introduced January and February before March, and Decem- ber became the 12th of the year. In the reign of Com- modus, 181-92 a.d., December was called Amazonius, in honor of a courtesan whom that prince had loved, and had had painted like an amazon. The English year began 25 Dec, until the reign of William I. Year. Decem'viri, or " Ten Men," appointed to draw up a code of laws, to whom for a time the whole government of Rome was committed, 451 b.c. The laws they drew up were ap- proved by the senate and general assembly of the people, writ- ten on 10 metallic tables, and set up in the place where the people met (comi(ium). 2 more tables were added, 450 b.c. The Decemviri at first ruled well, but the conduct of Appius Claudius towards Virginia, daughter of L. Virginius, precipi- tated an insurrection. They were forced to resign ; and con- suls were again appointed, 449 b.c. deeemia'lia, festivals instituted by Augustus, 17 b.c., celebrated by the Roman emperors every 10th year of their reign, with sacrifices, games, and largesses. — Livt/. Celebrated by Antoninus Pius, 148 a.d. decimal §y§tem of coinag^e,\reight§, etc. In 1782, Gouverneur Morris, assistant fiscal agent of the Con- tinental Congress (U. S.), reported a decimal currency system, designed to harmonize the moneys of the states. He ascer- tained that the 1440th part of a Spanish d^jUar was a com- mon divisor for the various currencies. With this as a unit he proposed the following table of moneys: 10 units to be equal to 1 penny, 10 pence to 1 bill, 10 bills 1 dollar (about 75 cents of the present currency), 10 dollars 1 crown. In 1784, Mr. Jefferson, as chairman of a committee of Congress, proposed to strike 4 coins upon the basis of the Spanish dollar, as fol- lows : A gold piece worth 10 dollars, a dollar in silver, a 10th of a dollar in silver, a 100th of a dollar in copper. Congress adopted his proposition, hence the cent, dime, dollar, and eagle of the U. S. currency. Coin, Metric system. decip'ium, a new metal found by M. Delafontaine in the same earth with Piiilippium, announced Nov. 1878. Declaration of Independence. The idea of independence, or a total separation from Great Britain, was not fully entertained by the American colonists until the spring of 1776. In Nov. 1775, Pennsylvania had enjoined her dele- gates to reject any proposition tending to separation ; and in Jan. 1776, New Jersey and Maryland so instructed their dele- gates. In Jan. 1776, " Common Sense," a pamphlet by Thomas Paine, appeared in Philadelphia, advocating a final and formal separation. This was widely circulated, and convinced multi- tudes of the necessity of a separate government. Lord Dun- more's ravages in Virginia, and the action of the Tories in North Carolina, strengthened the cause of independence in the South, and the evacuation of Boston, in the North. The growth of this sentiment finally culminated in Virginia's instructing her delegates, 15 May, 1776, to propose in Congress a declara- tion of independence. On 7 June, Richard Henry Lee moved in that body, " that the United Colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent states, and that their political connection Avith Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved." The debate on this resolution took place with closed doors, 8 June, and it passed b}' a bare majority of 7 states to 6. The delegates from Pennsylvania, New Jersej', and Maryland were expressly instructed against it ; tho.se from New York, Delaware, and South Carolina, being without instructions, were unwilling to assume the responsibility. In view of this slight majority the subject was postponed until July 1 ; but Congress appointed, meanwhile, a committee of 5, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston, to prepare a formal declaration of independence. The draft of the declaration was prepared by Jefferson, and reported by the committee to Congress on 28 June, 1776. When the sul)ject was brought before Congress, 1 July, 9 colonies instearnton, N. H. United States. SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 8Ut«. Nmiie. Born. Diea. Samuel Huntington.. 3 July, 1732 5 Jan. 1796 Roger Sherman 19 Apr. 1721 23 July. 1793 Connecticut... William Whipple 1730 28 Nov. 1786 William Williams.... 8 Apr. 1731 2 Aug. 1811 Oliver Wolcott 26 Nov. 1726 IDec. 1797 (Thomas McKoan \ George Road 19Mch. 1734 24 June, 1817 Delaware 1734 1798 (Caesar Rodney 1730 1783 ( Button Gwinnett England, 1732 27 May, 1777 Georgia. J George Walton ( Lyman Hall . . . 1740 2 Feb. 1804 1731 20 Sept. 1737 1784 fCliarles Carroll ..' '.i . 14 Nov. 1832 Maryland ! Samuel Chase William I'aca Thomas Stone 17 Apr. 1741 19 June, 1811 31 Oct. 1740 1799 1742 5 Oct. 1787 John Adams 19 Oct. 1735 4 July, 1826 Samuel Adams 22 Sept. 1722 3 Oct. 1803 Massachusetts Elbridge Gerry 17 July, 1744 23 Nov. 1814 John Hancock 12 Jan. 1737 8 Oct. 1793 Robert Treat Paine. . . 1731 11 May, 1814 New Hamp- Josiah Bartlett { Matthew Tliornton . . . Nov. 1729 19 May, 1795 shire Ireland, 1714 24 June, 1803 Abraham Clark 15 Feb. 1726 Sept. 1794 John Hart 1715 1780 New Jersey. . . Francis Hopkinson. . . 1737 9 May, 1791 Richard Stockton 1 Oct. 1730 28 Feb. 1781 John Witherspoon.. . . 5 Feb. 1722 15 Nov. 1794 ^Villiam Floyd 17 Dec. 1734 1 Aug. 1821 New York.... Francis Lewis ( Wales, ) iMch. 1713 1 30 Dec. 1803 Philip Livingston.... 15 Jan. 1716 12 June, 1778 Lewis Morris 1726 22 Jan. 1798 North Caro- lina. Joseph Hewes 1730 10 Nov. 1779 William Hooper John Penn 17 June, 1742 Oct. 1790 17 May, 1741 Sept. 1788 f George Clymer. 24 Jan. 1739 23 Jan. 1813 Beiyamiu Franklin... 17 Jan. 1706 17 Apr. 1790 Robert Morris ( England, | (20 Jan. 1734 f 8 May, 1806 Pennsylvania. John Morton 1724 1730 Apr. 1777 July, 1779 George Ross Benjamin Rush 24 Dec. 1745 19 Apr. 1813 James Smith Ireland, 1710 11 July, 1806 George Taylor Ireland, 1716 23 Feb. 1781 James Wilson Scotland, 1742 28 Aug. 1798 TthndA TelAnrl William Ellery Stephen Hopkins 22 Dec. 1727 15 Feb. 1820 M.*ixv\tv iDiauu. 7Mch. 1707 13 July, 1785 Thomas Haywardjr. 1746 Mch. 1809 South Carolina Thomas Lynch, jr 5 Aug. 1749 1779 Arthur Middleton. .. . 1743 1 Jan. 1788 Edward Rutledge.... Nov. 1749 23 Jan. 1800 f Carter Braxton 10 Sept. 1736 10 Oct. 1797 Benjamin Harrison... 1740 Apr. 1791 Thomas Jefferson 13 Apr. 1743 4 July, 1826 Virginia Richard Henry Lee... 20 Jan. 1732 19 June, 1794 Francis Lightfoot Lee 14 Oct. 1734 Apr. 1797 Thomas Nelson, jr.. . . 26 Dec. 1738 4 Jan. 1789 George Wythe 1726 8 June, 1806 Declaration of Rights. Rights; Virginia, 1776. Decoration day. The custom of strewing flowers on the graves of soldiers originated among Southern women during the civil war. The beautiful custom gradually spread throughout the country, and in 1868 and 1869 gen. John A. Logan, as commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Re- public, appointed 30 May for that purpose. Since that time 30 May in each year has been observed as Decoration day throughout the United States. decorative art. Its principles, enunciated by A. W. Pugin in his " Designs," in 1835, have been advanced by Owen .Jones, Redgrave, and others. Owen Jones's elaborate "Grammar of Ornament" was pub. in 1856. A decorative art society, founded in 1844, existed for a short time only. De Courcy'S privilege, of standing covered be- fore the king, granted by king John to John de Courcy, baron of Kingsale, and his successors, in 1203. He was the first Irish nobleman created by an English sovereign, 27 Hen. II. 1181, and was intrusted with the government of Ireland, 1185. The privilege was allowed to the baron of Kingsale by William III., George III., and by George IV. at his court held in Dub- lin in Aug. 1821. The present baron is the 30th in succession. I decretals formed the second part of the canon law, or collection of the pope's edicts and decrees and the decrees of councils. The first acknowledged to be genuine is a letter of Siricius to Himerus, a bishop of Spain, written in the first year of his pontiticate, 38b.— ffowel. Certain false decretals were used by Gregory IV. in 837. The decretals of Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection of canon.s), were compiled in 1150. — Henault. 5 books were collected by Gregory IX. 1227; a 6th by Boniface VHI. 1297; the Clementines by Clement V. in 1313; employed by John XXII. in 1317; the Extrava- gantes range from 1422-83. Literaturk, Forgeries of. dedication of the Jewish tabernacle, 1490 B.c. ; of the temple, 1004 b.c ; of the second temple, 515 b.c. The Chris- tians under Constantine built new churches and dedicated them with solemnity, in 331 et seq. a.d.— Books were dedicated (by authors to solicit patronage^r testify respect) in the time of Maecenas, 17 B.C., friend of Augustus and patron of Horace (Ode i. 1). deed, a written contract or agreement. The formula, '' I deliver this as my act and deed," occurs in a charter of 933. — Foshrooke. Deeds in J^iigland were anciently written in Latin or French ; the earliest known in English is the indent- ure between the abbot of Whitby and Robert Bustard, dated York, 1343. In the United States the formalities required for the transfer of real estate are governed by local laws. deep-sea soundings. Much information respect- ing animal life and temperature in the deep sea has been ac- quired by the dredgings on the coast of Norway by M. Sars, and by those of dr. W. B. Carpenter and prof. Wyville Thom- son on the British coasts, near the Faroe isles, in 1868 and 1869, and in the Mediterranean by dr. Carpenter in 1870. Living animals have been found at a depth of 3 miles. On 21 Dec. 1872, dr. Wyville Thomson and a party of scientific men sailed in the British ship Challenger (capt. G. S. Nares) to examine the physical and biological condition of the great ocean basins and the direction of their currents. Deep- est sounding then known was in the Atlantic, north of St. Thomas's, 3875 fathoms (4 miles, 710 yards), 24 Mch. 1873. On 10 Dec. 1874, capt. Thompson succeeded capt. Nares, who took command of the new Arctic expedition. The Challenger re- turned with valuable collections, 25 May, 1876, after a voyage of above 80,000 miles. The " Voyage " was published by sir C. Wyville Thomson in Dec. 1877. A Norwegian expedition explored the northern seas 16 July-18 Aug. 1877. J^xtensive deep-sea soundings, especially in the Gulf stream, have been made by the United States coast survey, with apparatus es- pecially devised ; and, under the supervision of prof. Agassiz and the count de Pourtales, much scientific knowledge has been collected concerning ocean deposits and the deep-sea faunae. The voyage of the U. S. coast-survey vessel Hassler, in 1871, with Agassiz and other scientists, was very rich in results. In Sept. 1889, the South Atlantic ocean, midway be- tween the island of Tristan d'Acunha and the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, was stated to be 40,236 ft. or 8f miles in depth. Greatest depth reported in the Mediterranean 2J miles, between Molla and Cerigo, 1891. Ocean Areas, Depths, AND Soundings. deer are mentioned in a will of one Athelstan, dated 1045. Prof. Owen thinks that fallow-deer are not native,- but ^yere introduced into England at an early period. There are now in England 334 deer-parks, the oldest being probably lord Abergavenny's at Eridge, Sussex. See Evelyn Shirley's " Account of Deer-parks," July, 1867. 1658 deer in the royal parks, 1873. Deerfield, Mass. Massachusetts, 167* -1704, for Indian massacre. DeerllOUnd, an English yacht, while conveying arms to the Carlists, seized by the Spanish government vessel Bue- naventura, off Biarritz, and captain and crew imprisoned, 13 Aug.; released about 18 Sept. 1873. Rescued capt. Semmes and part of his crew from the Alabama after her destruction by the Kearsarge, 19 June, 1864. Defender of the Faith (Fidei Defensor), a title of the British sovereign, conferred by Leo X. on Henry VIIL of England, 11 Oct. 1521, for the tract against Luther on be- DEG 223 DEL half of the Church of Rome (then accounted Domidlium jidei CathoUccB). degrees. Eratosthenes attempted to determine the length of a geographical degree about 250 B.c. Geodesy, Latitude, Longitude. — Collegiate degrees are coeval with universities. Masters and doctors existed 826. Those in law- are traced up to 1149; in medicine, to 1384; in music, to 1463. Middle-class examinations for degrees were instituted at Oxford, 18 June, 1857 ; at Cambridge, 24 Nov. 1857 ; and girls were allowed to compete for degrees, Oct. 1863. Bill to enable Scotch universities to grant degrees to women rejected by the commons, 3 Mch. 1875. Women. I>eira {dl'rd), a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Britain. deism, theism, or monotheism (Lat. Deus; Gr. Gfof, God), the belief in one God, opposed to polytheism or to the doctrine of the Trinity. About the middle of the 16th century the term deist began to be applied in France and Italy to men who disputed the doctrine of the Trinity. The most distinguished deists were Herbert, baron of Cherburj', in 1624; Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Gibbon, Hume, Holcroft, Paine, and Godwin. High-caste Brahmin, Rammohun Roy, founded a Brahmin mon- otheistic church about 1830 "Progressive Brahmins," termed the Brahmo Somaj, or the- istic church of India, opened a place of worship at Calcutta, 24 Aug. 1869 Their leader, Baboo Keshub Chunder Sen, was received at a public meeting in London as a reformer, 12 Apr., and subse- quently preached in a Unitarian chapel, Finsbury, London. . 1870 Schism in his church ; new church formed 1880 Philosophy, Unitarians. DelBg'O'a hay, S.E.Africa, claimed by Great Britain and Portugal. Having been referred to arbitration, it was awarded to Portugal by marshal MacMahon, Aug. 1875. Delaware, one of the middle Atlantic states, is, next to Rhode Island, the smallest state in the Union. Its south- ern boundary is a line drawn due west from the Atlantic on lat. 38° 28' N., half way to the Chesapeake bay. Its western boundary is a line drawn north from this point, tangent to a circle having a radius of 12 miles and with New Castle as its centre. An arc of this cir- cle forms the northern bound- ary of the state, and separates it from Pennsylvania in about lat. 39° 50'. Delaware river and bay separate it from New Jersey on the east, and Maryland lies to the south and west. Area, 2050 sq. miles, in 3 counties ; pop. 1890, 168,493. Capi- tal, Dover. ■Henry Hudson discovers the Delaware river 28 Aug 1609 Lord De la Warr, governor of Virginia, enters the bay called by his name 1610 Samuel Godyn, a director in the Dutch West India company, purchases 16 Dutch sq. miles from the natives, at the mouth of the Delaware 25 July, 1630 David Petersen de Vries makes a small settlement at the Hoorn-kill, now Lewes, just within the entrance to Delaware bay, and calls it Swanendael Mch. 1631 De Vries having left the colony soon after, returns to find it destroyed by the Indians; all the settlers killed 5 Dec. 1632 Owners of Swanendael transfer all their interest in the property to the directors of the Dutch West India company 7 Feb. 1635 First permanent settlement of Europeans in Delaware by Swedes under Peter Minuit, a former director of the Dutch West India company at Manhattan. They locate at Christi- ana, within the present limits of Wilmington, build a fort and erect a church within its walls, and name the territory ' ' New Sweden " Mch. 1638 Minuit buys from 5 chiefs of the Minquas territory on west side of the Delaware, from Bombay Hook to the river Schuyl- kill, with no western boundary specified 29 Mch. " Protest against Swedish settlement by William Kieft, director- general of the New Netherlands, on claim of prior possession by the Dutch 6 May, " Peter Minuit having been drowned in a storm at sea off the West Indies, lieut. Peter HoUender, commissioned governor of New Sweden, arrives with new immigrants at Christiana, just as the colony had resolved to break up 11 Apr. 1640 Dutch settlement made a few miles from Christiana under a hereditary fief grant from the crown of Sweden 2 Nov. " Johan Printz, a Swede, appointed governor of New Sweden, arrives at Christiana with 2 vessels of war 15 Feb. 1643 Fifth Swedish expedition arrives at Christiana 11 Mch. 1644 Dutch States-general and West India company secure from the Indians a deed to all lands between Christiana creek and Cana- rosse, the same which had been sold to the Swedes by the Indians, and erect fort Casimir, now New Castle 19 July, 1651 Gov. Printz, returning home, appoints his son-in law, Johan Pappegoia, governor of the colony Oct. 1652 Johan Claudii Rising, arriving at fort Casimir in the ship Eagle, direct from Sweden, with reinforcements for the col- ony in New Sweden, demands its surrender, takes the fort without bloodshed, and renames it fort Trinity May, 1654 Vice-gov. Pappegoia returning to Sweden soon. Rising assumes supreme authority as director-general of New Sweden " Gov. Peter Stuyvesant of Manhattan captures forts Trinity and Christiana, sends to Europe all Swedes refusing allegiance to Holland, and brings the colony under Dutch rule, 16-25 Sept. 1655 Gov. Rising and companions embark for Sweden on the De Waag, and bid farewell to Delaware 1 Oct. " Stuyvesant commissions Johan Paul Jaquet governor of the Dutch colony on the Delaware, who selects fort Casimir as his residence 29 Nov. " Swedes arriving on the ship Mercurius, not knowing of the change in government, attempt to ascend the river and land, but are dismissed by the Dutch without bloodshed. . .24 Mch. 1656 Gov. -general and council give 75 deeds for land, chiefly for lots in New Amstel, now New Castle. The first made 12 Apr. " Dutch West India company transfers to the city of Amsterdam fort Casimir and the adjacent territory of New Amstel, which becomes known as the Colony of the City 16 Aug. " Jaquet is removed for mismanagement, and Jacob Alrich ap- pointed in Holland as governor of New Amstel. r Apr. 1657 William Beekman appointed vice-governor of the Colony of the Company, with headquarters at Altena, now Wilmington, 28 Oct. 1658 Beekman secures a deed of land from the Indians, and erects a fort at the Hoorn-kill 23 May, 1659 Gov. Alrich dies; Alexander Hinoyosa succeeds 30 Dec. " Colony of the Company surrenders its rights to the Colony of the City 7 Feb. 1663 Colony passes into British control under the duke of York, 1 Oct. 1664 New Amstel surrendered to sir Robert Carr, sent to subject the country by Charles II., and called New Castle 3 Nov. " Swedish church erected at Crane-hook, 1>^ miles from fort Christiana 1667 Temporary council of deputy-gov. Carr and 6 others, swear- ing allegiance to the duke of York, established at New Castle 1668 Konigsmarke, better known as the "Long Finn," instigating rebellion against the duke of York in Delaware, is arrested and imprisoned in New York; afterwards transported to the Barbadoes 20 Dec. 1669 George Fox, the Friend, holds a large meeting in New Castle. . 1672 New Castle incorporated and a constable's court erected. .May, " Anthony Clove appointed governor of Delaware under the Dutch, who retake New York 12 Aug. 1673 By treaty of Westminster, Delaware reverts to the English, and sir Edmund Andros reappoints, magistrates who had been removed by the Dutch 1674 William Penn arrives at New Castle with deed from duke of York for a circle of 12 miles around New Castle, and lands between this tract and the sea 28 Oct. 1682 Act of union and naturalization passed at the first assembly in Upland (now Chester, Pa.), annexing to Pennsylvania the 3 lower counties on the Delaware : New Castle, Kent, and Sus- sex 7 Dec. " Lords of Trade and Plantations decide in favor of Penn against lord Baltimore's claim to Delaware 1685 Delaware, under its charter from Penn, forms a legislative as- sembly, first meeting at New Castle 1703 Willingtown, now Wilmington, laid out by Thomas Willing, Oct. 1731 After 20 years of litigation, the boundaries of Delaware are de- fined 1733 James Adams introduces printing into Delaware, publishing at Wilmington, for 6 months, the Wilmington Courant 1761 Thomas McKean and Caesar Rodney sent as delegates to the first Colonial Congress at New York 7 Oct. 1765 Caesar Rodney chosen commissioner to erect state- house and public buildings in Dover 1772 Thomas McKean, George Read, and Caesar Rodney elected delegates to the first Continental Congress 1774 Assembly unanimously approves resolution of Continental Congress of 15 May, and overturns the proprietary govern- ment, substituting the name of the province on all occasions for that of the king, and directs the delegates to vote on in- dependence according to their own judgment 15 June, 1776 Convention at New Castle frames a new constitution, assumes the name "The Delaware State," and designates Dover as capital 27 Aug. " Evening after battle of Brandywine, pres. McKinley captured by a {larty of British ; George Read, speaker of assembly, suc- ceeds him 12 Sept. 1777 Thomas McKean of Delaware elected president of Continental Congress 10 July, 1781 Richard Basset, Gunning Bedford, jr., Jacob Broom, John Dickinson, and George Read, sign the Constitution of the U. S. as representatives from Delaware 17 Sept. 1787 Delaware first state to adopt the federal Constitution, and without amendments 7 Dec. " New constitution, framed by a convention at Newcastle, changes DEL 224 DEL the name to ''The State of Dolnware," and goes into operation without siibiuission to tlio people Juno, 1792 Act appn)priatinf( receipts from marriage and Uivern licenses for a Hchuol-fuud 1796 James A. Bayard of Delaware apjwinted minister plenipoten- tiary to France 19 Feb. 1801 Du Pont powder mills near Wilmington, established by Eleu- thdre Ir€n«Se Du Pont de Nemours 1802 Ciesar Rodney of Delaware appointed attorney-general of I'- S 20 Jan. 1807 "The Wilmington Turnpike company " incorporated. ...1 Feb. 1808 James A. Bayard of Wilmington, one of the negotiators of the treaty of (ihent. signed 24 Dec. 1814 Caesar Rodney of Delaware appointed minister plenipoten- tiary to Buenos Ayres 27 Jan. 1823 Act passed establishing free schools 1829 Chesapeake and Delaware canal completed at cost of $2,250,000 " Locomotive introduced on New Castle railroad 1831 Louis McLane of Delaware appointed U. S. secretary of the treasury 8 Aug. " State constitution revised by a convention of 30 delegates at Dover. 8 Nov. " Wilmington made a city 1832 New Castle- and Frenchtown railroad, 16>^ miles long, com- pleted " Louis McLane appointed U. S. secretary of state 29 May, 1833 Explosion of 5000 pounds of powder at Du Font's powder mills, Wilmington 18 Apr. 1847 Title to Pea Patch island, derived from Delaware by U. S. and f^om New Jersey by James Humphrey, many years in litiga- tion, awarded to U. S. by hon. John Sergeant, referee, 15 Jan. 1848 John .Middleton Clayton of Delaware negotiates the Clayton- Bulwer treaty with the British government Apr. 1850 A new constitution framed and submitted to the people, but re- jected 11 Oct. 1853 Amendment to constitution changing day of state elections, 30 Jan. 1855 Henry Dickinson, commissioner from Mississippi, invites the state to join the confederacy; proposition rejected unani- mously by the House and by a majority of the Senate. 3 Jan. 1861 Delaware declares for the Union 15 Apr. " Delaware added to the military department of Washington, 19 Apr. " Gov. Burton calls for volunteers for U. S. army, and obtains a regiment of about 775 3-months' men. (Subsequently 2 regi- ments of about 1000 each were enlisted for the war) . . 23 Apr. ' ' A peace convention at Dover resolves against the war, and for a peaceable recognition of the confederacy 27 June, " Delaware raises its quota for volunteer army, under calls of July and .August, without drafting; in all about 5000 men furnished by the state 1862 Gov. Cannon undertakes military supervision for the U. S. of election for congressman; opposition in public meeting at New Castle decide not to vote, as a protest against the inter- ference 17 Nov. 1863 Delaware creates her flrst state debt, by issuing bonds for $1,000,000 for obtaining substitutes for the draft 1864 Equal-rights convention held at Wilmington 4 Sept. 1867 General ta.x act passed, including corporation tax on railroad capital stock, net earnings, and rolling stock Apr. 1869 Woman's Suffrage convention at Wilmington Nov. " Delaware State college at Newark organized 1870 Ratification of 15lh amendment celebrated by colored people of Delaware with much enthusiasm 14 Apr. " New Castle, with a population of 2300, incorporated as a city. . 1875 School bill passed; board of education to consist of the presi- dent of Delaware college, secretary of state, and state auditor, " State Temperance convention at Smyrna 26 Dec. 1878 Act passed imposing a fine on any person taking part in any political torch-light parade ". 1881 High-license bill passed by legislature 1889 Pillory and whipping for female convicts abolished " Provision made for a state hospital for the insane at Wilming- ton Aug. " Monument over grave of Caesar Rodney, 1728-84, member of Continental Congress, signer of Declaration of Independence, and president (gov.) of the state, unveiled 30 Oct. 1889 I A secret-ballot law passed, and the governor made president of the state board of education Instead of the president of Delaware college at session of the legislature, 6 Jan. -16 May, 1891 Ex-gov. John W. Hall dies at Frederica. 23 Jan. 1892 GOVERNORS OF DELAWARE. UNDER THE SWEDES. Name. Dat«. Remarks. Peter Minuit 1638 to 1640 1640 " 1642 1643 " 1652 1653 " 1654 1654 " 1655 ( Formerly governor of { New York Peter Hollender Johan Printz Johan Pappegoia Johan C. Rising (Swedish colony surren- { ders to the Dutch from ( Manhattan. the UNDER THE DUTCH. Peter Stuy vesant | 1655 to 1664 I I Surrendered to I I I English. ENGLISH COLONIAL. From 1664 up to 1682, under the government of New York; and ft-om 1683 up to 1773, under the proprietary governraeut of Pennsylvania. John McKinley Caesar Rodney . . John Dickinson John Cook Nicholas Van Dyke. Thomas Collins Joshua Clayton Joshua Clayton Gunning Bedford Daniel Rogers Richard Bassett Jas. Sykes David Hall Nathaniel Mitchell Geo. Truitt Joseph Hazlett Daniel Rodney John Clark Jacob Stout John Collins Caleb Rodney Joseph Hazlett Sam'l Paynter Chas. Polk David Hazzard Caleb P. Bennett Chas. Polk Cornelius P. Comegys. Wm. B. Cooper Thomas Stockton Joseph Maul Wm. Temple Wm. Thorp Wm. H. Ross Peter F. Cansey Wm. Burton Wm. Cannon Grove Saulsbury Jas. Ponder John P. Cochran John W. Hall Chas.C. Stockley Benj. T. Biggs Robt. J. Reynolds Joshua H. Marvil 1776 to 1777 1778 " 1781 1782 " 1783 1783 1784 1786 1789 1783 1786 1789 1792 1792 " 1796 1796 ' 1797 1797 ' 1798 1798 ' 1801 1801 ' 1802 1802 ' 1805 1805 ' 1808 1808 ' 1811 1811 ' 1814 1814 ' 1817 1817 ' 1820 1820 ' ' 1821 1821 ' ' 1822 1822 ' 1823 1823 ' ' 1824 1824 ' ' 1827 1827 ' ' 1830 1830 ' ' 1833 1833 ' ' 1836 1836 ' ' 1837 1837 ' ' 1840 1840 ' ' 1844 1844 ' ' 1846 1846 ' ' 1846 1846 ' ' 1846 1847 ' ' 1851 1851 ' ' 1855 1855 ' ' 1859 1859 " 1863 1863 " 1867 1871 1875 1879 1883 1887 1891 1895 1899. 1867 18T1 1875 1879 1883 1887 1891 1895 Termed president. ( Chosen president ( Pennsylvania. of First governor elected under new constitu- tion. Died in office. Acting. Appointed circuit judge. Acting. Acting. Died in office. Acting. Died in office. Acting. ^ Died in office. Acting. Died in office. Acting. Died in office. Acting. Republican. Democrat. No Rep. nom. Republican. UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF DELAWARE. Name. No. of Congress. Date. Remarks. Richard Bassett 1st and 2d 1st " 2d 3d to 6th 8d " 5th 5th 5th to 8th 7th " 11th 8th " 12th 11th " 16th 13th " 14th 15th " 19th 17th 18th to 19th 19th 19th to 20th 20th " 21st 21st " 23d 21st " 23d 24th " 2«th 1789 to 1793 1789 " 1793 1793 " 1801 1793 " 1798 1798 1799 to 1805 1801 " 1809 1805 " 1813 1810 " 1821 1813 " 1817 1817 " 1827 1821 " 1823 1824 " 1827 1826 1827 to 1829 1827 " 1829 1829 " 1835 1830 " 1836 1836 " 1845 Resigned. Elected in place of Read. Resigned 1798. Elected in place of Vining; died 1798. Elected in place of Clayton. Seated 4 Feb. 1799. Resigned 1805. Died 1809. Elected in place of Wells. Resigned 1813. Elected in place of White. Seated 29 Jan. 1810. Elected in place of Bayard. Died 1828. Resigned 1823. Appointed pro tern, in place of Van Dyke, 1826. Elected in place of Van Dyke, 1827. Resigned 1829. Resigned. Elected in place of McLane. Seated 1830. Resigned. Elected in place of Naudain, 1836. George Read Henry Latimer John Vining Joshua Clayton Wm. Hill Wells Samuel White James A. Bayard Outerbridge Horsey Wm. Hill Wells Nicholas Van Dyke Thomas Clayton Daniel Rodney Henry M. Ridgely Louis McLane John M. Clayton. Arnold Naudain . . . Richard H. Bayard i DEL 225 DEL UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF DELAWARE.— (Conttnwed.) Name. No. of Congress. Date. Remarks. 24th to 29th 29th " 30th 30th '* 31st 30th " 32d 32d " 38th 33d " 34th 34th 35th 36th to 41st 38th " 40th 40th 41st to 48th 42d "50th 49th " 51st " 1837 to 1847 1845 " 1849 1849 " 1851 1847 " 1853 1851 " 1864 1853 " 1856 1856 1858 1859 to 1871 1864 " 1867 1867 " 1869 1869 " 1885 1871 " 1889 1885 " 1889 " Elected in place of J. M. Clayton. Seated 19 Jan. 1837. Resigned 1849. Elected in place of J. M. Clayton, 1849. Died 9 Nov. 1856. Appointed pro tern, in place of Clayton, 1856. Elected in place of Clayton, 1858. Elected in place of Bayard. Seated 2 Feb. 1864; died 29 Mch. Appointed pro tem. in place of Riddle, 1867. (Elected in place of Riddle. Seated 4 Mch. 1869. Resigned \ Appointed sec. of state by pres. Cleveland. Elected in place of Bayard, 1885. Tnhn \f CAavtnn Tnhn Willp^ PrAcIpv Slnrnancfi Tflmp« A Ravard Tnhn M ClavtOll TnQpnh P Comeffvs Martin Rat.PS Willard Saulsbury Geo Read Riddle 1867 Tflmp«! A Ravard Thomas Francis Bayard. . . . Eli Saulsbury 1885. fjpnriyfl (irav Atithonv Hiffcins . . ... Delawares. Indians, Delflt, S. Holland, a town founded by Godfrey le Bossu about 1074; famous for "Delft, earthenware;" first manufact- ured here about 1310. The sale of delft greatly declined after the introduction of potteries into Germany and England. Grotius was born here, 10 Apr. 1583; here William, prince of Orange, was assassinated by Gerard, 10 July, 1584. Oclhi (dSl'-lee), the once great capital of the Mogul em- pire, and chief seat of the Mahometan power in India ; it was taken by Timour in 1398. It is now in decay, but contained a million inhabitants in 1700. In 1739, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, he entered Delhi ; 100,000 of the inhabi- tants perished, and plunder worth 62,000,000/. sterling is said to have been collected. Similar calamities were endured in 1761, on the invasion of Abdalla, king of Candahar. In 1803, the Mahrattas, aided by the French, took Delhi; but were de- feated by gen. Lake, 11 Sept., and the aged Shah Aulum, em- peror of Hindostan, was restored to his throne with a pension. India, 1803. On 10 May, 1857, a mutiny arose in the sepoy regiments at Meerut. It was soon checked ; bat the fugitives fled to Delhi on 11 May, and, with other troops, seized the city, proclaimed a descendant of the Mogul king, and com- mitted frightful atrocities. The rebels were anxious to possess the chief magazine ; but, after a gallant defence by the British, it was exploded by order of lieut. VVilloughby, who died of his wounds shortly after. Other heroes of this exploit were lieuten- ants Forrest and Rayner, and the gunners Buckley and Scully. Delhi was soon after besieged by the British, but was not tak- en till 20 Sept. following. The final struggle began on the 14th, brigadier (since sir) R. Archdale Wilson being the com- mander. Much heroism was shown : the gallant death of Sal- keld at the explosion of the Cashmere gate created much en- thusiasm. The old king and his sons were captured soon after. The latter were shot, and the former, after a trial, was sent for life to Rangoon, where he died 11 Nov. 1862. India, 1857. A camp formed at Delhi by the earl of Mayo, the vice- roy, Dec. 1871, was visited by the king of Siam, Jan. 1872. The prince of Wales visited Delhi, 11 Jan. 1876. Queen Vic- toria was proclaimed empress of India here, 1 Jan. 1877. Pop. 1891, 193,580. "delicate investigpation " into the conduct of the princess of Wales (afterwards queen of England, as consort of George IV.) was commenced by a committee of the privy council, under a warrant of inquiry, dated 29 May, 1806. The members were lord Grenville, lord Erskine, earf Spencer, and lord EUenborough. The inquiry, asked for by the countess of Jersey, sir J. and lady Douglas, and others, led to the publica- tion called " The Book ;" afterwards suppressed. The charges against the princess were disproved in 1807 and in 1813; but, not being permitted to appear at court, she went on the Con- tinent in 1814. Queen Caroline, De'lium, Boeotia, N. Greece, the site of a celebrated tem- ple of Apollo. Here, in a fight in which the Athenians were defeated by the Boeotians, Socrates is said to have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon, 424 b.c. Delia €ru§ea academy of Florence merged into the Florentine in 1582.— The Delia Crusca school, certain Eng- lish residents at Florence, who printed sentimental poetry and prose in 1785. They came to England, where their works, popular for a short time, were so severely satirized by GiflFord in his "Baviad" and "Maeviad" (1792-95), as to fall into general disrepute. De'lOS, a Greek isle in the ^gean sea. Here the Greeks, during the Persian war, 477 b.c., established their common treasury, which was removed to Athens, 461 b.c. Delphi, now Ka§tri, N. Greece, celebrated not only in Greece but among neighboring nations for enigmatical ora- cles delivered by the Pythia, or priestess in the temple of Apol- lo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphicty- ons, 1263 B.C. The Pythian games were first celebrated here 586 B.C. The temple was burned by the Pisistratidae, 548 B.C. A new temple was raised by the Alcmaeonidae. The Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 b.c,) were deterred from plun- dering the temple by awful portents. It was robbed and seized by the Phocians in whose state it stood, 357 b.c., which led to the Sacred war, and Nero carried from it 300 costly statues, 67 a.d. The oracle was consulted by Julian, but si- lenced by TheodosiuS. Delphin Clasiics, a collection of 89 Latin authors in 60 volumes, made for the use of the dauphin (in usum Delphini), so»of Louis XIV., and pub. in 1674-91. Ausonius was added in 1730. The due de Montausier, the young prince's governor, proposed the plan to Huet, bishop of Avranches, the dauphin's preceptor, and he edited all the Latin classics except Lucan, assisted, however, by other learned persons, including the beautiful and gifted Madame Dacier, who, at the age of 23, had translated Callimachus, as well as Anacreon, Sappho, Plautus, Terence, and Homer. She died in 1720. Each author is illustrated by notes and an index of words. An edition of the Delphin classics, with &AW^ tional notes, etc., was pub. by Mr. Valpy of London, 1818 et seq. Delta metal, a modem bronze resembling gold, con- taining a small proportion of iron, invented by A. Dick. Watch- cases were made of it at Geneva in 1885. Deluge. The Deluge, it is supposed, was threatened in the year of the world 1536 ; and began 7 Dec. 1656, and continued 377 days (Gen. vi., vii., and viii.). The ark rested on Mount Ararat 6 May, 1657; and Noah left the ark 18 Dec, following. The year corresponds with that of 2348 b.c. — Blair. The following is the date of the Deluge according to different chronologies {Hales) : Septuagint 3246 .laclcson 3170 Hales 3155 Josephus 3146 Persian .... 3103 Hindoo 3102 Samaritan 2998 Howard 2698 Clinton 2482 Playfair 2352 Usher and English Bible., 2348 Marsham 2344 Petavius 2329 Strauchius 2293 Hebrew 2288 Vulgar Jewish 2104 In the reign of Ogyges, king of Attica, 1764 b.c, a deluge so inun- dated Attica that it lay waste for nearly 200 years. — Blair. Buf- fon imagined that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from the Atlantic and Bosporus bursting into the val- ley of the Mediterranean. The deluge of Deucalion, in Thessaly, is dated 1503 B.C. according to Eusebius. It was often confounded by the ancients with the general flood; but some regard it as merely a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Peneius, whose course was stopped by an earthquake between the mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, are said to have saved them- selves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. A general deluge was predicted for 1524, and arks were built; but ^ the season proved to be fine and dry in England. DEM 226 DEN Denicra'ra and EsHCqui'bo, colonies in Britisli Guiana. South America, foumlod by the Dutcl), 1580, were taken by the British, under inaj.-gen. Whyte, 22 Apr. 1796, but were restored at the peace of Amiens, Mch. 1802. They again surrendered to the British under gen. (irinfield and com- liKHJore liood, Sept. 1803, and became English colonies in 1814. I>eilieter {d^-me'-ter). Mythology. Denioeratie -Republican party. Polit- ical PAKTIES. democrats, advocates for government by the people (^^^of, people, and Kpartiv, to govern), a term adopted by the French republicans in 1790 (who termed their opponents aristoci-afs, from dpiarog, bravest or best). For Democrats in the United States, Political pakties. deillOg'rapliy. A modern term, signifying " the natural history of society." deuionorogy. Devil-worship. Deiiaill {de-udu'), N. France. Here marshal Villars defeated the imperialists, 24 July, 1712. deiia'rius, the chief silver coin among the Romans, weighing the seventh of a Roman ounce, worth 7|^ carats, half of which was lost by cutting. Other diamonds of note are the Rajah of Mattan, Borneo, 367 9/, o carats; Florentine, emperor of Austria, 139i^ carats; 138i^ carats, king of Portugal; 86 carats, czar of Russia; 78% carats, marquis of Westminster; 288% carats, uncut, the Stewart diamond. Diamonds were discovered in Cape Colony, S. Africa, in Mch. 1867. A fine one, the Star of South Africa, brought to England in 1869, was purchased by Messrs. Hunt & Roskell. After cutting, it weighed 46)^ carats, and was valued at 25,000/. in June, 1870. Rich diamond fields discovered near the Vaal and Orange rivers, Sept. 1870. Great influx of diggers, and many fine diamonds found, Nov. Value of 141 diamonds found in 1869, 7405/. ; of 5661 found in 1870, 124.910/. ; about 2,000,000/. worth said to hdve been exported in 1877. Largest African diamond found, weighing 302 carats, at Kimberley, n;imed Victoria, 27 Mch. 1884. Several other magnificent S. African diamonds since found, one 400 carats, cut to 180. Estimated value of S. African diamonds up to 1886, $200,000,000. Diamond-necklace Affair. — In 1785, Boehmer. the court jeweller of France, offered the queen, Marie Antoinette, a diamond necklace for 56,000/. The queen desired the necklace, but feared the ex- ])ense. The countess de la Motte (of the ancient house of Valois) forged the queen's signature, and, pretending that the queen liad an attachment for him, persuaded the cardinal de Rohan, the queen's almoner, to buy the necklace for 56,000/. She then made away with the necklace. For this she was tried in 1786, and sen- tenced to be branded on the shoulders and imprisoned for life. She accused in vain the Italian adventurer Cagliostro of complicity, he being intimate with the cardinal. She made her escape and went to London, where she was killed by falling from a window in attempting to escape an arrest for debt. De Rohan was tried and acquitted, 14 Apr. 1786. The public in France suspected the queen of being a party to the fraud. Talleyrand wrote that he should not be surprised if this miserable affair overturned the throne. Best account, Carlyle's " French Revolution." Artificial diamonds : Prepared by Mr. MacTear of Glasgow; examined by Story Maskelyne, and declared not to be diamonds, 30 Dec. 1879; acknowledged by Mr. MacTear, Jan. 1880. Diamonds said to have been made by J. Ballantine Hannay at Glas- gow; announced in Times, 20 Feb. 1880. Diamonds said to have been made at Paris, 1880. INFLAMMABILITY OF DIAMONDS Boetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond was inflammable, 1609. When exposed to a high temperature it gave an acrid vapor, and part of it was dissipated, 1673. —Boyle. Sir Isaac Newton concluded, from its great refracting power, that it must be combustible, 1675. Averani concentrated the rays of the sun upon the diamond, which was exhaled in vapor and entirely disappeared, while other pre- cious stones merely grew softer, 1695. It has been ascertained by Guyton, Davy, and others, that diamonds, like charcoal, are pure carbon. Diamonds were charred by the heat of the voltaic battery— by M. Dumas, in Paris, and by prof. Faraday, in London, in 1848. Dia'na, Temple of, at Ephesus, Asia Minor, accounted one of the 7 wonders of the world, was built at the common charge of all the Asiatic states, 552 b.c. ; the chief architect be- ing Ctesiphon. Pliny says that 220 years were occupied in com- pleting it. It was 425 ft. long, 225 broad, and was supported by 127 columns (60 ft. higli, each weighing 150 tons) of Parian marble, furnished by many kings. It was set on fire the night Alexander the Great was born, by Herostratus or Eratostratus, ■who confessed that his motive was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 b.c. The temple was rebuilt, but again burned by the Goths in their naval invasion, 256 or 262 A.D. In Apr. 1869, J. T. Wood discovered the site of the second temple ; and since then sculptured marble columns have been removed to the British museum. Diana was the Roman name of the Greek A rtemis. The three-formed goddess ruling as Selene in the sky, as Artemis or Diana on earth, as Hecate or Proserpina in Erebus. " Goddess whom all gods love with threefold heart, Being treble in thy divided deity, A light for dead men and dark hours, a foot Swift on the. hills as morning, and a hand To all things fierce and fleet that roar and range Mortal " — Swinburne, " Atalanta in Calydon." Archttectuke, Mythology. dice. The invention of dice is ascribed to Palamedes of Greece, about 1244 b.c. The game of tali and tessera among the Romans was played with dice. Stow mentions 2 enter- tainments given by the city of London, at which dice were played. Act to regulate the licenses of makers, and the sale of dice in England, 9 Geo. IV. 1828. In 1357, the kings of Scotland and France being prisoners, and the king of Cyprus on a visit to Edward III., a great tournament was held in Smithfield, and afterwards Henry Picard. mayor of London, " kept his hall against all comers tliat were willing to play at dice and hazard. The lady Margaret, his wife, did keepe her chamber to the same intent." The mayor restored to the king of Cyprus 50 marks which he had won from him, saying, " My lord and king, be not aggrieved; for I covet not your gold, but your play," etc. — Slow. <]i'ehro§COpe (Gr. dlxpooc, two-colored, and (tkotthv, view), an optical apparatus, invented by prof. Dove of Berlin, in 1860, to represent interferences, spectra in colored lights, polarization of light, etc. dictators were supreme magistrates of Rome, appointed to act in critical times. Titus Lartius Flavins, the first dicta- tor, was appointed 501 b.c. Gains Marcius Rutilus was the first plebeian dictator, 356 b.c. This office became odious by the usurpations of Sylla and Julius Ciesar ; and after the death of the latter the Roman senate, on motion of the consul Anton}', passed a law forbidding a dictatorship, 44 b.c. dictionary. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 B.C. — Morrison. Encyclopedias, Music, etc. p ^ A Latin dictionary was compiled by Varro, b 116 V^arro's work " De Lingua Latina;" he d 28 " Onomasticon," a collection of vocabularies in Greek, by Julius a.d. Pollux, was pub about 177 "Catholicon," an attempt at a Latin lexicon, by friar Jo- hannes Balbus Januensis, printed at Mentz 1460 A noted polyglot dictionary, perhaps the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in Latin; he wrote one in 8 lan- guages (Niceron) about 1500 John E. Avenar's " Dictionarium Hebraicum " was published at Wittenberg in 1589. Buxtprf s great work, " Lexicon He- braicum," etc.. appeared.. 1621 "Lexicon Heptaglotton " was published by Edmund Castell. . . 1669 English dictionary by Samuel Johnson appeared 1755 Francis Grose's " Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue " was com- piled 1768 Following academies have published large dictionaries of their respective languages: the French academy (the first, edited by Vaugelas), 1694; new editions, 1718, 1740. 1762, 1835, and 1878 ; the Spanish, 1726 ; the Italian academy (della Crusca), 1729; and the Russian 1789-94 Schwan's great German-French dictionary appeared 1782 Walker's (English), popular for half a century 1791 Webster's American dictionary first pub. (often revised) 1828 Smart's dictionary pub 1836 Richardson's English dictionary appeared 1836 Lempridre's classical dictionary, 1788, now superseded by Dr. W. Smith's classical series 1842-57 Worcester's dictionary 1860 Great German dictionary, by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm . 1854 et seq. Hen-sleigh Wedgwood's " Dictionary of English Etymology ".1859-67 Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible" i)ub 1860-63 Earliest known English-Latin dictionary is the "Promptorium Parvulorum," compiled by Galfridus Grammaticus, a preach- ing friar of Norfolk, in 1440; and printed by Pynson, as " Promptorius Puerorum," in 1499. A new edition, by Albert Way. from MSS. , published by Camden Society 1843-65 Great French dictionary, by E. Littre, 1863-72; "supplement. . . 1877 " Bona-flde French and English Dictionary " (iJ4 inches by 2%, weight 4 oz. ), printed by Bellows 1873 "Harper's Latin Dictionary " (founded upon Andrews's trans- lation of Freund's " Latin-German Lexicon " ), standard au- thority in English and American universities, pub 1879 "Encyclopaedic Dictionary" (English), by Robert Hunter, M. A., F.G.S 1870-88 " Imperial Dictionary " (English), 4 vols. 8vo 1882 " Century Dictionary " (named after the company publishing it). 6 vols, imperial octavo, edited by Wm. Dwight Whitney. Ph.D., LL. D., of Yale 1891 Philological Society of London issued "proposals for a new English dictionary," on the historical method, 1859; after longdelaywork began systematically; editor, dr. J. H. Murraj^, 1879 [About 5000 authors, dating from 1150 to 1883, have been read by about 13,000 persons (British and American), who made about 3,000,000 extracts. I'art I., pub. Feb. 1884. was considered to promise the grandest lexicographical work ever produced. Vol. III. part I. 1892.] A, B, and parts of C and D, completed Jan. 1893 didyin'iuni, a rare metal, discovered by Mosander in 1841, appears to be always associated with lanthanum and cerium. Dieppe (dSe-ep'), N. France. This town was bombarded DIE 232 DIS by an English fleet, under admiral Russell, and laid in ashes, | July, 11)94. It was again bombarded in 1794; and again, to- j gethcr with Granville, by the British, 14 Sept. 1803. ** Di'es I'raP" (" l>ay of Wrath"), a Latin mediajval hvmn on the day of judgment, is ascribed to various authors, among others to pope Gregory the Great (d. about 604); St. Bernard (d. 1153) ; but was doubtless composed by Thomas of Celano (d. 1255), and used in the Roman service of the mass before 1385. " Dies ir*. dies ilia, Solvet sieclum in favllla, Teste David cum Sibylla," etc. Many translations of this hymn have been made, but none ex- press the force of the original. Diet of the German empire (the body which exercised supreme authority in the empire) was composed of 3 colleges : one of electors, one of princes, and one of imperial towns, and originated with the edict or Golden Bull of Charles IV. 1356. Augsburg, 1530 ; Frankfokt-on-thk-Main, 1806 etseq.; Germany; Goldex Bull; Nurembkrg, 1467; Rat- iSBON, 1541 ; Spires, 1529 ; Worms, 1521 ; Wurzburg, 1180. dlether'OiCOpe, an apparatus for geodesy and teach- ing optics, constructed by G. Luvini of Tunis, and announced Apr. 1876. DIeu et mon droit ("God and my right"), the royal motto of England, was the pass-word of the day, given by Richard I. of England to his army at the battle of Gisors, in France, 20 Sept. 1198, in which the French army was sig- nally defeated. It seems to have been first assumed as a motto by Henry VI. (1422-61). Semper eauem. " Dleu-donn^ " ("God-given"), the name given in his infancy to Louis le Grand, king of France, the queen, his mother, having been barren for 23 years previous to 1638. Also to the late.corate de Chambord, son of the duchess of Berri, born 29 Sept. 1820. His father was assassinated 14 Feb.1820, One of the popes (672) was named A deodatus, or God's gift. diffUiion of g[ase§. In 1825, Dobereiner observed the transmission of hydrogen gas through a crack in a glass vessel, and prof. Thomas Graham discovered the passage of gases through porous porcelain, graphite, and other substances, and established laws in 1832. He also discovered Atmoly- 8IS and Dialysis. He died 16 Sept. 1869. Digest. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared by the civilian Alfrenus Varus, of Cremona, 66 B.C. — Quintil. The " Digest," so called by way of eminence, was the collection made by order of the emperor Justinian, 629 ; it made the first part of the Roman law and the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ff. — Pardon. The " Digest of Law " commissioners signed their first report 13 May, 1867, recommending the immediate preparation of a digest of the English common-law, statute law, and judicial decisions. digits are properly the fingers (Lat. dif/ifus, a finger). The figures representing any whole number under 10 (1, 2, etc.) are called the 9 digits. Arithmetical figures were known to the Arabian Moors about 900, and were introduced by them into Spain in 1050, and thence into England about 1253. — In astronomy, the digit as a measure of eclipses, is the twelfth part of the luminary eclipsed. Arithmetic, Numerals. Dijon (de'-zhon'), E. France, the ancient capital of Bur- gundy, said to have been founded by Julius Caesar, fortified by the emperor Marcus Aurelius, and named Divio, about 274. It has been several times captured ; and a castle was erected here by Louis XI. Dijon became the capital of the dukes of Burgundy about 1180. It was attacked by the Germans, under gen. Beyer, 30 Oct. 1870. The high suburbs were taken by prince William of Baden, and the town surrendered on 31 Oct. Dilettan'ti, Society of, established in 1734 by the viscount Ilarcourt, lord Middlesex, duke of Dorset, and others who had travelled and were desirous of encouraging the fine arts in Great Britain. The society aided in publishing Stuart's "Athens" (1762-1816), Chandler's "Travels" (1775-76), and other illustrated works. The members dine together from time to time at the Thatch ed-house tavern, St. James's. R. P. Pullan, on behalf of this society, excavated the temple of Minerva Poliasat Priene, between 1861-70. Pub. " Antiquitiea of Ionia," 4 parts, 1769-1881. dlm'lty, a cotton fabric, generally figured or striped. The term is derived from the Gr. Siq, twice, and /iiVot;, thread. Damietta. Dinornis {tavog, terrible, and opvig, bird), an extinct gigantic bird, the remains of which are found in certain parts of New Zealand. From the size of its bones the bird must have measured at least 10 feet in height. It was called the Moa by the natives of New Zealand, and the Maoris have traditions of hunting it, so that its extinction has been of comparatively recent date. di'OCese. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, then civil governments, is ascribed to Constantine, 323 ; but Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long before. In England the principal dioceses are coeval with the establishment of Christianity; of 28 dio- ceses, 20 are suffragan to the diocese of Canterbury, and 6 to that of York. Bishops, and the sees severally. Diocesan conferences of the clergy and laity now frequent. Church, English, Protestant-Episcopal, and Roman Catholic. Dioele'tian £ra (called also the Era of Martyrs, from the persecution in his reign) was used by Christian writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the 6th century, and is still by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29 Aug. 284. dioptric system (from the Gr. ^loirrpa, an optical instrument for measuring), an arrangement of lenses for re- fracting light in light-houses, devised by Fresnel about 1819, based on discoveries of Buffon, Condorcet, Brewster, and oth- ers. Light-houses. diorama (Gr. ha, through, and opcifia, vision), paint- ings viewed through a large aperture or proscenium, invented by Daguerre and Bouton, and first exhibited in Paris, 1822. dipllthe'ria (from the Gr. dipOepa, leather), a disease resembling croup which develops a false membrane on the mucous lining of the throat. It was named diphtheritis by Bretonneau of Tours in 1820. From its prevalence in Bou- logne it has been termed the Boulogne sore-throat; many persons were affected with it in England at the beginning of 1858. It has been often epidemic in Russia. Directory, the French, established by the constitution of the 5th of Fructidor, an III. (22 Aug. 1795), and nominated 1 Nov., was composed of 5 members (MM. Lepeaux, Letour- * neur, Rewbel, Barras, and Carnot). It ruled in conjunction with 2 chambers, the Council of Ancients and Council of Five Hundred (Councils, French), at the revolution of the 18th of Brumaire (9 Nov. 1799). It was deposed by Bonaparte, who, with Cambaceres and Lebrun, assumed the government as 3 consuls, himself the first, 13 Dec. 1799. Consuls. " Directory," the first London, is said to have been printed in 1677. The " Post-office Directory " first appeared in 1800. For cities of the United States see under their re- spective heads. Disciples of Christ, formerly known in the United States as Campbellites, from their founders Thomas and Alex- ander Campbell, father and son, who came from Ireland to the U. S. in 1809. Originally Presbyterians, they preached at Bush Run, Pa., but united with the Baptists in 1812, who, protesting against their creed, excluded them from their fellowship in 1827. The early success of the sect is almost entirely due to the efforts of Alexander, who, educated at the university of Glasgow, was able to formulate a theology. They profess ad- herence to pure scriptural doctrine and practice, reject human creeds and formularies, and admit to their communion all who recognize Christ's obedience and death as " the only meritori- ous cause of the sinner's acceptance with God," and are baptized (by immersion) in his name. They number, according to the statistics of 1892, 8416 churches, with 789,497 members, and possess church property valued at $12,206,038. James A. Gar- field was a member of this church, and, prior to his entry into military and political life, was active in promoting its tenets. discipline, ecclesiastical, originally conducted spiritu- Bacchus at Teos, of Apollo Sraintheus in the Troad, and of [ ally according to the divine commands in Matt, xviii. 15, DIS 1 Cor. v., 2 Thess. iii. 6, and other texts, gradually became temporal, as it now is in the Roman, Greek, and other churches. The *' First Book of Discipline" of the Presbyterian church of Scotland was drawn up by John Knox and 4 ministers in Jan. 1560-61. The more important "Second Book" was prepared with great care in 1578 by Andrew Melville and a committee of the leading members of the general assembly. It lays down a Presbyterian form of government, defines the position of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, etc. Cli§e§tabli§linieilt. Church of Ireland. Dismal §wailip, a morass in southern Virginia, ex- tending into North Carolina. It was formerly 40 miles long and 25 miles wide, but has become somewhat reduced in area by drainage of its border. It is densely timbered with cy- press, juniper, cedar, pine, etc. Lake Drummond, near its centre, covers about 6 square miles. This swamp rises tow- ards its centre, which is considerably higher than its margin. It is now traversed by a canal and two narrow-gauge rail- roads from Suffolk. Thomas Moore the poet, while at Nor- folk, Virginia, put into verse an Indian legend, under the title of " The Lake of the Dismal Swamp." di!4pensatioilS, ecclesiastical, were first granted by pope Innocent III. in 1200. These exemptions from the dis- cipline of the church, with indulgences, absolutions, etc., led eventually to the Reformation in Germany in 1517. dispensing power of the crown (for setting aside laws or their power) asserted by some British sovereigns, especially by Charles II. (in 1672 for the relief of non-conform- ists), and by James II. in 1786, was abolished by the bill of rights, 1689. It has been exercised in the case of embargoes upon ships, the Bank Charter act, etc. Indemnity. Disraeli (diz-ra'l-e) administrations. Ad. MINISTRATIONS, ENGLISH. Benjamin Disraeli (son of Isaac Disraeli, author of " Curiosities of Literature," etc.), born 21 Dec. 1805 ; published " Vivian Grey," 1825 ; M.P. for Maid- stone, 1837-41 ; Shrewsburv, 1841-47; Bucks, 1847-76. Chan- cellor of exchequer, Feb. 'l852; Feb. 1858; July, 1866; in- stalled lord rector of Glasgow university, 19 Nov. 1873; cre- ated earl of Beaconsfield, Aug. 1876; plenipotentiary at the Berlin congress, 13 June-13 July, 1878 ; K. G., invested by the queen, 22 July, 1878 ; received freedom of London, 3 Aug. 1878 ("at the pinnacle of ministerial renown; the favorite of his sovereign, and the idol of society." — London 7'mes,8 Aug.1878). Resigned (after Liberal victory in elections), 22 Apr. 1880; published "Endymion," Dec. 1880; died 19 Apr. 1881 ; buried at Hughenden, prince of Wales and many present, 26 Apr. ; monument in Westminster abbey voted, 9 May, 188 1. His wife created viscountess Beaconsfield, 28 Nov. 1868 ; died Dec. 1872. Dissenters, the modem name of Puritans, Non-con- formists, and English Protestants generally who dissent from the church of England. In 1851, in London, the number of chapels, meeting - houses, etc., for all classes of dissenters, amounted to more than 554. (The church of England had 458 ; Roman Catholics, 35.) The great act (9 Geo. IV. c. 17) for the relief of dissenters from disabilities, passed 9 May, 1828, and called the Corporation and Test Repeal act, repealed all laws requiring the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a quali- fication for certain offices, etc. By 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 85 (1836), dissenters acquired the right of solemnizing marriages at their own chapels, or at a registry office. Worship. A burials bill to permit dissenting ministers to ofBciate at funerals in church-yards several times rejected; in the commons, 248-234, 21 Apr. 1875; 279-248, 3 Mch. 1876; earl Granville's resolution in the lords rejected, 148-92, 15 May. 1876. Lord Harrowby's additional clause to the government burials bill (permitting dissenters to have religious services in church-yards), . was supported by the archbishops, and carried against government (127-111), 18 June; the bill withdrawn, 25 June, 1877. Osborne Morgan's resolution for reforming burial laws (i. e., permit- ting other services), rejected (242-227), 15 Feb. 1878. Act to amend the burial laws, permitting dissenters to have their own service or no service in church-yards; passed commons (258- 79), 13 Aug. ; royal assent, 7 Sept. 1880. Rev. W. H. Fremantle having proposed to preach at Dr. Parker's city temple, and the bishop of London having disapproved, the opinion of 2 counsel (Fitzjames Stephen and Benjamin Shaw) was taken. They declared it to be illegal for the clergy of the Eng- lish church to take part in worship of dissenters, June. 1875. Several Episcopal clergymen take part in the dedication services of Christ church (formerly Surrey chapel), Blackfriars, middle of July, 8* 1876. 233 DIS dissolving^ vieW^S, a name given to pictures thrown on a background or scene in such manner as to appear to dis- selve or vanish into the one following without any break or interval between them. Henry Langdon Childe, the alleged inventor, died 15 Oct. 1874, aged 92. dis'taff or roek, the staff to which flax or any sub- stance to be spun is fastened. The art of spinning with it at the small wheel first taught to Englishwomen by Anthony Bonavisa, an Italian. — Slow. St. Distaff's or Rock day was formerly in England the first free day after the Epiphany (6 Jan.), when the Christmas holidays were over and women's work was resumed. distillation, and the various processes dependent on it, are believed to have been introduced into Europe by the Moors about 1150. Alcohol, Brandy. The distillation of spirituous liquors was in practice in Great Britain in the 16th century. — Burns. The processes were improved by Adam of Montpellier in 1801. M. Payen's work (1861) contains the most recent improvements. An act to prevent the use of stills by unlicensed persons was passed in 1846. 118 licenses to dis- tillers were granted in the year ending 31 Mch. 1858, for the United Kingdom. M. Raoul Pictet announces a method of distillation by use of ice made by the air-pump, Apr. 1881. District of Columbia. The District of Columbia, containing the capital of the United States, is on the east side of the Potomac river, and was formerly part of Maryland. It containsabout64sq. miles, and being under the " exclusive legislation of Congress," ac- cording to art. i. sec. 8 of the U. S. Constitution, its citizens do not vote for president or ^^S?& ^ M^^^^^MR vice-president of the U. S., nor ilM^^^^/^ in the affairs of the District. The centre of the dome of the Capitol is in lat. 38° 53' 20" N., and Ion. 77° 00' 29" W. Pop. 1890, 230,392. Georgetown laid out under act of assembly in 80 lots, comprising 60 acres 15 May, 1751 Constitution of the U. S. gives Congress power to "exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatever over such district (not exceeding 10 miles sq.) as may, by cession of particular states and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the U. S." 17 Sept. 1787 Act of Maryland to cede to Congress 10 miles sq. in the state for the seat of government of the U. S 23 Dec. 1788 Act of Virginia ceding 10 miles sq. or less upon the Potomac for the seat of government of the U. S 3 Dec. 1789 Georgetown incorporated 25 Dec. " Act of Congress locating the district for a seat of government, 16 July. 1790 Pres. Washington appoints Thomas Johnson, Daniel Carroll of Maryland, and David Stuart of Virginia, commissioners to survey the federal district 22 Jan. 1791 Nineteen proprietors agree upon terms for sale of lands to the government. Lots, for public buildings, to be paid for at $125 per acre, streets free ; other lots to be the joint property of the owners and the public trustees 30 Mch. " Pres. Washington proclaims the lines and boundaries of the district. A square comprising 64 sq. miles in Maryland and 36 in Virginia 30 Mch. " First stone marking boundary of the district set in Jones's Point, Hunting Creek, Va 15 Apr. " Commissioners agree to call the federal district the "Territory ofColnmbia," and the federal city the "City of Washington," and to name the streets of the latter alphabetically one way and numerically the other 9 Sept. " Cornerstone of president's house in Washington laid. . . 13 Oct. 1792 Corner-stone of north wing of the Capitol laid 18 Sept. 1793 First newspaper, the National Intelligencer, published in Wash- ington 1800 Congress first meets in Washington 17 Nov. " Superintendence of Washington placed in the hands of 3 com- missioners " Congress assumes jurisdiction of the district, and continues in force the existing laws of Maryland and Virginia 27 Feb. 1801 Thomas Jefferson inaugurated president at Washington.. 4 Mch. " Washington inrorporated by Congress; with a mayor appoint- ed by the president and a council elected by the people, 3 May, 1802 Navy-yard at Washington established 27 Mch. 1804 Public buildings in Washington burned and destroyed by the British after the battle of Bladensburg 24 Aug. 1814 Georgetown college, founded in 1789, chartered as a univer- sity 1 May, 1815 American Colonization society for colonizing free people of color in Liberia, founded at Washington - . . 1817 DIV 234 DIX New charter granted Washington, and mayor elected by the people :..-. l»May, 1820 Columbian college, Washington, incoriwratod 1821 Corner-stone of llrst lock in CliesjiiH>ake and Ohio canal laid near (Seorgetown in presence of president Jackson 29 May, 1829 Building of the government post office, designed by Robert Milla, commenced 1839 U. S. Tren.sury building, designed by Robert Mills, completed.. 1841 U. S. naval observatorv founded 1842 Congress rclrocedesiheafisq. milesrecelvedfromVlrglnia,9 July, 1846 Corner stone of the Smithsonian Institution laid 1 May, 1847 Corner stone of the Washington monument laid 4 July, 1848 National soldiers' home, 2 miles north of Washington, estab- lished by act of Congress 3 Mch. 1851 Corner-stone of south extension of the Capitol laid 4 July, " Frinci|uil nwm of the library of Congress burned, 35,000 vol- umes destroyed 24 Dec. " Loais Kossuth visits Washington 31 Dec. " First national agricultural convention, 151 members from 22 states, Marshall P. Wilder of Mass., president, meets at Wash- ington 24 June, 1852 Congress appropriates $50,000 for an equestrian statue of Wash- ington on public grounds near the Capitol 25 Jan. 1853 Government hospital for the insane of the army and navy es- tablished near Uu iontown, 1853 ; opened 1855 Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, founded by Amos Kendall, chartered by Congress. ^•■•' 1857 Peace conference of 5 commissioners from each state assembles at Washington 4 Feb. 1861 Balloon ascension for military purposes made at Washington, and first telegraph message from a balloon sent by Mr. Lovfe to pres. Lincoln 18 June, " Congress emancipates all slaves, to be valued by commission- ers and paid for at a maximum of $300 16 Apr. 1862 Collegiate department of the Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, known as the National Deaf- Mute college, the onlv one in the world, publicly opened 28 June, 1864 General Jubal Karly, confederate, attacks fort Stevens, 6 miles north of Washington, and is repulsed 12 July, " Pres. Lincoln assassinated in Ford's theatre, Washington, 14 Apr. 1865 Suffrage granted to colored citizens in the District 8 Jan. 1867 The extensions of the capitol finished Nov. " Howard university chartered " Corcoran Art Gallery deeded to trustees by W. W. Corcoran, the founder 10 May, 1869 Congress repeals the charters of Washington and Georgetown, and forms a territorial government for the district, with a governor and council of 11 members appointed by the presi- dent of U. S. for 4 years, and a House of Delegates elected by the people. Henry D. Cooke first governor 21 Feb. 1871 Alexander R Shepherd appointed governor 1873 Congress abolishes the territorial government, substituting a board of 3 regents appointed by the president 20 June, 1874 Permanent government of district constituted by Congress, in a board of 3 commissioners with no local legislative body. Josiah Dent, president of board 11 June, 1878 Pres. Garfield assassinuted in the Baltimore and Potomac rail- road station at Washington 2 July, 1881 Joseph K. West, president of board of commissioners 1882 James B. Edmonds, president of board of commissioners 1883 Remains of John Howard Payne, who died in Tunis, Africa, in 1852, interred in Oak Hill cemetery, Washington 9 June, " Capstone of the Washington monument placed (monument 555 ft high) 6 Dec. 1884 William B. Webb, president of board of commissioners 1886 American college of the Roman Catholic chusch opened at Washington 13 Nov. 1889 divination was forbidden to the Jews, 1451 b.c. (Deut. xviii. 10). It was common among their neighbors, and is de- scribed by Ezekiel (xxi. 21) 493 B.C. divine right of kings, to the absolute and un- qualified obedience of subjects, a doctrine foreign to the genius of the English constitution, was defended by many writers of various schools of thought, e. g., by Hobbes the free-thinker (1642), by Salmasius (1640), by sir Robert Filmer (about 1653), in his " Patriarcha," pub. in 1680, and by the High Church party generally about 1714; but opposed by Milton (1651), Algernon Sydney, and others. diving-bell (first mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, about 325 b.c.) was used in Europe about 1509 a.d. It is said to have been used on the coast of Mull, Scotland, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before 1662. Halley (about 1716) greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on the ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton made use of the diving-bell in improving Ramsgate harbor, 1779-88. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell on the Irish coast were drowned, 1 June, 1783. The British man-of-war Royal George, sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving-bell, in May, 1817. Latterly it has been employed in submarine surveys and har- bor works. The " talpa marina,'' or sea-mole, a diving ma- chine for laying down torpedoes, etc., being a cylinder provided with compressed air sufficient for 2 persons for 50 hours, was invented by Toselli, a Venetian, and was successfully tried in the bay of Naples, 26 Aug. 1871. — Diciny-dress, a close dress made by Mr. Siebe about 1836; used by sir C. W. Pasley in 1838. M. Cabirol, maker of one, died Dec. 1874. Mr. Fleuss invented a helmet with a mouthpiece, into which he In- troduced enough oxygen to last 5 hours, and thus was enabled to remain under water several hours. He exhibited his method at the Polytechnic Institution, London, Nov. 1879, and at the Society of Arts, 6 May, 1880. divining rod {virgula divina, baculatorius), formed of wood or metal, was formerly believed, even by educated per- sons, to have the property of indicating the position of min- erals and springs of water. Instances were alleged in 1851 by Dr. H. Mayo, in his work on " Popular Superstitions." divoree was permitted by the law of Moses (Deut. xxiv. 1), 1451 B.C., but forbidden by Christ, except for unchastity (Matt. V. 31, 32). It was put in practice by Spurius Carvi- lius Ruga at Rome, 234 b.c. At this time morals were so de- based that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Di- vorces are of two kinds : one, a vinculo matrimonii (total divorce) ; the other, a mensd et thoro (from board and bed). It was sought to make divorces easier in England in 1539. The Judicature act, 1873, constituted the probate, divorce, and admiralty division of the High Court of Justice, with two judges. Supreme Court, Probate. Bill to prevent women marrying their seducers brought into Parliament 1801 Commissioners on law of divorce issue their first report. . .Apr. 1857 In 1857 there had been in England, since the Reformation, 317 divorces by act of Parliament; in Scotland, by the law, 174 divorces since 1846 ; 1858-67, 1279 dissolutions of marriage, 213 judicial separations. From the establishment of the divorce court, to Mch. 1859, 37 divorces had been granted out of 288 petitions; from Nov. 1860, to July, 1861, 164. By 20 and 21 Vict. c. 85, the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts over divorce, etc., was abolished, and the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes court instituted, to consist of 3 judges, the judge of the Probate court to be one (if possible) " A full court sat— lord Campbell, chief-baron Pollock, sir Cress- well Cresswell (judge of the Probate court)— when 5 marriages were dissolved 10 May, 1858 Act amended by acts passed in consequence of the increase of the business of the court 1858-60 An act respecting divorces in Scotland passed 1861 Divorce Amendment act passed 21 July, 1868 On appeal, the lords decide that action will lie for divorce from a wife insane (Trials, 1870, Mordauntcase) 22 June, 1874 Legalized by the French republic; about 7000 divorces in Paris alone, 1793-94 ; prohibited by the civil code, but Napoleon divorced Josephine, 16 Dec. 1809 ; again prohibited, 1816 ; again legalized, with conditions, July; many suits Aug. 1884 In the United States divorce is regulated by the states. As a consequence the laws vary greatly, and confusion arises from their conflict. A man maj' be the lawful husband of one woman in one state, while the law of another state may hold him to be the husband of another. The necessitj' of providing some uniform system was discussed, 1881. The violation of the marriage vow is, however, a cause for absolute divorce in all the states and territories having divorce laws. South Car- olina has no divorce laws. According to the divorce statistics of the U. S. for 20 years ending 1886, there were 328,716 di- vorces granted, of which 129,382 were of couples with chil- dren, and 57,524 without. The causes were: desertion, 126,676; adultery, 67,686 ; cruelty, 51,595; drunkenness, 13,866 ; neglect to provide, 7955. — A divorce bill for Victoria, Australia, having received the assent of the home government, the bishop of Vic- toria forbade the clergy marrying divorced persons, May, 1890. Dix's order. This celebrated order was issued by John A. Dix, sec. of the treasury, 1861, to Hemphill Jones, who was in New Orleans trying to prevent the seizure of the U. S. revenue cutter, the Robert McClelland, by the Louisiana state government. Capt. Breshwood was in command of the McClelland, and refused to take the vessel north as ordered, in anticipation of delivering it to the Louisiana government. The order reads as follows : "treasury DEPARTMENT. ,, , „„ ^oci ' ' Jan. 29, 1861. "Tell lieut. Caldwell to arrest capt. Breshwood, assume command of the cutter, and obey the order I gave through you. If capt. Breshwood, after arrest, undertakes to interfere with the command of the cutter, tell lieut. Caldwell to consider him as a mutineer, and treat him accordingly. If any one attempts to haul down the American flag, shoot him on the spot. "John A. Dix "Secretary of the. Treasury." DIX 235 DOG Dixie'§ Land. Songs of the Civil War. ]>izier, St., N.E. France. Here a siege was sustained for 6 weeks against the army of the emperor Charles V., 1544. The allies here defeated Napoleon, 27 Jan. and 26 Mch. 1814. Doce'tSB, a sect of the 1st century, said to have held that Jesus Christ was God, but that his body was an appear- ance, not a reality. docki, artificial basins for the reception of ships for safety or repairing. Those for the safety of the ship are termed wet, and those for repairing dry, and these may be floating as well as stationary. The Athenian docks in the Piraeus cost 1000 talents. The docks of ancient Rome (navalia) were at- tached to the emporium outside of the Porta Trigemina and were connected with the Tiber. The following are the prin- cipal commercial docks : ENGLISH DOCKS. Commercial docks, Rotherhlthe, originated about 1660, covers in all 70 acres. West India docks, commenced 3 Feb. 1800; opened 27 Aug. 1802, when the Henry Addington, West Indiaman, first entered them, decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. London docks were commenced 26 June, 1802, and opened 20 Jan. 1805, Mr. Rennie superintending engineer; cost $7,500,000. East India docks commenced 1803; opened 4 Aug. 1806; covers 32 acres. St. Katharine's docks began 3 May, 1827 ; 2500 men were daily em- ployed on them until they were opened, 25 Oct. 1828; covers 24 acres; cost over $10,000,000. Royal Victoria docks (in Plaistow marshes) completed and opened Nov. 1855 ; great enlargement proposed July, 1876 ; completed and named Royal Albert docks by the duke and duchess of Connaught, 24 June, 1880. Magnificent docks at Liverpool and Birkenhead erected 1810-57, at acost of $20,500,000. Milwall docks, near London, formerly opened, 14 Mch. 1868. A great floating iron dry-dock, which cost $1,250,000, was launched at North Woolwich, 3 Sept. 1868, and towed from the Medway by 2 ships of war, 23 June, 1860, and arrived at the Bermudas (in 36 days), 30 July. Construction of floating docks for repairing ships advocated by lord Brassey, Jan. 1887. Erection of docks at Tilbury determined on 30 Sept. 1881 ; begun 8 July, 1882; opened 17 Apr. 1886. New Barry docks, 7 miles west of Cardiff, Bristol channel (which with breakwater, etc.), cost $4,250,000; opened 18 July, 1889. PRINCIPAL UNITED STATES DOCKS. Boston, Mass., dry-dock, built 1833; cost $1,000,000. Atlantic dock, Brooklyn, N. Y., completed 1851; covering 42 acres; cost nearly $2,000,000. Brooklyn, 1844. Portland, Me., dry-dock. Red Hook, Brooklyn, N. Y., dry-dock. Norfolk, Va., dry-dock. Savannah, Ga., dry-dock. Mare island, Cal., dry-dock, has cost $3,000,000; not completed 1893. Detroit, Mich., dry-dock, completed 1891; cost $200,000. One building at Puget sound, Washington, larger than any yet built in the U. S. doctor. Doctor of the church was a title given to Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom in the Greek church; and to Jerome, Augustin, Ambrose, and Greg- ory the Great in the Latin church. Fathers. Afterwards the title was conferred on certain persons with distinguishing epithets — viz.: Thomas Aquinas (Angelicus), Bonaventura (Seraphicus), Alexander de Hales (Irrefragabilis), Duns Sco- tus (Subtilis), Roger Bacon (Mirabilis), William Occam (Sin- gularis), Joseph Gerson (Christianissimus), Thomas Bradwar- dine (Profundus), and so on. — Doctor of the Law was a title of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was con- ferred in England, 8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the time of the venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, first ob- tained the degree at Cambridge, in the 8th century. Doctor§' commons, the college for the professors of civil and canon law in the 8th century. In Feb. 1568, Dr. Henry Hervie, dean of the arches and master of Trinity hall (a seminary founded at Cambridge, Engl., chiefly for the study •of the civil and canon laws), procured from the dean and chap- ter of the diocese of London a lease of Montjoy house and buildings in the parish of St. Benet, Paul's wharf, for the ac- commodation of the society. Other courts being held here, the whole place was called " Doctors' Commons." The origi- nal college was destroyed in the great fire of 1666 ; in 1672 it was rebuilt. After the great fire, until 1672, the society held its courts at Exeter house, in the Strand. It was incorporated by charter in June, l768.~Coote. The buildings of the College of Advocates, which included all the courts of Doctors' Commons (arches, admiralty, consistory, etc.), were purchased by the Metropolitan Board of Works, and pulled down in Apr. 1867, for the new Queen Victoria street ; some new buildings were erected. Till 1857 the causes taken cog- nizance of here were blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, etc. The building in Knightrider street being dilapidated and too small, the wills were removed to Somerset house, where the office was opened 24 Oct. 1874. Civil law. Ecclesiastical Courts, etc. doctor's mob. New York, 1788. doctrinaires (dok-tri-narz'), a name given since 1814 to a class of politicians in France (Guizot, Mole, the due de Broglie, and others), who upheld constitutional principles, in opposition to arbitrary monarchical power. The party came into office in 1830 under Louis Philippe, and fell with him in 1848. The term has been applied in England to the writers in the Westminster Review (1824 et seq.), Bentham, Molesworth, and others. do'do (^Didus ineptus), an extinct member of the order Columbae. The remains of this bird are found only on the island of Mauritius. It was incapable of flying, and stupid, and some- what larger than the swan. It was exterminated about 1693. Our principal knowledge of it is based upon a few bones found, and drawings made in Holland, where it was brought alive before extermination. Dodo'na, Epirus. The temple of Jupiter here, re- nowned for its ancient oracle, delivered by the sound of wind in a grove of oak trees, was destroyed by the ^tolians, 219 B.c. Foundation of the temple, etc., excavated by M. Carapanos, 1883. dog. Buffon considers the shepherd's dog as " the root of the tree," as having naturally the greatest share of instinct. Dr. Gall asserts that a dog, taken from Vienna to England, escaped to Dover, got on a vessel, landed at Calais, accompa- nied a man to Mentz, and returned to Vienna. Statute against dog-stealing, 10 Geo. Ill 1770 Use of dogs to draw carts, etc., abolished in London, 1839; in the United Kingdom 1854 Dox-tax imposed, 1796; again in 1808; 12s. a year realized 219,313Z 1866 Dog-tax repealed, 29 Mch. 1867; annual excise duty of 5s. im- posed on all dogs more than 6 months old, to begin. . .5 Apr. 1867 Dog show in London, 1861; since 1862 at the Agricultural hall, Islington, the Crystal palace, and other places. "Dogs' temporary home" opened, Hollingsworth street, Lon- don, N., 1861; removed to Battersea in 1871; about 2200 animals have been sheltered in a year. As a nuisance, dogs at large unmuzzled in London ordered to be seized by the police July-27 Nov. 1868 New act, more stringent, passed 24 July, 1871 Dog licenses (annual 5s.) issued in financial year, 1871-72, produced 279,425Z. ; in 1875-76, 343,257^. ; in 1876-77, 349,613^. ; 1877-78, 372,699Z. Dogs licensed in United Kingdom: in 1866, 445,656; in 1876, 1,362,- 176. There are in England 12 packs of stag-hounds, containing 295 couples ; 4 packs in Ireland, containing 100 couples. The largest pack is the queen's, 40 couples; master, the earl of Coventry; kennels at Ascot Heath. Of fox-hound packs there are 155 in England and Wales, containing 6239 couples; in Scotland, 9 packs with 326 couples; and in Ireland, 17 packs with 635 couples. There are also 124 packs of harries and beagles in England and Wales, with 1997 couples; 40 packs in Ireland with 512 couples, and 6 packs in Scotland with 116 couples. Thus more than 20.000 hounds are maintained exclusively for hunting in the United Kingdom. dOg'-days (the Canicular period). The rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star, with the sun has been erro- neously regarded as the cause of excessive heat and of conse- quent calamities. These days have been spoken of by the earliest observers. Hippocrates (450 b.c.) speaks of them as the hottest and most unhealthy part of summer, and Pliny says they began with the heliacal rising of Procyon on what is now 19 July, and this date has been widely accepted. But he also says the sun was then entering Leo, which would make the days begin 23 July. This has also been used as the start- ing-point. If the time is given from 3 July to 11 Aug. it is probably of Babylonian origin. Various durations from 30 to 54 days have been assigned to them. doge or duke. Venice was first governed by a doge named Anafesto Paululio, or Paoluccio, 697. Venice. The Genoese chose their first doge, Simone Boccanegra, in 1339. Genoa. DOG 236 DOR I DOffKCr-bank, a sand bank in the North sea, 170 miles in length, and average width 40 miles. Here an indecisive battle was fought between the British, under admiral sir Hyde Parker, and the Dutch, 5 Aug. 1781. Dogi^ett'M coat and badge. Boat-racks. doit. A silver Scottish penny: 12 made a penny ster- ling. Some struck by Charles I. and II. are in cabinets. The circulation of" doydeky ns " (small Dutch coins) was prohibited in England by statute in 1415. dollar (Ger. Thaler). Stamped Spanish dollars (value As. 9(/,) were issued from the British mint in Mch. 1797, but called in in Oct. following. The dollar is the unit of United States money. It is coined in silver, formerly also in gold, and is worth 45. IJd English money. Coin and Coinage in the U. S. dolphin, a cetaceous mammal of the genus Delphinus ddphh. Also the name of the caravel of Verrazzani, in which he entered the bay of New York in 1524, and of the U. S. despatch boat carrying president Cleveland while reviewing the navies of the world in New York harbor, 27 Apr. 1893. Doni-bOC or Doom-book {Liher Judicialis), the code of law compiled by king Alfred (871-901 a.d.) from the West-Saxon collection of Ina and other sources. Domesday, or Doom§day, book (Domus Dd book — Stoic) {Liber Censual'is A nglice), a book of the general survey of England, commenced under William I., 1080 (or 1085), completed in 1086, designed as a register to determine the right in tenure of estates: sir Martin Wright says, "to discover the quantity of every man's fee, and to fix his hom- age," i. e. the question of military aid he was bound to furnish ; and from it the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not is sometimes still decided. The book, formerly kept in the chapter-house of Westminster, is now in the public record office. It consists of two volumes, a greater and a less, applying to all counties of England except Northumberland, Durham, Westmoreland, and Cumberland. "This Dome's- day Book was the tax-book of kinge William."— CamJew. The taxes were levied by it till 13 Hen. VIII., 1522, when a more accurate survey was taken, called b\' the people the " New Doomsday Book." It was printed in 4 vols, fol., with introductions, etc., 1783-1816. Photo-zincographic copies of various counties have been published since 1861. In Sept. 1872, the British government ordered a return of all owners of land in England and Wales— a new domesday-book, to be made by the local government board. The return for Scotland, 1872-73, was published by government, Apr. 1874; for England and Wales (exclusive of the metropolis) in 1875 ; for Ireland, 1876. domestie economy, or the study of food and clothing, was introduced into the government educational de- partment of England in 1874; the congresses began at Bir- mingham, 16 July, 1877 ; Manchester, 26 June, 1878 ; London (Society of Arts)*26 June, 1879; 21 June, 1881. Domtn'go, St. Hayti. Domln'iea, one of the Leeward islands, West Indies, discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, and so called because first sighted on Sunday, 3 Nov. 1493 ; was taken by the British in 1761, and confirmed to them by the peace of Paris, Feb. 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the peace of 1783. Their admiral Villeneuve ineflfectu- ally attacked it in 1805, It suffered damage bv a hurricane in 1806. Pop. 1892, 29,500 ; area 291 sq. miles. Capital Roseau. domln'ieal letter, noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The 7 days of the week, reckoned as beginning on 1 Jan., are designated by the first 7 letters of the alphabet, A (1 Jan.), B, C, D, E, F, G ; and the one of these which denotes Sunday is the dominical letter. If the year begin on Sunday, A- is the dominical letter; if on Monday, G; if on Tuesday, F; and so on. To find the dominical letter call Ne01ia.y (doo'-d), N. France, the Roman Duacum, was taken from the Flemings by Philip the Fair in 1297; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted to Spain, but was taken by Louis XIV. in 1667. It was captured by the duke of Marl- borough in June, 1710; retaken by the French, 8 Sept. 1712. This town gives its name to the English Roman Catholic ver- sion of the Bible authorized by the pope, the text explained by notes of Roman divines. The Old Testament was published by the English college at Douay in 1609; the New at Rheims in 1582. The English college for Roman Catholics was founded, 1568, by William Allen, afterwards cardinal. — Dodd. I>OUg[llface§, first used and applied by John Randolph of Virginia to northern representatives in U. S. Congress who supported the Missouri compromise of 1820 ; Randolph strenu- ously opposing it. ]>OUgla§, Stephen Arnold. United States, 1854-1857, 1858-1860; Political Partii.:s. ~ "^ Douro {doo'-ro), a river separating Spain and Portugal, wliicli, after a desperate struggle between Wellington's advance guard under Hill, and the French under Soult, was crossed by the former on 12 May, 1809, so suddenly that Wellington at 4 o'clock sat down to the dinner prepared for the French general. — Alison. Dover, Kent, Engl., the Roman Dubris. Near here Julius Caesar is said to have first landed in England, 26 Aug. 55 b.c., and its castle to have been built by him soon after ; but this is disputed. The works were strengthened by Alfred and suc- ceeding kings, and rebuilt by Henry II. The earliest-named constable is Leopoldus de Bertie, under Ethelred H,, followed by earl Godwin, Odo, the brother of William I., etc. In mod- ern times this office, and that of warden of the Cinque Ports, have been frequently conferred on the prime-minister for the time being — e. g., lord North, Mr. Pitt, lord Liverpool, and the duke of Wellington. Priory was commenced by archbishop Corboyl or Corbois, about 1130 John here resigned his kingdom to Pandolf, the pope's legate, 13 May, 1213 Pier projected by Henry VIII 1533 Charles II. landed here from his exile 26 May. 1660 Submarine telegraph laid to Calais by Brett 28 Aug! 1850 Telegraph between Dover and Calais opened 13 Nov. 1851 Dover, N. H. New Hampshire, 1690. dower, the gifts of a husband to a wife before marriage (Gen. xxxiv. 12). The portion of a man's lands or tenements which his widow enjoys for life. By the law of king Edmund of England a widow took a moiety of her husband's lands or tenements for her life, 941. The widows of traitors, not those of felons, are debarred dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 1551. Down, N. E. Ireland, an ancient see , first bishop St. Cailan in 499. At the instance of John de Courcy, the con- queror of Ulster, the cathedral, consecrated to the Trinity, was rededicated to St. Patrick about 1183. The sepulchre of St. Patrick (buried here in 493, in the abbey of Saul, founded by himself) brought this place into great repute. The cathedral of Downpatrick was destroyed by lord Grey, lord-deputy of Ireland; for this and other crimes he was impeached and be- headed in Ib'^i.—Beatson. Draco'§ law§, enacted by him when archon of Ath- ens, 621 B.C., on account of their severity were said to be written in blood. Idleness was punished as severely as mur- der. This code was superseded by Solon's, 594 b.c. draft rioti, New York. In Apr. 1862, U. S. Congress authorized a draft to fill the ranks of the Union army; but president Lincoln refrained from resorting to it until 1863, vhen, by proclamation, 8 May, he ordered the draft to begin in July. Great opposition was made by the " Peace party." While there was some disturbance in other northern states, in no place was resistance so serious as in New York city. Here the draft ordered on 13 July was resisted, and for 4 days (13-16 July) the city was in almost complete possession of the rioters. Nearly every able-bodied soldier had been sent against Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania, so that the rioters met only the po- lice and a few invalid soldiers, whom they soon overpowered. Violent and reckless men appealed to the worst passions of ig- norant followers, and negroes who appeared in the streets were pursued with fury, and often stoned or hanged. Under pre- text of hunting these men, several private houses were entered and plundered or burned. Many newspaper offices and bank- ing houses were garrisoned and armed in anticipation of attack. But when the organized militia, with one or two veteran regi- ments, arrived, they soon overcame the mob. In this riot there were probably about 1000 persons (many negroes) killed, and property destroyed to the amount of $2,000,000. dragr'oniiades. The fierce persecution of the Protes- tants in the reign of Louis XIV. by dragoons (whence called dragonnades), directed by the minister Louvois, 1684, was con- summated by the revocation of Henry IV.'s edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, which drove 50,000 families from 'Fr&ncQ.—Duruy. dragCOOns'. A name supposed to be derived from drag- on, "because mounted on horseback with Jighted match he seemeth like a fiery dragon." — Meyrich. The draconarii were horse-soldiers who bore dragons for ensigns. The first regi- ment of dragoons was raised in England, it is believed, in 1681. " King Charles II., at the Restoration, established a regiment of Life Guards, to which he added a regiment of Horse Guards and 2 regiments of Foot Guards; and a third regiment of Foot Guards was raised at Coldstream, on the borders of Scotland." — Capt. Curling. Army, United States. drailiag^e. The first attempts at reclamation of sub- merged lands by drainage in Holland are said to have been made in or about the 2d century, a.d. Friesland, which is lower than the surface of the ocean, was preserved b}' a wall, raised by a Portuguese in the employ of Philip II. of Spain, in 1567. The drainage of Haarlem meer, in Holland, an inland sea formed by an irruption of the North sea in 1539, and covering 70 sq. miles, was begun in 1839. Pumping commenced 7 June, 1848 ; 832,000,000 tons of water were pumped out, and the work was finished, 1 July, 1852, at an expenditure of $3,600,000, which was more than paid by sale of the reclaimed lands. In 1875 the Dutch chamber voted 9,500,000/. to reclaim the sub- merged lands of the Zuyder zee, covering an area of 759 sq. miles — The drainage of the Pontine marshes, lying between Rome and Naples, was confided to the patrician Decius, by Theodoric, at the end of the 6th century. Leo X. gave Julius de Medici authority and money to pursue the work, and he cut the canal Porta torre di Badino. Sixtus V. had the Fiume Sisto canal cut under the direction of the civil engineer As- canio Fenizi, about 1588, and Pius VIII. continued the drain- age works about 1775. The Ferrara marshes in northern Italy, covering 200 sq. miles, are drained by 8 centrifugal pumps, discharging nearly half a million gallons per minute into the river Volano, at Codigoro. — The first mention of drainage of land in Great Britain is of Romney marsh, in Kent co., com- prising over 24,000 acres, which was defended against the sea by an artificial wall upwards of 6000 yards in length, probably erected when the Romans occupied England. A general drain- age act was passed in England in 1600. Portions of the Bedford level, also called the Fens, on the east coast of England, were reclaimed by drainage by the earl of Bedford in 1634, Cornelius Vermuyden, the Dutch engineer, being invited to England for this purpose. He expended over 100,000/. on the work, which was completed by his son 15 or 20 years later at an additional cost of 300,000/. Canals, Sewers. — There are in. the United States, besides the inland swamp land, 6 or 7 million acres of tide-water marshes capable of being diked and cultivated. In Delaware, marshes were diked by the Swedes nearly 200 years ago. In Maine the most important reclamations are in Wash- ington, Cumberland, and York counties: in Massachusetts, at Marshfield ; and in New Jersey, the Newark meadows, which were reclaimed by the Iron Dike and Land Reclamation Company of New York, using an upright iron plate in the em- bankment to prevent burrowing by muskrats, etc., 1868-70. DRA Tide-laod Rodamaliou Company organized for draining land in the Sacramento and Sau Joaquin river deltas, CaliCornia, about 1869 Louisiana l^md ReclumalionConuKinyorgauized in New Orleans 1«78 Draining of lake Okeechobee, Kla. , for reclamation of lands, be- gun by the Atlantic and Gulf Coast Canal and Okeechobee Land i'ompauy 1881-82 Drainage of farm lands by deep trenches lllled in with stones or fagots, covered with turf, was recoininended by capt. Walter Bligh of Kngland in 1(J62. , About 1764, Mr. Elkington of Warwickshire, Kngl, established a system of draining springy land by boring for the source of the water and drawing it olf in a single deep channel. The system of James Smith of Dcnuston, practically a revival of Bligh's plan of farm drain- age, was introduced into England 1823 Jesse Buel was one of the first to employ tile for draining in the U. S., on his farm near Albany, N. Y. In 1837 he laid 4000 ft. of tile drain, the tile being manufactured by Jackson of Albany. John Johnston of Seneca co., N. Y., imported flrom Scotland patterns of drain tile in 1835, from which he made tile for his own use. John Doialleld. of Seneca co., N. Y., imported fi-om England a patent tile machine 1848 Drake's eireiimnavlg^ation. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Falmouth, P^ngL, 13 Dec. 1577, circumnav- igated the globe, and returned to England after many perils, 3 Nov. 1580. He was vice-admiral under lord Howard; high admiral of England against the Spanish Armada, 19 July, 1588. He died at Panama, 28 Jan. 1596, on an expedition against the Spaniards. California; Virginia, 1586. drama (Gr. dpdfia, action), ancient. Both tragedy and comedy began with the Greeks. First comedy performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon, on ^•'^• a movable scaffold 562 Chorus introduced 556 Tragedy first represented at Athens by Thespis, on a wagon {Arund. Marb.) 536 Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, performed at Athens " Alcestis," and was rewarded with a goat (tragos). — Pliny... " .fischylus introduced dresses and a stage 486 Drama was first introduced into Rome when a plague raged in the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. Licinius Stolo; the magistrates, to appease the gods, instituted games called the "Scenici;" actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 Anaxandrides, first dramatic poet who introduced intrigues upon the stage; composed about 100 plays, of which 10 ob- tained prizes; d 340 Plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular plot; he gave singing and dancing to different performers 240 Greatest ancient dramatic writers were: Greek, -(Eschylus, Sopho- cles, Euripides (tragedy), and Aristophanes (comedy), 525-427. Latin, Phiutus and Terence (comedy), 184-100; Seneca (tragedy), 7B.C.-65A.D. Literature. drama, modern, arose early in rude attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England, and in classical plays at the universities, still represented by the Westminster plaj'. Bible stories (^Mysiery Plays), repre- sented by priests, gave rise to sacred comedy. — Warton. Gregory Nazianzen, father of the church, is said to have con- structed a drama on the Passion of Christ to counteract heathen profanities about 364 Ancient Mahometan miracle-play of "Hasan and Husan,"sons of Ali ; pub. by sir L. Pelly 1879 Fitzstephen, in his "Life of Thomas a Becket," as.serts that " London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representation of miracles, wrought by holy confessors;" d about 1190 Chester Mysteries performed about 1270 [Coventry, Chester, Townley, and other mysteries have been printed during the present century.] Plays performed at Clerkenwell by the parish clerks, and " miracles " represented in the fields 1397 "Passion of Christ." a miracle-play, still frequently performed at Ober-Ammergau, in Bavaria, is said to have had its origin after a pestilence 1633 [Performance, 17-2fi May, 1880, 1890, and since.] Proposed performance at the Westminster aquarium, 4 Nov., stopped by public disapproval Oct. 1878 ["Passion-play" performed in Spain, with painful real- ism, 1873.] Allegorical characters introduced in the 15th century. Skelton and others wrote " Moralities" about 1500 First regular drama acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba " of Trissino, at Rome, before Leo X.— Voltaire 1515 First royal license for the drama in England (to master Bur- bage, and 4 others, servants to the earl of Leicester) to act plays at the Globe, Bankside 1574 Shakespeare began to write about 1590 License granted to Shakespeare and others 1603 Plays opposed by the Puritans in 1633; suspended during the commonwealth, 1649 ; restored 1660 Two companies of regular performers, Killigrew's and sir Will- iam Davenant's, were licensed by Charles II 1662 [Boys performed women's parts until 1661, when Davenant employed actresses, the first being Mrs. Davenport and Mrs. 238 DRE Saunderson. Soon after appeared Mrs. Hughes, Mrs. Davies, Mrs. Long, Nell Gwyn, and others. Actkksses.] Sir William Davenant introduced operas, and both companies were united 1684-94, when a schism under Betterton started a theatre in Lincolu'.s-inn fields, the parent of Covent Garden, 1695 Act for revision of plays and for licensing them 1737 Authors' Dramatic Copyright Protection act, 10 June, 1833; extended to operas 1 July, 1842 LiTBR.VTURK, SuAKESPKARE'S PlAYS, ThEATRKS. " Drapier's Lietters," by dean Swift, pub. 1723-24 against Wood's Halfpence. draug^liti, commonly called elieekers in t United States. A game played by 2 persons, with 12 mi each, on a chess-board. Origin uncertain, but supposed have preceded chess ; was common in Egypt, 1300 B.c. One variety of the game is known as Polish draughts. M. Mallet publishes a treatise on draughts at Paris 1668 William Paine puldishes at London an "Introduction to the Game of Draughts " 1756 "Guide to the Game of Draughts," by Joshua Sturges, Loudon, issued 180a dream§ are mentioned in Scripture — e. g., Joseph's and Pharaoh's, 1715 b.c. (Gen. xxxvii. and xli.), and Nebu- chadnezzar's, 603 and 570 b.c. (Dan. ii. and iv.). An attempt to interpret dreams and omens is ascribed to Amphictyon of Athens, 1497 b.c. Thomas, lord Lyttelton, dreamed that a young woman, dressed ia white, solemnly warned him of his dissolution in 3 days from that time. On the third day he had a party to spend the evening with him, and about the time predicted he observed to the company present that "he believed he should jockey the ghost;" but in a few minutes afterwards he was seized with a sudden faintness, carried to bed, and rose no more. He died 27 Nov. 1779, aged :35. A full account of this remarkable occurrence is given in Timbs's "Abbeys and Castles of England and Wales," Midland. Dred Scott ca§e, Dred Scott was a negro slave of dr. Emerson, a surgeon in the U. S. army, then stationed in Missouri. Dr. Emerson, taking Dred with him, moved to Illi- nois, a free state, in 1834, and in 1836 to fort Snelling, Wis. This territory being north of 36° 30', the line of the Missouri Compromise of 1820, was free soil also. Some time after the doctor returned to Missouri, taking Dred, his wife and 1 child. About this time Dred was sold to John F. A. Sanborn of New York city. Dred now brought suit for damages against Sanborn for whipping him, on the plea that his residence in Illinois and Wisconsin had made him free. The defence was that a descendant of slave ancestors could never be free, was not a citizen, had no status in court, etc. The plaintiff Scott won in the district court; but this decision was reversed by the supreme court of Missouri, from which an appeal was taken to the U. S. courts. The case came to trial in 1855-56. The opinion of the court, delivered by chief-justice Taney, 6 Mch. 1857, was not unanimous, and dissenting opinions were filed. It denied the legal existence of the African race as persons in American society and constitutional law; denied the supremacy of Congress over the territories, and the con- stitutionality of the " Missouri Compromise." The chief-justice was supported by justices John Catron, Va., Jas. A.Campbell, Ga., Peter V. Daniel, Va., Robt. C. Grier, Pa., Samuel Nelson, N. Y., and Jas. M. Wayne, Ga. — John McLean, Ohio, and Benj. R. Curtis, Mass., dissenting. This case was the last in which the extension or restriction of slavery came before the courts. The question was soon referred to the arbitrament of war. Drepa'num, now Trapani, a seaport town of Sicily. Near this place the Carthaginian admiral Adherbal defeated the Roman fleet under Puhlius Claudius, 249 b.c. Dresden, "the German Florence," became the capital of Saxony, 1548. Pop. 1890, 276,085. Alliance of Dresden, Saxony, Denmark, and Russia. . .28 June, 1709 Peace of Dresden: Hungary, Prussia, and Saxony 25 Dec. 1745 Taken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756; by the Austrians 1759 Bombarded in vain by Frederick July, 1760 Held by Austrians Tune-July, 1809 Contests between the allies under the prince of Schwarzenberg and the French under Napoleon 26, 27 Aug. 181S Allies, 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon at Dresden, and were saved from ruin by an error of gen. Vandamme. They were defeated with dreadful loss, and forced into Bohemia; but Van- damme pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and he and all his sUff taken. Gen. Moreau received a mor- tal wound while talking with the emperor of Russia. 27 Aug. '* Marshal St. Cyr and 25,000 French troops surrendered Dre.sden to the allies 11 Nov. " During a political commotion the king abdicates; prince Fred- erick, his nephew, declared regent 9 Sept. et seq. 1830^ DRE 239 Dresden china was invented by John Frederick BSttger (or BOttcher), an apothecary's boy, about 1709. He died 13 Mch. 1719. dres§. The attire of the Hebrew wonrien is censured in Isaiah iii., about 760 b.c. Excess in dress among the earh' Romans was restrained by laws; and in P^ngland bj^ numer- ous statutes, in 1363, 1465, 1570, etc. — Stow. F. W. Fairholt's "Costume in England" (1846) contains a history of dress, with illustrations from MSS., the works of Strutt, etc. J. K. Planche's elaborate " Cyclopaedia of Costume " first appeared in 1876. A "dress-making company" was established in Lon- don, 6 Feb. 1865, to improve the condition of workwomen. Sir Walter Raleigh wore a white satin pinked vest, close-sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a doublet finely flowered, embroidered with pearls; in the feather of his hat a large ruby and pearl-drop at the bottom of the sprig in place of a button. His breeches, with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all • white; and buff shoes, which, on great court-days, were gorgeous- ly covered with precious stones, worth overfiGOO/. ; he had armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, had diamonds tacked so loosely on that he could shake a few ofl" on the ground, and obtained all the fame he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally les dames de la cour. Court-dress of civilians, previously that of the time of the Georges, was modified by the lord chamberlain, lord Sydney, in 1869. Bloomer costume. Bloomer. Dreux (druk), a town of N.W. France. Here Mont- morenci defeated the Huguenots under Conde, 19 Dec. 1562. Here is the burying-place of the Orleans family since 1816. The duke of Guise, aged 18, the last surviving child of the due d'Aumale, was buried here 27 July, 1872. The bodies of king Louis Philippe and his family were brought here from Eng- land and buried, 9 June, 1876. I>rog°lieda {droh' -he-da), E. Ireland, formerly Tredagh, a borough of great importance, having the privilege of coining money. Here was passed Poynings' law in 1494. An act of Edward VI. was passed for the foundation of a university here. The town was besieged several times between 1641 and 1691, and Cromwell took it by storm, and put the governor, sir A. Aston, and the whole of the garrison to the sword, 12 Sept. 1649. More than 3000 men, mostly English, perished. It sur- rendered to William HI. in 1690. Drontlieim, capital of Norway, founded by Olaf I. about 998. drownings, an ancient punishment. The Britons in- flicted death by drowning in a quagmire, before 450 b.c. — Stow. It is said to have been inflicted on 80 intractable bishops near Nicomedia, 370 a.d., and to have been adopted as a punishment in France by Louis XL The wholesale drown- ings of royalists in the Loire at Nantes, by command of the brutal Carrier, Nov. 1793, were termed Noijades. 94 priests were drowned at one time. Carrier was condemned to death in Dec. 1794. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons were first instituted in Holland in 1767. The second society is said to have been formed at Milan in 1768, the third at Hamburg in 1771, the fourth at Paris in 1772, and the fifth in London in 1774. The motto of the Royal Humane Society in England is Laleat scintillula forsan ("A small spark may perhaps lie hid "). Francois Texier of Dunkerque, after saving 50 lives at different times, was drowned in a storm, Oct. 1871. Life-saving skrvick. I>ruidj!>i, priests among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, so named from their veneration for the oak (Brit. deno). They administered sacred things, were the interpret- ers of the gods, and supreme judges. They headed the Brit- ons who opposed CiBsar's first landing, 55 b.c., and were ex- terminated by the Roman governor. Suetonius Paulinus, 61 a.d. drum. Its invention is a.scribed to Bacchus, who, accord- ing to Polysenus, "gave his signals of battle with cymbals and drums." It was used by the Egyptians; and brought by the Moors into Spain, 1713.— The drum, or drum capstan, for weigh- ing anchors, was invented by sir S.Morland in 1685. — A nderson. T^ruvudOfi^ a hiW in W. Scotland. Here the Covenant- ers defeated Graham of Claverhouse on 1 June, 1679. The conflict is described by sir Walter Scott in " Old Mortality." Druiumond light. Lime-light. drunkard§ were excommunicated in the early church, 69 (1 Cor. v. 11). In England, a canon law forbade drunken- DUB ness in the clergy, 747. Constantine, king of Scots, punished it with death, 870. By 21 James I. c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was fined 5 shillings, or set 6 hours in the stocks. Teetotaler, Temperance. A society lor promoting legislation for the control and cure of habitual drunkards formed in England 22 Sept. 1876 Dr. Leslie E.,Keeley's hypodermic injections of bichloride of gold as a cure for habitual drunkenness, first used in the United States 1891 Drury-laiie theatre derives its origin from a cock- pit, made a theatre under James I. It was rebuilt and called the Phoenix ; and Charles II. granted an exclusive patent to Thomas Killigrew, 25 Apr. 1662. The actors were called "the king's servants," and 10 of them, called "gentlemen of the great chamber," had an annual allowance of 10 yards of scar- let cloth, with lace. Theatres. I>ri]§e§, a warlike people in the moimtains of Lebanon, originally a fanatical jNIahometan sect which arose in Egypt about 996, and fled to Palestine to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of the religion of their ancestors: they eat pork and drink wine, and do not practise circumcision, pray, or fast. In the middle of 1860, the Druses attacked their neigh- bors the Maronites, whom they massacred, it was said, with- out regard to age or sex. Peace was made in July ; meantime a religious fury seized the Mahometans of neighboring cities, and a general massacre of Christians ensued. Fuad Pacha with Turkish troops, and gen. Hautpoul with French auxil- iaries, invaded Lebanon in Aug. and Sept. The Druses surren- dered, giving up their chiefs, Jan. 1861. Damascus, Syria. Dry TortU'g-a§ (Sp. tortuga, a tortoise), a group of several small barren islands, about 40 miles west of the most westerly of the Florida Keys. They belong to Monroe county, Fla., and served for a place of imprisonment for certain offenders during the United States civil war. Lat. 24° 38' N., Ion. 82° 53' W. Booth's conspiracy. du'alin, a new explosive substance (said to be from 4 to 10 times more powerful than gunpowder), composed of varying proportions of cellulose (woody fibre), nitro-starch, nitro-man- nite, and nitro-cellulose ; invented by Carl Ditmar, a Prussian, and made known in 1870. This name is also given to another explosive compound, invented by Mr. Nobel, composed of am- monia and sawdust, acted on by nitro-snlphuric acid. Dublin, capital of Ireland, anciently called Ashcled, said to have been built 140. Auliana, daughter of Alpinus, a lord or chief among the Irish, having been drowned at the ford where now Whitworth bridge is built, he changed the name to Auliana, by Ptolemy called Eblana (afterwards corrupted into Dublana). Alpinus is said to have brought " tlie then rude hill into the form of a town," about 155. Pop, 1891, 254,709 city proper ; 361,891 metropolitan police district. Ike- land, Trinity colleges. Christianity established by St. Patrick, and St. Patrick's cathe- dral founded about Dublin environed with walls by the Danes Named Uy king Edgar in the preface to his charter "Nobilis- sima Civitas" Battle of Clontarf '23 Apr. Dublin taken by Ramond le Gros, 1170, for Henry II., who soon after arrives 1171 Charter granted by this king 1173 Christ church built by Danes, 1038; rebuilt about 1180-1225 Slaughter of 500 British by Irish citizens near Dublin (Cullen's- wooD) ." 1209 Assembled Irish princes swear allegiance to king John 1210 DuDlin castle founded by Henry de Loundres, 1205; finished.. 1213 John de Decer first provost; Richard de St. Olave and John Stakebold first bailiffs (Mayor) 1308 Thomas Cusack first mayor 1409 Besieged by the son of the earl of Kildare, lord deputy 1500 Christ church made a deanery and chapter by Henry VIII 1541 Bailiff changed to sheriffs; John Ryan and Thomas Comyn first, 1548 Trinity college founded 1591 Charter granted by James 1 1609 Convocation frames 39 articles of religion 1614 Besieged by the marquess of Ormond, defeated at battle of Rathmines 2 Aug. 1649 Cromwell arrives in Dublin with 9000 foot and 400 horse, Aug. " Chief magistrate styled lord-mayor 1665 Royal hospital, Kilmainham, founded 1683 James II. arrives in Dublin, 24 Mch. ; proclaimed 4 May, 1689 Lamps first erected in the ci'.y 1698 St. Patrick's spire erected (St. Patrick) 1749 Act for a general pavement of the city 1773 Royal Exchange begun 1769; opened 1779 Order of St. Patrick instituted 1783 448 964 1014 DUB 240 DUN Bauk of Irolaud inslitutoU (Bank) 1783 Police established by sUitnte 1786 Custom house bojjuu, 1781; opened 1791 Dublin Library instituted " Dublin lighled with gus 5 Oct. 1826 I'htt-nix I'ark murders (Irkland) 6 May, 1882 Statue of D. O'Connell unveiled, and the exhibition of Irish arts and manufactures (not iwtronized by queen Victpria and loyalists) o|)ened by the lord-mayor Dawson, 15 Aug. 1882; closed 6 Jan. 1883 Burial of Charles S. Parnell in Glasuevin cemetery 11 Oct. 1891 Dublin, Archbishopric of. It is supposed that the bish- opric of Dublin was founded by St. Patrick in 448. Gregory, bishop in 1121, became archbishop in 1162, It was united to Glatuialagh in Vll-f. (Jeorge Browne, an Augustin friar of London (deprived by queen Mary in 1554), was the first Prot- estant archbishop. Dublin has 2 cathedrals, Christ church and St. Patrick's. dllC'Btj a coin so called because struck by dukes. — John- son. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First struck in the duchy of Apulia, 1140. — Du Cange. Coined by Robert, king of Sicily, in 1240. duekillg^-stool. Cucking-stool. duelling took its rise from the judicial combats of the Celtic nations. The first formal duel in England, between William count d'Eu and Godfrey Baynard, took place 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 1305. Francis I. challenged the emperor Charles V. in vain, 1528. The fight with small-swords was introduced into England, 1587. Proc- lamation that no person should be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 1679. Duelling was checked in the British army, 1792 ; and has been abolished in England by the influence of public opinion, aided by the late prince-consort. A society " for the discouraging of duelling" was established in 1845. "The British Code of Duel," pub. in 1824, was approved by the duke of Wellington and others. Combat, Jaknac. MEMOHABLE DUELS IN EUROPE. Between the duke of Hamilton and lord Mohun, fought. 15 Nov. 1712 [Fought with small-swords in Hyde park. Lord Mohun was killed on the spot, and the duke died of his wounds while carried to his coach.] Attempt made at this time to sup- press duelling; bill passed in the House of Commons to its 3d reading— defeated. Lord Byron killed Mr. Chaworth 26 Jan. 1765 Lord Townsend wounded lord Bellamont 1 Feb. 1773 Comle d'Artois wounded by due de Bourbon, at Paris, 21 Mch. 1778 Charles James Fox wounded by Mr. Adam 30 Nov. 1779 Rev. Mr. Allen killed Moyd Dulany .18 June, 1782 Mr. M'Keon killed George N. Reynolds, 1787; executed, 16 Feb. 1788 Duke of York and col. Lennox, afterwards duke of Richmond (for an insignificant cau.se) 26 May, 1789 Mr. Curran and major Hobart 1 Apr. 1790 Wm. Pitt and George Tierney 27 May, 1796 Henry Grattan woinided Isaac Corry 15 Jan. 1800 M. de Granpre and M. Le Pique, in balloons, near Paris, and the latter killed 3 May, 1808 Major Campbell and capt. Boyd; latter killed (former hanged, 2 Oct. 1808) 23 June, " Lord Castlereagh wounded Geo. Canning 21 Sept. 1809 Capt. SUckpole (of Engl, frigate Statira) and lieut. Cecil (be- cause of words spoken 4 years previously) ; the captain killed, Apr. 1814 D. OConnell killed Mr. D'Esterre 31 Jan. 1815 Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Peel; an affair, no meeting 31 Aug. " Mr. Grattan and the earl of Clare 7 *me, 1820 Rev. Mr. Hodsou wounded Mr. Grady Aug. 1827 Duke of Wellington and the earl of Winchelsea; no injury, 21 Mch. 1^29 Sir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour; no fatality. . .29 May, 1835 Earl of Cardigan and capt. Tuckett; 2 shots each; the latter wounded (the earl acquitted in House of Lords, 16 Feb. 1841), 12 Sept. 1840 Due de Grammont Caderousse kills Mr. Dillon at Paris, for a newspaper attack Oct. 1862 Paul de Cassagnac and M. Lissagaray, journalists (latter run through) 4 Sept. 1868 Don Enrique de Bourbon killed by the due de Montpensier, near Madrid, after much provocation 12 Mch. 1870 Paul de Cassagnac (wounded) and M. Ranc, Paris 7 July, 1873 Prince Soutza kills N. Ghika at Fontainebleau 27 Nov. " MM. Gambetta and De Fortou ; neither hit 21 Nov. 1878 Gen. Boulanger (seriously wounded) and M. Floquet. . .13 July, 1888 IN THE UNITED STATES. First duel in America, between 2 serving men, Plymouth, Mass. (Massachusetts) 1621 Button Gwinnett and gen. Mcintosh 1777 Gen. Conway and gen. Cadwallader (Conway cabal) 1778 De Witt Clinton and John Swartwout 1802 De Witt Clinton and gen. Dayton 1803 Alexander Hamilton (killed) and Aaron Burr (New York) 1804 Gen. Jackson and col. Dickenson ; Dickenson killed il Henry Clay and Humi)hroy Marshall. . , 18 Col. Benton and gen. Jackson Sept. 1813 Commodore Decatur and commodore Barron (Decatur killed) (Unitko Statks) 22 Mch. 1820 Henry Clay and John Randolph (United Statics) 1826 GravesandCilloy (killed), congressmen (United States), 24 Feb. 1838 Preston S. Brooks, S. C, challenges Anson Burlingame, member of Congress from Massachusetts (United States) 1856 David C. Brodorick, U. S. senator from California, mortally wounded by Judge Terry (United States) 16 Sept. 1859 Col. Calhoun and major Rhett (confederate officers) ; Calhoun killed, at Charleston, S. C 1862 (Gen. Beauregard refused to enforce military law against Rhett, who was promoted to Calhoun's place.]' duke (from Lat.tfMa:, a leader). In Saxon times, the com- manders of English armies were called dukes, duces. — Camden. In Gen. xxxvi. some of Esau's descendants are termed dukes. Duke-duke was a title of the house of Sylvia, in Spain, from its many duchies. Edward the Black Prince made duke of Cornwall 17 Mch. 1337 Robert de V^ere created marquess of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Rich. II 1385 Robert III. created David, prince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, afterwards a title of the king's eldest son, 1398; now borne by the prince of Wales. Cosmo de' Medici created grand duke of Tuscany, the first ot the rank, by pope Pius V 1569 Dulcigno (dool-cheen'-yd), a port in Albania, on the Adriatic. Taken by Turks 1571 In the 17th century a den of pirates, and residence of Sabbatai Zewi, a Smyrnese Jew, who declared himself the Messiah, but became Mahometan ; d 1676 Taken by Venetians, and held for a short time 1722 Montenegrins take it by storm, but give it up 1878 Assigned to them by the Berlin conference June, July, 1880 Turks expelled by 8000 Albanians about 18 Sept. " Sultan cedes it to Montenegro 12 Oct. " Dervish Pacha repulses Albanians 22 Nov. ; occupies it 24 Nov. ; surrenders it to the Montenegrins 26, 27 Nov. " dumb. Deaf and dumb. Dumblane or Dunblane, Perth, Scotland, an an- cient city, near which was the battle of Sheriflfmuir, between royalists under duke of Argyll, and Scots rebels under earl of Mar, 13 Nov. 1715. Both claimed victory. Dunbar% Haddington, Scotland. Here Warrenne, earl of Surrey, 27 Apr. 1296, defeated John Baliol with his Scots. Near here, also, Cromwell crushedtheScotsof Charles II.,3 Sept. 1650. " Dun'ciad," satirical poem by Alexander Pope, was pub. in 1728. Dundalk, Louth, Ireland. On 5 Oct. 1318, at Foug- hard, near this place, was defeated and slain Edward Bruce, who had invaded Ireland in 1315. Its fortifications were de- stroj-ed in 1641. It was taken by Cromwell in 1649. Here cambric manufacture was first established in Ireland by arti- sans from France in 1727. Dundee, E. Scotland, on the Tay. On a site given by William the Lion (reigned 1165-1214) his brother David, earl of Huntingdon, built or strengthened the castle, and built a church, whose tower, 156 feet high, still remains. The town was taken by the English in 1385; pillaged by Montrose, 1645 ; stormed by Monk in 1651. Claverhouse, viscount Dun- dee (killed 1689), had a house here. Population in 1861, 90,- 425; in 1871, 118,974. Tay bridge completed Aug. 1877; opened 31 May, 1878; de- stroyed by a gale (between 80 and 90 lives lost), 7.15 p.m. (Bridges) 28 Dec. 1879 New university founded by sir D. Baxter; professor appointed Nov. 1882. Endowed by Miss Mary Ann Baxter, sister of sir David, 1882 (she d. 19 Dec. 1884) ; college opened by earl of Dalhousie 5 Oct. 1883 Dung'an-hill, Ireland. Here the English army, un- der col. Jones, defeated the Irish; 6000 said to have been slain; the English loss inconsiderable, 8 Aug. 1647. Dunkers or Dunkard§. Tunkers. Dunkirk, a town on strait of Dover, extreme north of France, founded 7th century ; taken by the Spaniards, Sept^ 1652, and retaken by the English and French after Turenne defeated them under Conde on the dunes. 14 June, 1658, and given to the English, 25 June following. It was sold by. Charles II. for 500^,000/. to Louis XIV., 17 Oct.; restored 1662;' was one of the best-fortified ports of France, but the works were demolished under the treaty of Utrecht in 1713; in 1783 DUN 241 they were rebuilt. The duke of York attacked Dunkirk, but ■was driven away by Hoche, with loss, 7 Sept. 1793. It was made a free port in 1826. DunillOlV, a town of Essex, Engl., famous for the ten- ure of the manor (made by Robert Fitz- Walter, 1244), " that whatever married couple will go to the priory, and, kneeling on 2 sharp - pointed stones, will swear that they have not quarrelled nor repented of their marriage within a year and a day after its celebration, shall receive a flitch of bacon." Earliest recorded claim for the bacon was 1445, and up to 1855 it is said to have been claimed only 5 times. Last claimants, before 1855, John Shakeshanks and wife, 20 June, 1751, sold slices to witnesses of the ceremony (5000 persons). Flitches awarded to Mr. and Mrs. Barlow of Chipping-Ongar, and chevalier Chatelaine and wife, 19 July, 1855. Lord of the manor opposed the revival ; but W. Harrison Ainsworth, - the novelist, and some friends, defrayed the expense and super- intended the ceremonies. Award in 1860 ; 9 July, 1873 ; 17 July, 1876, to James Henry and Mary Hoosey ; to others, 23 July, 1877. Dun§e, a town of S. Scotland. Here, 18 June, 1639, Charles I., by treaty, acceded to the demands of the Scots commission to disband their army. Disputes arose, and the treaty was not carried into effect. DuilSinane, Perthshire, Scotland. On this hill was the battle between king Macbeth, formerly thane of Glamis, and Siward, earl of Northumberland, 27 July, 1054. Edward the Confessor had sent Siward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father, Duncan, the usurper had murdered. Macbeth was defeated, and it was said was pursued to Luraphanan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1056 or 1057. " Macbeth shall never vanquished be, until Great Birnam wood to high Duusinane hill Shall come against him." — Shakespeare, "Macbeth," act iv. sc. i. Duomo. MiLAS. Dupes, Day of, 11 Nov. 1630, when Richelieu energet- ically and adroitly frustrated the plan for his ruin formed by queen Marie de Medicis, Gaston, duke of Orleans, and others, during the king's illness. Dupplin, a town of Perthshire, Scotland. Here Ed- ward Baliol and English allies defeated Scots under earl of Mar, 11 Aug. 1332, obtaining the crown for 3 months. Dlique§ne (c?M-A;am'), Fort. Fort DuQUESNE ; Penn- sylvania, 1753, '54, '55, '56, '58 ; Vikginia, 1753, '54, '55. durbar, an East Indian term for an audience-chamber or reception. On 18 Oct. 1864, at a durbar at Lahore, the vice- roy of India, sir John Lawrence, received 604 illustrious princes and chieftains of the northwest province, magnificently clothed. Others since. Ourtiam, Engl., an ancient city, the Dunholme of the Saxons, and Durerne of the Normans. The bishopric was brought, 995, from Chester-le-street, whither it had been trans- ferred from Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, on the coast of North- umberland in 875, on an invasion of the Danes. The bones of St. Cuthbert, the 6th bishop, were brought from Lindisfarne and interred in Durham cathedral. This see, deemed the richest in England, was valued in the king's books at 2821/. Present income 8000/. College founded (abolished at the Reformation) 1290 Near Durham was fought the decisive battle of Neville's Cross (Strikks) 17 Oct. 1346 Durham ravaged by Malcolm of Scotland, 1070; occupied by northern rebels 1569 B.y Scots 1640 Cromwell quartered Scotch prisoners in the cathedral 1650 Cromwell established a college, 1657; which was suppressed at the Restoration 1660 Palatine privileges, granted the bishop by the Danish Northum- brian prince Guthrum, taken by the crown June, 1836 Present university established in 1831 ; opened Oct. 1833 ; char- tered June, 1837 Cathedral renovated ; reopened 18 Oct. 1876 Durtiam letter. Papal aggression. du§t and di§ea§e. in a lecture, prof. Tyndall, at the Royal Institution, London, 21 Jan. 1870, demonstrated the pres- ence of organic matters in the dust of the atmosphere in con- formity with the experiments of Pasteur and other eminent philosophers. The agency of dust in promoting fires and ex- plosions was asserted by Faraday in relation to coal-mines in 1845, and by Rankine and MacAdam in relation to fiour-mills DZO in 1872. Atkins's dust-converting apparatus set up on Ben- Nevis, Scotland, Feb. 1890. Germ theory. I>U§tin, Hannah, capture of. Massachusetts, 1697. Dutch republic. Holland. duties. Customs, Revenue, Tariff-. duuin'viri, 2 Roman patricians appointed by Tarquin the Proud, 520 b,c., to take care of the books of the Sibyls, supposed to contain the fate of the Roman empire. The books were buried in a chest under the capitol. The number of keepers was increased to 10 (decemviri), 365 b.c., afterwards to 15 ; the added 5 called quinque viri. dwarfs, ancient. Philetas of Cos, about 330 b.c., a poet and grammarian, said to have carried weights in his dress to prevent his being blown away. He was preceptor to Ptolemy Philadelphus. — .Elian. Julia, niece of Augustus, had a dwarf named Coropas, 2 feet and a hand's-breadth high; and Andromeda, a freed -maid of Julia's, was of the same height. — Pliny. Aug. Caisar exhibited in plays a man not 2 feet in stature. — Sue(07h Alypius of Alexandria, a logician and philosopher, was but 1 foot 5J inches high. — Vos. iMtit. MODERN DWARFS. John d'Estrix of Mechlin was brought to the duke of Parma in 1592, when he was 35 years of age, having a long beard. He was skilled in languages, and not more than 3 feet high. Geoffrey Hudson, an English dwarf, when a youth, 18 inches high, was served in a cold pie to the king and queen by the duchess of Buckingham in 1626. He challenged Mr. Crofts, but the latter came armed with a squirt. At another time the dwarf shot an antagonist dead, 1653. Count l^orowlaski, a Polish gejitleman of great accomplishments, well known in England, where he resided for many years, was born Nov. 1739. His height was, at 1 year of age, 14 inches; at 6, 17 inches; at 20, 33 inches; and at 30, 39 inches. He had a sister named Anastasia, 7 years younger, and so much shorter that she could stand under his arm. He visited many courts of Europe, and died in England in 1837. Charles Stratton (gen. Tom Thumb), an American, exhibited in Eng- land, 1846. In Feb. 1863, in New York, when 25 years old and 31 inches high, he married Lavinia Warren, aged 21, 32 inches high. He, his wife and child, and commodore Nutt, another dwarf, went to England in Dec. 1864. Mr. Collard, aged 22, smaller than Stratton, sang at concerts in Lon- don, and was termed the " Pocket Sims Reeves," May, June, 1873. Several dwarfs (said to be smaller than the preceding) exhibited at the Westminster aquarium, July, 1878. Che-mah, a Chinese, 42 years old, 25 inches high, exhibited at the Westminster aquarium, 11 June, 1880. Lucia Zarate, born 2 Jan. 1863, in Mexico; height 20 inches, weight 4X lbs. Gen. Mite (Francis Joseph Flynn), born 2 Oct. 1864, in New York state; heght 21 inches, weight 9 lbs.; exhibited in Piccadilly, London, 22 Nov. 1880 et seq. Exhibited in New York in com- pany with the preceding, under the collective term of ''The Midgets," 1879 et seq. Gen. Mite married Milly Edwards, weight 7 lbs., at Manchester, Engl., 28 May, 1884. dyeing is attributed to the Tyrians, about 1 500 b.c. The English are said to have sent fine goods to be dyed in Holland till the art was brought to them, probably in 1608. " 2 dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the north " (of En- gland ), 1 628. A statute against abuses in dyeing passed in 1783. The art has been greatly improved by chemical research. A discovery of dr. Stenhouse in 1848 led to M. Mamas procuring mauve from lichens ; and dr. Hofmann's production of aniline from coal-tar has led to the invention of a number of beauti- ful dyes (mauve, magenta, red, green, black, etc.). Aniline, Dyer, Mary, Case of. Massachusetts, 1656-60. dy'namite, a portable explosive invented by Alfred Nobel about 1866, consisting of 25 parts of silicious earth sat- urated with 75 parts of Nitro-glycerine. It is useful in mining, and was tried and approved at Merstham, 14 July, 1868. Its manufacture is very dangerous. Dynamite which cannot be frozen invented by Edward Liebert of Berlin, re- ported Aug. 1890. Cannon. dynamo-electric machines. Electricity. Dzoung^aria or ^oongaria, a region of Central Asia, north of China, with about 2,000,000 inhabitants— fierce, warlike Mahometans. After being long tributary to China, they rebelled in 1864, massacred the Chinese residents, and set up Abel Oghlan as sultan. As he was unable to restrain predatory attacks upon the Russians, the czar declared war in Apr. 1871. After a brief campaign in May and June, and sev- eral defeats, the sultan surrendered to gen. Kolpakoviskie, 4 July, and the country was annexed to Russia. EAQ 242 EAR E eagle. The Bt^ndaiti of the eagle was borne by the Per- sians at Cunaxa, 401 u,c. The Romans carried gold and silver eagles as ensigns, sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in the talons, on the point of a spear, 102 B.C. Charlemagne adtled the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of Rome and Germany were united in him, 802 A.D. The eagle was the standard of Napoleon I. and Na- poleon III., as it is now of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. The great seal of the Unitkd Statks, adopted 20 June, 1782, shows a shield of 13 perpendicular red and white stripes, upholding a blue field. This shield is borne on the breast of the Ameri- can eagle (bald), displayed proper, holding in his dexter talon an olive branch, and in his sinister a bundle of 13 arrows, and in his beak a scroll inscribed with the motto, E Pluribi'S Unij>i. — An ancient coin of Ireland, of a base metal, current in tne first years of Edward I., about 1272, was so named from the figure impressed upon it. — The United States gold coinage of eagles, half-eagles, and quarter-eagles, began 6 Dec. 1792 ; an eagle is of the value of $10. Coin and Coinage. * earl. Old Norse, earl^jarl, chief, nobleman; Fr. compte, from Lat, comes; P^ngl. count; the latter title introduced into England at the Norman conquest, and so long as the Norman- French continued to be spoken, earls were styled counts; hence the term countess as the feminine of earl. Earls were the highest rank in England until Edward III. created dukes in 1337 and 1351, and Richard II. created marquesses (1385), both ranking above earls. Alfred bore the title of earl as synonymous with king. William Fitz-Osborn was made earl of Hereford by William the Conqueror, 1066. Gilchrist was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, by king Malcolm III., in 1037, and sir John de Courcy was created baron of Kinsale and earl of Ulster in Ireland, by Henry II., 1181. Earl marshal of England, the 8th great olBcer of state. This office, until it was made hereditary, passed by grant from the king. Gilbert de Clare was created lord marshal by king Stephen, 1185. The last lord marshal was John Fitz-Alan, lord Maltravers. — Cam- den, Richard II., in 1397. granted letters-patent to the earl of Nottingham as earl marshal. In 1672, Charles 11. granted to Henry, lord Howard, the dignity of hereditary earl marshal. The earl marshal's court was abolished in 1641. Howard. Earl marischal of Scotland was an offlcer who commanded the cavalry, whereas the constable commanded the whole army; but they seem to have had a joint command, as all orders were ad- dressed to "our constable and marischal." The office was never out of the Keith family. It was reversed at the Union, and when the heritable jurisdictions were bought, it reverted to the crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George Keith, earl marischal. in 1715. There are 118 English earls, 42 Scotch, and 63 Irish. — If7(tta&e?-, 1892. ear-ring[§ we:e worn by Jacob's family, 1732 b.c. (Gen. XXXV. 4). earth. Globk. eartllQUake, a trembling or shaking of the ground, produced by subterranean forces. Anaxagoras supposetl that earthquakes were produced by subterraneous clouds bursting into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, 435 B.C. — Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, and others sup- posed that there were many vast cavities underground which have a communication with each other, some of which abound with water, others with exhalations arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitumen, sulphur, etc. Drs. Stukeley and Priestley attributed earthquakes to electricity. Some are probably due to steam generated by subterraneous heat; others to a contraction of the earth's crust. An elaborate catalogue of earthquakes (from 1606 B.c.to 1842 a.t>.), with commentaries on the phenomena, by R. and J. W. Mallet, was published by the British Association in 1858. In 1860 the velocity of th^iir propa- gation was estimated by J. Brown at between 470 and 530 feet per second. Reports of earthquakes commonly exaggerate the loss of life. Until of late years such reports were usually accepted without criticism, and the numbers given of lives lost in manyof the disasters in this list are without doubt greatly exaggerated. B.C. One which made Euboea an island 425 Helice and Bura in Peloponnesus swallowed up 373 Duras, in Greece, buried with all its inhabitants; and 12 cities in Campania also buried 345 Lysimachia and its inhabitants buried about 283 A. Ephflsus and other cities overturned One accompanied the eruption of Vesuvius when Pompeii and Herculanoum were buried 79^ Four cities in Asia, 2 in Greece, and 2 in Galatia overturned, 105 or 106 Antioch destroyed 116 Nicomedia, Caesarea, and Nicea overturned 12ft In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and towns damaged, 157 Nicomedia again demolished, with its inhabitants 358 At Constantinople; edifices destroyed; thousands perished .. . 557 In Africa ; many cities destroyed 560 Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia; more than 500 towns destroyed, with immense loss of life 742 In France, Germany, and Italy • 801 Constantinople overturned ; all Greece shaken 936 One felt throughout England 108^ One at Antioch ; many towns destroyed 1114 Catania, in Sicily, overturned ; 15,000 persons buried 1137 One severely felt at Lincoln, Engl 1142 In Syria, etc. ; 20.000 perished 115& At Calabria; a city with its inhabitants overwhelmed in the Adriatic sea Sept. 1186. In Cilicia; 60,000 perished 1268 One again felt throughout England; Glastonbury destroyed. . . 1274 In England; the greatest known there 14 Nov. 1318 At Naples; 40,000 persons perished 5 Dec. 1456 Constantinople; thousands perished 14 Sept. 150& At liisbon ; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons buried in the ruins; several neighboring towns engulfed 26 Feb. 1531 In London; part of St. Paul's and Temple churches fell. .6 Apr. 1580 In Japan ; several cities ruined, thousands perish 2 July, 1596 In Naples; 30 villages ruined, 70,000 lives lost 30 July, 1626 Awful one at Calabria 27 Mch. 1638 Ragusa ruined, 5000 perished 6 Apr. 1667 At Schamaki ; lasted 3 months, 80,000 perished " At Rimini ; above 1500 perished 14 Apr. 1672 One severely felt at Dublin, etc 17 Oct. 1G90 At Jamaica, houses of Port Royal engulfed, 3000 perished, June 7, 1692 One in Sicily destroyed 54 cities and towns and 300 villages; of Catania, with 18,000 inhabitants, not a trace remained; more than 100,000 lives lost Sept. 1693 Aquila, in Ital}^, ruined; 5000 perished 2 Feb. 1703 Jeddo, Japan, ruined; 200,000 perished " In the Abruzzi ; 15,000 perished 3 Nov. 1706 At Algiers; 20,000 perished May and June, 1716 Palermo almost destroyed; nearly 6000 lives lost 1 Sept. 1726 In China; 100,000 persons swallowed up at Pekin 30 Nov. 1731 In Naples, etc. ; 1940 perished 29 Nov. 1732 Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons buried 28 Oct. 1746 In London, etc. , a slight shock 19 Feb. 1750 Port-au-Prince, St. Domingo, ruined 21 Nov. 1751 Adrianople nearly overwhelmed 29 July, 1752 At Grand Cairo; half the houses and 40,000 persons lost. .Sept. 1754 Quito destroyed Apr. 1755 Kaschan, N. Persia, destroyed; 40,000 perished 7 June, " Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about 8 minutes most of the houses and 50,000 inhabitants were destroyed, and whole streets buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and Braga suf- fered much, and St. Ubes was destroyed. In Spain a large part of Malaga became ruins. One half of Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 Arabs perished. Above halt of the island of Madeira became waste; and 2000 houses in Mitylene, in the Archipelago, were overthrown ; was felt over 5000 miles, even in Scotland 1 Nov. " In Syria, over 10,000 sq. miles; Baalbec destroyed; here 20,000 perished 30 Oct. 1759 Comorn, Pesth, etc., much damaged 28 June, 1763 At Martinique; 1600 persons perished Aug. 1767 At Guatemala; Santiago with its inhabitants swallowed, 7 June, 1773 A destructive one at Smyrna 3 July, 1778 At Tauris; 15,000 houses thrown down, and multitudes buried, 1780 Messina and other towns in Italy and Sicily overthrown ; thou- sands perished 4 Feb. 1783 Ezinghian, near Erzeroum, destroyed, and 5000 persons buried in its ruins 23 July, 1784 St. Lucia, West Indies; 900 perished 12 Oct. 1788 At Borgo di San Sepolcro; manv houses and 1000 persons lost, 30 Sept. 1789 In Naples ; Vesuvius overwhelmed city of Torre del Greco, June, 1794 Country between Santa F6 and Panama destroyed, including Cuzco and Quito; 40,000 people buried suddenly 4 Feb. 1797 Cumana, South America, ruined 14 Dec. " At Constantinople; destroyed the royal palace and many build- ings 26 Sept. 1800 From Cronstadt to Constantinople 26 Oct. 1802 A violent one felt in Holland end of Jan. 1804 At Frosolone, Naples; 6000 lives lost 26 July, 1805 At the Azores; a village of St. Michael's sunk, and a lake of boiling water appeared in its place 11 Aug. 1810 Many earthquakes in the lower Mississippi valley, especially at New Madrid, opening great chasms 1811 Awful one at Caracas 26 Mch. 1812 Several throughout India; district of Kutch sunk; 2000 persons buried 16 June, 1819 EAR 243 Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns damaged; thou- sands perish 1819 Aleppo destroyed; above 20,000 perish; shocks on 10 and 13 Aug. and 5 Sept. 1822 Coast of Chili permanently raised , 19 Nov. " In Spain; Murcia and numerous villages devastated, 6000 per- ish 21 Mch. 1829 Canton and neighborhood; above 6000 perished, 26 and 27 May, 1830 In duchy of Parma; 40 shocks at Borgotaro; and at Pontremoli many houses thrown down 14 Feb. 1834 Concepcion, etc., in Chili, destroyed 20 Feb. 1835 In Calabria ; Cosenza and villages destroyed ; 1000 persons buried 29 Apr. " In Calabria; 100 perish at Castiglione 12 Oct. " At Martinique; nearly half of Port Roj'al destroyed; nearly 700 persons killed, and the whole island damaged 11 Jan. 1839 At Ternate; the island laid waste; thousands lost 14 Feb. 1840 Destructive earthquake at Mount Ararat, in Armenia ; 3137 houses overthrown; hundreds perished 27 July, " Great earthquake at Zante; many perished 30 Oct. " At Cape Haytien, St: Domingo; "nearly two thirds of the town destroyed, between 4000 and 5000 lives lost 7 May, 1842 Point a Pitre, Guadeloupe, entirely destroyed 8 Feb. 1843 At Rhodes and Maori; a mountain fell in at Maori, crushing a village and destroying 600 persons 28 Feb. -7 Mch. 1851 At Valparaiso; more than 400 houses destroyed 2 Apr. " In S. Italy; Melfl almost laid in ruins, 14,000 lives lost, 14 Aug. " Philippine isles; Manilla much injured 16-30 Sept. 1852 In northwest of England, slight. ..' 9 Nov. " Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed 18 Aug. 1853 St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed 16 Apr. 1854 Anasaca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Niphon, destroyed ; Jeddo much injured 23 Dec. " Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed 28 Feb. 1855 Several villages in central Europe destroyed 25, 26 July, " Jeddo, Japan, nearly destroyed 11 Nov. " At the island of Great Sanger, one of the Moluccas, volcanic eruption and earthquake; nearly 3000 lives lost 2 Mch. 1856 In the Mediterranean; at Candia, 500 lives lost; Rhodes, 100; and other islands, 150 12 Oct. " In Calabria; Montemurro and other towns in the kingdom of Naples destroyed, and about 10,000 lives lost 16 Dec. 1857 [In 75 years, from 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost at least 111,000 inhabitants by earthquakes, or more than 1500 per year, of an average population of 6,000,000 ! — Lacaita.] Corinth nearly destroyed 21 Feb. 1858 At Quito; about 5000 persons killed, and much property de- stroyed 22 Mch. 1859 Erzeroum, Asia Minor; thousands perished 2 June-17.July, " At San Salvador; many buildings destroyed, no lives lost, 8 Dec. " In Cornwall, slight 21 Oct. 1859; 13 Jan. 1860 At Mendoza, S. America; about two thirds of the city and 7000 lives lost 20 Mch. " In Perugia, Italy; several lives lost 8 May, 1861 In Greece; N. Morea, Corinth, and other places injured, 26 Dec. " Guatemala; 150 buildings and 14 churches destroyed ... 19 Dec. 1862 Rhodes ; 13 villages destroyed, about 300 persons and much cattle and property lost 22 Apr. 1 863 Manilla, Philippine isles; great destruction of property, about 1000 persons perished 2, 3 July, " Central, west, and northwest of England, at 3.22 a. m 6 Oct. " At Macchia, Bendinella, etc., Sicily; 200 houses destroyed, 64 persons killed 18 July, 1865 Slight earthquake near Tours and Blois, in France 14 Sept. 1866 Argostoli, Cephalonia; above 50 perished. 4 Feb. 1867 At Mitylene; about 1000 killed 8, 9 Mch. " Djocja, Java; above 400 perished; town destroyed 10 June, " Cities of Arequipa, Iquique, Tacna, and Chincha, and many small towns in Peru and Ecuador destroyed ; about 25,000 lives lost, and 30,000 rendered homeless; damage estimated at $300,000,000 13-15 Aug. 18G8 [About 11,000?. collected in London to relieve sufferers.] Slight earthquake in W. England and S. Wales; felt at Bath, Swansea, etc 30 Oct. " In Santa Maura, an Ionian isle, the town Santa Maura de- stroyed; about 17 persons perished 28 Dec. 1869 At Quebec, not much damage 20 Oct 1870 In Calabria; several villages destroyed, early Oct. " Northwest of England ; houses shaken, crockery broken, even- ing, 17 Mch. ; slight in Yorkshire. 22 Mch. 1871 California, Inyo valley, several small towns destroyed ; about 30 killed 26, 27 Mch. 1872 Lehree, Eastern Catchi, Sinde frontier, India, destroyed; about 500 killed 14, 15 Dec. " San Salvador nearly destroyed ; about 50 killed, the rest es- caped through timely warning 19 Mch. 1873 North of Italy; at Feletto, near Conegliano, Venetia; church destroyed, about 50 killed; lives lost at Belluno, etc. ; shock at Venice, Verona, etc 29 June, " Azagra, Spain ; 200 killed by a landslip 22 July, 1874 Antigua and other places in Guatemala destroyed; great loss of life 3 Sept. " KaraHissa and other places in Asia Minor; great destruction of life 3-5 May, 1875 Smyrna and neighborhood; many perish 12 May, " San Jose de Cucuta and other towns near Santander, on the boundary of Colombia, destroyed ; about 14,000 lives said to be lost : 16-18 May, " Lahore and vicinity, India; several killed 12 Dec. " At Scheibs, on the Danube; felt throughout Austrian empire, 17 July, 1876 EAS Earthquake and tidal wave near Callao ; went southward ; much shipping and several towns destroyed, not much mortality, 9, 10 May, 1877 Cua, Venezuela, nearly destroyed; about 300 killed; loss about $150,000 14 Apr. 1878 Shocks at Cologne and other parts of Germany and Holland ; houses shaken, bells rung, etc., 9-11 a.m 26 Aug. " Aci Reale, Catania, Sicily, 5 villages destroyed, 10 persons killed, 17 June, 1879 Severe shock at Brieg, in Switzerland; felt at Berne, Zurich, Geneva, etc. ; several killed 4 July, 1880 Manilla, etc., Philippines ; cathedral destroyed, several killed, many hurt 18-24 July, " Smyrna and neighborhood; many houses destroyed, 2 persons killed 29, 30 July, " V'alparaiso; at Illapel, Chili, about 200 perish 13 Sept. " S. Austria ; much damage with loss of life, at Agram, etc., 9-16 Nov. -8 Dec. " Slight shocks at Inverary and other places "W. Scotland, 28 Nov. " Berne and other places, Switzerland ; houses split up, etc., 27 Jan. and 3 Mch. 1881 Severe shocks in S. Italy; at Casamicciola, in the isle of Ischia, 289 houses destroyed, 114 lives lost, about $180,000 loss, 4 Mch. ; another destructive shock 15 Mch. '« Scio — the town and several villages destroyed ; about 4000 per- ish; much destitution ensues; successive shocks, beginning 1.30 p.M 3 Apr. " Panama; railway partially destroyed 7, 9, 10 Sept. 1882 Slight shock in Cornwall and Devon 25 June, 1883 Casamicciola, and several villages in the island of Ischia, al- most entirely destroyed, 1990 lives lost, 28 July ; slight shocks since ; one severe 3 Aug. •' Java and neighboring isles desolated by a series ofc violent erup- tions from the volcanoes (Java, Sumatra) 25-28 Aug. " Anatolia, coast of Asia Minor; Ischesne, and about 30 small towns and villages destroyed, about 100 lives lost, and 30,000 destitute; Smyrna much shaken about 16 Oct. " Shocks felt at Gibraltar 20 Oct. et seq. " Severe shocks in eastern counties of England, proceeding from N.E. to S.W., centre Colchester, where the Congregational church steeple fell, as well as many chimneys; damage esti- mated at $50,000; much destruction in neighboring villages; many inhabitants homeless; Langenhoe church wrecked; much damage at Abberton; a child killed at Rowhedge; an invalid died; the shock felt at Coggeshall, Sudbury, Ipswich, Cambridge, Bishop's Stortford, Northampton, Leicester, Wool- wich, Sheerness, different parts of London, Hampstead, etc., (Mansion-house funds) 22 Apr. 1884 Severe shocks for several days on Asiatic shore of sea of Mar- mora; about 20 deaths reported 19 May, '' Violent shock on the island of Kishm, near the mouth of the Persian gulf; 12 villages destroyed, about 200 people killed, 19, 20 May, ' Slight shocks in the Alban hills, near Rome 7 Aug. '' SlightshocksinU.S.,from Wa.shingtontoNew York, 10, 11 Aug. " At Genoa, 27 Nov. ; at Marseilles. Lyons, etc 29 Nov. " Severe shocks in Andalusia, Malaga; many houses destroyed, about 266 persons killed; felt at Madrid 25 Dec. '' Several towns destroyed; Albania, Granada, many killed; Pe- riana, about 900 killed 26, 27 Dec. " Shocks, intermitting 26-31 Dec. " Slight shocks in Carinthia and Styria 28 Dec. et seq. " Shocks, 1-27 Jan., much camping out 1885 Slight shocks in Styria 27, 28 Jan. " Slight shocks at Alhama 12 Feb. " Alarming shocks at Malaga and other towns 27 Feb. " In province of Granada 690 killed (Spain, 1884) 28 Feb. " Shocks throughout eastern U. S. ; at Charleston, S. C, 41 lives and $5,000,000 worth of property lost 31 Aug. 188& Slight shocks at and around Charleston, causing panic, Scpt.-Dec. " Terrible earthquake in southern Europe, especially in the Ri- viera; estimated loss of 2000 lives 23 Feb. 1887 Severe shock at San Salvador ; 9 Sept. 1891 Shock felt at San Francisco 14 Oct. " Severe earthquake in Japan 28 Oct. " [The official estimate places the killed at 4000, injured at 5000, and 50.000 houses destroyed.] Slight shocks in New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, 27 Jan. 1892 Islands of Zante andStromboli (the former west of Greece; the latter one of the Lipari group west of Calabria, Italy) severe- ly shaken, 31 Jan., and again 12 Feb. and 17 Apr. 189S [Zante suffered a great loss in lives and property, especially on the latter date.] Volcanoes. Meshed and Kuchan, Persia, destroyed; many lives lost, 20 Nov. " Slight shock felt in New Hampshire and Vermont 27 Nov. " Ea§t Angeles, the 6th kingdom of the Heptarchy, com- menced by UfFa, 526 ; ended with Ethelbert in 792. Britain. The bishop's see founded by St. Felix, who converted the East Angles in 630, was eventually settled at Norwich, about 1094. East India Company, India; India Company, East. JBast Indies. India. East Saxons. Britain. Easter, instituted about 68, the festival of the church in commemoration of our Saviour's resurrection, so called ia EAS 244 EAS England from the Saxon goddess Eostre, whose festival was ill April. After much contention between the eastern and western churches, it was ordained by the council of Nice, 325, to be observed on the same day through the Christian world. " Kaster-day is the Sunday following that 14th day of the calendar moon which happens upon or next after 21 Mch., so that, if the said 14th day be a Sunday, Easter-day is not that Sunday, but the next." Easter-day may be any Sunday of the 6 weeks which commence witl> 22 Mch. and end with 25 Apr. During the 19th century, Easter occurred but once on 22 Mch. (1818), and but once on 25 Apr. (1886). The dispute be- tween the old British church and the new Anglo-Saxon church respecting Easter was settled about 664. — Easter Sundav,1892, 17 Apr.; 1893, 2 Apr.; 1894, 25 Mch.; 1895, 14 Apr., 1896, 5 Apr. ; 1897, 18 Apr. ; 1898, 10 Apr. ; 1899, 2 Apr. ; 1900, 15 Apr. Ea§ter Inland, in the Pacific ocean, was discovered by Davis in 1686; it was visited by Roggewein, Apr. 1722, and from him obtained its narae^ visited by captain Cook, Mch. 1774. At the southeast extremity is the crater of an old volcano, about 2 miles in circuit ant\ 800 ft. deep. Eastern, or Greek, ehureli. Ckkek church. Eastern empire. After the death of the emperor Jo- vian, Feb. 364, the generals at Nice elected Valentinian as his successor, who, in June, made his brother Valens emperor of the West; the final division was in 395, between the sons of Theodo- sius. The Eastern empire ended with the capture of Constanti- nople, and death of Constantine XIII., 29 May, 1453. Turkey. Nestorius, the bishop, nominated the first patriarch of Constan- tinople 9 July, 381 Theodosius the Great succors Valentinian II., the Western em- peror, and defeats the tyrant Maximus, at Aquileia 388 Valentinian II. slain by Arbogastes the Frank, who makes Eugeuius emperor 392 Eugenius defeated and slain by Theodosius, who reunites the 2 empires 6 Sept. 394 Death of Theodosius; the empire finally divided between his sons— Arcadius receives the East, Honorius the West. 17 Jan. 395 Constantinople walled by Theodosius II 413 Alaric the Goth begins to ravage the empire "- Violent religious dissensions; Theodosius II. establishes schools and revives learning 425 Theodosian Code promulgated 438 Councilsof Ephesus, 431, 449; ofChalcedon 451 Frequent sanguinary confiicts between Blues and Greens, cir- cus factions at Constantinople 498-520 Justinian Code published 529 War with Persia; victorious career of Belisarius, imperial gen- eral, begins . . . , 529-531 He suppresses the "Nika" ("conquer") insurrection of the circus factions; 30,000 Greeks slain, Constantinople burned, 532 Dedication of St. Sophia 537 Victories of Belisarius in Africa, Italy, and the east 533-541 Recalled through Justinian's jealousy, 542; again, 548; again, 541> ; disgraced 562 Beginning of the Turkish power in Asia 545 Slavonians ravage lUyria 551 Narses defeats Totila and the Goths near Rome 552 Disaffection of Narses 561 Death of Belisarius (aged 84), of Justinian (aged 83) 565 Victories of Maurice and Narses in the east 579 et seq. Severe contests with the Avars 594-620 Narses burned at Constantinople 606 Flight (Hegira) of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, where he establishes himself as a prophet and prince 16 July, 622 Victorious career of Heraclius II 622 et seq. He recovers his lost territories 627 Saracens invade the empire, 632; defeat Heraclius at Aiznadin, 633; at Yermuk. 636; take Alexandria, 640; and the Greek provinces in Africa 648 CJonstans purchases peace with them 660 They besiege Constantinople 7 times 672-77 Bulgiirians establish a kingdom in Moesia (now Bulgaria), 678; they ravage the country up to Constantinople 711 Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, 718; defeated 720 Leo III. the Isaurian forbids the worship of images (hence the Iconoclast controversy, and eventually the separation of the Eastern and Western churches) 726 Arab invaders (90,000) defeated by Acronius 739 Monasteries dissolved 770 Destruction of images throughout the empire decreed, 754; image worship restored by the empress Irene (for which she was canonized) 78T Empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752; Dalmatia, 825; Sicily and Crete 827 Image-worship persecuted, 830; restored, 842; forbidden at Constantinople by one council, 869; restored by another 879 S. Italy annexed to the empire 890 Five emperors reigning at one time 928 Naples added to the empire " Basil subdues the Bulgarians 987, 1014 Bulgaria annexed to the empire 1018 Turks invade Asia Minor Normans conquer S. Italy First crusade ; Alexis I. recovers Asia Venetians victorious over Greeks Hungarians repelled, 1152; peace made with Normans in Sicily, Wars with Turks and Venetians Cyprus lost to the empire Fourth crusade begins Revolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac; crusaders take Con- stantinople, and restore Isaac and his son Alexis IV. 19 July, Ale.xis Ducas murders Alexis IV. and usurps the throne; cru- saders take Constantinople, kill Alexis, and establish the Latin empire, under Baldwin, count of Flanders 9 May, Empire of Nice founded by Theodore Lascaris Kingdom of Epirus and ^Elolia established Constantinople recovered, and the empire re-established by M ichael Palteologus 25 July , Estfxblishmeut of the Turkish empire in Asia, under Othman I. Genoese trade in the Black sea Turks ravage Mysia, etc., 1340 and 1345; and settle on the coast of Thrace Sultan Amurath takes Adrianople, and makes it his capital, 1362; and, by treaty, greatly reduces the empire All the (ireek possessions in Asia lost Sultan Bajazet defeats the Christians under Sigismund of Hun- gary, at Nicopolis 28 Sept. Emperor Manuel vainly solicits help from the western sover- 1068 1080 1097 1125 1156 1172 1190 1202 eigns. 1204 1208 1261 1299 1303 1353 1373 1390 1396 1400 A Turkish pacha established at Athens 1401 Greek empire made tributary to Timour, 1402, who subjugates the Turkish sultan, and dismembers his empire, 1403; death of Timour, on his way to China 1405 Dissension among the Turks defers the fall of Constantinople, 1403-12; Mahomet I., aided by the emperor Manuel, becomes sultan. 1413 Amurath II. in vain besieges Constantinople, 1422; peace made, 1425 John Piilseologus visits Rome, etc., soliciting help in vain. . .1437-40 Accession of Constantine XIII. , last emperor 1448 Accession of Mahomet II., 1451; begins the siege of Constanti- nople, 6 Apr. ; takes it 29 May, 1453 [He granted the Christians personal security and free exercise of their religion.] 364. Valens. emperors of the east. 379. Theodosius I. the Great. 395. ArcadiUs, the son of Theodosius. 408. Theodosius II. succeeded his father. 450. Marcian, a Thracian of obscure family. 457. Leo I. the Thracian. 474. Leo II. the Younger (died the same year). " Zeno, called the l.saurian. 491. Anastasius I., an lllyrian, of mean birth. 518. Justin I., originally a private soldier. 527. Justinian I., compiler of the Digest. 565. Justin II., nephew of Justinian. 578. Tiberius IL, renowned for his virtues. 582. Maurice, the Cappadocian, murdered, with all his children, by 602. Phocas the Usurper, a centurion, whose crimes and cruelties led to his own assassination in 610. 610. Heraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. 641. (Heracleonas) Constantine III. reigned a few months; poisoned by his stepmother, Martina. " Constans II. ; assassinated in a bath. 668. Constantine III. (or IV.) Pogonatus. 685. Justinian IL, son of the preceding; abhorred for exactions, debaucheries, and cruellies; dethroned and mutilated by 695. Leontius; dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius Aspimar. 698. Tiberius III. Aspimar. 705. Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius degraded in the Hippodrome, and put to death. Justinian slain in 711. 711. Philippicus Bardanes; assassinated. 713. Anastasius II.; fled on the election of Theodosius in 716; af- terwards delivered up to Leo III. and put to death. 716. Theodosius II L 718. Leo III., the Isaurian. [In 726 began the Iconoclastic controversy; alternate pro- hibition and restoration of images embroil several reigns.] 741. Constantine IV. (or V.) Copronymus, son of the preceding; succeeded by his son, 775. Leo IV. 780. Constantine V. (or VI.) and his mother, Irene. 790. Constantine alone, by desire of people, Irene unpopular. 792. Irene again, jointly with her son, and afterwards alone, 797; deposed for cruelties and murders, and exiled. 802. Nicephorus I. Logothetes; slain. 811. Stauracius; reigns a few days only. " Michael I. ; defeated, abdicates, and enters a monastery. 813. Leo V. the Armenian; killed in the temple at Constantinople on Christmas day, 820, by conspirators in the interest of 820. Michael II. the Stammerer. 829. Theophilus, son of Michael. 842. Michael III. Porphyrogenitus, and the Sot, son of the preceding, murdered by his successor. 867. Basil I. the Macedonian. 886. Leo VL the Philosopher. 911. Alexander and Constantine VL (or VII.) Porphyrogenitus, Leo's brother and sSn, the latter only 6 years of age; the former dying in 912, Zoe, mother of Constantine, assumes the regency. 919. Romanus Lecapenus, usurper, associates with him his sons, 920. Christopher, and EAS 245 ECL 928. Stephen and Constantine VII. (or VIII.). [Five emperors now reign ; Christopher d. 931 ; Romanus exiled by Constantine and Stephen, who are banished.] 945. Constantine VII. (or VIII.) reigns alone; poisoned by his daughter-in-law, Theophania, 9.59. 959. Romanus II., son of preceding; contrives his father's death; banishes his mother, Helena. 963. Nicephorus II. Phocas; marries Theophania, his predecessor's consort, who has him assassinated. 969. John I. Zimisces, celebrated general; takes Basil II. and Con- stantine VIII. (or IX.), sons of Romanus II., as colleagues; John dies, supposed by poison, and 976. Basil II. and Constantine VIII. reign; the former dies in 1025, the latter in 1028. 1028. Romanus III. Argyropulus; poisoned by his profligate consort Zoe, who raises 1034. Michael IV. the Paphlagonian to the throne; on his death, Zoe places 1041. Michael V. Calaphates as his successor; Zoe dethrones him, has his eyes put out, and marries 1042. Constantine IX. (or X.) Monomachus; they reign jointly; Zoe d. 1050. 1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 1056. Michael VI. Stratiotes, or Strato; deposed. 1057. Isaac I. Comnenus; abdicates. 1059. Constantine X. (or XI.) Ducas. 1067. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and Romanus IV. Diogenes, whom she marries, reign to the prejudice of Michael, Con- stantine's son. 1071. Michael VII. Parapinaces recovers his throne, and reigns jointly with Constantine XI. (or XII.). 1078. Nicephorus III. ; dethroned by 1081. Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus; succeeded by 1118. John Comnenus, his son Kalos; dies of a wound from a poisoned arrow. 1143. Manuel I. Comnenus, son of John. 1180. Alexis II. Comnenus, son of the preceding, under the regency" of the empress Maria, his mother. 1183. Andronicus I. Comnenus; causes Alexis to be strangled, and seizes the throne; put to death by 1185. Isaac II. Angelus Comnenus, who is deposed, imprisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his brother, 1195. Alexis III. Angelus, the Tyrant; deposed, and his eyes put out; dies in a monastery. 1203. Isaac II. again, with his son, Alexis IV. ; deposed. 1204. Alexis V. Ducas; murders Alexis IV. ; killed by crusaders. LATIN EMPERORS. 1204. Baldwin I., earl of Flanders, on the capture of Constantinople by the Latins, elected emperor; made prisoner by king of Bulgaria, and not heard of after. 1206. Henry I., his brother (d. in 1217). 1216. Peter de Courtenay, his brother-in-law. 1221. Robert de Courtenay, his son. 1228. Baldwin II., his brother (a minor), and John de Brienne, of Jerusalem, regent and associate emperor. 1261. [Constantinople recovered, and the empire of the Franks or Latins terminates.] GREEK EMPERORS AT NICE. 1204. Theodore Lascaris I. 1222. John Ducas Vataces. 1255. Theodore Lascaris II., his son. 1259. John Lascaris, and (1260) Michael VIII. Palaeologus. GREEK EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 1261. Michael VIII., now at Constantinople; puts out the eyes of John, and reigns alone. 1282. Andronicus II. Palajologus, the Elder, son of preceding; de- posed by 1328. Andronicus III., the Younger, his grandson. 1341. John Pal£eologus I., under the guardianship of John Canta- cuzenus; the latter proclaimed emperor at Adrianople. 1347. John Cantacuzenus abdicates. 1355. John I. Palaeologus restored. 1391. Manuel II. Palajologus, his son; succeeded by his son and col- league. 1425. John II. Palaeologus. The throne claimed by his 3 brothers. 1448. Constantine Palaeologus XII. (XIII. or XIV. ; other emperors called Constantine by some writers) ; killed and Constanti- nople taken, 29 May, 1453. £bel'iai1S, a German revivalist sect, founded at Konigs- berg, in Prussia, about 1836, its leaders archdeacon Ebel and dr. Diestel, who were condemned for unsound doctrine and impure lives in 1839. The sentence was annulled in 1842, it is said by roj'al influence. The sect is popularly termed "Mucker," German for hypocrites. Their theory and prac- tice of spiritual marriage are described by Hepworth Dixon, in his " Spiritual Wives," 1868. E'l>ioilite§ (etym. doubtful), heretics,in the 1st century, a branch of the Nazarenes,of 2 kinds: one believed our Saviour born of a virgin, observed precepts of the Christian religion, but added ceremonies of Jews; the other believed Christ born after the manner of man, and denied his divinity. Photinus revived the sect in 342. eb'onite, vulcanized India-rubber. Caoutchouc. Ebro, a river in Spain, scene of a signal defeat of Span- iards by French, under Lannes, near Tudela, 23 Nov. 1808 ; and of important movements of the allied British and Spanish armies in the Peninsular war (1809-13). ecarte {a'har'ta/'), a game at cards, of modern origin, probably first played in the Paris salons in the first quarter of the 19th century \ a development of a very old card game called la triomphe or French ruff. Eccle§ia§'te§, the Book of. In Hebrew tradition one of the 3 canonical books of Solomon, the others being Proverbs and the Song of Songs or Canticles. Its later origin has many advocates, while able scholars defend it as the production of Solomon, son of David. ecclesia§tical courts. There was no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical courts in England until 1085, after the Norman conquest. The most important and most ancient of the English ecclesiastical courts is the Court of Arches, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior jurisdictions within the province of Canterbury, name derived from the church of St. Mary-le- Bow {Sancta Maria de A rcubus), London, where it was former- ly held. Appeals from this court lie to the judicial committee of the privy council, by statute, 1832. Till the establishment of the divorce and probate courts in 1857, the following were causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to benefices, matrimony, divorces, bastard}% tiChes, incest, fornica- tion, adultery, probate of wills, administrations, etc. Church of England, Martin v. Mackonochie, 1867, etc. EcllO (Gr. 'H;^a>). In Greek mythologj'^ one of the ore- ades or mountain nymphs. The word denotes mere sound. The time which elapses between the utterance of a sound and its return must be more than one twelfth of a second to form an echo. The whispering-gallery of St. Paul's, London, is a well-known example. Acoustics. Eckmiihl, a village of Bavaria, site of a battle between the main armies of France (75,000) and Austria (40,000) ; Na- poleon and marshal Davoust (hence prince d'EckmUhl)defeated archduke Charles, 22 Apr. 1809. Eclectics (from Gr. tKXeyii), I choose), ancient philoso- phers (called Analoffetici, and also Pkilalethes, the lovers of truth), who, not joining any sect,chose what they judged good from each ; of them was Potamon of Alexandria, about 1 a.d. Also a Christian sect, who considered the doctrine of Plato con- formable to the spirit of Christianity. Medical Science; Philosophy, Victor Cousin. eclipse, in astronomy, the obscuration of any heav- enly body by entering the shadow of another body. An- axagoras, the Stoic, of Klazomenae, was the first to ex- plain the physical cause of eclipses, about 450 B.C.; but Nicias sacrificed the Athenian army at Syracuse to his super- stitious dread of the lunar eclipse of 27 Aug. 413 b.c. Colum- bus is said to have awed the Indians of Jamaica by predicting the time of an eclipse of the moon, 1504. The Egyptians said they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, and 832 of the moon, in the period from Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 b.c. The theory of eclipses is said to have been known to the Chinese before 120 b.c. The first eclipse recorded hap- pened 19 Mch. 721 B.C., at 8.40 p.m., according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with accuracy at Babylon. There may be as many as 7 eclipses in a year, and 4 will then be solar. There cannot be less than 2 ; if but 2 then they will be solar. A list of eclipses to the year 2000 is given in "L'Art de Verifier les Dates. ' ' Royal Astronomical Society published a volume of made during Total Solar Eclipses," 1880. eclipses of the sun. Nineveh eclipse (recorded, according to sir Henry Rawlinson, on a Nineveh tablet in the British museum) 15 June, That predicted by Thales (Pliny, lib. ii. 9) believed to have oc- curred (Halts) 28 May, [Sir 6. B. Airy, astronomer royal, thinks the date should be 610; others say 603 or 584 B.C. It is recorded by Herod- otus as interrupting a battle between Medes and Lydians.] Eclipse of Xerxes, when setting out against Greece 17 Feb. One at Athens (T/iucydides, lib. iv.) Eclipse of Agathocles (Airy) 15 Aug. Total : 3 days' supplication decreed at Rome (Livy) 188 A.D. One at the death of Jesus Christ (Josephus) 3 Apr. 33 One observed at Constantinople 968 At the battle of Sticklestadt 29 July, 1030 Observations B.C. 763 585 478 424 310 1140 1191 1662 1715 1724 1802 1851 1858 1870 1878 1882 1883 1889 ECO In Fimnoe, when It was dark ut noon (Du Fretnoy) 29 June, In England : a total darkness ( W. Malmsb.) 20 Mch. Again; stars visible ut lU iu the morning {Camden) 23 June, True sun and the uppourauce of another, so that astronomers alone could distinguish the dilleronce by colored glasses One observed in Scotland ; termed the " black hour ". ,7 June, Another in Scotland; termed " Mirk Monday ' 8 Apr. Toul iu Kngland ; stars shone and birds roosted at noon, 3 May, Last totiil eclipse in Kngland; seen near Salisbury 22 May, One central and annular in middle Europe 7 Sept. Total eclipses 17 July, 1833; 8 July, 1842; 28 July, Annular, photographed at Oundle; not seen well at other places, 15 Mch. Total eclipse of the sun ; well seen by sir G. B. Airy and others in Siviin; Warren de la Rue took photographs 18 July, Tot^il, of longest possible duration (observed for British Royal Society in India, by coL Walker, Mr. Hcrschel, and others), 18 Aug. [During this eclipse in India, M. Janssen invented a method of studying the sun at any time by several spectroscopes, multiplying the length of the spectrum and diffusing its brill- lamv. Joseph Norman Locky'er had suggested a similar method in 1866, but did not use it till 20 Oct. 1868, being then not aware of M. Janssen's discovery.] One well observed in Xorth America 7 Aug. Two e.xpeditions sent out by the British government, not suc- cessful, to observe eclipse of 22 Dec. One well observed at Ceylon and in southern India, 12 Dec. 1871 ; and in North America 29, 30 July, [Similar eclipses (about 70) recur after 18 years, 10^ days.] Solar eclipse well observed in Egypt 17 May, Eclipse well observed at Caroline islands, Pacific 6 May, [Except ou 12 Aug. 1999, no total eclipse of the sun will be visible in England for 250 years.— Hind, July, 1871.] One observed in the Pacific states of the U. S 1 Jan. ECLIPSES OF THE MCK)N. B p First, observed by the Chaldaeans at Babylon {Ptolemy, iv.) 721 Total one observed at Sardis ( Thucydides, vii. ) , 413 Again, in Asia Minor (Polybim) 219 One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus (Livy, xliv.). ... 168 One terrified the Roman troops and quelled their revolt a.d. (Tacitus) 14 Economiitei (a-ko' -no-mists), a philosophical sect, founded by Francois Quesnay (1694-1774), who exalted agri- culture above other arts ; he asserted that it gave 2 things, the support of the laborer, and an excess of value which belonged to the proprietor of the land (" product net "), and which alone should be taxed. He favored freedom for industry and trade. His " Phj'siocratie " (1768) and other works were very popular, even at court, and influenced Adana Smith, author of '• The Wealth of Nations." £corcheurs {d-kbr-sheur') ("flayers"), bands of armed adventurers who desolated France and Belgium during the 15th century, beginning about 1435. Among their leaders were Chabannes, comte de Damraartin, the bastard of Armag- nac, and Villandras; and they at one time numbered 100,000. They are said to have stripped their victims to their shirts, and flayed the cattle. They were favored by the English in- vasion and the civil wars. ec'ra§ite, an explosive invented by Siersch and Kubin, Austrian engineers, impervious to damp, shock, or fire, Oct. 1889. Ec'uador, a South American republic, formerly Quito and other provinces, part of Colombia, 1821; independent in 1831, when the Colombian republic was divided into 3 ; the other 2 being Venezuela and New Granada. Area, 144,000 sq. miles. The population of Ecuador is about 1,146,000 (1890), of Quito, the capital, 76,000. Earthquakes, 1868. Eddai (thought formerly to mean Oldemoder, or " mother of mothers;" by others, "art"), 2 books of songs and sagas (prose and verse), the former, the prose Edda, also called the Younger Edda, or Snorri's Edda; the latter, the poetic or Elder Edda, a collection of old Norse poems, contain the Scandinavian mythology (or history of Odin, Thor, Frea, etc.), written by skalds, or bards, about the Uth or 12th century Translations have been made into French, English, etc. MSS. of the Eddas exist at Copenhagen and Upsal. Literature. Eddyitone, or Edystone, lig^lit-taouse, off the port of Plymouth, English channel, erected by the Trinity house to enable ships to avoid the Eddystone rock. The first light-house was commenced under Mr. Winstanley, in 1696 ; finished in 1699 ; and destroyed iu the tempest of 27 Nov. 1703, when Winstanley and others perished. A wooden one, by Rudyerd, was built by order of Parliament, and ships were ordered to pay one penny per ton inwards and outwards tow- ards supporting it, 1708. This was burned 4 Dec. 1755 ;. and ' EDI a better, erected by Mr. Smeaton, finished 9 Oct. 1759. woodwork of this, burned in 1770, was replaced by stone. Foundation having given way, a new one was designed by James N. Douglass, engineer of the Trinity house. The foundation-stone was laid by the duke of Edinburgh in the presence of the prince of Wales, 19 Aug. 1879. The corner-stone was placed by the duke on 1 June, 1881; successfully lighted, 3 Feb. 1882; opened, 18 May, 1882. Light-hoosks. Edes'ia, now Orfall, a town in Mesopotamia, said to have been built by Nimrod ; by Appian, to have been built by Seleucus ; famous for its schools of theology in the 5th century. It was made a principality by the crusaders, and was taken by the Saracens, 1145; byNur-ed-deen,in 1144; and the Turks, in 1184. Its ancient kings or rulers were named Abgarus and Mannus. Edirellill tkght (23 Oct. 1642), Warwickshire, Engl., between royalists under Charles I. and the parliament army under the earl of Essex, was the first of importance in the civil war. Prince Rupert, who led the right wing of the royalists and headed the cavalry, broke the left wing of the parliament forces, but, pursuing too far, lost his advantage. Earl Lind- say, who headed the royal foot, was mortally wounded. Royal- ists forces, 12,000; parliament army, 10,000. The action waa indecisive, though parliament claimed the victory. Edict of 9fante§, by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, 13 Apr. 1598, was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 1610, and by Louis XIV. in 1652. It was revoked by Louis XIV. 22 Oct. 1685. This act cost France 50,000 Protestant families, and gave England and Ger- many thousands of industrious artisans. It also caused a fierce insurrection in Languedoc. Camisards. Some of the refu- gees settled in Spitalfields, where descendants yet remain; others in Soho and St. Giles's, pursuing the art of making crystal glasses, and the silk manufacture and jewelry, then new in England. edict§, public ordinances and dedrees, usually by sov- ereigns; originated with the Romans. The Perpetual Edict : Salvius Julianus, of Milan, a civilian at Rome (au- thor of several treatises on public right), was employed by the emperor Adrian to draw up this body of laws for the praetors, promulgated 132. Edinburgh, the metropolis of Scotland, derives its name — in ancient records Edinhure and Dun Edin, " the hill of Edin " — from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northumbria, after greatly extending bis dominions, to pro- tect them from incursions of Scots and Picts, 626. But it is said the castle was first built by Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 B.C. ^ It is conspicuous, standing on a rock 300 ft. high at the west end of the old town, and, before the invention of great guns, had considerable strength. Pop. 1891, 261,970. Christianity introduced (reign of Donald I. ) 201 City fortified, and castle rebuilt by Malcolm Canmore 1074 Improved by David I , 1124 to 1153 Holyrood abbey founded by David 1 1128 Edinburgh constituted a burgh about " Castle held by England 1174-86 Parliament held here under Alexander II 1215 City taken by the English 1296 Grant of the town of Leith to Edinburgh 1329 Surrenders to Edward III 1355 St. Giles's cathedral built 1359 City burned by Richard II., 1385 ; and by Henry IV 1401 James II. first king crowned here 1437 Execution of the earl of Athol " Annual fair granted by James II 1447 City strengthened by a wall 1450 Charter of James III 1477 Edinburgh made the metropolis by James III 1482 Royal College of Surgeons incorporated 1505 Charter of James IV 1508 [The palace of Holyrood was built in this reign.] High-school founded about 1518 British, from 200 ships, burn Edinburgh and Leith May, 1544 Leith is again burned, but Edinburgh is spared 1547 Tolbooth built 1561 Edinburgh university chartered 14 Apr. 1582 James VI. leaves Edinburgh as king of England 5 Apr. 1603 He revisits it 16 May, 1617 George Heriot's hospital founded by his will 1624 Charles I. visits Edinburgh June, 1633 Riots in Greyfriars church against English liturgy 23 July, 1637 Charles again visits the city 1641 Castle is surrendered to Cromwell Dec. 1650 Mercurius Caledonius, first Edinburgh newspaper, appeared. . . 1661 Coffee-houses first opened 1677 College of Physicians incorporated !.*!!!.'.'.".'.. 1681 African and East India company incorporated 1695 The EDI 247 Bank of Scotland founded 1695 Koyal bank founded 1727 Koyal Infirmary incorporated 1736 Medical Society instituted 1737 Modern improvements, "New town " commenced 1753 Royal exchange completed 1761 Calton-hill observatory founded 25 July, 1776 Society of Antiquaries 1780 Royal Society of Edinburgh incorporated 1783 Robertson, the historian, dies here 11 June, 1793 Holyrood. an asylum of Louis XVIII. and his brother, after- wards Charles X ,. .1795 to 1799 Edinburgh Review first published 10 Oct. 1802 Nelson's monument completed 1815 Gas company incorporated 1818 Water company incorporated 1819 Society of Arts instituted 1821 Union canal completed , 1822 Royal Institution erected 1823 Royal Scottish academy of painting, sculpture, and architect- ure founded ; 1826 Edinburgh and Dalkeith railway opened July, 1831 Death of sir Walter Scott 21 Sept. 1832 ..Chambers'' s Edinburgh Journal pub " Association of the Fine Arts 1833 Edinburgh and Granton railway begun 1836 Art Union of Scotland 1837 Society of Arts, founded 1821 ; incorporated 1842 Edinburgh and Glasgow railway opened Feb. " Secession, and formation of the Free church •. .18 May, 1843 New college instituted " North British railway commenced 1844 Monument to political martyrs of 1793-94 by Mr. Hume, 21 Aug. " Sir Walter Scott's monument completed (begun 1840) 1845 Edinburgh Philosophical Association (established 1832) reorgan- ized as the Edinburgh Philosophical Society 1846 North British railway opened 18 June, " Prince Albert lays the foundation-stone of the Scotch National Gallery 30 Aug. 1850 National Gallery opened 21 Mch. 1859 Lord Brougham elected chancellor of the university, Edinburgh, 1 Nov. " Prince consort lays foundation of new post-oflQce and Industrial museum 23 Oct. 1861 Statues of Allan Ramsay and John Wilson inaugurated, 25 Mch. 1865 National Museum of Science and Art opened by prince Alfred (created duke of Edinburgh, etc., the first royal prince whose leading title was Scotch, 24 May) 19 May, 1866 Prince of Wales installed patron of Freemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. ; laid foundation of new Royal Infirmary 13 Oct. 1870 Scott centenary celebrated 9 (for 15) Aug. 1871 Lady Burdett-Coutts made a burgess 15 Jan. 1873 Earl of Derby elected lord rector of the university 14 Nov. 1874 Statue of Dr. Livingstone unveiled 15 Aug. 1876 New water-works (I'ortmore reservoir at the Moorfoot hills) opened by the lord provost 13 June, 1879 Academy of Music for Scotland (at Edinburgh) founded. . .Sept. 1882 Death of William Chambers, bookseller, restorer of St. Giles's (which is reopened 23 May) 20 May, 1883 Tercentenary of the university celebrated 16-18 Apr. 1884 Ancient cross restored by Gladstone Nov. 1885 Freedom of the city presented to Parnell (18,000 vote against it), 20 July, 1889 [His name erased from the roll, 1891.] Free public library opened 9 June, 1890 [Andrew Carnegie, of Pittsburg, Pa., U. S., gave it $250,000.] Henry M. Stanley receives the freedom of the city 11 June, " Scotland. " £wer Egypt) ; Greek, AiyvTrrof ; Ara- bic f»)r all Egypt, Misr or Masr. Three niagniricent works on Egypt have been published: in France (commenced by Napoleon and the savans who accompanied him to Egypt), " Description de I'tigypte," 1809-22 ; in Italy, Kosellini's '•Monuraenti dell' Egitto," 1832-44; and in Prussia, Lepsius's •• Denkmiiler aus Aegypten," 1848-6«). For our present knowl- edge of the early history of Egypt we are almost wholly in- debted to discoveries in the present century, and to the inter- pretation of monumental inscriptions, and the papyri found in tlie tombs. Among the most recent investigators are Brugsch, Maspero, Lepsius, De Rouge, Mariette, Chabas, Lieblein, Birch, Naville, Le Page, Kenouf, and Petrie. Abydos, Egyptian Exploration Fund, Rosetta stone, etc. Manetho, a high-priest of On or Heliopolis, in the 2d century b.c., at the request of king Ptolemy Philadelphus, wrote a history of Egypt, under 30 dynasties from Menes to tlie Persian conquests; of his work only lists of kings were preserved, by Julius AfVi- canus. a writer wlio lived about 300 a.d. Eusebius died about 340, Georgius Syncollus. 800. Fabulous god kings, including the sun-god Osiris, god of Hades, and Isis his wife, Typhou; Horus (the last) was said to have reigned 13,900 years, the demigods and manes, 4000 years. Following table of dynasties, including the more important kings, is derived from various sources; the names and dates vary. B. stands for Brugsch, and M. for Mariette. I. Thinite (from This, near Abydos), M. 5004; B. 4400 B.C. Mcna or .Menes; first known king and law-giver, founder of Mem- phis. M. 5004; B. 4455. Tola or Athothis— Onenephes I., con- jectured to have built the Stepped pyramid of Sakkarah. II. Memphte. M. 4751; B. 4133. Kakaoo or Kaiechos. The worship of Apis the bull established at .Memphis. B. 4100. III. Memphite (monumental history properly begins). M. 4449; B. 3966. Seneferoo— soldier, architect, and patron of literature and art. IV. .Memphite. M. 4235; B. 3733. Shoofoo or Khufa, the Cheops of Herodotus, built the great pyramid 250 EGY f XXI. Tanite. M. 1110; B. 1100. Historyobscure—Hirhor, high-priest of Amen, probably first of priest kings — Assyrian governors. XXII. Bubasite. iM. 980; B. 966. ShashankorSheshonkl., Shishak, 1 Kings xiv. 25-28. XXIII. Tanite, probably only 3 i)etty kings. M. 810; B. 766. XXIV. Saite. M. 721; B. 733. i Bocchoris (Bokenranef ), taken prisoner by Sabaco, king of Ethiopia, j and burned alive. During the last 3 dynasties, the Ethiopians appear to have ruled in the south. I XXV. Karnak. Ethiopian. M. 715; B. 700. Shabat or Sabaco. M. 715; B. 700. Takaraka or Tirhakah (2 Kings xix. 9). B. 693. Egypt frequently invaded by tlie Assyrians; subdued and divided into 12 governments. XXVI. Saite. M. 665; B. 666. Psammetichus I. (Greek), governor under the Assyrians, restored the monarchy and revived art. M. 665; B. 666. Necho II. son, attempted a canal across isthmus of Suez; defeated Josiah, king of Judali, at Megiddo (2 Kings xxiii. 29); defeated by Nebuchad- nezzar at Carchemish, 612. Psammetichus II. ; inglorious. B. 596. Uahbra or Hophra (Jer. xliv. 30), sou ; went to help Zede- kiah, but deserted him. B. 591. Apries loses the conquestp and is strangled by Aniasis, who has a long, prosperous reign and in- creased intercourse with the Greeks. B. 572. Psammetichus III. son (defeated by Cambyses, son of Cyrus, king of Persia). B. 528. XXVII. Persian. M. 527; B. 527. Cambyses conquers Egypt ; his army lost invading Ethiopia. M. 527; B. 527. Darius I. Hystaspes, greatly favored Egypt, 521. Xerxes 1., severe (Egyptian revolt subdued), 486. Artaxerxes I. Longimanus (another revolt), 465. Darius II. Nothos, 424. Egypt regained its independence by Armyrtaeus, 424. XXVIII. Saite. M. 406. Armyrtajus, 406. XXIX. Mendesiau. M. 399; B. 399. Nepherches and Achoris maintain Greek alliance. XXX. Sebennyte. M. 378; B. 378. Necfanebes I. Nectanebes II. conquered by Artaxerxes Ochus, king of Persia. XXXI. Persia, 340. Darius III. Codomanus — defeated by Alexander the Great and killed. Alexander conquered Egypt and founded Alexandria 332 Empire divided, 323. One of Alexander's generals, Ptolemy I. (the son of Lagus) Soter became king of Egypt 32J of (Jizeh. M. 4235; B. 3733. The great limestone rock at the foot [ Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (with his father), 285; alone (museum of the Libyan mountains was converted into the form of a man headed lion, termed by the Greeks Sphinx. Khafra built the sec ond Gizeb pyramid. B. 3666. Menkaura (Mycerinus III.). B. 3633. High state of civilization and art, and the vast cemetery of Memphis erected. The book or ritual of the dead (papyri) found in tombs. Book op the Dead. V. Memphite. M. 3951; B. 3566. Raenooser. B. 3433. Katkara B. 3366. Unas truncated pyramid near Sakk4rah built. B. 3333. VI. Memphite (history nearly a blank to the 11th dynasty). M. 3703 ; B. 3300. Pepi I.— powerful— long reign. B. 3233. Romantic story of queen Nitocris in Herodotus. VII Memphite. B. 3100. Petty kings. VIII. Memphite. IX. Heracleopolite. M. 3358. X. Heracleopolite. M. 3249. XI. Theban. M. 3064. Sankhkara, expedition to Ophir and Punt (S. Arabia?). B. 2500. XII. Theban (Egypt very prosperous). B. 2466. Amenemhat I. M. 3014; B. 2466. Osirtasen I. (obelisk of On or Heliopolis erected). Osirtasen II. (memorial temple discovered in 1889). Osirtasen III., important national works, excavated the lake Moeris and made the labyrinth and the Nilometer. B. 2300. Xill. Theban. M. 2851; B. 2233. Sebekhotep, name of several kings. XIV. Xoite. M. 2398. XV. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. M. 2214. Invaders from Asia lake .Memphis and settle in Lower Egypt. XVI. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. XVII. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. Nub— arrival of Jo.seph. B. 1750. Dynasties XIII.-XVII. history very obscure; probably Theban kings reigned in southern, while the Hyksos reigned in Lower Egypt. XVIH. Theban. M. 1703; B. 1700. Achmes I. conquers the Hyksoa M. 1703; B. 1700. Amenhotep I. B. 1666. Tholhmes I. B. 1633. ThothmesII. and Hatasoo, sister. B. 1600. ThothmesIII.,greatking, victor in western Asia, etc. ; his exploits recorded in his temple at Karnak. B. 1600. Amenhotep II. B. 1566. Thothmes IV. B. 1533. Amenhotep III. victorious in Ethiopia; the Colossi or vocal Memnon bear his name. B. 1500. Amenhotep IV. introduced Semitic worship. 2 or 3 heretical suc- cessors. Haremhebi or Horus restores the old worship. XIX. Theban. M. 1462; B. 1400. Rameses I. M. 1462; B. 1400. Seti or Sethos (Menetah I.) victo- rious in Asia; made first canal from the Red sea to the Nile many monuments of him at Karnak, etc. B. 1333. Rameses II. of Alexandria founded ; Septuagint version of Hebrew Script- I ures made ; Pharos completed) 283-247 j Ambassadors first sent to Rome 269 Ptolemy III. Euergetes reigns 247 I Overruns Syria; returns laden with rich spoils and 2500 statues I and vessels of gold and silver, which Cambyses had taken j from Egyptian temples (Blair) 24ft I Ptolemy IV. Philopator '. Nov. 222 I Battle of Raphia; Ptolemy defeats Antiochus, king of Syria 217 Ptolemy V. Epiphanes Nov. 20Si* Embassy to Rome 20^ Egypt under the protective influence of Rome '* Ptolemy VI. Philometor Oct. 181 At the death of Philometor, his brother Physcon (Ptolemy VII. Euergetes) marries his queen, and on the same day murders Philometor's infant son in the mother's arms Nov. 14ft His subjects, wearied by cruelties and crimes, expel him 130 He defeats the Egyptians and recovers his throne, 128; d 117 Ptolemy VIII. Soter II. and Cleopatra his mother " Alexander I. and Cleopatra 107 Ptolemy VIII. restored 89 Revolt in Upper Egypt; Thebes destroyed after a siege of 3 a; years (Diod. Siculus) Sja Alexander II. and Cleopatra 1 8M Ptolemy IX. Auletes 8O5 Berenice and Tryphaena 6$^ Auletes restored, 55; leaves his kingdom to Ptolemy and Cleo- i patra ; 51 Pompeius (Pompey) slain by the order of Ptolemy Sept. 48' During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleopatra II., Alex- andria is besieged by Julius Caesar, and the library nearly de- stroyed by fire (Blair) 47 Caesar defeats the king, who, in crossing the Nile, is drowned; the younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra reign 46 Cleopatra poisons her brother, and reigns alone 43' She appears before Mark Antony to answer the crime; fasci- nated by her beauty, he follows her into Egypt ^ Cleopatra in Syria 8Mc Antony defeated by Octavianus Caesar at Actium (Blair). .1 Sept. 8W Octavianus enters Egypt; Antony and Cleopatra kill them- x selves; Egypt a Roman province Sept, Wf, Octavianus (Augustus) Caesar introduces the Julian year 24 i; A.D. Egypt visited by Hadrian, 122; by Severus 200 By Caracalla (Af assacres) 215 Egypt conquered by Zenobia, queen of Palmyra 270 Reconquered by emperor Aurelian 272 Severe Christian persecution by Diocletian 308 Monachism begun in Egypt by Antony. son, the legendary Sesostris, took Salem, conquered Ethiopia, and 1 Destruction of the temple and worship of Serapis. built a fleet about 1322. Maneptah, son, jirobably the Pharaoh of the Exodus, i;iOO; Sell II. and 2 or 3 unimportant kings. XX. Theban. M. 1288 ; B. 1200. Rameses III. (Rhampsinitus of Herodotus) victorious, cultivated navigation and commerce. M. 1288; B. 1200. Inglorious line of kings named Rameses. Egypt conquered by Chosroes II. of Persia 61< Invasion of the Saracens under Amrou June, 638'' Conquest of Alexandria -. 22 Dec. 640 Cairo founded by the Saracens 969 Conquest by the Turks 1163-96 Government of the Mamelukes established 1260 I EGY 251 EGY Selim I., emperor of tlie Turks, conquers Egypt 1517 It is governed by beys till a great part is conquered by the French under Bonaparte (Alexandria) 1798-99 French expelled by British ; Turks restored 1801 Mehemet Ali massacres the Mamkj.ukes, and reigns 1 Mch. 1811 Arrival of Belzoni, 1815; he removes statue of Memxox, 1816; explores temples, etc 1817 Mahmoud canal, from Alexandria to the Nile, built 1820 Mehemet Pdcha revolts and invades Syria 1831 His son Ibrahim takes Acre, 27 May; overruns Syria; defeats the Turks at Konieh 21 Dec. 1832 He advances on Constantinople, which Russian auxiliaries enter, 3 Apr. ; peace by convention of Kutayah 4 May, 1833 Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary power; Ibrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib 24 June, 1839 England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia undertake to expel Ibrahim from Syria; Napier bombards Beyrout, 10 Oct.; Acre taken by the British and Austrian fleets^ under sir R. Stopford, 3 Nov. ; the Egyptians quit Syria. . .21 Nov. et seq. 1840 Peace restored by treaty; Mehemet made hereditary viceroy of Egypt, but deprived of Syria 15 July, 1841 Ibrahim Pacha d 10 Nov. 1848 Suez canal begun 1858 Hereditary succession and right of coining money granted, but tribute raised from 400,000/. to 750,000/ 27 May, 1861 Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened 1 Nov. ' ' Viceroy Said visits Italy, France, and England, May to Sept. ; returns to Alexandria 1 Oct. 1862 Sultan of Turkey visits Egypt : 7 Apr. 1863 Increased cultivation of cotton in Egypt 1863-67 At the demand of the sultan, the viceroy sends troops to re- press the insurgents in Arabia May, 1864 Opening of part of Suez canal 15 Aug. 1865 Direct succession to the viceroyalty granted by the Porte, 21 May, 1866 Opening of the Suez canal 17 Nov. 1869 Differences with the sultan respecting prerogatives arranged, the viceroy giving up power over taxes and loans Dec. " Sir Samuel Baker commissioned to suppress the slave-trade up the Nile, with absolute authority south of Gondokoro (for 4 years from 1 Apr. 18()9) 10 May, 1869 Departure from Khartoum 8 Feb. 1870 After long delay, starts to explore White Nile 11 Aug. " Arrives at Gondokoro 15 Apr. ; names it Ismailia, and oCacially annexes it to Egypt 26 May, 1871 Advances south lan.-Feb. 1872 Arrives at the African paradise, Faliko, 6 Mch. ; at Masindi, in Unyoro 25 Apr. " Received by Kabba Rega, the young king, who attempts to poison Baker's party, and attacks them in the night; he is defeated and Masindi burned , 8 June, " Baker marches to Foweera, 18 July; returns to Faliko. .2 Aug. " Slave-trade apparently subdued 31 Dec. " Baker returns to Gondokoro, 1 Apr. ; honors from the khedive at Cairo, 25 Aug. ; reaches London 9 Oct 1873 Col. Gordon appointed successor; Abou Saoud subordinate " Baker's work, " Ismailia,'' pub Nov. 1874 First stone of new port laid by khedive 15 May, 1871 Khedive's son, prince Hassan, made D.C.L. at Oxford. 13 June, 1872 Sultan, by firman, renders khedive practically independent (he must not co'n money, make treaties, or build iron-clads), 8 June, 1873 First Egyptian budget produced; asserted revenue, $50,830,000; expenditure, $4.5,200,000 Oct. " International court of justice opened by the khedive. .28 June, 1875 Khedive's shares of Suez canal purchased by the British gov- ernment; announced " Nov. " British-Egyptian expedition into Abyssinia surprised and de- feated with much slaughter 16 Oct. " New (Gregorian) style adopted; mixed courts opened 1 Jan. 1876 War with Abyssinia 1875-77 Col. Gordon, after great success, reaches England Feb. 1877 Peace with Abyssinia negotiating by col. Gordon, June; terms said to be accepted Oct. " Definitive peace between the khedive and Abyssinia announced, Feb. 1879 Col. Gordon's lieutenant, Gessi (Nov. 1878), defeats rebel slave- dealers in Soudan, central Africa 5 May, " England and France, by note, require the appointment of European ministers about 5 May, " England, France, Germany, Austria, and Italy recommend tlie khedive to abdicate about 20 June, " He refers to the sultan, who declines to interfere; the khedive offers to pay his debts in full 22 June, " Khedive deposed by the sultan; prince Tewfik, his son, pro- claimed successor 26 June, " Khedive leaves for Naples 30 June, " Tewflk succeeds as khedive 8 Aug. " Col. Gordon, negotiating with Abyssinia to prevent war, re- ported successful Oct. " He resigns governorship of the Soudan, Oct. 1879; accepted, „ Jan. 1880 1 eace with Abyssinia announced end of June, " Decree for abolition of slavery end of July, 1881 Insurrection in the Soudan July.' " Ministerial crisis; khedive calls for Riaz Pacha Aug" " Ahmed Arabi Bey and about 4000 soldiers surround the khedive 's palace, demanding increased pay— agreed to; Cherif Pacha made minister 9 Sept. Arabi Bey appointed under secretary of war Jan. Crisis continues, 9-13 May; khedive firm; ministry submits, about 16 May; English and French squadron arrive at Alex- andria, 20 May; Arabi Pacha refuses to resign, 23 May; ulti matum of English and French consuls; Arabi Pacha to re tire; khedive's authority to be restored, etc 25 May, Ministry resigns; Cherif Pacha appointed. May; officers re- sist; Arabi Pacha reinstated, 27-28 May; anarchy; Euro- peans quitting the country, 29 May; 6000 Egyptian soldiers said to be massacred June, Commencement of rebellion; riots at Alexandria; Arabs attack Europeans; quelled by Egyptian troops, great loss of life (about 60 Europeans killed), town ravaged and deserted, 11 June, Powers agree to a conference at Constantinople; Turkey objects, 19 June^ Conference opened 24 June, English and French admirals protest against the fortifying of Alexandria about 4 July, British subjects warned to quit Egypt about 6 July, Bombardment of forts at Alexandria threatened by admiral Seymour, if works threatening the British fleet are not stopped 9 July, Bombardment begun; its object fully obtained ; bombardment ceases, 5.30 p.m.; Egyptian loss heavy in forts and part of the town. British loss, 6 killed, 28 wounded 11 July, Arabi Pacha and part of his army abandon Alexandria and re- treat into the interior; he releases convicts, who with the Arab mob plunder and set fire to the city, and massacre, it is said, many Christians 12 July, European portion entirely destroyed 13 July, Khedive at palace Ras el-Tin guarded by British marines; de- grades Arabi Pacha from his office; sends for Cherif Pacha, Riaz Pacha, etc about 16 July, Arabi Pacha attempts to cut off water-supply; denounces the khedive, and calls on the people about 20, 21 July, Proclamation of khedive declaring Arabi a rebel, etc., about 23 July, Arabi proclaims a Jihid or holy war; said to have 30,000 men, about 24 July, British troops landed at Alexandria 24 July, Troops sent to Egypt from England and India. . .about 25 July, Duke of Connaught sails in the Orient for Egypt 31 July, Sir Evelyn Wood sails for Egypt 3 Aug. Reconnoissance by gen. sir A. Alison, British success, near Mah- moudieh canal ; lieut. Howard Vyse and 3 others killed ; about 30 wounded; Egyptian loss about J*00 5 Aug. Conference agrees to the international protection of the Suez canal, and adjourns sine die 14 Aug. Sir Garnet Wolseley assumes command at Alexandria; khedive empowers British commanders to establish order Troops, etc., under gen. Willis embark as if for Aboukir, but proceed eastward, and occupy Port Said, Ismailia, and Kan- tara; thus command the canal, 19, 20 Aug. ; skirmishes near Mahmoudieh canal, sir Evelyn Wood succes.sful; the enemy shelled out of Neftche 20 Aug. Total British force in Egypt, 31,468 men " Twenty-six British ironclads at Alexandria " Gen. Macpherson with Indian troops arrives at Suez. . .21 Aug. From Ismailia 2 squadrons of household cavalry, with 2 guns, and detachment of 19th hussars, mounted infantry, etc., move on Neflche; met by 10,000 Egyptians with artillery, 24 Aug. Cavalry and artillery engagement; enemy routed; capture of 5 Krupp guns and train of ammunition and provisions, Egyptian camps at Tel-el-Mahuta and Mahsameh occupied; British loss, 6 killed, 30 wounded 25 Aug. Suez canal held by the British 26 Aug. Gen. Graham at Kassassin vigorously attacked by 13,000 Egyptians; signals for assistance, rendered by gen. Drury Lowe with household cavalry; brilliant charge and capture of 11 guns (afterwards lost), rout of the enemy, disorderly flight; British loss, 7 killed, 70 wounded 28 Aug. Capture of Tel-kl-Kebir; Egyptians routed under Arabi Pacha; surrender of Zagazig with railway trains, etc 13 Sept. British enter Cairo; Arabi Pacha and his officers surrender un- conditionally with about 10,000 Egyptian soldiers. . ..14 Sept. Khedive dissolves the Egyptian army 17 Sept. Surrender of Aboukir, 17 Sept. ; re-establishment of khedive's authority 19 Sept. Abd-el-Al holding Damietta with about 7000 men, 21 Sept. ; sir Evelyn Wood sent against him. 22 Sept. ; he surrenders, 23 Sept. Valentine Baker Pacha nominated commander of a new Egyp- tian army (10,000) end of Sept. Twelve thousand British to remain in Egypt, sir A. Alison com- mander 30 Sept. Prophet El-Mahdi said to hold all the country south of Khar- toum 25 Oct. Anglo-French control abolished 9 Nov. Arabi Pacha tried; secret examination of witnesses (defence 1881 1882 supported by AVilfred Blunt). .Nov. Pleads guilty of rebellion; sentence of death commuted to banishment for life ^ Dec. Letters from Arabi Pacha to Wilfred Blunt, expressing gratitude to, and confidence in, England 4 Dec. ; Times, 5 Dec. Mahoud and other rebel leaders sentenced to banishment, 7 Dec. Riaz Pacha resigns; succeeded by Nubar Pacha 7, 8 Dec. EGY 252 Sir Evelyn Wood, appointed commander of the new Egyptian army, arrives at Cairo 'i'i Dec. 1882 Arabi iiud others sail for Ceylon, 27 Dec. ; arrive 10 Jan. 1883 End of dual control 11 Jan. " British circular to the powers laid bafore the Forte, etc. (the Suei oiinal to bo f^ee, with restrictions in time of war; for- mation of Knyptian army, etc. ) 11 Jan. et seq. " Powers, oxcopl Fninco and Turkey, consent, about 27 Jan. " Consiiiution signed by khedive, 30 Apr. ; promulgated, 1 May, " SuU'iman Sami convicted of firing, massacring, and plundering at .Alexandria (11 June, 1882); hanged 9 June, " Ex kluMlivo Ismail in I^ndon 28 June, " Parli imentary grants to lord Alcester (Seymour), 25,000i. ; lord Wolsoloy, 30.000/ 29 June, " Departure of some British troops countermanded on account of the destruction of gen. Hicks's army (Soudan) Nov. " British government require a limitation of the line of defence in n'gurd to the Sou(jlan 6 Jan. 1884 British army : total killed, 255 July, 1882-Mch. " Conference on Kgyptian finance invited l)y England; Germany, Austria, Russia, Italy, France, and Turkey accept May, " Conference meets 28 June, " Conference adjourns, without result, .live die 2 Aug. " British force in Kgypt and Soudan, about 16,000 men Nov. " Ancient necropolis discovered at Assouan Feb. 1886 Sudden death of gen. Valentine Baker Pacha, aged 62.. 17 Nov. 1887 Ismail Pacha permitted to reside at Constantinople Dec. " Equatorial province lost by the retirement of Emin Pacha.. .1888-89 Forced labor {cori>ie) of peasantry {fellaheen) alx)lished; tax proi>osed to general assembly, 15 Dec. ; enacted 17 Dec. 1889 Discovery of a vast tomb of a high-priest of Ammon, west of Thebes (Mummies) Feb. 1891 Sudden death of khedive Tewflk 7 Jan. 1892 Abba^. his eldest son, recognized by the Porte 8 Jan. " New railway bridge over the Nile opened by the khedive, 5 May, " KHKDIVES, OR HEREDITARY VICEROYS (nearly independent). 1806. Mehemet All Pacha; abdicated Sept. 1848; d. 2 Aug. 1849. 1848. Ibrahim (adopted son), Sept. ; d. 9 or 10 Nov. 1848. " Abbas (his son), 10 Nov. ; d. 14 July, 1854. 1854. Said (brother), 14 July; d. 18 Jan. 1863. 1862. Ismail (nephew). 18 Jan. (b. 31 Dec. 1830) ; deposed by the sultan at the request of England, France, and other powers, 26 June. 1879. 1879. Mechinet TewQk, b. 10 Nov. 1852, Invested with the Star of India by the prince of Wales, 25 Oct. 1875; proclaimed 26 June, acceded 14 Aug. ; d. 7 Jan. 1892. 1892. Abbas Pacha (son of Tewflk), b. 14 July, 1874; acceded 8 Jan. Egyptian Era, etc. The old Egyptian year was the era of Nabonassar of 365 days, dating from 26 Feb. 747 B.C. It was reformed 30 B.C., when the new year had receded to 29 Aug., thenceforth made the first day of the year. To re- duce to the Christian era, subtract 746 years, 125 days. The canicular or heliacal period of the Egyptians and Ethiopians (1460 years) began when Sirius, or the dog-star, emerged from the rays of the sun, on 20 Julj% 2785 b.c , apd extended to 1326 B.C. This year comprised 12 months of 30 days, with 5 sup- plementary days. Egyptian Exploration Fund, originated by Miss Amelia B. Edwards, a learned Egyptologist, an(l promoted by sir Erasmus Wilson, 1st president (d. 8 Aug. J 884), and R. S. Poole, secretary, 1881, to elucidate by excavations the his- tory and arts of ancient Egypt and biblical history. Miss Ed- wards died 15 Apr. 1892. She bequeathed property to endow a professorship of Egyptology in Universitj' college, London. M. Edonard Naville's explorations began 19 .Jan. 1883. The excava- tions conducted by M. Navllle, 1883-84, led to many important dis- coveries. Including the site of Goshen. W. M. F. Petrle examined more than 20 sites in 1884-85, and made remarkable discoveries. Some of the results were given to British and foreign museums. He disclosed Naucratls, which was a flourishing Greek commer- cial and manufacturing city, on the Canopic arm of the Nile, about 650 B.C., and declined after the Persian invasion and the founding of Alexandria 332 B.C. Explorations carried on by F. Llewellyn Griffith at Tanis, 1886; Mr. Petrie, in the mounds of Tel-Defenneh, discovered the remains of " Pharaoh's house in Tahpanhes*' (588 B.C. ; Jer. xlili. 8-11), May, 1886. Ernest A. Gardner reported excavations in the spring at Naucratis, and exhibited statuettes, pottery, etc., from temples, cemeteries, etc., 6 July, 1886. M. Naville's explorations at the city of Onia and the "Mound of the Jews" continued spring 1887 He dis- covers the great temple of Bubastis (about 1300 B.C.), granite mon- olithic colums, sculpture, etc., Apr.-June, 1887; resumes his ex- cavations, Mch. 1888. Exhibition of Egyptian antiquities at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, London, by Flinders Petrie, of his excavations at Fayoum, July, 1888. Mr. Petrie forces an extrance into the sepulchral chamber of the pyramid of Anenemhat III. at Hawara, Jan. ; exhibits the results of his explorations, at the Oxford Mansions, London, mummies, ornaments, Implements, etc., Sept. 1889 et seq. A monograph on the results of M. Naville's excavations at Bu- ba.stls in 1887-89, pub. in the "Memoirs" Feb. 1891 Mr. Petrie discovers fragments of a lost play of Euripides, of ELE the "Phaedo" of Plato and other writers, which have been published by prof Mahafly after study l)y himself and prof. Sayce, reported July, 1891. Mr. Petrlo's "Ten Years' Dig- ging In Kgy|tt, 1«81 to 1891," pub .May, Egyptology. Much attention has been given of late years to this science, and great interest excited through the interpretation of monumental inscriptions, discoveries, etc. Consult " Book OF THE Dead," Egypt, Egyptian Explora- tion Fund, Mummies, etc. Elirenbreit'itein ("honor's broad stone"), a Prus- sian fortress on the Rhine, formerly belonged to the electors of Treves. It was often besieged. It surrendered to the French general Jourdain, 24 Jan. 1799. The fortifications were de- stroyed on its evacuation, 9 Feb. 1801, at the peace of Lune- ville. The works have been restored since 1814. Eiffel tower, so called from its builder, a colossal iron structure, erected on the Champ-de-Mars, Paris, 1887-^9. One of the principal curiosities of the great exposition at Paris, 1889. It is 985 ft. high, contains 7000 tons of iron, and cost $1,000,000. " Eikon Basirike " (" The Portraiture of His Sa- cred Majesty in his Solitudes and Sufferings"), a book of de- votion formerly attributed to king Charles I., but now generally believed to have been written mainly by bishop (Jauden, and approved by the king ; it was pub. in 1648, and sold quickly. Ei§te€ldfod, from the Welsh verb eistedd, to sit; meaning a session or muster. First appointed by Gryffith ap Conati to reform the Welsh bard system, 1078. Bakds. El-Ariseh, a village of Egypt, captured by French under Reynier, 18 Feb. 1799. A convention was signed here between the grand-vizier and Kleber for the evacuation of Egypt by the French, 28 Jan. 1800. Kleber beat the Turks at Heliopolis on 20 Mch., and was assassinated 14 June following. Elba, Isle of, on the coast of Tuscany, Itah", about 6 miles from the mainland ; area 90 sq. miles; taken by admiral Nel- son in 1796, but abandoned 1797. Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with the title of emperor) on his abdication in France, 5 Apr. 1814. He secretly embarked hence, with about 1200 men in hired feluccas, on the night of 25 Feb. 1815, land- ed in Provence, 1 McJh., and soon after recovered the crown. France, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand-duke of Tus- cany, July, 1815. Annexed to Italy in 1860, and now forms part of the Italian province of Livorn(>. Elelling^en, a village of Bavaria. Here Ney beat the Austrians, 14 Oct. 1805, and was made duke of Elchingen. elders (Gr. irpiafivTipoi), in the early church one with swiaKOTTOi, or bishops (see 1 Tim. iii. and Titus i.), who after- wards became a distinct and superior order. Elders in the Presbyterian churches are laymen. El Dora'dO ("the Gilded Man"). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and Peru, they began to look for new sources of wealth ; and having heard, through Orellana, a com- panion of Pizarro and the explorer of the Amazon, of a city ruled by a king whose garments, changed daily, were woven gold, they organized expeditions into the interior of South America about 1560, in search of this fabulous region, which they and other nations continued to believe in and search for quite to the 18th century. Raleigh's expeditions were in search of this region, in 1596 and 1617. " But he grew old— this knight so bold— And o'er his heart a shadow Fell, as he found no spot of ground That looked like El Dorado."— Rje. Eleanor's erosses. 12 memorial crosses erected, in conformity with the will of J^leanor of Castile, wife of Edward I. of England, in the places where her bier rested on its way from Hornby in Lincolnshire, Engl., where she died (1290) to Westminster Abbey, where she was buried. The 12 places are here given in their order, from Hornby to West- minister: Lincoln, Grantham, Stamford, Geddington, North- ampton, Stony Stratford, Woburn, Dunstable, St. Albans, Waltham, West Cheap, Charing. But 3 now remain, Gedding- ton, Northampton, and Waltham. Charing Cross. Elea§a, Palestine. Here Judas Maccabaeus was defeat- ed and slain by Bacchides and Alcimus and the Syrians, about 161 B.C. (1 Mace. ix.). m ELE 253 ELE EleatiC sect, founded at Elea, in Sicily, by Xenoph- anes of Colophon, about 535 b.c., whither he had been ban- ished on account of his wild theory of God and nature. He supposed that the stars were extinguished every morning and rekindled at night; that eclipses were occasioned by partial extinction of the sun ; that there were several suns and moons for the convenience of the different climates of the earth, etc. —Strabo. Zeno (about 463 b.c.) was an Eleatic. Philos- ophy. elections, United States. The presidential election takes place on the 1st Tuesday after the 1st Monday of Nov. in every 4th year preceding the year in which the presiden- tial term expires. United States. The state elections are held on the same day of the month, with the following ex- ceptions : Alabama, 1st Monday in Aug.; Arkansas, 1st Mon- day in Sept. ; Georgia, 1st Wednesday in Oct. ; Louisiana, 3d Monday in Apr.; Maine, 2d Monday in Sept.; Oregon, 1st Monday in June ; Rhode Island, 1st Wednesday in Apr. ; Vermont, 1st Tuesday in Sept. Electoral Commission. United States, 1876. electoral vote. United States through- out. electors in England for members of Parliament for counties were obliged to have 40s. a year in land, 8 Hen. VI. 1429. Among the acts relating to electors are the following : Act depriving excise and custom-house officers and contractors with government of their votes, 1782. Customs. Act to reg- ulate polling, 1828. Great changes were made by the Reform acts of 1832, 1867, and 1868. County Elections act, 1836. Bribery. The 40s. freeholders in Ireland lost their privilege in 1829. By Dodson's act, passed in 1861, university electors are permitted to vote by sending balloting papers. Hours of polling in metropolitan boroughs extended (from 8 a.m. to 8 P.M.) by act passed 25 Feb. 1878. electors of Germany. In the reign of Conrad I., king of Germany (912-18), the dukes and counts, from being merely officers, became gradually independent of the sovereign, and subsequently elected him. In 919 they confirmed the nomi- nation of Henry I., duke of Saxony, by Conrad as his successor. In the 13th century 7 princes (the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the king of Bohemia, the electors of Branden- burg and Saxony, and the elector palatine) assumed the ex- clusive privilege of nominating the emperor. — Robertson. An 8th elector (Bavaria) was made in 1648, and a 9th (Hanover) in 1692. The number was reduced to 8 in 1777 (by the elec- ! tor palatine acquiring Bavaria), and increased to 10 at the i peace of Luneville in 1801. On the dissolution of the German I empire, the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804-6. 1 Germany. i electors, United States. By the constitution (art. ii. sec. 1), the president and vice-president are chosen every 4 years by electors. As many are appointed hy each state, " in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct," as the state has representatives and senators in Congress. By the Twelfth Article of Amendments, the electors meet in their respect- ive states and vote by ballot for 2 persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with them- selves. The result, duly certified, is then transmitted to the president of the Senate, who shall, in the presence of both houses, open the certificates and the votes shall then be count- ed. The person having the greatest number of votes is declared president, "if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes," then the House of Representatives chooses one of them for presi- dent, the votes being taken by states. After this vote, the person having the greatest number of electoral votes is de- clared vice-president. If the House in such a case should not before 4 Mch. following choose a president, then the former vice-president becomes acting president. In case there is no majority of electoral votes for vice-president, he is, in like manner, chosen "by the Senate. The 49th Congress en- acted that the presidential electors meet and vote on the 2d Monday in Jan. next following the election, and that Con- gress count the ballots on the 2d Wednesday in Feb. succeed- ing. electricity (from the Gr. rjXeKTpov, electrum, amber). The electrical properties of amber while being rubbed are said to have been known to Thales, 600 b.c. ; and Pliny, 70 a.d. Magnetism. frictional or static electricity. Gilbert records that other bodies besides amber generate elec- tricity when rubbed, and that all substances may be attract- ed. He was the first to use the term electric, as electric force, electric attraction, etc - iqqq Otto von Guericke constructed the first electric machine (a • globe of sulphur) about 1647 Robert Boyle published his electrical experiments 1676 Stephen Gray, aided by Wheeler, discovered that the human body conducts eleetricity, that electricity acts at a distance (motion in light bodies being produced by frictional electric- ity at a distance of 666 feet), the fact of electric induction, and other phenomena 1720-36 Du Fay stated his theory of 2 electric fluids: vitreous, from rubbed glass, etc., and resinous, from rubbed amber, re- sin, etc. ; and showed that bodies similarly electrified re- pel while those oppositely electrified attract each other, about 1733 Ddsaguliers classified bodies as electrics and non-electrics 1742 Leyden jar (vial or bottle) discovered by Kleist, 1745, and by Cuuaeus and Muschenbroek, of Leyden; Winckler construct- ed the Leyden battery 1746 Researches of Watson, Canton, Beccaria, and Nollet 1740-47 At a picnic, Franklin " killed a turkey by the electric spark, and roasted it by an electric jack before a fire kindled by the electric bottle " 1748 He announced his theory of a single fluid, terming vitreous electricity positive, and resinous negative, 1747 ; and demon- strated the identity of the electric spark and lightning, draw- ing electricity from a cloud by a kite June, 1752 Prof Richman killed at St. Petersburg while repeating Frank- lin's experiments Aug. 1753 Beccaria published his researches on atmospheric electricity, 1758; and .(Epinus his mathematical theory 1759 Electricity developed by fishes investigated by Ingenhousz, Cavendish, and others about 1773 Lichtenberg produced his electrical figures 1777 Electro-statics: Coulomb applied the torsion balance to the measurement of electric force 1785 Electro-chemistry : water decomposed by Cavendish, Fourcroy, and others 1787-90 Discoveries of Galvani and Volta (Voltaic electricity, next page) 1791-93 Oersted, of Copenhagen, discovered electro-magnetic action (Electro-magnetism, next page) 1819 Thermo-electricity (currents produced by heat) discovered by Seebeck: produced by heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered together, 1821. The thermo-electrometer invented by William Snow Harris, 1827; the thermo-multiplier con- structed by Melloni and Nobili 1831 [Marcus constructed a powerful thermo-electric battery in 1865.] Faraday produced a spark by the sudden separation of a coiled keeper from a permanent magnet (Magneto-electricity, next page) " Wheatstone calculated the velocity of electricity, on the double- fluid theory, to be 288,000 miles a second; on the single-fluid theory, 576,000 miles a second 1834 Armstrong discovered, and Faraday explained, electricity in high-pressure steam, used in the hydro- electric machine 1840 Electric Machines. — Otto von Guericke obtained sparks by rub- bing a globe of sulphur, about 1647; New^ton, Boyle, and oth- ers used glass, about 1675 ; Hawksbee improved the ma- chine, about 1709; Bose introduced a metallic conductor, 1733; Winckler contrived the cushion for the rubber, 1741; Gordon employed a glass cylinder, 1742; for which a plate was substituted about 1770; Canton introduced amalgam for the rubber, 1751; Van Marum constructed an electric machine at Haarlem, said to have been the most powerful ever made, 1785; Dr. H. M. Nqad set up at the Panopticon, Leicester square, London, a very powerful electric ma- chine and liCyden battery (in possession of Edwin Clark, 1862) 1855 Hydro-electric machine, by Armstrong, was constructed 1840 Electrophorus, a useful apparatus for obtaining frictional elec- tricity, was invented by Volta in 1775, and improved by him 1782 C. F. Varley's " reciprocal electrophorus " invented 1862 Holtz's induction machine 1865 Sir William Thomson's "electric replenisher" described. . .Jan. 1868 Mr. App's great inductorium, or induction coil, giving the larg- est sparks ever seen, exhibited at the Royal Polytechnic In- stitution 29 Mch. 1869 Electroscope and electrometer, apparatus for ascertaining the presence and quantity of electrical excitation. Pith-balls were employed in various ways as electroscopes by Gilbert, Canton, and others. Dr. Milner invented an electrometer similar to Peltier's, 1783. The gold-leaf electrometer was in- vented by rev. A. Bennet, 1789, and improved by Singer, about 1810; Lane's discharging electrometer is dated 1767; Henley's, 1772; Bohnenberger's electroscope, 1820; Peltier's induction electrometer about 1848 ELE GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC KI.KCTRICITY, KLKCTROLY81S, AND ELKOTRO-MAtJNETISM. Sulser noticed a iwculiur sensation in the tongue when sil- ver and lead wore brought into contact with it and each other ; 1762 Mad (Jaivani observed the convulsion in the muscles of frogs wlien brought into contact with 2 metals, in 1789; and M. Galvani, aflor studying the phenomenon, laid the foundation ol the galvanic battery 1791 Volu announced his discovery of the "voltaic pile," disks of zinc an«l silver, and moistened card 1800 By ihe voluiic pile, Nicholson and Carlisle decomposed water, and Dr. Henry decomposed nitric acid, auimonia, etc " Transfer of acids and alkalies by Hisinger and Berzelius 1803 Belireus formed a dry pile of «0 pairs of zinc, copper, and gilt paper 1805 By a large voltaic battery in the Royal Institution, London, Davy decomimsed potash, and isolated the metal potassium (soda and other substances soon after) 6 Oct. 1807 Zamboni's dry pile of paywr disks, coated with tin on one side and peroxide of mangtiuesc on the other 1809 Children's battery fused platinum, etc " J. W. Ritter constructed his " secondary pile " about 1812 Davy exhibited the voltaic arc 1813 WoUastons thimble battery ignited platinum wire 1815 [Multipliers or rheomelers, popularly termed "galvanom- eters," invented by Ampere and by Schweigger, 1820; by Cumming, 1821; De la Rive, 1824; Ritchie (torsion), 18a0; Joule (magnetic), 1843.] Faraday explains electro-magnetic rotation Jan. 1822 Ohm enunciated his formulse for galvanic currents 1827 [Improvements in the voltaic battery by Wollaston, 1815; Becquerel, 1829; Sturgeon. 1H30; J. F. Daniell, 1836; Grove (nitric acid, etc.), 1S;W; Jacobi, 1840; tfmee, 1840; Bunsen (carbon, etc.), 1842; Grove (gas battery), 1842.] Faraday read the llrst series of his " Experimental Researches on Klectricity " at the Royal society, London 21 Nov. 1831 Faraday demonstrated the nature of electro-chemical decom- position, and the principle that the quantity and intensity of electric action of a galvanic battery depend on the size and number of plates employed 1834 Wheatstone invented his electro-magnetic chronoscope 1840 Copper-zinc couple (Copper) constructed by Dr. J. H. Gladstone and A. Tribe 1872 Batteries: Bichromate of potash battery — a modification of Dr. Leeson's ; very powerful ; now much used. (Gaston Plante's lead battery, powerful, 1860. ) Chloride of silver bat- tery (14,400 cells)— results of its discharge published by drs. Warren de la Rue and Hugo MQller. Powerful results ex- hibited at Royal Institution, London 21 Jan. 1881 Dr. Byrne's pneumatic battery (air blown in), very effective, an- nounced 1878 E. .1. Atkins's method of separating metals from their alloys by electrolysis, announced Nov. 1883 Electric accumulator^ a modification by M. Faure of Gaston Plante's lead battery of 1860, was exhil)ited at Paris, May, 1881. In June, a box 1 cubic foot in size, containing 4 cells, enclosing thin sheets of lead surrounded with felt saturated with dilute acid, etc., was conveyed from Paris to London. Sir William Thomson found it to possess electric energy of 1,000,000 foot pounds, and said, in the London Times of 9 June, 1881, "This solves the problem of storing electricity in a manner and in a state useful for many important applica- tions " ■ 6 June, 1881 James Wimshurst invents a "continuous electrophorus " and an " influence machine " 1882 Faure's accumulator patented in the U. S., Jan. 1882; Jullen's improvements attract attention 1885-86 Electrical Accumulator company establish a large factory at Newark, N. J 1889 Electro-magnetism began with Oersted's discovery of the ac- tion of the electric current on the magnetic needle, 1819; proved by Ampere, who exhibited the action of the voltaic pile on the magnetic needle, and of terrestrial magnetism on the voltaic current; he also arranged the conducting wire in the form of a helix or spiral, invented a galvan- ometer, and imitated the magnet by a spiral galvanic wire , 1820 Arago magnetized a needle by the electric current, and at- tracted iron filings by the connecting wire of a galvanic bat- tery " First electro-magnet 1825 Electric induction discovered by Faraday announced 1831 Becquerel invented an electro- magnetic balance " Faraday discovered the electro magnetic rotative force devel- oped in a magnet by voltaic electricity, 1831; experiments on the induction of a voltaic current, etc 1834-35 Sturgeon made a bar of soft iron magnetic by sending an elec- tric current through coils of wire surrounding it 1837 Induction coil made by prof. G. C. Page, of Salem, Mass " Joseph Henry announced his discovery of secondary currents, 2 Nov. 1838 Breguet used electro-magnetic force to manufacture mathe- matical instruments about 1854 Magneto - electncity (the converse of Oersted's discovery of electro-magnetism) discovered by Faraday, who produced an electric spark by suddenly separating a coiled keep- er from a permanent magnet; and found an electric cur- rent in a copper disk rotated between the poles of a mag- net 1831 254 ELE Magneto-eUctric machine first made at Paris by Pixil, 1832 ; and in London by Saxton Magneto-electricity applied to electro- plating by Woolwich RubmkortT's magneto - electric induction coil constructed, about Siemens's armature produced H. Wilde's description of his machine (a powerful generator of dynamic electricity, by permanent magnets) and the mag- neto electric machine (constructed in 1865) sent to the Royal society by prof Faraday 26 Apr. Principle of accumulation by successive action discovered by Wilde, 1S65, by mutual action (by which permanent steel magnets are dispensed with); independently by Wheatstone and Siemens Light (resembling bright moonlight) exhibited on top of Bur- lington house 2 Mch. " Faraday as a Discoverer," by prof Tyndall, pub Mch. \V. Groves's electro-induction balance Proposed International Electrical Congress at Paris with exhi- bition 1 Aug. -15 Nov. Dynamo magneto-electric machines, by Wheatstone and Sie- mens, described at the Royal society, London, 14 Feb. ; by Ladd 14 Mch. Trial of Siemens's dynamo-magneto-electric light in the tor- pedo service at Sheerness reported successful 18 Dec- Two of Siemens's machines ordered for the Lizards, announced. Gramme's magneto-electric machine described APPLICATIONS.— £fec. 15 July, 1865 After connecting the wire, sailed from Valentia 23 July, " Telegraphic communication with the vessel (interrupted by 2 faults, quickly repaired, due to defective insulation, from pieces of metal pressed into the guttapercha coating) ceased, 2 Aug. Apparatus for raising the wire proving insufficient, the vessel returned, reaching the Medway, 19 Aug. " Atlantic Telegraph company reconstituted as the Anglo-Ameri- can Telegraph company, limited Mch. 1866 Great Eastern, with a new cable, sailed from the Medway, 30 June; the end at Valentia was spliced and the laying began, 13 July; 1200 miles of cable had been laid, 22 July; landed at Heart's Content, Newfoundland, and a message sent to lord Stanley, 27 July ; from queen Victoria to pres. Johnson, 28 July, "From the queen, Osborne, to the presi- dent of the U. S., Washington. The queen congratulates the president on the successful completion of an undertak- ing which she hopes may serve as an additional bond of union between the U. S. and England." To which he re- plied 30 July, " Lost cable of 1865 recovered, 2 Sept. ; and its laying completed at Newfoundland 8 Sept. " Great Eastern arrived at Liverpool 19 Sept. " Samuel Canning, Daniel Gooch, and capt. Anderson knighted, Oct. " [It was stated (Sept. 1866) that the engineer of the cable passed signals through 3700 miles of wire from a battery in a lady's thimble.] U. S. Congress voted a-gold medal to Cyrus W. Field for exer- tions connected with Atlantic telegraphs 7 Mch. 1867 At a dinner given to Cyrus W. Field at Willis's rooms, London, . telegraphic messages were exchanged between the company 255 ELE and lord Monck, viceroy of Canada, and pres. .Johnson, 1 July, 1868 French Atlantic Telegraph company formed; French govern- ment grant concession for 20 years, from 1 Sept. 1869. to Julius Reuter and baron E'mile d'Erlangen H July, " Anglo-Danish telegraph (Newbiggin to Copenhagen) completed, 31 Aug. " European end of French Atlantic cable laid at Brest, 17 June; American end at Duxbury, Mass 23 July, 1869 Reported union between Anglo-American and French Atlantic telegraph companies : Jan. 1870 Telegraph between Bombay and Suez completed " Telegraph between Adelaide and Port Darwin, Australia, com- pleted '22 Aug. 1872 Message from the mayor of Adelaide received by the lord mayor of London, and replied to 21 Oct. " Fourth Atlantic cable laid by Great Eastern, Valentia, Ireland, to Heart's Content, Newfoundland 8 June-3 July, 1873 Brazil telegraph cable completely laid 22 Sept! " Faraday, a great electric-cable ship, built for Siemens Bros., launched at Newcastle, Engl. (Steam), 17 Feb. ; sails to lay the "Direct U. S. company's" cable, 16 May; laid shore end in Nova Scotia, 31 May; in New Hampshire, 8 June ; con- nected with Newfoundland July. 1874 Sixth Anglo-American telegraph laid by the Great Eastern, Aug. -Sept. " E. A. Coivper^s writing telegraph: quick plain writing (36 miles), exhibited at Royal Institution, London, etc May, 1879 Sixth international telegraph conference opened in London, ^^^^^^^_^ 18 June, " South AfncafTTme laid between Mozambique and Natal, 23 Aug. ; connected with Cape Town ; telegrams sent by queen Victoria to sir Bartle Frere and others, 25 Dec. ; opened to the public 29 Dec. " New French transatlantic cable to be laid from Brest to St. Pierre by the Faraday, sailed June; connected with Halifax, Oct. 1879; line from Paris to New York opened 1 June, 1880 International congress of electricians to be opened at Paris, 15 Sept. ; exhibition on 11 Aug. 1881 New Atlantic cable laid by the Faraday 22 Aug. et seq. " Telegraph from England to Panama completed Sept. 1882 International submarine telegraph conference, Paris. . .16 Oct. " International conference for protection of submarine cables, Paris, closed: convention agreed to, '26 Oct. 1883; signed at London, 14 Mch. 1884 ; signed for U. S 26 Mch. 1884 Commercial Cable company's cables opened 24 Dec. " Another international conference for the protection of subma- rine cables 1 Dec. 1886 For statistics, Tklkgkaph. ELECTRIC LIGHT. Humphry Davy produced electric light with carbon points 1802 [Apparatus for regulating the electric light was devised in 1845 by J. \V. Star, and by W. Staite's patents, 1846, 1849; Staite (at Sunderland, Engl., 25 Oct. 1847), and Petrie in 1848; by Foucault soon after.] Jules Duboscq's electric lamp (the most perfect of the kind) appeared at the Paris exhibition in 1855; and was employed by prof Tyndall, at the Royal Institution, London, to illus- trate lectures on light and colors 1856 Works of new Westminster bridge, London, illuminated by Wat- son's electric light 1858 Magneto-electric light (the most brilliant artificial light yet pro- duced), devised by prof Holmes, successfully tried at the South Foreland light-house, Dover 1858 and 1859 French government ordered 8 light-houses illuminated by elec- tric light Apr. 1861 M. Serrin, of Paris, exhibited his improved electric lamp 1862 Electric candle, invented by Paul Jablochkoff (an electric cur- rent passed through 2 carbons side by side with a slip of kaolin between them, produces a steady, soft, noiseless light; the carbons burn like wax) ; reported to the Academy of Sci- ences, Paris, by M. D6nayrouze Oct. 1876 Electric light successfully employed for photography by H. Van der Weyde " Head, Wrightson k Co., of Stockton-on-Tees, use Siemens's electric light for bridge-building " At the Magasin du Louvre, 8 electric lights replaced 100 Carcel gas-burners; as manageable as coal gas supply; tried at West India docks, London 15 June, 1877 Tyndall's experiments at South Foreland, Engl, demonstrate superiority of Siemens's dynamo electric machine, Aug. 1876- July, '« Gramme's machine (light equal to 758 candles) " Serrin's and .Jablochkoff 's lights improved by RapiefT, a Rus- sian ; taken up by E. J. Reed, M. P. ; a small magneto-electric machine, worked by steam ; conducting wires replace the gasworks and pipes' July, 1878 Mr. Stay ton reports that the light is much dearer than gas, and not suitable for street lighting in London Sept. " Electric light tried at Westminster i)alace 28 Mch. " Two of Siemens's dynamo-magneto-electric machines ordered for the Lizards light-houses " Gaiety theatre, London, lighted by Lontin's machine and mod- ification of JablochkofTs Aug. " Hippolyte Fontaine's treatise on Electric Lighting, 1877; trans- lated by Paget Biggs, pub " T. A. Edison announces his method of producing lights and power from a Ritchie inductive coil, a dynamo-electric ma- chine, which he terms "telemachon," worked by water- ELE 256 ELE power or steam ; panic among gas companies in London in value of shares Sept, Oct. 1878 Wm. E. Sawyer and A. Man produce their first successful in- candescent lump " Edison's plan of subdividing lights filed at patent oflQce, 23 Oct. " National Electric Light company forming Nov. " Richard Wertiermanns electric light subdivided; a number of Jets lit simultaneously ; shown by British Telegraph company, 2 Nov. " Electric light used for large workshops at Woolwich, etc., Engl, and throughout the country Nov. " London rime* machine-room lit by 6 lights ft-om 1 current; Rapieff system Oct., Nov. " Three systems trying at New York by Edison, Sawyer, and Brush Nov. " Wallace lamp (American) introduced in Loudon by Mr. liadd, autumn, " Jablochkoff candle tried at Westgate on Sea, Engl, by E. F. Davis, 2-26 Dec; light successful; difficulty in practice; given up Dec. " Formation of nitric acid in the air by electric light ; announced by T. Wills, 13 Dec. 1»78; of hydrocyanic or prussic acid by prof J. Dewar autumn, 1879 Machines of Farmer & Wallace, Lontin, De Meritens, Brown- ing, Carr6, and others, in use in London " Edison obtains beautiful light from platinum; used 600 horse- power to obUin 20,000 lights at 1 station; his patent regis- tered 23 Apr. " M. Jamin's electric candle exhibited at Academy of Sciences, Paris about 17 Mch. " Dynamo magneto -electric machine patented by lord Elphin- stone and C. W. Vincent " [Committee of the House of Commons, appointed "to con- sider whether it is desirable to authorize municipal corpora- tions or other local authorities to adopt any schemes for light- ing by electricity" (dr. Lyon Playfair, chairman), reports: "The" energy of 1 horsepower coaverted into gaslight, yields aluminosity equal to 12 candle-power. But the same amount of energy transformed into electric light produces 1600 candle- power. . . . Scientific witnesses thought that electricity might be used to transmit power as well as light to a distance, fur- nishing mechanical power by day and light by night. . . . The electric light has established itself for light-bouse illumina- tion, that of large places, such as squares, public halls, rail- way stations, and workshops. . . . Compared with gas, the economy for equal illumination is not conclusively estab- lished." — London Times.] St. George Lane Fox's invention to light lamps by electricity tried at Fulliam, Engl, and reported successful " Dr. C. William Siemens reports to Royal Society that electric light acts like solar light on vegetation 2 Mch. 1880 Electric light applied by him to grow vegetables and fruit in greenhouses " J. W. Swan exhibits his system of dividing light, etc., at New- castle-on-Tyne (afterwards in London) 20 Oct. " Trial of 3 systems in London: Lontin's, Southwark bridge, etc. ; Brush, Blackfriars bridge, etc. ; Siemens's, Guildhall, etc., 31 Mch. 1881 New lamp (the "Sun") by Louis Clerc, a combination of the arc and incandescent systems ^ June, 1882 Electric " sun " lamp and power company was formed.. . .July, " Q. C. V. Holmes, F. E. Burke, and F. Cheesewright's invention for electric light in railways tried on Great Northern line, reported successful .25 Oct. " Ferranti system of electric lighting (invented by sir William Thomson, S. Ziani de Ferranti, and Alfred Thomson) success- fully tried , Dec. " Domestic electric lighting by the Beeman, Taylor, and King system tried at Colchester, Engl 11 June, 1884 Electric light in Liverpool and Manchester trains Aug. " Electric light adopted at Milan, Rome, Paris, Tours, Marseilles, and other large European cities 1890 Most large cities in the U. S. partly lighted by electricity 1882-85 "Liberty Enlightening the World," New York harbor, lighted by electricity 1886 Most of the large hotels and public halls of the larger cities of the D. S. lighted by electricity 1885-90 First permanent electric lights in the city of London set up in Queen Victoria st 1891 ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. Stratingh and Becker of Groeningen, in 1835, and Botto of Turin, in 1836, construct rude electric carriages. Davidson, aScotchman, in 1838-39, builds an electric car, of several tons' weight, which runs 4 miles an hour. Thomas Davenport of Brandon, Vt., exhibits a model of a circular railway at Springfield, Mass., traversed by an electro-magnetic locomo- tive 1835 Alfred Vail, aided by an appropriation from Congress, constructs an electric locomotive, which runs from Washington, D, C, to Bladensburg, Md., on the Washington branch of the B. and 0. R. R, 29 Apr. 1851; attains a speed of 19 miles an hour. Jean Henry Cazal, a French engineer, proposes to utilize the natural powers, as water, etc., for operating railways by elec- trical transmission of power 1864 Dr. Werner Siemens exhibits an electric railway at the Indus- trial Exhibition at Berlin 1879 Meanwhile Stephen D. Field of San Francisco, dr. Jos. R. Fin- ney of Pittsburg, and Thos. A. Edison of N. Y., were in- dependently at work. Edison was the first to construct a dynamo-electric railway in America, at the expense of Henry Villard, at Menlo Park, N. J., on a tract 80 rods in length First electric street-railway in Europe was the " Lichterfclde line," constructed by dr. Siemens, at Berlin First electric tram-way cars in England run at Leytonstone, Essex 4 Mch. : New electric railway opened at Berlin 1 May, Prof. Fleeming Jenkin invents the telpherage system Finney exhibits and successfully operates experimental electric motor on ordinary street car at Alleghany, Pa Field's electric locomotive first exhibited at the Exposition of Railway Appliances at Chicago June, Siemens's electrical tram-way between Portrush and Giant's Causeway, Ireland, completed, Dec. 1882; opened by earl Spencer 28 Sept. Electric tram-cars first run from Kew to Hammersmith, Engl., 10 Mch. First electric street railway in America from Baltimore to Hampden, Md., 2 miles. The current ran in an insulated rail midway between the other two. The electrical machin- ery was designed and constructed by Leo Daft of Jersey City, N. J. The line opened l Sept. A successful electric street railroad at Scranton, Pa., was de- signed by Charles J. Van Depoele of Chicago, and went into operation Dec. There are 3 systems whereby the electric current is supplied to the motor upon the car, the overhead(i system, the under- ground system, and the storage-battery system. The first is in general use; while the last, if it could be made economical, would soon supersede the others. Growth of electric railway and of electrical transmission of power very rapid from 1881 to 1886. Chief inventors in electric railways : Siemens, Jyrton and Perry, Daft, Field, Sprague, Bentley and Knight, and Van Depoele; chief in- ventors of telpherage system, Jenkin, Ayrton, and Perry. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. The following terms (after great electricians) were adopted by the electrical congress at Paris, 22 Sept. 1881 : ohm, volt, am- pere, coulomb, and farad. (Electricians, under this article.) Important resolutions were passed by the international con- ference on electrical units at Paris (the "congress ohm" agreed to) Apr. -May, Electrical standard committee (consisting of lord Raleigh, sir Wm. Thomson, and others) appointed, Dec. 1890; it was rec- ommended that new denominations of standards be made, and determined with reference to the centimetre, gramme, and second, of the Board of Trade; the ohm to be the stand- ard of resistance; the ampere, the standard of electrical cur- rent; the volt, the standard of electrical pressure; all being scientifically defined 20 Feb. 18 Committee's report printed Aug. ' The electrical congress adopted the henry as the unit of elec- trical induction in honor of prof Henry at the World's Fair, Chicago 1893 ELECTRO -PHYSIOLOGY. Aristotle and Pliny refer to the powers of the torpedo ; Walsh and Ingenhousz, the discoveries of Galvani in 1790, and the researches of Matteucci, about 1830, advanced the sciepce. Fowler experimented on animals with galvanism, 1793; Aldini, 1796, produced muscular contractions in a crWnyinal recently executed, 1803 ; Ure did the same 1818 Du Bois-Reymond lectured on animal electricity at the Royal Institution, and showed an electric current, developed by ac- tion of human muscles May, 1855 Dr. Burdon Sanderson announced discovery of electricity in plants to British Association at Bradford Sept. 1873 ELECTRIC USE IN GENERAL. William Kemmler executed by electricity at Auburn, N. Y., the first in the world, 6 Aug. 1890; several since at Sing Sing, N. Y. , among them Carlyle W. Harris 8 May, 1893 ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION OF FORCE. M. Marcel Deprez' experiments at Creil (1876-86), supported by M. Rothschild, reported successful : mechanical power trans- mitted 35 miles for industrial purposes 23 July, 1886 Elieson company's electric engines reported successful at Stratford; tram-cars driven 5 miles Oct. et seq. " Electrical traction on tram-ways at Northfleet; successful dem- onstration 14 Mch. " Successful trial of electric tram-car at Birmingham 23 Oct. 1889 M. Immisch's electric motors successful in pumping and haul- ing at St. John's colliery, Norman ton Nov. " City and South London Electric railway opened by the prince of Wales, 4 Nov. , to the public ' 18 Dec. 1890 Nickola Tesla, at the Royal Institution, exhibited his alternate- current motor, by which currents are transformed by con- stantly reversing the direction into mechanical power. It was stated that, with the increase of physical power, the ef- fect upon the human frame is diminished 3, 4 Feb. 1892 [By means of Mr. Tesla's apparatus, the force of about 77.7 horse-power was transmitted from the rapids of the Neckar to Frankforton-Maine, 110 miles, Sept. 1891.] Work began on the Niagara Falls tunnel (American side), 4 Oct. 1890. Object, to develop electric power for transmission. Source of power practically unlimited. Tunnel finished and most machinery in place May, 1893 Phonograph, Photophone, Telegraph, Telephonb, etc. ELE 257 ELE LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS AND INVENTORS IN ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. Names. Born. Died. Remarlts. Germany 1724 Italy 1762 France 1775 England France 1786 Greece 384 B.C. England 1810 England.'.*.'.'.'. .1847 Scotland 1810 England 1812 Italy 1716 Germany France 1788 Scotland. '.".'. '.'..1847 England Sweden. '.'.'.'. v.. 1779 Hungary '.".'.*.".. 1860 Italy Italy Ireland 1626 England Switzerland.... 1747 Ohio .'.'.".'.".'.'."..1849 Germany 1811 England 1718 England 1768 Italy .'.'.'.".'.'.".'..1749 England 1731 France 1802 1834 1836 1853 322B.C. 1877 i78i 1878 1848 1823 1782 1840 1809 1810 1806 1845 1851 1829 1873 i744 1739 1867 1893 1892 1868 1809 1790 1798 i855 [Investigator. Established the afflnity between electricity and mag- t netism ; discovered the polarity of the tourmaline, etc. Experimenter with galvanism. Amniro Anrlrp Mario (Electro-dynamics. Unit of electrical current named in his honor ( ampere. Investigator. Induction coil giving the largest spark ever seen, 1869. Rotary magnetism, etc. Acquainted with phenomena of electro-physiology. Hydro-electric machine, etc. Separates metals from their alloys by electrolysis, 1883. Inventor of electric railway, telpherage system, etc. Automatic chemical telegraph, 1846. Electric telegraph. Electric motor ■Rain AIpYander ■Rarlnw Wm H Beccaria Giovanni B Published researches on atmospheric electricity, 1758. ( Improves the voltaic battery, 1829 ; invents electro- magnetic balflnre \ 1831. " ' Electric lighting. Forms a dry pile of 80 pairs of zinc, copper, and gilt paper, 1805. In the United States, 1872, telephone and photophone. (Invents the "doubler of electricity," 1786, and the gold-leaf elec- [ trometer, etc. Electric railways, etc. Investigator. Investigator in electric telegraphy, 1787. Bennet, Rev. A Bentley, Edward M Berzelius Johan Jakob Invents an electroscope, 1820. I Typo-electric telegraph made known, 1860. Inventor of an electric ( loom, railway, etc. Constructs a rude electric carriage, 1836. Published his electrical experiments, 1676. Thermopile-quartz fibre. Uses electro-magnetism in making mathematical instruments. Submarine telegraphy, 1847. Electric lighting. Bonelli Botta Boyle Robert Boys C Vernon Dynamos, electric lights, etc. Improves the voltaic battery (carbon, etc.), 1842. Electric lights, etc. Burlje F E Byrne . Pneumatic battery (air blown in), 1878. Decomposed water by the voltaic pile, 1800. Carr6 Investigator. Electric telegraphy, 1795. Eminent investigator. Cavendish Henry Cazal .Jean Henry Electric railway. Cheesewright F France Electric lighting in railways. Electric lamp "Sun " Clerc M Louis .. . . England France England United States England .... ..1736 .1832 Magnetic needle telegraph, patented 1837. ( Electro - statics. Unit of electrical quantity named in his honor \ coulomb. Writing telegraph, 1879. Investigator. Crookes Wm Crosby T Investigator and writer on electricity. Voltaic battery, 1801. Cruickshank. . . . « Cummings New Jersey Italy England 1790 Vermont 1802 Scotland 1804 England 1778 Ireland 1845 Switzerland.... 1801 Franc"e'.*.'.'.'.'.*..1843 Hungary 1854 France 1683 Connecticut.... 1837 France Germany 1818 France 1698 United States Milan, 1847 England 1791 Massachusetts. . 1820 France England 1864 Massachusetts.. 1819 California . . - - Galvanometer or rheometer, 1821. Leyden jar, alleged discoverer. Electric motor for railroads. Cunseus Daft Leo Dal Negro Salvatore Abb6 Electric motor, 1830, experiment. Daniell J F Improver of the voltaic battery, 1836. Davenport Thomas . Electric motor for railroad, 1835. Electric motor for railroad, 1838-39; experiment. ( Experiments with electricity in chemistry, and the discoverer of ( electric light. (Telegraphy. Invents a synchronous multiplex instrument. Came \ to the U. S. 1855. Galvanometer, 1824. De la Rive, Augusta De Meritens Electric light, etc. Deprez M Marcel .... Investigator of the electrical transmission of force. Deri Max Inventor of economic distribution of electricity. Desaguliers, J. Theophile Investigator. Classifies bodies as electric and non-electric. Inventor, investigator, etc. Electric light (in Paris exhibition, 1855). Du Bois-Reymond, Emil H. Du Fay, Chas. Franpois Animal electricity. Discovered two-fold nature of electricity. Dyar, Harrison G Electric telegraph. Long Island, N. Y., 1828. Edison Thomas Alva Inventor of telephone, phonograph, electric light, electric railroad, etc. (Eminent investigator. Unit of electrical capacity named in his ( honor farad. Electric light, etc. Electric accumulator, 1881; patented in the U. S. 1882. Dynamos, electric lighting, etc. Zealous in placing the Atlantic telegraph. Electric railroad Farmer, Moses G Faure, Camille A Ferranti, S. Zianide Field, Stephen D Finney, Joseph R Pittsburg, Pa. England France France France Boston, Mass. Germany Italy Germany !'.i849 ;!i8i9 ..1755 ..1706 ..1737 ..1777 Electric railroad Fleming, J. A Eminent investigator, etc. Electric lighting. Electric light, regulating it. Electro-chemistry, decomposed water, 1787-90. Experiments on animals with galvanism, 1793. Inventor of lighting lamps by electricity, 1879. Eminent investigator. (Eminent and original investigator. Identifies lightning with elec- ( tricity. Duplex telegraphy. Animal electricity, galvanic arc, etc. Inventor of a system of economical electrical distribution, 1882. Electro-magnetism. Applied electro-magnetism to telegraphy. Fontaine, H Foucault, Leon Fourcroy, Antoine F Fowler Fox, St. Geo. L. Franklin, Beiyamin. Frischen, Carl ". Galvani, Aloisio Gaulard Gauss, Karl Friedrich ELE 268 ELE LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS AND INVENTORS IN ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.-(Cbnadd Lane I'Sgg Lemonnier, Pierre C Lesage, Geo. Louis Lichtenberg, Geo. Christopb. Lontin England. Prance 1715 Switzerland 1724 Germany 1742 Marcus Masson, Antoine Philbert. . Matteneci, Carlo Maxim, Hiram S Maxwell, J. C Melloni, M Milner, Isaac Mordey, W. M Morse, Samuel P. B Muschenbroek, Peter van. . Neumann, F. E Newton, Sir Isaac Nicholson, Wm Noad, H. M Nobili, Leopoldo Nollet, Jean Antoine.... Oersted, Hans Christian. Ohm, Georg Simon Pacinotti, Antonio. Page, Dr. C. G Peltier Perry, John Petrie , Phelps, L. J Pixii Plante, Gaston Pliny (the Elder) Pope, F. L Priestley, Joseph Rapieflf Rich man, G. Wilhelm. Ritchie Ritter, J. Wilhelm Ronalds, F Ruhmkorff, N France 1806 Italy 1811 Maine 1840 England 1831 Italy 1801 England 1751 England 1856 Massachusetts. . 1791 Holland 1692 Germany England 1642 England 1755 England Italy 1784 France 1700 Denmark 1777 Germany 1789 Italy Massachusetts. . 1812 Ireland 1849 France 1834 Italy 23 United States England 1733 Russia Germany 1711 Germany 1776 France 1800 1860 1603 1736 i686 1867 1878 1894 1874 1799 1803 1799 1879 1854 1820 1872 1761 1727 1815 1835 1770 1851 1854 79 1804 1753 1810 1873 1 'A I See CuN^us, above, Musohknbroek, Electro magnetism. System of economical electrical distribution, etc., 1882. (The "Galileo of magnetism;" uses the terms "electric force, \ "electric attraction," etc. Inductive telegraphy, telephone, etc. Duplex telegraphy, lirst accomplished, 1853. Constructs copper-zinc couple, 1872. Electrical machine with glass cylinder, 1742. Eminent investigator in voltaic electricity and electro-chemistry. Magneto-electric machine, 1870. Inventor of telephones, etc., and of the graphophone. Investigator; discovers the fact of electric induction. Improves voltaic battery, etc., 1839. First electrical machine, 1647. Electric locomotive. (Investigator. Invents lightning conductors for ships, thermo- [ electrometer. Electrical machine, 1709. Electrodynamics, etc. ; invents the tangent compass, 1849. Invents an electrometer, 1772. ( Eminent investigator; electro-magnetism. Unit of electrical induc- ( tion named in his honor henry. Transfer of acids and alkalies by,the voltaic pile, 1803. Discovers the reaction principle of magnetization, 1854. Electric light. Electric light, London, 1882. Induction machine, 1865. Investigator. Electric telegraph, printing, 1846-48. Investigator; electric light, railway, etc. Electric telegraph, 1855. Eminent investigator of electricity and magnetism. Electric motor. 1889. Electro-physiologist, etc. Electric candle, etc. Electric motor, experimental, 1838. Improves the voltaic pile. Electric candle, etc. Telpherage system. Investigator. Invents magnetic galvanometer, 1843. Electric motor. Improved electric accumulator, 1885. Electric light, dynamos, etc. Domestic electric lighting. ( Leyden jar, discovered 1745. ( below. Electric railways, etc., Bentley-Knight electric railroad. Eminent investigator of electro-dynamics, etc. Magneto-electric machine, 1867. Invents a discharging electrometer, 1767. Automatic system of telegraphy. Devises telegraphic arrangements, 1774. • ■ Investigator. Electrical dust figures, etc. Electric lighting. Thermo-electric battery, 1865. Investigator and inventor of electric telegraphy, 1837. Electro-physiology, electrolysis, etc. Electric lighting. Also fire-arms, "Maxim Gun," etc. Work on electricity and magnetism, London, 1873, etc. Investigator. Thermo-multiplier constructed, 1831. Invents an electrometer, 1783. Victoria dynamo. Electric telegraph, 1837. Leyden jar. ( Discovers a function called the "potential," fVom which he deduces ( a theory of induction, 1845. Eminent investigator. Electrical machine, 1675. Decomposes water by the voltaic pile, 1800. , Investigator. Powerful electrical machine, 1855. | Investigator. Constructs a thermo-multiplier, 1831. | Investigator. Contemporary with Beccaria, Canton, and Watson. 1 Eminent investigator. Discovers electro-magnetic action. (Investigator. States his formulae relating to galvanic currents, 1827. \ Unit of electrical resistance named in his honor ohm. Electro-magnetic machine, 1864. Investigator. Electric locomotive, etc., 1851-52. (Inventor; discovers what is termed the "Peltier effect," 183^ ' electrometer, etc., 1848. Electric railways, etc. Electric light, apparatus for regulating, 1848. Inventor inductive telegraphy, 1885. First maker of the magneto-electric machine, Paris, 1832. Investigator. Lead battery, 1860. ; Electro-physiology. * Investigator. t History of electricity. Improves the JaWochkoff light. Killed at St. Petersburg while attempting Franklin's experiment. Eminent investigator in electrJciiy of high potential, etc. , 186L Galvanometer (torsion), 1830. Constructs a "secondary pile." Electric telegraph, pub. 1823. Magneto-electric induction coil, constructed 1850. ELE 259 ELE LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS AND INVENTORS IN ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.— (ConcZwded.) Names. B.„. Died. Remarks. Spain England Pennsylvania . Germany Germany Germany France Germany Germany England .1747 .1799 .1805 .1779 .1770 .1823 .1816 .1818 1808 1873 1857 1831 1892 1877 1830 1850 1779 546 b!c. i893 1857 1857 1883 1826 1787 1891 i875 1772 1828 1846 Devises telegraphic communications 1796 CinHnrsnn Riirdon Electricity in plants, 1873 ' Incandescent lamp, termed the Sawyer-Man. Magneto-electric machine, London, 1833. Viillin -„-„ 1. Engl.....'.| 1853 England .'.'.*.'.'. England 1820 Scotland 1778 United States Belgium 1846 Holland 1750 England Electric light, regulating it, 1845. Duplex telegraphy, etc. 1 Investigator and inventor in electric telegraphy, 1837. Discovers Stratiugh Electric railway. Experiment, 1836. Sturgeon William Eminent investigator. Improves the voltaic pile, 1830. Sulzer John Geo Investigator in electro-physiology. Swan J W Inventor electric lighting, etc. Symmer Robert Investigator, 1T59. Maintained the theory of 2 distinct fluids, etc. Pbotophone. Tesla Nickola Investigator of high potentials and of currents of great frequency. Thales Acquainted with electricity. Thomson Alfred Inventor. Electric lighting. Thomson Sir Wm .... Investigator and inventor. Electric replenisher, 1868. (In U. S., electric railways, electric welding, Thomson-Houston Inventor inductive machine, etc. Constructs a copper-zinc couple, 1872. Copper. Investigator. Tyndall, John Experimenter with galvanism, 1818. Vail, Alfred Electric railway. Constructs a locomotive, 1851. Electric street railroad Scranton Pa,. , 1886. Van Depoele, C. J Van Marum Martin ( Electric mechanician. Said to have constructed the most powerful Varley C F 1 electric machine ever made, 1785. Investigator and inventor. Reciprocal eloctrophorus. Dynamo-magneto-electric machine, 1878. Vincent, C. W Italy England . . .1745 (Eminent investigator. Inventor ot the voltaic battery, electro- \ phorus, etc. Unit of electrical pressure called in his honor volt. Electric lighting. Electro-physiology, etc. ( Investigator during the years 1740-50; Copley medal. Transmission Wallace Walsh Watson Sir William England Germany .... England.'.*.".'.' England England . England England Germany .... England Italy Austria .1715 .1804 .1802 .1832 .1703 .1766 .1777 .1853 Weber, Wilhelm E ( of electricity by an insulated wire, 1747. ( Investigator. Inventions in electric telegraphy, electro-dynamom- Weems, David G ( eter, etc. Electric light. Dynamo electrical machine. Eminent investigator and inventor. Electric telegraph, etc. Associated with Gray in the discovery of electric induction. Discovers the principle of accumulation by successive action, 1865. Announces the formation of nitric acid in the air by electric light, 1878. Weston, Edward Wheatstone, Sir Chas Wheeler Wilde Henry Wills, T Inventor. Continuous electrophones and an influence machine, 1882. Constructed the Leyden battery, 1746. (Eminent investigator and inventor. Demonstrates the identity of [ galvanism with electricity. Winckler, John Heinrich WoUaston, Wm. H Wright Investigator of galvanism and voltaic electricity. Dynamos. Alternate current transformation. elegy. Elegiac verse (hexanoeters and pentameters alternately) was the first variation from the hexameter or epic measure, u.sed by Tyrtaeus and other early poets. El- egies by Ovid and Catullus are celebrated. Gray's " Elegy, written in a Country Churchyard," pub. 1749. Literature. elements were anciently reckoned as 4: earth, air, fire, and water. Lavoisier enunciated the principle that all bod- ies which cannot be proved to be compounded are to be re- garded as elements (see table opposite, and separate articles). The chemical elements now known are about 80; with the €xception of bromine and fluorine all the elements enter into combination directly or indirectly with oxygen to form •oxides. Joseph Norman Lockyer, in a paper read at the Royal society, 12 Dec. 1878, expressed doubts of the element- ary character of some of the following substances, based on his spectroscopic experiments. His views were not support- ed by the researches of profs. Dewar and Liveing, 1880-81. Chlorine. LIST OF THE ELEMENTS, Their atomic weight, specific gravity, chemical symbols, year of their discovery as element or isolation, and name of the discoverer. [Hydrogen is taken as the unit of atomic weight, and also the unit of specifie gravity for gases, the unit of specific gravity for other elements is water. Thow elements noted (!) are still doubtful.] Name. Atomic weight. Specific gravity. Chem. symbol. Discoverers. Year. Aluminum Antimony Arsenic Barium Bismuth Boron Bromine Cadmium Caesium 27.4 120 75 136.9 207.5 11 79.76 in.7 132.7 2.6 6.7 5.7 4 9.8 2.6 3 8.65 Al. Sb. As. Ba. Bi. B. Br. Cd. Cs. WOhler B. Valentine 6. Brandt (Davy ) I Berzelius >- (Ponton j (Davy' .*.'.■ ) { Gay Lussac. . . J (The'nard ) Balard f Hermann .... \ Stomeyer .... fKirchhofiT.... \Bunsen 1827 1490 1733 1808 1530 1808 1826 1818 1860 ELE U8T OF THE KLKMKNTS. — (Continued.) 260 ELY Calcium. Carbon ... Cerium. Chlorine Chromium. . . Cobjilt Copper Davyum (?).. Decipium (?). nidyiuium. .. Erbium Fluorine Gallium Germanium . Glucinum. . . . Gold Holmium (?). Hydrogen ... Ilfnenium (f). Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Lanthanum.... Lead Lithium Magnesium.... Manganese Mercury Molybdenum . . Mosandrum (?). Neplunium (?).. Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Norwegium (?). Osmium Oxygen Palladium Philippium (?). . Phosphorus Platinum Potassium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium... Scandium (?). . Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulphur Tantalum Tellurium Thallium Thorium Thulium (?)... Tin Titanium Tungsten Uralium (?)... Uranium 7anadium.. .. Vesbium (?)... Ytterbium (?). Yttrium Zinc Zirconium.... Atomic wetKht. S9.9 11.97 Ul 36.37 62.4 68.74 63.8 U2.1 166 19.1 70 73.32 9.1 196.2 113.4 126.54 192.5 55.88 138.5 206.4 7.01 23.94 54.8 199.8 95.9 58.6 94 14.01 191" 15.96 106.2 so.'ge 194.3 39.04 104.1 85.2 103.5 79* 28 107.66 23 87.2 3L98 182 128 203.64 232 117.8 239.8 51.2 172.6 65.1 90.4 Specific gravity. 1.67 m\ 6.7 36.5 6.8 8.9 8.9 2.1 19.3 7.4 5 22.4 7.8 6.1 11.4 .59 1.74 8 13.56 8.2 6.3 14 22V4 16 12 1.82 21.5 .86 12.1 1.52 1L4 4.5 16.5 .97 2.5 2.05 10.8 6.2 11.8 7.7 7.3 18.2 18.4 5.5 7.16 4.1 Chem. symbol. Ca. C. Ce. CI. Cr. Co. Cu. Di. Er. F. Ga. Ge. Gl. Au. Ho. H. I. Ir. Fe. La. Pb. L. Mg. Mn. Hg. Mo. Ni. Nb. N. Ng. OS. 0. Pd. P. Pt. K. Ro. Rb. Si. Ag. Na. Sr. S. Ta. Te. Tl. Th. Sii. T, W. U. V. Yb. Y. Zn. Zr. DiicoTerara. SDavy Berzelius Pontin {Berzelius.. ' Hisinger. . . ( Klaproth . . Davy Vauquelin. G. Brandt. Kern Delafontaine. Mosauder .... Ampfere Boisbeadran. WOhler Soret Cavendish. Hermann.. [Reich [ Richter . . . Courtois. . . Tennant. . . Mosander , Arfwedson. Davy Gahn Scheele (?). . . L. Smith Hermann . . . Cronstedt — H. Rose Rutherford.. Dahll Tennant Priestley .... Wolluston. . . Delafontaine Brandt Woods Davy Wollaston . . . [Kirchhoff... Glaus. Berzelius. Berzelius. Davy Davy Hatchett . Klaproth. Crookes.. Berzelius. Soret . . . . Klaproth . . , Scheele A. Guyard. , Klaproth . . , Sefstrom . . Scacchi Marignac. . WOhler. ... Paracelsus. Berzelius.. 1810 1797 1733 1877 1878 1841 1843 1810 1875 1886 1828 1879 1766 1877 1811 1804 1839 1817 1808 1774 1778 1879 1877 1751 1846 1772 1879 1804 1774 1803 1878 1669 1741 1807 1803 1844 1817 1823 1801 1798 1861 1828 1879 1795 1781 1879 1789 1830 1879 1879 1828 1.'541 1824 Of these, 17 are non-nietals, viz. : hydrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine,fluorine,oxygen,8ulphur,seleniunQ,boron,nitrogen,phos- phorus, carbon, silicon, tellurium, arsenic, antimony, bismuth. elephant, a pachydermatous animal, the largest of living quadrupeds, was in the earliest times trained to war. The history of the Maccabees informs us that "to every elephant they appointed 1000 men "armed with coats of mail, and 600 horse ; and upon the elephants were strong towers of wood," etc. The elephants in the army of Antiochus were pro- voked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulberries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England was one of enormous size, presented by Louis IX. to Henry III. in 1238. — Baker's Chi'on. Polyaenus states that Julius Caesar brought one to Britain 64 b.c., which terrified the inhabitants greatly. Mr. Barnum, the American .showman, bought, for $10,000, the largo male African elephant Jumbo, 6 tons' weight, of the Zoological Society, Regent's park, London. .Jumbo refused to go, 18 Feb. After much trouble he was removed in the night, 22-23 Mch., and placed on board the Assyrian Monarch, 24 Mch. ; arrived at New York, 9 Apr. 1882; killed by a loco- motive in Canada 16 Sept. 18 •Eleuitn'ian iny§terie§. The institution of these annual secret religious ceremonies (in honor of Demetcr) at Athens is attributed to Cadmus, 1560; to Erechtheus, 1399; or to Eumolpus, 1356 b.c. If any one revealed them, he was to be put to death. They were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, in honor of Ceres, lasted about 1800 years, and were abolished by Theodosius, 389 a.d. The laws were — 1. To honor parents; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty Cicero regard* civilization as promoted by the Eleusinian mysteries. Elgin marblei, brought chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Pallas Athene (Minerva), on the Acropolis at Athens, of which they formed part of the frieze and pediment, the work of Phidias, under the government of Pericles, about 440 B.C. Thomas lord Elgin began the collection of these mar- bles during his mission to the Ottoman porte, in 1802; and from him they were purchased by the British government for 36,000/., and placed in the British museum in 1816. The ship conveying them was wrecked near Cerigo, and W. R. Hamil- ton, who was on board, remained several months at Cerigo, and recovered them from the sea. Elis, a Greek state termed the " Holy Land," in the Pel- oponnesus, founded by the Heraclidse, 1103 b.c. Here Iphitus revived the Olympic games, 884, which were regularly cele- brated after Coroebus gained the prize in 776. Elis surren- dered many towns to the Spartans in war, 400. After various changes, Elis joined the Achaean league, 274 ; and with the rest of Greece was subjugated by the Romans in 146. ell (so named from ulna, the arm) was fixed at 46 inches by king Henry I. of Engl., in 1101. The old French ell, or aune, was 46.79 inches. Ello'ra or Elo'ra, central India; remarkable for a very ancient rock-cut temple, excavated according to Hindu legends nearly 7000 years ago; more probably about 800 a.d. The town was ceded to the British by Holkar in 1818, and transferred by them to the nizam of the Deccan in 1822. Elmi'na and Duteh Ouinea, W. Africa, were ceded by the Dutch government by treaty, signed Feb. 1872, and consolidated with the West African settlements; first governor. Pope Hennessy, Apr. 1872. Ashantees. £1 JfEoli'no del Rey, Battle at. On the morning of 8 Sept. 1847, less than 4000 U. S. troops attacked over 14,000 Mexicans under Santa Anna, at El Molino del Rey (the King's Mills), near the fortress of Chapultepec, close by the city of Mexico. They were at first repulsed with slaughter; but, returning to the attack, fought desperatel}' for an hour, and conquered. The Americans lost about 800 ; the Mexicans left more than 1000 dead on the field. Chapultepec. £lpllin, Ireland. St. Patrick founded a cathedral near Elphin, " by a river issuing from 2 fountains," in the 5th cen- tury, and placed over it St. Asicus, whom he created bishop, who soon after filled it with monks. After many centuries, Roscommon, Ardcarn, Drumclive, ^nd others were annexed to Elphin, making one of the richest sees in Ireland. It is val- ued in the king's books, by an extent returned 28 Eliz., at 103/. 18s. sterling. The see was united to Kilmore in 1841, under the Church Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833. £l'sinore (Zealand, Denmark), formerly the station for collecting sound dues. The scene of Shakespeare's " Hamlet." ^^ Hamlet. Gentlemen, you are welcome to Elsinore." — Act ii. sc. ii. E'ly, anislandin Cambridgeshire,Engl.,on which a church was built about 673, by Etheldreda, queen of Egfrid, king of Northumberland; she also founded a religious house, filled it with virgins, and became first abbess. The 1200th anniversary was celebrated 17-21 Oct. 1873 ; about 60,000/. had then been spent in restoring the cathedral. The Danes ruined the con- vent about 870 ; but a monastery was built in 879, on which king Edgar and succeeding monarchs bestowed privileges and grants of land, whereby it became the richest in England. ELZ 261 EMU Richard, the 11th abbot, wishing to free himself from the bishop of Lincoln, made great interest with Henry I. to get Ely erected into a bishopric, 1108, and his successor Hervaeus was the first prelate, 1109. Hereward le Wake defended the island against William the Conqueror until 1074. Its defence is described in canon Kingsley's novel, " Hereward the Wake; or, the Last of the Saxons." Erzevir or El§evier, a family of printers, in Hol- land, famous for fine pocket editions of the classics. Louis, the founder, was b. in 1540; began business at Leyden in 1580; he printed about 150 works, and d. 4 Feb. 1617. His sons (especially Bonaventure) and grandsons were celebrated for their work. No fewer than 15 members of this family carried on the business in succession until 1712. Their Pliny (1635), Vergil (1636), and Cicero (1642), are the masterpieces of their press. Their texts, however, were without authority, not resting like those of Aldus and the Stephenses on ancient MSS. Emancipation in the United States, and Proc- lamation of. While every one knew in 1861, north as well as south, that the onl}' basis of lasting {)eace was the abolition of slavery, it was after a year of war that Con- gress took notice of slavery, first by act 13 Mch 1862, forbid- ding the use of troops to return fugitive slaves. This was followed by an act, 16 July, 1862, that slaves escaping to the federal line should be free. In a preliminary proclamation, j 22 Sept. 1862, pres. Lincoln announced that on 1 Jan. 1863, all persons held in slavery by men in arms against the United States would be declared free. Final proclamation issued 1 , Jan. 1863. The number of slaves set free by the president's proclamation, being those in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana (part), Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia (part), was 3,063,392. Slavery was not disturbed by the proclamation in Delaware, Kentucky, Lou- isiana (part), Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee, Virginia (part), West Virginia; slave pop. 831,780. These were emancipated by the Xlllth Amendment to the Constitution, making the total number set free 3,895,172. Slavery, United States. embalming. The ancient Egyptians, believing that their souls, after many thousand years, would reinhabit their bodies if preserved entire, embalmed the dead. Some of the bodies, called mummies, buried 3000 years ago, are still perfect. "The physicians embalmed Israel," 1689 B.C. (Gen. 1. 2). Mum- mies. Carbolic acid was successfully employed by prof. Seely in the United States in 1868. The most perfect specimens of modern embalming are in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, one, the wife of Van Butchell, preserved by John Hunter by injecting camphorated spirits of wine, etc., into the arteries and veins; and the other the body of a young woman, who died about 1780 of consumption, in the Lock hospital. The method of embalming royal personages in modern times is fully described in Hunter's "Posthumous Works." He died in 1793.— During the U. S. civil war many soldiers' bodies were embalmed and sent home. embankmcnt§ of earth were erected by the ancients for protection from their enemies and from inundations. Thoee of the Egyptians and Babylonians are described by Herodotus and Strabo. To the Romans are attributed the first dikes of Holland, and the embankments of Romney marsh, <;onsidered to be the oldest in Britain. In 1250, Henry III. issued a writ enforcing the support of these works, and his suc- cessors followed his example. James I. greatly encouraged the embankment of the Thames. Sir W. Dugdale's " History of Embanking" first appeared in 1662. Drainage, Levees, Levels, Mound Builders, Thames. embargo (from the Sp. emhargar, to detain), an or- der restraining ships from sailing. In Great Britain this power is vested in the crown, but is exercised only in extreme cases, sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable instances of embargo in Great Britain were those to prevent exports of «orn in 1766; and for the detention of all Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports, owing to the armed neu- trality, 14 Jan. 1801. On account of insults to the United States flag by British cruisers, U. S. Congress, in Dec. 1807, decreed an embargo, detaining with few exceptions all vessels, U. S. and foreign, then in U. S. ports, and ordering all U. S. vessels home. The decree was repealed in Mch. 1809, and the Non-intercourse act passed. Another embargo, for 90 days, was laid in Apr. 1812. United States, 1807. Ember-week§, instituted, it is said, by pope Calix- tus I. (219-223) to implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting, penitents sprinkling ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. In the Episcopal church Ember days are the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday after the following days: the first Sunday in Lent, Whitsun- day, 14 Sept. (Holy Cross), and 13 Dec. (St. Lucia). embroidery is usually ascribed to the Phrygians; but the Sidonians excelled in it, and it is mentioned in 1491 B.C. (Exod. XXXV. 35, and xxxviii. 23). Bayeux tapestry. Embroidery is now largely done by machinery. The first era- broidery machine is said to have been invented by John Dun- can, of Glasgow, in 1804. Heilman's was patented by Kochlin. Berlin loool-work has been improved by elegant patterns, first pub. by Mr. Wittich in Berlin, about 1810. emerald, a green, precious stone, found in the East and in Peru. It has been erroneously alleged that there were no true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru, 1545 ; there is one in the Paris museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., who died in 1513. £m'e§a, now IIem§, a town of Syria, renowned for a temple of the sun, whose priest, Bassianus, was proclaimed emperor as Heliogabalus or Elagabalus, 218. His atrocities led to his assassination, 11 Mch. 222. emig^rant§ (Lat. emigrare : e, out ; and migrare, to re- move one's abode). The French aristocracy and clergy (emi- gres') began to leave their country in July, 17'89, at the break- ing-out of the revolution : their estates were confiscated in Dec. A large number returned in 1802 b}' an amnesty grant- ed after the peace of Amiens. Many were indemnified after the restoration in 1815. emlg^ration. Phoenician and Greek emigrants col- onized the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black sea. Magna Gr^cia, Marseilles, etc. The discovery of Amer- ica opened a vast field for emigration. Immigration. eminence, a title conferred upon cardinals by pope Urban VIII., 10 Jan. 1631, more honorable than ."excellency." Previous cardinals had the title oi illustrissimi. — Ashe. The grand-master of Malta obtained this title. — Pardon. emir (e-mer'), a title of the caliphs among the Turks and Persians, first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet's daugh- ter Fatima, about 650. To such only was originally given the privilege of wearing the green turban. emission theory of light (advocated by Newton, about 1672) supposes that particles pass from the luminous body to the eye, and that each ray of light from the sun consists of matter in transit. It is opposed to the undulatort/ theory, now generall}"^ received. empalement, or transfixing by a pale or stake, a mode of executing criminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often inflict- ed in Rome ; still used in Turkey and Arabia. In England, the dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked ; abolished 1823. Suicide. emperor, from imperator (ruler), a title first conferred on victorious Roman generals, and afterwards upon the sover- eign of that people. g (, Augustus Caesar first Roman emperor 27 Valentinian I. first emperor of the west, and Valens first em- a.d. peror of the east 364 Charlemagne first emperor of Germany, crowned by Leo III. . . 800 Othman I. founder of Turkish empire, first emperor of Turkey, 1299 Peter I. first emperor of Russia 22 Oct. 1721 Francis II. of Germany first emperor of Austria 11 Aug. 1804 Napoleon Bonaparte first emperor of the French " Napoleon III., his nephew, founded the second French empire, Dec. 1852; deposed 4 Sept. 1870 Iturbide emperor of Mexico, Feb. 1822; shot 19 July, 1824 Dom Pedro IV. of Portugal first emperor of Brazil 1825 Faustin I. first emperor of Hayti, in 1849 ; deposed 1859 Maximilian I. emperor of Mexico, 10 Apr. 1864; shot. .19 June, 1867 King of Prussia proclaimed emperor of Germany at Versailles, France 18 Jan. 1871 Queen Victoria proclaimed empress of India 1 May, 1876 Empirics, a sect of physicians, dating from the 3d cen- tury before Christ, who rejected all theories of the animal economy, accepting experience as the onlj' foundation of med- icine. The sect adopted the principles of Acron of Agrigentum, who flourished about 430 b.c. £mucTaU and En'otOChop'CO, Alabama, Bat- tles of, on 22 and 24 Jan. 1814. These were fought by 930 ENA 2( Tennessee volunteers and 200 or 300 friendly Indians, under gen. Jackson, against 900 Creeks. The U. S. troops lost 20 killed and 76 wounded. The Creeks left 190 warriors dead on the field. enamelling was practised by the Egyptians, Chinese, and other nations, and was known in England in the time of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel which be- longed to Alfred, made, as the inscription shows, by his order, about 887. Limoges enamelled ware was popular in the IGth century. Magnificent specimens by Lepec, Elkington, Eman- uel, etc., at the exhibition at Paris, 1867. Mosaic. Encsenia, Greek festivals kept on days on which cities were built and temples consecrated ; and in later times, as at Oxford, at the celebration or commemoration of founders and benefactors. — Oldisworth. The public commemoration at Ox- ford suspended in 1875 ; restored, 21 June, 1876. They were the origin of church-wakes in England, about 600. They were also feasts celebrated by the Jews on the 25th of the ninth month, in commemoration of the Maccabees cleansing the temple, which had been polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes, 131 iCc. encau§tie painting, enamelling by fire. Painting with burned wax is said to have been known to Praxiteles about 360 b.c. This art was revived by M. Bachelier, 1749; by count Cavlus, 1765; and by Miss Greenland, 1785 and 1792. Eneke's (enk-eh') eomet. Comets. Eneratites, followers of Titian, about 170, denounced marriage, and abstained from flesh, and from wine even at the Lord's supper. Encyclical letter. Rome, 1864. encyclopaedia or cyclopaedia, a general dic- tionary of art, science, and literature. This name has been given to a work by Abulpharagius in the 13th century. Alsted's Encyclopsedia 1620 Louis Moreri's Dictiounaire Historique 1673 Hofmann's Lexicon Universale 1677 Corneille's Dictionnaire des Arts 1694 Bayle's Dictionnaire 1696 Lexicon Technicum of John Harris (earliest English encyclo- paedia), 1704; supplements. 1710, 1741 Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia 1728 Zedler's Universal Lexicon 1732-50 Encyclopedic (by Diderot and D'Alembert) 1751-80 [The contributors were termed encydopedistes, and their daring writings are believed to have hastened the French rev- olution in 1789.] Encyclopaedia Britannica (1st edition by William Smellie) 1771 [The 8th completed, 1861; 9th begun, 1875; finished, 1887. 25 vols., 4 vols. American supplement.] Encyclop€die M^thodique (by Pancoucke) 1782-1832 Chambers's Cyclopaedia (edited by Rees) 1785 Rees's Cyclopaedia 1802-19 Brockhauss Conversations Lexikon, 1st edition 1818 [Later editions frequent] Encyclopaedia Metropolitana 1817-45 Encyclopaedia Americana (by F. Lieber, etc. ) 1829-1^2 Cabinet Cyclopaedia (a collection of treatises) 1829-46 Penny Cyclopaedia .'. . .1833-46 Knight's English Cyclopaedia (4 divisions) 1853-61-70 Duyckinck's Cyclopaedia of American Literature 1855-66 AUibone's Dictionary of Authors 1858-80 NewSmerican Cyclopaedia, begun 1858 Homans's Cyclopaedia of Commerce 1859 Zell's Popular Cyclopaedia 1872 et seq. McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature 1867 et seq. Chambers's Cyclopaedia 1859-68; 1874-75; 1889 Appletons' Annual Cyclopaedia 1861 et seq. Ersch and Gruber's AUgemeine Encyclopadie, begun 1818; 153 vols, pub 1881 Chinese Cyclopaedia, 6109 vols, (all the valuable books then ex- isting), printed by order of the emperor between 1661-1721 Copy bought for British museum 1877 American Cyclopaedia, by George Ripley and Charles A. Dana, 16 vols 1873-78 Larousse's Grand Dictionnaire Universel du XIX. Sifecle, 15 vols., imp. octavo, 1865; 1st and 2d supplement 1878 et seq. [One of the best of the encyclopaedic works of the 19th century.] Johnsons Universal Cyclopaedia, 1873 ; revised 1893-94 Globe Encyclopaedia, completed 1879 Lossing's Cyclopaedia of American History 1S81 Encyclopaedic Dictionary, completed 1889 Enderby Eand. Southern Continent. endOSniO'§i§. M. Dutrochet, about 1826, found that 5 ENG if 2 fluids, gases, or vapors, of unequal density, are separated by an animal or vegetable membrane, the less dense will pass through. This property he called endosmose, when the move- ment is from the outside to the inside, and exosmose when from the inside to the outside. Many natural phenomena are thus explained. — Brande. energ^y. In an address to the British association at York, Engl., 1 Sept. 1881, sir William Thomson declared all energy in nature available for mechanical effects, as tides, food, falls, wind, and rain, to be derived from the sun. Engen, a town of Baden. Here Moreau defeated the Austrians, 3 May, 1800. Eng^hien {ong-ghe-dn') or StCCnliirk, a town of S.W. Belgium. Here the British, under William HI., were defeated by the French under marshal Luxembourg, 24 July, 1692. — The due d'Enghien, a descendant of the great Conde, was seized in Baden by order of Bonaparte, conveyed to Vin- cennes, and, after a hasty trial, shot by torchlight, immediately after condemnation, 21 Mch. 1804. The body was exhumed 20 Mch. 1816. eng^ineering and engineers. "Engineering is the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man." — Thomas Tredgold. It embraces a very wide range of subjects, and the different departments into which the profession is now divided do not admit of very strict definition. But it may be classified as civil, including the design and construction of canals, river navigation, har- bors, docks, roads, bridges, railways, lighthouses, water supphv irrigation, sewerage, etc. ; as mechanical, including machinery of all kinds, steam-engines, iron shipbuilding, agricultural implements, etc. ; as mining, including all the detail of open- ing and working mines ; and as military, including the build- ing of fortifications, use of artillery, etc. The military en- gineers were formerly called trench-masters in England, sir William Pelham being so called in 1622, and the chief-engi- neer was called camp-master-general in 1634. Capt. Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief-engineer to the king of England about 1650. The British corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military corps and directed to rank with the artillery, 25 Apr. 1787. It has a colonel-in- chief, 16 colonels-commandant, and 16 colonels. In the army of the United States the highest rank in the corps of engi- neers is colonel, of which there are 6, and 12 lieut.-colonels. Civil engineering improved rapidly after the middle of the 18th century, when Smeaton began the Eddystone lighthouse^ and Brindley the Bridgewater canal. Since then the Rennies,^ Stephensons, Brunels, and Telford, Locke, Hawkshaw, Lyster, Fowler, Baker, and Coode in England, and the Roeblings (fa- ther and son), gen. Newton, Eads, C. Shaler Smith, C. C. Schnieder, and many others in the U. S., have improved navi- gation and constructed breakwaters, docks, bridges, railways^ tunnels, etc., which are the marvel of the age. engineers, societies, etc., in ENGLAND. First society of civil engineers formed by Smeaton and others, afterwards termed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, 1795 Institution of Civil Engineers, established in England, 2 Jan. 1818; obtained a charter 3 June, 182&' [1472 members, Jan. 1868.] J Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which had its headquar- I ters in Birmingham, moved to London, 1877; established. . . 1847 I Isambard Kingdom Brunei, projector of the Great Eastern, % aged 53, d 15 Sept. 1859 Robert Stephenson, railway engineer, aged 59, d 12 Oct. " Engineers' Amalgamated Society, Engl., in 1867, consisted of above 30,000 members; annual income, 86,000^.; disbursed to disabled workmen, etc., about 50,000Z. ; amassed capital, about 125,000^. Engineer (London), weekly journal, established 4 Jan. 185ft Engineering (London), weekly journal, established Jan. 1866 College of Practical Engineers, Muswell -hill, near London, opened by sir Henry Bessemer, sir Joseph Whitworth, dr. C. Wm. Siemens, and others Sept. 1881 Sir John Hawkshaw, engineer of the Severn tunnel, d. aged 80, 2 June, 1891 Sir John Coode, eminent for breakwaters and other works, b. 1816, d 2 Mch. 1892 IN the united STATES. American Society of Civil Engineers organized 1852 American Institute of Mining Engineers organized 1871 [Home members 2200, foreign 38, 1893.] American Society of Mechanical Engineers organized 1880 [Total membership 1569, 1893.] <, I ENG 263 ENG American Institute of Electrical Engineers organized 1884 [Membership 642, 1893.] Principal periodicals published in the interest of engineering are The Engineering Magazine, The Engineering and Mining Journal, The Engineering News, and The Engineering Record, all pub. in New York. Breakwaters, Bridgks, Docks, Railroads, Tunnels, etc. Enslancl (from Am/les and lond, land), so named, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the English, in a general council held at Winchester, 829 ; or by Athelstan, 925. Anglo-Sax- ons. England was united to Wales, 1283; to Scotland in 1603; they have had the same legislature since 1707, when the 3 were styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with them, by the act of legislative union, 1 Jan. 1801, and the whole was called the United Kingdom of Great Britain a»d Ireland. England contains 40 counties. The British empire is computed to contain about 7,000,000 sq. miles of territory, with 340,220,000 inhabitants. Statistical details are given under the respective headings, Army, Navy, Revknuk, etc. Pop. of England, 1891, 27,482,104. For previous history, Britain, histories of England, by Rapin (in English), 1725-31 ; Thomas Carte, 1747-55 ; David Hume, 1755-62; Tobias Sjnol- lett. 1757-1765; John Lingard, 1819-30; Charles Knight, 1856-62 ; J. R. Green, 1874-80. Parts by T. B. Macaulay, earl Stanhope, J. A. Froude, Miss H. Martineau, and others. Chronicles, Ireland, Scotland, Wales. Egbert, '-king of the English," 828; defeats the Welsh, Danes, etc., at Hengestdown 835 Alfred, king, 871; after many vicissitudes, vanquishes the Danes 871-896 He frames a code of laws, 890; forms a militia and navy, sur- veys and subdivides the country, and promotes education. . . 896 Athelstan crushes Danes. Scots, etc., at Brunanburg 937 Predominance of Dunstan; he promotes monachism and the celibacy of the clergy about 952 Ethelred compounds with the Danes for peace 991 Causes their massacre 13 Nov. 1002 Avenged by Sweyn, king of Denmark; Ethelred flees to Nor- mandy 1003 Sweyn dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014; d 1016 Canute, the Dane, sole monarch 1017 Edward the Confessor, king; Saxon dynasty restored; Norman language, customs, and laws introduced 1042 Harold II. crowned, 6 Jan.; defeats the Norwegians at Stam- ford Bridge, 25 Sept. ; defeated and slain at Hastings by William of Normandy 14 Oct. 1066 NORMAN CONQUEST. William I. crowned at Westminster abbey 25 Dec. 1066 Northern counties rebel; ravaged from the Humber to the Tyne 1069-70 Introduction of the feudal system about 1070 Justices of peace appointed 1076 Domesday-book compiled 1085-86 William II. crowned 26 Sept. 1087 Crusades begin 1096 William II. killed by an arrow (New Forest) 2 Aug. 1100 Henry I. crowned, restores Saxon laws, etc 5 Aug. " Defeats his brother Robert and gains Normandy 1106 Prince William and nobles drowned (Barflkur) 25 Nov. 1120 Stephen crowned 26 Dec. 1135 Civil war between the empress Maud, Henry's daughter, and Stephen; her Scots defeated at the battle of Standard, 22 Aug. 1138 She lands in England and is successful 1139 Crowned at Winchester 3 Mch. 1141 Defeated ; retires to France 1147 Concludes a peace with Stephen 1153 Henry II. crowned 19 Dec. 1154 Constitutions op Clarendon enacted Jan. 1164 Arrogance of Becket; murdered (Becket) 29 Dec. 1170 Conquest of Ireland 1171, 1172 England divided into 6 judicial circuits. 1176 English laws digested by Glanville about 1181 Richard I. crowned 3 Sept. 1189 He joins the crusades 1191 Defeats Saladin 1192 Made prisoner by duke of Austria, and sold to Henry VI. of Germany Dec. " Ransomed for about 300,000i 1194 John crowned May, 1199 Normandy lost to England 1204 England put under an interdict 1208 Magna Charta granted 15 Juno, 1215 Henry III. crowned 28 Oct. 1216 Barons' war 1262-68 First regular parliament 1265 Edward I. crowned 20 Nov. 1272 Wales subdued, united to England 1283 Death of Roger Bacon 1292 Scotland subdued, 1296; revolts 1297 Edward II. crowned 8 July, 1307 Defeated by Bruce at^ Bannockburn 24 June, 1314 Insurrection of the barons against his favorites 1308, 1315, 1325 Edward III. crowned 25 Jan. 1327 Edward II. murdered (Berkeley castle) 21 Sept. 1327 Defeat of the Scots at Halidon hill 1333 Invades France; victorious at Crecy 26 Aug. 1346 Takes Calais 1347 Order of the Garter instituted 1349 Victory at Poitiers 19 Sept. 1356 Peace of Bretigny 8 May, 1360 Law pleadings in English 1362 Richard II. crowned 22 June, 1377 Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed 15 June, 1381 Death of Wickliffe 1385 Henry IV. crowned 30 Sept. 1399 Order of the Bath instituted by Henry IV " Insurrection of the Percies and the Welsh 1402-5 Henry V. crowned 21 Mch. 1413 France invaded by Henry V., victor at Agincourt 25 Oct. 1415 Treaty of Troyes ; the French crown gained 1420 Henry VI. crowned at Paris Dec. 1430 English conquests lost in France except Calais (Joan of Arc), 1429-31 Cade's insurrection , June, 1450 War of the Roses (Battles, Roses) 1451-57 Edward IV. deposes Henry VI 4 Mch. 1461 Printing introduced by Caxton 1471 Edward V. , accession 9 Apr. 1483 Murdered in the Tower soon after •' Richard III. deposes Edward V 25 June, " Valuable statutes enacted 1484 Henry VII. , accession ; Richard defeated and slain at Bos- worth field 22 Aug. 1485 Yeomen of the guard, the first standing army in England in- stituted " Henry marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV 1486 Insurrection of Lambert Simnel quelled « 1486-87 Court of Star chamber instituted 1487 Insurrection of Perkin Warbeck quelled 1492-98 Gardening introduced, principally from the Netherlands, .about 1502 Death of prince Arthur 2 Apr. " Henry VIII., accession 22 Apr. 1509 Rise of Wolsey 1514 Henry VIII. 's interview with Francis I. at Ardres (Field of the Cloth of Gold) 4-25 June, 1520 First map of England drawn by G. Lilly about " Henry VIIL becomes " Defender of the Faith " 1521 Fall of Wolsey; d 29 Nov. 1530 Henry VIIL marries Anne Boleyn privately, Nov. 1532, or Jan. 1533; divorced from Catherine 23 May, 1533 Henry VIIL styled "head of the church " 1534 Pope's authority in England abolished " Sir Thomas More beheaded 6 July, 1535 Queen Anne Boleyn beheaded 19 May, 1536 Queen Jane Seymour d 24 Oct. 1537 Monasteries suppressed 1538 Statute of Six Articles passed 1539 Abbots of Glastonbury, Reading, etc., executed " First authorized edition of the Bible (Cranraer's) printed " Cromwell, lord Essex, beheaded 1540 Anne of Cleves divorced 9 July, " Queen Catherine Howard beheaded 1542 Ireland declared a kingdom, and the title of "king of Ireland" confirmed to the English sovereigns 1543 Henry marries Catherine Parr 12 July, " Edward VI., accession, 28 Jan. ; promotes the Reformation (Somerset, protector) 1547 "Book of Common Prayer" authorized 1548 Somerset deprived of power, 1549 ; beheaded 1552 Mary, accession, 6 July ; restores popery 1553 E.xecution of lady Jane Grey and her husband. Lord Guilford Dudley 1554 Mary marries Philip of Spain ; persecutes the Protestants " Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer burned (Protestants). 1555 and 1556 Calais retaken by the French 7 Jan. 1558 Elizabeth, accession; church of England re-established, 17 Nov. " Mary, queen of Scots, seeks refuge in England, 1568; executed, 8 Feb. 1587 Spanish armada repulsed (Armada) Julj^ 1588 Devereux, earl of Essex, beheaded 25 Feb. 1601 James I. , accession ; union of the 2 crowns 24 Mch. 1603 Styled "king of Great Britain " 24 Oct. 1604 Gunpowder plot Nov. 1605 Authorized version of the Bible completed 1611 Baronets first created May, " Overbury murder 15 Sept. 1613 Shakespeare d 23 Apr. 1616 Raleigh beheaded 29 Oct. 1618 Book of Sports published 24 May, " Charles I., accession 27 Mch. 1625 Death of lord Bacon 9 Apr. 1626 Duke of Buckingham assassinated 23 Aug. 1628 Hampden's trial respecting "ship money" 1637 Contest between the king and parliament; impeachment and execution of lord Strafford 1641 Attempted "arrest of the 5 members " 4 Jan. 1642 Civil war begins. Charles I, sets up his standard at Notting- ham (Battles) 22 Aug. " Battle of Edgehill 23 Oct. " Archbishop Laud beheaded 10 Jan. 1645 Charles defeated at Xasebv 14 June, " He flees to the Scotch, 5 May; is given up 21 Sept. 1646 Execution of Charles 1 30 Jan. 1649 Cromwell's victory at Worcester 3 Sept. 1651 ENG 264 ENG Oliver Cromwell, protector of tho Cominonwoalth.. .16 Dec. 1653 Naval victories of Blake 1652-67 Jiichartl Cromivell, protector 3 Sept. 1()58 Richard resigns 25 May, 1659 Charles II.; monarchy re- established 29 May, 1660 Act of uniformity passed ; church of England restored 1662 Groat plague 1666 Grmit ttre of London 2, 3 Sept. 1666 Disgrace of lord Clarendon Nov. 1667 Death of John Milton 8 Nov. 1674 Oates's '• popish plot " creates a panic 13 Aug. 1678 Sir Kdmoud Berry Godfrey found murdered 17 Oct. " Many Roman Catholics executed 1678-79 Habeas corpus act for protecting English subjects against false arrest and impri.<5onnient, passed 27 May, 1679 "Rye house plot;" William, lord Russell, e.xecuted, 21 July, and .Algernon Sydney executed 7 Dec. 1683 Janifs II. , accession 6 Feb. 1686 Duke of Monmouth's rebellion defeated at Sedgemoor, 6 July; he is beheaded 15 July, " Acquittal of tho 7 bishops 30 June, 1688 Abdication of James 11 11 Dec. " William III. and Mary proclaimed by the convention par- liament 13 Feb. 1689 National debt begins 1692 Bank of England incorporated 27 July, 1694 Death of the queen regnant, Mary 28 Dec. " re;ice of Ryswick 1697 Death of James II. in exile 16 Sept. 1701 • Anne, accession 8 Mch. 1702 Victory of Marlborough at Blenheim 13 Aug. 1704 Union of the 2 kingdoms as Great Britain 1 May. 1707 Sacheverell riots 1710 Treaty of Utrecht, advantageous to Great Britain 11 Apr. 1713 George I. of Hanover, accession 1 Aug. 1714 Scots' rebellion quelled 1715 South-sea bubble 1720 Death of the duke of Marlborough 16 June, 1722 Order of tho Buth revived 172§ George II. , accession 11 June, 1727 Death of Newton 20 Mch. " George II. at the victory of Dettingen 16 June, 1743 Second Scots' rebellion; prince Charles- Edward gains Edin- burgh, 17 Sept. ; victor at Preston Pans 21 Sept. 1745 Victory at Falkirk. 17 Jan. ; defeated totally at Culloden, 16 Apr. 1746 Death of prince Frederick Louis, son of George II. and father of George III 20 Mch. 1751 New style introduced into England, 3 Sept. (made 14) 1752 Seven years' war begins (Battles) May, 175ff Conquest of India begins, under col. (afterwards lord) Clive (I.vDiA) 1757 Victory and death of gen. Wolfe (Quebec) 1759 George III, accession 25 Oct. 176«r Marries Charlotte Sophia, of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 8 Sept. ; is crowned 22 Sept. 1761 Peace of Paris ; Canada gained 10 Feb. 1763 Isle of Man annexed to Great Britain 1765 Death of the Old Pretender, "chevalier de St. George" (Pre- tenders) 30 Dec. " Royal Marriage act passed 1772 American war for independence begins (United States) 1775 Death of earl of Chatham 11 May, 1778 " No Popery " riots 2-7 June, 1780 Preliminary treaty recognizing the independence of the U. S. signed 30 Nov. 1782 DeQnitive treaty signed 3 Sept. 1783 Margaret Nicholson attempts life of George III 2 Aug. 1786 Trial of Warren Hastings begins 13 Feb. 1786 Death of the Young Pretender at Rome 3 Mch. " King's malady made known 12 Oct. " He recovers, and offers thanks at St. Paul's 23 Apr. 1789« ' First coalition against France 26 June, 1792 Habeas Corpus act suspended 23 May, 1794 Howe's victory 1 June, " Prince of Wales marries princess Caroline of Brunswick. 8 Apr. 1795 Warr*n Hastings acquitted 23 Apr. " Princess Charlotte of Wales b 7 Jan. 1796 Cash payments suspended 25 Feb. 1797 Death of Edmund Burke 9 July, " Irish rebellion May, 1798 Habeas Corpus act again suspended " Battle of the Nile; Nelson victor 1 Aug. " Hatfield's attempt on the king's life 11 May, 1800 Union of Great Britain with Ireland. 1 Jan. 1801 Nelson's victory at Copenhagen 2 Apr. " Habeas Corpus act again suspended 19 Apr. " Peace of Amiens concluded 1 Oct. " War against France under Bonaparte , 18 May, 1803 Nelson's victory and death at Trafalgar 21 Oct. 1805 Death of Mr. Pitt 23 Jan. 1806 " Delicate investigation " May, " Lord Melville impeached, 29 Apr. ; acquitted 12 June, " Death of Charles James Fox 13 Sept. " Orders in council against Berlin decree 7 Jan. 1807 Abolition of the slave-trade by Parliament 25 Mch. " Victory and death of sir J. Moore (Corunna) 16 Jan. 1809 Duke of York impeached by col. Wardle Jan. " Jubilee celebrating king's accession 25 Oct. " Unfortunate Walcheren expedition Aug.-Nov. " Sir Francis Burdett's arrest, and riots 6 Apr. 1810 King's malady returns 2 Nov. " 1816 1817 1829 General commercial embarrassment Dec. 1810 Regent.— The prince of Wales 5 Feb. 1811 Luddite riots Nov. " Assassination of Mr. Perceval, i)remier 11 May, 1812 Earl of Liverpool premier 9 June, " War with tho U. S. commenced IH June, " Peace with France, etc 14 Apr. 1814 Emperor of Russia and king of Prussia visit England. . .7 June, " Centenary of tho house of Hanover 1 Aug. " Peace with the U S. (treaty of Ghent) , 24 Dec. " Battle of Waterloo (close of French war) 18 June, 1815 Princess Charlotte marries prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, 2 May, Death of R. B. Sheridan 9 July, Spa-Uelds meeting 2 Dec. Green-bag inquiry 2 Feb. Habeas Corpus act suspended 24 Feb. " Cash payments resumed (suspended 1797) 22 Sept. " Queen Charlotte dies at Kew 17 Nov. 1818 Queen Victoria b 24 May, 1819 Manchester reform meeting (Peterloo) (Manchester).. .16 Aug. " Duke of Kent d 23 Jan. 1820 George IV., accession 29 Jan. " Cato St. conspirators arrested, 23 Feb. ; executed 1 May, " Trial of Qcekn Caroline 19 Aug. -10 Nov. " Coronation of George IV 19 July, 1821 Queen Caroline dies at Hammersmith 7 Aug. " Lord Byron d 19 Apr. 1824 Commercial panic 1825-26 Duke of York d 5 Jan. 1827 Mr. Canning, premier, 30 Apr. ; d 8 Aug. " Battle of Navarino 20 Oct. " Roman Catholic Relief bill passed.. 13 Apr. Political panic in London ; riots \ Nov. William IV. accession 26 June, Mr. Huskisson killed at the opening of the Liverpool and Man- chester railway 15 Sept. Grey administration formed Nov. King opens new London bridge Aug. 1831 Reform bill rejected by lords, 7 Oct. ; Bristol riots 29 Oct. English Reform act passed 7 June, 1832 Assault on William IV. by a discharged pensioner at Ascot, 19 June, Sir Walter Scott d 21 Sept. Samuel T. Coleridge d 25 July, 1834 Slavery ceases in the colonies 1 Aug. " Corporation Reform act passed 9 Sept. 1835 Victoria, accession; Hanover separated from Great Brit- ain 20 June, 1837 Coronation of queen Victoria 28 June, 1838 Beginning of war with China Mch. 1839 Penny postage begins 10 Jan. 1840 Queen marries prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg 10 Feb. " Oxford's assault on the queen 10 June, " Prince of Wales b 9 Nov. 1841 King of Prussia visits England 24 Jan. 1842 John Francis fires at the queen 30 May, " Bean presents a pistol at her. 3 July, " Income tax act passed Aug. " Peace of Nankin (with China) Dec. " Death of duke of Sussex.. .' • 21 Apr. 1843 Tractariao or Pusey ite controversy 1844-45 Anti-corn law agitation 1845 Peel's new tariff', 1845; railway mania Nov. " Commercial panic Mch. 1846 Corn laws repealed 26 June, " Chartist demonstration in London 10 Apr. 1848 Cholera reappears in England 1848 and 1849 Adelaide, queen dowager, d 2 Dec. " " Exhibition of 1851 " announced 3 Jan. 1850 Death of Wordsworth (aged 80) 23 Apr. " Pate's assault on the queen : 27 June, " Death of sir Robert Peel (aged 62) 2 July, " Duke of Cambridge d 8 July, '» Great excitement occasioned by the pope's establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy in England Nov. " Sixth census of the United Kingdom (Population), 27,637,761, 30 Mch. 1851 First "Great Exhibition " opened 1 May, " Australian gold arrives Dec. " Death of the poet Thomas Moore 26 Feb. 1852 John Camden Neild, an eccentric miser, bequeathed about 250,000/. to the queen ; d 30 Aug. " Death of Wellington (aged 83), Sept. 14; public funeral, 18 Nov. " Death of sir Charles Napier, conqueror of Scinde 29 Aug. 1853 English and French fleets enter Bosporus 22 Oct. " Protocol between England, France, Austria, and Prussia for peace between Russia and Turkey 5 Dec. " Conferences on Eastern question favor Turkey Sept. -Dec. " Alliance between England, France, and Turkey signed. . 12 Mch. War declared against Russia (Russo-Turkish wars). . .28 Mch. Resignation of Aberdeen ministry 29 Jan. Formation of Palmerston ministry Feb. " Death of Joseph Hume (aged 78) 20 Feb. " Peace with Russia proclaimed, 19 Apr.; thanksgiving day, 4 May; illuminations, etc 29 May, 1856 War with China Oct. " War with Persia Nov. " Mutiny of Indian army begins (India) Mch. 1857 Death of duchess of Gloucester (aged 81), the last of George IIL's children 30 Apr. " I 1854 1855 i ENG Princess royal marries prince Frederick William of Prussia, 25 Jan. Jewish Disabilities bill passed 23 July, India bill passed 2 Aug. Association for the Promotion of Social Science meet at Liver- pool 12 Oct. Derby ministry defeated on the Reform bill; dissolve Parlia- ment 23 Apr.; again defeated, they resign, 11 June; the Palmerston- Russell administration formed 18 June, Lord Macaulay d. (aged 59) 28 Dec. Sir Charles Barry d. (aged 65) 12 May, Peace with China signed 24 Oct. Thomas Cochrane, earl of Dundonald, d. (aged 82) 31 Oct. Prince of Wales visits Canada and United States, 24 July-20 Oct. ; returns 15 Nov. Seventh census taken (29,192,419) 8 Apr. Excitement, capt. Wilkes (of U. S. navy) having seized Messrs. Slidell and Mason from British mail steamer Trent (Tkent AFFAIR) 8 Nov. Death of the prince consort of "typhoid fever, duration 21 days," 14 Dec. ; buried 23 Dec. U. S. government release Messrs. Slidell and Mason 28 Dec. Prince Alfred declared king of Greece at Athens (throne de- clined) 23 Oct. Great distress in the cotton-manufacturing districts begins, Apr. ; contributions received. Central Relief fund, 407,830^. ; Mansion-house fund, 236,926i .• 20 Dec. Rupture with Brazil Jan. Prince Alfred elected king of Greece 3 Feb. Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 7 Mch. ; mar- ried to the prince of Wales 10 Mch. British, French, and Austrian governments remonstrate with Russia on cruelties in Poland 7 Apr. Capts. Grant and Speke return from exploring the sources of the Nile June, Government declines the French emperor's proposal for a con- gress of sovereigns Nov. Death of William M. Thackeray (aged 52) 24 Dec. Judicial committee of privy council decide that government had no authority to seize the Alexandra (confederate steamer), 8 Feb. Garibaldi's visit to England 3-27 Apr. Ionian isles made over to Greece 1 June, European conference at London on the Schleswig-Holstein question; no result 24 Apr.-25 June, Death of John Leech (aged 47) 29 Oct. Death of Richard Cobden (aged 61) 2 Apr. Death of lord Palmerston, 18 Oct. ; public funeral 27 Oct. Earl Russell premier 3 Nov. New Reform bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone 12 Mch. Commercial panic in London 11 May et seq. Ministry defeated on Reform bill, 18 June; resign 26 June, Atlantic telegraph (Electricity) completed; messages sent to lord Stanley 27 July, Cable of 1865 recovered, and communication established with Valentia, 2 Sept. ; and with Newfoundland 8 Sept. Visit of the sultan (Tdrkey). 12-23 July, New Reform act passed (Reform) 15 Aug. Michael Faraday, natural philosopher (nearly 76), d 25 Aug. Preparations for the expedition to Abyssinia (Abyssinia). .Aug. Fenian outrages ; rescue of prisoners at Manchester (Fenians), 18 Sept. Synod of bishops at Lambeth (Pan- Anglican) 24-27 Sept. Earl of Derby resigns, 25 Feb. ; Disraeli ministry formed, 29 Feb. Mr. Gladstone's resolution for disestablishing the Irish church adopted by the Commons 30 Apr. Death of lord Brougham (aged 89) 7 May, Irish and Scotch Reform acts passed 13 July, Disraeli ministry resigns, 2 Dec. ; Gladstone ministry take oflQce, 9 Dec. Convention with the U. S. respecting the Alabama claim sfgned (afterwards rejected by the U. S. ) 14 Jan. Irish church bill introduced into the Commons, 1 Mch. ; royal assent 26 July, Earl of Derby d. (aged 70) 23 Oct. Charles Dickens d. (aged 58) 9 June, Earl of Clarendon d. (aged 70) 27 June, Irish land bill brought in, 15 Feb. ; signed 8 July, Neutrality in Franco- Prussian war proclaimed 19 July, Treaty with Prussia and France for neutrality of Belgium signed 9, 11 Aug. Election of elementary school-boards Nov. Excitement over Russian note announcing Russian war vessels in Black sea (Russia) Nov. Princess Louise marries marquess of Lome 21 Mch. Death of sir John F. Herschel, astronomer and philosopher (aged 79) 11 May, Death of George Grote, historian of Greece (aged 77). .18 June, Black sea conference met 17 Jan. ; closed (neutralization of Black sea abrogated, etc. ) 13 Mch. Disestablishment of the church of England bill rejected in the Commons (374-89), 1 May; Parliament prorogued 21 Aug. Prince of Wales ill with typhoid fever ; began to recover, 14 Dec. Excitement over U. S. claims under treaty of Washington, Feb. Queen, entering Buckingham palace, threatened by Arthur O'Connor, aged about 18, with an unloaded pistol, and a paper to be signed ; immediately apprehended 29 Feb. Arthur O'Connor pleads guilty (sentenced to imprisonment and flogging) 9 Apr. British and U. S. governments correspond on claims for indirect 9* 266 ENG 1858 1859 1860 1861 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1870 1871 losses from confederate cruisers, which the former rejects, 3 Feb. -May, Supplemental treaty proposed; accepted by U. S. senate, 25 May; further d'scussion in Parliament; unsatisfactory corre- spondence; the U. S. Congress adjourns 10 June, Strikes among builders and other trades June, Final meeting of arbitrators; damages awarded (Alabama), 14 Sept. Death of Edward Bulwer, lord Lytton, orator, poet, and novel- ist (aged 66) 18 Jan. Mr. Gladstone defeated on the Dublin university bill (287-284); resigns, 13 Mch. ; resumes oflBce 17 Mch. Visit of the shah of Persia 13 June-5 July, Duke of Edinburgh marries grand-duchess Marie of Russia, 23 Jan. Parliament dissolved 26 .Jan. General election; conservative majority about 50, Feb. ; Glad- stone ministry resigns, 17 Feb. ; Disraeli ministry formed, 21 Feb. Close of Tichborne trial (Trials) 28 Feb. Sir Garnet Wolseley returns from his successful expedition against the Ashantees 21 Mch. Queen receives a testimonial of gratitude from the French na- tion for British assistance during the war (France). . .3 Dec. Moody and Sankey, U. S. revivalists, arrive in London, 9 Mch. ; sail from Liverpool (Revivals) 4 Aug. Khedive's shares in the Suez canal bought by the British government (Suez), 1 Nov. ; announced 25 Nov. Queen proclaimed "empress of India " 1 May, Mr. Gladstone's " Horrors in Bulgaria " pub 6 Sept. Meeting against war to defend Turkey, St. James's hall. .8 Dec. Proclamation of neutrality in Russo-Turkish war 30 Apr. Debate on Mr. Gladstone's resolutions, expressing dissatisfac- tion and complaint at the conduct of the Ottoman porte with regard to the despatch written by the earl of Derby, 21 Sept. 1876, relating to the massacres in Bulgaria (for the resolution, 225 ; against, 354) 7-14 May, Fleet sent to Besika bay 3 July, Statue of king Alfred by count Gleichen, at Wantage, unveiled by the prince of Wales, his descendant 14 July, Early meeting of Parliament on account of Russo Turkish war, 17 Jan. Vote of 6,000,000^. asked for before entering into conference respecting Eastern affairs, 24 Jan. ; debate 31 Jan. Liberal amendment withdrawn on report of Russian advance on Constantinople, 7 Feb. ; vote passed (204-124) 8 Feb. Warlike policy of the ministry; resignation of lord Carnarvon, 24 Jan. ; and earl of Derby 28 Mch. Earl of Salisbury's circular indicting the treaty of San Stefano, 2 Apr. ; moderate reply of GortschakolT printed 10 Apr. Indian troops ordered to Malta about 17 Apr. Censured by the opposition; debate in Commons: for govern- ment, 347 ; against, 226 20-23 May, Earl Russell d. (aged 85) 28 May, Ministry announce a European congress on the Eastern ques- tion, to meet on 13 June; the earl of Beaconsfleld and the marquess of Salisbury to attend for England (Berlin), 3 June, Anglo-Turkish convention (Turkey) signed 4 June, Conference meets at Berlin 13 June; treaty signed. . .13 July, 10,000?. a year voted the duke of Connaught on his marriage with princess Louise Margaret of Prussia 25 July, Debate on the Berlin treaty in the Commons; speech of Mr. Gladstone, 30 July; majority for government (338-195), 29 July-3 Aug. Parliament prorogued 16 Aug. Meeting of Parliament on account of Afghan war 5 Dec. Majority for ministers on vote of censure, Lords (201-65), 10 Dec. ; Commons (328-227) 13-14 Dec. Princess Alice dies of diphtheria at Darmstadt, after attending her husband and children, 7.30 a.m 14 Dec. Edward Byrne Madden (? lunatic) arrested for threatening the queen in letters to the Home office, 12 Dec. 1878 ; judged in 1871 1873 1875 1876 1877 1878 1878 .13 Jan. 1879 l,500,000i. voted for Zulu war 27 Feb. Expedition sent (between 8000 and 9000 men, 1800 horses, etc.), Feb. -Mch. Marriage of duke and duchess of Connaught at Windsor, 13 Mch. Proposed censure of government respecting Zulu war, etc., negatived. Lords (156-61), 25 Mch. ; Commons (306-246), 31 Mch.-l Apr. Commons debate on the budget; for government, 303; against, 230 28-29 Apr. Parliament opened by the queen, 5 Feb. ; dissolved 23 Feb. General election, great liberal majority, 30 Mch. -16 Apr. ; res- ignation of ministry 22 Apr. Gladstone ministry formed 29 Apr. New Parliament meets 29 Apr. ; Bradlaugh difficulty (Parlia- ments) 3 May et seq. Court and general mourning for death of gen. Garfield, presi- dent of U. S 21-27 Sept. : Great hurricane throughout England, causing destruction of life, property, and shipping 13-15 Oct. Queen shot at, at Great Western railway station, Windsor, by Roderick Maclean, aged 27, 2 Mch. ; he is committed for high treason 10 Mch. : Queen dedicates Epping forest to the people for all time, 6 May, Detection of secret manufacture of explosives at Birmingham, 4 Apr. ; arrest of Alfred Whitehead, Thos. Gallagher, physi- cian, Wm. Norman, H. H. Wilson, H. D. E. and Henry Dalton, otherwise John O'Connor .• . 5, 6 Apr. : ENG Other arrests in Liverpool, Glasgow, and London, about 6,7 Apr. MffXP* and the Sotuian : censure of government for its " vacil- laiing and inconsistent policy," voted by the lords (181-81) 12 Feb. ; rojecleU by the Commons (311-2t>2) 12-20 Fob. Prince Leoinild, duke" of Albany, dies, age nearly 31, 28 Mch. ; buried at Windsor 6 Apr. Vote of censure of government for not supporting Gordon neg- atived in the Commons (303-275) 12-14 May, Vote of censure on the government respecting Egypt, passed by the Lords (189-68): negatived by the Commons (302-288), 27, 28 Feb. Day of mourning for gen. Gordon and the killed in tbd Soudan, 13 Mch. Reserves to be called out in prospect of war with Russia. .27 Mch. Mr. Gladstone declines an earldom on retiring 15 June, Princess Beatrice marries prince Henry of Battcnberg. . 3 July, Sir Moses Moulelloro dies at Loudon, age 101 28 July, Funeral services in Westminster abbey for gen. U. S. Grant, attended by represenUitives of the royal family 4 Aug. Great Eastern steamship sold at auction at Lloyds' for 26,000/. to a private merchant 29 Oct. Mersey tunnel formally opened, connecting Birkenhead and Liverpool 20 Jan. Edinburgh Courant. the oldest newspaper in Scotland, to which Scott, Wilson, Lockhart, Ayloun, De Quincey, and Hogg had been contributors, appears for the last time 6 P'eb. BelVs Life (Ix)ndon), the oldest sporting paper in the world, after having existed 64 years, ceased to appear 28 May, In digging for the foundation of a building in upper Kirkgate, Aberdeen, a bronze pot found containing 15,000 pieces of sil- ver coin of the reign of Kdward 1 31 May, First stone of the Tower bridge laid, designed to cost 750,000f. Crossing the Thames near Wapping, without impeding the navigation of the river by the largest ships 21 June, Oliver Wendell Holmes receives the degree of honorary D.C.L. from Oxford 30 June, In an excavation at Cannon Street road and Cable street, Lon- don, a skeleton found impaled on a stake. It was believed to be that of Williams, who hanged himself in Coldbath Fields prison in 1811, when accused of 7 murders, referred to in De Quincey's essay on " Murder as a Fine Art " (Ratclipfe high- way) 28 July, Henry M. Stanley left England for Alexandria and Zanzibar, to head expedition to relieve Emin Pacha, governor of the equatorial province of Egypt 21 Jan. Times asserted that Charles S. Parnell, M.P., had long resided in Loudon suburbs, under the name Preston 26 Nov. M^or Barttelot, who left Stanley falls, on the Congo, to relieve Stanley, shot by one of his carriers 19 July, Great Eastern, after a career of 30 years, beached at New Ferry, on the Mersey, to be broken up (Great Eastern). . .25 Aug. First sitting of Parnell commission in the probate court, Palace of Justice. The attorney-general opened for the Times, 22 Oct. British protectorate proclaimed over British north Borneo, Brunei, and Sarawak, about 70,000 sq. miles 24 Oct. Before the Parnell commission, Richard Pigott's confession of forgery is read, the attorney-general, for the Times, with- draws the case founded on the forged letters 27 Feb. Pigott commits suicide in Madrid 1 Mch. John Bright d 27 Mch. House of Lords rejects the Deceased Wife's Sister bill — the prince of Wales voting with the minority 9 May, Snowdon. the highest of the Welsh mountains, containing about 1500 acres, with fishing, mineral, and other rights, sold at public auction for 51501. , to sir E. W. Watkin, M. P., 10 July, Marriage of the earl of Fife with the princess Louise, daughter of the prince of Wales 27 July, First Mahometan mosque in England, completed at Woking, 18 Aug. Parnell commission meets for the 128th and last time. .22 Nov. Martin Farquhar Tupper, the poet, d. (aged 80) 29 Nov. Robert Browning, the poet, dies in Venice (aged 77) 12 Dec. Long-pending trial of Parnell v. Walter, editor of the Times, settled; 5000i. paid by the Times (Parnell) 3 Feb. Firth bridge formally opened. Bridges (John Fowler, the en- gineer, created baronet) 4 Mch. Heiiry M. Stanley reaches England (Africa) 26 Apr. Marries Miss Dorothy Tennant in Westminster abbey, 12 July, England transfers Heligoland to Germany 9 Aug. Cardinal John Henry Newman d. (aged 90) 11 Aug. O'Shea divorce-case begins in London; no defence. . . .15 Nov. Mr. Gladstone denies an assertion in Parnell's manifesto (Par- nell) 29 Nov. Justin McCarthy and 44 others withdraw from the Nationalist parliamentary meeting, and form a separate body 6 Dec. Archbishop's and bishop's letter denouncing Parnell read in all the Catholic churches of Ireland 7 Dec. Parnell seizes the office of United Ireland in Dublin 10 Dec. Parnell, while stumping Ireland, temporarily blinded by lime thrown at Castle-Comer 16 Dec. Kilkenny election held ; sir John Pope Hennessy, the McCarthy- ite candidate, elected 22 Dec. Alexander Wm. Kinglake (historian) d 2 Jan. Charles Bradlaugh d 30 Jan. Sir William Gordon Gumming, the plaintiff in the baccarat trial, married to Miss Florence Garner of New York, 10 June, Parnell and Mrs. O'Shea secretly married 25 June, Charles Stewart Parnell dies at Brighton, Engl 6 Oct. Widow of sir John A. Macdonald, premier of Canada, created a peeress 22 Oct. Cardinal Manning d. 14 Jan. 1885 188G 1887 1891 1892 > ENG Eldest son of the prince of Wales, Albert Victor, duke of Clar- ence and Avondale, d 14 Jan. 18 Cardinal Howard dies at Brighton 16 Sept. Alfred (lord) Tennyson d. (aged 82) 6 Oct. Marriage of princess Mario of Edinburgh and prince Ferdinand of Koumaiiia, at Sigmaringen 10 Jan. 189S1 Mr. Gladstone takes the oath as premier 31 .Ian. Algernon Sartorfs, Nellie Grant's husband, d. in Italy. . .7 Feb. Mr. (Jladstono introduces Home Rule bill in Commons.. 13 Feb. Homo Rule bill passes first reading 17 Feb. Passes second reading by 347 to 304 21 Apr. British battle-ship Victoria collides with the Camperdoum off Tripoli, Syria, while manoeuvring; loss, including vice-ad- miral sir George Tryon, 22 officers and 336 crew 23 June, Duke of York, son of the prince of Wales, and princess May of Teck, married, St. James palace, London 6 July, Court-martial on surviving officers of the Victoria opened at Valetta, upon the Hibemia 17 July, (Found, 27 July, vice-admiral Tryon responsible for the calamity, exonerating surviving officers.] Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha dies; duke of Edinburgh suc- ceeds 23 Aug. Home Rule bill passes the Commons by 301 to 267; first read in the House of Lords 1 Sept House of Lords rejects the bill by 419 to 41 8 Sept. Manchester ship canal finished 6 Nov. Memorial to James Russell Lowell; 2 stained-glass windows in Westminster abbey unveiled with ceremonies 28 Nov. Prof. John Tyndall, scientist, d. (aged 73) 4 Dec. Mr. Gladstone defeated on Home Rule bill .(is succeeded by lord Roseberry) 4 Mch. 18 KINGS AND QUEENS OP ENGLAND. BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 827. Egbert, styled " king of England " in 828. 837. Ethelwolf, his son. 857. Ethelbald, his son. 860. Ethelbert, brother. 866. Ethelred, brother. 871. Alfred the Great, brother; d. 21 or 28 Oct. 901. 901. Edward the Elder, son; d. 925. 925. Athelstan, eldest son ; d. 17 Oct. 940. 940. Edmund I., 5th son of Edward the Elder; died from a wound received in an afl'ray, 26 May, 946. 946. Edred, brother; d. 955. 955. Edwy, eldest son of Edmund; died of grief in 958. 958. Edgar the Peaceable, brother ; d. 1 July, 975. 975. Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at Corfe castle, at instance of his stepmother, Elfrida, 18 Mch. 979. 979. Ethelred II.; half-brother; retired. 1013. Sweyn, proclaimed king; d. 3 Feb. 1014. 1014. Canute the Great, his son. " Ethelred restored in Canute's absence; d. 24 Apr. 1016. 1016. Edmund Ironside, his son, divided the kingdom with Canute; murdered at Oxford, 30 Nov. 1016; reigned 7 months. 1017. Canute sole king; married Emma, widow of Ethelred; d. 12 Nov. 1035; age 40. 1035. Harold I., son; d. 17 Mch. 1040. 1040. Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma; died of repletion at a marriage feast, 8 June, 1042. 1042. Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred and Emma; d. 5 Jan. 1066; age 62. 1066. Harold II., son of earl Godwin; reigned 9 months; killed near Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066. THE NORMANS. The dates are those of sir H. Nicolas. The early Norman and Plantagenet kings reckoned reigns from their coronation; the later Plantagenets from the day after death of the pred- ecessor. From Edward VI. the reign has dated from the death of the preceding sovereign. 1066. William the Conqueror; crowned 25 Dec. ; d. at Rouen, 9 Sept. 1087; age 60. Queen: Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of Flanders; mar- ried in 1054; d.l083. 1087. William II. Rufus; reign began 26 Sept. ; killed by an arrow, 2 Aug. 1100; age 40. 1100. Henry I. Beauclerc, his brother; reign began 5 Aug.| died of a surfeit, 1 Dec. 1135; age 67. Queens: Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of Scotland; married 11 Nov. 1100; d. 1 May, 1119. 2. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of Louvaine; married 29 Jan. 1129; d. 1151. 1135. Stephen, earl of Blois, nephew of Henry; reign 26 Dec. ; d. 25 Oct. 1154; age 60. Queen : Matilda,daughter of Eustace, count of Boulogne ; mar- ried 1128; d. 3May, 115L [Maud, daughter of Henry I. and rightful heir to the throne; b. 1101; betrothed, 1109, at 8 years of age, to Henry V., em- peror of Germany, who d. 1125. She married, secondly, Geof- frey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside from the English succession by Stephen, 1135; landed in England and claimed the crown, 1139. Crowned, but soon after de- feated at Winchester, 1141 ; concluded a peace with Stephen, making her son Henry successor, 1153; d. 1165.] THE PLANTAGENETS. 1154. Henry II. Plantagenet, grandson of Henry I. and son of Maud; reign began 19 Dec. ; d. 6 July, 1189; age 56. Queen: Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VIL, king oi France, and heiress of Guienne and Poitou; married to Henry, 1151 ; d. 26 June, 1202. Rosamond. .M HOUSE OF TUDOR. M85. Henry VII. son of Edmund Tudor, earl ot Richmond (son of Owen Tudor and queen Catherine, widow of Henry V.), and Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, duke of Somerset, le- gitimated descendant of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster; began to reign 22 Aug. ; d. 21 Apr. 1509; age 53. Queen: Elizabeth of York, princess of England, daughter of Edward IV. ; married 18 Jan. 1486; d. 11 Feb. 1503. I 1509. Henry VIII., son; from 22 Apr. ; d. 28 Jan. 1547; age 56. Queens : Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henry's elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales; married 11 June, 1509; mother of queen Mary; repudiated, and afterwards formally divorced, 23 May, 1533 ; d. 7 Jan. 1536. 2. Anne Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Boleyn, and maid of honor to Catherine; privately married, before Catherine was divorced, 14 Nov. 1532; mother of queen Elizabeth; be- headed at the Tower, 19 May, 1536. 3. Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Seymour, and maid of honor to Anne Boleyn; married 20 May, 1536; died in child- birth, of Edward VI. 24 Oct. 1537. 4. Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke of Cleves; married 6 Jan. 1540; divorced 10 July, 1540; d. 1557. 5. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Norfolk ; married 28 July, 1540; beheaded 12 Feb. 1542. 6. Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer; married 12 July, 1543; survived the king, and married sir Thomas Seymour, created lord Sud- ley; d. 5 Sept. 1548. r ■ ENG 267 1189. Richard I. Coeur de Lion, son; reign began 3 Sept. ; died of a wound, 6 Apr. 1199; age 42. Akchery. Queen: Berengaria, daughter of the king of Navarre; married 12 May, 1191; survived the king. 1199. John, tlie brother of Richard; reign began 27 May; d. 19 Oct. 1216; age 49. Queens: Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester; married 1189; divorced. 2. Isabella, daughter of the count of An- gouieme, virgin wife of count de la Marche ; married to John 1200. Survived the kiug, and remarried count de la Marche. 1216. Henry III., son of John; reign began 28 Oct. ; d. 16 Nov. 1272; age 65. Queen: Eleanor, daughter of the count de Provence; married 14 Jan. 1236; survived the king; and d.l291, in a monastery. 1272 Edward I., son of Henry, surnamed Longshanks ; reign began 20 Nov. ; d. 7 July, 1307; age 68. Queens: Eleanor of Castile; married 1253; died of a fever, on her journey to Scotland, at Hornby, in Lincolnshire, 1290 (Eleanor's Crosses). 2. Margaret, sister of the king of J'rance ; married 12 Sept. 1299 ; survived the king ; d. 1317. 1307. Edward II., son of Edward I. ; reign began 8 July; dethroned 20 Jan. 1327 ; murdered at Berkeley castle, 21 Sept. fol- lowing; age 43. Queen: Isabella, daughter of the king of France; married 1308. After the execution of her favorite Mortimer, she was con- fined at Castle Rising, near Lynn, and d. 1357. 1327. Edward III., son; reign began 25 Jan. ; d. 21 June, 1377; age 65. Queen: Philippa, daughter of the count of Hainault; married 1326; d. 15 Aug. 1369. 1377. Richard II., son of Edward the Black Prince, and grandson of Edward III. ; reign began 22 June; dethroned 29 Sept. 1399; said to have been murdered at Pomfret castle, 10 Feb. 1400; age 34. Queens: Anne of Bohemia, sister of the emperor Wenceslaus of Germany ; married Jan. 1382 ; d. 7 June, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter of Charles V.of France; married when only 7 years old, 1 Nov. 1396. On the deposition of her husband she re- turned to her father. HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 1399. Henry IV., cousin of Richard II. ; reign began 30 Sept. ; d. 20 Mch. 1413 ; age 47. Wives: Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford; d. 1394. 2. Queen Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of Bretagne; married 1403; survived the king; d. 1437. 1413. Henry V.,son; reign began 21 Mch. ; d. 31 Aug. 1422; age 34. Queen: Catherine, daughter of the king of France; married 30 May, 1420. She outlived Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor, grandfather of Henry VIL, in 1423; d. 1437. 1422. Henry VI., son; reign began 1 Sept.; deposed 4 Mch. 1461; said to have been murdered by Richard, duke of Gloucester, in the Tower, 20 June, 1471 ; age 49. Queen: Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou; married 22 Apr. 1445; survived the king; d. 25 Aug. 1481. HOUSE OF YORK, 1461. Edward IV. ; d. 9 Apr. 1483; age 41. Queen: Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir Richard Wood- ville, and widow of sir John Grey, of Groby; married 1463 or 1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection of Lambert Simnel; and closed her life in confinement, 8 June, 1492. 1483. Edward V., son; deposed 25 June, 1483; said to have been murdered in the Tower; reigned 2 months 13 days; age 13. " Richard III., brother of Edward IV. ; began to reign 26 June, slain at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485; age 35. Queen: Anne, daughter of earl of Warwick, widow of Edward, prince of Wales, murdered 1471. Said to have been poisoned by Richard (died suddenly, 16 Mch. 1485), to make way for him to marry princess Elizabeth of York. ENG 1547. Edward VI., son (by Jane Seymour); d. 6 July, 1553; age 16. 1553. Jane, daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife of lord Guild- ford Dudley; proclaimed queen on the death of Edward; 10 days afterwards returned to private life ; was tried 13 Nov. 1553 ; beheaded 12 Feb. 1554, 17 years of age. " Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catherine of Aragon); married Philip of Spain, 25 July, 1554; d. 17 Nov. 1558; age 43. 1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anne Boleyn), d. 24 Mch. 1603; age 70. HOUSE OF STUART, 1603. James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, son of Mary queen of Scots; d. 27 Mch. 1625; age 59. Queen : Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of Frederick II. ; married 20 Aug. 1590; d. Mch. 1619. 1625. Charles I., son ; beheaded at Whitehall, 30 Jan. 1649; age 48. Queen : Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. , king of France ; married 13 June, 1625; survived the king; died in France. 10 Aug. 1669. 1649. Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell made protector, 16 Dec. 1653 ; d. 3 Sept. 1658 ; age 59. 1658. Richard Cromwell, his son, made protector, 4 Sept. ; resigned 22 Apr. 1659. 1660. Charles II., son of Charles I. ; d. 6 Feb. 1685; age 55. Queen: Catherine of Hraganza, infanta of Portugal, daughter of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VL ; married 21 May, 1662; survived the king; returned to Portugal; d. 21 Dec. 1705. 1685. James II., brother of Charles II., abdicated by flight, 11 Dec. 1688; died in exile, 6 Aug. 1701; age 68. [1st wife, Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon; married Sept. 1660; d. 1671; mother of queens Mary II. and Anne.] Queen: Mary Beatrice, prirfcess of Modena, daughter of Al- fonso d'Este, duke; married 21 Nov. 1673; in 1688 retired with James to France; died at St. Germain, 1718. 1689. William III., prince of Oninge, king, and Mary, queen, daugt- ter of James; married 4 Nov. 1677; began their reign 13 Feb. 1689 ; Mary d. 28 Dec. 1694 ; age 33. 1694. William III. ; died of a fall from his horse, 8 Mch. 1702; age 51, 1702. Anne, daughter of James II. ; married George, prince of Den- mark, 28 July, 1683; succeeded, 8 Mch. 1702; her 13 chil- dren all died young; lost her husband 28 Oct. 1708; d. 1 Aug. 1714 ; age 49. HOUSE OF HANOVER ; family name GuELPH or Guelp. (Brunswick, Este.) 1714. George L, elector of Hanover and duke of Brunswick-Lune- burg; son of Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. ; d. 11 June, 1727 ; age 67. Queen: Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke of Zell; died in prison, 2 Nov. 1726. 1727. George II., son; d. 25 Oct. 1760; age 77. Queen: Wilhelmina Carolina Dorothea of Brandenburg- Ans- pach; married 1705; d. 20 Nov. 1737. 1760. George III., grandson of George II. ; d. 29 Jan. 1820; age 82. Queen : Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of Mecklea- burg-Strelitz; married 8 Sept. 1761; d. 17 Nov. 1818. 1820. George IV., son; d. 26 June, 1830; age 68. Queen: Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the duke ot Brunswick; married 8 Apr. 1795; d. 7 Aug. 1821 (Queen Caroline). 1830. William IV., brother of George IV. ; d. 20 June, 1837; age 72. Queen : Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa Caroline, sister of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen; married 11 July, 1818; d. 2 Dec. 1849. 1837. Victoria, the reigning queen. THE PRESENT ROYAL FAMILY OF GREAT BRITAIN. The queen, and empress of India by proclamation 28 Apr. 1876, Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter of Edward, duke of Kent (4th son of king George IIL), b. 24 May, 1819; succeeded on the decease ofher uncle, William IV., 20 June, 1837; crowned at West- minster, 28 June, 1838; married (10 Feb. 1840) to her cousin, Francis Albert Augustus Charles Emmanuel, duke of Saxe, prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; b. 26 Aug. 1819; naturalized, 24 Jan. 1840 (ordered to be styled Prince Consort 25 June, 1857); elected chancellor of the university of Cambridge, 28 Feb. 1847; d. 14 Dec. 1861. Issue. 1. Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, princess royal, b. 21 Nov. 1840; married to the crown-prince Frederick William of Prussia, 25 Jan. 1858 (dowry 40,000?. and annuity of 8000?.); dowager em- press of Germany. Issue: William, present emperor of Ger- many (succeeded his father Frederick William, June, 1888); b. 27 Jan. 1859; and 5 other children living. 2. Albert Edward, prince of Wales, duke of Saxony, duke of Corn- wall and Rothsay, earl of Chester, Carrick, and Dublin, baron of Renfrew, and lord of the Isles; b. 9 Nov. 1841; married prin- cess Alexandra of Denmark (b. 1 Dec. 1844) 10 Mch. 1863. Issue: Albert Victor, b. 8 Jan. 1864, d. 14 Jan. 1892; George, b. 3 June, 1865, married princess Mary of Teck 6 July, 1893; Louise, b. 20 Feb. 1867, married duke of Fife 27 July, 1889; Victoria, b. 6. July, 1868, married prince Ferdinand, crown - prince of Rou- mania, 10 Jan. 1893; Maud, b. 26 Nov. 1869; Alexander John, b. 6 Apr., d. 7 Apr. 1871. Wales. 3. Alice Maud Mary, b. 25 Apr. 1843; married prince Louis (since grand-duke) of Hesse-Darmstadt, 1 July, 1862 (dowry 30,000?., annuity 6000?.). Issue: Victoria, 5 Apr. 1863; and 5 other chil- dren; died of diphtheria, 14 Dec. 1878. 4. Alfred Ernest, b. 6 Aug. 1844; entered the Euryalus as midship- man, 31 Aug. 1858; created duke of Edinburgh, etc., 24 May, ENQ 1866; vJ8tt«d Cape of Good Hope, Aug.; Australia, Nov. 1867; flsoaped assaBSiutttioQ by a Feniun at Port Jackson, 12 Mch. 1868; visited Jaitan, China, and India, 1809; married arch- duchess Miirie of Russia (b. 17 Oct. 1853), 23 Jan. 1874. Issue : Alfred, b. 15 Oct. 1874; Mary, 29 Oct. 1875; Victoria, 25 Nov. 1876; Alexandrina, 1 Sept. 1878; Beatrice, 20 Apr. 1884. 6. Helena Augusta Victoria, b. 26 May, 1846; married to prince Christian of Schleswig Holstcin, 5 July, 1866. Issue: Christian Victor, b. 14 Apr. 18(57; and other children. 6. Louise Carolina Alberta, b. 18 Mch. 1848; married to John, mar- quess of Lome (b. 6 Aug. 1845), 21 Mch. 1871. 7. Arthur William Patrick Albert, b. 1 May, 1850; created duke of Counaught, earl of Sussex aud Strathearn, 23 May, 1874; 10,000^. a year on his proposed marriage to princess Louise Margaret of Prussia; agreed to, '26 July, 1878; married 13 Mch. 1879, to prin- cess Ixjuise Margaret of Prussia (b. 25 July, 1860) ; has issue. a Leopold George Duncan Albert, b. 7 Apr. 1853; voted 15,000^. a year by Parliament, 23 Julv, 1874; created baron Arklow, earl of Clarence, aud duke of Albany, 24 May, 1881; married 27 Apr. 1882, to princess Helen, daughter of prince of Waldeck ; d. 28 Mch. 1884. Issue: Alice Mary, b. 25 Feb. 1883; Leopold Charles Edward, b. 19 July, 1884. 9. Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore. b. 14 Apr. 1857; married 23 July, 1885, prince Henry Maurice of Battenberg; has issue. First great grandchild, Feodore, b. 12 May, 1879; daughter of Char- lotte, daughter of princess-royal Victoria, and prince Bernard of Saxe-Meiningen. nOYAL ARMS OP ENGLAND. William I, William II., and Henry I.— 2 lions or leopards passant. Stephen — Sagittarius, the archer, a sign of the zodiac (traditional). Henry II. to Edward II.— 3 lions passant. Edward III. and his successors quartered the preceding with fleurs- de-lis, the arms of France. Henry V. used only 3 fleurs-de lis. Mary* I. quartered the preceding with the arms of her husband, Philip II. of Spain. UNITED KINGDOM. James I. and his successors combined the arms of England and France (1st and 4th quarters); 2d, the lion rampant of Scotland; 3d, the harp of Ireland. He introduced the unicorn as a sup- porter of the arms. George L, George II., and George III. introduced the arms of Bruns- wick. In 1801 the arms of France were omitted. In 1816 the arms were modified, Hanover being made a kingdom. Victoria. — In 1837 the arms of Hanover were omitted. The arms are now: 1st and 4th quarters, 3 lions passant for England; 2d, lion rampant for Scotland; 3d, harp for Ireland. I}ngli§h language is traced from the Frisian variety (Low German) of the Teutonic or Germanic branch of the great Indo-European family, and is closely related to those dialects spoken on the north shores and lowlands of Germany. Its origin due' to the immigration of the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons. Britain, 449. A number of words, however, still remain of the Celts, the original inhabitants, as basket, bran, breeches, crock, etc. " The English tongue possesses a verita- ble power of expression such as, perhaps, never stood at the command of any other language of man." — Grimm. ^ p Celtic prevailed in England 1 Latin introduced about 1 First period.— Saxon prevails (Beowulf; Caedmon; Alfred). 450- 1066 Latin reintroduced by missionaries 596 Second period. —Norman-French combining with English. 1066-1250 William I. and his successors used English in their laws, etc. ; it was superseded by Latin in the reign of Henry II. Nor- man-French was first used in law-deeds under Henry III. Third Period.- Early English 1250-1500 Fourth period.- Present English settled in the 16th century. Law pleadings were made in English by order of Edward IIL instead of in French 1362 English tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Hen. VIII 1536 English ordered used in lawsuits; Latin disused May, 1731 Percentage of Anglo-Saxon words in the English Bible, 97; Swift. 89; Shakespeare and Thomson, 85; Addison, 83; Spen- ser and Milton, 81; Locke, 80; Young, 79; Pope, 76; John- son, 75; Robertson, 68; Hume, 65; Gibbon, 58.— Marsh. Of 100,000 English words, 60,000 are of Teutonic origin; 30,000 Greek and Latin; and 10.000 from other sources. Early English Text Society began publishing 1864 English Dialect Society, formed to print old glossaries May, 1873 English literature and authors, Literature. engraving on signets is mentioned Exod. xxviii. 11 (1491 B.C ). Engraving on plates and wood began about the middle of the 15th century. Engraving on glass was perfected by Bourdier, of Paris, 1799. The British copyright to en- gravings has been protected by several statutes ; among the principal are the acts 16 and 18 Geo. IIL 1775 and 1777 ; and the acts 7 and 8 Vict., 6 Aug. 1844, and 15 Vict., 28 May, 1852. A process of enlarging and reducing engravings by means of sheets of vulcanized india-rubber was shown by the Electro- printing Block Company, in England, in 1860. Lithography, 268 EPA Photo-galvanography. In "Lyra Germanica," [)ub. 186 are illustrations engraved upon blocks i)hotographed fr negatives taken 1)3' John Leighton, F.S.A. Engraving oh Copper.— Prints from engraved copper plates first appeared about 14.50, in (Jcrmany. Masso, surnamod Finiguerra is called the first Italian engraver, about 1440. Niello. ' Earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 1401. Rolling-presses for working the plates were invented in 1545. Of etching on copper by aquafortis, Francis Mazzuoli, or Parraegi- ano, is the ro|)uted inventor, about 1532.— D« Piles. Etching was practised by Albert Durer; especially by Rembrandt;, revived about 1860. Eminent modern etchers: Lalanne, P. G. Hamerton, F. Seymour Haden, Bracquemond, Jacquemart, .Mar- tial, etc. Etching club established in London in 1838. Society of Painter-etchers formed ; opened an exhibition, Apr. 1881. Engraving on wood, long known in China, began in Europe with the Briefmahlers, or manufacturers of playing cards," about 1400. Printi.vg. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to Reuss, a German; it was greatly improved by Diirer (1471-1528) and Lucas van Leyden (1497), and in England by Bewick and his brother, and pupils Nesbitt, Anderson, etc., 1789' et seq. The earliest wood engraving preserved represents St. Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over the sea; date 1423. W. J. Linton's " Masters of Wood Engraving," with 250 fine ex- amples, pub. July, 1890. Engraving on soft steel, to be hardened afterwards, was introduced- into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, 1819. John Pye, "father of English landscape engraving," d. 6 Feb. 1874. Mezzotinto is said to have been discovered by col. von Siegen, who engraved a portrait of princess Amelia of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643 ; it was improved by prince Rupert in 1648 ; and by sir Christopher Wren, about 1(562. Aquatinta, with a soft and beautiful effect, was invented by the French artist St. Non, about 1662; he communicated it to Le Prince. Barabbe of Paris was distinguished for his improvements in it, 1763. Chiaroscuro engraving originated with the Germans, and was first practised by Mair, one of whose prints bears date- 149L Zinc, etc. Enni§killen, N.W. Ireland. This town made an obstinate defence against the army of Elizabeth, 1595, and resisted James II., 1689. 1500 Enniskilleners met his gen. M'Carthy at Newtown-butler with 6000 men (of whom 3000 were slain, and nearly all the rest made prisoners), losing but 20 men, 30 July, 1689. The dragoon regiment " Inniskilliiigr ers " was originally recruited here. Enoell, Book of, an apocryphal work, quoted in Jude, 14th and 15th verses, and bj' the earl}-^ fathers, disai)peare(i about the 8th century. A MS. Ethiopic version was found in Abyssinia by Bruce, and brought to England in 1773. Of this, archbishop Lawrence published an English translation in 1821, and the Ethiopic text in 1838. En'sisheim, a town of Alsace. Here Turenne defeated the Imperial armj', and expelled it from Alsace, 4 Oct. 1674. entail ore§tate§ began in England with the statute of Westminster, 1286. Subsequent legislation broke the entail in cases of treason (1534), when the estate is to revert to the crown, and of bankruptcy (1833 and 1849), when it is to be sold. The law of entail in Scotland was amended in 1875. Entail abolished in Virginia, 1776. Enterprise and Boxer. Naval battles. entomology, the science of insects, now mainly based upon the arrangement of Linnaeus, 1789. Ray's " Methodus Insectorum," 1705; " Insectorum Historia," 1710. The Ento- mological Society of London was instituted in 1833. A na- tional entomological exhibition at the Westminster aquarium was opened 9 Mch. 1878. envelopes for letters are mentioned by Swift, 1726. Stamped adhesive envelopes came into general use in Great Britain soon after the penny postal system, 10 Jan. 1840. Ma- chinery for their manufacture was patented by George Wilson in 1844; and by Messrs. E. Hill and Warren De La Rue, 17 Mch. 1845. envoys at courts, in dignity below ambassadors, enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies, of ambassadors. Envoys-extraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefort. The court of France denied envoys the ceremony of conduct to court in royal carriages, 1639. eozoon (e-o-zo'-on) Canadense, asserted to be the earliest known form of life, is a species of foraminifera, found by prof. J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, in Laurentian limestone, in 1858. epact (Gr. tTraKToC, added) is the excess of the solar month above the lunar synodical month, 1 day, 11 hours, 15 EPH minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar month being only 29 days, 12 hours. 44 minutes, 3 seconds ; and the excess of the solar year above the lunar synodical year (nearly 11 days), the lunar year being 354 days. The number of the Gregorian epact for 1877, 15 ; 1878, 26 ; 1879, 7 ; 1880, 18. Epll'e§U§, Asia Minor, a city founded by the lonians about 1043 b.c. It was subdued by Cyrus in 544 b.c. ; revolted from the Persians, 501 b.c. ; and was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 17 a.d. Diana, Temple of; Seven Churches. Paul preached here 55, 56 a.d. (Acts xviii., xix.). His epistle to the Ephesians is dated 64 a.d. The 3d general council was held here in 431. After investigation, begun in 1863, J. T. Wood discovered the site of the temple of Diana (Artemis) in Apr. 1870; and about 60 tons of marble were shipped at Smyrna for the British museum, Jan. 1872. Mr. Wood published an illustrated account of his discoveries in 1876. The site of the temple was purchased for the British museum. epll'ori, powerful magistrates of Sparta, 5 in number, said to have been first created by Theopompus to control the royal power, about 757 b.c. epic poeill§ (from Gi*. 'irrog, a song), narratives in verse. Eminent examples : Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey" {Greek), between 8th and 10th century b.c. Homek. Mahu-bhurata {Sanscrit), very ancient; by several authors; the longest epic known (220,000 lines). B.C. Virgil's " ^neid " {Latin) about 19 A.D. Ovid's " Metamorphoses " {Latin) about 1 Dante (d. 1321), " Divina Commedia " {Italian) pub 1472 Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso " {Italian) 1516 Camoens, " Lusiad " {Portuguese) 1569 Tasso, " Jerusalem Delivered " (Italian) 1581 Spenser's "Faerie Queene " 1590-96 Milton's " Paradise I.ost " 1667 Voltaire, " Henriade " {French) 1728 Waller Scott, " Lay of the Last Minstrel," etc 1805 Literature. Epicure'an pllilO§ophy. Epicurus of Garget- tus, near Athens, about 300 b.c., taught that the greatest good consists in peace of mind springing from virtue ; but the name •epicurean is frequently given to those who derive happiness from sensual pleasure. Atoms, Philosophy. Epiclau'rus, a seaport village of Greece, celebrated as the site of the temple of Asclepius, or ^sculapius, god of medicine, and enriched by gifts from persons healed. The Romans sent an embassy to seek the help of the god during -a pestilence, and his worship was introduced at Rome, 293 B.C. The temple was visited by ^Emilius Paulus, after his conquest of Macedonia, 167 b.c. epigeil'C§i§. Spontaneous generation. epigrams, originally inscriptions, especially on tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the Latin epigrammatist, who flour- ished about 83 A.D., is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or modern. The following epigram on Christ's turning water into wine (John ii.) is an example: "Vidit et erubuit lyrapha pudica Deum " (" the modest water saw its God, and blushed ").—CrasAaw (d. 1650). "The Epigrammatists," a collection by rev. H. P. Dodd, pub. 1870 and 1875. Eipipll'aiiy (Gr. errKpavrjc, manifest), a feast (Jan. 6), termed Twelfth-day, celebrates the manifestation of the Sav- iour by the appearance of the star which conducted the magi to him ; instituted 813. — Whately. Epi'ms, a country of N. Greece. Its early history is obscure. First Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) settled in Epirus, after the Trojan ^■*^- war, 1170 B.C. ; killed in the temple of Delphi about 1165 Pyrrhus the Great reigns, 295; he takes Macedon from Deme- trius, 290 ; compelled to yield to Lysimachus 287 He invades Italy; defeats the Romans, 280; again, 279; sub- dues Sicily 278 He invades Italy again, and is totally defeated by Curius Den- tatus at Beneventum 275 He takes Macedon from Antigonus 273 He unsuccessfully invades Sparta; enters Argos, and is killed by a tile, thrown by a woman 272 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon 220 Its conquest by the Itomans 167 A.D. Epirus annexed to the Ottoman empire 1466 An insurrection against the Turks put down 1854 269 ERA Epis'COpaey. Bishops, Church of England. epi§tle§ or letters. An Egyptian letter, about 1300 B.C., is translated in " Records of the Past," vol. vi. A let- ter was sent to Joab by David by the hands of Uriah, about 1035 B.C. (2 Sam. xi. 14). Horace Walpole, renowned for letters, was born 5 Oct. 1717; died 2 Mch. 1797. The collec- tion entitled "Elegant Epistles," commencing with Cicero, pub. 1790, ends with an essay on letter-writing by dr. John- son. epitapllS were inscribed on tombs by the Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, and Romans. T. J. Pettigrew published a col- lection entitled " Chronicles of the Tombs," in 1857. epitliala'llliuill, a nuptial song at marriage. Tisias the lyric poet, is said to have written the first. He received the name of Stesichorus, from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, about 536 b.c. — Bossuet. epoelia, a point of time made remarkable by some event, from which subsequent years are reckoned by historians and cbronologers. Eras. g g. Creation 4004 Deluge 2348 First Olympiad 776 Building of Rome 753 A.D. Birth of Christ ^ 1 Hegira (or flight of Mahomet) 622 Epsom, Surrej', Engl. The mineral springs were dis- covered in 1618. The races began about 1711, and have been held annually since 1730. equestrian order in Rome began with Romulus, about 750 b.c. Knighthood. equinox. When the sun crosses the equator, day and night are equal all over the globe. This occurs twice in the year : about 21 Mch. the vernal equinox, and 22 Sept. the autumnal equinox. The crossings, called equinoctial points, move backwards about 50 seconds yearlj', in about 26,00.0 years making a complete revolution. This is called the precession of the equinoxes. The axis of the earth does not remain rigorously parallel to itself, but varies in direction, describing an entire cone in about 26,000 years. The northern extremity of the earth's axis is now quite near the polestar, Polaris, and is still approaching that star. It will continue to do so until the year 2120, when it will point to within half a degree of it. The axis will then recede from it and pass from the Little Bear to Cepheus, then across the border of the Swan, and in about 13,000 years Vega in Lyra will be the polestar. After another 13,000 years Polaris will again be the polestar. Hip- parchus of Alexandria about 2000 years ago is said to have been the first to note the precession of the equinoxes. It was fully explained by D'Alembert and Laplace as a result of gravitation. eras. The principal are more fully noticed in their alphabetical order. g <, Era of Constantinople 1 Sept. 5508 Mundane Era of Antioch (Alexandria, etc., Julian period)... 5493 Julian Era (Calendar, Year). Alexandrian Era, same as Abyssinian Era " Common Era of the creation (English Bible, CTsAer, etc.) 4004 Jkwish Era 3761 Romans reckoned from the founding of their city, a.c.c. (anno urbis conditcB) 753 Era oi Nabonassar, after which the astronomical observations made at Babylon were reckoned began 26 Feb. 747 A lexander, Era of 325 Era of the SeleucidcB or Macedonian (used by the Maccabees), commenced 312 Era of Tyre (Indiction) 125 Augustan Era 2T Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from 1 .fuly, 776 B.C. ; they subsequently reckoned by indictions, the first beginning 313 a.d. ; these, among cbronologers, are still used (Indictions). Spanish Era (of the conquest of Spain), Varro, 752, Cato the Elder, the 16th year of the emperor Augustus (C^sars), long ^■"• u.sed by the Spaniards 1 Jan. Diocletian Era, or Era of Martyrs began 29 Aug. Mahometans began their era from the Hegira, or flight of their prophet from Mecca 16 July, Persian or Yezdegird Era Anno Domini, Calendar, Creation, and the names of eras throughout. £rastianisni, the belief of Thomas Lieber (Latinized Erastus), a German physician (1524-83), that the church had 38 284 622 632 ERF 270 ETH no right to exclude any person from church ordinances, to in- flict excommunication, etc. Persons who acknowledge the jurisdiction of the civil power in spiritual matters and the law of patronage are now termed Erastians. Er'Airt, a city of central Germany, was founded in 476, and its university established about 1390. Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian troops surrendered, 16 Oct. 1806. Here Napoleon and Alexander met, and offered peace to England, 27 Sept. 1808. The French retreated to Erfurt from Leipsic, 18 Oct. 1813. A German parliament met here in Mch. and Apr. 1850. Er'ic8§on'§ caloric engine. Hkat. Erie canal. New Yohk, 1817-25. Erie, Fort. Fort Erik. Erle§. Ohio, 1656. Erlvan% Armenia, in the 16th century the residence of the shahs of Persia, was taken by the Turks in 1553 and 1582, but was recovered by Abbas the Great, 1604. After being several times captured, it was ceded to Persia, 1769. It was taken by Paskiewitch in 1827, and annexed to Russia by treaty in Feb. 1828. Erzeroum {erz-room'\ principal city in Armenia, in Asiatic Turkey, a city built by Theodosius II., 415; taken by the Seljuk Turks in the 13th century, and by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. It was captured by the Russian general Paskiewitch, June, 1829, but restored in 1830. It was almost totally destroyed by earthquakes, 2 June to 17 July, 1859. Pop. 188*5, 60,000. EiCU'rial, properly EiCO'rlal, 25 miles N. W. of Madrid, the palace of the sovereigns of Spain, termed the 8th wonder of the world, was begun by Philip II. in 1563, and com- pleted in 1586 at a cost of about $50,000,000. It is in the form of a gridiron, in honor of St. Lawrence, on whose day (10 Aug. 1567) the Spaniards gained the victory of St. Quentin. Ac- cording to Francisco de los Santos, the total length of its rooms is above 120 English miles. The Escurial comprises a church, mausoleum, monastery, palace, librarj'^, and museum. It was struck by lightning and caught fire 11.30 p.m., 1 Oct. 1872, and was much damaged; but the grand library and other treasures were preserved. Eiplerre (es-pe-air'), Belgium. At Pont-a-Chin, near this village, the French, under Pichegru, attacked the allied English and Austrian array (100,000 men), commanded by the duke of York, and were repulsed after a long and desperate engagement, losing the advantages gained by the victory at Tourcoing, 22 May, 1794. esquires, among the Greeks and Romans, were armor- bearers to, or attendants on, a knight. — Blount. In England, the king created esquires by putting about their necks the collars of SS, and bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. John de Kingston was created a squire by patent, 13 Richard II., 1389-90. E§§enes, an ascetic Jewish sect at the time of Christ, representing the highest culture of the Jewish nation. Essex, U. S. ship. For engagement with the British ships Phoebe and Cherub, Naval battles. established church, the state religion of a coun- try ; a church exclusively recognized by the state. During the first 3 centuries of the Christian era there was no estab- lished or state church. During the reign of Constantine (323- 337) the state and church were first united. During mediaeval times up to the Reformation the Roman Catholic faith was the state religion of all western Europe ; in fact, every government was in vassalage to papacj'. The Reformation introduced more freedom, so that now each state or government decides upon its own establishment. In England, while the Episcopal service is the established form, there is a Broad Church party, which advocates freedom of belief enough to take in all churches, and even other religions. In the United States, as in all true republics, there is not and cannot be an established church. Church. Esle, House of. Boniface, count of Lucca and duke of Tuscany, about 811, is said to have descended from Odoacer, king of Italy. From Boniface sprang Albert-Azzo II., mar- quess of Italy and lord of Este, born about 996, who mar- ried — first, Cunegonde of the house of Guelf, mother of Guelf, duke of Bavaria, ancestor of thie house of Brunswick (Bavaria, Brunswick); and, secondly, Gersonda, mother of Fulk, ancestor of the Estes, dukes of Ferrara and Modena. Estlionia or Revel, a Russian province, said to have been conquered by Teutonic knights in the 12th century; after various changes it was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva, 3 May, 1660, and finally to Russia by the peace of Ny- stadt, 30 Aug. 1721, having been conquered by Peter the Great in 1710. etching. Engraving. ether was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was discovered by Kunkel, in 1681; and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by count Lauraguais, same year ; and hj-driotic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. Phosphoric ether was obtained by M. Boullay, The discovery that by inhaling ether the patient is rendered unconscious of pain is due to Dr. Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, Mass. Thomas Morton, of the same place, first introduced it into surgical practice, under dr. Jackson's directions (1846). Amylene, Chloroform. The term '* ether " was applied to a transparent and extremely sparse fluid, supposed to fill celestial space b}- the German as- tronomer Encke, about 1829, when studying the elements of Pons's comet, discovered in 1818. ethics (Gr. T^OtKa, term for morals). Pythagoras, 500 B.C., was the first of the Greeks who recognized it as a social force. He was followed by Socrates, 450 b.c. ; Plato, 374 b.c. ; Aristotle, 334 B.c. ; Epicurus, 306 b.c. ; Zeno the Stoic, 290 B.C., and others, each with a different system. Jewish ethics, represented by Moses and the Old Testament; Christian ethics, by the New Testament ; mediaeval, by St. Augustin and Thomas Aquinas; modern, by Grotius, 1583-1645; Hobbes, 1588-1679 ; Descartes, 1595-1650 ; Spinoza, 1632-77 ; Locke, 1632-1704; Leibnitz, 1646-1716; Reid,1710-96: Hume, 1711- 1776 ; Kant, 1724-1804 ; Paley, 1743-1805 ; Bentham, 1747- 1832; Fichte, 1762-1814; Hegel, 1770-1831 ; Schelling, 1775- 1854; Cousin, 1792-1867; Whewell, 1795-1866; Comte, 1798- 1857 •, John Stuart Mill, 1806-73, and others. Philosophy. Ethiopia. The name was applied anciently rather vaguely to countries the inhabitants of which had sunburned complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but applied properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and northern Abyssinia. Many pyr- amids are at Napata,the capital of Meroe, the civilized part of ancient Ethiopia. Egypt. b.c. Ethiopians settle near Egypt 1615 Zerah, the Ethiopian, defe;ited by Asa 941 A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over Egypt 765 to 715 Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, marches against Sennacherib 710 Unsuccessful invasion of Cambyses 52.')-22 Ptolemy III. Euergetes extended conquests in Ethiopia 225 Candace, queen of MeroB, advancing against the Roman settle- a.d. ment of Elephantine, defeated by Petronius 22-23 ethnolog^y, a branch of anthropology, is defined as the science " which determines the distinctive characters of the persistent modifications of mankind, their distribution, and the causes of the modifications and distribution," The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind to each other is of recent origin. Balbi's "Ethnographic Atlas" was published in 1826, and dr. Prichard's great work, " Researches on the Physical History of Mankind," 1841-47. Dr. R. G. La- tham's works appeared in 1851-52. Charles Pickering's " The Races of Men, and Their Geographical Distribution," Phila- delphia, 1848 ; Antoine Desmoulin's " Histoire Naturelle des Races Humaines," Paris, 1826; J. J. Virey's " Histoire Natu- relle du Genre Humain," Paris, 1824; A. de Quatrefages's "Histoire Generale des Races Humaines," Paris, 1887; Nott and Gliddon's " Types of Mankind," 1854, and " Indigenous Races of the Earth," Philadelphia, 1867; Paul Broca's "Me- moires d'Anthropologie," Paris, 1883; Paul Topinard's "£l6- ments d'Anthropologie Generale," Paris, 1885 ; Huxley's " Geo- graphical Distribution of Mankind," London, 1870. The Ethnological Society, England, established in 1843, published transactions. On 17 Jan. 1871, it was amalgamated with the Anthropological Society, and named the Anthropological Insti- tute. Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C, began to pub- lish annual reports, 1879. This bureau is the highest authority on the language, sociology, and customs of the American 1 ETH 271 ETO aborigines. The International Congress of the Ethnographic Sciences met at Paris, 30 Sept. 1889. Many naturalists have attempted to describe the races or varieties into which man is divided ; some resting with the simplest and most palpable differences, others extending the comparisons to the most complex : (1) color; (2) hair; (3) shape of skull and facial angle; (4) features; (6) constitution and character; (6) lan- guage, etc. The following shows the classification of some of the most eminent naturalists. Cuvier: Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian or Negro. Buflfon and Blumenbach : Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, Malayan (this division was long generally accepted). Linnaeus : European or whitish, American or coppery, Asiatic or tawny, Negro or Mack. Dr. Prichard divided them into 7 races; Pickering into 11; Desmoulins, at first into 11, and afterwards 16; dr. La- tham, 3 primary divisions and 16 subdivisions; De Quatre- fages, a single stem with 3 trunks. White, Yellow, and Black; White subdivided into 3 parts. Yellow into 2, and Black into 4, and these again subdivided; Bory de St. Vincent, into 15 ; Nott, 8 families, as also Agassiz ; Huxle}', 2 : 1, Ulotrichi, woolly hair (Negroid); 2, Leiostrichi, smooth hair; subdivided — Australoid, Mongoloid, Hanthrochroic, Melano- chroic. Keith Johnson classifies after Buffon as follows (3 types) : 1. CAUCASIAN. Shemitic, Georgian, Circassian, Armenian, Iranian, Hindu, Gypsies, Celtic, Grecian, Italic, Teutonic, Goths or Germans, Sclavonic. 2. MONGOLIAN (central Asian). Tibetans, Chinese, Burmese, Anamese, Siamese, Cambodians (north- ern Asian), Samoeids, Ostiaks, Yeniseians, Tungus (Turanians), Finns, Lapps, Magyars, Koreans, Japanese, Kamtchatdales, Kor- jaks, Esquimaux, Mongolians, and Turks. Malay (subdivision), Malayan, Polynesian, Papuan, Australian. American (subdivision), includes all Indians in North and South America. 3. ETHIOPIAN. All the inhabitants ot Africa. Subdivisions : Kaffirs, Hottentots, tribes of northern Africa (partially Caucasian), Berbers, Copts,' Nubians, Gallas, Abyssinians, etc. Language. TABLE OF RACES (after Brinton's classification). Race. Traits. Branch. stock. Groups or Peopleg. Color, white. Hair, wavy. Nose, narrow. 1. South Mediterranean II. North Mediterranean.... Hamitic (1. Libyan. ^2. Egyptian. (3. East African. (1. Arabian. {2. Abyssinian. (3. Chaldean. Euskarian Eurafrican. Semitic. ( Enskaric } Aryac Indo-Germanic or Cellindic Peoples of the Caucasus. Color, black or dark. Hair, frizzly. Nose, broad. Negrillo.... ( Central African \ South African f Nilotic Dwarfs of the Congo. Bushmen, Hottentots. II. Negro 1 Austafrican. Senegambian I Nubian. III. Negroid J Bantu Kaffirs, Congo tribes, etc. Color, yellow or olive. Hair, straight. Nose, medium. I. Sinitic (Chinese . . . Chinese \ Tibetan (Indo-Chinese II. Sibiric Burmese, Siamese, Anamese, etc. Manchus, Tungus. Mongols, Kalmucks. Turks, Cossacks. Finns, Magyars. Chukchis Ainos Tartaric 1 Finnic Arctic Japanic Japanese, Koreans. Color, coppery. Hair, straight or wavy. Nose, medium. \ Atlantic Tinneh, Algonkin, Iroquois. ( Pacific II. Central Chi nooks, Koloshes, etc. Naliuas Tarascos American. i Mexican 1 Isthmian Mayas, Chapanecs. Caribs, Arawaks, Tupis. Chibehas, Quichuas. III. Southern ( Atlantic {pacific Color, dark. Hair, wavy or frizzly. Nose, medium or narrow. I. Negritic ... . (Negrito Mincopies, Aetas. New (juineans J Papuan (Melanesian ( Malayan Insular and littoral 11. Feegeeans, etc. Malayan, Tagalas. peoples. ( Polynesian III. ethyl, a compound radical, a colorless gas, with a slightly ethereal odor, a compound of carbon and hydrogen, first ob- tained in the free state by prof. Edward Frankland in 1849. Several of its compounds with metals take fire on exposure to the air. Etna, Mount, Sicily. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclopes, and it is called by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 B.C., and Thucydides speaks of 3 eruptions as occurring 734, 477, and 425 B.C. There were eruptions, 125, 121, and 43 B.c.—Livy. Volcanoes. Eruptions, 40, 254, and 420 a. d. — Carrera. One in 1012.— Geoffrey de Viterbo. One overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabitants perished. . 1169 Eruptions, 1329, 1408, 1445, 153(5, 1537, 1564, et seq. In 1669, tens of thousands of persons perished in streams of lava which rolled along for 40 days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in May, 1830, when sev- eral villages were destroyed, and showers of ashes reached near to Rome. Town of Bronte was destroyed 18 Nov. 1832 Violent eruption occurred Aug. and Sept. 1852 An eruption began 1 Feb., and ceased July, 1865 Violent eruption began 28 Nov. 1868 Another eruption began 29 Aug. 1874 Violent eruption 26 May-7 June, 1879 Eruption, severe 31 May, 1886 Another July, 1892 Eton college, Buckinghamshire, Engl., founded by Henry VI. in 1440, and designed as a nursery to King's col- lege, Cambridge. " Ye distant spires, ye antique towers That crown the watery glade. Where grateful Science still adores Her Henry's holy shade." — Gray, "Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College." John Stanbery, confessor to Henry VI. (bishop of Bangor, in 1448), was nominated the first provost. One of the pro- vosts, William Waynflete (bishop of Winchester, 1447), greatly promoted the erection of the buildings. Besides about 300 noblemen's and gentlemen's sons, there were 70 king's scholars on the foundation, who, when properly quali- fied, were formally elected, on the first Tuesday in August, to King's college, Cambridge, and removed there when there were vacancies,, according to seniority. The establishment of the montem is nearly coeval with the college. It consisted in the procession of the scholars, arrayed in fancy dresses, to Salt-hill ETR 272 EVE once in 3 years; the donatiuiis cullccted on the road (some- times as much as 800/.) were given to the senior or best scholar, their captain, for his 8up|H)rt at Cambridge. The montem was disconlinuetl in 1847. The college system was modified by the Public Schools act, 1868. In 1873 the practice of elect- ing students to King's college, Cambridge, ceased, the scholars to be students at Cambridge being chosen there. In 1880 there were 853 students. Etril'ria or TllMCia (hence the modern name Tus- cany), a province of Italy, whence the Romans derived many laws, customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the country was conquered by a colony of Lydians. Its subjuga- tion forms an important part of early Roman history. It was most powerful under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted to reinstate the Tarquins, 506 b.c. Veii was taken by Camillus, 396 B.C. A truce between the Romans and Etrurians for 40 years was concluded, 351 b.c. The latter were defeated at the Vadimonian lake, 310, with the Boii, their allies, 283 B.C., ami lost tiieir independence about 265 n.c. Vases and other works of the Etruscans still remaining show their civilization. Napoleon I. established a kingdom of Etruria, 1801, and sup- pressed it 1807. Tuscany. " The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria," by (ieorge Dennis, pub. 1848 and 1878. — Etruria, Staffordshire, Engl., the site of Josiah Wedgwood's porcelain works, etc., was founded in 1771. EubOB'a, the largest Lsland in the iEgean sea. Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 506 b.c, and the latter by the Persians, 490. After the Persian war Euboea became wholly subject to Athens, and was its most valuable possession. It revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles, After the battle of Chaeronea, 338, it became subject to Macedon. It was made independent by the Romans in 194; but was afterwards incorporated in the prov- ince of Achaia. It now forms part of the kingdom of Greece. Eucalyp'tUS glob'ulu§, or blue-gum-tree, a very fast-growing Tasmanian evergreen, of the order Myrtacece. From the extraordinary power of its roots to absorb moisture, and the salutary aromatic odor of its leaves, it has been found highly beneficial in counteracting the malaria of marshy dis- tricts of hot climates, and hence has been named the fever- destroying tree. M. Ramel (d. 1881) first sent seeds from Melbourne to Paris in 1854, and subsequently seeds were dis- tributed over the south of Europe, the north and south of Africa, and elsewhere. So rapid is the growth of this tree that a forest may be formed in 20 years. It sometimes reaches the height of 350 feet, with a circumference of 100 feet, rivalling Wellingtonia gigantea. Timber, bark, and oils of the eucalyptus are highly valuable, and prof. Bentley says that the genus is one of the most important to man in the vegetable kingdom. In 1874 its medicinal value was said to have been exaggerated. Enchari§t, thanksgiving, an early name for the Lord's supper. Sacrament. Euclid's " Elements." Euclid, a native of Alex- andria, Egypt, flourished about 300 b.c. The " Elements " are not wholly original; many of the demonstrations were derived from Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others. Euclid reduced them to order, and probably inserted many theorems of his own. The " Elements" were first printed at Basle by Simon Grynaeus, in 1533. eildiom'eter, an apparatus to ascertain the purity of air, or the quantity of oxygen gas in it ; one was invented by dr. Priestley in 1772. Eug^ubine tables, 7 tablets of brass, probable date about 400 B.C. (with inscriptions relating to sacrifices, etc. — 4 in Umbrian, 2 in Latin, and one partly in both dialects), were discovered in 1444 at Gubbio, the ancient Eugubium, or Iguvi- um. The inscriptions are accurately given by Lepsius, in his *' Inscriptiones Umbricae et Oscae," 1841. eunucllS, first mentioned among the Egyptians and Assyrians, are said to have been first employed bj- Semiramis, queen of Assyria, about 2007 b.c. Eunuchs frequently at- tained to political power in the later Eastern empire. eu'pllllisill, an affected style of language, prevalent in the time of Elizabeth, arose from " Euphues ; the Anatomy of Wit," by John Lyly, pub. 1581. Eurasian plain, the great central plain of Europe and Asia, so named by ethnologists (1865). Ethnology. Europe, the smallest of 3 continents of the old world, really an appendage of Asia ; area, nearly 3,800,000 sq. miles; pop. 1872, 301,700,000; 1891, 380,000,000. For the history, Gkkeck, Romk, and the modern kingdoms. Euryni'edon, a river in Pamphylia, near which Cimon, son of Miltiades, destroyed the fleet of the Persians at Cyprus, and defeated their land forces, 466 b.c. Eusta'tiUS, St., a West India island, settled by the Dutch, 1632; taken by the French in 1689; by the British in 1690; again by the British forces under Rodney and Vaughan, 3 Feb. 1781. It was recovered by the French under the mar- quess de Bouille, 26 Nov. same year ; recaptured by the Brit- ish, 1801, 1810 ; restored to the Dutch, 1814. Euta^lV Springes, Battle of. One of the most san- guinary battles of the American Revolution was fought at Eu- taw Springs, near the Santee river, in South Carolina, on 8 Sept. 1781. The Americans were commanded by gen. Greene, and the British by col. Stewart. The conflict was indecisive. Stewart kept the field, but at night retreated towards Charles- ton. Next morning Greene took possession of the battle- ground, and sent detachments in pursuit. Congress presented a gold medal and a British flag then captured to Greene, in appreciation of his valor. American ,loss in killed, wounded, and missing, 555. British loss, 693. United States. Euty'cllians, from Eutyches, an abbot of Constanti- nople, who asserted in 446 that there was but one nature in Christ, the human having been absorbed in the divine. This doctrine was condemned by a council at Constantinople in 448, and at Chalcedon in 451. It has been also called Mono- physite (of one nature), and Jacobite, from Jacobus Baradaeus, its zealous defender in the 6th century. It is the form of Christianity among the Copts and Armenians. Eux'ine. Black sea. Evang^elical (Gr. EvayysXiov, good news), of or per- taining to the gospel of Jesus Christ, and specifically applied in England to a portion of the clergy of the Anglican church (also called the low church), who profess to preach the gospel more purely than their brethren termed the high-church party. Church of England. Evangelical Alliance was founded by sir Culling Eardle^ Smith and others at Liverpool in 1845, to promote unity among Protes- tants against Romanism and infidelity. It holds annual meetings. It met in Sept. 1857, at Berlin, where it was well received by the king. The 19th meeting was held at Hull, 3 Oct. 1865; the 20th at Bath, 16 Oct. 1866; the 21st at Amsterdam, Aug. 1867; at Derby, 23-28 Nov. 1869. Lord Ebury presided at a day of united prayer for the issue of the general election about to take place. 1 Oct. 1868. The proposed conference at New York in Sept. 1870, de- ferred on account of the Franco-Prussian war, took place Oct. 1873. The Alliance met at Geneva, 23-28 Sept. 1872; at Brighton, 22-24 Apr. 1873; at Oxford, 29 Aug. 1874; at Constantinople, Mch. 1875; at Southport, 3 Oct. 1876; at Oxford, 25 Oct. 1877; at Basle, 2 Sept. ; and at Edinburgh, 28 Oct. 1879. "Evangelical church" in Germany began with a fusion of the Lutherans and Calvinists in Nassau in 1817; followed by similar movements in different parts of Germany, 1818-22. Evangelical Association or Albreclit Brethren. A sect founded by rev. Jacob Albrecht or Albright, a German Lutheran of Pennsylvania, in 1803. They held their first conference in 1807, and soon after adopted the name of Die evangelische Gemeinschaft von Nord Amerika. Their first general conference was held in 1816. In doctrine they are Arminian. They have a college at Plainfield, III., and a publishing house at Cleveland, 0.,with a branch at Stuttgart, Germany. Their strength in 1890 was: 26 conferences and mis- sions, 1845 preachers, 145,703 members, and 1958 churches. Evangelists, preachers of the "gospel," or good news. Gospels. Eves'ham, a town of Worcestershire, Engl., where prince P^dward, afterwards Edward I., defeated the barons headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, 4 Aug. 1265, when the earl, his son Henry, and most of his adherents were slain. Henry III., when about to be cut down by a soldier who did not know him, was saved by exclaiming, " Do not kill me, soldier; I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This vic- tory broke up the combination of the barons. EVO evolution theory includes the nebular theory and Darwin's doctrine of natural selection. Development, Pro- <}RESSIONISTS. In 1«V7, 3 forms of evolution were discussed:—!. That of all animals gradually from the lowest form, the amoeba, up to man, in con- trast with the Biblical account of the creation; 2. that of every animal from protoplasm in a cell, or egg; 3. that of all the parts of an animal from its blood. exarcllS, appointed by the Byzantine emperors of the east, to govern central Italy after its conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548. They ruled Ravenna from 668 to 752, when Eutychus, the last, was overcome by Astolphus the Lom- bard. exchangee, formerly bourse, the Royal Exchange being "Britain's Burse;" that at Paris is still named La Bourse, from bursa, a purse. One called Collegium Mercatorvni existed at Rome, 493 b,c. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind in the world. The Stock ex- change of New York occupies a marble building on Wall street and numbers 1100 members, with a membership fee or seat at a cost of -$24,000. The Produce exchange has a membership of 3000, and the Consolidated Stock and Petroleum exchange a membership of 2362. There are also a Cotton exchange, a Coffee exchange, etc. exclieq'lier, an ancient institution of England, consist- ing of officers with financial and judicial functions; the chan- cellor of the exchequer, the financial officer, formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Fauconbridge, bishop of London, in the reign of Henry IIL, about 1221. Sir Robert Walpole was the last chancellor of the exchequer who acted judicially (1735). The legal function of the chancellor was abolished by the Judica- ture act, Aug. 1873. CHANCELLORS OF THE EXCHEQUER. Henry Addington (afterwards lord Sidmouth) 21 Mch. 1801 William Pitt (premier) 16 May, 1804 Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lansdowne). . 10 Feb. 1806 Spencer Perceval . . .31 Mch. 1807 Prem'er 6 Dec. 1809; assassinated 11 May, 1812 Nicholas Vansittart (afterwards lord Bexley) 9 June, " Fred. J. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich and earl of Ripon), 31Jan. 1823 ■George Canning (premier) Apr. 1827 John C. Herries 17 Aug. " Henry Goulburn 26 Jan. 1828 Viscount Al thorp (afterwards earl Spencer) 22 Nov. 1830 Sir Robert Peel (premier). 10 Dec. 1834 Thomas Spring Rice (afterwards lord Monteagle) 18 Apr. 1835 Francis T. Baring (afterwards baronet) 26 Aug. 1839 Henrv Goulburn 3 Sept. 1841 Charles Wood (afterwards baronet, lord Halifax, 1866). .6 July, 1846 Benjamin Disraeli (afterwards lord Beaconsfield) 21 Feb. 1852 William Ewart Gladstone 28 Dec. " Sir George Cornewall Lewis 5 Mch. 1855 Benjamin Disraeli, again 27 Feb. 1858 William Ewart Gladstone, again June, 1859 Benjamin Disraeli, again 6 July, 1866 George Ward Hunt 29 Feb. 1868 Robert Lowe 9 Dec. " William Ewart Gladstone (and premier) Aug. 1873 Sir Stafford Northcote 21 Feb. 1874 William Ewart Gladstone (and premier) 28 Apr. 1880 Hugh Culling E. Childers Dec. 1882 Sir Michael Hicks- Beach 24 June, 1885 Sir William V. Harcourt 6 Feb. 1886 Lord Randolph Henry Spencer Churchill (resigned). . .26 July, " George J. Goschen 3 Jan. 1887 Sir William V. Harcourt 18 Aug. 1892 Exchequer, Court of {CuHa Regis), instituted by William L on the model of the transmarine exchequer of Normandy, in 1079 ; according to some authorities by Henry L It included the common pleas until they were separated (16 John, 1215). — Cohe's Reports. The exchequer was St) named from a checkered cloth which anciently covered the table where the judges and chief officers sat. Here are tried causes relating to the king's revenue; to accounts, disbursements, customs, and fines imposed, as well as all matters at common- law between subject and subject. The j udges are stj'led barons, first appointed in 1234. There are a chief and 4 puisne barons, the fifth judge having been added 23 July, 1830. excise. The system was established in England by the Long Parliament in 1643, duties being levied on wines, beer, etc., and tobacco, to support the army against Charles I. It was continued under Charles 11. The present system was EXE eriScted about 1733. The old excise office was built on the ! site of Gresham college in 1744; the present is at Somerset i house. The officers of excise and customs were deprived of I votes, for members to Parliament in 1782, but received them again in 1868. In 1849 the boards of excise, stamps, and taxes, were united as "the board of commissioners of inland revenue." Notwithstanding the abolition of the excise duty upon numerous articles, and the reduction of duty upon various others of late years, the total excise revenue has progressively' advanced. Additional excise duties were charged by 17 and 18 Vict. c. 27, 3 July, 1854. The excise duties were further modified in 1860. Revenue. For the United States, Cus- toms, Revenue. REVENUE from EXCISE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 1786 £5,540,114 1308 19,867,914 1820 26,364,702 1830 18,644,385 1840 12,607,766 1850 £15,278,203 I860 20,240,467 1870 21,879,238 1880 25,218,303 1890 24,723,917 exeoininilllication, or separation from Christian communion (Matt, xviii. 17; 1 Cor. v., etc.), was instituted to preserve the purity of the church. The Roman church ex- communicated by Bell, Book, and Candle. Interdict. Gregory VIL excommunicated the emperor Henry IV., and absolved his subjects from their allegiance 1077 Innocent III. excommunicated John of England, placing the country under an interdict 1208-14 Gregory IX. excommunicated the emperor Frederick II. 4 times, between 1228-45 Louis XII. of France was excommunicated by Julius II. 1510; Luther by Loo X. 1521; Henry VIIL of England by Paul IIL in 1535; and Elizabeth by Pius V 25 Apr. 1570 Emperor of France, king of Sardinia, and others were virtually excommunicated (but not by name) on account of the annex- ation of the Romagna by Sardinia 29 Mch. 1860 executioni. In the reign of Henry VIIL (38 years), it is said that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were ex- ecuted.— 5/ow;. In the 10 years between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in England alone 797 criminals; but as laws were mitigated the number of executions decreased. In the 3 years ending 1820, the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312; in the 3 years ending 1830, they were 178 ; in the 3 years ending 1840, they were 62. In England from 1850-60, 93 executions; from 1860-70, 136; from 1870-80, 163. The place of execution in London (formerly generally at Tyburn) was in front of Newgate from 1783 to 1868, when an act directed executions to take place within the walls of prisons. The dissection of bodies of executed crim- inals was abolished in 1832. John Calcraft, born 1800, exe- cutioner for London, 1828-74, died 13 Dec. 1879. — For re- markable executions, Trials. — In the United States the legal executions reported for 1891 were 123 — 52 white, 65 negroes, 1 Mexican, 4 Indians, and 1 Japanese. The lynch- ings reported were 195, all in the western and southern states (Alabama reporting 26 and Mississippi 23). Of these 121 were negroes and 69 were white, with a few Indians, Chinese, and Mexicans. Of the 195, 6 were women. Crime, Death. Exeter, a town of Devonshire, Engl., said to have been named A ugusta from having been occupied by the second Augus- tan legion com manded by Vespasian ; its present name is derived from Excestre. It was for a considerable time the capital of the West Saxon kingdom. The bishopric anciently comprised 2 sees — Devonshire (founded about 909) and Cornwall. The church of the former was at Crediton, of the latter at Bodmin, and afterwards at St. German's. About 1040 the sees were united. St. Petroc was the first bishop of Cornwall, before 900; Eadulphus, the first bishop of Devonshire, 905 ; and Leofric, the first bishop of Exeter, in 1049. The cathedral originally belonged to a monastery founded by Athelstan; Edward the Confessor removed the monks to his new abbey of Westminster, and gave their church for a cathedral to the united see, 1049. Alfred invested the city, held by the Danes, and compelled them to capitulate 877, 894 Exeter sacked by Sweyn , 1003 Besieged by William the Conqueror 1067 Castle surrendered to king Stephen 1136 City first governed by a mayor 1200 Celebrated nunnery founded 1236 Ancient bridge built 1250 Edward I. holds a parliament here 1286 Besieged by sir William Courtenay 1469 EXE 274 EXP city assaulted by Perkin Warbeck 1497 Exeter constiluled a county of itself. 1536 Welsh, viair of St. Thomas's, hanged on the tower of his church as a Cornish rebel 2 July, 1549 Prince Maurice takes Kxeter for king Charles I Sept. 1(>43 It surrenders to the parliamentarians Apr. 1(>46 Exeter college, Oxford, Engl., was founded by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter, in 1314. The buildings are mainly a quadrangle in the later Gothic style. Exeter liall, Strand, London, erected in 1830-31 for the meetings of religious and philanthropic institutions, con- certs, oratorios, and musical societies, a large apartment with orchestra and organ, and rooms attached for committees, etc., opened 29 Mch. 1881. Music. Religious services were held here in 1856 by rev. C. Spurgeon, and in 1857 by ministers of the church of England, on Sundays. Hall was purchased for the Young Men's Christian Association for 25,000/., July, 1880; reopened (jubilee) *29 Mch. 1881 exillbitioilii, industrial, began with the French. Expositions having been organized and opened at Paris in 1798, 1801, '02, '06, '19, '23, '27, '34, '39, '44, and '49. The first exhibition of the kind in England was the National Repository, opened under royal patronage in 1828, near Charing Cross. In the Uniteti States at New York in 1853. Crystal Palace. The following is a list of the principal World's Industrial Exhibitions : Place. London New York. . . . Paris. London Pari& Vienna Philadelphia. . Paris: Paria Chicago , Year. 1851 1853 1855 1862 1867 1873 1876 1878 1889 1893 Acres, UuilJiiig. 21 23^5^ 37 40 70.08 60 75>^ 142.12 13,937 4,000 20,839 28,653 50,226 50,000 30,864 40,366 55,000 Visitors. 6,039,195 Open days. 200 171 217 186 159 194 185 158 World's Columbian Exhibition. Exodll§ (Gr.t^o^oc,way out), the departure of the Israel- ites from Egypt,1491 B.C.; and described in the book of Exodus. Chronologers vary in the date of this event: the Septuagint gives 1614; Hales, 1648 ; Wilkinson, 1495; Bunsen, 1320 or 1314. expeditioili. Lat. ex, out, and pes, pedis, foot ; a sending or setting forth of a body of persons on any important enterprise. MILITARY AND NAVAL EXPEDITIONS. ^.C. Jason and the Argonauts in the ship Argo to Colchis 1263 [William Morris' poem " Jason " pub. 1867. Argonauts.] Greek expedition against Troy, and siege 1193-84 [Described in the " Iliad " of Homer. Troy.] Darius Into Greece ; battle of Marathon 29 Sept 490 Xerxes into Greece; battle of Thermopylse. Salamis (naval), I'lataja 480-79 Cyrus against Artaxerxes ; retreat of 10,000 Greeks 401 Alexander the Great into Asia; overthrow of the Persian mon- archy ; battles of Granicus, 3;J4 ; Issus, 333 ; Arbela 331 Hannibal into Italy; battles of Thrasymene, 217 ; Cannas 216- Julius Caesar into Britain ; first, 55; second 64 A.D. Saracens into France ; battle of Tours 10 Oct. 732 Crusades 1096-1291 Kdward III. of England into France; battle of Crecy 1346. Henry V. of England into France; battle of Agincourt 1416 Philip II. of Spain into England ; the Armada 1588 Napoleon into Russia and retreat (Moscow) 1812 British into Abyssinia 1867-68 EXPEDITIONS OF DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION. Egyptian, of Pharaoh-Necho, Phoenician, down the Arabian gulf around the southern extremity of Africa into the Med- iterranean by the strait of Gibraltar, arriving in Egypt after B.C. an interval of about 3 years (Herodotus) 604 Hanno the Carthaginian along the western coast of Africa 570 A.D. Northmen discover Iceland 861 Christopher Columbus discovers America 1492 Vasco de Gama , western coast of Africa, cape of Good Hope, passage to the East Indies 149T Fernando de Magellan's voyage around the world 1520-21 Lewis and Clark, to the mouth of the Columbia river (United States) 1805-6 John C. Fremont, throughout the west to the PaciQc (United States) 1842-46 Lieut. Wilkes, with 6 small vessels of the U. S. navy ( Vincennes, Peacock, Porpoise, Relief , Flying-fish, &nA Sea-gull), sails from Hampton Roads, Va., to explore the southern seas, 19 Aug. 1838 They discover an antarctic continent 19 July, 1839 Peacock lost on the bar at the mouth of the Columbia river, July, 1841 Vincennes, Wilkes's flag-ship, returns to New York after an ab- sence of almost 4 years June, 1842 [Wilkes's "Narrative" was pub. in 6 vols, illustrated. The scientific reports form 20 quarto and folio vols.] Voyage of the British steamer Challenger to examine into the physical and biological condition of the great ocean basins and oceanic currents (Deep-sea soundings) 1872 EXPEDITIONS OF SEARCH AND RELIEF. In search of sir John Franklin 1848-60 Henry M. Stanley in search of David Livingstone (Africa) 1872 Engineer Melville in search of the survivors of the U. S. yacht Jeannette 24 Mch. 1882 Commander W. S. Schley in search of lieut. A. Greely (North- east and Northwest passage) 1884 Henry M. Stanley to relieve Emin Pacha 1887-90 For minor expeditions, America, Northeast and Northwest passage, and separate governments throughout the work. expenditures of the United States. The principal objects of expenditure in the U. S. are civil, army, navy, Ind- ians, pensions, interest. Premiums on bonds purchased were also quite an important source of expenditure during the years 1867-74, and 1889-91. EXPENDITURE FOR EACH OF THE YEARS NAMED, AND THEREFROM ITS GENERAL INCREASE. Ye.,. Civil and Miscellaneoas. War. Navy. Indians. Pensions. Premiums. Interest. Total. 1789-91 $1,083,972 $632,804 $27,000 $175,814 $1,177,863 $3,097,453 1800 1,337,613 2,560,879 $3,448,716 31 64, 131 .... 3,402,601 10,813,971 1810 1,101,145 2,294,324 1,654,244 177,625 83,744 .... 3,163,671 8,474,753 1820 2,592,022 2,630,392 4,387,990 315,750 3,208,376 .... 5,151,004 18,285,534 1830 3,237,416 4,767.129 3,239,429 622,262 1,363,297 1,912,575 15,142,108 1840 5.995,399 7,096,267 6,113,897 2,331,795 2,603,562 174,598 24,314,518 1850 16,043,763 9,687,025 7,904,725 1,663,591 1,866,886 .... 3,782,393 40,948,383 1860 27,977,978 16,472,203 11,514,650 2,991,122 1,100,802 3,144,121 63,200,876 1866 42,989,383 1,030,690,400 122,617,434 5,059,360 16,347,621 1,717,900 77,395,090 1,296,817,188 1870 53,237,462 57,656,675 21,780,230 3,407,938 28,340,202 15,996,556 129,235,498 309,653,561 1880 54,713,530 38,116,916 13,536,985 5,945,457 56,777,174 2,795,320 95,757,575 267,642,958 1890 81,403,256 44,582,838 22,006,206 6,708,047 106,936,855 20,304,244 36,099,284 318,040,711 TOTAL EXPENDITURES FROM 1789 TO 1891 INCLUSIVE. I 2,368,670,150 ] 4,777,863,340 | 1,207,598,473 | 264,471,240 | 1,373,889,939 | 122,902,713 | 2,682,025,768 \ 12,797,421,623 As there was no national debt in 1836-37 there was no interest — the only years without interest. The expenditures for the United Kingdom of Great Britain show as follows for the years given — gross amount. 1860 £69,502,289 1865 66,462,207 1870 68,864,752 1875 74,328,040 1880 : 84,105,754 1887 90,869,282 1891 87,377,000 Revenue. explosives. Blasting, Dualine, Dynamite, Gel- atine, Glyoxiline, Gun-cotton, Gunpowder, Lithofrac- TEUR, NiTRO-GLYCERINE, CtC. exports, United States. Specie vahie, from 1790. Domestic * Domestic Merchandise. Gold and Silver, 1790 $19,666,000 1800 31,840,906 1810 42,366,675 1820 51,683,640 1830 58,524,878 $937,151 1840 111,660,561 2,235,073 1850 134,900,233 2,046,679 1860 356,242,423 56,946,851 1870 455,208.341 43,883.803 1880 823,946,353 9,347,893 1890 '. 845,293,828 35,782,181 I EXP 275 FAI The greatest amount of domestic merchandise exported in any one year was in 1881, amounting to $883,925,94:7. The greatest amount of gold and silver, in 1875, $83,857,129, and in 1889, $80,214,994. The percentage of exported agricultural products was, in 1860, 81.13- 1870, 79.35; 1880, 83.25; 1890, 74.51 of the whole amount. The exports of the U. S. to the principal foreign countries were, to (1880 $453,796,497 \ 1890 447,895,662 ( 1880 57,062,263 1 1890 85,563.312 (1880 100,063,044 1 1890 49,977,024 (1880 30,775,871 U890 41,503,812 (1880 34,154,180 11890 26,630,444 (1880 17,207,098 11890 22,657,795 (1880 14,657,884 \ 1890 12,758,463 ( 1880 12,352,642 |l890 13,068,096 (1880 11,225.699 U890 13,084,415 (1880 7,866,493 \1890 13,285,287 ia, Brazil, and Japan. AMOUNT OF DOMESTIC EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM. Great Britain Germany France Canada Belgium Netherlands Spain Italy Cuba .. Mexico The next in order are Austral Exports to Foreign Countries. Exports to British Colonies. Exports. Totals. 1856-60) average ) £84,000,000 £40,000,000 £124,000,000 1861-65) average ) 97,000,000 47,000,000 144,000,000 1866-70 1 average j 137,000,000 51,000,000 188,000,000 1871-75 ) average J 175,000,000 64,000,000 239,000,000 1876-80) average f 134,000,000 67,000,000 201,000,000 1881-85 ) average j 151,000,000 81,000,000 282,000,000 1886-90) average } 155,000,000 81,000,000 236,000,000 Imports. Elxtradition, Treaty of. Treaties on the subject of criminals arise from the universal practice of nations to sur- render criminals only under special treaty with the country which claims them. Treaties of this character have been made between the United States and Great Britain, 9 Aug. 1842 ; with France, 9 Nov. 1843; and later supplemented Switzer- land, 25 Nov. 1850 ; Austria, 3 July, 1856 ; Sweden and Nor- way, 21 Mch. 1860; Mexico, 11 Dec. 1861; Italy, 23 Mch. 1868, and later; Ottoman empire, 5 Jan. 1877. In the treaty with Belgium, 1882, attempted assassination of a ruler made an extraditable offence; treaty with Spain, 1887; with Uru- guay, 1887, with Prussia, 1892, and others. The crimes for which extradition is usually granted are forgery, burglary, embezzlement, counterfeiting, grand larceny, manslaughter, murder, perjury, rape, and other felonies. In modern states, particularly in England and the U. S., political offences have always been excepted from extradition. Great Britain refused to surrender Ezra D. Winslow, of Boston, who, charged with forgery, escaped to London, 1872, unless it was agreed that the prisoner should be tried only for that offence, according to the treaty. Mr. Fish, the secretary of state, stood on the Ashbur- ton treaty of 1842. The British government yielded, 27 Oct. 1876. William M. Tweed escaped from New York to Spain, was arrested there, and returned to the U. S., although there was no extradition treaty between the couittries, Sept. 1876. Difficulty arose with Mexico, 1877, regarding the pursuit of criminals across the border. The Sicilian bandit Randazzo was captured in New Orleans, 1881, and taken to New York, whence he was extradited on the requisition of the Italian government. extreme unetion. Anointing. Eyiau, a town of E. Prussia, where, on 7-8 Feb. 1807, the French defeated the Russians in a bloody contest. Napoleon commanded in person. Both armies, by this and other battles, were so much reduced that the French retired to the Vistula and the Russians on the Pregel. Fa'bii. A noble family of Rome, the name said to come from faba, a bean, because their ancestors cultivated beans; or from Fabuis, a son of Hercules. They made war against the people of Veil, and near the Cremera all the grown-up males of the family (306 men) were slain in a sudden attack, 477 b.c. From one, Q. Fabius Vibulanus, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, arose the noble Fabii of the following ages. Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, a celebrated general of Rome, successfully opposed Hannibal, 216 B.C. He devised a system of defensive warfare since known as " Fabian," and was him- self called Cunctator, the delayer. f*able§. " Jotham's fable of the trees (Judg. ix., about 1209 B.C.) is the oldest extant, and as beautiful as any made since." — A ddison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii., about 1034 B.C.) is next in antiquity. The oldest collection of fables is of Eastern origin, and in Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, or Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world. — Sir- William Jones. Prof. Max Miiller traced La Fontaine's fable of the " Milkmaid" to the early Sanscrit, ^sop's fables, dated about 565 or 620 B.C., were versified by Babrius, a Greek poet, about 130 b.c. (Coray), and rewritten in prose by Maximus Planudes, a Greek monk, about 1320, who added other fables and a worth- less life of JEiSop. The fables of Phsedrus, in Latin iambics (about 8 A.D,), of La Fontaine (1700), and of Gay (1727), are esteemed. facial ang^le (contained by a line from the middle of the ear to the edge of the nostrils, and another thence to the ridge of the frontal bone) was devised by Peter Camper to measure the elevation of the forehead. In negroes this angle is about 70°; in Europeans varies from 75° to 85°. Camper died 7 Apr. 1789. His book on " Characteristic Marks of Coun- tenance" was pub. 1791. factions of the circus, among the Romans, were parties of racers with chariots in the circus, distinguished by colors, as green, blue, red, and white ; Domitian added gold and scar- let, about 90 A.D. In Jan. 532, an insurrection occurred at Con- stantinople, called the Nika sedition, which lasted 5 daj''s, about 30,000 lives were lost, and Justinian was indebted for his life and throne to the heroism of his empress Theodora. The blues and greens (political parties named for the colors worn in the races of the circus) united for a day or two against the emperor, taking Nika! (conquer) for a watchword. 'J'he blues soon turned, and massacred the greens. The conflict was suppressed by Belisarius with difficulty, and the games were abolished for a time. Described fully by the contem- porary historian Procopius ; briefly in Gibbon's " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Faen'za, a city of central Italy, the ancient Faventia, submitted to the emperor Frederick I., 1162; was taken by Frederick II.,.12 Apr. 1241; held by the pope, 1275; by the Bolognese, 1282 ; by Caesar Borgia, 1501 ; by Venice, 1504 ; by the papacy, 1509 ; by the French, 1512. After various changes early in the 16th century it was held by the papacy till the annexation by Sardinia, 1859. Hence Faience pottery is named, first made here. "Faerie Qlieene," by Edmund Spenser; a part was pub. in England in 1590; the whole, 1611. Fahrenheit. Thermometer. Faineants (fa-na-on'). Mayors of the palace. Fairlop oak, with a trunk 48 feet in circumference, the growth of 5 centuries, in Hainault forest, Essex, Engl., was blown down in Feb. 1820. Beneath its branches an annual fair was long held on the 1st Friday in July, founded by the eccentric Mr. Day, a pump and block maker of Wapping, who, 276 FAI having a small estate in the vicinity, annually came here with friends to dine on beans and bacon. Fair Oaks, near Richmond, Va., the site of an inde- cisive battle between confederates, under gen. Joseph E. Johns- ton, and a part of the army of the Potomac,31 May and I June, 18G2. Peninsular campaign, Vikgini a. fHirs and wakCH were instituted in Italy about 600 ; in England by Alfred, 886. — Spelman. At wakes, established by (Jregory VII. in 1078, and termed /ena, monks celebrated the fostival of their patron saint : the concourse of people oc- casioned a great demand for goods. Fairs were established in France about 800 by Charlemagne, and encouraged in England about 1071 by William the Conqueror. Many stat- utes were made for the regulation of fairs (1328-1868). The "Fairs act," passed 25 May, 1871, abolishes fairs; in 1872, Charlton and Blackheath fairs, and in 1873 Clapham fair, were abolished as nuisances.— In the United States the terra fair has mostly lost its Old World meaning, and is applied to in- dustrial exhibitions, including township, county, and state fairs. Certain state fairs have assumed an importance almost national. W^orld's Columbian Exhibition. falconry, or liawking, the use of trained birds of prey in the pursuit of smaller game, in England cannot be traced with certainty before the reign of king Ethelbert, the Saxon monarch, 858,— Pennant. The grand seignior at one time kept 6000 falconers in his service. Juliana Berners's book on "Hawkynge and Huntynge" was printed in 1496. Angling. Recent attempts have been made in England to revive falconry. Hawking was practised in Thrace.—^ ristotle. FalCZi {fal'-skee), a town on the Pruth, Turkey. Here was concluded a peace between Russia and Turkey, 21 July, 1711, the Russians giving up Azof, and all possessions on the Black sea, to the Turks. The Russians were saved from de- struction by the address of Catherine, the empress. In 1712 the war was renewed, until the peace of Constantinople, 16 Apr. 1712. Faler'ii, a city of the Falisci, Etruscans who joined the Veil against Rome, and were beaten by Cornelius Cossus, 437 B.C. When the city was besieged by Camillus in 394, a school- master offered to betray the children of the principal citizens into his hands. On his refusal, the citizens from gratitude surrendered. They opposed Rome in the first Punic war ; and in 241 the city was taken and destroyed. Falernian YFine, celebrated by Virgil and Horace, was the produce of Falernus, or, as called by Martial, Mons Massicus, in Campania. Horace, in his ode " Ad Amphoram " — "To a jar of wine" — probably 31 b.c., speaks of the wine as born with him in the consulate of Manlius Torquatus, " nata mecum Consule Afanlio," which makes its age 34 years, as Horace was born 65 b.c. Falkirk, a town of Stirlingshire, Scotland, the site of a victory by the English under Edward I. over the Scots, under Wallace, part of whose forces deserted. It is said from 20,000 to 40,000 Scots were slain, 22 July, 1298. In a battle at Fal- kirk muir royal forces under Hawley were defeated by prince Charles Edward Stuart, 17 Jan. 1746. Falkland islands, a group in the South Atlantic, about 100 in number (the 2 principal being East and West Falkland), between lat. 51° and 52° S., and Ion. 57° and 62° W., belonging to Great Britain, seen by Americus Vespucius, 1502, and visited by Davis, 1592 ; explored by Hawkins, 1594 ; seized by France, 1764. The French were expelled by the Spaniards ; and in 1771 Spain yielded to England. The republic of Buenos Ayres afterwards claimed the islands, and a colony from that country settled at Port Louis; but in a dispute with the U. S. the settlement was destroyed in 1831. In 1833 the British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a British officer has since resided there. Area of East Falkland 3000 sq. miles, and of West Falkland 2300 sq. miles; of the whole group 6500 sq. miles. Pop. 1893 about 2000. famines. The famine of the 7 years in Egypt began 1708 B.C. — Usher, Blair. b c At Rome, thousands threw themselves into the Tiber 436 A.D. Awful in Egypt 42 At Rome, attended by plague 262 FAS In Britain ; people ate the bark of trees 272 lu Scotlaud ; thousands died 306 lu Kugland ; 40,000 perished 310 Awful iu I'hrygiii. 370 In Italy, parents ate their children {Dufresnoy) 450 In England, Wales, and Scotland 739 Again, when thousands starve 823 Again, which lasts 4 years 954 Awful throughout Europe 1016 In England, 21 William 1 1087 In England and France, followed by pestilential fever 1193-95 Again in England 1251 Again, people devoured horses, dogs, cats, and vermin 1315 Occasioned by long rains 1336 In -England and France (Rapin) 1353 Again, bread made from fern-roots {Slow) 1438 Throughout Britain 1565 Awful in France ( Voltaire) 1693 General in Britain 1748 Devastates Bengal 1771 At Cape Verd; 16,000 persons perish 1775 Grievous in France; hastened the French revolution 1789 Severe in England 1795 Throughout Britain 1801 At Drontheim, Sweden intercepting the supplies 1813 Scarcity of food for Irish poor, 1814,'16, '22, '31, '46, by failure of the potato crop. Grants by Parliament, to relieve suffer- ing, made in 1847, in all $50,000,000. In N. W. India; above 800,000 perish 1837-38 In N. W. India; thousands perish 1860-61 In Bengal and Orissa; about 1,000,000 perish 1865-66 In Rajpootana, etc. ; about 1,500,000 perish 1868-69 In Persia very severe 1871-72 In Bengal, through drought (India) 1874 In Asia Minor 1774-76 In Bombay, Madras, Mysore, etc. ; about 500,000 perish (India, Mansion-hocse) 187.7 In N. China; very severe; 9,500,000 said to have perished ($225,000 collected in England for relief) 1877-78 In Cashmere 1879 Very severe in Tauris, etc., in Asia Minor July, 1880 Very severe in Russia 1891-92 fan. Used by the ancients ; Cape hoc flabellum, et ventu- lum huic sicfacito — " Take this fan, and give her thus a little air," — Terence's " Eunuch us," 166 B.C. Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false hair, were first devised by demi-monde in Italy, and were brought to England from France. — Stow. In the British museum are Egyptian fan-handles. Fancuil {fan'-el) liall, the "Cradle of Liberty;" built by Peter Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant of Boston, in 1742, and presented to the cit}'. It was rebuilt in 1768. The lower' story was used as a market. It was a meeting-place of the people during the disputes with Great Britain which led to the War of Independence; hence the name "Cradle of Liberty." faradiza'tion, the medical application of magneto- electric currents which Faraday discovered in 1837. The ap- paratus was first made by M. Pixii, and employed by dr. Neef of Frankfort-on-the-Main. Farad, name taken for a unit of electric capacity, 1875. Electricity. farce, a short comic drama, usually of one or two acts. One by Otway is dated 1677. The best English farces (by Foote, Garrick, Bickerstafif, etc.) appeared from 1740 to 1780. They originated in droll shows exhibited by charlatans and buffoons in the streets. Drama. Farmers' Alliance, Political parties. farmers-general. Fermiers. Farnese family became important through the ele- vation of Alexander Farnese to the papacy as Paul III. He gave his natural son Peter the duchy of Parma, Italy, and his descendants ruled till Antony died, without issue, 1731. Alex- ander, prince of Parma, was governor of the Netherlands in 1579. farttling", an early English coin. Farthings in silver were coined by king John; the Irish farthing of his reign (1210) is rare. Farthings were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined in copper by Charles IL, 1665; again in 1672, in a large coinage of copper money. Half- farthings were first coined in 1843. Queen Anne's farthings. Fasti Capitolini, marble tablets found in the forum at Pome, 1547, contain a list of consuls and other officers from the year of Rome 250 to 765. Other fragments were found in 1817 and 1818. The " Fasti Consulares," from 509 b.c. to 235 A.D., are given in Smith's " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities." I Madison. Lincoln. Johnson. Artliur. The following are the Uh and 5th centuries.— Greek. Eusebius d. about 340 Athauasius d. 373 Ephrem Syrus d. about 378 Basil d. 379 Cyril of Jerusalem d. 386 Gregory Nazianzen d. 389 Macarius d. about 391 Gregory Nyssen d. about 394 Epiphanius d. 403 John Chrysostom d. 407 Cyril of Alexandria d. 444 Theodoret d. 457 Latin. Arnobius fl. 303 Lactantius d. about 330 Ambrose .d. 397 Jerome d. 420 Augustine d. 430 FAS fasts, observed by many nations from renaote antiquity : by the Jews (2 Chron. xx. 3); by the Ninevites (Jonah iii.); see Isa. Iviii. A fast of the Jews was the great day of atone- ment, Lev. xxiii., 1490 b.c. Moses fasted 40 days and nights on Sinai (Exod. xxiv.), 1491 b.c. The first Christian noinis- ters were ordained with fasting (45 a.d.), Acts xiii. 2. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, and fasts on particular occasions to appease the anger of God, began in the church in the 2d century (138). The Mahometan fast is termed Ramadan. — Dayg of humiliation, fasting, and prayer appointed by the presidents of the United States : Wednesday 9 May, 1798, by president John Adams. Thursday 12 Jan. 1815, " Last Thursday of Sept. 1861, Thursday 30 Apr. 1863, First Thursday in Aug. 1864, Thursday 1 June, 1865, Monday 26 Sept. 1881, fathers of the ehureh. principal : 1st century. — Greek. Apostolical. Hermas. Barnabas. Clemens Romanus d. 100 Ignatius d. 115 Polycarp d. about 169 2d century. — Greek. Justin Martyr d. about 166 Irenseus d. about 200 Alhenagoras. 3d century.— Greek. Clemens Alexandrinus,d.abt. 217 Hippolytus d. 230 Origen d. about 253 Latin. Tertullian d. about 220 Minutius Felix fl. about 230 Cyprian d. about 258 Fat'imites. Ali, Mahometanism. fats are oils solid at ordinary temperatures. The re- searches of Chevreul since 1811 on their chemical nature are very important. Candles. FaustUS, a professor of magic, renowned in chap-books, flourished about 1500 a.d. Goethe's dramatic poem "Faust" appeared in 1790. feasts and festivals. The " Feasts of the Lord "— viz., those of the Passover, Pentecost, Trumpets, and Taber- nacles — were instituted 1490 b.c. (Lev, xxiii,). Feast of Tabernacles, at dedication of Solomon's temple, 1004 b.c. Hezekiah (726 b.c.) and Josiah (623) kept the feast of Passover. In the Christian church, the feasts of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide, are said to date from the 1st century. Rogation days appointed 469. Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. Jubilees. The Christian festivals of the church are: Fixed : All Saints or All Hallows 1 Nov. " All Souls 2 Nov. " Christmas or the Nativity 25 Dec. " Innocents 28 Dec. " Circumcision 1 Jan. " Ephiphany or Twelfth day 6 Jan. " Candlemas-day 2 Feb. " Lady-day 25 Mch. Movable : Ascension day or Holy Thursday. Ash Wednesday, Easter Sunday, Good Friday, Palm Sunday, Sexa- gesima Sunday, Trinity Sunday, see under separate articles. The date of these days depends on the date of Easter. Besides these there are the Saints or Red Letter days, fixed. Of the festivals of the Greeks the principal were: The Agraulia, in honor of the daughter of Cecrops. Artemisia, in honor of Artemis (Diana). Dionysia, in honor of Dionysus (Bacchus)— the Baccha- nalia of the Romans ; Eleusinia, the most celebrated of any in Greece, latter part of Sept. and first part of Oct. ; Panethenaia, in honor of Athene (Minerva). Of the Romans : Agonalia, in honor of Janus. Bacchanalia, in honor of Bacchus ; suppressed in 186 b. c. Faunalia, in honor of Faunus ; celebrated 13 Feb., or the ides of the month (on this date occurred the slaughter of the Fabii). Lupercalia, in honor of the god Pan, 15 Feb. Liberalia, in honor of Liber, the Roman Bacchus. Cerealia, in honor of Ceres. Persons in mourning could not at- tend this celebration, and therefore it was not observed in the year after the battle of Can nse. Bona Dea (" the Good Goddess"); she was worshipjied by the Roman matrons in the house of the chief pontiff, and the male sex was carefully excluded ; no man ever entered her temple. Saturnalia, in honor of Saturn; the most remarkable one in the Roman year; at first lasting but 1 277 FEN day (19 Dec), but afterwards extended to 7. During its con- tinuance the senate did not sit; the schools were closed; no war was proclaimed, no criminal executed; while the utmost liberty and good-will prevailed. February (Lat. Fehruum, originally from the Sabine language, signifying a purgative), the 2d month, in which the Romans celebrated Februa, festivals of purification and expia- tion on the 15th of the month, for the manes of the dead. This month, with January', was added to the year by Numa, about 713 B,c, fecia'les or fetia'les, 20 in number, heralds of Rome to announce war or proclaim peace, appointed by Numa, about 712 B.C. federal, federalists. Political parties. felony, in English law (Blackstone, 1723-80), com- prises every species of crime which occasions the forfeiture of land and goods, feneillg^, recently revived in England and the United States as a sport, was introduced into England from France ; but to prevent duelling, fencing-schools were prohibited by law in 1285. Scott's " Fencing Master " was pub. in Edinburgh by sir W. Hope in 1687, and a society to encourage the art was formed in Scotland in 1692. Fe'nians (the name of ancient Irish militia, Fianna Eirin), a "brotherhood" in the United States and Ireland united to liberate Ireland and establish a republic. The agi- tation was begun, it is said, b}' Stephens, in Mch, 1858, and in 1864 enlistments and secret drillings took place. The leaders were called " head-centres." A convention was formed in 1863 in the U. S. The movement was opposed by the Roman Cath- olic clergy. Ireland. Fenian riot at the Rotondo, Dublin 22 Feb. 1864 Twenty-five persons arrested in Dublin, and the newspaper Irish People (established Sept. 1863) seized, 15 Sept. ; others arrested at Cork, etc 16-30 Sept. 1865 Fenians in the U. S. assert in an address, that officers are going to Ireland to organize an army of 200,000 Sept. " Allocution of the pope, condemning secret societies 30 Sept. " O'Donovan and 5 others committed for high treason 2 Oct. " A Fenian provisional government at New York, and a congress of 600 members held at Philadelphia Oct. " Capture of James Stephens, Irish head-centre, 11 Nov. ; he es- capes from jail 24 Nov. " Habeas corpus act suspended in Ireland ; about 250 suspected persons arrested immediately 17 Feb. 1866 Mass-meeting in New York, threats to invade Canada. . .4 Mch. '* Fenian schooner Friend captures British schooner Wentworth, and scuttles her near Eastport, Me 1 May, " James Stephens arrives in New York 10 May, ' ' Col. O'Niel and Fenians cross the Niagara and enter Canada, 31 May ; met by volunteers, with bloodshed 2 June, " Sweeny and others arrested 6, 7 June, " Pres. Johnson's proclamation against the Fenians 7 June, " Spear and others cross boundary near Vermont, 7 June ; corps demoralized ; many return 9 June, " Trials in Canada — col. Lynch and rev. John MacMahon (sen- tenced to be hanged on 13 Dec.) reprieved 24-26 Oct. " James Stephens, "central organizer of the Irish republic," said to sail from U. S 24 Nov. " Britain offers 2000L for his apprehension Nov. " Sweeny (released) rejoins the U. S. army Jan. 1867 Fenians enter Chester; repulsed 11, 12 Feb. " Outbreak in Kerry; Killarney threatened; capt. Moriarty and others captured 12 Feb. " Gen. Massey captured n 4 or 6 Mch. " Proclamation of the Irish republic sent to the London Times and other papers 6 Mch. " Fenian rising near Dublin ; telegraph destroyed ; attack on police-station at Tallaght repelled; several shot; 208 prison- ers taken into Dublin 7 Mch. " One thousand Fenians hold market-place at Drogheda, but re- treat at approach of police 7 Mch. " Capt. Maclure captured 31 Mch. '* Special commission to try 230 Fenians— Whiteside, chief-jus- tice; Deasy and Fitzgerald, begin (Massey, Keogh, Corydon, and McGough, approvers) 9 Apr. et seq. " Burke and Doran sentenced to death, 1 May ; reprieved, 26 May, " Many convictions of treason (M'Afferty, M'Clure, and others) and treason- felony, and many discharged May, " Pres. Roberts retires; party in U.S. said to be demoralized, July, " Many arrests; 23 on charge of murder; tried, 5 condemned to death (2 reprieved); 7 sentenced to 7 years' imprisonment, ^ 29 Oct.-12 Nov. " Allen, Gould, and Larkin executed at Salford 23 Nov. " Address of Fenian brotherhood of U. S. to " liberty-lovmg people of England," dated New York 12 Dec. " Explosion at Clerkenwell House of Detention, London, to re- lease Burke and Casey, leading Fenians, at 3 :45. (A cask ot gunpowder was fired close to the prison wall; Timothy Des- mond, Jeremiah Allen, and Ann Justice arrested on sus- ^^ picion) 13 Dec. FER 278 FID Reunion of Roberts and Stephens parties under a new presi- dent about 20 Doc. 1867 Mullany, a prisoner, turns queen's evidence, and accuses Barrett or Jackson (captured at Glasgow, 14 Jan.) of firing the barrel at Clerkenwell 28 Jan. 1868 O'Farrell, a Fenian, wounds the duke of Edinburgh at Fort Jackson, 12 Mch. ; sentenced to death 31 Mch. " Darcv M'Gee, M.P., shot dead by a Fenian at Ottawa.. . .7 Apr. " Triiilof Wm. and Timothy Desmond, Nicholas English, John O'Keefe, Michael Barrett, and Ann Justice, for murder (Clerkenwell outrage) begun, 20; acquittal of Justice, 23; of O'Keefe, 24; and of the 2 Desmonds and English, 27. Con- viction of Barrett 27 Apr. " Michael Barrett executed 26 May, " O'Donovan Rossji and others released Mch. 1869 Fenian raid into Canada repelled by militia; gen. Neill capt- ured by U. S. marshal 26 May, 1870 Michael Davitt and John Wilson convicted of treason- felony, 18 July, " Pres. Grant's proclamation against Fenian raids into Canada, 13 Oct. " Mr. Gladstone promises release of Fenian convicts 15 Dec. " Convicts released Jan. 1871 Fenians favor the French in the war Aug. 1870-Feb. " Fenian raid into Manitoba suppressed by U. S. troops, and gen. Neill arrested (Ireland) about 12 Oct. " Gen. Cluseret (a short time in the service of the Fenians) de- scrilies them in Fraser's Magazine; he says, "Their insur- rection was foolishly planned and still more foolishly exe- cuted," and advises reconciliation with England July, 1872 Escape of Fenian prisoners from W. Australia in the Catalpa, American ship, 17 Apr. ; arrive at New York 19 Aug. 1876 O'Mahony, head-centre, d. at New York; grand funeral service, 6 Feb. 1877 Michael Davitt and other Fenian convicts released. . Jan.-Sept. 1878 Again arrested and committed to prison 3, 4 Feb, 1881 Michael Davitt elected M. P. for county Meath 22 Feb. 1882 Convention at Philadelphia opened, 25 Apr. ; denounced by O'Donovan Rossa, who revives the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood 6 May, 1883 Capt. Thos. Phelan stabbed (not killed) as a suspected traitor by Richard Short, in Rossa's office. New York, 9 Jan. ; 0' Dono- van Rossa shot in the street by Lucilla Yseult Dudley, an English widow (declared insane), aged 25, 2 Feb. ; Phelan and he recover, in the same hospital Feb. 1885 Great Fenian congress at Paris 23 Feb. 1888 Michael Davitt elected M.P. for N. Meath July, 1892 Ffere-Champenoiie (fare-shamp-nwas'), a village of France. Here the French army under Marraont, Mortier, and Arrighi were surprised and defeated bj' the allies under the prince of Schwarzenberg, 25 Mch. 1814, after an heroic resistance. Paris surrendered 6 days after. Fergll§ Haclvor of Scott's " Waverley." The origi- nal was maj. Donald MacDonald, executed 18 Oct. 1746, with 8 others. FerinaB Latinae, Roman festivals ascribed to Tarquin the Proud, about 534 B.C. The principal magistrates of 47 Latin towns met on a mount near Rome, and with the Roman authorities offered a bull to Jupiter Latialis. fermentatioil, termed by Gay-Lussac one of the most mysterious processes in nature ; he showed in a memoir, 1810, that in the process 45 lbs. of sugar are resolved into 23 of alcohol and 22 of carbonic acid. In 1861 Pasteur showed that fermentation depends on minute organisms in the ferment- ing fluid, derived from the atmosphere. For his researches he was awarded an annual pension of 120,000 francs in 1874. fermiers generailX {fair.me-ai/'ja-na-rau'),of&ceTS who farmed the French revenues before 1789, often oppressive- ly. There were 60 of them at the beginning of the French rev- olution. Lavoisier and 27 of these were executed 8 May, 1794. Ferozesliah', a town of the Punjab, India. The British, under sir Hugh Gough, attacked the entrenched Sikhs, and carried their first line, 21 Dec. 1845; but night coming on, the operations were suspended till daybreak, when the second line was stormed by gen. Gilbert, and 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced to retake their guns, were repulsed with great loss, and retreating to the Sutlej, 22 Dec, recrossed the river unmolested, 27 Dec. British loss reckoned at 2415. Ferra'ra, part of the exarchate of Ravenna, under the emperors of the East, subdued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and taken about 752 by Pepin, who gave it to pope Stephen II. About 1208 it fell to the house of Este, and became the principal seat of literature and fine arts in Italy. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the sovereignty in 1598, on the death of duke Aplhonso II., last legitimate male of the Este family. His illegitimate nephew, Caesar, became duke of Modena. The French under Massena took Ferrara in 1796 ; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. An Austrian garri- son held it from 1849 ; it retired in June, 1859, and the people demanded annexation to Sardinia, which was accomplished in Mch. 1860. Ferrars'§ arre§t. In Mch. 1642, George Ferrars, a member of Parliament, while at the house, was seized by a sheriffs officer for debt, and committed to the Compter prison. The house despatched a sergeant to require his release, which was resisted, and, in the affray, his mace was broken. The house in a body repaired to the Lords to complain, when the contempt was adjudged to be great, and the punishment was referred to the lower house. On another message to the sheriffs by the Commons they delivered up the member, and the civil magistrates and creditor were committed to the Tower, the inferior officers to Newgate, and an act passed re- leased Ferrars from liability for the debt. Henry VIII. ap- proved all these proceedings, from which dates the rule of Parliament exempting members from arrest. — Holinshed. Ferro, the most western Canary isle, from whose west point some geographers take their first meridian, was known to the ancients, and was rediscovered in 1402. Ferrol, a seaport town of N.W. Spain. Upwards of 10,000 British landed near Ferrol under sir James Pulteney, in Aug. 1800, and occupied the heights; but, despairing of suc- cess, from the strength of the works, sir James re-embarked. His conduct was condemned. Soult captured Ferrol, 27 Jan. 1809. An insurrection of about 1500 men in the arsenal, headed by brigadier Pozas and capt. Montojo, raised the red flag, 11 Oct. 1872. They dispersed or surrendered, fearing attack, 17 Oct. Fescen'nine verse§ were rude extemporary dia- logues, frequently licentious, in favor among the ancient Etruscans at weddings, and still popular in Italy. festivals. Feasts, Music. Fete I>ieu, a feast of the Roman church in honor of the real presence in the Lord's supper, on the Thursday af- ter Trinity Sunday. Corpus Christi. Berengarius, arch- bishop of Angers, opposed transubstantiation, and to atone for his crime a yearly procession was made at Angers, called la fete de Dieu, 1019. feudal laws. The tenure of land by suit and ser- vice to lord or owner, in use in England by the Saxons, about 600, was extended by William I. in 1066. The kingdom was divided into baronies, given on condition of furnishing the king men and money. The vassalage, limited by Henry VII., 1496, was abolished by statute, 1660. The feudal system was introduced in Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008, and the hered- itary jurisdictions were abolished in that kingdom, 1746-47. Feudal laws, established in France by Clovis I. about 486, were discountenanced by Louis XI. in 1470. FeilillantS (feu-yms'), a religious order of reformed Cistercians, founded by Jean de la Barrifere in 1577 at the ab- bey of Feuillant (whence the name), near Toulouse, and set- tled in Paris in 1587. The Feuillant club, formed in Paris by Lafayette and others in 1789, to counteract the intrigues of Jacobins, was named from the convent where they met. A body of Jacobins burst into their hall and dispersed them, 25 Dec. 1791, and the club broke up in 1792. Fez (in the ancient Mauritania, Africa), a city of Mo- rocco, founded by Edris, a descendant of Mahomet, about 787, was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. After long struggles, it was annexed to Morocco about 1550. Leo Africanus de- scribes it as containing more than 700 temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the 12th century. fietions. Romances. Fictions in law are the formal or pretended observance of a rule of law which is really obso- lete ; such as the plea of citizenship in Roman courts, which was necessary to the jurisdiction, but could not be disputed, even if known to be false. See Maine, " Ancient Law," p. 26. Lord Mansfield, in the court of King's Bench, declared that " no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth as to prevent the execution of justice," 31 May, 1784. They have been mostly abolished. "Fidelio," Beethoven's only opera; composed in 1804, produced first at Vienna, 20 Nov. 1805, I FID 279 FIR Fide'nae, a Sabine city, often at war with Rome. It -was captured and the inhabitants enslaved, 426 b.c., by the Romans, whose ambassadors they had slain. Field of the Clotll of Oold, a plain near Ardres and Calais, in France, on which Henry VIII. met Francis I. of France, 7-25 June, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms displayed their magnificence, and many involved themselves in debt. Paintings of the embarkation and inter- view are at Windsor castle. Champ dk Maks. FieiClli'§ {fe-es'-kee) attempt on the life of Louis Philippe. France, 1835. Fifth-monaretiy men, about 1645, supposed the Millennium to be at hand, when Jesus Christ from heaven should erect the 5th universal monarchy. They elected him king at London. Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. — Kearsley. Another rising, with loss of life, was suppressed 6 Jan. 1661. Thos. Venner, a cooper, their leader, and 16 others, were soon after executed. Fiji, Feejee, or Viti i§le§, in the South Pacific ocean, between lat. 15° 30' and 19° 30' S. and Ion. 177° E. and 178° W. ; discovered by Tasman, Dutch navigator, 1643. There are above 200 isles, 80 inhabited ; the largest about 360 miles in circumference, with a population of 124,658, 2100 Eu- ropean, 1890. Capital Suva. Islands ofTered by the king, Thakombau, and chiefs to the British government, but not accepted July, 1859 House of Commons granted 1680Z. for expenditure in them, and European settlements made 1860 Annexation to Great Britain proposed in Parliament; declined 25 June, 1872; but unconditional cession to the British gov- ernment accepted by sir Hercules Robinson, July; and an- nounced by him 25 Oct. 1874 His club presented to the queen by king Thakombau " Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon first governor. 1875 Many deaths by epidemic measles early in " Outbreak of cannibal devil-worshippers suppressed by military; about 20 ringleaders executed about June, 1876 flle§ are mentioned (1 Sam. xiii. 21) 1093 b.c. They are manufactured in great perfection by file-cutting machinery. That set up by T. Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was invented by M. Bernot of Paris. It is said that the price of files by it is reduced from 32(?. to ^d. per dozen. fil'ibuiters (properly Jlibustiers), originally freeboot- ers who plundered coasts of America in the 16th and 17th centuries ; also applied to Narcisco Lopez and his followers. Lopez, born in Venezuela, 1799, went to Cuba and entered the army. Distinguished himself in Spain; joined the revolu- tionists in Cuba in 1848; organized an expedition to invade Cuba at New York, but stopped by a proclamation of president Taylor, 1849. Organized another expedition and landed at the town of Cardenas, 19 May, 1850, with 600 men ; took the town, but soon after evacuated it and returned to New Orleans. Prepared another expedition, and, sailing from New Orleans, 3 Aug. 1851, he landed at Bahia Hondo, to the west of Ha- vana, 11 Aug.; he was accompanied on this expedition by col. William L. Crittenden of Kentucky, whom he left at the landing-place with 130 men, while he moved on Las Pozas with 323 men. He here appealed to the people in vain for a general rising ; he was obliged to surrender shortly after (28 Aug.), having accomplished nothing. He was tried for high treason at Havana and garroted 1 Sept. 1851. Col. Critten- den was captured while attempting to escape to New Orleans, and with 50 others shot at Havana, 16 Aug.— William Walker, another filibuster, was born at Nashville, Tenn., in *1824. Going to California in 1850, he led an expedition into lower CaUfornia, landing at La Paz, 4 Nov. 1853 ; his plans failing, he retreated northward, and in May, 1854, surrendered to the United States authorities at San Diego ; taken to San Francisco he was tried under the neutrality laws and acquitted, 15 May, 1854. Early in 1855 Walker was invited to Nicaragua by one of the factions, " The Liberals," with a promise of 52,000 acres of land. On 4 May, 1855, with 60 men, he arrived at San Juan del Sur on the Pacific coast of Nicaragua from San Fran- cisco. Gained the battle of Virgin bay or La Virgin, 1 Sept. 1855, with 170 men against 540 Nicaraguans. On 13 Oct. he occupied Grenada, a town on lake Nicaragua ; here he ordered gen. Corral shot, 8 Nov. 1855. War began with Costa Rica. Walker was defeated at Guana Castro, 20 Mch. 1856, but de- feated the Costa Ricans at Rivas 11 Apr. He forced his elec- tion as president of Nicaragua, Sept. 1856, and his minister, Padre Vijil, was recognized at Washington by president Pierce. His government, however, soon ended, and on 1 May, 1857, he surrendered with 1& officers to com. Charles H. Davis of the U. S. sloop-of-war Maj-y, which conveyed him to Panama, whence he returned to New Orleans, where he was received with great enthusiasm. There were engaged in this under- taking 2288 men, of whom 61 were officers. On 25 Nov. 1857, he again invaded Nicaragua with about 200 men, landing near Greytown, but was soon compelled to surrender to com. Hiram Paulding of the U. S. frigate WabasJi, and was conveyed to New York, but escaped punishment by nolle prosequi, 2 June, 1858, while com. Paulding was censured. Again Walker, in- tending to create a revolution, on 5 Aug. 1860, landed at Truxillo, Honduras, and took the fort on the 6th. On the j next daj-^ he issued a proclamation stating he made war on the government, and not on the people. He was summoned to surrender by the captain of the British man-of-war Icarus, but refused and fled ; he was caught 30 Sept. 1860 ; delivered up to the Honduras government ; tried, and shot 12 Oct. 1860. His followers were liberated. — The term "filibustering" has of late been applied to all forms of irregular and predatory warfare, and to methods of delaying the decision of debated questions in deliberative assemblies, by raising false or trivial issues, or wasting time in useless motions and roll-calls. Filio'que, " and from the Son," inserted in the Nicene CREED, in respect to the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, in a council at Toledo, 589 ; adopted by the western, but rejected by the eastern church since 662. The omission of the phrase was considered at the Old Catholic conference at Bonn, Aug. 1875. Athanasian creed. fine arts. Arts, Engraving, Painting, Sculpture. Finland, a Russian grand-duchy, in the middle of the 12th century was conquered by Eric IX. of Sweden, who in- troduced Christianity. Often taken by the Russians (1714- 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743); but after 1809 retained by treaty. Abo. Its political constitution was con- firmed by the czar in 1800, 1825, and 1856. Area 144,255 sq. miles. Pop. 1862, 1,746,229; 1875, 1,912,647 ; 1889, 2,388,404. During a famine whole villages were starved, Mch. 1868. lire. The ancient poets supposed that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Heraclitus, about 596 B.C., maintained that the world was created from fire, and deemed it to be a god omnipotent. Parsees, Philosophy. fire-annihilator, an apparatus invented by T. Phillips, in 1849. When put in action, steam and carbonic acid are formed, which extinguish flame. It was not success- ful commercially. UExtincteur was invented by dr. F. Car- lier, and patented by A. Vignon in July, 1862. It is an iron cylinder filled with water and carbonic-acid gas, generated by bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid. The apparatus was de- veloped and improved by W. B. Dick in his manual and chemical fire-engines, which give a continuous flow of water and gas ; patented Apr. 1869. "Mata-fuego," or "fire-killer," of M. Banolas of Paris, was suc- cessfully exhibited at the Alexandra palace, 16 Oct. 1880. Great bodies of flame were almost instantaneously extinguished. flre-arms. The first fire-arms were cannon, and the first small fire-arms were a species of cannon borne by 2 men. Ar- tillery, Cannon, Chassepot rifle. Pistols, Revolvers. Fire-arms made at Perugia in Italy 1364 Employed by the Burgundians at Arras 1414 Arquebus in use about 1465 Edward IV. of England landed at Ravenspur, it is said, with 300 Flemings armed with hand-guns 1471 At Moral the Swiss are said to have had 10,000 arquebusiers. . " A fire-arm known as the petronel (from poitrine, the chest), a kind of large "pistol," came into use 1480 Fire-arms said to have been used at the siege of Berwick 1521 Musket used in the armies of Charles V about 1521 Earliest breech-loaders about 1537 (During the 17th and 18th centuries numerous.) [These were of rude construction; the first discharged by a lighted match, later forms (about 1517) by a wheel-lock. Loading and firing took much time. At Kuisyingen, in 1636, only 7 shots were fired by soldiers in 8 hours, and at Witten- mergen, 1638, the musketeers of the duke of Weimar fired 7 times from noon until 8 p.m.] Match-lock and wheel-lock superseded by the flint-lock, which is of Spanish origin, prior to 1630 [Introduced into England during the reign of William III. ; FIR ^ remained in use in the British army until 1840, and manu- ftctured as late as 1842. The best were manufactured in 1815 by Joseph Manton, the " king of gun-makers."] Rifles not in repute or much used until the 17th century. William, landgrave of Hesso, armed his companies with the rifle carbine 1631 (The most famous rifle-barrel maker was Nicholas Bis, goldsmith to Philip V. of Spain; the lowest price for his sin- gle rifle barrel was ,1!200.] Fergusson rifle, breech-loader, in use in the American revolu- tion 1775-82 Percussion principle patented by rev. Mr. Forsythe 1807 First patent in the U. S. for a breech-loading fire-arm was to Thornton & Hall, of North Yarmouth, Mass. (10,000 of which were made for the U. S.) 21 May, 1811 Copper percussion caps made in England 1818 Rkvolvbks invented by Samuel Colt, 1829; patented 1835 Percussion musket in use in the British army 1842 Old musket, " Brown Bess, " superseded in England by the En- field rifle (so called from the place of manufacture) 1857 Before the civil war in the U. S., 1861-65, the principal breech- loading rifles were Maynard's, patented 1851; Merrill's. 1856; Burnside's, 1856; Sharp's, 1859; Spencer, 1860. While the Springfield rifle-musket, muzzle-loader, was the principal fire-arm in use among the northern troops during the civil war, the following breech loaders were purchased by the U. S. government from 1 Jan. 1861 to 30 Jan. 1866. The "Spencer," 8-shooter, being most in demand. Ballard 1,500 Ball. . . 1,002 Burnside 55,567 Cosmopolitan 9,342 Gallagher. 22,728 Glbbs. 1,052 Hall 3,520 Joslyn 11,261 Lindner 892 Merrill 14,495 The weight and calibre of the modem army rifle has been much reduced, as shown below. Maynard 20,002 Palmer 1,001 Remington 20,000 Sharp 80,512 Smith 30,062 Spencer 94,156 Starr 25,603 Warner 4,001 ~" 151 RIFLES USED BY THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS. Nation. Gnn. Weight. Calibre. No. of IbB. ~9" 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 9 9 8 9 8 8 oz. inch. Austria Mannlicher Mauser 2 9 4 10 10 4 12 8 4 12 0.315 0.31 0.433 0.315 0.303 0.315 0.315 0.315 0.3 0.3 0.304 0.315 0.3 0.295 0.31 0.3 5 Belgium . . 5 China Lee 5 Mannlicher Lee-Speed Lebel 5 8 8 Germany Mannlicher Mannlicher Murata 5 Italv 5 Japan 5 Portugal Kropatchek Lebel 5 8 Mannlicher Krag-Jorgensen.. Schmidt Manser Krag-Jorgensen.. 5 Sweden and Norway. , Switzerland 6 12 Turkey 5 United States 5 Gatling, Maxim, Mitrailleuse. fire-eng^ines are said to have been invented by Ctesi- bius, 260 B.C. They are mentioned by Pliny, 70 a.d. A "water-bow" was patented by Thonoas Grent in 1632; one was constructed by John Van der Heyden about 1663. Bra- mah's engine was patented in 1793. John Braithwaite con- structed a steam fire-engine in 1830. W. Dennis's portable self-acting pneumatic fire-engine tried successfully at gas-works near the Thames, Engl 30 Nov. 1876 Number of fire-engines in the principal cities of the U. S. : New York, 57, including 3 fire-boats; Chicago,63; Philadelphia, 40; Boston,34; St. Louis, 31; Cincinnati, 26; Brooklyn, 34, including 3 fire-boats; San Franci8co,23 ; Buffalo,21; NewOrleans,20; Pittsburg, 19; Cleve- land, 18; Detroit,17; Milwaukee, 16; Baltimore, 14; Louisville, 14. fire-escapes were patented by David Marie (1766) and Joachim Smith (1773) and many since. Versmann's composition for rendering wash dresses fire-proof was made public about 1860. Many devices patented in the U. S. since 1870. fire insurance. Insurance. fireman's respirator, the invention of dr. Tyndall (1870-71), is a combination of his respirator of cotton -wool moistened with glycerine, and dr. Stenhouse's charcoal respira- tor. Armed with it a man may remain long in dense smoke. fires. The conflagration of a city, with all its tumult of concomitant distress, is one of the most dreadful spectacles which this world can offer to human eyes. — D?: Johnson. Liverpool, 1862, etc. ; Santiago. IN LONDON. Much of the city, with St. Paul's cathedral, destroyed. .962 and 1087 " FIR One at London bridge began on the Southwark side, extended to the other side and hemmed in a crowd; about ;J000 were drowned, and much of the city, north apd south, burned 1212 Great Fire, whoso ruins covered 436 acres, extended from the Tower to the Temple church, and from the northeast gate to Holborn bridge. It began in a baker's house in Pudding lane, behind Monument yard, and destroyed, in 4 days, 89 churches (including St. Paul's), the city gates, the Royal exchange, the Custom-house, Guildhall, Sion college, and many other public building.s, besides 13,200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. About 200,000 persons encamped in Islington and Highgate fields (Monumknt) 2-6 Sept. In Cornhill ward, 200 houses burned; began in Change alley; most terrible since 1666 '. 25 Mch. There were 953 fires in 1854; 1113 in 1857; 1114 in 1858 (38 lives lost); 1183 in 1861. 1303 fires in 1862; 1404 in 1863; and 1715 in 1864. In 1866, 1338 fires (326 serious) ; in 1867, ^ 1397 fires (245 serious); in 1868, 1668 fires (235 serious); in 1869, 1572 fires (199 serious) ; in 1870, 1946 fires (276 serious) ; -t in 1871, 1842 (207 serious); in 1872, 1494 (120 serious); in i 1873, 1548 (166 serious; 35 lives lost); in 1874, 1573 (154 seri- ous; 23 lives lost); in 1875, 1668 (163 serious; 29 lives lost); j in 1876, 1787 (166 serious; 35 lives lost); in 1877, 1708 (159 serious; 29 lives lost); in 1878, 1659 (170 serious); in 1879, 1718 ; 1880, 1871 (162 serious ; 33 lives lost). In but few cases were the premises totally destroyed. In 1890 there were 2555 fires (153 serious; 61 lives lost). The fires in London are far more numerous in December than in any other month. IN the united states, ; Theatre at Richmond, Va. ; the governor and many leading citizens perished (Virginia) 26 Dec. 1811 New York city, 600 warehouses, etc; loss, $20,000,000, 16 Dec. 1835 Washington city, destroying general post-offlce and patent office, with 10,000 valuable models, drawings, etc 15 Dec. 1836 Charleston, S. C, 1158 buildings, covering 145 acres 27 Apr. 1838 New York city, 46 buildings; loss, $10,000,000 .6 Sept. 183* Pittsburg, Pa., 1000 buildings; loss about $6,000,000 10 Apr. 1845 New York city, 1300 dwellings destroyed 28 June, New York city, 302 stores and dwellings, 4 lives, and $6,000,000 of property 19 July, Albany, N. Y., 600 buildings, besides steamboats, piers, etc. ; 24 acres burned over; loss, $3,000,000 9 Sept. 1848 St. Louis, Mo., 15 blocks of houses and 23 steamboats; loss es timated at $3,000,000 17 May, 1849' San Francisco, Cal., nearly 2500 buildings burned; estimated loss about $3,500,000; many lives lost 3-5 May, 1851 San Francisco, Cal., 500 buildings; estimated loss, $3,000,000^ 22 June, " Congressional library, Washington city, 35,000 volumes, with works of art 24 Dec. Syracuse, N. Y., 12 acres of ground burned over, about 100 buildings; loss, $1,000,000 8 Nov. 1856 New York Crystal palace destroyed, with an immense amount of property on exhibition 5 Oct. 1858 Portland, Me., nearly destroyed; 10,000 people rendered home- less; loss, $15,000,000 4 July, 1866 Great Chicago fire, burning over about 3)^ square miles, de- stroying 17,450 buildings, killing 200 persons, and rendering 98,500 homeless; loss over $200,000,000. The most destruc- tive fire ever known 8, 9 Oct. 1871 Great fire in Boston; over 800 buildings burned; loss, $80,000,- 000 9 Nov. 1872 Brooklyn theatre (Brooklyn, N. Y.) burned ; 295 lives lost (Theatres) 5 Dec. 1876 For smaller fires, see articles on diff'erent cities. fire-sllips. Among the most formidable of such con- trivances was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp in 1585. The first use of them in the British navy was by Charles, lord Howard, of Efiingham^ against the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Ropin. fireworlts are said to have been made by the Chinese in remote ages. They were invented in Europe, at Florence,^ about 1360, and were exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. In the United States most used in celebrating the anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, 4 July. fire-worshippers. Parsees. first-fruits as offerings were a large part of the reve- nues of the Hebrew priesthood. First-fruits (called Annates, from annus, a year), in the Roman church, originally the prof- its of one year of every vacant bishopric, afterwards of every benefice, were first claimed by pope Clement V. in 1306, and were collected in England in 1316; but chronologers diflFer. In 26 Henry VIII., 1534, the first-fruits were assigned by Parliament to the king and his successors. Mary gave the annates to the popes (1555); but Elizabeth resumed them (1559). They were granted, together with the tenths, to the poor clergy, by queen Anne, in 1703. The offices of first-fruits, tenths, and queen Anne's bounty were consolidated by 1 Vict, c. 20 (1838). Annates were long resisted in France, and to- tally suppressed in 1789. FIS Fiill I>aill ford, S. C, Battle at, between Americans under Sumter and British under Wemyss, 12 Nov. 1780. American victory. fl§h, flilieriCJi, etc. Laws for the protection of fish- eries were enacted by Edward I. in 1284, and by his successors. The rights of the English and French fishermen were defined by treaty in 1839. The known species of fish are about 7000. —Guntker, 187 1. First experiments in artificial propagation of fish in the U. S. were made in South Carolina in 1804. In 1853 successful efforts to hatch trout were made at Cleveland, Ohio. Many large establishments for hatching are now in operation; and there are fish commissioners in about half the states. Much Las been done to stock or restock rivers, creeks, lakes, and ponds; and laws for the protection offish are general. By- act of Congress of 9 Feb. 1871, a U. S. commissioner of fish and fisheries was provided for; and great progress has been made in the propagation and conservation of food fishes. Fishmongers' company of London (salt), 1433; (stock), 1509; united 1536 Fishing towns in England regulated by an act passed 1542 Fishing on the English coast forbidden to strangers 1609 Dutch paid 30,000/. for right to fish on British coasts 1636 ■Corporation of free British fisheries instituted 1750 Fish-machines, for conveying fish by land to London, set up in 1761 ; and supported by Parliament 1764 British society of fisheries established in London 1786 Irish Fishery company formed Dec. 1818 In 1849, '2 peasants, Remy and Gehin, obtained medals for cul- tivating fish in France, and the government set up an estab- lishment for this purpose at Huningue, under M. Coumes. In 1860 great progress had been made by M. Coste and others. ■Commission to examine British fisheries appointed 1860 Acts to amend British fishery laws 1861, 1862, 1863, 1868, 1869 In Apr., Mr. Ponders placed in the Thames 76,000 young fish ; (salmon, trout, char, and grayling); and on 17 Apr., Frank Buckland demonstrated the importance of fish culture before I members of the Royal Institution, London 1863 I In 1853 .Mr. Buist began the culture of fish at Stormontfleld, j Perthshire; reported highly successful Sept. 1866 t 'Convention with France on sea fisheries signed at Paris, 11 1 Nov. 1867 ; ratified by Sea-Fisheries act, passed 13 July, 1868 Act for the. protection of fresh-water fish passed 8 Aug. 1878 ! International fish and fishing exhibition at Berlin opened by [ the crown prince 1 .20 Apr. 1880 National fisheries exhibition at Norwich opened by the prince of Wales 18-30 Apr. 1881 1 American Sea-Fisheries. — Sebastian Cabot first directed attention j to American fisheries in 1498. The earliest fishing voyages to I American coasts were made in 1517. Bartholomew Gosnold ex- plored the New England coast in 1602; and, catching cod near the southern cape of Massachusetts, named it Cape Cod. A ship- load offish was sent from Massachusetts to England in 1624. ' Fish were exported from Boston in 1633. An act to encourage \ fishing was passed by Massachusetts in 1639, and the industry [ grew rapidly until the Revolution. By the treaty of peace in 1783, the right of U. S. citizens to fish on the banks of Newfound- laud, in the gulf of St. Lawrence, etc., was conceded. But, to in- jure the U. S. fishing industry, the British government, in July, 1783, prohibited the importation of its fish into the British We'st Indies. The U. S. government passed a bounty act to encourage fishing in 1789, and another in 1790, imposing duties on imported tish. Other acts to encourage this industry were passed 16 Feb. 1792, 2 May, 1792, 1797, and 1799. The bounties were abolished in 1807, but restored in 1813. There has been much legislation since, with the general policy of encouraging the industry. After the war of 1812-15, the British maintained that hostihties had abrogated the fishing rights of 1783; and in 1818, by a convention, the fishing privileges of U. S. citizens were defined. Disputes concerning bay and inlet fishing arose in 1852, which were settled by the reciprocity treaty of 1854. The U. S. gave notice, 17 Mch. 1865, of the abrogation of this treaty, taking eff"ect 17 Mch. 1866. In consequence of disputes which arose in 1870, the subject was included in the treaty of Washington, 1871, the fisheries provisions of which took effect 1 July, 1873. By it the fisheries of both •countries were opened equally to the citizens of both; but the difference of value, in the respective concessions, was referred to arbitration. This commission met at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1877, and awarded to Great Britain $5,500,000. The justice of this decision was disputed in the U. S. ; but Congress promptly niade the appropriation, and the money was paid in London by the American minister, 23 Nov. 1878, who protested against the j award as excessive. i-Seal Fisheries Dispute.— The coast of Alaska has valuable seal ' fisheries. The Russian American Fur company, under grant from Russia, annually exported about 25,000 skins of the seal, sea- otter, beaver, etc. In 1867 the U. S. purchased Alaska. To pre- vent the extinction of seals threatened by the rapid increase of fishers, Congress, in 1868, placed Alaska under the treasury de- partment, and forbade the killing of any mink, marten, sable, or I fur-seal in Alaska or its waters. The breeding grounds of seal were leased to the Alaska Commercial company of San Francisco for $60,000 a year, and $2 for every seal-skin shipped, the number limited each year to 100,000. But the company could not protect • Its territory; vessels from British Columbia and the U. S. took seals with impunity, and the extinction of the seal in a few years was threatened. The government sent cruisers into the Behring sea in 1876, checking the slaughter. But poaching continued; 281 FLA the natives especially capture seals, and take them in boats to vessels awaiting them at sea. The U. S. claimed the Behring sea as mare clausum, with jurisdiction over half of it, asserting that Russia had maintained this doctrine, and that Great Britain had once admitted it. But in 1822, in answer to the Russian claim, both Great Britain and the U. S. insisted that a sea whose entrance is 1000 miles wide or more cannot be other than open to all, and the claim of the U. S. has been met by Great Britain and Russia with the same rule. However, the U. S. revenue cutter Corwin was sent to the Behring sea with instructions to seize all sealers found east of a line drawn from between the Diomede islands in Behring sea, straight southwesterly to a point equidistant from Copper and Otter islands in the Aleutian group. In 1886 the British schooners Caroline, Onward, and Thornton were captured and taken to Sitka. The vessels were condemned, their masters fined, the cargoes of seal skins confiscated and sent to San Fran- cisco. The British government demanded the release of the pris- oners and an indemnity of $160,000. In Jan. 1887 the president directed the authorities of Alaska to release the imprisoned men and surrender the vessels and property; but it was not until Sept. that the order was complied with. U. S. vessels still guarded the waters, and in 1887 the Rush seized the British vessels Dolphin, Annie Beck, W. P. Saywond, Grace, and Alfred, besides 7 American vessels at various distances from the shore, varying from 30 to 70 miles. The British vessels w-ere again released. In 1889 Con- gress provided for the better protection of the Alaskan fisheries, tacitly receding from the claim that the Behring sea is mare clausum. Arbitration between the U. S. and Great Britain was proposed and practically accepted, and, as this would take much time, a modus vivendi for the protection of the seals meanwhile was proposed in a correspondence begun 4 May, 1891, and closed 15 June, 1891, when the president proclaimed the terms. For final settlement consult Behring sea. • Fi§lier'S Hill, Va. Here, on 21 Sept. 1864, gen. Sheridan again defeated the confederates under gen. Early (whom he had defeated 2 days before at WiNCHESTEn), capturing 1100 prisoners and 16 guns. Grant's Virginia CAMPAIGN. Filinie {fe-oo'-mci) (meaning river), the port of the kingdom of Hungary, on the Adriatic; built on the supposed site of Tersatica, destroyed by Charlemagne about 799, after- wards known as Vitopolis, Civita Sancti Viti ad Flumen, and finally Fiume. It was successively subject to the Greeks, Ro- mans, the eastern emperors, the pope, and the house of Haps- burg. It was captured by the French early in the century, taken by the English in 1813, and given to Austria in 1814. It was transferred to Hungary in 1822; to Croatia in 1848; restored to Hungary in 1868. A new port and railways were constructed in 1877. Pop. 1880, 13,314. Five Fork§, Battle of, near Richmond, Va. Here gen. Slieridan turned the front of the confederates and defeated them after a fierce struggle, 1 Apr. 1865. Grant's Virginia CAMPAIGN. Five Hundred, Council of, under new French con- stitution, 22 Aug. 1795 ; rudely dissolved by Napoleon, 10 Nov. 1799. Council, French. Five-mile act, 17 Chas. II. c. 2 (Oct. 1665), forbade nonconformist teachers who refused the non-resistance oath to come within five miles of any corporation where they had preached since the act of Oblivion (unless travelling), under penalty of 40^. They were relieved by Will. HI. in 1689. Fladenheim or Flatheim, Saxony. Here Ro- dolph of Swabia defeated the emperor Henry IV., 27 Jan. 1080. flag^. The flag acquired its present form in the 6th cen- tury, in Spain ; it was previously small and square. — Ashe, Introduced, it is said, by the Saracens, before whom the en- signs of war were extended on cross-pieces of wood. Car- ROCiuM. The honor - of- the -flag salute at sea, exacted by England from early times, was formally conceded by the Dutch in 1673 after many defeats. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680.— Henav If. After an engagement of 3 hours between Tourville and the Spanish admiral Papachin, the latter yielded, firing a salute of nine guns to the French flag, 2 June, 1688. — Ide7n. flag', United States. The earliest legislation on a nation- al flag was a resolution of Congress, 14 June, 1777, " that the flag of the 13 United States be 13 stripes alternate red and white ; that the union be 13 stars, white in a blue field, rep- resenting the new constellation." In 1794 Congress ordered that after 1 May, 1795, " the flag of the United States be 15 stripes, alternate red and white, and that the union be 15 stars, white in a blue field." This was to note the ad- FLA 282 FLO mission of Vermont and Kentucky. In 1816 a committee was appointed to inquire into the expediency of changing the flag, and 4 Apr. 1818, an act was approved reducing the num- ber of stripes to 13, and increasing the number of stars to represent at all times the number of states in the Union. 44 surs in the U. S. flag in 1893. First U. S. flag raised was that over Fort Schuyler, N. Y., then a military post on the site of the village of Rome (Fort SCIU'YLKR) 3 Aug. 1777 It was flrsl seeu in a foreign country aboard the Ranger, capt. Paul Jones, at Quiberon bay, France, where it received the salute of that government 14 Feb. 1778 First displayed m a British port on board the Bedford, of Mas- sachusetts, which arrived in the Downs 3 Feb. 1783 First trip around the world in the ship Columbia (Unitkd States) 1787-90 Carried farthest south in the schooner Flying Fish, liout. W. M. Walker, U. S. N. (Wilkes U. S. exploring expedition), laL 70° 14' S., Ion. 100° W 24 Mch. 1839 Carried, by lieut. J. B. Lockwood, U. S. N. (Greely expedition), lat 83° 24' N., Ion. 40° 46' W 13-15 May 1882 Carried flirthest north by lieut. R. E. Peary, U. S. N., lat. 83° 30' N., Ion. 39° W 1891 Before 1866 all American flags were of English bunting. Sa- LUTK AT Ska and Unio.n Jack. Flagel'lant§, at Perouse, Italy, about 1268, during a plague, maintained there was no remission of sins without flagellation, and publicly lashed themselves. Clement VI. de- clared them heretics in 1349 ; and 90 of them, and their leader, Conrad Schmidt, were burned, 1414. In 1574 Henry III. of France became a Flagellant for a short time. flaf^e'olet, a musical instrument ascribed to Juvigny, about 1581 ; double flageolet patented by William Bainbridge, 1803; improved 1809 and 1819. Flanders, part of ancient Belgium, which was con- quered by Julius Caesar, 51 b.c. It became part of France, 843 A.D., and was governed by counts subject to the king, from 862 till 1369, the first being Baldwin, Bras de Fer, who is said to have introduced the cloth manufacture. In 1204 Baldwin IX. became emperor at Constantinople. In 1369 Philip, duke of Burgundy, married Margaret, the heiress of count Louis II. After this Flanders was subjected successive- ly to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), and Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared independence, but afterwards returned to its allegiance to the house of Hapsburg. In 1713 it was in the German empire. France obtained part of Flanders by treaty in 1659 and 1679. Natives of Flanders were called Flemings. Belgium, Burgundy, and Nktherlands. riattery, Cape, at the entrance of the strait Juan de Fuca, west coast of the state of Washington, U.S., so named by capt. Cook because it looked like a distant harbor, 1778. Flavian Caesars, the Roman emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 66-96 a.d. C^sars, The Twelve. flax. The manufacture in Egvpt in very early times was carried thence to Tyre about 588 b.c., and to Gaul about 1 B,c.; and thus reached Britain. It was encouraged in England, by statue 24 Hen. VIII. 1533. For many ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by hand. A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750. Flowers and Plants, Hemp. Fleet prison, London, was built over the small river Fleta (whence the name fleet), now a sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. this river is said to have been navigable to Holborn bridge. It was founded in the 1st year of Richard I., was allotted for debtors, 1640; and persons were committed here by the star-chamber, and for contempt of court of chancery. It was burned during the Gordon riots, 7 June. 1780, rebuilt 1781-82, pulled down 1845 (debtors removed to Queen's Bench prison). The site was sold to the London. Dover, and Chat- ham railway company for 60,000Z. on 2 June, 1864. Last vestige removed Feb. 1868 Fleet marriages. Between 19 Oct. 1704 and 12 Fob. 1705 there were celebrated 295 marriages in the Fleet without license or certificate of banns. 20 or 30 couples were sometimes joined in one day, and their names concealed by private marks if they chose to pay an extra fee. Pennant says that in his youth he was often accosted with, " Sir, will you please to walk in and be married ?" Painted signs of joined th^^' hands, with the inscription, " Marriages performed with were common on the building. This abuse abolished by the Marriage act 1769 Flemish school. Painting. Flensburg, a city of Schleswig. Here the Danes de- feated the allied Schleswig and German troops, 9 Apr. 1848. It was entered by the allies, 7 Feb. 1864. Denmark. fleur-de-lis {Jler-de-le'), the emblem of France, said to have been brought from heaven by an angel to Clovis on his vow that, if victorious in a pending battle with the Ale- nianni near Cologne, he would embrace Christianity, 496. It was the national emblem till the revolution in 1789, when the tricolor (blue, white, and red) was adopted. Fleurus, a village of Belgium, the site of several battles. Between the Catholic league under Gonzales de Cordova and the Protestant union (indecisive) 30 Aug. 162J Prince of Waldeck defeated by marshal Luxemburg 1 July, 1690 Allies under the prince of Coburg defeated by the French revolutionary army under Jourdan, who joined the armies of the Moselle, the Ardennes, and the North. (The French said to have profited by a balloon reconnoissance. ) . .26 June, 1794, Here Napoleon defeated Bliicher (Ligny) 16 June, 1818 floating^ batteries. Batteries; Gibraltar, 1781, Flodden field, Northumberland, Engl. Site of sm battle on 9 Sept. 1513, between English and Scots ; James IV. of Scotland having joined Louis XII. of France against Henry VIII. of England. James, many nobles, and 10,000 men wer»* slain — scarce a Scotch family of eminence but had a member of it killed in this battle— while the English, under the earl of Surrey, lost only persons of small note. "Tradition, legend, time, and song, Shall many an age the wail prolong : Still from the sire the son shall hear i Of the stern strife and carnage drear | Of Flodden's fatal field, S Where shivered was fair Scotland's spear, And broken was her shield." ] — Scott, " Marmion," canto vi. stanza 34. ' flog'g^ing^, by the Jewish law, was limited to forty- stripes, "lest thy brother should seem vile unto thee," 1451 B.C. (Deut. XXV. 3). William Cobbett in 1810, and John Drakard in 1811, were punished for publishing severe cen- sures on flogging in the British army. Flogging abolished in the U. S. navy and on vessels of com- merce 28 Sept, 1850 Abolished in the U. S. army 5 Aug. 1861 Abolished in British army by Army Discipline act Apr. floods. Inundations. Flora'lia, annual games at Rome in honor of Floi lasting fronti 28 Apr. to 2 May, instituted about 752, but n( celebrated with regularity till about 174 b.c. Florence {Flormtia), capital of Tuscany, and from 1864 to 1871 of Italy, is said to have been founded by the sol- diers of Sulla (80 B.C.), and enlarged by the Roman triumviru In its palaces, universities, academies, churches, and librariea are many of the rarest works of sculpture and painting. The Florentine academy and Academia della Crusca (established 1582) were instituted to enrich literature and improve the lan- guage of Tuscany j the latter was so named because it reject* like bran all words not pure Tuscan : both are now united uM- L850 L88l| der the former name. Destroyed by Totila Pop. 1890, 191,453. about 541 Rebuilt by Charlemagne about 800 Becomes an independent republic about 1198 Wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines 1215 et seq. Dante born here 14 May, 1266 Arti or guilds established 1266 Factions of the Bianchi and Neri 1300 Great plague, the Black Death 1348 Influence of the Medici begins with Cosmo de' Medici, "the father of his country " about 1420 Death of Lorenzo de' Medici 8 Apr. 1492 Savonarola strangled and burned 23 May, 1498 Alexander de' Medici perpetual governor 1580 Cosmo de' Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany ; makes Flor- ence his capital (Tuscany) ISW Revolution at Florence 27 Apr. 1889 Annexation to Sardinia voted by people, 11, 12 Mch. ; the king enters Florence 7 Apr. 1860 King opens the exhibition of the industrial products of Italy. 15 Sept. 1861 Florence decreed the capital of Italy till the acquisition ot Rome 11 Dec, 1864 King and court remove there 13 May, 1865 FLO 283 FLO Dante festival (the 600th anniversary of his birth) opened by the king 14 May, 1865 First assembly of Italian parliament here 18 Nov. " Capital removed to Rome July, 1871 Fourth centenary of Michel Angelo 12 Sept. 1875 Brick duomo, begun by Arnulfo, 1294; dedicated by pope Eu- genius IV., 1436; completed by Brunelleschi, 1447; the fa- cade cased with marble by government, uncovered in pres- ence of the king 12 May, 1887 Equestrian statue of king Victor Emmanuel unveiled, 20 Sept. 1890 Flore§, or Isle of Flowers, one of the Azores, discovered by Vanderberg in 1439, and settled by the Portuguese in 1448. Florida, one of the United States, lies between 31° and 24° 30' N. lat., and 79° 48' and 87° 38' W. Ion. The Perdido river separates it from Alaba- ma on the west. It is mostly a peninsula, 275 miles long and averaging 90 miles in width, extending south to the strait of Bimini, and separating the gulf of Mexico from the Atlan- tic ocean. Georgia and Ala- bama bound it on the north. Area, 54,240 sq. miles in 45 counties. Pop. 1890, 391,422. Capital, Tallahassee. Juan Ponce de Leon, sailing from Porto Rico in search of new lands, discovers Florida 27 Mch., lands near St. Au- gustine, plants the cross, and takes possession in the name of the Spanish monarch 2 Apr. 1512 Diego Miruelo, a pilot, sails from Cuba with one vessel, touches at Florida, and obtains pieces of gold from the natives 1516 Spaniards, under Francis Hernandez de Cordova, land in Flori- da, but are driven offby the natives, and return to Cuba 1517 Ponce de Leon having returned to Porto Rico and obtained title and privileges of Adelantado of Florida, fits out 2 ves- sels and revisits Florida. Driven off by the natives, he soon after dies in Cuba 1521 Panfllo de Narvaez, commissioned to conquer and govern the mainland from the river of Palms near Tampico to cape Flor- ida, lands at Tampa bay with 400 men and 80 horses, 15 Apr. 1528 Fernando de Soto, leaving Cuba, lands at Tampa bay, which he calls Espiritu Santo, with about 1000 men and 350 horses, and passing north through Florida erects a cross of wood near the northern boundary. He lands 25 May, 1539 Don Tristan de Luna, with about 1500 soldiers and many zeal- ous friars, anchors in Santa Maria bay (probably Pensacola), establishes a camp, from which he makes excursions, 14 Aug. 1559 Expedition fitted out by admiral Coligni, under capt. Jean Ribault, on the way north along the coast, place at the en- trance of St. John's river a monument of stones, bearing the arms of France, and build fort Charles 1562 Ren6 de Laudonni5re, with 3 vessels sent from France by Coli- gni. settles at point now known as St. John's bluff. .22 June, 1564 Sir John Hawkins, with 4 vessels, anchors at Laudonnidre's settlement, and seeing the settlers in great need, offers to take them back to France. Laudonniere refuses, but buys a vessel of Hawkins, who sets sail 15 Aug. 1565 Seven vessels, under Ribault, from Dieppe, 23 May, with 500 men and families of artisans, land at river St. John. .29 Aug. " Don Pedro Menendez de Avilla arrives from Spain with an expedition at St. Augustine, 28 Aug. 1565. Re-embarking, they discover 4 large vessels of the French anchored at the mouth of the St. John. Being fired upon by the Span- ish the French put to sea, and Menendez returns to St. Au- gustine, lands, and takes possession of the country in the name of the king of Spain 8 Sept. " Menendez, with 500 men, attacks and massacres the settlers of Laudonniere at fort Caroline, few of the French escaping. He calls the fort San Mateo 19 Sept. " Ribault sails to surprise the Spanish, 10 Sept., but by a tempest is driven ashore near Mosquito inlet and followed up by Menen- dez, and all who reject the Catholic foith are massacred. . Sept. " Laudonniere, with 18 or 20 fugitives, the survivors of the massacre at fort Caroline, sails for France 25 Sept. " Menendez sails for Spain, having in 18 months established forts and block-houses at St. Augustine, San Mateo, Avista, Guale, St. Helena, Tequcsta, Carlos, Tocobayo, and Coava spring, 1567 Father Sedefio and brother Baez begin a mission among Ind- ians on Guale (Amelia island); the latter compiles a cate- chism in Indian language 1568 Dominic de Gourgues lands near the mouth of St. Mary's river, at Fernandina, with 184 men. Befriended by Indians hostile to the Spanish, and seeking revenge for the French, he surpri.'^es the Spanish, destroys fort San Mateo, and sets sail for France 3 May, " Menendez, having returned, spends a few years in Florida, then leaves the government to his relative, marquis de Me- nendez, and again goes to Spain 1572 Sir Francis Drake lands at St. Augustine and destroys the fort which the Spaniards abandoned, but rebuilt immediately after his departure 8 May, 1586 Twelve brothers of the order of St. Francis sent to Florida to continue the mission on the island of Guale 1593 Son of the chief of Guale incites a general conspiracy, and the missionaries are massacred ." 1598 War between the Spanish and Apalachee Indians, who are conquered, and a large number set to work on the fortifica- tions of St. Augustine 1638 Diego de Rebellado succeeds to the house of Menendez as cap- tain-general of Florida 1655 St. Augustine pillaged by buccaneers under capt. John Davis, an Englishman 1665 Don Juan Hita de Salacar, captain-general of Florida 1675 Don Juan Marquez de Cabrera, captain-general of Florid?. 1680 Marquez Cabrera attempts to remove tribes of Florida Indians from the interior to the islands on the coast; an insurrection follows, and some tribes removing to Carolina make incur- sions into Florida about 1681 Three galleys of Spaniards from St. Augustine break up the colony of Scots on Port Royal island, S. C 1686 Don Laureano de Torres, governor of E. Florida 1693 Andres de Arriola appointed first governor of a Spanish colony at Pensacola, with a fort, " Charles," and other public buildings, 1696 Don Joseph Cuniga governor of St. Augustine 1701 St. Augustine besieged by a land expedition from Carolina under col. Daniel, and a naval force under gov. Moore ; 2 Spanish vessels appearing off the harbor, gov. Moore raises the siege, 1702 Carolina troops under col. Moore move against the Indians in N. Florida and fight the Spaniards under Don Juan Mexia, at fort San Luis near Tallahassee 15 Jan. 1703 Combined attack of French and Spaniards unsuccessfully made upon Charleston, S. C Aug. 1706 Don Gregorio de Salinas, governor of Pensacola, succeeded by Don Juan Pedro Metamoras 1717 Don Antonio de Benavuedi y Malina appointed governor of E. Florida to succeed Don Juan de Ayala « 1718 Expedition against Pensacola fitted out by M. de Bienville, the French commander at Mobile, captures the fort, and takes the garrison to Havana in 2 French vessels; gov. Metamoras im- mediately equips an expedition and recaptures the fort 1719 French under Desnade de Champmeslin besiege Pensacola, de- stroying the fortifications and public buildings and capturing the fort and Santa Rosa island 18 Sept. " Pensacola restored to Spain by peace with Franco; Spaniards rebuild the town on Santa Rosa island near where fort Pick- ens now stands 1722 Col. Palmer of Carolina, with 300 men and a band of friendly Indians, makes a rapid, unexpected, and effectual descent upon Indian and Spanish settlements in Florida 1727 Don Francisco Moral Sanchez, governor of St. Augustine, for an unsatisfactory treaty with the English under gen. Ogle- thorpe, is recalled to Spain and executed 1736 Don Manuel Joseph de Justis, sent in place of gov. Moral, is succeeded by Don Manuel de Monteano 1737 Gen. Oglethorpe, governor of Georgia, arrives at the mouth of St. John's river and captures fort San Diego. 24 May, 1740 Gen. Oglethorpe destroys fort Moosa which he finds deserted, but afterwards places there a garrison of Highlanders under col. Palmer June, " English reinforced by a Carolina regiment, open the siege of St. Augustine 24 June, " Three hundred Spaniards capture fort Moosa; col. Palmer killed in action 25 June, " Gen. Oglethorpe hearing of the arrival of Spanish vessels with supplies for besieged, and many of his men being sick and discouraged, raises the siege 20 July, " Spanish fleet of 36 sail under gov. Monteano enters harbor of St. Simons, Ga., and after 4 hours' engagement, Oglethorpe abandons the works and retires to Frederica 5 July, After an unsuccessful attack on Frederica, gov. Monteano, scared by a decoy letter sent by Oglethorpe, and by 3 vessels from Charleston, sails away for Florida 14 July, Oglethorpe makes a sudden descent upon St. Augustine, but captures only a few Spaniards 9 Mch. Noted Indian chief Secoffee, with his tribe, settles in Alachua, about the centre of Florida; founder of the Seminole nation. Don Alonzo Fernandez de Herrera appointedgovernorof Florida, Treaty ceding E. and W. Florida to Great Britain in exchange for Havana and the west part of Cuba ratified 10 Feb. 1763 Temporary command of province given to maj. Ogilvie " By proclamation, king of Great Britain divides Florida into 2 provinces, east and west, by the Apalachicola river; W. Florida extending to the Mississippi and N'. from gulf to lat. 31°. .7 Oct. •' Gen. James Grant appointed first English governor of E. Florida, • Pensacola laid outasa city, with streets at right angles, making squares 400x200 feet ' •• Dennis Rolle, obtaining from British government a grant of 40,000 acres, embarks from England with 100 families and settles on east side of the St. John's river at Rollstowu 1765 King's road, from fort Barrington to St. Augustine constructed by subscription from public-spirited men in Florida " Forty families from Bermuda emigrate to Mosquito to engage in ship-building 1766 Fifteen hundred Greeks, Italians, and Minorcans, indentured to work for a company organized in England by sir William Duncan and dr. Andrew Turnbull, form a settlement at Mos- quito called New Smyrna 1767 Gen. Grant, returning to England, is succeeded by lieut. - gov. John Moultrie 1771 Col. Patrick Tonyn, sent from England to assume the governor- ship of E. Florida, arrives Mch. 1774 British vessel, The Betsy, from I>ondon, with 111 barrels of powder, captured off St. Augustine by a privateer from Car- olina Aug. 1775 1742 1750 1755 1780 1781 178^ FLO 284 Colonists at New Smyrna institute proceedings to annul their Indentures, and, being successful, remove to St. Augustine.. . Governor of R. Florida calls out the uiilitia to join the royal troops in resisting "the perfidious insinuations " of the neighboring colonies Sixty of the most distinguished citizens of Carolina are seized by the Hrilish and transported as prisoners to St. Augustine, Gov. Tonyn, owing to the state of public affairs, is forced to call a general assembly which meets 17 Mch. Don Bernardo de (Jalvez, assisted by a naval force under ad- miral Sdana, invests Pensacola; forts St. Michel and St. Bernard garrisoned by 1000 English under gen. Campbell; the magazine of fort exploding, gen. Campbell capitulates, Mch. Country westof Pensacola as faras the Mississippi river receded to (Jreat Britain by Spain Expedition under col. Devcreux sails from St. Augustine, and /Kvith .">0 men captures the Bahama islands from Spanish . JBy treaty. Great Britain cedes to Spain E. and W. Florida, evac- ^^ uatiou to take place within 3 months 3 Sept. " Gov. Zespedez, the new Spanish governor, arrives at St. Au- gustine and takes possession of Florida in the name of the , king of Spain June, 1784 /loxauderMcCJillivray, chief of the Creeks, forms a treaty with the Spanish governor in behalf of the Creek and Seminole Indians, engaging to prevent white men from entering the country without a Spanish permit " William Augustus Bowles, in British employ, who had won the favor of the Creeks at Pensacola, captures fort St. Marks and holds it for several weeks until gov. O'Neil of Pensacola drives him out, arrests and sends him prisoner to Cuba 1789 Gen. Mcintosh, after imprisonment for a year in Cuba because of the jealousy of the Spanish governor, Quesada, returns to Florida, gathers followers, destroys a Spanish fort at Jack- sonville and several Spanish galleys; returns to Georgia 1794 Spain recedes to France all of W. Florida lying west of the Perdido river 1795 Band of Seminole Indians, or "runaways," from the Creek nation, settle near the present site of Tallahstssee 1808 Congress authorizes the president to seize W. Florida if a for- " eigu power attempts to capture it 15 Jan. 1811 Settlers on the northern boYd^of Floridaorganize a provisional government, with gen. Jolm"SrMTrfTltt5sIi governor of the re- public and col. Ashley military chief. -. 1812 Fernandina, at this time a depot of neutral trade, garrisoned by Spanish troops under Don Jose Lopez, is besieged by gen. Mcintosh and capitulates 17 Mch. " Gov. Kindelan, sent from Spain to succeed col. Estrada, acting- governor of Florida, demands withdrawal of U. S. troops " Company of U. S. troops, mostly invalids, under command of lieut. Williams, is attacked by negroes under Prince, sent by the governor of St. Augustine; negroes are dispersed after mortally wounding lieut. Williams 12 May, " Monument erected in the public square at St. Augustine by order of the Spanish Cortes, to commemorate the liberal constitution granted to Spain and her colonies 17 Oct. " British fleet enters Pensacola harbor and garrisons forts Michel and Barrancas with British troops, by consent of the Spanish governor Aug. 1814 Gen. Jackson, with 5000 Tennessee volunteers, captures Pen- sacola and fort Michel; fort Barrancas is blown up by the British 7 Nov. " U. S. troops, under cobsDuncan li. Clinch, unexpectedly rein- forced by Creek Indians on the same errand, and aided by 2 gunboats, attack a fort on the Apalachicola river estab- lished by the British as a refuge for runaway negroes, and commanded by a negro named Garcia; a hot shot from gun- boat "154" entering the magazine blows it up; out of 350 men, women, and children in the fort not over 50 escape.. 24 Aug. 1816 By order of the president of the U. S. capt. Henly invests and breaks up a depot for smugglers and buccaneering privateers on Amelia island, under the Spanish flag, and led by Gregor McGregor and Louis Aury 23 Dec. 1817 Gen. Jackson, aided by Creeks under a treaty, attacks the Seminoles in Florida, destroying the Miccosukee and Fowl towns and fort Marks 1818 Gen. Jackson, the Spanish governor at Pensacola furnishing arms to the hostile Indians, and blockading his supplies up the Escambia, marches to Pensacola and captures it " Gen. Jackson hangs Arbuthnot and Ambrister (Arbuthnot and Ambkistkr, case of) -. 30 Apr. " E. and W. Florida ceded to U. S. by treaty and purchase, Spain receiving $5,000,000 22 Feb. 1819 Change of flags at St. Augustine under gov. Coppinger, on the p.irt of Spain, and col. Robert Butler, of the U.S 10 July, 1821 Change of flags at Pensacola, gov. Callava representing Spain, and gen. Jackson the U.S " 21 July, " Gen. Jackson appointed governor of Florida on change of flags, " Juan P. Salas sells to John W. Simonton his title to Key West obtained from the Spanish government in 1815 20 Dec. " Gen. Jackson in W.,and capt. Hanham in E. Florida, wrest papers and archives from the Spanish governors " Act for a territorial government in Florida of all territory ceded by Spain to U. S., known as E. and W. Florida, 30 Mch. 1822 William P. Duval appointed territorial governor " First legislative council meets at Pensacola June, " Key West made a naval depot and station of the U. S., under command of com. Porter " By Congress E. and W. Florida are united, and legislative council meets at St. Augustine 30 Mch. 1823 Treaty of fort Moultrie; the Indians of Florida agree to re- FLO move within certain limits, the northern line being about 20 miles south of Micanopy 18 Sept. 1823 Dr. William H. Simmons and John L. Williams, commissioners of legislative council, select Tallahassee as capital Oct. " First house in new capital erected 1824 Name of the castle of St. Marks at St. Augustine changed to fort Marion 7 Jan. 1826 Florida Institute of Agriculture, Antiquities, and Sciences organ- ized at Tallahassee, and holds its first public meeting, 4 Jan. 1827 Treaty of Payne's landing between col. JamesGadsden, U. S. com- missioner, and the Seminole Indians; who surrender their lands in Florida for an equal area in Indian territory, agree- ing to remove within 3 years 9 May, 1833 Additional treaty made at fort Gibson, Indian territory, with representative chiefs of Seminoles, assigning them a tract in the Indian territory 28 Mch. 1834 Proclamation of pres. Jackson announcing the ratification of the treaty of Payne's landing and fort Gibson 12 Apr. " State-house in Tallahassee begun, 1826; finished •' John H. Eaton appointed territorial governor •• U. S. officer at fort King notifies gen. Thompson, Indian agent for Florida, of the determination of influential chiefs of Florida Indians not to emigrate Oct. " Severest cold ever known in Florida; the St. John's river frozen several rods from the shore, and thermometer marks 7° above zero, a northwest wind for 3 days about 8 Feb. 1836 A council at the Indian agency extends time for removal to 1 Jan. 1836; 8 chiefs agree to emigrate, 5 refuse 24 Apr. " Battle near Wahoo swamp; U. S. troops attacked by Indians under Micanoi)y, Jumper, and Alligator, and maj. Dade's command massacred 28 Dec. " Seminole chief Osceola, seeking revenge for recent imprison- ment by the whites, with about 20 Indians, surprises gen. Thompson and a friend while walking near the Indian agency, and kills and scalps them 28 Dec. " Battle of gen. Clinch with Indians under Osceola and Alligator, near the With lacooche river 31 Dec. '• Battle at Dunlawtown of maj. Putnam with Indians under king Philip 18 Jan. 1836 Gen. Gaines, with troops from New Orleans, attacked by Ind- ians while seeking to ford the Withlacoochee 29 Feb. " Richard Keith Call appointed territorial governor Mch. " Defence of Cooper's post west of the Withlacoochee by Georgia volunteers under maj. Cooper against 250 Seminole warriors, 5-7 Apr. " Railroad from St. Joseph to bayou Columbus opened " Battles between the U. S. troops and Indians in Florida, at Mi- canopy, 9 June ; Welika pond, 9 July ; Ridgely's mills, 27 July ; fort Drane, 21 Aug. ; San Velasco 18 Sept. " Battle of, Wahoo swamp ends the campaign of 1836; results of the year encourage the Seminoles 17-21 Nov. " Gen. Call relieved; gen. Thomas S. Jesup takes command, Nov. " Attack on camp Monroe by 400 Seminoles under king Philip repulsed 8 Feb. 1837 Four hundred Seminoles attack fort Mellon, on lake Monroe, and retire 9 Feb. " Indians assembled in large numbers at fort Dade, by articles of capitulation agree to withdraw south of the Hillsborough river, and prepare at once to emigrate to the west 6 Mch. " Gen. Hernandez captures 2 camps of Indians and negroes, 10 Sept. " Gen. Hernandez, by order of gen. Jesup, captures Osceola and sends him to fort Moultrie, S C, as a prisoner 21 Oct. " Gen. Taylor routs a large Indianforce at Okeechobee lake, 25 Dec. " Battle at Wacassassa river 26 Dec. " Action with Seminoles at Jupiter inlet ; gen. Jesup wounded, 24 Jan. 1838 Gen. Jesup offering peace, many Indians come into camp, agreeing to let the president decide whether they remain in the country or not Feb. " President determining to enforce the treaties, gen. Jesup capt- ures about 700 Indians and negroes 22 Mch. " Over 1000 Indians removed to the western reservation " Gen. Zachary Taylor takes command in Florida, gen. Jesup re- tiring 15 May, " Territory of Florida, in convention at St. Joseph, forms a state constitution 3 Dec. " Robert H. Reid appointed territorial governor 1839 Indians attack col. Harney's post on theCarloosahatchee,23 July, " During this and 4 years previous Florida furnished 5342 volun- teers for the Indian war " Gen. Taylor asking to be relieved, brevet brig. -gen. W. R. Ar- mistead is assigned to command in Florida 6 May, 1840 Battles with Indians at fort King, Marion co., 28 Apr.; Wac- cahoota. 6 Sept. ; Everglades, 3-24 Dec. ; Micanopy. . .28 Dec. " Battle at fort Brooke 2 Mch. 1841 Gen. Armistead relieved at his request, and gen. William J. Worth takes command 31 May, " Richard K. Call reappointed territorial governor " Battle at Hawe creek, 25 Jan. ; at Pilakikaha.. . .-. 19 Apr. 1842 Gen. Worth, by general order, announces the cessation of hos- tilities with Indians in Florida 14 Aug. " Officers and soldiers who died in the Florida war buried at St. Augustine with military honors, and a monument erected by their comrades 15 Aug. " John Branch, territorial governor 1844 Congress grants 8 sections of public lands in Florida for seat of government, 1 section in each township for public schools, 2 townships for 2 seminaries of learning, and 5 percent, from sales of public lands for educational purposes; state admit- ted to the Union 3 Mch. 1846 1845 1846 1849 1850 1853 1857 FLO 285 William D. Moseley, governor of the new state Destructive hurricane passes over Key West 11 Oct. Thomas Brown, governor Public meeting in St. Augustine petitions the federal govern- ment for removal of all Indians from the state 25 Aug. Chief and 6 sub -chiefs of the Seminoles and Micasukies, and a delegate from the Tallahassees, meet gen. Twiggs in council and agree to remove west of the Mississippi and try to persuade their people to do so 21 Jan. James E. Broome, governor Madison S. Perry, governor Two state seminaries of learning organized, one at Palatka, known as the seminary oast of the Suwanee, and the other at Tallahassee, known as the seminary west of the Suwanee Most of the Florida Indians emigrate to the Indian territory; U. S. troops mustered out Fort Marion seized by confederates of St. Augustine by order of the governor 7 Jan. Fort Clinch, in construction on Amelia island, seized by confederates Jan. Apalachicola arsenal, established in 1833, captured by confed- erates Jan. State convention at Tallahassee passes an ordinance of secession — yeas 62, nays 7 — amending the Constitution by inserting the words "Confederate States" in place of-'United States," 10 Jan. Forts Barrancas and McRae and the navy-yards at Pensacola seized by confederates 12 Jan. John Milton, governor Forts McRae and Barrancas dismantled Apr, Federals in fort Pickens, near Pensacola, are reinforced by troops from New York and Illinois, on steamer Atlantic. IQ-2'S Apr. Confederate " Coast Guard " seize the light-house and all U. S. government property at Key Biscayne, Fla 23 Aug. Confederates attack the Wilson Guards on Santa Rosa island, 9 Oct. Frigates Niagara and Richmond bombard forts McRae, Barran- cas, and Pickens 23 Nov. Electoral vote cast for Jefferson Davis 12 Feb. Federal fleet under admiral Dupont, with slight resistance, takes St. Mary's, Fernandina, and fort Clinch St. Augustine taken by federals without resistance 11 Mch. Jacksonville, Fla. , surrendered to Dupont 12 Mch. Jacksonville evacuated by federals 9 Apr. Confederate fort on St. John's blufl", St. John's river, captured by federals 3 Oct. Federals again take Jacksonville 5 Oct. St.Mary's shelled and burned by federal gunboatifo/iaM>fc,9 Nov. Jacksonville taken by federals under col. Higginson. . .10 Mch. Federals badly defeated at Olustee 20 Feb. Regarding Florida as still a state of the Union, a convention at Jacksonville appoints delegates to the presidential conven- tion at Baltimore 24 May, By proclamation, pres. Johnson appoints William Marvin pro- visional governor 13 July, Delegates elected to state convention at Tallahassee 10 Oct. Convention at Tallahassee adopts a new constitution without submission to the people and repeals the ordinance of seces- sion 28 Oct. David S. Walker elected governor 29 Nov. Pres. Johnson proclaims that " the insurrection which hereto- fore existed in the state of Florida is at an end and is hence- forth to be so regarded " 2 Apr. Meeting at Tallahassee forms a state educational association, 20 May, Col. Sprague, military commander of district of Florida; head- quarters at Tallahassee (later at Jacksonville) 31 May, " Republican convention at Tallahassee; 129 delegates. .11 July, " Convention organizing a Conservative party (Constitutional Union) at Tallahassee appoints a state committee. . .25 Sept. " Forty-one out of 46 delegates elected to constitutional conven- tion at Tallahassee; organize, but disagree as to the eligibil- ity of 4 of their number 20 Jan. 1868 Fifteen members of the constitutional convention decide not to attend the meetings 1 Feb. " D. Richards, president of convention, announces for 20 or 22 delegates that they, a legal quorum, have framed and adopt- ed a constitution ignoring the constitution of 1865 6 Feb. " Fifteen members meet at Tallahassee and elect Horatio Jenkins president 8 Feb. " Gen. Meade calls the delegates together, and col. Sprague, act- ing as chairman, Richards and Jenkins resign, and Jenkins is appointed president of the convention 18 Feb. " State constitution adopted; 8 delegates sign under protest, 9 refuse 25 Feb. " New constitution ratified by the people May, " Harrison Reed elected governor " " Legislature meets and adopts the XIV. Amendment June, " Military and civil government surrendered to Harrison Reed, who is inaugurated as governor 4 July, " Unsuccessful attempt to impeach gov. Reed of high crimes and misdemeanors in ofHce " Legislature provides for a state board of education 1869 XV. Amendment ratified by House and Senate, 11 and 16 June, " Harvey S. Harmon admitted to the bar at Alucha circuit court, by judge J. H. Gross; first negro admitted in Florida " People of Florida we.st of the Choctawhatchee river vote by a majority for annexation to Alabama, the conditions fixed by commissioners being "the consent of Congress and con- sideration of $1,000,000 paid to Florida by Alabama," 2 Nov. " Equalization act passed by legislature 27 Jan. 1871 Taxation felt to be unnecessarily heavy ; delegates from nearly 1865 1866 1867 FLO all the counties meet at Lake City and appoint a finance committee to "examine into the financial condition of the state" and to call on the governor to interfere 6 Sept. 1871 Proclamation of governor calling on the people not to bring the law into contempt by refusal to pay taxes, and promising en- forcement of the Equalization act till declared unconstitu- tional or repealed 6 Nov. " Attempt to remove gov. Reed by impeachment unsuccessfully renewed peb. 1872 Act reorganizing the state agricultural college, proposed by a former legislature, and making the superintendent of public instruction its president " Brown's Theological Institute incorporated " Ossian B. Hart elected governor 5 Nov. " Act at special session of the legislature refunding the state in- debtedness (total bonded debt, $1,430,223.48) Feb. 1873 Marcellus L. Stearns succeeds gov. Hartr, who d 18 Mch. 1874 Florida Fruit Growers' association opens a few days' session at Jacksonville 20 Jan. 1875 At a special election, amendments to the constitution are rati- fied by the people 4 May, " George F. Drew, Democrat, elected governor 7 Nov. 1876 After the November" presidential election 3 sets of certificates of electoral votes were sent to Washington: (1) that of Re- publican electors, signed by gov. Stearns ; (2) that of Demo- cratic electors, signed by attorney-gen. Cocke; (3) that of Democratic electors made under act of the legislature and signed by gov. Drew Dec. 1876-Jan. 1877 Act authorizing state adjutant-general to lease convicts, 3 Mch. ••' Florida state-prison made an asylum for lunatics 1 Apr. " Convention of colored men at Tallahassee addresses the col- ored people of the state on education and acquiring home- steads and fostering habits of industry and sobflety, 4 July, " Gov. Drew procures conveyance to the state of nearly 1,800,000 acres of government land under act of Congress relating to swamp and overflowed lands 1880 William D. Bloxham, Democrat, elected governor Nov. " State sells 4,000,000 acres of state land south of Ocala and east of the Kissimmee river to Hamilton Disston and asso- ciates of Philadelphia for $1,000,000 1881 Active work begun on a contract with Philadelphia capitalists for draining lake Okeechobee and reclaiming land; half of reclaimed land to go to the contractors 1882 Trustees remove the state university from Eau Gallic to Lake City and incorporate the " Florida University " 1883 State institution for blind and deaf and dumb located at St. Au- gustine 1884 Edward A. Perry, Democrat, elected governor 4 Nov. " At the November election a new constitution, formed by the convention of 1885, ratified by the people 2 Nov. 1886 Francis P. Fleming, Democrat, elected governor Nov. 1888 Discovery of phosphate rock in abundance near Dunnellen, Marion co June, 1889 Sub-tropical exposition opens at Jacksonville 9 Jan. 1890 Constitutional amendment adopted providing that the election of state offlcers shall be held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in October every 2d year Nov. " Supreme council of the National Farmer's Alliance begins its session at Ocala 2 Dec. " Gen. Francis E. iSpinner, ex-secretary of the treasury of the U. S. , born 1802, dies at Jacksonville 31 Dec. " Monument to the confederate dead unveiled at Pensacola, 17 June, 1891 U. S. senator Wilkinson Call secures renomination on the 86th ballot in caucus, by vote of 52 to 42 for D. H. Mayo and 2 for ex gov. Bloxham 25 May, " Senator Call declared re-elected by 51 votes in joint session, a majority of both houses; but as only 15 senators and 39 members of the House attended, his election is disputed, there being no quorum of the Senate 26 May, " Governor appoints R. H. M. Davidson U. S. senator to fill the supposed vacancy 15 Sept. " Ex gov. Marcellus L. Stearns dies at Palatine Bridge, N. Y., aged 53 8 Dec. " Senator Wilkinson Call seated in U. S. Senate " " TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS. Names. Term. Andrew Jackson 1821 to 1822 William P. Duval. . ..1822 " 1834 John H. Eaton 1834 " 1836 Richard K. Call 1836 " 1839 Names. Term. Robert R. Reid 1839 to 1841 Richard K. Call 1841 " 1844 John Branch 1844 " 1845 STATE GOVERNORS. Names. Term. Remarkt. William D Moseley 1845 to 1849 1849 " 1853 1853 " 1857 1857 " 1861 1861 " 1865 1865 " 1866 1866 " 1868 1868 " 1872 1872 " 1874 1874 " 1877 1877 " 1881 1881 " 1885 1885 " 1889 1889 " 1893 1893 " 1897 Thomas Brown James E Broome .... .... Madison S Perry . . William Marvin . . Provisional. David S Walker Harrison Reed Ossian B Hart Died in office Marcellus L Stearns George F Drew Edward A. Perry Francis P Fleming Henry L.Mitchell FLO 286 FLO UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF FLORIDA. No. of Congreu. Date. James D. We8tcott,Jr, David L. Yulee Jackson Morton Stephen B. Mallory... David L. Yulee Thomas W. Osborn. AdonUiih S. Welch. Abijah (Gilbert Simon B. Conover. Charles W. Jones.. Wilkinson Call Samuel Pasco 29lh to 30th 29th " 3l8t 3l8t " 33d 32d " 3(5th 34th " 36th 1845 to 1849 1845 " 1851 1849 " 1855 1851 " 1861 1855 " 1861 [37th, 38th, and 39th Congress, seats vacant.] 40th to 42d 40th 41st " 43d 43d " 45th 44th " 49th 4t5th " 50th " 1868 to 1873 1868 " 1869 " 1875 1873 " 1879 1875 " 1887 1879 " Seated 1 Dec. 1845. Yulee contests this seat unsuccessfully. Seated 30 June, 1868. " 2 July, " Term expires 1897. " 1899. florin, a coin first made by the Florentines. A florin issued by Edward III. was current in England for 6s. in 1337. — Camden, This English coin was called floren, after the Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best gold. Coin and Coinage. floi¥er§ and planti. Many flowers now common in England were introduced between Henry VII. and Eliza- beth (1485-1603). The art of preserving flowers in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from frost in winter, and hastening vegetation in summer, was invented in U. S. by George Morris, in 1792. — The flora- ciilture of the United States has rapidly increased since 1870. Besides the Society of American Florists, there are over 1000 state and local ones, and above 400 horticultural societies. This pleasant industry has become remunera- tive. NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES. SHOWING THEIR NATIVITY. I Popalur. Almond j Amygdalus pumilia. Apple j Pyrus malus. Apricot Arbor-vitae Arbutus, trailing Artichoke Artichoke, Jerusalem. Ash Asparagus Aster, China Azalea. Bachelor's button. Balm ofGilead. Balsam Banana Barley . Basswood (Linden). Bayberry Bean. Bean (Kidney). Bean (Lima)... Beech Beet Birch. , Blackberry.. Bluebell.... Blue-grass . . Boxwood Broom-corn. Buckwheat. Bulrush . . . . Buttercup . . Butternut . . Cabbage . . . . Cactus, night-blooming. Cale Candytuft Caraway Cardinal-flower. Carnation Carrot Castor-oil plant Prunus armeniaca. . . . TJnnn f occidentalis . . . ^''^J<^\orientalis Epigcea repens Cynara scolymus Helianthus tuberosus . . Fraxinus americana. . Asparagus officinalis. . Callistrephus chinensis. Azalea icalendulacea.. \pontica. . . Centaur ea cyanus. Populus candicans . . fmpatiens balsamine Musa sapientum .... Hordeum vulgare , (americana. \europcea... Myrica cerifera. . . Faba vulgaris .... Phaseolvs vulgaris. Phaseolus lunatus. Fagus silvatica Beta vulgaris f lenta excelsa Betula -I populifolia . . papyracea . . . [ laciniate Rubus villosus Hyadnthus nutans Poa compressa Buxus sempervirens . , . Sorghum saccharatum. Fagopyrum esculentum. Juncus effusus Ranunculus acris Julians cinerea Brassica oleracea Cereus grandijlorus . Brassica campestris. . . Iheris umbellata Carum carvi Tnhplin jcardinalis... Lobelia y^^^^^ Dianthus caryophyllus. Daucus carota Ridnus communis Nativity. China. Europe and Asia . Asia. United States. China. United States Europe, S. Brazil. United States, Europe, W China. United States. Asia Minor. Europe, central . . United States. India. India Egypt. United States. Europe United States, E. Egypt. America South America. Un.ted States. . . Europe, S. United States, N. United States , Europe and Asia. United States, Middle., Europe. Abyssinia. , Asia United States. Europe. United States. Europe, N Mexico. Europe, N. Europe, S. Caria. United States. Europe, S. Europe and Asia. India {Over 1000 varieties now in the U. S. The Romans had 22 varieties (Pliny). ( One of the most beautiful and fragrant ] of early spring wood flowers of the ( northern U. S. (Praised by Pliny and Cato. One of ( the oldest culinary vegetables. f Botanical name from Centaur. Chiron, I one of the Centaurs, being wounded -{ in his foot by Hercules, cured it with I this plant. A hardy and popular [ annual. r Cultivated in all tropical and sub-trop- ^ ical climates. No specific difference ( between it and the plantain. C Native country conjectural. "Their steeds beside the cars — I Champing their oats and their white barley— stood. And waited for the golden morn to rise." —Homer, "Iliad," viii. 686-88, I Bryant's trans. I "The topmost linden gathered green ^ From draughts of balmy air." ( —Tennyson. (Furnishes the bayberry tallow of com- ( merce. Beans. The beech of Virgil's "Pastorals": "Patulse recumbans sub tegmine fagi," was not a beech, but the Quer- cus esculus. (The species Papyracea furnishes the 1 bark for the Indian canoe. Much cultivated of late years in U. S. Celebrated in Kentucky. f " It is said that Benj. Franklin intro- [ duced it into U. S."— 6?eo. TImrber. fits flour an important article of food I in the U. S. Agriculturk. In its wild state without head. ( Its magnificent flower expands by J night and blooms but a few hours. ( The order is exclusively American. In India it becomes a tree. In the southern U. S. a stout shrub, where it is extensively cultivated for the oil extracted from its seed. FLO 287 FLO NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES, SHOWING THEIR ^ATIYITY.— (Continued.) Popular. Nativity. Remarks. Catnip.. CaUtaiL Cauliflower Cedar, red Celery Century-plant Cherry Chestnut Chiccory (succory) Choke-cherry Chrysanthemum... Citron Clematis /white) \red.../ ••• Clover, sweet Cockscomb Columbine... Corn, Indian. Corn-cockle,. Clover Cotton-plant . . . Crab- apple Cranberry Cress, water . . . Crocus Cucumber Cucumber-tree. Currants Cypress. . Daffodil. . Dahlia.. . Daisy. .... Dandelion Dewberry. Dogwood. . Egg-plant. Elder Fennel Filbert, hazelnut. Fir Flax Four-o'clock. Foxglove Fuchsia Garlic Geranium. Ginseng Gladiolus Goldenrod Gooseberry, garden. Gourd Grape , Hawthorn . Heliotrope. Hemlock. . . Hemp Hickory Holly Hollyhock. Nepeta cataria Typha latifoLia . I Brassica botrytis — cauliflora , ! Juniperus virginiana Apium graveolis . I Agave americana Cerasus vulgarum , Castanea vesca , . j Cichorum intybus , . ! Cerasus virginiana . I Chrysanthemum sinense , Citrus medica Clematis virginiana ^"/""-{i'S.ie:.::::::;:::} Mililotus alba , Celosia cristata '^'i-'^-i^S^ii: -::::.:. Zea mays Agrostemma githago ®-»""'»pSS::::::::::: Pyrus coronaria Oxycoccus macrocarpus Nasturtium officinale Crocus vermis Cucumis sativus Magnolia acuminata «*M?Sr™-„-;:::::::::;:::;::} {Cupr casus thyoides Taxodium distychum Narcissus, Pseudo-narcissus. ...... Dahlia vanabilis Europe, S.E... United States. Europe, N United States. Egypt. Central and S. America. Europe, E. United States. Central Asia. United States, E. China Asia. United States. Europe and Asia Europe and Asia. India. Europe and Asia. United States. America Europe. India West Indies. United States. United States, N Europe. Europe, S. Asia. United States. Europe. United States United States, S. Bellis perennis Taraxacum dena-leonis. p„/,„o (canadensis ^""^"^ {trivialis Europe. Mexico. England Europe, N., and Asia. United States, N. United States, S. Cornus florida Solanum esculentum «,.»..„». f;x2!^'!;:::::::::} '«»-&r".r;::.::::::::::} Anethum fceniculum Abies [Y'"'^''^ Xfrasert Linum usitatissimum Mirabilis jalapa Digitalis purpurea Fuchsia coccinea Allium sativum (common) Pelargo- igraveolens { gcenfedl . mum Xzonale (horse-shoe). . j Panax quinquefolium Gladiolus communis , cf„7vj^ „ (canadensis > ^"^"^S" [altissima | Ribes uva — crispa Lagenaria vulgaris United States, N. Central Africa, United States. United States England. United States. Asia. United States, N. United States. Asia Peru. Central Europe. Chili. Asia. Cape of Good Hope. United States . Europe, S. United States. , Europe. India. ( Isabella, Cataw- ) i Vitis Idbrusca < ba. Concord, and [ i United States . (others. ) | Vitis vulpina (Scuppernong) ■ United States. F^Y^•.mWera{g^^;™P«^°^'"«■} i Asia. f Viti \ Vitii Heliotropium peruvianum . Abies canadensis England United States. Peru. United States, N. Cannabis sativa ' India Carya alba i United States. J, (opaca (American holly) i United States. ■'^^^ \aquifolium (English holly) . . . ' England AUhcea rosea Asia Minor, China. fSaid to be eaten by cats. The dried -{ herb in infusion is slightly sudor- ( iflc. f In the cauliflower we eat the I fleshy flower -stalks and undevel- ■{ oped buds, which are crowded to- I gether in a compact mass forming i the head. rrhe largest of all herbaceous plants. ■< That it flowers but once in a hun- ( dred years is a popular fallacy. I Of late years, through cultivation, has < become one of the most showy and ( popular of the autumn flowers. Introduced into the U. S. before 1774. With other grass it makes the best of hay. Its cultivation, when " turned in," improves the soil. Maize. Cotton. ' Its fine acid fruit has become a staple article of commerce, and on the bog- lands of Massachusetts, New .Jersey, and Wisconsin, its cultivation has proved a success. White cedar. " Daffodils, That come before the swallow dares, and take The winds of March with beauty." — Shakespeare, "Winter's Tale," act iv. sc. iii. "When daisies pied and violets blue. And lady-smocks all silver-white, And cuckoo-buds of yellow hue Do paint the meadows with de- light." —Shakespeare, "Love's Labor's Lost," act V. sc. ii. An excellent tree for cultivation. Wood close-grained and Arm. Bark sometimes used as a tonic. Very or- namental when in flower. ; The white elm is one of the most mag- [ niflcent of trees. (From the fibres of its bark linen is made, and its seeds yield "linseed oil." Mentioned by Virgil, "Urit enim lini campum seges, urit ave- n ». — ' ' Georg. " i. 76. Flax. A thrifty plant, many varieties largely cultivated. Its root used medicinally. ■♦'But on the hill the goldenrod, and the aster in the wood, And the yellow sunflower by the brook in autumn beauty stood." — Bryant. ' "This song of mine is a song of the vine, To be sung by the glowing em- bers Of wayside inns, when the rain be- gins To darken the drear November." —Longfellow, " Catawba Wine. " I" " And every shepherd tells his tale Under the hawthorn in the dale. " [ —Milton. r " This is the forest primeval, the mur- muring pines and the hemlocks." I —Longfellow, "Evangeline." Hemp. 'Heigh, ho! sing heigh, ho! unto the green holly." —Shakespeare, "As You Like It," song, act ii. sc. vii. FLO FLO NAUES OF THE PRINCIPAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES, SHOWING THEIR NATIVITY.— (Contmued) Populkr. Honeysuckle. Hop Horse-cbestnut. . Horse-radish.... House-leek Huckleberry. ... Hyacinth Hydrangea Ironwood Ivy Jack-in-the-pulpit. Jasmine Jingko-tree . Juniper. Larch Larkspur. Laurel, American. Lavender Leek Lemon Lentils.. Iiettuce. Lilac... Lily. Lily.calla Lily, white day Lily-of-tbe-valley Lime Linden. (Basswood.) Live-for-ever, common orpine. Locust Locust, honey Love-lies-bleeding. Magnolia . Mallow.. . , Maple Marigold Maijoram May-flower. (Trailing ar-1 BUT08 J Mignonette Milkweed Mint. (Peppermint and Spbae- MINT Mistletoe Morning-glory , Mountain ash. Mulberry.. Mullein Muskmelon. Mustard Myrtle Narcissus. . Nasturtion. Oak. Oat.. Oleander. Onion . . . Orange.. . Lonicera ■ japontca caprifolium (common). . . Humulus lupulus jEscuIus hippocastanum Amoracia i^usticana Sempervivum tectorum "^ * \restnosa (black) ) Hyacinthus orientalis Hydrangea hortensis Ostrya virginica I Hedera helix ■s »;.,<. i toxicodendron (poison ivy) > j^«/jus \^radicans (climbing ivy). . . f Aris(zma triphylum r«.«.v.„.,». ifniticans (yellow) Jasmmum \i^cinale (white) Salisburia adiantifolia Juniperus communis Larix americana iconsolida Delphinium < filatum igrandiflorum KctZmia latifoiia (calico-bush) Lavandula spica Allium porrum Citrus limonum , Ervum lens , LactUfCa scariola Syringa vulgaris {candidum.,. Lilium < bulbiferum. [iigrinum Richardia cethiopica Funkia eubcordata. . Convallaria majalis. Citrus limenta Sedum telephium „ , . ._ fpaeudacacia (common). Moomia ^fiigpi^ (rose acacia).. . Gleditschia tracanthvs Amarantvs melancholicus Magnolia (grandijlora . \consipicuM . Malva rotundifolio ( rubrum Aeer-l dasvpC'^P'"'''"" saccharinum.. [ nigrum Calendula officinalis. Origanum majorana Receda odorata . . . Asclepias cornuti. . Phorodendron flavescens PAa.6ttt.{sT!';'^:;:::::::::::} Convolvulus japonicus Pyrus Moras iamencana. \ancuparia . alba, nigra Verbascum thapus. Cucumia melo. ^"«p-{:fc :;:::::::::::::::} Myrtus communis. Narcissus poeticus TropcBolum majus. nigra Quercus -{ rubra — tinctoria. alba Avena tativa Nerium oleander. . Allium cepa Citrus aurantium . Nativity. China. Europe. Europe. Europe Asia, N. Europe. Europe. United States Levant. China. United States. England United States. United States. Europe, S.\ Asia. / Japan United States. United States. Europe. Siberia. Siberia. United States, E. Europe, S Switzerland. Asia. Asia Europe and Asia. Hungary. Levant. Italy. China. Cape of Good Hope. Japan. United States & Europe. Asia, E. Europe United States. United States, United States.' Asia, £ ■A United States, S. China. Europe. United States . Asia, E. Portugal Africa, N. United Statea United States, Middle. Central America. China. United States) Europe j United States . China. Persia. United States. Asia, into Eng. 1570. Europe. Europe, S. Europe, S. Peru. United States, S United States. United States. Island of Juan Fernandez. Palestine Syria and Persia. India and West Indies. Hops. fBotauically it is named in honor of \ Gay-Lussac. " A rare old plant is the ivy green." —Dickem (''The jessamine clambers in flowert ■i o'er the thatch." ( — Dimond, "The Mariner's Dream.' Introduced into the U. S. ; very rare. (The plant is fragrant, and by distilla-| ( tion yields oil of lavender. ( This legume, as an article of food, is of ' { the greatest antiquity (Gen. xxv. ( 34). Formerly much prized as a shade tree. " I can see his sickle gleaming, Cheery-voiced can hear him team- ing Down the locust-shaded way." — Whiitier. A stately and beautiful tree, in height 70-90 ft., flowers pure white, very fragrant. Eminently American, the sugar ma- ple especially, one of the most valu- able and interesting of our trees. The sugar and syrup made from its sap is highly prized. Each variety esteemed as shade trees. A parasitic plant. Many varieties for- eign. "The mistletoe hung in the castle hall, The holly branch shone on the old oak wall." — Bayly, "The Mistletoe Bough." 'Much admired, especially the Euro- pean variety, for its clusters of beautiful scarlet berries in the au- ^ tumn. [A tree 40 ft. in height, fruit resembles '[ the blackberry. I Cultivated for the sake of its leaves as food of the silkworm. Varieties numerous. /Timber formerly in great demand for \ ship-building. A tree pre-eminent for grandeur, strength, and usefulness. The island of Juan Fernandez is given as its native place, but that of none of our cultivated grains is clearly known. A splendid shrub, almost a tree in the East. Green-bay-tree supposed to be the plant referred to in Ps. xxxvii. 35. I FLO 289 FLO NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES, SHOWING THEIR NATIVITY.— (Continued.) Popular. Orchis, showy. Osage-orange. . Pseony Parsley.. Parsnip. Pea Peach . . Peanut. . Pear. Pecan nut Pennyroyal... Pepper, red..., Pepper, black. Peppermint. . Pepper-root. . , Persimmon... Petunia Phlox Pine. Pineapple Pink. (Carnation and Sweet- ) WILLIAM.) / Plum Poison ivy. (Ivy.) Pokeweed Pomegranate Pond-lily. (Water-lily.).. Poplar. (BalmofGilead.). Poppy. Potato. (Sweet-potato.). Prince's feather. Pumpkin., "Quince. . . , Radish..., Raspberry Bhubarb, garden. Bice Rose. Rue- Rye. . . . ■Saffron., Sago-plant. . Sarsaparilla. Scuppernong. (Grape.) Snow-ball Sorghum. (Broom-corn. Sorrel Orchis spedabilis . . . Madura aurantiaca. Pceonia officinalis. . . Viola tricolor Apium petroslienum. Pastinaca sativa Pisum sativum Persica vulgaris .... Arachis hypogcea Pyrus communis. Carya olivce formis (•Hedema pulegioides \Mentha pulegium Capsicum annum Piper nigrum Mentha piperita Dentaria diphylla Diospysos virginiana Petunia violacea Paniculata maculata {^a^iSs} ' • C strobus (white) P,«w p]ngland j U. S. throughout. United States . United States. U. S., Middle and W. United States. India Europe and Asia.... U. S., Middle and W. United States. Central Asia United^States, N. U. S., S. andW. 1 China. j United States. U.S., N. and Middle. England This now well-known pot-herb Issnid' to have been brought into Spain by the Arabs. One of the flrst,as well as the most deli- cate, of our early spring wood flowers. Extensively cultivated for its fruit. Sugar. First brought to Spain ft-om the West Indies by Columbus. It is the po- tato of Shakespeare and contempo- rary writers, the Solanum tuberosum,. being then almost unknown in Eu- rope. (Extensively cultivated for fodder in \ the eastern and middle U. S. Tobacco. Tomato. ( Rapid growth and rather gracefbl ap- pearance favored its cultivation at J first, but its disagreeable odor when ] in flower stopped it. Congress for- bade further planting of it in public. [ grounds of the U. S. , 3 Mch. 1853. '•Violets, dim. But sweeter than the lids of Juno's- eyes, Or Cytherea's breath." — Shakespeare, " Winter's Tale," act iv. sc. ill. A vigorous climber, occupying nearly the same position in the U. S. that the ivy does in England, being cul- tivated as a covering for walls, etc. The dense dark-brown wood of this species is among the most valuable in the northern U. S. Its nuts are also esteemed. It isbecomingscarce. fExtensively cultivated in the U. S. for its delicious, cooling fruit. "Wheat. (A magnificent forest tree ; wood ex- l tensively used as a substitute for ( pine ; becoming scarce. Weeping Willow. {A little plant of the woods, with spicy leaves and scarlet berries. A splendid flowering vine of rapid growth ; flowers in long pendulous clusters. {' Medicinal extract from its leaves and bark esteemed. fluorescence. When the invisible chemical rays beyond the blue end of the spectrum pass through uranium glass or solutions of quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramo- nium datura, they become luminous by what was termed " fluorescence " by its discoverer, prof. Stokes, in 1852. By fluorescence, drs. Bence Jones and Dupre detected the presence of quinoidine in animal tissues. Calorescence. fluorine, a gaseous element obtained from fluor-spar ; first collected over mercury by Priestley ; named by Ampere, 1810. It is so corrosive that it is separated with great diffi- culty. Its chemical history was elucidated by Davy (1809), Berzelius (1824), and succeeding chemists. The corrosive properties of fluoric acid were applied in the arts in 1760 by Schwankhard of Nuremberg. — Gmelin. Flushing', a seaport of the Netherlands, on the isle of Walcheren. For the siege, Walcheren expedition. It was fortified by Napoleon I., but the works were finally dis- mantled in 1867. The port improved, and new dock opened by the king of Holland, 8 Sept. 1873. flute. The transverse flute (called the " German," but FLU 291 FOR properly the Swiss flute) was described by Michael Prctorius of Wolfenbiittel in 1620, and by Mersenne of Paris in 1636. It was much improved by French in the 17th century; by Quantz, Tacet, Florio, Potter, Miller, Nicholson, and others in the 18th. In the present century, also, the Nicholsons, Boehm of Munich, Godfrey of Paris, Carter, Rockstro, and Rudall & Rose of London, have greatly improved it. Flageolet. fluxion§, a branch of higher mathematics, discovered by Newton, 1665, upon principles identical with those of the differential calculus described by Leibnitz, 1684. A contro- versy ensued as to prior discovery. There is now no doubt of the independence of each philosopher ; but the methods of Leibnitz have proved more practical and fruitful. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler, Lagrange, and Laplace. The first elementary work on fluxions in Eng- land is a tract of 22 pages in " A New Short Treatise of Alge- bra, together with a Specimen of the Nature and Algorithm of Fluxions," by John Harris, M.A. (London, 1702). flyings, artificial. Greek mythology asserts that Daeda- lus made wings of wax for his son Icarus, who, disobeying his father, flew so high that the sun melted his wings, and he fell into the sea which took his name. Archytas is said to have made a flying dove, about 400 b.c. Friar Bacon maintained the possibility of flying, and predicted the general practice of it, 1273, Bishop Wilkins says (1651), " It will yet be as usual, to hear a man call for his wings when he is going on a journey as it is now to hear him call for his boots ! " Borelli (about 1670) showed the futility of these speculations. About 1800, sir George Cayley experimented on the subject, and in 1843 Mr. Henson invented a flying-machine ; but nothing has been devised of practical use. The motion of birds in relation to aeronautics was much discussed by scientific men in 1867-68. At a meeting of the Aeronautical society, London, 26 Mch. 1868, it was stated that a member had, by his muscular force, aided by apparatus, risen from the ground and flown hori- zontally. Dr. James Pettigrew published elaborate researches on flying, 1867-71. The idea that machines can be made to fly or sail through the air, the problem depending merely on the mechanism of the flying-machine, is now entertained by many men of science. Costly experiments are made almost constantly at different places — in France, Germany, Great Britain, United States, and Australia, the latter country espe- cially noted for the recent successful experiments of Lawrence Hargrave of Sidney, New South Wales. " Experiments in ^rodynamics," by S. P. Langley, of the Smithsonian Institu- ion, Washington, pub. 1891. Balloons. Fo, Religion of, the form of Buddhism existing in China. fOg-$igIial§, in use on vessels and along coasts, are bells, steam-trumpets, batteries of whistles blown by steam, transmission of sound through water, the sirene, fog-horn, etc. Acoustics. Foix (foo-a'), S. France, a county established 1050, and united with Beam, 1290. About 1494 Catherine de Foix, the heiress, married Jean d'Albret, whose descendant, Henry IV., as king of France, united Foix to the monarchy, 1589. folk-lore, a general name given by W. J. Thorns, in 1846, to popular legends, fairy tales, local traditions, old out- dying customs, superstitions, etc. He proposed a Folk-lore so- ciety in Notes and Quei-ies, 1 Dec. 1877 ;' formed 1878. font. The early baptisterj' was part of the church, with a large font for immersion, partitioned from the rest. Previ- ously, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts are said to have been set up in churches in the 6th century. Foiltainebleau {fon-tain-blo'), a town near the Seine, France. The royal palace, founded by Robert le Pieux about 999, enlarged and adorned by successive kings, was completed by Louis Philippe, 1837-40. Fontainebleau was entered by the Austrians, 17 Feb. 1814. Here Napoleon ab- dicated, 4 Apr., and took leave of the army, 20 Apr. 1814. Peace between France, Denmark, etc 2 Sept. 1679 Treaty between Germany and Holland 8 Nov. 1785 Treaty between Napoleon and Spain 27 Oct. 1807 Decree of Fontainebleau. for destruction of British merchan- ^ s each. 7 of 28, and 1 of 22. After 10 hours ot firing it withdrew. During this bombardment, serg. William Jasper distinguished himself by replacing the flag, the staff of which had been shot away, the flag falling outside of the fort. Fort rebuilt in 1812. Evacuated by maj. Robert An- derson by night, 26 Dec. 1860, and Fort Sumtkr occupied. Fort Moultrie occupied by confederates on the 27th, until abandoned 18 Feb. 1865, upon the evacuation of Charleston. fort IVecesslty. Vikginia, 1754. fort IViai^ara, N. Y., at the mouth of the Niagara river, on its east bank. A fortification was erected here by La Salle in 1679; improved by the French, 1725; captured by the British, 1759. Further enlarged, it was the rendezvous of Tories and Indians during the Revolution, and held by the British until turned over, 1795, to the United States. Bom- barded by the British across the river, 21 Nov. 1812 ; captured by themj 19 Dec. 1813. New York. fort ]Vlnety-§lx, on the site of the village of Cam- bridge, S. C, bnilt by the British ; named because 96 miles from the frontier fort Prince George. Occupied by a garri- son of American loyalists under lieut.-col. Cruger; besieged by gen. Greene from 22 May to 19 June, 1781, when, on ap- proach of Rawdon, he raised the siege. Soon after abandoned by the British. fort Ontario, N. Y., at the mouth of the Oswego river. East bank built by the English, 1727 ; strengthened in 1755. Surrendered to the French under Montcalm, 14 Aug. 1756, 1400 men, 120 cannon, 14 mortars, with ammunition and stores. Fort dismantled bj'- the French and partly de- stroyed. The British rebuilt it in 1759 and held it through the Revolution, but was delivered up to the United States, 1796. The fort, with a garrison of about 300 men under lieut.- col. Mitchell, attacked by the British fleet with 3000 men un- der sir James L. Yeo, 6 May, 1814. The garrison withdrew from the fort, which the British immediately occupied, but abandoned the next day after dismantling it. fort Orang^e, built by the Dutch at Albany, N. Y., 1623. New York. fort Pic ken §, Fla.,on Santa Rosa island, commanding the entrance to the harbor of Pensacola bay. While most of the forts in the south were seized by the confederates during the spring of 1861, this fort was held by lieut. Adam J. Slem- mer, with a garrison of but 81 officers and men, and retained by the federals throughout the civil war. It was besieged from 18 Jan. 1861, until the middle of April, when it was re- inforced with several hundred troops under col. Henry Brown. fort Pillow, Tenn., on the east bank of the Missis- sippi, 40 miles above Memphis, built by the confederates; evacuated by them 4 Jan. 1862; occupied by the federals, 5 Jan., and garrisoned by 577 men, 262 of whom were negroes; captured by the confederates under Forrest, 12 Apr. 1864. From number killed both of black and white troops, after surrender, this event is known as the Fort Pillow massacre. fort Pitt. Fort Duquesne. fort Pula§ki, Ga., on Cockspur island, built to guard the entrance to the Savannah river, was seized by confeder- ates early in 1861. With difficulty gen. Quincy A. Gillmore established batteries on Tybee island, which commanded it. On 9 Apr. 1862, these opened on the fort at a distance of about 1650 yards, and compelled its surrender on the 11th. fort Putnam, N. Y., built 1778, on an eminence back of the present site of West Point. fort Sander§, an unfinished but important work in the fortifications erected for the defence of Knoxville, E. Tenn. ; assaulted by the confederates under gen. Longstreet on the night of 28-29 Nov. 1863 ; repulsed with a loss of 800. fort ScllUjier, N. Y., built in 1758 as fort Stanwix, under the direction of gen. Stanwix, where the city of Rome now stands. In 1776 it was extensively repaired, and called Schuyler in honor of gen. Philip Schuyler. The fort invest- ed by a force of British and Indians, 1700 strong, under St. Leger, 2 Aug. 1777. The garrison of 750 men, under command of col. Gansevoort, having no flag, made one after the pattern adopted by the Continental Congress. Flag. Gen. Herkimer advanced with 800 men and fought the battle of Oriskany; but while not defeated, he was unable to relieve the forti Schuyler now sent Benedict Arnold forward with a relieving force. The latter, by stratagem, excited a panic in the force . of St. Leger, who hastily retired. Fort abandoned 1 2 May, 1781, ) fort Stephenson, at lower Sandusky, now Fre-j mont, Ohio, was built in 1812, and garrisoned by 150 men un- der command of maj. George Croghan, then 21 years of age. ' It was invested by a large force of British and Indians under command of Proctor, 31 July, 1813 ; but in an assault, 2 Aug., they lost 120 men, and retired early on the morning of the 3d. On 13 Feb. 1835, 22 years after, Congress awarded a gold medal to col. Croghan for his gallant defence. United vStates, 1836. fort Stony Point, N. Y., a partly finished fort on the Hudson river, captured by the British with its small garrison, 1 June, 1779. They further strengthened the fort and gar- risoned it with about 600 men under lieut.-col. Johnson. Gen. Washington assigned the task of recapturing it to gen. An- thony Wayne, who, on the night of 16 July, stormed the works with Massachusetts light infantry, capturing the entire garrison, with a loss of 15 killed and 83 wounded. The Ameri- cans, however, evacuated it on the 18th, after destroying the works. Wayne's assault was one of the most brilliant exploits of the Revolution. fort St. Philip, La., about 65 miles below New Or-' leans, on the opposite (east) bank, and a little above fort Jack- son, on the Mississippi; built by the Spaniards about 1750. Seized with fort Jackson by the confederates, 10-13 Jan. 1861, and bombarded by Farragut on his way up the river to New Orleans, 24 Apr. 1862. It surrendered to gen. Benj. F. Butler, 28 Apr. fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor, nearly midway between Sullivan and Morris islands, and 3|- miles from Charleston city. Begun in 1828, and originally a casemated brickwork of 5 faces, designed for 2 tiers of guns in em- brasure and en harhette. In the spring of 1861 maj. Robert Anderson, commanding in Charleston harbor, in view of the secession of South Carolina (20 Dec. 1860), and of her prep- arations to seize the forts in the harbor, evacuated Fort Moul- trie on the night of 26 Dec, and occupied fort Sumter. The Star of the West, sent to reinforce Sumter, was fired upoa off Morris island (9 Jan. 1861), and returned to New York.- For 4 months preparations were made by the confederates at Charleston — 7000 men under gen. G. T. Beauregard — for an at- tack on fort Sumter. On 11 Apr. Beauregard demanded its surrender, which was refused by maj. Anderson. That night the relieving flotilla reached the offing, and at 3.20 a.m. on the 12th Anderson was notified that fire would be opened upon him in one hour. At that time the bombardment began from fort Moultrie, 2 batteries at fort Johnson, an iron-clad battery on Cumming's Point, another near Charleston, and others formed for this purpose. The first gun was fired by Edmund Kuffin, an aged Virginian. United States, 1861. After about 3 hours the garrison answered the fire. 3 times dur- ing the day the quarters were set on fire by the shells. At noon the relieving fleet was discernied from the fort and sa- luted. The bombardment was continued till dark, and re- newed on the 13th. No reinforcements could reach the fort. The fires again broke" out, and the fort becoming untenable, maj. Anderson surrendered it, and the next day (14 Apr.) evac- uated the work, lowering his flag with a salute, and with the garrison sailed northward. In this first conflict of the civU war there were no casualties on either side. On 7 Apr. 1863, an attempt by adm, Dupont, with a fleet of monitors, to re- duce fort Sumter, failed on account of obstructions in the har- bor, which prevented the vessels from reaching the weakest side of the fort. The monitor Keokuk was sunk, and other vessels sustained serious injuries. The bombardment was re- newed by adm. Dahlgren after the occupation of Morris island in the summer of 1863, but the fort, though reduced to an earthwork, and rendered temporarily harmless as an offensive work, was not captured. It was held by the confederates until they evacuated Charleston, 17 Feb. 1865. On 18 Feb;- 1865, the U. S. flag was again raised over fort Sumter by FOR 295 «naj.-gen. Hennessy; while on 14 Apr. 1865, the same flag -which had been lowered by maj. Anderson just 4 years before (14 Apr. 1861) was again raised by him above the fort with appropriate ceremonies. fort Ticonderoga, N. Y., on the west side of lake ■Charaplain and at the outlet of lake George into that lake ; built by the French in 1756, and named by them fort Carillon, but the Indian name was generally applied to it — Ticonderoga, a corruption of Cheonderoga,an Iroquois word signifying soMwc^m^- or brawling water. It was from the first a strong work, but after- wards much strengthened, and served as the starting-place and general rendezvous for the French expeditions under Montcalm and others. An attack was made on the fort 8 July, 1758, by gen. James Abercrombie, who had moved against it from the lower end of lake George with 7000 regulars, 9000 provincials, and a large train of artillery, and although the French com- mander had but 4000 men, the British were signally defeated with a loss of 2000, including gen. Geo. A. Howe. Abercrombie retreated. In 1759 it was again invested by gen. Amherst with 11,000 men ; the French, without resistance, retired to Crown j Point, 27 July, 1759. Atthecommencement of the Revolution, Ticonderoga was garrisoned by. 48 men under capt. Delaplace. I It was surprised on the morning of 10 May, 1775, by Ethail Allen I with 83 men, and taken with 120 iron cannon, 50 swivels, 2 10- inch mortars, 1 howitzer, 1 cohorn, 10 tons of musket-balls, 3 cartloads of flints, 100 stands of small-arms, etc. Benedict Ar- nold accompanied this expedition. Maj.'gen. Arthur St. Clair was in command at Ticonderoga when it was approached by Burgoyne in 1777. His force consisted of 2546 continentals and 900 militia. Owing to the superior position of the British, St. Clair abandoned the fort on the night of 6 July, 1777. fort Wagner, S. C, built by confederates at the north end of Morris island about 2600 yards from fort Sumter. As- •^aulted by the federals, 11 July, 1863; grand assault made after a bombardment by batteries and fleet from noon until 88 Henry in. stabbed by Jacques Clement, a friar, 1 Aug. ; d.2 Aug. 1589 Henry IV. defeats the league at Ivry 14 Mch. 1590 He becomes a Roman Catholic 25 July, 1593 League leaders submit to him Jan. 1596 He promulgates the edict of Nantes 13 Apr. 1598 Silk and other manufactures introduced by him and Sully. .1606-10 Quebec, in North America, settled m 1608 Murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac 14 May, 1610 Regency of Mary de' Medici 1610-14 States-general complain of the management of finances. 27 Oct. 1614 Rise of the Concinis, 1610; their fall and death 1617 Navarre annexed to France 1620 i i I FRA 297 FRA 1774 1775 1776 Vigorous administration of Richelieu, begins with finance 1624 Rochelle taken after a long siege 1628 <'Dav of Dupes;" Richelieu defeats machinations of enemies, ^ ^ ' 11 Nov. 1630 [Bulwer's drama "Richelieu " founded on the events of this time.] Richelieu organizes the Academie de France (Academies). . .1634-35 His death (aged 58) * Dec. 1642 Louis XIV., king, aged 4 (Anne of Austria regent) 14 May, 1643 Administration ofMazarin; victories of Turenne 1643-46 Civil wars of the Fronde 1648 efseq. Death ofMazarin, 9 Mch. ; Colbert financial minister 1661 War with Holland, etc 1672 Canal of Languedoc constructed 1664-81 Peace of Nimeguen 10 Aug. 1678 Edict of Nantes revoked 22 Oct. 1685 Louis marries madame de Maintenon " War with William IIL of England 1689 et seq. Peace of Ryswick 20 Sept. 1697 War of the Spanish succession Sept. 1701 JTrench defeated at Blenheim 2 Aug. 1704 At Ramillies 23 May, 1706 aPeace of Utrecht 11 Apr. 1713 Dissensions of Jesuits and Jansenists; the bull Unigenitus, Sept. " Accession of Louis XV. ; stormy regency of the duke of Orleans, 1 Sept. 1715 et seq. Law's bubble in France (Law) 1716 French defeated at Dettingen. 16 June, 1743 •Successful campaign of marshal Saxe 1746 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 18 Oct. 1748 Seven Years' war begins May, 1756 Damiens's attempt on life of Louis XV 5 Jan. 1757 ■Canada lost— battle of Quebec 13 Sept. 1759 -Jesuits banished from France, their effects confiscated 1762 Peace of Paris ; Canada ceded to England 10 Feb. 1763 Louis XV. under the influence of madame du Barry 1769 Death of Louis XV 10 May, Tamine riots at Versailles May. Hinister Turgot dismissed May Ministry of Necker Nov. " Louis XVL assists American colonies against England, at first secretly 1778 Torture abolished in French judicature 1780 Peace of Versailles with England 3 Sept. 1783 Diamond-necklace affair (Diamonds) 1785 Meeting of the assembly of notables, 22 Feb. 1787 ; again, 6 Nov. 1788 Opening of States-general (308 ecclesiastics, 285 nobles; 621 deputies, Tiers Etat) 5 May^n89 Tiers Etat constitute National Assembly 17 June, " French Revolution begins; destruction of Bastile. .14 July, " National Assembly changes title " king of France " to " king of the French " 16 Oct. " Property of the clergy confiscated 2 Nov. " Emigration of nobles Oct. -Dec. " ■Confederation of Champ de Mars; France declared a limited monarchy; Louis XVL swears to maintain the constitution, 14 July, 1790 Silver plate taken from churches and coined 3 Mch. 1791 Death of Mirabeau, aged 42 years 2 Apr. " King, queen, and royal family arrested at Varennes, in flight, 21 June, " Louis (a prisoner) sanctions national constitution 15 Sept. War declared against the emperor 20 Apr. Jacobin club declare their sittings permanent 18 June, Multitude, with red bonnet of liberty, march to Tuileries to make demands on king 20 June, " First coalition against France; great French war begins (Bat- tles, 1792-1815) June, " Royal Swiss guards cut to pieces; massacre of 5000 10 Aug. " -Revolutionary tribunal set up 19 Aug. " Decree of National Assembly against priests ; 40,000 exiled, 26 Aug. " Massacre in Paris; prisons broken open and 1200 persons (100 priests) slain 2-5 Sept. " Murder of the princess deLamballe (French Revolution), 3 Sept " National convention opened 17 Sept. " Duke of Brunswick defeated at Valmy 20 Sept. " Convention decrees a republic, 20 Sept. ; proclaimed. . .22 Sept. " Prench people declare fraternity with all nations who desire to be free, and offer help 19 Nov. " Tlanders conquered Dec. " Decree of perpetual banishment of Bourbons, those confined in Temple excepted 20 Dec. " Iiouis imprisoned in the Temple apart from the queen, brought to trial, 19 Jan. ; condemned to death, 20 Jan. ; beheaded in the Place de Louis Quinze 21 Jan. 1793 •Committee of public safety established " " "War with England and Holland declared 1 Feb. " War in La Vendee Mch. " Reign of Terror— proscription of Girondists, 31 May ; establish- ment of convention 23 June, " Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday 13 July, ' ' •Charlotte Corday guillotined 17 July, " ■^ueen Marie Antoinette beheaded 16 Oct. " Execution of the Girondists 31 Oct. " IPhilip Egalit6, duke of Orleans, who voted for the king's death, guillotined at Paris ^Orleans), 6 Nov. ; madame Roland, ^ 8 Nov. " Worship of Goddess of Reason 10 Nov. " -Adoption of new republican calendar 24 Nov. " 10* Execution of Danton and others, 5 Apr. ; of madame Elizabeth, 12 May, Robespierre president, 4 June; he and 71 others guillotined, 28 July, Abolition of the revolutionary tribunal 15 Dec. Peace with Prussia 5 Apr. Insurrection of the Faubourgs 20, 21 May, Louis XVII. dies in prison (Williams, Eleazar) 8 June, French directory chosen 1 Nov. Bonaparte marries Josephine, widow of vicomte de Beauhar- nais 1792 1795 8 Mch. 1796 Bonaparte's successful campaigns in Italy 1796 et BabeuPs conspiracy suppressed 12 May, Pichegru's conspiracy fails May, Expedition to Syria and Egypt July, European coalition against France Apr. Council of Five Hundred deposed by Bonaparte, who is de- clared first consul 10 Nov. He defeats the Austrians at Marengo 14 June, His life attempted by an infernal machine 24 Dec' Peace of Amiens (with England, Spain, and Holland) signed, 25-27 Mch. Amnesty to the emigrants Apr. Legion of Honor instituted 19 May, Bonaparte made consul for life 2 Aug. Bank of France established 14 Apr. Declaration of war against England 22 May, Conspiracy of Moreau and Pichegru against Bonaparte, 15 Feb. ; Pichegru strangled in prison (Georges) 6 Apr. Due d'Enghien executed 21 Mch. France an empire ; Napoleon emperor, 18 May; crowned by the pope 2 Dec. He is crowned king of Italy ' 26 May, Another coalition against France Aug. Napoleon defeats the allies at Austerlitz 2 Dec. Prussians at Jena 14 Oct. Russians at Eylau .8 Feb. Meets the czar at Tilsit, 26 June; peace signed 7 July, His Milan decree against British commerce 17 Dec. New nobility of France created 1 Mch. Abdication of Charles IV. of Spain and his son in favor of Na- poleon, 5 May; insurrection in Spain .' 27 May, Commencement of the Peninsular war (Spain) July, Alliance of England and Austria against France Apr. Victories in Austria; Napoleon enters Vienna May, Peace of Vienna 14 Oct. Divorce of Josephine decreed by the Senate 16 Dec. Napoleon marries Maria Louisa of Austria 1 Apr. Holland united to France 9 July, "Birth of the king of Rome (since styled Napoleon IL). .20 Mch. War with Russia declared 22 June, Victory at Borodino 7 Sept. Disastrous retreat from Moscow; French army destroyed.. Oct. Austria, Russia, and Prussia allied against France Mch. British enter France 7 Oct. Surrender of Paris to the allies 31 Mch. Abdication of Napoleon negotiated - 5 Apr. Bourbons restored; Louis XVIII. arrives in Paris 3 May, Napoleon arrives at Elba 4 May, Constitutional charter decreed 4-10 June, Quits Elba, and lands at Cannes 1 Mch. Arrives at Fontainebleau (Hundred Days) 20 Mch. Joined by all the army 22 Mch. Allies sign a treaty against him Mch. He abolishes the slave-trade 29 Mch. Leaves Paris for the army 12 June, Defeated at Waterloo 18 June, Returns to Paris, 20 June; abdicates in favor of his infant son 22 June, Intending to embark for America, arrives at Rochefort, 3 July, Louis XVIII. enters Paris " Napoleon surrenders to capt. Maitland of the Bellerophon at Rochefort 15 July, Transferred at Torbay to the Northumberland, and with adm. sir George Cockburn sails for St. Helena 8 Aug. Arrives at St. Helena to remain for life 15 Oct. Execution of marshal Ney 7 Dec. Family of Bonaparte excluded forever from France by the law of amnesty 12 Jan. Due de Berri murdered 13 Feb. Death of Napoleon I. (Wills) 5 May, Louis XVIII. dies; Charles X. king 16 Sept. National guard disbanded 30 Apr. War with Algiers ; dey's fleet defeated. 4 Nov. Seventy-six new peers created 5 Nov. Election riots at Paris; barricades; several killed. . .9, 20 Nov. Villdle ministry replaced by the Martignac 4 Jan. B6ranger imprisoned for political songs 10 Dec. Polignac administration formed 8 Aug. Chamber of Deputies dissolved , 16 May, Algiers taken 5 July, Obnoxious ordinances regarding press, and reconstruction of Chamber of Deputies 26 July, Revolution commences with barricades 27 July, Conflicts in Paris between the populace (ultimately aided by the national guard) and the army 28-30 July, Charles X. retires to Rambouillet; flight of his ministry, 31 July ; he abdicates 2 Aug. Due de Orleans accepts the crown as Louis Philippe I. . .7 Aug. Constitutional charter of July pub 14 Aug. Charles X. retires to England 17 Aug. 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1802 1804 1805 1806 1807 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1820 1821 1824 1827 1829 FRA Polignac and other ministers tried and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment 21 Dec. Abolition of hereditary peerage decreed; the peers (36 new peers created) concurring by 103 to 70 27 Dec. ABC (abaissis) insurrection in Paris suppressed 6, 6 June, Charles X. leaves Holyrood house, London, for Continent, 18 Sept Ministry of Soult, duke of Dalmatia 11 Oct. Bergoro'n and Benoit tried for an attempt on the life of Louis Philippe; acquitted 18 Mch. Duchess de Berri, who has been delivered of a female child, and asserts her secret marriage with an Italian nobleman, sent to Palermo 9 Juno, Death of Lafayette 20 May, Marshal Gerard takes oflBce 15 July, M. Dupuytren d 8 Feb. Due de Broglie, minister. ., Feb. Fieschi attempts the king's life 28 July, [He fired an infernal machine as the king and his sous rode along the lines of the national guard, on the Boulevard du Temple. It had 25 barrels, charged with missiles, lighted simultaneously by a train of gunpowder. The king and his sons escaped; but marshal Mortier, duke of Treviso, was shot dead, many officers dangerously wounded, more than 40 persons killed or injured.] Fieschi executed 19 Feb. Louis Alibaud fires at the king on his way from the Tuileries, 25 June; guillotined 11 July, Ministry of count Mole, vice M. Thiers 6 Sept. Death of Charles X 6 Nov. Attempted insurrection at Strasburg by Louis Napoleon (planned, it is said, by Filain de Persigny), 29,30 Oct. ; he is sent to America 13 Nov. Prhice Polignac and others set at liberty from Ham and sent out of France 23 Nov. Meunier fires at the king on his way to open the French cham- bers 27 Dec. Amnesty for political oflences 8 May, " Id^es Napol^oniennes," by prince Louis Napoleon, pub TfeUeyrand d 20 May, Marshal Soult at the coronation of the queen of England, 28 June, Birth of the comte de Paris 24 Aug. Death of duchess of Wurtemberg (daughter of Louis Philippe), a good sculptor 2 Jan. Insurrection of Barbfes and Blanqui at Paris 12 May, M. Thiers minister of foreign affairs 1 Mch. Chambers decree the removal of Napoleon's remains from St. Helena to France 12 May, [By permission of the British government these were taken from tomb at St. Helena 15 Oct. 1840, and embarked next day on board the French frigate Belle Poule, under prince de Joinville; reached Cherbourg 30 Nov., and 15 Dec. were deposited in the H5tel des Invalides. The ceremony was witnessed by 1,000,000 persons; 150,000 soldiers assisted in the obsequies; and the royal family and all notables were present; the relatives of the emperor were in exile or in pris- on. The body was placed in its crypt on 31 Mch. 1861.] Descent of prince Louis Napoleon, gen. Montholon, and 50 fol- lowers, at Vimereux, near Boulogne, 6 Aug. ; the prince sen- tenced to imprisonment for life 6 Oct. Darmes fires at the king '. 15 Oct. M. Guizot minister of foreign affairs 29 Oct. Project of law for an extraordinary credit of 140,000,000 francs for fortifications of Paris 15 Dec. Copyright fixed at 30 years after author's death 30 Mch. Bronze statue of Napoleon placed on the column of the Grande Arm6e, Boulogne 15 Aug. Attempt to assassinate the due d'Aumale (king's son) on re- turn from Africa 13 Sept. Due de Orleans, heir to the throne, killed by a fall from his carriage 13 July, Queen of England visits royal family at Chateau d'Eu, 2-7 Sept! Extradition treaty with England signed "War with Morocco, May; peace 10 Sept. Lecompte attempts to assassinate king at Fontainebleau, 16 Apr. Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham 25 May, Seventh attempt on life of the king; by Joseph Henri, 29 July, Spanish marriages: queen of Spain with her cousin, and in- fanta with due de Montpensier 10 Oct. Disastrous inundations in the south 18 Oct. Praslin murder (Praslin) 18 Aug. Death of Marshal Oudinot (due de Reggio) at Paris, in his 91st year, 13 Sept. ; Soult succeeds as general of France. . 26 Sept. Jerome Bonaparte returns to France after an exile of 32 years, 10 Oct. Surrender of Abd-el-Kader 23 Dec. Death of the ex-empress, Maria Louisa, 18 Dec, ; and of ma- dame Adelaide 30 Dec. Grand reform banquet at Paris prohibited 21 Feb. Revolutionary tumult; impeachment and resignation of Gui- zot, 22 Feb. ; barricades thrown up, Tuileries ransacked, pris- ons opened, and frightful disorders 23, 24 Feb. Louis Philippe abdicates in favor of his infant grandson, the comte de Paris; royal family and ministers escape. . .24 Feb. Republic proclaimed from steps of Hotel de Ville 26 Feb. Ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaven, Engl 3 Mch. Funeral procession for the victims of the revolution 4 Mch. Provisional government resigns to an executive commission, elected by the National Assembly 7 May, [The members were: MM. Dupont de I'Eure, Arago, Gar- nier- Pages, Marie, Lamartine, Ledru-RoUin, and Crimieux. The secretaries: Louis Blanc, Albert, Flocon, and Marrast.] 298 FRA 1831 1832 1834 1836 1837 1838 1841 1842 1843 1844 1846 1847 1848 People's attack on the assembly suppressed 15 May, 184ft: Perpetual banishment of Louis Philippe and family decreed, 26 May, " Louis Napoleon elected to the National Assembly for the Seine and 3 other departments 13 Juno, " Rise of the Red Republicans; war against troops and national guard; more than 300 barricades thrown up; firing in all parts of Paris during the night 23 June, Troops under Cavaignac and Lamorici^re, with immense loss, drive insurgents from left bank of Seine 24 June, Paris declared in a state of siege 25 June, Faubourg du Temple carried with cannon, and the insurgents surrender 26 June, [The outbreak said to cost the nation 30,000,000 francs; 16,000 persons killed and wounded, 8000 prisoners taken. Archbishop of Paris killed while tending the dying, 26 June.] Cavaignac, president of the council 28 June, " Louis Napoleon takes seat in National Assembly 26 Sept. '* Paris relieved after a state of siege of 4 months 20 Oct. '• Constitution of 4 Nov. promulgated from Tuileries 12 Nov. '• Louis Napoleon elected president, 11 Dec. ; proclaimed. 20 Dec. '• [He had 5,587,759 votes; Cavaignac, 1,474,687; Ledru-Rol- lin, 381,026; Raspail, 37,121; Lamartine, 21,032; Changar- nier, 4975.] Military demonstration deters Reds from insurrection. .29 Jan. 1843^ Louis Philippe dies at Claremont, Engl 26 Aug. 1850 Liberty of the press restricted 26 Sept. " Gen. Changarnier, commander of national guard, removed, 10 Jan. 1851 Death of the duchess d'Angouieme, daughter of Louis XVI., at Frohsdorf 19 Oct. " Death of marshal Soult 26 Oct. " Telegraph between England and France opened 13 Nov. " Coupd^etat; legislative assembly dissolved; universal suff"rage proclaimed; Paris declared in a state of siege; president for 10 years proposed, and a second chamber or senate. .. 2 Dec. '• MM. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, Bedeau, LamoriciSre, and Charres arrested, and sent to castle of Vincennes, 2 Dec. •' About 180 members of the assembly, with M. Berryer, attempt- ing to meet, arrested ; Paris occupied by troops 2 Dec. " Fighting in Paris ; troops victorious '. 3, 4 Dec. •« Consultative commission founded 12 Dec. " Vote for president for 10 years, 7,473,431; against, 641,351, 21, 22 Dec. " Prince-president installed at Notre Dame; a national holiday; Louis Napoleon occupies Tuileries 1 Jan. 1852" Gens. Changarnier, Lamoricifere, and others conducted to the Belgian frontier 9 Jan. " Eighty- three members of legislative assembly banished; 575 persons arrested for resisting coup d^etat of 2 Dec, and sent to Havre for transport to Cayenne 10 Jan. " [The inscription "Liberty, Fraternity, Equality," ordered erased throughout France, and old names of streets, public buildings, etc., restored. Trees of liberty hewn down and burned.] National guard disbanded, reorganized, and placed under exec- utive ; the president appointing officers 10 Jan. " New constitution pub 14 Jan. " Orleans family required to sell all their property in France within a year 22 Jan. " Second decree, annulling family settlement by Louis Philippe at his accession, confiscating the property 22 Jan. " Birthday of Napoleon I. (15 Aug.) made the only national holi- day. : 17 Feb. " Crystal palace authorized in Champs Elys6es, Paris 30 Mch. " M. Thiers and others permitted to return to France 8 Aug. " Senate prays "the re - establishment of hereditary sovereign power in the Bonaparte family " 13 Sept. " Prince-president at Toulon, 27 Sept. ; at Bordeaux, says "2/'ew- pire c'est lapaix " ( " the empire is peace ") 7 Oct. " Releases Abd-el-Kader (Algiers) 16 Oct. " Convokes senate for November to consider changes of govern- ment and prepare a decree for ratification by the people, 19 Oct. " By message to the senate he promises restoration of the em- pire, and orders the people to be consulted 4 Nov. " Votes for the empire, 7,824,189; nays, 253,145; null, 63,326, 21 Nov. " Prince president declared emperor, as Napoleon III 2 Dec. " Marries Eugenie de Montijo, countess of T6ba. at Notre Dame, 29 Jan. 1855 Statue of Marshal Ney unveiled on the spot where he died, ex- actly 38 years before 7 Dec. " War declared against Russia (Russo-Turkish wars) 27 Mch. 1854 Industrial exhibition at Paris opened 15 May, 1855 Attempted assassination of emperor by Pianort 28 Apr. " By Bellemarre 8 Sept. " Peace with Russia signed 30 Mch. 1856 Death of Beranger, popular poet 16 July, 1857 Longwood, the residence of Napoleon I. at St. Helena, bought for 180,000 francs " Death of Eugene Cavaignac (aged 55) 28 Oct. " Death of mdlle. Rachel (aged 38) 4 Jan. 1858. Attempted assassination of emperor by Orsini, Pieri, Rudio, Gomez, etc., by explosion of 3 shells (2 persons killed, many wounded) 14 Jan. " [Felix Orsini, a man of talent and energy, earnest for Ital- ian independence, b. Dec. 1819; studied at Bologna in 1837; joined a secret society in 1843; condemned to the galleys for life in 1844; released in 1846; took part in the Roman revolution in 1848; elected to the assembly; on the fall of the 1859 1860 1861 FRA 5 republic, fled to Genoa 1849 ; to England 1853. For fresh conspiracies, arrested in Hungary, Jan. 1855, and sent to Mantua; escaped to England in 1856, where he associated with Kossuth, Mazzini, etc. ; delivered lectures, and devised the plot for which he suffered. By will he acknowledged the justice of his sentence.] «' Napoleon III. et I'Angleterre " pub 11 Mch. 1858 Orsini and Fieri executed 13 Mch. " Dispute with Portugal on Charles-et-Georges settled .23 Oct. " Trial of comte de Montalembert 25 Nov. " [In Oct. 1858, the comte in a pamphlet, "Un Debat sur I'Inde," eulogized English institutions, depreciating those of France. He was sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment and fined 3000 francs, but pardoned by the emperor 2 Dec. He appealed, was acquitted of a part of the charge, and his sen- tence again remitted (21 Dec). In Oct. 1859, the comte pub- lished a pamphlet, entitled "Pie IX. et la France en 1849 et 1850," censuring England for opposition to Romanism.] Publication of " Napoleon III. et I'ltalie " Feb. Austria invading Sardinia, France declares war, and the French enter; the empress appointed regent; the emperor arrives at Genoa 12 May, Victories of French and Sardinians at Montebello, 20 May; Palestro, 30, 31 May ; Magenta, 4 June; Melegnano (Marig- nano), 8 June; Napoleon enters Milan", 8 June; at Solferino, 24 June, Armistice 6 July, Emperors of France and Austria meet at Villa Franca, 11 July, Peace agreed on 12 July, Austrian and French envoys confer at Zurich 8 Aug. -Nov. Emperor announces a free-trade policy; Mr. Cobden at Paris, 5 Jan. Treaty for annexation of Savoy and Nice signed 24 Mch. Jerome Bonaparte, the emperor's uncle, d. (aged 76). . .24 June, New tariff comes into operation 1 Oct. Public levy of Peter's-pence forbidden, and issue of pastoral letters checked Nov. Jerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and Elizabeth Patterson, of Baltimore) sues for legitimate rights; nonsuited, 25 Jan.-15 Feb. [The marriage in the U. S. 24 Dec. 1803, was annulled, and Jerome married princess Catherine of Wurtemberg, 12 Aug. 1807; their children were prince Napoleon and princess Ma- thilde (Bonaparte).] Principality of Monaco bought for 4,000,000 francs, 2 Feb. ; an- nounced 5 Feb. " La France, Rome, et I'ltalie " pub 15 Feb. Prince Napoleon speaks for Italian unity, English alliance, and against the pope's temporal power 1 Mch. Pope's temporal government advocated in the chambers; French army has 687,000 men Mch. Circular forbidding priests to meddle with politics 11 Apr. , Declaration of neutrality in U. S. conflict 11 June, Recognition of kingdom of Italy 24 June, Convention of France, Great Britain, and Spain, on interven- tion in Mexico, signed (Mexico) 31 Oct. Embarrassment in finances; Achille Fould finance minister, 14 Nov. ; with enlarged powers 12 Dec. Emperor reminds clergy of their duty " to Caesar " 1 Jan. French army lands at Vera Cruz 7 Jan. French masters of the province of Bienhoa, in Anam. .20 Jan. Victories in Cochin-China (6 provinces ceded to France), 28 Mch. Spanish and British plenipotentiaries decide to quit Mexico; French declare war against Mexico 16 Apr. Treaty of peace between France and Anam signed 3 June, Camp at Chalons formed because of Garibaldi's movements in Sicily; broken, when he is taken prisoner 29 Aug. Sympathy for him in France Sept. Emperor proposes a European congress, and invites sover- eigns or their deputies by letter 4 Nov. Invitation declined by England 25 Nov. Convention of France, Brazil, Italy, Portugal, and Hayti for a telegraph between Europe and America 16 May, Death of marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakoff, governor of Al- geria (b. 1794) 22 May, Convention with France signed by Japanese ambassadors at Paris 20 June, Convention (France and Italy) to evacuate Rome, etc., 15 Sept. Clergy forbidden to read pope's encyclical letter of 8 Dec. in churches; archbishop of Besanpon and other prelates dis- obey 5 Jan. Death of Proudhon (b. 1809), who said "La propri^te c'est le vol " 19 Jan, Prince Jerome Napoleon vice president of privy council. ..Jan. Decree for an international exhibition of agriculture, industrv, and the fine arts, at Paris, on 1 May, 1867 1 Feb. Duo de Morny (reported half-brother of emperor), d... .10 Mch. Inauguration of statue of Napoleon I. at Ajaccio, with impru- dent speech by prince Napoleon, 15 May ; censured by em- peror, 23 May ; prince resigns offices 9 June, U. S. protest against intervention in Mexico— prolonged corre- spondence (Mexico) Aug. 1865-Feb. At Auxerre, Napoleon denounces the treaties of 1815 . . .6 May, By letter says that in the German war "France will observe an attentive neutrality" 11 June, Emperor of Austria cedes Venetia to France, and invites em- peror's interventiofi with Prussia 4 July, Empress Charlotte of Mexico arrives at Paris 8 Aug. Note to Prussia desiring restoration of frontier of 1814; declared by Prussia to be inadmissible Aug. 1864 1865 9 FRA Letter from comte de Chambord to his adherents in favor of the pope's temporal power, dated .-. . .9 Dec. Richelieu's head, after many removals, deposited in the Sor- bonne 17 Dec. International exhibition opened (Paris) 1 Apr. Three provinces in Anam annexed to the empire 25 June, International conference at Paris on money. . .17 June-9 July, Protectorate over Cambodia assured by treaty 15 July, Abolition of imprisonment for debt adopted by senate, 18 July, Emperors of France and Austria meet at Salzburg, 18-21 Aug. Emperor by letter recommends expenditure in railways, ca- nals, and roads 15 Aug. French troops enter Rome 30 Oct. Garibaldians defeated at Montana 3 Nov. "Napoleon III. et I'Europe en 1867 " pub Nov. In the legislative assembly, Rouher, the minister, says, " We declare that Italy shall never seize upon Rome" (govern- ment supported by 238 votes to 17) 5 Dec. New army bill (allowing 100,000 recruits annually; a new na- tional guard, etc. ; providing for an army of 1,200,000 men), passed in the corps legislatif (206 to 60) 1 Jan. M. Magne announces deficiency in the budget; and a loan for 90,000,000 francs 29 Jan. Army bill passes senate— 125 to 1 (Michel Chevalier, who spoke warmly against it), 30 Jan. ; becomes law 4 Feb. " Les Titres de la Dynastie Imperiale " appeared, about 20 Mch. Rochefort's weekly La Lanterne suppressed; he and his printer condemned to fine and imprisonment; escapes to Belgium Aug. Death of Lamartine (b. Oct. 1792), 28 Feb.; of Troplong, presi- dent of the senate 1 Mch. Dissolution of legislative assembly of 1863 26 Apr. Laying of French Atlantic telegraph completed 23 July, P5re Hyacinthe (Loyson), Carmelite preacher at Paris, pro- tests against papal infallibility, etc. and resigns 20 Sept. Agitation against free trade Oct., Nov., Dec. Victor Noir, a journalist, killed by Pierre Bonaparte, at Auteuil, in meeting for a challenge to M. Rochefort 10 Jan. Charles, comte de Montalembert, author, d. (see 1858)... 13 Mch. Trial of Pierre Bonaparte at Tours; acquitted (but ordered to pay 25,000 francs to Noir's family) 21-27 Mch. Emperor proclaims proposed changes in constitution. . .24 Apr. Plebiscite, Do the people approve the changes? (yes, 7,527,379; no, 1,530,909) 8 May, Orleans princes address legislative assembly, demanding re- turn to France, 19 June ; refused, 173 to 31 2 July, Prince Leopold of HohenzollernSigmaringen nominated for Spanish throne; warlike speeches of ministers. .5, 6, 7 July, Prince Leopold withdraws; guarantees required by France from Prussia refused; France decides on war, 15 July; dec- laration signed (Franco-Prussian war) 17 July, Empress appointed regent 23 July, Emperor joins army 28 July, Government declares that France is only "at war with the pol- icy of Bismarck" 2 Aug. State of siege proclaimed in Paris after defeat of MacMahon at Woerth 7 Aug. Government appeals to France and Europe against Prussia, 8 Aug. Stormy debate in the corps legislatif (M. de K^ratry called on emperor to abdicate; Guyot Montpeyroux said the army were "lions led by asses"); resignation of Ollivier and ministry 9 Aug. New ministry: gen. Cousin-Montauban, comte de Palikao (dis- tinguished in China), minister of war, chief; M. Chevreau, interior; M. Magne, finance ; Clement Duvernois, commerce and agriculture; adm. Rigault de Genouilly, marine; baron Jerome David, public works; prince de La Tour d'Auvergne, foreign affairs, etc 10 Aug. Decree enlarging army for the war, and appointing a " defence committee " for Paris 10 Aug. Orleans princes (due d'Aumale, prince de Joinville, due de Chartres) offer services in the army ; declined Aug. Government declares against any negotiations for peace, 14 Aug. Murder of Allain de Moneys, suspected of republicanism and Germanism (badly beaten and burned to death by peas- ants at Hautefaye, Dordogne, near Bordeaux) 16 Aug. Gen. Trochu (Orleanist), author of " L'Arm^e Franpaise en 1867," governor of Paris, 17 Aug. ; issues proclamation, 18 Aug. Decrees expulsion of all foreigners not naturalized 28 Aug. Deputation from 10,000 persons call on Trochu to assume the government ; he declines 8 p.m. 3 Sept. Palikao announces to assembly defeat at Sedan, surrender of emperor and MacMahon's army (90,000). Jules Favre de- clares for defence to the last gasp, attacks the empire, and proposes dictatorship of gen. Trochu 3.35 a.m. 4 Sept. On motion of Thiers, a commission of government and na- tional defence named, and a constituent assembly called, 3.10 p.m. 4 Sept. Assembly invaded by the crowd, demanding a republic; most deputies retire. Gambetta and other liberals assume to de- pose the emperor and establish a republic. . .4.15 p.m. 4 Sept. Last meeting of senate ; it adheres to the emperor " "Government of defence" proclaimed, gen, Trochu president; L6on Gambetta, interior; Jules Simon, public instruction; Jules Favre, foreign; Cr6mieux, justice; Jules Picard, finance; gen. Leflo, war; Fourichon, marine; Magne, agriculture; Do- rian, public works; fitienne Arago, mayor of Paris; K6ratry, police 4 Sept. Informal meeting of assembly, M. Thiers, president. Jules 1867 1868 1870 FRA Favre reportfl formation of provisional government ; some protest; Thiers recommeuds moderation evening, i Sept. Empress, the comlo de Palikuo, and ministers secretly leave Paris and enter Belgium evening, 4 Sept. Legislative chamber dissolved; senate abolished; regular troops and national guard fraternize; " perfect order reigns," 6 Sept. Napoleon III. reaches WilhelmshOhe, near Cassel, 9.35 P.M. 5 Sept. Republican deputies In Spanish Cortes greet republic. . . " Red Republican flag raised at Lyons " Victor Hugo and Ijouis Blanc arrive in Paris 6 Sept. Jules Favre, in a circular to French diplomatic representatives, says, " We will not cede cither an inch of our territories or a stone of our fortresses " 6 Sept. Proflered services of Orleans princes again declined " Republic recognized by the U. S 8 Sept. Defence committee summon king of Prussia to quit France at once 8 Sept. Decree convoking constituent assembly of 750 members (to be elected on 16 Oct.) 8 Sept. Prince imperial at Hastings, 7 Sept. ; Joined by empress, " Republic recognized by Spain, 8 Sept ; by Switzerland, 9 Sept. Elections for constituent assembly ordered 2 Oct 16 Sept. Diplomatic circular from Jules Favre; France makes no claim on Prussia for disinterestedness; statesmen should hesitate to continue a war in which more than 200,000 men have fallen; a freely elected assembly is summoned, and the gov- ernment will abide by its judgment; France, left to free action, asks the cessation of the war, but prefers disaster to dishonor; France has been wrong, and acknowledges its ob- ligation to repair the wrong 17 Sept. Government delegation under M. Cr^mieux, minister of jus- tice, and foreign ambassadors, at Tours 18 Sept. Manifesto of Red Republicans by gen. Cluseret placarded in Paris about 18 Sept. Bronze statues of Napoleon ordered to be made into cannon, about 19 Sept. M. Duruof in a post-balloon quits Paris with mail-bags, arrives at Evreux, and reaches Tours 23 Sept. Failure of negotiations for peace between Bismarck and Jules Favre; manifesto of government at Tours; people must either disavow ministry or "fight to the bitter end;" elec- tions for assembly suspended 24 Sept. All Frenchmen between 20 and 25 years of age prohibited leav- ing France about 26 Sept. Enthusiasm in provinces on failure of negotiations; "war to the knife," and levee en masse proclaimed by prefects; war- like ardor in Brittany stirred by M. Cathelineau, 26, 27 Sept. Disorder by Red Republicans at Lyons quieted by national guards; gen. Cluseret disappears 28 Sept. All between 21 and 40 to form a national garde mobile; all men in arms at disposal of minister of war 30 Sept. All Frenchmen under 60 forbidden to quit France 8 Oct. M. Gambetta escapes from Paris in a balloon, 7 Oct. ; arrives at Rouen and declares for "a pact with victory or death," 8 Oct. ; arrives at Tours and becomes minister of war as well as of the interior 9 Oct. Address from comte de Chambord; his whole ambition to found with the people a really national government. . .9 Oct. Blanqui, Gustave Flourens, Ledru-RoUin, F^lix Pyat, etc., Red Republicans, defeated in attempts to establish commune at Paris, 10, 11 Oct. ; reconciliation by Rochefort. .about 14 Oct. Circular of Gambetta stigmatizing surrender of Metz (on 27 Oct) as a crime 28 Oct M. Thiers brings Paris news of surrender of Metz and proposals for an armistice 30 Oct, Riots in Paris; gen. Trochu threatened; principal members of the defence government imprisoned in Hotel de Ville; Ledru- RoUin, Victor Hugo, and Gustave Flourens, etc., made a committee of public safety and of the commune under M. Picard; national guard releases the government 31 Oct Empress arrives at WilhelmshOhe; interview of Bazaine with emperor 31 Oct Marshals Canrobert and Leboeuf and many generals at Wil- helmshOhe ■ 1 Nov. Government proclaims a plebiscite in Paris on 3 Nov. Do the people uphold the government of national defence?. ..1 Nov. Plebiscite: for government, 557,976; against, 62,638 3 Nov. Mobilization of all able-bodied men between 20 and 40. .4 Nov. Failure of negotiations for an armistice 6 Nov. *' France can but carry on with such courage and strength as remain to her a war d outrance. " — Guizot 8 Nov. Alexandre Dumas, novelist and dramatist, d 10 Dec. Delegate government removed from Tours to Bordeaux, 11 Dec. Gambetta at Bordeaux declares that the government only holds oflBce for the defence of the country ; demonstration in honor of republic 1 Jan. Foreigners not permitted to leave Paris by Germans 19 Jan. Fierce speech of Gambetta at Lille, demanding continuance of war 22 Jan. Disturbances at Paris suppressed by army 23 Jan. Resignation of Trochu ; Vinoy governor of Paris 24 Jan. Capitulation of Paris; armistice signed by Favre and Bis- marck 28 Jan. Disavowed by Gambetta at Bordeaux 31 Jan. Due d'Aumale declares for constitutional monarchy 1 Feb. Food from London reaches Paris (Mansion-house) 3 Feb. Government publish reasons for capitulation (2,000,000 people in Paris with only 10 days' provisions), 4 Feb. ; annul Gam- betta's decree, 4 Feb. ; he and his ministry resign. .5, 6 Feb. Proclamation of Napoleon IIL "Betrayed by fortune," he 300 FRA 1870 condemns the government of 4 .Sept. ; says that his govern- ment was 4 times conlirmed in 20 years; submits to the judgment of time; saying "that a nation cannot long obey those who have no right to command " 8 Feb. General election of a National Assembly " F. P. J. Grdvy elected president Feb. First meeting of new Natioual Assembly 12 Feb. Supplementary armistice signed 15 Feb. Garibaldi resigns his election, 13 Feb. ; Grdvy elected president by 5-19 out of 538 16 Feb. Termination of war; Belfort garrison (12,000) marches out with military honors 16 Feb. Pact of Bordeaux: Thiers made chief of executive, by agree- ment of parties in assembly, 17 Yob. ; voted 18 Feb. Thiers ministry: Dufaure, justice; Jules Favre, foreign ; Picard, interior; Jules Simon, public instruction; Lambrecht com- merce; gen. Leflo, war; adm. Pothuan, marine; De Larcy, public works 17 Feb. Government recognized by the great powers 18 Feb. Due de Broglie appointed minister at London 21 Feb. Thiers and Bismarck negotiate 22, 23, 24 Feb. Preliminaries of peace accepted by MM. Thiers and Favre, and 15 delegates to National Assembly (cession of parts of Alsace and Lorraine, including Strasburg and Metz, and payment of 5 milliards of francs— $1,000,000,000), 25 Feb. ; signed, 26 Feb. Preliminaries accepted by assembly (546 to 107) ; deposition of Napoleon III. unanimously confirmed 1 Mch. National guards seize cannon and plant them at Moutmartre and Belleville, against Germans entering Paris 1 Mch. Emperor of Germany reviews about 100,000 troops at Long- champs near Paris 1 Mch. Germans, 30,000, enter Paris, 1 Mch. ; depart 3 Mch. National Assembly remove to Versailles (461-104) 10 Mch. Blauqul, Flourens, etc., condemned for insurrection of 31 Oct 1870 12 Mch. Central committee of republican confederation of national guards ("government of the Buttes") meet; depose Vinoy; appoint Garibaldi general-in-chief 15 Mch. Insurrection at Paris; regular troops occupying Buttes Mout- martre and Belleville, attacked by national guards, soon fra- ternize with Insurgents, who capture and shoot gens. Le- comte and Clement Thomas, and seize the Hotel de Ville; barricades erected in Belleville and other places; gen. Vinoy, with gendarmerie, retires across the Seine 18 Mch. Insurgents nominate a central committee of national guard, headed by Assy, a workman, who seize public ofilces; Thiers by circular enjoins obedience to the assembly 19 Mch. Central committee orders communal election in Paris, 19 Mch. ; liberates 11,000 political prisoners in Paris 20 Mch. National Assembly at Versailles ; propose conciliation ; ap- point committee to support the government 20 Mch. Napoleon III. arrives at Dover, Engl " Bank of France saved by courage of marquis de Plceuc, the governor, and the forbearance of citizen Beslay 20 Mch. Assembly appeal to nation and army 21 Mch. Unarmed demonstration of Friends of Order; fired on by in- surgents; 10 killed, 20 wounded 22 Mch. Municipal elections at Paris; 200,000 out of 500,000 vote; two thirds in favor of insurgents 26 Mch. Commune proclaimed at Hotel de Ville 28 Mch. Conference for peace meets at Brussels " Gustave Flourens, Blanqui, and Fdlix Pyat head the commune; wish to imitate Italian republics of middle ages 29 Mch. Part remission of overdue rents ordered ; standing army named national guard 29 Mch. Reign of terror: " Paris has no longer liberty of the press, of public meeting, of conscience, or of person."— Ze Soir, 1 Apr. Fighting begins 9 a.m. at Courbevole; Flourens marches to Versailles via Rueil .- 2 Apr. Corps of gen. Bergeret at Rond Point, near Neuilly, stopped by artillery of Mont Val^rien; insurgents in forts Issy and Vanves exchange shots with Meudon 3 Apr. Gen. Duval taken in fight at Chatillou, and shot; death of Flourens at Chatou ; Delescluze, Cournet, and Vermorel suc- ceed Bergeret, Eudes, and Duval on executive commission; Cluseret delegate of war, Bergeret commandant of Paris forces 4 Apr. Gen. Cluseret takes offensive; military service compulsory for citizens under 40; the archbishop of Paris arrested — 5 Apr. Extension of lines to Neuilly and Courbevole; "complicity with Versailles" made penal; hostages arrested; Dombrow- ski succeeds Bergeret in command of Paris ; guillotine burned on Place Voltaire 6 Apr. Federals abandon Neuilly; commission of barricades created and presided over by Gaillard senior; railway termini seized by insurgents 8 Apr. Marshal MacMahon, commander-in-chief for assembly, dis- poses his forces and invests fort Issy 11 Apr. Versailles batteries established on Chatillon; Orleans railway and telegraph cut; southern communications of insurgents intercepted; decree to destroy column VendOme 12 Apr. Redoubt of Gennevilliers taken; troops of Versailles advance to Chateau de Becon; Assy at bar of commune 14 Apr. Communists appeal to the nation 19 Apr. Bagneux occupied by Versaillais; reorganization of commis- sions; Eudes appointed inspector-general of southern forts; moves from Montrouge to palace of Legion of Honor, 20 Apr. Versailles batteries at Breteuil, Brimborion, Meudon, and Moulin de Pierre trouble the federal fort Issy; battery be- tween Bagneux and Chatillon shells fort Vanves; truce at 1871 II FRA Neuilly 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. ; inhabitants of Neuilly enter Paris by Porte des Ternes 25 Apr. Les Moulineaux, outpost of insurgents, taken by troops; forti- fied on the 27th and 28th 26 Apr. " Cemetery and parlc of Issy taken by Versaillais at night; free- masons attempt reconciliation again; commune levies 2,000,- 000 francs from railway companies 29 Apr. Flag of truce to fort Issy from the Versaillais, calling federals to surrender; gen. Eudes, with fresh troops, takes com- mand; Cluseret imprisoned at Mazas by commune; Rossel made provisional delegate of war 30 Apr. Versaillais take station of Clamart and Chateau of Issy; com- mittee of public safety formed: Antoine Arnauld, Leo Meil- let, Ranvier, Felix Pyat, Charles G^rardin; alleged massacre of communist prisoners 1 May, Central committee of national guard charged with administra- tion of war; Chapelle Expiatore ordered destroyed, materials to be sold by auction 5 May, Battery of Montretout (70 marine guns) opens fire; Thiers calls Parisians to rise against commune 8 May, Morning: insurgents evacuate fort Issy; committee of public safety renewed — Ranvier, Antoine Arnauld, Gambon, Eudes, Delescluze ; Rossel resigns 8 May, Peace with Germany signed at Frankfort-on-the-Main.lO May, Cannon from fort Issy taken to Versailles; decree to destroy Thiers's house; Delescluze made delegate of war 10 May, Thiers opposed ; offers to resign; assembly vote confidence in him (495-10) 11 May, Troops occupy Couvent des Oiseaux at Issy, and lyceum at Vanves; Auber, the composer, d. (aged 89) 12 May, Triumphal entry of troops into Versailles with flags and can- non from convent ; evacuation of Issy completed; fort Vanves taken by troops 13 May, Cannonade from batteries of Courbevoie, Becon, Asniferes, on Levallois and Clichy ; both villages evacuated; demolition of house of M. Thiers begun 14 May, Column VendOme overthrown 16 May, Secession from communist government; central club formed; a battalion of women formed 17 May, Silver ornaments in churches seized; cartridge factory near Champ de Mars explodes; 100 killed 17 May, Assembly adopts treaty of peace 18 May, Rochefort brought prisoner to Versailles; last session of the commune 21 May, Noon: explosion of powder-magazine of Mandge d'Etat-major (staff riding-school) ; hostages transferred from Mazas to La Roquette; Assy arrested in Paris by Versaillais; assembly votes to restore column VendOme; M. Ducatel, at risk of life, signalling that the way is clear, the Versaillais enter Paris by gates of St. Cloud and Montrouge, 2 p.m. 21 May; take possession of south and west, and about 10,000 prisoners after some fighting 22 May, Montmartre taken by Douai and Ladmirault; death of Dom- browski. Morning: Assy arrives at Versailles; gendarmes and Gustave Chaudey executed at prison of Sainte-P61agie. Night: Tuileries fired; Delescluze and committee of public safety sit at Hotel de Ville 23 May, Morning: Palais Royal, Ministry of Finance, Hotel de Ville, etc., fired. 1 p.m., powder-magazine at Palais du Luxem- bourg blown up; committee of public safety organize de- tachments of fusee-bearers; petroleum pumped into burn- ing buildings; Raoul Rigault shot by soldiers. Evening: At prison of La Roquette archbishop, abbd Deguerry, presi- dent Bonjean, and 64 others, hostages, shot 24 May, Forts Montrouge, Hautes-Bruyeres, Bicfitre, evacuated by in- surgents; death of Delescluze reported; at Avenue d'ltalie the Peres Dominicains of Arcueil shot 25 May, Sixteen priests and 38 gendarmes shot at Belleville by insur- gents; many women fighting, and casting petroleum into fires, shot 26, 27 May, Buttes Chaumont, heights of Belleville, and cemetery of P§re la Chaise carried by troops; prison of La Roquette by ma- rines; deliverance of 169 hostages ; investment of Belleville complete; last position captured by MacMahon; fighting ends 5 p.m. 28 .May, Federal garrison of Vincennes surrendered 29 May, Reported results of 7 days' fighting: regular troops— 877 killed, 645 wounded, 183 missing; insurgents— about 50,000 dead, 25,000 prisoners; nearly all leaders killed or prisoners; about a fourth of Paris destroyed 22-27 May, Estimated loss of property, 800,000,000 francs Apr.-May, Thiers's decree disarming Paris and abolishing national guard of Seine 29 May, Victor Hugo expelled from Belgium 30 May, Reported wholesale execution of prisoners by marquis de Gallifet; Paris put under martial law; about 50,000 insur- gents still at large 30 May, •Solemn funeral of Darboy, archbishop of Paris 7 June, Abrogation of proscription by assembly (484-103); elections of due d'Aumale and prince de Joinville legalized 8 June, Thiers advocates maintaining republic " New taxes (463,000,000 francs) and loan proposed by M. Pouyer- Quertier 12 June, Trochu's speech defending "government of national defence," 13, 14 June, Theatres, etc., reopened in Paris about 20 June, Letter of M. Guizot to M. Gr6vy, recommending political mod- eration and maintenance of present government 22 June, Loan of 2,000,000,000 francs decreed, 26 June; subscription opened, 27 June; about 4,000,000,000 subscribed in France, 28 June, 301 FRA One hundred and thirty-two members elected to assembly; in- cludes Gambetta, a few legitimists and Bonapartists ; the rest support government 2 July, 1871 Letter from comte de Chambord at Chambord, professing de- votion to France; modern policy and liberality; but de- clining to give up the white flag of Henry IV. ; he retires to Germany to avoid agitation; dated 5 July, " Government said to have 500 votes in the assembly; bill for new taxes passed (483-5) 8 July, " Five hundred million francs, part of indemnity to Germany, paid about 14 July, " Prince Jerome Napoleon expelled from France (at Havre), 15 July, " Full compensation for losses of invaded provinces refused by Thiers, who acknowledges no debt, but proposes to act gen- erously Aug. '« Trial of communist prisoners at Paris begun about 8 Aug. " Dissensions in assembly between monarchists and republicans; resignation of Thiers not accepted, 24 Aug. ; his power con- tinued, and the sovereign and constituent authority of the assembly voted (443-227) about 25 Aug. " Thiers named president of the republic while the assembly shall continue (the Rivet- Vitet proposition), 491-93 31 Aug. " Ferrd and Lullier sentenced to death, others to transportation or imprisonment, 2 Sept. ; 3 women (p6troleuses) to death for throwing petroleum on fires 5 Sept. " Assembly assumes for the nation the losses of invaded prov- inces 6 Sept. " Rossel, communist general, sentenced to death 8 Sept. " Law carrying out treaty with Germany on imports from Alsace and Lorraine, and reducing German troops in France to 50,000 men, 14 Sept. ; passed (533-33); session closed, *2 A.M. 17 Sept. " Germans evacuate Paris forts about 20 Sept. " Rochefort (ot La Lanterne and Le Mot d'Ordre) sentenced to life imprisonment 21 Sept. "^ Difficulty in Alsace and Lorraine treaty " " Eight murderers of gens. Lecomte and Thomas condemned, 18 Nov. " Rossel, Ferr6, and Bourgeois, communists, shot at Satory be- fore 3000 soldiers 28 Nov. '^ Gaston Cremieux executed at Marseilles 30 Nov. " Territory held by Germans declared under siege 4 Dec. " Thiers's message to assembly; deprecates free -trade; pro- poses moderate protection 7 Dec. " Long debate ; proposed taxes on raw materials opposed ; gov- ernment defeated (377-307) 19 Jan. 1872 Resignation of Thiers and ministry; MacMahon writes, "Army will obey orders of a majority of assembly, but not dictator- ship;" Thiers resumes office 20 Jan. " Assassins of archbishop Darboy and others (on 24 May, 1871) convicted 23 Jan. " Manifesto of comte de Chambord; he will not become a legiti- mate king by revolution 29 Jan. '• General subscription to indemnity to Germans begins Feb. " Manifesto for constitutional monarchy signed by about 280 of the Right about 21 Feb. " Ex-emperor assumes by letter responsibility of surrender at Sedan 12 May, " Majority of assembly propose MacMahon as president in room of Thiers July, " Pilgrimage of about 20.000 to grotto of Virgin at Lourdes (where miraculous appearance of Virgin to 2 girls was reported, 14 Feb. 1858) 6 Oct. " Comte de Chambord writes De la Rochette, protesting against a republic; that France can be saved by a monarchy alone; he is Catholic and monarchical, etc 15 Oct. '* National Assembly meets again, 11 Nov. ; Thiers, in his mes- sage, declares republic legal ; urges conservatism ; proposes changes 12 Nov. " Attack of gen. Changarnier on Thiers's policy and Gambetta's speech at Grenoble; majority for government, 150 (300 did not vote) 18 Nov. " Government project becomes law , 19 Nov. " Report of commission read by M. Batbie, claiming right of assembly to frame constitution with responsible ministry; president not to speak in the assembly, etc 26 Nov. " M. Thiers addresses assembly ; prefers English to American sys- tem; monarchy now impossible; adheres to republic ; wishes it conservative. Dufaure's amendment carried by 370 to 334 (royalists with Bonapartists against radicals) 29 Nov. ** Manifesto of Left, proposing a legal dissolution of assembly, 10 Dec. " Negatived (490-201) 14 Dec. " Powerful speech of Thiers to the commission of 30 16 Dec. " Debt (before the war, about 11,512,500,000 francs), 18,717,500,- 000 francs Dec. " Meeting of National Assembly 6 Jan. 187S Death of Napoleon III. at Chiselhurst 9 Jan. " Bonapartist manifesto: "The emperor is dead, but the empire is living and indestructible" 15 Jan. " Thiers addresses commission of 30 against proposed changes, 2 Feb. «« Letter of comte de Chambord published; destroys prospects of fusion of Bourbons Feb. ' Debate begins on report of commission, which preserves leg- islative rights of present assembly, and the provisional state of the "pacte de Bordeaux," 27 Feb. Thiers supports this " truce of parties," adopted (475-199) 4 .Mch. '* Convention at Berlin for final evacuation of departments in Sept. on payment of indemnity 15 Mch. " FRA 302 Declaration Jn the assembly, " that M. Thiers has deserved well of his country" 17 Mch. 1873 Besgnation of Thiers and his ministry accepted (368-339), 24 May; marshal MacMahon, d>ic de MagenUi (b. 1808), elected president by 3i)0 votes (the Left did not vote); he accepts, declaring independence of party, 24 May; in his message he says, "The post in which you have placed rao is that of a sentinel, who has to watch over the integrity of your sover- eign power " 26 May, " France, except Verdun, evacuated by Germans 2 Aug. " Fusion of legitimists and Orleanists ; comte de Paris meets comte do Chambord, who is accepted as chief 6 Aug. " Prince imperial Napoleon declares policy of his family, " Ev- ervthing bv the people for the people" 15 Aug. *' lAst instalment, 250,000,000 francs, of indemnity of 5,000,000,- 000 francs paid 5 Sept. " Verdun quitted by Germans 13 Sept. " Last quitted French territory 16 Sept. " Letter from comte de Chambord to the vlcomte de Rodez- Benavent; tendency to concession; says, "I want the co- operation of all, and all have need of me," dated. . .19 Sept. " Prince Jerome Napoleon joins republicans — 26 Sept. " Trial of marshal Bazaine, commander on the Rhine in 1870, for treachery and misconduct at Metz begins; due d'Au- male president of court 6 Oct. *' Manifesto of monarchists proposing restoration, guaranteeing liberties, etc 1« Oct. " L€on Say and l^ed Centre decline negotiation with monarch- ists; who threaten abstention in ne.xt elections 23 Oct. " Letter of comte de Chambord to M. Chesnelong: "I retract nothing, and curtail nothing of my previous declarations. I do not wish to begin a reign of reparation by an act of weak- ness; if enfeebled to-day, I should be powerless to-morrow; 1 am a necessary pilot; the only one capable of guiding the Shinto port, because I have for it a mission of authority," 27 Oct. " L6on Say and Left Centre say the time has come to organize a conservative republic 30 Oct. " Meeting of National Assembly ; president's message asks in- creased and prolonged power (10 years) ; referred to a com- mittee of 15; voted urgent (by 360-350) 5 Nov. " Eight of committee favor extending presidency 5 years after meeting of next legislature, under existing conditions till the passing of constitutional laws; the others favor 10 years without conditions 13 ^'ov. " M. Laboulaye presents report of committee ; MacMahon, by message, suggests 7 years 17 Nov. " Warm debate; majority of 68 for ministers, 18 Nov. ; 7 years' power voted to president MacMahon (383-31T), 19 Nov. ; de- cree 20 Nov. " Bazaine foundguilty of capitulating (with 170,000 men) in open field ; of negotiating dishonorably with enemy, and surren- dering a fortified place; sentence, death and degradation, 10 Dec. ; commuted to 20 years' imprisonment 12 Dec. " *• Comte Albert de Bourbon, " claiming to be son of Louis XVIL ; discredited (Impostors) 27 Feb. 1874 Prince Louis Napoleon's majority (at 18) celebrated at Chisel- hurst by 6000 Frenchmen; he awaits the 8th plebiscite, 16 Mch. " Dahirel, legitimist, moves that on 1 June the assembly vote be- tween monarchy and republic; negatived (330-256). .27 Mch. " Disputes of republicans and Bonapartists; Left Centre demand the republic, or dissolution of assembly 8, 9 June, " Bonnard, communist, condemned for murder, 25 Feb. ; shot, 6 June, " Electoral bill; age of electors fixed at 21, not 25 (defeat of min- istry) 10 June, " Casimir P^rier (leader of Left Centre) moves recognition of re- public; MacMahon president till 20 Nov. 1880, and revision of constitution; voted " urgent " (345-341) 14,15 June, " Due de Rochefoucauld-Bisaccia moves restoration of legitimate monarchy; negatived; he resigns British embassy, 15 June. " By order of the day, president MacMahon declares that with army he will maintain authority for the 7 years 29 June, " Manifesto of comte de Chambord, ' ' France has need of mon- archy. My birth has made me your king. . . . The Christian and French monarchy is in its very essence limited (temperee). It admits of the existence of 2 chambers; one nominated by the sovereign, the other by the nation. ... I do not wish for those barren parliamentary struggles, whence the sover- eign too frequently issues powerless and enfeebled. ... I reject the formula of foreign importation, which all our na- tional traditions repudiate, with its king who reigns and does not govern. "—Signed Henry V 2 July, " Debate on manifesto; legitimists defeated; ministers, defeated on motion for septennate, resign (368-331) ; resignation not accepted by president 8 July, " President by message declares determination to maintain law of 20 Nov., calls for constitutional laws 9 July, " Reports of committee, by Ventavon (bill proposes maintenance of authority of president; ministerial responsibility; 2 legis- lative assemblies; dissolution of Chamber of Deputies by president; etc.), suspended 16 July, " Casimir P6rier's motion for republic rejected (375-333), 23 July, " Malleville's motion for dissolution rejected (374-332) " Assembly adjourns (to 30 Nov.) 5 Aug. " Bazaine escapes from isle of Ste. Marguerite 10 p.m. 9 Aug. " [His wife asserted that he descended by an old gutter on a knotted rope ; was taken in a boat by her and her nephew, Alvarez de Rul, to steamer Baron Ricasola, which landed him at Genoa (see Dec. 1873).] FRA VendOme column restored 31 Aug. 1874" Death of M. Guizot 12 Sept. Bazaino's defence, sent by him to the Now York Herald, dated 6 Sept. , pub. in London 14 Sept. Trials for complicity in Bazaine's escape; col.Villette and oth- ers sentenced to imprisonment 17 Sept. Thiers, at Vizille, near Grenoble, upon an address, says, "Since {rou cannot establish monarchy, establish the republic, frank- y and sincerely" 27 Sept. Political parties were— Extreme Right: legitimists, adherents of Henry V. Moderate Right: monarchists. Right Centra: 8ei)tennates, imperialists or Bonapartists. Left Centre: mod- erate republicans (chief, Thiers). Left: more pronounced. Extreme Left: radicals (chief, Gambetta) Nov. " St. Genest's pamphlet, " L'Assembldo et la France," inciting to a coup d'etat end of Nov. " Comte de Chambord requests friends not to vote so as to pre- vent or delay restoration of monarchy Nov. " Addresses ft-om towns, etc., in France, with thanks for reliet during war 1870-71 (inscribed '■' Britannice grata Gallia "), with about 12,000,000 signatures, presented to queen Victo- ria by M. d'Agiout and comte de Serrurier (placed in British museum for inspection) 3 Dec. •' Assembly meets; president's firm, moderate message. .. " " Sudden death of M. Ledru-Rollin 31 Dec. " President recommends a senate, motion against it passed (420- 250), 6 Jan. ; ministers' resignation not accepted 7 Jan. 1875 Cost of war (9,885,000,000 francs or $1,977,000,000) announced, Jan. " Laboulaye's amendment rejected (359-335) 29 Jan. " Wallon's amendment (president to be elected by majority of 2 chambers for 7 years, eligible for re-election; republic virtually established), passed 1 a.m. 31 Jan. *' Rejoicing through the country Feb. " Duprat's amendment carried (senate chosen by universal suf- frage), 11 Feb. ; 3d reading of constitutional bill rejected (357-345); dissolution of assembly negatived (407-266), 12 Feb. ; president's message disapproving of last votes 13 Feb. " Senate bill (senate of 300; 225 elected by departments, 75 by National Assembly) "122 Feb. " Union of moderate monarchists and republicans; legitimists and Bonapartists defeated; senate bill passed (448-244), 24 Feb. ; final vote for republic; constitutional laws passed (436- 262), 5 P.M. 25 Feb. ; pub 1 Mch. " New ministry: Buffet, interior; Dufaure, justice ; L€on Say, finance; Wallon, instruction; De Meaux, agriculture and commerce; Cissey, war; Decazes, foreign ; Montaignac, ma- rine; Caillaux, public works 10 Mch. " Due d'Audiffret-Pasquier elected president of assembly almost unanimously 15 Mch. " Assembly adjourns to 11 May 20 Mch. " Meeting of assembly, 11 May; ministry propose to refer a bill to committee of 30; defeated; part of committee resign, 18 May ; new committee elected (republican majority) . . 26 May, " Assembly adjourns 4 Aug. " Plon having lost by publishing "Julius Caesar," by Napoleon III., sues emperor's executors; fails; and is adjudged to pay costs Aug. " Assembly ballots for senators for life; due d'Audiffret-Pasquier elected; breach between legitimists and Orleanists disclosed; government defeated 9 Dee. " Seventy-five senators for life (52 republicans) elected, 9-21 Dec. " Communist trials report; 9596 convicted; 110 sentenced to death Dec. *' Estimated result of elections: moderate republicans, 270 ; rad- icals, 60; Bonapartists, 92; Orleanists, 58; legitimists, 36, 7 Mch. 1876 Amnesty for communists introduced in senate by Victor Hugo; in assembly by Raspail 21 Mch. " Debate on amnesty, 14 May; rejected (394-52), 17 May; Victor Hugo's speech for amnesty; proposal rejected almost unani- mously 22 May, " Gambetta's resolution for parliamentary government carried (355-154), 17 May; 363 liberal deputies protest 18 May, 1877 President prorogues chambers for a month; firm manifesto by the Left 18 May, " Thiers accepted as leader by republicans; Broglie's circular for repressing the press issued about 29 May, " President, in an order of the day, after a review at Longehamps, says, "I appeal to the army to defend the dearest interests of the country " 2 July, " Prosecution of Gambetta (and Murat, editor of Republique Francaise) for saying at Lille (29 July), the president must, if the elections be against him, "se soumettre ou se d^met- tre" ("submit or resign") about 25 Aug. " Thiers d., aged SO, 3 Sept. ; public funeral, no disorder, 8 Sept. " Gambetta and Murat sentenced to 3 months in prison and fine of 2000 francs, 11 Sept. ; on appeal, sentence affirmed, • 22 Sept. " Pres. MacMahon, in manifesto on elections, claims success for government, and says, " I cannot obey the injunctions of the demagogy; I can neither become the instrument of radical- ism nor abandon the post in which the constitution has placed me" 19 Sept. " Thiers's manifesto to electors (an historical defence of the re- public and late chamber) pub 24 Sept. " Gambetta convicted for placarding his address ; fine, 3750 francs and 3 months' imprisonment 12 Oct. " General election quiet; defeat of Bonapartist and clerical par- ties (of 506 oflQcial candidates about 199 elected; republicans, 320).H 14 Oct. " If FRA 303 ■I'inal result: 325 republicans; 112 Bonapartists ; 96 monarch- ists 28 Oct. 1877 <;ensus for 1876 announced ; 36,905,788 (increase of 802,867 over 1872) 8 Nov. " MacMahon will not resign ; ministry remains temporarily; an- nounced 8 Nov. " F. P. Jules Gr^vy re-elected president of chamber 10 Nov. " Albert Gre'vy's resolution for commission of 33 upon govern- ment interference in elections, 13 Nov.; carried after warm debate (312-205) 15 Nov. " •Commercial men meet in Paris; petition president 2 Dec. " President submits unconditionally, 13 Dec. A republican min- istry formed; Dufaure, president of council and minister of justice; De Marcere, interior; Waddiugion (Protestant), for- eign aflairs; Bardoux, public instruction; gen. Borel, war; vice-adm. Pothuau, marine; L€on Saj'-, finance; Teisserenc de Bort, commerce; De Freycinet, public works; the presi- dent in message accepts the will of the country 14 Dec. " Ximoges affair; gen. Rochebouet said to have issued orders to gen. de Bressoles for a military movement, 12 Dec. ; major LabordSre denounces orders as illegal, 13 Dec. ; orders nulli- fied by change of ministry, 14 Dec. ; De Bressoles suspended for mistake; Labord^re cashiered; excitement in Paris over suspected preparations for a coup d'etat Jan. 1878 45en. Ducrot dismissed, suspected of conspiring for coup d'etat, 10, 11 Jan. " International exhibition at Paris opened by president (Paris), 1 May, " -Joan of Arc and Voltaire centenaries celebrated 30 May, " Death of Thiers commemorated at Notre Dame, etc. . . .3 Sept. " •Twelve thousand national lottery tickets of 1 franc sold (Lotteries) up to Nov. " Xctter from comte de Chambord to M. de Mun, maintaining his rights; pub 25 Nov. " Elections for senate : 64 republican, 16 opposition 5 Jan. 1879 •Chamber votes confidence in the ministry (223-121) 30 Jan. " Ministerial programme: pardons to communists; clerical influ- ence upon education checked; officials opposed to republic dismissed, etc 16 Jan. *' Drawing of the national lottery begun 26 Jan. " Pres. MacMahon refuses to supersede military officers ; resigns, 28 Jan. ; F. P. Jules Gr6vy elected president by senate and deputies united as "The National Assembly "(536 for Gr6vy ; 99 for gen. Chanzy) 30 Jan. " •Gambetta president of chamber 31 Jan. '< Communist amnesty passed by Chamber of Deputies. .21 Feb. " Proposed return of assemblies to Paris ; congress to be appoint- ed (315-128) 22 Mch. " M. Ferry's education bills to check clerical influences, abolish- ing Jesuit colleges, etc Mch. " Blanqui (a convict) elected for Bordeaux 20 Apr. " Prince imperial Louis Napoleon killed while reconnoitring in Zululand 1 June, '* Blanqui's election annulled by chamber (372-33), 4 June; par- doned and released 11 June, " Senate and deputies vote return to Paris (526-249) 20 June, " M. Ferry's law of superior public instruction passed by the deputies 9 July, " .President Gravy's first military review at Longchamps, 13 July, " Fete of the republic 14 July, " Prince Jerome Napoleon coldly accepted as chief by Bonapart- ists 20 July, " >Comte de Chambord's letter: "With the co-operation of all honest men, and with the grace of God, I may save France, and will" 26 July, " Senate and assembly meet again at Paris 27 Nov. " Death (ex-foreign ministers) : due de Grammont, 16 Jan. ; Jules Favre 20 Jan. 1880 •Debate in senate: 7th clause of Ferry's education bill (abol- ishing Jesuit schools, etc. ) ; Jules Simon speaks against it; rejected (148-129) 9 Mch. " Decree dissolving Jesuits and other orders in France. .29 Mch. " Letter from prince Jerome Napoleon in favor of the decree; offends Bonapartists about 5 Apr. " ■Bishops and others protest against the decree Apr. " -Amnesty bill for political offences; presented by M. de Freyci- net, 19 June ; passed by chambers (333-140) 21 June, " •Otaheite formally annexed to France 29 June, " •Expulsion of religious orders (officially opposed) carried into eflect with Jesuits 30 June, " -Amnesty bill passed for all, except incendiaries and assassins, by senate (143-138) 3 July, " >President Grevy grants general amnesty, 10 July; Rochefort warmly received in Paris 12 July, " First grand republican national fete 14 July, " "Carmelites and other religious orders expelled 16 Oct. -Nov. " JLoan of 1,000,000,000 fr. offered (public debt about 3,000,000,000 ft'.); 30 times the amount subscribed Mch. 1881 ^ScRDTiN DE LiSTE advocated by Gambetta; opposed by presi- dent, who yields 21, 22 Mch. " Expedition to N. Africa to chastise the Kroumirs; invasion of „ Tunis Mch. , Apr. " 'Treaty with the bey signed (Tcnis) 12 May, ' ' Excitement at Marseilles and in Italy 13 May et seq. " M. Bardoux's bill for the scrutin de liste passed by deputies ^ (243-235) 18 May, ' ' Tunis treaty ratified by chamber (453-1) 23 May, " Scrutin de liste rejected by senate (148-114) 9 June, " .Election addresses. M. Rouher retires from politics (virtual end or Bonapartism), about 31 July ; prince Napoleon Jerome FRA advocates progress— "everything for and by the people "— about 31 July; Gambetta speaks at Tours, Belleville, 12 Aug., for revision of constitution, Aug. ; Jules Ferry at Nancy deprecates division .about 11 Aug. 1881 General elections; republican triumph; many extremists re- jected 21 Aug. et seq. " Capuchins and other orders relieved from monastic vows by the pope Oct " New ministry: Gambetta, minister of foreign afi'airs and pre- mier; Cazot, justice; Waldeck - Rousseau, interior; Allain- Targ6, finance; gen. Campenon, war; Gougeard, marine; Paul Bert, education and worship; Raynal, public works; Rouvier, commerce and colonies; Cochery, post and tele- graph ; Deves, agriculture ; and Proust, arts 12 Nov. " Defeat of government; scrutin de liste rejected (305-119); Gam- betta resigns 26 Jan. 1882 New ministry: De Freycinet, president of council and minister for foreign affairs; L6on Say, finance; Jules Ferry, public instruction; Goblet, interior and public worship; Humbert, justice; gen. Billot, war; adm. Jaureguiberry, marine; Var- roy, public works; Tirard, commerce; De Mahy, agriculture; Cochery, post and telegraph 30, 31 Jan. " Credit to protect Suez canal refused on motion of C16menceau (416-75) ; ministry resigns 29 July, " New ministry: Duclerc, president of the council and minister for foreign affairs; Tirard, finance; Devfes, justice; De Fal- lidres, interior; Pierre Legrand, commerce and ad interim public works; gen. Billot, war; adm. Jaureguiberry, marine; Cochery, post and telegraph ; De Mahy, agriculture ; Duvaux, public instruction 1 Aug. " Bonapartists select prince Victor chief about 31 Aug. *' Compulsory Education act takes effect 2 Oct. " Death of Gambetta, aged 44, after weeks of suffering from ac- cidental wound, midnight 31 Dec. " Prince Napoleon arrested for manifesto against government, 16 Jan. 1883 Floquet's bill to exile Bourbons and Bonapartists " " Government bill of De Fallieres for power to expel same, 20 Jan. " Expulsion bill adopted by committee 25 Jan. " Fabre's bill permitting princes to remain without civil rights discussed, 29 Jan. ; passed by chamber (343-163), 1 Feb. « Prince Napoleon's indictment quashed; released 9 Feb. " Senate rejects expulsion bill; adopts amendment of Say and Waddington (165-127); expelling princes only after trial, 12 Feb. « Decree to retire Orleanist princes from army under law of 1834 (due d'Aumale, due de Chartres, and due d'Alenp on), api)roved by deputies (295-103) 24 Feb. *' Marshal Bazaine publishes his defence at Madrid " Museum of revolution established at Versailles 20 June, " National fete; colossal statue of Republic uncovered. ,14 July, " Death of comte de Chambord, aged nearly 63. 24 Aug. *' Statue of Lafayette unveiled at Lepuy 6 Sept. " Government awards 25,000 francs to Mr. Shaw (Madagascar, 1883) about 15 Oct. " Franpois Mignet, historian, d. (aged 87) 24 Mch. 1884 Prince Victor acknowledged chief of Bonapartists; his father publishes painful correspondence June, " Colossal statue of Liberty by Bartholdi given to United States, unveiled by Jules Ferry at Paris 4 July, " Death of Victor Hugo, poet, dramatist,- and novelist (aged 83), 22 May; buried in Pantheon; all Paris spectators 1 June, 1885 Scrutin de liste bill with senate amendments 8 June, " Madagascar under French protection by treaty of. 12 Dec. " Senate votes expulsion of Bonaparte family (141-107). 22 June, 1886 Mobilization of army on the Spanish frontier .30 Aug. 1887 [The troops were from 2 to 6 days in concentrating.] Marie-Franpois Sadi Carnot elected president 3 Dec. " Gen. Boulanger minister of war " Daniel Wilson, son-in-law of ex-president Gr6vy, sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment and a fine of 3000 francs for complicity in sale of army decorations 1 Mch. 1888 Duel between M. Floquet, premier, and gen. Boulanger; the latter severely wounded " French seize the Marquesa group in the Pacific ocean.. 20 Sept. " Marshal Bazaine dies at Madrid 23 Sept. " Senate passes bankruptcy bill as desired by Panama Canal com- pany 17 Jan. 1889 Gen. Boulanger proclaims devotion to the republic on the eve of the election 26 Jan. '♦ Boulanger elected deputy in the department of the Seine by plurality of 81,550 over M. Jacques, republican 27 Jan. " Old Panama company dissolved 4 Feb. " Cabinet decides to prosecute gen. Boulanger 29 Mch. '* Boulanger flees from Paris to Brussels 1 Apr. " In public statement says he left France rather than be tried by the senate 3 Apr. " He issues manifesto 5 Apr. " His trial begun before the senate 12 Apr. " Boulanger leaves Brussels for England 24 Apr. " Formal opening of French exposition 6 May, " Carlotta Patti, singer, sister of Adelina, d. at Paris 28 June, " Boulanger defeated in election; out of 1344 cantons he carries but 12 29 July, « Boulanger's trial before high court of senate begun 7 Aug. Boulanger, Henri Rochefort, and count Dillon sentenced to be deported to some fortified place 14 Aug. " Boulanger issues manifesto from London 16 Aug. " Names of Boulanger and count Dillon erased from the Legion of Honor. 26 Aug. « FRA 304 Beturn of 158 republican deputies and 89 opposition; Boulan- ger election cliiinicd from Montmartre 23 Sept. 1889 Paris municipal commission declare votes for Boulanger in Montmartre and Henri Rochefort in Belleville void.. 26 Sept " Electoral bureau decide Boulanger not elected deputy.. 27 Nov. " Duke of Orleans sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment... 12 Feb. 1890 Pardoned by pres. Carnot 3 June, " Panama Canal commission report: 20 years and 1,737,000,000 fhmcs needed to complete canal 27 June, " International congress opens at Paris 16 Sept. " Meissonier, celebrated painter, d 31 Jan. 1891 Prince Jerome Napoleon (son of Jerome, brother of Napoleon I.) dies at Rome (Bonapartk family) 17 Mch. " [Bonapartist leaders recognize Victor, his eldest son, as heir to the empire; Jerome by will names Louis, his second son, head of the house of Bonaparte.] Franfois Jules P. Gre'vy, ex-president, d. (aged 84) 9 Sept. " Gen. Boulanger (b. 1837) shoots himself at the grave of his mis- tress, Mme. de Bonne Main, near Brussels 30 Sept. '• Senate adopts a duty on American pork in place of prohibition, 30 Oct " Decree admitting American pork at 4 ports 5 Dec. " Encyclical of pope to French bishops enjoining submission to republic 16 Feb. 1892 Chamber votes 300,000,000 francs for an expedition against Dahomey 11 Apr. " Order to prosecute archbishop of Avignon and bishops of Nimes, Montpellier, Valence, and Viviers, for concerted ad- dresses to Catholic electors against the state. . .about 22 Apr. " Investigation of the Panama canal scandal begun 25 Nov. " Loubet ministry resigns on the Panama scandal issue. .28 Nov. " Ribot ministry succeeds 5 Dec. " Charles de Lesseps arrested for complicitv in canal frauds, 16 Dec. " Ferdinand and Charles de Lesseps, Fontane, Cottu, and Eiffel, sentenced to prison and fine by court of appeals for fraud in the Panama canal 9 Feb. 1893 M. Taine, historian, d 5 Mch. " Trial of those accused of corruption in the Panama Lottery Bond bill begun in the assize court, Paris 8 Mch. " Jules Ferry, president of the senate, d 17 Mch. " Ferdinand and Charles de Lesseps re-elected members of the board of directors of the Suez canal 6 June, " French court of cassation quashes the sentence of Charles de Lesseps and others convicted of fraud in the Panama affair, and all released from prison 15 June, " Guy de Maupassant, French writer of fiction, d 6 July, " Active hostilities with the Siamese government begin July, " France, by ultimatum to Siam, demands reparation for out- rages; answer required within 48 hours 19 July, " Siam accepts French ultimatum in full 29 July, " Siam gives the guarantees demanded by France 1 Aug. " Blockade of Siamese coast begun July, withdrawn 4 Aug. " Marshal MacMahon, duke of Magenta, ex-presideut, d. .17 Oct " M. Gounod, great French composer, dies at Paris 18 Oct " Auguste Vaillant, a violent anarchist, throws a dynamite bomb from the gallery of the French Chamber of Deputies among the members below while they were in session, by which many were seriously injured, but none mortally 9 Dec. " Vaillant the anarchist tried during Jan., condemned to death, and guillotined 5 Feb. 1894 SOVEREIGNS OF FRANCE. 428. 447. 458. 481. 611. 634. 648. 658. 675. 684. 613. 628. 656. 670. 674. 711. 715. MEROVINGIAN RACE. Pharamond (existence doubtful). Clodion the Hairy, his supposed son; king of the Salic Franks. Merovaeus, orMerov6e; son-in law of Clodion. Childeric, son of M^rovge. Clovis, his son, real founder of the monarchy. His 4 sons divided the empire: Childebert; Paris. Clodomir; Orleans. Thierry; Metz. Clotaire; Soissons. Theodebert; Metz. Theodebald; succeeded in Metz. Clotaire L ; sole ruler. Upon his death, the kingdom divided between 4 sons, viz. : Charibert, ruled at Paris. Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy. Sigebert, at Metz ; and) t^ .i ■ ^ „ , ^ j, Chilperic, at Soissons. I ^"^^ assassmated by Fredegond. Childebert II. Clotaire II. ; Soissons. Thierry IL, son of Childebert ; in Orleans. Theodebert n. ; Metz. Clotaire II. ; became sole king. Dagobert I., the Great, son of Clotaire IL ; divided the king- dom between his 2 sons: Clovis IL ; Burgundy and Neustria. Sigebert II. ; Austrasia. Clotaire III., son of Clovis IL Childeric II. ; sole king; assassinated, with his queen and his son Dagobert, in the forest of Livri. Thierry IIL ; Burgundy and Neustria. Dagobert IL, son of Sigebert in Austrasia; assassinated 679. Clovis III. (Pepin, mayor of the palace, rules in his name). Childebert IIL, the Just, brother of Clovis; Pepin supreme. Dagobert IIL, son of Childebert Chilperic II. , deposed by Charles Martel, mayor of the palace. 717. 720. 737. 742. 762. 768. 814. 840. 877. 922. 923. 954. 987. 996. 1031. 1060. 1108. 1137. 1180. 1223. 1226. 1270. 1285. 1314. 1316. 1322. 1328. 1350. 1364. 1380. 1422. -J46L M483. 1498. 1515. 1547. 1559. 1560. 1574. 1589. 1610. 1643. FRA Clotaire IV., of obscure origin, raised by Charles Martel to tha^ throne ; dies soon after ; Chilperic is recalled from Aquitaiue. Chilperic IL restored; soon dies at Noyon. Thierry IV., son of Dagobert IIL, surnamed de Chelles; d. 737. Charles Martel reigns under the new title of "duke of th** French. ' ^—Henault. Interregnum, till the death of Charles Martel, in 741. • Childeric III., son of Chilperic IL, surnamed the Stupid. Car^ loman and Pepin, sons of Charles Martel, share the crown. THE CARLOVINGIANS. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel; succeeded by his 2; sons: Charles the Great (Charlemagne) and Carloman; Chariest- crowned emperor of the West, by Leo IIL, 800. Carlomaik reigned but 3 years. Charlemagne d. 28 Jan. 814; age 72. Louis I., le Debonnaire, emperor; dethroned, but restored. Charles, surnamed the Bald, king; emperor in 875; poisonecb by Zedechias, a Jewish physician. Lo'uis II. , the Stammerer, son of Charles the Bald, king. Louis III. and Carloman II. ; the former d. 882, and Carlomani reigned alone. Charles III., le Gros ; usurps right of Charles the Simple. Eudes, or Hugh, count of Paris. Charles III. (or IV.), the Simple; deposed, and died in prison* in 929; he married Edgiva, daughter of Edward the Elcler^ of England, by whom he had a son, king Louis IV. Robert brother of Eudes; crowned at Rheims; Charles killed^ him in battle. — Henault. Rudolph, or Raoul, duke of Burgundy; elected king, but never- acknowledged by the southern provinces.— f/ewau«. Louis IV., d'Outremer, or Transmarine, son of Charles III. (or- IV.), taken by his mother into England, died by fall from^ his horse. Lothaire, his son; with his father from 952, succeeds him at. 15 years of age, protected by Hugh the Great; poisoned. Louis v., the Indolent, son of Lothaire; poisoned (supposed! by his queen, Blanche) ; last of race of Charlemagne. THE CAPETS. Hugh Capet, the Great, count of Paris, etc. , eldest son of Hugh- the Abbot, 3 July ; usurps the rights of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis Transmarine. From him this race of king* is called Capevingians and Capetians. He d. 24 Oct Robert IL, surnamed the Sage; son; died lamented, 20 July: age 61. ** Henry I., son; d. 29 Aug. Philip I., the Fair, V Amoureux ; son; succeeded at 8 years ot age ; ruled at 14 ; d. 3 Aug. ; age 55. Louis VI., surnamed the Lusty, or le Gros; son; d. 1 Aug.. 1137; age 59. Louis VII. ; son; surnamed the Young; reigned with his fa- ther for some years; d. l8 Sept 1180; age 60. Philip II. (Augustus); son; succeeds at 15 ; crowned at Rheimr in his father's lifetime; d. 14 July, 1223; age 58. Louis VIII. CoRur de Lion ; son ; d. 8 Nov. 1226 ; age 39. Louis IX.; son; called St Louis; succeeded at 15, under his- mother as guardian and regent; died in camp before Tunis- 25 Aug. 1270; age 55. Philip IIL, the Hardy; son; died at Perpignan, 6 Oct 1285^. age 40. Philip IV., the Fair; son; king in his 17th year; d. 29 Nov. 1314; age 47. Louis X. ; son ; surnamed Hutin, an old word for headstrong, or mutinous; d. 5 June, 1316; age 27. John I., posthumous son of Louis X. ; b. 15 Nov. ; d. 19 Nov. Philip v., the Long (on account of his stature); brother of Louis; d. 3 Jan. 1322; age 28. Charles IV., the Handsome; brother; d. 31 Jan. 1328; age 34. HOUSE OF VALOIS. Philip VL de Valois, the Fortunate; grandson ot Philip IIL;. d. 23 Aug. 1350; age 57. John II. , the Good; son; died suddenly in the Savoy in Lon- don, 8 Apr. Charles V., the AVise; son; d. 16 Sept 1380; age 43. Charles VL, the Beloved; son; d. 21 Oct 1422; age 54. Charles VIL, the Victorious; son; d. 22 July, 1461; age 58. Louis XL ; son; able but cruel; d. 30 Aug. 1483; age 60. Charles VIII. , the Affable; son; d. 7 Apr. 1498; age 28. Louis XII., duke of Orleans; the Father of his People; great- grandson of Charles V. ; d. 1 Jan. 1515 ; age 53. Francis I. of Angoulfime; called the Father of Letters; great- great-grandson of Charles V. ; d. 31 Mch. 1547 ; age 52. Henry II. ; son ; died of accidental wound by comte de Mont- morency at a tournament for nuptials of his sister with the- duke of Savoy, 10 July, 1.559; age 40. Francis II. ; son; married Mary Stuart, queen of Scots; d. 5 Dec. 1560; age 17. Charles IX.; brother; Catherine de' Medici, his mother, re- gent; d. 30 May, 1574; age 24. Henry III. ; brother; elected king of Poland; last of the house- of Valois; stabbed by Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar,. 1 Aug. ; d. 2 Aug. 1589; age 38. HOUSE OF BOURBON. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, king of Navarre; son-in-law of Henry II. ; assassinated by Francis Ravaillac, 14 May, 1610; age 57. Louis XIII. , the Just; son; d. 14 May, 1643; age 42. Louis XIV., the Great, Dievdonne ; son; d. 1 Sept 1715; age 77. FRA 1715. Louis XV., the Well-beloved; great-grandson; d. 20 May, 1774; age 64. 1774. Louis XVL, his grandson; ascended the throne in his 20th year; married the archduchess Marie Antoinette, of Austria, May, 1770; dethroned, 14 July, 1789; guillotined, 21 Jan. 1793; age 39; and his queen, 16 Oct. following. [Louis was executed Monday, 21 Jan. 1793, at 8 o'clock A.M. On the scaffold he said, "Frenchmen, I die innocent of the offences imputed to me. I pardon all my enemies, and I implore of Heaven that my beloved France—" At this instant Santerre ordered the drums to beat, and the executioners to perform their office. When the guillotine descended, the priest exclaimed, "Sonof St. Louis! ascend to heaven." The head was held up, and a few shouted, ^'VivelaRepubliquef^ The body was interred, the grave immediately filled with quicklime, and a guard set until it should be consumed.] 1793. Louis XVII., son of Louis XVL, never reigned, but died in prison, supposed by poison, 8 June, 1795, aged 10 years 2 months. Owing to the uncertainty of his death quite a number of Impostors have laid claim to being Louis XVII. , or his son. It has been asserted that he escaped to Eng- land, and lived there as Augustus Meves. Even as late as 1874 one Naundorf claimed to be Albert de Bourbon, son of Louis XVII., and with Jules Favre as counsel, he brought his claim to trial. Verdict strongly against his claim, 27 Feb. 1874. Williams, Eleazer. FIRST REPUBLIC. 1792. National Convention (750 members), first sitting, 21 Sept. 1795. Directory (Lareveill^re-L^paux, Letourneur, Rewbell, Barras, and Carnot) nominated 1 Nov. ; abolished, and Bonaparte, Duces, and SieySs appointed an executive commission, Nov. 1799. 1799. Consulate; Napoleon Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun ap- pointed consuls, 24 Dec. Napoleon appointed consul for 10 years, 6 May, 1802; for life, 2 Aug. 1802. FIRST EMPIRK. (BONAPARTE FAMILY.) [Established by the senate 18 May, 1804.] 1804. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. ; b. 15 Aug. 1769. He married, 1st, Josephine, widow of Alexis, vicomte de Beauharnais, 8 Mch. 1796 (who was divorced IG Dec. 1809; d. 29 May, 1814). 2d, Maria Louisa of Austria, 2 Apr. 1810 (d. 17 Dec. 1847). Son, Napoleon Joseph, duke of Reichstadt; b. 20 Mch. 1811; d. 22 July, 1832. He renounced the thrones of France and Italy, and accepted the isle of Elba for his retreat, 5 Apr. 1814. Again appeared in France, 1 Mch. 1815. Was defeated at Waterloo, 18 June, 1815. Abdicated in favor of his infant son, 22 June, 1815. Banished to St. Helena, where he d. 5 May, 1821; age 52. France, 1840. BOURBONS RESTORED. 1814. Louis XVIII. (comte de Provence), brother of Louis XVI. ; b. 17 Nov. 1755; married Marie Josephine Louise of Savoy; entered Paris, and took possession of the throne, 3 May, 1814; obliged to flee, 20 Mch. 1815; returned 8 July, same year; died without issue, 6 Sept. 1824; age 69. 1824. Charles X. (comte d'Artois), his brother; b. 9 Oct. 1757; mar- ' ried Marie TherSse of Savoy; deposed 30 July, 1830. He resided in Britain till 1832, and died at Gratz, in Hungary, 6 Nov. 1836; age 79. Heir : Henry, due de Bordeaux, called comte de Charabord, son of duo de Berry; b. 29 Sept. 1820; married princess Theresa of Modena, Nov. 1846; no issue; styled himself Henri V. ; d. 24 Aug. 1883; age 63. Fra.\ce, 1870 et seq. HOUSE OF ORLEANS. (ORLEANS.) 1830. Louis Philippe, son of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, called Egalite, descended from Philippe, duke of Orleans, son of Louis XIII.; b. 6 Oct. 1773; married 25 Nov. 1809, Maria Amelia, daughter of Ferdinand I. (IV.), king of the 2 Sicilies (d. 24 Mch. 1866). Raised to the throne as the king of the French, 9 Aug. 1830; abdicated 24 Feb. 1848. Died in exile, in England, 26 Aug. 1850; age 77. Heir: Louis Philippe, count of Paris; b. 24 Aug. 1838 ; d. 8 Sept. 1894. SECOND REPUBLIC, 1848. Revolution began in a popular insurrection at Paris, 22 Feb. 1848. The royal family escaped to England, a provisional government was established, monarchy abolished, and a republic declared. Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, declared by the National Assem- bly (19 Dec.) president of the republic of France; and proclaimed next day, 20 Dec. ; elected for 10 years, 22 Dec. 1851. FRENCH EMPIRE REVIVED. (BONAPARTE FAMILY.) [1821. Napoleon II. (so termed by decree of Napoleon III. on acces- sion). Napoleon Joseph, son of Napoleon I. and Maria Lou- isa, archduchess of Austria; b. 20 Mch. 1811; created king of Rome. At his father's abdication he was made duke of Reichstadt, in Austria; died at SchOnbrunn, 22 July, 1832; age 21.] 1852. Napoleon III., president of French republic, elected emperor, 21, 22 Nov. 18.52; proclaimed 2 Dec. 1852; surrendered to king of Prussia at Sedan, 2 .Sept. 1870; deposed at Paris, 4 Sept. ; arrives at WilhelmshOhe, near Cassel, 5 Sept. ; depo- sition confirmed by National Assembly, 1 Mch. ; he protested against it, 6 Mch. 1871; died at Chiselhurst, England, 9 Jan. 1873 ; buried there 15 Jan. ; age 65. 305 FRA Empress: Eugenie Marie (a Spaniard, countess of T^ba); b. 5 May, 1826; married 29 Jan. 1853. Heir : Napoleon Eugfene Louis Jean Joseph, son ; styled Na- poleon IV.; b. 16 Mch. 1856; killed in Zululand, 1 June, 1879; buried beside his father at Chiselhurst (prince of Wales and other princes present), 12 July, 1879. Wills. At the celebration of the fete Napoleon, 15 Aug. 1873, the prince declared the policy of his family to be "Everything by the people, for the people. ' ' [On 18 Dec. 1852, the succession, in default of issue frora the emperor, was determined in favor of prince Jerome Na- poleon and his heirs male.] France, 1883-91. THIRD REPUBLIC. I. Louis Adolphe Thiers (b. 16 Apr. 1797) appointed chief of the ex- ecutive, 17 Feb., and president of the republic, 31 Aug. 1871; re- signed, 24 May, 1873; d. 3 Sept. 1877; age 80. II. Marshal M. E. Patrice Maurice MacMahon, due de Magenta (b 1.^ July, 1808), elected president, 24 May; nominated for 7 years, 20- Nov. 1873 ; d. 17 Oct. 1893. IIL Franpois Paul Jules Grgvy (b. 15 Aug. 1813); elected 30 Jan. 1879; d. 9 Sept. 189L IV. Marie Francois Sadi Carnot (b. 11 Aug. 1837), elected 3 Dec. 1887. France, Isle of. Mauritius. Frandie-Comte (fransh-con-fa't/), a province in up- per Burgundy, E. France, was conquered by Julius Caesar, about 45 B.C. ; by Burgundians, early in the 5th century a,d. ; and by Franks about 534. It was made a county for Hugh the Black in 915, and named, because taken from Renaud III. (1127-48) and restored to him. By marrying the count's daughter Be- atrice, the emperor Frederick I. acquired it, 1156. Their de- scendant, Mary of Burgundy, marrying the archduke Maxi- milian, conveyed it to the house of Austria, 1477. It was conquered by the French, 1668 ; restored by treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle, 2 May, 1668; again conquered; and annexed to France by treaty, 1678. francllise. A privilege or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; anciently an asylum or sanctuary for the person. In Spain, churches and monasteries were, until lately, fran- chises for criminals, as formerlj' in England. Sanctuaries, In 1429, the elective franchise, or right to vote for rulers and magistrates, for counties in England, was restricted to resi- dents having at least 40s. a year in land. The elective fran- chise is conferred upon male citizens in each of the United States, with certain conditions of previous residence, at the age of 21 3'ear8. Women possess it only in Wyoming, and in some states at school elections. Woman's suffrage. The conditions of the franchise vary slightly in the different states. For instance, in Vermont deserters from the U. S. army or navy during the civil war and ex-confederates are excluded from voting. In New York and Wyoming no man can vote at any election on the result of which he has a bet. Residents^ of the District of Columbia cannot vote for president of the U. S. District of Columbia. Franciscans. Gray or Minor Friars, an order founded by St. Francis d'Assisi about 1209. Their rules were chastity^ poverty, obedience, and an austere regimen. About 1220 they appeared in England, where, at the dissolution of monasteries by Henry VIII., they had 65 abbej'S or other houses, 1536-88. Francis's assault on the queen. John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen Victoria as she passed down Constitution hill, London, in an open barouche, accompanied by prince Albert, 30 May, 1842. The queen was uninjured. Warned of an attack, the queen had forbidden the ladies of her court to attend her. Francis was condemned to death, 17 June, following, but was transported for life, and liberated oa ticket-of-leave in 1867. Franco'nia or Frank'enland (on the Maine), formerlj- a circle of the German empire, part of Thuringia, was conquered by Thierry, king of the Franks, 530, and colonized. Its count or duke, Conrad, was elected king of Germany, 912 ;. and was ancestor of emperor Conrad III., elected 1138, and another duke. Franconia was made a distinct circle from Thuringia in 1512. At its subdivision in 1806 various Ger- man princes obtained parts ; but in 1814 the largest share fell to Bavaria. Franco-Prussian war originated in the French emperor's jealousy of the growing power of Prussia, by the defeat of Denmark in 1864, and of Austria in 1866. These successes destroyed the German confederation, and led to the: North German confederation under the control of the king of FRA 306 FRA Prussia, who acquired besides Hanover, llesse-Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort, and other provinces. This aggrandizement of Prussia was largely due to the policy of count Bismarck- ^houhausen, prinae-miuister from Sept. 1862. In a draught treaty, secretly proposed to Prussia by Napoleon III. in 1866: " 1. The emperor recognizes the acquisitioua which Prussia has made in the last war; 2. The king of Prussia promises to facilitate the acquisition of Luxembourg by France; 3. The emperor will not oppose a federal uuiou oi the northern and southern states of Germany, excluding Austria; 4. The king of Prussia, in case the emperor should ■enter or conquer Belgium, will support him in arms against any opposing power; 6. They enter into an alliance offensive and defensive. ' ' [This draught appeared in the London Times, 25 July, 1870. After discussion, its authenticity was admitted ; Bismarck as- serting that it emanated from the French emperor, and had never been seriously entertained by himself] In Mch. 1867, a dispute arose, the French emperor, seeking to purchase Luxembourg from the king of Holland, was opposed by Prussia; the province had formed part of the German confederation. At a conference of representatives of the great powers in London, the neutrality of Luxembourg was de- termined, with the withdrawal of the Prussian garrison and the destruction of the fortifications 7-11 May, 1867 Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (connected with the Prussian dynasty, and brother of Charles, prince of Rou- mania), a candidate for the throne of Spain 4 July, 1870 Remonstrances by France; threatening speeches in the cham- ber by due de Grammont, foreign minister; after negotiation and intervention of Great Britain, prince Leopold, with the consent of his sovereign, declined the crown 12 July, " France, not satisfied, demanded a pledge that the candidacy should not be renewed. This irritated Prussia and ended the negotiations, the king refusing to receive the count Benedetti, the French minister 13 July, " Fruitless efforts to avert war by earl Granville, British foreign minister about 15 July, " War announced by the emperor, the great majority of cham- bers approving; Lefts, or Republicans, opposing. M. Thiers and a few others protested against it as premature. . . 15 July, " [After Sedan the emperor told Bismarck that he was forced into war by public opinion. He was deceived as to the strength of his army and its preparation.] [" The greatest national crime that w^e have had the pain of recording since the days of the first French revolution has been consummated. War is declared — an uiyust but premeditated war."— London Times, 16 July, 1871.] [For details of battles, see separate articles.] French army, about 300,000: Ist corps, under marshal MacMahon. 2d corps, under gen. Frossard. 3d corps, under marshal Bazaine. 4th corps, under gen. Ladmirault. 6th corps, under gen. de Failly. 6th corps, under marshal Canrobert. Imperial guard, under gen. Bourbaki. Commander-in-chief, the emperor; gen. le Boeuf, second; succeeded by marshal Bazaine. J*russian army, about 640,000: 1. Northern, under gen. Vogel von Falckenstein, about 220,- 000, defending the Elbe, Hanover, etc. 2. Right, under prince Frederick Charles, about 180,000. 8. Centre, under gens, von Bittenfeld and von Steinmetz, about 80.000. 4. Left, under crown-prince of Prussia, about 166,000. Commander-in-chief, king William; second, gen. von Moltke. north German army, Aug., contained: 1st, 550,000 line, with 1200 guns and 53,000 cavalry; 2d, 187,000 reserve, with 234 guns and 18,000 cavalry ; and 3d, 205,000 landwehr, or militia, with 10,000 cavalry ; in all 944,000 men, with 1680 mobilized guns and 193.000 horses. JLdd to these the Bavarians, 69,000 line, with 192 guns and 14,800 horses— 25,000 reserve with 2400 horses, and 22,000 landwehr; Wurtembergers— 22,000 line, with 54 guns and 6200 horses, 6500 reserve, and 6000 landwehr ; and Badenese —16,000 line, with 54 guns, 4000 reserve, and 9600 landwehr. Total of German troops, 1,124,000. Aug. " Four weeks sooner, on peace footmg, there were only 360,000. Both French and German soldiers were brave and efficient; but the French generals acted largely upon impulse. The Ger- mans had usually a well-matured plan, massing forces at crit- cal points. From Saarbriitk to Sedan, Moltke's plans were ably carried out. "Causes of the ruin of the French army were: " (1) superiority of the Germans in numbers; (2) unity of their command and concert of operation; (3) their superior mechanism in equip- ment and supplies; (4) superior intelligence, steadiness, and discipline of the soldiers; (5) superior education of the officers, and the dash and intelligence of the ca.va.lry.^^— Quarterly Review. Estimated cost of the war to France, 9,885,000,000 francs. .Jan. 1875 War resolved on by France, 15 July ; declaration delivered at Berlin 19 July, 1870 North German parliament meet at Berlin, and engage to sup- port Prussia in the war 19 July, " WQrtemberg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt declare war against France, and send forces 20 July, " War proclamation of emperor Napoleon 23 July, 1870 Part of bridge at Kehl blown up by Prussians " " Prodiimation of king promising, as results of the war, a durable peace and the liberty and unity of Germany 25 July, " Napoleon joins the army; at Metz assumes command and proclaims that the war will bo long and severe. .28, 29 July, " King of Prussia proclaims amnesty for political offences, 31 July, " French government announce that "they make war, not against Germany, but against Prussia, or rather against the policy of count Bismarck " 2 Aug. " French under Frossard bombard SaarbrQck ; emperor aud his sou present; Prussians dislodged, with little loss 2 Aug. " King leaves Berlin for the army, 1 Aug., and announces that "all Germany stands united in arms " 3 Aug. " Crown prince crosses the Lauter into France, and defeats Frossard, storming the lines of Wissembourg and Geisburg; gen. Douay killed 4 Aug. " Battle of Woerth; crown-prince defeats MacMahon's army of Rhino; they retire to Saverne to cover Nancy 6 Aug. " Battle of Forbach; SaarbrQck recaptured, and Forbach (in France) taken by gens, von GOben and von Steinmetz; the French retreat 6 Aug. " Germans occupy Forbach, Haguenau, and Saarguemines, 7 Aug. " Bazaine appointed to command at Metz (about 130,000 men); MacMahon has about 50,000 near Saverne; Canrobert about 50,000 near Nancy '. 8 Aug. " Bombardment of Strasburg begun 14 Aug. " Emperor retires to Verdun " " Bazaine defeated in several sanguinary battles before Metz: 1. Battle of Courcelles (Pange, or Longeville) by Von Stein- metz and the 1st army 14 Aug. " 2. Battle of Vionville, or Mars-la Tour, by prince Frederick Charles and the 2d army 16 Aug. " 3. Battle of Gravelotte by king's combined armies. . .18 Aug. " MacMahon reaches Chalons, 16 Aug.; joined by emperor; his army between 130,000 and 150,000 20 Aug. " MacMahon's army of the Rhine retreats; Prussians under king and crown-prince advance; prince Frederick Charles op- posed to Bazaine at Metz (German armies in France about 500,000; French armies about 300,000; communications be- tween Bazaine and MacMahon difficult).. . . about 20 Aug. " MacMahon at Rheims with shattered corps of Failly and Can- robert ; starts to join Bazaine, 23 Aug. ; crown - prince and prince of Saxony pursue, 23 Aug. ; march upon Chalons, 24 Aug. " Three armies of reserve formed in Germany, and a 4th army, under crown-prince of Saxony, to co-operate with crown- prince of Prussia against Paris 26 Aug. ** Two German armies (220,000) marching on Paris 28 Aug. " Continued retreat of MacMahon's army; severe fighting at Dun, Stenay, and Mouzon 28 Aug. " MacMahon, with about 150,000, and the emperor retreat northwards; part of army under De Failly, surprised and de- feated near Beaumont, between Mouzon and Moulins ; French beaten in several engagements during the day 30 Aug. " Germans enter Carignan; attack French in plain of Douzy; after a repulse, drive them to Sedan 31 Aug. " Bazaine striving to escape,driven back into Metz. 31 Aug.,1 Sept. " Battle round Sedan; began at 4 a.m. between Sedan and Douzy; French at first successful ; after a severe struggle Germans victorious; MacMahon wounded, 5.30 p.m. ; gen. de Wimpften refuses terms offered by king of Prussia 1 Sept. " Sedan and MacMahon's army capitulate; emperor surrenders to the king (Sedan) 2 Sept. " Revolution at Paris; republic proclaimed (France). .. .4 Sept. " Gen. Vinoy and a corps sent too late to aid MacMahon; retreat and arrive in Paris 6, 7 Sept. " Siege of Paris begun ; ingress and egress prohibited without a permit 15 Sept. " Three French divisions under gen. Vinoy attack Germans on heights of Sceaux; repulsed with loss of 7 guns and 2500 prisoners; defeat attributed to disorder of Zouaves; national guard behave well 19 Sept. " Bismarck consents to receive Jules Favre (about 16 Sept.); they meet at Chateau de la Haute Maison. 19 Sept. ; and at king's headquarters, Ferri^res, near Lagny 20 Sept. '* Versailles surrenders, 19 Sept. ; entered by crown-prince of Prussia 20 Sept. «« Jules Favre reports his interviews with Bismarck: Prussia de- mands cession of departments of upper and lower Rhine and part of Moselle, with Metz, Chateau Salins, and Soissons; would grant an armistice w^hile a French constituent assem- bly might meet; French to surrender Strasburg, Toul, and Verdun (or Phalsburg, according to Favre). and Mont Va- Idrien if assembly meet at Paris; terms rejected 21 Sept. " Gen. von Steinmetz sent to Posen as governor-general; prince Frederick Charles commands before Metz 21 Sept. " Levee en masse of men under 25 in France 23 Sept. '* Desperate ineffective sallies from Metz 23, 24, 27 Sept. " All departments of the Seine and Marne occupied by Germans, 26 Sept. «* Iron cross given by crown-prince of Prussia to more than 30 soldiers under statue of Louis XIV. at Versailles 26 Sept. " Capitulation of Strasburg, 27 Sept. ; formal surrender, 28 Sept. " Sortie of gen. Vinoy's army (at Paris) ; repulsed, after 2 hours' fighting — crown-prince present; above 200 prisoners taken; gen. Giulham killed 30 Sept. " Circular from Bismarck, disclaiming any intention of reducing France to a second-rate power 1 Oct. ** Gen. Burnside, U. S. A., visits M. Favre " *' FRA M Thiers's fruitless visit to Vienna, 23 Sept. ; to St. Petersburg, 27 Sept. ; dined with the czar 2 Oct. : II Fuvre, in the name of the diplomatic body, requests Bis- marck to give notice before bombarding Paris, and to allow a weekly courier; count declines both requests, but permits passage of open letters; reported 3 Oct. Battle of Thoury; van of gen. Reyan's army of Loire under gen. la Motte Rouge, defeats Germans between Chaussy and Thoury, and captures prisoners and cattle 5 Oct. M. Thiers's mission to foreign courts reported abortive. .6 Oct. Part of army of Lyons, under gen. Dupr^, defeated by Badenese under gen. von Gegenfeld near St. Remy; French loss about 1500, and 660 prisoners; German loss about 430 6 Oct. Gen. Buruside leaves Paris to meet Bismarck. 7 Oct. Gaspee's Point." On the same night, 9 June, 1772, 64 armed men boarded the boat, captured the crew, and burned the vessel. Although a large reward ($5000) was offered for the apprehen- sion of the leader, Abraham "Whipple, he was never betrayed. He was afterwards a commodore in the Continental navy. Oa§tein, a city of Salzburg, Austria. The long discus- sion between Austria and Prussia respecting the disposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark was closed by a provisional agreement signed here by their ministers (Blum for Austria and Bismarck for Prussia) 14 Aug. 1865. This agreement was censured by other powers and abrogated by war in 1866. Austria was to have the temporary government of Holstein, and Prussia that of Schleswig; the establishment of a Prussian fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a federal harbor, held by Prussia; Lau- enburg was absolutely ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a compensation 2,500,000 Danish dollars. Emperors of Austria and Germany met at Gastein, Aug. 1886. Oatlillg" gun, named after its inventor, a citizen of the United States, exhibited at Paris in 1867 ; designed to discharge at once a number of projectiles smaller than the shells of field guns ; it has as many locks as barrels. It was tried at Shoeburyness, Engl., and rejected as inferior to a field gun firing shrapnel. The gun has since been greatly improved, and is believed to be one of thebest arms of its class iij use. A powder for the Gatling, invented by M. Pertuiset, was tried in London, Aug. 1870. g[ailge§ (ga'-ges) (in railways). A discussion (termed " the battle of the gauges ") began in England among engineers about 1833. I. M. Brunei approved the broad gauge adopted on the Great Western railway ; R. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, and others, chose the narrow, now almost universal. A 2-foot gauge was recommended in Feb. 1870, as successful on the Festiniog railway, Wales, with B'airlie's engine. About 200 miles of the southwestern lines of the Great Western were al- tered from the broad to the narrow gauge in a few days, June, 1874. In the United States the broad (6 feet) gauge formerly used by the Erie, Grand Trunk, and other roads, has been abandoned. The southern railroads, originally 5 feet, and the Ohio railroads, originally 4 feet 10 inches, have conformed to the standard gauge of 4 feet 8J inches ; now in use throughout the country, except upon a few unimportant lines, where, for the sake of economj'-, very narrow gauges (3 feet, or 2 feet 6 inches) have been adopted. gauging, measuring the liquid contents of a barrel or other vessel, regulated in England by law, 27 Edw. III. 1352. Oaul and Oaul§. Gallia was the ancient name of France and Belgium. The Gauls (whom Greeks called TaXa- Tai ; Romans, Galli or Celtae) came from Asia, invading east- ern Europe; were driven westward, and settled in Spain (in Galicia), north Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), France, Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British isles (lands of the Cymry or Gaels). B.C. Phocseans found Massilia, now Marseilles 60O Galli Senones under Brennus defeat Romans at the river Allia; sack Rome; defeated and expelled by Camillus 13 July, 390 Again defeated 367 Gauls defeated by the Romans at Sentinum 295 Senones defeat Romans at Arretium ; nearly exterminated by Dolabella 283 Gauls overrun northern Greece, 280 b.c. ; beaten at Delphi, 279; and by Antigonus, king of Macedon 273 Gauls defeated with great slaughter near Pisa 225 Insubres overthrown by Marcellus; king Viridomarus slain.. 222 They assist Hannibal 218 et seq. Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220; invade Gallia Transal- pina, with varied success 121-58 They colonize Aix, 123 b.c. ; and Narbonne 118 Julius Caesar subdues Gaul in 8 campaigns 58-50 Lyons (Lugdunum) founded 41 A.D. Druids' religion proscribed by Claudius. 43 Adrian visits and favors Gaul ; called Restorer of the Gauls. . . 120 Introduction of Christianity 160- Christians persecuted 177, 202, 257, 286, 288 Franks and others defeated by Aurelian 241 By Probus, 275, 277 ; who introduces vine culture 280 Maximian defeats the Franks 281 Constantine proclaimed emperor of Gaul 306 Julian relieves Gaul, desolated by barbarians; defeats Alemanni at Strasburg 357 Julian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360 ; d 363 Gaul harassed by Alemanni 365-77 Invasion and settlement of Burgundians, Franks, Visigoths, etc 378-450 Clodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades Gaul; defeated by Agtius 447 Huns under Attila defeated by ABtius near Chalons 451 .(Egidius, Roman commander, murdered 464 Childeric the Frank takes Paris " All Gaul west of the Rhone ceded to Visigoths 475 End of Roman empire of the West; kingdom of the Franks begins (France) 476 GAU 319 GEO g'auntlet, an iron glove, introduced in the 13th cen- tury, perhaps about 1225; it was thrown down as a challenge to an adversary. g^auze (from Gaza, a city of Palestine, where first made), a fabric much prized among the Romans. "Brocades and damasks and tabbies and gauzes have been lately brought over" (to Ireland).— Z>ea« Swift, in 1698. The manufacture of gauze and articles of a light fabric at Paisley, in Scotland, began about 1759. g^aVCl-kind (derived from the Saxon gifeal cyn, " give all suitably;" or from gafolcynd, land yielding rent), a custom in Kent of dividing estates in land, the wife to have half, the rest equally among male children, 550. By Irish gavel-kind, even bastards inherited. — Davies. Not only a father's lands were equally divided among sons, but a brother's among breth- ren, if he had no issue. — Law Diet. Oaza, a city of Philistines, whose gates Samson car- ried off about 1 120 B.C. (Judg. xvi.). It was taken by Alex- ander after a long siege, 332 ; and near it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 b.c. It was taken by Saladin, 1170 A.D. ; by Bonaparte, Mch. 1799 ; and by Egyptians under Ibra- him Pacha, 1831. g^ems. The Greeks excelled in cutting precious stones, and many ancient specimens remain. The art was revived in Italy in the 15th century. In Feb. 1860, Herz's collection of gems was sold for $50,000. Rev. C. King's " Antique Gems " appeared in 1860, and his " Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems" in 1865. Dr. A. Billing's " Science of Gems," 1868. Artificial gems have been produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, Wohler, and others), 1858-65. Duke of Marlborough's collection, valued at 60,000^., sold by auction to Mr. Bromilow for 36,1501 28 June, 1875 Aaron's Brkastplate, Diamond, etc. g^enealog^y (Gr. yeveaXoyia — from yived, birth, de- ' scent, and \6yog, discourse). The earliest pedigrees are con- I tained in the 5th, 10th, and Uth chapters of Genesis. The 1 first book of Chronicles contains many genealogies. The pedi- ! gree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and Luke iii. There are I many books on the subject ; one was issued at Magdeburg, j "Theatrum Genealogicum," by Henninges, in 1598. Ander- I son, " Royal Genealogies," London, 1732. Sims's " Manual for i the Genealogist," etc., 1586, will be found a useful guide. The ■ works of Collins (1756 et seq.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Nico- '• las (1825 and 1857), on the British peerage, are highly esteemed. j The Genealogical Society, London, established in 1853. ' general§. Matthew de Montmorency was the first ! general of French armies, 1203.— fl'eMaw/^ Balzac says car- t dinal Richelieu coined the word generalissimo, on taking com- mand of the French armies in Italy, in 1629. Ulysses S. Grant became the first general of the array of the United States in 1866. Army, United States. g'eneration, in chronology, the interval between the birthofafatherand the birth of his child: 33 years on the aver- age. Harvey's thesis " Omne vivum ex ovo " (every living being 1 springs from an egg) has been disproved by the researches of Von Siebold and others. Spontaneous generation. Oene'va (Ger. Genf), a town of Allobroges, a Gallic tribe, 58 B.C. ; capital of the kingdom of Burgundy, 426 a.d. ; part i of the empire of Charlemagne, about 800. Pop. 1888, 71,807. ■ Republic founded 1512 Emancipated from Savoy 1526 Calvin settling here, Geneva was termed the " Rome of Cal- vinism " about 1536 Servetus was burned for heresy 27 Oct. 1553 Geneva allied to Swiss cantons 1584 Incorporated with France 26 Apr. 1798 Admitted to Swiss Confederation 30 Dec. 1813 Constitution made more democratic 1846 Revolution, Catholic cantons seeking to introduce Jesuit teach- ers; provisional government 7 Oct. 1848 [The scheme was withdrawn.] Alabama arbitration commission met; received cases and ad- journed to 15 June, 1872 18 Dec. 1871 Formal meeting of commission 15 June, 1872 Monsignor Mermillod nominated bishop of Geneva (in the dio- cese of bishop of Lausanne) and vicar apostolic; his arrest • proposed, 2 Feb. ; ordered to quit, or submit to civil govern- ment by 15 Feb. ; expelled 17 Feb. " Jix-duke of Brunswick dies here and bequeaths his vast prop- erty, above $3,820,000, to the city 18 Aug. 1873 Geneva convention. Red Cross. Oen'oa (It. Genova), the ancient Genua, N. Italy. Its inhabitants were Ligures, who submitted to Romans,'115 B.c. It partook of the revolutions of the Roman empire. Pop» 1881, 138,081. Genoa becomes a free commercial state about lOOO Frequent wars with Pisa 1070-1284 Frederick II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly besieges Genoa. . 1241 University founded 1243 Doria and Spinola families rule about 1270' Genoese destroy naval power of Pisa at Melora 6 Aug. 1284 Frequent wars with Venice 1218-32; 129:^99 Rafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola appointed captains 1335 Simon Boccanegra made first doge, 1339 ; set aside by the no- bles, 1344; reappointed 1356- Discord; many doges appointed 1394 Genoa under protection of France, 1396; of Naples, 1410; of Milan, 1419; losing and regaining freedom 1421-1512; Sacked by Spaniards and Italians under Prosper Colonna 1522 Andrew Doria deserts French service, and restores indepen- dence of his country 1528^ Genoa bombarded by French May, 1684 By British Sept. 1745 Taken by imperialists; soon expelled " 1746 Another siege raised 10 June, 1747 Celebrated bank failed 1750 Genoa made the Ligurian republic May, 1797 Blockaded by British fleet and Austrian army until starved; evacuated by capitulation, 5 June; but surrendered to French after victory at Marengo 14 June, 180O " Genoa annexed to French empire .. In the 5th century the Huns and other eastern tribes overran most of Germany. In the latter part of the 8th century, Charlemagne subdued the Saxons and other tribes, and was crowned em- peror at Rome, 25 Dec. 800. At the extinction of his family, 911, the empire became elective, and was held mostly by the Hapsburgs from 1437 till 1804. Germany was divided into circles. 1501-12. The Confederation of the Rhine was formed 12 July, 1806 ; Germanic Confederation, 8 June, 1815; North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 1866; the treaty ratified 8 Sept. 1866. Franco-Prussian war, 1870-71. The re-established empire of Germany (1 Jan. 1871) founded upon treaties concluded between the North German confederation and (1) the grand-duchies of Baden and Hesse, 16 Nov. 1870; (2) the kingdom of Havana, 23 Nov. 1870; (3) the kingdom of Wiirtemberg, 25 Nov. 1870 ; ratified, 29 Jan. 1871. William I., king of Prussia, was proclaimed emperor at Versailles, 18 Jan. 1871. Area 208,738 sq. miles; pop. in 1871 (including Alsace-Lorraine, acquired 1870), 41,069,846; 1881 , 45,194,172 ; 1890, 49,416,476. The parliament is elected by manhood suffrage and ballot. Army. Teutones, with Cymry, defeat Romans in Illyria 113 After varying success are defeated by Marius 102 Drusus invaded Germany 12-9 Battle of Teutoburg; Hermann, or Arminius, destroys Romans a.d. under Varus 9 Hermann assassinated 19 Franks invade Gaul 238 Great irruption of Germanic tribes into Gaul 450 et seq. Charlemagne subdues and Christianizes the Saxons 772-85 Crowned emperor of the West at Rome by the pope 25 Dec. 800 He adds a second head to the eagle, standard of the double empire of Rome and Germany 802 Louis (te Debonnaire) separates Germany from France 839-40 Germans under Arnulf take Rome 896 German princes assert independence, and Conrad I. of Fran- conia reigns 8 Nov. 911 [The electorate began about this time. Electors.] Reign of Henry I. (king), the Fowler; he vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians 918-34 Otho I. crowned emperor by the pope 962 Otho II. conquers Lorraine 978 Henry III. conquers Bohemia 1042 Contest between Henry IV. and pope Gregory VII. (Hilde- brand) 1075 Henry's humiliation at Canossa 1077 He takes Rome, 1084; Gregory dies in exile at Salerno 1085 Disputes with pope on ecclesiastical investitures 1073-1123 GuELPH and Ghibelline feuds begin 1140 Conrad III. leads a crusade; baffled by Greek treachery 1147 Frederick Barbarossa emperor, 1152; wars in Italy 1154-77 He destroys Milan 1162 Ruins Henry the Lion ( Bavaria) 1180 Is drowned during the crusade in Syria 10 June, 1190 Teutonic order of knighthood *' Hanseatic league established about 124& Rudolph, count of Hapsburg, chosen by electors 1273 Edict called the Golden Bull, by Charles IV 1356 Tyrol acquired 1363 Sigismund, king of Bohemia, elected. He betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who are burned alive (Bohemia). . .1414-16 Sigismund deposed; Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds 1437 Pragmatic sanction settles the empire in house of Hapsburg. .. 1439 Peasants' wars 1502, 1514, 1524 Era of Reformation (Lutheranism) 1517 Luther excommunicated by diet at Worms 17 Apr. 1521 German Bible and liturgy published by Luther 1522-46 War with pope— the Germans storm Rome 1527 Diet at Spires; Protestants condemned 13 Mch. 1529 Confession of Augsburg pub 25 Jan. 1530 Protestant league of Smalcald 31 Dec. 1531 Anabaptists seize MQnster, 24 June, 1535; defeated, and John of Leyden slain 1536 Death o'f Luther 18 Feb. 1546 War with Protestants 26 June, " Who are helped by Henry II. of France— Peace of Religion at Passau 31 July, 1552 Abdication of Charles V. announced 25 Oct. 1555 Hungary joined to empire .' . 1570 Thirty Years' war begins between Evangelic union under elector-palatine, and Catholic league under duke of Bavaria. . 1618 Battle of Prague, which ruined the elector palatine 8 Nov. 1620 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany June, 1630 Gustavus Adolphus, victor, killed at Lutzen 16 Nov. 1632 Treason of Wallenstein ; he is assassinated 25 Feb. 1634 End of Thirty Years' war; treaty of Westphalia, establishing religious toleration 24 Oct. 1648 War with France 1674 John Sobieski, king of Poland, after defeating the Turks, obliges them to raise the siege of Vienna 12 Sept. 1683 Peace of Ryswick (with France) 20 Sept. 1697 Peace of Carlowitz (with the Turks) 26 Jan. 169^ War with France, etc., 6 Oct. 1702; Marlborough's victory at Blenheim 13 Aug. 1704 Peace of Utrecht 11 Apr. 1713 Pragmatic Sanction 1722 Francis I., duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress of Austria, Maria Theresa (1736); she succeeds her father, and becomes queen of Hungary 20 Oct. 1740- Elector of Bavaria elected as Charles VII 22 Jan. 1742 Dies 20 Jan. ; Francis I., duke of Lorraine, elected 15 Sept. 1745- Seven Years' war between Austria and Prussia and their allies begins Aug. 1756; ends with peace of Hubertsburg. . . 15 Feb. 1765- Lorraine ceded to France 1766- Joseph II. extends his realm by partition of Poland, 1772; civil reforms and liberal changes 1782. War with Turkey 1788 Victory of Austrians and Russians at Rimnik 22 Sept. 1789^ J. G. Basedow, educational reformer, d ; 25 July, 1790 Rhenish provinces revolt 1793 Francis I. joins in 2d partition of Poland 1795^ In wars with France loses Netherlands, all territories west of the Rhine, and states in Italy 1793-1S03 Territory ceded to France by treaty of Luneville 9 Feb. 1 -i(>l Francis II. resigns the imperial crown of Germany (Austria), 11 Aug. 1804 Napoleon establishes kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, 1805; of Westphalia, 1807; German empire dissolved, con- federation of Rhine formed 12 July, 1S06 North Germany annexed to France 13 Dec. 181U-11 Commencement of war of independence; order of the Iron Cross instituted Mch. 1813 Defeat of French at Leipsic 16-19 Oct. •' Congress of Vienna 1 Nov. 1814 and 25 May, 1H15 N Germanic Confederation formed.. 8 June, ' KoLLVEREiN formcd 1H18 " Society for Promoting Kmmledge of Ancient German His- ~ tory "'founded by Stein 1819 A German scientific association formed, " Naturforscher-Ver- ein " Sept. 1822 General depression in trade 1824 Death of J. H. Voss, poet, etc 29 Mch. 1826 Revolution at Brunswick (flight of the duke) 7 Sept. 1830' In Saxony (abdication of the king) 13 Sept. " Death of Goethe, poet, novelist, pbilosopher 22 Mch. 1832. Becker's song, the free German Rhine; and Alfred de Mussel's song, " Le Rhin Allemand," appear 1841 Excitement about Ronge, Catholic reformer, and the holy coat of Treves 1844 Insurrection at Vienna and throughout Germanv (Austria, Hungary, etc.) 1848 Revolt in Schleswig and Holstein (Denmark) Mch. " King of Prussia makes proclamation as an agitator for recon- solidation of the German empire 27 Mch. " National Assembly meets at Frankfort-on-the-Main 18 May, " Archduke John of Austria elected vicar of the empire.. 12 July, " National Assembly elects the king of Prussia emperor, 28 Mch. ; he declines 3 Apr. 1849^ Recalls the Prussian members of assembly 14 May, " Frankfort assembly adjourns to Stuttgart 30 May, " Treaty of Vienna; Austria and Prussia agree to form a new central power for a limited time; appeal to be made to gov- ernments of Germany 30 Sept. '* Austria protests against alliance of Prussia with smaller Ger- man states 12 Nov. . " Treaty of Munich; Bavaria, Saxony, and WQrtemberg to revise German Confederation *. 27 Feb. 1850 Parliament at Erfurt Mch. " King of Wiirtemberg denounces insidious ambition of king of Prussia 15 Mch. " German diet at Frankfort 10 May, " Hesse-Cassel not represented at Erfurt, 7 June; Hesse- Darm- stadt withdraws from Prussian league 20 June, " Austria calls an assembly of German Confederation, 19 July; it meets at Frankfort 2 Sept. " Austrian, Bavarian, and Prussian forces enter Hessk-Cassel, 12 Nov. " Conferences at Dresden 23 Dec. 1850, to 15 May, 1851 Max Schneckenburger, author of " Die Wacht am Rhein," d.. " Diet of Germanic Confederation renewed at Frankfort, 30 May, " New liberal party meet in Eisenach, Saxe- Weimar, 17 July; in 7 resolutions recommend reform of federal constitution; diet replaced by a strong central government; a national assembly summoned; Prussia invited to take the initiative — 14 Aug. 1859' Proposal not accepted by Prussia, opposed by Hanover. ...Sept. " Dispute with Denmark on Holstein and Schleswig Nov. I860' National association at Berlin recommends a federal govern- ment with central executive, under leadership of Prussia, 13 Mch. 1862 Meetings of plenipotentiaries from German states on federal reform 8 July-10 Aug. " Deputies from German states at Weimar declare that Germany should form one federal state 28, 29 Sept. " Deputies declare in favor of unity 21 Aug. 1863- Emperor of Austria invites German sovereigns to congress at Frankfort, 31 July; king of Prussia declines, 4 Aug. ; nearly all the sovereigns meet, 16, 17 Aug. ; approve Austrian plan of federal reform, 1 Sept. ; rejected by Prussia 22 Sept. " Diet determines on federal execution in Holstein if Denmark does not fulfil her obligations 1 Oct. " Fiftieth anniversary of the battle of Leipsic celebrated.. 18 Oct. "^ 1864 1865 1867 1870 GER 329 •German troops enter Holstein for "federal execution" (Den- mark) 23 Dec. Death of Maximilian II. of Bavaria 10 Mch. Prussia retains duchies; discussion between Austria and Prus- sia; diet adopts resolution of Bavaria and Saxony, requesting Austria and Prussia to give Holstein to duke of Augusten- burg; rejected 6 Apr. Austria declares that Prussia has broken treaty by invading Holstein, llJune; diet approves by 9 votes; Prussian repre- sentative declares Germanic Confederation at an end and pro- poses a new one, excluding Austria 14 June, IPrussians enter Saxony; war begins 15 June, Diet determines for war, 16 June; proclaims prince Charles of Bavaria general of confederation 27 June, [For the war, etc., Prussia; German confederation, North.] Alliance of Prussia and northern states; ratified 8 Sept. •Disputes betweei* diet and Austria and Prussia on Schleswig- Holstein Oct. and Nov. Xuxemburg evacuated by Prussian garrison 9 Sept. Inauguration of Luther monument at Worms by king of Prus- sia 'io June, 'Count Arnim, German representative at Rome, protests against papal infallibility May, Oount Bismarck, announcing declaration of war by France, terms it groundless and presumptuous 19 July, Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Baden support Prussia in war 20 July, Jlunich, Stuttgart, and other cities declare for union with North Germany about 6 Sept. Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt join North German confederation by treaty, about 15 Nov. ; Bavaria, 23 Nov. ; and Wurtem- berg, 25 Nov. ; retaining certain military and diplomatic powers Nov. King of Bavaria, in a letter to king of Saxony, nominates king \ of Prussia for emperor of Germany about 4 Dec. Parliament in an address requests king to become emperor (votes for, 188 ; against, 6) 10 Dec. .Address solemnly presented to king in an assembly of princes by dr. Simson 18 Dec. •German empire restored, 1 Jan. ; William I. of Prussia pro- claimed emperor at Versailles 18 Jan. 1871_ , Preliminaries of peace signed at Versailles 26 Feb. First Reichstag, or imperial council, opened at Berlin by the emperor 21 Mch. New constitution of empire comes into force 4 May, Chancery of empire; prince Bismarck chancellor 12 May, Treaty of peace ratified 16 May, Dr. DOIlinger of Munich excommunicated for opposing dogma of papal infallibility, 18 Apr. ; made D.C.L. of Oxford. .June, Ultramontane agitation against government ; excitement among Polish Romanists; Bismarck carries school-inspection bill agaiust Roman clergy Mch. Bill for expulsion of Jesuits passed in Parliament (131-93) session ends 19 June; the law pub 5 July, Last payment of French war indemnity 5 Sept. Count Harry Arnim, formerly ambassador at Rome and Paris, arrested and imprisoned in Berlin, ostensibly for detaining official papers, 4 Oct. ; released on bail 28 Oct. Bismarck resigns after an adverse vote in the Parliament, 16 Dec. ; on a vote of confidence (199-71) remains 18 Dec. Civil-marriage bill passed 25 Jan. Bismarck resigns again, 3 Apr. ; withdrawn 8 Apr. Attempted assassination of emperor by HOdel, 11 May; strin- gent bill to repress socialism introduced and rejected (251-57), 24, 25 May, Emperor fired at and wounded by prof. Karl Eduard Nobiling, a socialist, at Berlin 2 June, •Crown-prince charged with public affairs 4, 5 June, Emil Heinrich Max HOdel condemned 10 July, JHOdel executed at Berlin 16 Aug. Dr. Nobiling dies of self-inflicted wounds 10 Sept. Bismarck's resignation tendered, not accepted by the emperor; the states yield Apr. Ifew army bill passed (186-96) 9 Apr. Imperial rescript against parliamentary government pub. , 7 Jan. Death of prince Charles, emperor's brother 21 Jan. June, 1888. " William II., eldest son of Frederick William; b. 27 Jan. 1859;, married princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg- Augustenburg (b. 22 Oct. 1858) 27 Feb. 1881. Heir: Frederick William Victor August Ernest; b. 6 May, 1882. Prussia. gerrymander, an unfair division of a community into representative districts in the interest of a political party. The term originated in Massachusetts in 1812, when the Dem- ocratic-Republicans, to secure the United States senator, framed the senatorial districts so as to control most of them. The ap- portionment was approved by Rlbridge Gerry, then governor. A district was formed which was thought to resemble on the map a salamander, but the Federalists called it "gerrymander,"' from the governor's name. The word is now in common use. " Oesta Romanorum," a collection of popular tales from Oriental and classical sources, written in Latin by an unknown author, about 1350 a.d. One of the first books printed in the 15th century. These tales were largely used by early English poets and dramatists, including Shakespeare. An English translation, by the rev. C. Swan (from an edition printed at Hagenau, 1508), appeared 1824. Oettysburg, Pa., Battle of, fought 1-3 July, 18G3. After the confederate victory at Chancellorsville the South called on Lee to invade the northern states. As early as May Lee's movements foreshadowed such an invasion. Early in June his army concentrated at Culpeper, except A. P. Hill's division, which was at Fredericksburg. At the middle of June the movement fairly commenced, with full 100,000 men. On 12 June, Hooker began to fall back from the Rappahan- nock to cover Washington. Lee advanced, and on 15 June dispersed Milroy's force at Winchester (7000 strong), captur- ing 2300 prisoners. He then crossed the Potomac (24,25 June), and advanced to Chambersburg. Hooker also crossed on 26 June, and the next day was relieved by gen. Meade. Lee, in the meantime, was pushing on into Pennsylvania. The federal array moved in a parallel direction east of the Blue Ridge. Lee was in advance, and threatened Harrisburg. As in the former invasion (1862), the passes of South mountain afforded access to the confederate rear. Meade took advantage of them, and (28 June) Lee saw that he must halt and stake the campaign upon a battle. The time and place of battle were not selected by either side, but determined by accident and the physical character of the country. Lee concentrated his army at Gettysburg, whither Ewell marched southwardly from Carlisle, and Longstreet and Hill eastwardly from Cham- bersburg. Meade's right (30 June) was near Gettysburg, and gen. Pleasanton, perceiving the importance of that place, ad- vanced and occupied it— anticipating the confederates. On 1 July there was a collision, in which gen. Reynolds was killed ; but, after losing 10,000 men, the federal forces still held a position which was the key of the field of operations. On 2 July (both armies being well up and in position) there was a second battle, with heavy loss on both sides. Sickles was driven from a position of no great importance. At night the Union forces still held Cemetery hill from Gulp's hill to Round Top. On 3 July, after a bombardment of Cemetery hill from Seminary ridge, Lee again assaulted. The assaulting column, under Pickett and Heth, numbered 18,000- It was. almost annihilated. After this decisive repulse Lee retreated (Sunday, 5 July). His army might have been utterly de- moralized and dispersed by prompt and relentless pursuit. The forces were about equal at Gettysburg, each numbering from 70,000 to 80,000 infantry and artillerj'. The federal loss wa» 23,190, of whom nearly 7000 were missing. The confederate loss was about 36,000, of whom 13,733, wounded or unwounded, remained as prisoners. Lee's entire loss, from commencement to close of the invasion, was nearly 60,000 men.— On 19 Nov. 1863, the battlcrground was consecrated as a national ceme- tery for soldiers who fell in the July battles. It was on this occasion that president Lincoln made the most famous of his speeches. Cemeteries, United States. 1 GHE 331 GLA Ohent igant), Belgium, an ancient city, built about the 7th century, during the middle ages became very rich. John, 3d son of Edward III. of England, is said to have been born here in 1340 (hence named John of Gaunt) during the revolt under Jacob van Artevelde, a brewer, whose son Philip re- vived the insurrection against Louis, count of Flanders, 1379- 1382. Pop. 1891, 153,740. Ghent rebelled against Philip of Burgundy, 1451; against the em- peror Charles V., 1539; severely punished, 1510. "Pacification of Ghent" (when the north and south provinces of the Netherlands united against Spain) proclaimed 8 Nov. 1576; broken up, 1579. The 300th anniversary celebrated 3-10 Sept. 1876. Ghent taken by Louis XIV. of France, 9 Mch. 1678 ; and by the duke of Marlborough, 1706. Ghent seized by French, 1793; annexed to Netherlands, 1814; made part of Belgium, 1830. Peace of Ghent, between Great Britain and U. S., signed 24 Dec. 1814. Ohibellines. Guelphs. g^llO§tS, produced by optical science. Mr. Dircks de- scribed his method at the British Association meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor produced ghosts scientifically in Mch. ; and Mr. Pepper exhibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytech- nic Institution, London, July, 1863. Cock-lane ghost. giants are mentioned in Gen. vi. 4. Bones of reputed giants, 17, 18, 20, and 30 ft. high, have been proved to be re- mains of animals. — The battle of Marignano (1515) has been termed " battle of the giants." Dwarfs. Og, king of Bashan, of the remnant of the giants: his bedstead was 9 cubits long (about 16><^ ft. ). 1451 B.C. (Deut. iii. 11). Goliath of Gath's "height was 6 cubits and a span." Killed by David about 1063 b.c. (1 Sam. xvii. 4). Four giants, sons of Goliath, killed (2 Sam. xxi. 15-22) about 1018. Emperor Maximin (235 a.d.) was 8>^ ft. in height, and of great bulk. Some say between 7 and 8 ft. ; others above 8. "The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara, who in the days of Claudius, the late emperor, was brought out of Arabia. He was 9 ft. 9 in. high. "— P/iny. John Middleton (b. 1578), commonly called the Child of Hale (Lan- cashire), whose hand, from the carpus to the end of his middle finger, was 17 in. long; his palm %% in. broad; his whole height 9 ft. 3 m.—Plot, "Nat. Hist, of Staffordshire," p. 295. Patrick Cotter, Irish giant, b. in 1761, was 8 ft. 7 in. in height; his hand, to the extremity of the middle finger, measured 12 in., and his shoe was 17 in. long; d. Sept. 1806. Charles Byrne, called O'Brien, 8 ft. 4 in. high; d. 1783; his skeleton is in the museum, Royal College of Surgeons, England. Big Sam, porter of prince of Wales at Carlton palace, near 8 ft. high, performed as a giant in "Cymon," at the Opera house, London, 1809. M. Brice, a native of the Vosges, 7 ft. 6 in. high, exhibited himself in London, Sept. 1862, and Nov, 1863. Robert Hales, the Norfolk giant, d. at Great Yarmouth, 22 Nov. 1863 (aged 43). He was 7 ft. 6 in. high, and weighed 452 lbs. Chang- Woo-Gow, a Chinese, aged 19, 7 ft. 8 in. high, exhibited him- self in London in Sept. et seq., 1865. Grown to 8 ft., exhibited at Westminster aquarium; with him Brustav, a Norwegian, 7 ft. 9 in., aged 35, llJune, 1880. Capt. Martin Van Buren Bates, of Kentucky, and miss Ann Hanen Swann, of Nova Scotia, each about 7 ft. high; exhibited in Lon- don, in May; married at St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, 17 June, 1871. Marian, "the Amazon queen," 8 ft. 2 in. high, born in Thuringia, 21 Jan. 1866; exhibited in London, July, 1882. giaour (jowr), Turkish for infidel, an unbeliever in Mahometanism.— Byron's poem, "The Giaour," was pub. in 1813. Oibral'tar. The ancient Calpe (with Abyla, on the opposite shore of Africa, called the Pillars of Hercules), a town and strongly fortified rock in S. Spain, at the entrance of the Mediterranean, belonging to Great Britain and considered im- pregnable. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English ft. It was taken by the Saracens under Tarik, whence its present name (derived from Gibel el-Tarik), in 711. Area of town, 1^ sq. miles; pop. 1891, 25,755, including a garrison of 6737. Taken from the Moors, 1309; surrendered to them, 1333; taken from them by Henry IV. of Castile, 1462; strengthened by Charles V 1552 Attacked by British under sir George Rooke, the prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byng, 21 July ; taken 24 July, 1704 Besieged by Spanish and French; they lose 10,000 men; the victorious British but 400 11 Oct. " Sir John Leake captured several ships, and raised the siege, 10 Mch. 1705 Ceded to England by treaty of Utrecht 11 Apr. 1713 Spaniards repulsed in an attack with great loss 1720 They again attack with 20,000 men, and lose 5000; British loss, 300 22 Feb. 1727 Siege by Spaniards and French, whose armaments (the great- est brought against a fortress) were overthrown 16 July, 1779 In one night their floating batteries were destroyed with red- hot balls, and their line of works by a sortie of gen. Eliott; the enemy's loss in munitions of war was estimated at 2,000,OOOZ. ; the army was 40,000 men 27 Nov. 1781 Grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British 13 Sept. 1782 [Duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were brought against the fortress; besides 47 sail of the line, all 3-deckers; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 212 guns; in- numerable frigates, xebecs, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats; small craft for disembarking forces cov- ered the bay. For weeks 6000 shells were daily thrown into the town.] Blockade ceased 5 Feb. 1783 Royal battery destroyed by fire Nov. 1800 Engagement between French and English fleets in the bay; British ship Hannibal, 74 guns, lost 6 July, 1801 Royal Carlos and St. Hermenigildo, Spanish ships, each of 112 guns, blew up, with crews, at night-time, in the strait; all on board perished 12 July, " Oll'bertines, an order of canons and nuns established at Sempringham, Lincolnshire, Engl., by-Gilbert of that place, 1131-48. At the dissolution by Henry VIII. there were 25 houses of the order in England and Wales. gildings on wood formed part of decorations of the Jew- ish tabernacle, 1490 b.c. (Exod. xxv. 11); was practised at Rome about 145 b.c. The capitol was the first building thus adorned. — Pliny. Of gold-leaf for gilding, the Romans made but 750 leaves, 4 fingers square, out of an ounce. — Pliny, Gild- ing with leaf gold on bole ammoniac was first introduced by Margaritone in 1273. gill, ardent spirit, made from bigg, a kind of barley, and from rye, flavored with the essential oil of the juniper berry. gin (contracted from engine), a machine for separating cotton-wool from the seed. Cotton-gin. ^ginger, the root of the Amomum zinziber, a native of India and China, now cultivated in the West Indies. gillgliam (Jav. ginggang), a woven cotton fabric, the yarn colored before weaving. Its manufacture introduced into England from the East about the middle of the 18th century. Largely used in the United States and the West Indies. First manufactured in the U. S. at Clinton, Mass., by Erastus Bige- low, 1846. giraffe' or camd'opard, a quadruped of interior Africa ; known to the ancients. In 1827 one was brought to England first, as a present to George IV. It died in 1829. On 25 May, 1835, 4 giraffes, obtained by M. Thibaut, were in- troduced into the Zoological gardens, Regent's park, London, where a young one was born in 1839. The bones of the leg differ from those of other ruminants in being solid. Oirard college. Colleges, Education. Oirgen'ti. Agrigentum. Oiron'diitS, a party during the French revolution, led by deputies from the Gironde. They were ardent republicans, but after the cruelties of Aug. and Sept. 1792, failed to restrain the cruelties of Robespierre and the Mountain party ; and the leaders, Brissot, Vergniaud, and others, were guillotined 31 Oct. 1793. Lamartine's " Histoire des Girondins," pub. 1847, hastened the revolution of 1848. French revolution. (jrirtOIl college, Cambridge, Engl., for the higher education of women. It began at Hitchin, 1869; removed here, and was opened Oct. 1873. Newnham college, Cam- bridge, in connection with it, was opened 18 Oct. 1876. Miss Charlotte Angas Scott, aged about 22, attained the posi- tion of "wrangler" (for mathematics) Jan. 1880 Miss A. F. Ramsay of this college, senior, and alone in first division of classical tripos at Cambridge 18 June, 1887 Oi§ors (zhee-zor'), France, Battle of, on 20 Sept. or 10 Oct. 1198, when Richard I. of England defeated the French. His parole for the day, "Dieu et mon droit" ("God and my right "), afterwards became the motto of the arms of England. gladiators were originally malefactors who fought for their lives, or captives who fought for freedom. They were first exhibited at the funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 263 B.C., and afterwards at festivals, about 215 b.c. Their revolt under Spartacus, 73 b.c., was quelled by Crassus, 71. When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 10,000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his triumph, for 123 days, 103 a.d.— GLA 2 Anthon, These combats were suppressed in the East by Con- stantine the Great, 325, and in the West by Theodoric in 500. In these gladiatorial combats, the spectators decided the fate of the vanquished, and indicated their will by pointing the thumb at the desired victim (pollice verso), or by shutting it down upon the hand (^pollice presso) as as sign of mercy. Oladitone'§ adininl§tration§. (1st) 9 Dec. 1868-20 Feb. 1874; (2d) 28 Apr. 1880-9 June, 1885; (3d) 26 Feb. 1886-20 July, 1886 ; (4th) 18 Aug. 1892-4 March, 1894. Administrations. William Ewart Gladstone, born 29 Dec. 1809 ; master of the mint, Sept. 1841 ; president of the board of trade. May, 1843-Feb. 1845 ; secretarj' for colonies, Dec. 1845- July, 1846 ; chancellor of the exchequer, Jan. 1853-Feb. 1855, June, 1859-June, 1866; lord high commissioner extraordinary to the Ionian isles, Nov. 1858 ; M.P. for Newark, 18 Dec. 1832- 46; for Oxford, 1847-65 ; for South Lancashire, 1865-68; for Greenwich, Nov. 1868 ; announced the dissolution of Parlia- ment, 23 Jan. 1874 ; resigned, 17 Feb. 1874 ; temporarily re- signed leadership of liberal party, 13 Jan. 1875 ; elected M.P. for Mid-Lothian (1579-1368), 5 Apr. 1880; his ministry re- signed on account of minoritj' on the budget bill (264-252), 9 June, 1885; he declined an earldom, 16 June, 1885. Among measures carried by Gladstone ministries are : The Irish Church Disestablishment act, the Irish Land act of 1870 ; the Education act, the Ballot act, the Irish Land Law act of 1881 ; the Em- ployers' Liability act, the Agricultural Holdings act, the Buri- als act, the Ground Game act, the Franchise act. He intro- duced his Irish bill, 8 Apr. 1886, rejected (343-313), 7-8 June; minority in general election ; resigned, 20 July, 1886 ; opposed the government crimes bill unsuccessfully, Feb.-July, 1887; received silver trophy presented to him by Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World, the result of subscriptions, etc., 9 July, 1887. The term " grand old man " is said to have been first applied to Mr. Gladstone by Henry Labouchere, M.P., about Apr. 1881, and soon generally adopted, England, 1893. 01a§'|rOW', Lanarkshire, the largest city in Scotland, grew rapidly after the union in 1707, obtaining some of the American trade. Pop. 1707 about 12,000 ; in 1861, 394,857 ; in 1871,477,144; in 1891, with suburbs, 792,728. Cathedral or high church, dedicated to St. Kentigern, or Mungo, began about 1181 Erected into a burgh..-. 1190 Charter was obtained from James II 1451 University founded by bishop Turn bull about ' ' Made a royal burgh by James VI 1611 Olasites in Scotland and jSandemaniailS in Eng- land. In 1727, John Glas, a minister of the church of Scot- land, published " The Testimony of the King of Martyrs con- cerning his Kingdom (John xviii. 36)," opposing national churches, and describing the original constitution of the church, its doctrines, ordinances, officers, and discipline, as in the New Testament. Having been deposed in 1728, he and others formed several churches upon the primitive models. A series of letters on Hervey's " Theron and Aspasio," published by Robert Sandeman, in 1755, gave rise to churches in Lon- don and other places in England, and also in North America. The meeting-house at Barnsburv, London, N., was erected in 1862. g[la§8. The Egyptians are said to have been taught glass-making by Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. — Pliny. Glass-houses were erected in Tyre. Glass was used by Romans in the time of Tiberius ; and the ruins of Pompeii show windows of glass used before 79. Glass is said to have been brought to England by Benedict Bis- cop, abbot of Wearmouth 676 Glass-manufacture established in England at Crutched-friars and in the Savoy.— 5tow 1557 Chemical discoveries have greatly improved the manufacture in this century. Faraday published researches on the man- ufacture of glass for optical purposes 1830 Glass-painting w^s known to the ancient Egyptians. It was revived about the 10th century, and is described in the trea- tise by the monk Theophilus; was practised at Marseilles in a beautiful style, about 1500; most perfect about 1530. Specimens of the 13th century exist in England; C. Winston's work is the best on the subject, 1846 ; new edition 1867 "Marvels of Glass-making in AH Ages," A. de Sanzay; Engl. transl 1870 Glass-plate, for coach-windows, mirrors, etc., made at I.ambeth by Venetian artists, under patronage of Villiers, duke of Buck- ingham 1673 Manufacture was improved by French, who made large plates ; 2 GLO and in Lancashire, when the British Plate-glass company was established 1773 Manufacture of British sheet -glass introduced by Messrs. Chance of Birmingham about 1832 Tempered or toughened glass : M. De la Bastie's process (plung- ing heated glass into a hot bath of oleaginous or alkaline compounds) announced Apr. 1875; largely manufactured in France, and sold cheap in London 1876 Oldest bottle-glass manufactory in the U. S. established at Glassboro, N. J : 1775 Cut-glass manufactory established at White's Mill, Wayne county, Pa 1852 Largest plate-glass manufactory at New Albany. Ind. Frederick Siemens described his process for producing strong homogeneous tempered glass at the British Society of Arts, 26 Feb. 1885 Application of glass for rails proposed by H. Lindsay- Bucknall, and for railway sleepers proposed by F. Siemens 1885-86 [This glass asserted to be much stronger than iron.] 01a§tOIll>liry, a market-town of Somerset, Engl., said to have been the residence of Joseph of Ariraathea, and the site of the first Christian church in Britain, about 60. "... From our old books I know That Joseph came of old to Glastonbury. - And there he built with wattles from the marsh i A little lonely church in days of yore." —Tenni/sow, "The Holy Grail." i Traditional burial-place of king Arthur, about 544. A church was built here by Ina about 708. The town and abbey were burned, 1184, and an earthquake did great damage in 1275. Richard Whiting, the last abbot, who had 100 monks and 400 domestics, was hanged on Tor hill in his pontificals for refus- ing the oath of supremacy to Henry VIII., 14 Nov. 1539. The monastery was suppressed 1540. g^lee, a piece of unaccompanied vocal music, in at least 3 parts, first composed early in the 18th century. Eminent com- posers, Samuel Webbe (1740-1816), Stevens, Callcott, Horsley, Danby, Paxton, lord Mornington, Spofforth, etc. Music. Olencoe massacre of the Macdonalds, a Jacobite clan, of Scotland, for not surrendering before 1 Jan. 1692, the time stated in king William's proclamation. Sir John Dal- rymple, master (afterwards earl) of Stair, their enemy, obtained a decree " to extirpate that set of thieves," which the king is said to have signed without perusing. Every man under 70 was to be slain. This mandate was treacherously executed by 120 soldiers of a Campbell regiment, hospitably received by the Highlanders, 13 Feb. 1692. About 60 men were slain, and many women and children, turned out naked in a freezing night, perished. This excited great indignation, and an in- quiry was set on foot. May, 1695, but no capital punishment followed. The account of this massacre, as given by Macaulay in his history, is highly colored. Olenclale, Battle of. Peninsular campaign. globe or earth. The globular form of the earth, the 5 zones, some of the principal circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true causes of lunar eclipses were taught, and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 b.c. Pythagoras argued, from the varying altitudes of the stars by change of place, that the earth must be round; that there might be antipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning and evening star ; that the universe consisted of 12 spheres^ — those of the earth, water, air, fire, the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the stars — about 506 b.c. — Aristarchus of Samos's theory that the earth turned on its own axis and revolved about the sun seemed to his contemporaries so absurd that the philosopher nearly lost his life, 280 B.C. It revolves around the sun at a speed of over 68,000 miles an hour, in 365 d. 6 h. 9 m. 9.6 s. ; this is termed the sidereal year. The mean solar year is somewhat less, being 365 d. 5 h. 48 ra. 46.7 s. It revolves on its axis once in 23 h, 56 m. 4.1 s. mean solar time; equivalent to 24 h. Si- dereal TIME.. Its axis, which is inclined 23° 27' from a perpendicular to the ecliptic (so called because solar and lunar eclipses can only take place when the moon is' very near this plane), continually points in the same direction, thus causing the change of seasons and difference in length of day and night. Eccentricity of its orbit around the sun, 0.01679. Greatest distance from the sun (aphelion, about 8 July), 94,- 450,000 miles; nearest (perhelion, about 81 Dec), 91,330,000 miles ; mean distance, 92,890,000 miles. Eclipse, Equinox, Latitude, Longitude, Planets, Stars, Sun, Year, etc. GLO ^ Copernicus, explaining the movement of the earth and planets around the sun, laid the foundation of modern astronomy. . . 1543 To determine the figure of the earth, degrees of latitude have frequently been measured: by Bouguer and La Condamine, in Peru, and by Maupertuis and others in Lapland 1735 In France and Spain by Mechain, Delambre, Biot, and Arago between 1792 and 1821 In India by col. (afterwards sir George) Everest, pub 1830 Measurements made on a meridian by astronomical observa- tions, at points connected by telegraph; at Calais, Me., and Nantucket, Mass., by the U. S. Coast Survey 1866-67 The following table, from " Guillemin's Astronomy," edited by J. Norman Lockyer, and revised by Richard A. Proctor, shows the length of arcs, measured in the northern hemisphere, at gradually increasing latitudes : .T , . r Length of Place. Mean lat. of arc. deg. in ft. India 12° 32' 20" 362,956 " 16° 8' 21" 363,044 America 39° 12' 0" 363,786 Italy 42° 59' 0" 364,262 France 44° 51' 2" 364,572 England 52° 2' 19" 364,951 Denmark 54° 8' 14" 365,087 Russia 56° 3' 55" 366,291 Sweden 66° 20' 10" 365,744 Equatorial diameter 41,848,380 feet=7925.83-|- miles. Polar " 41,708,710 " =z: 78&9.40+ " Difference 139,670 " =26.43+ " Recent geodesists show that the equatorial diameter from Ion. 14° 23' east to 194° 23' east of Greenwich is 2 miles longer than that at right angles to it.— Mem. Roy. Ast. Soc, vol. xxix. 1860. Surface of the earth contains about 196,626,000 sq. miles, of which over three quarters is water. Experiments by pendulums to demonstrate the earth's rotation by Foucault in 1851, and to determine its density by Maskelyne, Bailly, and others; and in 1826, 1828, and 1854 by Mr. (afterwards sir) G. B. Airy, the astronomer- royal. Estimated density, 5.6 times that of water; weight, 6,000,000,000,- 000,000,000.000 tons.— Procter, 1875. [This does not include the air, which weighs 5,178,000,000,000,000 tons.] Artificial globes. It is said that a celestial globe was brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 b.c., and that Archimedes constructed a planetarium about 212 b.c. Earliest preserved globe, in the Biblioth§que Nationale de Paris, is of copper, engraved in Arabic-Cuflc characters of the 11th century. Earliest post-Columbian globe extant is in the Lenox library of New York city ; supposed 1506-7 [Copper, 4>^ inches in diameter and engraved.] That of Johann SchOner of Bamberg, showing North and South America as large islands (now at Nuremberg) 1520 Illustrious Gerard Mercator constructed and published a ter- restrial globe at Louvain in 1541, and a celestial globe 1551 [These were the most celebrated globes of the 16th century. Of many published, only 2 sets are now known, one in the royal library at Brussels, one at Vienna.] Globe of Euphrosynus Ulpius 1542 [Made in Rome and preserved in the museum of the New York Historical Society.] Mollineux, globes of 1592 [Only 1 extant.in the library of the Middle Temple, London.] Globe of Gottorp, a concave sphere, 11 feet in diameter, containing a table and seats for 12 persons, the inner surface representing the visible heavens, the stars and constellations, all distinguished according to magnitude, and, turned by curious mechanism, their true position, rising and setting, are shown. The outside is a ter- restrial globe. The original globe of Gottorp, at the expense of Frederick II., duke of Holstein, was erected at Gottorp, under the direction of Adam Olearius, after a design found among the papers of Tycho Brahe. Frederick IV. of Denmark presented it to Peter the Great in 1713. It was nearly destroyed by fire in 1757, but was reconstructed. — Coxe. Globe at Pembroke hall, Cambridge, Engl., erected by dr. Long (master, 1733). 18 feet in diameter. In 1851, Mr. Abrahams erected in Leicester square. I-ondon, for Mr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, lighted from the centre" by day, and by gas at night. It was closed in July, 1861; the models were sold, and the building taken down. Olobe theatre, Bankside, London. Theatres. j^lory, the nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on im- ages, adopted from the Caesars and their flatterers, were used in the first century. — The doxology, " Gloria Patri," is very ancient, and originally without the clause " as it was in the beginning," etc. In the Greek it began with Ao^a, glorj'. Gloucester {ghs'ter), (Rom. Glevum), a seaport town of England, submitted to the Romans about 45, and to the Saxons 577. The statutes of Gloucester, passed at a parlia- ment held by Edward I., 1278, relate to actions at law. This city was incorporated by Henry III., and was fortified by a -strong wall, demolished after the Restoration, in 1660, by or- der of Charles II., as punishment for the successful resistance * GOD of the city to Charles I., under col. Massey, Aug., Sept. 1643. The abbey, founded by king Wulphere about 700, burned in 1102, and again in 1122, contains tombs of Robert, duke of Normandy,.and Edward II. gluernum (from yXvKvg, sweet). In 1798 Vauquelin discovered the earth glucina (so termed from the sweet taste of its salts). It is found in the beryl and other crystals/ From glucina Wohler and Bussy obtained the rare metal glucinura in 1828. — Gmelin. g[lucose. Sugar. g^luten, an ingredient of grain, particularly wheat, termed the vegeto-animal principle (containing nitrogen). Its dis- covery is attributed to Beccaria in the 18th century. glyc'erine, discovered by Scheele about 1779, and termed by him the " sweet principle of fats," and further stud- ied by Chevreul, termed the " father of the fatty acids." It is obtained pure by saponifying olive-oil or animal fat with ox- ide of lead or litharge. Glycerine is now much employed in medicine and the arts. glyox'yline (invented by F. A. Abel, the chemist of the British war department, in 1867), an explosive mixture of gun-cotton, pulp, and saltpetre saturated with nitro-glycerine. It was abandoned for compressed gun-cotton. Ono§tiCS {nos-tiks) (from the Gr. yvS>'icA;ens, " Dom- bey and Son." Oodwin'S oath. "Take care you are not swearing Godwin's oath." This caution, to a person taking a voluntary and intemperate oath, or making violent protestations, refers to a monkish tradition that Godwin, earl of Kent, tried for the murder of prince Alfred, brother of Edward the Confessor, and pardoned, died at the king's table while protesting with oaths his innocence 1053 ; supposed to have been choked with a piece of bread, as a judgment from heaven, having prayed GOL 834 it might stick in his throat if he were guilty of the mur- der. g^old (mentioned Gen. ii. 11), the most ductile of metals, considered by all nations the most valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver. English coin consists of 22 carats of pure gold and 2 of copper. Value of gold compared with silver is said to have been in the time of Herodotus, 450 b.c., about 10 to 1; of Plato, 38 b.c., 12 to 1; 1876 A.D., more than 15 to 1. The ratio in the U. S. in 1862 was 15.36; in 1872, 16.63; in 1882, 18.19; in 1889, 22.03; in 1891, 20.92. Amalgamation of gold is described by Vitruvius (about 27 b.c.) and Pliny (about 77 a.d.). The alchemist Basil Valentine (in the ISth* century) knew the solution of chloride of gold and fulminating gold. Andreas Cassius, in 1686, described the preparation of gold- purple, then adapted by Kunkel to make red glass, and to other purposes.— (?mc/tn. The chemical properties of gold have been in- vestigated by eminent chemists, such as Berzelius and P'araday. Oold-mines.— Gold was found most abundantly in Africa, Japan, and in South America, where it was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492. From that time to 1731 they imported into Europe 6,000,000,000 pieces of eight, in registered gold and silver, exclu- sive of what were unregistered. Peter the Great reopened ancient gold-mines in Russia, 1699. Ural or Oural mountains of Russia long produced much gold. A piece of gold weighing 90 marks, equal to 60 lbs. troy (the mark being 8 ounces), was found near La Paz, a town of Peru, 1730. Gold discovered in Malacca in 1731; in New Andalusia in 1785; in Ceylon, 1800; 2887 ounces of gold, value 9991^., obtained from mines in Britain and Ireland in 1864; it has been found in Corn- wall, Engl., and in the county of Wicklow, in Ireland. Gold discovered in California, 19 Jan. 1848, on col. Sutter's place, by James Wilson Marshal. First deposit of gold from California, weighing 1804.59 ounces, val- ued at $18,055 per ounce, made at U. S. mint 8 Dec. 1848. Gold discovery in Aicstralia.—Kdwa,ril Hargraves went to California in search of gold, and observed there rocks and strata resembling those of his own district of Conobolas, 30 miles west of Bathurst, New South Wales. On his return home, he examined the soil, and after 1 or 2 months' digging, found gold, 12 Feb. 1851. He obtained a reward from the colonial government, and was made commis- sioner of crown - lands. The excitement spread througli New South Wales, Victoria, and other places; and in the first week of July, 1851, a native, formerly attached to tlie Wellington mis- sion, then in the service of dr. Kerr, of Wallawa, discovered, while tending sheep, a mass of gold in a heap of quartz. 3 blocks of quartz (from 2 to 3 cwt.), found in the Murroo creek, 50 miles to the north of Bathurst, contained 112 lbs. of pure gold, valued at4000i!. The "Victoria nugget," a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 oz., was taken to England from the Bendigo diggings; and a piece of pure gold of 106 lbs. weight was also found. From the gold-fields of mount Alexander and Ballarat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there were taken 2,532,422 oz., or 105 tons 10 cwt. of gold; and gold was ex- ported worth 8,863,477^. In Nov. 1856, the James Baines and Lightning brought gold from Melbourne valued at 1,200,000Z. The "Welcome nugget" weighed 2019^^ oz. ; value, 8376^. 10s. 3d.; found at Baker's hill, Ballarat, 11 June, 1858. Between May, 1851, and May, 1861, 96,000,000^. of gold were taken to England from New South Wales and Victoria. Amount of gold produced in the U. S. since its discovery in Califor- nia in 1848, to 1890, $1,837,170,000. The greatest amount in any one year, 1853, $65,000,000; the least amount, 1883, $30,000,000. Gold production of the world in 500 years, $7,240,000,000. Gold production of the world for 1890, $116,008,900. Com andcoinagk. Silver. Gold vxire was first made in Italy about 1350. An ounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire above 1300 miles in length; and such is its tenacity that a wire the one eighteenth part of an inch will bear the weight of 500 pounds without breaking. — Fourcroy. Gold leaf.— A single grain of gold may be extended into a leaf of 56 sq. inches, and gold leaf can be reduced to the 300,000th part of an inch, and gilding to the 10,000,000th part. — .K'e%'s Cambist. Gilding. Oold Coait, a British colony in W. Africa ; settle- ments made by the Dutch ; transferred to Great Britain by treaty, signed 2 Feb. 1872 ; joined with Lagos to form the " Gold Coast Colony." Area, 46,600 sq. miles ; pop. estimated, 1,905,000, of whom about 150 are Europeans. Oolden Bull, or Bulla Aurea,of emperor Charles IV. of Germany ; one of the most peculiar public documents of the middle ages. After a prayer for divine assistance, etc., and the questioning of Satan, the emperor proceeds as follows: " Inasmuch as we, through the office by which we possess the imperial dignity, are doublj' — both as emperor and b}' the elec- torial right which we enjoy — bound to put an end to future danger of discords among the electors themselves, to which number we, as king of Bohemia, are known to belong: we have promulgated, decreed, and recommended for ratification the subjoined laws for the purpose of cherishing unity among the electors and of bringing about a unanimous election, and GOL 1 ana of closing all approach to the aforesaid detestable discord to various dangers which arise from it. This we have done in our solemn court at Nuremberg, in session with all the elec- toral princes, ecclesiastical and secular, and amid a numerous multitude of other princes, counts, barons, magnates, nobles, and citizens ; after mature deliberation and fulness of our im- perial power, sitting on the throne of our imperial majesty, adorned with the imperial bands, insignia, and diadem, in the year of our Lord 1356, in the 9th Indiction, on the 4th day before the ides of January, in the 10th year of our reign as king — the 1st as emperor." The following is a list of the subjects for which specific directions or laws are given : 1. The proper escort of electors and by whom furnished. 2. Of electing the king of the Romans. 3. Of seating the bishops of Treves, Cologne, and Mainz. 4. Of the princes' elections in common. 5. Of the rights of the count palatine and the duke of Saxony 6. Of comparison of prince electors with ordinary princes. 7. Of the successors of the princes. 8. Of the immunity of the king of Bohemia and his subjects. 9. Of mines of gold, silver, and other specie. 10. Of money. 11. Of the immunity of prince electors. 12. Of the coming together of the princes. 13. Of revoking privileges. 14. Of those from whom, as unworthy, their feudal possessions are taken. 15. Of conspiracies. 16. Of " Pfalzburgers " (citizens of one place who reside in another). 17. Of challenges of defiance. 18. Of letters of intimidation. 19. Formula of representation sent by a prince elector with an envoy or proxy. 20. Of the unity of the electorial principalities and of the rights connected with them. 21. Of the order of marching as regards the archbishops. 22. Of the order of proceeding of the prince electors and by whom the insignia shall be carried. 23. Of the benediction of the archbishop in the presence of the em- peror. 24. Of conspiracies. 25. Of the succession of the difi"erent kingdoms and provinces. 26. Of the order of procession. 27. Of the ofiices of the prince electors in the solemn courts of the emperor or king of the Romans. 28. Of the arrangement of the imperial table. 29. Of election, coronation, and first imperial court when held. 30. Of the rights of the officials when princes receive their fiefs from the emperor or king of the Romans. 31. Of the necessity of teaching the Italian and Slavic tongues. g'Olden fleece. According to the Greek legend, Phrixus and Helle were children of Athamas, king of Orcho- MENUS. Through the designs of their step-mother, Ino, Phrixus was about to be sacrificed to Zeus, when Hermes sent a gold- en-fleeced ram which carried the children in safety over land and water as far as the sea between Sigaeum and the Cherso- nese, when Helle fell and was drowned in its waters, whence named Hellespontus {Helle's sea). Phrixus went on to Colchis, to king ^etes, who received him kindly. Phrixus here sac- rificed the ram to Zeus, and its golden fleece was hung in a grove sacred to Ares. To bring back the golden fleece to Greece was the object of the Argonauts. — Philip the Good, duke of Burgundj', at his marriage in 1429, instituted the mil- itary order of Toison d^or, or " golden fleece," on account, it is said, of his profit from wool. The number of knights was 31. The king of Spain, as duke of Burgundy, became grandmaster of the order. The knights wore a scarlet cloak lined with ermine, a collar opened, and the duke's cipher, a B, to signify Burgundy, together with flints striking fire, and the motto, "Anteferit,quamflamm.a micat." On the collar hung a golden fleece, with this device, '^ Pretium non vile laborum." The order afterwards became common to all princes of the house of Austria, as descendants of Marj', daughter of Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy, who married Maximilian of Aus- tria in 1477. It now belongs to both Austria and Spain, by treaty made 30 Apr. 1725. Oolden Horde, a name of Mongolian Tartars, who established an empire in Kaptchak (or Kibzak), now S.E. Russia, about 1224, under Batou, grandson of Genghis Khan. Invading Russia, they made Alexander Newski grand-duke, 1252. At the battle of Bielawisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan III. and the Nogai Tartars. " Oolden Leg^end " (" Legenda Aurea"). The Uvea of our Lord and the saints, written by Giacomo Varaggio, or M GOL Jacobus de Voragiiie, a Dominican monk, about 1260; first printed 1470 ; a translation printed by Caxton, 1483. Long- fellow's " Golden Legend," a lyric drama based upon a story of self-sacrifice, appeared in 1851. golden number, the number that shows the year of the moon's cycle of 19 years ; its discovery is ascribed to Meton of Athens, about 432 B.C.— Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the date, and divide by 19 ; the quotient is the number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder the golden number. This is now the 99th cycle, and the golden number for 1892 is 12; 1893, 13; 1894, 14; 1895, 15. gold-fish (the golden carp, Cyprinus auratus), taken to England from China in 1691, but not common till about 1723. golf, the national game of Scotland, has spread to Eng- land, Europe, India, America, and Cape of Good Hope. It is played with rubber balls and a golf club, along a series of links or downs, in which are small round holes at intervals of 100 to 400 yards. With other games it was prohibited by the king in 1457. The royal golf club of St. Andrews is now the national club of Scotland. Gutta-percha balls substituted for those made of leather and stuffed with feathers 1848 Allan Robertson, the greatest golfer that ever lived, d 1859 gonfalonier {gon'-fal-o-neer') or standard- bearer of justice, originally a subordinate officer in Florence; instituted 1292; became paramount in the 15th century, and was suppressed 27 Apr. 1532, when the constitu- tion was changed and Alexander de' Medici made duke. Good Friday (probably God's Friday), the Friday (before Easter day, a solemn fast of the church in remembrance of the crucifixion of Christ on Friday, 3 Apr. 33, or 15 Apr. 29. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to the church of England ; the Saxons denominated it Long Friday, from the long offices and fastings enjoined on this day. For its date, Easter. Oood Templars (order originated in the United States in 1851) pledge themselves not to make, buy, sell, fur- nish, or cause to be furnished, intoxicating liquors to others AS a beverage. The first English lodge was formed at Bir- mingham in May, 1868. In 1891 there were 100 grand lodges in the world, and the membership was 410,996, with a juvenile branch of 159,106 members. Goorkhas (goor'kas), a warlike tribe of Nepaul, India, became prominent in the 17th century. Their invasions were •defeated about 1791 by Chinese, whose vassals they became. In a war with British in 1814 they were at first successful, 4)ut were subdued, and a treaty of peace was signed in Feb. 1816. Since 1841 the native regiments have been largely recruited by Goorkhas, who have rendered valuable service in nearly all British-Indian wars, and in Afghanistan, 1878-79. Oordian knot, said to have been made of thongs used as harness to the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, after- wards king of Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the oracle declared should be ruler of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, interpreted the oracle, 330 b.c. Gordon's *' RfO Popery " riots, London, occa- sioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon, 2-9 June, 1780. On 4 Jan. 1780, he tendered the petition of the Protestant associa- tion to lord North. On Friday, 2 June, be headed the mob of 40,000 persons who assem- bled in St. George's fields, under the name of the Protestant as- sociation, to carry a petition to Parliament for repeal of an act which granted indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob proceeded to pillage, burn, and pull down the chapels and houses of the Roman Catholics first, but afterwards of others, for nearly 6 days. The bank was attempted, jails opened (the King's Bench, Newgate, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons). On the 7th, 36 fires were blazing at once. By the aid of armed associations of citizens, the horse and foot guards, and militia of several counties, em- bodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled on the 8th. "Two hundred and ten rioters were killed and 248 wounded, of whom 75 died in hospitals, and many were convicted and executed. I-oss of property was estimated at 180,000?. Lord George was tried for high-treason and acquitted, 5 Feb. 1781. He died a prisoner for libel, 1 Nov. 1793. Dickens gives a vivid description of these riots in " Barnaby Rudge. ' ' 335 GOT gorget (jgor'-jet), the ancient breastplate, was very large, varying in size and weight. The present diminutive breast- plate came into use about 1660. Armor. gorilla, a powerful ape of W. Africa, about 5 ft. 7 in. high. It is a match for the lion, and attacks the elephant with a club. Perhaps identical with the hairy people Gorul- lai, mentioned by the Carthaginian navigator Hanno, in his " Periplus," about 570 b.c. Expeditions. In 1847 a sketch of a gorilla's cranium was sent to prof. Owen by dr. Savage, then at the Gaboon river, and preserved specimens have been brought to Europe ; a living one died on its voyage to France. In 1851 prof. Owen described specimens to the Zoological So- ciety ; in 1859 he gave an account of the species at the Royal Institution, London; and in 1861 several skins and skulls were there exhibited by M. du Chaillu, who killed 21 of them while in central Africa. A young one brought to New York in 1890. The gorilla was not known to Cuvier. Oospellers, a name given to the followers of Wick- lifife, who attacked popery, about 1377. WicklifFe opposed the pope's supremacy, temporal jurisdiction of bishops, etc., and is called father of the Reformation. OospelS (Sax. god-spell, good story). Matthew's and Mark's are conjectured to have been written between 38 and 65 A.D. ; Luke's, 55 or 65 ; John's, about 97. Irenseus in the 2d century refers to each gospel by name. ' Dr. Robert Bray was one of the authors of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701. A body termed "Bray's Associates" still exists; meant to aid in forming and supporting clerical parochial libraries. Ootlia {go'-ta), capital of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha. Here is published the celebrated A Imanack de Gotha, which first appeared in 1764, in German, and which is the best and most complete account of the descent and kindred of all the royal families of the world. Gothenburg system, in Sweden. A plan first de- vised and executed by the municipal government of this city for the regulation of the liquor traffic. It begins by limiting licenses closely, with the view of ultimately vesting a monop- oly of the sale in the municipality itself, and excluding from the trade all who derive a profit from it. It was advocated in England by Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., and much discussed, 1876-77. ' Ootllie architecture arose about the 9th century A.D., and spread over Europe. Its characteristic is the pointed arch ; hence it has been called the pointed style. " Gothic " was originally a term of reproach given it by Renaissance architects of the 16th centurj'. Its invention has been claimed for several nations, particularly for the Saracens. The follow- ing list is from Godwin's "Chronological Table of English Architecture " : Anglo-Roman— 55 B.C. to about 250 a.d.— St. Martin's church, Can- terbury. Anglo-Saxon— ^QQ to 1066.— Earl's Barton church, St. Peter's, Lincolnshire. Gothic Anglo- Roman— 10&6 to 1135 Rochester cathedral nave; St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield; St. Cross, Hants, etc. Early English, or Pointed — 1135 to 1272. — Temple church, Lon- don; parts of Winchester, Wells, Salisbury, and Durham cathe- drals, and Westminster abbey. Pointed, called pure Gothic_1272 to 1377.— Exeter cathedral, Waltham Cross, etc. ; St. Stephen's, Westminster. Florid Pointed— lan to 1509.— Westminster hall ; King's college, Cambridge ; St. George's chapel, Windsor ; Henry VII. 's chapel, Westminster. Elizabethan— 1509 to 1625.— Northumberland house. Strand; part of Windsor castle; Hatfield house; schools at O.xford. Revival of Grecian architecture about 1625. Banqueting - house, Whitehall, etc. Revival of Gothic architecture began about 1825, mainly through the exertions of A. W. Pugin. Controversy on its value was rife in 1860-61. Gothland, an isle in the Baltic sea, was conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-98; given up to the Danes, 1524; to Sweden, 1645 ; conquered by the Danes, 1677 ; and restored to Sweden, 1679. * Oothard, St. (Fr. san go-tar'). Tunnels. Ooths, a warlike nation between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic seas. They entered Moesia, took Philip- popolis, massacring thousands ; defeated and killed the empe- ror Decius, 251 ; but were defeated at Naissus by Claudius, GOT ^ hence surnamed Gothicus, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded Dacia to them in 272 ; but they long troubled the em- pire. After the destruction of the Roman western empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, under Theodoric, subdued most of Italy, and retained it till 553, when they were conquered by Narses, Justinian's general. The Visigoths, or Western Goths, founded a kingdom in Spain, which continued until the Saracen conquest. Oottliard, St. (san got'-harf), a Cistercian convent near the river Raab, Hungary. Here the Turks, under grand-vizier Kupriuli, were routed by imperialists and their allies, commanded by Montecuculi, 1 Aug. 1664. Peace fol- lowed. Oottlngen, a town of Hanover, a member of the Han- seatic League about 1360. The university " Georgia Augus- ta," founded by George H. of England in 1734, was opened 1737. It was seized by the French, 1760, and held till 1762. In 1837 several able professors were dismissed for expressing political opinions. '*GoUVernOur, The," a moral and educational work, full of anecdotes, by sir Thomas Elyot, first pub. 1531; an annotated edition with glossary by H. H. S. Croft pub. 1880. ffOVernor, an instrument attached to steam-engines, etc., for the purpose of preserving regularity of motion by ad- justing the amount of power. The centrifugal governor or the fly-ball governor, as it is called, was invented by Huy- ghens about 1650. Watts applied it to the regulating of steam- engines, 1784 ; many improvements since. OoWrie conspiracy. John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, in 1600, reckoning on the support of the burghs and the kirk, conspired to dethrone James VI. of Scotland, and seize the government ; and the king was decoyed into Gowrie's house in Perth, on 5 Aug. 1600. The plot was frustrated, and the earl and his brother Alexander were slain on the spot. At the time, many believed that the young men were rather victims than authors of a plot. Their father, William, was treacherously executed in 1584 for his share in the raid of Ruthven, in 1582 ; and he and his father, Patrick, were among the assassins of Rizzio, 9 Mch. 1566. grace, a title assumed by Henry IV. of England, on his accession in 1399. Excellent grace was assumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Till James L, 1603, the king was addressed by that title, but afterwards by the title of majesty only. " Your grace " is the form of address to an archbishop or a duke. The term " Grace of God " is said to have been taken by bish- ops at Ephesus, 431 (probably from 1 Cor. xv. 10), by the Car- lovingian princes in the 9th century, by popes in the 13th century ; and about 1440 it was assumed by kings as signify- ing their supposed divine right. ''Dei gratia" was put on his great seal by William II. of England, and on his gold coin by Edward HI. The king of Prussia's saying that he would reign " by the grace of God " gave much offence, 18 Oct. 1861. gprace at meat. The ancient Greeks would not par- take of meat until they had offered part of it, as first-fruits, to the gods. The short prayer said before, and by some per- sons after meat, in Christian countries, is in conformity with Christ's example, John vi. 11, etc. '• The custom of saying grace at meals had probably its origin in the early times of the world." — Lamb, " Grace before Meat, Essays of Elia." Orsecia Magna, colonies planted by the Greeks, 974- 748 B.C. Italy. graffiti {graf-fee'-tee), the scribblings found on the walls of Pompeii and other Roman ruins ; selections were published by Wordsworth in 1837, and by Garrucci in 1856. Oraham'S dike, Scotland, a wall built in 209 a.d. by Severus Septimus, the Roman emperor, or by Antoninus Pius. It reached from the Firth of Forth to the Clyde. Bu- chanan mentions considerable remains of this wall in his time, and vestiges are still to be seen. "Orail, Holy " (Sangreal). Tennyson's poem with this title, Dec. 1869, led to much discussion. Tennyson treats it as the cup in which Christ drank at the Last Supper. 6 GRA " The Holy Grail I . . . What is it? The phantom of a cup that comes and goes? . The cup, the cup itself, from which our Lord Drank at the last sad supper with his own." —Tenjiyson, "The Holy Grail." Mediaeval romances treat it as the dish which held the paschal! lamb. The word is probably old French, grial, from the old Latin gradalis, a dish. grain. Henry HI. of England is said to have chosen a grain of wheat from the middle of the ear as the standard of weight : 12 grains to be a pennyweight, 12 pennyweights one ounce, and 12 ounces a pound troy. — Lawson. grammarians, those versed in grammar or the structure of language. A society of grammarians was formed at Rome as early as 276 b.c. — Blair. ApoUodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, Julius Caesar, Nicias, -^lius Donatus, Remmius, Palemon,Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenaeus, and other distinguished men were of this class. A Greek grammar was- printed at Milan in 1476 ; Lily's Latin grammar (" Brevis In- stitutio"), 1513; Lindley Murray's English grammar, 1795;, Cobbett's English grammar, 1818. Harris's " Hermes" was- pub. 1750, Home Tooke'^s "Epea Pteroenta; or. The Diver- sions of Purley," in 1786, treatises on the philosophy of lan- guage and grammar. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to have- been the only purely grammatical orator of his time ; and dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's, said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it, and could not discover one error." Among the English grammars first published in the- United States were Ross's, Hartford, 1782 ; " British Grammar,'" London and Boston, 1784; Buchanan's English, pub. Phila- delphia, 1792; Ticknor's, Boston, 1794; Dearborn's, Boston,. 1795; Bingham's, Boston, 1801; Cochran's, Boston, 1802; Noab Webster's, 1807; Gurney's, 1808 ; Judson's, Boston, 1808; Al- den's, Boston, 1811 ; Smith's, Philadelphia, 1812 ; Lindley Mur- ra3''s, American edition. New York, 1814 ; Goold Brown's,, 1823; Peter Bullions's, 1834. gramme. Metrical system. Gramme's magneto-electric machine, invented 1870. Electricity. Grampian hills, central Scotland. At Ardoch, near Mons Grampius of Tacitus, Scots and Picts under Galgacus were defeated by Romans under Agricola, 84 or 85 A.D. Oranada, a citj', S. Spain, was founded by Moors in the 8th century, and was then in the kingdom of Cordova.. In 1236, Mohammed-al-Hamar made it capital of his new kingdom of Granada, which prospered till its subjugation by the "great captain," Gonsalvo de Cordova, 2 Jan. 1492. In 1609 and 1610 the industrious Moors were expelled from Spain by the bigoted Philip HI., to the lasting injury of his country. Granada was taken by marshal Soult in 1810, and held till 1812. Pop. 1888, 73,006. In the province of Granada, 5 towns were destroyed, 914 persons killed, with a great loss of prop- erty through the earthquake of 25 Dec. et seq. 1884. granaries were formed by Joseph in Egypt, 1715 b.c. (Gen. xli. 48). There were 327 granaries in Rome. — Univ. Hist. grand alliance between the emperor Leopold I. and the Dutch States-general (principally to prevent the union of the French and Spanish monarchies in one person), signed at Vienna, 12 May, 1689, to which England, Spain, and the duke of Savoy afterwards acceded. Grand Army of the Republic. This society of Union veteran soldiers of the civil war was first organized at Springfield, 111., during the winter of 1865-66, under the leadership of dr. B. F. Stephenson, surgeon of the 14th Illi- nois infantry. A national encampment is held by the society annually. Total membership, 1893, 403,024 in 45 depart- ments. First post formed at Decatur, III 6 Apr. 1866- A national convention was called and met at Indianapolis, Ind., 20 Nov. " [The following states represented : New York, Pennsylvania,. Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Wisconsin, Ohio, Iowa, Kansas, In- diana, and the District of Columbia. Gen. Stephen A. Hurlbut of Illinois was elected commander-in-chief, with dr. Stephenson a» adjutant general.] I GRA 337 QRA NATIONAL ENCAMPMENTS AND COMMANDERS OF THE GRAND ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC. Stephen A. Hurlbut, 111 John A. Logan, 111 John A. Logan, 111 John A. Logan, 111 Ambrose E. Burnside, R. I Ambrose E. Burnside, R. I Charles Devens, jr., Mass Charles Devens, jr.. Mass John F. Hartranft, Pa John F. Hartranft, Pa John C. Robinson, N. Y John C. Robinson, N. Y William Earnshaw, Ohio Louis Wagner, Pa George S. Merrill, Mass Paul Van Der Voort, Neb Robert B. Beath, Pa John S. Kuntz, Ohio S. S. Burdette, Washington, D.C. Lucius Fairchild, Wis John P. Rae, Minn AVilliam Warner, Mo Russell A. Alger, Mich Wheelock G. Veazey, Vt John Palmer, N. Y A. G. Weissert, Wis J. G. B. Adams, Mass Thomas 6. Lawler Encampment. Indianapolis, Ind.. Philadelphia, Pa..., Cincinnati, O Washington, D. C. . . Boston, Mass , Cleveland, New Haven, Conn. , Harrisburg, Pa Chicago, 111 Philadelphia, Pa... Providence, R. I... Springfield, Mass.. Albany, N. Y Dayton, Indianapolis, Ind. . Baltimore, Md Denver, Col Minneapolis, Minn. Portland, Me San Francisco, Cal. St. Louis, Mo Columbus, , Milwaukee, Wis. . . Boston, Mass Detroit, Mich Washington, D. C. Indianapolis, Ind. . Pittsburg, Pa 20 Nov. 1866 15 June, 1868 12 May, 1869 12 1870 10 1871 8 1872 14 1873 13 1874 12 1875 30 June, 1876 26 11 1877 4 u 1878 17 (' 1879- 8 «' 1880 15 u 1881 21 u 1882 25 July, 1883 23 " 1884 24 June 188& 26 Aug 1886-. 27 Sept 1887 10 1888< 27 Aug 1889 12 " 1890' 4 " 1891 20 Sept 1892 5 1893 10 " 1894 g^rand pen§ionary, a chief state functionary in Holland in the 16th century. In the constitution given by France to the Batavian republic, before the kingdom of Hol- land was formed, the title was revived and given to the head of the government, 29 Apr. 1805, Rutger Jan Schiramelpen- ninck being made grand pensionary. Holland. Orang^e, National, organized at Washington, D. C, Dec. 1867, to protect the interests of farmers and improve their condition. Reorganized at St. Louis in 1874. It is strictly non-political and numbered 250,000 members in 1891, among them not a few women. The chief oflScer is termed master, 2d officer, overseer, etc. Oraili'CUS, a river in N.W. Asia Minor, near which, on 22 May, 334 b.c., Alexander the Great defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 foot and 20,000 horse). — Justin, The victors lost 55 foot and 60 horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and other great towns submitted. Battles. Oranson, near the lake of Neufchatel, Switzerland, where Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss, 3 Mch. 1476. Orant, Ulysses S., administration of. United States, 1869-77. Orant'§ campaign in Virginia (4 May, 1864 to 9 Apr. 1865). The grade of lieutenant-general was revived 2 Mch. 1864, and on the 9th Grant was appointed with this rank commander, under the president, of the armies of the United States. Under him Sherman acted, and a plan was agreed upon for a simultaneous advance in May against the armies of Johnston in Georgia and Lee in Virginia. In April, Grant transferred Sheridan from the army of the Cum- berland to command the cavalry in Virginia, while gen. Meade still led the army of the Potomac. The confederate army under Lee, at the opening of this campaign, was on the south bank of the Rapidan, 60,000 to 70,000 strong, never under bet- ter discipline, or more alert and active. As this was the cul- minating campaign of the war, a list is given of the principal officers of the 2 federal armies which co-operated in it, with their aggregate strength for duty, and a table of their losses. ARMY OF THE POTOMAC. Maj.-gen. George G. Meade. Id Army Corps, maj.-gen. Wiufleld S. Hancock. 1st div., brig. -gen. Francis C. Barlow; 2d div., brig. -gen. John Gibbon; 3d div., brig. -gen. David B. Birney; 4th div., brig. -gen. Gershom Mott. 5th Army Corps, maj.-gen. Gouverneur K. Warren. 1st div., brig. -gen. Charles Griffln; 2d div., brig. -gen. John C. Robinson; 3d div., brig. -gen. Samuel W. Crawford; 4th div., brig. -gen. James S. Wadsworth. Uh Army Corps, maj.-gen. John Sedgwick. 1st div., brig. -gen. Horatio G. Wright; 2d div., brig. -gen. George W. Getty; 3d div., brig. -gen. James B. Ricketts. ^th Army Corps, maj.-gen. Ambrose E. Burnside. 1st div. , brig. -gen. Thomas G. Stevenson ; 2d div. , brig. -gen. Rob- ert B. Potter: 3d div., brig. -gen. Orlando B. Wilcox; 4th div., brig. -gen. Edward Ferrera. Cavalry, maj.-gen. Philip H. Sheridan. 1st div., brig. -gen. Alfred T. A. Torbert; 2d div., brig. -gen. David McM. Gregg; 3d div., brig. gen. James H. Wilson. Artillery, brig. -gen. Henry J. Hunt. Aggregate Strength for Duty. Officers. Enlisted men. Guns. Infantry 4459. 91,420 Artillery 226 7,554. (192 \ 92 Reserve, Cavalry 607 12,257 32 Total. .5292. ,111,231 316 ARMY OF THE JAMES. Maj. -gen. Benjamin F. Butler. \Oth Army Corps, maj.-gen. Quincy A. Gillmore. 1st div., brig. -gen. Alfred H. Terry; 2d div., brig. -gen. John W. Turner; 3d div., brig. -gen. Adelbert Ames. \Sth Army Corps, maj.-gen. W. F. Smith. 1st div., brig. -gen. William T. H. Brooks; 2d div., brig. -gen. Godfrey Weitzel; 3d div., brig. -gen. Edward W. Hinks. Cavalry, brig. -gen. August V. Kautz. Aggregate Strength for Duty. Officers. Enlisted men. Guns.. Infantry 1337 30,453 Artillery 61 2,065 82 Cavalry 128 4,604 8 Total... .1526. .37,122. .90 Grant moves against Lee, the army of the Potomac crossing the Rapidan 4 May, Warren with the 5th corps leading at Germania ford, followed by Sedgwick with the 6th, pushes directly into the Wilder- ness. Hancock crosses at Ely's ford and moves on Chancel- lorsville. Battle of the Wilderness 5-6 May, It was not the intention of Grant to fight Lee here, but the at- tack of the confederates compelled it. The severe fighting of the 5th and the battle of the 6th were indecisive. On the morning of the 7th Lee was intrenched, awaiting attack. Grant withdrew, directing the column towards Spottsylvania Court-house; Warren leading at 7 a.m. Battle of Spottsylvania 10-12 May, Warren, nearing Spottsylvania Court-house, finds that confeder- ates have anticipated him; he intrenches, and awaits other troops. On the 9th Grant has cleared the Wilderness and concentrated near Spottsylvania; Hancock on the right, War- ren in the centre, and Sedgwick on the left. On this day, while placing his artillery, Sedgwick is killed, and Wright takes the 6th corps. On the 10th and 11th there is severe but desultory fighting. On the 12th occurs the gallant as- sault of Hancock's corps on the confederate works, cap- turing 20 guns and some 3000 prisoners. The desperate- attempt of the confederates to retake these works, known as the '-Fight at the Salient" or "Bloody Angle," was unsuccessful. After several days of manoeuvring, on the night of 20-21 May, the army marches on towards Rich- mond. North Anna crossing.— Warren'' s corps crosses the North Anna at Jericho ford on the 23d. Hancock crosses at Ches- terfield bridge on the morning of the 24th. Here again Grant is confronted by Lee; after a spirited reconnoissance it is found that the confederate position is too strong to be forced. Grant withdraws from its front and moves towards the Pa- munkey river on the night of 26-27 May, 186# QRA 838 GRA Sheridan meets Fitzhugh Lee aud Hampton at Hawes's shops in a severe cavalry engagement 28 May, 1864 BcUtle of Cold Harbor. 3 June, " Orant again moves south to Cold Harbor, 31 May-2 June, where he finds Lee strongly intrenched; a partial engage- ment takes place on the afternoon of the 2ci. On 3 June, the army of the Potomac being reinforced by the 18th corps (army of the James), Grant assaults tlie confederate works at early sunrise for 30 minutes, resulting in a dis- astrous repulse and a loss of over 10,000 men. The armies face each other until 12 June, when Grant decides to ap- S roach Richmond from the south. Accordingly from 12-16 une the army passes from the Cbickahominy to the James; Petersburg, 22 miles south of Richmond, is now its objective point. jSheridan^s Jlrst raid 8-24 May, " Grant despatches Sheridan to harass the confederate rear. He passes to the left of the confederate army, with an engage- ment at Todd's tavern on the 8th. Crosses the North Anna and captures Beaver-dam station, destroying the railroad for 10 miles, and 1,500,000 rations, on the 9th; Allen sta- tion, Ashland, ^nd Yellow tavern, 11th. At Yellow tavern the confederate cavalry commander, gen. Stuart, is killed. Engagements follow at Meadow bridge, Mechanicsville, Straw- berry hill, Richmond fortifications, 12th. Resting 3 days at Haxhall's landing, on the James, Sheridan returns to the army of the Potomac on 24 May, having passed completely around the confederate army. Sheridan's second raid 4-24 June, " Sheridan's object was to join Hunter at Gordonsville, and with him to destroy the confederate communications and threat- en Richmond. But Hunter failed to reach Gordonsville, and Sheridan was not strong enough to meet the enemy. His cavalry engagements were those at Trevillian station and Newton's cross-roads, 11-12 June; King and Queen's Court- house, 18th to 20th; White House and Tunstall's station, 21st; Jones's bridge, 23d; St. Mary's church, 24th. Movement against Petersburg^ army of the James. — Gen. But- ler, commanding the army of the James, moves from for- tress Monroe towards Petersburg, 5 May, to support the army of the Potomac. Butler occupies Bermuda Hundreds, 6 May. Petersburg is immediately occupied by Beaure- gard ; and Butler is checked at Bermuda Hundreds by Beauregard's works across the neck of the peninsula. 12-31 May, Eighteenth corps of the army of the James transferred to Grant at Cold Harbor 2 June, Butler attempts Petersburg, but fails 10 June, Army of the Potomac advances, joining Butler 15-16 Juno, Hancock advances on Petersburg, failing to take it through imperfect co-operation and misunderstanding 15 June, Assaults on defences of Petersburg repulsed 16-17-18 June, Failure of 2d and 6th corps to sever the Weldon railroad, 21-22 June, Affair at Deep Bottom, 2d corps engaged 26 July, Explosion of mine and assault on confederate works; total failure (Mine explosion) 30 July, Warren with 5th corps seizes and holds the Weldon railroad, 18-21 Aug. Hancock with 2d corps driven from Reams's station, on the Weldon railroad, with severe loss 25 Aug. Gen. Butler, with 10th corps under Birney and 18th corps un- der Ord, assaults and takes fort Harrison 29 Sept. Warren with 5th and Parke with 9th corps capture confeder- ate works at Peebles's farm 30 Sept.-l Oct. Failure of Hancock to seize south-side railroad at Boydton Plank-road or Hatcher's Run 27 Oct. Second attempt to turn confederate right at Hatcher's Run fails 5-6 Feb. Lee attacks and captures fort Stedman, which is immediately retaken ; confederate loss 4000 25 Mch.- Sheridan joins the army of the Potomac from his raid in the Shenandoah valley with some 10,000 cavalry 27 Mch. Battle of Five Forks; Sheridan with 5th corps and cavalry defeats the confederates 31 Mch.-l Apr. Sheridan removes Warren from command of the 5th corps late on the afternoon of 1 Apr., and substitutes Griffin. Grant assaults and carries the works about Petersburg. Gen. A. P. Hill, confederate, killed 2 Apr. Richmond evacuated " " occupied by gen. Weitzel 3 Apr. Pursuit of Lee; affair at Sailor's creek 6 Apr. " " " " Farmville 7 Apr. Army of northern Virginia surrenders at Appomattox. .9 Apr. 1864 FEDERAL LOSSES (POTOMAC ARMY) FROM THE WILDERNESS TO THE JAMES, 4 May-16 June. Men. Men. Captured or mi-ssing. Wilderness Spottsylvania North Anna Cold Harbor Sheridan's 1st raid. " 2d " . 143 174 41 143 7 14 2103 2551 550 1702 57 136 672 159 433 16 43 11,468 12,744 2,575 8,644 321 698 138 62 17 35 10 25 3,245 2,196 644 1,780 214 17,666 18,399 3,986 12,737 625 1,516 Totals Army of the James, May-15 June Totals About Petersburg (army of the Potomac and army of the James) ) 15-30 June j July Aug. and Sept Oct., Nov., and Dec Totals Jan., Feb., Mch., and Apr. 1865 Totals Grand totals 522 111 76 137 372 81 1013 7099 1902 849 1384 603 4738 1085 13,518 1892 181 221 544 194 1484 384 3941 36,450 3,722 9,410 3,587 7,112 3,288 23,397 7,298 70,867 287 45 91 301 62 622 70 1024 8,679 I 1,633 I 4,453 1,553 8,539 2,409 16,954 1,941 29,207" I 54,929 6,215 16,569 6,377 18,017 f\ 47,567 10,859 119,570 OPERATIONS IN THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY. Campaign of Grant against Lee embraced movements up the Shenandoah valley. Sigel, commanding department of West Virginia, is sent up the valley with 10,000 men, supported by gen. Crook, who leaves Charlestown, W. Va., at the same time 1 May, 1864 Breckinridge easily defeats Sigel at Newmarket 15 May, " Grant relieves Sigel and appoints Hunter, who defeats the con- federates under gen. W. E. Jones at Piedmont 5 June, " Hunter, joined by Crook and Averill, advances to Staunton, and instead of proceeding to Gordonsville to join Sheridan, goes to Lexington, and on 18 June threatens Lynchburg with 20,000 men ; but opposed by a much stronger force, escapes into West Virginia, where his force for the time is useless. Confederate forces, now under gen. Early, move rapidly down the Shenandoah to the Potomac, and spread consternation from Baltimore to Washington 2, 3 July, " Gen. Lew. Wallace attempts to check the confederates at Monocacy, but is defeated with a loss of 98 killed, 579 wound- ed, and 1280 missing 9 July, " Confederate cavalry approach Baltimore 10 July, " On the 11th Early is within 6 or 7 miles of Washington, and menaces the capital on the 12th, but retires on the 13th. The 19th corps (Emory's), arriving at fortress Monroe from Louisiana, and the 6th corps from before Petersburg, sent by Grant under Wright to attack Early, pursue him some distance up the valley, and return to Leesburg, and are or- dered back to Petersburg. Early returns as soon as the pursuit ceases; strikes Crook at Martinsburg. defeats him, and holds the Potomac from Shepardstown to Williamsport. Early now sends B. R. Johnston and McCausland with some 3000 cavalry on a raid into Pennsylvania 30 July, " Approaching Chambersburg, Pa., they demand $100,000, which is not paid, and burn the town. Sixth and 19th corps, on their way to Petersburg, return. Grant relieves gen. Hunter, organizes the army of the middle divi- sion, and gives the command to Sheridan (Army) 7 Aug. 1864 Sheridan attacks and defeats Early, strongly fortified at Ope- quan creek, near Winchester 19 Sept. " Early falls back to Fisher's hill, south of Winchester, where Sheridan routs him, taking 1100 prisoners and 16 guns, 23 Sept. " Sheridan pushes Early to the mountains; returns to Cedar creek, and leaving his command, visits Washington. .15 Oct. " Early, reinforced, returns to Fisher's hill, and learning Sher- idan's absence, sets out to attack on the evening of. . . 18 Oct. " Surprises the federals under Wright, driving them back with a loss of 24 guns and 1200 prisoners, morning of 19 Oct. " Sheridan at Winchester on the night of the 18th. On his way to the front news of the rout of his army reaches him. His arrival on the field stops the retreat. The line of bat- tle re-formed at 3 p.m., he attacks, and by dark recovers the ground lost in the morning. Early is crushed, and the cam- paign in the valley ended. Cedar creek. Sheridan, with 10,000 cavalry, drives the confederates from Waynesboro, 27 Feb., and advancing, joins Grant before Petersburg (see supra) 27 Mch. 1866 ^rape§. Before Edward VI.'s time grapes were brought to England in quantities from Flanders, where they were first cultivated about 1276. The vine was introduced into Eng- land 1552, being first planted at Bloxhall, in Suffolk. In the gardens of Hampton court palace is a vine planted 1769, said GRA 3 to surpass any in Europe ; it is 72 feet by 20, and has in one season produced 2272 bunches of grapes, weighing 18 cwt. ; the stem is 13 inches in girth. — Leigh. Flowers and Plants. "Graphic, liOndon," an illustrated weekly jour- nal, established 4 Dec. 1869. graphite (from the Gr. ypd^Eiv, to write), a form of mineral carbon, with a trace of iron, improperly termed black- lead and plumbago. In 1809 sir Humphry Davy investigated the relations of 3 forms of carbon— the diamond, graphite, and charcoal. A rude kind of black-lead pencil is mentioned by Gesner, 1565. Interesting results of sir B. C. Brodie's re- searches on graphite appeared in the international exhibition of 1862. Fresh discoveries were made in the nearly exhaust- ed Borrowdale mines, Cumberland, in 1875. graph'0§COpe, an optical apparatus for magnifying engravings, photographs, etc., with fine effect, invented by C. J. Rowsell; exhibited in 1871. graph'otypc, a process for making blocks for surface- printing, invented by De Witt Clinton Hitchcock in 1860, and described by Mr. Fitz-Cook at the Society of Arts, England, 6 Dec. 1865. Drawings were m^de on blocks of chalk with si- licious ink; when dried the soft parts were brushed away, and the drawings remained in relief; stereotypes were then taken from the block. grate§. The Anglo-Saxons had arched hearths, and chafing-dishes were in use until the introduction of chimneys about 1200. Chimneys, Stoves. Oravelines {grav-leen'), a fortified seaport town of N. France. Here the Spaniards, aided by an English fleet, de- feated the French on 13 July, 1558. Oravelotte {grav-lot'), Battle of, 18 Aug. 1870, Metz. gravitation, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about 38 a.d. Kepler investigated the subject about 1615 ; and Hooke devised a theory of gravitation about 1674. The principles of gravity were demonstrated by Galileo at Florence, about 1633 -, but the law laid down by Newton in his " Principia," in 1687, is said to have been proved by him in 1670. The fall of an apple from a tree in 1666 is said to have directed his attention to the subject. Newton says, "I do not anywhere take on me to define the kind or manner of any action, the causes or physical reasons thereof, or attribute forces in a true and physical" sense to certain cen- tres, when I speak of them as attracting, or endued with attractive powers. ' ' On 15 July, 1867, M. Chasles laid before the Paris Academy of Sci- ences some letters alleged to be from Newton to Pascal and oth- ers to show that to Pascal was due the theory of gravitation. The authenticity of these letters was denied,and their forgery and his own delusion were acknowledged by M. Chasles before the acad- emy, 13 Sept. 1869. gravity, specific. Elements. Great Bridge, Battle of. Virginia, 1775. Oreat Britain, the name given in 1604 to Eng- lAND, Scotland, and Wales. Great Eastern. This colossal paddle and screw steamship, justly called " Leviathan," was built by Messrs. Scott Russell & Co., from designs of I. K. Brunei, and after 3 months' effort was launched at Millwall, Engl., 31 Jan. 1858. Her dimensions were: length, 691 ft., breadth, 83 ft., and depth, 48 ft. ; tonnage, 18,915. Steam was generated iu 10 boilers, with 100 furnaces. When launched she had cost about 720,000/. She leaves her moorings at Deptford for Portland Roads (10 firemen were killed by an explosion during the trip), ^ ■ 7 Sept. 1859 Wintering at Southampton, she sails for New York under capt. Vine Hall with 38 passengers and 8 guests 17 June, 1860 Remaining at New York on exhibition 28 June to 16 Aug., she returns to England, arriving 26 Aug. " Ou one of several trips between Liverpool and New York in 1862, she runs on a rock near Long Island Aug. 1862 Bought by Glass, Elliot & Co. in spring of 186i, and chartered to lay the second Atlantic telegraph cable 1864 Sails for Valentia, Ireland, with over 2000 miles of cable, with prof. William Thomson and Cromwell F. Yarley to superin- tend the paying out (Electricity) 15 July, 1865 Cable breaks 2 Aug., and the Great Eastei-n returns to Med- way, arriving 19 Aug. " n ith a new cable she sails from Medway 30 June, 1866 ^ GRE New cable completed at Heart's Content, Newfoundland, and messages exchanged between theU. S. and England. 30 July, 1866 Recovers the lost cable of 1865, 2 Sept. 1866, and completes the laying at Newfoundland 8 Sept. " Great Eastern returns to Liverpool, arriving 19 Sept. " Sails for New York prepared for 2000 passengers for the Paris exposition, and returns with 191. She is seized on her arrival by the seamen, claiming their wages May, 1867 Successfully lays the French Atlantic cable, leaving Brest with 2725 miles of cable, 22 June, reaching the island of St. Pierre, near gulf of St. Lawrence 13 July, 1869 Arrives at Bombay with the Bombay and Suez cable. . .27 Feb. 1870 Completes the laying of the 5th Atlantic cable 3 July, 1873 Lays the 6th Atlantic cable Aug. -Sept. 1874 Sold at auction at Lloyds' to Frederick de Mattos for 26,200^., 29 Oct. 1885 Beached at New Ferry on the Mersey to be broken up, 25 Aug. 1888 Oreat IWEeaclows. Virginia, 1754. ■ great seal of England. The first seal used by Edward the Confessor was called the broad seal, and affixed to the grants of the crown, 1048. — Baker's Chron. The most ancient seal with arms is that of Richard I. James II., when fleeing from London in 1688, dropped the great seal in the Thames. The great seal of England was stolen from the house of lord chancellor Thurlow in Great Ormond street, London, and carried away, with other property, 24 Mch. 1784, a day before the dissolution of Parliament ; it was never recovered, and was replaced the next day. A new seal was brought into use on the union with Ireland, 1 Jan. 1801. A new seal for Ireland was brought into use and the old one defaced, 21 Jan. 1832. The Great Seal Offices act, passed 7 Aug. 1874, abolished cer- tain offices, transferred duties, etc. The Great Seal act, passed 2 Aug. 1880, relates to appointment of judges, patents, etc. great seal of the Confederacy. Joint reso- lution to establish a seal for the Confederate States passed by the Confederate congress, and approved 30 Apr. 1863. Made in England, and completed July, 1864, at a cost of $600. It reached Richmond in Apr. 1865, about the time of its evac- uation, and was never used. It is now in the office of the state secretary of South Carolina. great seal of the United States. Immedi- ately after the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, 4 July, 1776, a committee was appointed to prepare a device for a seal, but the matter was not consummated until 20 June, 1782, when the present seal was adopted. The device is, on one side a spread eagle with a shield with 13 stripes pale- ways, and a chief azure ; in one talon a bundle of arrows, in the other an olive branch ; in its beak a scroll with the motto E pluribus unum ; and over its head a glory breaking from the clouds, surrounding 13 stars. On the reverse is an unfin- ished pyramid, symboUing the growth and strength of the states ; over it the all-seeing eye in a triangle, surrounded by a glory, and around the rim the words Annuit coeptis (God has favored the undertaking), and Novus ordo seclorum (a new order of things). This seal has never been changed, and is in charge of the secretary of state. Oreece, anciently termed Hellas, a kingdom in the southeastern part of Europe. The Greeks are fabled to have been the progeny of Javan, 4th son of Japheth. Mythol- ogy derived the name Greece from an ancient king, Graecus, and Hellas from another king, Hellen, son of Deucalion. From Hellen's sons, Dorus and ^Eolus, came the Dorians and iEolians; another son, Xuthus, was father of Achaeus and Ion, progenitors of the Achaeans and lonians. Homer calls the inhabitants indifferently Myrmidons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They were also termed Danai, from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. Greece anciently consisted of the peninsula of PpL- OPONNESus, containing the states of Achaia, Arcadia, Ar- golis, chief city Argos, Elis, Laconia, chief city Sparta; Messenia, The other states of Greece separated from the Peloponnesus by the isthmus of Corinth (which isthmus con- stituted the state of Corinthia, chief city Corinth), were AcARNANiA, ^TOLiA, Attica, chief city Athens ; Bceotia, chief city Thebes; Dolopia, Doris (inhabitants Dorians), Epirus, Eub(ea, an island, Locris (inhabitants Locrians), Mackdon, Megaris, chief city Megara ; Phocis, chief city Delphi, Thessaly, and the islands. The limits of modern Greece are much more confined. Greece* became subject to the Turkish empire in the 15th century. The pop- ulation of the kingdom, established in 1829, 96,810; in 1861, GRE 340 GRE 1,096,810, with the Ionian isles (added in 1864), about 1,348,522; in 1870, 1,457,894. Area, including Thessaly, 25,041 sq. miles ; pop. 1889, 2,187,208. The early history is mythic. b.c. Sicyon founded (Eusebius) 2089 Uninus arrives in (Jreece (Lenglet) 2042 Revolt of the TiUins; war of the Giants * * Inachus, king of the Argi ves 1910 Kingdom of Argos begun by Inachus (Etisebius) 1866 Reign of Ogyges in Boeotia {Eusebius) 1796 &icriflce8 to the gods introduced by Phoroneus 1773 Sicyon now begun (Lenglet) " Deluge of Ogyoks 1764 A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under (Enotrus: the country first called (Enotria, afterwards Magna Grsecia (Eu- sebiui) 1710 Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus, 1700-1550; succeeded by the Hellenes 1550-1300 Chronology of the Arundelian marbles commences {Etuebitis). 1582 Cecrops arrives from Kgypt about 15§0 Akeopaous csUiblished 1504 Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) 1503 Panatbenaean games instituted 1495 Cadmus with the Phoenician letters settles in Boeotia, and founds Thebes about 1493 Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards called Sparta. 1490 Danaus, king of Argos (Danai), said to have brought the first ship ^nto Greece, and to have introduced pumps 1485 Reign of Hellen (Eusebius) 1459 First Olympic games at Elis, by the Fdai Dactyli 1453 Who are said to have discovered iron 1406 Corinth rebuilt and so named 1384 Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumolpus ^1356) and Isth- mian games 1326 Kingdom of Mycenae created out of Argos 1313 Pelops, from Lydia, settles in south Greece (Peloponnesus), about 1283 Argonautic expedition (Argonauts) 1263 Pythian games begun by Adrastus " War of the 7 Greek captains against Thebes 1225 Amazonian war 1213 Rape of Helen by Theseus (Sparta) v " Rape of Helen by Paris 1204 Commencement of the Trojan war 1193 Troy taken and destroyed on the night of the 7th of the month Thargelion (27 May or 11 June) 1184 iEneas said to have arrived in Italy about 1182 Migration of iEoIians, who build Smyrna, etc 1123 Return of the Heraclidse about 1103 Settlement of the lonians in Asia Minor 1044 Rhodians begin navigation laws 916 Lycurgus flourishes 846 Olympic games revived at Elis, 884; the first Olympiad; the beginning of authentic chronology in Greece 776 Messenian wars 743-669 Sea-fight, first on record, between Corinthians and the inhab- itants of the island of Corcyra 664 Byzantium built 657 Seven s ages of Grggfig^Solon, Periander, Pittacus, Chilo, Thales, "ClSCtfOttrsrand Bias) flourish • about • 590 Persian conquests in Ionia 544 Sybaris in Magna Grsecia destroyed; 100,000 Crotonians un- der Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites 508 Sardis burned by Greeks, provoking Persian invasion 504 Thrace and Macedonia conquered 496 Athens and Sparta resist demands of king of Persia 490 Persians defeated at Marathon 28 Sept. 491 Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked at Thermopyl^ by Le- onidas Aug. 480 Battle of Salamis 20 Oct. " Mardonius defeated and slain at Plat^a; Persian fleet de- stroyed at Mycale 22 Sept. 479 Battle of Eurymedon (end of Persian war) 466 Athens begins to tyrannize over Greece 459 Sacred war begun 448 War between Corinth and its colony Corcyra 435 Leads to the Peloponnesian war 431-404 Disastrous Athenian expedition to Syracuse 415-413 Athenian fleet defeated by Lysander the Spartan at ^Egospo- tami Sept. 405 Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon 400 Death of Socrates 399 Sea-fight at C.nidus 394 Peace of Antalcidas 387 Rise and fall of the Theban power in Greece 370-360 Battle of Mantinea ; death of Epaminondas 362 Ambitious designs of Philip of Macedon 353 Sacred wars ended by Philip, who subdues the Phocians; 348 Battle of Ch^ronea 338 Philip assassinated by Pausanias 335 Alexander, his son, subdues Athenians, and destroys Thebes. . " Alexander conquers the Persian empire 334-331 Rise of Pyrrhus the Great (Epircs, Rome) 295 Greece harassed by Alexander's successors; revive the^tolian and Achaian leagues (Achaia) 284-280 Greece invaded by Gauls, 280; they are defeated at Delphi, 279; and expelled 277 Dissensions lead to Roman intervention 200 Greece conquered by Mummius and made a Roman province, 147-146 Greece visited and favored by Augustus, 21 b.c. ; and by Ha- a.d. drian 122-133 Invaded by Alaric Plundered by the Normans of Sicily lUft Conquered by Latins, and divided into small governments 1204 Turks under Mahomet II. conquer Athens and part of Greece. , 1456 Venetians hold Athens and the Morea 1466 Greece mainly subject to the Turks 1540 Morea held by Venice 1687-1715 Struggle for independence with Russian help, 1770 et seq. ; fVuitless insurrection of the Suliotes 180S Secret society, the Hetairia, established 1815 Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, in which Greeks join, suppressed 1821 Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake off" Turkish yoke, Mch. ; he raises the standard of the cross against the cres- cent, and war of independence begins " 6 Apr. " Greek patriarch put to death at Constantinople 23 Apr. " Morea gained by the Greeks June, " Missolonghi taken by Greeks Nov. " Independence of Greece proclaimed 27 Jan. 1822 Siege of Corinth by the Turks Jan. Bombardment of Scio; its capture; most horrible massacre recorded in modern history (Chios) 11 Apr. Greeks victors at Thermopylae, etc 13 July, Massacre at Cyprus July, Corinth taken 16 Sept. National congress at Argos 10 Apr. 1823 Victories of Marco Bozzaris. June; killed 10 Aug. Lord Byron in Greece, embraces its cause Aug. First Greek loan Feb. 1824 Death of lord Byron at Missolonghi 19 Apr. Defeat of the capitan pacha at Samos 16 Aug. Provisional government of Greece set up 12 Oct. Ibrahim Pacha lands, 25 Feb.; takes Navarino, 23 May; Tri- politza 30 June,1825 Greek fleet defeats the capitan pacha June, " Provisional government asks protection of England July, " Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by assault, after a long and heroic defence 23 Apr. 1826 Seventy thousand pounds raised in Europe for the Greeks " Reschid Pacha takes Athens 2 June, 1827 Egypto-Turkish fleet destroyed at Navarixo 20 Oct. "• Treaty of London, between Great Britain, Russia, and France, on behalf of Greece, signed 6 July, " Count Capo d'Istria president of Greece 18 Jan. 1828 Panhellenion, Grand Council of State, established 2 Feb. " National bank founded 14 Feb. " Convention of viceroy of Egypt with sir Edward Codrington for evacuation of Morea and delivery of captives 6 Aug. " Patras, Navarino, and Modon surrender to French 6 Oct. " Turks evacuate the Morea , Oct. " Missolonghi surrendered to Greece 16 May, 1829 Greek National Assembly meets at Argos 23 July, " Porte acknowledges independence of Greece by treaty of Adrianople 14 Sept. " Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg declines the sovereignty, 21 May, 1830 Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, assassinated by the brother and son of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote chief whom he had imprisoned 9 Oct. 1831 Assassins built into close brick walls to their chins, and sup- plied with food until they die 29 Oct. " Crown offered to and accepted by Otho of Bavaria, previously under a regency 7 May, 1832 Otho I. assumes the government 1 June, 1835 University at Athens established, 1837; building commenced.. 1839 Leopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to the throne Jan. 1862 Insurrection at Patras and Missolonghi, 17 Oct. ; provisional government at Athens deposes the king, 23 Oct. ; he and the queen flee; arrive at Corfu, 27 Oct. ; European powers neu- tral; general submission to provisional government. .31 Oct. " Demonstrations in favor of prince Alfred of Great Britain, who is proclaimed king at Lamia in Phthiotis, 22 Nov. ; excite- ment in his favor at Athens 23 Nov. " Provisional government grants universal suffrage 4 Dec. " National Assembly meets at Athens 22 Dec. " National Assembly elects M. Ralbis president, 29 Jan. ; prince Alfred chosen king by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes 3 Feb. 1863 Assembly offers crown to prince William of Schleswig-Holstein, 18 Mch. ; proclaims him as king George 1 30 Mch. " Protocol between the 3 protecting powers— F'rance, England, and Russia — signed at London, consenting to offer on condi- tion of annexation of the Ionian isles to Greece 5 June, " King of Denmark accepts from the aged adm. Canaris the Greek crown for prince William, whom he advises to adhere to the constitution and gain the love of his people. . .(> June, " King arrives at Athens, 30 Oct. ; takes oath to the constitution, 31 Oct. " Balbis ministry formed 28 Apr. 1864 Protocol annexing Ionian isles to Greece, signed by M. Zaimis and sir H. Storks, 28 May; Greek troops occupy Corfu, 2 June; king arrives there 6 June, " New ministry under Canaris formed 7 Aug. "■ Assembly recognizes the debt of 1824 5 Sept. "^ After delay and remonstrance from the king, 19 Oct., a new constitution (no upper house) passed by assembly, 1 Nov. ; accepted by king 28 Nov. " Agitation in favor of Cretan insurrection (Candia). . Aug.-Dec. 1866 Great sympathy With insurrection in Candia; blockade run by Greek vessels with volunteers, arms, and provisions, Apr. et seq. 1861 King marries grand-duchess Olga of Russia 27 Oct. " 4 M.'l GRE 341 Rupture between Turkey and Greece in consequence of Greek armed intervention in Candia Dec. 1868 After conference of western powers at Paris, Jan., their requi- sitions accepted, and diplomatic relations between Turkey and Greece resumed 26 Feb. 1869 Law for cutting isthmus of Corinth passed 7 Nov. " Concession to cut a canal through isthmus of Corinth granted to a French company Apr. 1870 Lord and lady Muncaster and a party of English travellers seized by brigands at Oropos, near Marathon ; lord Muncas- ter and the ladies sent to treat; 25,000;. demanded as ran- som, with pardon 11 Apr. " Brigands retreating, surrounded by troops, kill Mr. Vyner, Mr. Lloyd, Mr. Herbert, and count de Boyl 21 Apr. " Great excitement; influential persons charged with connivance at brigandage May, June, " Several brigands killed; 7 captured; tried and condemned, 23 May; 5 executed 20 June, " Decree for suppression of brigandage issued Oct. " Discovery of relics at Spata, near Athens; tombs containing bones, precious metal ornaments, etc. (removed to Athens by M. Stamataki) about 1 July, 1877 Revival of Theban "sacred band," instituted by Epaminondas (to be 1000 instead of 300) about July, " Insurrection in Thessaly against Turks, 28 Jan. ; 10,000 Greeks enter the country, retire at the armistice early in Feb. 1878 Insurrection struggling ; battles at Macrinitza, 28, 29 Mch. ; C. Ogle, Times correspondent, killed by Turks (investigation led to no result) 29 Mch. " Insurrection closed through British intervention; announced, 6 May, " Greece disappointed by Berlin treaty, 13 July; rectification of frontiers by sultan, proposed ; . . .about 24 July, " Convention of Turkey and Greece at Constantinople; Thessaly ceded to Greece, 24 May ; signed 2 July, 1881 Carried into effect; Greek flag raised in Arta 6 July, " Railway from Athens to Corinth opened 15 Apr. 1885 Great discovery of statuary near the Acropolis, Athens 1886 Crown-prince Constantino, duke of Sparta, marries princess Sophie of Prussia, sister of emperor of Germany 27 Oct. 1889 Statues, etc. , supposed to be the work of Phidias at Rhamnus in Attica, discovered Oct. 1890 Seventieth anniversary of Greek independence 6 Apr. 1891 Canal across the isthmus of Corinth begun 5 May, 1882; com- pleted 1893 This canal is about 4 miles long, 27 ft. deep, 71 ft. wide at the top, and 69 ft. at the bottom. The lease to the company extends for 99 years, when the canal falls to the government on payment of $1,000,000 to the company. This canal shortens the route from the Adriatic to Constantinople by 185 nautical miles, and effects a great saving in distance to other ports of the Mediter- ranean. KINGS OF GREECE. 1832. Otho L, prince of Bavaria; b. 1 June, 1815; elected king, 7 May, 1832; under regency till 1 June, 1835; married, 22 Nov. 1836, to Maria Frederica, daughter of grand-duke of Olden- burg; deposed 23 Oct. 1862; d. in Bavaria, 26 July, 1867. 1863. George I. (son of Christian IX. of Denmark), king of the Hel- lenes; b. 24 Dec. 1845; accepted the crown, 6 June, 1863; declared of age, 27 June, 1863; married grand-duchess Olga of Russia, 27 Oct. 1867. Heir: Constantino, duke of Sparta, b. 2 Aug. 1868; married to princess Sophie of Prussia, 27 Oct. 1889. Heir: George, b. 19 July, 1890. Greek architecture. Architecture. Greek church, or Eastern church. While disowning the supremacy of the pope and rejecting many doc- trines and practices of the Roman church, the Greek church is both the source and background of it. The council of Nicsea (325) recognized 3 patriarchs — the bishop of Rome, of Alexandria, and of Antioch ; to these were afterwards added the bishops of Constantinople and Jerusalem. The relation of the Greek church to the Roman is one of growing estrange- ment from the 5th century to its final separation in 1054 with several abortive attempts to unite since. The estrangement and final rupture may be traced to the overweening preten- sions of the Roman bishops and to Western innovations in the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, accompanied by an alteration of the creed, etc., strengthened by a difference in the religious spirit and ideas of each. "Greek theology had its root in Greek philosophy, while a great deal of Western theology was based on Roman law. The Greek fathers succeeded the Greek sophists, while the Latin theologian succeeded the Ro- man advocate."— ;S'/an%, "Eastern Church," ch. i. The prime difference in the doctrine of the two churches lies in the pro- cession of the Holy Ghost from the Father only, or from the Father and the Son ; the Greek church teaching the former doctrine, and the Roman the latter. In the Greek church, too, patriarchs of equal dignity have higher rank among the bishops, instead of pope ; and priests are allowed to marry once. The number of sacraments is also different. The or- GRE thodox Greek church includes various churches produced by jealousy of race or by territorial division which are indepen- dent or autocephalous, and yet one in doctrine with their head. The most important of these are, the churches of Russia, Georgia, Servia, Roumania, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, etc. The orthodox Greek church (1893) is estimated to contain 98,000,000 people. Fathers of the Church. Catechetical school at Alexandria (Origen, Clemens, etc. ) 180-254 Rise of monachism about 300 Foundation of churches of Armenia, about 300; of Georgia or Iberia ° 3^3 First council of Nice (Cooncils of the Chcrch) . . ! .' .* . '. . .' . " ." . 325 Rivalry between Rome and Constantinople begins about 340 Ulphilas preaches to the Goths about 376 Nestorius the bishop nominated the first patriarch of Constan- tinople 9 juiv, 381 On the death of Theodosius the Roman empire finally divided between his sons Arcadius and Honorius, the former receiv- ing the East and the latter the West 17 Jan. 395 [When the empire was divided there was one patriarch in the West (bishop of Rome), while in the East there were at first 2, then 4, and later 5.] Nestorius condemned at the council of Ephesus 431 Jerusalem made a patriarchate with jurisdiction over Pales- tine ^ 451 Monophysite controversy; churches of Egypt, Syria, and Ar- menia part from church of Constantinople 461 Close of school of Athens ; extinction of Platonic theology 529 .racobite sect founded in Syria by Jacobus Baradseus 541 Struggle with Mahometans begins » 634 FiLiOQUE in the Nicene creed rejected by the Eastern church. . 662 Maronite sect begins to prevail about 676 I'aulicians severely persecuted 690 Iconoclastic controversy begins about 726 Pope Gregory II. excommunicates emperor Leo ; hence the sep- aration of the Eastern (Greek) and Western (Roman) churches, 729 Image-worship condemned 734 Foundation of church in Russia; conversion of princess Olga, 955; of Vladimir 988 Pope Leo IX. excommunicates the Eastern church 1054 Maronites join the Roman church 1182 Reunion of Eastern and Western churches at council of Lyons, 1274 (more political than ecclesiastical); again separated 1277 Orthodox confession of faith put forth in 1643 Proposed union with church of England 1723 Patriarchate of Moscow established, 1582 ; suppressed 1762 Archimandrite Nilos, representing Constantinople and 4 patri- archates, visits London on behalf of Greek clergy in Danu- bian principalities 1863 Pope's invitation to an oecumenical council, 8 Dec. 1869; de- clined by patriarch of Constantinople about 3 Oct. 1868 Letter from patriarch Gregory to archbishop of Canterbury ac- knowledging receipt of English prayer-book, and objecting to some of "Thirty-nine Articles" dated 8 Oct. 1869 Greek church at Liverpool consecrated by an archbishop, 16 Jan. 1870 Greek empire. Eastern empire. Oreek lire, a combustible composition (unknown, thought to have been principally naphtha) thrown from en- gines, said to have been invented by Callinicus, an engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the 7th century, to destroy the Sar- acens' ships, which was effected by the general of the fleet of Constantine Pogonatus, and 30,000 men were killed. A so- called " Greek fire," probably a solution of phosphorus in bi- sulphide of carbon, was employed at siege of Charleston, S. C, Sept. 1863. Oreek lang^uag'e. The study was revived in W. Europe about 1450 ; in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, an English professor of this language, intro- duced it at Oxford, about 1491, where he taught Erasmus, who taught it at Cambridge in 1510. — Wood's A then. Oxon. England has produced many eminent Greek scholars, such as Richard Bentley, died 1742 ; prof. Richard Porson, died 1808 ; dr. Samuel Parr, died 1825 ; and dr. Charles Burney, died 1817. " Society for Promoting Hellenic Studies" formed 16 June,1879. A " Greek Club," for the study of the language and literature of ancient Greece, was founded in New York by prof. Henry Drisler, rev. dr. Howard Crosby, and others, in 1857, and is still maintained. Modern Greek literature is now culti- vated. Oreek literature and authors. Literature. Oreeley'S peace mi§§ion. United States, 1864. Oreely's arctic expedition. Abstinence, Northeast and Northwest passages. g'reenl>ackS, a name given, from the predominating color of the ink, to notes for a dollar and upwards, first issued ORE 342 by the United States government in 1862. Notes for lower sums (even 3 cents) were termed " fractional currency." Oreeiie's femou§ retreat. United States, 1781. Oreeillaild is the name applied to a large continental island separated from North America by Davis strait, lying mostly within the arctic circle, belonging to Denmark, and supposed to extend from lat. 59° 49' N. to lat. 84° N. It was discovered by Icelanders, under Eric Raude, about 980, and name in. ' Orimm'S lai¥ of the* transmutation of consonants in the Aryan family of languages; propounded by Jacob L.Grimm in his " History of the German Languages," in 1848. Labials. Dentals. Gutturali. Greek, Latin, Sanskrit p b f Gothic ./ p b Old High German 6 (u) fp t d th \ k g ch th t d\ k d z t\g ch k Examples: Sanskrit, pi7ri; Greek and Latin, pato*; Italian, padre; Spanish, padre; French, pcre ; Gothic, /adrctn (pL); Old High German, mtor; English, /aof Lords, hired for the purpose, pre- paring a train to be fired the next day. Catesby and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were killed at Hoi house, whither they had fled, 8 Nov. ; and Guy Faux, sir] Everard Digby, Rookwood, Winter, and others were executed,; 80, 31 Jan. 1 606. Henry Garnet, a Jesuit, suffered as an accom plice, 3 May following. The discovery was occasioned by an anonymous letter sent to lord Monteagle, which said : " Though there be no appearance of any stir, yet I say they shall re- ceive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall notj see who hurts them." In 1825, the vault called Guy Faux eel lar, in which barrels of gunpowder were lodged, was converted into offices. Ounter's chain, 66 ft. long, divided into 100 linka, is used in measuring land. It was invented by Edmund Gua' ter in 1606. gutta-perclia, a gum from the sap of the Isonandra gutta, a large forest-tree of the Malay peninsula and neighbor- ing islands. It was made known in England by drs. De Al meida and Montgomery, at the Society of Arts, in 1843. Being a non-conductor of electricity, it is invaluable as an insulator] and its use in submarine telegraphs was suggested by Faraday and Werner Siemens independently, 1847. gymna'sium, a place where the Greeks performed public exercises, and where philosophers, poets, and rhetorl cians repeated their compositions. In wrestling and boxing the athletes were often naked (gymnos), whence the name — The gymnasia in Germany are the classical schools prepar- ing pupils in a nine years' course for the universities and the learned professions. gypsies, gipsies, or Egyptians (Fr. Bohemiens It. Zingari; Sp. Gitanos ; Ger. Zigeuner), vagrants, supposecB to be descendants of low-caste Hindus expelled by TimourJ about 1399. They appeared in Germany and Italy early the 15th century, and at Paris in 1427. In England an acfl was passed to suppress them as vagabonds in 1530 ; and undei Charles 1. 13 persons were executed at one assizes for havingf associated with gypsies for a month. The gypsy settlement at Norwood, England, was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants, Maj'-, 1797. There were in Spain alone, before 1800, more than 120,000 gypsies, and there are communities of them in England. Notwithstanding their intercourse with other nations, their manners, customs, visage, and appearance are almost wholly unchanged, and their pretended knowledge of futurity gives them power over the superstitious. Esther Faa was crowned queen of the gypsies at Blyth, England, on 18 Nov. 1860. The Bible has been translated into gypsy dialects. Gypsy parliaments are occasionally held. George Borrow fraternized with the gypsies and wrote several works describing his adventures, especially "The Zincali " (1841), "The Bible in Spain " (1842), " Lavengro " (1850), and a " Diction- ary of the Gypsy Language " (1874). He was b. in 1803, and d. in Aug. 1881. gy'rOSCOpe (from Gr. yvpoQ, ring, and aKoirkix), to observe), a rotatory apparatus invented by Fessel of Cologne (1852), improved by prof. Wheatstone and M. Foucault of Paris. It is similar in principle to the rotatory apparatus of Bohnenberger of Tubingen (b. 1765, d. 1831). The gyro- scope, by exhibiting the combination and counteraction of centrifugal and centripetal forces, illustrates the laws of motion. H H. This letter of the alphabet has varied in form from the Phoenician and old Hebrew symbol B, called Cheth,only by the removal of the upper and lower horizontal lines. Haarlem (hdr^lem), an ancient town in Holland, men- tioned in the register of the 10th century. Through count William II. it obtained a charter in 1245. For a short time in 1492 it was occupied by the insurgents called the " bread- and-cheese folk." Its inhabitants took a prominent part in the revolt of the Netherlands. It was invested by the duke of Alva with a force of 30,000, Dec. 1572, and surrendered af- ter a heroic defence, July, 1573. Alva violated his capitula- tion promises and destroyed nearly half the inhabitants. It was recovered from the Spaniards by the prince of Orange in 1577. The lake was drained 1848-52, liberating 42,000 acres of land; estimated cost of drainage, $3,600,000. Pop. 1890, 51,626. Habak'kuk, one of the minor prophets of the Old Testament, 606 b.c. — Usher. habeas eorpus (in England). The subjects' Writ of Right, passed " for the better securing the liberty of the subject," 31 Charles II. c. 2, 27 May, 1679, If any person be imprisoned by the order of any court, or of the queen, he may have a writ of habeas corpus to bring him before the queen s bench or common pleas, which shall determine whether bis HAB 345 HAL committal be just. This act (founded on the old common-law) is next in importance to Magna Charta. Parliament may suspend the Habeas Corpus act for a specified time in a great emergency. Then the nation parts with a portion of liberty to secure its permanent welfare, and suspected per- sons may then be arrested without cause assigned. — Black- stone. Act suspended for a short time 1689, 1696, 1708 Suspended for Scots' rebellion 1715-16 J Suspended for 12 months 1722 ; Suspended for Scots' rebellion 1744-45 Suspended for American war 1777-79 j Again by Mr. Pitt, owing to French revolution 1794 Suspended in Ireland in the great rebellion 1798 ! Suspended in England 28 Aug. 1799, and 14 Apr. 1801 j Again, on account of Irish insurrection 1803 [ Again, on alleged secret meetings 21 Feb. 1817 ; Bill to restore habeas corpus introduced 28 Jan. 1818 Suspended in Ireland (insurrection) 24 July, 1848 J Kestored there 1 Mch. 1849 Suspended again (Fenians). 17 Feb. 1866; 26 Feb. and 31 May, 1 1867; and 28 Feb. 1808, till 25 Mch. 1869 ; Because of the affair of John Anderson (Slavery in England), an . act of 1862 enacted that no writ of habeas corpus should issue out of England to any colony, etc., having a court with authority to grant such writ. liabea§ corpus (in the United States). The Con- stitution of the U. S. provides that " the privilege of ! habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it ;" but does not specify what department of the government may j suspend it. A series of contests on this subject began with the civil war and continued throughout, both as to the legality of suspension and the jurisdiction. The writ of habeas corpus was first suspended by pres. Lincoln between Washington and Philadelphia, 27 Apr. 1861, in instructions to gen. Scott - (it had been suspended by state authority in Rhode Island for ' a brief time during Dorr's rebellion). : President suspends the writ in Key West, Tortugas, and Santa i Rosa 10 May, 1861 ! Further extension 2 July, " | Chief-justice Taney issues a writ of habeas corpus 27 May. to j gen. Geo. Cadwallader on appeal by John Merryman of Bal- j timore. then confined in fort McHenry 25 May, " [On the general's refusal to obey the writ Taney attempts i to arrest him, but fails.] j Theophilus Parsons supports president's power to suspend, ! 5 June, " I Attorney general Bates asserts the president's power to declare martial law and suspend the writ of Aafteas co?7JMS.... 5 July, " j One hundred and seventy-four persons committed to fort | Lafayette July to Oct. " j Suspension of the writ made general 24 Sept. 1862 i Congress by act upholds this power 3 Mch. 1863 : Vallandigham arrested (United States) 4 May, " j President suspends by proclamation 15 Sept. " All persons held under suspension of the writ discharged. May, 1804 Suspends in Kentucky 5 July, " Pres. Johnson restores the writ of habeas corpus except in the late insurrectionary states. District of Columbia, New Mexico, and Arizona, by proclamation 11 Dec. 1865 In all states and territories except Texas 2 Apr. 1866 Throughout the U. S 20 Aug. " Thirty-eight thousand arrests were made according to the pro- vost-marshal's record, Washington, during the rebellion. MiLLIGAN CASE ; StONE, BRIG. -GEN. CHARLES P., CaSe Of. Hades (Gr. "AV^ijg) (a, not, and dSu), to see), originally the god of the lower world, and only in this sense in Homer. Hence the place of departed spirits. The word Sheol of the Hebrews expresses the same idea. The later Greek as well as Hebrew thought divided the place into 2 parts. Later still the idea developed into the contrasted spheres of Heaven and Hell, including the Purgatory of the church. Hadrian's wall, built to prevent irruptions of Scots and Picts into the northern counties of England, then under Roman government, extended from the Tyne to Solway frith. It was 80 miles long, 12 feet high, and 8 feet thick, ^\ith mile castles and smaller sentry boxes between. Along its whole northern side was a ditch or fosse about 36 feet wide I' and 15 feet deep, while on the southern side was a Roman road connecting the garrisons of the different stations. It was probably from 10 to 15 years in building, and required 10,000 men to garrison its stations. Probably built under Hadrian 1 121 A.D., and extended by Servius 207-^10. Hafsfiord (kofs-fe-ord'), Norway. Here Harold Har- fager, in a sea-fight, defeated his enemies, and consolidated his kingdom, 872. A millenary festival was held throughout Nor- way, and a monument to his memory set up at Hangesund^ by prince Oscar of Sweden, 18 July, 1872. Ha^ue, the, capital of Holland, once called the finest village in Europe ; the place of meeting of the States- general, and residence of the former earls of Holland since 1260, when William XL built the palace here. Pop. 1890^ 160,531. Here the states abjured the authority of Philip II. of Spain 1580^ A conference upon the 5 articles of remonstrants, which occa- sioned the synod of Dort 1610' Treaty at the Hague (to preserve equilibrium of the North) of England, France, and Holland 21 May, 1659^ De Witts torn in pieces here 4 Aug. 1672; French, favored by a hard frost, took possession of the Hague; inhabitants and troops declared in their favor; revolution ensued; stadtholder and family fled to England 19 Jan. 1795- The Hague evacuated by the French Nov. 1813 Stadtholder returned Dec. " " Hail, Columbia !" This patriotic song was. written by Joseph Hopkinson, 29 Apr. 1798, when the United States were threatened with a war with France. It was com- posed to the air of the " President's March," for a young actor and singer in the Philadelphia theatre, and became at once highly popular. Literature; New York city, 1789. liail-§toriIlS. Storms. Hainault forest, Essex, Engl., disafferested in 185U Here stood the Fairlop oak. Hainailt (ha'-no'), a frontier province of Belgium^ anciently governed by counts hereditary after Regnier I., who died in 916. The count John d'Arsenes became count of Hol- land in 1299. Hainaut henceforth partook of the fortunes of Flanders. Haine§'§ HlufT, Operations at. Vicksburg cam- paign. liair. In Gaul, hair was much esteemed ; hence the ap- pellation Gallia comata; cutting off the hair was a punishments The royal family of France held it a privilege to wear long hair artfully dressed and curled. " The clerical tonsure is of apostolic institution ! " — Isidorus Hispalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, 155. Long hair was a distinctive mark of the cavaliers or followers of Charles I. of England, as short hair was of the Roundheads, during the civil war and protectorate of Cromwell, 1642-60. Of late years the hair is worn much shorter than formerly. Hakluyt (hak'-loot) Society, England, for the pub- lication of rare voyages and travels, 15 Dec. 1846, was named after Richard Hakluyt, who published his " Principal Nav- igations, Voyages, and Discoveries made by the English Nation," in 1589 ; and died 23 Nov. 1616, aged 63. Virginia, 1606. iialcyon (Gr. aXKvdjv, king-fisher), a poetic name for the king-fisher ; and since that bird was fabled to lay its eggs- on the waves, and to keep the sea calm during incubation,. " halcyon days" are days of calm and peace. Hale, capt. Nathan, the Ameri'^an spy, belonged to^ Knowlton's regiment and accepted ihe perilous service of ex- ploring the British camp on Long Island under instructions- from gen. Washington, then retreating to Harlem Heights. With the desired information, he was discovered before reach- ing the American lines, through a Tory kinsman, and hanged next morning. 22 Sept. 1777, without tritVi and with insult and cruelty. He was a graduate of YaW, 1773, and died at the age of 22. His statue erected in City Hall park, N. Y.,. Dec. i893. New York, 1777. Half-breeds. Political parties. Hariearnas'siis, now Boodroom, an ancient town of Caria, Asia Minor, reputed birthplace of Herodotus,. 484 B.C. ; site of the tomb of Mausolus, erected 352 ; taken by Alexander, 334. Mausoleum. Halidon hill, near Berwick, where, on 19 July, 1.S33,. the English defeated the Scots, killing more than 14,000, with the regent Douglas and many nobles ; the English loss was- small. Edward Balliol thus became king of Scotland for a short time. Halifax, capital of Nova Scotia, lat. 44° 37' N., Ion. 63°^ HAL 846 38' W., was founded by the hon. Edward Cornwallis in 1749, and named after the earl of Halifax. Pop. 1891, 38,556. Halle, Prussian Saxony, N. Germany, first mentioned 801, made a city by the emperor Otho II., in 981. University founded bj' Frederick I., 1694, recognized as one of the princi- pal schools of Protestant theology. The orphan-house was established by August Francke, 1698-99. Halle suflFered much by the Thirty Years' and Seven Yedrs' wars. It was stormed by the French, 17 Oct. 1806, and added to Westphalia ; but given to Prussia in 1814. Pop. 1890, 101,401. hallcliyall and amen {Praise the Lord, and So be it), expressions in Hebrew hymns, ascribed to Haggai about 520 B.C. Their introduction into Christian worship is ascribed to St. Jerome, about 390 a.d. Hallo-ween or HallOir-eve, the evening before All-Saints' day, the night of Oct. 31, in many countries a time for superstitious ceremonies, and in Scotland especially devoted by young people to playful divination for predicting future husbands or wives. " Amang the bonny, winding banks. Where Doon rins, wimplin', clear, Where Bruce ance ruled the martial ranks, And shook his Carrick spear, Some merry, friendly, country folks Together did convene. To burn their nits, and pou their stocks, And baud their Halloween Fu' blythe that night." — Burns, "Halloween." halo, a circle of light around the sun or moon, produced by refraction through minute ice crystals suspended in the at- mosphere. Ha'lys, a river in Asia Minor, near which a battle be- tween Lydians and Medes was interrupted by an almost total ■eclipse of the sun, which led to peace, 28 May, 585 B.C. (the 4th year of the 48th Olympiad).— P/^■w2^, <'Nat. Hist." ii. Others date it 584, 603, or 610 b.c. This eclipse is said to have been predicted many years before by Thales of Miletus. — Herodotus, i. 75. Ham, a town on the Somme, N. France. The castle was built in 1470 by the constable Louis of Luxembourg, <;omte de St. Pol, beheaded by Louis XL, 19 Dec. 1475. Here were imprisoned the ex-ministers of Charles X., 1830, and Louis Napoleon after his attempt at Boulogne, from Oct. 1840, till 25 May, 1846, when he escaped by the aid of Maz- zini. Hamburg^, a free city of N.W. Germany, on the right bank of the Elbe, founded by Charlemagne about 809. It joined the Hanseatic league (Hanse towns) in the 13th centurv, and became a flourishing commercial cit}\ Pop. in 1860,229,941; 1871,338,974; 1875,338,618; 1890,323,923. Its territory includes 158 sq. miles, with a pop., 1890, of «22,530. A free imperial city by permission of dukes of Holstein, 1296; subject to them till 1618 ; purchased total exemption from their claims. 1768 French declared war upon Hamburg for treachery in giving up Napper Tandy (Tandy) , Oct. 1799 British property sequestrated Mch. 1801 Hamburg taken by French after battle of Jena 1806 Incorporated with France 1810 Evacuated by French on Russian advance into Germany 1813 Restored to independence by the allies May, 1814 Hamburg joined North German confederation 21 Aug. 1866 Joined German empire, Jan. ; privileges as free portconflrmed, 16 Apr. 1871 Yisitation of Cholera 1892 South Carolina, HAN Hamburg, s. C, massacre. 1876. Hamilton and Burr. New York, 1804. Hampton Court palace, Middlesex, Engl., feuilt by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the manor-house of the knights hospitallers, and in 1525 presented to Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, 12 Oct. 1537 ; here his mother, Jane Seymour, died, 24 Oct. following ; and here Mary, Eliza- •beth, Charles, and other sovereigns resided. Much was pulled ugh stem and alternate lobed leaves ; probably a native of Antral Asia. Its fibre was made into cloth in early times — entioned by Herodotus, The Anglo-Saxons had hempen oth, and it was in common use in central and southern Eu- rope in the 13th century. Hemp-seed was ordered for the Plymouth colony, Massachusetts, 1629, and has been cultivated in the United States ever since ; most largely in Kentucky,^ Tennessee, Missouri, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. It is exten- sively used in cables, ropes, cordage, twine, sacking, tarpau- lins, canvas, sail-cloth, etc. The process of preparation of the fibre is similar to that of flax. The finest hemp grows in Italy and Russia. The Cannabis indica, or Indian hemp, from which the intoxicating drug hashish is obtained, is but a variety of the common hemp. Hennepin, Louis. French in America, 1680. '83, '97. henotleon (from Gr. evdrrfc, unity), an edict of union to reconcile the Eutychians with the church, issued by emperor Zeno at the instance of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople,. 482. It was zealously opposed by the popes, and was annulled by Justin I. in 51 8. The orthodox party triumphed, and many heretic bishops were expelled from their sees. Henry, John, Case of. United States, Mch. 1812. liep'tarcliy (government of 7 rulers) in England was gradually formed from 455, when Hengist became king of Kent, and ended 828, when Egbert became sole monarch of England. There were at first 9 or 10 Saxon kingdoms, but Middlesex soon ceased to exist, and Bernicia and Deira were generally governed by one ruler, as Northumbria. Britain, Octarchy. Heraeli'dee, descendants of Hercules, expelled from the Peloponnesus about 1200 b.c.; they reconquered it in 1048, 1103-4, or 1109 b.c., a noted epoch in chronology, preceding history being accounted fabulous. heraldry. Marks of honor were used in the first ages. — Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow; the Thracians,, Mars; the Romans, an eagle ; the Goths, a bear; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, a hor.se ; and the ancient French, a lion,^ and afterwards the Fleur-de-lis. Heraldry, as an art, is as- cribed first to Charlemagne, about 800, and next to Frederick Barbarossa, about 1152; it began and grew with the feudal law. — Mackenzie. The great English works on heraldry are those of Barcham or Barkham, pub. by Gwillim, 1610; p]d- monson, 1780; and Burke's "Armory," 1842; new ed. 1878,. contains history and the arms of above 60,000 British fam- ilies. Edward III. appointed 2 heraldic kings-at-arms for the south and north (Surrey, Norroy ) 1340 Richard III. incorporated and endowed the Heralds' college, 14S3-84 Philip and Mary enlarged its privileges, and confirmed them by letters-patent 15 July. 15.54 Formerly, in many ceremonies, the herald represented the king's person, and therefore wore a crown, and was always a knight. College has an earl-marshal, 3 kings-of-arms (Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy), 6 heralds (Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, Windsor, Somerset, and York), 4 pursuivants, and 2 extra heralds. Earl, KiNGS-OF-ARMS. He'rat, on the confines of Khorasau, a strong city, called the key of Afghanistan, conquered by Persia early in the 16th century; by the Afghans, 1715; by Nadir Shah, 1731 ;, recovered by the Afghans, 1749. The Persians, bafiied in an attempt in 1838, took it 25 Oct. 1856, in violation of the treaty of 1853 ; and war ensued between Great Britain and Persia. Peace was made in Apr. 1857 ; and Herat was restored 27 July following. It was seized again by Dost Mahomed, 26 May, 1863 ; taken by Yakoob Khan, rebelling against his father, 6 May, 1871. Yakoob, reconciled to his father, was made gov- ernor, 16 Sept. 1871. Afghanistan. Herculaneum, an ancient city of Campania, over- whelmed, with Pompeii, by an eruption of lava and also from Vesuvius, 23 or 24 Aug. 79. Successive eruptions covered the site ; it was lost until excavations began in 1711 ; in 1713 many antiquities were found. In 1738 excavations were resumed and continued until 1780, and works of art, monuments, and memo- rials of the ancient city discovered ; resumed again in 1828, but without encouraging results. 150 rolls of MS. papyri were found in 1754; many antiquities were purchased by sir William Hamilton, and sold to the British museum ; but the principal relics are preserved in the museum of Portici. The "Antichita di Ercolano," 8 vols, folio, were published by the- Neapolitan government, 1757-92. HER heredity. The transmission of qualities from parents has been specially studied by Francis Galton, F.R.S., who pub- lished "Hereditary Genius," 1869, and "Records of Family Faculties," containing tabular forms to be filled with authentic data for his new science of " Eugenics." Money prizes, 5^. and upwards, were offered for the best records. His " Inquiries into Human Faculty " was pub. in 1883, and " Natural Inher- itance " in 1889. heretics (from Gr. aipemg, choice). Paul says, " After the way which they call heresy, so worship I the God of my fathers" (Acts xxiv.14,60). Heresy was unknown to the Greek and Roman religions. Simon Magus is said to have broached the Gnostic heresy about 41. This was followed by the Mani- chees, Nestorians, Arians, etc. Inquisition. It is said that laws for prosecuting heretics began with emperor Frederick II. in 1220, and were immediately adopted by pope Hono- rius III. Epiphanius chosen bishop of Constautius in Cyprus, 367; wrote •' Piinariura," a discourse against heresies; d 402 Thirty heretics came from Germany to England to propagate their opinions, and were branded in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the streets in the depth of winter, where, none daring to relieve them, they died of hunger and cold (Si)eed) 1160 [Highest point reached by ecclesiastical power in England was in the act De hceretico coniburendo (2 Hen. IV. c. 15). This enabled the diocesan to pronounce sentence of heresy, and the sheriff to execute it by burning the offender without waiting for consent of the crown] Ijxws against heretics repealed, 25 Hen. VIII 1534-35 Lust person executed for heresy in Great Britain was Thomas Aikenhead, at Edinburgh 1696 [Orthodox Mahometans are Sonnites; the heretics, Shiites, Druses, etc.] IIernia§, author of "The Shepherd," a Christian apoc- ryphal book, probably written about 131. Some believe Her-, mas to be mentioned in Rom. xvi. 14. Memiitag^e, the, about 12 miles from Nashville, Tenn., on the Cumberland river, the residence of Andrew Jackson. The vault in which lie his remains and those of his wile is marked by a simple, elegant monument. heriiiit§. Monachism. Herne'§ oall, Windsor park, Engl. So called from an old tradition that one Heme, a keeper in the park, hung himself upon it, and it was ever after haunted by his ghost. Said to have been cut down inadvertently in 1796. Others aay that it stood until blown down in 1863. Celebrated by mention in Shakespeare's " Merry Wives of Whidsor," act iv. fic. iv. : ^^Mrs. Page. There is an old tale goes, that Heme the hunter. Sometime a keeper here in Windsor forest. Doth all the winter time, at still midnight. Walk round about an oak, with great ragg'd horns. I 852 • HES treaty of Berlin, 18 July, 1878. Pop. about 250,000. Bog NIA. Hesse, W. Germany, seat of the Catti, part of the empii of Charlemagne ; its present rulers are descended from tho! of that day. It was joined to Thuringia till about 1263, whei Henry I. (son of a duke of Brabant and Sophia, daughter the landgrave of Thuringia) became landgrave of Hesse. Thi most remarkable of his successors was Philip the Magnani mous (1509), an eminent warrior and supporter of the Refor mation, who signed the Augsburg Confession in 1530, and thi league of Smalcald in 1531. At his death, in 1567, Hess was divided into Hesse -Cassel and Hesse- Darmstadt, unde his sons William and George, and their descendants were emi nent in the convulsions of Germany during the 17th and 18t' centuries. Hessians. In 1803 Hesse-Cassel became an ele torate, and in 1806 Hesse-Darmstadt a grand-duchy; titles r< tained in 1814. In 1807 Hesse-Cassel was incorporated wit Westphalia, but in 1813 the electorate was re - establishei Area, 2965 sq. miles. Pop. 1875 (grand-duchy), 884,218 ; 188 936,340; 1890,993,659. ELECTOKS. 1803. William I. ; b. 3 June, 1743 ; succeeded as landgrave, 17a made elector, 1803; deprived of his states, 1806; restore 1813; d. 27 Feb 1821. 1821. William II. ; b. 28 July, 1777; d. 20 Nov. 1847. 1847. Frederick William ; b. 20 Aug. 1802. The elector, in 1850, remodelled constitution of 1831, givii the chamber exclusive right of voting taxes, and conven the chamber only at the usual time for closing the sessio making demand for money for 1851. The chamber asked regular budget for discussion. Elector dissolved the chaa ber, and declared dominions in a state of siege, 7 Sept. 185i He fled to Hanover, later to Frankfort; on 14 Oct. he called 6 '■'■Page. Why, yet there want not many, that do fear In deep of night to walk by this Heme's oak." herrings, Battle of the, fought 12 Feb. 1429, when the due de Bourbon was defeated while attempting to intercept a convoy of salt fish, on the road to the English besieging Or- leans. Sir John Fastolff commanded the English. Herrn'hUters. Moravians. Her'uli, a German tribe which ravaged Greece and Asia Minor in the 3d century. Odoacer, their leader, over- whelmed the Western empire and became king of Italj', 476. He was defeated and put to death by Theodoric the Ostro- goth, 491-93. Rome. Herzegovina {hert'-se-gb-ve'-nd) or Hertseli, a province of Austria, originally part of Croatia, was united with Bosnia in 1326, and made the duchy of St. Saba by the em- peror Frederick III. in the following century. It was ceded to Turkey in 1699 at the peace of Carlowitz. In Dec. 1861, an insurrection against the Turks broke out, fostered by the prince of Montenegro. It was subdued ; and on 23 Sept. 1862, Vu- catovitch, chief of the insurgents, surrendered, on behalf of his countrymen, to Kurschid Pacha, and an amnesty was granted. Another insurrection against the Turks broke out, 1875, and continued until the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were, by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878, handed over to the Austro - Hungarian government. Herzegovina was oc- cupied by the Austrians, Aug. 1878, in conformity with the 1 1806. 1830, 1848. the Frankfort diet to help re-establish his authority. Oi 6 Nov. 10,000 Austro- Bavarians entered Hesse-Cassel, under prince Thurn und Taxis, with headquarters in Hanau ; next day a Prussian force entered Cassel. Elector returned to his capital, taxes having been collected under threats of im- prisonment, 27 Dec. 1850. Constitution of 1831 abolished, and a new one established, 1852. Conflict resumed, till, by law of 20 Sept. 1866, Hesse-Cassel was annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. Ex-elector's property sequestrated for intrigues against Pri sia, 2 Nov. 1868, and Feb. 1869. He d. 6 Jan. 1875 Pop. of Hesse- Darmstadt, Dec. 1875, 884,218. GRAND-DUKES. Louis I. ; b. 14 June, 1753; d. 6 Apr. 1830. Louis II. ; b. 26 Dec. 1777; d. 16 June, 1848. Louis III. ; b. 9 June, 1806. By treaty, 15 Sept. 1866, he ceded northern Hesse- Darmstadt to Prussia, and paid a war con- tribution; supported Prussia against France, Aug. 1870; d. 13 June, 1877. 1877. Louis IV., nephew, b. 12 Sept. 1837; married princess Alice of Great Britain (b. 25 Apr. 1843), 1 July, 1862; d. of diph- theria after nursing her husband and children, 14 Dec. 1878. Heir: Ernest Louis, b. 25 Nov. 1868. Frederick William, 2d son, killed by a fall, 29 May, 1873; and other children. Hesse- Homburg, a landgraviate, established by Frederick, son of George of Hesse - Darmstadt, in 1596. His descendant, Augustus Frederick, married (7 May, 1818) Elizabeth, daugh- ter of George III. of England, who had no issue. Landgraviate was absorbed into the grand-duchy of Hesse in 1806, but re-established in 1815 with additional territories. Landgrave Ferdinand succeeded his brother, 8 Sept. 1848, and d. 24 Mch. 1866. Hesse-Homburg annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. Hessian fly {Ceddomyia destructor), the American wheat midge, very destructive to wheat in the United States in 1786, whither it is said to have been brought by the Hessian soldiers in British pay — hence its name. Wheat crop suffered severely in the U. S. in 1846 and 1886. Fly ap- peared in England in 1788, and was described by sir Joseph Banks. Its appearance in England in 1887 occasioned much alarm through out the country. Its action said to be checked by a parasite— saw-fly {Ceraphron de- structor). — W. Fream, Aug. 1887. Very prevalent in eastern coast of Britain, not much inland. — Ormerod, Aug. 1887. In 20 English and 10 Scotch counties ; the alarm considered to be er* agge rated.— Pari. Rep. Sept. 1887. Presence of the insect reported in Lincoln, Suffolk, Herts, Perth- shire, 28 July, 1890. Hessians. During the War of Independence, Great Britain hired a large number of auxiliaries from the land- grave of Hesse, to serve against the colonies. In Nov. 1786. Great Britain paid him 471,000/. in 3 per cent, consols, as com- pensation for the loss of 15,700 of his subjects in this war; or about -f 150 for each life. It was with the proceeds of this traf- fic in the lives of his people that the famous water-works i I HEX 353 and pleasure-grounds at Cassel were constructed. Bemis's Heights. liexameter, the measure of Greek heroic verse, of 6 feet, each containing 2 long syllables (a spondee), or a long one ^nd 2 short (a dactyl), the verse of the " Iliad " and " Odys- sey," and of Virgil's " ^neid." Hexham or Hag^ulStad, Northumberland. The see of Hexham, founded about 678, had 10 bishops succes- sively, but the rapine of the Danes destroy^ it; the last prel- ate appointed 810. At the battle of Hexham the Yorkist army of Edward IV. defeated the Lancastrian army of Henry VI., 15 May, 1464. Hi-a-wa'-tha, reputed founder of the Iroquois confed- eracy. Longfellow's " Song of Hiawatha " was pub. in 1855. Literature. Hibbert fund. Robert Hibbert on 19 July, 1847, established a trust fund "for the promotion of comprehen- sive learning and thorough research in relation to religion as it appears to the eye of the scholar and philosopher, and wholly apart from the interest of any particular church or sys- tem." Hibbert lectures; first course of, 7 by prof. Max Muller (given at Westminster) "On the Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by the Religions of India " 25 Apr. -30 May, 1878 Since given by M. Renouf, in 1879; by Ernest Renan, 6-14 Apr. 1880; by T. W. Rhys Davids, 26 Apr. -24 May, 1881; by prof Kuenen, 25 Apr.-May, 1882; by C. Beard, 1883; by prof Al- bert Reville, 21 Apr. et seq. 1884; by prof 0. Pfleiderer, 1885; by J. Rhys, 1886; by prof A. H. Sayce Apr. 1887 Hibernia, Ibernia, Ivernia, and lerne, a name of Ireland in ancient writers (Aristotle, Ptolemy, etc.). Ireland. Hicksites. Quakers. hierog[lypll'ic§, literally sacred sculptures or en- gravings, the representation of objects to express language, used by the ancient Egyptians, Mexicans, and other nations. The Egyptians used about 1700 hieroglyphs, engraved on stone, painted on wood, and written on papyri. They were -either phonetic or ideographic. Their invention is myth- ically ascribed to Thoth (Logos). That they were entirely ideographic was the opinion held until 1787, when Zoega stated that the ovals or cartouches contained royal names. In 1818 Dr. Young deciphered the named Ptolemy in the Ro- setta Stone. Young, ChampoUion, Rosellini, Lepsius, Brugsch, Mariette, Chabas, Birch, and others (in the present century) have elucidated Egyptian hieroglyphics. Abydos, "Book OF THE Dead," Egypt, Rosetta STONf;, Tell-el-Amarna tablets. High and IjOW Cliurcll, sections in the church of England, became prominent in the reign of Anne. Dr. Sa- cheverell, preacher at St. Saviour's, Southwark, was prosecut- ■ed for 2 seditious sermons preached (14 Aug. and 9 Nov. 1709) exciting apprehension for the safety of the church, and hos- tility against dissenters. His friends were called High-church and his opponents Low-church, or moderate, men, 1720. The queen favored Sacheverell, and made him rector of St. An- drew's, Holborn. He died 1724. IIi|a[h €oininis§ion, Court of, an ecclesiastical court, established by 1 Eliz. c. 1, 1559, by which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in the crown. It originally had no power to fine or imprison ; but under Charles I. and archbishop Laud it assumed illegal powers, was complained of by the Par- liament, and abolished in 1641. Highlands of Scotland, long held by semi-bar- barous clans, were greatly improved by gen. Wade's military roads, about 1725-26; by the abolition of heritable jurisdiction of feudal rights in 1747, and by the establishment of the High- land and Agricultural Society in 1784. Regiments. highness. The title of "highness" was given to Henry VII. ; and this, and sometimes " your grace," was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but about the end of his reign, the titles of " highness " and " your grace " were ab- ^^bed in that of " majesty." Louis XIII. of France gave the le of "highhess," in 1664, to the prince of Orange, who as previously called "excellency." Louis XIV. gave the 12 HIT princes of Orange the title of "high and mighty lords," 1644. — IfenuuU, high-priest. Priest. high-treason. To regulate trials for this crime and protect liberty in England, the 25th of Edward III. 1352, was enacted, requiring 2 living witnesses ; Parliament having re- fused to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somerset. By 40 Geo. III. 1800, where the overt act is a direct attempt upon the life of the sovereign, the trial is conducted in the same manner as for murder. Treason. Last 2 executions in England for high treason: I. William Cundell, alias Connell, and John Smith; 2 of 14 British subjects taken in the enemy's service in the isles of France and Bourbon, tried by special commission, 6 Feb. 1812. Mr. Abbot, afterwards lord Tenterden and chief-justice, and sir Vicary Gibbs, attorney-general, conducted the prosecution, and Mr. (afterwards lord) Brougham defended the prisoners. The defence was that they had assumed the French uniform to aid their escape to Eng- land. They were hanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horse- monger- lane jail on 16 Mch. 1812. All the other convicts were pardoned, on condition of serving in colonies beyond seas. II. Cato-street conspirators (Cato-street conspiracy) executed 1 May, 1820. Hillabee tOVrns, Attack on, by gen. White, with 360 mounted Tennessee militia and some friendly Cherokees. This place is on the Tallapoosa, in Alabama. ^The attack was made on 18 Nov. 1813. 61 warriors were killed and 256 made prisoners without loss of a man. Himalaya {hivi-U'-la-yd) mountains. Moun- tains. Hiin'era, a town of Sicily. Here Theron and Gelon of Agrigentum defeated the Carthaginians, 480 b.c. ; and at Ec- nomus, near here, the latter defeated Agathocles of Syracuse, 311 B.C. Hindostan'. India. Hindu era began 3101 b.c., or 756 before the Deluge of 2348. The Hindus count months by the progress of the sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 56 b.c. ; the Saca era 79 a.d. hippopot'amus (Gr. t7r7ro7rdra/ioc, river-horse), a native of Africa, known to, but incorrectly described by, an- cient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited at Rome by An- toninus, Commodus, and others, about 138, 180, and 218. The first brought to England arrived 25 May, 1850, and was placed, in the Zoological gardens. Regent's park, London (d. 11 Mc 1878) ; another, a female, 4 months old, was placed there : 1854. One born there, 21 Feb. 1871, and another born 1 J«-.. 1872, lived a few days only ; another born 5 Nov. 1872. Two young ones, born at Paris in May, 1858, and June, 1860, were killed by their mother. One born at Amsterdam, 29 July, 1865. One born in Central Park, New York, 1893. Hispaniola. Hayti. histology (from Gr. laroq, a web), the science which treats of the tissues in animals and vegetables; mainly depend- ent on the microscope. Schwann, Valentin, KoUiker, Que- kett, and Robin are celebrated for their researches. Prof. Que- kett's " Lectures on Histology " were pub. in 1852 and 1854. Medical science. history. The Bible, the Parian Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus (" the father of history ") and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer are the foundations of early ancient hi-t ory. Later ancient history is considered as ending with the (' .r ruc- tion of the Roman empire in Italy, 476. Modern hisi \ dates from the age of Charlemagne, about 800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either English university until the years 1724 and 1736, when " regius " professorships were established by George I, and George II.-— Royal Histori- cal Society^ London, established 1868, earl Russell, president, 1872. A commission was appointed in England 31 Aug. 1869, to examine historical MSS. held by institutions and private families, and to publish any considered desirable. It has is- sued several reports, 1870 et seq. Hittites, descendants of Heth, second son of Canaan ; a commercial tribe, from whom Abraham bought a grave for his wife, 1860 B.C. (Gen. xxiii.). They opposed Joshua, 1451 b.c.; and the Egyptians, about 1340 b.c. HOB 854 HOL Castle of Jerablus, a mound and ruins, 20 miles below Beredjik, on the Euphrates; was visited by Henry Maundrell, 1699; by dr. Pococke, 1745; and by J. H. Skene and George Smith (d. 187()), who agreed in considering the remains to be those of Carchemisli, the ancient capital of the Hittites, captured and annexed by Sar- gon, king of Assyria (about 721 b.c.). The site had been held suc- cessively by Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, (ireeks, Romans, and Arabs. A rich harvest may be expected from its explora- tion. Capt. C. R Conder's discovery of a key to the language of Hittite inscriptions on b.—Dvfresnoy. Idolatry was revived in Britain by Saxons about 473, but died out after the coming of Augustin, about 597. Icono- clasts, Wkek. Idumse'a, the country of the Edoraites, descendants of Esau, brother of Jacob (Gen. xxxvi., Josh. xxiv. 4). ^ ^ Edomites refuse the Israelites a way through their country . . 1453 They are subjugated by David ._ 1040' Revolt against Ahaziah, 892; are defeated by Amaziah 827 They join the Chaldaeans against Judah, and are anathema- tized in Ps. cxxxvii about 570- John Hyrcanus, the Maccabee, subjugates and endeavors to incorporate them with the Jews 125 Herod the Great, son of Antipater, an Idumajan, king of Judsea, 40 Ildefon'SO, San, a town of Spain. Here was signed a treaty between France and Spain, 19 Aug. 1796 ; and another,, by which France regained Louisiana, 1 Oct. 1800. United States. Ilerda, a town of N.E. Spain, founded by the Cartha- ginians, now Lerida on the Segre. Here Caesar defeated Afra- nius and Petreius, lieutenant of Pompey, after a brave re- sistance, 49 B.C. irium, Asia Minor. A city was built here by Dardanus and called Dardania, 1480 b,c. Troy, another city,* was found- ed by Troas, about 1341 b.c. ; and llus, his successor, called the country Ilium. Homer. Illinois, one of the northern central states of the United States, its western boundary the Mississippi river, which sep- arates it from Iowa and Mis- souri; Wisconsin bounds it on the north, lake Michigan touching the northeastern cor- ner ; Indiana on the east, and Kentucky on the south. It is limited in lat. by 36° 59' to 42° 30' N., and in Ion. by 87° 35' to 91° 40' W. Area, 56,650 sq. miles, in 102 counties. Pop. 1890, 3,826,351. Cap- ital, Springfield. Louis Joliet and Jacques Marquette descend the Mississippi river from the mouth of the Wisconsin to the Arkansas. Returning, they ascend the Illinois, making their way to lake Michigan via the Desplaines and Chicago rivers, 167$ Marquette, purposing to establish a mission among the Illi- nois Indians, makes a portage from the Chicago to the Des- plaines, descends the Illinois river nearly to Utica, where he meets a large concourse of chiefs and warriors 8 Apr. 1C75- Father Claude Allouez, successor to Marquette, who d. 18 May, 1675, enters the Chicago river on his way to the Indian mis- sion Apr. 167ft Robert Cavalier Sieur de la Salle, with Henry Tonti, father Hennepin, and a party of 33, descending the Kankakee and Illinois rivers, pass through Peoria lake 3 Jan. 1680, and erect fort Crevecoeur on the east shore of the outlet 1680 Father Hennepin descends the Illinois from the fort to explore the upper Mississippi 28 Feb, " i ILL 363 La Salle, returning from Montreal with supplies for fort Creve- coeur, finds the town of the Illinois Indians burned by the Iroquois, the fort destroyed, and the garrison dispersed 1680 La Salle and Tonti, seeking the mouth of the Mississippi, de- scend the Illinois, arriving at its mouth 6 Feb. 1682 They build fort St. Louis on Starved Rock on the Illinois, near the site of Utica Nov. " La Salle returns to France, 1683; sails for the mouth of the Mississippi in Aug. 168i. Tonti, with 25 Frenchmen and 5 Indians, intending to meet him at the mouth of the Missis- sippi, leaves fort St. Louis 13 Feb. 1686 I Fort Chicago, probably built by M. de la Durantaye in 1685, ap- I pears on a map of lake Michigan dated 1688 Mission established at the great town of the Illinois is re- ( moved down the river to the present site of Kaskaskia before 1690 [ Philip Renault, with 200 mechanics and laborers and 500 negro [ slaves for working supposed mines in Illinois, founds St. 1 Philipps, a village a few miles above Kaskaskia 1719 i Pierre Duque Boisbriant, sent by the Western company, builds j fort Chartres on the east side of the Mississippi, 22 miles from Kaskaskia 1720 Jesuits establish a monastery and college at Kaskaskia 1721 . Kaskaskia becomes an incorporated town 1725 Renault sells his slaves to the French colonists in Illinois 1744 Fort Massac, or Massacre, on the Ohio, about 40 miles from its mouth, established by the French about 1711, is enlarged and garrisoned 1756 British flag raised over fort Chartres 10 Oct. 1765 Col. Wilkins, sent to fort Chartres to govern the Illinois coun- try, assumes by proclamation the civil administration, ap- pointing 7 magistrates or judges 21 Nov. 1768 First court held in Illinois opens at fort Chartres 6 Dec. " Land grant of 30,000 acres in the present county of Randolph made by col. Wilkins, to John Baynton, Samuel Wharton, and George Morgan, merchants of Philadelphia 12 Apr. 1769 A freshet destroying a part of fort Chartres, it is abandoned by the British garrison, who occupy fort Gage, opposite Kas- kaskia, and fix the government there 1772 Deed to the Illinois Land company from the chiefs of Indian tribes in Illinois for 2 immense tracts of land in southern Illinois, bought 5 July, recorded at Kaskaskia 2 Sept. 1773 American expedition under George Rogers Clark conquers Illinois without bloodshed, occupying Kaskaskia 4 July, 1778 Territory conquered by col. Clark is made by the legislature of Virginia into Illinois county Oct. " Col. John Todd proclaims from Kaskaskia a temporary govern- ment for Illinois 15 June, 1779 Illinois included in the Virginia act of cession to the U. S. 20 Dec. 1783, the deed of which is executed 1 Mch. 1784 Illinois included in Northwest territory, organized by act of Congress 13 July, 1787 Maj.-gen, Arthur St. Clair, elected by Congress governor of the Northwest territory, arrives at Kaskaskia Feb. 1790 By act of Congress 400 acres are granted to every head of fam- ily who had improved farms in Illinois prior to 1788 1791 By the treaty of Greenville, 16 tracts 6 miles square in Illi- nois are ceded by the Indians ; one at the mouth of the Chicago river, "where a fort formerly stood " 3 Aug. 1795 Site of Peoria fixed by the abandonment of a settlement called La Ville de Maillet, located farther up the lake in 1788 1796 Jean Baptiste Point de Saible, a negro who settled at Chicago about 1779, sells his cabin to a French trader named Le Mai and moves to Peoria " Illinois part of Indiana territory, created by act of 7 May, 1800 Memorial to Congress by a committee called to Vinceunes by gov. Harrison, requesting repeal of the 6th article of the organic act prohibiting slavery 20 Dec. 1802 By treaty of fort Wayne, 7 June, ratified at Vincennes 7 Aug. 1803, the Indians cede to the U. S. 1,634,000 acres of land, 336,128 in Illinois; and by treaty of Vincennes, 13 Aug., the Kaskaskias cede most of southern Illinois 1803 Fort Dearborn built on the south side of Chicago river by the federal government and garrisoned. The corner of Michi- gan ave. and River st. , Chicago, marks the site " Congress establishes land offices at Kaskaskia, Vincennes, and Detroit 15 Mch. 1804 John Kinzie of the American Fur company buys Le Mai's trad- ing house ; is the first permanent settler at Chicago " By the treaty of St. Louis, 3 Nov. 1804, the united Sac and Fox Indians cede to the U. S. land on both sides of the Missis- sippi river, extending on the east from the mouth of the Illinois to its head and thence to the Wisconsin 3 Nov. " Western Star Lodge of Freemasons established at Kaskaskia, 24 Sept. 1805 Piankeshaw Indians cede to the U. S. 2,616,921 acres west of the Wabash, opposite Vincennes 30 Dec. " Territory of Illinois created with Kaskaskia as the seat of gov- ernment 3 Feb. 1809 Ninian Edwards commissioned governor by Madison . . .24 Apr. " ; Mail route established by law from Vincennes to St. Louis via Kaskaskia, Prairie du Rocher, and Cahokia 1810 I Illinois raised to second grade of territorial government, 21 May, 1812 Owing to Indian murders and outrages a cordon of forts and t blockhouses is erected in Illinois ; the most noted is fort i Russel, near Edwardsville " i Garrison of Fort Dearborn by order of gen. Hull, 7 Aug. 1812, I though reinforced by capt. Wells and 15 friendly Miamis, 1 evacuate the fort 15 Aug. They are attacked and massacred by Indians ; 39 killed, 27 taken prisoners, and the fort burned 15-16 Aug. " i Capt. Craig of Shawneetown, under instructions from gen. I ILL I Samuel Hopkins, burns Peoria and removes the captured French inhabitants suspected of complicity with the Ind- ians, to Alton Oct. 1812 Legislature convenes at Kaskaskia 25 Nov. " Illinois Herald established at I{;askaskia by Matthew Duncan. 1814 Laws of the territory revised by Nathaniel Pope, and printed by Matthew Duncan under date 2 June, ISIS' Bank of Illinois incorporated at Shawneetown 1816 Fort Dearborn rebuilt " Charter for Cairo city granted by the legislature 1817-18 Enabling act for thp state of Illinois approved. 18 Apr. 1818 Northern boundary of Illinois extended 50 miles to lat. 42° 30', '* Convention at Kaskaskia to frame a constitution adopts an ordinance accepting the Enabling act 26 Aug. " Illinois Emigrant^ afterwards the Illinois Gazette, established at Shawneetown by Henry Eddy and Singleton H. Kimmel.. " First general assembly under the constitution meets at Kas- kaskia 5 Oct. " Illinois admitted into the Union, approved 3 Dec. " State bank of Illinois incorporated with 4 branches . . .22 Mch. 1819 Legislature re-enacts the "black laws" respecting free ne- groes, mulattoes, servants, and slaves 30 Mch. " Spectator founded by Hooper Warren at Edwardsville " Ferdinand Ernst, from Hanover, locates a colony of 25 or 30 families at Vandalia " John Kelly and family the first white settlers at Springfield . . " A Frenchman named Boutilier settles on the Fever river " Seat of government removed to Vandalia 1820 State-house at Vandalia destroyed by fire 9 Dec. 1823 General election, proposed convention to amend constitution, permitting slavery, defeated by 4972 to 6640 Aug. 1824 Illinois and Michigan Canal Association incorporated . .19 Jan. 1825 Reception given gen. Lafayette at Kaskaskia , 30 Apr. " Congress grants 224,322 acres to the state of Illinois to aiding the Illinois and Michigan canal 2 Mch. 1827 Father of Abraham Lincoln removes from Indiana with his family to Macon county. 111 1830 Towns of Chicago and Ottawa surveyed and laid out by a board of canal commissioners, and maps prepared by James Thomp- son bearing date 4 Aug. " State penitentiary at Alton constructed 1831 "Reports of the Supreme Court of Illinois," the first book pub- lished in the state, by Sidney Breese " U. S. troops under gen. Gaines, having burned the old Sac vil- lage on the Mississippi, deserted by Black Hawk and his warriors, encamp at Rock island, where Black Hawk, sum- moned to a council, signs an agreement not to recross the Mississippi to the Illinois side without permission from the governor, or the president of the U. S 30 June, " Rock Springs Theological seminary and high-school, founded by rev. John M. Peck, D. D., is transferred to Alton and be- comes the nucleus of Shurtleflf college " Black Hawk, with 150 warriors, unsuccessfully attacks Apple River fort, 12 miles from Galena 6 June, 1832 Battle of Kellog's grove, 60 miles from Dixon ; col. Demont attacked by Indians under Black Hawk 26 June, " Chicago incorporated as a town Aug. 1833 New state bank with 6 branches, incorporated 1834 Abraham Lincoln elected to the state legislature " [Also 1836, '38, '40.] First number of the Alton Observer, an antislavery newspa- per, published by rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy 8 Sept. 1835 Abraham Lincoln admitted to practise law " Act to establish and maintain a general system of internal im- provement appropriates $10,230,000 27 Feb. 183T Chicago chartered as a city 4 Mch. " Corner stone of state capitol at Springfield laid 4 July, " Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy, publisher of the Alton Observer, shot dead by a mob at his office (Alton riot) 7 Nov. '< First rail on NorthernCross railroad laid at Meredosia,9 May, and first locomotive in Mississippi valley put on the track, 8 Nov. " Legislature first meets at Springfield, the new capital: Assem- bly in second Presbyterian church. Senate in first Methodist, and the superior court in the Episcopal 9 Dec. 1839 Mormons locate on the east bank of the Mississippi, in Hancock county, and found Nauvoo 1840 Knox college, at Galesburgh, chartered 1837, opened 1841 Laws passed, "to diminish the state debt and put the state bank into liquidation," 24 Jan. 1843, and " to reduce the public debt $1,000,000 and put the bank of Illinois into liquidation " 1843 Mormon leaders Joe and Hyrum Smith, the former mayor of Nauvoo, imprisoned for treason in levying war against the state by declaring martial law in Nauvoo, and by ordering out the Nauvoo Legion to resist a posse comitattis, assassinated in jail at Carthage by conspirators 27 June, 1844 Jacksonville Female academy, at Jacksonville, opened 1830, chartered 1845 Two thousand Mormons, the van of the general exodus, cross the Mississippi on the ice 15 Feb. 1S46 Illinois Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, at Jacksonville, opened " Abraham Lincoln elected to Congress " Illinois Female college at Jacksonville opened and chartered. . 1847 Illinois Institution for the Blind at Jacksonville opened " Convention met at Springfield 7 June, 1847, and completed a constitution 31 Aug., which is adopted by the people, 59,887 to 15,859 and takes effect 1 Apr. 1848 Illinois StaatsZeitung founded by Robert Hoeffger, at Chicago, Apr. " Illinois and Michigan canal, begun in 1836, opened ... .16 Apr. " Bloody Island dike built at E. St. Louis " ILL 364 Rockford seminary at Rockford, chartered in 1847, is opened, 1849 Jefferson Davis challonges col. W. H. Bissell, afterwards gov- ernor, to a duel ; he accepts the challenge, but the matter is amicably settled Feb. 1850 Geological survey authorized by act of 17 Feb. 1861 Central Hospital for the Insane at Jacksonville opened. . . Nov. " liiiw providing that any negro or mulatto, bond or free, who comes into the stale and rouiains 10 days, may be lined $50 or sold into slavery until the Hue is worked out 12 Feb. 1853 Act passed incorporating the State Agricultural Society " Mount Carrol seminary, at Mount Carrol, chartered 1852, opened " Illinois Wesleyan university, at Bloomington, chartered and opened " State common-school convention meets at Bloomington. . . Dec. " Hon. N. W. Edwards appointed state superintendent of com- mon schools 15 Mch. 1854 Attempt of senator Stet)hen A. Douglas to address the people of Chicago from an open balcony in defence of the Kansas- Nebraska bill is met with hisses, groans, and continued noise for 4 hours, when Douglas retires 1 Sept. " 1 jiw for a system of free schools in the state 15 Feb. 1855 Trial of some 30 German saloon keepers in Chicago for violat- ing the prohibitory liquor law just passed leads to a riot 21 Apr. ; city placed under martial law 22 Apr. " Eureka college, opened at Eureka in 1849, receives its charter, " Northwestern university at Evanston, chartered in 1851, is opened " Illinois state university at Normal opened 1857 Monmouth college at Monmouth, opened in 1856, chartered... " Many prisoners ftom the old penitentiary at Alton removed to the new penitentiary at Joliet 22 May, 1858 Debate between Lincoln and Douglas throughout the state on slavery summer and autumn, " Gov. Bissell dies; lieut.-gov. John Wood succeeds 18 Mch. 1860 Abraham Lincoln nominated for president by the Republican national convention at Chicago 16 May, " Abraham Lincoln inaugurated president 4 Mch. 1861 ment to the Constitution, votes $500,000 of state money for the relief of sick and wounded Illinois soldiers, and frames a constitution which was rejected by the people June, 1862 Arsenal established by act of Congress on Rock island, where fort Armstrong was erected in 1816 1863 Chicago Times suppressed for one day by order from gen. Burnside, No. 84, dated 1 June, and revoked 4 June, " Democratic mass convention, 40,000 delegates, held at Spring- field 17 June, " Political disturbance at Charleston, Coles county, between citi- zens attendant upon the circuit court and veterans of the 54th Illinois regiment; 7 lives are lost 22 Mch. 1864 Discovery of fraudulent reissue of $224,182.66 of 90 days re- deemed canal scrip dating back some 30 years, by the use of checks signed in blank at that time. Suspicion points to ex-gov. Mattesou, who offers to indemnify the state against ' loss, 9 Feb. 1859. Other evidences of fraud in office coming to light, under a decree rendered in the Sangamon circuit court against Malteson for $255,500, the state secures $238,- 000 at a master's sale of the ex-governor's property... 27 Apr. " Democratic national convention meets at Chicago 29 Aug. " Plot to liberate confederate prisoners at camp Douglas, Chi- cago, is exposed, and leaders, arrested Nov. 1864, are tried by court-martial and convicted at Cincinnati Jan, 1865 Legislature ratifies the XIII. th Amendment to the Constitution and repeals the '• black laws " " Burial of pres. Lincoln at Springfield 4 May, " Sanitary Commission fair at Chicago, $250,000 raised May, " Illinois Asylum for Feeble-minded Children, at Lincoln, opened, *' First post of the Grand Army of the Republic mustered in at Decatur (Grand Army) 6 Apr. 1866 Orville H. Browningappointedsecretary of the interior..! Sept. " Tunnel under lake Michigan to supply Chicago with water completed; length 2 miles Dec. " Law passed abolishing capital punishment 1867 Horace Capron, U. S. commissioner of agriculture 4 Dec. " University of Illinois at Urbana. chartered 1867, opened .Mch. 1868 U. S. Grant nominated for president by the Republican na- tional convention at Chicago 20 May, " Cook county normal school at Englewood opened " . Corner-stone of the new capitol at Springfield laid 5 Oct. " First river-tunnel in this country completed under the Chi- cago river; 810 ft. long Dec. " U. S. Grant inaugurated president 4 Mch. 1869 Legislature ratifies the XV. th Amendment to the Constitution; vote, in Senate 17 to 7 ; in House, 52 to 27 5 Mch. " Elihu B.Washburne appointed secretary of treasury '• " John A. Rawlins appointed secretary of war 11 .Mch. " Appropriation made by legislature for the Northern Illinois Hospital for the Insane at Elgin " ILL Constitution framed by a convention at Springfield, May, 1870; ratified by the people; 134.227 to 35,443 2 July, Evangelical proseminary at Klmhurst, chartered 1868, opened. Seminary of the Sacred Heart at Chicago, opened in 1858, chartered Remains of pres. Lincoln transferred from the temporary tomb to the crypt of the monument at Oak Ridge cemetery. May, Deepening of the Illinois and Michigan canal to create a cur- rent from lake Michigan to the Illinois river, begun in 1865, is completed 18 July, Illinois and Michigan canal turned over to the state Aug. Sovereign Grand Lodge of Odd Fellows meets at Chicago, 18 Sept. Chicago fire, which burns over 2124 acres and destroys 17,500 buildings, begins (Fikes) 8-9 Oct. New building for the U. S. Marine hospital established at Chi- cago, May, 1852 ; completed Gov. Oglesby, elected U. S. senator ; lieut.-gov. John L. Bev- eridge succeeds him 4 Mch. St. Francis Solanus college at Quincy, opened in 1860, is char- 1 1870 1871 tered. Northwestern Farmers' convention of 150 delegates from Indi- ana, Iowa, Michigan, New York, and Illinois, meets at Chi- cago 22 Oct. North wing of the Southern Hospital for the Insane at Anna opened 15 Dec. Southern Illinois normal university at Carbondale opened Monument to Abraham Lincoln at Oak ridge, Springfield, dedi- cated (Lincoln's monument) 15 Oct. National convention of the Grand Army of the Republic held at Chicago 12 May, National temperance association meets at Chicago ... .3 June, Chicago day schools for the deaf opened Lake Forest university, at lake Forest, opened Parade of 1500 armed Communists carrying the red flag in Chicago, winter of Appropriation by the legislature for the Eastern Hospital for the Insane, at Kankakee State Board of Health organized Illinois Industrial School for Girls, at South Evanston, opened. . Militia law; entire male population to be enrolled, and hOOO organized and armed ; no other military organizations to parade or drill unless licensed 28 May, Board of Fish Commissioners created by legislature Bureau of labor statistics established Republican national convention meets at Chicago 2 June, Greenback national convention meets at Chicago '• Robert T. Lincoln secretary of war 5 Mch. St. Joseph's Diocesan college, at Teutopolis, opened 1862, chartered Aurora the first city in the world to light its streets with elec- tricity State penitentiary at Chester ready for occupation St. Mary's school, Knoxville. opened 1868, chartered Gov. Cullom, elected U. S. senator, is succeeded by John M. Hamilton 7 Feb. Chicago Voice and Hearing School for the Deaf opened at En- glewood Ephphatha School for the Deaf opened at Chicago Haymarket massacre by anarchists (Chicago) 4 May, Illinois Soldiers and Sailors' Home at Quincy, organized 18b5, and dedicated 20 Oct. Gen. John A. Logan, U. S. senator, dies at Washington. .26 Dec. Appropriation by the legislature for the Industrial Home for the Blind in Cook county Illinois asylum for insane criminals established at Chester Chicago university endowed with $1,600,000 by J. D. Rocke- feller, and a gift of land by Marshall Field, .v. Convention of Afro- American leagues opens in Chicago.. 15 Jan. Chicago secures the World's Fair, the vote on the site in the House of Representatives being: Chicago, 157 ; New York, 107 ; St. Louis, 26 ; Washington, 18 24 Feb. Panic in the Chicago Board of Trade 12 Apr. Constitutional amendment, to permit the city of Chicago to issue 5% bonds to $5,000,000 to aid the World's Columbian Exposition, adopted by legislature 31 July, Governor signs the World's Fair bill 5 A ug. George R. Davis selected as director general of the World's Columbian Exposition 19 Sept. Gen. John M. Palmer, democrat, elected U. S. senator on the 154th ballot 11 Mch. Laws reducing the legal rate of interest from 6 to 5%, and making the first Monday in Sept. (Labor Day) and 12 Feb. (Abraham Lincoln's Birthday) legal holidays, passed at ses- sion ending 12 June, Gov. Fifer signs the Ballot Reform bill 23 June, First reunion of survivors of the Black Hawk war of 1832 held at Lena ; 17 veterans present '. .28 Aug. Equestrian statue of gen. Grant unveiled at Chicago 7 Oct. World's Fair amendment to state constitution adopted by vote of 500,299 to 15,095 Nov. Alien land law pronounced unconstitutional 23 Dec. Train of 28 cars containing 12,000 bushels of shelled com, the contribution of residents of McLean county to the Russian famine sufferers, is made up at Bloomington 10 Mch. Eighty sq. miles of territory inundated by the breaking of a levee on the Mississippi Democratic national convention meets at Chicago 21 June, University of Chicago opens, without formal ceremony, with 500 students 1 Oct. 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1887 1891 1392' ILL 365 IMM World's Columbian Exposition, preliminary exercises at Chi- cago • orations by Chauncey M. Depew and Henry Watterson, '21 Oct. 1892 U. S. supreme court affirms the judgment of the U. S. circuit court adverse to the claims of the Illinois Central Railroad company to the submerged lands 5 Dec. " World's Columbian Exposition opened at Chicago 1 May, 1893 Gov. Altgeld pardons the anarchists Fielden. Neebe, and Schwab, serving sentence in the penitentiary for complicity in the Haymarket riot (Chicago) 26 June, " Garter H. Harrison, mayor of Chicago, assassinated (Chicago), 28 Oct. " World's Columbian Exposition closed .30 Oct. " Prendergast, the murderer of the mayor of Chicago, hanged, - 13 July, 1894 TERRITORIAL. GOVERNOR. Ninian Edwards commissioned 24 Apr. 1809 STATE. Shadrach Bond. 1818 Edward Cowles Ninian Edwards " " John Reynolds " " William L. D. Ewing acting Joseph Duncan assumes office Thomas Carlin " " Thomas Ford " " Augustus C. French " " Joel A. Matteson " " William H. Bissell " •' '. John Wood acting 18 Mch. Richard Yates assumes office Jan. Richard J. Oglesby " John M. Palmer " Richard J. Oglesby " John L. Beveridge acting 4 Mch. Shelby M. Cullom assumes office Jan. John M. Hamilton acting 7 Feb. Richard J. Oglesby Jan. Joseph W. Fifer " John B. Altgeld " 1822 1826 1830 1834 1842 1846 1853 1857 1860 1861 1865 1869 1873 1877 1883 1885 1889 1893 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF ILLINOIS. Name. No. of Congress. Date. Remarks. Ninian Edwards Jesse B. Thomas John McLean Elias Kent Kane David J. Baker John M. Robinson William L. D. Ewing... Richard M. Young Samuel McRoberts Sidney Breese James Semple Stephen A. Douglas James Shields Lyman Trumbull Orville H. Browning. . . William A. Richardson. Richard Yates John A. Logan Richard J. Oglesby David Davis John A. Logan Shelby McCullom Charles B. Farwell John M. Palmer 15th to 18th 15th " 19th 18th " 20th 19th " 23d 21st 21st to 27th 24th 25th to 27th 27th 28th to 31st 28th 29th to 37th 31st " 33d 34th " 42d 37th 37th to 39th 39th " 42d 42d " 45th 43d " 46th 45th " 47th 46th " 49th 48th 50th " 51st 52d 1818 to 1824 1818 " 1826 1824 " 1830 1826 " 1835 1830 1831 to 1841 1836 1837 to 1843 1841 " 1843 1843 " 1849 1843 " 1846 1847 " 1861 1849 '> 1855 1855 " 1871 1861 1863 to 1865 1865 " 1871 1871 " 1877 1873 " 1878 1877 " 1883 1879 " 1886 1883 1887 " 1891 1891 Seated 4 Dec. 1818. Resigned 1824. Seated 4 Dec. 1818. Elected in place of Edwards. Died 14 Oct. 1830. Died 11 Dec. 1835. Appointed in place of McLean, 1830. Elected in place of McLean. Elected in place of Kane, 1836. Died 27 Mch. 1843. Appointed in place of McRoberts, 1843. Nominated for the presidency 1860 by the Democratic party. Died 3 June, 1861. Appointed in place of Douglas. Elected in place of Douglas. Nominated for vice-president 1884. Died 26 Dec. 1886. Term expires 1895. Term expires 1897. illuminatecl books. The practice of decorating MSS. with drawings, emblematical figures, and portraits, is of great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Ro- mans, embellished with their portraits, about 70 b.c. — Plin. " Nat. Hist." Beautiful missals and other works were printed in the 15th and 16th centuries, and fine imitations have ap- peared. Manuscripts. Illuniina'ti, heretics in Spain, where they were called Alombrados, about 1575. Suppressed there, they appeared in France. One of their leaders was friar Anthony Buchet. They professed to obtain grace and perfection by prayer. A secret society bearing this name, opposed to tyranny and priestcraft, founded in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, by dr. Adam Weis- haupt, in May, 1776, was suppressed in 1784-85. illu§trated papers. Newspapers. lUyr'ia, now including Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia, Austrian provinces, after several wars (from 230 b.c.) was made a Roman province, 167 b.c. In 1809 Napoleon I. gave the name of lUyrian provinces to Carniola. Dalmatia, and other provinces, then part of the French empire, now Carinthia, Carniola, etc. ilme'llilllll, a metal of the tantalum group, announced by R. Herrmann, about 1847, but rejected by chemists ; its claims were reasserted by him in 1867. image-worship. Iconoclasts. " Imitation of Jesus Christ" ("X>e Imitaiione Chrisii"), a devotional work of unknown authorship. It has been attributed to an abbot Gersen (whose existence is doubt- ful) ; to Jean Gerson, chancellor of Paris ; and to Thomas k Kempis, said to have been merely a compiler and editor; hQ died 25 July, 1471. immaeulate eoneeption. Conception. immig^ratioil into the United States. Owing to the increased immigration into the U. S. of paupers and criminals, Congress in 1885 and 1891 enacted laws regulating immigra- tion, and in the latter j'ear created the office of Superintendent of Immigration. United States, 1885-91, etc. NUMBER OF IMMIGRANTS AND THEIR NATIONALITY BY DECADES FROM 1821 TO 1890, INCLUSIVE. Immigrants from Great Britain (not specified). Scotland Ireland Total. Germany Norway and Sweden. Austro-Hungary Italy :... France Russian Poland Switzerland Denmark Netherlands Belgium Spain and Portugal.. All others Total 1821-30 22,167 2,912 50,724 75,803 6,761 91 '408 8,497 91 3,226 169 1,078 27 2,622 43 23,013 1831-40 73,143 2,667 207,381 283,191 152,454 1,201 ' 2,253 45,575 646 4,821 1,063 1,412 22 2,954 1841-50 263,332 3,712 780,719 1,047,763 434,626 13,903 1,870 77,262 656 4,644 539 8,251 5,074 2,759 155 1851-60 385,643 38.331 914;il9 1,338,093 951,667 9,231 76,358 1,621 25,011 3,749 10,789 4,738 10,353 116 1861-70 568,128 38,768 435,778 1.042,674 787,468 109,298 7,800 11,728 35,984 4,536 23,286 17,094 9,102 6,734 8,493 210 1871-80 460,479 87.564 436; 871 984,914 718,182 211,245 72,969 55,759 72,206 52,254 28,293 31,771 16,541 7,221 9,893 1881-90 657,488 149,869 655,482 1,462.839 1,4.52,970 568,362 353,719 307,309 50.464 265,088 81,988 88,132 53,701 20,177 6,535 10,318 1,021,733 1,276,990 | 3,258,763 Total. _ :,„,,, 1821-90 Grand Total. 2,430,380 323,823 3,481,074 4,504.128 925,031 434,488 388,558 366,346 324,892 171,269 142,517 100,874 43,993 43,609 11.594 5,235,277 7,4.57,299 IMM 866 IMP NUMBER OP fMMIGRANTS AND THEIR NATIONALITY BY DECAPES FROM 1821 TO 1890 INCLrPTVE.-(Con^nMef?.) I /mmlgranU from 1821-80 1881-40 1841-60 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-90 Total. 1S21-90 Grand total Asia: China 2 8 8 40 36 47 41,397 • 61 64.301 308 123,201 622 61.711 6,669 290,655 7,755 All others Total 10 16 2.277 3,834 4,817 531 105 48 62 13,624 12,301 6,599 856 44 82 55 41,723 13,528 3,271 3,579 368 41,458 210 69,309 10,660 3,078 1,224 449 64,609 312 153,871 9,043 2,191 1396 96 123,823 229 383,269 13,957 5,362 928 210 68,380 437 392,802 29,042 1,913 2,304 462 1,046,875 92,365 27,231 10,818 1,734 •298.410 Africa 1,311 America : British America West Indies Mexico ... Central America Total 11,564 325 2 32,679 33,424 103 9 69,802 62,469 337 29 52,777 74,720 3,090 158 25,921 166,597 3,446 221 15,232 403,726 10,056 10,913 1,540 426,523 15,798 12,574 1,299 33,155 23.906 199,250 1,179,02a Islands : Atlantic i Pacific '^ All others Total 33,006 69,914 53,143 29,169 18,899 22,509 29,671 256.311 Totals 143,412 599,126 1,713,251 2,598,214 2,314,824 From m Cr 2,812,191 59 to 1820, e 5,246,613 stimated. . 15,427,631 250,000 15,677,631 Of the inomigrants during the last decade (1881-90) 61.1 per cent, were males and 38.9 per cent, females; 21.4 per cent, were under 15 years, 68.1 per cent, were between 15 and 40, and 10.5 per cent, were over 40. The number of immigrants, irrespective of nationality, for the year 1891, was 560,319 ; 1892, 623,084 ; 1893, 502,917. The greatest number of immigrants in any one year was in 1882, when the number 788,992 was reached. Immortals (Gr. aOdvaToi), the flower of the Persian army, limited to 10,000, and recruited from the nobility alone, about 500 B.C. The name was also given to the body-guard of the emperors at Constantinople in the 4th and 5th centuries. Immortals, The forty. The Institute of France is com- posed of 5 Academies. The highest is the French academy of 40 members, a chair in which is the highest honor in the French literary world. The others are the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, 40 members ; Academy of Science, 66 members ; of Fine Arts, 40 members (14 painters,8 sculptors,8 architects.4 engravers, 6 musicians); and the Academy of Moral and Politi- cal Science, 40 members. Members of each are elected for life. impeaclimeilt in England. The first impeachment by the commons and the first of a lord chancellor, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, was in 1386. By statute 12 and 13 Will, and Mary, 1700, no pardon under the great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons. Impeachmentof Warren Hastings, 13 Feb. 1788-25 Apr. 1795; acquittal. Impeachment of lord Melville, 9 Apr. ; acquittal, 12 June, 1806. Inquiry into the charges preferred by col. Wardle against the duke of York, 27 Jan. to 20 Mch. 1809; acquittal. Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, before the House of Lords, commenced 16 Aug. ; Mr. Brougham began her defence, 3 Oct. ; the last debate on the bill took place 10 Nov. 1820. Queen Caroline. impeactiment in the United States. The Constitu- tion of the U. S. gives the House of Representatives sole power to impeach the president, vice-president, and all civil officers of the U. S. by a numerical majority only. It also gives the Senate sole power to try all impeachments. The Senate then sits as a court, organizing anew, senators taking a special oath or affirma- tion applicable to the proceeding. From their decision there is no appeal. A vote of two thirds of the Senate is necessary to con- vict. When the president is tried the chief-justice shall preside. The punishment is limited by the Constitution, (1) to removal from office; (2) to disqualification for holding and enjoying any office of honor, trust, or profit under the U.S. government. Im- portant cases: (1) William Blount, U.S. senator from Tennessee, for conspiring to transfer New Orleans from Spain to Great Brit- ain,1797-98; acquitted for want of evidence. United States. (2) John Pickering, judge of the district court of New Hamp- shire, charged with drunkenness, profanity, etc.; convicted 12 Mch. 1803. (3) Judge Samuel Chase, impeached 30 Mch. 1804; acquitted 1 Mch. 1805. United States. (4) James H. Peck, district judge of Missouri, impeached 13 Dec. 1830, for arbitrary conduct, etc.; acquitted. (5) West H. Humphreys, district judge of Tennessee, impeached and convicted for rebellion, 26 Jan.1862. (6) Andrew Johnson, pres. of the U.S., 1868. Unit- ed States. (7) W. W. Belknap, sec. of war, impeached for re- ceiving money of post-traders among the Indians, 2 Mch. 1876; resigns at the same time; acquitted for want of jurisdiction. '* Impending^ Crisis," a book written by Hinton R. Helper, a North Carolinian, pointing out the evil effects of slavery upon the whites, first pub. 1857. It had a large sale (140,000 copies) and great influence. United States, 1859. Imperial g^uard of France was created by Napoleon from the guard of the Convention, the Directory, and the Con- sulate, when he became emperor in 1804. It consisted at first of 9775 men, but was afterwards enlarged. Subdivided in 1809 into the old and young guard. In Jan. 1814 it numbered 102,- 706. It was dissolved by Louis XVIII. in 1815; revived by Napoleon III. in 1854. It surrendered with Metz to the Ger- mans, 27 Oct. 1870; and was abolished by the defence govern- ment soon after. It took part in the Crimean war in 1855. imports of merchandise into the United States from 30 Sept. 1789, for the years shown, are given in following table. As the treasury accounts did not separate merchandise from specie until 1821, they are shown together up to that year. Year. 1790 1800 1810 1820 1821 1831 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 1891 Imports. Merchandise. $54,520,835 95,885,179 122,957,544 210,771,429 289,310,542 520,223,684 642,664,628 844,916,196 Coin and bullion. $8,064,890 7,305,945 4,988,633 5,453,503 46,339,611 21.270,024 110,575,497 36,259.447 Totals. $23,000,000 91,2.'52,768 85,400,000 74,450,000 62,585,724 103,191,124 127,946,177 216,224,932 335,650,153 541,493,708 753,240,125 881,175,643 LIST AND VALUE OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF IMPORT Articles. FOR 1891. Value. Sugar $105, 728, 96,123, Coffee. Wool, and manufactures of. 59, Iron and steel, and manufactures of. 55, Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and medicines 47, Silk manufactures 37, Flax, hemp, jute, etc., and manufactures of 30, Cotton manufactures 29, Hides and skins 27, Fruits and nuts 25, Wood, and manufactures of. 19, Sillc, raw 19, India-rubber, and manufactures of. 18, Tobacco, and manufactures of. 16, Tea 13, Precious stones 13 Leather, and manufactures of. 12, Wines 10 Furs, and manufactures of. Earthen-ware and china Glass and glass-ware Tin. All other articles ■••178, _^ Total $844,916,196 1 IMP TOTAL VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN. 36: Year. Imports. Year. Import.. 1800 £30,570,605 1879 £362,991,875 1810 36,514,564 1881 397,022,489 1830 46,245,241 1883 426,891,579 1840 62,004,000 1885 370,967,955 1850 95,252,084 1887 362,227,564 1861 217,485,024 1889 427,637,595 1870 303,296,082 1891 435,441,264 illipO§tor§. The following are among the most ex- traordinary : Mahomet promulgated his creed, 604. Mahomktanism. Aldebert, a Gaul, in 743, pretending to have a letter from the Re- deemer, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem, seduced multitudes into woods and forests to live in imitation of John the Baptist. He was condemned by a council at Rome in 745. •Gonzalvo Martin, a Spaniard, claimed to be the angel Michael in 1359; burned by the Inquisition in Spain in 1360. ■George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled himself son of God, sent into the world to adopt children worthy of heaven; he denied the resurrection, preached a community of women, and taught that the body only could be defiled by sin; he had many followers; d. at Basle, 1556, promising to rise again in 3 years. Otreflef, a monk, pretended to be Demetrius, the son of Ivan, czar of Muscovy, killed by the usurper Boris. He maintained that an- other child had been substituted. He was supported by Poland; his success led the Russians to invite him to the throne, and de- liver into his hands Feodor, the reigning czar, and all his family ; his imposition was discovered, and he was assassinated in his pal- ace, 1606. Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, long amused Jews and Turks at Constantinople, etc., by personating Christ, 166G. Joseph Smith. Mormons. Apparition of Our Lady of Salette; imposture exposed and several persons prosecuted, Apr. 1846. The superstition revived and flour- ishing, Aug. 1872. Pilgrimage of about 20,000 persons to Lourdes, in the Pyrenees, on account of alleged miracles (the Virgin said to have appeared to 2 girls, 11 Feb. 1858), 6 Oct. 1872. France, Loretto. Louis XVII. Fbanck, list of sovereigns. IN BRITISH HISTORY. Man pretending to be the .Messiah, and woman assuming to be the Virgin Mary, were burned, 1222. Jack Cade assumed the name of Mortimer. Cade's insurrection, 1450. In 14S7, Lambert Simnel, tutored by Richard Simon, a priest, sup- ported by the duke of Burgundy, personated the earl of Warwick. Simnel's army was defeated by Henry VII., and he was made a scullion in the king's kitchen. For Warbeck's imposture in 1492, Warbkck. Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy Maid of Kent, claimed inspiration, foreteUing that the king would have an early and violent death if he divorced Catherine of Spain and married Anne Boleyn. She and confederates were executed at Tyburn, 21 Apr. 1534. In 1553 (first year of Mary's reign, after her marriage with Philip), Elizabeth Croft, a girl 18 years of age, was secreted in a wall, and with a whistle uttered seditious speeches against the queen and the prince, and also against the mass and confession, for which she did penance. ■William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, and was ex- ecuted for blasphemy, 1591. Valentine Greatrix, an Irish impostor, pretended to cure diseases by stroking the patient; he deceived many, and occasioned warm disputes in Ireland and England about 1666. Boyle and Flam- steed believed in him. Dr. Titus Oates. Robert Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forged the writing of the earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, and other noblemen to a pretended association for restoring king James; the lords were imprisoned, but the imposture being detected, Young was fined WOOL and put in the pillory, 1692, and afterwards hanged for coining. Mary Tofts of Godalming, pretending to breed rabbits within her, imposed upon many persons (among others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the king), who espoused her cause, 1726. €ock-lane ghost impostures by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762. Cock-lane ghost. Johanna Southcote, claiming conception of the Messiah, had many followers; d. 27 Dec. 1814. W. Thom. Thomites. Tichborne case. Trials. Abstinence. il1ipre§§ioiliste§, artists who aim at producing rapid unstudied effects independent of the canons of art, as Manet, Duez, and others in France. In England Mr. Whistler ex- hibited such pictures in 1877, including moonlight scenes, ■etc., painted in two days, showing great sense of color. For Mr. Ruskin's criticisms, Trials, 1878. impressment of seamen, affirmed by sir M. Tester to be an ancient practice. The stat. 2 Rich. II. speaks ©f impressment as well known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edw. III. 1355. Pressing for sea or land ser- vice declared illegal by Parliament, Dec. 1641, but practised INC till recently. Impressment was not resorted to in the Anglo- Russian war, 1854-55. Impressment by the British govern- ment of seamen, citizens of the colonies, was a cause of irri- tation in America before the Revolution. In 1707 Parliament prohibited impressment in colonial ports. — Hildreth, \o\. n. p. 58. But notwithstanding this a riot in Boston, 1747, grew out of the impressment of citizens. Massachusetts. In 1775 Great Britain authorized impressment for the navy of all crews of captured colonial vessels. As Great Britain claimed the right of pressing into her service any British-born seaman not within the immediate jurisdiction of some foreign state, after the Revolution native-born seamen of the United States were often taken by force from their own ships to serve in the British navy. The procedure was arbitrar}', and careful discrimination was not made between British subjects and citizens of the U. S. This was the main cause of the war of 1812. The Jay treaty of 1794 was unpopular, because the wrongs of our seamen were not noticed, A vigorous attempt was made by the U. S. in 1796 to stop the impressment of U. S. seamen by diplomacy. — Hildreth, vol. iv. p. 629. After certain U. S. seamen were taken from the U. S. sloop-of-war Baltimore, 18 Nov. 1798, by a British war vessel, the U. S. government directed its commanders to resist such impress- ments if possible, and otherwise to surrender their ships. Renewed outrages 1804. Renewed attempt.to treat on this subject 1806. Affair of the Chesapeake and Leopard, 1807 ; 12 June, 1812. United States. Impressment was earnestly debated in Congress 1811, when 3500 impressed U. S. seamen were asserted to be in the British navy. The British gov- ernment admitted the number to be 1600. 2500 impressed seamen were committed to Dartmoor and other prisons in England during the war of 1812 for refusing to serve against the U. S., of which they claimed to be citizens. Yet the general desire for peace was so strong in the U. S. that the subject was ignored in the treatv of peace with Great Britain, 1814. imprisonment for debt. Arrests, Debtors, Fekrars's arrest. Ineas. Peru. ineendiaries. The punishment for arson was death by Saxon laws and Gothic constitutions. Under Edward I. of England, incendiaries were burned. This crime was made high-treason by statute 8 Hen. VI. 1429 ; and was denied ben- efit of clergy, 2*1 Hen. VIII. 1528. In Great Britain the pun- ishment of death was remitted, except in special cases, in 1827. Arson. ineest. Marriage with a very near relation, almost uni- versally forbidden elsewhere, was permitted in most Oriental countries and Greece. For recent cases, Portugal, 1760, 1777, 1826, and Italy, 1888. The table of kindred in the " Book of Common Prayer" was set forth in 1563. For the Hebrew law, see Leviticus, chap, xviii. (1490 B.C.). inell. It was defined in 1824, by act of Parliament, 39.13929 inches being the length of a seconds pendulum in the latitude of London, vibrating in vacuo at the sea-level, at the temperature of 62° Fahrenheit. Candles, Standard and Metric system. Inehcape bell. Bell Rock light-house. ineome-tax in the United Kingdom. In 1512 Parlia- ment granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons and two tenths from the clergy, to begin war with France. In Dec. 1798, Mr. Pitt carried, amid great opposition, resolutions for increased taxes " as an aid for the prosecution of the war" with France. Graduated duties on income imposed, beginning with &01. per an- num, by the act passed 9 Jan. 1799. ^' Property tax" passed, levying 5 per cent, on incomes above 150i. and lower rates on smaller incomes, 11 Aug. 1803. Gross annual value of property and profits assessed to the income- tax in the United Kingdom in 1871 was 465,478,688?. ; in 1890 it was 669,358,613?., of which England returned 572,128,525?. ; Scot- land, 60,030,510?. ; Ireland, 37,199,578?. revenue from incomes since 1882. Year. Tax per £.. Amount in £. 1882 5c? 9,945.000 1883 &kd 11,900,000 1884 5d 10,718,000 1885 6d 12,000,000 INC 368 IND Ymt. Tax p«r £. Amount In £. 1886 Sd 15,160,000 1887 8 23 Apr. " Government of lord Mornington, afterwards marquess Welles- ley 17 May, 1798 Seringapatam stormed by gen. Baird ; Tippoo Sahib killed, 4 May ; Mysore divided. 22 June, 1799 Victories of the British ; the Carnatic conquered 1800 Nabob of Furruckabad cedes his territories to the English for a pension 4 June, 1802 Important treaty of Bassein (with Mahrattas) 31 Dec. " Mahrattawar. Victoriesofsir Arthur Wellesley and gen. Lake, 1803 Wellesley's great victory at Assaye 23 Sept. " I'ondicherry (restored 1801) retaken Dec. " War with Holkar 1804-5 Capture of Bhurtpore 2 Apr. 1805 Marquess Cornwallis succeeds Wellesley ; d 5 Oct. " Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by British ; treaty of peace, 23 Nov. » Treaty of peace with Holkar 24 Dec. " Sepoy mutiny at Vellore ; 800 executed July, 1806 Cumoona surrenders 21 Nov. 1807 369 IND Mutiny at Seringapatam quelled 23 Aug. 1809 Act opening the trade to India July, 1813 War with Nepaul 1814-15 Holkar defeated by sir T. Hislop 21 Dec. 1817 Pindaree war. English successful 1817-18 Peace with Holkar 6 Jan. 1818 Burmese war. British take Rangoon 5 May, 1824 Peace with the Burmese 24 Feb. 1826 [They pay 1,000, 000^. and cede a great extent of territory.] Abolition of Suttees (the burning of widows) 7 Dec. 1829 Act opening the trade to India, and tea-trade, etc., to China, a new era in British commerce 28 Aug. 1835 Coorg annexed ; rajah deposed lO Apr. 1834 Natives admitted to magistracy 1 May, " Slavery abolished i Aug. 1838 Afghan war. Proclamation against Dost Mahomed 1 Oct. •' British occupy Candahar 21 Apr. 1839 Victory at GnizNEEofsir John (afterwards lord) Keane..23 July, " Wade forces the Khyber pass 26 July, " English defeat Dost Mahomed 18 Oct. 1849 At the funeral of Kurroch Singh, king of Lahore, his succes- sor is killed by accident; Dost Mahomed, next heir, surren- ders to England 5 Nov. " Rising against British at Cabul ; sir Alex. Burnes and others murdered 2 Nov. 1841 Sir Wm. Macnaghton assassinated 28 Dec. " Jellalabad held by sir R. Sale 1841-42 British under convention evacuate Cabul, placing lady Sale, etc., as hostages with Akbar Khan ; a massacre ensues of about 16,000 persons 6-13 Jan. 1842 British evacuate Ghiznee 1 Mch. " Sortie from Jellalabad; gen. Pollock forces the Khyber pass, 5 Apr. " Ghiznee retaken by gen. Nott 6 Sept. " Gen. Pollock enters Cabul 16 Sept. "^ Lady Sale and other i)risoners rescued by Sir R. Shakspeare ; arrive at gen. Pollock's camp 21 Sept. " Cabul evacuated after destroying fortifications 12 Oct. " Scinde war. Ameers defeated by sir Charles Napier at Meanee, 17 Feb. 1845 Scinde annexed to British empire ; sir Charles Napier gov- ernor June, " Gwalior war. Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar ; the fort of Gwalior, " Gibraltar of the East," taken 29 Dec. " Danish possessions in India purchased 1845 Sikh war. Sikhs cross the Sutlej river and attack the British at Ferozepore 14 Dec. '• Sir H. Hardinge, by a rapid march, reaches Moodkee ; Sikhs (20,000) attack ; after a hard contest they retire, abandoning their guns (Moodkee) 18 Dec. " Sir Hugh Goughseizescitadel of Lahore and ends the war, 20 Feb. 1846 Treaty of Lahore signed 9 Mch. " Shere Singh, intrenched on right bank of the Chenab, with 40,000 men and 28 guns; gen. Thackwell crossing with 8 in- fantry regiments, cavalry, and cannon, 1 Dec, attacks his left flank at Sadoolapore 3 Dec. 1848 Lord Gough attacks enemy's advanced position ; victory of Chillianwallah 13 Jan. 1849 Sir Charles Napier commander-in-chief 7 Mch. " Puujaub annexed to British dominions; Dhuleep Singh obtains a pension of 40,000/ 29 Mch. " Sir Charles Napier resigns his command 2 July, 1850^ Burmese war. Death of Bajee Rao, ex-peishwa of the Mah- rattas (his nephew Nana Sahib's claim for continuance of the pension of 80,000/. refused) 28 Jan. 1851 A British naval force reaching Rangoon, in the Burman empire, commodore Lambert allows the viceroy 35 days to obtain in- structions from Ava 29 Oct. " Viceroy of Rangoon interdicts communication between the shore and the British ships-of-war, and erects batteries to prevent their departure 4 Jan. 1852 [Commodore Lambert blockades the Irawaddy; the Fox, Hermes, etc., attacked by batteries, destroy the fortifications, killing nearly 300 men.] Pegu annexed to Indian empire by proclamation of the gov- ernor-general 20 Dec. " First Indian railway opened (Bombay to Tannah) 16 Apr. 185S End of war June, " Opening of the Calcutta railway 3 Feb. 1856 Treaty of friendship with Dost Mahomed of Cabul 30 Mch. " MUTINY OF THE NATIVE ARMY. For the improved (Enfield) musket In the Indian army, car- tridges greased with the fiit of pigs were brought from' Eng- land. These were offensive to native soldiers on religious grounds, and were recalled by orders in Jan. 1857. A muti- nous spirit appeared in the Bengal native army. In Mch. several regiments were disbanded, and by June the army had lost by disbandment and desertion about 30,000 men. On 5 Apr. a sepoy, and on 20 Apr. a jemadar, or native lieuten- ant, were executed. At the end of May, 34 regiments were lost. In April, 85 of the 3d Bengal native cavalry at Meerut refused to use their cartridges. On 9 May they were com- mitted to jail. On Sunday, the 10th, a mutiny in the native troops broke out; they fired on officers, killing col. Finnis and others, released their comrades, massacred many Euro- peans, and fired public buildings. The European troops ral- lied and drove them from their cantonments. The muti- neers then fied to Delhi. Mutinies in Bengal army: at Barrackpore, etc., regiments dis- banded Mch. 1857 1858 1859 IND Mutiny at Meerut (near Delhi) 10 May. The mutineers seize Delhi, commit outrages, and proclaim the king of Delhi em- peror .11-12 May, etc. Mutiny at Luckuow 30 May, Neill suppresses the mutiny at Benares, 3 June, and recovers Allahabad 4 June, Mutiny spreads through Bengal ; fearftil atrocities [At the end of Juuo native troops were in open mutiny at ileerut, Delhi, Ferozepore, Allyghur, Roorkee, Murdauu, Luckuow, Catoni)ore, Nusseerabad, Neemuch, Hansi, Ifissai; Jahnsi, Mehidpore, JuUundur, Azimghur, Futtehghur, Jaun- pore, Bareilly, Shahjehaupore, Allahabad. At the stations in italics, European women and children were massacred.] Residency at Luckuow besieged by rebels 1 July, Sir H. Lawrence dies of wounds at Lucknow ^ July, Cawupore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who kills garrison, etc., 2« June; he is defeated by gen. Havelock, 16 July, who re- captures Cawnpore 17 July, Mutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, 18 July; at lAhore.20 July, Assault of Delhi, 14 Sept. ; taken, 20 Sept. ; king captured, 21 Se|)t. ; his son and grandson slain by col. Hodson. . .22 Sept. Sir James Outram joins Havelock and serves under him . 16 Sept. Havelock, relieving besieged residency at Lucknow, retires, leaving Outram in command ; Neill killed 25, 26 Sept. Col. Greathed defeats rebels at Bolundshohur, 27 Sept. ; de- stroys fort at Molaghur, 29 Sept. ; takes Allyghur, 5 Oct. ; de- feats rebels at Agra 10 Oct. SirColin Campbell (afterwards lord Clyde) commander-in-chief, 11 July; arrives at Cawnpore 3 Nov. Joined by Havelock, he attacks rebels and rescues besieged in residency 18-25 Nov. Havelock dies of dysentery at Alumbagh 24 Nov. [Born 5 Apr. 1795 ; educated at Charterhouse, London, where he was called "^Old Phlos" ; went to India, 1823; served in the Burmese war, 1824, and in the Sikh war, 1845. He was a Baptist.] Sir Colin Campbell arrives at Cawnpore, which he retakes, 28 Nov., and defeats the Gwalior rebels 6 Dec. Lucknow strongly fortified by the rebels Jan. Sir Colin Campbell marches to Lucknow, 11 Feb. ; siege com- mences, 8 Mch. ; taken by successive assaults; the enemy retreat; Hodson killed 14-19 Mch. Government of the East India company ceases 1 Sept. Indiana Asbury university (since 1884 De Pauw), at Green- castle, chartered and opened 1837 Indiana Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, at Indianapolis, opened 1844 University of Notre Dame (R. C), at Notre Dame, chartered 1844, and opened.. 1845 State failing to pay its interest on the public debt for several years, compromises with creditors, who release one half of the indebtedness 1846 Earlham college at Richmond opened 1847 Fort Wayne college for women, at Fort Wayne, chartered and opened " Indiana Institution for the Education of the Blind, at Indianap- olis, opened 1 Oct. " Central Insane hospital at Indianapolis opened Dec. 1848 Constitution, framed by a convention which met at Indianap- olis, 7 Oct. 18.50, adopted 10 Feb. 1851 New constitution, ratified by vote, 109,319 to 26,755, goes into operation 1 Nov. " Butler university, at Irvington, chartered in 1850, opened 1855 Lieut. -gov. A. A. Hammond succeeds gov. W^illard, who died at St. Paul, Minn 3 Oct. 1860 Gov. Lane elected U. S. senator; lieut.-gov. Morton succeeds, Jan. 1861 Caleb B. Smith appointed secretary of the interior 5 Mch. " Six regiments raised and mustered in within a week after the call of the president for troops, made 15 Apr. " John P. Usher appointed secretary of tJie interior 8 Jan. 1863 Second Kentucky cavalry, confederate, capt. Hines, cross the • Ohio at Flint Rock, plunder Leavenworth, Corydon, and Paoli, and retreat across the river. 16 June, " Confederates under Morgan cross the Ohio at Brandenburg, Ky., 8 July, pursued by federals under gen. Hobson. They IND move eastward, covering 700 miles in 20 days (Moroan's RAID) July, 1863 Hugh McCulloch appointed secretary of the treasury... 7 Mch. 1865 Law making colored people competent witnesses '• Indianapolis normal school opened 18C6 Convention of colored citizens of Indiana at Indianapolis to devise means to obtain full citizenship 6 Nov. " National convention of the Grand Army of the Republic held at Indianapolis 20 Nov. " Gov. Morion resigns, being elected U. S. senator, and is suc- ceeded by lieut.gov. Conrad Baker Jan. Legislature ratifies the XIV. th Amendment to the Constitution, 29 Jan. Cornerstone of the Soldiers' Home at Knightstown laid, 4 July, Indiana Reform School for Boys, at Plainfield, opened. . .1 Jan. Robbers of an express-car on the Jeffersonville railroad, 22 May, 1868, are arrested, and on their way to Jackson (or trial the train is stopped by a so-called vigilance committee of Seymour, a confession extorted from the prisoners, who are hung. 20 July. 4 other prisoners, lodged in jail at New Albany, are hung by 70 masked men 12 Dec. " Legislature ratifies the XV. th Amendment to the Constitution, 13-14 May, 1869 State Woman's Suffrage convention at Indianapolis 8 June, " State Normal school at Terre Haute opened 1870 Seizing and hanging of certain negroes suspected of the murder of a family in Clark county, by a mob of disguised persons, calls forth a proclamation from gov. Baker, expressing his determination to suppress mob violence 23 Nov. 1871 Indiana State Grange organized 1872 Portion of the Northern state prison at Michigan City, in erection from 1863 to 1870, is destroyed by fire 13 July, " Amendment to the constitution, providing that "no law or resolution shall ever be passed that shall recognize any lia- bility of this state to pay or redeem any certificate of stock" issued in 1846 for the completion of the Wabash and Erie canal, ratified 18 Feb. 1873 Second annual meeting of the National Congress of Agriculture at Indianapolis; 200 delegates from 25 states 28 May, '* Reform School for Girls and Woman's prison, at Indianapolis, opened Sept. " Jeffersonville depot of the quartermasters' department of the U. S. completed 1874 Purdue university, the land grant college of Indiana, at Lafay- ette, chartered 1862, opened " Commission appointed by the legislatures of Indiana and Ken- tucky, governed by the U. S. survey of 1806, determine that Green island, near Evausville, belongs to Kentucky July, 1875 James N. Tyner postmaster- general 12 July, 1876 Richard W. Thompson secretary of the navy 12 Mch. 1877 Office of mine inspector created by act of legislature 1879 Indiana School for Feeble-minded Youth, at Richmond, opened, " Corner-stone of new state-house at Indianapolis laid. ..28 Sept. 1880 Nine amendments to the state constitution adopted by the people. The 2d and 4th making the constitution conform to that of the U. S. as to the rights of colored citizens, 14 Mch, 1881 National convention of the Grand Army of the Republic held at Indianapolis 15 June, " Walter Q. Gresbam postmaster-general 3 Apr. 1883 Rose Polytechnic Institute, at Terre Haute, chartered in 1874, is opened " Walter Q. Gresham secretary of the treasury 24 Sept. 1884 Hugh McCulloch secretary of the treasury 28 Oct. " First Natural Gas company in Indiana chartered 5 Mch. 1886 Evansville School for the Deaf opened " Indiana Normal college at Covington opened " School for Feeble minded Youth established at Fort Wayne by law 1887 Legislature appropriates *200,000 for a soldiers and sailors' monument in Clyde park, Indianapolis " State Normal school at Terre Haute burned 9 Apr. 1888 Northern Insane hospital at Logansport opened " Australian ballot system substantially adopted by law 188^ Offices of state geologist, mine inspector, and state inspector of oils abolished, and a department of geology and natural resources created " Secret organization of so-called White Caps in southern Illinois is investigated by the government of the state in 1888, and a law passed to suppress riotous conspiracy " Hospital for the Insane, at Evansville, completed " Eastern Hospital for the Insane, at Richmond, completed " William H. Miller appointed attorney-general 5 Mch. " Marion branch of the National Soldiers' Home opened 1890 Monument to vice-pres. Hendricks unveiled at Indianapolis, 1 July, " Supreme council of the Farmers' Alliance convenes at In- dianapolis 17 Nov. 1891 Gov. Hovey dies at Indianapolis, 23 Nov. ; lieut.-gov. Chase acting Nov. " State female reformatory destroyed by fire 1 Mch. 1892 John W. Foster, secretary of state 29 June, " Burial of the wife of pres. Harrison at Indianapolis 28 Oct. " Popular welcome at Indianapolis to ex-pres. Harrison on his arrival at the close of his administration 6 Mch. 1893 GOVERNORS — TERRITORIAL. William Henry Harrison appointed^ 13 May, 1800 John Gibson acting 1812 Thomas Posey appointed 3 Mch. 1813 IND 375 IND Jonathan Jennings. William Hendricks.. James B. Kay Noah Noble David Wallace Samuel Bigger James Whitcomb... Joseph A. Wright... AshbelP. Willard.., GOVERNORS— STATE. assumes office 7 Nov. 1816 " " 4 Dec. 1822 " " 12 Feb. 1825 " " 7 Dec. 1831 " " 6 Dec. 1837 " " 9 Dec. 1840 " " 6 Dec. 1843 " " 6 Dec. 1849 " " 12 Jan. 1857 Abraham A. Hammond assumes oflace Oct. 1860 Henry S. Lane elected U. S. senator Jan. 1861 Oliver P. Morton assumes office " " Conrad Baker " " " 1867 Thomas A. Hendricks " " " 1875 James D. Williams " " " 1877 Albert G. Porter " " " 1881 Isaac P. Gray " " " 1885 Alvin P. Hovey (d. in office) " 1889 Ira J. Chase, lieut.-gov acting Nov. 1891 Claude Matthews assumes office Jan. 189» UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF INDIANA. James Noble Waller Taylor William Hendricks... Robert Hanna John Tipton Oliver H. Smith Alberts. White Edward A. Hannegan. Jesse D. Bright James Whitcomb Charles W. Cathcart... John Petit Graham N. Fitch Henry S. Lane Joseph A. Wright David Turpie Thomas A. Hendricks. Oliver P. Morton Daniel D. Pratt Joseph E. McDonald. . Daniel W. Voorhees. . . Benjamin Harrison... David Turpie No. of Congress. Date. 14th to 22d 14th " 19th 19th " 24th 22d 22d to 25th 25th " 27th 26th " 28th 28th " 30th 29th " 37th 31st " 32d 32d 32d to 33d 34th " 36th 37th " 39th 37th 37th 38th to 40th 40th " 45th 41st " 43d 44th " 46th 45th " 47th " 49th 50th " 1816 to 1831 1816 " 1825 1825 " 1837 1831 " 1832 1832 " 1837 1837 " 1843 1839 " 1844 1843 " 1849 1845 " 1861 1849 " 1852 1852 " 1853 1853 " 1856 1857 " 1860 1861 " 1867 1861 " 1862 1863 1863 to 1867 1867 " 1877 1869 " 1875 1875 " 1881 1877 " 1881 " 1888 Seated 12 Dec. 1816. Seated 12 Dec. 1816. Died 26 Feb. 1831. Appointed in place of Noble, 183L Elected in place of Noble. ( Seated 27 Dec. 1845. President pro tern. 5 Dec. 1854, 11 June, 1856^ \ and again 12 June, 1860. Expelled from the Senate, 5 Feb. 1861, ( as a secessionist. Died 4 Oct. 1852. Appointed in place of Whitcomb. Elected in place of Whitcomb. Seated 9 Feb. 1857. Appointed in place of Bright. Seated 3 Mch. 1861. Elected in place of Bright. Seated 22 Jan. 1863. (Nominated for vice-president by the Democratic party, 1876, and ( again in 1884. Died 1 Nov. 1877. Term expires 1897. Elected president of the U. S., 1889-93. Term expires 1899. In andot-Iroquois j Wyandots (Huron or Wy- ) andot-Iroquois) j Senecas (Iroquois proper). . . Cayugas " " Onondagas " " ... Oneidas " " Mohawks •' " ... Location. East of the state of M^ine. Maine. New Hampshire and Maine. ;E. Massachusetts and Rhode [ Island . (■Central Massachusetts and I Rhode Island. (W. Massachusetts and Con- \ necticut. (New Jersey, the valley, of the [ Delaware and Schuylkill. Eastern shores of Chesapeake bay. E. Virginia and Maryland. E. North Carolina. South of the Ohio, W. Ken- tucky, and Tennessee. S. Michigan, N. Indiana, and N.W. Ohio. S. Illinois and Indiana. N. and central Illinois. N. Illinois. Michigan. N. Wisconsin. Southern shore of lake Superior. Southern shore of lake Erie. Head- waters of the Ohio. (Territory north of lakes Erie and ( Ontario. W. New York. Long House. Central New York. fi. New York. NAMES AND LOCATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TRIBES OF THE 8 GREAT FAMILIES, ETC. — (Continued.) Tuscaroras (Iroquois proper) Chowans (Huron or Wyan- ) dot-Iroquois) ) Meherrins (Huron or Wy-\ andot-Iroquois) j Nottaways (Huron or Wy-» andot-Iroquois) | III. Catawbas IV. Cherokees. V. Uchees VI. Natchez VII. Mobilian or Muskhogees : Chickasaws Choctaws Creeks or Muskhogees Seminoles VIII. Winnebagoes. S. W. Virginia and North Carol ina. Join the Iroquois of New York.. 1713. ' S. Virginia. W. North and South Carolina. Mountainous regions of Ten- nessee, Georgia, North and South Carolina. About Augusta, Ga. ' N.W. Mississippi. W. Tennessee and N. Mississippi. E. Mississippi and W. Alabama. Alabama and Georgia. Florida. About Green Bay, Wis. PRINCIPAL TRIBES WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI IN 1800-30. Name. Location. Dakotas (Sioux) Arapahoes Wisconsin, west to Rocky nits. Wyoming, head-waters of Platte. Wyoming and Nebraska. Dakota. Nebraska. Assiniboins Montana and Dakota Minnetaries (Gros Ventres) . . Missouris Montana. Lower Missouri lowas Iowa Osacres Kansas west Crows Dakota Kaws Kansas Pawnees Kansas and Nebraska Caddos Shoshones or Snakes Kiowas Kansas to Oregon. Utes Navajos and Mosquis Arizona. Bannocks . ... Idaho and Oregon. Nevada and Oregon. Modocs Nez Perces Flatheads California. Oregon, and Nevada. Oregon and N. California. Klamaths IND 376 IND SITUATION, NUMBERS, AND TRIBES OF INDIANS WITHIN THE UNITED STATES IN 1893. ^ State. Tribe. Number. ^ Maine .... ( Penobscot 385 * Massachusetts , . . . . \ PassamuquoUdy 525 145 24 New York rescrviuious : 955 1,574 ^ 661 m 455 m St Regis St Regis 1,053 1 469 ' Onondagas Oneida Oneidas . 237 J North Carolina. Tennes-see, and Georgia. . . . Florida 2,885 mostly in North Carolina.^ 269 71 6,991 not on reservation. 1,404 " " 132 " " (Munsees, Oneidas (from New York), Chippewas, ) \ Menomones, and Stockbridge (from Massaohu- [ ( setts) ) 7,915 on reservation. Iowa 981 off " 397 ( 6,263 on reservation. \ 802 off ( 3,751 on " \ 113 off 1,016 on " Nebraska. Winnebagoes, Poncas, Omahas, and Pawnees Kansas 1 Munsees, Miamis, Kansas or Kaws, Kickapoos, Pot- ) { tawatomies, and Chippewas ) j Sioux, Poncas, Arickarees, Gros Ventres, and Man- 1 North and South Dakota 26,880 on " 917 off " ( Blackfeet, Blood, Peigan, Assiniboins, Gros Ven- \ tres, Crows, Flatheads, Shoshones, Bannocks, and 10,336 on " 237 off " Shoshones and Arapahoes 1,806 on ( 3,640 on " Idaho Utes ( 269 off " f 985 on " \ 49 off f 1,552 on \ 3,404 off " ( 7,938 on " \ 2,899 off j 3,708 on " \ 574 off " ( 5,020 on " no. 263 off " i 1,854 on " \ 635 off " 8,278 citizens. Nevada Utes Shoshones, and Bannocks Coeur d' Aline, Spokane, Yakama, and others Klamaths, Walla- Wallas, Shoshones, and others Yumas Klamaths and others Oregon ^alifnrnia Utah Utes ( Pueblos 1 Navajos, Apaches, and Utes 20,521 on reservation. (15,414 on \ 1,326 off 5,689 on " 52,065 14,224 8,708 on reservations. 288 ' ^ Oklahoma. ( Pottawatomies, Sacs and Foxes, Osages, Kansas, ) Indian Territory f f Cherokees.... 25.357 ' 1 Chickasaws... 4,625 The five civilized tribes ^ Choctaws 10,253 ■ 1 Creeks -9,291 1 Serainoles. . . . 2,539 Cheyennes, Arapahoes. Apaches, Kiowas, Co- manches,Wichitas, Delawares, Caddos, Sliawnees, Miamis, Modocs. Ottawas, Peorias, Quapaws, Sen- ecas. Cayugas, Wyandots j Total 249 273 3 indiction, a cycle of tributes of corn demanded every 15 years, not known before Constantine. The first examples in the Theodosian code are of the reign of Constantius, who died 361. — In memory of Constantine's victory over Mezentius, •8 CaL Oct. 312, the council of Nice ordained that years should be no longer reckoned by Olympiads, but by the indiction, dating from 1 Jan. 313. It was first used bv the Latin church in 342. in'CligO, a dj'e from the woad plant, hatis tinctoria, used by the Egyptians and other ancient nations; the processes .are described by Pliny. After the passage of the Cape of ■Good Hope, in 1497, it was gradually superseded by Eastern indigo, from the indigofera. Indigo is named in English statutes in 1581. Its cultivation began in South Carolina in 1743. After long experiments, especially by prof. A. Baeyer, the dye has been prepared artificially from coal-tar 1869-80 Prof. H. E. Rcscoe, at the Royal institution, London, demon- strates identity of artificial and natural indigo 27 May, 1881 indirect claims. Alabama claims. iu'cliuill, a metal discovered in arsenical pyrites of Freiburg, by F. Reich and T. Richter in 1863 ; named fro| giving an indigo-blue ray in its spectrum. induction of electric currents, discovered by Faraday, announced in his "Experimental Researches," in 1831-32. Ruhrakorff's magneto-electric induction coil constructed in 185D. Electricity. inductive philosophy, based on observations and experiments, really common-sense, is expounded by Bacon in •' Novum Organum," pub. 1620, Book II. The terra philosophy, which is more correctly applied to the investiga- tion of mental and spiritual truth, has been loosely bestowed on this method. The senses are never philosophic. Philos- ophy. indulg^ence§, in the early church, were the modera- tion of ecclesiastical punishment. Papal grants of abso- lute pardon of sin, commenced by Leo III. about 800, were granted in the 11th century by Gregory VII., and by Ur- ban II. and by others in the 12th century, as rewanis to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope wlio made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517 Leo X. published IND general indulgences, and resistance to them led to the Ref- ormation. industrial exhibitions. Exhibitions, Fairs. infallibility of the pope, in regard to faith and morals, was decreed by the Vatican council, and promulgated 18 July, 1870. Extensive opposition to the doctrine in Germany led to the constitution of the church named " Old Catholics." Mr. Gladstone's pam- phlets, "The Vatican Decrees in their Bearing on Civil Allegiance," pub. Nov. 1874, and "Vaticanism," Feb. 1875. infant schools. Kindergartens. infantry, foot - soldiers ; their organization much improved during the wars of Charles V. and Francis I., in the 16th century. The British army comprises 109 regiments, now merged into line battalions with a rifle brigade. For the United Kingdom 1891, 69,274 men. For the United States, 25 regiments, 13,002 men. Army. infirmaries. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick ; diseased persons were carried to the temple of iEsculapius for cure. Institutions for the accommodation of travellers, the indigent, and sick were founded by the emperor Julian about 362 ; and infirmaries or hospitals were frequently added to cathedrals and monasteries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries on mountains to be visited, 855. In Jerusalem knights and brothers at- tended the sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Con- stantinople in the 11th century. Physicians and surgeons in infirmaries are first mentioned 1437. — Beckmann. Hos- influenza, a name given in Italy about 1741 to an epidemic febrile catarrh with variations, probably known to the ancients. It prevailed in Europe in 1510, and has since frequently appeared, generally commencing in Russia and thence spreading over the continent. It appeared in Britain in 1762 and frequently since, especially in 1830-31, 1833, 1836-37, and 1847. It appeared at Paris in 1866-67, and at Berlin, 1874-75. In Oct. 1889, it was se- vere at St. Petersburg, and thence spread over Europe, reaching Great Britain, Canada, and the U. S., Jan. 1890, causing indirectly the death of several eminent persons. In the spring the diseaeie was severe in India and Australia. In 1891 the disease was severe in the west of the U. S. and in London and other parts of England, and also on the continent. The disease reappeared in Jan. 1892, in much the same localities. In London the general mortality was much increased, all classes being attacked. The death of the duke of Clarence and Avondale, 14 Jan. 1892, was attributed to pneumonia following influenza. Report of the epidemic of 1889- 1890, by dr. Parsons, issued by British government, about 3 July, 1891. Special government inquiry into the disease ordered in England, early Feb. 1892. infuso'ria. Animalcules. ink. The ancient black inks were made of soot and ivory-black (Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black); but they had ink of various colors, as red, gold, silver, and purple. ' Red ink was made of vermilion and gum. Indian-ink was brought from China, and must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages. Invisible or sympathetic inks were early known. Ovid (2 a.d.) teaches young wom- en to write with new milk. Receipts for invisible ink were given by Peter Borel in 1653, and by Le Mort in 1669.— ^ecJfc- TKiann. Ink'ernian, a village and seaport in the Crimea. The Russian army (about 40,000) reinforced and encour- aged by the presence of grand-dukes Michael and Nicholas, attacked the British (8000) near the old fort of Inkerman, \ before daybreak, 5 Nov. 1854. They were kept at bay 6 hours till the arrival of 6000 French, and then repulsed, leaving 9000 killed and wounded. The allies lost 462 killed, ^ 1952 wounded, and 191 missing. Sir George Cathcart, and gens. Strangways, Goldie, and Torrens, were among the I slain. Pj Innocents' Day, 28 Dec. in the Western church ; ' 29 Dec. in the Greek or Eastern church. 377 INQ inns or houses for the lodgement and entertain- ment of travellers, at Rome, were regulated by laws. Ed- ward III. enacted that thev should be subjected to inquiry^ 1353. " Now spurs the lated traveller apace To gain the timely inn." — Shakespeare, "Macbeth," act iii. sc. ill. " One autumn night, in Sudbury town. Across the meadows bare and brown The windows of the wayside inn Gleamed red with fire-light through the leaves Of woodbine hanging from the eaves, Their crimson curtains rent and thin." —Longfellow, " Wayside Inn," Prelude. Taverns. inns of court, London, were established at different periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. An- nual revenue in 1872 said to be about 25,000^. ^'Shallow. ... He is at Oxford still, is he not?" ^^ Silence. Indeed, sir, to my cost." " Shallow. He must then to the inns of court shortly: I was once- of Clement's inn," etc. — Shakespeare, " 2 Henry IV.," act iii. sc. ii. Temple founded; church built by Knights Templars 1185- Lincoln's inn, 4 Edw. II 1310 or 1312: Clifford's inn, 20 Edw. Ill 1345- Gray's inn, 32 Edw. Ill 1357 Staples' inn, 4 Hen. V 1415- Lyon's inn 1420' Sergeants' inn. Fleet street 1429 Barnard's inn, an inn of chancery 1445- Clement's inn, 18 Edw. IV '. 1478. New inn, 1 Hen. VII 1485- Thavies's inn. 10 Hen. VIII 151» Inner and Middle Temple made inns of law about 1340; Outer about (Stow) 1560 Furnival's inn, 5 Eliz 1563 Sergeants' inn, Chancery lane (sold for 57,000/., 23 Feb. 1877). 1666 inoculation. The communication of a disease to a person by inserting contagious matter in his skin or flesh. In- oculation with the small-pox was introduced into England from Turkey by lady Mary Wortley Montagu. In 1718 she had her son inoculated at Adrianople with success. She was- allowed to have it first tried in England on 7 condemned crim- inals, 1721 ; and in 1722 2 of the royal family were inoculated. The practice was preached against by many of the bishops- and clergy until 1760. Dr. Mead inoculated successfully up- to 1754; and dr. Dimsdale of London inoculated Catherine II., empress of Russia, in 1768. Of 5964 inoculated in 1797-99 only 3 died. An inoculation hospital was established in 1746^ Vaccine inoculation, called Vaccination, was introduced by dr. Jenner, 21 Jan. 1799 ; he discovered its virtue in 1796,. and experimented on it for 3 years. Inoculation in Great Britain was forbidden by law in 1840. First introduced into America in Boston, Mass., about 1721 through the influence of dr. Cotton Mather. First inoculation in the family of dr. Zabdiel Boylston. It was denounced by the clergy and by~ many physicians. Medical science, Small-pox. inquests. Coroneks. Inquisition, or holy office. Before Constantino (306) heresy and spiritual offences were punished by excom- munication only; but soon after his death capital punish- ments were added, and inquisitors were appointed b}'^ Theodo- sius, 382. Priscillian was put to death in 384. Justinian decreed the doctrine of the 4 holy synods as to the Script- ures and their canons to be observed as laws, 529 ; hence the- penal code against heretics. About 800 the power of West- ern bishops was enlarged, and courts were established to try and punish spiritual offenders, even with death ; the punish- ment being termed in Spain auto-da-fe, " an act of faith." In the 12th century many heresies arose; and during crusades against the Albigenses, Gregory IX. in 1233 established rules for inquisitorial missions sent out by Innocent III., 1210-15, and committed them to the Dominicans. Pietro da Verona (Peter Martyr) the first inquisitor who burned heretics, as- sassinated by an accused gonfalonier, 6 Apr. 1252, was canon- ized. Pierre de Castelnan sent against the Albigenses, 1210; St. Dom- inic, first inquisitor-general 1215- Inquisition constituted by Gregory IX., 1233; in Aragon, 1233; Venice, 1249; France, 12.55; Castile 1290 Inquisition revived by a bull .1 Nov. 1478^ Holy office reinstituted in Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella; Torquemada inquisitor-general 1480 Nearly 3000 persons burned in Andalusia, and 17,000 suffer other penalties 1481 INS 878 INS 1 " Instructions " of new tribunal promulgated 29 Nov. 1484 New articles added 1488 and 1498 Established in Portugal 1520 Resisted in Naples; jwrmitted elsewhere in Italy under re- strictions by the temporal power 1546-47 New ordinances in 81 articles compiled by inquisitor-general Valdez 1561 Suppressed in France by edict of Nantes 1598 Carnesecchi executed at Rome, 1667 ; Galileo called to Rome and admonished not thenceforward to "hold, teach, or defend " the doctrine condemned by the church, " that the sun is the centre of the solar system, and that the earth has a diurnal motion of rotation," 1610: compelled to abjure these views and read his recantation or them in the church of Santa Maria, Rome 22 June, 1633 Louis XIV. revokes edict of Nantes, but refuses to introduce the Inquisition 1685 Twenty persons perish at an auto-da-fe at (Joa 1717 Gabriel Mulagrida, a Jesuit, burned at Lisbon 1761 A woman accused of contract with the devil burned at Se- ville 7 Nov. 1781 Tribunal abolished in Tuscany and Lombardy 1787 Suppressed in Spain by Napoleon, 4 Dec. 1808, and by the Cortes 12 Feb. 1813 Restored by Ferdinand VII 21 July, 1814 Finally abolished by Cortes 1820 [Llorente reckons about 32,000 persons put to death in Spain by the Inquisition in 236 years ; 291,000 otherwise punished.] In§anity (defined by sir "William Hamilton as " the pa- rah'sis of the regulating or legislating faculties of the mind "), in 1000 male patients, has been traced to— Drunkenness 110 Consequences of disease. . . . 100 Epilepsy 78 Ambition 73 Excessive labor. 73 Born idiots 71 Misfortunes 69 Old age 69 Chagrin 54 Love 47 Accidents 39 Religious enthusiasm ... 29 Unnatural practices 27 Political events 26 Poisonous effluvia 17 Ill-usage 12 Crimes, remorse, and despair 9 Malformation of the skull ... 4 Unknown causes 88 Pretended insanity 5 •"The king shall have the custody of the lands of natural fools," etc., 17 Edw. II 1324 Marriages with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo. II. c. 30 1742 Act regarding criminal lunatics passed Aug. 1840 Numerous laws respecting lunatics consolidated and amended by 16and 17 Vict., cc. 70, 96, 97 1853 A new lunacy act for Scotland passed 1858 Law for commissions of lunacy amended (after the Wyndham case. Trials, 1862) 1862 TREATMENT OF THE INSANE IN GREAT BRITAIN. Earliest notice of lunatics having been received at Bethlem. . . 1403 Forty-four lunatics were maintained at Bethlem 1644 Till about 1800 lunatics were treated with cruelty. See Con- oUy "On the Treatment of the Insane," 1856. Insane at Bethlem made a show for Id. or 2d. till 1770 Enlightened treatment introduced by William Tuke at Society of Friends' "Retreat," at York, and by Pinel, at the Bic6tre, Paris, with success 1792 Esquirol succeeds Pinel, and recommends instruction in man- agement of mental disorders 1810 Exposure of cruelties in the Bethlem hospital 1815 ■Gradual improvements, and total abolition of mechanical re- straints at Lincoln, 1837, and at Hanwell Asylum (under dr. John Conolly) and other places 1839 Psychological Journal issued by dr. Forbes Winslow 1848 Journal of Mental Science, by dr. J. C. Bucknill 1852 Hospitals. PERSONS OF UNSOUND MIND, LUNATICS, IDIOTS, ETC., IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 1 Jan. Registered. 1860 38, 058 1870 54,713 1R7« I ^*'® lunatics 31,024 ( Female lunatics 37,514 1880 71,191 Until 1840 the insane poor in the United States were cared for almost exclusively by the township and county authorities. It was estimated that in 1833 there were 2500 lunatics in jails «nd other prisons, besides hundreds in the county poor-houses and private families. One of the very earliest asylums for the insane was that opened in 1797 at Bloomingdale in the suburbs of New York city, by the New York Hospital So- ciety. To the labors of Miss Dorothea L. Dix (b. Worcester, Mass., about 1802; d. Trenton, N. J., 1887), is largely due the establishment of state asylums. Miss Dix devoted herself after 1837 to the investigation of the subject, and vi-sited every state •east of the Rocky mountains, appealing to the state legislatures to provide for the care of the insane. In Apr. 1854, a bill ap- propriating 10,000,000 acres of public lands to the several states for the relief of the pauper insane, passed by Congress under her appeals, was vetoed by pres. Pierce. Vetoes Her efforts, however, led to the establishment of state in- sane asylums, and it is now recognized as the duty of each state to care for its insane. New York state has 15 corporate institutions of this class. The following statistics show th number of insane, etc., in the U. S. Until 1850 there ar no reliable statistics : 1850. 1860. 1870. 1880. Population of U. S. 21,191,876 31,443,321 38,568,371 50,155,783 62,622,250 15,610 24,642 37,432 91,997 106,252 To each million of Inhabitanls. ()73 783 971 1834 1097 tn§ectS. About 400,000 species known, 1881. An ex- hibition, illustrating their structure, food, and habits, opened in Tuileries gardens at Paris, 7 Sept. 1874 ; in England, at the Westminster aquarium, 9 Mch. 1878, and in the Zoologi cal gardens. Regent's park, 1881. Entomology. insolvency. The first insolvent act was passed in 1649, of limited operation ; acts more extensive were passed later, particularly in the reign of George HI. The benefit of the Great Insolvent act was taken in England by 50,733 in- solvents from its passage in 1814 to Mch. 1827. Since then these acts have been several times amended. Persons not traders, or traders whose debts are less than 300/., might pe- tition the court of bankruptcy, and propose compositions, and have pro tern, protection from process against their persons and property, by 1 Vict. c. 116 (1842). In 1861, by a new bankruptcy act, the business of the insolvent debtors' court was transferred to the court of bankruptcy and a number of imprisoned debtors were released ii Nov. 1861 — In Mav, 1837, a commercial crisis occurred ii the United States. Failures to the amount of more thai $100,000,000 occurred. Banks generally suspended specie payment. A general bankrupt law was passed by Con- gress, 9 Aug. 1841. Another crisis occurred in 1857. The banks throughout the U. S. suspended specie payment, but soon resumed. During the civil war of 1861-65 the banks suspended specie payment, but resumed 1 Jan. 1879. Crisis. Institute of France. On 25 Oct. 1795, all royal academies — viz., the French Academy, the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres, that of mathematical and physical sciences, of fine arts, and of moral and political sciences — were combined in one "Institut National," after- wards Royal, Imperial, and now National. Academiks, Immortals, Paris. insurance. The object of insurance is to indemnify the insured to the extent of the agreement for losses which may be incurred from causes beyond his control. Its chief branches are accident, fire, life, and marine, and of late hail, wind or tornado insurance. Suetonius conjectures that Clau- dius, the Roman emperor, was the first contriver of the insur- ance of ships, 43 a.d. Insurance in use in Italy, 1194, and in England 1560 Insurance policies first used in Florence 1523 First law of insurance in Britain enacted 1601 Insurance against fire, in London, began the year after the great fire of London 1667 Office for insuring buildings opened, chiefly on the plan of dr. Barton, one of the first great builders of London " s First regular office in London, the Hand-in-Hand 169fe Sun fire-oflace established 171§ Union second fire office in England 171* First marine insurance the Royal Exchange and the London j^ Insurance 17JK First fire-office in Scotland "ai In Germany, 1750; in France, 1816; and in Russia 182T' Insurance, fire, marine, etc., in the United States. Fir* insurance in the Colonies was at Boston by the Sun (Eng-il lish), 1728. Some insurance done in Philadelphia in 1752,|| First fire-insurance policy issued in the United States at»l Hartford, Conn., 1794, under the unofficial title of " Hart- ford Fire-insurance Co." 16 years after, in 1810, the Hart- ford Fire-insurance Co. was organized. From 1801-10 there were 60 charters issued; 1811-20, 43; 1821-30, 149; 1831-40, 467; 1841-50, 401; 1851-60, 896; 1861-70, 1041. I 1 INS 379 INS INCREASE OF FIRE, MARINE, AND TORNADO INSURANCE IN THE UNITED STATES SHOWN BY A COMPARISON OF THE YEAR 1880 WITH 1889. Average Number of com- panies. Risks written and renewed. Premiums and assessments re- ceived in cash. Losses paid in amount of losses paid to each dollar of premium received. Kind of insurance. (1880.. • |l889.. 47 $40,219,820 $486,703 $312,181 0.6414 41 Fire, 2 0. Marine. 4 I. Marine. Alabama 81 68,429,106 966,425 312,651 0.3235 73 " 3 " 5 " }l880.. ■ tl889.. 26 10,191,665 204,546 51,788 0.2532 23 " 2 I. Marine, 1 Tornado. Arkansas 71 30,495,143 636,690 296,740 0.4661 67 " 2 " 2 " ( 1880. . 130 309,266,249 4,396,883 1,555,279 0.3537 96 " 32 0. Marine, 2 I. Marine. California 172 516,282,586 7,919,878 3,908,600 0.4935 124 " 46 - 2 " (1880.. • U889.. 44 17,330,798 282,481 104,151 0.3687 , 43 " 1 Tornado. Colorado 130 75,629,774 1,321.096 554,624 0.4198 129 " 1 " (1880.. • 1839.. 135 166,795,209 1,494,121 673,969 0.4511 134 " 1 0. Marine. Connecticut. . . 144 244,732,602 2,257,657 990,547 0.4467 139 " 3 '• 2 1. Marine. North and South (1880.. 39 6,113,903 111,074 29,773 0.2680 38 " 1 Tornado. Dakotas 11889.. 80 40,137,434 846,640 488,192 0.5766 76 " 4 " ( 1880.. |l889.. 61 29,614,399 145,122 95,755 0.6598 58 " 1 0. Marine, 2 I. Murine. Delaware 77 46,043,696 234,647 140.860 0.6003 76 " 1 Tornado. District of Co -(1880.. {1889.. 65 45,583,365 230.032 80;312 0.3491 64 " 1 0. Marine. lumbia 126 85,911,541 434,520 83,060 0.1912 124 " 1 " 1 Tornado. (1880.. il889.. 20 6.846,921 99,013 149,286 1.5077 19 " 1 I. Marine. Florida 41 22^861,420 410,817 286,657 ' 0.6978 40 " 1 (1880.. 11889.. 46 89,176,709 904,605 39.3,319 0.4348 45 '• 1 0. Marine. •Georgia 72 140,826,192 1,706,650 1,372,703 0.8043 67 " 4 " 1 Tornado. (1880.. • 11889.. 9 219,627 5,001 186 0.0372 9 " Idaho 43 2,522,173 72.009 117,770 1.6355 43 " Illinois (1880.. • 11889.. 344 607,698,550 6,302,741 2,203,691 0.3496 320 " 1 0. Marine, 22 I. Marine, 1 Tor. 436 905,469,110 9,850,539 4,758,078 0.4830 406 " 4 " 20 . " 6 " Indiana ( 1880. . • 11889.. 147 137,939,059 1,605,479 804,644 0.5012 142 " 1 " 4 " 178 222,378,423 2,774,638 1,555,981 0.5608 168 " 1 " 3 " 6 Tor. Iowa (1880.. • 11889.. 181 141,496,566 1,885,903 772,303 0.4095 176 " 4 I. Marine, 1 Tornado. -268 240.521,193 3,589,398 1,613,872 0.4496 257 " 1 0. Marine, 2 I. Marine, 8 Tor. Kansas (1880.. • 11889.. 61 44,677,100 671,024 261,798 0.3901 59 " 1 I. Marine, 1 Tornado. 119 140,955,028 1,983,611 1,108,685 0.5589 112 " 1 " 6 " Kentucky (1880.. • 11889.. 120 111,701,347 1,328,570 621,082 0.4675 111 " 9 144 183,239,656 2,377,975 1,912,759 0.8044 135 " 5 '• 4 Tornado. Louisiana (1880.. • 11889.. 68 335.674,073 3.171,888 1,171,703 0.3694 42 " 12 0. Marine, 14 I. Marine. 122 320,034,632 2,803,374 1,063,003 0.3792 92 " 15 " 14 " ITor. Maine (1880.. • 11889.. 135 85,861,024 1,190,582 732,139 0.6149 126 " 9 " 147 115,045,506 1,724,124 900,637 0.5224 139 " 8 Maryland 1880.. • 1889.. 159 296,360,062 1,833,139 986,652 0.5382 149 " 9 " 11. Marine. 180 260,502,950 1,964,843 1,006,026 0.5120 164 " 14 " 1 " ITor. Massachusetts. 1880. . • 1889.. 222 883,893,466 9,089,434 5,450,067 0.5996 196 " 24 " 2 245 1,125,781,420 11,411,928 10,417,399 0.9129 221 " 23 u 1 « Michigan 1880.. • 1889.. 194 202,614,931 2,292,695 1,019,564 0.4447 175 " 1 " 18 238 291,94.5,425 4,325,422 2,042,667 0.4722 221 " 2 " 12 " 3 Tor. Minnesota (1880.. • tl8B9. , 135 110,552,224 1,303,925 1,340,304 1.0279 128 " 1 " 5 u 1 u 281 245,578,295 3,471,266 1,722,863 0.4962 261 " 1 " 15 " 4 " Mississippi (1880.. • 11889.. 9 13,016,985 249,615 89,940 0.3603 9 " 37 38,801,862 684,569 356.348 0.5205 33 " 2 0. Marine, 1 1. Marine, 1 Tor. Missouri (1880.. • 11889.. 187 296,389,697 3,053,891 1,702,529 0.5575 163 " 1 " 22 " 1 " 235 396,644.927 4,793,341 3,014,298 0.6289 215 " 2 " 12 •' 6 " Montana ]l880.. • "11889.. 13 1,626;682 29,918 7,506 0.2509 13 " 66 19,982,848 489,720 294,478 0.6013 66 " Nebraska ( 1880. . ■ 11889.. 66 25,830,246 430,709 336,082 0.9803 65 " 1 Tornado. 148 113,426,886 1,779,019 832,535 0.4680 140 " 1 1. Marine, 7 Tornado. Nevada )l880.. • 11889.. 17 2,988,281 82,512 83,776 1.0153 17 " 46 4,976,720 134,306 105,409 0.7848 46 " New Hampshire ^ '^^^^- • 95 50,099,635 570,736 369,947 0.6478 95 '• ^11889.. 88 86,488,988 927,970 308,770 0.3327 88 " New Jersey ... (1880.. • 11889.. 153 236,546,019 1,829,559 840,744 0.4595 150 " 1 0. Marine, 2 I. Marine. 165 374,083,724 2,943,481 1,402,425 0.4765 163 " 1 '• 1 " New York (1880.. • 11889.. 304 3,895,710,856 24,404,773 14,565,103 0.5968 251 " 24 " 29 351 4,893,753,969 28,316,202 18,991,389 0.6707 305 " 23 " 22 " ITor. North Carolina (1880.. ■ 11889.. 28 23,517,021 287,115 135,750 0.4728 26 " 2 xivitu \ja.i\jiiua, 78 66,625,893 676,917 290,185 0.4287 75 " 2 " 1 Tornado. Ohio (1880.. • 11889.. 251 425,786,647 4,390,834 2,681,770 0.6101 221 " 2 " 28 I. Marine. 307 608,574,153 6,925,840 3,891,877 0.5619 279 " 2 " 21 " 5 Tor. Oregon (1880.. 17 12,424,593 193,643 78,921 0.4076 16 " 1 " • 11889.. 52 40,768,484 784,983 199,208 0.2538 52 " 3 Pennsylvania . (1880.. • tl889.. 402 679.624,970 6,730,439 4,236,876 0.6295 380 " 4 " 18 1. Marine. 418 1,010,130,180 10,300,732 5,696,752 0.5483 399 " 8 " 7 " 4 Tor. Khode Island.. (1880.. ■ tl889.. 146 146,832,438 1,343,748 330,504 0.2460 140 " 5 " 1 " 140 300,189,064 2,741.440 765,047 0.2791 134 " 4 " 2 " South Carolina ( 1880. . • 11889.. 44 41,034,380 400,380 202,081 0.5047 41 " 3 95 59,425,875 711,604 2.54,221 0.3574 86 " 7 " 11. Marine, 1 Tor. Tennessee (1880.. • 11889.. 74 54,803,187 702,283 308,340 0.4391 67 " 1 " 6 " 119 123,247,138 1,712,659 808,113 0.4718 106 " 3 " 7 " 3 Tor. Texas ( 1880. . 59 84,779,854 1,156,274 476,831 0.4124 53 " 4 " 2 " • 11889.. 97 171,370,363 2,664,295 1,028,012 0.3858 88 " 6 " 1 " 2 Tor. Vermont )l880.. • 11889.. 51 67 28,972,180 42,797,923 442,613 615,837 274,075 476,224 0.6192 0.7733 51 " 67 " Virginia. (1880.. • 11889.. 47 84 56,645,602 121,656,891 547,538 1,446,472 367,346 965,395 0.6709 0.6674 42 " 76 " 4 0. Marine, 1 1. Marine. 6 " 1 " ITor. Washington . (1880.. • 1l8S9.. 17 2,002,693 42,814 28.570 0.6673 16 " 1 87 32,724,810 1,012,011 3,639,186 3.5985 86 " 1 " West Virginia (1880.. 37 10,723,794 128,724 52,675 0.4092 35 " 2 I. Marine. • 11889.. 73 28,956,437 351,075 148,302 0.4224 70 " 2 0. Marine, 1 I. Marine. Wisconsin (1880.. 271 179,560,399 1,879,986 1,224,414 0.6513 263 " 1 " 6 •' ITor. • 11889.. 351 249,296,261 3,571,047 2,020,418 0.5658 337 " 1 " 8 " 5 " Wyoming (1880.. 18 3,979,200 58,420 10.986 0.1881 18 " • tl889.. 53 5,653,524 105,901 34.008 0.3211 53 " From 1 Jan. 1880 to 31 Dec. 1889, property of the citizens j $120,000,000,000, for premiunas of f 1,156,675,391, and losses ^f the United States was insured against fire and accident on were paid of $647,726,051, being 56 per cent, of the prenaiums. 3cean, lake, and river, and by tornado, to the amount of over 1 — Census Insurance Report, 1890. INS 8 Life insurance was not known before the 16th century. The first life insurance company, " The Amicable," was estab- Ibhed in London, England, 1706, and insured at uniform rates persons between 12 and -15 years of age. In 1734 it guaran- teed a dividend for each deceased member not less than 100/. This was the first insurance for a definite sum at death, when- ever that might occur. In 1762 the Equitable Assurance Society of London began to rate members according to age. At the close of the 18th century there were 8 companies trans- acting in a more or less complete form the business of life in- surance in Great Britain and Ireland. Annuities. The Presbyterian Annuity and Life Insurance Company of Philadelphia, the first life insurance company in the United States, received its charter from Thomas Penn in 1759. The Penn Company for Insurance on Lives was chartered 1812. Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company, Bos- ton, 1818. LIST, WITH DATE OF CHARTER OF THE EARLIER "OUT- LINE " INSURANCE COMPANIES IN THE UNITED STATES. Berkshire 1851 Massachusetts M u tiial " Northwestern 1858 Equitable 1859 Home 1860 Germania " John Hancock 1862 Continental 1864 Brooklyn " Connecticut General 1865 Hartford Life 1867 Metropolitan " New York liife-insurance and Trust Co 1830 Baltimore Life " New England Mutual 1835 Girard Life Assurance, An- nuity, and Trust Co 1836 Mutual Life of New York. . 1842 New York Life 1845 Connecticut Mutual 1846 Penn Mutual 1847 JEtn& Life 1850 Manhattan " Pheuix Mutual 1851 Introduction of the Tontine system of insurance has added largely to the business of some of the companies. Assessment system of life insurance is based on the plan of collecting assessments on living members to pay death losses as they occur. In this plan the assessments during early years are less than the premiums of regular companies; but they increase rapidly, and often become impossible to collect in later years. Since its ap- pearance (about 1865) as an insurance business aside from fraternal organizations, this system has rapidly extended. Total amount of insurance in force in the U. S. 1 Jan. 1893, was in the "regular " or " old- line " companies, $4,895,724,691 Assessment companies 6,974,520,000 Total $11,870,244,691 First accident insurance company established in the U. S. was the Traveller's, of Hartford, Conn 1863 First steam-boiler insurance company, Hartford, Conn. ; char- tered 1866 Plate-glass first insured 1870 Most of the states have established departments or bureaus of in- surance, for the supervision of the companies aud the enforcement of the laws requiring their solvency to be maintained. The main- tenance of these departments, and all expenses of supervision are charged to the companies, and sometimes amount to a serious burden, increasing the cost of insurance to the people. The belief of most insurance experts and of political economists is that the effort to regulate the business by law has been carried much too far, and has done at least as much harm as good. in§urrection8. BELLIONS, RiOTS, CtC. Conspiracies, Massacres, Re- decreed in Europe till Gregory VII. (1073), but often after- wards. When a prince was excommunicated, subjects con- tinuing allegiance were excommunicated also, and the clergy were forbidden to perform any divine service or clerical duties, save baptism of infants and confession of dying penitents. In 1170, pope Alexander III. put England under interdict for the complicity of Henry II. in murder of Becket ; and when king John was excommunicated in 1208, the kingdom lay under a papal interdict for 6 years. England was put under an interdict on Henry VIII. shaking off the pope's supremacy, 1535; and pope Sixtus V. proclaimed a crusade against queen Elizabeth of England in 1588. Excommuni- cation. interest. Usury. The word interest was first used in an act of Parliament of 21 James I. 1623, for a lawful in- crease as compensation for the use of money lent. The rate fixed by the act was 8^. for the use of 100^. for a year, in place of usury at 10/. before taken. The Commonwealth lowered the rate to 6/. in 1651 ; confirmed in 1660 ; and by an act of 13 queen Anne, 1713, it was reduced to bl. The restraint being found prejudicial to commerce, it was totally removed by 17 and 18 Vict. c. 90 (1854). INU interest in the united states. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina. . North Dakota... Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania . . . Rhode Island . . . South Carolina.. South Dakota. . . Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia. . . Wisconsin Wyoming Legal rate. I'er cent. 8 7 10 Rate al- lowed by contract. Per cent. 8 Anv rate io Any rate 6 6 10 Any rate 8 18 7 12 6 8 Any rate 6 Any rate 10 10 10 10 Any rate 10 Any rate 6 6 12 6 12 10 6 Any rate 10 12 6 12 Any rate 6 6 Any rate 6 10 Any rate Penalty for usury. Forfeiture Of all interest. None. Of principal and interest. None. Of contract. Of all interest. None. Of all interest. Of 3 times excess of interest. Of all interest. Of excess of interest. Of interest and costs. Of excess of interest. Of interest. u None. Of excess of interest. None. Of excess of interest. Of contract. Of interest. None. Of interest and costs. None. Of 3 times the excess. Of interest and costs. None. Of principal and interest. Of twice interest. Of contract. Of excess of interest. Of interest. Of principal and interest. Of excess of interest. None. Of interest. Of contract. Of excess of interest. Of interest. None. Of excess of interest. None. Of excess of interest. Of entire interest. None. The effect of stringent usury laws, wherever tried, has been ta make loans more difficult aud more costly to the borrower. This is beginning to be understood by legislators, and many states, beginning with Massachusetts, have made contracts for loans as free as any others. The average rate of interest re- ceived by 20 leading American life insurance companies fron 1870 to 1879 inclusive was 5.9 per cent. ; from 1880 to 188 inclusive it was 4.8 per cent., showing a gradual decline in terest earnings. Interim of Aug'§burgr, a decree of the emperor Charles V. in 1548 to reconcile Catholics and Protestant which entirely failed. It was revoked in 1552. The te interim has been applied to other decrees and treaties. internal revenue. Revenue. international la\¥. Neutral powers. Association for the Reform and Codification of the Law of Nations first met at Brussels, 10 Oct. 1873; Geneva, 2-5 Sept. 1874; the Hague, Sept. 1875; Bremen, 1876; Antwerp, 30 Aug. -3 Sept. 1877; Frankfort, about 20 Aug. 1878; London, 11 Aug. 1879; Berne, 24 _! Aug. 1880; Cologne, 16-19 Aug. 1881; Turin, 11 Sept. 1882; Mila 11 Sept. 1883. Institute of International Law was organized at Ghent by dr. Liebw' and JI. Moynier, in 1873. It has since met at Geneva; the Hague; Zurich, 1877; Paris; Brussels, Sept. 1879 ; Oxford, 6-10 Sept. 1880; Turin, 1882; Munich, 4 Sept. 1883. interoeeanie eanal between the Atlantic audi Pacific. Nicaragua, Panama. Interstate Commeree Commission* United States, 1887. inundations. Among the most remarkable were: Inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire over many thousand A.D. , acres (Camden) 2lff j Another in Cheshire; 3000 persons and countless cattle per- -' ished 851 At Glasgow; more than 400 families drowned (Fordun) 7W On the English coasts; number of seaport towns destroyed.. . . 1014 in» 5eror I ants, i fceJl S 24 I ebor I INV 381 ION Earl Godwin's lands, exceeding 4000 acres, overflowed by the sea; an immense sand-bank formed on the coast of Kent, now known as the Godwin sands {Camden) 1100 Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and harbor of Ostend immersed 1108 More than 300 houses overwhelmed at Winchelsea by the sea. . 1280 At the Texel, which first raised the commerce of Amsterdam. . 1400 Sea at Dort; drowned 72 villages and 100,000 people. . .17 Apr. 1421 Severn overflowed 10 days, carried away families in their beds, and covered hills; the flood was called the Great Waters for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. (Holinshed) 1483 General inundation by failure of dikes in Holland; 400,000 said to be drowned 1530 At Catalonia; 50,000 persons perished 1617 Part of Zealand overflowed; 1300 inhabitants drowned; vast damage at Hamburg 1717 In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Ripon Flood 1771 In Navarre ; 2000 persons lost by torrents from the mountains, Sept. 1787 Inundation of the Liffey; immense damage in Dublin, 12 Nov. 1787 ; again 2, 3 Dec. 1802 Lorca, a city of Murcia, in Spain, destroyed by a bursting res- ervoir; inundated more than 20 leagues, and killed 1000 per- sons, besides cattle 14 Apr. " At Pesth, near Presburg, the Danube destroyed 24 villages and their inhabitants Apr. 1811 Inundations in Hungary, Austria, and Poland, summer of. 1813 Danube overwhelmed a Turkish corps of 2000 men on a small island near Widdin 14 Sept. " In Silesia 6000 inhabitants- perished ; the ruin of Macdonald's French army accelerated by the floods ; in Poland 4000 lives supposed to have been lost " In Germany, Vistula overflowed; many villages laid under wa- ter, with great loss of life and property 21 Mch. 1816 In England, 5000 acres deluged in the Fen countries June, 1819 At Dantzic the Vistula breaking dikes; 10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses destroyed; numerous lives lost 9 Apr. 1829 "Moray floods," in Scotland, caused by rainfall; the Spey and Findhorn rose in places 50 ft. above ordinary level, with great destruction of property and life; whole families, taking ref- uge on elevated places, were with difiQculty rescued* (sir T. Dick Lauder) 3, 4, 27 Aug. " At Vienna the dwellings of 50,000 under water Feb. 1830 Ten thousand houses swept away, and about 1000 persons per- ished, at Canton, in China, in an inundation from incessant rains. Similar calamity in other parts of China Oct. 1833 Awful inundation in France; the SaOne and Rhone broke their banks, and covered 60,000 acres; Lyons inundated; in Avig- non 100 houses swept away, 218 at La Guilloti^re; and up- wards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nimes; the SaOme higher than for 238 years 31 Oct.-4 Nov. 1840 Inundation in the centre, west, and southwest of France ; nu- merous bridges, with the Orleans and Vierzon viaduct (cost 6,000,000 francs) swept away. The damage exceeded 100,000,000 francs. The Loire rose 20 ft. in one night, 22 Oct. 1846 Great inundation at New Orleans, La. ; 1600 houses flooded, 12 May, 1849 Bursting of the Bradfield reservoir (Sheffield) ; about 250 persons drowned 11 Mch. 1864 Floods in north of England, in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire; farms destroyed, mines flooded, mills thrown down, railways stopped; much suff'ering at Leeds (about 20 drowned), Manchester, Preston, Wakefield, etc 16, 17 Nov. 1866 Inundations from mountains in N. Italy; Po and other rivers overflow; thousands of people unhoused; Mantua. Ferrara, etc., suffer latter part of Oct. 1872 Mill River valley, near Northampton, Mass., several villages de- stroyed by bursting reservoir; above 144 perished. . .16 May, 1874 Eureka, Nevada; through rain and a waterspout; between 20 and 30 persons perish 24 July, " Pittsburg and Alleghany, W. Pennsylvania; storm of rain; riv- ers overflow; about 220 persons drowned 26 July, " Toulouse partly destroyed by the Garonne ; about 1000 lives lost and much property (St. Cyprien quarter a sepulchre). . .June, 1875 Szegedin, Hungary; through storms, dams of the Theiss gave way ; town nearly destroyed ; of 6566 houses, only 331 stood ; about 77 persons drowned; thousands homeless.. 12, 13 Mch. 1879 Inundations in Murcia, Spain, through heavy rains; provinces . of Andalusia, Alicante, Almaria, and Malaga; about 1000 lives j lost, and much property ; about 2000 houses 16, 17 Oct. ' ' i Floods in Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri. .12 June, et seq. 1881 ; Oliio and Mississippi valleys flooded; lives lost and much prop- erty, Feb. 1882. Governor of Mississippi appeals for aid, 22 Feb. 1882 lu I'ennsylvania, Ohio, and Kentucky; very severe at Cincin- nati Feb. 1883 Ohio river; about 15 deaths and 5000 homeless. ..about 7 Feb. 1884 Floods in Pennsylvania, New York, and New England; great loss of property 5 Jan. 1886 Storm and flood in Texas; houses in Galveston washed away; 38 lives lost and more than $5,000,000 damage 20 Aug. " Johnstown flood. Pa. (Johnstown) 1 June," 1889 Ilivalide§% Hotel des, founded in 1671 by Louis XIV. ; the body of Napoleon I. deposited there 15 Dec. 1840. invasions. Expeditions. ■^ inventions. Agriculture, Cotton, Electricity. also names of machines and implements, subjects of in- oee aisu I Inverness', N.W. Scotland, a city of the Picts up to I 843 ; taken by Edward I. ; retaken by Bruce, 1313 ; burned I by the lord of the Isles, 1411 ; taken by Cromwell, 1649 ; and j by prince Charles Edward in 1746. The last totally defeated at CuUoden, about 5 miles from Inverness, 16 Apr. 1746. investiture of eeelesiasties was a cause of dis- cord between the pope and temporal sovereigns in the middle ages ; and led to war between Gregory VII. and the emperor Henry IV., 1075-85. The pope endeavored to deprive the sovereign of nomination of bishops and abbots, and of invest- ing them with cross and ring. Henry V. gave up the right, by treaty, Feb. 1111 ; but other sovereigns refused to con- cede it. Invincible Armada, or Spanish Armada. Ar- mada. invocation of the Virgin and saints to intercede with God ; a practice of the Catholic church traced to the time of Gregory the Great, 593. The Eastern church began (in the 5th century) calling upon the dead, and demanding their suf- frage in divine offices. i'odilie (from the Gr. IwSrjg, violet-like), discovered by M. de Courtois, a manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris in 1812, and investigated by M. Clement, 1813 ; when heated it rises as a dense violet-colored vapor, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; it changes vegetable blues to' yellow, and a seven-thousandth part gives water a deep yellow color, and starch a purple. lo'na, I^COlmkill, or Hii, one of the Hebrides. About 565 St. Columba founded a monastery here, which flourished till the 8th and 9th centuries, when it was frequent- ly ravaged by the Norsemen. Other religious bodies were afterwards formed here, and the isle was long esteemed sa- cred. lo'nia, Asia Minor. About 1040 b.c. the Tones, a Pelas- gic race, emigrated from Greece, and settled here and on the Adjoining islands. They built Ephesus and 12 other cities, among them Chios, Teos, Smyrna, Samos, and Miletus. They were conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 b.c. ; revolted 504, but were again subdued. After the victories of Cimon, Ionia was independent till 387 b.c., when it was again subject- ed to Persia. It formed part of the dominions of Alexander and his successors; was annexed to the Roman empire, 133 B.C., and conquered by the Turks. Ionia was renowned for historians, poets, and philosophers. The poets Homer and Anacreon were lonians, as well as Parrhasius the painter and the philosophers Thales and Anaxagoras. Ionian islands, on west coast of Greece : Corfu (the capital), Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, Santa Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonized by lones, and partook of the fort- unes-of the Greeks ; were subject to Naples in the 13th century, and in the 14th to Venice. Islands ceded to France by treaty of Campo Formio 17 Oct. 1797 Formed into the republic of the 7 islands under Russia and Turkey 21 Mch. 1800 Restored to France by treaty of Tilsit 7 Julv, 1807 Taken by the English 3-12 Oct. 1809 Formed an independent state under protection of Great Britain (sir Thomas Maitland lord high commissioner) 5 Nov. 1815 Constitution ratified 11 July, 1817 University established at Corfu 1823 Constitution liberalized under lord Seaton 1848-49 In consequence of complaints, W. E. Gladstone went out on a commission of inquiry, etc Nov. 1858 Sir H. Storks, lord high commissioner Feb. 1859 Parliament vote annexation to Greece Mch. 1861, and Apr. 1862 Islands annexed to Greece, 28 May; British troops retired, 2 June; king George I. arrived at Corfu (Greece) 6 June, 1864 lon'ic order of architecture, an improvement on the Doric, invented by lonians about 1350 B.C. — Vitruvius. Its distinguishing characters are slenderness and flutings of its columns, and volutes of rams' horns that adorn the capital. Architecture. Ionic sect of philosophers, founded by Thales of Mile- tus about 600 B.C., distinguished for abstruse speculations under his successors and pupils, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. They held the world a living being, and water the origin of all things. Philosophy. low 882 lOW loiva, a state of the north central United States, sepa- rated on the east by the Mississippi riv«r from Wisconsin and Illinois. Minnesota bounds it on the north, South Dakota and Nebraska on the west — the Missouri river forming the boundary line of the latter state — and Missouri on the south. It is limited in lat. by 40° 36' to 43° 30' N., and in Ion. by 89° 5' to 96° 31' W. Area, 56,025 sq. miles in 99 counties. Pop. 1890, 1,911,- 896. Capital, Des Moines. Father Marquette and Louis Joliet descend the Wis- consin river, reaching its mouth 17 June, 1673; 100 miles be- low, on tho western shore of the Mississippi, they discover an Indian trail, which they follow to an Indian village, where Marquette " publishes to tliem the one triji| God " June, 1673 Father Louis Hennepin, M. Diigay, and 6 other Frenchmen ascend the Mississippi from the mouth of the Illinois to the falls of St. Anthony, leaving fort Crevecoeur, 111 28 Feb. 1680 Wife of PeosU, a Fox warrior, discovers lead in Iowa, on the west bank of the Mississippi 1780 At a council at Prairie du Chien, Julien Dubuque, a French- Canadian trader, obtains from Indians permission to work lead mines at the place now bearing his name, and a grant of 140,000 acres of land 1788 Land grant to Julien Dubuque by Indians is confirmed by baron Carondelet, and a king's title issued 1796 I>ands on both sides of the Mississippi, including a large part of Iowa, ceded to U. S. by Sac and Fox Indians, by treaty at St. Louis 3 Nov. 1804 Territory of Louisiana, including Iowa, framed by law of 3 Mch. 1805 Iowa included in territory of Missouri, erected by act, 4 June, 1812 Fort Madison, built in 1808 on the site selected by lieut. Pike in 1805, is abandoned by the garrison and burned to prevent its falling into the hands of Indians and British 1813 Sioux annihilate Sac and Fox tribes near Dubuque; whites occupy deserted villages, but are driven out by U. S. troops under lieut. Jefferson Davis, by order of col. Zachary Taylor, 1830 David Tothers makes the first settlement in Des Moines county, 3 miles southwest from the site of Burlington 1832 Treaty at Rock Island ; the Sacs and Foxes cede to the U. S. Iowa and a part of Wisconsin, known as the Black Hawk purchase, reserving 40 miles square to Keokuk 21 Sept. " Zachariah Hawkins, Benjamin Jennings, and others settle a colony at fort Madison " First permanent settlement in Scott county by Antoine le Claire 1833 Dubuque founded " Iowa included in territory of Michigan, erected by act ap- proved 28 June, 1834 Aaron Street founds Salem, first Quaker settlement in Iowa. , . " Iowa included in territory of Wisconsin, erected by act ap- proved 20 Apr. 1836 Treaty at East Davenport between gov. Dodge, U. S. commis- sioner, and the Sacs and Foxes; Indians sell to U. S. the Keokuk reserve, 256,000 acres, at 75 cents per acre Sept. " Burlington, settled in 1833, is incorporated 1837 Treaty with the Sacs and Foxes extends the western bound- ary of the Blac-k Hawk purchase in lat. 45° 40' to include the principal sources of the Iowa river 21 Oct. " Territory of Iowa erected, including all Wisconsin, west of the Mississippi 12 June, 1838 Penitentiary located at fort Madison " Territorial government inaugurated at Burlington 4 July, " Black Hawk, who had settled on the Des Moines river, d., 3 Oct. " Seat of government removed to Iowa City 1839 Boundary disputes between Missouri and Iowa cause fighting on the border; 1 lowan is killed in resisting the Missouri sheriffs collection of taxes " Constitution adopted by a convention which meets at Iowa City, 7 Oct. 1844 1 Nov. 1844 Enabling act for Iowa approved 3 Mch. 1845 Boundary defined in the Enabling act rejected by the people; 7235 for, and 7656 against " Mormons remove from Nauvoo, 111. , and settle at Council Bluffs, 1846 Constitution framed by a convention which meets at Iowa City, 4 May, 1846, completing its labors, 19 May, 1846, is rati- fied by a vote of the people, 9492 to 9036 3 Aug. " Act of Congress, fixing boundaries for Iowa, referring the Mis- souri boundary to the Supreme court 4 Aug. " Iowa admitted into the Union by act approved 28 Dec. " Iowa college at Grinnell, chartered in 1847, is opened 1848 Iowa College for the Blind at Vinton opened 1852 Antoine le Claire breaks ground at Davenport for the Missis- sippi and Missouri railroad, now the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific 1 Sept. 1853 Hospital for the Insane at Mount Pleasant established 1855 Iowa Wesleyan university at Mount Pleasant chartered and opened « Corner-stone of the first railroad bridge over the Mississippi river, between Rock Island and Davenport, laid 1 Sept. 1854; and first locomotive, the "Des Moines," to cross the Mississippi passes over 21 Apr. 1866 Massacre of white settlers at Spirit Lake by a predatory band of Indians under tho Sioux chief Ink-pa-duta ...Mch 185T Cornell college at Mount Vernon chartered and opened " Constitutional convention meets at Iowa city, 19 Jan. 1857, completes its labors. 6 Mch. 1857; constitution ratified by the people, 40,311 to 38,681 3 Aug. State cjipital removed to Des Moines Iowa Institution for Deaf and Dumb at Council Blufl's opened, 1851 State university of Iowa at Iowa City, chartered 1847, opened, Silas Totten. pres 18 Legislature votes a war loan of $600,000 June, 1861 Soldiers' Orphans' Home and Homo for Indigent Children at Davenport opened 186; Upper Iowa university at Fayette, oi)ened 1857; chartered. ... " James Harlan appointed secretary of the interior. ^ . . .15 May, 1865 Legislature ratifies Xlll.th Amendment to Constitution. . .Jan. 1866 Legislature ratifies XIV. th Amendment to Constitution. .3 Apr. 186ft An amendment to the state constitution, striking out the word "white" from the qualifications of electors, is adopted by a vote of the people. 105,384 to 81,119 State Board of Immigration created by act of legislature Iowa Agricultural college at Ames, chartered 1857, opened William W. Belknap appointed secretary of war 25 Oct. Legislature ratifies XV. th Amendment to Constitution. .3 Feb. 1870 Cornerstone of new capitol laid 22 Nov. 1871 Law passed restricting sale of liquors and limiting licensees' profit to 33 percent 1872 State penitentiary at Anamosa created by act of Act passed abolishing penalty of death (see below, 1878) Maj. Samuel E. Rankin, late treasurer of the state and agri- cultural college, proves a defaulter for $38,301.46 State convention of Patrons of Husbandry at Des Moines. .Jan. 187» Hospital for Insane at Independence opened 1 May, Iowa Industrial School for Girls at Mitchellville, and for boys at Eldora, established. 1874 Gov. Kirkwood, elected U. S. senator, resigns, and is succeeded by Joshua G. Newbold Jan. 187& Iowa Institution for Feeble-minded Children at Glenwood opened Iowa state normal school at Cedar Falls opened Geo. W. McCrary appointed secretary of war 12 Mch. 187T Canal around Des Moines rapids at Keokuk, 7^^ miles long, and costing $4,500,000, is formally opened Aug. Bill abolishing capital punishment repealed, and the jury em- powered to hang convicted murderers, or imprison for life. . 187S State Board of Health organized 188{^ Dexter Normal college at Dexter opened " Western Normal college at Shenandoah, Iowa, opened 1881 Drake university at Des Moines opened and chartered " West Des Moines Training-school at Des Moines opened 1882; Prohibitory liquor law goes into effect 4 July, 1884 State capitol dedicated ; cost $3,000,000 " Frank Hatton appointed postmaster- general 14 Oct. " Woodbine Normal school at Woodbine opened " Storm Lake Normal and Business school at Storm Lake opened, " Soldiers' Home at Marshalltown opened 30 Nov. " Eastern Iowa School for the Deaf at Dubuque opened " Hospital for the Insane at Clarinda opened 15 Dec. 18891 Sioux city Training-school for teachers opened " Lower house of legislature assembles, 13 Jan. 1890, having 2 factions, the Republicans with 50 votes, and the combined Democratic, Union labor, and Independent, with 50 votes; no organization until 27 Jan. ; by compromise, a Democratic temporary speaker and a Republican clerk are elected; per- manent organization with a Democratic speaker and Repub- lican clerk; minor oflQces divided 19 Feb. 1890 Horace Boies, Democrat, inaugurated as governor 27 Feb. " Legal rate of interest reduced from 10 to 8 per cent., and the first Monday in Sept. (Labor Day) made a public holiday " Beer sent in sealed kegs from Peoria, 111., to Keokuk, la., and there sold in "original packages" by agents, being seized under the prohibitory laws of the state, the Supreme court decides such seizure was in violation of the clause of the Con- stitution giving to the U. S. the exclusive right to regulate inter-state commerce 28 Apr. "^ Wilson "Original Package bill," as amended, making all in- toxicating liquors imported into a state subject to its laws, passes Congress and is approved 8 Aug. " Legislature passes an Australian Ballot Reform act 1892 II Robert Lucas... John Chambers. James Clark GOVERNORS — TERRITORIAL. office July, 1841 184& STATE. Ansel Briggs assumes Stephen Hempstead " '• James W. Grimes " " Ralph P. Lowe " " Samuel J. Kirkwood " " William M. Stone " " . Samuel Merrill " " C. C. Carpenter " " . Samuel J. Kirkwood " «' , Joshua G. Newbold acting John H. Gear assumes oflBce. Buren R. Sherman " " . William Larrabee " " . Horace Boies " " . Frank D. Jackson " " • 184ft .Dec. 1850 . " 1854 " 1858 .Jan. 1860 . " 1864 , " 1868 . " 1872 " 1876 1878 1882 1894 IPS 383 IRE UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF IOWA. Name. Augustus C. Dodge.. George W. .Jones James Harlan James W.Grimes... Samuel.;. Kirkwood James Harlan , James B. Howell . . . , George G.Wright..., William B. Allison. . SamuelJ. Kirkwood, James W. McDill..., James F.Wilson I No. of Congress. Remarks. 30th to 33d 30th " 36th 34th " 38th 36th " 40th 39th 40th to 43d 41st 42d to 44th 43d 45th to 46th 47 th 48th Seated 26 Dec. 1848. Seated 26 Dec. 1848. Resigned 186.5. Appointed secretary of interior. Resigned 1869. Elected in place of Harlan, 1865. Elected in place of Grimes. Term expires 1897. Term expires 1895. Ip§US, Phrygia, Battle of, Aug. 301 B.C., when Seleucus was confirmed in his kingdom of Syria by the defeat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. The latter led into the field an army of about 70,000 foot and 10,000 horse, with 75 ele- phants. The former had 64,000 foot, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. — Plutarch. Ipswich, a town of Suffolk, the Saxon Gippeswic, was ravaged by the Danes, 991 and 1000. Wolsey was born here, 1471 ; and founded a school in 1525. Ipsw^ich, Mass. Agawam. Ireland, anciently named Eri or Erin, lerne and Hi- bernia, said to have been first colonized by Phoenicians. Some assert that Partholani landed in Ireland about 2048 b.c. ; that the descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 b.c. ; fol- lowed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Galicia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and ! gave to its throne a race of 171 kings. Scoti. Area, ! 32,531 sq. miles, or 20,819,982 acres in 32 counties; pop. 1891, i 4,706,162. i Arrival of St. Patrick about 432 ! Christianity established about 448 ; Danes and Normans, called Easterlings, or Ostmen, invade Ire- • land 795 I They build Dublin and other cities about 800 f Brian Boroimhe defeats the Danes at Clontarf; and is killed, i 23 Apr. 1014 ! [In the 12th century Ireland had 5 kingdoms, viz. : Ul- 1 ster, Leinster, Meath, Connaught, and Munster, besides ' petty principalities, whose sovereigns were at continual i war.] i Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to invade Ireland, he to compel ! every Irish family to pay a carolus to the holy see, and hold ; it as a flef of the church 1155 ;Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, driven from his throne ; for oppression 1166 *Flees to England; takes oath of fidelity to Henry II., who ! promises to restore him 1168 (Invasion of the English under Fitz-Stephen 1169 ;Landing of Strongbow at Waterford " iDermot d 1171 ;Henry II. lands near Waterford, and receives submission of ' the' princes; settles the government, and makes his son John lord of Ireland May, 1177 ;Many English settlers adopt Irish names and manners. . .about 1200 jtreland reduced to temporary obedience by king John 1210 Invasion of Edward Bruce, 1315; crowned king 1316 Defeated and slain at Foughart, near Dundalk 1318 Lionel, duke of Clarence, 3d son of Edward III., marries Eliza- i beth de Burgh, heiress of Ulster 1361 |5tatute of Kilkenny passed by him 1367 jiichard II. lands at Waterford with nobles, 4000 men-at-arms, j and 30,000 archers; gains affection of the people by munif- 1 icence, and confers knighthood on chiefs 1394 lichard again lands in Ireland 1399 jJanguinary Head act paased at Trim by the earl of Desmond, I deputy; act ordained "That it shall be lawful to all manner I of men that find any theeves robbing by day or night, or go- ; ing or coming to rob or steal, or any persons going or com- ing, having no faithful man of good name and fame in their company, in English apparell, that it shall be lawful to take and kill those, and to cut off their heads, without any im- peachment of our sovereign lord the king. And of any head so cut off in the county of Meath, that the cutter and his ; ayders there to him cause the said head so cut off to be brought to the portreffe to put it upon a stake or spear, upon the castle of Trim ; and that the said portreffe shall testify the bringing of the same to him. And that it shall be law- , ful for the said bringer of the said head to distrain and j levy by his own hand (as his reward) of every man having j one ploughland in the barony, two pence; and of every i man having half a ploughland, one peny; and of every man having one house and goods, value forty shillings, one I peny; and of every other cottier having house and smoak, I one half peny," etc. Much slaughter is said to have en- 1 sued ; 1465 ipparel and Surname act (the Irish to dress like the English, and to adopt surnames) " "Poynings's law," subjecting Irish parliament to the English council 1494. Great rebellion of the Fitzgeralds subdued 1534 Henry VIII. assumes title of king, instead of lord, of Ire- land 1542; Reformed religion embraced by English settlers in the reign of Edward VI 1547 Ireland finally divided into shires 1569' Printing in Irish characters introduced by N. Walsh, chancel- lor of St. Patrick's 1571 Seven hundred Italians, headed by Fitzmaurice, land in Kerry; treacherously butchered by earl of Ormond 1580 O'Neill revolts, 1597; defeats English at Blackwater . . .14 Aug. 1598 He invites the Spaniards, and settles them in Kinsale; defeat- ed by lord deputy Mountjoy 1601-2. Through rebellions and forfeitures 511,465 acres of lapd in Ul- ster became vested in the crown; and James I., after remov- ing the Irish from hills and fastnesses, divides the land among English and Scottish Protestant settlers 1609-12, Ulster civil war: More and Maguire's rebellion; the Catholics said to conspire to expel the English, and massacre Protes- tant settlers in Ulster, commenced on St. Ignatius's day (some doubt the massacre) 23 Oct. 1641 O'Neill defeats English under Monroe at Benburb 5 June, 1646, Massacre and capture of Drogheda by Cromwell 11 Sept. 1649 Cromwell and Ireton reduce Ireland 1649-56 Landing of James II 12 Mch. 1689 Three thousand Protestants attainted July, " William III. lands at Carrickfergus 14 June, 1690i Battle of the Boyne ; James defeated 1 July, " Treaty of Limerick 3 Oct. 1691 Linen manufacture encouraged 1696 Popery act passed 1704 Excitement against Wood's half-penob 1724 Thurot's invasion; a small French naval force plunders Car- rickfergus Feb. 1760 Indulgences granted Catholics by the relief bill 1778 Ireland admitted to a free trade 1779 Released from submission to an English cr-nncil; Poynings's law repealed 1782 Genevese refugees received in Ireland, aiid asylum given them in Waterford ' 1783 Order of St. Patrick established . . .*. ., '« Society of United Irishmen founeague (Thomas Brennan, secretary, and P. J. Sheridan); statement respecting Irish Invincibles; Mrs. F. Byrne charged with transmitting arms, etc., 17 Feb. ; discharged 20 Feb. Accused prisoners committed for trial " W. E. Forster's defence in the commons, and charges against Mr. Parnell; Mr. O'Kelly suspended for a week for giving him the lie 22, 23 Feb. Mr. Parnell's unsatisfactory reply " Phoenix park murders: Robert Farrell, James Carey, and others, informers; trial of Joseph Brady, convicted, 11-13 Apr. ; Timothy Kelly, third trial, 7-9 May; Thomas Caflfrey pleads guilty, 2 May; Patrick Delany and Daniel Curley, 16-18 Apr. ; Michael Fagan 25-27 Apr. Irish convention at Philadelphia; Parnell's policy adopted; dynamiters defeated 2.5-27 Apr. Circular from the pope, enjoining the bishops to abstain from favoring disafi"ection to the government, not to subscribe to ^^B IRE 385 testimonials, etc. (archbishop Croke, of Cashel, had given 50/. to the Parnell testimouial, etc.) 11 May, 1883 fE.Keciited: Joseph Brady (actual murderer), 14 May; Daniel Curley, 18 May; Michael Fagan, 28 May; Thomas Caffrey, 2 Juno; Timothy Kelly 9 June, " J^ames Carey, informer, shot dead by Patrick O'Donnell, on board the Melrose Castle, near Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 29 July, " Thirty-eight thousand pounds presented to Mr. Parnell ("as a national tribute" from the Irish people) at a banquet at the Rotunda, Dublin 11 Dec. " Parnellite Land Law Amendment bill rejected by commons (aS tending to confiscation), by 235-72 5 Mch. 1884 "Wm. O'Brien arrested at Manchester 29 Jan. 1889 [Taken to Ireland and confined in Clonmel jail, 30 Jan. ; refusing to wear the prison garb, is roughly treated.] •Gladstone and Parnell speak on the Morley amendment to the reply to the queen's speech (amendment defeated), 1 Mch. " Pigott, forger of the Parnell letter, commits suicide at Madrid, 1 Mch. " Sir Charles Russell defends the Parnellites before the com- mission, tracing the history of agitation for home-rule, 18 Mch. " Freedom of city of Edinburgh conferred on Parnell by a vote of 14-13 23 Apr. " Wm. O'Brien again arrested with John Dillon for advising tenants not to pay rent ; 17 Sept. 1890 They escape, reach France 10 Oct., sail for U. S 25 Oct. " Trial of the O'Shea divorce case begun in London; neither Mrs. O'Shea nor Parnell offers any defence 15 Nov. " ■O'Shea secures his divorce 17 Nov. " •John Dillon and O'Brien convicted and sentenced to 6 months in jail 19 Nov. " Parnell notifies his colleagues that he will not resign leader- ship while supported by the Irish people 20 Nov " I 1'arnell elected unanimously to the leadership of the Irish Na- I tionalist members of Parliament 25 Nov. " j Parnell issues a manifesto to the Irish people, stating reasons for continuing in the leadership of the Irish party. . .28 Nov. " ! ■Gladstone denies the statement made concerning him by i Parnell 29 Nov. " i 'Catholic hierarchy declare against Parnell , .3 Dec. " Justin McCarthy and 44 others withdraw from the meeting of Nationalist members of Parliament and organize as a separate body 6 Dec. " Archbishop and bishops' letter denouncing Parnell read in the Catholic churches in Ireland 7 Dec. " Parnell leaves London for Ireland, 7 Dec. ; enthusiastically re- ceived at Dublin, 9 Dec. ; seizes the ofQce of United Ireland \ and ejects the acting editor , 10 Dec. " ; Anti- Parnellites issue a manifesto " •« i Parnell begins a sturaping-tour of Ireland at Cork 11 Dec. '* i Parnell at Kilkenny 13 Dec. " I McCarthy leaves London for Ireland 15 Dec. " I'arnell temporarily blinded at Castle-Comers by lime thrown in his eyes 16 Dec. " Sir John Pope Hennessy, the McCarthyite candidate, elected at the Kilkenny elections by 1171 votes over Vincent Scully, the Parnellite 22 Dec. " Parnell and O'Brien hold a secret conference at Boulogne, 30 Dec. " And another 6 Jan. 1891 1 McCarthy and O'Brien hold a conference at Boulogne. . . 10 Jan. " j-Glailstone denies the statement of Parnell that he knew the substance of Parnell's manifesto 13 Jan. " I Dillon and O'Brien land at Folkestone and deliver themselves t up to the English police 12 Feb. " jThey are taken to Ireland and placed in Clonmel jail. . .13 Feb. " Seven Parnellites sail from Queenstown for the U. S. to raise I funds 8 Mch. " iNational federal convention meets at Dublin, Justin McCarthy ! presiding 10 Mch. " (Gladstone declares in a speech at Hastings that the Liberal i party will never support Parnell 17 Mch. " jMcCarthyites win the North Sligo elections, 780 majority, 2 Apr " iParnell secretly married 25 June, " a^rnell addresses the League convention at Dublin 23 July, " [Wm. O'Brien and John Dillon released from jail 30 July, " [Parnell d. at his home at Brighton, Engl 7 Oct. " Parnell buried at Dublin 11 Oct. " Parnellite members issue a manifesto declaring their hostility to the McCarthyites 12 Oct. " Mr. Flavin, McCarthyite candidate, elected M.P. to succeed Parnell by a plurality of 1512 6 Nov. " Irish Education bill introduced (opposed by the Roman Catho- '■ lie clergy) 22 Feb. 1892 Ulster convention at Belfast against home-rule 17 June, " ,3ill passed 27 June, " ^England, Parnell. KINGS OF IRELAND. 979 or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed. 001orl002. Brian Baromy or Boroimhe; slain after defeating Danes at Clontarf, 23 Apr. 1014. .014. Maol Ceachlin II. restored; d. 1022 or 1023. [Disputed succession.] ., Donough, or Denis, O'Brian, son. 072. Tirloch, or Turlough, nephew; d. 1086. 086-1132. Kingdom divided; fierce contests for it. 13 IRO 1132. Tordel Vach; killed in battle. 1166. Roderic, or Roger, O'Connor. 1172. Henry II. king of England. [English monarchs were styled " Lords of Ireland " until the reign of Henry VIII., who first styled himself king.] Ireland forgeries. In 1786 W. H. Ireland made public Shakespeare manuscripts which he had forged, and de- ceived many critics. The play " Vortigern " was performed . at Drury-lane theatre on 2 Apr. 1796. He shortly after ac- knoAvledged the forgery, and published his " Confessions " in 1805. He died in 1835. Shakkspeare and his plays. irid'ium and osmium. In 1804 Tennant discov- ered these metals (the heaviest known) in the ore of plati- num, in which, in 1844, Glaus discovered a third, ruthenium. Elements. iron found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, the forest having been burned by lightning, 1432 ulc—Arundelian Marbles [1407, Hales; 1283, Clinton]. The Greeks claimed the discovery of iron, and referred glass to the Phoenicians. Iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain (Gen. iv. 22). Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Dannemora is the greatest mine of Sweden. Steel. Belgium an early seat of the iron manufacture; coal said to have been employed at Marche-les-dames, 1340. British iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude in^ussex, 1543.— Rymer^s Foedera. Iron-mills used for slitting iron into bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, 1590. Tinning of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1681. Till about 1730 iron ores were smelted with wood charcoal, which did not wholly give way to coal and coke till 1788. Operation termed puddling, and other improvements in the manu- facture, invented by Henry Cort, about 1781, who did not reap the due reward of his ingenuity. He d. in 1800. Henry Bessemer patented his method of manufacturing iron and steel, 17 Oct., 5 Dec. 18.55; 12 Feb. 1856. Wm. Robinson announced a method of making wrought iron from cast iron by magnetism, July, 1867. John Heaton's process for making steel announced about Nov. 1867; discussed Oct. 1868. IN THE UNITED STATES. The first recorded discovery of iron in the U. S. was in North Caro- lina, 1585; and the first attempt to manufacture it was in Virginia, 1619. The works were destroyed by the Indians, 1622. The next attempt was -it ' ■ r^ Mass., where a blastfurnace was started, 1643, which i . -"sow" iron, 1645; and a forge was built, 1648. enenilly used in New England in colo- nial dtty& i , , "it of iron ("bar'") to England was in 1717; the fir!5t piLC .h on, i7'.iA Up to 1720, Massachusetts was the chief seat of the iron industry In the colonies. In l?.^, Pennsyl- . vauia became tbe leading iron-producing state, and maintained ' the supremacy until after 1880. Great Britain imposes » duty of 10». per ton on all iron im- ported into ihe American colonies i679 Board of Trade (Great Britain) report to Parliament thht' -on works had bet-n for many years established in Massacliu . 1 1? Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Vork, Pennsylvania, i^ry land, Virginia, and the Carolinas, and from the p.'o^reKs ttiey bad made it was expedient to encourage the manufacture in the colonies 1732 Act of Parliament permitting pig-iron and bar-iron to be im- ported into London from the American colonies free of duty, but prohibiting them from erecting any rolling or slitting mill, or forge, to work with a tilt-hammer, and from manu- facturing steel for exportation 1750 [Duty on bar-iron at this time was 21. Is. &d. per ton, and on pig-iron 3s. 9d. per ton.] Furnace, on the Sterling estate. Orange co., N. Y., which pro- duced annually 1500 tons of pig-iron, worked into bar-iron, was built 1751 [Great iron chain which crossed the Hudson river during the Revolution to prevent the British from ascending it was made here. Chain.] Mt. Etna furnace, near Hagerstown, Md., was among the first to cast cannon. Largest amount of iron exported by the American colonies to Great Britain, between 1761 and 1776, was in 1771, when 2222 tons of bar and 5302 tons of pig-iron were exported. The manufacturing of iron fell off rapidly after the Revolution, and between 1789-90 tbe U. S. only exported 200 tons of bar and 3500 tons of pig-iron. Report of the Secretarv of the Treasury, 1810, shows from $15,000,000 to $20,000,000 invested in the business. There being 153 furnaces, making 53,908 tonsof pig-iron; 330 forges, making 24,541 tons bar iron; 316 trip-hammers and 34 roll- ing and slitting mills using 6500 tons; and 410 nail factories producing 16,000,000 lbs. of nails. Iron was then made ex- clusively with charcoal from the smelting to the finished bar. Hot blast introduced 1832-38 Mauch Chunk, Pa., the first successful furnace in smelting iron ore with anthracite coal in the U. S. ; built and in operation 1838 mo < RANK OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES IN '«6 IRR MINING IRON ORE FROM 1850 TO 1889. 3 Over 1,000,000 tons. Over 500,000 ftnd less thau 1,000,000 ions. Over 100,000 and less than 500,000 tons. . . Over 60,000 and less than 100,000 tons. . 1, Pa. 2,0. 3, Md. 4, Tenn. 5, Ky. 6, Va. 7, N. J. 1, Pa. 2,0. 3, N. Y. 4, N. J. 5, Mich. 6,Ky. 7. Md. 1, Pa. 2, Mich. 3,0. 4, N. Y. 5, Mich. 6, Ky. 7, Mo. 3, N. J. J, Tenn. 1, Pa. 2, Mich. 3, N. Y. 4, N. J. 5,0. 6, Mo. 7, Ala. 8, Va. 9, Md. 10, Tenn. 11, Ga. 12, Ky. 13, Mass. 14, W. Va. 1889. 1, Mich. 2, Ala. 3, Pa. 4, N. Y. 5, Minn. 6, Wis. 7, W.Va.&Va. 8, Tenn. 9, N. J. 10, Mo. 11,0. 12, Ga. & N. C. 13, Col. 14, Ky. Other states and territories. Total Valued at.. Tons of 3S40 lbs. mined in 1889. 5,856,169 from 73 mines- 1,570,319 " 45 " 1,560,234 " 189 " 1,247,537 " 35 " 864,508 837,399 511,255 473,294 415.510 265,718 254,294 258,145 109,136 217,036 14,518,041 tons. $33,351,978. ■ who touches it "). The crown was removed from Monza t<> Mantua by the Austrians on 23 Apr. 1859. After the peac^ of Vienna, in 1866, it was given up to gen. Menabrea on 11 Oct., and presented to king Victor Emmanuel at Turin on 4 Nov. It is now kept in the cathedral at Monza.— The order of the " Iron Crown of Italy," instituted by Napoleon, 26 May, 1805, was abolished in 1814, but revived by the emperor of Austria, 12 Feb. 1816. The order of the Crown of Italy was- instituted by king Victor Emmanuel, 20 Feb. 1868. iron niaik, the man with the. A mysterious prisone in France, wearing a mask and closely confined under M. de St.-Mars, at Pignerol (1679), Exilles (1681), Sainte-Margue-| rite (1687), and at the Bastile (1698), where he died, 19 Nov. 1703. He was of noble mien, and was treated with respect; but his keepers had orders to despatch him if he uncovered^ M. de St.-Mars himself always placed the dishes on his table^ and stood in his presence. The following conjectures have been made as to his identity : An Armenian patriarch forci- bly carried from Constantinople (who died 10 years before the mask) ; the due de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV., reported to have perished in the camp before Dixmude; the due de Beaufort, reported beheaded before Candia ; James, duke of Monmouth, executed on Tower hill ; a son of Anne of Austria^ queen of Louis XIII., either by cardinal Mazarin or by the duke of Buckingham ; the twin brother of Loui^ XIV. (a conjecture of Voltaire and others) ; Foucquet, an eminent statesman in the time of Louis XIV., and a count Matthioli, secretary of state to Charles III., duke of Mantua. M. Delort and the right hoii. Agar Ellis (afterwards lord Dover) tried to prove Matthioli to have been the person ; and later investigations makes tliis more probable. Recently a general de Burlonde has been cited as wearer of the mask, for raising the siege of Conti (an improbable story). The mask was of velvet, strengthened with whalebone. Iroquois. Indians. irrig'ation, practised in the east and in Egypt from remote ages. It was strenuously advocated for India by sir A. Cotton and others at the Social Science congress at Man- chester, Oct. 1866. Of late irrigation has been widely practised in the western United States, where large tracts of fertile land cannot be cultivated unless irrigated ; and a great deal of land that was worthless owing to the scarcity of water has been brought under cultivation, especially in California, Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, and the territories of Arizona and New Mexico. This table shows the changes in the principal iron producing states. In 1860 Michigan stood 5th in order; 2d in 1880; and Ist.in 1889. Alabama first appears in 1880, when she ranked 7th; 2d in 1889. Pennsylvania ranked 1st until 1889, when it took 3d place, etc. The principal varieties of ore mined are: Red hematite (Gr. aiij.a- TiVrj? ; sc. MOoi, stone), red iron ore, anhydrous sesquioxide of iron ; brown hematite (hydrated sesquioxide of iron); magnetite, ores in which the magnetic oxide of iron (Fes O4) is predominant; car- bonite (protoxide of iron). Red hematite, the most valuable of the different varieties, is mined extensively in Michigan, Wiscon- sin, Alabama, Tennessee, and Missouri; the brown hematite in Virginia and W. Virginia, and quite largely in Pennsylvania ; magnetite in New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey; carbonite in Kentucky and Ohio, although all the iron - producing states mine red and brown hematite. Total number of persons employed in iron mining in 1889 was, above ground, 18,000, below, 19,709. AMOUNT OF IRON ORE MINED BY THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS, 1889. Great Britain 14,546,105 tons. Germany 11,001,042 " Spain 5,067,144 " France 2,500,000 " Austro-Hungary.. 2,300,000 " 1,400,000 " Sweden 985,904 tons. Algeria 475,000 " Cuba 256,278 " Belgium 220,000 " Italy 173.489 " Canada 75,162 " [This amount has not materially changed up to 1894.] Amount of pig-iron produced in the U. S. iu 1870 was 2,052,821 tons; in 1880, 3,781,021 tons; in 1890, 9,579,779 tons, or about 35 per cent, of the production of the world, valued at over $134,000,000. In the production or pig-iron for the year 1890 the principal states rank as follows : 1. pcunsvlvania. ..4,712,511 tons, •.i. Ohio 1,302,299 " 3. Alabama 890,432 » 4. Illinois 674,506 " 5. New York 359,040 " 6. Virginia 302,447 " 7. Tennessee 290, 747 " 8. Michigan 224,908 tons. 9. Wisconsin 210,037 " 10. New Jersey 145,040 ' ' 11. West Virginia.. .108,764 " 12. Missouri 99,131 " 13. Maryland 96,246 " 14. Kentucky 44, 199 " Iron Cro§§, an order of merit established by Fred- erick William III. of Prussia, 10 Mch. 1813, for patriotic bravery in war against France ; revived by William I. in the Franco-Prussian war, and awarded by him to his son for vic- toTx at Wissembourg, 4 Aug. 1870. About 40,000 persons were decorated in 1870-71. iron crown (of Italy), of gold and precious stones, set in a thin ring of iron, said to have been forged from a nail of Christ's cross, by order of Theudelinde for her husband, Agilulf, king of the Longobards, 591, and deposited in the church at Monza. Charlemagne was crowned with it, and later all em- perors who were kings of Lombardy ; Napoleon I. at Milan, on 26 May, 1805, put it on his head, saying, " Dieu me Va donnee; gare a qui y touchera " (" God has given it to me ; woe to him NUMBER OF ACRES IRRIGATED DEVOTED TO CROPS (NOT PASTURAGE), AND COST , ETC. Areas. Idaho. Utah. Wyoming. Montana. Nevada. Ariiona. New Mexico. Total irrigated acreage in crops, 1890 217,005 4,323 50 270 26 39 263,473 9,724 27 312 10 25 229,676 1,917 119 494 65 50 350,582 3,706 95 307 50 56 224,403 1,167 192 513 79 58 65,821 1,075 61 287 34 43 91,745 3 086 Number of irrigators Average size of farms irrigated in crop acres 30 Average size of crop areas of 160 acres and upwards in ) acres ( 312 Per cent, of acreage of irrigated crop areas of 160 acres 1 21 Average size of irrigated crop areas under 160 acres 24 IRV 387 ITA NUMBER OF ACRES IRRIGATED DEVOTED TO CROPS (NOT PASTURAGE) , AND COST, ETC- {Continued.) Areas. Idaho. Utah. Wyoming. Montana. Nevada. Arizona. New Mexico. Average first cost of water per acre cultivated by irrigation. " annual cost " " " " " first cost of preparation per acre for cultivation. . . " value of irrigated lands per acre including build- ) $4.74 .80 9.31 46.50 12.93 .25of 1^ $10.55 .91 14.85 84.25 18.08 .5ofl^ $3.62 .44 8.23 31.40 8.25 .4ofl^ $4.63 .95 8.29 49.50 12.96 .4oflatinus about 1240 -^neas the Trojan said to land in Italy, defeat and kill Turnus; ITA »8 marry Lavlnia, daughter of king Latinus; and found Lavinl- I um in S. luly 1182 et seq. | Greek colonies (Magna GRiSciA) founded 974-443 i Komulus builds Rome 753 [For subsequent history, Rouk.] a.d. { Odoacer, leader of Heruli, establishes the kingdom of Italy. . . . 476 I Ostrogoths invade Italy, 489, and retain it till 491 I They are expelled by the imperial gens. Narses and Belisarius \ (Ikon Crown, Kings of Italy) 552 Narses, governor of Italy, invites Lombards from Germany, 5()8 ; who overrun Italy 696 | Invasion and defeat of Constans II 662 I Venice tirst governed by a doge 697 j I'epin gives li^ivenna to the pope 754 ] Charleinugne invades ltaly,774 ; overcomes Lombards ; crowned emperor of the West at Rome by pope Leo III 25 Dec. 800 i Saracens invade Italy and settle at Bari 842 1 Invasion of Otho I. 951 ; crowned emperor 2 Feb. 962 Genoa becomes iinportjint 1000 Saracens expelled by the Normans 1016-17 Normans acquire Naples from the pope 1051 Tope Gregory VII., Hildebrund, pretends to universal sover- eignty, assisted by Matilda, countess of Tuscany, mistress of greater part of lUily 1073-85 Disputes between popes and emperors as to ecclesiastical inves- titures begin to agitate Italy and Germany about 1073 Rise of Lombard cities about 1120 Who war with each other 1144 Venetians obtain many victories over Eastern emperors 1125 Wars of GuBLPHS and Ghibkllinks begin about 1161 Frederick I. (Barbarossa) interferes; his wars 1154-75 I Pi,ants. Java, an island in the Malay archipelago, next to BorneO" and Sumatra the largest in the Sunda group, is said to have- been reached by the Portuguese in 1511, and by the Dutcb in 1595. The latter, who now possess it, built Batavia, the- capital, about 1619. Batavia. The massacre of 20,000 un armed natives by Dutch, sparing neither women nor chil dren, to possess their effects, took place in. 1740. The island* capitulated to the British, 18 Sept. 1811. The sultan was de- throned by the English, and the hereditary prince raised to* the throne, in Jime, 1813. • Java was restored to Holland in 1814. The English promoted free labor instead of forced; but the Dutch reverted to the old system, and in 1830 abol~ ished free labor, introducing the " culture system," by which the government controls the cultivation of the land and. buys- the produce at its own price. In Aug. 1860, the Swiss soldier* here, aided by the natives, mutinied, but were soon reduced, and many suffered death. The diminished prosperity of Java led to warm discussions in the Dutch chamber in 1866. Area, 50,848 sq. miles ; pop. 1890, 23,064,086. Java has 46 volcanoes; has been devastated by eruptions and earth- quakes, 5 .Jan. 1699, 21 Oct. 1876, and 10 June, 1877. Java and neighboring isles desolated by violent eruptions fron> about two thirds of the 46 volcanoes, beginning with Krakatoa. Disturbance began with rumbling noises, 25 Aug. 1883; violent eruption of Krakatoa, 26 Aug. ; great submarine disturbance and a. tidal wave which destroyed Anjer and other places, 27 Aug. ; the- lighthouses in the strait of Sunda were swallowed up, 25-28 Aug. ; atmospheric, electrical, and oceanic disturbances for thousands of miles. Sun, 1883. Jeannette, Voyage of the. Northeast and North- west PASSAGES. Jeddo or Yeddo. Tokio. Jeffer§oii States, 1801-9. Jefrer§on's letter to Philip Mazzei, dated 24 Apr. 1796. Mazzei published an Italian translation of it in Flor- ence, 1 Jan. 1797. It was retranslated into French and pub- lished in the Moniteur,25 Jan., and found its way through tlie- English press into the American newspapers about the be- ginning of May. In this letter he opposed the Jay treaty,, and commented freely against Washington and his adminis-^ tration as Anglican, monarchical, and aristocratic, etc. Thi.s. letter destroyed Washington's faith in Jeffenson. " Je maintiendrai " — " I will maintain," the motto- of the house of Nassau. When William III. came to tlie- throne of England, he retained it, adding " the liberties of England and the Protestant religion," also ordering that the' old motto of the royal arms, " Dieu et mon droit" should be re- tained on the great seal, 1689. Jemmapes (jem-map'), a town of N.W. Belgium, site of the first pitched battle gained by French republicans (undef Dumouriez), in which 40,000 French troops drove out 19,000- Austrians, intrenched in woods and mountains, defended by redoubts and many cannon, 6 Nov. 1792. The number killed on each side was reckoned at 5000. Jena {ya!-ne) and Auer§tadt {oiu'-er-stat), town* of central Germany, where 2 battles were fought, 14 Oct. 1806, between French commanded at Jena by Napoleon, and at Auer- stadt b}"- Davoust, and Prussians under prince Hohenlohe at the former place, and the king of Prussia at the latter. The Prussians were defeated, losing nearly 20,000 killed and wound- ed, and nearly as many prisoners, and 200 field-pieces; the' French lost 14,000 men. Napoleon advanced to Berlin, and", issued the Berlin Decree. '^ Jeplltliall," Handel's last oratorio; composed 2£ Jan.-50 Aug. 1751 ; first performed 26 Feb. 1752. Judges. JER S Jersey, the chief island of the Channel archipelago (which includes Guernsey, Sark, Alderney, etc.), belonging to Great Britain, held by the Romans in the 3d and 4th centuries after Christ — Jersey being termed Caesarea. The isles were captured by Rollo, became an appanage of the duchy of Nor- mandy, and were united to the crown of England by his de- scendant, William the Conqueror. The inhabitants of the Channel islands preferred to remain subjects of king John at the conquest of Normandy by Philip Augustus, and, while re- taining the laws, customs, and (until lately) the language of their continental ancestors, have remained firm in their alle- giance to England. Almost every war with France has been characterized by an attack on Jersey ; the most formidable, un- der the baron de RuUecour, was defeated by the English garrison and Jersey militia, under maj. Pierson, 6 Jan. 1781. J. Bertrand Payne, in his " Armorial of Jersey" and his " Gossiping Guide," has treated the general and famil}' history of the island. Area, 28,717 acres; pop. 1881 62,445-, 1891,54,518. Cattle. Jeru'§ale]ii, called also Salem, 19 13 b.c. (Gen. xiv. 18). Its king Adonizedek (also one of the kings of the Amor- ites) was slain by Joshua, 1451 b.c. It was taken by David, then in possession of the Jebusites, 1048 b.c, who dwelt in the fort, calling it the city of David. Holy places, Jews. Pop. 1891, about 28,000.' First temple founded by Solomon, 1012 b.c. ; and solemnly ^■'^• dedicated on Friday (Jews) 30 Oct. 1004 Jerusalem taken by Chosroes the Persian, 614 a.d. ; retaken by the emperor Heraclius, 628; by Saracens, 637; and by crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword; a new -*^-^- kingdom founded 15 July, 1099 "Assize of Jerusalem," a code of laws, established by Godfrey of Bouillon, king 1100 King Guy defeated at Tiberias; Jerusalem taken by Saladin, 2 Oct. 1187 By the Turks, who drive away the Saracens 1217 and 1239 Surrendered to the emperor Frederick II. by treaty 1228 Surrendered to the crusaders 1243 1 Taken by Carismians 1244 Taken from the Christians 1291 Taken by the Turks 1516 Held by the French under Bonaparte Feb. 1799 Convention to preserve the holy sepulchre signed on behalf of Russia, France, and Turkey 5 Sept. 1862 British survey of Jerusalem and neighborhood began Sept. 1864 Visited by crown prince of Prussia, 4 Nov. ; by emperor of Aus- tria 9 Nov. 1869 A railway from Jerusalem to Jaffa built by a French company ; opened 13 Sept. 1892 CHRISTIAN KINGS. Godfrey of Bouillon (styled himself " baron of the holy sepul- chre ") 1099 Baldwin 1 1100 Baldwin II 1118 Fulk of Anjou 1131 Baldwin III 1144 Amaurl (or Almeric) 1162 Baldwin IV 1173 Sibyl, then his son Baldwin V 1185 I Guy de Lusignan 1186 I Henry of Champagne 1192 Amauri de Lusignan 1197 Jean de Brienne 1210 Emperor Frederick II 1229-39 Protestant Bishopric of Jerusalem, erected under the protec- tion of Great Britain and Prussia: S. M. S. Alexander consecrated bishop 7 Nov. 1841 Samuel Gobat, bishop, 1846 ; d 11 May, 1879 Joseph Barclay, LL. D., consecrated 25 July, " " Jerusalem Delivered," the great Italian epic by Tasso, was pub. in 1580. Literature. je§ter, or the "King's fool," is described as "a witty and jocose person kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and of those of others, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the English kings, particularly the Tudors, kept jest- ers. Rahere, the founder of St. Bartholomew's priory. West Smithfield, London, 1133, is said to have been a court jester and minstrel. There was a jester at court in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., but probably no licensed jester afterwards. " ' What art thou V And the voice about his feet Sent up an answer, sobbing, ' I am thy fool, And I shall never make thee smile again.' " — Tennyson, "The Last Tournament. " " Viola. Art not thou the lady Olivia's fool ? Ckwn. No, indeed, sir . . . she will keep no fool, sir, till she be married." —Shakespeare, "Twelfth Night," act iii. sc. i, "This same skull, sir, was Yorick's skull, the king's jester." — Shakespeare, "Hamlet," act v. sc. i. 18* * JEW Jesuits, the Society or Company of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, later an officer in his army, and canonized after death. Being wound- ed in both legs at the siege of Pampeluna, in 1521, he aban- doned the army, and embraced the ecclesiastical profession. He dedicated his life to the blessed Virgin as her knight; made a pilgrimage to Holy Land, and on his return founded his society at Paris, 16 Aug. 1534. He presented his institutes in 1539 to pope Paul III., who made objections; but Ignatius adding to the vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience a fourth of implicit submission to the holy see, the institution was con- firmed by a bull, 27 Sept. 1540. The number of members was not to exceed 60, but that restriction was taken off by another bull, 14 Mch. 1543 ; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and Greg- ory XIII. granted many privileges. Loyola died 31 July, 1556. Francis Xavier and other missionaries, the first brethren, carried the order everywhere ; but it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly in Paris. The order still exists in many European states contrary to the laws. French in America, Jansenists, Paraguay. Society condemned by the Sorbonne, Paris, 1554; expelled from France, 1594; readmitted, 1604; but after several de- crees suppressed in France and its property confiscated 1764 Ordered by Parliament expelled from England 1579, 1581, 1586, 1602; and by the Catholic Relief act 1829 Expelled from Venice, 1607; Holland, 1708; Poriugal, 1759; Spain 1767 Abolished by Clement XIV 21 July, 1773 Restored by Pius VI 7 Aug. 1814 Father Pierre J. Beckx elected general 1853 Expelled from Belgium, 1818; Russia. 1820; Spain, 1820, 1835; France, 1831, 1845; Portugal, 1834; Sardinia, Austria, and other states, 1848; Italy I860 Chief of the order appeals to the king of Sardinia for redress of grievances 24 Oct. " Report : total number of Jesuits, 8167 ; in France, 2422 1866 Order actively advocating papal supremacy, a bill for its expul- sion from Germany passed by parliament at Berlin (131-93), 19 June; promulgated 5 July, 1872 Proposed removal of headquarters from Rome to Malta Oct. 1873 Expulsion of Jesuits from Italy, decreed 25 June; carried into execution 20 Oct.-2 Nov. " Father Curci, orthodox and eloquent, resigned (virtually ex- pelled) for advising pope to yield temporal power, Oct. 1877; publishes "II Moderno Dissidio fra la Chiesa e I'ltalia," Dec. 1877; reconciled to the new pope, Leo XIII 1878 Twenty-seven Jesuits' colleges in France; 848 teachers 1879 Order in France dissolved by decree 30 Mch. 1880 Decree for expulsion of Jesuits and other orders from France, 30 Mch. ; carried out 30 June, ' ' Jesuit's bark. Chinchona or Cinchona. Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world, whose birth is celebrated 25 Dec. in each year. The date of his birth is uncertain, but was probably 4 years before the common era. Nativity. The following dates are given by ecclesiastical writers: ^^ Christ's baptism by John and first ministry 27 Last passover, institution of the eucharist 2 Apr. 33 Crucified on 3 Apr. at 3 o'clock in the afternoon; arose.. 5 Apr. " Ascended to heaven from mount Olivet 14 May, " Holy Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost 24 May, " Divinity of Christ, denied by the Arians, was affirmed by the council of Nice 325 Jeu de Paume ("the tennis-court"). Louis XVI. having closed the hall of the assembly at Versailles, the Third Estate {Tiers Etat) met in this place, and swore not to dissolve till a constitution was established, 20 June, 1789. (It is the subject of a painting by David.) Jew, The \¥anderinj^, a legendary character condemned to wander from place to place until the Day of Judgment. According to Matthew Paris and Roger Wendover (" Chronicles of St. Albans," 13th century) he was Cartaphilus, door-keeper of the Judgment hall of Pilate ; others say Ahas- uerus, a cobbler ; others, Judas, etc. In Germany the tradi- tion of the wandering Jew became connected with John Belta- doeus, a real personage. The story of this Jew was published in 1602 and frequently since. The wandering Jew is the sub- ject of Southey's " Curse of Kehama," Croly's " Salathiel," and Sue's " Le Juif Errant," though in violation of the entire legend. The legend derives a pathetic poetical suggestiveness and meaning from the wanderings through the world of the scattered Jewish race, of which its hero is the representative. Jewelry was received by Rebekah as a marriage gift, 1857 B.c. (Gen. xxiv. 53). Pliny the elder says he saw Lollia JEW »»4 JEW Paulina (wife of Caius Caesar, and afterwards Caligula) wear- ing ornaments valued at 322,916/. Jewela were worn in France by Agnes Sorel in 1434, and encouraged in England about 1685. The standard of gold for jewelry, except wedding-rings, was lowered by Parliament in 1854. Jewish disabilities. Jkws, 1269-1867. Je'%visll era and eaieildar. The Jews usually dated from the era of the Seleucidae until the 15th century, when a new mode was adopted, reckoning from the Creation, 8760 years and 3 months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 years. The Jewish year consists of either 12 or 13 months, of 29 or 30 days. The civil year commences with the month Tisri, im- mediately after the new moon following the autumnal equinox ; the ecclesiastical year begins with Nisan. The year 1892 A.u. compares with the Jewish year 5652-53 a.m. as follows : Tebet began 1 Jan. 1892 Sebat >• 30 Jan. " Adar " 29 Feb. " Nisau " 29 Mch. " Yiar " 28 Apr. " Sivan " 27 May, " Tamuz " 26 June, Ab began 25 July, 1892 Elul " 24 Aug. " Tisri, 1st day of the year 5653 began 22 Sept. ' ' Hesvan " 22 Oct. " Kislev " 20 Nov. " Tebet " 20 Dec. " Year 5652 commenced 3 Oct. 1891 All Jewish Sabbaths, festivals, and feasts commeuce at sunset. Jews, successively called Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews, the descendants of Abraham, with whom God made a covenant, 1898 RC. (Gen. xvii.). Computed number of Jews in the world, 1893. between 7,000,000 and 8,000,000, mostly in Europe, in east- ern Russia and Austro-Hungary. Jerusalem, J UD.^A. b c. Call of Abram 1921 Isaac born to Abraham 1896 Birth of Esau and Jacob 1837 Death of Abraham 1822 Joseph sold into Egypt 1729 Jacob and all his family go into Egypt 1706 Male children of the Israelites thrown into the Nile; Moses b.. 1571 Passover instituted; Israelites go out of Egypt, and cross the Red sea 1491 liaw promulgated from mount Sinai " Tabernacle set up 1490 Moses dies, aged 120 years 1451 Joshua leads Israelites into Canaan " Joshua dies, aged 110 years 1443 First bondage (Othniel, judge, 1405) 1413 Second bondage (Ehud, 1325) 1343 Third bondage (Deborah and Barak, 1285) 1305 Fourth bondage (Gideon, 1245) 1252 Fifth bondage (Jephthah, 1187) 1206 Sixth bondage 1157 Samson slays the Philistines 1136 Samuel governs as judge about 1120 Samson pulls down the temple of Dagon 1117 Saul made king 1095 David slays Goliath about 1063 Death of Saul ; David made king, 1055 David captures Jerusalem, and makes it his capital 1048 Absalom's rebellion 1023 Solomon king, 1015; founds the Temple, 1012; dedicated 1004 Death of Solomon; kingdom divided. 975 KINGDOM OF ISRAEL (254 years). Jeroboam establishes idolatry 975 Bethel taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 Israelites slain 957 Israel atllicted with the famine predicted by Elijah 906 Syrians besiege Samaria 901 Elijah translated to heaven 896 Miracles of Klisha the prophet 895 Assyrian invasion under Phul 771 Pekah besieges Jerusalem 741 Samaria taken by king of Assyria; 10 tribes are carried into captivity; kingdom of Israel ends 721 KINGDOM OF JUDAH (387 years). Shishak. king of Egypt, takes Jerusalem, and pillages the temple 971 Abijah defeats king of Israel; 50,000 men slain 957 Asa defeats Ethiopians; abolishes idolatry 941 Jehoshaphat orders the law to be taught, 912; defeats Am- monites, etc 896 Usurpation and death of Athaliah 884 Hazael desolates Judah 857 Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem; 120,000 men of Judah slain in one day 741 Hezekiah abolishes idolatry 726 Sennacherib invades Judea; the destroying angel enters the Assyrian camp and in one night destroys 185,000 710 Holofernes said to have been killed at the siege of Bethulia by Judith 656 In repairing the temple, Hilkiah discovers the book of the law, and Josiah keeps a solemn passover 624 Nebuchadnezzar subjugates Judea 605 He takes Jerusalem after a long siege 588 Jerusalem fired, temple burned, the walls razed 587 KINGS OF JUDAH. Rehoboam , B.C. 975. 958. 955. 953. 930. 929. 925. 918. 914. 897. 896. 889. 885. 884. 878. 857. 839. 825. 810. 784. 773. 772. 761. 759. 758. Jotham. 742. 730. 726. Uzziah or Azariah. 610. KINGS. B.C. PROPHBTSJI Saul began to reign 1095 Samuel. David, king of Judah, 1055 ; of all Israel 1048 Nathan. Solomon, king of all Israel 1015 KINGS OF ISRAEL. .Jeroboam I Ahijah. Abijah Asa Nadab (954) Azariah. " Baasha (954) Hanani. " Elah(954) Jehu. «' Zimri " " Omri " «' Ahab Elijah. Jehoshaphat " " Abaziah Elisha. Jehoram, or Joram Jahaziel. Jehoram " " Ahaziah " " Athaliah Jehu. Joash, or Jehoahaz " " " Jehoahaz. Amaziah Jehoash (841). " Jeroboam II Jonah. a (Hosea. |Amo& [Anarchy.] Zechariah JoeL (Shallum. \ Menahem. Pekahiah. Pekah. (( (Isaiah am \Micah Ahaz " " Hoshea. Hezekiah [Captivity, 721] Nahum. Manasseh. Amon Jeremiah. Josiah Zephaniah ( Jehoahaz ) I (Shallum). [ Habakkukl (Jehoiakim. ) ,„„ (•^^Ir^^Hl? j Daniel. 599. I (Coniah). j ( Zedekiah Ezekiel. BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. j, p Daniel taken to Babylon 607 Daniel prophesies at Babylon 603 Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, refusing to worship the golden image, are cast into a fiery furnace, but are delivered by the angel 587 Obadiah prophesies " Daniel declares the meaning of the handwriting against Bel- shazzar; cast into the lion's den; prophesies return from captivity, and coming of the Messiah 538 RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. Cyrus, sovereign of Asia, decrees the return of the Jews and rebuilding of the temple 536 Haggai and Zechariah prophets 520 Second temple finished 10 Mch. 516 Jews delivered from Haman by Esther 510 Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to reform abuses 458 Here begin the 70 weeks of years predicted by Daniel, being 490 years before the crucifixion of the Redeemer 457 Walls of Jerusalem built 445 Malachi the prophet 415 [The Scripture history of the Jews ends, according to Eusebius, in 442 b.c. ; afterwards Josephus and Roman his- torians give the best account of the Jews.] Alexander the Great marches to besiege Jerusalem, but, it is said, on seeing Jaddiis, the high-priest, in his robes, declares he had seen such a figure in Macedonia, inviting him to Asia, and promising to deliver the Persian empire into his hands; he enters the temple, and sacrifices to the God of the Jews. . 332 Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter 320 Ptolemy Philadelphus said to employ 72 Jews to translate the Scriptures about 285 Sadducee sect formed 250 Jews massacred at Alexandria 216 Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages temple, and slays 40,000 inhabitants 170 Government of Maccabees begins 166 Treaty with Romans; first on record with Jews 161 Judas Hyrcanus Aristobulus assumes title of "king of the Jews " 107 Alexander Jannseus suppresses a rebellion of Pharisees cruelly, 86 Jerusalem taken by Roman legions under Pompey 63 Temple plundered by Crassus 64 Antipater made intendant of Judea by Julius Caesar 49 Herod, son of Antipater, marries Mariamne, granddaughter of the high priest 42 Invasion of Parthians *0 Herod supported by the senate ; they decree him king " Jerusalem taken by Herod and the Roman Sosius 37 Herod kills Mariamne, 29 ; rebuilds temple 29-18 Jesus Christ b ^ A.D. Pontius Pilate made procurator of Judea. 26 JEW 395 JEW John the Baptist begins to preach 26 Christ's ministry and miracles, 27-33; his crucifixion and res- urrection 33 Jews persecuted for refusing to worship Caligula 38 Receive the right of Roman citizenship 41 Claudius banishes Jews from Rome 50 Invasion of Vespasian 68 Jews settle at Merida, Spain 69 Titus takes Jerusalem; city and temple sacked and burned, and 1,100,000 Jews perish 8 Sept. 70 Joseplius b. 37 a.d. ; died about 100. Targiim of Oukelos written about 100 Hadrian rebuilds Jerusalem (calling it iElia Capitolina), and erects a temple to Jupiter 130 Rebellion of Bar-chochebas; takes Jerusalem, 132; killed in war with Julius Severus, 135 ; desolation of Judea 135-36 More than 580,000 Jews are slain by Romans " Jews favored by Antoninus Pius; college of Jamnia opened. . . 138 Mishna (Talmud) written by rabbi Judah, the prince 141 Jews favored by Severus, 196; by Constantine, 310; by Julian, 363; persecuted by Constans 353 Jews massacred at Alexandria 415 Babylonian Talmud completed 504 Jerusalem taken by Omar; ceases to be the city of the Jews. . 655 Jews first mentioned in English chronicles 740 Sect of Karaitks formed by Anan about 754 Jewish college founded at Cordova 948 Talmud translated into Arabic 1006 Jews said to be banished from England by Canute 1020 Polygamy in Christian countries prohibited by the Jewish synod at Worms 1030 Jews return to England 1066 [Chiefly settled in London and Lincoln.] Jews massacred in London, on coronation day of Richard I., at the instigation of priests 1189 Five hundred Jews, besieged in York castle by the mob, cut . each other's throats to avoid their fury 1190 Jews of both sexes imprisoned; eyes or teeth plucked out, and numbers butchered, by king John 1204 Rabbi Moses Maimonides d " Seven hundred Jews slain in London, a Jew having forced a Christian to pay him more than 2s. per week as interest on a loan of 20s. {Stow) 1262 Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold 1269 Every Jew lending money on interest compelled to wear a plate on his breast, signifying that he was a usurer, or to quit the realm (Stow) 1274 Two hundred and sixty-seven Jews hanged and quartered, ac- cused of clipping coin 1278 All Jews (16,511) banished from England (Rapin) 1290 Pillaged and persecuted in France during 14th and 15th centuries. A fatal distemper raging in Europe; many are slain for poi- soning springs (Lenglet) 1348 Jews banished from Spain. Portugal, and France; they consider it as great a calamity as the destruction of Jerusalem 1492-94 Edicts against Jews rescinded by pope Sixtus V 1585 Jews favored in Holland 1603 After banishment from England 370 years, permitted to return by Cromwell 1650 Who grants a pension to Manasseh ben-Israel 1655 First Portuguese synagogue. King street, Duke's place, erected 1656 Statute to compel them to maintain their Protestant children enacted «, 1702 Jews acquire right to possess land in England 1723 Bill to naturalize professors of Jewish religion in Ireland (where 200 Jews resided) refused royal assent 1746 Statute to naturalize them in England passed 1753 Repealed on the petition of all the cities 1754 Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon declared citizens of France, 1790 Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris convened by the em- peror Napoleon 18 Sept. 1806 Jews' hospital, London, founded " London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews established 1808 Jews' free school, Spitalfields, Loudon, established 1817 Alexander of Russia grants land on the sea of Azof to converted Jews 1 Sept. 1820 Rothschild brothers made barons of the Austrian empire 1822 Jews' Orphan Asylum founded 1831 David Salomons elected sheriff of London (first Jew) ; Enabling act passed for him 24 June, 1835 Bill for Jewish emancipation in England lost on second reading in the commons (228-165) 17 May, 1836 Moses Montefiore elected sherifl" of London; first Jew knighted by the queen 9 Nov. 1837 Ul 1801 Cross of Christ 121T Cross of the South, Brazil 1822 Crown, Prussia 1861 Crown, Wurtemberg 1818. KNI 410 KNI 1877 I €rown of India (female) 31 Dec. Crown of Italy 1868 Crown of Oaks, Netherlands. 1841 Crown Royal, France (Frlesland) 802 Danebrog, Denmark, instituted by Waldemar II., 1219; revived by Christian V 1671 Death's Head (female), by the widow Louisa Elizabeth of Saxn- Masburg 1709 Denis, St., France 1267 Dog and Cock. France 500 Dove of Castile 1379 Dragon, Hungary 1439 Dragon Overthrown, German 1418 Ear of Corn and Krmino, Hrittany '. about 1442 Elephant, Denmark (about 1190), by Christian 1 1462 Elizabeth, St., Portugal and Brazil (female) 1801 Elizabeth Theresa, Austria (female) 1750 Empire of India 1877 Esprit, St., France 1579 Ferdinand, St., Naples 1800 Ferdinand, St., Spain 1811 Fidelity. Baden 1715 Fidelity. Denmark 1732 Fools, Cleves 1380 Francis I., Two Sicilies 1829 Francis Joseph, Austria 1849 Frederick, Wurtemberg 1830 Friesland (or Crown Royal), France 802 Garter, England 1349 Generosity, Brandenburg 1685 Genet, France 726 George, St., and the Reunion, Naples 1800 and 1819 George, St., Angelic Knights 1191 George, St, Austria 1470-94 George, St.; Defender of the Immaculate Conception, Bavaria. 1279 George, St., England (Garter) 1349 George, St., Genoa. 1472 George, St., Hanover 1839 George, St., Ionian isles 1818 George, St., Rome 1492 George, St. , Russia 1769 George, St., Spain 1317 George, St., Venice 1200 Gerion, St., Germany 1190 Glaive, Sweden 1522 Glory, Turkey 1831 Golden Angel (afterwards St. George) about 312 Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by Philip the Good, Austria and Spain 10 Jan. 1429 Golden Lion, Hesse-Cassel 1770 Golden Lion, Nassau and Holland 1858 Golden Shield and Thistle, France 1370 Golden Spur, by Pius IV 1559 Golden Stole, Venice before 737 Gregory, St., Rome 1831 Guelphic, Hanover 1815 Henry, St., Saxony 1736 Henry the Lion, Brunswick 1834 Hermengilde, St. , Spain 1814 Hohenzollern, Prussia 1851 Holy Ghost, France 1579 Holy Sepulchre 1099, 1496 Holy Vial (St. Remi), France 499 Hospitallers, 1099 ; of Rhodes, 1308 ; of Malta 1512 Hubert, St. , Germany (by the duke of Juliers andCleves), Bavaria. 1444 Imtiaz, Turkey Nov. 1879 Iron Cross, Pru.ssia 1813 Iron Crown, Lombardy, 1805 ; revived 1816 Iron Helmet, Hesse Cassel 1814 Isabella, St. , Spain, 1804 ; Portugal (female) 1801 Isabella the Catholic, Spain 1815 James, St., Holland 1290 James, St., Portugal 1310 James, St., of the Sword, Santiago, 1175; Spain and Portugal. 1177 Januarius, St. , Naples 1738 Jerusalem (Malta) 1048 Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John XXIL, 1320; reformed as Jesus and Mary by Paul V 1615 Joachim, St., Germany 1755 John of Aeon, St after 1377 John of Jerusalem, St. (Hospitallers), Rome 1048 John, St., Prussia 1812 Joseph, St. , Tuscany 1807 Julian of Alcantara, St 1156 Katharine, St., England (female nurses) 1879 Knot, Naples 1352 La Calza, Venice ihout 737 Lamb of God, Sweden 1564 Lazarus, St., France, before 1154; united with that of St. Mau- rice, Savoy 1572 Legion of Honor, France 1802 Leopold, Austria 1808 Leopold, Belgium 1862 Lily of Aragon 1410 Lily of Navarre about 1043 Lion, Holland 1815 Lion (Sun) 1808 Lion of Zahringen. Baden 1812 Tiioness, Naples about 1399 Loretto, Lady of. 1.587 Louis, Bavaria 1827 Louis, Hesse-Darmstadt 1807 Louis, St. , France 1()93 Louisa, Prussia (female) 1814 Malta (Hospitallers). Maria de Merced, St. , Spain 1218 Maria Louisa, Spain (female) 1792 Maria Theresa, Austria 1767 Mark, St. , Venice, about 828; renewed 1562 Martyrs, Palestine 1014 Maurice, St., Savoy 1434 Maximilian Joseph, Bavaria 1806 Medjidid, Turkey 1852 Merit, Bavaria 1808, 1866 Merit, Belgium 1867 Merit, Hesse-Cassel 1769 Merit, Military, Baden 1807 Merit, Oldenburg 1838 Merit, Prussia 1740 Merit, Saxony 1816 Merit, WQrtemberg 1859 Mexican Eagle 1866 Michael, St., Bavaria 1693 Michael, St., France 1469 Michael, St., Germany 1618 Michael and George, Sts. , 1818 ; reorganized Mch. 186i> Montjoie, Jerusalem before 1180 Neighborly Love, Austria (female) 1708 Nicholas, St. (Argonauts of), Naples 1383 Noble Passion, Saxony 1704 Oak of Navarre, Spain 723 Olaf, St., Sweden 184T Osmani^, Turkey 1861^ Our Lady of Montesa 1316 Our Lady of the Conception of Villa Vigosa 1818i Our I,ady of the Lily, Navarre » 1043; Palatine Lion 1761 Palm and Alligator, Africa, granted to gov. Campbell in 1837] Passion of Jesus Christ, France 1~" Patrick, St., Ireland 17i Paul, St., Rome 1 Pedro I., Brazil 182i Peter, Frederick Lewis, Oldenburg. 1( Peter, St., Rome 1 Philip, Hesse- Darmstadt 184ftf; Pius, founded by Pius IV 1550' Pius IX., Rome 184t Polar Star, Sweden ; revived 1748 Porcupine, France 1393 Reale, Naples , about 1399 Red Eagle, Prussia, 1705. 1712, 1734; revived 1792 Redeemer (or Saviour), Greece 1833 Remi, St. (or Holy Vial) about 499 Rosary, Spain 1212 Rose, Brazil 1829 Round Table, England, by Alfred (Garter) 516 or 528 Rue Crown, Saxony 1807 Rupert, St., Germany 1701 Saviour, Aragon 1118:', Saviour, or Redeemer, Greece 1 ' Saviour of the World, Sweden 156: Savoy, Italy 181 Scale. Castile about 13' Scarf, Castile, 1330 ; revived 17( Sepulchre, Holy, Palestine H Seraphim, Sweden 1260 or 1 Ship and Crescent, France 121 Slaves of Virtue, Germany (female) 1 Stanislas, St., Poland 171 Star, France 1 Star, Sicilv 1 Star of India, British 1 Star of the Cross, Austria (female) 1 Star of the North, Sweden 17 Stephen, St., Hungary 17 Stephen, St., Tuscany 156:_ Sun and Lion, Persia 1808^ Swan, Flanders about 5( Swan, Prussia (female) 1440, 1843 Sword (or Silence), Cyprus 1196 Sword, Sweden, 1525 ; revived 1748 Templars HW; Teste Morte (Death's Head), WQrtemberg (female) 166511 Teutonic, Austria, about 1190; abolished 1809; 1.'522; roorgan- ized 1840, 1866 Thistle of Bourbon 1370 Thistle, Scotland, 809 ; revived 1540, 1687 Thomas of Aeon, St after 137J Toison d'Or (Golden Fleece) 10| Tower and Sword, Portugal, 1459 ; revived iSg Tiisin, or Hungarian Knights about 16 they were routed. Their leader, Henri comte de la Roche- jaquelein, was killed, 4 Mch. 1794. A short peace was made at La Jaunay, 17 Feb. 1795. The war was terminated by gen. Hoche in 1796, and a treaty signed at Lu9on, 17 Jan. 1800. Chouans, Georges' conspiracy. lavender, Lavandula spica, taken to England from the south of Europe before 1568. . law. Canons, Civil law^. Codes, Common-law, Crime, •Courts of the United States, Digest, Supreme Court. The Jewish law was promulgated by Moses, 1491 b.c. Laws of Phoroneus of Argos (1807 b.c), the first Attic laws, were reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athenians, 623 B.C.; this code was superseded by Solon's, 594 b.c. Spartan laws of Lycurgus, made about 844 b.c ; remained in force about TOO years, and moulded Spartan character. Roman laws of Servius Tullius, 566 b.c, amended by the Twelve Tables, published in 449 b.c., remained in force till Justinian, nearly 1000. years. BRITISH LAWS. ^ P Earliest British laws translated into the Saxon , 590 Saxon laws of Ina published about 690 Alfred's code, the foundation of the common-law, is said to have been arranged about 886 Edward the Confessor collected the laws 1050-65 Stephen's charter of general liberties 1136 Henry II. 's confirmation of it 1154 and 1175 Maritime laws of Richard I. (Olerox) 1195 Magna Charta, by king John, 1215; confirmed by Henry III., 1216 et seq. ; Magna Charta. Cord Mansfield, lord chief-justice of the king's bench, declared "that no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the fact as to prevent the execution of justice," 21 May, 1784 Many legal technicalities were got rid 6f by 14 and 15 Vict. c. 100. Act to improve the administration of criminal justice passed, LAWYERS. 7 Aug. 1851 Pleaders, or barristers, said to have been first appointed by Ed- ward 1 1291 "No man of the law " to sit in parliament, by stat. of 46 Edw. III. and 6 Hen. IV 1372 This prohibition declared to be invalid by Coke and unconsti- tutional by Blackstone; discussed July, 1871; the statutes repealed 1871 Sergeants, the highest members of the bar, alone could plead in the court of common pleas. The first king's counsel not a sergeant was sir Francis Bacon 1604 Intkrnational law. * la\l''n-tennis. Introduced into England by major Wingfield under the name of " Sphairistik6," and played in i court shaped like an hour-glass (1874). The first important " tournament " of the game in America took place at Nahant^ Mass., in 1875. Code of laws governing lawn-tennis in England issued 187; United States Lawn-tennis Association organized Jan. I.,awn-tennis Association organized in England 26 Jan. First professional lawn-tennis match in the United States at Newport, between Thomas Pettitt, American champion, and George Kerr (English) ; Pettitt defeated 29 Aug. 188( Ijair'§ bubble. John Law of Edinburgh (b. 1681) was made comptroller-general of finances of France, on the strength of a scheme for a bank, and an East India and a Mississippi company, whose profits should pay the national debt. Mississippi. He first offered his plan to Victor Ama deus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French ministry accepted it and in 1716 Law opened a bank in his own name, under protec- tion of the duke of Orleans, regent of France, and the deluded rich subscribed for shares in both bank and companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a royal bank, and the shares rose t« upwards of twenty-fold the original value; so that in 171S they were nominally worth more than eighty times all th( current specie in France. In 1720 this fabric of false credit fell spreading ruin. Law died in poverty at Venice in 1729. Th( South-sea bubble in England occurred in 1720. Arkansas Louisiana, South sea. " Layamon's Brut," or " Chronicle of Britain," j poetical semi-Saxon paraphrase of the Brut of Wace, madi about 1200-5, was published with a literal translation by sfl Frederick Madden in 1847. Literature. Layer's eonspiraey. Christopher Layer, a ba(| rister, conspired with others to seize George I., the prince Wales, lord Cadogan, and the principal officers of state ; t^ seize the Tower, to plunder the Bank, and bring in the Pre tender. Layer was hanged, 17 May, 1723, being convicted of" enlisting soldiers for the Pretender. Bishop Atterbury was accused of complicity and attainted, but permitted to quit the country. lazzaro'ni (from lazzaro, Spanish for a pauper or leper), a term applied by Spanish viceroys to degraded beings in Naples, half-clothed and houseless. No man was born a lazzaro ; and he who turned to a trade ceased to be one. The viceroy permitted lazzaroni to elect a chief, with whom he conferred respecting imposts on goods brought to market. In 1647, Masaniello held the office, and led an insurrection. Naples. In 1793, Ferdinand IV. enrolled thousands of laz- zaroni as pikemen (spontoneers), who generally favored the court party; on 15 May, 1848, they were permitted, on the king's* behalf, to ravage the ill-fated city. — Colletta. lead is found in various countries, chiefly Great Britain, Spain, and the United States; is abundant in various parts of Britain, and in some places richl}' mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydesdale mines were discovered in 1513. Pattinson's valuable method for extracting silver was made known in 1829. The lead-mines of Cumberland and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annum. British mines yield on an average of 60,000 tons yearly. The lead deposits of the U. S. are found chiefly in the Mississippi valley and the Sierra Ne- vada mountains. Elements. Leaden water-pipes were brought into use 1234 Lead discovered in the Mississippi valley by Le Sueur 1700-1| First mining in America by Julien Dubuque, near the site of Dubuque, la 1788 Mining leases issued by government under act of 1807 18M Mining became general , 1826-21 Mineral lands thrown open to purchase 184f Production of lead in the U. S. 1829, 5000 tons ; 1839, 10,000 tons; 1847, 25,000 tons;. 1870, 52,293 tons; 1890, 161,754 tons. lead, black. Carbon, Graphite. leagues. 4 kings combined to make war against 5| about 1913 B.C. (Gen. xiv.). The kings of Canaan com-* bined against inv^asion of the Israelites, 1451 b.c. The more eminent Greek leagues were the ./Etolian, powerful about 320 B.C., which lasted till 189 b.g., and the Achaean, revived 280 B.C., broken by the conquest of Greece by Romans, 146 B.C. The fall of these leagues was hastened by dissen- sion. LEA 417 LEG Hanseatic league 1140 Lombard leagues against the emperors (Lombards). . ..1176 and 1226 ■Caddee league about 1400 et seq. Xeague of the Public Good formed Dec. 1464, by the dukes of Calabria, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other princes against Louis XL of France, under pretext of reforming abuses; an indecisive battle fought at Montlhe'ry, 16 July; and a treaty signed 25 Oct. 1465 League of Cambray against Venice 1508 Holy league (the pope, Venice, etc.), against Louis XII 1510 League of Smalcald 1530 League of the Beggars (Gueux) ; the Protestants so called (though Roman Catholics joined the league), to oppose the institution of the Inquisition in Flanders 1566 Holy league, to prevent accession of Henry IV. of France, then of Reformed religion, formed at Peronne, lasted till Henry embraced Romanism 1576-93 League of Wurtzburg, by Catholics; of Halle, by Protestants. . 1610 League against emperor of Germany 1626 Solemn league and covenant in Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church (Covenanters) 1638 League of Augsburg against France 1686 Union league, United States, to assist the national cause in the war of the Rebellion 1863 League of St. Sebastian, to promote restoration of temporal dominions to the pope about 1870; held 9th annual meeting in London 20 Jan. 1879 League in aid of Christians in Turkey formed; earl of Shaftes- bury chairman ; 27 July, 1876 National Irish Land league ostensibly formed to buy farms for the tenants; supported by Mr. Parnell and others, 1879; by j enforcing stringent rules against landlords and loyal tenants created a reign of terror ; led to legislation (Ireland) 1880-81 National Land league of Great Britain formed; Justin Mc- \ Carthy president 26 Mch. 1881 i leap-year or bissextile, devised by astronomers of '; Julius Caesar, 45 b.c. Assuming the solar year, or the period I from one vernal equinox to another, to be 365 days 6 hours, i the 6 hours were set aside for 4 years, forming a day, and the J4th year was made to consist of 366 days. The added day iwas called intercalary, and was placed before 24 Feb., the ;6th of the calends, which was reckoned twice, hence called [bissextile, or twice sixth. This added daj' with us is 29 Feb. j This Julian year is really nearly 3 minutes longer than the jtrue astronomical year: to obviate this, 1700 and 1800 were not, and 1900 will not be, leap-years, but 2000 will be one. jCalkndak, Year. I learning' and the arts flourished among the (Greeks, especially under Pisistratus, 537 B.C., and under Peri- icles, 444 B.C. ; and with the Romans under Augustus. The •Greek refugees caused their revival in Italy, particularly after the Turks took Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of iprinting shortly before — the period of the Renaissance. Leo JX. and his family (the Medici) promoted learning in Italy in fthe 16th century, when literature revived in France, Germany, iind England. Literature. t lease (from Fr. laisser, to let), a form of conveyance in- rented bv sergeant Moore, soon after the statute of uses, 27 penry VIII. 1535. leather was early known in Egypt and Greece, and hongs of manufactured hides were used for ropes, harness, tc, by ancient nations. The Gordian knot was made of leath- r thongs, 330 b.c. A leather cannon was proved at Edin- burgh, fired 3 times, and found to answer, 23 Oct. 1778. — ^hillips A plan for making artificial leather of cuttings, etc., /as made known in I860.— Leai^er cloth (invented by Messrs. R. & C. P. Crockett of Newark, N. J., and patented in ;849) is unbleached cotton coated with a mixture of boiled nseed-oil and turpentine, and colored. Lebanon ( " white mountain "). The mountain range etween Syria and N. Palestine, assigned to Israel but never onquered, and long attached to Syria. In ancient ti mes j ustly jelebrated for its forests of cedar. Special ordinance for the reservation of the ancient cedar forest, Sept. 1881. Moun- ains and cedars frequently mentioned in the Bible, especially Kings, V. 6-15. The governor- general since 1861 has been ppointed by Turkey, subject to the assent of the great powers. -rea, 2200 sq. miles; pop. 1890, 245,000. "0, art thou sighing for Lebanon In the long breeze that streams to thy delicious East Sighing for Lebanon, ' Dark cedar, tho' thy limbs have here increased. Upon a pastoral slope as fair. "—Tennyson, "Maud." !Lech, a river of S. Germany, near which, at a village 14 r named Rain, the cruel imperialist gen. Tilly was defeated by the Swedes, under Gustavus Adolphus, 5 Apr. 1632, and died of his wounds. Leeompton constitution. Kansas, 1857-58 ; United States, 1858. lectures. Those on physic were instituted by dr. Thomas Linacre, of the College of Phvsicians (founded by Henry VIII.), about 1502. Clinical lectures at the bedside of patients in hospitals are said to have been given (by dr. John Rutherford) in Edinburgh about 1748 ; in Dublin about 1785 ; in London (by sir B. C. Brodie) 1813-17. G. Macilwain, about 1824, gave surgical clinical lectures in connection with a dis- pensary. Bampton lectures, Boyle lectures, Hibbert FUND, Royal Institution. The political lectures of Thel- wall, commenced in Jan. 1795, were interdicted by act of Par- liament. In the autumn of 1857 and since, many distinguished noblemen and gentlemen lectured at mechanics' institutes. An act passed in 1835 prohibited publication of lectures without consent of lecturers. Public lectures began to be popular in the United States about 1855. In 1860 more than 200 pro- fessional lecturers were enrolled. Since 1875 their popularity has gradually decreased. Leeds, Yorkshire, the Saxon Loidis, once a Roman sta- tion, received a charter in 1627. Pop. 1861, 207,165; 1871, 259,212; 1881,309,119; 1891,367,506. Leeds bridge built 132T Shenfleld's grammar school founded 1552 leek, the Welsh emblem, by command of Dewi,or David, afterwards archbishop of St. David's in 519, who on the day that king Arthur routed the Saxons, is said to have ordered the soldiers to place a leek in their caps. Pistol. "Tell him, I'll knock his leek about his pate. Upon Saint Davy's day." — Shakespeare, "Henry V.," act iv. sc. i. Leeward isles, West Indies: Antigua, Barbuda, Montserrat, St. Christopher's, Nevis, Anguilla, Virgin ides, and Dominica. Area of the whole group, 701 sq. miles; the largest, Dominica, 291 sq. miles; and the smallest, Montserrat, 32 sq. miles. Pop. 1891, 129,760. legal holidays. There is no regular national holi- day in the United States. Congress has at various times ap- pointed special holidays. Thanksgiving day, designated by the president by proclamation, is a holiday in those states that so provide by la.v. THp following are the principal days observed in most of the states as a houuay . New-year's day, Jan. 1. Washington's Birth day, 22 Feb. Decora- tion day, 30 May in most states. Independence day, 4 July. General election day, 1st Tuesday after 1st Monday in • Nov. Thanksgiving day, last Thursday in Nov. Christ aas day, 25 Dec. Labor day, 1st Monday in Sept., made national legal holiday 1891. Arbor day is a legal holiday in some states, although the month and date of its observance vary. Arbor day. Every Saturday after 12 o'clock noon is a legal holiday in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Maryland. Good Friday is observed in Ala- bama, Florida, Louisiana, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, and Tennessee. leg'ates (Jegatus). Roman ambassadors; also governors of provinces into which Augustus divided the empire, 27 b.c. ; also ambassadors from the pope. legations were the 20 administrative divisions in the States of the Church, governed by legates. They re- belled in 1859-60, and are now included in the kingdom of Italy. Rome. legion, legio, a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, first formed by Romulus, when it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 720 b.c. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B.C., the legion consisted of 5200 soldiers ; and under Marius, i.n 88 B.C., of 6200, besides 700 horse. Thei;^ were 10, and some- tini-.^s as many as 18, legions kept at Rome. Auguaius had a standing army of 45 legions, together with 25,000 horse and 37,000 iij/ht-armed troops, about 5 b.c. ; and the peace estab- lishment t.f Adrian was 30 legions. A legion contained 10 co- horts, and oach cohort 6 centuries, with a vexillum, or stand- ard, guarded, by 10 men. The peace of Britain was protected by 3 legions. \ Thundering legion. Legion ^ of Honor, a French order embracing the army, civil officers, and other individuals distinguished for \ LEG 418 LEV services to the state; instituted by Napoleon, when first con- sul, 19 May, 1802; confirmed by Louis XVIII. in 1816, and the constitution mollified in 1816 and 1851. The honor of mem- bership was conferred on many British subjects who distin- guished themselves in the Russian war, 1854-56, and in the Paris exhibitions of 1855 and 1867. The palace and offices were burned by the communists, 23 May, 1871.— In the Unit- ed States, a fraternal organization, founded 1878 ; number of members, 1891, 63,751. Liegitillli§t§, a term (since 1814) applied to those who support the claims of the elder branch of the Bourbon family to the throne of France. Its last representative was Henry, due de Bordeaux, comte de Chambord, born 29 Sept. 1820; died 24 Aug. 1883. They held a congress at Lucerne on 24-29 June, 1862, and agreed to continue a pacific policy. The party was acUve in Feb. 1871-75. Their efforts to recover power proved ineffectual France. Ijeill'iiiter, a kingdom in 1167, now one of 4 provinces of Ireland, divided into 4 archbishoprics by pope Eugenius III., represented by cardinal Paparo, at a national synod held at Kells, 9 Mch. 1151-52. The abduction of Devorgilla, wife of O'Ruarc, a lord of Connaught, by Derraot, king of Leinster, in 1152, is asserted to have led to the landing of the English and the subsequent conquest. The province of Leinster gave the title of duke to Schomberg's son in 1690. The title be- came extinct in 1719, and was conferred on the family of Fitzgerald in 1766. LieipsiC {Up' -sic), Saxony, an ancient city, famous for its university (founded 1409) and its fair (1458). At Breitenfeld, near here', Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated the im- perialists under Tilly, 7 Sept. 1631 ; and the imperialists were again defeated hereby the Swedes, under Torstensen, 23 Oct. 1642. Here took place, on 16, 18, 19 Oct. 1813, « the battle of the nations," between the French army and its allies, com- manded by Napoleon (160,000), and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies (240,000 strong). The French were beaten, 17 Saxon battalions, their allies, turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished on the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of artillery and many standards. The vic- tory was followed by the capture of Leipsic, of the rear- ■ he French army, and of the king of Saxony and The 50th anniversary was celebrated 18 Oct. Leipsic book fair bc~j:n 1545. The new supreme Germany opened here 1 Sept. 1879. Pop. 1891, Leisier's insurrection. New York, 1689, '91, '99. Leleg^es, a Pelasgic tribe which inhabited Laconia about 1490 B.C., and after many contests merged into the Hellenes. " It is the almost universal opinion that the whole of the iEgean coast lands were occupied by homogeneous tribes of Aryan stock ; on this view then the Leleges, i. e., as Strabo already maintained, the mixed people, represent one of the first stages of these original tribes in the path of civilization." — Eneycl. Brit. 9th ed. leinures (Um'-u-rez). The ancients supposed that the soul, after death, wandered over the world and disturbed the peace of the living. The happy spirits were called lares familiares ; and the unhappy, lemures. The Roman festival Lemuralia, kept on 9, 11, 13 May, is said to have been insti- tuted by Romulus about 747 b.c., to propitiate the spirit of the slaughtered Remus. lieuox Library. Libraries ; Nev^^ York, 1870. jLent (from the Sax. lencten, spring), the 40 days' fa '■^"' observed in the Roman Catholic church from Ash-Wednp ^day to Easter-day, said to have been instituted by pop'- Teles- phorus, 130. In early times Lent commenced on Sunday, now the first Sunday in Lent, and the 4 days begii '"i"g "^^^^^ Ash- Wednesday were added by pope Felix III* i" 487, to make the fasting days 40. Lent was first obser •'^'^l i" Eng- land by command of Ercombert, king of Kent, ,^^ 640 or 641. —Baker's Chron. Flesh was prohibited dur^g Lent, but Henry VIII. permitted the use of white meats ^7 » proclama- 1 tion in 1543, which continued in force until, by proclamatioa of James I. in 1619 and 1625, and by Charles I. in 1627 and 1631, flesh was again wholly forbidden. Ash-Wednesday^ Quadragesima. leonines, hexameter and pentameter verses, rhyming at the middle and the end, said to have been first made bj Leoninus, a canon, about the middle of the 12th century, oi by pope Leo II. about 682. LepantO (near Corinth), Battle of, 7 Oct. 1571, whei the combined fleets of Spain, Venice, Genoa, Malta, and Piui v., commanded by don John of Austria, natural son of thi emperor Charles V., defeated the maritime force of thi Turks, and checked their progress. The Turks lost mos of their fleet, 35,000 men slain or captured, while 15,001 Christian galley-slaves were released by the victors, ^ank calls it a decisive battle between the Turks and Chris tians. leprosy, a skin disease described in Lev. xiii. (149 B.C.), which prevailed in ancient times throughout Asia, is almost unknown in modern Europe. It chiefly affecte the lower classes, yet occasionally proved fatal to the high est personages. Robert Bruce of Scotland died of lepros; in 1329. A hospital for lepers was founded at Granada b; queen Isabella of Castile about 1504, and a large number o leper-houses were founded in Britain. Lepers are still nu merous in the Sandwich islands. Father Damien, who vo] untarily took up his residence with the lepers of these isl ands, died of the disease after several years' association wit them, 9 May, 1889. The disease is ascribed to a peculial bacillus, and in 1893 Pasteur and other biologists undertook J scientific investigation of its treatment. Ler'ida, the ancient Ilerda. letters. Alphabet, Epistles, Literature, Marqu% Privateers. "L sealed letters is- sued by kings of France since about 1670, ordering persons thrown into prison or exiled. Under Louis XIV. and Louis XV. they became a monstrous evil, persons being imprisoned for life or for a long period on frivolous pretexts. During the conten- tion of the Mirabeau family, 59 lettres de cachet were issued! on the demand of one or other of the family. Dickens' " Tale,} of Two Cities " depicts their evils. The National Assemblj decreed their abolition, 1 Nov. 1789. lettuce, introduced into England from Flanders abouti 1520. L«euctra, a small town in Bceotia, N. Greece, where| Thebans under Epaminondas defeated the superior force of | Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 8 July, 371 b.c. 4000 Spartans^i with their king, were slain. The Spman.«' c""" '"^aliy lostj their preponderance in Greece. Levant', from th- French verb lever, to "rise"=t| East, a term appli'^--* to Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, etc. levee)*' 9 barriers built along rivers and sea -coasts keep i^^ water from overflow. Extensive levees line til Hoa'^g-Ho or great Yellow river of China, the Ganges T idia, the Euphrates, the Danube, the Po, Thames, and tl sea -coasts of Holland. In the United States, along tl banks of the Red, Arkansas, Yazoo rivers, and many of bayous, but especially along the banks of the MississiPtj RIVER. L 1X780/ 1364 1776 1818 U95 1777 450,000 (6461 incu- nabula. ) 300,000 3,000 20.000 Few. Gratz university. Martinsberg Prague [Exact sciences, Bohemian, and several others.] Vienna, Imperial library [Most important collection in Eufope.] Vienna university [Much used. Established by Maria Theresa.] [Besides the libraries mentioned above, there are many others in Austria ranging from a few thousand volumes to 80,000 and 90,000— more than 100 in Vienna alone. Many smaller libraries of Austria, rich in incunabula, date from the 6th to the 12th cen- turies—Salzburg, 6th century, Admont, 11th, GOttweth, 11th, St. Florian, 11th, Benedictine (Vienna), 12th.] Denmark : Copenhagen. Royal library.. [Open to the public, 1793.] Namb«r of volumM. 400,000 200.000 210,000 125,000 100,000 130,000 18,000 1,000 5,000 2,000 University. France : Aix Besanpon Bordeaux Caen [Succeeded the University li- brary, founded 1431.] Douai Grenoble Lyons Marseilles Nantes Paris, Arsenal Institute Mazarine. [Public since 1688.]. . . Nationale [The most extensive in the world, with 450,000 volumes of French history, and more than 2,400,000 engravings. The annual grant for binding and purchases is |40,000.] Ste. Genevieve University (Sorbonne) Rouen Troyes. [Jansenist collection.].. [Besides collections of learned societies and educational institu- tions, etc., outside Paris, over 220 French provincial towns pos- sess public libraries of from 3000 to 90,000 volumes, most of them founded near the first of this century.] Germany : Augsburg (mostly history) . . , Bamberg Berlin , " university Bonn Bremen 1670 [1482) [1728/ fl786> 11810/ 1694 1800 1809 I 500,000 I (Incunabula and block books J important.) 20,000 275,000 200,000 1789 1772 1530 1796 1588 1796 1759 1643 1595 1624 1792 1691 150,000 200,000 100,000 110,000 190,000 130,000 100,000 200,000 210,000 120,000 175,000 2,500,000 130,000 135,000 122,500 100,000 1,200 2,000 Breslau , Carlsruhe Cassel Darmstadt , Dresden Erlangen Frankfort-on-the-Main. Freiburg Giessen Gotha GOttingen Greifswald Halle Hamburg Hanover Heidelberg Jena Kiel KOnigsberg Leipsic Mainz (over 4000 incunabula). Marburg Meiningen 1537 1611 1661 1831 1818 1660 (1811 11865 1580 1817 1590 1743 1484 1460 1612 1647 1737 1456 1699 1610 1649 1386 1502 1665 1534 1409 1477 1568 1680 150,000 140,000 800,000 250,000 300,000 125,000 350,000 210,000 140,000 170,000 550,000 350,000 150,000 160,000 300,000 165,000 250,000 425,000 125,000 225,000 350,000 175,000 300,000 190,000 180,000 190,000 550,000 160,000 150,000 165,000 1,500 Few. 1,300 8,000 2,000 1,600 Few. 8,500 6,000 80,000 2,500 1,000 2,500 3,000 16,000 4,000 2,500 3,000 6,500 2,000 6,000 5,000 5,500 4,000 5,000 2,000 4,500 1,200 Name. Founded. 1500 1472 1588 1852 1792 1419 1871 1765 1547 17th cen. 1589 1582 1475 1602 1680 1580 1473 1870 1852 1753 1824 1828 1852 1602 1612 Number of volu Printed. 1,000,000 330,000 125,000 100,000 100,000 150,000 525,000 430,000 240,000 200,000 325,000 300,000 110,000 220,000 200,000 275,000 150,000 130,000 115,000 120,000 1,600,000 ^ 100,000 110,000 160,000 450,000 100,000 M88. Germany (oontlBued) .* Munich " university Miinster Nuremberg ^... Oldenburg Rostock Strasburg Stuttgart (Bible coll. 7200).. . TQbingen Weimar WolfenbUttel Wiirzburg [There are at least 1600 libraries in the German empire, dis tributed among 600 towns.] Great Britain and Ireland : Birmingham (free) [partly burned, 1879.] Cambridge university Dublin (Trinity college) Edinburgh. " university Glasgow university Leeds liiverpool British museum, London Corporation library, London University college, London Manchester Bodleian, Oxford St. Andrews university (Scotland) [Besides these there are 400 libraries, ranging from 1000 t 80,000 vols.] Holland : 26,000 1,H00 4.000 3,500 2,000 10,000 2,000 5,723 3,000 2,000 52,000, and 162,000 charter! 31,000 Amsterdam , The Hague.. Ley den Utrecht Italy : Bologna . . . . Ferrara Florence " National. Genoa Milan " National... Modena Naples Padua. . . Palermo. National. Parma . Pavia . Rome, Vatican [MSS. and rarities ; private li- brary of pope.] Rome Turin " National Venice Verona Vicenza [Many libraries of Italy contain 4th century.] Norway : Christiania Portugal : liisbon Oporto Russia : Dorpat Helsingford Kief 15th cen. 1798 1575 1582 /1712 11801 1753 1752 1714 1773 1609 1770 1598 1673 1804 1812 1629 1775 1804 1779 1772 1742 5th cen. 120,000 210,000 170,000 160,000 170,000 130,000 110,000 140,000 425,000 120,000 170,000 165,000 100,000 160,000 280,000 150,000 160,000 145,000 120,000 225,000 190,000 125,000 225,000 1 1876 370,000 5,000 11700 135,000 2,500 1723 240,000 3,400 1720 180,000 1362 270,000 10,000 1792 125,000 1706 110,000 2,000 valuable MSS. dating from the Few. 4,000 5,000 1,000 6,000 3,800 16,000 1,400 8,100 4,000 3,000 3,000 8,000 3,000 3,000 12,000 4,500 26,000 Moscow. St. Petersburg. Imperial. Public. . . 1796 1833 1801 fl861 \1755 1726 1714 1824 (1711 Spain : Madrid. Sweden : Lund f 1688 Stockholm 1585 Upsala I 1620 Switzerland : • Basel university 1460 Geneva 16th cen Lucerne 1832 Zurich 1629 210,000 100,000 146,000 140,000 115,000 310, 'V, 170,;- 155,'.''^ 1,000," 440, ■ 410,<«.H. 100,'' 120,* 110.( 100.' 105.1 1,200 10,fi .m Arkansas . California. Connecticut District of Columbia. Illinois . Indiana. . . Kentucky. Maryland. Massachusetts . Michigan Minnesota . Mississippi. Missouri... New Hampshire. New Jersey New York Ohio Pennsylvania , [Rhode Island Virginia . LIB 421 LIT UNITED STATES LIBRARIES OF 50,000 VOLUMES AND UPWARDS. Location. Little Rock. .. Sacramento... San Francisco. Hartford. New Haven, Georgetown. Washington Chicago. Indianapolis . Frankfort. . . . Louisville Annapolis Baltimore Woodstock. Amherst. . . Cambridge. . . New Bedford . Springfield. Worcester . Ann Arbor.. Detroit Lansing Minneapolis. Jackson St. Louis . . . Hanover Princeton. . . Albany Binghamton Brooklyn Buffalo , Ithaca New York city. Cincinnati Cleveland Columbus. . . . Harrisburg. . . Philadelphia South Bethlehem Providence Richmond . Madison . . . Milwaukee. Name of Library. State Free Public Mechanics' Institute Mercantile Library Association Sutro Case Memorial Hartford Theological Yale College Riggs Memorial Library of Congress Department of State House of Representatives Scientiflc Library of Patent office Surgeon General, Medical United States Senate Public University of Chicago Newberry Public State Polytechnic Society State Johns Hopkins University Peabody Institute Woodstock College Amherst College Public Harvard University Free Public Essex Institute City Library Association American Antiquarian Society Free Public University of Michigan General Public State Public State Mercantile Library Association Public Dartmouth College Theological Seminary State Central High-school Brooklyn Buffalo Grosvenor Public Cornell University Apprentice Astor Columbia College , Lenox , Mercantile Library Association , Free Circulating New York Historical Society " Society Union Theological Seminary Public Young Men's Mercantile Library Ass'n Public State Philosophical Library Company. Mercantile Library Association . . University of Pennsylvania Lehigh University Providence Athenaeum Rhode Island Historical Society. Brown University State State Historical Society Public 1846 1852 1879 1855 1853 1834 1701 1889 1800 1789 1789 1836 1865 1870 1872 1890 1887 1873 1821 1870 1826 1876 1857 1869 1821 1852 1638 1852 1848 1857 1812 1859 1841 1865 1828 1889 1836 1846 1865 1779 1812 1818 i857 1836 1859 1868 1820 1849 1754 1870 1820 1880 1804 1754 1836 1867 1835 1868 1817 1790 1731 1821 1749 1877 1836 1878 1767 1823 1851 1878 No. of Tolumes. 51,000 85,000 70,000 58,000 62,000 200,000 55,000 55,000 185,000 61,000 660,000 50,000 125.000 50^000 104,500 75,500 175,874 380,000 79,000 50,000 80,000 50,000 100,000 65,000 110,000 75,000 66,000 557,000 292,000 60,000 60,000 80,000 95,000 86,000 78,000 109,000 55,000 50,000 60,000 78,500 80,000 75,000 54,000 157,000 64,241 113,251 67,000 50,000 111,000 90,000 239,000 135,000 65,000 240,000 58,000 75,000 90,000 68,000 157,000 60,000 67,000 64,000 60,000 166,000 166,000 100,000 67,000 52,000 59,000 71,000 50,000 72,000 61.000 No. of pamphlets. 100,000 18,800 210,000 25,293 278,000 8,000 25,000 12,000 40,000 18,000 30,000 10,000 100,000 21,000 20,000 75,000 6.000 Number of libraries in the United States in 1891 were 3804 of 1000 volumes and upwards. Number of bound volumes in these libraries 26,826,537; nunober of panophlets 4,340,817. Average size of libraries 8194 volumes. LIBRARIES OF CANADA. I Quebec. I Toronto. jOttowa! Name of Library. Laval University Legislative Library of Ontario. . Public Library of Parliament When founded. 100,000 70,000 68,000 150,000 I Library A§SOCiation of the United Kingdom, Ifounded at a conference of librarians at the London institu- ;tion, 2 Oct. 1877, meets annually. . Iwibrary Association of the United States, organ- ized 1876, meets annually. I JLibya, in a general sense the ancient name for Africa: in a restricted sense the territory immediately west of Egypt. The Persians under Cambyses, about 525 B.C., unsuccessfully attempted its conquest. Africa. Liicllfleld, Staffordshire, Engl. The see of Mercia (at Lichfield) was founded about 656; removed to Chester, 1075; to Coventry, 1102. In 1121 Robert Peche was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and Coventry. Here Samuel Johnson was born, 1709. Lichfield cathedral was first built about 656; the present structure was founded by Roger de Clinton, the 37th bishop, in 1148. Wal- ter de Langton (bishop in 1296) built the chapel of St. Mary, now taken into the choir, and under bishop Heyworth (1420) the ca- thedral was completed. It was despoiled at the Reformation, and .■ scandalously injured in the Parliamentary war (monuments, fine sculptures, and beautiful windows being demolished). It was re- paired at the Restoration, 1660; in 1788; and by Gilbert G. Scott, 1860-63. In Lichfield castle, king Richard II. kept his Christmas festival, 1397, when 200 tuns of wine and 2000 oxen were consumed. A charter was granted to Lichfield as a city, by Edward VI., 1549. LIO 422 LIF lilclll'iail la-WS. In 375 b.c., C. Licinius Stolo and L. Sextius, tribunes of the people, promulgated various roga- tiones, or laws, to weaken the patricians and benefit the plebs : one relieved plebeians from debts; another enacted that no person should possess more than 500 jugera of public land, or more than 100 head of large cattle or 600 of small, in the Roman states; a third, that one consul should be a plebeian. After much opposition these were carried, and L. Sextius be- came the first plebeian consul, 365. Another Licinian law, 56 B.C., imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, or societies for election purposes; and another, about 103 b.c. (proposed by P. Licinius Crassus), limited table expenses. lile'beiiau, a town of Bohemia. Here, in the first action of the Seven Weeks' war, 26 June, 1866, the Austrians were repulsed by the Prussians under gen. von Horn. Eilcge (le-aizh'), Belgium, a bishopric, under the German empire, from the 8th century till 1795. Liege frequently revolt- ed against its prince-bishops. In a severe contest, the citizens were beaten at Brusthera, 28 Oct. 1467, and Liege taken by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who treated them cruelly. In 1482 Liege fell into the power of De la Marck, the Boar of Ardennes, who killed the bishop, Louis of Bourbon, and was himself defeated and killed. Vivid description of this event in Scott's " Quentin Uurward." Lifege was taken by the duke of Marlborough, 23 Oct. 1702 ; and by the French and others at various times, till in 1796 it was annexed to France, in 1814 to the Netherlands, and in 1830 to Belgium. Iron-works es- tablished at Liege in the 16th century have been greatly en- larged by the Cockerills in the 19th. lieutenants, lords, for counties, were instituted in England, 3 Edw. VI. 1549, and in Ireland in 1831. Their military jurisdiction abolished by Army Regulation act, 1871. life-boat, a boat built very strong and buoyant for the purpose of saving the lives of crews and passengers of vessels wrecked near the shore. Patent granted to Lionel Lukin for a life-boat 1785 Reward, offered by a committee in South Shields for a life- boat, 1788 ; obtained by Henry Greathead, of that town (he received 1200i. from Parliament), 1789 ; it first put to sea, 30 Jan. 1790 Another life-boat was invented by William Wouldhave. His name was inscribed on a memorial erected in honor of Henry Greathead on the pier at South Shields, uncovered. .25 June, 1890 Thirty-one life-boats built, and 300 lives saved up to 1804 Duke of Northumberland offered a reward of 105i. for a life- boat, 1850; obtained by James Beeching of Yarmouth 1851 Tubular life-boat of H. Richardson, the Challenger, patented in Jan. ; a cruise was made by him from Liverpool to Lon- don in it 1852 National Life-boat Institution, founded in 1824; its journal first published in 1852. In 1856 it received a bequest of I0,000i. from Hamilton Fitzgerald, and of 39,000i. from William Birks Rhodes, "the Hounslow miser," in 1878. American life - raft, composed of cylinders lashed together, sailed from New York, 4 June, 1867, navigated by 3 men, capt. John Mikes and messrs. Miller and MuUane, and arrived at Southampton 25 July following. Life-preserver, the apparatus of capt. Manby (brought into use in Feb. 1808), effects a communication with the distressed vessel by a rope, thrown by a shot from a mortar, with a line attached to it. For the night, a night-ball is provided with a hollow case of thick pasteboard, and a fuse and quick match, and charged with 50 balls and a suflaciency of pow- der to inflame them. The fuse is so graduated that the shell shall explode at the height of 300 yards. The balls spread a brilliant light for nearly a minute, and give a clear view of every surrounding object. In 20 years, 58 vessels and 410 of their crews and passengers had been saved. Capt. Manby d. 18 Nov. 1854, aged 89. Boat-lowering apparatus, in consequence of many being lost when boats were lowered from the Amazon in 1852, invented by Charles Clifford of London in 1856, has been much ap- proved of, and has been generally adopted in the English navy. Capt. Kynaston's hooks were approved by adm. sir Baldwin Walker in 1862, and by a committee on the subject in 1872 Exhibition of life-boats, life-rafts, etc., at the London Tavern opened 15 Apr. 1873 Capt. Boyton's life-preserving dress (of india-rubber ), with means for signalling at sea, tried by him on the Thames suc- cessfully, 23 Jan. and 6 Mch. ; at Cowes, before queen Victoria (while in the water he fired rockets, caught fish, etc.), 5 Apr. ; nearly, crossed the Channel from Dover (paddled 2 miles an % hour) ; stopped by the French pilot Apr. 1875 Capt. Boyton crossed the Channel from Grisnez to the South Foreland in 23i^ hours 28-29 May, " Christie's life-saving raft tried on the Thames; could not be sunk 17 Mch. " Edmund Thompson's life-raft, partially successful off Poplar, 22 Apr. " 1 Rev. E. L. Berthon's collapsible life-boat taken out by the Essequibn, and i)roved to bo successful Sept. 11 Storm King patent life-boat, 30 feet long, with its inventor, capt. Joergensen and a man named Nelsen, left London 12 Sept. 1889; encountered heavy gules; arrived at Cape Town, 2 Mch. Duke of Northumberland, a new fast steel steam life-boat, with 15 water-tight compartments, designed by Messrs. R. and H. Green, to be stationed at Harwich, brought into service life-g'Uard, Washington's. A corps, varying at dil ferent times from 60 to 250 men, was formed in the spring 1776. The men, not less than 5 feet 9 inches nor more th 5 feet 10 inches in height, were selected from the Continenti army for moral and personal perfections, to protect the persoi baggage, and papers of the commander-in-chief. The lai survivor, Uzal Knapp, of Orange county, N. Y., died in Jai 1856, and was buried at the foot of the flag-staff in front o Washington's head-quarters at Newburg, on the Hudson. A the dedication of a freestone monument over his remains, 1 June, I860, there was a large civic and military procession, life-insurance. Insurance. life-saving service in the United Statei The first organized efibrt in the U. S. was made by the Mai sachusetts Humane Society in 1789; but its history may said to have begun in 1846-47, when disasters on the Net Jersey coast forced the federal government to consider tht subject. In 1849, 8 stations were equipped between Montaiik point and Coney island, but no great progress was made until the present effective system was adopted, 1871. The servicfli, attached to the U. S. Treasury department, is divided into districts, viz. : 1st district, coasts of Maine and New Hampshire 12 statioi 2d ' ' coast of Massachusetts "23 3d " coasts of Rhode Island and Long island. 39 coast of New Jersey (the most danger- J 4th " \ ous of all), called " the grave-yard { 41 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th of the ( coasts of Delaware, Maryland, and \ Virginia (coasts of S. Virginia and North ( Carolina (coasts of South Carolina, Georgia, \ and E. Florida Gulf coast (Lakes Erie and Ontario, and falls of \ the Ohio at Louisville, Ky Lakes Huron and Superior 15 Lake Michigan 24 Pacific coast 13 Total 243 Owing to the extent of uninhabited coast, the service obliged to erect houses of refuge at different points, provi- sioned, etc., so as to afford shelter and food to the shipwrecked crews frequently for several days. From 1871 to 30 June, 1891, there have been 5783 disasters, endangering property to the value of $96,247,559, of which $71,540,912 was saved. Of 49,530 lives imperilled, but 592 were lost. The cost of the service for the year ending 30 June, 1891, was $940,201. The total number of disasters for the year ending 30 June, 1892, was 507, endangering property to the amount of $8,352,- 335; amount of property saved $7,174,475; number of per- sons on board vessels, 2923 ; lives lost, 27. The cost of the service for the year ending 30 June, 1892, was $1,009,234. The total number of disasters for the year ending 30 June, 1893, was 427 ; value of property involved, $8,098,075 ; prop- erty saved, $6,442,505; number of persons involved, 3566; persons lost, 23; cost of service, $1,231,893. The 'chief ap- pliances employed in saving life are the life-saviug gu'i ■•.:. projectile, the. line-carrying rocket, the oil-distributing rcx .. the breeches-buoy, an apparatus for conveying a person ' line from ship to shore, and the life and surf-boat. I . ' authority of the act of 20 June, 1874, 18 June, 1878, ; 1 1 '•■ May, 1882, life-saving medals of honor have been awr 1 by the secretary of the treasury for rescuing a person n^ drowning. Total number awarded to 30 June, 1892, was [ gold and 209 silver medals. Among the recipients we women, viz. : Name. - Residence. Award. Date. Edith Morgan Hamlin, Mich Silver. . . 9 Nov. Ida I,ew,..W,lBOn.... { ■^tflS^i! R'"i!' } «■>"' '""'^.^ Edith Clarke Oakland, Cal Silver. . .26 May, ' Marie D.Pa,'sons....{^'f3^£«5«^^^^^^^^ " ...7 Feb. LIG 423 LIG St^me. Resideuce. Award. Date. Mary Whiteley Charleston, S. C Silver . .17 Nov. 1888 Mabel Mason {"tStViifrir ! } " -'' ''^'- 1«« Mrs. Edward White.. Copalis, Wash. Bertie 0. Burr Lincoln, Neb. . ...Gold.... 18 Apr. 1892 ... " 14 June, " li^ht. And God said, Let there be light: and there was light (Gen. i. 3). One of the phenomena attendant upon heat, and may be said to be its visible manifestation. It especially affects the eye, as sound does the ear, and together with the eye renders the outward world visible. Two theories have been advanced regarding the propagation of light— the older the corpuscular theory, and the later the undulatory. The advocates of the former were Newton, Laplace, Biot,and others, while more recent scientists support the jindulatory theory ; but neither of these theories explains satisfactorily all the phe- nomena, neither do they attempt to explain what is trans- ferred or moved. The apparently incomparable velocity of light is said to have been computed with more or less accu- racy by 4 distinct methods— (1) Romer's method, 1676; (2) Bradley's, 1728; (3) Fizeau's, 1849; (4) Foucault's, 1850— at i from 186,000 to 187,000 miles a second. Optics, Stars, Sun. light-house, a structure built on the coast or shore of ' navigable waters, and furnished for the purpose of indicating [ a point of danger or to serve as a guide, also called pharos I (hence phare, Fr. ; faro, It.), from one erected at Pharos, near I Alexandria, Egypt, 550 feet high, said to have been visible 42 I miles, about 285 b.c. There was one at Messina, at Rhodes, '. etc. Colossus. These were lighted by fires. A coal-fire I light was exhibited at Tynemouth castle, Northumberland, I about 1638. The tower of Cordonan at the mouth of the Gi- 1 ronde, France, begun 1584. The first true light-house erected i in England was the Eddystone, finished 1859. Lights were ( exhibited in various places in England by the corporation of I the Trinity-house early in the 16th century. BRITISH light-houses. Besides the Eddystone light-house and that at Bell Rock (Inch I cape), the Skerryvore on the west coast of Scotland (1844:), 158 ft, t high, cost 83,126i. The Bishop Rock off Scilly islands (1853), 145 j ft. high, cost 36,559?. Wolf Rock, Land's End (1870), Small's ! Rocks, entrance English channel, Harvis's Rock (1862), Island of i Alderney, and others are important. ( The usual source of light in British light-houses is oil; but in harbor lights gas has been successfully used. Glass reflectors were used in 1780, copper ones in 1807. A common coal Are light was dis- continued at St. Bees only in 1822. Fresnel's dioptric system, devised about 1819, was first adopted in England by messrs. Wil- kins, at the direction of the corporation of the Trinity-house, 1 July, 1836. A magneto-electric machine devised by prof. Holmes, producing a I more brilliant artificial light than any then known, was first I employed at the South Foreland light-house, near Dover, 8 Dec. I 1858; and at Dengeness (or Dungeness) in 1862. It was shown i with a similar one constructed by M. Serin, at the International ! Exhibition, London, 1862. '. H. Wilde's apparatus, producing a powerful magneto-electric light, on trial in northern light-houses, Oct. 1866. 1 Lime-light employed at the South Foreland light-house in 1861. I Gas-light tried successfully at Howth Bailey light-house, Dublin i bay, July, 1869. i Mr. Wigham's triform light; glass belt round the gas-light, prisms j below the belt, and prisms forming a cupola; tried near Dublin; j approved by dr. Tyndall, July, 1873. ' C. William Siemens's magneto-electric light used at the Lizards, 29 Mch. 1878. LIGHT-HOUSES IN THE UNITED STATES. Since 1789 all light-houses on the U. S. coast have been maintained at the expense of the nation (no light-dues being charged upon commerce). The cost for the year ending 30 June, 1879, was $1,708,700, and for the year ending 30 June, 1894, $2,948,000. Many light - houses in the U. S. are unsurpassed, and are of ex- ceedingly difficult construction. The most noted is on Mi- not's Ledge, in Massachusetts bay, first erected in 1847. It was supported on iron piles 12 inches in diameter, firmly braced and tied with wrought- iron bands. It was finished in 1849, but in a terrible storm, Apr. 1851, the iron supports were twisted like straws, and the whole structure was swept away. In 1852 Congress appropriated money to rebuild the light. The design was a granite tower in the shape of the frustum of a cone; the base is 30 ft. in diameter, and the whole height 88 • It. The lower 40 ft. are solid. The difficulty of the work was such that, though every moment when the tide left the rock uncovered was taken advantage of, it was a year before the first layer of stones for the foundation was securely laid. It ■was first lighted in 1860. Cost $300,000. Spectacle Reef light-house, north end of lake Huron, of the same type as Minot's Ledge, built 1871-74, 93 ft. high; cost $375,000. lillamook Rock light-house, 20 miles south of the mouth of the Columbia river, Oregon, 1880-81; cost $123,492. Northwest Seal Kock light-house, California, commenced 1882. Petit Manon, ofi 3d 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th the coast of Maine, 125 ft. above sea level. " Mt. Desert Reck," coast of Maine. Matinicus Rock, coast of Maine, 1827; rebuilt 1846. Halfway Rock, coast of Maine, 1871. Boon island, coast of Maine, 1812. Cape Ann, on Thatheus island, 1790 ; rebuilt 1861. Boston Lights, on Little Brewster island, Boston harbor, the first on the coast; built 1715-16, rebuilt 1859; its first light- keeper, George Worthylake, was drowned with his wife and daughter, 3 Nov. 1718; Benjamin Franklin, then a boy, sold a ballad on the occasion in the streets of Boston. Fourteen Foot Bank light-house, Delaware bay, 1887; cost $123,811. First coast-light in the U. S 1673 First light-house built on Little Brewster island, Boston harbor, 1715-16 U. S. accepted cession of all light-houses 7 Aug. 1789 Control vested in commissioner of the revenue 8 May, 1792 Restored to secretary of treasury 6 Apr. 1802 Vested again in the commissioner 24 July, 1813 Vested in the 5th auditor of the treasury i July, 1820 Messrs. Blunt of New York brought charges against light- house management 30 Nov. 1837 Naval commission on light-houses appointed " Congressional investigation of light-house management result- ing in improvements 1838-43 Navy commission sent to inspect European systems 1845 Fresnel system authorized 3 Mch. 1851 First Light-house Board appointed 21 May, " Fresnel system generally introduced 1852 Permanent Light-house Board authorized 31 Aug. " Board organized 8 Oct. " The U. S. maintains lights upon 9959 nautical miles of coast and river navigation, divided into 16 districts, as follows : 1st district, Maine, New Hampshire, coasts, bays, inlets, and rivers. 2d " from Hampton Harbor, N. H., to Warren "Pt., R. I. Long Island, Atlantic, and sound coasts, with New Jersey above the Highlands. Also lakes Champlain and Mem- phremagog, with bays and rivers. {New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland coasts, bays, and rivers. ( Virginia coast, including the Chesapeake bay. North ( Carolina coast and sounds. I South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida coasts to Jupiter's ( Inlet, Fla., with bays and rivers. Florida coast, from Jupiter's Inlet to Perdido bay, Fla. {Gulf coast from Perdido bay to the Rio Grande, with lakes, rivers, and bays below New Orleans. ( Lake Michigan, Green bay, strait of Mackinack, and trib- [ utary waters. ( U. S. shore and waters of lakes Erie and Ontario, with J the rivers Niagara, St. Lawrence, and the lower part ( of the Detroit river. Upper Detroit river to the head of lake Superior. 800 miles Pacific coast, California. {Coast of Oregon and Washington, with Puget sound, Co- lumbia river, and Alaskan waters. The Ohio river from Pittsburg to the Mississippi, the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Great Kanawha, in all 1295 miles. {The Mississippi from the head of navigation to Cairo, 111., with all navigable tributaries, in all 1582 miles. {The Mississippi, from Cairo, to New Orleans, with navi- gable tributaries, in all 1009 miles. The following aids to navigation, operated by the Light -house Board, were in use 1 July, 1893: Electric lights 4 First-order lights 56 Second-order lights 20 Third-order lights 52 Fourth-order lights 265 Fifth-order lights 148 Sixth order lights 116 Lens lanterns 124 Range lenses 16 Reflectors 45 Tubular lanterns 1845 Light-ships 33 Electric buoys 20 Gas buoys 2 Total lighted aids 2746 Fog-signals by steam or hot air 114 ' ' clockwork 189 Day beacons 419 Whistling buoys 64 Bell-buoys 90 Other buoys 4315 Total unlighted aids 5191 Total number of aids 7937 lig^hting^ cities. Electricity. London first lighted at night by lanterns • 1415 Glass lamps in streets 1694-1736 City generally lighted by gas 1814 Paris first lighted by gas '• • • 1819 New York generally lighted by gas 1825 Philadelphia generally lighted by gas " lightning-conductors were first used to protect buildings by Franklin soon after 1752, when he drew electricity from a cloud. Prof. Kichman of St. Petersburg was killed while LIQ 424 repeating the experiment, Aug. 1763. First conductor in Eng- land set up at Payne's Hill, by dr. Watson. In 17(56 one was placed on the tower of St. Mark's, at Venice, which has since escaped injury, although often struck by lightning previously. Liig^ny (fcen-yee'), a town near Fleurus, Belgium, where Kapoleon defeated the Prussians under Blucher, 16 June, 1815. Watkrloo. Iji^ll'rlail§, a Celtic tribe, N. Italy, invaded Roman territory, and were defeated 238 B.C., and subjugated 172 B.C. The Ligurian republic, founded in May, 1797, upon the ruins of the republic at Genoa, was incorporated with France in 1805, and then merged into the kingdom of Italy. lllBC-tree {Syringa). The Persian lilac from Persia was cultivated in England about 1638 ; the common lilac by John Gerard about 1597. liille. Lisle. Lilybae'llIIl, a maritime fortress of Sicily, besieged by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 276 b.c.; relieved by the Carthagin- ians, 275 B.C. Its capture by the Romans, 241 b.c., after a siege of 9 years, ended the second Punic war. Lima ilee'ma), Peru, South America. In 1534, Pizarro, marching through Peru, observing the beauty of the valley of Rimac, founded this city, calling it Ciudad de los Reyes, or city of the kings, 1535. Here he was assassinated, 26 June, 1541. Awful earthquakes occurred here, 1586, 1630, 1687, and 28 Oct. 1746. Peru. lime or linden tree (the American basswood), prob- ably introduced into England in the 16th century. The limes in St. James's park, London, are said to have been planted at the suggestion of Evelyn, who recommended multiplying odo- riferous trees, in his " Fumifugium " ( 1661 ). A lime - tree planted in Switzerland in 1410 had in 1720 a trunk 36 feet in circumference. Flowers and Plants. lime-light, produced by burning hydrogen or carbu- retted hydrogen with oxygen on a surface of lime, evolving little heat and not vitiating the air. It is also called Drura- mond light, after lieut. Thomas Drummond, who successfully produced it in 1826, and employed it on the British Ordnance survey. It is said to have been seen 112 miles. It was tried at the South Foreland light-house in 1861. Lieut. Drummond was born 1797, died 15 Apr. 1840. To him is attributed the maxim that "property has its duties as well as its rights." limitation§, Statute of, in the United States. The fol- lowing are the periods fixed by statute in the several states, after which, in all ordinary cases, the lapse of time, when pleaded against a claim, raises a conclusive presumption of payment : periods of limitation. Judgments. Notes and Contracts. Open Accounts. state. 1 Time. state. 1 Time. State. 1 Time. Ala 1 Fla Ky J 15 years. Wyo Col ^ .8 years. Ill 111 Conn la Ind Ind Me la 1 10 years. Me Mass Mo Mass N. H } 20 years. W. Va . . . Mich N.J Mont : .8 years. Minn .... N.Y Ala N. H N. Dak. . . . Col N. J R. I Conn N. Y ■6 years. Wis Del N. Dak. . . Conn .17 years. Ga Ky .15 years. Me Ore D. C ) Md ] Mass .... Pa Mich .... R. I Ark ■ Minn.... S.C Del Miss S. Dak... Ind Nev Tenn La N. H Vt Mich N. J j- years. AVis Minn N. Mex . . Ill ' Mo N. Y la Mont N.C ■ 10 years. N. Dak . . Or Ky Mo y 5 years. Or Pa Mont .... S. C R. I AV. Va. . . . S. Dak.... S. C Ga Tenn S. Dak... Id Tex Tenn .... Neb ^4 years. Va Vt Nev W. Va . . . . Wash.... N. Mex. . . Vt .8 years. Wis J Ala .3 years. LIN PERIODS OF LIMITATION. — (Cmlinued.) Judgment*. Time. Notes and Contracts. 8Ute. I Time. 6 years. Ga \ Mi.ss I 7 years. N. Mex . . . ) Col.. . Id ... . Nev . . AVash. Ariz.. Cal . . . Kan.. a.''::::;:: \^y^^^^- v&.'... U. T . . Wyo.. Ark. . Ariz. Fla.. Id. .. Kan. La.-. . Neb. Va. . . Wyo. Cal . . 'I'ex . U. T . D. C. Md.. N.C. 5 years. 4 years. 3 years. Open Account*. State. Time. Ark. Ariz Del. D.C Md Miss — N. C. . . , AVash... Cal Fla Tex U. T . . . Va > 2 years. Liineoln, the Roman Lindum Colonia, a city and coinitj of England, at the Conquest was rich and populous. It wa taken several times by Saxons and Danes. The castle wa built by William I. in 1086. Without Newport gate upoJ Lincoln plain the partisans of the empress Maud, under th< earl of Gloucester, defeated and captured king Stephen, 2 Feb 1141. Discontented barons in the last year of king John iu' vited Louis, dauphin of France, and acknowledged him as kiiij of England here; but the nobility, summoned by the earl ol Pembroke to Gloucester to crown Henry III,, marched againsi them, and defeated them in a sanguinary fight (called th( Fair of Lincoln), 20 May, 1217 ; and Louis withdrew. Lincoln, Abraham, administration of. Unitei States, 1861-65. Lincoln, Bishopric of. Sidnacester, or Lindisse anc Dorchester, distinct sees in Mercia, were united about 1078^ and the see was removed to Lincoln by bishop Remigius d© Feschamp, who built a cathedral (1086), afterwards destroyed by fire, but rebuilt b}' bishop Alexander (1127) and bishojy Hugh of Burgundy. The great bell of the cathedral, called Great Tom of Lincoln, weighs 4 tons, 8 pounds. Lincoln tower, Westminster Bridge road, Engl., was erected by the united subscriptions of Britons and Ameri- cans, as a memorial of the abolition of slaverj', and of Abra- ham Lincoln, president. The foundation was laid by gen» Schenck, then American minister, 9 July, 1874 ; and the head-stone was placed by Newman Hall, minister of Surrej chapel, 28 Sept. 1875. The tower, 220 feet high, cost aboul 7000^. The church, named Christ church (to replace Surrej chapel), and schools adjoining (costing about 60,000/.), wer< dedicated 4 July et seq. 1876. The rev. Rowland Hill's bodj was removed hither from Surrey chapel, 14 Apr. 1881. LincOln'§ inn, London, derives its name from Henrj de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, who built a mansion here in th< reign of Edward L, on the site of the bishop of Chichester'j palace. It became an inn of court, 1310. The gardens oi^ Lincoln's-inn fields, laid out by Inigo Jones about 1620, were erroneously said to occupy the same space as the largest pyra- mid of Egypt, which is 764 feet square ; Lincoln's-inn square being 821 ft. by 625 ft. 6 in. William, lord Russell, was be- headed in Lincoln's-inn fields, 21 July, 1683. The square (formed in 1618) was enclosed with iron railings about 1737. The new hall and other buildings were opened 30 Oct. 1845^ and the square planted. The theatre in Lincoln's-inn fields was built in 1695 ; rebuilt in 1714 ; made a barrack in 1756,. and pulled down in 1848. L Strabo '.... Dionysius of Halicarnassus Plutarch 14* 382 — 322 389 — 314 342 — 292 382 — 287 272 342 — 270 287 — 212 207 — 122 50.-A.D. 13 54- " 10 " 30 49 — 120 (History of the war between Peloponnesus \ and Athens. Anabasis. fGorgias, [ Phoedon, etc. Orations — Areopagiticus, and many others. Ph i losoph i c — Organon. Orations /Philippics, uFduoub ^Concerning the Crown, etc. Orations. Dramas, tragedy Dramas, tragedy Orestes, Medea, Iphigenia at Aulis, etc. Electra, CEdipus, Antigone, Philoctetes, etc. Philosophic. Philosophic. Philosophic and scientific. General history — Second Punic War. History. Geography. HistoKy and criticism. Biography— Parallel Lives. Comedy. Idyls. LIT LIT GRECIAN LITERATURE AND AUTHORS (ANCIENT).— (Conrtnttcd.) Authon. Principal Worlt.. "J Name. Time. ProM. Poetry. | b. d. A.D. 118 147 148 194 190(?) " 120 — 200 240 273 " 331 — 363 Stoic philosophy. History. History. Feast of the Learned, a fragment. On hunting, on fishing. ^^H 1 Annian ArriaD AthensBus Oppjan LuciaD History. Criticisms, etc. Satires, letters, etc. Herodian Fathers of thb church, Philosophy. 1 LATIN LITERATURE AND AUTHORS (ANCIENT), | Authon. Principal Works. 'H Name. Time. Proee. Poetry. ^| b. d. B.C. 254 — 184 '' 239 — 169 " 193 — 159 " 232 — 147 " 149 — 103 " 96 — 52 " 100 — 44 " 107 — 43 " 82—40 " 86—34 :: " 51 _ 16 " 70 — 19 18 " 65—8 A.D. 17 " 59 — IT " 43 — 18 " 19 — 31 " 5—65 A.D. 34 — 62 " 38 — 65 " 23 — 79 " 42 - 118 " 88 " 61 — 115 " 61 — 96 " 55 — 117(?) " 25 — 100 " 40 — 104 " 72 — 140(?) " 40 — 120(?) " 100 — 169(?) " 110 — 174(?) 390 " 365 — 408 «' 415 " 470 — 525 Dramas, comedy. fl Satires, etc. ■ Dramas, comedy. fl Satires, etc. fl Philosophic. fl Lyric poems. m Elegiac poetry. m- Georgics, ^neid. », Elegiac verse. m , Odes, epodes, satires, epistlea a ' Metamorphoses, Art of Love, etc. 91 Satires. fll Pharsalia. ^^^^^bI Argon autics. IHi Thebaid. SI Poems. ^^■1 Epigrammatic poet J^ll Satire. jHI Poems. ^ll On agriculture— Orations, etc. Lucilius Commentaries. (Orations, \Concerning Old Age, and other essays. Cicero Saiiust .. Conspiracy of Catiline, Jugurthan War. Lives of eminent men. On architecture. Vitruvius Tibullus Horace Celsus Medical works. History of Rome. Livy Ovid Paterculus History. Moralistic essays. Seneca Persius . Pliny the Elder Natural history. Rhetorics and critics. Quintilian Pliny the Younger Letters. Annals of Rome, etc. i^ilins Tt9.1io.ns Martial Suetonius Lives of the Twelve Caesars. Aulus Gellius Attic Nights. History. Apuleius Amraianus Marcellinus General topics. Philosophic. Fathers of the church. ENGLISH LITERATURE AND AUTHORS. Unknown . Caedmon Aldhelm •. . Bede, Venerable Alcuin Cynewulf John Scotus, called (from hisl native land, Ireland) Erigena. j Alfred the Great Phegemund, archbishop of Can) terbury, commenced them. . . ) Alfric, archbishop of Canterbury. William of Malmesbury Henry of Huntingdon Geoffrey of Monmouth Alfred of Rievaux.. Richard Wace Walter Mapes of Oxford Layamon Orm Unknown . Roger Bacon . . Matthew Paris. Unknown . 7th century, 656-709 672-735 735-804 780 d. 877 849-901 d. 1006 1095-1142 d. ab't 1154 d. 1154 1109-66 1112-84 1150-96 ll.'>0-1210 1187-1237 1214-94 d. 1273 Principal works. Church Hist, of Engl, in Latin. Various prose works. (Philosophic works (worthy of at- [ tention now). Philosophy. Translations for the people. Saxon Chronicles Homilies, Latin grammar. Hist, of Kings of Engl. (449-1120) (Hist, of Kings of Engl. (55 B.C.- \ 1154 A.D.). • Legendary Hist, of British Kings (Account of the feattle of the ) Standard, 1138. Arthur's Legends. (Ancren Riwle (the Rule of Fe- ( male Anchorites, i. e.,nMns).. Opus Majus (Philosophy) Historia .Major. jHavelok the Dane, the (Jest of ? King Horn, Bevis of Hamp- ( ton, and Guy of Warwick .... Poetry and dramas. Song of the Traveller The Fight at Fumesburg Beowulf Paraphrase of the Scriptures, Translates Psalms into verse. Two short poems. (Brut of d'Angleterre and Ro- ( mance of Rollo. Brut or Chronicles of Britain Ormulum, paraphrase of Scripture First appeared or published. (From the 5tb to the 8tb [ century. 7th century. 8th century. 731 fFrom 55 B.C. \ continued ( until 1154 AJX 1205 1215 1220 1267 1280 i LIT 427 ENGLISH LITERATURE AND AUTHORS— (Conttnwed.) LIT Unknown. Michael of Kildare(?).. Robert of Gloucester. . . Robert Manning Duns Scotus Richard Rolle Lawrence Minot Sir John de Mandeville. William Langlande John Barbour JohnWycliffe Geoffrey Chaucer "... The Morning Star of song who made His music heard below ; Dan Chaucer, the first warbler, whose sweet breath Preluded those melodious bursts, that fill The spacious times of ffreat Elizabeth With sounds that echo still." — Tennyson. John Gower, John Lydgate James I. of Scotland Sir Thomas Malory Blind Harry, or "The Minstrel ' Sir John Fortescue William Caxton The Pastons Stephen Hawes... Robert Henrysou . Unknown William Dunbar., Gawyn Douglas. John Skelton . i Unknown Sir Thomas More,. William Tyndale. . . Sir David Lindsay. Nicholas Udall Hugh Latimer Sir Thomas Wyatt I Roger Ascham , ■ Henry Howard, earl of Surrey. 1 Miles Coverdale i John Foxe ; John Jewel I Ralph Holinshed i John Still, bishop of Bath 1 William Byrd i Lord Berners I Thomas Wilson j Sir Walter Raleigh ' Thomas Sackville ! Edmund Spenser. . i Sir Philip Sidney. i Richard Hooker. . . j John Lyly ! Thomas Lodge Francis Bacon Samuel Dan 'el. . . Michael Drayton. I Sir John Davies. George Peele Robert Greene Christopher Marlowe. William Shakespeare. Thomas Nash George Chapman Thomas Middleton... 1255-1307 1273-1340 1265-1308 d. 1349 I306I7I 1332-1400 1316-96 1324-84 1328-1400 1325-1408 1374-1460 1394-1437 1395-1483 1412-92 1483-1512 d. 1500 1460^1515 1474-1522 1460-1529 1450-75 1480-1535 1484-1536 1491-1555 1503-42 1515-68 1516-47 1517-87 1522-71 d. 1580 1543-1607 1543-1623 'd.'i581 1552-1618 1552-99 1554-86 1553-1600 1554-1606 1556-1625 1561-1626 1563-1631 1570-1626 1552-98 1560-92 1564-93 ' 1564-1616 1567-1600 1557-1634 1570-1627 Principal works. Martyrdom of Thomas k Becket. Philosophic works. Travels Translation of the Bible. History of King Arthur. On Monarchy. Game and Play of Chesse. Fasten Letters, correspondence. Utopia, Life of Edward V. Translation of the Bible. . . Sermons. Toxophilus, The Schoolmaster. Translation of the Bible. Book of Martyrs. Apology. Chronicles Translates Chronicles of Froissart Rhetoric and Logic , History of the World Arcadia Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity. Euphues (Novum Organum (Philosophy). Poetry and dramas. (Willie Grice, The Owl and the) [ Nightingale j "Summer is y comen in " Land of Cockayne (Kitchen). Rhyming Chronicle of England. . . Metrical Chronicles of England. . . Pricke of Conscience. War Poems of Edward III.'s time Piers the Plowman Bruce f Canterbury Tales (25) Romaunt of the Rose I The Flower and the Leaf J Court of Love. w>. Cuckoo and the Nightingale. . Legend of Good Women. Troilus and Creseide. Assembly of Fowles, etc. r Speculum Meditantis. I Vox Clamantis. ( Confessio Amantis Fall of Princes, from Boccaccio. The King's Quair. William Wallace.. ( Temple of Glass ( Pastime of Pleasure. ( Testament of Faire Creside. ( Robin and Makyne. The Nut Brown Maid Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins. ( Palace of Honor ' ^neid, first translated into Eng-) ( lish verse j ( Booke of Colin Clout. ( Why Come Ye not to Court, f Sir Patrick Spens, Battle of Otterburne, Chevy Cliase, [ Death of Douglas, etc. Ballads - I The Dream , ( The Complaint ( Ralph Royster Doyster, earliest) ( comedy in English j SonnetsandJyrics.flrst in England Sonnets and lyrics. Gammer Gurton's Needle. My Mind to Me a Kingdom is. f Gorboduc, first English tragedy. (Mirror for Magistrates. ( Faerie Queene ( The Shepard Calendar Astrophel and Stella, sonnets. Rosalind, Euphues' Golden Legacy (Sonnets 1 Complaint of Rosamond jPolyolbion, The Baron's Wars ( Court of Fairy, etc. Nosce Teipsum I Arraignment of Paris ^Love of King David and Fair ( Bethsabe. jLooking-Glass for London and ( England. /Tamburlaine, Faustus, Jew of 1 Malta, Edward TI. (Thirty seven plays, etc. Shake ( SPEARE AND HIS PLAYS. (Summer's Last Will and Testa- I ment. (Ovid's Banquet of Sense (Translation of Homer. The Witch and other plays. First appeared published. 1280 13th century. 1297 1303 1352 1356 1362-78-80 1375-77 1384-98 [ Authorship I doubtful. 1483. Caxtons, 1470 1470 ri474. First English [ printed book. 1422-1505 1500 1501 1513 1525-30 1528 1536 1551 1557 1544-70 1557 1520-30 1563 1578 1553 1614 1562 1590-96 1579 1594-1600 1579-80 1590 1597-1624 1620 1592 1594 1599 1584 1595 LIT LIT ENGLISH LITERATURE AND AUTHORS.— (Conasl Tournament, Guinevere, The Passing of Arthur. Queen Mary (drama) 1875 Harold (drama) 1877 Becket( drama) . 1884 Demeter, and other poems, etc. . . 1890 1845 Alexander William Kinglake 1 William Makepeace Thackeray. . . Martin Farquhar Tupper fEOthen 1844 1863-87 1846-4S The History of Pendennis 1850 The History of Henry Esmond, Esq. The English Humorists 1852 1851 1 The Newcomes . 1855 1848 1858 1860 The Adventures of Philip 1862 Denis Duval etc 1864 Ballads. Proverbial Philosophy 1839-44 <3harles Dickens f Sketches by Boz 1835 Pickwick 1837 Oliver Twist 1838 Nicholas Nickleby 1839 1840 u 1842 1843 1844 - The Chimes (i 1 Robert Browning 1845 Dombey and Son 1848 David Copperfieldd 1850 Bleak House 1853 Little Dorrit 1857 A Tale of Two Cities 1859 The Uncommercial Traveller 1860 Great Expectations 1861 Our Mutual Friend 1865 The Mystery of Edwin Drood 1870 f Paracelsus . . 1835 1841 1842 Return of the Druses 1843 ^^ur Helps A Blot in the 'Scutcheon Bells and Pomegranates .... 1846 The Ring and the Book .... 1868-6^ Fifinp ptc 1872 1847 1868 " Columbus 1869 ^H^Reade " Pizarro " Cortez 1871 f Peg WofHngton 1852 It is Never Too Late to Mend 1856 White Lies 1857 The Cloister and the Hearth Very Hard Cash 1861 1863 LIT 434 ENGLISH LITERATURE AND AUTHORS.— (Continued.) LIT 1 Name. Principal worki. ProM. Poetry and drama*. published. Cbarlos Reade George Rawliuson. Anthony Trollope. Samuel Smiles. George Henry Lewes. . . James Anthony Froude Charles Kingsley. 1814-84 1816- 1815-82 181(i- 1817-78 1818-94 1819-75 JohaRuskin. 1819- Harbert Spencer. George Eliot (Marian Evans) Lewes) j John Tyndall Henry Thomas Buckle Matthew Arnold — poet, critic essayist Frederick Max Muller. , Edward A. Freeman , Thomas Hughes Wm. Wilkie Collins Charlotte BrontS (Currer Bell). Emily Bronte (Ellis Bell). Anna BrontC (Acton Bel!) George Macdonald.. 1820-93 1821-62 1822-88 1823-92 1824-89 1816-55 1818-48 1820-49 1824- ( Griffith Gaunt Put Yourself in His Place A Terrible Temptation, etc Five Great Monarchies, etc ' The Warden Barchester Towers The Bertrams Castle Richmond Orley Farm The Small House at Allington. . . Can You Forgive Her? The Claverings Phineas Finn He Knew He Was Right The American Senator, and) many others ) ["Life of George Stephenson ■[Self- Help, etc ; History of Philosophy Problems of Life and Mind History of England from the Fall 1 of Wolsey to the Armada j Caesar, a Sketch Thomas Carlyle, etc Alton Locke Yeast Hypatia Westward Ho ! 1 Two Years Ago Hereward the Wake At Last. Sermons, etc. Modern Painters Stones of Venice King of the Golden River. Unto this Last Ethics of the Dust Sesame and Lilies Crown of Wild Olives Queen of the Air Munera Pulveris Fiction Fair and Foul, etc. A System of Philosophy. Programme issued First Principles Principles of Biology " Psychology . " Sociology.... Morality..,. Andromeda, and other poems. 18()() 1870 1871 18()2-67 1855 1857 1859 1860 1861 1864 1866 1867 1877 1857 1859 1845-67 1874-78 1856-70 1879 1882-84 1855 1857 1858 1866 1843-60 1850-63 1851 . Essays, etc. I Adam Bede Mill on the Floss. Silas Marner Romola Felix Holt Middlemarch Daniel Deronda Impressions of Theophrastus Such fHeat a Mode of Motion, and other t scientific papers. History of Civilization in England, Spanish Gypsy. . Legend of Jubal, Essays in Criticism Culture and Anarchy Literature and Dogma God and the Bible, etc Essays on Comparative Mythology Science of Language j Chips from a German Workshop.. I Sacred Books of the East f History of the Norman Conquest. J Ottoman Power in Europe ] Reign of William Rufus i Historical Geog. of Europe, etc... (Tom Brown's School Days < Tom Brown at Oxford ( Essays, etc. f Queen of Hearts Woman in White -{ No Name The Moonstone I The New Magdalen, etc (Jane Eyre Shirley Villette Professor (the first written) Wuthering Heights Tenant of Wildfell Hall f Phantastes I David Elginbrod J Alec Forbes of How Glen I Annals of a Quiet Neighborhood. . Robert Falconer , Wilflred Cumbermede Alaric at Rome Empedocles on Etna 1865 1866 1872 1881 1862 1863 1870-72 1877 1879 1859 1860 1861 1863 1866 1868 1872 1874 1876 1880 1857-61 1840 1863 1865 1869 1873 1876 1858 1861-64 1868-75 1875-85 1867-79 1877 1882 1881 1857 1861 1868 1873 1847 1849 1853 1855 1847 1848 1871 M LIT 435 ENGLISH LITERATURE AND AJJTRORS.— {Continued.) LIT Authors. Name. George Macdonald Thomas Heury Huxley Richard D. Blackmore Dinah Maria Mulock (Mrs. Craik) Dante Gabriel Rossetti Samuel R. Gardiner I [Justin llcCarthy Principal works. Poetry and dramai. First appeared or published. 1824- 1825- 1825- 1826-87 1828-82 1829- Jean Ingelow. Edward Robert, lord Lytton) (Owen Meredith) / Edmund H. Yates Edwin Arnold lohn Robert Seeley iVilliam Morris. Philip G. Hamerton. lieorge du Maurier. . ohn Richard Green 1831-91 1831-94 1832- 1834- 1834- 1834-94 1834- 1837-83 /harles Algernon Swinburne. 'ames Bryce , •T'alter Besant. iohu Morley. lUiam E. H. Lecky. 1838- 1838- lomas Hardy illiam Black. 1841- Sir Gibbie, etc Man's Place in Nature Protoplasm the Basis of Life . Lay Sermons, etc Lorna Doone A Maid of Sker Alice Lorraine Springhaven, etc John Halifax, Gentleman A Life for a Life A Noble Life, etc. The Thirty Years' War History of England from James) I. to the Civil War, etc j My Enemy's Daughter A Fair Saxon Dear Lady Disdain A History of Our Own Time, etc... Off the Skelligs. . Fated to be Free Biography of his father, Bulwer Lytton Running the Gauntlet , Kissing the Rod Black Sheep, etc EcceHomo Life and Times of Stein. Natural Religion (Trilby History of the English People. The Making of England, etc. . . Etchings and Etchers.. Intellectual Life, etc... Peter Ibbetson The Early Italian Poets The Blessed Damozel, The White Ship, The King's Tragedy, Rose Mary, Troy Town, Sister Helen. The House of Life 1879 1863 1869 1870 1866 1872 1876 1887 1856 1860 1861 1870-81 1874 (High Tide on the Coast of Lincoln < shire, Divided, Songs of Seven ( Songsof the Night Watches. Story of Doom, and other poems., Winstanley, etc. Lucile Glenaveril. Light of Asia. Potiphar's Wife, and other poems. Life and Death of Jason Earthly Paradise Story of Sigurd the Volsung) and the Fall of the Nibelung.. ) William Blake The American Commonwealth. . . Ready Money Mortiboy (with) Jas. Rice) j My Little Girl The Golden Butterfly, etc ■{ All Sorts and Conditions of Men. . Dorothy Foster The World Went Very Well Then. Fifty Years Ago For Faith and Freedom, etc 'Critical Miscellanies Voltaire Rousseau , Burke Cobden ^ Edits English Men of Letters. ' History of the Rise and Influence ) of Rationalism in Europe ) History of European Morals from ) ^ Augustus to Charlemagne ) History of England in the 18th ) [ Century | f Under the Greenwood Tree iA Pair of Blue Eyes Far from the Madding Crowd The Return of the Native The Mayor of Casterbridge Tess of the D'Urbervilles, etc f In Silk Attire iA Daughter of Heth Strange Adventures of a Phaeton. A Princess of Thule That Beautiful Wretch Atalanta in Calydon Laus Veneris, and other poems ) and ballads ) Bothwell, a Tragedy Song of the Spring-tide Mary Stuart I Tristram at Lyoness, and other) [ poems j Marino Faliero Locrine 1873 1875 1872 1879 1865 1866 1867 1892 1866 1879 1882 1867 1868-70 1878 1868 1873 1892 1894 187.'5-80 1881 1865 1867 1874 1880 1881 1882 1885 1871 1873 1876 1882 1884 1887 1871 (C 1873 1879 1881 1875 1872 1873 1874 1878 1886 1892 1869 1871 1872 1873 1881 LIT 436 ENGLISH LITERATURE AND AUTHORS.— (Con«nued.) LIT 1 William Black. Robert William Buchanan. Robert Louis Balfour Stevenson. Henry Rider Haggard. Rudyard Kipling , 1841- 1841- 1860- 1856- 1865- Principal worki. The Strange Adventures of a) House-boat / In Far Lochaber, etc Alone in London The Heir of Linne The New Arabian Nights The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll | and Mr. Hyde J Kidnapped The Merry Men The Black Arrow Master of Ballantrae, etc Dawn The Witch's Head King Solomon's Mines She ^Maiwa's Revenge, etc Plain Tales from the Hills Soldiers Three Story of Gadsby The Phantom Rickshaw, and) Other Eerie Tales, etc Po«try and dramw. London Poems , Balder the Beautiful Ballads of Life, Love, and Humor. Ballads and Barrack-room Ballads First ap publ: 1866 1877 1882 1885 1887 1882 1886 1887 1888 1889 1884 1885 1887 1888 1889 a 1892 ENGLISH (AMERICAN) LITERATURE AND AUTHORS. Jonathan Edwards Benj'imin Franklin Thomas Hutchinson Francis Hopkinson Hugh Henry Brackenridge John Trumbull PhillisVVheatley(negress),b. Africa, Joel Barlow Noah Webster. ... Susanna Rowson (b. Portsmouth,) Engl. ; d. Boston, Mass. ) j Alexander Wilson (b. Scotland ;\ d. Phila.) ( Joseph Hopkinson Charles Brockden Brown Robert Treat Paine Clement Clarke Moore, LL.D James Kirke Paulding Francis Scott Key Washington Allston John James Audubon Thomas Hart Benton Washington Irving (GeoflVey) Crayon) / 1703-58 1706-90 1711-80 1738-91 1748-1816 1750-1831 1753 (?)-94 1755-1812 1758-1843 1762-1824 1766-1813 1770-1842 1771-1810 1773-1811 1779-1863 1779-1860 1779-1843 1779-1843 1780-1851 1782-1858 1783-1859 Principal works. Prone. ( Freedom of the Will I Original Sin ( Sermons, etc. ( Poor Richard's Almanac I Autobiography, essays, scientific { papers, etc. I History of the Province of Mas- \ I sachusetts ( -| Modem Chivalry; or. The Ad-> ( ventures of Capt. Farrago, etc. / ( American Spelling Book J Dictionary of Engl. Language,) ] 1st ed / [ Same, 2d ed. , etc Charlotte Temple, etc ( American Ornithology J (Continued and finished by ) ( Charles Lucien Bonaparte) . j Wieland . Arthur Mervyn. Edgar Huntley. Clara Howard. . Jane Talbot Salmagundi The New Pilgrim's Progress. . The Dutchman's Fireside Westward Ho ! Life of Washington The Old Continentals, etc J Monaldi ( Lectures on Art, and Poems (The Birds of America (87 parts, \ ] 448plates) j" ( The Quadrupeds of North America. Thirty Years' View Knickerbocker's Hist. New York. Sketch Book Bracebridge Hall Tales of a Traveller Life of Columbus Conquest of Granada Alhambra Tour on the Prairie Astoria '. Adventures of Capt. Bonneville.. Mahomet and His Successors Oliver Goldsmith Poetry and dramas. Battle of the Kegs Rising Glory of America. McFingal Poems. ( The Vision of Columbus. { Hasty Pudding. ( The Columbiad Hail, Columbia ! . The Invention of Letters. The Ruling Passion. Adams and Liberty The Steeds of Apollo The Visit of St. Nicholas. The Backwoodsman Star-spangled Banner . Sylphs of the Season First appeared published 1754 1757 1764-67 1778 1774 1796 1775-82 1787 1807 ^ 1783 1840 Eng. 179 ) (?) 1808-16 1825-33 1799 1800 1801 1804 1795 1798 1809 1807 1828 1831 1832 1835 1846 1818 1814 1813 1841 1850 1828 1856 1809 1819 1822 1824 1828 1829 1832 1837 1849-50 1849 LIT 437 LIT ENGLISH (AMERICAN) LITERATURE AND AUTEORS.— (Continued.) Principal works. Prose. Poetry and dramas. First appeared or published. Washington Irving (Geoffrey 1 Cra3-on) j Joseph Emerson Worcester. Samuel Woodworth. John Pierpont Richard Henry Dana. . James Fenimore Cooper.. Catharine Maria Sedgwick. James A. Hillhouse Fitz-Greene Halleck Lydia Huntley Sigourney. Charles Sprague George Ticknor John Howard Payne. Samuel Griswold Goodrich (Peter) Parley) j I Henry Charles Carey. William CuUen Bryant. i Joseph Rodman Drake, i James Gates Percival. . I John P. Kennedy (John Gorham Palfrey. William H. Prescott... Theophilus Parsons. Thomas C. Haliburton. George Bancroft George P. Morris.. Horace Bushnell. Ralph Waldo Emerson. 1783-1859 1784-1865 1785-1842 1785-1866 1787-1879 1789-1851 1789-1841 1790-1867 1791-1865 1791-1875 1791-1871 1792-1852 1793-1863 1793-1879 1794-1878 1795-1820 1795-1856 1795-1870 1796-1881 1796-1859 1797-1882 1797-1865 1800-91 1802-64 1802-76 1803-82 I Wolfert's Roost 1. Life of Washington Dictionary of the Engl. Language. The Champions of Freedom Edits the Parthenon /The Idle Man The Spy. . !!...;.!.!..!.!!.!!!!. The Pioneers, The Pilot Last of the Mohicans, The Prairie The Pathfinder j The Deerslayer I Red Rover, Water Witch, Two Ad- [ mirals, Wing-and-Wing, Bravo. f New England Tales Redwood j Hope Leslie 1 The Linwoods (The Forest Rose (opera), The Old \ Oaken Bucket. rAirs from Palestine, and other) J poems j ] The Pilgrim Fathers, Passing t. Away. The Buccaneers, and other poems. The Poor Rich Man and the) [ Rich Poor Man, etc j History of Spanish Literature. ( Percy's Masque IHadad f Twilight I Fanny. J Joseph Rodman Drake ] Alnwick Castle, Burns, Marco) Bozzaris, Red Jacket j [ Young America , ( Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse., I Poems ( Pocahontas, and other poems ( Ode on Shakespeare, Winged Wor ( shippers. The Family Meeting. (36 tales } History, geography, school-books, ( biography, and miscellanies. ( Principles of Political Economy. . iThe Credit System (Principles of Social Science, etc. . Home, Sweet Home [Song in Clari, or the Maid of Milan.] r Swallow Barn Horse-shoe Robinson \ Rob of the Bowl j Quod Libet [ Memoirs of Wirt, etc History of New England, 5 vols. ( Ferdinand and Isabella The Conquest of Mexico ■I The Conquest of Peru I Philip II. of Spain t Robertson's Charles V. , etc (Law of Business for Business) Men j Deus Homo Infinite and Finite. Thanatopsis To a Waterfowl A Poorest Hymn, June, Death of the Flowers, The Evening Wind, ■{ An Evening Reverie, Planting of the Apple -Tree, Robert of Lincoln, etc. Translations of the Iliad and ) Odyssey, etc ) /Culprit Fay, The American Flag, ( etc. ( Prometheus, and other poems J The Dream of Day, and other) ( poems j Religion and Philosophy o Swedenborg. Sam Slick. ( History of the United States to { 1789 "} Lyrics (Nature and the Supernatural. 1 Moral Use of Dark Things. f Essays, 1st series ■i " 2d " Miscellanies, Nature, etc 'Woodman, spare that tree," My Mother's Bi ble, " I'm with you once again, my friends,"Near the Lake, Long Time Ago, "We were boys to gether," " When other friends are round thee," etc. 1855 1855-59 1816 1827 1816 1821 1827 1821 1823 1827 1840 1841 1822 1824 1828 1835 1836 1820 1825 1818 1819 1820 1827 1864 1815 1827 1841 1849 1813 1827-57 1837-40 1838 1858-59 1817 1818 1870-71 1843 1832 1835 1840 1849 1859-90 1838 1843 1847 1855-58 1856 1857 1867 1872 1876 1841 1844 1849 LIT LIT ENGLISH (AMERICAN) LITERATURE AND AVTEORS. -{Continued.) Ralph Waldo Emerson. Jacob Abbott. , Nathaniel Hawthorne. John S. C. Abbott. William Gilmore Simms.. Henry W. Longfellow. Richard Hildreth. Nathaniel P. Willis.. John Greenleaf Whittier. 1803-82 1803-79 1804-64 1805-77 1806-70 1807-82 1807-65 1807-67 1807-92 Principal works. Representative Men English Traits Conduct of Life Society and Solitude, etc. Juveniles: Rollo Books, etc f Twice Told Tales Mosses from an Old Manse The Scarlet Letter The House of the Seven Gables. . The Blithedale Romance The Wonder Book Tanglewood Tales The Marble Faun Our Old Home, etc Life of Napoleon ' French Revolution, Civil War in America, etc Guy Rivers.. The Partisan. Mellichampe . Border Beagles The Scout Confession Beauchampe Count Julian Southward Ho! Wigwam and Cabin. The Huguenots Katherine Walton.. The Forayers Eutaw Charlemont, etc Outre Mer. Hyperion.. Kavanagh. History of the United States to 1821 Pencillings by the Way Dashes at Life with a Free Pencil People I Have Met Life Here and There Famous Persons and Places. . . Paul Fane, etc Poetry und drama*. 'May Day, The Humblebee, The Tit mouse, The Snowstorm, Brah ma, Wood -notes, Monadnock Two Rivers, Threnody, etc. Poems and Early Lays , I Vision of Cortez, and other ) [ poems j Southern Passages and Pictures. Songs and Ballads of the South. Voices of the Night ^Skeleton in Armor, Wreck J the Hesperus, Village Black ( smith. Excelsior Spanish Student Evangeline of) Golden Legend Hiawatha Courtship of Miles Standish /Tales of a Wayside Inn, Birds) ( of Passage / New England Tragedies (Hanging of the Crane, Morituri) ( Salutamus '. / Keremos, and other poems, etc. . . Parrhasius, "The shadows lay along Broadway," Absalom, Jephthah's Daughter, The Lep- er, etc. Mogg Megone Voices of Freedom Songs of Labor, and other poems.. Ship - builders. Shoe - makers, Drovers, Fishermen, Huskers, Lumber-men. Old Portraits Barclay of Ury, Demon of the Study, etc. Chapel of the Hermits, etc The Panorama Burns, Tauler, The Barefoot Boy, etc. Ballads Mary Garvin, Maud Muller, The Ranger. Home Ballads The Witch's Daughter, Garri- son of Cape Ann, Skipper Ire- son's Ride, Telling the Bees, Swan Song of Parson Avery, etc. In War Time At Port Royal, Barbara Friet- chie, etc. First appeared or ] publUhed. LIT 439 LIT ENGLISH (AMERICAN) LITERATURE AND AVTEORS.— (Continued.) Principal worka. Poetry and dramas. First appeared or published. John Greenleaf Whittier. Samuel Francis Smith.. . . Lucretia Maria Davidson, 1808- 1808-25 Oliver Wendell Holmes. Edgar Allan Poe. 1809-49 Henry James. eorge Washington Greene. Alfred B. Street ;(ohn William Draper. jfaraes McCosh. larriet Beecher Stowe. eorge Ticknor Curtis 1811-83 1811-81 1811-82 1811-94 1812- 1812-94 enson J. Lossing. 'lin Romeyn Brodhead. )hn Lothrop Motley ichard Henry Dana, jr. ;>hn G. Saxe 1814-73 1814-77 1815-82 1816-87 Autocrat of the Breakfast Table. Professor at the Breakfast Table. I Snow-Bound I Tent on the Beach j Among the Hills [ Hazel Blossoms, etc I "My country, 'tis of Thee," "The ( morning light is breaking." Amir Khan, and other poems Earlier Poems Old Ironsides, The Last Leaf, To an Insect, My Aunt, etc. {A Rhymed Lesson, and other ) poems I Agnes, and other poems The Chambered Nautilus ) Prologue y The One-Hoss Shay, etc j Elsie Venner Soundings from the Atlantic, The Guardian Angel Poet at the Breakfast Table .. Under the Violets. De Sauty One Hundred Days in Europe. Over the Tea Cups Bill and Joe, The Old Man's") Dream, Mare Rubrum, The Boys, Dorothy Q., etc J Manuscript Found in a Bottle. . A. Gordon Pym Tales of the Grotesque and Ara- Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and other) poems j Gold Bug ^ Murders of the Rue Morgue Fall of the House of Usher, etc. 1865 1867 1829 1830-36 1837-48 1849-56 1858 1861 1863 1867 1872 1851-7T ,1887 1843 1844 The Raven. Literati of New York. Eureka, etc The Nature of Evil Christianity the Logic of Creation Substance and Shadow ^ The Secret of Swedenborg Society the Redeemed Form of Man I Personal Reminiscences of Car-) L lyie ; i Life of Nathaniel Greene ( Short History of Rhode Island ( Ulalume, The Bells, The Haunted ( Palace, etc. f History of the Intellectual DeO velopment of Europe / History of the Civil War in ) America j Method of Divine Government. . . Intuitions of the Mind The Supernatural in Relation to J the Natural j Typical Forms and Special Ends ) in Creation | Scottish Philosophy, etc Uncle Tom's Cabin Dred The Ministers Wooing Agnes of Sorrento Pearl of Orr's Island Old Town Folks True Story of Lady Byron's 1 Life, etc ) I j History of the Constitution of 1 \ the United States f Pictorial Field-book of the Rev- j olution I Pictorial History of the Civil War Pictorial Field-book of the War of J 1812 J Frontenac , (The Grey Forest Eagle, etc. Our Country. Harper's Cyclopaedia of United ) I States History ) I History of American Industries.. [ Empire State, etc (History of the State of New) \ York, 1609-91 | fThe Dutch Republic J The United Netherlands 1 Life and Death of John of Bar- ) t neveld | Two Years Before the Mast New Rape of the Lock. The Times The Money King. Masquerade, etc.. 1845 1846 1848 1855 1857 1863 1869 1879 1881 1867-71 1877 1849 1863 1867-70 1850 1869 1874 1852 1856 1859 1862 1855-58 1852 1866-69 1868 1873 1876 1878 1887 1853-71 1856 1874 1839 1848 1849 1852 1859 LIT 440 LIT ENGLISH (AMERICAN) LITERATURE AND AUTHORS.— {Continued.) i Authon. 1 Principal worlu. ''T^^:t' Nain«. Tim.. ProM. Poetry and dramas. :8nmuel Austin AUibone 181&-89 1817-62 1817-81 1817- 1819-81 1819- 1819-91 1819-86 1819-92 1822-85 1822- 1822- 1822-91 1822- 1822-72 1823-93 1823- 1824- 1824- 1824-90 A Critical Dictionary of English ) Literature and Authors j A Week on the Concord River. . . 1869-91 1849 1854 1863 1864 1865 1849 1872 11 1876 II 1875 11 1888 fll 1855 11 1857 91 1858 ll 1860 Mi 1866 fll 1867 ai 1873 mi 1874 91 1854 Bl 1856 ■1 1861 91 1866 91 1844 91 1848 . 91 1864 ll 1867 91 1868 91 1870 91 1871 91 1888 9| 1848 9| 1849 91 1866 91 1869 99 1887 99 1855 H 1865 99 1880 99 1882 II 1884 99 1885 99 1872 II 1876 II 1879 Mm 1857 ai 1860 n 1864 II 1865 a| 1874 Mm 1881 SH 1850 flH 1851 «■ 1863 ■■ 1864 ■■ 1865 ■■ 1866 919 1848 919 1856 fln 1856 MM 1862 all 1864 H 1849 III 1851 9|9 1865 all 1869 III 1874 n 1877 !■ 1884 IB 1863 ;■ 1869 ■ 1870 -m 1879 hI 1860 i| 1863 ']■ 1865 ;■ 1868 n 1870 H 1848 « ■ 1847 fH 1850 1 Walden Henry D Thore&u ■{ Excursions The Maine Woods Cape Cod, etc -T)i.m(>s Thnmas Fields Yesterdaj's with Authors John Bigelow Edits the Writings of Franklin) (10 vols.), etc / f History Western Massacliusetts.. The Bay Path Timothy Titcomb's Letters Bitter Sweet Josiah Gilbert Holland (Timothy \ Titcomb) ; J ■I Miss Gilbert's Career Life of Lincoln Kathrina Mistress of the Manse Social and Philosophic Papers, etc. Words for the Hour Battle Hymn of the Republic Later Lyrics Poems Indian Summer Reveries /Vision of Sir Launfal and Big-> t low Papers / James Russell Lowell Fireside Travels Biglow Papers, 2d series Under the Willows Among My Books My Study Windows Heart's Ease and Rue, etc Edwin Percy Whipple Characteristic Men Literature of the Age of Elizabeth. American Literature Walt Whitman Recollections of Eminent Men. (Leaves of Grass ( Drum Taps 1 Every Day English 1 The Fate of Mansfield Humphreys William Taylor Adams (Oliver) Optic) ) Juveniles : Boat Club Series, Wood- ville Series, Army and Navy Se- ries, Riverdale Series, Young America Abroad, etc. His Level Best Edward Everett Hale My Double. Life and Times of Aaron Burr Life of Andrew Jackson " Benjamin Franklin " John Jacob Astor " Voltaire, etc Dream Life Donald 6. MitcheU (Ik Marvel). . . My Farm at Edge wood 1 Wet Days at Edge wood. . 1 Seven Stories .... 1 Doctor Johns etc f Lays and Ballads The New Pastoral .... The House by the Sea f Oregon Trail The Wagoner of the Allegha) nies 1 Sheridan's Ride, etc Conspiracy of Pontiac Pioneers of France in the New ) World I f'rancis Parkman -Discovery of the Great West Old Regime Count Frontenac and New France Montcalm and Wolf, etc r Out Door Papers Malbone, an Old Port Romance. . . Thomas Wentworth Higginson. . . Short Studies of American Au- ) Mother Goose for Grown Folks. . . 1 Faith Gartney's Girlhood Adeline D. Whitney i The Gayworthys 1 Patience Strong's Outings John Foster Kirk (b. Frederic-) ton,N.B.) ; [ We Girls, etc History of Charles the Bold. ..... Ceorge H. Boker ■< Lessons of Life, and other poems. (Anne Boleyn, a Tragedy LIT 441 LIT ENGLISH (AMERICAN) LITERATURE AND ATJTEORS.— (Continued.) Principal works. Poetry and dramas. First appeared or published. George H. Boker. John Dawson Gilraary Shea. George William Curtis Bayard Taylor. Henry Charles Lea... William Allen Butler. Richard Henry Stoddard. Coates Kinney Stephen Collins Foster. . . (Rose Terry Cooke. (Lew. Wallace 1824-90 1824-92 1824-92 1825-78 1825- 1825- 1825- 1826- 1826-64 1827-92 1827- , Charles Dudley Warner. Paul Hamilton Hayne JohnEsten Cooke Mary Virginia Terhune (Marion) Harland) f Justin Winsor. jLouisaMay Alcott. I Edmund Clarence Stedman. jElisha Mulford [David R. Locke (Petroleum V ) * Nasby) } i Frank R. Stockton '.'.'.'..'.'.'.,. 1830- 1831- 1832-88 1833- 1833-88 I 1834- The Catholic Church in America. Nile Notes of a Howadji Potiphar Papers Prue and I Trumps Life of Wm. C. Bryant, etc Views Afoot fOn Board the Cumber- Poems I land, Dirge of a Sol- of the -l dier, Battle of Lookout War Mountain, The Black 1^ Regiment, etc. Street Lyrics The Ivory Carver, The Podesta's , Daughter, Song of Earth, etc. Eldorado Central Africa Land of the Saracen . /Rhymes of Travel, Ballads, \ other poems Poems of the Orient. Northern Travel Greece and Russia. Hannah Thurston John Godfrey's Fortunes Story of Kennet Jo.seph and His Friend, etc Superstition and Force Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the Christian Church History of the Inquisition 1850 1853 1856- 1861 1879- 1846 1848 1850 1854^ 185& 1857 185^ 1863 1864 1866 1870 1866 'l867 Loves and Heroines of the Poets. Nothing to Wear, Two Millions. Footprints : Castle by the Sea, and other ) poems j The Fair God Ben-Hur The Prince of India My Summer in a Garden Backlog Studies My Winter on the Nile Washington Irving Their Pilgrimage, etc Studies in the South and West. A Little Journey in the World . Southern California As We Were Saying As We Go The King's Bell ( The Book of the East, and other) [ poems j Rain on the Roof Old Uncle Ned, Oh Su sannah ! Nelly was a Lady, Old Folks at Home (for which he received $15,000), Come where my love lies dreaming, Old Dog Tray, etc. The Two Villages, Ellery Vane, etc. 1857 1849 1852 1862 1871 Last of the Foresters Life of " Stonewall " Jackson. . . Wearing the Grey Hammer and Rapier Virginia— American Common- wealth, etc ' Alone J The Hidden Path Moss Side Helen Gardner's Wedding Day.. Ruby's Husband Common Sense in the House- i hold, etc Reader's Hand Book of the Rev- ; olution Edits Narrative and Critical History of America, etc ' Little Women An Old Fashioned Girl Little Men Aunt Jo's Scrap Bag, etc (Sonnets and Other Poems. (Legends and Lyrics, etc The Diamond Wedding f Alice of Monmouth, and other) ( poems / Pan in Wall Street. Victorian Poets Poets of America, etc. . . JThe Nation \Republicof God Nasby Papers ( Rudder Grange \TheLady or the Tiger?. 187» 1880 1893 1870 1872. 1876 1881 1886 1889- 1891 1893 1857 1872. 1856 186a 1867 1870' 188a 1854 1855 1857 1867 1868 1871 1884-89- 1868 1870 1871 1871-7* 1864 1875 1885 1870 1881 1860-82: 1879 1884 LIT 442 LIT ENGLISH (AMERICAN) LITERATURE AND ATJTRORS.— (Continued.) Principal worlu. Po«try and dramas. First appeared or publfslied. Frank R. Stockton. Moses Coit Tyler. Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain). Harriet E. P. Spofford. . Lyman Abbott Thomas Bailey Aldrich. 1834- 1835- 1835- 1835- 1836- William Dean Ho wells. 1837- Edward Eggleston.. John Burroughs. Mary Mapes Dodge. Henry Adams 1837- 1837- 1838- Edward Payson Roe, Albion Winegar Tourgee 1838- Mary Abigail Dodge (Gail Ham- ilton) Francis Bret Harte. James Schouler. Cincinnatus Hiner Miller (Joa- quin Miller) 1839- 1839- 1841- The Casting Away of Mrs. Leeks) and Mrs. Aleshine | The Ij&te Mr. Null The Hundredth Man I The Squirrel Inn ( The Merry Chanter, etc , History of American Literature. , ' Innocents Abroad , Roughing It , The Gilded Age , Tom Sawyer Prince and Pauper , Life on the Mississippi , Huckleberry Finn, etc , [Sir Rohan's Ghost [The Amber Gods, etc Various works explanatory of the Scriptures and its teachings, etc. Life of Henry Ward Beecher Out of His Head The Story of a Bad Boy. Marjorie Daw Prudence Palfrey The Queen of Sheba ... The Stillwater Tragedy , ' Venetian Life , Italian Journey Their Wedding Journey. . . . , A Chance Acquaintance. . . . , The Lady of the Aroostook., The Undiscovered Country., A Modern Instance The Minister's Charge The Rise of Silas Lapham. . . Modern Italian Poets A Hazard of New Fortunes. . The World of Chance ^^The Quality of Mercy Mr. Blake's Walking Stick., The Hoosier School-master. , The End of the World The Circuit Rider Roxy. The Graysons The Faith Doctor. Wakerobin Winter Sunshine Birds and Poets Locusts and Wild Honey. [Pepacton, etc f Irvington Stories Hans Drinker Theophilus, etc Ballad of Babie Bell. Cloth of Gold, and other poems. . Mercedes, and Later Lyrics (The Sister's Tragedy, and other) \ poems I Life of Gallatin Life of John Randolph History of the United States.. . Barriers Burned Away What Can She Do? Opening of a Chestnut Burr. . . . ManualoftheCultureof Small Fruit A Knight of the Nineteenth) Century ) His Sombre Rivals An Original Belle. Miss Low, etc A Royal Gentleman A Fool's Errand Bricks Without Straw Hot Plough-shares, essays, etc.. . . Country Living and Country) Thinking f Gala Days Stumbling Blocks Red-Letter Days. Divine Guidance, etc. The Luck of Roaring Camp Tales of the Argonauts Gabriel Conroy Two Men of Sandy Bar, and) other stories / A Crusade of the Excelsior Col. Starbottle's Client, etc History of the United States [The Danites, etc. Along the Way. (The Heathen Chinee, and other 1 ( poems j Songs of the Sierras. . Songs of the Sun land. Songs of Italy Shadows of Shasta . . . 1887 1891 1892 1878 1869 1872 1873 1876 1882 1883 1885 1856 1864 1873 1874 1891 1866 1867 1871 1874 1879 1880 1882 1887 1885 1887 1892 1870 1872 i( 1874 1878 1887 1891 1871 1876 1877 1879 1881 1864 1876 1879 1882 1891 1872 1873 1874 1876 1877 1886 1874 1879 1863 1870 1881 1870 1875 1876 1877 1887 1892 1880-92 1871 1873 1878 1881 LIT 443 LIT ENGLISH (AMERICAN) LITERATURE AND AVTEORS.— (Continued.) Sidney Lanier. 3enry James. Fohn Fiske. Fohn Habberton. Jeorge W. Cable. Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward. WillCarleton. 'Francis Marion Crawford , ;Julian Hawthorne. Arthur S. Hardy William Henry Bishop . Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen. Joel Chandler Harris Edgar Fawcett iConatance Fenimore Woolson. Sarah Ome Jewett. , Frances Hodgson Burnett. 1842- 1843- 1844- 1844- 1845- 1845- 1846- 1847- 1848- 1849- 1849- Principal works. Tobacco and Alcohol Myths and Myth- makers The Unseen World The Idea of God as Affected by) Modern Knowledge j Critical Period of American^ History, etc / Poetry and dramas. The Boys' Froissart Science of English Verse ' Helen's Babies The Barton Experiment Jericho Road Brueton's Bayou A Lucky Lover A Passionate Pilgrim Roderick Hudson The American Daisy Miller Portrait of a Lady The Bostonians The Princess Casamassima. , The Tragic Muse, etc Old Creole Days The Grandissimes Doctor Sevier The Silent South Bonaventure, etc Gates Ajar Hedged In The Silent Partner The Story of Avis My Cousin and I Doctor Zay Beyond the Gates, etc Tiger Lilies. Poems , The Witch of Prague Khaled Don Orsino The Wreckers. Bressant Idolatry Garth Archibald Malmaison Beatrix Randolph Miss Cadogna, etc But Yet a Woman The Wind of Destiny Passe Rose, etc ' Detmold The House of a Merchant Prince. Choy Susan The Golden Justice, etc A Gentleman of Leisure Olivia Delaplaine An Ambitious Woman The House at High Bridge Mr. Isaacs Tale of a Lonely Parish. Saracinesca Women Must Weep An Heir to Millions, etc. Gunnar Falcouberg Queen Titania A Daughter of the Philistines, etc. ' Uncle Remus Mingo Free Joe ^ Balaam and His Master ' Castle Nowhere Hodman the Keeper Anne For the Major East Angels Jupiter Lights ^ Horace Chase ' Deephaven Old Friends and New Country By-ways The Mate of the Daylight A Country Doctor The King of Folly Island A Native of Winby, etc That Lass o' Lowrie's Pretty Polly Pemberton Farm Ballads . . Farm Legends . Farm Festivals. City: City City Festivals. Romance and Revery Songs of Doubt and Dreams. Idyls of Norway, and other poems. First appeared or published. 1872 1876 1867 1876 1878 1880 1876 1892 1875 1877 1878 1881 1886 1879 1880 1882 1885 •1888 1868 1870 1877 1879 1882 1883 1873 1875 1881 1892 1882 1886 1887 1890 1891 1892 1873 1874 1877 1879 1883 1885 1883 1886 1889 1879 1883 1884 1886 1884 1886 (I 1887 1888 1891 1892 1874 1879 1881 1882 1883 1880 1884 1888 1891 1875 1880 1882 1883 1894 1877 1879 1881 1883 1884 1877 1878 LIT 444 LIT ENGLISH (AMERICAN) LITERATURE AND AUTHORS.— (Con quis of Santillana j nan de Mena nan de la Euzina as Casas il Vicente (rortuguese) Lian Boscan bristobal de Castillejo arcilasso de la Vega iego de Mendoza )rge de Montemayor (Portuguese), uiz de Camoens (Portuguese) lonzo de Ercilla y Zunega ernando Herrera aan de Mariana iguel de Cervantes Saavedra. icente Espinel uis de Gongora y Argote ope de Vega uillen de Castro iego Arduarte rancesco Gomez de Quevedo y ) Villegas j abriel Tellez (Tirso de Molina, ) , Ecclesiastic) ) l^dro Calderon de la Barca ieronimo de Contreras lan Ruiz de Alarfon y Mendo-) za (b. Mexico) ) itevan Manuel de Villegas 'itonio de Solis Ugustin Moreto y Cabana I'VJov y Montenegro pn Ignacio Luzan I an de Yriarte [imas Jos6 Gonzalas Carvahal . . . ro F. Moratin. ; an Bautista Arriaza , lUuiel Breton de los Herreros. . , celia BOhl von Faber (Fernan) [Caballero) / •m Patricio de la Escosura tn Jose de Espronceda >n Mariano Larra s6 Zorilla y Moral itonio Canovas del Castille ifiez de Arce ' 1398-1458 1411-56 1468-1534 1474-1566 1485-1557 1493-1543 1494-1556 1503-36 1503-75 1520-62 1524-79 1533-95 1534-97 1536-1623 1547-1616 1551-1634 1561-1627 1562-1635 1569-1631 1570-1637 1580-1647 1585-1648 1600-81 1600 ?-48 1610-86 1676-1764 1702-54 1750-98 1753-1834 1760-1828 1770-1837 1796-1873 1797-1877 1807-78 1808-42 1809-37 1818- 1830- 1834?- Principal works. Historical. Historical Novels. Historical. Don Quixote, etc Esquire Marcos of Olregon) (Spanish Gil Bias) ) Historical. Historical Essays and criticisms (the Span ish Addison). Proverbs. Novels. Novels Novels. Historical. Poetry and drHiiias. Rhymed Chronicles of Alfonso XI. Sonnets. Poems. Poems. Dramas. Poems Poems. Poems. Poems LusiAD, epic. La Arancana Lyric poems ' [To Don Quixote, Cervantes owes his immortality. No work of any language ever exhibited a more exquisite or a more sprightly satire or a happier vein of invention worked with more striking success. — Sis- ^ wiondi," Literature of Europe."] Poems Poems. (Dramas.— Founder of the Span- ( ish theatre. Dramas Dramas and poems. Dramas. The greatest of Spanish dramatists. Poems. Lyrics. Dramas Dramas Poems. Poems. Dramas and poems (the Spanish 1 Molidre) J Poems. Poems and dramas . Poems (Dramas and poems (celebrated ( and popular). /Poems, dramas (the Spanish") ( Tennyson) / First appeared or published. 1543 1520 et 1 1569 1582 1621 ( 1st col. 1 1685. 1684 et se D. 5 parts were extant only in the Latin translation until j.ischendorf discovered the entire Greek of the 1st part in " Codex !^inaitic^s." liex Sinaiticus. — Their genuineness impugned by Simonides 1863). He asserted it to be a MS. made by himself 4 years pre iously at Mount Athos. His statement has, however, been proved aise. Manuscript. -mentines. —'Sot written by Clemens Romanus, to whom they jiave been ascribed. \is«£s of St. Ignatius (martyred 107 a. d.).— Not settled as to the juthenticity of all of them. Controversy arose through his de- iJnce and maintenance of the hierarchical system of the Church. VM Decretals (Isadorian Decretals).— These decretals, collection ir-9*""'ns, etc. (820-36 a.d.), attributed to St. Isadore of Saville P70-636). "Said to have been forged for the maintenance of apal supremacy, and for 800 years formed the fundamental asis of the Canon law, the discipline of the Church, and even .8 ia.\th.''— Disraeli, "Curiosities of Literature." 'sties of Phalaris of Agrigentum (Sicily, 570 B.C.).— 148 in num- er. Greek text first printed in Venice, 1498. First printed in •nglish, Oxford, 1695. Edited by Charles Boyle. Richard Bent- sy proves them forgeries. Literature. 15 Phoenician 5'm a family of the name of Lever, whose autiquit is not sufficiently established). Soon after the Conqnes William'granted the country between the rivers Mersey ani Ribble to Roger of Poitiers, who, according to Camden, built' a castle here about 1089. It afterwards was held by the oarls of Chester and dukes of Lancaster. Pop. of the parliamentar borough in 1851, 375,995; 1861, 443,938 ; 1871, 493,405; 188| 552,508 ; 1891, 517,951 ; decrease 6.3 per cent. Liverpool made a free borough by Henry III 12 Made an independent port 133 Liverpool " a paved town " (Leland). .: 15 "The people of her majesty's decayed town of Liverpool " pe- tition Elizabeth for relief from a subsidy 161 Town rated for ship-money in only 26?. by Charles I Ifi Besieged and taken by i)rince Rupert 26 June, 164# Liverpool and Manchester railway opened 15 Sept. 1889 [First grand work of the kind, about 31 miles long. At its opening the duke of Wellington and other illustrious persons were present; Mr. Huskisson, who alighted during a stoppage of the engines, was knocked down by one of them, which went over his thigh and caused his death, 15 Sept. 1830.] Liverpool and Birmingham (Grand Junction) railway opened, 4 July, 18 Railway to London (now the Northwestern) opened.. . .17 Sept. 18 Steamer Liverpool, 461 horse-power, sails for New York, 28 Oct. Tunnel under Mersey to Birkenhead begun Apr. 18 Mersey "tunnel opened 13 Feb. 18 Liiviiigiton Manor, N. Y. Anti-rentism; Nb York, 1686. Lilving'Stone, David. Africa. IjiVO'nia, a Russian province on the Baltic sea, fir visited by Bremen merchants about 1158. After belongin successively to Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Russia, it wi ceded to Peter the Great in 1721. Area, 18,158 sq. milej pop. 1889, 1,229,468. loadstone. Magnetism. IjOa'no, a village of Piedmont, N. Italy. Here tl Austrians and Sardinians were defeated by the French, und( Massena, 23, 24 Nov. 1795. loans for the public service were raised by Wolsey in 1522 and 1525. In 1559 Elizabeth borrowed 200,000/. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform the coin, and sir Thomas Gresham and the city of London joined in the secu- rity. — Rapin. The amounts of some public loans of England I and France at memorable periods were : ! Seven Years' war 1755 to 1763. . . . 52,100,000/. i American war 1776 " 1784. . . . 75,500,000/. i French revolutionary war 1793 " 1802.... 168,500,000/. I War with Bonaparte 1803 " 1814. . . . 206,300,000/. ' Two loans, 1813 21,000,000Z. and 22,000,000/. ■ War with Russia 1855 to 1856. . . . 16,000,000/. For deficiency in revenue 1856 10,000,000/. I [Last 2 taken by the Rothschilds alone.] I By East India company 1858.... 8.000,000/. A subscription loan (18,000, OOOZ.) for the war with France filled in London in 15 hours and 20 minutes (Loyalty loans), 5 Dec. 1790. French loan, on 9 July, 1855, for war with Russia. French legislature authorized a loan of 750,000,000 francs (30,000,000Z. ). On the 30tli the total subscribed in France amounted to 3,652,591,985 francs (about 146,103,679^.), nearly 5 times the amount required; 2,533,- 888,4.50 francs were from Paris; from the departments, 1,118,703,- 535 francs. The number of subscribers was 316,864, and 231,920,- 155 francs were in subscriptions of 50 francs and under. About 600,000,000 francs came from foreign countries. The Englisli subscription of 150,000,000 francs was returned. France raised a loan of 20,000,OOOZ. for the Italian war from its own people without difficulty. May, 1859. Turkish loan in 1854 at l^ per cent., recommended by lord Palm erston; a loan of 5,000,000/., at 4 per cent., secured by England and France, taken by Rothschild, Aug. 1855, and rose to a small premium. French loan for 17,600,000Z. announced 29 Jan. 1868. French loan for 2,000,000,000 francs (80,000,000/.); nearly twice the amount subscribed in France, 28 June, 1871; another (of 120,000,000?. at 63^ per cent.), for payment of indemnity and evacuation of provinces held by Germans; announced 26 July, 1872; above twice the amount subscribed. France. Foreign Loans committee appointed to inquire concerning loans to Honduras, Costa Rica, and Paraguay, report on the exaggerated statements respecting revenues and resources of the states in pros- pectuses, efforts of contractors to make fictitious markets, pro ceedings on the stock-exchange to maintain prestige, secrecy practised; " the best security against the recurrence of such e\'i s will be found, not so much in legislative enactments as inenligni enment of the public as to their real nature and origin, thus ren- dering it more difficult for unscrupulous persons to carry out schemes . . . which have ended in so much discredit and disas ter,"July,, 1875. lobby, a general name for persons not members of a legislative body, who try to influence its action by appeals to LOG members. " Lobbying " is practised in many forms, and often means no more than legitimate arguments addressed to repre- sentatives or committees; but in common use the word often suggests improper influences or even bribery. Professional lobbyists are in general disrepute. An attempt has recently been made in Massachusetts to remedy some of the evils of lobbying by the recognition of legislative counsel, and the regulation of their business by law. local option, the relegation of the control of traffic in intoxicating drinks to the popular vote of each county or municipality. This principle has been tried in New York and several other states with varying success. LiOClllev'en ca§tle, Kinross, Scotland, built on an isle in loch Leven, it is said by the Picts, was the royal resi- dence of Alexander III. and his queen till taken to Stirling. It was besieged by the English iu 1301, and in 1334. Patrick (Jraham, first archbishop of St. Andrews, imprisoned for at- tempting to reform the church, died here about 1478. The earl of Northumberland was confined in it, 1569 ; queen Mary in 1567, and she escaped from it Sunday, 2 May, 1568. l0Ck§, early used by the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and the Chinese. Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange mentions locks and padlocks as early as 1381. Barron's locks (on the many-tumbler principle) were patented in ' 1778; Bramah's in 1788; and Chubb's " detector " locks in 1818. LiOCO-fOCO, a transient local (New York) term applied 'to the Democratic party. Originated in New York city, Oct. }1835, on account of the use of matches (loco-foco) by one of ,the Democratic factions (Anti-monopolists) to relight the jlights extinguished at an evening meeting by the other fac- {tion for the purpose of breaking up the meeting. At once ■the Whig newspapers dubbed the Anti - monopolists, Loco- Ifocos, and it soon became one of the names applied to the ;Democracy generally by the New York Whigs. Lucifer IMatchp:s. ! locoinotive§. Nkw Yokk, 1830; Pennsylvania, ;1829; United States, 1829-31. ' JLocri, a people of N. Greece, resisted Philip of Macedon, jwere aided by Athenians and Thebans, and defeated by him 'at Chaeronea, 7 Aug. 338 b.c. 1 l0CUSt§, one of the plagues of Egypt, 1491 b.c. (Exod. ix.). Owing to the putrefaction of swarms in Egypt and Libya, 800,000 persons are said to have perished, 128 b.c. iPalestine was infested with swarms that darkened the air ; imd, after devouring the fruits of the earth, died, and their itench caused a pestilential fever, 406 a.d. A similar catas- trophe occurred in France in 873. A swarm of locusts settled upon the ground about London, and consumed the vegetables; l^reat numbers fell in the streets; they resembled grasshoppers, [mt were 3 times the size, and their colors more variegated, 4 iA-ug. 1748. They infested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, 'md Warsaw in June, 1816. They are said to have been seen in London in 1857. Russia was infested by them in July, |1860; Algeria, severely, in 1866 and in 1874; Sardinia, in 11868 ; Kansas, Nebraska, and Minnesota, 1873-74. Nebras- jiA, 1874-75. Lo'di, a city of N. Italy. Napoleon Bonaparte, command- ng the French, defeated the Austrians, under Beaulieu, after ;i bloody fight at the bridge of Lodi, 10 May, 1796. The re- )ublican flag floated in Milan a few days after. i log^, an apparatus for measuring the speed of a ship, con- isting of a log-chip, reel, and line, used in navigation about 570; first mentioned by Bourne in 1577. The line was di- >ided by knots into lengths of 50 feet, and the ship's speed ;vas measured by a sand-glass, which bore the same propor- ■ion to an hour that 50 feet bears to a nautical mile. It has )een superseded by a patent log, which has come into general ise within the last 20 years. The record of the speed of a ; hip, its location (latitude and longitude), etc., is termed the og-book. log'aritlinis, the indexes of the power of an assumed •ase, tabulated to facilitate arithmetical operations, were in- •ented by baron Napier of Merchiston, who published his vork in 1614. The device was improved by Henry Briggs t Oxford, who published tables, 1616-18. A method of com- 451 LOM putation by marked pieces of ivory discovered about the same time ; they are called " Napier's bones." log-cabin. The political canvas for president in 1840 is known as the log-cabin campaign. Gen. Wm. Henry Har- rison, the Whig candidate, was represented as a plain farmer, who in early life had lived in a log-cabin in Ohio; and such cabins, in every form, were adopted as the party symbol. log^ic, " the science of reasoning." Eminent works on it are by Aristotle, Descartes; Bacon, "Novum Organon;" Locke, " On the Understanding ;" and modern treatises by abp. Whately, sir William Hamilton, and John Stuart Mill. Earl Stanhope's Demonstrator, or Logical Machine, invented in the latter part of the 18th century, was described by rev. Robert Har- ley to the British Association, 19 Aug. 1878. In his "Principles of Science," 1874, William Stanley Jevons de- scribes his "Logical Abecediirium " and "Logical Slate." G. Boole on " Laws of Thought," 1852. J. Venn's "Symbolic Logic," July, 1881. Metaphysics, Philosophy. lOg'Og^rapll, apparatus invented by W. H. Barlow, about 1874, to record graphically the vibratory motions of air-waves of speech. lOg^'Ograpil'lC printings, in which each common word was cast in one piece, was patented by Henry Johnson and Mr. Walter of the London Times in 1783. Anderson's " Historv of Commerce," vol. iv., was printed by these types in 1789.' log^-rolling', a common term in the United States for legislative combinations. The early settlers helped one an- other in clearing their land, by combining to roll the logs away. When the supporters of 2 or more measures, in a leg- islature or in congress, joined forces, and each set supported the measure of the other in exchange for similar aid, the union was called log-rolling. It is to prevent this that the constitutions of many states forbid any enactment which con- tains more than a single measure. loi de§ §USpect§ (loa des sus-pekts'), enacted by the French convention, 17 Sept. 1793, during the Reign of Ter- ror, filled the prisons of Paris. The Public Safety bill, of a similar character, was passed 18 Feb. 1858, after Orsini's at- tempt on the life of Napoleon III. LoUardS (by some derived from the German lollen, to sing in a low tone), the name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic religion in England, followers of Wycliffe. The sect is also said to have been founded in 1315 by Walter Lollard, who was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. The Lollards are said to have devoted themselves to acts of mercy. The first Lollard martyr in England was William Sawtree, parish priest of St. Osith, London, 12 Feb. 1401, when the- Lollards were proscribed by Parliament, and numbers burned alive. Sir John Cobham, lord Oldcastle, a follower of Wycliffe, was accused of treason and condemned, Sept. 1413. He es- caped to Wales, was captured, brought to London, and burned, 25 Dec. 1418. Lollards' Tower, part of the bishop's prison, was near St. Paul's, not Lambeth palace. — D?: Maitlund. LiOm'bard merchanti, in England, were under- stood to be natives of the 4 republics : Genoa, Lucca, Florence, or "Venice. — AMderson. Lombard usurers were sent to Eng- land by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, commu- nities, and persons who were not able to pay down the tenths collected throughout the kingdom with great rigor that j'ear, 13 Hen. III. 1299. They had offices in the street named after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their expulsion from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. Lom'bardy, a province of N. Italy, derived its name from the Langobardi, a German tribe from Brandenburg, said (doubtfully) to have been invited into Italy by Justinian to serve against the Goths. Their chief, Alboin, established a kingdom which lasted from 568 to 774. The last king, Desi- derius, was dethroned by Charlemagne. (For Lombard kings, Italy.) About the end of the 9th century the chief towns of Lombardy fortified themselves, and became republics. The first Lombard league, consisting of Milan, Venice, Pavia, Modena, etc., was formed to restrain the German emperors, in 1167. On 29 May, 1176, they defeated Frederick Barbarossa at Legnano, and compelled him to sign the peace of Constance in 1183. In 1226 another league was formed against Frederick II., LON 452 LON which was also successful. After this petty tyrants rose in most of the cities, and foreign influence followed. The Guelph and Ghibelline factions distracted Lombardy, and from the 15th century it was contended for by German and French sovereigns. Austria obtained it in 1748, and held it till 1797, when it was cotuiuered by the French, who incorporated it with the Cisalpine republic, and in 1805 with the kingdom of Italy. When the French empire fell, in 1815, the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom was established by the allied sovereigns and given to Austria, who had lost her Flemish possessions. Lombardy and Venice revolted, and joined the king of Sar- dinia in Mch. 1848 ; but did not support him well, and were again subjected to Austria after his defeat at Novara, 23 Mch. 1849. An amnesty for political offences was granted in 1856. Great jealousy of Sardinia was shown by Austria after 1849. In 1857 diplomatic relations were suspended; and in Apr. 1859 war broke out, the Austrians crossing the Ticino and entering Piedmont. The French emperor declared war against Austria, and sent troops into Italy. The Austrians were de- feated at Montebello, 20 May; Palestro, 30, 31 May; Magenta, 4 June; and Solferino, 24 June. By the peace of Villafranca (11 July) most of Lombardy was ceded to Louis Napoleon, who transferred it to the king of Sardinia. It now forms part of the kingdom of Italy, to which Venetia was also surren- dered by the treaty of Vienna, 3 Oct. 1867. Lona'tO, a town near the city of Brescia, N. Italy. Here Napoleon Bonaparte defeated Wurmser and the Austrians, 3 Aug. 1796. London, the capital city of England, and the seat of government of the British empire. The fables of Geoffrey of Monmouth say that London was founded by Brute, a descend- ant of the Trcjjan ^neas, and called New Troy, or Troy novant, until the time of Lud, who surrounded it with walls, and gave it the name of Caer Lud, or Lud's town, etc. — Leigh. Lud was said to be a British king, buried where Ludgate formerly stood; but all this is fabulous; the name London is from I Ji/n- din, the " town on the lake." Some assert that a city existed on the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 354 years before the foundation of Rome; that it was the capital of the Trinobantes, 54 B.C., and long previously. In 61 a.d. it was known to the Romans as Lundinium, or Colonia Augusta, chief residence of the merchants. The original walls of Lon- don said to have been the work of Theodosius, Roman gov- ernor of Britain, 379 ; but they are supposed to have been built about 306. There were originally 4 principal gates, but the number increased ; and among others were the Praetorian way, Newgate, Dowgate, Cripplegate, Aldgate, Aldersgate, Ludgate, Bridegate, Moorgate, Bishopsgate, and the Postern on Tower hill. 8 gates were removed in 1760-61, and the last of the city boundaries, Temple Bar (rebuilt 1670-72), was removed early in Jan. 1878. London became the capital of the Saxon kingdom of Essex, and was called Lundenceaster. In 1860 London and the suburbs were estimated to cover 121 sq. miles (11 miles each way, being 3 times as large as in 1800) ; in 1880, 122 sq. miles. The metropolitan police dis- trict, 1891, extends over a radius of 15 miles from Charing Cross, exclusive of the city of London, 688.31 sq. miles. To- tal mileage of streets patrolled, 8360. The population of the metropolitan districts in 1851 was 2,362,236; in 1861, 2,808,- 862; in 1871,3,264,530; in 1881 (3 Apr.), 3,814,571 ; county of London, 1891, 4,231,431; metropolitan and city police dis- tricts, 1891, 5,633,332. The population of the " city" iu 1801, 156,859; in 1811, 120,909; in 1821, 125,434; in 1831, 125,574; in 1841, 125,008; in 1851, 122,440; in 1861, 112,063; in 1871, 74,897; in 1881, .50,526; in 1891, 37,694. Day census, 25-30 Apr. 1881, 260,670 ; 1891, 301,384. The London county coun- cil was constituted in common with county councils all over England and Wales under the Local Government act of 1888. It comprises a chairman, 19 aldermen, and 118 councillors. The term of office for an alderman is 6 years, but 10 or 9 retire every alternate 3 years. Councillors are elected for 3 years directly by the rate payers, and the councillors elect the aldermen. The positions of the aldermen and councillors are the same, except as to the term of office. The first meeting of the London county council was held 21 Mch. 1889. Boadic6a, queen of the Iceni, reduces London to ashes, and puts 70,000 Romans and strangers to the sword 61 She is defeated by Suetonius, 80,000 Britons are massacred, and she takes poison 6: Bishopric said to have been founded by Theauus 17| liOudou rebuilt and walled in by the Komans Eight hundred vessels said to be employed in the port of l.on don for llio export of corn 351 St. Paul's cliun-h founded by Ethelbert aljoul Bishopric revived by St. Mellitus (K London pillaged by Danes KW Alfred repairs and strengthens London Easterlings settle in London before <) Tower built by William 1 1U7( First charter granted to the city by the same king. 107J [It is still preserved in the city archives. It is written in beautiful Saxon characters, on a slip of i)archment (> inches long and 1 broad, and is in English as follows: " William the king greeteth William the bishop, and Godfrey the portreve, and all the burgesses within Loudon, friendly. And I acquaint you that I will that ye be all there law-worthy as ye were in king Edward's days. And I will that every child be his father's heir, after his father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any wrong. God preserve you."] Charter granted by Henry 1 110 St. Bartholomew's priory founded by Rahere about London bridge built, 1014 ; burned 118 Charter granted by Henry II IIJ Old London bridge begun 117 Henry Fitz- Alwyn, the first mayor (served 24 years) 118 Massacre of Jews First stone bridge finished 12C Charter of king John; mayor and common council to be elected annually 121 [Stowe incorrectly states this charter to have been given in 1209, but it bears date 19 May in the 16th year of John's reign, which began in 1199. It was acted on, many mayors holding ofHce for several years (see below, Whittington, 1409).] Modern times, alderman Wood, 1815-16; sir John Key, 1830-31; alderman Cubitt, 1861-62. The title of lord-mayor first be- stowed by Edward III 135 Foreign merchants invited, settle here 1199-122 Charter of Henry III Aldermen appointed about 124 Watch in London, 38 Hen. Ill 125 Privileges granted to Hanse merchants 12S Tax called murage, to repair walls and ditches about "" Water brought from Tyburn to West Cheap 128j^ Expulsion of Jews by Edward I. (16,511) 1290 Livery companies incorporated 1327 Charter granted by Edward III 1328 Terrible pestilence, 50,000 (?) citizens perish 134S [It broke out in India, and spreading westward through every country, reached England. In London the couimon cemeteries were not sufflcient, and land without the walls was assigned for burial. In the present precincts of the Charterhouse upwards of 50,(J00 bodies were deposited. The plague did not disappear till 1357. — Leigh.] London sends 4 members to Parliament 1355 William of Walworth lord mayor 1380 Wat Tyler's rebellion (Tyler) 1381 Aldermen elected for life 1394 Great plague; 30,000 (?) died 1406 Whittington thrice lord mavor (in reality 4 times. — W/iitaker), 1397, 1398, 1406, 1409 Jack Cade's rebellion (Cade's insurrection) 1450 First civic procession on the water; sir John Norman lord mayor 1^53 Falconbridge attempts the city 1471 Printing-press set up by Caxton " Sweating sickness rages 1485 Fleet ditch navigable 1502 St. Paul's school founded by dean Colet 1509 Fatal sweat. Sudor Anglicus 1517 Evil May-day (so called from the riot of the populace in op- position to foreigners, especially to the French. The leader and 15 others were hanged, the others pardoned by king Henry VIII. ) 1 May, " Streets first paved ( Viner^s Stat. ) 1533 "Bills of mortality " ordered to be kept 1538 ■Dissolution of religious houses 1539 St. Bartholomew's monastery changed to a hospital " Forty taverns and public houses allowed in the city, and 3 in Westminster, act 7 Edw. VI 1553 Christ's hospital founded by king Edward VI '| Russian Trading company established Coaches introduced about 1563 Royal Exchange built (Exchange) 1566 New buildings in London forbidden "where no former hath been known to have been," to prevent increase of size 1580 [This decree was dated Nonesuch, 7 July, 1580, forbidding new buildings where none had existed in the memory of man. The extension of the metropolis was deemed to en- courage the plague, create trouble in governing multitudes, a dearth of victuals, multiplying of beggars, and inability to relieve them ; an increase of artisans more than could live together; impoverishing other cities for lack of inhabitants. The decree asserted that lack of air, lack of room to walk and shoot, etc. , arose out of too crowded a city. A procla- mation to the same effect was also issued by James l.j Levant company established • • ■!; q^ Thames water brought into the city by leaden pipes 15»0-»4 LON 453 LON Norden's map of Loudon pub 1593 Stow publishes his survey 1598 Nearly all Loudon yet built of wood lOOO East India company incorporated " An ci)idemic, the Plague ; 30,578 persons said to have died. . . 1603 Gunpowder plot 1605 Thomas Sutton founds Charterhouse school, etc 1611 New river water brought to London 1613 Virginia company established 1616 Principal streets paved ■• . " Hackney-coaches first plied 1625 Building of the western parishes, St.Giles's, etc begun 1640 City held for the Parliament 1642 London fortified 1643 Jews allowed to return to London by Cromwell 1650 Banking begun by Francis Child about 1660 Royal Society of London chartered 1662 Devastation of the Plague ; 68,596 persons said to have died. . 1665 Oxford, afterwards London Gazette, pub 7 Nov. " Great fire of Loudon (Fires) 2-6 Sept. 1666 Act for a "new model of building" in the city " Hudson's Bay company chartered. 1670 Mo.NUMEXT erected by Wren 1671-77 St. Paul's founded 21 June, 1675 Oates's pretended popish plot 1678 London directory pub 1679 Charier granted by Charles II 1680 Penny post established 1683 Settlement of French Protestants ; 1685 Charter declared forfeited, 1682; but restored 1689 Bank of England established 1694 St. Paul's opened 2 Dec. 1697 Sacheverell's sermon and mob (Riots) 1709 South Sea bubble begun, 1710; exploded (South Sea Compaxv), 1720 Chelsea water-works formed 1722 Bank of England built 1732-34 j Glass lamps in the street between 1694 and 1736 I Fleet ditch covered, and Fleet market opened 1737 j liOndon hospital instituted 1740 New Mansion-house founded, 1739; completed 1753 British museum established " Society of Arts established " New road, 1755-56 ; City road projected about 1760 Eight gates removed 1760-61 I Shop signs removed 1762 I Blackfriars bridge opened 19 Nov. 1769 i Lord mayor (Brass Crosby) committed to the Tower by the 1 House of Convmons for breach of privilege 27 Mch. 1771 iLord George Gordon's No popery mob (Gordon's riots). .June, 1780 I Building of Camden Town begun 1791 ; Royal Institution of Great Britain founded 1799 jLondon docks opened 20 Jan. " j London Institution founded 1805 illuminating gas first e.xhibited in Pall Mall 1807 ; Mint finished 1811 iRegent street begun 1813 'City generally lighted with gas 1814 i Waterloo bridge opened 18 June, 1817 iSouthwark bridge opened 24 Mch. 1819 (Bank of England completed by sir John Soane 1821 ICabs introduced 1823 ILondon Mechanics' Institution founded " iLondon university chartered 11 Feb. 1826 iNew post-office completed 1829 lOmnibuses introduced " New metropolitan police began 29 Sept. " jNew London bridge opened 1 Aug. 1831 (Houses of Parliament burned 16 Oct. 1834 'City of London school founded " [First railway in the city (see below, Oct. 6, 1864) opened to Bir- i mingham, 17 Sept. ; to Greenwich 28 Dec. 1838 [Penny postage begun 10 Jan. 1840 Railway to Southampton opened 11 May, " 'Wood pavement tried; fails 1841 ■London library established " Railway to Bristol opened 30 June, " ;^lackwall railway o[)ened 2 Aug. " ■iailway to Brighton opened 21 Sept. " jrhames tunnel opened 25 Mch. 1843 r'LKET PRISON takcu down 1845 Penny steamboats begun " pwopenny omnibuses begun 1846 "hartisl demonstration (Chartists) 10 Apr. 1848 'oal exchange opened 30 Oct. 1849 lailway opened to Warrington ; branch of Great Northern, Aug. 1850 Jreat exhibition opened, 1 May ; closed 11 Oct. 1851 )uke of Wellington d. 14 Sept. ; funeral at St. Paul's.. 18 Nov. 1852 letropolitan Local Management act passed 14 Aug. 1855 letropolitan Board of Works, first meeting 22 Dec. " {oyal British Bank stops payment 4 Sept. 1856 Ictropolis divided into 10 postal districts 1 Jan. 1858 omplaiuts of the state of the Thames; act for its purification passed 2 Aug. " |lciropolitan railway (underground) begun spring of 1860 jieorge Peabody. American merchant, gives 150,000/ to ameli- 1 orate condition of poor of London 12 Mch. 1862 international Exhibition opens 1 May, " 'letropolitan railway opened 10 Jan. 1863 ,'neumatic Despatch company begins to convey post-office ,^ags 21 Feb. " liarmg Cross railway opened 11 Jan. 1864 First block of Peabody's dwellings in Si)italflelds opened, 29 Feb. 1864 First railway-train enters the city of London near Blackfriars bridge 6 Oct. ' ' Black Friday; commercial panic; failure of Overend, Gurney & Co. (limited). 10 May (Black Friday) 11 May, 1866 Estimated population of the "city " by day, 283,520; by night, about 100,000 .Dec. " Metropolitan Poor act passed 29 Mch. 1867 Midland counties railway station opened 1 Oct. 1868 Meeting to relieve sufferers by South American earthquake (11.000/. collected) 13 oct. " Peabody gives another 100,000/. for London poor 5 Dec. " London Association for Prevention of Poverty and Crime founded 17 Dec. " Tolls on commercial roads, London, E., ceased 5 Aug. 1871 National thanksgiving for recovery of priuce of Wales; queen and prince go to St. Paul's 27 Feb. 1872 Forgery on Bank of England of 80,000/. detected Mch. 1873 First Hospital Sunday 15 June " First Hospital Saturday 17 Oct.' 1874 Freedom of city given to chief justice Cockburn (said to be the first case of the kind) 9 Mch. 1876 Public meeting at Mansion-house respecting atrocities in BuL garia (Turkey) 18 Sept. " Great Eastern street (Shoreditch to Old street) opened. .12 Oct. " Temple Bar removed 2-14 Jan. 1878 Great Eastern street completed and opened Aug. " Waterloo bridge opened toll-free 5 Oct. " City and Guilds of London Institute for Advancement of Technical Education organized 11 Nov. " City Church and Churchyard Protection Society formed.. Feb. 1879 New street, Shoreditch to Bethnal green opened (it completes direct road from Oxford street to Old ford) '.29 Mch. " Temple Bar memorial uncovered (Temple) 8 Nov. 1880 City of London college, near Moorgate street; foundation laid, 31 Mch. 1882 Attention to dwellings of "Outcast London " called by G. R. Sims's " How the Poor Live," etc autumn, 1883 Meeting at Mansion-house to raise 50,000/. to aid the Beau- mont legacy for an institution for instruction and recrea- tion of people of East end 14 Dec. " Remains of Roman architecture, etc., discovered by excava- tions in Bevis Marks, E.C Aug. 1884 Common council authorize low-level bridge between the Tower and Horsely-down, with lifting sections for passage of ships, cost about 750,000/ 24 Oct. " Tower Bridge act passed 14 Aug. 1885 Foundation-stone of Tower bridge laid by prince of Wales, 24 June, 1886 New City of London court opened by the lord mayor 6 Dec. 1888 Ball at the Mansion-house to celebiate the 700th anniversary of the mayoralty 29 Oct. 1889 Freedom of the city given to Henry M. Stanley .13 May, 1890 Excavations for the post office; discoveries of Roman remains, the town ditch, etc Sept. *' City and South London Electric railway opened by prince of Wales 4 Nov. " Corporation medal commemorating foundation of mayoralty in 1189 finished by Messrs. Kirkwood of Edinburgh Nov. " Serious difficulty of Messrs. Baring (liabilities 21,000,000/.) promptly assisted by Bank of England and by Bank of France; panic averted 8-15 Nov. " Telephone system, London and Paris, inaugurated 18 .Mch. 1891 Stuart Knill, Roman Catholic, elected lord mayor of London, 29 Sept. 1892 LoiKlon, Bishopric of, is said to have been founded in the reign of Lucius, about 179, Theanus first archbishop. Augustin made Canterbury the metropolitan see of England. Mellitus was bishop in 604. The see has given to the church of Rome 5 saints, and to the British realm 16 lord chancellors and lord treasurers. London bridge. One is said to have existed 978. A bridge built of wood, 1014, was partly burned in 1136. The late old bridge was commenced about 1176 by Peter of Cole- church, and completed in 1209, with houses on each side, connected together by arches of timber which crossed the street. At its gate-houses were exhibited the heads of trai- tors, etc., notably the head of sir William Wallace, 1305; Simon Frisel, 1306; 4 traitor knights, 1397; lord Bardolf, 1408; BolingbrokCj 1440; Jack Cade, 1451 ; Fisher, bishop of Rochester, 1535 ; sir Thomas More, 1535, and many others. Fire at the South wark end brought crowds on the bridge; houses at the north end caught fire and prevented escape, and 3000 persons were killed, burned, or drowned July, 1212 Bridge restored in 1300, again destroyed by flre in 1471; 13 Feb. 1632, and Sept. 1725 All houses pulled down 1766 Water- works begun, 1582 ; destroyed by flre 1774 Toll discontinued 27 Mch. 1782 In 1822 the corporation advertised for designs for a new bridge; that by John Rennie was approved, and the work executed by his sons John and George. The first pile was driven 200 feet west of the old bridge, 15 Mch. 1824; first stone laid by lord mayor, alderman Garratt 15 June, 1825 Bridge opened by William IV. and his queen 1 Aug. 1831 LON 464 London company. Virginia, 160G, 1609, 1612. London stone. A stone said to have been placed by the Romans in Cannon street, then the centre of the city, 16 B.O. London stone was known before William I. It was removed from the opjwsite side of the way in 1742, and again to its present position in the wall of St. Swithin's church, 1798. Against this stone Jack Cade struck his sword, ex- claiming, " Now is Mortimer lord of this city !" 1450. Londonderry or Derry, N. Ireland, mentioned 546. An abbey here was burned by the Danes in 783. A charter was granted to the London companies in 1615. The town was surprised, and sir George Powlett, the governor, and the entire garrison were put to the sword by rebels, in 1606. It was besieged by O'Neill in 1641. A grant was made of Derry, with 210,000 acres of land, to various companies in London, in 1619, when it took its present name. The siege of Derry by James II.'s army commenced 20 Apr. 1689. The garrison and inhabitants were driven to the extremity of fam- ine; but, under rev. George Walker, they defended it until the siege was raised by gen. Kirke, on 30 July. James's army, under the French general Kosen, retired with the loss of about 9000 men. Pop. 1891, 32,893. Lone §tar, a secret society formed in 1848, in Ala- bama and other southern states, for the " extension of the institutions, power, influence, and commerce of the United States over the whole of the western hemisphere, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans." The first acqui- sitions to be made by the order were Cuba and the Sandwich islands. Knights of the Golden Circle. Long House, a name given to the confederate Five Nations extending from Albany, N. Y., to lake Erie. The Mohawks, the most eastern tribe, were called the " eastern door," and the Senecas, the most western, the " western door." The Great Council House (the Long House proper) and fire was in the territory of the Onondagas, where the whole con- federacy would convene on business of importance. Long Island, Battle of, 27 Aug. 1776, between the British troops under sir William Howe, and the Americans, who suffered defeat, after a well-fought action, losing 500 men killed and wounded and 1000 prisoners. Under a fog Wash- ington crossed the East river before the British could take advantage of their victory. New York. Long Parliament met 3 Nov. 1640; was forcibly dissolved by Cromwell 20 Apr. 1653. longevity. Methuselah died aged 969, 3349 b.c. (Gen. V. 27). Golour M'Crain, of the isle of Jura, one of the Hebri- des, is mythically said to have kept 180 Christmases in his own house, and died in the reign of Charles I, — Greig. " In 1014 died Johannes de Temporibus, who lived 361 years (!)." — Slow. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel in 1635, and said to be in his 153d year and in perfect health ; he died 15 Nov. in the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried in Bolton churchyard, 6 Dec, aged 169 years (?). The researches of sir G. Cornewall Lewis, prof. Owen, Wm. J. Thorns (in his " Human Longevity," May, 1873), and others, have disproved many alleged cases of longevity ; and few state- ments of lives extending beyond a century can be relied on. There were no records of baptism till the 16th century. Died ALLEGED INSTANCES. Aged 1656. James Bowles, Killingworth 152 1691. Lady Eccleston, Ireland. 143 1759. James Sheil, Irish yeoman 136 1766. Col. Thomas Winslow, Ireland 146 1772. Mrs. Clum, Lichfield 138 1774. William Beeby, Dungarvon (an ensign who served at the battles of the Bovne and A ughrim) 130 1780. Robert MacBride, Herries 130 '• William Ellis, Liverpool 130 1785. Cardinal de Solis 110 1797. Charles Macklin, actor, London 107 1806. Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow 125 " Catherine Lopez, of Jamaica 134 1813. Mrs. Meighan, Donoughmore 130 1814. Mary Innes, isle of Skye 127 1816. Jane Lewson, Coldbath fields, Clerkenwell 116 1840. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, county of Kildare, 27 Aug 133 1853. Mary Power (aunt of rev. Lalor Sheil), Ursuline convent, Cork, 20 Mch 116 LON 1858. James Nolan. Knockardrane, Carlow ' 1874. Anthony Boresford (b. 8 Feb. 1772), d. at Alstonflold, 3 Mch. (authentic) ., 1875. Count .Jean Fred. Waldcck, painter; b. at Prague, 16 Mch. 1766; d. at Paris, 29 Apr " Jacob Wm. Liining, at Morden college \{ 1876. Madame Hulsenslein, said to have been maid oflwnor to the empre.ss Maria Theresa ij " Elizabeth Abbott, Ipswich, said to be l| 1877. Pleasance, widow of sir James E. Smith, botanist (b. 11 May, 1773; d. 3Feb.) ic " Eunice Bagster, wife of Samuel, Bible bookseller, London, 22 Aug 1^ 1878. Thomas Budgen, SpitalHelds, London, 4 Aug 1879. Jane Hooper, St. Pancras, London id " Rev. Canon Beadon, Stoneham l| " Margaret Crook, Durham 1880. Sarah Way, Bristol 104 and 9 montl] " Johannette Polack (b. at Genth), Wiesbaden, 101 and 5 montl 1881. Martha Gardner, Liverpool, 10 Mch 104 and 5 month " Fanny Bailey, Worthing, 6 Apr 103 and 6 month 1885. Sir Moses Mouteflore (b. 26 Oct. 1784) 100 and 9 moutl EXAMPLES FURNISHED BY DR. J. WEBSTER, F.R.8. Died Buried at 1652. Dr. W. Meade, Ware, Herts, Engl 14 1711. Mrs. Scrimshaw, Rosemary lane, London 1739. Margaret Patten, Christchurch, Westminster, London.... 1741. John Rovin, Temesvar, Hungary 1757. Alexander M'Cullough, Aberdeen, Scotland 1759. Donald Cameron, Rannach, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. 1763. Mrs. Taylor, Piccadilly, London 1766. John Mount, Langham, Dumfries, Scotland " John Hill, Leadhills, near Edinburgh, Scotland 1771. Mr. Whalley, Rotherhithe, London 1775. Widow Jones, Campbell 1780. Mr. Evans, Spitalflelds, London 1784. Mary Cameron, Braemar, Aberdeen, Scotland 1791. Archbd. Cameron, Keith, Aberdeenshire, Scotland... 1851. Jean Golembeski, Hotel des Invalides, Paris longevity in the United States. The census repo^ show the number of inhabitants 100 years of age and over] follows : Male. Female. 1850, pop. 23,191,876 {Ked:;;; i". i:;;; ! S Total. 1860, pop. 31,443,321. (White 385 j Colored 799 (Indians 49 430 1048 1478= 542 1141 37 .2556 1870, pop. 38,558,371. 1880, pop. 50,155,783. Total 1233 1720=2953; Native white 259 383 Foreign born white. . 135 187 Colored 885 1652 Indians 7 14 Total 1286 2236=3622 (Native white 237 355 \ Foreign born white. . 156 207 (Colored 1016 2045 Total 1409 2607=4016 [Note.— The Census Bureau not being ready to furnish the sta- tistics on longevity for 1890 at the time of going to press, an ap- proximate estimate is given of the total number of inhabitants 100 years of age and over for 1890 as between 4500 and 4600.] Joseph Crele, said to have been born in Detroit, Mich., in 1725, died in Caledonia, Wis., 27 Jan. 1866, the oldest man known to have lived in America. The record of his baptism is shown in the French Catholic church at Detroit. He married his first wife in 1756, and was married twice afterwards. By his third wife he had a daughter born when he was 69 years of age. RECENT CASES. Aged Gabriel, the famous mission Indian, Salinas, Cal 151 (?) Mrs. Eva B. Hart, near Syracuse, N. Y 113 Nancy Britt Kennedy, Augusta, Me., reported 118 " Archibald Andrews, Hillsboro, N.C., oldest man in the state 107 " Mary O'Connor, Elizabeth, N. J lOi " Mrs. Phoebe Campbell, Dexter, Me 102 " Col. Whitney, Franklin Grove, III. (one of the oldest mem- bers of the Masons in the world) lOf, " Nathan L. Fisk, St. Croix Falls, Wis. (school-mate of pres. i Pierce) 10( " Elizabeth M. Proctor, Salem, Mass 10< 1892. John Reese, Bolivar, Pa. (the oldest iron-worker in the U.S.)..... iw " Keziah Randall, Mattaponsett, Mass 10." " Mrs. Sarah Shepard, Brazil, Ind 10' longitude (Lat. hngitmlino, from longus, long, distant on the surface of the earth measured east or west from a certaii meridian). To the ancient Greeks, confined between the coI( north and the heat of the tropical south, the habitable earti seemed to extend limitlessly east and west. Hence they consid ered the earth as a plain extending in length east and west, ani Died 1890. 1891. LON 455 LOT in breadth north and south ; and the conception remains to us in the terms longitude and latitude. Longitude first determined by Hipparchus, at Nice, who fixed the first degree in the Ca- naries, 162 B.C. The lines of longitude are termed meridians, because every point along each of them has its midday meridies at the same moment. These imaginary lines, by crossing the equator and passing through both poles, divide the earth into an eastern and a western hemisphere, and the distances be- tween them are measured by degrees, each ^\^ part of the circumference. A degree of longitude at the equator is 69 statute miles, and narrows at the poles to 0. Each degree represents 4 minutes of time, so that difference in longitude is easily determined from difference in time. Globe, Harki- son's timepiece, Latitude, Maps. Long^obar'cli. Lombardy. Llace, day and night, at the western door of St. Paul's cathedral; it contained 40,000 "lots" at 10«. each lot; profits were for repairing the harbors; the prizes were pieces of plate, 11 Jan. -6 May, 1569 In great favor in France during reign of Louis XllI 1610 et seq. l,ottery, granted by James 1. of Kugland in favor of the colo- ny of Virginia (prizes, pieces of plate), drawn near St. Paul's. 29 June-20 July, 1612 First lottery in F.ngland for sums of money took place 1630 Lotteries established in Kugland (for more than 130 years yielded a large annual revenue to the crown 1693 Lotteries sanctioned by edicts, Louis XIV. of France 1700 [This greatly increased private lotteries.] Ix>tteries prohibited by poi>e Benedict Xlll 1724-30 Lotteries sanctioned by pope Clement XII 1730-40 Lottery for the British museum 1753 Cox's museum, London, conUining many rare specimens of art, disposed of by lottery 1773 An act passed for the sale of the buildings of the Adelphi, London, by lottery 16 June, " [During this period lotteries became.very popular in France, and gradually assumed an important place in the govern- ment finance; although protested against, they had the sup- port of Mazarin and Pontchartrain, and thus raised the ex- penses of the war of the Spanish Succession. During this period there were lotteries for the benefit of religious com- munities and charity.] To replace all private lotteries in France, the Royal lottery (Loterie Royale) was established by the famous decree of 30 June, 1776 French convention abolished lotteries 12 Nov. 1793 Restored them in part 18 Apr. 1794 Restored them fully 1 Oct. 1797 Lottery for the Pigott diamond permitted in England, 2 Jan. 1801; it sold at Christie's auction for 9500 guineas, 10 May, 1802 For the collection of pictures of alderman Boydell, by act 1804-5 Lotteries abolished, 6 Geo. IV. c. 60, Oct. ; last drawn. . .18 Oct. 1826 Act passed declaring that the then pending Glasgow lottery should be the last 1834 Act passed imposing a penalty of 50Z. for advertising lotteries in the newspapers 1836 Lotteries partly suppressed in France, 1832; wholly so " Lotteries for the assistance of charity and the fine arts, how- ever, can be held in France under the law of. 29 May, 1844 Mr. Dethierss twelfth-cake lottery, Argyll-rooms, Hanover square, London, suppressed 27 Dec. 1860 Twelve million national lottery tickets of one franc each, sold at Paris to pay for prizes to exhibitors, and expenses of working-men visitors, 1878; 1st prize worth 5000Z., 2d, 4000^., 3d and 4th 20001. ; total 230,000 rewards; drawing began, 26 Jan. 1879 M. de Lesseps proposes a lottery loan for the purpose of raising funds for the Panama canal Jan. 1888 Paniima Lottery Loan bill passed the French deputies, 28 Apr., the .senate, 5 June; retarded and stopped July et seq. " Louisiana State lottery was chartered in 1868 and established in New Orleans, to run 25 years from 1 Jan. 1869, and to pay $40,000 a year to charity. The ex confederate gens. Beauregard and Early were paid $10,000 a year for the use of their names. After a protracted struggle against the moral sentiment of the country and the post-office, which refused in 1885 to deliver its mails, etc., it was finally driven from the city and state. Its prosperity was at its height from 1876-82. It is supposed to have collected from the people $300,000,000. IOtll§, a prickly shrub or tree from 15 to 20 feet high (the jujube-tree), bearing a fruit of a sweet taste, mentioned by Herodotus. Extravagant tales were current among the Greeks of the marvellous power of the lotus; thus Ulysses narrates : " Whoever tasted once of that sweet food Wished not to see his native country more. Nor give his friends the knowledge of his fate." —Homer, "Odyssey," ix. 116-18 (Bryant's transl). And Tennyson : " The mild eyed, melancholy lotus-eaters came. Branches they bore of that enchanted stem. Laden with flower and fruit, whereof they gave To each, but whoso did receive of them, And taste, to him the gushing of the wave Far far away did seem to mourn and rave On alien shores." — "The Lotos- Eaters." This must not be confounded with the Egyptian plant that grows in the Nile. LiOUisburg, a French fortress on the island of cape Breton, gulf of St. Lawrence; built by the French, 1713; capt- ured by the colonists, 1745-58. French in America, Mas- sachusetts. lOUii-d'or, a French gold coin of 24 francs, first struck by Louis XIII. in 1640; it was not legal, 1795-1814; super- seded by the napoleon, 1810. IjOUisiaiia, the central gulf state of the United State has for its southern boundary the gulf of Mexico, and sout of 31° N. it extends from t\M Sabine river on the west to th Pearl river on the east, abo 250 miles. North of 31° }■ lat. its eastern boundary is th Mississippi river, which scp arates it from Mississippi, an the Sabine river and Tex form its western boundarj^ That portion of the state ly ing east of the Mississippi rive is bounded on the north b the state of Mississippi, am that west of the Mississipp river by Arkansas. Its lat. is 28° 56' to 33° N., and Ion. 89 to 94° W. Area, 45,420 sq. miles, in 99 parishes; pop. 189^ per cent, for 5 years, 3 per cent, for 15 years, : and 4 per cent, thereafter, and limit of state tax fixed at 6 mills, ratified by the people at the election 8 Dec. " ureau of Agriculture and Immigration created 14 Jan. 1880 Board of Liquidation" appointed in New Orleans, to retire •all the valid debt of the city, a total of $17,736,508.96, ex- changing it for 4 per cent, bonds payable in 50 years " niversity for the higher education of colored boys opened " ■atli of gov. Wiltz, lieut.-gov; McEnery succeeds 17 Oct. 1881 111 begun against Louisiana by New York and New Hamp- • shire on coupons on Louisiana state bonds transferred to ■these states by the holders thereof " vo hundredth anniversary of the discovery of the mouths of the Mississippi by La SaUe 10 Apr. 1882 LOU Chief-justice Waite renders his decision in the New York and New Hampshire suits against Louisiana, that " one state can- not create a controversy with another state within the mean- ing of that term as used in the judicial clauses of the Consti- tution, by assuming the prosecution of debts owing by other states to its citizens" 5 Mch. 1883 Levee convention held at Baton Rouge, recommending placing the entire convict force at work on the levees 19 June, " World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition held at New Orleans 1885 First Prohibition convention ever held in Louisiana meets at Shreveport 19 Aug. " North, Central, and South American Exposition opens, 10 Nov. " Legislature grants relief to wounded and disabled Confederate soldiers of the state, and to the widows of Confederate sol- diers killed or wounded in the war 1886 Charter of the Louisiana State lottery expiring in 1894, the anti-lottery people, in convention at New Orleans, found an anti -lottery league to oppose its renewal 28 Feb. 1890 Louisiana Lottery company offers the state $1,000,000 per year, double its former offer, for the privilege of maintain- ing a lottery 13 May, '« House of Delegates passes a bill amending the state constitu- tion, by granting a re charter to the Louisiana State Lottery company for 25 years for $1,000,000 per annum 25 June, •' State legislature settles the lottery question conditionally by ac- cepting $1,250,000 per year for the lottery privilege. .1 July, " Gov. Nicholls vetoes the lottery bill 7 July, " Anti-lottery league meets in New Orleans— 500 delegates, 7 Aug. " Chief of police David C. Hennessy of New Orleans is waylaid and killed by Italian "Maffia," to whose band he had traced a number of crimes night of 15 Oct. " Killing in the parish prison at New Orleans of 11 Italians (Massacres, United States) 14 Mch. 1891 Officers of the Louisiana lottery indicted by the grand jury in Sioux Falls, N. D., under U. S. laws 23 Oct. " John A. Morris, in a letter, withdraws his proposition for the renewal of the charter of the Louisiana lottery" 4 Feb. 1892 Convention of United Confederate Veterans meets in New Orleans 8 Apr. " Proposed constitutional amendment to continue the Louisiana State lottery for 25 years from 1 Jan. 1894, is rejected by vote at state election (Lotteries) 19 Apr. " Monument erected to David C. Hennessy (assassinated by Mafla in 1890) by the people of New Orleans, is unveiled at Metarie cemetery 30 May, " Nicaragua Canal convention opens in New Orleans; delegates from every state and territory 30 Nov. " U. S. senator Randall L. Gibson d. at Hot Springs, Ark., 15 Dec. «' Donaldson Caffrey appointed by gov. Foster U. S. senator to fill unexpired term 31 Dec. •' 6en. P. G. T. Beauregard d. in New Orleans, aged 75 years, 20 Feb. 1893 Destructive cyclone along the gulf of Mexico; over 2000 lives lost 2 Oct. " U. S. senator Edward D. White appointed associate justice of the Supreme court of the U. S 19 Feb. 1894 Newton C. Blanchard, member of Congress, appointed senator by gov. Foster to fill the unexpired term of White 7 Mch. " TERRITORIAL GOVERNOR. Wm. C. C. Claiborne. . . 1804 to 1812 STATE GOVERNORS. Wm. C. C. Claiborne... James Viller6 Thos. B. Robertson H. S. Thibodeaux Henry Johnson Pierre Derbigny A. Beauvais Jacques Dupr6 Andr6 B. Roman Edward D. White Andr6 B. Roman Alexander Mouton Isaac Johnson Joseph Walker Paul 0. Hebert Robert C. Wickliffe Thos. 0. Moore Michael Hahn Henry F. Allen James M. Wells B. F. Flanders Henry C. Warmouth. . . Wm. Pitt Kellogg John McEnery Francis T. Nicholls Louis Alfred Wiltz Samuel D. McEnery. . . Francis T. Nicholls Murphy J. Foster 1812 to 1816 1 1816 ' 1820 1820 " 1824 1824 1824 to 1828 1828 ' 1829 1829 ' 1830 1830 " 1831 1831 " 1834 1834 " 1838 1838 " 1841 1841 " 1845 1845 " 1850 1850 " 1854 1854 " 1858 1858 " 1860 1860 " 1863 1864 1864 1864 to 1867 1867 ' 1868 1868 ' 1872 1872 ' 1877 1872 " 1877 1877 " 1880 1880 " 1881 1881 " 1888 1888 " 1892 1892 " 1896 Resigns. Acting. Dies in office. Acting. Confederate governor. [Governor of New Orleans [ and vicinity (Federal). ( Governor of Confederate [ portion. Not recognized by Congress. ; Military governor appointed [ by gen. Sheridan. De facto. Democratic claimant. See this record, 1877. Dies in office. Acting. Elected 1884. LOU 460 LUD UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF LOUISIANA. Nun*. No. of ConxreM. Dkt«. Remark.. ^ 12th 12th to 14th 12th 13th to 15th 15th " 18th 16th " 18th 18th " 20th 18th " 23d 2l8t "22d 22d 23d to 24th 24th " 27 th 24th " 26th 27th 27th to 29th 28th 28th to 30th 29th 30th to 32d 3l8t "32d 33d "36th 33d " 36th 36th " 40th 40th 40th to 42d 42d "45th 45th " 4fith 45th " 48th 4fith "48th 48th " 52d 49th " 51st 52d " 53d 52d 53d 1812 1813 to 1817 1812 1813 to 1819 1818 " 1824 1819 " 1823 1824 " 1829 1824 " 1833 1829 " 1831 1832 1834 to 1837 1837 " 1842 1836 " 1841 1842 " 1843 1841 " 1846 1843 " 1844 1844 " 1849 1847 1847 to 1853 1849 " 1853 1853 " 1861 1853 " 1861 1861 " 1868 1868 1868 to 1872 1871 " 1877 1877 " 1879 1877 " 1883 1879 " 1885 1883 " 1892 1885 " 1891 1891 "1894 1893 1894 (Appointed in idace of John Noel Destrahan, who resigned in 181 ( never having t^iken his seat. Elected in place of Destrahan. James Brown Hfiury JohusoD Resigned. Resigned, being appointed minister to France. Jaui6s Browu Domiuiuuo Bouligny Died, 1833. Resigned. Elected in place of Livingston. Elected in place of Johnston. Resigned 1837. Alexander Porter Alexander Mouton Elected in place of Porter. Resigned 1842. ~ Robert C Nicholas Charles M Conrad Elected in place of Mouton. Died 1846. Died 1844. Pierre Soul^ {soo-ld') Elected in place of Barrow. Solomon W Downs. Pierre Soul6 Resigned, being appointed minister to Spain by pres. PiercQu Judah P Benjamin Retired from the senate. i John Slidell Vacant. Seated 17 July. - William Pitt Kellogg. Seated 17 July. Resigned for governorship. ] J Rodman West The only senator from Louisiana from 1872 to 1877. James B Eustis William Pitt Kellogg «' Beniamin F Jones. , 'Rnn LUN 461 LYD aachinery, Nov. 1811. Skirmish with the militarj' there, 29 an. 1812. Serious riots occurred again in 1814, and bodies f unemployed artisans committed excesses in 1816 et seq. leveral Luddites were tried and executed, 1813 and 1818. )erby. lunatiCi. Insanity. Liiindy's L., and rebuilt in the reign of Nero. It wa free city till its union with France in 1307. Pop. 1891, 416,0 Battle near Lyons; Clodius Albinus defeated and slain by Sep- timius Severus 19 Feb. Two general councils held here (13th and 14th) 1245, Silk manufacture commenced Lyons taken by republicans after 70 days' siege, 9 Oct. ; awful pillage and slaughter follow ; convention decreed demolition of city 12 Oct. Capitulated to Austrians Mch. Railway to Paris opened 7 Apr. lyre. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Hei (the Roman Mercury), who, according to Homer, gave it Apollo, the first that played it with method, and accorapan it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre, wit strings, is ascribed to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpan added several strings to the lyre, making 7, 673 b.c. Ph: of Mitylene added 2 more, making 9, 438 b.c. M M, the 13th letter of the English alphabet, the 12th of the Latin and Greek. As an initial, M is used for master, merid- iem, medicine, mundi, member— as M.A., Magister Artium (master of arts); A.M., Anti Meridiem (before noon); P.M., Post Meridiem (after noon); A.M., Anno Mundi (year of the world) ; M.D., Medidnas Doctor ; M.C., member of Con- gress; M.P., member of Parliament. Also, as a symbol of numbers, M. indicates 1000, M. 1,000,000. macadam 'izing^, a system of road-making which John Loudon Macadam (b. Scotland, 1756 ; d. 1836) devised, and described in an essay in 1819, having practised it in Ayr- shire, Scotland. He used stones broken to 6 ounces' weight, recommending clean flints and granite clippings. He received 10,000/. from Parliament ; and in 1827 was appointed surveyor- general of the metropolitan roads. Roads. nfcAlliiter, Fort. Fort McAllistkr. maca'O, a seaport town of Quang-tong, S. China, was ceded by China to Portugal as a commercial station in 1586 (in return for assistance against pirates), subject to an annual tribute, remitted in 1863. Here Caraoens composed part of the " LusiAD." " macaro'ni." A name given to a poem by The- ophilus Folengo, 1509, and still applied to trifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, anagrams, " wit without wisdom, and hu- mor without sense." The name was taken from a preparation of wheat, native to Italy, where it is an article of food of na- tional importance. These poems, in Italy and France, gave rise to Macaroni academies, and in England to Macaroni clubs (about 1772), when everything ridiculous in dress and manners was called " Macaroni." ]?Iae'cabee§, a name of the Asmonaeans, whose career began during the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 b.c. Mattathias, a priest, resisted the tyrant ; and his son, Judas Maccabaeus, defeated the Sj'rians in 3 battles, 166, 165 b.c. ; but fell in an ambush, 161 B.C. His brother Jonathan made ,a league with the Romans and Lacedaemonians, and after an 'able administration was treacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, 143 b.c. His brother and successor, Simon, was murdered, 135 b.c. John HjTcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called also Aristobulus, took the title of king, 107 B.C. The history of the Maccabees fills 5 books of that name, 2 of which are included in our Apocrypha. 4 are ac- counted canonical by the Roman Catholic church ; none by Protestant communions. McCrea, Jane, Murder of. New York, 1777. McDoirell, Va. Here on 8 May, 1862, Stonewall Jackson attacked gen. Schenck. The federals retreated ing the night, loss 256 ; confederates, 461. mace, a weapon anciently used by cavalry of most 1 tions, originally a spiked club, usually of metal, hung at thoi saddle-bow. — The mace, an ensign of authority, borne beforrmed into the Latin kingdom of Thessalonica, by Boniface |of Montferrat 1204 iter various changes, conquered bv Amurath II., and annexed |to Turkey 1430 [IVIacedo'llians, a religious sect, followers of Mace- nius, made bishop of Constantinople about 341. His ap- lintment was opposed and led to much bloodshed. He was : pelled by decree of a council held 860. He held that the oly Ghost was not a distinct person of the Trinity, but a yine spirit or energy diffused through the universe.— £"06?^^. iso natives or inhabitants of Macedonia. "McFingal," the title of a political satire by John umbuU. Literature, American. jMcHenry, Fort. Fort McHenry. rMacliiaveliaii principles, taught by Niccoio ichiavelli of Florence (b. 1493, d. 1527), in his " Practice ^Politics" and "The Prince." By some they are styled |he most pernicious maxims of government, founded on the 'est policy;" by others as "sound doctrines, notwithstand- '? the prejudice erroneously raised against them." The au- MAD thor said that if he taught princes to be tyrants, he also taught the people to destroy tyrants. " The Prince " ap- peared at Rome in 1532, and was translated into English in 1761. Iflacieowice {mats-ya-o-veet'sa), a town near Warsaw, Poland. Here the Poles were defeated by the Russians, and their general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, 10 Oct. 1794, after a murderous action. He endeavored to prevent the junction of the Russian and Austrian armies. The statement that he said " Finis Poloniae ! " is contradicted. Hack'inaw, Fort. Fort Mackinaw. Hadagas'car, southeast coast of Africa. The third largest island in the world, not including Australia. Distance from Africa, 230 miles; length, 975 miles; breadth, 358 miles; area, 228,500 sq. miles; pop. estimated, 3,500,000 (no census ever taken). Said to have been discovered by Lorenzo Al- meida, 1506. Portuguese settlement, 1548; destroyed by the French one, 1642, on arrival of a French governor .' 1669 French attempt to settle at Antongel bay ] 1774 Count Benyowski supreme, Oct. 1775; killed in an encounter with French 23 May, 1786 Their establishment at fort Dauphin fell into the hands of the English with Bourbon and Mauritius 1810-11 Settlements ceded to king Radama, on his giving up the slave- trade ^ 1818 Radama I. king, 1810, who favored Europeans and encouraged Christianity ; d i828 A reactionary policy under his energetic queen, Ranavalona, 1828; English missionaries who came in 1820 expelled 1835 Amicable intercourse ceases; native Christians persecuted, 1846etseq. French defeated in an attack on the island 19 Oct. 1855 Queen dies; her son Radama II., a Christian, succeeds. 23 Aug. 1861 Treaty with Great Britain and France signed 12 Sept. 1862 Revolution; king and ministers assassinated; queen Rasoherina proclaimed sovereign May 1863 Treaty with Great Britain; Christians to be tolerated, etc' 27 June. 1865; ratified 5 July' 1866 Queen died in Mch. ; her cousin, Ranavalona II. succeeded as queen, 1 Apr. 1868; baptized Feb. 1869 African slavery prohibited, 1873 ; solemnly June, 1877 Queen Ranavalona II. d 13 July, 1883 Succeeded by her niece Ranavalona III July " Treaty with France 12 Dec! 1885 Protectorate of France recognized by Great Britain by Anglo- French agreement of .5 Aug. 1890 [Native government retains independence in domestic leg- islation.] madder, the root of the Ruhia tinctoria, highly valued for dyeing properties. Alizaiiine. ' madei'ra, an island, northwest coast of Africa, discov- ered, it is said, in 1344, by Macham, an Englishman, who fled from France for an illicit amour. He was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, he made a canoe, and carried news of his discovery to Pedro, king of Aragon : hence the report that the island was discovered by a Portuguese, 1345. It is asserted that Portuguese did not visit this island until 1419 or 1420, nor colonize it until 1431. It was taken by British in July, 1801 ; and again by adm. Hood and gen. Beresford, 24 Dec. 1807, and retained in trust for the royal family of Portugal, who had emigrated to the Brazils. It was restored to the Portuguese in 1814. After 1852 the renowned vintages were almost ruined by the vine disease (oidium), but of late years the vineyartis have recovered much of their former prosperity. Area, 605 sq, miles. Pop. 1872, 120,315; 1881, 132,223. madison, James, Administration of. United States, 1809-17. ]fladra§', province and city of S.E. Hindostan, called by natives Chennapatam, colonized by the P^nglish, 1640. Area of province, 140,762 sq. miles. Pop. 1891, 35,591,440; citj^, 449,950. Fort St. George built, 1641 ; made a presidency 1653 Bengal placed under Madras 1658 Calcutta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, made a presidency.. 1701 Madras taken by the French -. 14 Sept. 1746 Restored to the English 1749 Vainly besieged by the French under Lally 12 Dec. 1758 Lord Pigot, governor, imprisoned by his own council, 24 Aug. 1776; dies in confinement. 17 Apr. 1777; his enemies con- victed and fined lOOOZ. each 11 Feb. 1780 Sir Eyre Coote arrives 5 Nov. " He defeats Hyder 1 July, 1781 Lord Cornwallis arrives here 12 Dec. 1790 MAD Madras system of education introduced (Monitorial) 1795 Gen. Harris, with Madras array, enters Mysore, 5 Mch. ; reaches Soringapatam, 5 Apr, which is stormed by British under m^jorgen. Baird. and Tippoo Sahib killed 4 May, 1799 Appointment of sir Thomas Strange, Qrst judge of Madras under the charter. 20 Dec. 1800 Madras army, under gen. Arthur Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wellington), marches for Poonah (India) Mch. 1803 madrid', capital of Spain, mentioned in history as Ma- jerit, a Moorish castle. Pop. 1857, 271,254; 1870, 332,024; 1877, 397,690; 1887, 472,228. Spain. Sacked by the Moors 1190 Fortified bv Henry 111 about 1400 Humiliating treatv of .Madrid between Charles V. and Francis I., his prisoner." 14 Jan. 1526 Made the seat of the Spanish court by Philip II 1560 niad'rigal, an unaccompanied song for 3 or more voices; fine examples are by English composers. Madrigals, invented in the Netherlands, were adopted in Italy, where fine specimens were produced. Many were published by Mor- ley, 1594; Weelkes, 1597; VVilbye, 1598; and Bennet, 1599. The Madrigal Society in London began in 1741. English Glee and Madrigal Union founded in 1851. Rirabault's " Bib- liotheca Madrigalium" pub.1847. The madrigal, "Summer is i cumen in," is attributed to the 13th or 14th century. Music. maeii'adcs. Okgiks. Maestricllt {mds'-trikt'), Holland, the ancient Trajec- tum ad Mosavi, the capital of Limburg. It revolted from Spain, and was taken by the prince of Parma in 1579, a mas- sacre following. In 1632 the prince of Orange reduced it after a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648 ; Louis XIV. took it in 1673 ; William, prince of Orange, in- vested it in vain in 1676 ; but in 1678 it was restored to the DutL'h. In 1748 it was besieged by French, who obtained possession of the city on condition of its being restored at the peace then negotiating. In Feb. 1793, Maestricht was unsuc- cessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters of it Nov. 1794. In 1814, it was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and now belongs to Holland. Pop. 1890, 32,225. mafH'a, a secret terrorist murderous society in Sicily, more powerful than the Camorra (Italy, 1874), comprising persons of all classes ; became prominent in 1860. Efforts for its suppression were made by the government in 1874-75. Massacres, 1890-91; United States. magazine rifle. Fire-arms. inagazilie§ and revieiW§. The earliest were lit- erary miscellanies periodically published, but now there are special ones in every department of knowledge. The fol- lowing table of the principal magazines and reviews in the United States since 1741 gives the dates of first and last pub- lication, if known ; those still in existence are marked with an obelisk (f). AMERICAN magazines AND REVIEWS. 464 MAG AMERICiVN MAGAZINES ANI> REVIEWS.— (ConrtnMed.) Magazii General Mag. and Hist. Chron- icle (A. S. Bradford, pub.), Phila [First pub. in the colonies.] Boston Weekly Amer. Mag. and Hist. Chron- ) icle (Daniel Fowle & G. Rog- J ers, pub. ), Boston ) N. Y. Independent Reflector.. . . New Engl. Mag. of Knowledge J and Pleasure, Boston j North A merican Royal American, Boston [First illustrated.] Pennsylvania (Thomas Paine,) ed), Phila f The Columbian, Phila Amer. Museum (Gary's). Phila., The Massachusetts, Boston The New York Mag. and Lit. ) Repository j The Ladies', Phila Farmers' Museum The United States Theological Magazine The American Universal The Philadelphia Amer. Monthly Review [First in the U.S.] Commence- meiit and continuance. 1741 [6noB. pub.] 1743-46 1752-54 1758 1758-66 1774 [6 months.] 1775-76 1786-89 1787-97 1789-96 1790-97 1793 1793-99 1796 1796-98 1797 1798 1799 Magaxinet. The Portfolio (Joseph Dennie, ) 1st ed.), Phila ) [Principal magazine during these years. ] The Literary (Charles Brock-) den Brown, ed.), Phila ) The Monthly Anthology, Boston The Monthly Register (S. C. " Carpenter, 1st ed.), Charles- ton, S. C [First magazine south.] The Panoplist, Boston The Churchman (John H. Ho-] hurt, ed.) J The Rambler, New York Literary Miscellany, New York Niles's Register, Baltimore . . Analectic (Washington Irv- ing, 1st ed.), Phila The Portico, Baltimore The Methodist (see quarterly, \ 1841) I The Amer. Jour, of Science ) (Silliman's), New York ) The Lady's Companion The Casket, Phila. (see Gra-) ham's, 1841) / The Atlantic [Afterwards the N. Y. Rev.] Biblical Repertory (see Prince- ton Review, 1871) The Boston Monthly The Parthenon (Sam'I Wood-1 worth, ed.) J Reviews. Amer. Review (Robt.) Walsh, ed.) ) [Quarterly ; first in the U. S.] North American (Will) iam Tudor, 1st ed.)..) Ballou's, Boston. Illinois Monthly (James Hall, ) 1st ed.), Vandalia J [First magazine in the west.] Godey's Lady's Book, Phila.. . . New England (Jos. T. Buck-) ingham, ed.), Boston ) Western Monthly (Jas. Hall, ) ed.), Cincinnati, O ) [Successor to the Illinois Monthly.] Knickerbocker (Chas. F. Hoflf- ) man, 1st ed.), New York. . . | [This was the first definite American magazine.] American Monthly (H. W. ) Herbert, 1st ed.). New York ] Southern Literary Messenger, ) Richmond ] Southern Literary Journal, ) Charleston, S. C j Gentleman's Magazine (W. E. ) Burton, ed), Phila j Hesperian, Columbus, 0. Merchants (Freeman Hunt,) 1st ed.), New York f The Dial (Sarah Margaret Ful- 1 ler, 1st ed.), Boston ) [Quarterly.] Arcturus, New York Graham's, Phila. (succeeds) the Casket) ) [For a time the most popu- lar magazine in the U. S., with a circulation of 35,000 copies.] Ladies' Repository (L. L. Ham- ) line, 1st ed.), Cincinnati, 0. ) [Continued as The National Repository,] The N. Y. Rev (Will-) iam C. Bryant, ed.)} [Succeeds The At- lantic] Franklin Institute ) Journal, Phila ( Amer.Quar. Rev., Phila. Sou them , Charleston , S.C Democratic Review, \ Wash. andN. Y.... ) [During this period it appeared under sev- eral names.] Boston Quarterly (see 1 Brownson's, 1844).. ) Methodist Quarterly) (see Methodist Re- [ view, 1885) ) ft MAG AMERICAN MAGAZINES AND REVIEWS. — (Continued.) 465 Ma^^tusines. Magnolia, Charleston, S. C Ladies' Garland and Dollar] Magazine, Phila J The Pioneer (Jas. R. Lowell, | ed.), Boston ) Littell's Living Age, Boston. [Weekly.] Eclectic, New York Bankers', New York., Literary "World, New York. . . New England Historical and Genealogical Register, The Union, Phila Sartains, Phila [Formerly the Union.] International, New York ; Harper's Monthly, New York. ' [First of the illus. mags.] Putnam's xMonthly, New York Atlantic Monthly (Phillips, I Sampson & Co. , 1st pub. ; J. R. Lowell, 1st ed.), Boston. Hist. Mag. (Dawson's), Boston, and Morrisania, N. Y Commence- ment and continuance. New Englander, New) Haven ) Brownson'sQuarterly ^ Rev. (see Boston [ Quarterly, 183«) . . . ) Whig Rev., New York. De Bow's Review,) New Orleans J Massachusetts Quar.. . Catholic World, New York. The Galaxy, New York American Naturalist, Phila . Lippincott's, Phila Overland Monthly (Francis) Bret Harte, 1st ed.), SanV I Francisco ) S Lake Side Monthly, Chicago. , . (Eclectic English Mag. (Van) j Nostrand's), New York j iOld and New, Boston I Literary World, Boston IScribner's Monthly (J. G. HolO land, 1st ed. ), New York. . . f [See Century, 1881, and Scribner's Magazine, 1887.] [Pop. Science Monthly, N. Y. iSt. Nicholas, New York I Wide Awake, Boston i Library Journal, New York. iMag. of Amer. Hist., New York. I Magazine of Art, New York '|The Dial, Chicago The Chautauquan, Meadville, ] The Century, New York [Succeeds the Scribner's Monthly.] The Critic, New York Outing, New York Continental, Baltimore Science, New York New England, Boston iJosmopolitan, New York. |?cribner's, New York , [See Scribner's Monthly, j 1870.] itfunsey's. New York The Arena, Boston P< tenon's, Philadelphia. National Quar. , N. Y. . . Boston Baptist Quar. , Phila, Princeton Review [See Biblical Rep ertory, 1825.] International Rev., N.Y Amer. Catholic Quar- terly, Phila Baptist Review, Cin- cinnati and N. Y.. Andover Rev MethodistReview(see ) Methodist Quarter- S ly, 1841) ) The Forum, New York Review of Reviews, ) New York j Educational Rev., N. Y The World, Boston . . . , 1842 1842 1843 [3 nos. iisued.] 1843 1 1844 1 1844 1 1844-75 1845-52 1846 1 1847-50 1847-53 1847 1 1847 1849-53 1850-52 1850 1 1853-57 1868-70 1857 1 1857-75 1860-80 1861-66 1865 1 1866-78 1867-77 1867 1 1868 1 1868-75 [Ist series.] 1883 1 [2d series.] 1869-74 1869-86 1870-75 1870 t 1870-81 [Ist series.] 1871-88 1872 1 1873 1 1874-83 1876-93 1876 1 1876 1 1877-93 1878 1879 1 1880 1 1880 1 1881 1 1881 1 1882 1 1883 1 1883 1 1884 1 1885 1 1886 1 1886 1 1886 1 1887 1 1889 1 1889 1 1890 1 1891 1 1892 1 1892 1 [New series.] MAG ENGLISH MAGAZINES AND REVIEWS. Magazines, Gentleman's, London [First mag. pub. in Engl. London Scot's, Edinburgh Royal Lady's Methodist (Wesleyan), London. European Monthly Entertaining Magazine New Monthly, London Blackwood's, Edinburgh, re- printed in the U. S Fraser's, London Metropolitan, London Penny, London Tait's, Edinburgh Cornhill, Lond(5n Macmillan's, London. Good Words, London. The Argosy, London, , Belgravia, London. St. Paul, London , . Cassell's Mag. of Art, London , Antiquary, London , Longman's, London English Illustrated, London. Murray's, London Strand, London Monthly Review, Lond. Critical, London Edinburgh, reprinted) in the U. S ] Eclectic, London Quarterly, Lond., re-) printed in the U. S. ) Westm i nster, London , ) reprinted in U. S.. j Athenaeum, London . . . Dublin ., North British, Edinb.. British Quar, London. Saturday National, London Contemporary, Lond., ) reprinted in U. S.. I The Spectator (a re- view from) Fortnightly, London,! reprinted in U. S.. j Academy, London Nineteenth Century,) reprinted in U. S.. j Scottish, reprinted inl U.S I Commence- ment and continuance. 1731 1 1732 1739-1826 1749-1845 1759-1817 1759 1772 1778 1 1782 1796 1802 1 1805-68 1809 1 1812 1814-83 1817 1 1824 1 1828 1 1830-82 1831 1832-46 1832-61 1836 1 1844-71 1845-86 1855 1 (1855-64 (1883 t 1859 1 1859 1 1860 1 1860 1 1861 1 1865 1 1865 1 1866 1 1867-74 1869 1 1877 1 1878 1 1880 1 1882 1 1882 1 1883 1 1887 1 1891 1 ]flag['dala. Abyssinia. Mag^dalens and lHag^dalenettes, communities of nuns, chiefly penitent courtesans. The order of penitents of St. Magdalen was founded 1272, at JMarseilles. The con- vent of Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, 1324. That at IVIetz was instituted in 1452.* At Paris, 1492. The Mag- dalen at Rome was endowed by pope Leo X., in 1515, and favored by Clement VIII. in 1594. The Magdalen Hospital, London, was founded in 1758, under direction of dr. Dodd. The asylum in Dublin was opened in June, 1766. ]IIag['d[e1>1irg, a city of Prussia. The archbishopric was founded about 967. The cit}- suflFered much by the re- ligious wars in Germany. It was besieged and taken by elector Maurice, Nov. 1550, and Nov. 1551 ; blockaded for 7 months by imperialists, under Wallenstein, 1629; and bar- barously sacked by Tilly, 10 May, 1631. It was given to Brandenburg, 1648 ; taken by the 'French, 8 Nov. 1806 ; an- nexed to the kingdom of Westphalia, 9 July, 1807 ; restored to Prussia, May, 1813. Pop. 1890, 202,234. In Magdeburg experiment, a hollow sphere, composed of 2 hemi- spheres, fitting air-tight, is exhausted by the air-pump. The hemispheres are held together by the pressure of the atmosphere, and require great force to separate them. The apparatus was suggested by Otto von Guericke, inventor of the air-pump. He died in 1686.— Grande. mag'ellan, Strait of (connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans), and separating Patagonia from Terra del Fuego. America. Ulag'eil'ta, a small town in Lombardy, near which the French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians, 4 June, 1859. MAG 46G MAH Napoleon III. commanded, and he and the king of Sardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is said that 56,000 French and Sardinians and 75,000 Austriana were engaged; the for- mer losing 4000 killed and wounded, and the Austrians 10,000, besides 7000 prisoners. The French generals Espinasse aii' which the Shiites reject. Hu san and other sons of Ali were 1 murdered 680 a.d., and a miracle-play and a festival in their i honor are still observed. I Ottoman empire is the chief seat of the Sonnites, the sultan ! being considered to represent the caliphs; Persia has been i for centuries the stronghold of the Shiites. [Mahometans conquered Arabia, north Africa, and part of Asia, ! in the 7lh century; in the 8th they invaded Europe, con- i quering Spain, where they founded the caliphate of Cor- dova, which lasted from 756 to 1031, when it was broken up into smaller governments, the last of which, the kingdom of I Granada, endured till subjugated by Ferdinand in 1492; Ma- i hometans finally expellg^ from Spain 1609 .Their progress inFrafl^Twas stopped by their defeat at Tours by Charles Martel (Battles) 732 After a long contest the Turks under Mahomet II. took Con- stantinople; he made ii his capital and the chief seat of his religion t 1453 Though declininl, Mahometanism is supposed to have 100,- 000,000 votaries. ^oomroodeen Tyabje^, a Mahometan, admitted as an attorney bin England, taking tihe oaths upon the Koran Nov. 1^8 udroodeen Tyabjee, a* Mahometan, admitted to practice law, 30 Apr. 1867 lUahrat'tas, a people of nindostan, who originally dwelt northwest of the Deccan, which they overran about 1676. They endeavored to overcome the Mogul, but were re- strained by the Afghans. They entered into alliance with the East India company in 1767, made war against it in 1774, again made peace in 1782, and were finally subdued in 1818. Their prince, Sindiah, is now a pensioner of the British government. maid. Holy Maid (Elizabeth Barton) ; Joan of Arc (Maid of Orleans). maids of honor. Anne, daughter of Francis II., duke of Brittany, and queen successively of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. of France (1483-98), had young and beautiful ladies about her person, called maids of honor. The queen of Ed- ward I. of England (1272-1307) is said to have had 4 maids of honor ; queen Victoria has 8. mail-COaclie§. Stage-coaches. main plot, a name given to a conspiracy to make Arabella Stuart sovereign of England in place of James I. in 1603. Lord Cobham, sir Walter Raleigh, and lord Gray were condemned to death for implication in it, but reprieved ; oth- ers were executed. Raleigh was executed 29 Oct. 1618. Haine, a province of N.W. France, seized by William I. of England in 1069. It acknowledged prince Arthur, 1199; was taken from John of England by Philip of France, 1204; was re- covered by Edward IH.in 1357; but given up, 1360. Aftervari- ous changes it was finally united to France by Louis XI. in 1481. Maine. The extreme eastern point of the United States is West Quoddy Head, which is also the eastern extremity of the state of Maine. INIaine is the largest of the eastern states, and, including islands, it has a south shore line of 2400 miles on the Atlantic. It is limited in latitude by 43° 4' and 47<^ 31' N., and in lon- gitude by 66° and 71° W. Its extreme breadth is 210 miles, narrowing in the north to about half that distance. New Brunswick and the St. Croix river form the eastern and northern boundary; the Cana- dian province of Quebec lies to the northwest, and New Hamp- shire to the west below lat. 45° 20'. Area, 33,040 sq. miles in 16 counties ; pop. 1890, 661,086. Capital, Augusta, since 1832. First Englishman known to have conducted an expedition to the shores of Maine, then "Norumbega," was John Walker, in the service of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who reached the Pe- nobscot river 1580 ["Narrative and Critical History of America."] Speedwell and Discoverer, from Bristol, Engl., commanded by Martin Pring, enter Penobscot bay and the mouth of a river, probably the Saco 7 June, 1603 Henry IV. of France grants to Pierre de Cast Sieur de Monts all the territory between 40° and 46° N. lat., and appoints him governor of the country, which is called Acadia, 8 Nov. " De Monts, accompanied by M. de Poutrincourt, and Samuel Champlain, visits his patent, and discovers Passamaquoddy bay and the Schoodic or St. Croix river May, 1604 Later in the season De Monts erects a fort on St. Croix island and spends the winter there '" De Monts enters Penobscot bay, erects a cross at Kennebec, and takes possession in the name of the king. He also vis- its Casco bay, Saco river, and cape Cod May, 1605 George Weymouth, sent out by the earl of Southampton, an- chors at Monhegan island, 17 May, 1605; St. George's island, 19 May, and Penobscot bay, 12 June. After pleasant inter- course with natives, he seizes and carries away 5 of them. . . " Colonies of Virginia and Plymouth incorporated with a grant of land between 34° and 45°, including all islands within 100 miles of the coast, and permission given the Plymouth col- ony to begin a plantation anywhere above lat. 38"^. . .10 Apr. 1606 Lord John Popham, chief-justice of England, and sir Ferdinando Gorges, fit out 2 ships and 100 emigrants, under George Pop- ham and Raleigh Gilbert, which land at Stage island, 11 Aug. 1607 Finding Stage island too small, they establish a colony and " Popham's fort " on the west bank of the Sagadahoc river. " Discouraged by the death of George Poi>ham, and the burning of their storehouse, they return to England in the spring of 1608 Two French Jesuits, Biard and Masse, with several families, settle on Mount Desert island 1609 Twenty-five French colonists land on Mount Desert island and found a settlement called St. Saviour Mch. 1613 [They were soon expelled by the English from Virginia under capt. Argal as trespassers on English territory.] Capt. John Smith arrives at Monhegan from England. Build- ing 7 boats, he explores the coast from Penobscot to cape Cod, and makes a map of it, to which prince Charles assigned the name of New England Apr. 1614 V MAI 468 MAI War, famine, and iwstilence depopulate the Indian torritoriea in Maine during the years 1G15-18 Plymouth company receives a new patent to lands between 40° and 48°, and in length " by the same breadth through- out tlie mainland from sea to sea " 3 Nov. 1620 Gorges and capt. John Mason procure of the Plymouth council a patent of all the country between the Merrimac and Saga- dahoc, firom the Atlantic to the rivers Canada and Iroquois, whicii they called " The Province of Lacouia " 10 Aug. 1622 Perinanenl settlement made at Mouhegan " Permanent settlement at Saco 1G23 Gorges procures a patent from Plymouth council to 24,000 acres on each side of the Agameuticus (York) river, and plants a colony 1624 New Plymouth colony erects a trading house at Penobscot; the first English establishment of the kind in these waters. . 1626 Abraham Shurte commissioned by Giles Klbridge and Robert Aldsworth to purchase Mouhegan island; buys it for 601. It is added to the Peniaquid plantation, over which Shurte acted as agent and chief magistrate for 30 years " Eight patents granted by Plymouth council, covering the sea- boiird from the Piscataqua to the Penobscot, except the "ter- ritory of Sagadahoc'' below the Damariscotta. Among these w^erethe "Kennebec," " Lygonia" or Plough patent.wilh set- tlement on Casco bay, the " Waldo patent," and "Pemaquid," 1630-31 A French vessel visits the New Plymouth"lrading house at Penobscot, and carries off booty valued at 500L, and within 3 years the English abandon it to the French June, 1632 Crew of 16 Indian traders, under Dixy Bull, turn pirates, at- tack the fort at Pemaquid, and menace the coast until the next summer, when they are beaten off " Trading-house established by the English at Machias, which next year was seized by Claude de la Tour, the French com- mander at Port Royal 1G33 Plymouth council surrender their charter, and sir Ferdinando Gorges appointed governor-general over the whole of New England 25 Apr. 1635 M.d'AulneydeCharnisy, from the Acadian country, takes posses- sion of the trading-house at Biguyduce (Penobscot) for France, " Gorges, empowered by the Plymouth council, 22 Apr. 1635, sends over his son William as governor of the territory be- tween Piscataqua and Sagadahoc, called New Somersetshire, who organizes the first government and opens the first court witliin the present state of Maine 28 Mch. 1636 Gorges obtains from Charles I. a provincial charter to land between Piscataqua and Sagadahoc and Kennebec rivers, ex- tending 120 miles north and south, which was incorporated and named "The Province and County of Maine ".. .3 Apr. 1639 Thomas Purchase, first settler at Pejepscot, on the Androscog- gin, assigns to gov. Winthrop of Massachusetts "all the tract at Pejepscot, on both sides of the river, 4 miles square tow- ards the sea" 22 Aug. " Thomas Gorges appointed deputy-governor of the province of Maine 10 Mch. 1640 First general court under the charter opened at Saco. 25 June, " Gorges founds in Agamenticus a city of 21 square miles, which he calls Gorgeana 1 Mch. 1642 Alexander Rigby purchases the abandoned "Plough patent or Lygonia," and commissions George Cleaves deputy presi- dent, who opens a court at Saco styled "The General Assem- bly of the Province of Lygonia," which extended from cape Porpoise to Casco Apr. 1643 Richard Vines elected deputy -governor of the province of Maine 2.644 Commissioners appointed for the purpose decide that the province of Lygonia does not belong to the province of Maine, as the latter contended, and the Kennebec river is assigned as the boundary between the 2 provinces Mch. 1646 Court of province of Maine convenes at Wells, at mouth of the Kennebunk river, and Edward Godfrey elected governor of the province «< Massachusetts, in 1651, laying claim by her charter to all lands south of a line drawn eastward from a point 3 miles north of the source of the river Merrimac, found this point by sur- vey to lie in lat. 43° 43' 12", with its eastern point on Upper Clapboard island, in Casco bay, and confirms it by assump- tion of jurisdiction 23 Oct. 1652 Isle of Shoals, and all territory north of Piscataqua belonging to Massachusetts, erected into county of Yorkshire " Kittery, incorporated in 1647, and Agamenticus made into the town of York " General Court of Elections at Boston admits for the first time 2 representatives from Maine: John Wincoln of Kittery and Edward Rishworth of York May, 1653 "Wells, Saco, and Cape Porpoise declared towns ' '♦ English under major Sedgwick subdue Penobscot and Port Royal, 1654, and the whole Acadian province is confirmed to the English, who hold it for 13 years 1655 Towns of Scarborough and Falmouth erected (see 1786) „ 1658 Quakers hold their first meeting in Maine, at Newichawannock or Piscataqua Dec. 1662 Ferdinando Gorges, grandson of the original proprietor, obtains from the king an order to the governor and council of Mas- sachusetts to restore his province in Maine 11 Jan. 1664 A part of the grant of the king of England to the duke of York includes the territory between the St. Croix and Pemaquid and northward, variously called the "Sagadahoc Territory," "New Castle," and the "County of Cornwall" 12 Mch. " King's commissioners establish a form of provisional govern- ment in the province of Maine 23 June 1665 1 ato ^ By the treaty of Breda the English surrender Nova Scotia to France, which also claims the province east of the Penob scot 31 July, 16( Four commissioners from Massachusetts hold a convention in York, commanding the people of the province of Maine in his majesty's name to yield again all obedience to the colo- ny, ioing this at the request of prominent citizens in the province July, 16| New survey of the Massachusetts boundary to the north hav- ing been made by George Mounljoy, and the line fixed at lat. 43° 49' 12", its eastern terminus on White Head island in Penobscot bay, Massachusetts appoints 4 commissioners, who open a court at Pemaquid and proceed to organize the addi- tional territory May, 16^ Duke of York takes a new patent from the king, and commis- sions sir Edmund Andros governor of both New York and Sagadahoc 22 June, Indian depredations and massacres in Kino Philip's war begin, 12Sept. ; attackSaco, 18 Sept., and burn Scarborough, 20 Sept. 16^ King by council confirms the decision of a commission which had been appointed and reported that "the right of soil in New Hampshire and Maine probably belonged not to Massa- chusetts colony, but to the terre-tenants" ig^ For the second time (the first in 1674) the Dutch capture the P'rench fortification at Penobscot, but are soon driven out by the English «i Indians attack Casco, burn Arrowsick and Pemaquid, and at- tack Jewel's island Aug.-Sept. " Indians destroy the settlement at cape Neddock ; 40 persons slain or captured 25 Sept. " One hundred and twenty Indians capture the fort and part of its garrison, at Black Point. 14 Aug. *' Massachusetts employs John Usher, a Boston trader then in England, to negotiate the purchase of the province of Maine, who concluded a bargain, took an assignment, and gave Gorges 12501. ; original indenture bears date 6 May, '" Indian hostilities continue throughout 1677; affair at .Mare Point,18 Feb. ; Pemaquid, 26 Feb. Indians attack Wells sev- eral times; again attack Black Point, 16-18 May, and ambush aparty of 90 men near that point, killing 60 29 June, 161 Sir Edmund Andros, fearing French aggression in the duke's Sagadahoc province, sends a force from New York to Pema- quid to establish a fort and custom-house June, •' Peace made with the Indians upon the Androscoggin and Ken- nebec, at Casco, by a commission from the government of Massachusetts '. 12 Apr. 16fl Thomas Danforth chosen president of Maine by the governor and board of colony assistants of Massachusetts 1680 Baptists make their first appearance in Maine in 1681; William Screven, their leader, organizes a church, but the members are obliged to remove to South Carolina to avoid persecu- tion 1683 Charter of Massachusetts colony adjudged forfeited, and liber- ties of the colonies seized by the crown ; col. Kirke appointed governor of Massachusetts, Plymouth, New Hampshire, and Maine; Charles II. dying before Kirke could embark, James II. did not reappoint him 18 June, 1684 Charter being vacated, various purchases were made from the Indians; the most important, known as the " Pejepscot Pur- chase," was made by Richard Wharton, and covered lands "lying between cape Small -point and Maquoit, thence northward on the west side of the Androscoggin. 4 miles in width to the 'Upper falls,' and 5 miles on the other side of the river down to Merry-meeting bay " 7 July, '• Treaty made by Maine and New Hampshire with 4 tribes of Indians 8 Sept. 1685 Joseph Dudley, a native of Massachusetts, graduate of Harvard in 1665, made by James II. president of Maine May, 1686 Sir Edmund Andros arrives at Boston to supersede Dudley as president of the colonies 20 Dec. " Andros commissioned captain -general and vice-admiral over the whole of New England, New York, and the Jerseys. . Mch. 1688 Andros seizes upon Penobscot, and sacks house and fort of baron de St. Castin, aiding to precipitate an Indian war, Apr. " First outbreak of King William's war at the new settlement of North Yarmouth on Royals river. Indians surprise and break up the settlement, 13 Aug. They attack and burn New Dart- mouth (Newcastle), and destroy the fort and break up the settlement on the Sheepscot river 5-6 Sept. " Gov. Andros using unwise measures in opposing Indians, arouses the people, who restore Danforth to the office of provincial president, appoint a council for the safety of the people, and resume the government according to charter rights. .18 Apr. 1689 Garrison at Pemaquid attacked by Indians and forced to sur- render 2 Aug. " Maj. Benjamin Church, with 600 men raised by Massachusetts, proceeds to the Kennebec, and ranging along the coast, in- timidates the Indians; leaving 60 soldiers at fort Loyal, he returns with the rest to Massachusetts Newichawannock (now Salmon Falls), attacked by French and Indians under sieur Artel, and 54 settlers captured and the settlement burned 18 Mch. 169C Five hundred French and Indians under Castin attack fort Loyal at Falmouth ; the people abandon the village and Retire to the garrison, 16 May, which capitulates on the 20th, when the French, after burning the town, retire to Quebec ^^ with 100 prisoners May, Sir William Phipps leaves Boston with 5 vessels for Nova Scotia. He captures Port Royal, and takes possession of the whole ^^ country and coast to Penobscot May, Three hundred men under maj. Church are again sent from MAI 469 Massachusetts. 2 Sept., to reduce Indians in the province. He attacks them at Pejepscot fort on the .Androscoggin, free- ing some English captives; has an engagement with them at Purpooduck -21 Sept., and returns home leaving 100 men as garrison at Wells Sept. 1690 Five months" truce signed at Sagadahoc by commissioners from Massachusetts and the Indians, who agree to surrender all prisoners and to make a lasting peace at Wells the fol- lowing Mav 29 Nov. " Indians failing to meet pres. Danforth as agreed at Wells on • 1 Mav, he returns to York and sends a reinforcement to Wells. Shortly after their arrival they are attacked by 200 Indians, whom" they repulse 9 June, 1691 Charter of William and Mary, or the Provincial charter, passes the seals and receives royal sanction, and the province of Maine is united with the royal province of Massachusetts bay 7 Oct " Two hundred Indians, led by Canadian French, assault York on the Agumenticus river. The inhabitants find shelter in the garrisoned houses and repulse the enemy, who retire after burning the town and killing or capturing about half of the people 5 Feb. 1692 Eight represenUitives from Maine appear in the Massachusetts House of Representatives at its first session 8 June, " [For the governors of Maine up to its separation from Massachusetts in 1820. see the latter state] Five hundred French and Indians under Burneffe attack Wells, defended by a small garrison and 2 sloops, which had just arrived in the harbor bringing supplies and ammunition, repulsed after a siege of 48 hours 10 June, " Fort built at Pemaquid Aug. " Indians negotiate a treaty of peace with the English. . .11 Aug. 1693 French and Indians under Iberville.Villebon, and Castin, capt- ure the fort at Pemaquid 15 July, 1696 Eastern Sagadahoc claimed by the French as part of Nova Scotia under the treaty of Ryswick 11 Sept 1697 Treaty of 11 Aug. 1693, signed and ratified with additional articles at Mare Point (now in Brunswick) between the whites and Indians 7 Jan. 1699 Indians under French leaders attack Wells, Cape Porpoise, Saco. Scarborough, Casco, Spurwink, and Purpooduck ; the last 2 entirely destroyed. Thus opened the 3d Indian war, known as Queen Anne's war 10 Aug. 1703 Enemy destroy Black Point, attack York and Berwick; legis- latures of .Massachusetts and New Hampshire ofier '201. for every Indian prisoner under 10 years of age, and 40/. for every one older, or for his scalp Sept -Oct " Col. Church leads an expedition against the enemy in the east, visits Penobscot bay, and proceeds as far as the bay of Fundy. He returns, having destroyed all the settlements in the vicin- ity of Port Royal, and taken 106 prisoners and a large amount of plunder with the loss of only 6 men 1704 Francis Nicholson, late lieut-gov. of Virginia, arrives at Bos- ton, 15 July, with his fleet. He sails 18 Sept, reaches Port Royal 24 Sept.. lands his forces, and opens 3 batteries 1 Oct, and Suberaise the governor capitulates the next day, and Nicholson names the place Annapolis Royal 2 Oct 1710 By treaty of Utrecht 'all Nova Scotia, Annapolis Royal, and all other things in these parts " belonging to France are I ceded to Great Britain 30 Mch. 1713 I Berwick incorporated out of the northern settlements of Kit- { tery 9 June, " ; Fort George erected on the west side of the Androscoggin, op- j posite the lower falls 1715 ! Parker's island and Arrowsick made a town or municipal cor- [ poration by the name of Georgetown 13 June, 1716 i Name of Saco changed to Biddeford 18 Nov. 1718 I First violence of the '-Three Years' or Lovewell's war," the 4th Indian war, was the taking of 9 families on Merry-meet- ing bay by 60 Indians in canoes. 13 June ; they attack the j fort at St Georges river and burn Brunswick June, July, 1722 ; One thousand men raised by the General court to carry on the ; Indian war 8 Aug. " ; Capt Josiah Winslow and 16 men, in 2 boats on the St George's ; river, ambushed and surrounded by about 100 Indians in : 30 canoes, and all killed 1 May, 1724 I Father Sebastian Rasle. a Jesuit long located at the Indian vil- 1 lage of Norridgewock on the Kennebec, is suspected by the i English settlers of instigating the Indians against them ; a [ party under col. Westbrook, sent to seize him in 1721, is un- 1 successful, but a second party under capts. Moulton and Harmon, with 100 men each, succeed in putting him and about 30 Indian converts to death 12 Aug. " Capt. John Lovewell with 33 men is surprised by Indians at Pegwacket; a desperate battle ensues; the Indians are re- pulsed, but with a loss to the English of 10 killed, includ- ing capt. Lovewell. 14 wounded, and 1 missing 8 May, 1725 Treaty known as ''Drummer's Treaty," signed by 4 Indian delegates at Boston 15 Dec. " David Dunbar, an Irishman, obtains royal sanction to settle and govern the province of Sagadahoc 1729 Owing to the arbitrary acts of Dunbar he is removed from his office, 4 Apr. 1733, by roval instruction, and Massachusetts resumes jurisdiction of Sagadahoc territory 25 Aug. 1733 Brunswick incorporated 24 June, 1737 King in council fixes the line between Maine and New Hamp- shire to •• pass through the entrance of Piscataqua harbor and the middle of the river to the farthermost head of Salmon Falls river, thence north 2°; west, true course, 120 miles," 5 Mch. 1739 Rev. George Whitefleld visits Maine and preaches at York, Wells, and Biddeford 1741 MAI First attack of Indians (the 5th Indian war) upon St. George and Damariscotta (Newcastle) 19 July; the provincial gov- ernment declares war against all the eastern tribes, and of- fers bounties for Indian captives or scalps .23 Aug. Indian skirmishes and depredations throughout the Sagada- hoc territory during By 1 May, 1747, the whole frontier from Wells to Topsham is infested with Indians, who make an attack on Pemaquid, 26 May, and unsuccessful attacks on forts Frederick and St George Sept Indian hostilities in Maine brought to an end by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed 7 Oct A treaty based on Drummer treaty of 1725 made with Indians at Falmouth by commission from Massachusetts 16 Oct Indians attack fort Richmond, on the Kennebec, but hearing that the garrison had been reinforced, they retire, but at- tack Dresden, Swan island, Wiscasset, Sheepscot, and George- town, and withdraw with 20 or 30 captives. 11-25 Sept Commissioners meet the Indians at St. George's fort, 3 Aug., and proclaim a cessation of hostilities 3 Sept Newcastle incorporated, the first of the towns in the territory of Sagadahoc 19 June, Fort Halifax, on the Kennebec river below the Teconnet falls, fort Western at Augusta, and fort Shirley or Frankfort in Dresden all built during the year In consequence of Frepch and' Indian depredations, war is de- clared on all the Indian tril)es east of Piscataqua, and boun- ties offered for prisoners and scalps 11 June, Acadians or French Neutrals, dwelling principally about An- napolis, Grand Pre. and vicinity are forcibly removed by order of lieut-gov. Diwrence and the provincial council, and dispersed among the American colonies from Maine to Georgia (Acadia) .-. . .Sept Skirmishes with the Indians at Brunswick, New Gloucester, Windham, where the Indian chief Poland is killed, and at Georgetown and fort Halifax Possession is taken of the Penobscot country, and fort Pownal built and garrisoned with 100 men under Jedediah Preble, 28 July, Nauseag, a precinct of Georgetown, the birthplace of sir William Phipps, first royal governor of the Massachusetts provinces, erected into a town by the name of Woolwich, 20 Oct Pownalborough, embracing the present towns of Dresden, Wis- casset, Alna. and Swan island, is incorporated 13 Feb. Peace made with the remnant of the Indian tribes in the vicin- ity of fort Pownal 29 Apr. General court establishes the counties of Cumberland (that part of Maine between the Saco and Androscoggin) and Lincoln (that part east of the Androscoggin)., 19 June, Mount Desert island granted to gov. Barnard Town of Bristol, embracing the ancient Pemaquid, incorpo- rated 18 June, Town of Hallowell. embracing Cushnoc (Augusta), and Wins- low, including Waterville, incorporated 26 Apr. Pepperellborough, afterwards Saco, incorporated 9 June, Belfast incorporated ; first town on the Penobscot 22 June, New Gloucester incorporated 8 Mch. County convention, 39 delegates from 9 towns in Cumberland county, held at Falmouth, at which meeting sheriff Will- iam f yng declared his avowal to obey the province law and not that of parliament, and which advises '-a firm and per- severing opposition to every design, dark or open, framed to abridge our English liberties" 21 Sept Capt Mowatt and 2 companions of the British sloop-of-war Canseau are made prisoners by 50 or 60 volunteers under lieut-col. Samuel Thompson, while ashore at Falmouth. The sailing-master of the Canseau excites the people by threatening to burn the town if Mowatt is not restored ; be- ing released on parole, Mowatt weighs anchor, sails for Ports- mouth 9 May, An English schooner, the Margranetto, loading at Machias, is seized bv a party of volunteers under Benjamin Foster and Jeremiah O'Brien ; after capturing this prize O'Brien sails into the bay of Fundy. and on his return captures a schooner and tender which were in search of the Margranetto. .June, Col. Benedict Arnold, with a force of about 1100 men, passes up the Kennebec to attack Quebec Sept. Capt. Mowatt arrives in Falmouth (now Portland) with 4 armed vessels. 17 Oct., with orders from adm. Graves to destroy the town, which he bums 18 Oct. Warren incorporated; first town on St George river — 7 Nov. Fryeburg, scene of Ixjvewell's fight in 1725, incorporated, 11 Jan. Counties of York, Cumberland, and Lincoln, by vote of Con- gress, erected into the " District of Maine " British general McLane and 900 troops take possession of the peninsula of Major Biguyduce (now Castine), begin a fort, and station 3 sloops of- war under capt Mowatt 12 Jan. Pittston, the fortieth and last town established by the general court under the royal charter, incorporated 4 Feb. Expedition of 19 armed vessels and 24 transports, under Gurdon Saltonstall. a Connecticut sea-captain, and 1500 men from Massachusetts under gen. Lovell, arrive at Penobscot, 25 July, for the purpose of dislodging the British; they remain inactive, however, until the arrival of 5 British ships from New York, which force the Americans to burn their vessels and disperse 1^ -^"S Six hundred troops raised to protect the Eastern department, between Piscataqua and St. Croix, and command given to gen. Peleg Wadsworth, with headquarters at Thomaston 1746 1746 1747 1748 1749 1750 1751 1753 1754 1755 1756 1759 1760 1765 1771 1772 1773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 ^^ MAI 470 MAI Bath incorporated, the first towu established by the new gov- ernment 17 Feb. 1781 Gen. Wadsworth captured at Thomaston and imprisoned at Castine, 18 Keb. ; escapes 18 Juno, " Land office is opened at the seat of government, and state lands in the dislriut of Maine are sold to soldiers and emigrants at $1 per acre on the navigable waters; elsewhere given, pro- vided settlers clear IG acres in 4 years 1784 First issue of the Falmouth Gazette and Weekly Advertiser, the earliest newspaper established in Maine 1 Jan. 1785 Mount Desert, confiscated from gov. Bernard, is reconfirmed in part to his son John and to French claimants " Convention to consider the separation of the district from Mas- sachusetts meets at Falmouth 5 Oct. " Convention appointed at the Oct. meeting assembles at Fal- mouth and draws up a statement of particulars 4 Jan. 1786 Massachusetts lands, 1,107,;J9() acres, between Penobscot and St. Croix rivers, disposed of by lottery ; a large portion pur- chased by William Bingham of Philadelphia Mch. " Falmouth divided and the peninsula with several opposite isl- ands incorporated and named Portland 4 July, " Convention of 31 delegates meets at Portland and petitions the general court that the counties of York, Cumberland, and Lincoln be erected into a sei)arate state, and suggests that the towns vote on the subject 6 Sept. " [Convention reas.senibling, 3 Jan. 1787, finds votes cast on separation 994, 645 being yeas; motion to present the peti- tion to the legislature lost, but was presented the year follow- ing.] General court sets off" from Lincoln county the new counties of Hancock, from Penobscot bay to the head of Goulds- borough river, and Washington, east of Hancock.. . .25 June, 1789 Bangor incorporated 25 Feb. 1791 Last meeting of the Salem presbytery, marking the decline of the Presbyterian church founded at Londonderry, N. H., in 1719, is held at Gray 14 Sept. " Charter granted by the general court for Bowdoin college in Brunswick 24 J une, 1794 Augusta (the ancient Cushnoc) incorporated under the name of Harrington, 20 Feb. 1796; changed to Augusta 9 June, 1796 Seven families from Ireland associate at Newcastle to form a Catholic church 1798 At Providence, the commission appointed to determine and settle, according to the Jay treaty, what river was the St. Croix, made a report that the mouth of the river is in Passa- maquoddy bay, in lat. 45° 5' 5" N., and Ion. 67° 12' 30" W. of London, and 3° 54' 15" E. of Harvard college, and that the boundary of Maine was up this river and the Cheputnatecook to a marked stake called "'the Monument" 25 Oct. " Kennebec county erected from north part of Lincoln.. .20 Feb. 1799 Northern parts of York and Cumberland counties erected into the county of Oxford 4 Mch. 1805 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow b. in Portland 27 Feb. 1807 County of Somerset established from the northerly part of Kennebec 1 Mch. 1809 Three commissioners appointed by governor and council to act on land titles in Lincoln county 27 Feb. 1811 Boxer, a British brig of 18 guns and 104 men, capt. Blythe, en- gages the American brig Enterprise, 16 guns and 102 men, capt. Burrows, off" Portland. In 35 minutes the Boxer sur- renders and is taken to Portland by her captor (both com- manders killed) 5 Sept. 1813 " I remember the sea-fight for awny, How it thundered o'er the tide ! And the dead captains, as thev lay In their graves, o'erlooking the tranquil bay Where they in battle died."— iong/W/oic. Extent of "Pejepscot purchase" is declared according to the resolve of the general court, 8 Mch. 1787, that "Twenty-mile falls," 20 miles above Brunswick, are the ''uppermost Great falls" in the Androscoggin river referred to in the deed to Wharton dated 7 July, 1684; matter settled 1814 Fort Sullivan in Eastport, under command of maj. Perley Put- nam, surrenders to a British force from Halifax 11 July, " Fort at Castine destroyed by its garrison on the approach of a British fieet from Halifax 1 Sept. " [Part of the British fleet proceed up the Penobscot. At Hampden lay the U. S. corvette Adams. Her commander, capt. Charles Morris, endeavors to defend the vessel, but, for- saken by the militia, burns the ship and retreats to Bangor, leaving Hampden to be pillaged by the British. The British capture Bangor, and burn 14 vessels at anchor ; return to Hampden, and from there proceed to Frankfort.] Frankfort delaying surrender, the British denounce vengeance against the place and sail for Castine 1-7 Sept. " British force under Sherwood and Griffiths land at Buck's har- bor, about 3 miles below Machias, and march against the fort, which the garrison desert and blow up 12 Sept. " British maj. -gen. Gerard Gosselin appointed to govern the province between Brunswick and Penobscot " British sloop from Halifax, with a cargo invoiced at $40,000, on her passage to Castine is captured and carried into Camden, Nov. " General court appoints a day of thanksgiving on news of peace and of the treaty of Ghent, 24 Dec. 1814 22 Feb. 1815 British troops evacuate Castine 25 Apr. " Between 10,000 and 15,000 inhabitants emigrate to Ohio 1815-16 County of Penobscot incorporated (the ninth and last prior to the separation) 15 Sept. 1815 Meetings held in all towns and plantations of the district of Maine, and a vote taken on the question of separation from Massachusetts results in 10,393 yeas and 6501 nays. .20 May, 1816 First separation law takes eff^ect, directing voters to meet in -a their towns on the first Monday of Sept. to vote on the ques- « tion, and send delegates to Brunswick the last Monday of m Sept., who, if a majority of at least 5 to 4 favor separation, * should form a constitution 2U June, 181ff Convention of 185 delegates convenes at Brunswick; vote shows 11,961 yeas to 10,347 nays ; the attempt to seek ad- mission as a state failing, tlie convention was dissolved, Sept. " First meeting at St. Andrew's of joint commission, Thomas Barclay for Great Britain, Cornelius V^an Ness for the U. S., to determine the northeastern and northern boundary of Maine; no result 23 Sept. " President Monroe visits Maine on his tour of inspection of forti fications, etc li U. S. warship Alabama, 84 guns, 2633 tons, commenced and left on the stocks at Kittery unfinished. 18] Agricultural Society of District of Maine incorporated. .16 Feb. " Law of the U. S.. making every state a district in which ves- sels must enter and clear, proving a stumbling-block in the matter of the separation of Maine, is changed, and the east- ern coast divided into 2 great districts 2 Mch. 1819 About 70 towns petition the legislature for separation, and bill passed granting it 19 June, " Under Separation act, after an election in July, and the proc- lamation of the governor 24 Aug., a convention of 269 dele- gates at Portland, elects William King president, and ap- points a committee of 33 to report a constitution II Oct. " Congress admits Maine into the Union; capital Portland, 3 Mch. 1820' William King elected governor witliout opposition Apr. " Within 17 months gov. King, commissioner under the Spanish treaty, resigns his office to Mr. Williamson, president of the Senate, who 6 months after, being elected to Congress, sur- renders it to Mr. Ames, speaker of the House. The presi- dent of the next Senate was Mr. Rose, who acted as governor one day, until gov. Parris was inducted 1820-21 AVaterville college (afterwards Colby university) established at Waterville 1820 Maine Historical Society incorporated 5 Feb. 1822 Last meeting of commissioners to determine the northern and northeastern boundary of Maine held at New York. (They disagree, and subsequently the matter is referred to Will- iam, king of the Netherlands) 13 Apr. " Building of the state prison at Thomaston begun 1823 Wild lands in Maine surveyed and divided between Maine and Massachusetts 1826 Boundary north and east of Maine referred to William, king of the Netherlands, for settlement 12 Jan. 1829 Corner-stone of the state capitol at Augusta laid July, *' Cumberland and Oxford canal, from Portland to Sebago pond, completed " Gov. Lincoln dying, Nathan Cutler, president of the senate, succeeds him 8 Oct. " Jonathan G. Hunton inaugurated governor 1830 William, king of the Netherlands, recommends as the boundary of Maine, a line due north from the source of the St. Croix to the river St. John; thence in the middle of that river through the St. Francis to its source, and thence along the highlands southwesterly to "mile tree " and head of the Connecticut river 10 Jan. 1831 Capital removed from Portland to Augusta: legislature meets, 4 Jan. 1832 Bangor and Orono railroad, 10 miles in length, completed 1836 Rufus Mclntire, land agent for Maine, and 2 others, sent to drive trespassers from timber on disputed territory in north of the state, are taken by an armed force as prisoners to Fredericton, but soon released by the governor of New Brunswick II Feb. 1839 Lieutenant-governor of New Brunswi(!k issues a proclamation regarding as an invasion of her majesty's territory, the at- tempt of a force of 200 armed men from Maine to drive off" persons cutting timber on disputed territory 13 Feb Agreement made between the British government and the U. S., to prevent immediate hostilities between the troops Maine and New Brunswick, that armed men should be with' drawn from the territory, and the trespassers be kept ofi'by^ the combined efforts of both governments 27 Feb» Act of Congress passed authorizing the president to resist an;" attempt of Great Britain to enforce exclusive jurisdictioi over the disputed territory in the north of Maine 3 McT Gen. Winfleld Scott, sent to command on the Maine frontier) arranges a truce and joint occupancy of the disputed terrl tory by both governments (Aroostook disturbance), 21 Mch. State asylum for lunatics at Augusta completed 1840 Treaty concluded at Washington between Lord Ashburton, for Great Britain, and Daniel Webster, secretary of state, for the, U. S., fixing the boundary of Maine on the north, freei navigation of the St. John's river, confirming land in disput- ed territory to those in possession, and allowing Maine and Massachusetts compensation for territory given up, to be paid by the U. S 9 Aug. 1842 Edward Kavanagh, acting governor in the place of gov. Fair- field, elected U. S. senator 3 Mch. 18^ Act restricting sale of liquors Aug. 1846 Law enacted establishing a state Board of Education Nathan Clifi"ord appointed attorney-general 23 Dec. Death at Hallowell of Nathan Read, inventor, the first man to apply for a patent before the patent law was enacted. In 1798 he invented and patented a macliine for cutting and heading nails, and later invented a tubular boiler; d., 20 Jan. 1849 State insane hospital at Augusta burned. 27 inmates and 1 assistant perish in the flames 4 Dec. 1850 3ft b. " MAI 471 "Maine Law," an act "to prohibit drinking-houses and tip- pling-shops," passed in May, approved by the governor 2 June, and enforced first at Bangor 4 July, 1851 Act abolishing the stale Board of Education, the governor to appoint a school commissioner for each county 1852 "Search and Seizure act" for the confiscation of liquors, passed 1853 James G. Hlaine moves from Philadelphia to Augusta, and be- comes editor of the Kennebec Journal " Maine purchases for $362,500 the share of Massachusetts in ■ wild lands in the state " Reform school for boys erected at Cape Elizabeth, and first in- mate received 14 Nov. " Act passed by legislature appointing a superintendent of com- mon schools 17 Apr. 1854 Anson P. Morrill, Republican, inaugurated governor 1855 Atlantic and St. Lawrence railroad leased to the Grand Trunk railway for 999 years " Samuel Wells, candidate of the Whigs and Democrats, Inau- gurated governor 1856 Whole system of legislation on liquor repealed, and license law drafted by Phineas Barnes of Portland enacted " Hannibal Hamlin, Republican, inaugurated governor Jan. 1857 Joseph H. Williams, governor, to succeed Hannibal Hamlin, who was elected U. S. senator 26 Feb. " Nathan Clifford, justice of the Supreme court 28 Jan. 1858 ,Maine liquor law in all its parts re-enacted " iBill passed granting the proceeds of 1,000,000 acres of land and the claims of Maine on the government of the U. S., for the completion of the railroad from Portland to Halifax 1861 :Haunibal Hamlin inaugurated vice-president U. S 4 Mch. " Extra 3 days' session of the legislature, and provision made for 10 regiments of volunteers for the Federal army, and a coast-guard if necessary 22 Apr. " Office of the Democrat, a secession newspaper published in Bangor, entirely destroyed by a mob 12 Aug. " U. S. secretary of state Seward permits passage of British troops across the state from Portland to Canada 1862 Officers and crew of the Confederate privateer Archer enter the harbor of Portland, capture the revenue cutter Caleb Gush- ing, and put to sea; being pursued, they take to their boats and blow up their prize, and are themselves captured, 29 June, 1863 Bates college, located at Lewiston, founded; noted for having an endowed scholarship for a lady student " Foreign Emigrant association of Maine incorporated, to which I the state agrees to give $25 for every able-bodied foreign 1 emigrant introduced into Maine by them 1864 iWiUiam Pitt Fessenden, secretary of the treasury 1 July, " lA small party of Confederate raiders from St. John's, N. B., led by one Collins of Mississippi, attempt the robbery of a bank in Calais; but, the authorities being forewarned by the Amer- j lean consul at St. John's, the attempt fails 18 July, " j3reat fire in Portland, burning over an area 1% miles long by ^ of a mile wide; 1500 buildings burned; loss between ! $10,000,000 and $15,000,000 4 July, 1866 i [The most destructive fire in the U. S. up to that time since I the great fire in New York, 1835.] [National Home for Disabled Volunteers located atTogns springs, Lnear Augusta, receives its first instalment of soldiers. 10 Nov. " igislature passes a stringent prohibitory liquor law, and ap- \ points a state constable to enforce its provisions 186T ijtate agricultural college established at Orono 1868 Constabulary law of 1867 repealed " ifames 6. Blaine, speaker House of Representatives 1869 jUate temperance convention assembles at Portland and nomi- i nates hon. N. C. Hitchborn for governor 29 June, " IjOv. Chamberlain re-elected, the vote standing, Chamberlain, 1 Republican, 51,439; Smith, Democrat,39,033; and Hitchborn, i 4783 13 Sept. " '\ bill to increase the stringency of the prohibitory liquor laws i, passes both houses without opposition 1870 Swedish colony founded in Aroostook county by 51 immigrants brought from Gothenburg by the board of commissioners of immigration, which arrive at "New Sweden " 23 July, " iiquor law amended so as to bring cider and wine made from fruits grown in the stat.e within the prohibition 1872 State convention for the formation of a woman's suffrage asso- ciation assembles at Augusta Feb. 1873 vet passed providing for a state board of immigration, consist- ing of the governor, secretary of state, and land agent " Roman's suff'rage convention at Augusta resolves: "That we pledge ourselves never to cease the agitation we have begun until all unjust discriminations against women are swept away " 28 Jan. 1874 industrial school for girls opened at Hallowell Jan. 1875 'ompulsory Education act passed by the legislature " ,)eath penalty in Maine abolished by law (see 1883-87) 1876 enator Lot M. Morrill, secretary U. S. treasury June, " \t state election, Almon Gage, nominated for governor of the i state by the "Greenback party," receives 520 votes. Gov. (Connor is re-elected Sept. " j"ifty-two Swedes in " New Sweden " are naturalized " i.ct passed relating to " tramps " 1878 larble statue of gen. William King, first governor of Maine, presented to the U. S. government and placed in Statuary hall, Washington ; Jan. " tate Greenback convention held at Lewiston, 782 delegates; Joseph W. Smith nominated for governor 5 June, " eptember election: Selden Connor, Republican, 56,544; Jo- MAI seph L. Smith, Greenback, 41,371; Alonzo Garcelon, Demo- crat, 28,218; no choice by people 9 Sept. 1878 Garcelon chosen governor by legislature 3 Jan. 1879 A convention of the surviving members of the Senate and House of 1851, who voted for the original Maine liquor law, meets at Augusta 2 June " Vote for governor: Daniel F. Davis, Republican, 68,766; Garce- lon, Democrat, 21,688; Smith, National or Greenback, 47,590, T, , ,. 8 Sept. " Republican press claims the Senate by 7 majoritv, the House by 28. In November great excitement is produced by the rumor that the governor and council would endeavor to count out the Republican majority and count in a Fusion (Democrat and National) majority. The sub-committee of the council make their report 26 Dec. " Legislature convenes, and 78 Fusion members and 2 Republi- cans qualify. The Senate elects James D. Lamson (Fusion) president 7 jan. isso Commanders of all military organizations in the state are re- quired to report to maj. gen. Chamberlain 12 Jan. " Republicans organize a legislature " " Gov. Garcelon's office being vacant after 7 Jan., president of Senate, Lamson, asks if maj. -gen. Chamberlain will recognize him as governor. Chamberlain refers the question to the Supreme court 12 Jan. " Supreme court recognizes the Republican legislature. The Fusionists become demoralized, and Daniel Davis assumes the office of governor I6 Jan. " Gen. Harris M. Plaisted, Greenback, elected governor. .13 Sept. " Act passed making women eligible to the office of supervisor of schools and superintending school committees U. S. senator James G. Blaine appointed secretary of state Meeting of the lawyers of Maine held at Augusta, and- a state bar association formed 25 Apr. Act passed, restoring the death penalty for murder Vote on amending the constitution forever prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors, 70,783 for, 23,811 against Sept. Convention of the "People's" party, held at Portland, nomi- nate presidential electors favoring Benjamin F. Butler.. Oct. Act establishing a state Board of Health Acts abolishing capital punishment, and establishing "Arbor day " First observance of Labor day in the state 5 Sept. Sebastian S. Marble, president of the Senate, succeeds gov. Bodwell, who d 15 Dec. Acts passed forbidding manufacturing "Trusts" and heating railroad cars by common stoves State convention of Union Labor party meets at Waterville, and nominates Isaac R. Clark of Bangor for governor, 20 May, Gov. Burleigh re elected; Clark, candidate of the Union Labor party, receives 1296 votes Sept. Legislature enacts an Australian ballot law .24 Mch. First Monday in September (Labor day) made a legal holiday by legislature at session ending 3 Apr. Ex-vice-pres. Hannibal Hamlin, b. 1809, d. at Bangor 4 July, James G. Blaine, secretary of state, resigned (United States), 4 June, James 6. Blaine d. at Washington, D. C, aged 63 years, 27 Jan. GOVERNORS. (Prior to 1820 Maine was a part of Massachusetts.) 1881 1885 1887 1889 1890 1892 1893 Name. Term. Remarks. 1820 to 1821 1821 1822 to 1826 1827 " 1829 1829 1830 to 1831 1831 " 1833 1834 " 1837 1838 " 1839 1839 " 1840 1840 " 1841 1841 " 1843 1843 " 1844 1844 " 1847 1847 " 1850 1850 " 1853 1853 " 1855 1855 " 1856 1856 "1857 1857 1857 to 1858 1858 " 1861 1861 " 1862 1862 " 1864 1864 " 1867 1867 " 1870 1871 " 1873 1874 " 1875 1876 " 1879 1879 " 1880 1880 " 1881 1881 " 1882 1883 " 1887 1887 1887 to 1888 1889 " 1892 1893 " 1895 Resigns. Acting. William D. Williamson. . . Albion K Parris Enoch Lincoln Died in office, 1829. Acting. Nathan Cutler Jonathan G. Button Samuel Emerson Smith. . Robert P. Dunlap John Fairfield Edward Kent Elected to the U. S. Senatft Edward Kavanagh Hugh J. Anderson John W Dana Acting. John Hubbard William G. Crosby Anson P Morrill . . . Republican, the 1st. Samuel Wells . Hannibal Hamlin Joseph H. Williams lot M. Morrill Elected U. S. senator. Acting. Israel Washburn, jr. Joshua L. Chamberlain. . Nelson Dingley,jr Harris M. Plaisted Frpdpriplr Robip Joseph R. Bodwell Sebastian S. Marble Edwin C. Burleigh Henry B. Cleaves Died in oflace, 1887. Re-elected Sept. 1894, MAI 472 MAL UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF MAINE. Name. No. of Congr«M. John Chandler John Holinea Albion K. Parrls. John Holmes. Peleg Sprague. John Ruggles. Ether Shepley Judah Dana Renel William& George Evans John Fairfield Wyman B. S. Moor Hannibal Hamlin James W. Bradbury William Pitt Fessenden. Amos Nourse Hannibal Hamlin Lot M. Morrill Hannibal Hamlin James G. Blaine William P. Frye Eugene Hale.' 16th to 20th 16th " 19th 20th 20th to 22d 2l8t " 23d 23d " 26lh 23d " 24th 24th 25th to 28th 27th " 29th 28th " 30th 30th 30th 30th to 33d 33d "4l8t 34th 35th to 36th 36th " 44th 41st " 46th 44th "47 th 47th " 47th " 1820 to 1829 1820 " 1827 1828 1829 to 1833 1830 " 1835 1835 " 1841 1835 " 1836 1836 " 1837 1837 " 1843 1841 " 1847 1843 " 1847 1848 1848 to 1857 1847 " 1853 1854 " 1869 1857 1857 to 1861 1861 " 1876 1869 " 1881 1876 " 1881 1881 " 1881 " Seated 13 Nov. Resigned. Elected in place of Parrls. Resigned. Elected in place of Sprague. Resigned. Appointed in place of Shepley, Elected In place of Shepley. Resigned 1843. Elected in place of Williams. Died 1847. Apj)ointed in place of Fairfield. Elected in place of Fairfleld. Resigned 1857. Elected govemorj Died 1869. Appointed in place of Hamlin. Resigned. Elected vice-president of the U. S. Elected in place of Hamlin. Resigned 1876. Sec. of treasu Elected in place of Morrill. Resigned 1881. U. S. sec. of at Elected in place of Blaine. Term expires 1901. Term expires 1897. Maine liquor law. Maine, 1846, '51, '58, '72, '79, 1884. maize or Indian corn (Zea mays), it is unknown in the wild state, but is probably indigenous to tropical Amer- ica, although there is authority for saying that it had been cul- tivated in Asiatic islands under the equator, and had found its ■way into China before the discovery of America. Humboldt refers its origin to America, where the earliest colonists found it cultivated by the Indians all along the Atlantic coast. As food it has become one of the most important grains. Agriculture. majesty. The emperor and imperial family of Rome were thus addressed, also the popes and the emperors of Ger- many. The style was given to Louis XI. of France in 1461. — Voltaire. When Charles V. was chosen emperor of Ger- many in 1519, the kings of Spain took the style. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of England, on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as your majesty, 1520. James I. used the style " sacred," and " most excellent majesty." majol'iea n^are. Pottery. major'ea. Balearic islands, Minorca. Majorca opposed Philip V. of Spain in 1714; but submitted, 14 July, 1715. Its first railway, from Palma, capital of the Balearic isles, to Inca, 18 miles, opened 24 Feb. 1875. lUalabar', a district on the west coastof Hindostan. The Portuguese established factories here 1505, the English 1601. Malac'ea, a district on the Malay peninsula, India, was made a Portuguese settlement in 1511. The Dutch factories were established in 1640. The Dutch government exchanged it for Bencoolen in Sumatra in 1824, when it was placed under the Bengal presidency. It is now part of the Strait set- tlements. Iflarag^a, S. Spain, a Phoenician town, taken by the Arabs, 714; retaken by the Spaniards, after a long siege, 1487. Naval BATTLES, 1704. An insurrection against the provisional gov- ernment was put down with much slaughter, 31 Dec. 1868. IVfalakhofT, a hill near Sebastopol, with an old tower, strongly fortified by the Russians during the Crimean war. The allied French and English attacked it on 17, 18 June, 1855, and, after a conflict of 48 hours, were repulsed; the Eng- lish losing 175 killed and 1126 wounded; the French 3338 killed and wounded. On 8 Sept. the French again attacked the Malakhoff ; at 8 o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the redoubt. Sebastopol. In the Malakhoff and Redan were focnid 3000 pieces of cannon of ever}' calibre, and 120,000 lbs. of gunpowder. Malay arehipelago. Moluccas, Philippines, Straits. Maiden, now Amherstbur^, a port of entry on the Canada shore of the Detroit river, 18 miles below Detroit, was a place of importance during the war of 1812-15. Most of the expeditions made by the British and Indians into Mich- igan and Ohio were from this point. Here the British fleet, defeated by Perry 10 Sept. 1813, was built. Maldon, a borough of Essex county, Engl., built B.C., is supposed to have been the first Roman colony in Brl| ain. It was burned by queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by tl Romans; burned by the Danes, 991 A.i>., and rebuilt by i\ Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip and Mary, custom of Borough-English prevails here, the youngest and not the eldest, succeeding to the burgage tenure on father's death. MaJo, St., N.W. France. This port, as a resort of pri vateers, sustained a tremendous bombardment by the Englia under adm. Benbow in 1693, and under lord Berkeley in Julj 1695. In June, 1758, the British landed in considerable for in Cancalle baj% and went up to the harbor, where they burne upwards of a hundred ships, and did great damage to the towi making a number of prisoners. It is now defended by a stron| castle, and the harbor is difficult of access. Malplaquet {mal-pla-lcd'), a village of N. France. Here the allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene defeated the French, commanded by marshal Yillars, 11 Sept. 1709. Each army consisted of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers. There was great slaughter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 men, a loss but ill repaid by the capture of Mons. Malta, formerly Mel'lta, an island in the Mediter- ranean, held successively by Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Romans, which last conquered it, 259 b.c. The apostle Paul was wrecked here, 62 a.d. (Acts xxvii., xxviii.). Malta was taken by the Vandals, 534 ; by the Arabs, 870 ; and by the Normans from Sicily, 1090. With Sicily it fell successively to the houses of Hohenstaufen, of Anjou (1266), and of Aragon (1260). In 1530 Charles V. gave it to the Knights Hospital- lers, who defended it courageously and successfully, in 1551 and 1565, against the Turks, who were obliged to abandon the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men. The island was taken by Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, 12 June, 1798. He found in it 1200 pieces of cannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, 2 ships of the line, a frigate, 4 galleys, and 40,000 muskets, besides an immense treasure collected by su- perstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at lib- erty. Malta surrendered to the British under Pigot, 6 Sept. 1800. At the peace of Amiens it was stipulated that it should be restored to the knights. The British, however, retained possession, and war recommenced ; but, by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was guaranteed to Great Britain. La Va- letta, the capital, was founded in 1557 by the grandmaster La Valetta, and completed and occupied by the knights, 18 Aug. 1571. The Protestant college was founded in 1846. A grand new naval dry-dock was opened May, 1871. Area, 95 sq. miles, and with Gozo, 115 sq. miles. Pop. 1890, 165,662. Malta, Knights of. A military religious order, called also Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some merchants of Malfi, trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a house for pilgrims to Jerusalem, whom they re- ceived with zeal and charity, 1048. They afterwards founded a hospital for pilgrims, whence they were called Hospitallers (Lat. hospes, a guest). The military order was founded about MAL 473 199; confirmed by the pope, 1113. In 1119 the knights de- ated the Turks at Antioch. After the Christians had lost leir interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights tired to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290. John, iig of Cyprus, gave them Limisso, where they stayed till 110, vvlien they took Rhodes, under their grandmaster De allaret, and the next year defended it under the duke of ivoy against Saracens. The story that his successors have icd F. E. K. T. (Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit, or "His valor ;pt Rhodes") for their device is much doubted. From this ley were also called Knights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being ken by Solyman in 1522, they retired into Candia, thence to Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the city of Viter- ) for their retreat ; and in 1530 the emperor Charles V. gave lem the isle of Malta. The order was suppressed in Eng- nd in 1540; restored in 1557; and again suppressed in 1559. ;, John's Gate, Clerkenwell, preserves its name. The em- •ror Paul of Russia declared himself grandmaster of the or- ir in June, 1799. After the death of the grandmaster, ommasi di Contara, in 1805, the order was governed by a jutenant and a college at Rome, till pope Leo XIII. made lunt Ceschi ii Santa Cisce (lieutenant since 14 Feb. 1871) •andmaster, 28 Mch. 1879. The knights sent a hospital es- blishment into Bohemia during the war in 1866, which af- rded great relief to the wounded and sick. mal'veril llill, Va. A strong position selected by gen. cClellan on the James river, about 20 miles south of Rich- ond for the concentration and final stand of the army of the 5tomac at the close of the Peninsular campaign. This po- tion the confederates attempted to carry, 1 July, 1862, but ;3re repulsed with severe loss. Peninsulak campaign. fllaill'elOIl, a hill, one of the defences of Sebastopol, lis captured by the French, 7 June, 1855. ( ]flaill'eluk.e§, originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, tablished by the sultan of Egypt as a bodN'-guard about i40. They placed one of their own corps on the throne, May, 50, and held it until Egypt became a Turkish province, in tl7, when the beys took them into pay, and filled their ranks :th renegades from various countries. On the conquest of Ijypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia ; but, fsisted by the Arnauts, reconquered Egypt from the Turks. I 1804 Napoleon embodied some of them in his guard. On jvich. 1811, they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish Icha, Mehemet Ali, and slain at Cairo. iManierti'lli, sons of Mamers, or Mars, were Campanian jdiers of Agathocles. They seized Messina, in Sicily, in 281 ';., and when closely besieged by the Carthaginians and !ero of Syracuse, in 264, they implored the help of the Ro- ans, which led to the first Punic war. jlliaminotll, an extinct species of elephant {Elephas vimigenius). An entire mammoth, flesh and bones, was dis- j/ered in Siberia in 1799, and manj' tusks and bones since, mains of the animal were found at Harwich, Engl., in 1803, Id since at places in Europe, Asia, and America. " The mam- j>th belongs exclusivel}' to the post-tertiary epoch of geolo- jits, and it was undoubtedly contemporaneous with man in iince and probably elsewhere." — Encycl. Brit. 9th ed. ilVIaininotll cave, Edmondson county, Ky., discov- <|(1 in 1809 by a Mr. Hutchins while in pursuit of a bear. Its <|:reme extent is less than 10 miles, and the combined length 00 a. long, 80 ft. wide; 2d, 350 ft. long, 50 It. wide; 3d, 150 ft. long, 30 ft. wide. Average depth of canal, 26 ft. Cost, 13,470, '2'21/.] ina'lies, the name applied by the ancients to the soul when separated from the body. The manes were reck- oned among infernal deities, and were generally supposed to preside over burial-places and monuments of the dead. They were worshipped by the Romans and invoked by au- gurs; Virgil (22 b.c.) makes his hero sacrifice to the manes. The Romans superscribed their epitaphs with D. M., Diis Monibus, IIiail(g;ailCisiC', Black oxide of manganese, long used to decolorize glas.**, and called Magneski nigra, was formerly included among ores of iron. Its distinctive character was proved by researches of Pott (1740), Kaim and Winterl (1770), and Scheele and Ikrgmann (1774) ; it was first eliminated by Gahn. Manganese combined with potassium is called mineral chameleon, from its rapid change of color under certain circum- stances. Forchammer employed it as a test for the presence of organic matter in water; and dr. Angus Smith successfully applied this test to air in 1858. Manganese bronze, a new metal produced by P. M. Parsons, inventor of white brass, 1876. Mailliat'tatl, island of. Nkw York. Mailiolie'ans, a sect founded by Manes, in Persia, about 2G1, spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been, leaving him much wealth, he assumed the title of apostle, or envoy of Jesus Christ, and claimed to be the paraclete, or comforter, that Christ had promised to send. He maintained 2 principles: the one, good, he called light; the other, bad, he called dark- nes.s. He rejected the Old Testament, and composed a sys- tem of doctrine from Christianity and dogmas of ancient fire- worshippers. Saiwr, king of Persia, believed in him at one time, but afterwards banished him. He was burned alive by Bahram or Varanes, king of Persia, in 277. His followers dis- persed, and several sects sprang from them. Manil'la (built about 1573), capital of the Philif)pine isles, a great mart of Spanish commerce. Pop. 1880, 270,000. Manilla was taken by the English, 6 Oct. 1762, when the arch- bishop engaged to ransom it for about a million sterling; never wholly paid. Manilla has suffered greatly by earthquakes. Earthquake, 1852, '63, '80. IHailiseei', Indian name for Block island. V Circled by waters that never freeze. Beaten by billow and swept by breeze, Lietb the island of Manisees. ' No ghost, but solid turf and rock Is the good island known as Block,' The Reader said. ' For beauty and for ease I chose its Indian name, soft flowing Manisees.' " — Whittier, "The Palatine." I Haililoba', one of the provinces of the dominiotr of Canada, admitted into the coiiioderation 16 .Julv, 187( Area, 64,0(56 sq. miles; pop. 1891, 154,442. Capital,'Wii peg- niaiiom'ctcr (Cir. /invot, thin), an instrument measuring the rarity of the atmosphere, gases, and vap< One is said to have been made by Otto von (iuorickc ab 1660, and the "statical barometer" of Robert Hoyle wai simple manometer. Various forms were devised bv Hnmst (about 1773), by Roy (1777), by Cazalet (1789), and by Bo tlon and others. A manometer was constructed for investi tions of the elasticity U3f steam conducted by Prony, Ai Dulong, and Girard, 1830. Iliaiiors are as ancient as the Saxon times, and ; ply a territorial district with its jurisdiction, rights, and j quisites. They were formerly called baronies, and are lordships. Each lord was empowered to hold a c( called court -baron for redressing misdemeanors and tling disputes between tenants. — Cabinet Lawyer, Ai! RKNTISM. ]VIan§ion hou§e, London, residence of the 1< mayor. mansou'rah, a town of Lower Egypt. Here Louis was defeated by the Saracens and taken prisoner, 5 Apr. II He gave Damietta and 400,000 livres for his ransom. mailtinea (ma7i-te-nee'a), a village and ruined cityj Arcadia, Greece. Here (1) Athenians and Argives were featedbyAgis II. of Sparta, 418 b.c. (2)Epaminondasand'J bans defeated the forces of Lacedasmon, Acbaia, Elis, At and Arcadia, 362 b.c. Epaniinondas was killed, and Thebes W its power in Greece. The emperor Adrian built a tcm|)le : Mantinea in honor of his favorite Alcinolls. The town w; also called Antigonia. Other battles were fought near it. Man'twa, N.Italy, an Etruscan city, near which Virgi was born, 70 jj.c. Mantua was ruled by the Gonzagas, loni; of Mantua, from 1328 to 1708, when it was seized by the em- peror Joseph I. It surrendered to the French, 2 Feb. 1797, aftei a siege of 8 months; retaken by the Austrians and Russians, 8< July, 1799, after a short siege. After the battle of Marenp (14 June, 1800), the French again obtained possession. 1 was included in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, then restorci to the Austrians, who sold it to the Italians, 11 Oct. 1866, afto peace. manuscript, often written MS,, in plural MSS., is de rived directly from the Lat. Codices manu scripti. Unii about 1440 every record was a written one. The first sub stance used to write upon was the bark or rind of the papy rus, a reed found in Egypt, which, when properly prepare! was a cheap material for writing. The Papyrus was pp pared in long rolls, and not in the form of our books, some <> these rolls being 150 feet long, with a right and wrong sid fo? writing. The second substance for writing upon wa Parchment, and lastly, Pai'kr. The use of i)apynis di" not cease in Egypt until about the 10th century a.d., am the use of parchment continued until the advent of print ing (about the middle of the 15th century), when it mostl; ceased except for sumptuous editions and for legal and othe records. LIST OF A FEW OF THE MOST FAMOUS MSS. PRESERVED TO THE PRESENT TIME. Date of writing. Inscription of Send. 4000 B.O. . Papyrus Prisse Papyrus Wax tablet Papyrus The Cottonian Genesis.. 2500 or 3300 1 300 B.0 55 A.D. 79 A.D. , The Codex Sinaiticua. Codex Argentens 4th century. 4th century. 4th century. Egyptian hieroglyphics on the cornice over the door of a tomb. Suppose to have been written in the 2d dynasty of Egyptian rulers. Now in tb Ashmolean museum at Oxford. (18 pages io Egyptian hieratic writing— a treatise, "How to Behave Wisely ( Now in the Louvre at Paris. (Greek; the oldest (not an inscription) preserved to us. Its form a praycj ( Preserved at Vienna. ^; (Record of a payment made by a citizen of Pompeii, found at Pompeii, 187Ii ( In the National muiseum at Naples. Pompeian. Text of Genesis in Greek; the oldest Septuagint MS. in existence; writte in uncials, 165 quarto leaves, now mostly burned in the disastrous Are o 1731, which half destroyed the Cottonian collection. The oldest of all existing New Testament codices (others call the Codex Vat caniis oldest). Found by Tischendorf in the convent of St. Catherine f the foot of mount Sinai, 1844-59. Now in St. Petersburg. Disputed as to a' thenticity. liiTERATURK, forgeries op. Gothic gospels, by Ul&las, the apostle of the Goths, at Upsaln, Sweden. MAO 475 MAR LIST OF A FEW OF THE MOST FAMOUS MMS. PRESERVED TO THE PRESENT Tl},]E.— (Continued.) Kind. Date of writing. Remarks. 3ook of Kells. .indisfarne Gospel. . Ucuiu's Bible ;aedmon (Kedmon). Jeowulf. 7th century. 7th century. 9th century. 7th century. 8th century. >ld English Chronicles t. Margaret's Gospel Book. 9th and 12th centuries. 11th century So called from the monastery of Kells, where it was written, or at least for a long time preserved. It contains the 4 go.spel8 in Latin, ornamented with great richness, beauty, and freedom, and expressing the full maturity of the Irish style. Now in the possession of Trinity college, Dublin. In the British museum. In the British museum; bought 1836. (Metrical paraphrase of Genesis, Exodus, and parts of Daniel; in the Bodleian ( library. Earliest English epic; mostly destroyed in theCottonian fire, 1731. Beowulf. r There are 6 in all ; a seventh was burned at the fire that destroyed part of the j Cottonian library, 1731; 3 of these are in the British museum, 1 at Cam- ( bridge, 1 at the National library, and 1 at the Bodleian. Belonging to queen Margaret of Scotland. In the Bodleian library. Bible, Books. lla'oris. New Zkaland. maple-tree. Flowers and Plants. niap§. Anaximander, a pupil of Thales (about 560 B.C.), ketched the first map (yfAoypacpiKog Triva^), in form a disk. i)emocritus of Abdera, about a hundred years after, with a i^der range of knowledge, drew a new map, giving the world in oblong form, showing extension east and west rather than lorth and south. Longitude. The first application of as- ironomy to geography was made by Phytheas of Marseilles iabout 326 b.c), he having made the first observation of lati- lade, and that for Marseilles. Dicaeaschus of Messana, in I icily (310 b.c.), made the first approach to a projection, hratosthenes of Cyrene (276-196 no.) enlarged upon previ- jus work by attempting a geodetic measurement of the size f the earth. Hipparchiis of Nicaea (162 u.c.) first determined ,ATiTUDK and Longitude. Marinus of Tyre (about 150 b.c.) as the first to make use of Hipparchus's teachings in repre- Miting the countries of the world. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelu- una, Egypt (about 162 a.d.) was in reality the first scientific pap-maker; notwithstanding errors in locations and bounda- ies, the method was correct. The oldest MS. of Ptolemy, in he Vatopedi monastery of mount Athos, was first published in iS67. The Romans contributed nothing to map-making. No (nprovement was made in it from the time of Ptolemj' until be 13th century, when the nautical (loxodormic or compass) jiap appeared in Italy, so called because constructed by the id of the Compass. Gerhard Kramer, or Kauffman, usually died Mercator (1512-94), has the honorable name of reformer ;' cartography. There are extant his map of Palestine (1537), jiap of Flanders (1540), in 9 sheets, photographed 1882, a ilobe(I54l) and the first critical noap of Europe (1554), by [hich he laid the foundation of his fame. In 1569 appeared ^is famous map of the world, drawn, in the projection, with tirallel meridians. It is the first map on which true rhumb jncs could be drawn as straight lines. A series of important '.scoveries and inventions in mathematics, physics, and as- ronomy was followed by a like improvement in cartography. ;he telescope (1606) ; the discovery of Jupiter's moons by Gal- 30 (1610) ; Cassini's calculation of their periods of rotation 666); the first application of trigonometry to geodesy by laellius (1615); Picard's measurement of a degree between jaris and Amiens (1669-70) ; the French measurement of a i'gree between Dunkirk and Perpignan by Cassini and Lahire 683-1718); Hadley's mirror -sextant (1731); Mayer's im- iovements on the lunar tables (1753), and Harrison's chro- j)meter (1761), with many later inventions and discoveries, [ive contributed to the accuracy of recent surveys and maps. ! Mar'attion, a plain in Attica. Here, on 28 or 29 Sept. I*0 B.C., the (ireeks, only 11,000 strong, under Miltiades, Aris- iies, and Themistocles, defeated a Persian army of 110,000. jmong the slain (about 6400) was Hippias, instigator of the jar. The Persian army was forced to retreat to Asia. Bat- iks, Grkece. ; marble, a term applied to any limestone sufficiently close texture to admit of polishing. Dipoenus and Scyllis, statu- lies of Crete, were the first artists who sculptured marble and j'Hshed their works, all statues previously being of wood, about • ^. ^^-— Pliny- The marble used by the Greek sculptors hidias, Praxiteles, etc., was the famous Pentelic marble ; its ■ aracteristics are seen in. the Elgin marbles in the British mu- nm. It was quarried from mount Pentelicus in Attica. Parian arble, also much used by the ancient Greek sculptors and architects, was quarried from mount Marpessa, on the isle of Paros. The Venus de Medici is a notable example of it. Carrara marble is used by the best sculptors of the present da}'. It is found in the Apuan Alps, and is largely worked in the vicinity of Carrara, whence its name. The finest work of Michael Angelo and Canova was executed in this marble. There are valuable deposits of marble in the eastern and mid- dle states of the U. S., also in Tennessee and Georgia. lHareil, the first month of the year, until Numa added Januarj' and February, 713 b.c. Romulus, who divided the year into months, gave to this month the name of his sup- posed father. Mars ; though Ovid observes that the people of Italy had the month of March before Romulus, but in a dif- ferent place in the calendar. The year commenced 25 Mch. until 1753. Year. mar ell to the sea, Sherman's. Sherman's great MARCH. inarelie§. The old border lands between England and Wales, and England and Scotland. The lords marchers of the Welsh borders had vice-regal authority ; the wardens of the Scotch marches were subordinate officers. These powers were abolished 1536 and 1689. IVIareionites (viar'-shun-ites), followers of Marcion, a heretic, about 150, who preceded the Manichees, and taught similar doctrines. — Cave. Ufareomail'lli, a people of S. Germany, expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and, united with other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were repelled by the emperors Antoninus and Verus. They were defeated by the legion called, from a fabled miracle, the Thundering legion, 179; and finally driven beyond the Danube by Aurelian, 271. iflardi-Oras {mar-de-gra; Fr. Fat Tuesday). Shrove Tuesday, the last day of the carnival— day before Ash-Wednes- day, the first day of Lent. It is celebrated in New Orleans with revelry and elaborate display since 1827. In 1857 the "Mistick Krewe of Comus" added new life to the carnival, and in 1872 a "King of the Carnival" was appointed, whose authority is observed during the carnival. IVIaren'^O, a village of N. Italy. Here the French army, under Bonaparte, after crossing the Alps into Piedmont, attacked the Austrians, 14 June, 1800; the French were re- treating, when the arrival of gen. Dessaix turned the fortunes of the day. By a treaty between the Austrian general Melas and Bonaparte, signed 15 June, the latter obtained 12 strong fortresses, and became master of Italy. inare§elials. Marshals. Harigna'no, now Uleleg^nano (rnd-kn-yd'.no), a town of N. Italy, 10 miles southeast of Milan. 3 battles have been fought near here. 1. Francis I. of France defeated the duke of Milan and the Swiss, 13, 14 Sept. 1515; above 20,000 men were slain. This conflict has been called the Battle of the Giants. 2. Near here was fought the battle of Pa VIA, 24 Feb. 1525. 3. After the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859, the Austrians intrenched themselves at Melegnano. The emperor sent marshal Baraguay d'Hilliers with 16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with a loss of about 850 killed and wounded, on 8 June. The Austrians are said to have lost 1400 killed and wounded, and 900 prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged. marine turtle, a torpedo or infernal machine, in- vented by David Bushnell, to blow up the Eagle, a British MAR 4'6 64-gun ship in New York harbor, Sept. 1776. It failed, as the operator could not attach it to the bt»ttora of the vessel, owing to the thickness of the copper. An account of this machine is fouiui in Silliniaii's Journal for 1820. j iliurilier% coiliputsii. Compass, Magnktism. Illtiriliem were first established in England as a nursery to man the fleet. An order in council, dated 16 Oct. 1664, authorized 12(H) soldiers to be raised and formed into one reg- iment. In lt>8-l, the 3d regiment of the line was called the Marine regiment ; but the system of having soldiers exclu- sively for sea service was not carried into effect until 1698, when 2 marine regiments were formed. More regiments were embodied in subsequent years; and in 1741 the corps con- sisted of 10 regiments, each 1000 strong. In 1759 they num- bered 18,000 men. In the latter years of the French war, ending in 1815, they amounted to 31,400, but there were fre- quently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The jollies, as they are called, frequently distinguished themselves. The " Royal Marine Forces" (so named 1 May, 1802) now comprise ar- tillery and light infantry. Marines introduced into the U. S. army by Congress, directing 2 battalions to be organized 10 Nov. 1775 Marine corps, liable to do duty either on board vessels of war or on land, organized by Congress 11 July, 1798 U. S. marine corps consisted of 86 officers and 1500 enlisted men 1880 Marine barracks, near the navy yard. Washington, I). C, are the headquarters of the U. S. marine corps. mark, a silver coin of the northern nations ; the name mark-luhs is still retained in Denmark. In England " mark " means 13«. 4c?., and the name is retained in law courts. Coin AND COINAGE. IIIark'§, St., Venice. The church was erected in 829, the piazza in 1592. Proposed restorations and changes in the fapades and mosaic pavement created much excitement in England, and led to remonstrances which irritated the Italian people. Nov., Dec. 1879 THar'oilites, Christians in the east, followers of one Maron in the 5th century ; they are said to have embraced errors of Jacobites, Nestorians, and Monothelites. About 1180 they numbered 40,000, living near Mount Libanus, and were of service to the Christian kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled to the Church of Rome soon after. For mas- sacres of Maronites in 1860, Druses. inaroon§, a name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island was conquered from the Spaniards, a number of negroes fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the colonists. After a war of 8 years, the maroons capitulated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In 1795 they again took arms, but were speedily put down and many were transported.— 5janc?e. Maroon, a brownish or dull red color. mar-prelate tracts, virulently attacking episco- pacy, were mostly written, it is believed, by Henry Penry, who was cruelly executed, 29 May, 1593, for seditious words against the queen (found on his person when seized). The tracts appeared about 1586. Some had very singular titles, such as " An Almand for a Parrat," " Hay any Worke for Cooper?" etc. They were collected and reprinted in 1843. marque, Letters of. Privateer. Marqiie'sas islands, Polynesia, south Pacific ocean, 13 in number, were discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named them after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendopa. They were visited by Cook in 1774, and were taken possession of by the French admiral Dupetit Thouars, 1 May, 1842. marquesSi, a dignity, called by the Saxons markinreve, by the Germans Markgraf, takes its name from mark or march, a limit or bound (Marches) ; the office being to guard or govern the frontiers. Marquess is next in honor in the British nobility to duke. The first Englishman to hold the title was the favorite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of Ox- ford, created marquess of Dublin, and placed in Parliament between the dukes and earls, 1385. James Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland, was made marquess of Ormond in 1476, without territories; afterwards earl of Ross. Marqiiette, Jacques (1637-75), Explorations of. Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Wisconsin, 1668-75. MAR 1 marrlafre was instituted by God ((ien. ii.), and i firmed by Christ (Mark x.), who performed a miracle at celebration of one (John ii.). Matrimonial ceremonies amofl the Greeks are ascribed to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 Akkinity, Age. Jaw favoring marriage passed at Rome Priests forbidden to marry after ordination Marriage in Lent forbidden { Forbidden to bishops in (592, to priests in 1015; priests obliged to take the vow of celibacy Statute prohibiting marriages within prohibited degrees, 25 Hen. VIII 15; Marriage, as a sacrament, in churches ordained by pope hino cent III. about 1199; affirmed by council of Trent Marriages by justices of the peace authorized by Parliament.. 1( A tax laid on marriages, viz. : marriage of a duke, mi. ; of a common person. Is. M, 1(59;. Irregular marriages i)rohibited (Fleet marriages) 17.';: Marriages again taxed 178^ New Marriage act, 1822 ; partially repealed Acts prohibiting marriages by Roman Catholic priests in Scot- land, or other ministers not of the church of Scotland, re- pealed Present Marriage act for England, authorizing marriages without religious ceremony, by registrar's certificate, or in a dissenting chapel, passed li [Amended in 1837 and 1856.] Marriage Registration act 11 Amendment acts passed 1840 and li Act to suppress irregular marriages in Scotland (Gkktxa) Court established for divorce and matrimonial causes; it may grant judicial separation for adultery, cruelty, or desertion without cause for 2 years and upwards (Divorce) li Act to legitimate children of certain marriages within forbid- den degrees (with deceased wife's sister), such marriages in future prohibited (Lyndhurst's act); (efforts made to legal- ize marriage with deceased wife's sister ever since) Civil marriages made legal in Austria (Austria) Marriage Law Reform association (to legalize marriage with a deceased wife's sister), 15 Jan. 1851. Bill passed commons, 2 July; rejected by lords, 23 July, 1858; again rejected, 1862 ; and again by the commons, 2 May, 1866, and 30 Apr. 1870; rejected by lords (77-73). 19 May, 1870; passed by commons, 9 Mch. ; rejected by lords (97-71), 27 Mch. 1871; passed by commons in 1872, 1873, and rejected by lords (49-74), 14 Mch. 1873; rejected by commons (171-142), 17 Feb. 1875; by lords (101-81; prince of Wales and duke of Edinburgh for it), 6 May, 1879; by lords (101-90). . .25 June, These marriages made legal at Melbourne, Nov. 1872; at Syd- ney, 1875; in Canada and New Zealand Bill for recognition in Great Britain of such colonial marriages read a second time in the commons (192-141), 28 Feb. 1877 (21 majority) 27 Feb. Case of Brook vs. Brook holds such a marriage celebrated in a foreign country not valid 17 Apr. II Decision confirmed on appeal to House of Lords 18 Mch. Commission appointed to inquire into marriage laws of Scot- land, 22 Mch. 1865, reported in favor of changes to insure uniformity, simplicity, and certainty July. Consular Marriage act, enabling acting British consuls abroad to solemnize marriages, passed 16 July, Married Women's Property act passed 9 Aug, Marriage law of Ireland amended, 10 Aug. 1870; again amended, July, Matrimonial Causes act passed An act to encourage regular marriages in Scotland 8 Aug. Royal Marriage act was passed in 1772, in consequence of the riage of the duke of Gloucester, the king's brother, with widow of the earl Waldegrave, and of the duke of Cnmberl with the widow of col. Horton and daughter of lord Irnham. this act, no descendant of George II., unless of foreign birth, marry under age of 25, without consent of the king; at and a1 that age, consent of Parliament is necessary to render the marrii valid. Marriage of duke of Sussex with the lady Augusta Mu solemnized in 1793, was pronounced illegal, 1794, and the clail of their son, sir Augustus d'Este, declared invalid by the House Lords, 9 July, 1844. He married lady Cecilia Underwood (aftCl wards duchess of Inverness), 1831. Princess Louise was married to the marquess of Lome by qu^ Victoria's consent, 21 Mch. 1871. Half-marriage. Semi-matrimonium. Among the Romans conci binage was a legitimate union, not merely tolerated, but "^' ized. The concubine had the name of semi-conjux. Men mig have either a wife or a concubine, provided they had not bo1 together. Constantine the Great checked concubinage, but d not abolish it. This ancient custom of the Romans was preserve not only among the Lombards, but by the P'rench when they he dominion iu that country. Cujas assures us that the Gascons ar other people bordering on the Pyrenean mountains had not linquished this custom in his time, 1590. The women bore tl name of "wives of the second order.''^—Henaun. Morgana: MARRIAGES. Double marriages. There are a few instances of a husband witri wives in countries where polygamy was unlawful. The Ijacedsemonian who had 2 wives was Anaxandrides, son of Led about 510 B.C. Dionysius of Syracuse married 2 wives, vu Doris, daughter of Xenetus, and Aristomache, sister of Dm 398 B.C. It is said that the count Gleichen, a German noblem; MAR 477 MAR was permitted, under peculiar circumstances, by Gregory IX., 1237 A. D., to have 2 wives. Mokmo.ns practised polygamy until Congress suppressed it. 'orced marriages. Stat. 3 Henry VII., 1487, made the principal and abettors in marriages with heiresses, etc., contrary to their will equally guilty as felons. By 39 Eliz. 1596, such felons were denied benefit of clergy. The ofl'ence was made punishable by transportation, 1 Geo. IV. 1820. Case of Miss Wharton, heiress of the house of Wharton, whom capt. Campbell married by force, occurred in William IIl.'s reign. Sir John Johnston was hanged for seizing the young lady, and the marriage was annulled by Parliament, 1690. Kdward Gibbon Wakefield was tried at Lan- caster, and found guilty of the felonious abduction of Miss Turner, 24 Mch. 1827, and his marriage with her was dissolved by act of Parliament. 'arriages by sale. Among the Babylonians, at a certain time every year, the marriageable females were assembled, and dis- posed of to the best bidder. This custom is said to have originated ,with Atossa, daughter of Belochos, about 1433 B.C. Ileet marriages. IIiarriag°e in the United States. Age at which minors ay contract marriage lawfully varies in the different states, ales from 14 to 18 years, females 12 to 16 years ; and the age 'low which parental consent is required varies also, males from ; to 21 years, and females 15 to 21 years, mostly 18 years, but i Florida, Kentuck}', Louisiana, Pennsylvania, and Rhode liand it is 21 yeans. In all the states and territories except fe Dakotas, Idaho, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, uth Carolina, and Wisconsin, a marriage license must be tcured from some officer designated by law, for which fees 3 exacted. The prohibited degrees of relationship vary also the different states, extending in many to first cousins. In j Sachet (sw-s^a'), duke of Albuera; b. 1770 iiny states marriages are void between white and colored rsons, but not in Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Louis- la, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersej', New ixico, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, ode Island, South Dakota, Vermont, Wisconsin, Wyoming. VOBCE, Wives. illarrs inurder§. England, 1886; Ratcliffe ■CillWAY. ;M[ar'§ ill§urrectioil. John, earl of Mar, pro- ijimed James III. at Braemar, Aberdeenshire, 6 Sept. 1715. ; was defeated at Sheriffmuir, 13 Nov., and escaped from )>utrose with the Pretender, 4 Feb. 1716. |IIIar§, a planet, next to the earth in order of distance from ij! sun ; diameter, 4363 miles. Its mass is about J^ that of tt! earth. Turns on its axis in 24|^ hours ; mean distance from l|; sun, 139,311,000 miles. Its orbit is quite eliptical; the (JTerence in its distance from the sun at perihelion and aphe- Iji being 26,000,000 miles. Its revolution round the sun is Ule in 687 of our days; its mean rate of motion being 16 miles ilecond. The spots on its surface were first observed by Fon- t|a, in 1636. 2 satellites were discovered by prof. Asaph Hall ijWashington, D. C, 11 Aug. 1877. Mythology. 'jliey have likewise discovered 2 lesser stars or satellites which ,3volve about Mars. "_,Swi/?, "Gulliver's Travels— Voyage to tiaputa," about 1726. |tlar§eillai§e {marsal-yaz') liynill. The words f'l music are ascribed to Rouget de Lil'le, or LTsle, a French e,uieer officer, who, it is said, composed it by request, 1792, t heer the conscripts at Strasburg. It was named from troops c^Iarseilles who entered Paris in 1792 playing the tune. This aount is doubted (1879). The author was pensioned by Louis l;ilippe, 1830. ■Uar§eilles {marsah'). The ancient Massilia, S. 1 nee, a maritime city, founded by Phoc«ans about 600 b.c. ; a illy of Rome, 218 b.c. Cicero stvled it the Athens of Gaul, iccount of its excellent schools. ' j, ^ 1 en by Julius Csesar after a long siege 49 EEuric the Visigoth ^?6 b ied by Saracens 839 * seilles a republic '. 1214 fe lected to the counts of Provence '..'.'.'.'..'.'. 1251 L ted to crown of France \\\\ 1432 narshals, or marciehals, of France, were orig- » ly the esquires of the king, who led the vangfiard to ob- S'e the enemy and to choose places for encampment. Till «, ^Tl ^^ ^''«"'=i« !•' i» 1515, there were but 2 marshals, ') had 500 livres per annum in war, but no stipend in P:::e. The number was afterwards increased. The follow- » were appointed by Napoleon I. during the French wars of 1804-14, all of whom were renowned for skill and cour- age. Arrighi (ar-ree'-^ree), duke of Padua; b. 1778; d. 21 Mch. 1853. Augereau (dzh-ro'), duke of Castiglione; b. 1757; d. 12 June 1816 Bernadotte, prmce of Ponte Corvo, king of Sweden, 1818; b. 1764- d. 8 Mch. 1844. ' ' Berthier {ber-te-a'). prince of Neufchatel and Wagram ; b. 1753- killed or committed suicide at Bamberg, 1 June 1815 Bessi|res(6a-se-er),dukeofIstria; b. 1768; killed at Lutzen, 1 May, Brune, b. 1763; murdered at Avignon, 2 Aug. 1815. Davoust (da-voo'), prince of Eckmuhl and duke of Auerstadt- b 1770- d. 1 June, 1823. ' ' Grouchy (groo-she'). b. 1766; d. 29 May, 1847. Jourdan {zhoor-don'), peer of France; b. 1762; d. 23 Nov. 1833. Junot {2/iM-rJo'),duke of Abrantes; b. 1771; suicide, 29 July 1813 Kellermann, duke of Valmy; b. 1735; d. 12 Sept. 1820. ' Lannes {k'in), duke of Montebello, wounded at Aspern; b. 1769- d. 31 May, 1809. ' Lefebvre (lehfavr')^ duke of Dantzic; b. 1755; d. 14 Sept. 1820. Macdonald, duke of Tarento; b. 1765; d. 24 Sept. 1840. Marmont {mar-mon'), duke of Ragusa; b. 1774; d. 2 Mch. 1852. Massena (mds-sa-nd'}, prince of Essliug and duke of Rivoli ; b. 1758* d. 4 Apr. 1817. ' Moncey (mon-sa'), duke of Conegliano; b. 1754; d. 20 Apr. 1842. Mortier (mor-tfi-a'), duke of Treviso; b. 1768; killed by Fieschi, 28 July, 1835. Murat (mu-ra'\ king of Naples; b. 1771; executed 13 Oct. 1815. Ney, prince of Moskwa; b. 1769; executed 7 Dec. 1815. Oudinot (00-de-no), duke of Reggio; b. 1767; d. 13 Sept. 1847. Perignon (pa-ren-yon')^ marquis de; b. 1754; d. 25 Dec. 1818. Poniatowski {ponea-tov'-skee), prince Josef Anton, b. 1762 ; wound- ed at Leipsic and drowned, 19 Oct. 1813. Soult (soolt), duke of Dalmatia; b. 1769; d. 26 Nov. 1851. Suchet {su-sha'). duke of Albuera; b. 1770; d. 3 Jan. 1826. Victor, duke of Belluno; b. 1764; d. 1 Mch. 1841. ]flar'§hal§ea court, a court formerly held before the steward and marshal of the king's house to administer justice between the king's domestic servants. Its jurisdiction in the royal palace was very ancient, of high dignity, and coeval with the common-law. These courts were abolished by Parliament, and discontinued 31 Dec. 1849. Prisons. mar'si, a brave people of S. Italy, who, after several contests, yielded to Rome about 301 b.c. During the civil wars they and their allies rebelled, having demanded in vain Roman citizenship, 91 B.o. After many successes and reverses, they obtained peace and their rights, 87 b.c. The Marsi be- ing /Socii of the Romans, this was called the Social war. Jflarston Moor, near York, Engl. The Scots and parliamentary army were besieging York, when prince Rupert, joined by the marquess of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up on Marston Moor on 2 July, 1644, the royalists 22,000 strong, while the parliamentary forces numbered 15,000 foot and 9000 horse, and the contest was long undecided. Rupert, commanding the royalist right wing, was opposed by Cromwell, with troops disciplined by himself, " the Ironsides." Cromwell was victorious ; he drove his opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second engagement and a second victorj'. The prince's artillery was taken, and the roj'alists never recovered from the blow. martel'Io (or Mortel'la) towers were cir- cular buildings erected in the beginning of the present century on the southern coast of England, and other parts of the empire, as defences against invasion. The name was originally given to structures erected on the coast of Sicily and Sardinia for protection against pirates; in the time of Charles V. of Spain they contained a bell with a hammer to give an alarm at their approach. inartial la\ir. Military law. Martinique (mar-ti-neek'), French West Indies, dis- covered in 1493 or 1502; settled by France, 1635. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and the Grena- dines, were taken by the British from the French in Feb. 1762, but restored to France at the peace the next year. They were again taken, 16 Mch. 1794; restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802 ; again captured 23 Feb. 1809. A revolution in this island in favor of Napoleon was finally suppressed by the British, 1 June, 1815, and Martinique reverted to France. Severe earth- quakes occurred here in 1767 and 1839. Area, 381 sq. miles; pop. 1888, 175,391. Mar'tinina§, ll Nov., the feast of St. Martin, bishop of Tours, in the 4th century, is quarter-day in parts of the MAR *'« north of England and in Scotland. The high-sherifTs of England and Wales are nominated on the morrow of St. Mar- tin, 12 Nov. martyrs. Stephen, the first Christian martyr, was stoned, 37. The festivals of the martyrs, of very ancient date, took their rise about the time of Tolycarp, who suffered mar- tyrdom about 1G9. St. Alban is the English protomartyr, 28G. Diocletian era, Pekskcutions, Puotkstants. The Mar- tyrs' Memorial, Smithfield, erected by the Protestant Alliajice, was inaugurated 11 Mch. 1870. The Martyrs' Memorial church, St. John's street, Clerkenwell, Engl., was consecrated 2 June, 1871. John Foxe's " Book of Martyrs " was pub. 15G3. Literature. Maryland, one of the United States, on the central Atlantic coast, lies wholly north of the Potomac river, which, forming the boundary-line that separates it from West Virginia and Virginia, gives the state a peculiar form. The state varies in width from about 5 miles near the West Virginia line to 120 along the Chesapeake bay, which cuts the state into 2 parts. On the east it is bounded by Delaware and the Atlantic ocean. It is limited in latitude by 37° 53' to 39° 42' N., the northern limit being the famous Mason and Dixon's line, mark- ing its division from Pennsylvania. In longitude it is lim- ited by 75° 2' to 79° 30' W. Area, 12,210 sq. miles in 24 coun- ties; pop. 1890, 1,042,390. Capital, Annapolis. Maryland is included in the grant of king James of England to the South Virginia colony 10 Apr. 1606 Capt. John Smith leaves Jamestown to explore the Chesapeake bay, and discovers the mouths of the Susquehanna, North- east, Elk, and Sassafras rivers at its head July-Aug. 1608 Maryland included in the second charter to Virginia, which covered land from Point Comfort along the coast north for 200 miles, and south the same distance, and "from sea to sea " (Atlantic to the Pacific) 23 May, 1609 Royal license given to William Clayborne, one of the council and secretary of state of the colony in Virginia, by king Charles to trade in all seas and lands in those parts of the English possessions in America for which there is not already a patent granted, and giving Clayborne power " to direct and govern" such of the king's subjects "as shall be under his command in his voyages and discoveries," 16 May, 1631 Sir George Calvert, lord Baltimore, obtains from king Charles the promise of a grant of land now Maryland, but dies before charter is executed 15 Apr. 1632 Cecilius Calvert, baron of Baltimore in the kingdom of Ireland, son of lord Baltimore, receives from king Charles a grant covering territory hitherto unsettled, having for its southern boundary the Potomac from its source to its mouth, the ocean on the east, and Delaware bay as far north as the iOth parallel, following that parallel to the meridian of the foun- tain of the Potomac 20 June, " Virginians objecting to the grant to lord Baltimore, the king refers their petition to the privy council, who decide "That the lord Baltimore should be left to his patent, and the other parties to the course of law " 3 July, 1633 Colony sent out from Cowes in the isle of Wight by lord Balti- more, under his brother Leonard Calvert, to settle in Mary- land, arrives off Point Comfort, Va 24 Feb. 1634 At Point Comfort gov. Calvert has an interview with Clayborne, in which he intimates that certain settlements of the latter on the isle of Kent, in Chesapeake bay, would be consid- ered as a part of the Maryland plantation. After the gov- ernor had explored the Potomac as far as Piscataway creek he returns to St. George's river, and sailing up about 12 miles to the Indian town of Yoamaco, makes a treaty with the tribe, and sends for the colonists, who arrive, take peaceable possession, and name the place St. Mary's, 27 Mch. " Colony export a cargo of Indian corn to England 1635 First legislative assembly at St. Mary's 26 Feb. " Clayborne, having threatened the colony at St. Mary's, grants a warrant to Ratcliflfe Warren to " seize and capture any ves- sel belonging to the colony." Warren (its out a pinnace, with which he attacks 2 armed pinnaces fitted out at St. Mary's and under the command of Thomas Cornwallis, and engages in a battle in the Pocomoke or Wighcomoc rivers, which results in the death of Warren and victory for the colony Apr. or May, " Ix)rd Baltimore commissions gov. Calvert to call an assembly to signify to the colony his dissent to laws made by the assembly in 1635, and propounding others for their assent, 15 Apr. 1637 MAR ^ Governor commissions George Evelyn as commander of the isl^g of Kent now subjected to Maryland ;J0 Dec Assembly, including representatives from the isle of Keutj considers laws ollercd by the lord proprietor. They reject them and frame others, which when sent to England lord Baltimore rejects. Assembly meets 25 Jan By reference from the king and proclamation in Virginia, the claim of Clayborne to the isle of Kent and Palmer's island ia . rejected in favor of lord Baltimore 4 Apr. Lord Baltimore llnally gives assent to the right of the assem- bly to originate laws Aug. Assembly meets at St. Mary's and enacts laws for the govern- ment of the province 19 Mch. Order executed by the governor and council to equip an expe dition against the Indians of the eastern shore and the Sua queliannocks '28 May^ Nicholas Hervey commissioned to invade the territory of the Maquantequat Indians 8 Jan, Petition of Clayborne to the governor and council to restore his property in the isle of Kent denied 21 Aug. Act regulating measures, and adopting the Winchester bushel as the standard Gov. Calvert, returning to England, appoints Giles Brent lieu tenant-general, admiral, chief magistrate, and commander of Maryland in his absence 11 Apr. Gov. Brent issues a proclamation for arresting the person and seizing the shi|) of Richard Ingle, to answer the charge of treason in instigating a rebellion against the gov ernment in Maryland. Ingle arrested, but makes his es- Jan, cape So-called "Ingle's and Clayborne's rebellion " occurs in Mary land. Of this rebellion little is known, except the destruc- tion of the great seal of the province at St. Mary's in Feb. 1645, and the appointment of Edward Hill as governor in the absence of gov. Calvert, who fled from the parliamentary party, probably to Virginia. At the restoration of the aU' thorky of lord Baltimore. 1646, the insurrectionists carried away or destroyed most of the records and public papers of the province 1 Gov. Calvert organizes a military force in Virginia and pro- ceeds to St. Mary's, and regains that part of his prov ince. First mention made in the legislative journal of the upper and lower hou.ses of assembly Recovering the isle of Kent, gov. Calvert pardons all the in- habitants, and appoints Robert Vaughan chief captain and commander of the militia and civil governor 18 Apr. • Gov. Calvert nominates Thomas Greene as his successor, 9 June, " Miss Margaret Brent, administratrix of gov. Calvert, asks from the assembly a vote in the House for herself, and another as attorney for lord Baltimore ; refused Jan. 164 New " great seal " for the province of Maryland sent over by lord Baltimore 12 Aug. Gov. Greene removed by lord Baltimore, and William Stone of Virginia, "a zealous Protestant, and generally knowne to have beene always zealously aflected to the Parliament," ap- pointed Tolerance act, the first securing religious liberty ever passed by an established legislature, provides that "no person professing to believe in Jesus Christ shall from hence- forth be any waies troubled, molested, or discountenanced for, or in respect of, his or her religion, nor in the free exer- cise thereof within this i)rovince . . . nor any way compelled to the beleefe or exercise of any other religion against his or her consent" Apr. I'i Assembly grants lord Baltimore power to seize and dispose of any lands purchased of any Indian, unless the purchaser could show a lawful title thereto from his lordship under the great seal ' Mr. Durand, elder of a Puritan or Independent church founded in Virginia in 1642 (from Massachusetts), and which was broken up and driven out by that government, obtains permission of the lord proprietary's government to settle with his people at Providence or Anne Arundel, now An- napolis Commission granted by lord Baltimore to Robert Brooke, as commander of a county (Charles) "around about and next adjoining to the place which he should settle," on the south side of the Patuxent, with a colony he was transporting to Maryland 20 Sept. ' During the temporary absence of gov. Stone, Thomas Greene, the deputy governor, proclaims Charles II. king, and grants a general pardon 15 Nov. Settlement at Providence organized into a county called Anne Arundel 30 July, K Act passed by the assembly punishing by death and con- fiscation of property any compliance with Clayborne in opposition to lord Baltimore's dominion over the prov- ince • A rumor of the dissolution or resignation in England of lord Baltimore's patent leads the Puritans of Anne Arundel to re- fuse to send any burgesses or delegates to the general as- sembly at St. Mary's when summoned 1' ' Council of state in England appoints 3 officers of the navy, to- , gether with Richard Bennett and William Clayborne of Vir- ginia, a commission to "use their best endeavors to reduce all the plantations upon the bay of Chesapeake to their due obedience to the Parliament and Commonwealth of England, 20 Sept. Numerous hostilities in the past having greatly reduced the MAR 479 MAR Indian tribes in Maryland, lord Baltimore grants a tract of land at the head of Wicomoco river, containing 8000 or 10,000 acres to be known as Calverton manor, to be reserved for the Indians • 1651 immissioners proceed to Maryland and engage gov. Stone and the rest of lord Baltimore's officers to "submit themselves to the government of the Commonwealth of Endand:" thus taking the control from lord Baltimore, ^ ' Mch. 1652 i / proclamation of the commissioners gov. Stone is rein- stated as governor of Maryland, which he assumes "un- til the pleasure of the state of England be known," 28 June, " eaty with the Snsquehannock Indians at the river of Severn, ceding their lands from the Fatuxent river to Palmer's island on the west side of the Chesapeake bay, and from Choptank river to the northeast branch, northward of Elke river, on the eastern side of the bay 5 July, " )rd Baltimore issues instructions to gov. Stone for strictly enforcing the submission of all the inhabitants of the prov- ince of Maryland to his proprietary rights 7 Feb. 1654 )v. Stone, by proclamation, declares that the province of Maryland is under the government of Oliver Cromwell, lord protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland, etc 6 May, " 3bert Brooke, commander of Charles county, having been discharged by lord Baltimore, gov. Stone erects the county into the comity of Calvert 3 July, " )mmissioners Bennett and Clayborne, hearing of the new or- ders and instructions from lord Baltimore, come to Maryland and make a second reducement of the province, appointing capt. William Fuller and others commissioners for governing the affairs of Maryland 22 July, " ipt. Fuller and the other commissioners call an assembly at Patuxent, it passes an "act of recognition " 26 Oct. " 3ts of the assembly; one concerning religion, declaring that "none who profess the popish religion can be protected iin the province by the laws of England . . . nor by the government of the Commonwealth of England, etc., but to be restrained from the exercise thereof" One making void the declaration of gov. Stone requiring the people to ac- knowledge lord Baltimore as absolute lord of the province, Oct. " )v. Stone, hearing from England that lord Baltimore still retained his patent, reassumes the government and or- ganizes a military force in county of St. Mary's uader iJosias Fendall, who seizes the provincial records, which had been deposited in the house of Mr. Richard Preston, n the Patuxent, during the revolution in July, 1654, and Iso arms and ammunition which had been stored in the (house Jan. 1655 lith 200 men and 12 vessels, gov. Stone proceeds by land and 'water against the Puritans of Anne Arundel 20 Alch. " iople of Providence having prepared for an invasion, a bat- jlle ensues between the Puritans and the " Marylanders," of ifthich it is said "of the whole company of the Marylanders inhere escaped only 4 or 5 " ; about 50 were slain or wounded. }3f the Puritans, 2 were killed and 2 died of wounds, 125 Mch. " ew days after the battle, 4 of gov. Stone's men were exe- cuted out of 10 who were court-martialled and sentenced to )e shot; the others, including gov. Stone, escaping sentence, but held as prisoners of war Mch. " mmission received from lord Baltimore appointing Josias Pendall governor of Maryland 10 July, 1656 I the matter of the proprietary rights of lord Baltimore in jJaryland, at this time under consideration in England, the pmmissioners for trade report to Cromwell's council of state javorably to lord Baltimore 16 Sept. " -'iias Fendall, arrested and imprisoned by the Puritans, takes iin oath that he will neither "directly nor indirectly be any jlisturber to the government till there be a full determina- jiou ended in England of all the matters relating to the gov- ernment,'' and is released 24 Sept. " cd Baltimore creates his brother Philip Calvert one of the •ouncillors to the governor of Maryland and principal secre- tary of his province Nov. '♦ ke Barber appointed deputy governor in the absence of gov. Tendall, who embarks for England 18 June, 1657 yitan assembly meets at Patuxent 24 Sept. " Ijoort of the commissioners for trade made 16 Sept. 1656, ■eing favorable to the rights of lord Baltimore, the Puri- |an agents enter into a treaty with lord Baltimore to give !P their power in the province and give due obedience 3 his lordship's government; he agreeing especially "that c will never give his assent to the repeal of the law estab- -lio'l in Maryland, whereby all persons professing to be- eve in Jesus Christ have freedom of conscience there," 30 Nov. " -t Quaker missionaries appear In Maryland " ' iian parly in Maryland surrender their power to the gov- , ■"""•■ 24 Mch. 1658 '■•ernor of Maryland asserts lord Baltimore's title to the utch settlements on Delaware bay, and demands the sub- iiission of the settlement, which is refused 1659 tmiore county founded " ^ 'lall, proving inimical to lord Baltimore, is removed, and ,icceedcd by Philip Calvert, who is sworn in at the provin- jal council held at Patuxent Dec. 1660 nes Calvert, eldest son of the lord proprietary, appointed "'" ; 1661-62 1676 1080 1681 At the request of the assembly, lord Baltimore coins in Eng- land (1661) a large quantity of shillings, sixpences, and pen- nies, which were put in circulation in the province by act of assembly passed iqq2 On account of excessive production, an act is passed prohibit- ing the planting of tobacco for 1 year 1666 First Naturalization act passed, admitting certain French and Bohemians to citizenship " Boundary -line between Maryland and Virginia from Chesa- peake bay to the Atlantic ocean established, and the true location of Watkins Point on the bay, marking its begin- ning, settled by a commission; Philip Calvert of Mary- land and Edmond Scarborough of Virginia appointed, 25 June, 1668 Act to encourage importation of slaves 1671 George Fox visits the Friends in Maryland 1672 A number of outrages on the people of Maryland and Vir- ginia by the Indians, 5 chiefs of the Susquehannocks. capt- ured in a joint expedition, are put to death by major Trueman, commanding the Maryland forces, although they protested their innocence and blamed the Senecas for the outrages. F"or this act major Trueman was impeached by the House of Delegates, but escaped punishment, 25 Sept. 1675 Cecilius Calvert dies, and Charles Calvert, third lord Baltimore, becomes proprietary 30 Nov. " Thomas Notley appointed governor, to act as deputy in the name of his infant son Cecil Calvert Government land-offlce erected in the province by the lord proprietary Charles, lord Baltimore, reassumes personal government William Penn receives his grant to territory west of the Dela- ware and north of Maryland ^ Ordinance promulgated by the proprietary limiting suffrage to freeholders or inhabitants of property Sept. In the contest between William Penn and lord Baltimore, Penn claims 39° as the "beginning of the parallel of 40°;" and the king and council decide that the Maryland charter only included "lands uncultivated and inhabited by savages," and that therefore the territory along the Delaware was not included; that the peninsula between the 2 bays be divided equally, all east of a line drawn from the lati- tude of cape Henlopen to the 40th degree to belong to Penn, Nov. Council of 9 deputies, with William Joseph as president, ap- pointed by lord Baltimore, govern the province during his absence in England Deputies failing to proclaim Wiljiam and Mary rulers in the province, a convention of Protestants (termed Associators), John Coode at the head, assembles for the defence of the Protestant religion, and asserting the rights of king William and queen Mary to the province of Maryland and all Eng- lish dominions .Apr. Associators move upon St. Mary's, and the council abandons the state-house and provincial records to them. Pres. Jo- seph and the council retiring to a fort upon the Patuxent, Coode marches upon them with several hundred men. to whom they surrender, leaving the associators masters of the situation 25 July, King William approves the motives of the associators in tak- ing up arms against lord Baltimore's government, and au- thorizes them to continue in power 1 Feb. Sir Lionel Copley appointed royal governor of Maryland Immediately after gov. Copley's arrival in Maryland he sum- mons a general assembly at St. Mary's, which passes an act of recognition of William and Mary, and then overthrows equal toleration in the province, and establishes the church of England as the state church of Maryland May, On the death of gov. Copley, sir Edmund Andros assumes the government until the arrival of his successor, Nichol- son Capital removed by law to Providence, now Annapolis Public post established from the Potomac through Annapolis to Philadelphia, route to be covered 8 times in the year, and postman to receive a salary of 501. sterling Annapolis incorporated by law, the government intrusted to 8 freeholders, called " commissioners and trustees " State-house destroyed by fire, and many of the records of Anne Arundel county burned Royal charter of incorporation granted Annapolis by gov. Sey- mour 16 Aug. Benedict Leonard Calvert, 4th lord Baltimore, being a Protest- ant, the province is surrendered to him shortly before his death, which occurred 16 Apr. John Hart, proprietary governor, representing Charles Calvert, 5th lord Baltimore, and infant heir of Benedict Leonard Cal- 1694 1696 1704 1708 1715 vert. :)vernor. By resolution the lower house of assembly declare that "the people of Maryland are entitled to all the rights and immu- nities of free Englishmen, and are of necessity inheritors of the common-law of England " Act passed for "the encouragement of learning, and erecting schools in the several counties of the province," under which law a public free school was established at Battle Creek, Calvert county. "A Complete Collection of the Laws of Maryland," printed at Annapolis by William Parks First newspaper printed in Maryland, the Maryland Gazette, published at Annapolis by William Parks Baltimore laid out on lands belonging to Charles Carroll, by commissioners appointed by the legislature 1723 1727 1732 1737 1740 1744 1745 1746 1748 1751 1753 1754 MAR 480 Agreement entered into that the boundary between Maryland and Delaware should bo that llxed by the decree of 1685, and that between Maryland and I'enusylvauia a line drawn due west, 15 miles south of Philadelphia Baltimore increased by the addition of 10 acres of land east of the falls, on the lands of Kdward Fell Charles Carroll "of Carrollton" born at Annapolis '20 Sept. Legislature appropriates 7562^ to meet the expense of raising and equipping 500 volunteers for the great expedition against the Spanish dominions Treaty concluded with the Six Nations by gov. Bladen in conjunction with the representatives of Virginia and Pennsylvania, at Lancaster, I'a., whereby, in considera- tion of the payment of 300/., the Indians agree to relin- quish all claims to territory within the boundary of Mary- land Town of Frederick laid out by Patrick Dulany Sept. Assembly votes 4500/. to raise a body of men for an expedition against Canada, 26 June, and an additional appropriation of 1100/ Nov. Nanticoke Indians emigrate from Maryland to Wyoming, car- rying the bones of their dead with them May, Frederick Calvert becomes 6th lord Baltimore by the death of Charles Calvert 24 Apr. Lord Baltimore directs gov. Sharpe to investigate as to which branch of the Potomac is the source; Virginia claiming the north branch, and Maryland the south Maryland frontier being subjected to incursions of the French and Indians from fort Duquesne (Pittsburg, Pa.), the Gen- eral Assembly convenes at Annapolis and votes 6000/. to aid Virginia in the reduction of the fort 11 July, Command of the forces engaged against the French on the Ohio given to gov. Sharpe under royal commission " Fort is erected at Cumberland, and" garrisoned with 2 com- panies as a resting place for expeditions against fort Du- quesne " Two companies under capt. Dagworthy and lieuts. Bacon and Forty, march from Annapolis to the western frontier. " General Assembly passes a law for the levying of troops, and providing a pension for those maimed in service, 24 Dec. " After Braddock's defeat, 9 July, 1755, the borders of Maryland and Pennsylvania became one extended field of battles, mur- der, desolation, and panic 1755 Acadians, consigned to the province at their expulsion, arrive (Acadia) " Act to raise 40,000/. for erecting fort Frederick and other forts and block-houses on the, frontier, and for a joint ex- pedition against fort Duquesne. This sum was raised by bills of credit and taxation; on the list of 22 subjects of taxation, between the duties on wines and liquors and the billiard-table, is a tax "on all bachelors of 25 years of age and upwards with 100/. and less than 300/. a duty of 5s. per annum, and if worth over 300/. 20s. per annum," 22 Mch. 1756 Gov. Sharpe appoints a day of thanksgiving for the capture of fort Duquesne, and the assembly grants 1500/. to the Mary- land troops who took part in the expedition (Pennsylvania), Nov. 1758 Frederick, lord Baltimore, agrees to the appointment of the commission, messrs. Mason and Dixon, who surveyed the line known by their name, and set up mile-stones ; agree- ment made (Pennsylvania, 1682) 4 July, 1760 Zachariah Hood, a merchant of Annapolis, is appointed stamp distributer under the Stamp act; arriving with his stamps, he is obliged to land clandestinely ; his effigy is whipped, hanged, and burned, and he seeks refuge in New York. The assembly, prorogued from 1763, meets and protests against the Stamp act, and appoints col. Edward Tilghman, William Murdock, and Thomas Ringgold delegates to the congress of deputies from all the colonies 1765 Frederick county court deciding the Stamp act unconstitu- tional, a popular demonstration takes place, the "Sons of Liberty " carry through the streets a coffin inscribed, "The Stamp Act, expired of a mortal stab received from the Genius of Liberty in Frederick county court, 23 Nov. 1765, aged 22 days " 30 Nov. " Public officers in Annapolis, urged by the people, treat the Stamp act as a nullity 3 Apr. 1766 People of Maryland enter into articles for non-importation of British superfluities and for the promotion of American manufactures 20 June, 1769 British bark Good Intent, arriving at Annapolis, a meeting of the associators is held, and it is resolved that the cargo of English goods should not be landed 1770 Assembly attempts to diminish the amount of fees collectible by the public officials and established clergy, but is pro- rogued by the governor, who issues a proclamation fixing the old rates, and requiring the officers to receive the amount in money if tendered 26 Nov. " Frederick, lord Baltimore, dying without an heir, bequeaths his proprietary to Henry Harford, his natural son 1771 People aroused by the governor's proclamation, under the lead- ership of Charles Carroll, elect the popular candidates messrs. Paca and Hammond to the House, and bury the obnoxious proclamation In effigy 14 May, 1773 Convention meets at Annapolis, proposes an absolute cessation of intercourse with the mother country, and nominates Sam- uel Chase, Robert Goldsborough, William Paca, Matthew Tilghman, and Thomas Johnson delegates to the first Conti- nental Congress at Philadelphia. 22 June, 1774 MAR 3 Anthony Stewart, the owner of the brig Peggy Stewart, hav- ing paid the duty on a few packages of tea included in the cargo, the people are excited by liis act, and under advice of Charles Carroll of t.'arrollton. Stewart burns his vessel, 14 Oct. George Washington, present in Congress as a member from Virginia, is nominated by Thomas Johnson of Maryland to be commander-in-chief of the American forces, and unanimously chosen. — Hildreth, "Hist, of U. S.," vol. iii., p. 80 1,5 June, Convention of Maryland assembles and adopts the famous "Association of the Freemen of Maryland," which be- comes the written constitution of Maryland for a year, 26 July, " Maryland Line," under col. William Smallwood, engage in the battles of Long Island, Harlem Heights, White Plains, the storming of fort Washington, battles of Trenton and Prince- ton ; they begin the year 1444 strong, and are reduced to a mere handful at the close Batteries erected near Baltimore and Annapolis, and public records removed to Upi)er Marlborough for safety in preparation for an attack by the British under lord Duns, more James Wilkinson repairs to the camp before Boston as a vol- unteer from Maryland. Army (List of gen. off., U. S.) Convention assembles and unanimously orders the delegates to Congress to unite in declaring the colonies free and inde- pendent, reserving to the state, however, complete internal sovereignty ; Charles Carroll ol^ Carrollton, chief advocate of this resolution, was on 4 July, 1776, chosen a delegate; con- vention met .28 June, Declaration of Independence publicly read at Baltimore, with acclamations for the prosperity of the U. S 22 July, Convention for framing a state constitution assembles at An- napolis 14 Aug., and completes its labors (constitution never submitted to the people) 11 Nov. Continental Congress meets at Baltimore 20 Dec. Maryland Line, under brig. -gen. Smallwood, engage in the battles of Brandywine and Germautown, and are sta- tioned at Wilmington during the winter to protect Dela- ware First legislature under the new constitution assembles 5 Feb. and elects Thomas Johnson governor 13 Feb. " Count Pulaski raises a legion in Maryland consisting of 68 horse and 200 foot IT [To -this legion was presented a banner by the Moravian Nuns, or Sisters of Bethlehem, Pa. Longfellow has com- memorated this event in his "Hymn of the Moravian Nuns."] Maryland Line active in battle of Monmouth 28 June, •• Legislature votes officers of the Maryland Line who serve through the war, and their widows, "half pay during life, to commence after seven years' pay voted by Congress 17' Maryland Line, under maj.-gen. De Kalb, engage in the battles of Camden (where De Kalb was killed), Cowpons, Guilford Court house, Hobkirk's hill, assault of Ninety six, and Eutaw springs 1780-H Bill to confiscate British property passes both houses Oct. 17b( Maryland, to secure rights to western lands, delays signing the articles of confederation until, with other states, Virginia cedes lands northwest of the Ohio to the U. S. in Jan. 1781; Maryland delegates, John Hanson and Daniel Carroll, sign the articles 1 Mch. 178: Washington college, Chestertown, organized 17K Officers of Maryland Line organize state "Society of the Cin- cinnati " at Annapolis, maj.-geu. Smallwood president, 21 Nov. ■'■ U. S. Congress meets at Annapolis 26 Nov. " Washington resigns his commission as commander-in chief, at the state house in Annapolis 23 Dec. " St. John's college, Annapolis, organized V'^- Delegates from Virginia, Pennsylvania. Delaware, New Jersey, and New York assemble at Annapolis to consider the con- dition of the nation, and request all the states to send dele- gates to a convention at Philadelphia the following May, Sept. 17«' James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, and Daniel Car- roll, delegates from Maryland to the convention at Phila- delphia, sign the Constitution of the U. S 17 Sept. 17« Maryland adopts the Constitution 28 Apr. 17« Robert H. Harrison of Maryland nominated associate justice of the Supreme court , 26 Sept. 17H John Carroll, D.D., consecrated bishop of Baltimore, with juris- diction over all the Catholics in the U. S., the first bishop consecrated in the U. S. (Church, Roman Catholic) I'i^'- The state by law, 23 Dec. 1788, cedes to the U. S. such district 10 miles square Congress may select for the U. S. capital; the District of Columbia selected • Thomas Johnson of Maryland appointed associate justice of Supreme court 5 Aug. lii* Publication of the Baltimore American and Daily Advertiser begun by Alexander Martin 14 May, 1<» Act extending the right of suffrage and substituting the ballot for vivd-voce voting passed 28 Dec. lou Legislature presents a sword and belt to George Washington Mann of Maryland, one of 2 soldiers who planted the Amen- ; can fiag on the walls of Derne, Tripoli 27 Apr. !»" Medical department of the University of Maryland established at Baltimore • • • • • ^° ■ Several associations formed in Baltimore to encourage home manufacture and sale of domestic goods during the embargo i against British vessels <> ^ M MAR 481 merican Law Journal and Miscellaneous Repertory, edited by John E. Hall, and pub. in Baltimore 1808 aUimore Medical and Physical Recorder, edited by dr. Tobias Watkins 1809 irst number of Niles' Register issued in Baltimore by Heze- kiah Niles 7 Sept. 1811 abriel Duval of Maryland appointed associate justice of the Supreme court of the U. S 18 Nov. " rinting-offlce of the Federal Republican, an anti-war paper in Baltimore, destroyed by a mob 22 June, 1812. They attack the house of the editor, A. C. Hanson, which was garrisoned, break into the jail, whither some of the assailed had been taken, and in the riot gen. Lingan is killed and otliers left for dead (United Statks) 28 July, 1812 ritish adm. Cockburu with 4 ships of the line and 6 frigates plunders and burns Freuchtown, Havre de Grace, Frederick- town, and Georgetown Mch. 1813 attle of Bl.\densbl-rg, and capture of Washington by the British (United States) 24 Aug. 1814 ritish advancing on Baltimore under gen. Ross are repulsed at North Point, gen. Ross is killed (United States), 12 Sept. " iritish fleet bombard Fort MoHenry 13 Sept. " rancis S. Key of Maryland, imprisoned on one of the British vessels, composes the "Star-Spangled Banner ". .13 Sept. " ,ancasterian school system introduced in Baltimore 1820 .ct passed abolishing the old division into hundreds, as fiscal, military, and election districts, and making an election dis- trict the jurisdiction of the constable. -. 1824 .ct passed for primary schools 28 Feb. 1826 Ground broken for the Chesapeake and Ohio canal by the pres- ident of the U. S 4 July, 1828 Touud broken by Charles Carroll and corner-stone set for the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, chartered 1827 4 July, " hoenix company erect their shot tower 234 feet high in Bal- timore. Completed without scaffolding 25 Nov. " irst public school in Baltimore under law of 1827 opened, 21 Sept. 1829 [ount St. Mary's" college at Emmittsburg, established in 1809, is this year incorporated as a college 1830 louse of Refuge for Juvenile Delinquents incorporated, I 8 Feb. 1831 tn death of gov. Martin, George Howard, first named of the executive council, succeeds to the office 10 July, " |ation;il anti-masonic convention assembles at Baltimore and nominates William Wirt for president of the U. S 26 Sept. " loger Brooke Taney of Maryland appointed attorney-general iof the U. S '. 27 Dec. " iney appointed secretary of the treasury 24 Sept. 1833 ;ospital for the insane at Spring grove, Baltimore county, ! opened 1834 bney appointed chief-justice Supreme court of the U. S., I 15 Mch. 1836 i3gislature passes the famous "Internal Improvement bill," ! subscribing $3,000,000 in state bonds to the Chesapeake and iOhio Canal company, $3,000,000 to the Baltimore and Ohio •railroad, $500,000 to the Maryland Crosscut canal, $500,000 Ito the Annapolis and Potomac canal, and $1,000,000 to the jEastern Shore railroad— in all $8,000,000 3 June, " jate convention irrespective of party meets in Baltimore and jadopts resolutions for revising the constitution 6 June, " institution revised : governor to be elected by the people, jcouncil abolished, Senate reorganized, one third to be elect- led by the people every 2 years " i-nstitution providing "that the relation of master and slave in this state shall not be abolished unless a bill for that pur- pose shall be passed by a unanimous vote of both branches ;of the General Assembly, to be published 3 months before a juew election, and be unanimously confirmed by the succeed- ing legislature," ratified 1837 invention of Whig young men, 15,000 to 20,000 delegates trom every state in the Union, meets at Baltimore. . .4 May, 1840 mocratic National convention meets at Baltimore 5 May, " lue of state bonds reaches $16,050,000, deficit of treasury 1556,387.38 1 Dec. '• •ite tax levied of 20 cts. on every $100, afterwards increased ■0 25 cts 1 Apr. 1841 illege of St. James, Washington county, organized 1842 jryland Historical Society founded Jan. 1844 lig National convention in Baltimore, nominates Henry Clay or president 1 May, " rse magnetic telegraph from Washington to Baltimore com- , 'leted 20 May, " -nocratic National convention at Baltimore, nominates for resident James K. Polk 27-29 May, " - . waiving the state liens in favor of $1,700,000 bonds to be 5sued by the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal company at par, i'lth a guarantee that for 5 years after completion not less lan 195,000 tons would be transported annually upon it, and contract is made for the completion of the canal to Cum- .flf^d 10 Mch. 1845 \ tea States Naval Academy established at Annapolis " ^. Charles Turner Torrey dies in state prison under sen- ^mce for enticing slaves from the state 9 May, 1846 •--e resumes the payment of interest on her debt at the Ches- .Jeakebank, Baltimore 1 Jan. 1848 i-fiocrat-c National convention at Baltimore nominates gen. 3W18 Cass, U. S. senator from Michigan, for president, », .„ « 22 May, " ^ . T,^"^' ^ 2^ '^^D- 1809, d. in Washington University )spital, Baltimore ; buried in Westminster graveyard, 7 Oct. 1849 16 MAR Election riots between Democrats and Know-Nothings..4 Nov. 1849 Convention to frame a new constitution meets at Annapolis, 4 Nov. 1850, completes its labors 13 May, 1851; the consti- tution ratified by the people 4 June, 1851 Democratic National convention in Baltimore, nominates gen. Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire for president 9 May, 1852 AVhig National convention at Baltimore, nominates gen. Win- field Scott for president 16 June, " Loyola college opened at Baltimore 15 Sept. " State Institution for the Blind organized at Baltimore 1853 House of Refuge for Juvenile Delinquents near Baltimore oi)ened 1355 Whig National convention at Baltimore adopts the nominees of the American party, Fillmore and Donelson, for president and vice-president (United States) 17 Sept. 1856 George Peabody gives $300,000 to found Peabody institute, 12 Feb. 1857 Strike of the conductors and train men on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, militia called out; amicably settled. . .29 Apr. " Corner-stone of the Peabody institute in Baltimore laid, 16 Apr. 1859 Constitutional Union convention at Baltimore nominates John Bell of Tennessee for president 9 May, 1860 Democratic National convention meets by adjournment (from Charleston, S. C.) in Baltimore, 18 June, 1860. On the 23d a large number of delegates withdraw, and the remaining dele- gates nominate Stephen A. Douglas for president. The se- ceders nominate John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky (United States) 23 June, " Philip Francis Thomas of Maryland appointed secretary of treasury 12 Dec. " A. H. Handy, commissioner from Mississippi, addresses a meet- ing in Baltimore on the subject of secession 19 Dec. " Secession flag raised and saluted with artillery on Federal hill, Baltimore, but on the third round the cannon are seized and the flag pulled down 18 Apr. 1861 Attack on Massachusetts troops in Baltimore by a mob, several soldiers and civilians killed and wounded (Baltimore), 19 Apr. " House of Delegates rejects a secession ordinance by 53 to 13, 29 Apr. "■ U. S. volunteers under gen. Butler take possession of the Relay house on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad 5 May, " Gen. Butler, at the head of 900 men, occui)ies Baltimore with- out opposition 13 May, " State legislature unable to organize, many members being ar- rested on suspicion of treason 17 Sept. " Augustus W. Bradford, Union, elected governor 6 Nov. " " Gov. Hicks calls an extra session of the legislature "to con- sider and determine the steps necessary to be taken to ena- ble the state of Maryland to take her place with the other loyal states in defence of the Constitution and Union." The legislature meets at Frederick .3 Dec. " Confederates invade the state and occupy Frederick, 8 Sept. 1862. Gen. Lee issues a proclamation to the people of Mary- land promising protection and assistance in regaining their rights. On 10 Sept. the confederates evacuate the city, and it is occupied by the army of the Potomac 12 Sept. " Battle of South Mountain, 14 Sept., and Antietam (Maryland CAMPAIGN) 17 Sept. " Gen. Robert C. Schenck proclaims martial law in the west- shore counties 30 June, 1863 Gen. Schenck arrests many persons suspected of treason, and suspends the " Maryland club " and similar societies " Issue at the state election is emancipation, and the Union party divides on the subject into the Union and Unconditional Union parties ; the latter carries the election 4 Nov. " Every Union master allowed $300 for each of his slaves en- listing by act of Congress 24 Feb. 1864 Gen. Lee detaches a force for the invasion of Maryland, which overpowers the federals under gen. Lew. Wallace in a battle on the Monocacy river 9 July, " Convention for framing a new constitution meets at An- napolis, 27 Apr. ; completes its work, 6 Sept. ; ratified, 12-13 Oct. " [This constitution abolished slaverj', and disfranchised all who had aided or encouraged rebellion against the U. S. Home vote, 27,541 for, 29,536 against; soldiers, 2633 for, 263 against; majority for, 375.] Law for a state normal school at Baltimore 1865 Maryland Agricultural college established in Prince George's county " Legislature passes a very stringent Sunday law 1866 Fair held in Baltimore for the relief of the destitute in the southern states ; net receipts, $164,569.97 Apr. " Peabody institute formally inaugurated ; George Peabody present 24 Oct. " Johns Hopkins university incorporated 24 Aug. 1867 New constitution, framed by a convention which met at An- napolis 8 May, 1867, which abolishes ofllce of lieutenant- governor, ratified by the people 18 Sept. " [Vote for, 27,152; against, 23,036.] New School law passed giving control of educational matters in each county to a board of county commissioners, one for each election district, and state school tax fixed at 10 cents on each $100 ; the tax paid by colored people to be set aside for maintenance of colored schools 1 Apr. 1868 Institution for the education of the deaf and dumb established temporarily in barracks at Frederick " State election in Nov. 1869, the whole Democratic ticket elected, and a legislature unanimously Democratic meets 5 Jan. 1870 MAR 482 Legislature unanimously rejects the XV. th Amendment, and passes a school law vesting the supervision of schools iu a state board, county boards, and school district boards 1870 Celebration by the colored i>eople of Baltimore of the passage of the XV. tU Amendment 19 May, " Slate convention of those favoring the extension of the right of suflVago to women held at Baltimore 29 Feb. 1872 Democratic National convention at Baltimore nominate Hor- ace Greeley, by a vote made unanimous, for president, 9-10 July, " State institution for colored blind and deaf mutes established in Baltimore " Public Kducation act modilled: Board of Kducation to consist of the governor, principal of normal school, and i persons appointed by the governor fi"om presidents and examiners of the several county boards 1874 State Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry meets in Baltimore, and makes a declaration of policy and principle 7 Mch. " James B. Groome elected governor by General Assembly, gov. Whyte being elected U. S. senator 4 Mch. 1875 Foundation of the Johns Hopkins hospital, endowed with $4,500,000 by Johns Hopkins in 1873, is laid in Baltimore " Daniel C. Gilman installed president of the Johns Hopkins Uni- versity 22 Feb. 1876 Affray in the streets of Baltimore; the 6th regiment of mili- tia being ordered out by gov. Carroll against strikers on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad at Cumberland; the sol- diers are stoned, and Are on the mob, killing 9 and wound- ing 20 or 30 ; the mob sets Are to the railroad station, 20 July, 1877 Commissioners appointed by legislatures of 1874 and 1876 for boundary between Maryland and Virginia report 16 Jan. " Congress appropriates $25,000 for surveying a route for a ship canal between the Chesapeake and Delaware bays to shorten the distance from Baltimore to the ocean by about 200 miles 1878 State convention of tax-payers held at Baltimore to redress grievances and secure relief from taxation 12 Aug. 1879 Celebration of the 150th anniversary of the founding of Balti- more 10-15 Oct. 1880 Henry IJoyd, president of the Senate, succeeds gov. McLane, who is appointed U. S. minister to France 27 Mch. 1885 Public library, established by gift of Enoch Pratt in 1882, for- mally opened in Baltimore 4 Jan. 1886 Legislature incorporates American College of the Roman Cath- olic Church of the U. S " Sharp contest in Chester river between the state oyster steamer McLane and a fleet of illegal dredgers; 2 schooners are run down and sunk and others captured 10 Dec. 1888 State oyster steamer Helen Baughman fights with the schooner Robert McAllister, an unlicensed oyster boat 2 Jan. 1889 Asylum for feeble-minded children opened in Baltimore. .Jan. " Chesapeake and Ohio canal wrecked by flood on the Potomac, which also swept away the historic building known as John Brown's Fort June, " In 1888, Virginia leased about 3200 acres of oyster ground on Hog island to one Lewis ; Maryland claims a right to the ground, but the National Coast Survey rejects her claim ; gov. Jackson proclaims the ground open to both states, and the Maryland schooner Lawson anchors on the Hog island grounds ; the Lawsrni is attacked, run down, and sunk by the Virginia police-boat Augustus, 27 Nov. ; harmony is re- stored between the states, Virginia withdrawing her exclusive claim Dec. " Australian ballot law passed by Maryland legislature, and a high-license law enacted for Baltimore , 1890 Decoration day made a legal holiday by act of legislature " State-treasurer Stevenson Archer discovered to be a defaulter to the amount of $132,401.25, 27 Mch. ; is arrested at his home in Belair, 10 Apr. ; is tried, pleads guilty, and is sen- tenced to 5 years' imprisonment 7 July, " Rev. Robert Laird Collier, Unitarian minister, dies near Salis- bury 27 July, " Ex-gov. Philip Francis Thomas d. at Baltimore, aged 80, 2 Oct. " D. S. senator Ephraim King Wilson d. in Washington, D. C, 24 Feb. 1891 Monument erected by the state to Leonard Calvert, first gov- ernor of the colony, at Old St. Mary's 3 June, " Charles H. Gibson qualifies as U. S. senator by executive ap- pointment to fill place of senator Wilson, deceased.. ..7 Dec. " Ex-postmaster-gen. John A. J. Cresswell d. at Belair. ..23 Dec. " Charles H. Gibson elected by the legislature as U. S. senator to fill unexpired term 21 Jan. 1892 Ex-gov. E. Louis Lowe d. in Brooklyn, N. Y., aged 70, 23 Aug. " MAR GOVERNORS UNDER THE BALTIMOUES (Proprietary gover Leonard Calvert. Thomas Greene. . William Stone... Josias Fendall Philip Calvert Charles Calvert Thomas Nolley Charles, Lord Baltimore. Term. 1637 to 1647 1647 " 1648 1648 " 1654 1654 " 1658 1658 " 1660 1660 " 1662 1662 "1676 1677 " 1680 1681 " 1689 Removed by Lord Baltimo (Conflicting governmei \ civil war. Removed by Lord Baltimo (Afterwards the third k ( Baltimore and proprict (His rights abrogated ( William and Mary. UNDER THE ENGLISH GOVERNMENT (Royal gOVCmors). John Coode and the Prot- estant association. . . Sir Lionel Copley Francis Nicholson Nathaniel Biackstone. Thomas Trench John Seymour Edward Lloyd John Hart 1690 to 1692 1692 ' 1693 Died in office. 1694 ' ' 1695 1696 '1702 1703 ' 1704 Acting. 1704 ' 1708 1709 ' 1713 Acting. 1714 '1715 UNDER THE BALTIMORES RESTORED (Proprietary governor John Hart Charles Calvert Benedict L. Calvert Samuel Ogle Charles, Lord Baltimore. Samuel Ogle Thomas Bladen Samuel Ogle Benjamin Tasker Horatio Sharpe Robert Eden 1715 to 1719 1 1720 ' 1726 1727 ' ' 1730 1731 ' 1732 1732 ' 1733 1734 '1741 1742 ' ' 1745 1746 '1751 1752 1753 to 1768 1769 ' 1774 i Acting. UNDER THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. Thomas Johnson Thomas Sim Lee William Paca William Small wood. 1777 to 1779 1780 " 1782 1783 " 1784 1785 " 1788 ( Distinguished soldier I the revolution. John E. Howard.. . George Plater Thomas Sim Lee. . . John H. Stone John Henry Benjamin Ogle John F. Mercer Robert Bowie Robert Wright Edward Lloyd 1809 Robert Bowie 1811 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. 1789 to 1790 1791 " 1792 1793 " 1794 1795 " 1797 1798 1799 to 1801 1802 " 1803 1804 " 1805 1806 " 1808 1810 1812 Levin Winder Charles Ridgely Charles W. Goldsborough. Samuel Sprigg Samuel Stevens, Jr Joseph Kent Daniel Martin Thomas K.Carroll Daniel Martin George Howard James Thomas Thomas W. Veazey William Grayson Francis Thomas Thomas G. Pratt Philip F. Thomas Enoch L. Lowe Thomas W. Ligon Thomas H. Hicks Augustus W. Bradford. . . Thomas Swann Oden Bowie W. P. Whyte James B. Groome John Lee Carroll William T. Hamilton Robert M. McLane . . Elihu E. Jackson Frank Brown 1813 1815 1818 1820 1823 1826 1814 1817 1819 1822 1825 1828 1829 1830 1«31 1831 to 1832 1833 " 1835 1836 " 1838 1839 " 1841 1842 " 1844 1845 " 1847 1848 " 1850 1851 " 1855 1856 " 1857 1858 " 1861 1862 " 1864 1865 " 1867 1868 " 1871 1872 " 1874 1875 1876 to 1879 1880 " 1883 1884 " 1887 1888 " 1891 Died in office. Opposes secession. Republican or Unionist. Elected U. S. senator. Term expires UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF MARYLAND. Name. No. of Congress. Date. 1st to 2d 1789 to 1793 1st " 5th 1789 " 1797 2d " 4th 1793 " 1796 4th " 7th 1796 " 1803 5th " 6th 1798 " 1800 6th " 7th 1800 " 1803 7th " 9th 1801 " 1806 8th " 13lh 1803 " 1815 9th " 12th 1806 " 1813 13th " 15th 1813 " 1819 14th 1816 Remarks. Charles Carroll John Henry Richard Potts John Eager Howard James Lloyd William Hindman Robert Wright Samuel Smith Philip Reed Robert Henry Goldsborough. Robert G. Harper Resigned. Resigned. Elected governor. Elected in place of Carroll. Resigned. Elected president pro tern. 21 Nov. 1800. Elected in place of Henry. Resigned. Elected in place of Lloyd. Resigned 1806. Elected president pro tern. 2 Dec. 1805, '6, '7, Elected in place of Wright. Resigned. MAR 483 MAS UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF MARYLAND.— (Con^nwed) No. of Congresa. Date. lexander C. Hanson dward Lloyd /■illiam Pinkney amnel Smith zekiel F. Chambers oseph Kent obert Henry Goldsborough. ohn S. Spence IWU&m D. Merrick ohn L. Kerr ames A. Pearce :everdy Johnson (avid Stewart homasG. Pratt nthony Kennedy homas H. Hicks ohn A. J. Creswell :everdy Johnson niliam Pinckney Whyte... eorge Vickers nihara T. Hamilton eorge R. Dennis niliam Pinckney Whyte. . . ames G. Groome ,rthur P. Gorman Iphraim K. Wilson harles H. Gibson 24th 2oth 26th 28th 29th Uth to 15th 16th " 19th 16th " 17th 17th 19th to 23d 23d " 25th 23d " 24th 26th 28th 27th 37 th 30th 31st 31st to 34th 35th " 38th 37th " 38th 39th 39th to 40th 40th 40th to 42d 41st " 43d 43d " 45th 44th " 46th 46th " 49th 47th 49th to 52d 52d 1817 to 1819 1819 " 1826 1820 " 1822 1822 1826 to 1834 1833 " 1837 1835 " 1836 1835 " 1840 18.38 "1845 1841 " 1843 1843 " 1862 1845 " 1849 1849 18.50 to 1857 1857 " 1865 1863 " 1865 1865 " 1867 1865 " 1868 1868 " 1869 1868 " 1873 1869 " 1875 1873 " 1879 1875 " 1881 1879 " 1885 1881 1885 " 1891 1891 Died 1819. Elected in place of Harper. Resigned. Elected in place of Hanson. Elected in place of Pinkney Resigned 1834. Died 1837. Died 1836. Elected in place of Goldborough, Elected in place of Kent. Elected in place of Spence, Died 1862. Resigned. Appointed pro tem. in place of Johnson. Elected in place of Johnson. Appointed in place of Pearce. Died 1865. Resigned. Appointed in place of Johnson. Elected in place of Johnson. Term expires 1899. Died in ofHce. Term expires 1897. Died 1822. President iJro tem. 1828, '29, '30. Died 1840. Maryland campaig*!!. Immediately after Pope's efeat at Manassas, 30 Aug. 1862, McClellan was appointed 2 Sept.) to command the troops for the defence of the capital, 'he Confederate army (45,000 strong?) crossed the Potomac and ccupied Frederick, Md., 6 Sept., where Lee issued a proclama- on to " the people of Maryland," assuring them that the Con- liderate army had come to assist them in regaining rights of [hich they had been so unjustly despoiled, etc. Leaving Banks li command at Washington, McClellan crossed the Potomac !ver, and moved towards the Confederate army on 7 Sept., oc- bpying Frederick on the 12th, with a force estimated at from |),000 to 90,000 men. Here he had the good-fortune to secure a |)py of Lee's general order of the 9th,explaining his movements, iul pointing out as one of the objects of the expedition the lipture of Harper's Ferry. In this order " Stonewall " Jackson, ;'ter passing Middletown, was to cross the Potomac at Sharps- 'irg and attack Harper's Ferry, while McLaws's and Anderson's (visions would come directly to his aid from Middletown. \attles of South Mountain. — Gen. Lee meanwhile had passed " South ■Mountain," a continuation of the Blue Ridge north of the Poto- Imac from Harper's Ferry. The road from Frederick to Boonsboro ■crosses South Mountain at Turner's Gap. while another road passes jit at Crampton's Gap, about 6 miles to the south. Gen. Lee left jD. H. Hill's division of 5 brigades to hold Turner's Gap, and How- ell Cobb with 3 brigades at Crampton's Gap. The action at Tur- ner's Gap began at 7 a.m., 14 Sept. The confederates at first had [but 5000 or 6000 men in action, but Longstreet continued to re- iinforce Hill until they numbered at least 25,000, with Longstreet in command. The confederates held the gap through the day, and withdrew during the night. The Union forces lost in this engagement 1813, and the confederates about as many. Gen. Franklin, with the 6th corps, was attempting to force his way through Crampton's Gap, which he succeeded in doing before Qight, and bivouacked within 3 or 4 miles of Maryland Heights, overlooking Harper's Ferry. The Union loss at Crampton's Gap ffas 530 killed and wounded. These 2 battles of Turner's and Crampton's Gaps, having been fought on the same day and within iibout 6 miles of each other, are called Battles of South Mountain. eech, peculiarity of dress, and other outward signs of holiness were held in such high estimate that all destitute of these signs, however irreproachable in life, were not con- sidered worthy to be called the "children of God." Mrs. Hutchinson was the founder of the party in opposition to these notions. She maintained that the outward signs of discipleshlp might be displayed by a hypocrite, and hence ♦'sanctiflcation," which embraced those signs, was not an infallible evidence of "justification." The clergy denied the unition of the Holy Ghost with the regenerate in any sense. Mrs. Hutchinson maintained a personal un'wn.— Hildreth, " History U. S.," vol. i. pp. 248-49. The difference is not very clear, and it would only be a waste of time to attempt to make it clearer. The points of the controversy were not at all understood by many who took part. Nevertheless a schism of the bitterest rent the New England church.— Hosmer, "Young Sir Henry Vane."] Sir Henry Vane chosen governor of Massachusetts Rev. Thomas Hooker and friends remove from Newtown (Cam- bridge) to Connecticut, and found Hartford June, John Oldham killed by the Indians near Block island July, [This event was one of the principal causes of the Pequot war. The Pequots were a tribe of Indians occupying the eastern part of Connecticut, and ruled a part of Long island.] Expedition sent, under command of John Endicott, to punish the Indians of Block island for the murder of John Oldham. . Pequot war begins Aug. General court of Massachusetts agrees to give 400?. towards a school or college 28 Oct. Roger Williams baffles the Pequots by an alliance with tlie Narragansett Indians, leaving the Pequots single-handed against the English, visiting the sachem of the Narragansetts, Miantonomoh, near Newport, while the Pequot ambassadors were there in council Dec. John Winthrop chosen governor of Massachusetts Capt. John Mason, with some 60 men from the Connecticut colony, and capt. John Underbill, with 20 men from the Mas- sachusetts colony, accompanied by 200 Narragansett warriors, attack ther Pequot fort on the Mystic, capture and destroy it with all its occupants, numbering 600 and over 26 May, Gov. Henry Vane returns to England 3 Aug. Pequot war ends by total annihilation of the tribe (Connecti- cut) Oct. Rev. John Wheelwright, brother of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, dis- franchised and banished for supporting her 2 Nov. He journeys to New Hampshire and founds Exeter Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, under sentence of banishment, is com- mitted to Joseph Welde of Roxbury for safe keeping, until the court shall dispose of her. 2 Nov. She is excommunicated, sent out of the jurisdiction, and re- tires to Narragansett bay, where her husband had gone, Mch. [Remaining here until the death of her husband, J 642, she removes to the New Netherland, and settles in Westchester county, where she and all her fivmily, except one little grand- daughter, are killed by Indians, 1643, in a war with the Dutch.] New York. John Harvard, a graduate of Emmanuel college, Cambridge, Engl., bequeaths his library and half of his estate, which amoilnted to 700Z., for a college 14 Sept. ''Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company " organized as the "Military Company of Boston " Feb. [This company, with various changes of name and regula- tions, still continues. Artillkry.] John Winthrop again chosen governor 2 May, Rev. John Harvard dies at Charlestown 14 Sept. Mrs. Dorothy Talbyre, for the murder of her child, 3 years old, hung Three thousand emigrants arrive from England during Printing-press established at Cambridge by Stephen Daye, Mch. [The first printing done was the "Freeman's Oath;" the second was an almanac for New England, made by capt. William Peirce; the third was the Psalms. Books, Printing.] College at Cambridge (then Newtown) the place fixed upon as the site of it, is named Harvard, after its founder (Harvard college) 13 Mch. Thomas Dudley elected governor Inhabitants from the town of Lynn settle on Long island First original publication from Massachusetts, a volume of poems by Mrs. Anne Bradstreet, wife of gov. Bradstreet New England navigation and commerce date from 486 MAS ^ 1636 1636 1637 1639 1640 Cultivation of hemp and flax successfully undertaken, and the manufacture of linen, cotton, and woollen cloths are begun, particularly at Rowley, a new town, where a colony of York- shire clothiers settle, with Ezekicl Rogers, grandson of the famous martyr (John Rogers), for their minister Hugh Bewitt is banished from the Massachusetts colony for maintaining that he was free from "original sin." By order of the court he was to be gone within 15 days upon pain of death, and if he returned he should bo Imaged {Drake, " His- tory and Antiquities of Boston ") 9 Dec. Trouble of the Massachusetts and Plymouth colonies with Samuel Gorton begins Gov. Bellingham of Massachusetts selects his bride, and per- forms the marriage ceremony himself A body of fundamental laws, being compiled from drafts sub- mitted, is sent to every town within the jurisdiction of Mas- sachusetts, to be first considered by the magistrates and el- ders, and then to be published by the constables, "that if any man saw anything to be altered, he might communicate his thoughts to some of the deputies." Thus deliberately pre- pared, these laws, 98 in number, were formally adopted by the name of "Fundamentals" or "Body of Liberties" (Hit- dreth, "History U. S., "vol. i.) Dec. First commencement at Harvard collkge Elder William Brewster of Plymouth d 18 Apr. [He leaves a library of 275 substantial volumes.] Four of the New England colonies, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Plymouth, aud New Haven, unite as the "United Colonies Of New England," for mutual protection and assistance. Articles of union signed at Boston 19 May, Massachusetts divided into 4 counties, viz., Suflolk, Middlesex, Essex, and Norfolk Martha's Vineyard settled by some people from Watertown. . . James Brittou and Mary Latham put to death for adultery A thousand acres of land )ilauted to orchards and gardens, 15,000 other acres under general tillage; the number of neat cattle estimated at 12,000, and sheep at 3000. Money scarce, and bullets for a time pass for farthings Samuel Gorton is banished for heresy and disrespect to the magistrates, aud purchases a tract of land called Shawomet of the Narragansetts, and begins a settlement there Gorton and his companions, summoned to Boston, refusing, a detachment of 40 men is sent to arrest them; Gorton and his followers, after an unsuccessful attempt to defend them- selves, are taken to Boston and tried. Gorton and 7 others are found guilty. They are sentenced to confinement in 7 diflferent towns, and there to be kept at hard labor, in irons, under pain of death if they attempt to publish or maintain any of their blasphemous and abominable heresies Nov. They are ordered, at the next court, to depart out of the juris- diction within 14 days, and not to return to Massachusetts or Shawomet under pain of death Mch. Rev. John Wheelwright's sentence of banishment revoked upon his acknowledging his error and asking pardon Mch. [He was banished for his support of Mrs. Anne Hutchin- son. Shortly after his sentence had been revoked he sailed for England, where he enjoyed the special regard of Crom- well. After the Restoration he returned to New England, where he lived to be the oldest minister in New England. He d. 15 Nov. 1679, aged 85 years.] Roger Williams proceeds to England and obtains a charter, in- cluding the shores and islands of Narragansett bay west of Plymouth and south of Massachusetts as far as the Pequot river and country, to be known as the Providence plantation, the inhabitants to rule themselves as they shall find most suitable. He also brought a letter of commendation from influential members of Parliament, sufficient to procure him safe conduct through Massachusetts Sept. Anabaptists banished from Massachusetts Free schools established at Roxbury and other towns, to be supported by voluntary allowance or by tax upon such as refuse 1'^ Law passed against slave-stealing Mrs. Oliver, for reproaching the magistrates, is adjudged to be whipped ; and a cleft stick placed upon her tongue for speak- j ing ill of the elders K: Twenty graduates from Harvard college from its commence- i ment to j Plymouth and Boston visited by capt. Cromwell, who from a I common sailor had come to command 3 ships, and amassed | wealth as a buccaneer or "fighter of the Spaniard;" he spends money freely in both places | John Eliot preaches his first sermon to the Indians near New- town Corners, afterwards called Nonantum or "place of re- joicing" 28 Oct. I Thomas Morton of " Merry Mount" dies at Agameuticus, Me. . . ■ Law passed requiring every township which contained 50 ; householders to have a school-house and employ a teacher ; I and each town containing 1000 freeholders a gram mar school, h Epidemic visits New England, which " took them like a cold and a light fever with it ;" it extended throughout the coun- try among Indians, Engli.sh, French, and Dutch ; among those who died of it were Mr. Thomas Hooker of Hartford . and Mrs. Winthrop, wife of the governor, and over 50 others | in Massachusetts 14 June, John Eliot preaches to the Indians in their own tongue regu- lady near Watertown and on the southern borders of Dor- I Chester ' , Samuel Gorton, after the second banishment from Massachu- ! setts, 1644, proceeds to England to obtain redress ; this he , partially obtains, and returning again settles at Shawomet, MAS which he now names Warwick, after the earl of Warwick, who had assisted him largaret Jones of Charlestovvn indicted for a witch, found guilty, and executed 15 June, [This was the first trial and execution for witchcraft in },hiesdchasetts.— Barry, "History of Massachusetts."] 'hades I. of England executed 30 Jan. ov. John Winthrop, in the 10th term of his office as governor of Massachusetts, dies, aged 63, leaving a fourth wife ; he also left a journal commencing with his departure from England and continued up to the lime of his death 26 Mch. [This journal is one of the most valuable records of early New England history extant.] ohn Endicott chosen governor to fill the vacant office. . .May, Villiain Pynchon of Springfield, having published a book upon "Redemption and Justification," the general court orders it . to be publicly burned in the market place as containing doc- trines of a dangerous tendency homas Dudley chosen governor ohn Clarke, a minister from the Baptist church at Newport, R. I., and 2 others are arrested at Lynn as Baptists and sent \ to Boston, where Clarke is sentenced to pay a fine of '201. or , be whipped ; the fine is paid and he is released with the in- : junction to leave the colony ^badiah Holmes, one of Clarke's companions, is fined SOL ; not i paying it, he gets 30 strokes with a 3-corded whip and is i sent out of the colony [ugh Parsons and his wife Mary tried for witchcraft ; Mrs. f Parsons dies in prison. Parsons is acquitted [Drake, " History and Antiquities of Boston. "] ■liver Cromwell invites people of Massachusetts to Ireland.. .. irench of Canada appeal to the people of New England for aid against the Iroquois without success tint set up at Boston (by the General court) which coins 1 shillings, sixpences, and a few smaller coin .' [The date (1652) was not changed for 30 years. John Hull I was first mint-master, and being allowed 15 pence out of j every 20 shillings coined, he amassed a largo fortune.] [res. Dunster of Harvard college is indicted for disturbing in- jfant baptism in the Cambridge church; is convicted, sen- jtenced to a public admonition on lecture day, laid under i bonds for good behavior, and compelled to resign and throw j himself on the mercies of the general court Oct. ! [Quincy, "History of Harvard University. "] jliarles Chauncy accepts presidency of Harvard college. . .Nov. idward Winslow, one of the Mayflower''s first passengers and (governor of Plymouth, die.s, aged 60, on shipboard near His- i paniola and is buried at sea 8 May, |r.s. Anne Hibbins, sister of gov. Bellingham and widow of a ; magistrate, is condemned and executed as a witch ;(vo women, .Mary Fisher and Ann Austin (Quakers), arrive 1 from England and are landed at Boston July, light more arrive in the Speedwell 7 Aug. iiiese were all imprisoned and banished without ceremony, and ; the masters of the vessels which "brought them were placed ; under bonds to take them away t the next session of the general court a penalty of 100/. was imposed upon the master of any ship bringing Quakers within 'the jurisdiction ; and all brought in were to be sent to jail, given 20 stripes, and kept at work until transported.. A Oct. •very male Quaker convicted was for the first offence to lose ;one ear and for the second the other ear; every female was ilo be whipped, and for the third offence male and female ;were to havetheirtonguesbored with red-hot irons, and, by a majority of a single vote, and at the instance as is said of. a I clergyman, John Norton, the penalty of death was de- nounced upon all returning to the jurisdiction after being [banished (Barry, " History of Massachusetts " ) [John Norton was born in Hertfordshire, Engl. Educated at Cambridge. He came to Plymouth, Oct. 1635, and became one of the most zealous of the Massachusetts clergy. D. in Boston 1663.] , [Plymouth, Connecticut, and the Dutch at Manhattan (but not the government at Providence, R. I.) adopt similar laws.] ; [In reviewing these early scenes it is very apparent that in general the pioneer sectaries rather courted than avoided persecution, and this should not be lost sight of when those branded as persecutors are held up to universal scorn.— \Drake, " History and Antiquities of Boston."] hath of Oliver Cromwell 3 Sept. illiam Robinson andMarmaduke Stevenson hung as returned Q'lakers 27 Oct. 'wn of Hadley settled iry Dyer was to be hung (as a Quaker) with Robinson and Mevenson, but through the pleadings of her son she was reprieved and again banished; returning again to Massachu- setts she is hung 1 June, larles II. restored .'.'.'.' 29 May, 'ward Whalley and William Goffe, the regicides, arrive at i^oston 27 July, [They remain a short time, but a warrant being issued for ttieir arrest, seek concealment in various places, and are se- creted in the house of the rev. John Russell at Hadley, from l<)b4 until their death, that of Whalley occurring about 1676.] ign Peters executed in England !neral court forbids celebration of Christmas under a pen- alty of 5s _ _ I'lliam Ledea is tried, convicted, and banished as a Quaker, ,'»ut returning, he is tried and hanged 14 Mch. spresentations of the Quakers in England caused Charles II. 10 require the government to desist from proceedings against 487 MAS 1648 1649 1651 1652 1654 1655 1656 1658 1661 them; a .ship wa.s immediately chartered, and Samuel Shat- tock, who had been banished from Massachusetts, was ap- pointed to convey the king's letter to gov. Endicott; soon after receiving it gov. Endicott orders the discharge of all Quakers in prison y ggpt 1661 [There were 28 persons (Quakers) in jail at Boston, one, Wenlock Christison, under sentence of death.] Eliot finishes translation of New Testament into Indian " Charles II. proclaimed sovereign in Massachusetts 8 Aug " Sir Henry Vane executed in England 1662 Children of respectable people not "professors" allowed to be baptized; called the "Half-way Covenant;" adopted " [Strong opposition to this in many churches of Massachu- setts, so that it was not permitted in all parishes.] Metacomet or Philip, youngest son of Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags and friend of the English, becomes sachem of the tribe on the death of his brother Alexander " Four ships, Guinea, 36 guns, Elias, 30 guns, Martin, 16 guns, and William, and Nicholas, 10 guns, with 450 soldiers, are sent from England against the Dutch at New Netherland. They bring 4 commissioners to arrange affairs in New Eng- land, viz. : col. Richard Nicolls, sir Robert Carr, col. Geo. Cartwright, and Samuel Maverick; who reach Boston, 23 July, 1664 Gov. Endicott d. (aged 77) :.3 May, 1665 Mas.sachu setts ordered by the English government to send agents to England to answer for refusing the commissioners jurisdiction ; she replies evasively 1666 Baptists form a church in Boston, first in Massachusetts 1G64-68 Church of Massachusetts debates with Baptists at Boston, 14 Apr. 1668 [But the Baptists remain obstinate.] Title of "reverend" first applied to (he clergy of New England, 1670 Two young married Quaker women walk naked through the towns of Newbury and Salem, in emulation of the prophet Ezekiel. as a sign of the nakedness of the land.. 1671 George Fox, founder and apostle of the Quakers, comes to Rhode Island, but does not venture into Massachusetts 1672 Gov. Bellingham d. in office 1673 Population of Massachusetts proper was over 22,000, that of the Plymouth colony was probably not far from 7000, while the Indian population was less than 8000 in both territories (George Bancroft, " History of the United States ") 1075 Three Indians of the Wampanoags are seized, taken to Plymouth, tried, and executed for the murder of one Sausaman, an Indian of the Massachusetts tribe June, " [This is the proximate cause of King Philip's war.] Indians attack Swanzey and kill several persons 24 June, " . Wampanoags, under I'hilip, attacked by colonists, leave Narra- gansett bay, unite with the Nipmuks and attack Brookfield; the residents, in the principal building, defend themselves from 2 to 5 Aug., when maj. Willard with a troop of horse routs the Indians • ' Hadley attacked by Indians on a fast day while the inhabitants are at church 1 Sept. " [Tradition states that col. William Goffe, the regicide, ap- peared and led the successful defence; he was then con- cealed at the house of rev. John Russell at Hadley. — See this story as told by Scott, in " Peveril of the Peak."] Capt. Beers and his party ambushed near Northfield; he with 20 of his men killed 4 Sept " Capt. Lothrop of Beverly, having been sent with 90 picked men, the " flower of Essex," to bring in the harvest of the settlements, is surprised by a large body of Indians at a small stream, now Bloody Brook, and totally defeated 18 Sept, " [This was the severest loss the colonists had sustained.] Deerfield and Northfield abandoned by the inhabitants and burned by the Indians Sept " Commissioners meet and agree that 1000 troops must be levied by the united colonies; Massachusetts to raise 527, Plymouth 158, and Connecticut 315 9 Sept, ' [Gov. Josiah Winslow of Plymouth to command the whole.] Springfield attacked and about 50 buildings burned, but the Indians are driven off. 5 Oct. •' Hatfield attacked 19 Oct. •' It was resolved to regard the Narragansetts as enemies, and to make a winter-campaign against them 2 Nov. •' Several bodies of troops from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth, numbering about 1000, unite about 15 miles from the Narragansett fort 18 Dec. " They spend the night in the open air, and after wading through the snow from daybreak until an hour after noon they reach the edge of the swamp and immediately commence the at- tack; the action was bloody and long, but the fort was car- ried and the Indians routed and the whole place burned; over a thousand Indians were k lied and captured; the Eng- lish lost about 200 killed and w^ouiided and 6 captains killed; this " Swamp fight " occurred Sunday 19 Dec. " [The military strength of the formidable Narragansett trii)e was irreparably broken in this conflict.— FaZ/rey, "History of New England."] Indians attack Lancaster, and after killing all the men carry the women and children into captivity 5 Feb. 1676 [The narrative of one of the captives, Mrs. Rowlandsou, the wife of the minister, is still preserved.] <, Six hundred additional troops ordered to be levied 8 Feb. " Medfleld surprised and laid in ashes 21 Feb. " Wevmouth. within 18 miles of Boston, attacked and 7 buildings burned.. i... 24 Feb. " [This is as near as the war approached Boston.] Groton attacked 3, 9, 13 Mch. " MAS "488 MAS 1676 Town of Plymouth assaulted and 12 persons killed Mch. Warwick burned and ProvidPiHc paiti;illy destroyed.. 17 Mch. " ffhe aged Kogcr Williams i v( pis a roinuiission as captain for the defence of the town lie liad founded. — IlUdreth, " History of the United States. '] Capt. Pierce of Scituate. with about 60 men and 20 Indians, routed near Seekouk; his entire party cut off 26 Mch. " Marlborough attacked and partially burned " " Seekonk laid in ashes 28 Mch. " Canouchet, sachem of the Narragansetts, captured 9 Apr. " Sudbury attacked and partially burned; capt. Wadsworth of Milton and his party surprised and totally deleated. .21 Apr. " [This is known as the Sudbury light.] Plymouth again attacked 11 May, " Indians deleaied at Turner's Falls, on the Connecticut, by capt. Turner, who is afterwards killed and his command partially defeated by the arrival of other Indians. . . .18 May, ♦' Scituiite threatened and partially destroyed 20 May, " Indians again attack Hadley, but are repulsed 12 June, '• King Philip's allies deserting him, ho with a few of his own tribe moves back to Mount Hope in his own territory, July, " Here, surrounded in a swamp by troops under capt. Church, he is shot by an Indian while attempting escape 12 Aug. " [His little son sold into slavery.] [Indians never recovered from this blow, but rapidly dis- persed. Of the colonists, 600 were killed, almost every family losing a member; 13 towns wholly destroyed, and many oth- ers sustained much damage, over 600 houses being burned; expense of the war computed at $500,000.— 5arry, "Hist, of .Mass."] Edward Uandolph arrives at Boston as a special messenger from the Knglish government to make minute inquiries into the condition of the country 10 June, " He sails for England, 30 July, and presents to the English gov- ernment a description of New England, headed "An Answer to Several Heads of Inquiry concerning the Present State of New England" (see Palfrey, " History of New England," vol. iii. p. 296) 12 Oct. " William Stoughton and Peter Bulkely sent to the king as agents by Massachusetts with an address 30 Oct. " Proceedings of England against Massachusetts charter Jan. 1677 Massachusetts purchases the claims of Gorges to Maine for about $6000 6 May, " Gov. Leverett dies in office 16 Mch. 1679 Simon Bradstreet made governor, then 76 years of age. . .May, " Edward Randolph comes over as collector of customs at Bos- ton, arrives at Boston Dec. " Stoughton and Bulkely return to Boston, unsuccessful in their efforts to conciliate the English government Dec. " Massachusetts becomes the lord proprietary of Maine, and in obedience to an ordinance of the general court Massachu- setts proceeds to organize the government of Maine 1680 Edward Randolph sends over a " Memorial " to the king, urg- ing proceedings against the charter of Massachusetts 1683 Charter of Massachusetts Bay vacated in England 18 June, 1684 Charles II. dies 6 Feb. 1685 King .fames II. proclaimed in Boston 20 Apr. " Copy of the judgment of the forfeiture of the charter of Massa- chusetts received at Boston 2 July, " [This charter had guided the colony for 55 years.] Plymouth colony divided into 3 counties, viz. : Plymouth, Bris- tol, and Barnstable " Election in Massachusetts 12 May, 1686 Provisional government constituted with Joseph Dudley as president .14 May, ' ' First Episcopal church organized in Boston " Sir Edmund Andros arrives at Boston in the Kingfisher, a, 50- gun ship, bearing a commission for the government of all New England 20 Dec. " , Charter government is publicly displaced by arbitrary com- mission, popular representation abolished, and the press subjected to censorship Legal consolidation of New England -. 29 Dec. Gov. Andros's activity in oppressive legislation Jan. Increase Mather sent to England by the citizens of Massachu- setts to lay before the king a petition of grievances ; em- barks, though opposed by government 7 Apr. " Extension of New England to Delaware bay; Andros made governor of all the territory; seat of government at Boston, the lieutenant-governor to reside at New York Apr. " News of the landing of the prince of Orange (afterwards William III. of England) in England received in Boston, 4 Apr. 1689 People of Bo-ston and vicinity overthrow the government and arrest gov. Andros and his adherents 18 Apr. " Provisional government established with Simon Bradstreet as governor, then in his 86th year 20 Apr. " AVilliam and Mary proclaimed 29 May, " War with the French and Indians, known as King William's war, commences " Gov. Andros impeached and sent to England 27 June, " Edward Randolph a persistent disturber of the peace of Mas- sachusetts in the interest of the government of England. .1676-89 Fleet fitte^ out by Massachusetts against Port Royal sails from Boston under sir William Phipps 28 Apr. 1690 [Phipps was born at Woolwich, Me., 1651. He was one of 26 children. Under patronage of the duke of Albemarle he was successful in recovering 300,000^. of wrecked treas- ure, of which he received about 17,000^. for his share. He was knighted and made high sheriff of New England.] 1687 i Attack on Port Royal is successful, and the fleet returns wl spoils cover ng cost of the whole expedition :5U May, f Expedition against Canada — New England and New York unite. Gov. Winthrop of Connecticut commands the laud forces, and sir William Phipps the lleet. The expedition is a total failure First paper money issued in Massachusetts to pay the tnKi|),s in the Canada expedition John Eliot, " the a|)ostlo to the Indians," d (aged 80) Second charter granted Massachusetts by England 7 Oct. 1( New charter received i\ [Under the new charter Massachusetts' jurisdiction was enlarged to include the Plymouth colony and Maine; the crown reserved the appointments of governor, lieutenant- governor, and secretary; the right of suffrage, limited under the old charter to church-members, now admitted all inhab- itants possessing a freehold of the annual value of 40s., or personal property to the amount of iOl.—Hildreth, "Hist, of the U.S.," vol. ii. p. 143.] First appearance of the witchcraft delusion at Salem, at the house of the rev. Samuel Parris (Witchcraft) Mch. Sir William Phipps arrives at Boston as first governor of the new province 14 May, Post-office established in Boston .' 1( Indians attack Haverhill 15 Mch. J( [Mrs. Hannah Dustin was captured with her nurse and young infant — her husband escaping with 7 of his children; she marched with the Indians over 150 miles, but with the nurse and a boy captive succeeded in killing and scalping all of the party, some 12 in charge, except one boy and an old woman, who escaped. They retraced their steps in safety. The general court granted them 501.. and they re- ceived valuable presents from others. This escape was famed throughout the country as one of the most remark- able on record.] Gov. Bradstreet dies at Salem, aged 95 27 Mch. Peace of Ryswick proclaimed at Boston 10 Dec. ' Capt. Kidd seized in Boston as a pirate and sent to England (New York) i( Earl of Bellamont supersedes William Stoughton as governor of Massachusetts, and arrives at Boston 26 May, [Under the old charter the governors had received scarce 1201. per annum ; and neither Phi))ps or Stoughton had been paid much more, but in 14 months the general court voted gov. Bellamont 2700/., 1699-1700.— Hi Wreout 6 weeks from London.— Drofce, "History and Antiquities of Boston."] News of the repeal celebrated in Boston 19 May, " General court of Massachusetts sends a circular letter to all the American colonies. This letter asks the colonies to co- operate in obtaining a redress of grievances 11 Feb. 1768 MAS 490 Massachusetts House of Representatives consists of upwards of 100 members, by fur the most numerous assembly in America 1768 Seizure of the sloop Liberty, belonging to John Hancock, on charge of smuggling, occasions a great riot 10 June, •' Arrival of a squadron of 7 vessels ft-om Halifax, with the 14th, 21>th, and a part of tbe 59th regiments of British regulars. Those troops, under the command of gen. Thomas Gage, are landed in Boston '2» Sept. " Gov. Ueruard retailed, and embarks for England, regretted by uoiu' 31 July, 1769 [Hf had bi'oii uovi'iiior of tlio ]irovnice for it years, and in tliat tuuf iKiii iluui- inoio tliaii iill tlio other governors combined lo inllanu' ilit> jealousy of tlie ministry, to irritate the people over whom lie ruled, and to strengthen the spirit of discord and disunion Barry, "History of Massa- chusetts. "] James Otis severely wounded in an aflVay at the British coffee- house on King st, now State St., in Boston 5 Sept. " [These injuries ultimately led to his derangement.] Gov. Bernard is succeeded by Thomas Hutchinson as governor, " [He was b. at Boston, Sept. 1), 1711; d. near l-oudon, Engl., 3 June, 1780. He was descended through a line of reputable men from Anne Hutchinson.] ABfray in Richardson's house in Boston; the boy '* Snider" is mortally wounded by a shot from the house— the first victim {Barry, " History of Massachusetts ") 22 Feb. 1770 Affray at Gray's rope walk in Boston between citizens and the British soldiers 2 Mch. " BOSTO.\ MASS.\CRK 5 Mch. " [Three persons killed and 8 wounded. This day is mem- orable in the annals of the whole country.] Graduates of Harvard college take degrees in "homespun"... " David Everett, journalist, b. at Princeton, Mass 29 Mch. " [Author of " You'd scarce expect one of my age To speak ia public on the stage," etc. Written while teaching a grammar school at Ipswich.] Castle Wdliam, in Boston harbor, delivered into the hands ot the king's troops by {^ov. Hutchinson 10 Sept. " Population of the state, 2152,680 " Gov. Hutchinson's salary, 2000^., paid by the English govern- ment. He thus becomes independent of the province 1772 Ministry of England and the East India company secure an act relieving the company from paying duties on tea sent to America, thus encouraging its sale in the colonies. Aware of the danger of giving success to this insidious manoeuvre and of permitting a precedent of taxation thus to be estab- lished, various methods were adopted by the colonists to elude the stroke (Henry Sherman, "Governmental History of the U. S.") 10 May, 1773 Arrival at Boston of the first of the tea-ships, with 114 chests of tea 28 Nov. " Two others arrive early in Dec. " At the close of a spirited meeting of the citizens at P'aneuil hall, between 50 and 60 men, disguised as Indians, take pos- session of tlie 3 tea-ships in the harbor, and empty 340 chests of tea into the bay during the evening of 10 Dec. " New York and Massachusetts boundary established " Passage of " Boston Port bill " by Parliament 7 Mch. 1774 [Under this bill nothing could be unloaded at this port but stores for his majesty's use, and fuel and food for Boston. This was to remain in force until the East India company had been indemnified for the loss of their tea, recently de- stroyed, and also reasonable satisfaction made to the officers of his majesty's revenue, and others who had suffered by riots and insurrections. — Palfrey, "History of New Eng- land."] Failure to repeal the tax on tea in the British Parliament, Apr. " Gen. Thomas Gage appointed governor 17 May, " British Parliament passes 2 act.s, virtually repealing the char- ter of Massachusetts. One, entitled "An act for the better regulating the government of Massachusetts Bay," and the other, an act for the more impartial administration of jus- tice in said province. The first provided that the council- lors, who were chosen l)y the representatives annually, should be appointed by the king, and should serve accord- ing to his majesty's pleasure; that the judges, sheriffs, and other civil officers should be appointed by the governor; that juries should be summoned by the sheriff, and that town- meetings, except the annual ones and other public meetings, should not be held without the permission of the governor. The other act provided that offenders against the laws might be carried to other colonies or to England for trial. Both bills pass Parliament and are approved. 20 May, " [It was the attempted execution of these laws that became the immediate occasion of the commencement of hostilities between the American colonists and England. — Frothingham, "History of the Siege of Boston."] Port b.U goes into effect 1 June, " [The Port bill, in closing the harbor to navigation, struck a heavy blow at all the inhabitants of Boston. Business of all kinds came to a standstill; men of property received no rents, mechanics had no employment, laboring men could earn no wages. Stagnation soon brought actual want. — Palfrey, " History of New England," vol. v. p. 531.] Gov. Thomas Hutchinson embarks for England, forever leav- ing the country which gave him birth 1 June, " [He passed his last days a slighted and saddened man, longing for the native home which had closed against him, and as little sustained by the good-will of those to whom he MAS 1 )rc^^ had given his unsuccessful service as by any consciousn of upright endeavors in behalf of a righteous cause frey, " History of New England. "] 4th or "King's" regiment and the 49th of his majesty's to land at Boston u June 17 5th and 38th arrive 5 July' 5itth arrives Aug! First Continental Congress meets at Philadelphia 5 Sept. [Delegates from Massachusetts were: Thomas Cushingi James Bowdoin, Samuel Adams, John Adams, and Robert Treat Paine. J Powder seized by British troops at Charlestown; about 13 tons, 1 Sept.' Gov. Gage erects fortifications on the neck which commands the entrance to Boston 5 Sept. A provincial congress formed in Massachusetts, at Salem, adjourned to Concord, and chose John Hancock president, and Benjamin Lincoln, a farmer of llingham and after- wards a major-general in the Revolutionarv army, secretary, lOct. [This congress constituted a permanent "Committee of Safety," with comprehensive military powers ; it made a complete organization of the militia, embodied a force of miuute-raeu. consisting' of one quarter part of the force of the colony, and appointed to the chief command Jedediah Preble, Artemas Ward, and Seth Pomeroy; it proceeded to carry on the government; collectors of taxes were ordered to pay no more money to the late treasurer of the province, but to hand over all future collections to a treasurer ap- pointed by the congress.] Popular current in England sets strongly against America .... Josiah Tucker, dean of Gloucester, Engl. , claims, after present- ing different methods of meeting the difficulties between the colonists and England, that there remains but one wise sola- tion, and that is to declare the North American colonies to be a free and independent people (George Bancroft, "His- tory of the United States") Provincial congress of Massachusetts, consisting of upwards of 300 members, meet at Cambridge 1 Feb. 1775 Gov. Gage sends a detachment of soldiers to Salem to seize some cannon said to be deposited th'ere ; they are met by a party of militia, but no collision takes place 26 Feb. " Gen. Gage has about 4000 British troops in Boston 1 Apr. " British troops, about 800 strong, under lieut.-col. Smith, start towards Concord about 10 o'clock p.m 18 Apr. " Paul Revere's ride to notify the country of the march of the British troops towards Concord, night of 18 Apr. " Maj. Pitcairn with the advance at Lexington, about 12 miles northwest from Boston, is met by about 60 militia under capt. Parker; here the first collision takes place between British troops and Americans, early in the morning of, 19 Apr. " [Here the Americans lose 8 killed and 10 wounded. The British troops proceed to Concord, and after destroying some property begin their march back to Boston. Near Lexing- ton they are reinforced by about 1000 men and 2 field-pieces under lord Percy. The retreat is continued with constant fighting until they reach Charlestown and are i^rotected by the fluns of the ships of war. The Americans in this first bat- tle lost 49 killed, 30 wounded, and 5 missing; the British 73 killed, 174 wounded, and 26 missing. This was the commence- ment of the war of the Revolution. See for the losses in this battle, Frothingham, " History of the Siege of Boston."] George Washington appointed commander-in-chief of the American forces by the Continental Congress 15 June, '* Gen. Gage (lately reinforced) has at Boston about 10,000 men; gens. Clinton, Burgoyne, and Howe are also there.. June, " Massachusetts council of war decides to fortify Bunker hill, IC) June, " [This is undertaken the same night by 1200 men under col. William Prescott, Thomas Knowlton, and capt. Samuel Gridley, the chief engineer; Breed's hill is, however, forti- fied instead.] Observing these works, gen. Gage attempts to prevent their completion; the British troops, 3000 strong, under sir Will- iam Howe and gen. Robert Pigot, attack the Americans about 3 o'clock P.M 17 June, " [Twice repulsed, the third time they succeed in driving the Americans (whose ammunition is exhausted) from their position about 5 o'clock p.m. The American troops slowly retire without pursuit across Charlestown Neck and occupy a position on Prospect hill, which they proceed to fortify. The loss of the Americans was 115 killed (among them dr. Joseph AVarren, who had just been appointed major-general), 305 wounded, and 30 captured; British loss was 226 killed and 828 wounded. Maj. Pitcairn, who was with the British troops at Lexington, was mortally wounded -here.] [Result of this battle was the best possible end of the conflict. — Carrington, "Battles of the American Revolu- tion."] Charlestown burned by the British the^same day; estimated loss, 11S,0001.— Frothingham, "History of the Siege of Bos- ton." ^^ Gen. Washington reaches the army at Cambridge 2 July. ^^ Gen. Gage recalled ; he sails for Kngland 10 Oct. [Gen. Howe in command of the British forces in Boston.] A heavy cannonade is opened upon Boston from all the Amer- ican batteries, evening of 2 Mch. 177b Americans occupy Dorchester Heights and throw up strong ^^ intrenchments, night of. 4 Mch. ^^ British evacuate Boston 17 Mch. MAS 491 Seven thousand soldiers, 4000 seamen, and 1500 families of loyalists sail for Halifax 17 Mch. 1776 Americans enter Boston 20 Mch. " Reading of the Declaration of Independence in Boston from the balcony of the state-house 18 July, " [At the same time the king's arms are removed.] Uassachusetts quota of troops to serve for 3 years or during the war is 15 battalions 10 Sept. " Fourth of July, the anniversary of the Declaration of Inde- pendence, observed in Boston 1777 Massachusetts apportionment of the war debt, $820,000. . .Oct. " [Largest apportionment of any of the states.] Gen. fiatcs supersedes gen. Heath in command of the forces stationed in Massachusetts Nov. 1778 State constitution framed by a convention met at Boston, 1 Sept. 1779; labor completed 2 Mch. 1780; submitted to the people and ratified 1780 Academy of Arts and Sciences incorporated at Boston, James Bowdoin president 4 May, " " Dark day " Friday 19 May, " [This darkness extended throughout most of New England, partial in New York and New Jersey ; the cause of the dark- ness not well known.] Folin Hancock first governor " :*opulation of the state, 316,900 " niillips academy, Andover, founded, 21 Apr. 1778; incorpo- rated 4 Oct. " ;3eflnite treaty of peace w^ith England signed 3 Sept. 1783 Population of Massachusetts: AVhites, 353,623; blacks, 4377. . . 1784 ^irst bank under the state constitution established, known as the Massachusetts bank " friassachusetts mint established 1786 i [Discontinued after adoption of Federal constitution.] •"irst symptoms of " Shays's rebellion " at a convention in the j county of Worcester 15 Aug. " i [The dissatisfaction of the people originated in hardships ; at the close of the war, through Ihe poverty of the country; ! they complained of much which they thought should be i righted by the government. Daniel Shays, who became j leader of the Insurgents, had been a captain in the army of j the Revolution and had resigned.] i'his adair culminates at Springfield, when Shays attempts to ' capture the arsenal there 25 Jan. 1787 I [After this failure the insurgents rapidly disperse. Shays '. and the other ringleaders at a subsequent date petition for ! pardon, which the state grants; Shays dies in Sparta, N. Y., i 29 Sept. 1825, aged 78; he received a pension from the U. S. j government from 1820.] '[assachusetts convention to ratify the Constitution of the ' U. S. convenes at Boston 9 Jan. 1788 ' [Gov. Hancock chosen president of the convention.] ionstitution is ratified by a vote of 187-168 (Constitution of ' THE United States) 6 Feb. " ' [The small majority in favor of ratification is proof that i the Constitution did not meet the approval of all. — Barry, j " History of Massachusetts."] ilave-trade prohibited in Massachusetts 26 Mch. " ohn Adams elected vice-president of the U. S 178? res. Washington visits Boston 24 Oct. " v'illianis college at Williamstown, Berkshire county, found- t ed 1790 [Incorporated 22 June, 1793. Congregational.] (ohn Hancock d. at Quincy, aged 5G 8 Oct. 1793 Kiddlesex canal projected " phn Adams president of the U. S 4 Mch. 1797 Vigate Constitution, " Old Ironsides," built at Boston (Navy). 1799 radford academy (for women), Bradford, opened 1803 mdover Theological seminary (Congregational) opened 1808 jiate averse to war with England. The legislature in an ad- dress to the people, "declare themselves unable to find any I satisfactory solution of it, but in an habitual and impolitic I predilection for France " (Hildreth, " Hist. U. S. ") 2 Mch. 1809 : assachusetts agrees to a Remonstrance, in which she de- ,noiinces the perseverance in the war after the repeal of the , British orders as impolitic and unjust 15 July, 1813 ;ritish land at Wareham and burn several vessels and a fac- ,tory; they also land at Scituate, a few miles from Boston, jand throw the whole coast into fresh alarm. A million dol- lars is appropriated by the legislature for defence June, 1814 bv. Strong calls out 10,000 militia to defend the state " ! circular letter to the New England states against the con- , tinuance of the war, sent out by Massachusetts '.7 Oct. " iate sends 12 delegates to the Haktforu convention. . 15 Dec. " :3ws of peace with Great Britain brought to New York by the British sloop-of-war Favorite 11 Feb. 1815 [News conveyed to Boston in 32 hours, " thought to be a great effort of speed."] rxorder, published by Nathaniel Willis or Sidney Edward i Morse (disputed), No. 76 State street, Boston 3 Jan. 1816 ! . [The first religious paper published in the world.] lame separated from Massachusetts and erected into a state. . 1820 imstitution of the state revised " inherst college, Amherst, dedicated 18 Sept. 1821 [Rev. Zephaniah Swift Moore, D.D., first president.] iissachusetts Society organized to aid in the suppression of the slave-trade 1822 iniel Webster represents Boston in Congress 1823 ;irner-stone of Bunker Hill monument laid 17 June, 1825 i [Gen. Lafayette present, Daniel Webster orator.] ,y/nal of Education, afterwards the Annals, started in Boston, ithe first of its kind in the U. S 1826 MAS John Adams d. at Quincy 4 July, Railroad (the first in the U. S.) 3 miles long, from the granite quarries of Quincy to Neponset river, commenced Road finished Abbott academy (for women), Andover. established Massachusetts obtains from the U. S. $430,748.26, for services of militia during the war of 1812-14 31 May, Lloyd Garrison first published the Liberator (anti-slavery), Boston (Slavery in the U. S. ) 1 Jan. Burning of the St. Ursula convent at Mount Benedict by a mob on the night of n Aug. [This outrage was committed on the strength of a rumor that Mary St. John Harrison, an inmate, had been abducted or secreted where she could not be found.] Alonzo D. Phillips of Springfield obtains the first patent for the manufacture of matches in the U. S Board of Education established and organized 29 June, Mount Holyoke college (for the education of women), South Hadley, opened Normal school at Framingham and Westfleld opened Normal school at Bridgewater opened Arrest of George Latimer in Boston as a slave [Liberated on payment of $400 by citizens of Boston.] College of the Holy Cross founded at Worcester Completion and dedication of Bunker Hill monument with im- posing ceremonies '. 17 June, [I'res. Tyler present, Daniel Webster orator.] Samuel Hoar, sent by the state to Charleston, to test the con- stitutionality of the act of South Carolina, whereby any ne- gro on any vessel entering her ports was to be lodged in jail. Mr. Hoar reaches Charleston 28 Nov. [He is obliged to leave the city by force a few days after- wards. — Greeley, "American Conflict."] Gov. Briggs sends to the legislature Mr. Hoar's reportr It is referred to a committee who report on it 3 Feb. [It is unanimously adopted and sent out to the country. "This report sets forth clearly the whole case in issue, and justifies, by indisputable facts and impregnable arguments, the course Massachusetts had pursued." — Wilson, "Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America."] Capt. Henry Purkitt, the last survivor of the " Boston Mohawk Tea Party," d. (aged 91) 3 Mch. John Quincy Adams d. at Washington, aged 80 23 Feb. Water introduced in Boston through new water-works, 25 Oct. Shadrach, colored waiter, arrested as a slave in Boston, 15 Feb. [Rescued by colored persons and sent to Canada.] Thomas Sims, a fugitive slave, arrested in Boston and sent back into slavery 12 Apr. [He is sold in New Orleans to a brick-mason of Vicksburg, from whence he escapes in 1863 to the besieging army of gen. Grant, who sent him north. — Wilson, "Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America."] Senatorial contest in the state legislature between Charles Sumner (Free-soil) and Robt. C. Winthrop. Charles Sumner elected on the 26th ballot 24 Apr. Daniel Webster dies at Marshfield, aged 70 24 Oct. Boston Normal school, at Boston, opened Law fixing the hours of labor for a day, from 1 Oct. 1853, to 1 Apr. 1854, at 12 hours; from 1 Apr. 1854, until 1 Oct. 1854, at 11 hours; and after 1 Oct. 1854, at 10 hours 17 May, New constitution framed by a convention met at Boston, 7 May, 1853; completed its work 1 Aug. [Submitted to the people, but not ratified.] Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Society organized by Eli Thayer, and incorporated 20 Apr. [This in the interest of the settlement of Kansas.] Anthony Burns seized as a slave at Boston 27 May, [He is remanded to slavery, and, under a strong guard to prevent his release, is taken to the wharf and shipped south. He was subsequently liberated by purchase, and settled in Canada. The event created great excitement.] A convention in Worcester declares in favor of a new politi- cal organization, to be called the "Republican " party, 20 July, State convention of the Republican party, held at Worcester, nominates Henry Wilson for governor and Increase Sumner for lieutenant-governor 7 Sept. Normal school at Salem opened Congress consents to the cession by Massachusetts to New York of Boston Corner, the southwesterly corner of Berk- shire county 3 Jan. Sumners speech in the U. S. Senate on the admission of Kan- sas, known as the " Crime against Kansas " 20 May, [Great excitement among the southern members.] Senator Sumner assaulted and beaten down by Preston S. Brooks of South Carolina, in the Senate chamber.. 22 May, [Brooks dies in Washington 27 July, 1857.] Adjutant-general's report shows the state to have 147,682 men enrolled in the militia, and 5771 are in active service Peraberton mills at Lawrence fall by reason of defect in build- ing, and afterwards take fire; 115 of the operatives perish and 165 more or less injured 10 Jan. John A. Andrews, " the war governor," elected Annual meeting of the Massachusetts Anti-slavery Society at Tremont Temple, Boston, suppressed by the mayor . .24 Jan. Seven commissioners to the Peace conference at Washington appointed by gov. Andrews 5 F'eb. Legislature appropriates $25,000 for supplies for 2000 troops, 3 Apr. 6th regiment, mustered at Lowell, 16 Apr., leaves Boston for 1827 1829 1831 1834 1837 1839 1840 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1848 1851 1853 1854 1855 1856 1858 1862 1863 1865 1866 MAS 492 Washington, ITtli ; attacked by a mob in Baf.timokk, 19 Apr. ; 3 soldiers are killed, 23 wounded; arrives at Washiuglou and is quartered in the Senate chamber 5 I'.M. , 19 Apr. 1861 Legislature convenes in e.\tra session 14 May, and passes an act for the mainteuancu or the Union and the Constitution, creating the "Union Fund," and authorizing the issue of $3,000,000 in scrip, supplemented afterwards by an act em- powering the governor to issue scrip for $7,000,000 to be loaned to the U. S May, " Massachusetts 1st, the first 3-year8 regiment to reach Wash- ington, leaves the state 15 June, " San Jacinto ^krr'wes at Boston with Mason and SlidcU, 19 Nov. ; they are incarcerated in fort Warren 24 Nov. '• Maryland legislature appropriates $7000 to be transmitted to the governor of Massachusetts for distribution among the families of those of the Ma.s.sachusetts regiment who were killed or wounded in the Baltimore riot Dec. " New England Women's Au.xiliary Association organized, with headquarters at Boston Dec. " Mason and Slidell released and sail for England (Trent affair), 1 Jan. In response to a proclamation by gov. Andrews, calling for more troops, issued Sunday, 25 May, 3100 of the regular militia report at his headquarters on Boston Commons, 26 May, 64tb, colored regiment, the first fornied in the free states, leaves Boston for Fort Koyal 28 May, [This regiment, in the unsuccessful assault on fort Wagner, 18 July, 1863, immediately on its arrival at the front, was almost annihilated. Its colonel, Robert G. Shaw, aged 26 years, was killed in this assault and buried by the con- federates in the same pit with the dead of his regiment.] Mob of non- Unionists, attempting to force the doors of the ar- mory of the 11th Battery, Boston, fired upon and dispersed; several killed and many wounded 14 July, Boston college, Boston, chartered and opened. Work resumed on the Hoosac tunnel Oct. Edward Everett d. in Boston 16 Jan, Monument erected in Lowell to the first martyrs from Massa- chusetts in the civil war 17 June, Commemoration day at Cambridge, in honor of the patriot he- roes of Harvard college 21 July, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at Boston, chartered 1861 ; opened Massachusetts State Primary school at Palmer opened Legislature adopts the XIV. th Amendment to the Constitution of the U. S 20 Mch. State Temperance convention organizes at Worcester. .17 Sept. Clarke institute for deaf mutes at Northampton opened Massachusetts Agricultural college at Amherst, chartered 1863 ; opened Oct. State legislature adjourns after the longest session ever held in the state up to date, being 165 days 12 June, Worcester Polytechnic institute at Worcester, char;,ered 1865 ; opened Governor and council contract with Walter Shanly of Montreal and Francis Shanly of Toronto to complete the Hoosac tun- nel before Mch. 1874, for $4,594,268 24 Dec. Ebenezer R. Hoar appointed U. S. attorney-general 5 Mch. Legislature adopts the XV. th Amendment to the Constitution of the U. S 9-12 Mch. George S. Boutwell appointed secretary of the treasury, 11 Mch. Great Peace jubilee in Boston (Music) 15 June, Legislature establishes a Bureau of Statistics, a state Board of Health, abolishes the district system of public schools, and adjourns after a session of 171 dnys 25 June, Landing at Duxbury, 23 July, of the French Atlantic cable celebrated 27 July, Labor Reform party organized at Worcester 28 Sept. Horace Mann school for the deaf at Boston opened George Peabody buried at Peabody (South Dan vers), Mass., 8 Feb. Wendell Phillips nominated for governor by the Prohibition party 17 Aug. Wendell Phillips nominated for governor by the Labor Reform party 8 Sept. Boston university, Boston, chartered 1869 ; opened World's Peace jubilee and International Musical festival be- gins in Boston (Music) 17 June, Great fire in Boston; 709 brick and stone and 67 wooden build- ings burned, loss, $70,000,000; nearly 65 acres burned over; 14 lives lost 9-10 Nov. " Legislature meets in extra session to devise means of relief for Boston 19 Nov. " William A. Richardson appointed secretary of the treasury, 17 Mch. 1873 Oakes Ames, M.C., father of the "Credit Mobilier,"d. (aged 69), 8 May, " Massachusetts Normal Art school at Boston opened " Charlestown, Brighton, and West Roxbury annexed to Boston by vote at election held 7 Oct. " Hoosac tunnel completed 27 Nov. " Prof Louis J. R. Agassiz, scientist, b. 1807 ; d. at Cambridge, 14 Dec. " U.S. senator Charles Sumner, b. in Boston, 1811, d. at Wash- ington 11 Mch. 1874 Gov. Washburn, elected U. S. senator to succeed Sumner, resigns executive office to lieut.-gov. Thomas Talbot, 30 Apr. " Bursting of a reservoir dam on Mill river, near Williamsburg, Hampshire co., nearly destroys Williamsburg, Leeds, Hay- MAS 1870 1872 J densville. and Skinncrville ; 200 lives and $1,500,000 woi of property lost 16 May, j State Normal school at Worcester opened Prohibitory liquor law repealed 5 Apr. 1 Centennial celebration of the battles of Lexington and Con- cord 19 Apr. Centennial celebration of the battle of Bunker Hill 17 June, Celebration of the 100th anniversary of the day Washington assumed command of the army, at Cambridge 3 July, Smith college at Northampton, chartered 1871, opened Sept. Wellesley college, Wellesley, chartered 1H70, opened Vicepres. Henry Wilson dies suddenly at Washington. .22 Nov. Marcella Street Home (reform school) at Boston opened H State lunatic hospital at Worcester, state prison for women at Sherborn, state prison at Concord, state lunatic hospital at Danvers, and state asylum for the chronic insane at Worcester opened j Public address in Faneuil hall, Boston, by Denis Kearney, the Sandlot orator of San Francisco, Cal 5 Aug. Act abolishing 9 separate state boards, and creating the Board of Health, Charity, and Lunacy, passed by legislature, which adjourns :$0 Apr. II French ocean cable landed at North Eastham, cape Cod, 15 Nov. Cape Cod ship canal from Buzzard bay to Barnstable bay be- gun li Anti-screen Liquor Saloon law, enacted 1880, goes into effect. . . 1 National Law and Order league organized at Bosten 22 Feb. 1 Henry W. Longfellow, b. 1807, d. at Cambridge 24 Mch. Ralph Waldo Emerson, b. 1803, d. at Concord 27 Apr. Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women," Harvard An- nex," organized 14 Jan. 1879, incorporated 16 Aug. Celebration at Marshfleld of the 100th anniversary of the birth- day of Daniel Webster (postponed from 3 Oct.) 11 Oct "Toin Thumb" (Charles H. Stratton), b. 1838, d. at .Middlebor- ough 15 July, Ian Foreign exhibition opens in Boston, continuing until 12 Jan. 1884 3 Sept. " Wendell Phillips, b. 1811, d. at Boston 2 Feb. 188-j Charles O'Conor, b. 1804, d. at Nantucket 12 May, " Statue of John Harvard unveiled at Cambridge 15 Oct. " William C. Endicott appointed U. S. secretary of war. . .6 Mch. 188;" Elizur Wright, abolitionist, b. 1804, d. at Medford 22 Nov. " Board of Health established separately 188< Charles Francis Adams, sen., b. 1807, d. at Boston 21 Nov. " State property in the Hoosac tunnel and Troy and Greenfield railroad sold to Fitchburg railroad company First Monday in Sept. (Laljor diiy) made a legal holiday at sion of legislature, which adjourned 16 June, Spencer F. Baird, naturalist, b. 1823; d. at Wood's Holl, 19 Aug Asa Gray, botanist, b. 1810, d. at Cambridge '40 Jan. ll Ballot law modelled on the Australian system adopted by leg- islature at session ending 29 May, " Gen. P. H. Sheridan, b. 1831, d. at Nonquit 5 Aug. " Maria Mitchell, astronomer, b. 1818, d. at Lynn 28 June, 188!» Maritime exhibition opens at Boston 4 Nov. " Great fire at Lvnn; 296 buildings destroyed; 80 acres burned over; loss, $.5,000,000 26 Nov. " Haverhill celebrates its 2.50th anniversary 2 July, 1890 Cyclone visits the suburbs of South Lawrence, the most severe ever recorded in the New England states; over $100,000 worth of property destroyed 26 July, " John Boyle O'Reilly, Irish patriot, b. 1844, d. at Hull. . .10 Aug. " First annual convention of the letter carriers of the U. S. held at Boston; 100 delegates 13 Aug. " Accident on the Old Colony railroad near Quincy; 20 killed. 31 injured 19 Aug. " Benjamin Penballow Shillaber, the creator of "Mrs. Parting- ton," b. 1814, d. at Chelsea 25 Nov. " Associate-justice Charles Devens, ex-attorney-general of the U. S., d. in Boston 7 Jan. 1891 James Russell Lowell, b. 1819, d. at Cambridge 12 Aug. " Phillips Brooks consecrated bishop of Massachusetts in Trinity church, Boston 14 Oct. " James Parton, author, b. 1822, d. at Newburyport 17 Oct. " First world's convention of the Woman's Christian Temper- ance Union opens at Boston 10 Nov. " Governor's salary raised from $5000 to $8000 24 Mch. 1892 Also any town of 12,000 inhabitants may become incorporated as a city ." " City of Quincy celebrates its centennial 4 July, " Ex-gov. Henry J. Gardner d. at Milton 22 July, " Lizzie Borden arrested at Fall River charged with the murder (Aug. 4) of her father and stepmother 11 Aug " Celebration of the 250th anniversary of the founding of Gloucester opens 23 Aug. Poet Whittier dies at Hampton Falls, N. H.. 7 Sept. ; buried at Amesbury 10 Sept. " Celebration of the 250th anniversary of the founding of Wo- ^ burn begins 2 Oct. ^^ Lizzie Borden indicted by the grand jury at Taunton — 2 Dec. Gen. Benj. F. Butler, b. 1818, d. at Washington, D.C., 11 Jan., buried at Lowell 16 Jan- ^^^'^ Phillips Brooks, P. E. bishop of Massachusetts, d. at his home, ^ Boston 23 Jan. ^ Great fire in Boston, loss $5,000,000 10 Mch. Lizzie Borden arraigned at New Bedford, pleads not guilty of ^^ the murder of her father and stepmother 8 May, Tried and acquitted 20 June, [Defended by ex. -gov. Robinson of Massachusetts.] , Statue of Wm. Lloyd Garrison unveiled at Newburyport, 4 July, MAS 493 frs Lucv Stone, one of the earliest champions of women's : rights, d. in Bostou 18 Oct. 1893 ' 'rancis Parkmau d. at Jamaica Plains, aged 70 years. . .8 Nov. " ;x-gov. William Gaston d. in Boston, aged 74 19 Jan. 1894 liss Helen Shafer, president Wellesly college, b. 1840, d. 20 Jan. " 'ire in Boston, 137 buildings burned, loss $500,000 15 May, " GOVERNORS OF THE MASSACHUSETTS COLONIES. Name PLYMOUTH COLONY, ELKCTED. T^^^ ohn Carver 1620 to t^illiam Bradford 1621 " :dward Winslow 1633 " homas Prince 1634 " niliam Bradford 1635 " dward Winslow 1636 " /illiam Bradford 1637 " homas Prince 1638 " .^lliam Bradford 1639 " dward Winslow 1644 " niliam Bradford 1645 " homas Prince 1657 " 3si:ih Winslow 1673 " homas Hinkley 1681 " ir Edmund Andros, governor-general homas Hinkley 1621 1633 1634 1635 1636 1637 1638 1639 1644 1645 1657 1673 1681 1689 " 1692 MAS „ MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY. Name. Term, John Endicott (acting) 1629 to Mathew Cradock (did not serve) John Winthrop 1630 " Thomas Dudley 1634 '« John Haynes 1G35 " Henry Vane 1636 " John AVinthrop 1637 " Thomas Dudley 1640 " Richard Bellingham 1641 " John Winthrop i642 " John Endicott i644 " Thomas Dudley 1645 " John Winthrop 1646 " John Endicott 1649 " Thomas Dudley 1650 " John Endicott 1651 " Richard Bellingham 1654 " John Endicott 1655 " Richard Bellingham 1665 " John Leverett 1673 " Simon Bradstreet 1679 " Joseph Dudley, president 1684 " Sir Edmund Andros, governor general 1686 " Thomas Danforth (acting) 1689 " 1634 1637 1640 1641 1642 1644 1645 1646 1649 1650 1651 1654 1655 1665 1673 1679 1684 GOVERNORS OF MASSACHUSETTS APPOINTED BY THE KING UNDER THE SECOND CHARTER. Terra of oflBce. Remarks. ir William Phipps 'illiam Stoughton chard Coote, earl of Bellamont. illiam Stoughton If Council i)soph Dudley ic Council )seph Dudley lliam Tailer imuel Shute illiam Dummer illiam Burnet illiam Dummer illiam Tailer nathan Belcher illiam Shirley lencer Phipps Silliam Shirley jiencer Phipps , ,ie Council, iiomas Pownall omas Hutchinson. Francis Bernard, omas Hutchinson, omas Hutchinson. Council 1692 to 1694 1694 " 1699 1699 " 1700 1700 " 1701 1701 " 1702 1702 " 1715 Feb. to Mch. 1715 Mch. " Nov. " 1715 to 1716 1716 " 1723 1723 " 1728 July, 1728 " Sept. 1729 1729 to June, 1730 June " Aug. " 1730 to 1741 1741 " 1749 1749 " 1753 1753 " 1756 1756 " 1757 Apr. to Aug. 1757 1757 to 1760 June to Aug. 1760 1760 to 1769 1769 " 1771 1771 " 1774 1774 " 1780 Born in Maine; summoned to England, he dies there, 1695. [ Lieutenant governor and acting governor, one of the principals in [ the witchcraft delusion. Goes to New York in 1700, and dies there, 1701. Acting. Subservient to the English government. liieutenant-governor and acting governor. Controversy with the legislature as to a fixed salary. Lieutenant-governor, acting as governor. Dies in office 7 Sept. 1729. Acting. Acting. Recalled by the British court. Visits England, 1749. Lieutenant governor, acting. Recalled. Acting. Recalled. Enters Parliament and opposes the ministry on Amer- ican measures. Lieutenant-governor, acting governor. Recalled, and made a baronet. Acting. The last of the royal governors. Governing until the adoption of the state constitution. GOVERNORS UNDER THE STATE CONSTITUTION. Party. [in Hancock. . , Imes Bowdoin. an Hancock. . , ■imuel Adams.., ^(Buel Adams. . . brease Sumner.. fSes Gill 'ieb Strong -'nes Sullivan. .. vi Lincoln jfll Appointed pro tern, in place of Webster. ^H Elected in place of Webster. '"■ ( Struck down in the Senate chamber by Preston S. Brooks, 22 May \ 1856. Owing to bis injuries he did not take his seat during the ( 35th Congress. Died 11 Mch. 1874. . Resigned. Appointed pro tern, iu place of Everett. Elected in place of Everett. Elected in place of Wilson. Elected in place of Sumner. Term expires 1901. Term expires 1899. Caleb Strong George Cabot Benjamin Goodhue .... . . . . James Lloyd jr Joseph B Varnum Christopher Gore Eli P Asbmun Prentiss Mellen Harrison Gray Otis Elijah H. Mills Nathaniel Silsbee Daniel Webster John Davis Rufus Choate . Isaac C. Bates Robert C Winthrop Robert Rantoul jr Charles Sumner . ... . . Julius Rockwell Henry Wilson George S Boutwell William B. Washburn Henry L. Dawes . . Henry Cabot Lodge.. ina§§acres. The indiscriminate killing of human beings incapable of defence ; in war, the unnecessary slaugh- ter of combatants surprised or after surrender. The following are among the most remarkable, but the accounts of many of them are exaggerated: 3 ^ All the Carthaginians in Sicily 397 Two thousand Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword for not surrendering Tyre to Alexander. 331 Two thousand Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus 211 A slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones, near Aix, by Ma- rius, Roman general, 200,000 left dead 102 Romans throughout Asia, men, women, and children, in one day, by order of Mithridates, king of Pontus 88 Many Roman senators by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius 87 Again, under Sulla and Catiline, his minister of vengeance 82 At Perusia, Octavianus Csesar ordered 300 Roman senators and other eminent persons sacrificed to the manes of Julius Caesar, 40 A.D. At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 Jews are said to have been put to the sword 70 Jews, headed by one Andrae, put to death many Greeks and Romans in and near Cyrene 115 Cassius, a Roman general under the emperor M. Aurelius, put to death 300,000 inhabitants of Seleucia 165 At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were massacred by order of the Roman emperor Caracalla, for some insulting remarks while on his visit there 215 Emperor Probus said to have put to death 400,000 barbarian invaders of Gaul 277 Gothic hostages by Valens 378 Thessalonica, when 7000 persons invited into the circus were put to the sword by order of Theodosius 390 Circus factions at Constantinople 532 Latins at Constantinople by order of Andronicus 1184 Albigenses and AValdenses, commenced at Toulouse 1208 [Thousands perished by the sword and gibbet.] French in Sicily (Sicilian Vespers) 1282 At Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, duke of Burgundy 1418 Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order of Christian II 1520 Protestants at Vassy 1 Mch. 1562 Seventy thousand Huguenots, or French Protestants, in France (St. Bartholomew) 24 Aug. Christians in Croatia by Turks, 65,0U0 slain Pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adherents, at Moscow, 27 May, Protestants in the Valteline, N. Italy 19 July, Protestants at Thorn, under pretended legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland, for joining in a tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic procession [All Protestant powers in Europe interceded in vain.] At Batavia 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the natives, un- der pretext of intended insurrection Oct. At the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old and young were slain (Ismail) • . .Dec. French royalists (France, Septembrizers) 2 Sept. Poles at Praga In St. Domingo, Dessalines proclaims death to the whites, and thousands perish 29 Mch. Insurrection at Madrid, massacre of French 2 May, Mamelukes in the citadel of Cairo 1 Mch. Protestants at Nismes, by Catholics May, Massacre at Scio (Chios) 22 Apr. Janissaries at Constantinople, 14 June, 1826; atCabul (Afghan- istan) Six hundred Kabyles suffocated in a cave in Algeria (Dahra), 18 June, Massacre of Christians at Aleppo 16 Oct. Maronites, by Druses, in Lebanon, June, 1860; and of Chris- tians by Mahometans at Damascus (Damascus, Druses), 9-11 July, French missionaries and others at Tien-tsin, 22 persons (China), 21 June, Foreigners, by native Gauchos, Tandel district, Buenos Ayres, South America 1 '^^^^ About 90 French colonists and others in New Caledonia by na- tives, during a revolt June, Mehemet Ali Pacha and others at Ipek, near Scutari, by Alba- nians 6 Sept. At Cabul (Afghanistan), 1879, and Turkey IN BRITISH HISTORY. Three hundred British nobles, on Salisbury Plain, by Hengist, about li MAS 495 MAT Twelve hundred monks of Bangor, by Ethelfrid, king of Ber- nicia (507 or G12 Danes in southern counties of England, by order of Ethelred II., night of 13 Nov. 1002 rAt London it was most bloody, the churches being no sanctuary. Among the slain was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for the performance of a treaty newly concluded. — Baker.] Jews in England. A few, pressing into Westminster hall at Richard I.'s coronation, vyere killed by the mob; and on a false rumor that the king had ordered a general massacre of ; them, the people in many parts of England slew all they I met. In York 500, taking shelter in a castle, killed them- ' selves to escape the multitude 1189 iBristol colonists at Cullen's Wood, Ireland (Cullen's Wood). . . 1209 Snglish factory at Amboyna, to dispossess its members of the ! Spice islands Feb. 1625 '.'rotestants in Ireland,in O'Neill's rebellion, which began 23 Oct; 1641 [Upwards of 30,000 British were killed in the commence- ! ment of this rebellion.— »S'ir William ["etty. In the flrst 3 or ' 4 days of it, 40,000 or 50,000 Protestants were destroyed.— I Lord Clarendon. During the rebellion 154,000 Protestants i were massacred. — Sir W. Temple.] Uacdonalds of Glexcoe 13 Feb. 1692 iden, women, and children, numbering 184, chiefly Protestants, I killed by insurgent Irish at the barn of ScuUabogue, Ire- 1 land {Mnsgrave) 1798 ' (Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, etc., by mutineers of the native Indian army (Ixdia) May and June, 1857 Vhites at Kalangan. south coast of Borneo 1 May, 1859 WhitesatMorant bay, Jamaica, by negroes (Jamaica), 11, 12 Oct. 1865 I.ieut. Holcombe and surveying party (about 70) in Assam, on Naga hills about 24 Feb. 1875 Ir. Margary and servants (with col. Browne's expedition into ' western China) at Manwyne, by Chinese 21 Feb. " I'ommodore Goodenough, of the Pearl, and 2 seamen, by na- ; tives of Santa Cruz island, South Pacific ocean; attacked 12 I Aug. ; d 20 Aug. " jen. Charles George (Chinese) Gordon and followers at Khar- toum (Soudan) 26 Jan. 1885 I IN UNITED STATES HISTORY. I'rench Huguenots in Florida, by Spaniards under Menendez j (Florida) 19 Sept. 1565 ;iTiites by Indians in Virginia 22 Mch. 1622 'adians at Pequot fort by New England colonists (Connecticut), 26 May, 1637 bdians by the Dutch at Pavonia (New York) 25 Feb. 1643 ;nne Hutchinson's family and others, near Westchester (New ; York) " ;.'hites by Indians in Virginia 18 Apr. 1644 •'utch at Hoboken, Pavonia, and Staten Island (New York), \ 15-20 Sept 1655 Whites in Massachusetts, Maine, and New Hampshire, by Ind- ! ians, 1675, '76, '77; by French and Indians?, 1688, '90, '92, also j in 1703-4, and again in 1722-25, 1744-48, 1754-60. Maine, * Massachusetts, New Hampshire. ;/hites at Schenectady by French and Indians (New York), I 8 Feb. 1690 arrison at Fort William Hknry after surrender 9 Aug. 1757 arrison effort Loudon, Tennessee, after surrender, by Chero- ; kees 7 Aug. 1760 I oravian Indians at Conestoga, Pa., by the Paxton boys (Pexn- : sylvania) ■. .27 Dec. 1763 jen. Wayne's troop by British at Paoli 20 Sept. 1777 .ettlers at Wyoming by Tories and Indians (Pennsylvania), [ 2-4 July, 1778 leut.col. Baylor's command, by the British at Old Tappan j(Nbw York) 27 Sept. " ;9ttlers at Cherry Valley by Tories and Indians. .11-12 Nov. 1778 |oravianIndians, by whites at Gnadenhutten,0. (Ohio), 8 Mch. 1782 iarrison of fort Dearborn, Chicago, by Indians (Fort Dear- : BORN) 15 Aug. 1812 (tnerican troops at the river Raisin (Michigan) 22 Jan. 1813 I'hites by Indians at fort Mimms (Alabama) 30 Aug. " iraericau prisoners at Dartmoor, England, by guards. .6 Apr. 1815 ' aj. Dade's command by Seminoles (Florida) 28 Dec. 1835 jsxans at the Alamo by Mexicans 6 Mch. 1836 ■migrants to California by Mormons at Mountain Meadow I (Utah, 1857-77) 11 Sept. 1857 ' nite settlers at Spirit Lake, Iowa, by Sioux Mch. " hites in Minnesota by Sioux under Little Crow (Minnesota), Aug., Sept. 1862 ^rrison at Fort Pillow, Tenn. , by confederates under Forrest, ', ^ 12 Apr. 1864 laians by col. Chivington's command at Sand Creek, Colo- «Ano 27 Nov. " en. Canby and others by Modoc Indians (California, United ^■^^^s) 11 Apr. 1873 en. buster and command by the Indians under Sitting Bull <^"^tana) 26 June, 1876 egroes at Hamburg, S. C, by armed citizens (South Caro- ■'INA) ^ ^ g Jyjy (( bites by Apache Indians at White River agency (Colorado)' levenItal-^^-„«, ^- ^ • • 29 Sept. 1879 ans (Mama) at New Orleans, La., in prison as sus- pected murderers of David C. Hennessey, chief of police, by ;an organized body of citizens (Louisiana, United States), ■ 15 Mch. 1891 Ma§'§o wah, a port on the Red sea, subject to Egypt. Certain commercial rights secured to Abyssinia by treaty with England and Egypt, May, 1884. Italian flag hoisted beside the Egyptian 6 Feb. 1885 Abyssinians under Ras Alouia severely defeat the Arabs at Kufeit, near Amadib 23 Sept. " Government of Massowah assumed by the Italians 2 Dec! " Abyssinians attack Massowah and Italian outposts, but suffer loss and retire ig .Jan. et seq. 1887 About 500 Italians proceeding with supplies to Sahati cut off by Abyssinians under Ras Alouia at Dagoli, near Massowah, ^^ . . 25-26 Jan.' " Negotiations with Ras Alouia with respect to release of prisou- ,, ers.... 11 Mch. " Skirmishes between Italians and Deber tribe 27-28 Mch. " Proclamation issued declaring a state of war in Massowah and its dependencies, with blockade of ports 2 May '< Major Savoiroux made a prisoner, still kept by the Abyssini- ans, April; released Sept. *' Chief Kantibay submits to Italy '.!'."."l8 Oct.* " Declared to be in a state of siege '.*. ...lo Nov. " Italy notifies the powers that it has annexed Massowah. .July. 1888 Protectorate proclaimed at Zulla :{ Aug! " Severe defeat of Italians at Sanganeiti on the borders through native treachery; 4 Italian officers killed Aug. " Keren occupied and annexed by the Italians 2 June, 1889 Gen. Baldissera occupies Asmara 4 Aug. " About 1000 dervishes repulsed after incursion into Italian- protected country; captives and booty rescued, reported, 29 June, 1890 Gen. Gandolfi, new governor, announces end of military rule in the Italian possessions on the Red sea l July, " master of the rolls, an equity judge in England, so called because he has custody of all charters, patents, com- missions, deeds, and recognizances entered upon rolls of parch- ment; his decrees are appealable to the court of chancery. The repository of public papers, called the rolls, was in Chan- cery lane. The rolls were formerly kept in a chapel founded for converted Jews; but after Jews were expelled the king- dom in 1290 they were placed in the office of the master of the rolls. Here were kept all the records since the accession of Richard III., 1483, earlier ones being kept in the Tower of London. Records. The first recorded master of the rolls was either John de Langton, appointed 1286, or Adam de Osgodeby, appointed 1 Oct. 1295; but the office clearly ex- isted long before. — Hardy. masters in chancery, chosen from the equity bar of England, were first appointed, it is said, to give instruction to sir Christopher Hatton (not informed in the duties of his office), lord chancellor of England, in 1587. The office was abolished in 1852. mas'todon. Mammoth. Mat'atoe'le land. Mashona. matches. Lucifer-matches. materialism, the doctrine that the soul is not a spir- itual substance distinct from matter, but is the result of organ- ization in the body. The term is rather loosely applied to the systems of Epicurus, about 310 b.c.; Hobbes, about 1642 A.D.; Priestley, about 1772, and of many eminent men in the present day. It is not necessarily identical with atheism. Philosophy. mathematics formerly signified all kinds of learn- ing; but now includes the sciences of numbers and quantity. Arithmetic. Among the most eminent mathematicians were Euclid, 300 h.c, ; Archimedes, 287 b.c. ; Descartes, died 1650 A.D. ; Barrow, died 1677; Leibnitz, died 1716; sir Isaac Newton, died 1727; Euler, died 1783; Lagrange, died 1813; Laplace, died 1827 ; and dr. Peacock, died 1858 ; sir (J. B. Airy (astronomer royal), Bartholomew Price, J. J. Sylvester, and I. Todhunter are eminent matiiematicians. Mary Somerville, born 1790, author of the "Mechanism of the Heavens," died 1873. The London Mathematical Society was founded 16 Jan. 1865 ; prof. Aug. De Morgan, president. Zerah Colburn, a mathematical prodigy, Vermont, 1804-40. mat'ins, the service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning of the day in the Roman Catholic church. The French matins were the massacre of St. Bar- tholomew, 24 Aug. 1572. The matins of Moscow were the massacre of prince Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, in the morning of 27 May, 1606. matter exists in three states : gaseous, liquid, and solid. William Crookes considers that there is a fourth state, " ra- MAT 496 MEC diant matter," subtler than any of tliese, 1879-80. Light. Aocordinj? to Swedenborp, matter is the ultimate of divine onler, and is related to spirit as an effect to its cause. ]VIat'terllorn, a peak of the main ridge of the Alps, abt)ut 14,83(5 feet high, S. Switzerland. After various fruitless attempts by prof. Tyndall and other eminent climbers, in 1860, the summit was reached on 14 July, 1865, by Edward Whyraper and others. During their descent, 4 of the party were killed. Mr. Hadow fell; the connecting-rope broke, and he, lord Fran- cis Douglas, the rev. Mr. Hudson, and Michael Croz, a guide, slipped, and fell from a precipice nearly 4000 feet high. Miss Walker, with her father, ascended the Matterhorn, 22 July, 1871. 3 gentlemen ascended without a guide,. 21 July, 1876. Dr. \y. O. Moseley, an American, was killed here, 14 Aug. 1879. 3 persons attempting the ascent perished, 12 vSept. 1890. maunicc' Rapids or Fallen Timber§, Battle of. At the Maumee rapids, in northern Ohio, Wayne ct>mpletely routed 2000 Indians, on 20 Aug. 1794. The Amer- icans lost 33 killed and 100 wounded. This battle ended the Indian war in the Northwest. Ohio. maundy- Thursday (derived by Spelman from mande, a hand-basket, in which the king gave alms to the poor ; by others from dies mandati, the day on which Christ gave his grand mandate, that we should love one another), the day before Good YtuXsiy.— Wheatley. The custom of the sov- ereigns of England or their almoners to give alms, food, and clothing to as many poor persons as they were years old on this day, was begun by Edward III., when fifty years of age, 1363, and is still continued. IVIaurita'nia, N. Africa, with Numidia, became a Ro- man province, 45 B.C., with Sallust for proconsul. Augustus created (30 b.c.) a kingdom of Mauritania and part of Getulia, for Jiiba II., a descendant of ancient African princes. Sueto- nius Paulinus suppressed a revolt here, 42 a.d., when it was made a province, divided into parts. The country was sub- jugated by Vandals and Greeks, and fell into the hands of Arabs, about 667. Moors, Morocco. ]flauritiu§ {maw-Hsh'e-us) or I§ie of France, in the Indian ocean, was discovered by the Portuguese, 1505; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after prince Maurice, their stadtholder; but on acquiring the Cape of (Jood Hope deserted it; and it continued unsettled until the French landed, and named it for one of tlie finest provinces in France, 1715. The island was taken b}' the British, 2 Dec. 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1814. Area, 705 sq. miles; pop. 1891,*377,986. inausole'um. Artemisia married her brother, Mauso- lus, king of Caria, Asia Minor, 377 B.C. After his death his body was burned, and she drank in liquor his ashes, and erected to his memory at Halicarnassus a monument, one of the 7 wonders of the world (350 b.c.), termed Mausoleum. She invited all the literary men of her age, and proposed re- wards for the best elegiac panegyric upon her husband. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 b.c. She died 352 B.C. The statue of Mausolus is among the antiquities brought from Halicarnassus by C. T. Newton in 1857, and placed in the British museum. A mausoleum for the royal family of Eng- land was founded by queen Victoria at Frogmore, 15 Mch. 1862. mauve {moo; Fr. for malva, mallow), a dye of a deli- cate purple color made by dr. Stenhouse from lichens in 1848; now made from Aniline. maverick, a term used on the cattle-ranges of the West for a herd of cattle that bears no brand, and is therefore regarded as ownerless. It is said to have been the name of a Massachusetts man who settled in Texas, where he refused to follow the custom of branding his calves, because he trusted his neighbors, and, besides, was tender of his beasts. IVIaxim ifUn. An automatic gun, the invention of Hiram S. Maxim, of London, Engl. 1883. It consists of a single barrel mounted on a tripod and fires but a single shot at a time, but with such rapidity that the United States Ord- nance Department, on a test experiment in rapidity, fired 2004 shots in 1 min. 45 sec. At the same time, in a test for ac- curacy, out of 334 shots fired at a target 12 x 26 ft. at a dis- tance of 300 yds., 268 hits were made. The gmi works itself after the first shot is fired until the cartridges in the belt or magazine are exhausted. may, the 6th month of the j'ear, named, some say, by Romulus, in respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated majores ; others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom they offered sac- rifices on the first day. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of Egeria on May-day. may flower. Massachusetts, 1620. mayor of London. At the time of the Norman conquest, 1066, the chief officer of London was called poi-tgrave, afterwards softened into portreeve, from Saxon words signify- ing chief governor of a harbor. He was afterwards called provost; but in Henry II.'s reign the Norman title of W(nV( (soon after mayor) was brought into use. At first the maj'or was chosen for life, but afterwards for irregular periods : now he is chosen annually, but is eligible for re-electii)n. He must be an alderman and ex-sheriff. His duties commence on Nov. The prefix '• lord " is peculiar to the chief civic officer in London, Dublin, Edinburgh, and York. London, Salary. Lord Mnynr^s court is very ancient. First mayor of London, Henry Fitz-Alwyn, held office for 24 years, ap|)ointed , 1189 Prefix of lord granted by Edward III., with the style of right honorable mayors in the United States. Boston, Chicai New York, etc. mayors of the palace, high officers in France who had great influence during the later Merovingian kings, i&rm&iX faineants, "do-nothings": Pepin the Old (or De Laii- den),622 et seq. ; Pepin Heristal, 687-714; Charles Martd, despotic, 714-41 ; Pepin le Bref, 74l, who shut Childeric III. in a monastery, and took the kingdom, 752. Hazartn' Bible. Books. mazurka (nm-zer'Tca), a Polish dance of the 16th cen- tury, introduced into England about 1845. Chopin's music for the mazurka is much admired. meal-tub plot, a plot against the duke of York, after- wards James II., contrived by one Dangerfield, who secreted se- ditious letters in the lodgings of col. Maunsell, and then advised the custom-house officers to search for smuggled goods, 23 Oct. 1679. After Dangerfield's apprehension, on suspicion of forg- ing these letters, papers were found concealed in a meal-tub at the house of a woman with whom he cohabited, which con- tained the scheme to be sworn to, accusing the most eminent persons in the Protestant interest, who Avere against the duke of York's succession, of treason, particularly the earls of Shaftesbury, Essex, and Halifax. When Dangerfield was whipped the last time, as part of his punishment, 1 June, 1685, one of his eyes was struck out by a barrister named Robert Francis. This caused his death, for which his assailant was hanged. mea§ure§. Metric system, Micrometer, Weights. — " Not men, but measures," a phrase used in Parliament by Brougham, 2 Nov. 1830. IHecCa, a city in Arabia, the birthplace of Mahomet, about 571, whence he was compelled to flee, 15 July, 622 (the Hegira). On one of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is asserted he retired to perform his devotions, and where the greatest part of the Koran was brought to him by the augel Gabriel, 604. Mecca, after being vainly besieged by Hoseiii for the caliph Yezid, 682, was taken b}' Abdelmelek, 692. In 1803 it fell into the hands of the Wahabees, a IMahometan sect. They were expelled by the pacha of Egypt in 1818, who retired in 1841. It is said that 160,000 pilgrims visited Mecca in 1858, and only 50,000 in 1859. The grand shereef was assassinated by a fanatic, 21 Mch. 1880. Pilgrimage to Mecca still continues; annual average about 90,000. meclianiCi. The simple mechanical powers have been ascribed to heathen deities; the axe, wedge, wimble, etc., to Daedalus. Motion, Steam-engine. b.c. Aristotle writes on mechanics about 32<» Properties ofthe lever, etc., demonstrated by Archimedes, who d. 212 [He laid the foundations of nearly all these inventions, the further prosecution of which is theboastof our age.— TFaWw (1695^.] I 50 MEC and mill, or quern, was very early in use; the Romans found one in Yorkshire, Engl. attlemills, molce jumentarice, were also in use by the Romans, '■ater-mill was probably invented in Asia; the first that was described was near one of the dwellings of Mithridates rater-mill said to have been erected on the river Tiber, at Rome AD. appus wrote on mechanics about 350 loating mills on the Tiber 536 ide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice about 1078 Hnd-mills were in very general use in the 12th century. •iw-mills are said to have been in use at Augsburg 1332 heory of the inclined plane investigated by Cardan about 1540 Jork on statics, by Stevinus 1586 alileo's " Scienza Mecanica " 1634 heorv of falling bodies, Galileo 1638 aws of percussion, Huygens, Wallis, Wren about 1660 heory of o-scillation, Huygens 1670 picycloidul form of the teeth of wheels, Roemer 1675 ercussiou and animal mechanics, Borelli ; he d 1679 pplication of mechanics to astronomy, parallelism of forces, laws of motion, etc., Newton, Hooke, etc 1666-1700 roblem of the catenary with the analysis, dr. Gregory 1697 pirit level (and many "other inventions) by dr. Hooke, from 1660 to 1702 'Alembert's researches on dynamics about 1743 agrange's '■ M^canique Analytique," pub 1788 aplace's " Mecanique Celeste." pub 1799-1805 orgnis's "Dictionnaire de Mecanique Appliquee aux Arts," 10 vols 1818-23 dward H. Knight's excellent " Practical Dictionary of Me- 'chanics," pub 1877-84 ' mechaniCSVille, Va., Battle at, 26 June, 1862. Pen- ksULAR CAMPAIGN. Hfech'lill or Haline§ (ma-ken'), a city of Belgium, uowned for lace raaiiufacture, was founded in the 6th centurj' ; jstroyed by the Normans in 884 ; sacked by the Spaniards, )72; taken by the prince of Orange, 1578, and by the English, )80; and frequently captured in the 17th and 18th centuries, laring the evil fortunes of the country. Pop. 1891, 50,962. 497 MED Meck'lenblirg^, N. Germany, formerly a principality in Lower Saxony, now independent as the 2 grand-duchies of Mecklenburg- Schwerin (area, 5135 sq. miles; pop. 1890, 578,446) and Mecklenburg-Strelitz (area, 1131 sq. miles; pop. 1890, 97,978). The house of Mecklenburg claims descent from Genseric the Vandal, who ravaged the western empire in the 5th century, and died 477. It is the only reigning fam- ily in western Europe of Slavonic origin. The genealogical table of the reigning grand-dukes begins with Niklot, who died 1160, and comprises 25 generations. During the Thirty Years' war Mecklenburg was conquered by Wallenstein, who became duke, 1628; it was restored to its own duke 1630. After several changes the government was settled in 1701 as it now exists in the 2 branches of Schwerin and Strelitz. In 1815 the dukes were made grand-dukes. The dukes joined the new North German Confederation by treaty, 21 Aug. 1866. Hecklenbiirg^ Declaration of Inde- pendeiiee. North Carolina, 20 May, 1775. ineda1§. Numismatics. The ancient medals resem- bled medallions. Modern medals began about 1453 in Ger- many. The English House of Commons resolved to grant re- wards and medals to the fleet whose officers (Blake, Monk, Penn, and Lawson) and men defeated the Dutch fleet, off" the Texel, in 1653. Blake's medal of 1653 was bought by William IV. for 150 guineas. An act of 1692 applied the teiTth part of the proceeds of prizes for medals and other rewards for officers, seamen, and marines. After lord Howe's victory, 1 June, 1794, it was thought expedient to institute a naval medal. Medals were struck for the victory of Waterloo; a general war-medal (for the war 1793-1814) was ordered in 1847 ; and special med- als were given after the Caffre and Chinese wars. Medals were presented by queen Victoria to persons distinguished in the war in the Crimea, 18 May, 1855. Medals were given to arctic voyagers of 1875-76, in 1877. A list of British military and naval medals is given in " Whitaker's Almanack " for 1888. MEDALS AWARDED BY THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. Date of Resolution. bh. 25, 1776 hv. 4, 1777 ly 26,1779 pt. 24, 3, 1780 !h. 9,1781 t. 29, " t. 16,1787 ;h. 29, 1800 ;h. 3,1805 n. 29, 1813 1814 fi. U, ^. 20, 'j. 27,1815 X 22,1816 ■r.^ 4,1818 ]>■ 13,1835 6. 1846 2. 1847 ., 9, 1848 i, 1854 To whom presented. Gen. George Washington Brig. -gen. Horatio Gates Maj.-gen. Anthony Wayne Lieut. -col. De I'leury Maj. John Stewart Maj. Henry Lee John Paulding David Williams Isaac Van Wart Brig.-gen. Daniel Morgan Lieut. -col. AVilliam A. Washington " John E. Howard Maj. -gen. Nathaniel Greene Capt. John Paul Jones " Thomas Truxton Com. Edward Preble Capt. Isaac Hull. . . .- ' • Jacob Jones " Stephen Decatur " William Bainbridge Lieut. Edward R. McCall Com. Oliver H. Perry Capt. Jesse D. Elliott •' James Lawrence Com. Thomas Macdonough Capt. Robert Henley Lieut. Stephen Cassin Capt. Lewis Warrington " Johnston Blakely (to the widow). Maj.-gen. .Jacob Brown " Peter B. Porter Brig. -gen. E. W. Ripley .• " James Miller Maj.-gen. Winfield Scott " Edmund P. Gaines " Alexander Macomb " Andrew Jackson Capt. Charles Stewart " James Biddle Maj.-gen. William H. Harrison Gov. Isaac Shelby Col. George Croghan— 22 years after. . . Maj.-gen. Zachary Taylor British, French, and Spanish officers and crews. Maj.-gen. Winfield Scott " Zachary Taylor Capt. Duncan N. Ingraham For what se'vice. Capture of Boston Defeat of Burgoyne Storming of Stony Point. Surprise of Paulus Hook Capture of Andr6 Victory of the Cowpen.s. Victory at Eutaw Springs Capture of the Serapis, 1779 Action with the Vengeance (French). Tripoli Capture of the Guerriere " " Frolic " " Macedonian " " Java " " Boxer Victory on lake Erie Capture of the Peacock Victory on lake Cham plain. Capture of the Epervier. " " Reindeer. Victory of Chippewa, etc. " of Erie " " Plattsburg " " New Orleans Capture of the Cyane and Levant. " " Penguin Victory of the Thames 1813. Defence of fort Stephenson. Victory on Rio Grande Capture of Monterey /Rescuing crew of the U. S. brig-of-war Somers before i \ Vera Cruz, 7 Dec. 1846 J ' Mexican campaign ._.. Victory of Buena Vista Release of Martin Koszta. Gold. Silver. Gold. Silver. Gold. Silver. fGold& [ silver. Gold. MED 498 MED MEDALS AWARDED BY THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES.— (Continued.) Dote of ReMlution. To whom proMuted. For what service. Met( May 11,1868 Dec. 21,1861) July 16, 1862/ July 12, " ) Mch. 3, 1863 f Dec 17 " Dr. Frederick H. Rose, of the British navy f For humanity— care of yellow-fever patients from) \ Jamaica to New York on the U. S. S. Susquehanna ( C At Gettysburg, 1 July, 1803. the 27th Maine volun- ] teered to remain for the battle, although its term [ had expired. All its members received medals. . Victories of fort Donelson, Vicksburg, Chaltiiiiooga Gift of ship Vanderbilt Gol< Broi Go1tiiiopia \i the foundation of the most ancient states." — Anthon. Merovingians, first race of Jrench kings, 418-71 France, Mayors. Merrimac. Hampton Roads; United States, 181 Merry- An drew. A name said to have been fi' given to Andrew Borde, a physician in the reign of Hen VIII., and who, for his facetious manners, was sometimes ceived at court, 1547. Merry Mount. Massachusetts, 1626-30. Merton, Surrey, Engl. Af an abbey here, the ba under Henry IIL, 23 Jan. 1236, held a parliament which en ed the Provisions or Statutes of Merton, the oldest body of lai save Magna Charta. They were repealed in 1863. Basta: Merv or Meru (the ancient A ntiochia Margiana)l town of independent Turkestan, central Asia. It flourished under the Seljuk Turks, especially under sultan Alp Arslan: it was sacked by the Monguls in 1221 ; it became sid)ject t( Persia in 1510 ; to the emir of Bokhara in 1787 ; to the Turk omans in 1856, and to Russia 1883-84. Russia, Turkestan, mesmerism. Frederick Anthony Mesmer (1733- 1815), a German phj-sician of Merseburg, taught in 1766, in a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies diffuse through the universe a subtle fluid which acts on the nervou- system. Quitting Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numer- ous proselytes and much money. A committee of physicians and philosophers investigated his pretensions, among them Franklin, and Bailly, in a paper drawn up in 1784, exposed the futility of animal magnetism. In 1845 baron von Reichenbacli excited considerable attention by announcing a so-called new "imponderable," or "influence," which he named Odyl. These phenomena are now usually classed under Hypnotism. Messaiians, a sect professing to adhere to the letter of the gospel, about 310, refused to work, quoting this passage, " Labor not for the food that perisheth." Messe'nia, now Maura-Matra, in the Pelopon- nesus, a kingdom founded by Polycaon, 1499 b.c. It had long sanguinary wars with Sparta, and once contained a hundred cities. It was at first governed by kings ; after regaining power in the Peloponnesus it formed an inferior republic, under the pro- tection first of the Thebans and afterwards of the Macedonians. First Messenian war began 743 B.C. ; occasioned by violence to some Spartan women in a temple common to both nations; the king of Sparta being killed in their defence. Eventually, ^•'^■ Ithome was taken, and the Messenians enslaved '. 724 Second war, to throw off the Spartan yoke, commenced about 685, ending in the defeat of the Messenians, who fled to Sicily, 6fi8 Third war 466-55 Messiah, synonymous with Christ "the anointed,'' foretold by Dan. ix. 25, about 638 b.c. " We have found the Messiah, which is, being interpreted, the Christ" (John i.41). — " The Messiah," Handel's greatest oratorio, composed by him in 23 days (22 Aug.-14 Sept. 1741), was first performed at Dublin, 13 Apr. 1742, in aid of the charities of that city. Messina (jties-see'na), Sicilj'^, so named by the Samians who seized this city, then called Zancle, 671 b.c. It was seized by the Mamertini, about 281 b.c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire ; was taken by the Saracens, about 829 A.D. — Priestley. Roger the Norman took it from them by sur- prise, about. 1072. metals, a class of elementary substances, characterized by fusibility, by opaqueness, by a peculiar lustre to the eye, MET 503 MET uid by certain chemical properties, and including many of the nost useful fornas of matter ; as iron, copper, silver, gold, lead, ;in mercury, nickel, aluminium, etc. Tubal-Cain is mentioned IS an " instructor of everj"- artificer in brass and iron " (Gen. LV.). Moses and Homer speak of the 7 metals, and Virgil of tielting steel. The Phoenicians had skill in working metals. Binisen and Kirchhoff's method of chemical analysis by the spectrum has added cagsium, rubidium, thallium, indium, gal- ium, and others to known metals. Elements, Mines. See ilso the several metals. metamor'pllistS, in the 15th century, affirmed that Christ's natural body, with which he ascended into heaven, kvas wholly deitied. llietapliys'ic§, the science of abstract reasoning, or :hat which contemplates existence without relation to matter, riie terra, literally deiwting " after physics," originated from ;hese words having been put at the head of certain essaj's of \ristotle which follow his treatise on physics. — Mackintosh. yiodern metaphysics arose in the 15th century — the period vhen an extraordinary impulse was given to the study of the juiman mind in Europe, commonly called the "revival of earning." Literature, Philosophy. I lletau'ril§, Battle of. Hasdmbal, brother of Hannibal, laving crossed the Alps, had reached the Metaurus, in central taly, while Hannibal was in the south. The Roman consuls 207 B.C ) were M. Livius and Claudius Nero. Livius opposed lie advance of Hasdrubal, and Nero was appointed to watch lannibal. The object of tlie Carthaginian generals was to mite, that of the Romans to prevent it. Nero, leaving the ndk of his army before Hannibal, marched with 10,000 of his lest troops and joined Livius with secrecy and despatch, nknown to Hannibal, within 6 days. In the battle which mmediately followed Hasdrubal was not only defeated but illed. Nero returned at once to his former position before lannibal, whose first notification of the battle was the exhi- ition of the Carthaginian prisoners before his camp, and the ead of his brother thrown down before one of his outposts, 'his has been called one of the 7 decisive battles of the world. lATTLES, CarTHAGK. metempsyi'llO'Mim, a doctrine attributed to Pythag- ras, about 528 b c , asserts the transmigration of the soul from lie body to another. It is also ascribed to the Egyptians, {ho would cat no animal food lest they should devour the [ody into which the soul of a deceased friend had passed, jhey thought that so long as the body of the deceased was apt entire, the soul would not transmigrate ; and therefore (Tibalmed the dead. Buddhism. I meteor'Ograpll, an apparatus for which father Sec- hi of Rome received a prize at the Paris International Exhi- ition, July, 1867. It is self-acting, and registers the changes r the atmosphere in a diagram, i meteorol'ogy (Gr. fiiTEuypoQ, aerial), properly, is the ;ientific study of atmospheric phenomena and investigation l" weather and climate. Aristotle composed a treatise called prewjOoXoytKa, in which he dealt with all which was then jiown of air, water, and earthquakes (cir. 300 B.C.). One of k earliest collections of prognostics is found in the AiO(T?//i6ia 1 Aratus, a Greek who flourished in Macedonia and Asia Iinor about 270 b.c. The invention of the air thermometer Sanctorio of Padua, 1590 a.d., improved by an Italian artist 1655, who used alcohol, and by Romer who used mercury, d the barometer, invented by Torricelli in 1643, gave the ist accurate means for instrumental observation of the tem- jrature and pressure of the atmosphere. The publication of jilton's " Meteorological Essays " in 1793 was the first in- |uice of the principles of philosophy being brought to bear on |e explanation of the complex phenomena of the atmosphere, ince then meteorology has gradually grown to be more and >ro nearly an exact science. -! attempt to explain the phenomenon of the rainbow by '"■reflation of light upon the interior of the drops was auae by a German monk named Theodoric, and the second )y an archbishop, A. de Dominis 1611 'ignt of acolumn of atmosphere first ascertained by the Ital- an philosopher Torricelli, about 1643 Honn Perrier, brother-in-law of Pascal, takes Torricelli's ■oiumn to summit of the Pay de Dome, France, 3500 feet iign, and the mercury sinks from 30 to 27 inches. . .19 Sept. 1648 Daily readings of Torricelli column by Pascal at Paris, Perrier at Clermont, and Chamut and Descartes at Stockholm at the same time; the pioneers of synchronous observations 1649-50 Magdeburg hemispheres, showing the equal i)ressure of the at- mosphere in all directions, invented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg soon after his invention of the air-pump 1650 English philosopher, Robert Boyle, one of the first council of the Royal society, tests the compressibility of air; results pub. . 16G0 Pascal's treatise on the "Equilibrium of Fluids" and on the " Weight of Air " pub 1663 Name barascope, afterwards changed to barometer, given to the Torricellian column by prof G. Sinclair of Glasgow. . .1668-70 Contraction of air under pressure examined by Edm6 Mariotte, a Burgundian priest who died at Dijon 1684 Theorem that at altitudes in arithmetical progression the den- sity of air is in geometrical progression proved by Halley. . . 1685 Identity of lightning and electricity suspected by Wall 1708 Fahrenheit constructs thermometers, taking as fixed points in graduating them the melting-point of ice and the boiling- point of water 1714 Theory of the trade-winds first propounded by George Hadley in the " Philosophical Transactions " (independently discov- ered by Dalton a half-century later) 1735 First generalization of value in reference to the storms of the U. S. made by Lewis Evans, who remarks on his map, "All our great storms begin to leeward ; thus, a N.E. storm shall be a day sooner in Virginia than Boston " 1749 Benjamin Franklin by his kite experiment identifies lightning with electricity 15 June, 1752 Lightning rods introduced by Franklin » 1755 Experiments by dr. Heberden of London, show that rain gauges on lofty buildings collect less than at the ground (now gen- erally ascribed to the wind) » 1766 Meteorological Society of the Palatinate established. 1780 Patrick Wilson of Glasgow publishes his " Memoirs of Certain Great Frosts at Glasgow " about " First self-registering thermometer, which recorded maximum and minimum temperature, devised by James Six 1781 First scientific work on mirage by prof Busch, who observed it on the Elbe near Hamburg and on the coasts of the Baltic sea 1783 Spectre of the Brocken witnessed and described by the trav- eller Hane 23 May, 1797 Expansion of air by heat independently examined by the Eng- lish philosopher Dalton and the French Gay-Lussac 1801-2 Clouds classified as the cirrus, cumulus, stratus, cirro-cumulus, cirro-stratus, cumulo-stratiis, and cumulo-cirro-stratus, or nimbus, by Luke Howard 1803 Sir Francis Beaufort tabulates his scale of winds divided into 12 degrees of force 1805 Theory of dew pub. by dr. W. C. Wells 1814 Humboldt publishes his treatise on " Isothermal Lines " 1817 First meeting of the Meteorological society of London., 15 Oct. 1823 Daniell's " Meteorological" Essays and Observations," discuss- ing the hygrometry of the atmosphere, solar and terrestrial radiation, etc., pub " Work entitled the " Law of Storms " pub. by sir W. Reed 1838 OzoxE named by prof SchOnbein of Basle 1840 Lieut. Maury, of the Washington Observatory, makes researches as to the most favorable route for sailing-vessels between the U. S. and Rio Janeiro ; the ship Wright, capt. Jackson, from Baltimore, the first to steer by Maury's course, crossed the equator in 24 days from Baltimore, the usual time had been 41 days; the Wright leaves Baltimore 9 Feb. 1848 Hypothesis that the appearance of meteors or fire-balls is often due to bodies of dusty consistency traversing space, an- nounced by M. Heiss in his work on shooting-stars (Meteors), 1849 Conference at Brussels; the United Slates, France, England, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and Portugal agree upon a uniform plan of meteorological obser- vations at sea (since adopted by other nations) 1853 Meteorological reports collected by telegraph and reports sent out daily by prof Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institute, 1854 Dr. Andrews demonstrates by direct experiments, described in the "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society," that ozone is oxygen condensed to one half its volume 1856 Meteorological department of the Board of Trade (English), es- tablished 1855, under adm. Fitzroy, commences publication of reports • • • 1857 Storm-warnings first issued in Holland through M. Buys-Ballot, 1860 Storm-warnings first sent to the coast of England by the Board of Trade, 6 Feb. 1861, and first pub 31 July, 1861 Prof Tyndall makes valuable experiments on radiant heat, showing that the vapor of water exerts extraordinary energy as a radiant and absorbent of heat 1862 Daily international bulletin of the Imperial Observatory at Paris, under direction of M. le Verrier, first pub Nov. " Rarefaction of the atmosphere in high regions investigated by sir James Glaisher, who ascended in a balloon with Mr. Cox- well, at Wolverhampton, Engl, 37,000 ft 5 Sept. 1863 Storm-warnings in England suspended 7 Dec. 1866 Weather Bureau established in the U. S 18<0 Kew Meteorological Observatory, given to the British Asso- ciation Apr. 1860, purchased and presented to the Royal so- cietv by J. P. Gassiot - • • • 1871 Dailv weather charts first issued by the Meteorological office ofEngland H Mch. 1872 International meteorological congress at Vienna 2-16 Sepl» 1873 Glycerine barometer 28 feet high, in which a change in the condition of the atmosphere equal to 1 inch in the mercury barometer caused the glycerine to rise or fall 10 inches, con- MET 504 MET Btracted by Mr. Jordan for the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Inslrumoiits at South Kensington, KngI 18 May-30 Dec. 1876 Meteorologiral depaitinent of Board of Trade ^Kngl.) placed un- der a coammiee of llie Royal society, K. H. Scotl. sec'y, July, 1877 International meteorological congress meets at Rome, 14-22 Apr. 1879, and at Berne 9-12 Aug. 1880 Plan for international simultaneous magnetic and meteoro- logical observations in polar regions, proposed by lieut. Carl Weyi)recht, arctic explorer, in Sept. 1875, elaborated at an international polar congress at Hamburg. Aug. 1871), and at Berne, July, 1880, and the "I'olar Commission" organized by 10 delegates at St. Petersburg Aug. 1881 Important observations on solar radiation, made by prof. S. P. Langley on mount Whitney, Cal., in July, 1881, and results pub. in" •' Profes.«ional Papers, No. XV. U. S. Signal Service ". 1884 Proof that a lightning Hash diminishes electric tension in the atmosphere by experiments with the electrometer at the top of the Washington monument, Washington, I). C 1886 Artiflcial rain making attempted by exploding dynamite bombs in the air, near Midland, Tex., by R. G. Dyrenforth and staff, 18-26 Aug. 1891 William Ferrel, meteorologist, d. at May wood, Kan. . . .18 Sept. " aiETKOKOLOGICAL PHENOMENA. Cyclones, hurricanes, tornadoes, hail-storms, blizzards, etc., are mentioned under Storms, also Rain and Tkmperatire. A few of the phenomena of meteorology are noted below Extraordinary dry fog, first remarked at Copenhagen, 9 May, 1783, extended over Europe and a part of Asia 1783 Complete solar halo observed by Lowitz at St. Petersburg, '29 June, 1790 Frost every month in 1816 in the latitude of Philadelphia, and ice as thick as window glass formed in Pennsylvania, New York, and throughout New England 5 July, 1816 Extensive deposit of red snow discovered by capt. John Ross, R. N. , near cape York. Greenland 1818 Dry fog in part of Europe, on the north coast of Africa, and in the United States Aug. 1831 Barometer falls "2.59 inches in 3 hours in a hurricane near Cal- cutta. 21 May, 1833, and 1.69 inches in 6 hours in a hurricane at St. Thomas, W. 1 2 Aug. 1837 Light shower of rain for 1 hour falls from a cloudless sky near Trinidad; observed by sir J. C. Ross 25 Dec. 1839 Ice forms at New Orleans, La. ; skating on the Mississippi, Dec. 1845 Barometer falls 1.47 inches in 6 hours in hurricane at Havana, Cuba 11 Oct. 1846 Four luminous columns, each about 15° long, like a cross with the sun in the centre, seen from Paris sunset 22 Apr. 1847 Barometer falls 1.05 inches in 2^ hours in a hurricane at Chit- tagong, Ind 13 May, 1849 Snow falls at I,ynchburg, Va 11 June, 1857 Unexampled frost throughout the northern U. S. killing most of the wheat and other crops night 4 June, 1859 Notable halos and paraselense at 8 p.m. in the departments of Indre-et- Loire and Loire-et-Cher, France 21 Feb. 1864 Auroras, seen over a large portion of the northern hemisphere (Aurora), 15 Apr. 1869, and 24 Oct. 1870 Wind storm in which the mean hourly velocity for 24 hours is 50 miles, at Yankton, Dak 13 Apr. 1873 Mercury falls 48° in 1 hour at Denver, Col 15 Jan. 1875 Barometer reaches 31.21 inches at Barnaul, Siberia 9 Jan. 1877 Golden snow described in Klein's Wochenschrift, as observed by prof. Weber in Peckeloh, Germany 27 Feb. " Heavy shower lasting 5 minutes fell from an apparently clear sky at Vevay, Ind 30 June, " Wind 186 miles per hour on mount Washington Jan. 1878 Wind 138 miles per hour during hurricane at cape Lookout, N. C 17 Aug. 1879 Extreme cloudiness at Unalaska, Aleutian islands, where cloud- iness frequently ranges from 91 to 93 per cent, per month, and where there was but 3 per cent, of clear sky during Feb. 1880 Dense fog in London. Engl., for 3 months; the death-rate from bronchitis rose to 431 per 100 per cent, and that from whoop- ing-cough to 331 per 100 per cent Nov. 1879, to Feb. " Barometer on the ship Chateaubriand, during a typhoon on the China sea, sank in 4 hours from 29.64 to 27.04. . .27 Sept. " Remarkable solar halos observed in the U. S. in the Ohio, up- per Mississippi, and lower Missouri valleys 29-31 Dec. " Dry fog from New Hampshire to North Carolina, largely ob- scuring the sun ; at Salem. Mass., 6 Sept., it was the darkest since the " dark day " of 19 May. 1780 1-10 Sept. 1881 Optical phenomenon of a mock sun, 120° from the true sun, seen by MM. Barral and Bixio, 27 July, 1850; and by lieut. A. W. Greely opposite Henrietta, Nesmith Glacier, Grinnell Land 3 May, 1882 Remarkal)le red sunsets (Sun) Oct. to Dec. 1883 Nearly three fourths of an inch of snow falls from a clear sky at Bloomington. Ill 15 Mch. 1885 Luminous cirrus like clouds appearing about 9.50 p.m., cover the northwest and northern sky to a height of about 20° in 3 zones, the centre shining with a silver-like light equal to the full moon at sunset, observed by 0. Jesse of Stegletz, 21 June, " [The phenomenon lasted about an hour, was repeated sev- eral times within a few weeks, and again May, 1886.] Wind 144 miles per hour at cape Mendocino, Cal Jan. 1886 Barometer 31.21 inches at fort Assiniboine 6 Jan. " Wind storm on mount Washington; mean hourly velocity for 24 hours. 111 miles 27 Feb. " Snow falls at Lynchburg, Va 12 June, 1887 Green clouds seen on the upper Yukon by William Ogilvie, 19, 29 Feb. 1888 Slight snow locally in Great Britain as far south as the Isle of Wight, 11 and 12 July; heavy snow on mount Washington, N. H., nearly to the base of the mountain. 12 July, metCOr^i, luminous, include shooting - stars, fire-ba and falling-stones or aerolites. They were described by H ley, Wallis, and others early in the 17th century. The p< odicity of the star-showers about the lOth of August (tert in the middle ages St. Lawrence's tears) was discovered s« rately by Quetelet, 1836, and by Herrick in 1837. The lowing are usual epochs for their ainiual return: 2 Jan., July, 3 and 9-12 Aug., 8-14 Nov., 11 V)&c.—R. P. Greg. TRONOMY, 1799, 1833, '66, '67, 72, '85, '91. Star-shower seen by Humboldt at Cuniana (vSouth America), 12] 1799; and l)y dr. D. Olmsted, at New Haven (Conn.), 13 Nov. ] Magnificent continuous star-shower of 14 Nov. 1866, had been] dieted by prof Newton. A fine display occurred on the night < Nov. 1868, in the United States. Others were observed in Bri and Europe, 27 Nov. 1872; and in S. and W. Europe, 27 Nov. \ Aerolites, falling-stones, accompanying meteors, are in many seums. One weighing 1600 pounds is in the cabinet of Yale versity. They contain iron, nickel, and other minerals. Norman Lockyer announces his theory, based on spectrum ex ments, that all self luminous bodies in the celestial spaces composed of meteorites or masses of vapor produced by h brought about by condensation of meteor swarms due to grav Royal society, 17 Nov. 1887. method (Gr. fiiOoSog, a way of transit), the orgs tion of knowledge ; the orderly use of the intellect in dig ering truth. S. T. Coleridge's treatise on the science method is prefixed to the first volume of the " Encyclof Metropolitana," 1845. Most recent work on this suliject is prof. Stanley Jevons's "j ciples of Science : a Treatise on Logic and Scientific Met' 1874. ''The powers of mind concerned in creation of sciec discrimination, detection of identity, and retention." mettl'oclisill. The name " Methodist " was applie Charles Wesley b\' fellow-students, in ridicule, about 17 but the expression had been previously used, as " Anabaptisfi and plain packstaflf Methodists " were known 100 years before. The term had been applied to non-conformists in the days of Annesley, and a class of high Calvinistic divines in England bore the same title about the time of the Wqij^ys. The fir-t Methodist society was organized in London in 1739. Accon;- ing to its founder, John Wesley, Methodism received its ear- liest impulse at Oxford, Engl., Nov. 1 729, when, with his brotli< r Charles, a Mr. Morgan and Mr. Kirkham, he founded il " Holy club ;" again at Savannah, Ga., where he spent short time as a missionary and held meetings in his own hou during 1736; and a third time at a meeting with 40 or 50 persoi after his return, held in Fetter lane, London, 1 May, 1738, wlu i they agreed to meet in conference every Wednesday evening, Corner-stone of first Methodist meeting-house laid at Bristol, Engl 12 May, 17;i'. Cannon foundery in Moorflelds, London, opened as a regular place of worship by Wesley 11 Nov. " United society, first organized form of Methodism, established in connection with the foundery " George Whitefield lays the corner-stone of the Kingswood school, 1739, which is opened IV ■ Methodist class-meetings instituted at Bristol, Engl li- Wesley founds the Orphan house at Newcastle, Engl. . .20 Dec. ' First "conference " of 6 Methodist preachers at the invitation of Wesley at the foundery in London 25 June, 174 Thomas Beard, Methodist evangelist, arrested during the per- secution of the Methodists at Newcastle, dies in the hospi- tal, " the proto-martyr of Methodism " '' First list of circuits published in the minutes of the conference, ITti Thomas Williams, a lay preacher from England, forms a Meth- odist society in Dublin, Ireland 171' Foundations of Calvinistic Methodism and the Lady Huntingdon Connection laid by the preaching of George Whitefield 171' Conference orders quarterly meetings everywhere, and watch- nights and love-feasts monthly 171 Corner-stone of the City Road chapel, London, laid by John Wesley 1 -Apr. In Publication of the Arminian Magazine begun in England 1h A "Deed of Declaration," constituting 100 preachers, named by Wesley the " Conference of the People called Methodists," ^ recorded in the High court of Chancery 28 Feb. lio Wesleyan Methodists establish a Sunday-school in Bolton Le Moors, Engl Apr. 178 Methodism introduced into the West Indies ^ Charles Wesley d. in London 29 Mch. l.» WMlliam Mahy ordained at Courseulles, Normandy, first Meth- odist ordination on the continent of Burope ^l' John Wcslev d. in London 2 Mch. hi New Methodist connection (Kilhamites) founded in England... w Plan for home missions in England adopted by conference — lo^ First camp-meeting in England held in Staffordshire by Lo- renzo Dow. I8c: MET 505 MET Primitive Methodists ^' or " Ranters " organized in England. . 1810 ethodism introduced into Africa.. 1811 reach.ers' Auxiliary fund established; an outgrowth of the Preachers' fund begun in 17G3 • 1813 ritish Wesleyan mission at Ceylon founded by associates of dr Coke, who died on ship-board bound for India 3 May, 1814 ible Christian connection or " Bryanites " founded 1815 ethodism introduced into Australia " jntingent fund established by British conference " 'imitive Wesleyan Methodists or "Clouites'' established in Ireland • 1^16 ^neral Chapel fund instituted lola uglish Wesleyan Children's fund instituted, to provide for preachers' children 1819 ethodism introduced into Polynesia 1822 ethodist Episcopal mission in 1-iberia, Africa, established.... 1833 ritish Wesleyan Theological institution established by a com- mittee of 20 preachers, who met in London 23 Oct. " esleyan Association Methodists or " Warrenites " organized under dr. Samuel Warren in England 1836 ^ntenary conference meets at Liverpool, Engl 31 July, 1839 ethodist Episcopal mission in China begun by rev. Moses C. iWhite and rev. J. D. Collins 1847 Hhodist Episcopal mission established in India 1856 ;irtin's Mission institute (M.E.) founded at Frankfort, Ger- imany 1^58 ijv. Francis Burns (colored), a member of the Liberia confer- ence, ordained bishop at Perry, N. Y 14 Oct. " iireillv Theological seminary (M.E.) at Bareilly, India, founded, 1871 khodist Episcopal mission in Mexico established by dr. Butler, 1872 [lochow Biblical institute (M.E.) at Foochow, China, founded, " bthodist Episcopal mission in Japan begun by dr. Maclay — " 3xican School of Theology (M.E.) at Puebla, founded 1874 esley monument in Westminster Abbey unveiled.. . .29 Mch. 1876 ity admitted to representation in confeience of Wesleyan Methodist ministers at Bristol, Engl 25 July, 1877 l:y Road chapel, London, nearly destroyed by Are 7 Dec. 1879 !l>an Methodist Episcopal Theological .school at Tokio, Japdfa, jTounded " humenical Methodist conference at City Road chapel, London Uoo delegates, ministers and laymen, from all parts of the korld) meets 7 Sept. 1881 bond (Ecumenical Methodist conference in Washington, D. C. , 7 Oct. 1891 I METHODISM IN THE UNITED STATES. i called second rise of Methodism at Savannah, Ga., where 20 br 30 persons meet at the house of John Wesley Apr. 1736 lorgeWhitefleldarrives in Philadelphia, Nov.l739,andpreaches diroughout Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New England.. 1739-40 rst Methodist society in America organized in New York tity by Philip Embury, influenced by Barbara Heck, " mother of American Methodism," and Robert Strowbridge preaches ;n Maryland 1766 '1 John Street church, New York city, first Methodist meet- ing house in America, dedicated 30 Oct. 1768 jancis Asbury, sent as a missionary to America by Mr. Wesley, arrives in Philadelphia 27 Oct. 1771 "St annual conference of Methodist church in America held 'it Philadelphia 4 July, 1773 'omas Coke ordained at Bristol, Engl., superintendent of the [VIethodist societies in America, 2 Sept., and Francis Asbury [lesignated as general superintendent 1784 Irisimas conference in the meeting house in Lovely lane, iialtimore, unanimously agrees to form an independent ';;hurch; the "Methodist Episcopal church" organized with '!3 preachers and 15,000 members. Conference met.. 25 Dec. " incis Asbury, formally set apart by the imposition of hands [IS general superintendent (bishop) of the Methodist Episco- pal church in America, at the Baltimore conference. .27 Dec. " inday schools begun in the U. S. at the home of Thomas prenshaw in Virginia 1786 "jueral superintendent of the Methodist Episcopal church jirst called " bishop " in the minutes of the conference 1787 I'thodist Book Concern organized at Philadelphia, with John |)ickens as book steward; the Arminian Magazine begun. . . 1789 'lo "presiding elder" first found in conference minutes " St general conference M. E. church in Baltimore 1 Nov. 1792 <;(esbury college, opened at Abingdon, Md., 6 Dec. 1787, j'urned 7 Dec. 1795; re established in Baltimore, and burned, 1796 lirni circuit formed by John Kobler, missionary to the :Jorthwestorn territory 1798 e city of New York 5 Apr. 1819 Vstern Methodist Book Concern at Cincinnati established by ,ie conference 1820 <^^islian Advocate, the first weekly publication under the paV- ^i)nage of the M. E. church, issued 9 Sept. 1826 vday-school Union of the M. E. church organized ... .2 Apr. 1827 1830 1833 1834 1836 1844 1845 1847 1852 1855 1858 1864 Rev. John Lord, of the New England conference, introduces "4-days" or protracted meetings Sept. Canada Annual conference and the Methodist Episcopal church in the U. S. separate by mutual consent Wesleyan university at Middletown, Conn., organized. . Mission to the Flathead Indians begun Dickinson college at Carlisle, Pa., incorporated 1783, transferred to the M. E. church and opened Sept. Methodist Book Concern destroyed by fire !!.!!! iis Feb! Ohio Wesleyan university opened at Delaware, Methodist Episcopal church, south, organized at Louisville.' Ky., 1 May, [This separate organization due to slavery.] Boston University School ofTheology at Boston, Mass., founded, Congregational Methodist church organized in Monroe county,' First general conference in New England at Boston. . '. ". . .... '. '. Northwestern university at Evanston, 111,, opened National Association of Local Preachers organized 4 Oct. General Conference of the M. E. church organizes an annual conference in India, which meets at Lucknow 8 Dec. Board of Church Extension incorporated 13 Mch. Centenary year of American Methodism celebrated. Church statistics show 7576 travelling preachers, 8602 local preach- ers, and 1,032,184 members Drew Theological seminary at Madison, N. J., founded Freedmen's Aid Society of the M. E. church organized in Cin- cinnati " 7 Aug. Woman's Foreign Missionary Society organized at Boston, 22 Mch. Board of Education of the M. E. church incorporated Apr. Colored M. E. church in America organized in a general con- ference which meets at Jackson, Tenn 16 Dec. Second Sunday in June of each year designated as Children's day by M. E. conference which meets Centenary Biblical institute at Baltimore, Md., founded First Chautauqua assembly at Chautauqua lake, N. Y Aug. Woman's Home Missionary society organized at Cincinnati, O., 6 July, Gammon Theological School of Clark university, Atlanta, Ga., founded Methodist Episcopal General Hospital opened in Brooklyn, N. Y 15 Dec. Epworth League projected in Cleveland, May, STATISTICS OF METHODISM PRESENTED AT THE CECUMENICAL CONFERENCE AT WASHINGTON, D. C, 7 OCT. 1891. 1870 1872 1874 1887 Name of society. In America: Methodist Episcopal Methodist Episcopal, South African Methodist Episcopal. . . African M. E. , Zion Colored Methodist Episcopal. . . Methodist Protestant United Brethren in Christ Evangelical Association American Wesleyan Free Methodist Primitive Methodist Congregational Methodist Union American M. E African Union M. Protestant. . . Independent Methodist United Methodist, Free Methodist Church of Canada. . . West India Methodist British Wesleyan Conference) Missions f | Total American 1784 1845 1816 1820 1870 1828 1815 1800 1842 1860 1810 1852- 1813 1874 In Europe In Asia In Africa Australasia, Polynesia, and South Missions Total 77,181 45,271 22,853 11,767 4,069 3,500 3,196 2,003 2,779 2,062 600 »952 77 50 50 50 35 29 3,092 279 22 57,465 15,584 311 571 3,250 15 058 5^050 4,150 3,650 1,800 2,153 2,017 1,227 650 1,050 64 60 112 56 1,819 101 39,042 4,488 588 365 788 2,256,463 1,218,561 475,565 425,000 130,824 157,604 197,123 160,234 19.525 20;998 5,620 5,525 3,500 5,990 2,500 3,785 241,376 58,575 5,226 5,383,994 915,986 35,313 77,234 93,140 5,505,667 metll'yl, a colorless inodorous gas, a compound of hy- drogen and carbon, first obtained free by Frankland and Kolbe separately, in 1849. metOll'ic cycle, a period of 19 years, or 6940 days, at the end of which the changes of the moon fall on the same days. Calippic period. metric system, a uniform decimal sj'stera of weights and measures, originated in France with a committee of eminent scientists, named by the Academy of Sciences by order of the Constituent Assembly, 8 Maj^ 1790. The basis of the .system is the metre, which is 3.37 inches longer than the American " yard." This base, determined by Delambre and Mechain, is the 4o7oUtro() P^***^ ^^ *^^ circumference of the earth on the meridian extending through France from Dunkirk to Barce- lona. It was made the unit of length and the base of the sys- MET 506 MEX tem by law, 7 Apr. 1795. A prototype metre was constructetl in platinum by an international commission, representing the governments of France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Switzer- land, Spain, Savoy, and the Konian, Cisalpine, and Ligurian republics, in 1799. This standard metre was deposited at the Palace of the Archives in Paris, 22 June, 1799, and declared to be the definitive base of the system forever. The unit of weight is the gramme, the weiglit of a cubic centimetre of water at 4^ centigrade (the temperature of greatest density). The unit of measure of surface is the are, which is the square of the decametre, or 10 metres. The unit of measure of capacity is the slere, or cubic metre. In the metric system the decimal increase is indicated by the prefix deca, ten ; hecto, hundred ; kilo, thousand ; myna, ten thousand ; and the de- crease by deci, centi, and mitU. The system is now in use in the U. S. Marine Hospital service, in the foreign business of the post-oflSce, in the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and to some extent in the mint, U. S. Signal service, and U. S. census. Decimal system of mouey adopted by the U. S. Congress, with the dollar as a uuit «> July, 1785 John Quiucy Adams, U. S. secretary of state, makes an elaborate report on the metric system to Congress 23 Feb. 1821 Sir John Wrottesley brings the subject before British Parlia- ment 25 Feb. 1824 By legislation of -t July, 1837, the use of the system in France is enforced, to take effect 1 Jan. 1840 Decimal association formed in England to advocate the adop- tion of the system June, 1854 International Decimal association formed 1855 System enforced in Belgium 1856 Canada adopts the decimal currency used in U. S 1 Jan. 1858 System enforced in Spain, 1859; in Italy 1863 Metric weight of 5 grammes (77.16 grains) and diameter of 2 centimetres given to the 5cent copper nickel piece in the U. S. by act of Congress 16 May, 1866 Use in the U. S. authorized by act of Congress, and table of equivalents approved 28 July, " System enforced in Portugal, 1868; in the Netherlands and British India. 1870 Legalized in Germany, 1868, and made compulsory 1 Jan. 1872 International Metric commission at Paris provides for dupli- cates of the standard metre at Paris for each nation using the system, to be made from one ingot, 90 per cent, platinum and 10 percent, iridium 24 Sept " Convention establishing an international bureau of weights and measures signed at Paris by representatives of Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Switzer- land, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, United States, Argentine Republic, Brazil, and Peru 20 May, 1875 System adopted by Austria. 1876 System legalized in Great Britain, 29 July, 1864, and law re- pealed by Weights and Measures act of 1878 International Congress on weights and measures meets at Paris 4 Sept «' System adopted in Swe,den, May, 1876, to take efifect in. 1889 METRIC SYSTEM. Unit of the measure of length. Metre = 39.37 inches. Decametre 10 metres. I Myriametre. . .10,000 metres. Hectometre 100 " Decimetre .1 metre. Kilometre 1000 " | Centimetre 01 " Millimetre 001 metre. Unit of the measure of surface. Centare = 1 sq. metre = 1650 sq. inchea Arc 100 centares. | Hectare 10,000 centares. Unit of the measure of capacity and solidity. Litre = cahe of .1 metre (decimetre) = 61.022 cubic inches or .908 qt. Decalitre 10 litres. I Decilitre 1 litre. Hectolitre 100 " Centilitre 01 " Kilolitre or stere. ... 1000 '« | Millilitre 001 " Unit of loeight. Gramme = cube of .01 metre (centimetre) = .061022 cubic inch or 15.432 grs. Decagram me . . 10 gram m es. Hectogramme . 100 Kilogramme... 1000 " Mvriagramme. . 10,000 " Quintal 100.000 .1 gramme. .01 .001 ''Tonnea,',}l'0«0'00<>«™™'"^«- Decigramme. . Centigramme Milligramme . niefronome, to regulate time in music. A metro- nome with double pendulum, invented by Winkel, was adopted by Maelzel, and patented by him in 1816. metropolis of Oreat Britain (Metropolitan districts) includes the cities of London and Westminster, and the boroughs of South wark, Finsbury, Marylebone, Tower- Hamlets, Hackney, Lambeth, and Chelsea. London, metroporitail (from the Gr. fiiiTpoTro\iTi]c), a title given at the council of Nice, 325, to bishops who had jurisdic- tion over others in a province. The dignity is said to have arisen in the 2d century, the dissentient bishops in a di referring to one bishop of superior intellect. IVIetropolitaii ]fluseiiiii of Art, New city. Painting. metropolitan railway, London (undergrou^ at first between Paddiiigton and Victoria street, near Iloll was authorized by Parliament, 1853; begun in the spriii 1860; and opened for traffic 10 Jan. 1863. Great difficu were overcome by the engineer, John Fowler, and the tractors. Jay, Smith, and Knight. In the first 6 months < 1865 there were 7,462,823 passengers. It has been contiim to Moorgate street, and supplemented by the iMetropolitei Districts railway. MetZ, a fortified city in Lorraine, now in the departi of the Moselle, N.E. France, was the Roman Divodunu Meti, capital of the Mediomatrici, a powerful tribe of and in the 6th century of the kingdom of Austrasia or It was made a free imperial city, 985. Charles Vll.of Fn besieged it for 7 months in 1444; it was ransomed for lOQ florins, was captured by Henry II., 10 Apr. 1552, and su fully defended by the duke of Guise against the emp Charles V. with 100,000 men, 31 Oct. 1552 to 15 Jan. 11 Metz was ceded to France by the peace of Westphalia, 24 ( 1648, and was fortified by Yauban and Belleisle. On 28 J 1870, the emperor Napoleon III. took command at Meti person. After the disastrous defeats at Woerth and Foi on 6 Aug., the whole French army (except the corps of B! Mahoii, De Failh', and Douay) was concentrated here, 10 Aug., and hemmed in by the Germans. Marshal Baza sumed command, 8 Aug. The emperor departed with the guard, which crossed the Moselle early on 14 Aug. 1. Battle of Pange or Courcelles. gained by the first army under Von Steinmetz, after several hours' fighting 14 Aug. 2. Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained by the "id army under prince Frederick Charles, after 12 hours' fighting, 16 Aug. [Twice as many Germans were killed as at KOniggratz, the killed and wounded being estimated at 17,000. The French loss was equally great.] Bazaine masses his troops for a decisive conflict 17 Aug. '■ 8. Battle of R^zonville or Graveloite. gained by the combined 1st and 2d armies, commanded by the king in person, after 12 hours' fighting 18 Aug. [The most desperate struggle took place on the slopes over Gravelotte, which the Germans gained by nightfall, after repeated charges. But the right of the French had been outflanked; they fell back and retired under cover of Metz. The French are said to have lost 19,000, and the Germans 25.000.] Bazaine repulsed in a sortie at Courcelles, near Metz (he claimed a victory) 26 Aug. His whole army defeated by gen. ManteufTel, of the army of prince Frederick Charles, in a battle lasting from the morn- ing of 31 Aug. to noon 1 Sept. • Von Steinmetz sent to govern Posen ; prince Frederick Charles sole commander before Metz 21 Sept ■ Three vigorous but inefl'ective sallies. 23, 24, 27 Sept. ' Great sortie; the Germans surprised; about 40,000 French en- gaged; they are repulsed after a severe engagement from 3 P.M. till dark; loss about 2000 French and 600 Germans, 7 Oct. •■ Gen. Boyer arrives at Versailles to treat for capitulation, 14 Oct. Metz surrenders with the army, including marshals Bazaine, Canrobert, and Le Boeuf; 66 generals; about 6000 officers; 173.000 men, including the imperial guard; 400 pieces of ar- tillery; 100 mitrailleuses; and 53 eagles or standards. 27 Oct. Capitulation was signed at Frescati by gens. Jarras (French) and Stiehle (German) 27 Oct. General order to the army issued by marshal Bazaine, saying that they were "conquered by famine" 27 Oct Germans enter Metz 29 Oct. [One cause of the fall of Metz was the great army; it might have been successfully defended by 20.000 men.] Marshal Bazaine was tried and condemned to death for sur- rendering Metz and the army, 6 Oct. -10 Dec. ; punishment commuted to 20 years' imprisonment, 12 Dec. ; he escaped ^ from isle Ste. Marguerite (France) 9 -Aug. If ' Mexican war, a 2 years' war between the Unite States and Mexico, caused mainly by the persistence of Me> ico in her claim to Texas, which had declared its indepei dence and been annexed to the U. S. Texas, 1844-46. Otl)t causes were the disagreement as to the boundary betwee Texas and Mexico, the U. S. claiming the Rio Grande, an Mexico the Nueces river; also the violation on the part c Mexico of the treaty of 1831. Gen. Mariano Paredes vj president of Mexico when war was declared by the U. S.. 1 May, 1846, and by Mexico, 23 May, 1846. MEX xican general Mcjia. in command at Matamoras, issues a liroclamaliou of hostility to the U. S., and calls the people ■ of the country to arms 18 Mch. ] ]m. Zachary Taylor, breaking camp at Corpus Christi, 8 Mch. 11846, appears on the Kio Grande opposite Matamoras, i 28 Mch. bn. Pedro de Ampudia arrives at Matamoras and assumes command of the Mexican forces 11 Apr. npudia superseded by Mariano Arista, general-in-chief of tlie Mexican army of the north 24 Apr. bops under capt. Thornton, sent out by gen. Taylor to recon- 'noitre, are surprised and captured 25 Apr. I,>n. Taylor calls on the governors of Louisiana and Texas for Ian auxiliary force of 5000 volunteers 26 Apr. hn. Taylor garrisons fort Brown, opposite Matamoras, and Iforces a march to Point Isabel, his depot of supplies, 1-2 May, prt Brown bombarded by Mexicans 3-9 May, Hsta disputes Taylor's return to fort Brown, and is defeated lat Palo Alto, 9 miles from Matamoras 8 May, btreatiug to Resaca de la I'alma, 4 miles from Matamoras, he is routed and driven across the Rio Grande 9 May, cchange of prisoners negotiated and Thornton's party re- leased 11 May, es. Polk calls upon Congress to make provision for war with Mexico 11 May, ingress calls for volunteers, and officially recognizes the war, 13 May, ylor crosses the Rio Grande, and occupies Matamoras, evac- uated by Arista ' 18 May, eut.-col. (Sarland, pursuing the Mexicans, disperses the rear [guard, closing the campaign of the Rio Grande 19 May, jsxican Congress declares war against the U. S 23 May, jsn. S. \V. Kearney directed by secretary of war to occupy New Mexico and Upper California, and establish civil govern- ments therein (Califoknia, 181()-48; New Mexico, 1846-48), 3 June, Isn. Salas, chief of liberal party of Mexico, seizes the citadel jin the city of Mexico and overthrows the governmeiit.5 Aug. ;u. Taylor removes his headquarters from Matamoras to Ca- jmargo 8 Aug. jirrison of Vera Cruz and San Juan d'Ulloa declare for Santa (Ana. 31 July, 1846, who arrives at Vera Cruz from Havana, [16 Aug., his entrance being permitted by com. Conner, com- imandiug the blockading squadron of the U. S., under instruc- Itions from his government, 13 May 16 Aug. bgular troops organized in 2 divisions under gens. Twiggs and jWorth move against Monterey; Worth's first brigade march- !es to establish an entrepot at Serralvo 19 Aug. \m. Santa Ana arrives at the city of Mexico, declines the '.presidency, and assumes military command 15 Sept. i S. army concentrated on the banks of the San Juan, 3 miles from Marin, and the whole force, 425 officers and 6220 men, 'advances upon Monterey 18 Sept. ionterey, defended by about 10,000 Mexicans under gen. Am- jpudiii, is besieged by U» S. troops and surrenders, the Mexi- ,can forces retiring to Saltillo 25-28 Sept. irms of capitulation of Monterey include an armistice of 8 weelvs, during which gen. Taylor agrees not to advance be- yond the line. Treaty concluded 25 Sept. jinta Ani arrives at San Luis de Potosi, and begins the or- iganization of the Mexican army 8 Oct. ijn. Ampudia, ordered to San Luis, evacuates Saltillo. . .18 Oct. i)m. Conner, by an expedition from Anton Lizardo, under jl'erry, up the Tabasco river, captures 5 merchant vessels, : 23-25 Oct. ar department disapproves the armistice and orders its close, !l3 Oct. ; gen. Taylor announces the fact to Santa Ana, 6 Nov. jirapico on the I'anuco, abandoned by Santa Ana, is occupied by com. Conner 15 Nov. Bn. Taylor occupies Saltillo 16 Nov. 3n. Wool's forces at Monclova, march, 24 Nov., to Parras, and are merged into the army of occupation 5 Dec. ,Bn. Santa Ana elected president of Mexico 6 Dec. m. John A. Quitman's brigade of volunteers occupy Victoria, 29 Dec. 1846, where they are joined by gen. Taylor with Twiggs's and Patterson's divisions 4 Jan. : exican Congress orders sequestration of church property to Taise funds for the war 7 Jan. imta Ana, with 23,000 men and 20 pieces of artillery, moves ; in the direction of Saltillo 27 Jan. jaj.-gen. Scott arrives at Brazos San Jago, 1 Jan., and calls for :a rendezvous of troops at the island of Lobos, 60 miles south of Tampico, for his expedition against Vera Cruz Jan. 3n. Taylor arrives at Saltillo, 2 Feb. 1847 ; at Agua Nueva, 5 Feb. ; and at Buena Vista 21 Feb. ittle of Buena Vjsta, the Mexicans retreat to Agua Nueva ^during the night of 23 Feb 22-23 Feb. )1. Doniphan with 856 men marches from the Rio Grande to join gen. Wool, supposed to be marching against Chihuahua. He reaches El Paso 27 Dec, where he learns of Wool's change of plan, routs 4000 Mexicans at the pass of Sacra- mento, 28 Feb., and enters Chihuahua 1 Mch. ;ott's army sails from Lobos for Vera Cruz, lands 3 miles south of the city, 9 Mch., and begins the investment 10 Mch. 1 the refusal of gen. Morales, commander at Vera Cruz, to surrender,. the bombardment of the city and castle of San ;Juan d'Ulloa begins, 4 p.m. 22 Mch., and continues until Mo- ; rales, under a flag of truce, proposes a surrender, 8 A.M. 26 Mch. exicans evacuate Vera Cruz and the castle of San Juan •I UHoa 29 Mch. 507 MEX Santa Ana leaves the capital for the army near Vera Cruz, leaving don Pedro Anaya as "i)resident substitute "..2 Apr. 1847 Gen. Scott, marching inland from Vera Cruz, defeats the Mexi- cans under Santa Aiia at Cerro Goroo, 19 Apr., and Jalapa is constituted a depot for supplies 20 Apr. " N. P. Trist, confidential agent of the U. S. to Mexico, arrives at Vera Cruz \iay u Gen. Scott at Jalapa, by proclamation to the Mexican people' offers peace n j^ay a Worth's command occupies Puebla, Santa Ana having retreat- ed the day before 15 May " Com. Perry captures Tuspan 18 May', " Doniphan's command arrives at Saltillo and proceeds to the Rio Grande the same day 22 May " Com. Perry occupies Tabasco 15 June', " Gen. Manuel Maria Lombardini, in command of the city of Mexico, expels residents of U. S June " Troops at Puebla, reinforced by the garrison, withdrawn from' Jalapa, increase the force to 8000 men 8 July, '» Gen. Franklin Pierce with about 2500 men leaves Vera Cruz 19 July, and arrives at Puebla 6 Aug. " Scott advances upon the city of Mexico; Harney's cavalry bri- gade and Twiggs's division leave Puebla, 7 Aug. ; Quitman's volunteers follow, 8 Aug. ; AVorth's, 9 Aug. ; Pillows's, 10 Aug. Gen. Scott establishes headquarters at Ayotla, 9 miles from the Mexican fortified position of El Peiion 10 Aug. " Gen. Scott's headquarters at San Augustin 17-18 Aug. " He defeats Mexicans under gen. Valencia at Contreras, 19-20 Aug. " Again at Churubusco; Santa Ana retreats to the capital, and gen. Scott returns to San Augustin 20 Aug. " British embassy in Mexico meet gen. Scott at San Augustin, and represent that the moment is favorable for opening negotiations for peace 20 Aug. " Gen. Scott removes his headquarters to Tacubaya 21 Aug. " Gen. Scott appoints gens. Quitman, P. F. Smith, and Pierce as commissioners to negotiate an armistice with gens. Mora y Villamil and Quijano, 22 Aug., and ratifies the terms, 23 Aug. '« Mr. Trist commences unsuccessful negotiations for peace, 25 Aug. " Gen. Scott notifies Santa Ana that the armistice will end at 12 o'clock the following day 6 Sept. " U. S. troops capture the castle of El Molino del Rey, 1 mile north of Tacubaya 8 Sept. " Castle of Chapultepec taken by U. S. troops by storm. .13 Sept. " Mexican army leaves the capital, taking the northern road to Guadalupe Hidalgo, and U. S. troops occupy it. . .13-14 Sept. " Santa Ana resigns at Guadalupe Hidalgo, and a new provisional government, organized under Senor Pena y Pena. president of the supreme council, is commenced at Toluca. . . .27 Sept. " Populace, reinforced by guerillas under gen. Rea, commence hostilities against U. S. garrison at Puebla under col. Childs, 14 Sept. ; Santa Ana arrives at Puebla with a reinforcement for the besiegers, 22 Sept. ; and the siege continues until the arrival of U. S. troops under gen. Joseph Lane from Vera Cruz, 12 Oct. " By order of the new government Santa Ana gives up the command of his troops at Huamantla 16 Oct. '• U. S. troops under Lane attack and disperse the Mexicans un- der Rea at Atlixco, temporary state capital 19 Oct. " Gen. Quitman, appointed by Scott military governor of the city of Mexico, is succeeded by gen. P. F. Smith Oct. " Gen. Anaya elected provisional president of Mexico, to serve until 8 Jan. 1848 11 Nov. " Gen. Scott, in Order No. 376, announces his purpose to occupy the republic of Mexico until she sues for peace 15 Dec. " Peiia y Pena again assumes the government of Mexico.. .8 Jan. 1848 Mr. Trist concludes the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; Mexico cedes to the U. S. the territory now California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, western Colorado, and Arizona north of the Gila river. 2 Feb. " Gen. Lane occupies Orizaba, 25 Jan., Cordova, 28 Jan., and re- turns to Mexico 6 Feb. " Gen. William 0. Butler succeeds gen. Scott as commander of the troops in Mexico 18 Feb. *' Negotiations for an armistice begun in the city of Mesuco 29 Feb., approved at the Mexican capital. Queretaro. .5 Mch. " Treaty received at Washington about 20 Feb. and ratified by the Senate: vote, 38 to 14; messrs. Sevier and Clifford ap- pointed commissioners to exchange ratifications in the city of Mexico 10 Mch. " Gen. Butler announces that the war is ended 29 May, " Treaty ratified by the Mexican Senate 24 May; ratifications exchanged at Queretaro 30 May, " Under a salute from the Mexican batteries the U. S. flag on the palace in Mexico is replaced by the Mexican 12 June, " Troops engaged throughout the war, 101.282; of these 27,506 were regulars. Losses, 1049 killed and 3420 wounded. Mexico, a federal republic in North America, bounded on the north by the United States of America (California, Ari- zona, New Mexico, and Texas) ; the Pacific ocean forms its entire western and southern boundary, with the exception of Yucatan, giving it a Pacific coast line of nearly 6000 miles, while its eastern coast is washed by the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, with a coast line of 1600 miles. The word Mexico is related to or derived from the Aztec national war-god Mex- itli. Prior to the coming of the Aztecs, who founded the city of Mexico, 1325, it was known as Anahuac (signifying '• near MEX 508 MEX the water"), or that portion of it now known as the valley of Mexico. Amkrica. It was discovered by tlie Spaniards, 1517-18, and conquered by Ferdinand Cortez, 1519-21. Vis- ited and largely explored by Alexander von Humboldt, 1799- 1804. It is limited in latitude between 15° and 32° 36' N., and in longitude between 87° and 117° W. ; and extends about 2000 miles north-northwest and south-southeast, with a mean width of about 400 miles, varying from 1000 miles on the 26° N. to 130 miles at the Tehuantepec isthmus. Area, 767,000 811- miles. Pop. 1874, 9,276,079 ; 1879, 9,686,777 ; 1890, 11,396,- 712. Capital, Mexico ; pop. 1890, 329,535. Montezuma emperor 1603 Cortez lauds, 1519; capluros the city of Mexico 1521 Mexico constituted a kingdom ; Cortez governor 1522 Meudoza, first viceroy of New Spain, 1530; establishes a mint, 1535 Unsuccessful insurrections of Miguel Hidalgo, 1810; of Morelos, 1W15; of Mina 1817 Mexico independent by the treaty of Aquala 23 Aug. 1821 Augustin Iturbide. president of provisional junto, Feb.; Mexico au empire, the crown declined by Spain; Iturbide emperor, May, 1822 Compelled to abdicate 2fi Mch. 1823 Mexican federal republic proclaimed 4 Oct. " Iturbide goes to England; returns and endeavors to recover power; shot 19 July, 1824 Federal constitution established Oct. " [First president D. Felix Victoria.] Treaty of commerce with Great Britain Apr. 1825 Expulsion of the Spaniards decreed .Mch. 1829 Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered 26 Sept. " Revolution ; president Guerrero deposed 23 Pec. " Santa Ana president, practically dictator 11 May, 1833 Loses her territory of Texas 1836 Independence recognized by Brazil, June, 1830; by Spain, 28 Dec. " Declaration of war against France 30 Nov. 1838 This war terminated 9 Mch. 1839 War with the United States (Mexican war) May, 1846 Pres Arista resigns, 6 Jan. ; and Santa Ana returns, Feb. ; dic- tator 16 Dec. 1853 He abdicates; Carera elected president Jan. 1855 Who also abdicates; succeeded first by Alvarez, and afterwards by gen. Comonfort Dec. " Property of clergy sequestrated 31 Mch. 1856 New constitution established 5 Feb. 1857 Beginning of Reformed church by Aguilar and others " Comonfort chosen president July, " Coup-d'^tat; constitution annulled by church party; Comon- fort compelled to retire, 11 Jan. ; gen. Zuloaga takes the gov- ernment 21-26 Jan. 1858 Benito Juarez declared president at Vera Cruz 11 Feb. '' Civil war Aug. to Nov. '* Gen. Miguel Miramon nominated president at Mexico by the junta 6 Jan. 1859 Zuloaga abdicates 2 Feb. " Britain sends ships ofwar to Mexico to protect her subjects, Feb. " Miramon forces lines of liberal generals, enters capital, assumes office as governor, and rules arbitrarily 10 Apr. " Juarez confiscates church property 13 July, " Miramon and clericals defeat liberals under Colima 21 Dec. " Besieges Vera Cruz, 5 Mch. ; bombards it; compelled to raise the siege 21 Mch. 1860 Zuloaga deposes Miramon, assumes presidency 1 May, " Miramon arrests Zuloaga, 9 May; diplomatic bodies suspend official relations with former 10 May, " Miramon defeated by Degollado 10 Aug. " He governs with tyranny; seizes 152,000Z. of English bond- holders, Sept. ; foreign ministers quit the city Oct. " He is defeated; compelled to retire; Juarez enters Mexico, 11 Jan. ; re elected president 19 Jan. 1861 Juarez made dictator by congress 30 June, " Mexican congress suspends payments to foreigners for 2 years, 17 July, " Hence diplomatic relations broken with England and France, 27 July, " England, France, and Spain, after vainly seeking redress and payment of interest by negotiations, sign a convention for joint hostilities against Mexico 31 Oct. " Mexican congress dissolves, after conferring full powers on the president 15 Dec. " Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz, 8 Dec. ; it surrenders. 17 Dec. " British naval and French military expedition arrive. .7, 8 Jan. 1862 Mexicans resist, and invest Vera Cruz; taxes raised 25 per cent Jan. " Miramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by the British ad- miral Feb. ' ' Proposed Mexican monarchy for archduke Maximilian of Aus- tria disapproved by Britain and Spain Feb. " Negotiation ensues between Spanish and Mexicans; conven- tion between commissaries of allies and Mexican general Doblado at Soledad 19 Feb. " Gen. Marquez arms against Juarez, and gen. Almonte joins the French general Lorencez; Juarez demands a compulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a stale of siege Mch. " Conference between plenipotentiaries of allies at Orizaba; Eng- lish and Spanish declare for peace; the French dissent, 9 Apr. , who declare war against Juarez 16 Apr. ' • Spanish and British retire; French government reinforces Lo- rencez May, French, induced by Manjuez, enter interior; repulsed by Zara- goza at Fort Guadalupe, near Puebla 5 May, Juarez quits the capital 31 May, French defeat Mexicans at Cerro de Borgo, near Orizaba, 13, 14 June, Mexican liberals said to desire negotiation Aug. (ion. Forey and 2500 French soldiers land 28 Aug. Napoleon III. writes Lorencez, disclaims intention to impose a government on Mexico ; announced Sept. Death of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Mexicans 8 Sept. (Jen. Forey deprives Almonte of the presidency at Vera Cruz, and assumes civil and military power Oct, Onega takes command of the Mexicans 19 Oct. Mexican congress meets, protests against French invasion, 27 Oct. French evacuate Tampico 13 Jan. Forey marches towards Mexico 24 Feb. Siege of Puebla; bravely defended, 29 Mch. ; assault, 31 Mch.- 3 Apr. ; Ortega surrenders at discretion 18 May, Juarez removes his government to San Luis de Potosi.31 May, Mexico occupied by French under Bazaine, 5 June; Forey's army enters, 10 June ; provisional government Assembly of notables at Mexico decide for a limited hereditary monarchy, with a Roman Catholic prince as emperor, and offer crown to archduke Maximilian of Austria; regency es- tablished 6-10 July, French reoccupy Tampico 11 Aug. Marshal Forey resigns command to Bazaine and returns to France 1 Oct Archduke Maximilian will accept crown if it be the will of the people 3 Oct. Mexican gen. Comonfort surprised and shot by partisans, 12 Nov. Successful advance of imperialists; Juarez abandons San Luis de Potosi, 18 Dec. ; imperialists enter 24 Dec. Ex-president Santa Ana lands at Vera Cruz, professing ad- hesion to empire, 27 Feb. ; dismissed by Bazaine.. . .12 Mch. Juarez makes Monterey seat of government 3 Apr. Archduke Maximilian accepts the crown from Mexican deputa- tion at Miramar 10 Apr. Emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz, 29 May; enter city of Mexico 12 June, Emperor visits the interior; grants a free press Aug. Republicans defeat imperialists at San Pedro 27 Dec. Juarez, at Chihuahua, exhorts the Mexicans to maintain inde- pendence 1 Jan. Emperor institutes order of Mexican eagle Oaxaca surrenders to Bazaine 9 Feb. Constitution promulgated 10 Apr. Ortega recruits at New York for republican army, May; dis- countenanced by the U. S. government June, Anniversary of Mexican independence; descendants of Iturbide made princesses, etc 16 Sept. Emperor proclaims the war ended, and martial law against all armed bands; indignation excited 2 Oct. Juarist generals taken prisoners ; shot 16 Oct U. S. protest against French occupation. Nov.-Dea Presidency of Juarez expires; he determines to continue to act, 30 Nov. ; he flees to Texas 20 Dec. Bagdad, on the Rio Grande, seized by American Juarists, 4, 5 .Jan. ; occupied by U. S. gen. Weitzel, 5 Jan. ; his conduct disavowed ; Bagdad reoccupied by imperialists 20 Jan. ; Napoleon III. agrees to withdraw all his soldiers from Mexico between Nov. 1866 and Nov. 1867 Apr. Guerilla warfare, with varying success Mch. -May, .Matamoras captured by liberals under Escobedo. . .23, 24 June, Empress Charlotte departs for France, 13 July; conspiracy suppressed ' 15-17 July, Convention between Maximilian and the French; transfer of customs revenue to France 30 July, Juarez and party take Tampico 1 Aug. U. S. disallow Maximilian's blockade of Matamoras 17 Aug. Dissension among liberals; 3 rival presidents— Juarez, Ortega, and Santa Ana Sept. -Oct. Empress solicits help from France, Sept. ; she falls ill Oct. Firm speech of emperor Maximilian 19 Sept. Emperor leaves Mexico for Orizaba; giving authority to Ba- zaine Oct French evacuate several places • .Nov. Imperial council at Orizaba determine to maintain empire, 24 Nov. Death of Augustin Iturbide H Hec. Maximilian, with army, arrives at Queretaro 19 Feb. . Departure of French 13 Jan., 5 Feb., 14 Men. Juarez, Diaz, and Ortega dispute the supremacy Apr. Queretaro, after many conflicts, captured by treachery ; Men- dez shot 15 May, Emperor Maximilian, Miramon, and Mejia, after trial, shot, ^ ' 19 June, Mexico city taken after 67 days' siege; republic re established, ' ■' " ' -21 June, Surrender of Vera Cruz 25 June, Santa Ana captured; detained a prisoner • -Julyi Juarez enters Mexico ; convokes assembly to elect president, 14, 15 July, Marquez and others said to be organizing against Juarez, Aug. Porfirio Diaz nominated for presidency Sept, Santa Ana sentenced to 8 years' banishment -Oct. Maximilian's body given to Austrian adm. Tegethoff. . .26 Nov. MIA ican congress opened* Juarez provisional president; foreign msuls said to be leaving 8 Dec. ■ez re elected president Dec. -ez inaugurated about 25 Deo. imiliau's body buried at Vienna 18 Jan. ellion against Juarez in Yucatan and other provinces, Jan. -Feb. atlan blockaded by capt. Bridge of British ship Chanticleer r an outrage, 20 June; relieved by adm. Hastings July, ty with U. S Dec. irrection at I'uebia suppressed Feb. Almonte d. at Paris Mcb. ountor between Mexicans and U. S. troops pursuing Indian ipredators; about 40 U. S. soldiers killed; reported. 12 Apr. tiou for president: Diaz, 1982 votes; Juarez, 1963; Lerdo, 6(5; Juarez retains power '. 27 July, rrection headed by Negrete, Riveras, and others, sup- essed with much slaughter 12 Oct. •ez re-elected jiresident Oct. rgents under Porflrio Diaz twice defeated; announced, Jan. I war going on with varying success Apr. -June, • to Juarez d. (aged about 68) by apoplexy 18 July, itry tranquil; Diaz accepts amnesty; announced. .14 Aug. .0 de Tejado (of good character) elected president, Oct. ; 'az submits Nov. way from Mexico to Vera Cruz completed; runs. . .23 Jan. loms tariffs liberalized July, jnate voted by congress Aug. Ijious orders suppressed Dec. Irrection by Diaz, Mch. ; he takes Matamoras 1 Apr. ress of Reformed church; overtures for union with Epis- pal church of U. S about Apr, rgents defeated at Oaxaca, 29 May; at Queretaro June, h of Santa Ana, ex-president 20 June, defeats government troops at Tekoar, 12 Nov.; enters xico, assumes power as provisional president 20 Nov. Lerdo de Tejado retires; Iglesias takes arms as president, Dec. defeats Iglesias, who retreats; Diaz elected president, 18 b. ; proclaimed 5 May, rrection of Negrete; Diaz marches against him.. .16 June, Ijel Gonzalez elected, 11 July; succeeds 1 Dec. nt city discovered in Sonora, near Magdalena, a great amid, rooms cut in a stony mountain, implements, etc., hieroglyphic inscriptions ession by Mexico to James B. Eads for 99 years for a rail- ly for ships across the isthmus; estimated cost, 15, 000,000^. ; ^del exhibited at Long Acre, London Aug. 3ffio Diaz inaugurated president 1 Dec. ffing affair (United States) July-Aug. lire-elected president 11 July, EMPERORS. Aug. Augustin Iturbide, Feb.; abdicated 23 Mch. 1823; 509 MIC 1867 1868 1871 1873 1874 1876 1877 1879 1880 1884 1886 1892 shot for attempting to recover his authority, 19 July, 1824. If Maximilian (brother to the emperor of Austria), b. 6 July, 1832; accepted the crown, 10 Apr. 1864; married 27 July, 1857, to princess Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I., king of i the Belgians; adopted Augustin Iturbide as his heir, Sept. I 1865; shot (after a trial), 19 June, 1867. liainii. Indians. '[icliaclma§, 29 Sept., feast of St. Michael, reputed udian of the Roman Catholic church, under the title of k! IMichael and All Angels." Instituted, according to But- :r!:87. ti(Mistom in England ol eating goose at Michaelmas has been (plained by saying that queen Elizabeth heard of the destruction the Spanish Armada while eating the bird at dinner on 29 Sept. 1)8, at the house of sir Neville Umfreyville. The custom is iich oyer, and extends to the other countries of Europe.— Ctoms t'endaria. ;[ic1ligan, one of the north central states of the United tiiis, consists of 2 peninsulas ; the upper peninsula lies whol- ly south of lake Superior and north of Wisconsin, lakes Michigan and Huron, and is 318 miles long east and west. The lower peninsula extends north between lake Michigan on the west and lake Huron and the Detroit river on the east to the strait of Mackinaw, a distance of 280 miles. Can- ada lies to the east, lake Erie touches the southeastern cor- ner, while Ohio and Indiana , form the southern boundary'. n Jtitude the whole state is limited by 41° 42' to 48° 22' N., |n«jn longitude by 82° 86' to 90° 30' W. Area, 58,915 sq. P4 in 83 counties ; pop. 1890, 2,093,889. Capital, Lansing. Claude Dablon and Jacques Marquette establish a i)ermanent mission at Sault Ste. Marie Two Sulpician priests with 3 canoes and 7 men pass through the Detroit river and lake St. Clair French under M. de St. Lusson, permitted to occupy Sault^Ste. Marie by the Indians, erect a cross at that place bearing the arms of France May, Marquette commences fort Michilimackinac, starts a Huron settlement, and builds a chapel there Marquette is buried near present site of Ludington. . .'.18 May, Robert La Salle, accompanied by father Louis Hennepin and Chevalier de Tonti, sails up lakes Erie and Huron in the Griffon, reaching Michilimackinac (New York) 28 Aug. Antoine de la Motte Cadillac, lord of Bouaget and Moutdesert, under a commission from Louis XIV., leaving Montreal in June with 100 men and a Jesuit missionary, commences the settlement of Detroit 24 July, First grant of land (32 acres) made at Detroit by Cadillac to Franfois Fafard Delorme Detroit attacked by the Fox Indians; after a 3 weeks' siege the French garrison of 20 soldiers under M. du Buisson drive the Indians back with severe loss May, Pontiac, with Ottawa Indians, assists in the defence of Detroit against the combined northern tribes under Mackinac Further emigration from France to Detroit Maj. Robert Rogers is ordered by gen. Amherst, at Montreal, to take possession of the posts in Michigan and administer the oath of allegiance to the French subjects there. .12 Sept. Pontiac makes peace with maj. Rogers, and attends the Eng- lish to Detroit 7 Nov. Detroit capitulates, English flag raised on the fort 29 Nov. British seize the forts at Mackinaw and Green Bay 8 Sept. Indian tribes in the northwest, incited by Pontiac against ihe English, capture fort St. Joseph ' 25 May. Pontiac plans an attack on the fort at Detroit. He asks for a council in the fort, so that the Indians allowed in the fort, at a given signal, might begin a general massacre; his plan is disclosed by an Indian woman to the commandant, maj. Glad- win, who permits the council, but disposes the garrison so as to intimidate Pontiac 9 May, [Pontiac immediately after begins the siege of Detroit.] Twenty batteaux, with 97 men under lient.Cuyler, sailing to re- inforce the garrison at Detroit, are attacked by the Indians, taken, compelled to navigate the boats up the Detroit to Hog island, and there massacred 30 May, By the strategy of a game of "baggatiway," or lacrosse, played with bat and ball, Indians obtain entrance to the fort at Michilimackinac and massacre the garrison 4 June, British garrison at Detroit, reinforced by a fleet of gunboats and a detachment of 300 regular troops under capt. Dalzell, send a force of about 274 men to make a night attack on Pontiac, who was encamped near Detroit. The Indians, hear- ing of the intended attack, form an ambush at Bloody Bridge, and compel the British to retreat after losing 20 killed, among them Dalzell, and 42 wounded '. . .31 July, Pontine remains before Detroit until forced to retire by the advance of col. Bradstreet May, Charter granted in England to a company for working the cop- per mines of lake Superior. The miners blast 30 feet into the rock, and then abandon the mine Parliament includes Michigan with Canada 22 Jan. Expedition from Detroit under gov. Hamilton against gen. Roger Clark at Vincennes, results in Hamilton's being capt- ured and sent to Virginia; his troops allowed to return to Detroit Mch. Formation of the Northwest company for fur trade Foundation of P'renchtown laid by a few Canadians who settle on the river Raisin Indians cede to the U. S. by treaty at fort Mcintosh, a belt of land beginning at the river Raisin and extending to lake St. Clair, 6 miles wide, also a tract of iand 12 miles square at Michilimackinac Congress includes Michigan in the Northwestern territory, formed by act of 13 July, First American settlement established on the river Raisin at Freuchtown, which becomes a depot for trade for the North- western Fur company Jay's treaty with Great Britain fixing the eastern boundary of the U. S., and calling for the surrender of Detroit and other western posts held by the British before 1 June, 1796, concluded 19 Nov. Robert Randall of Pennsylvania and Charles Whitney of Ver- mont enter into an agreement with 7 merchants of Detroit to endeavor to obtain from the U. S. government, by bribing members of Congress, a pre-emption right to nearly 20,000,000 acres of land in Michigan, but are exposed and receive a public reprimand Forts Mackinac (Mackinaw) and Detroit evacuated by the Brit- ish; Detroit garrisoned by a detachment of gen. Wayne's army, and capt. Porter first raises the U. S. flag upon the soil of Michigan H June, Thomas Powers, agent for the Spanish governor Carondelet, arrives at Detroit to endeavor to interest gen. Wilkinson in the Spanish intrigues in the west 24 Aug. Northwest territory assumes the second grade of territorial government; Michigan forms the single county of Wayne, and sends one representative to the General Assembly at Chillicothe. His election was the first held in Michigan tin- der U. S. rule Act of Congress approved establishing Indiana territory, in which Michigan is partially included 7 May, 1670 1671 1675 1679 1701 1707 1712 1746 1749 1760 u 1761 1763 1773 1774 1779 1783 1784 1785 1787 1795 1796 1797 1798 1800 MIO 610 Article VI. of the constitution of Ohio, confirmed bj' the U. S. government, spooiflos that the northern boundary should bo "a direct lino from the southern extremity of lake Michigan to the most northerly cape of Miami bay'' (Ohio) 1802 First U. S. land oflaco opened in Detroit under act of Congress, 26Mch. 1804 Indiana territory divided; all north of a lino east ft-om the southerly extremity of lake Michigan to lake Erie, and north through the lake to the northern boundary of the U. S. to bo the territory of Michigan, by act of 11 Jan. 1805 William Hull appointed first governor of the territory. .1 Mch. " Town of Detroit destroyed by fire 11 Juno, " First code of laws for the territory adopted ; called the " Wood- ward code " May, 1806 Congress authorizes the governor and judges of Michigan to lay out a town, including old Detroit and 10,000 acres adjoin- ing; grants to be made of lots to sufferers by the fire " Act of Congress passed granting a confirmation of claims of those who had been possessors of land in Michigan since 1796, 1807 Michigan Essay or Impartial Observer, the first paper printed in Detroit, issued 31 Aug. 1809 Memorial presented to Congress setting forth the defenceless condition of Michigan, and praying for aid against the Ind- ians 27 Dec. 1811 Gov. Hull issues a proclamation from Sandwich, on the Detroit river, inviting people to come in under the American flag, and promising protection; but extermination to those who joined the British and savages against the U. S 12 July, 1812 Lieut. Hanks, commandant at fort Mackinac, surrenders to the British 17 July, " Battles of Brownstown, 4 Aug. ; and Maguaga 9 Aug. " Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to British under gen. Brock, 16 Aug. " [The forces for its defence were estimated at about 2000 men. These, with 2500 stands of arms, 25 iron and 8 brass pieces of ordnance, 40 barrels of gunpowder, and a large quantity of other military stores, were delivered up to the British without even an attempt to defend them. United States, Jan. and Mch. 1814.] Sudden attack upon the U. S. troops, under gen. Winchester, at the river Raisin by the British, and massacre of the panic- stricken U. S. troops by the Indians 22 Jan. Naval victory over British fleet of 6 vessels, under com. Bar- clay, by U. S. squadron of 9 vessels, under com. Oliver Haz- ard Perry, ofl' Sister islands, lake Erie, near Detroit (Naval BATTLK.S) 10 Sept. Gen. Harrison takes possession of Detroit 29 Sept. Col. Lewis Cass appointed governor of the territory 29 Oct. Unsuccessful attempt of U. S. troops, under col. Croghan and com. Sinclair, to reduce Fort Mackinac 4 Aug. Special commissioner arrives with the treaty of peace lately concluded at Ghent 17 Feb. Detroit incorporated as a village President James Monroe visits Detroit 13 Aug. By act of Congress Michigan territory is extended westward to the Mississippi, thus including the present state of Wisconsin, Remains of soldiers massacred at the Raisin river removed to Detroit, and buried with honors of war 8 Aug. Steamboat Walk-in the-water arrives at Detroit, from Buffalo, N. Y., on her first trip 27 Aug. Congress provides for the election of a delegate to Congress by citizens of Michigan 16 Feb. William Woodbridge elected territorial delegate 2 Sept. " Treaty with Indians at Saginaw; they cede lands, 60 miles wide, west of Detroit, north to Thunder bay " Walk-in-the-water makes a trip to the island of Mackinac " Expedition under gov. Cass starts out in bark canoes to explore the northwestern lake coast of Michigan 24 May, 1820 Treaty with the Indians perfected through gov. Cass; all coun- try within the boundaries of Michigan south of Grand river not before ceded is granted to the U. S 1821 Congress establishes a legislative council of 9 members, appoint- ed by the president out of 18 elected by the people 3 Mch. 1823 Detroit incorporated as a city 1824 First legislative council at the council house in Detroit, 7 June, " Congress grants the governor and council power to divide the territory into townships and incorporate the same, and in- creases the legislative council to 13 1825 Right of electing members of the legislative council granted to the electors of the territory 29 Jan. 1827 Pontiac and Detroit railroad chartered 31 July, 1830 Gov. Cass resigns; appointed U. S.. secretary of war 1 Aug. 1831 George B. Porter appointed governor 17 Sept. " Troops raised in Michigan at the call of the U. S. government to engage in the Black Hawk war 22 May, 1832 Congress adds to Michigan the territory between the Missis- sippi river and the Missouri and White Earth rivers, thus in- cluding the whole of the present Minnesota, Iowa, and parts of North and South Dakota 28 June, 1834 Gov. Porter dies; Stevens T. Mason acting governor 6 July, " Question of southern boundary being agitated, Ohio commis- sioners, running a line about 12 miles southwest of Adrian, are captured by Michigan troops after several shots, 26 Apr. 1835 Michigan having attained a population of over 60,000, a con- stitutional convention convenes at Detroit 11 May, " New constitution ratified by the people 2 Nov. " Enabling act for Michigan approved 15 June, 1836 Wisconsin territory formed, comprising all of Michigan terri- tory west of lake Michigan " Convention at Ann Arbor rejects the Enabling act, as giving Ohio 470 sq. miles belonging to Michigan since 1787 (Ohio), 26 Sept. " 1813 1814 1815 1817 1818 1819 MIC New convention of delegates at Ann Arbor accepts the Ena- ~" bling act U Dec. V After protracted discussion Congress admits Michigan, adding to the state in the upper peninsula 2500 sq. mile.s; act ap- proved '2() Jan. Legislature passes an act to provide for the organization and^ support of primary schools 20 Mch. Board of 7 Commissioners of Internal Improvement appointed by act of legislature MchJ Meeting of citizens of Detroit friendly to the patriot cause is lield, 1 Jan. 1838. 5 Jan. the schooner Ann is seized, loadedl with 450 stands of arms stolen from the Detroit jail, and saila away with 132 men and provisions for the patriots. Meeting .„ of the public to preserve neutrality is held 8 Jan. 1?^ State prison at Jackson established William Woodbridpo elected governor Nov. ] Gov. Woodbridge, elected U. S. senator, is succeeded by James W. Gordon as acting governor .31 May, 1m Gen. Lewis Cass nominated for president of the U. S. by the National Demi ..ratic convention at Baltimore 22 May, University of Michigan, planned by the governor and people iaj 1817, established by law, 18 Mch. 18:^7, and located at Annj Arbor, is opened for reception of students 20 Sept.[ State land office established at Marshall by law, to take char of and dispose of 500,000 acres granted by Congress AprJ James G. Birney of Michigan nominated as Liberty candidate^ for president of the U. S WS Copper raining in the upper peninsula of Michigan begun luj Seat of government permanently located at Lansing by act ap-, proved 16 Mch.| Michigan and Wisconsin troops enlisted for the Mexican wa leave Detroit by boat for Vera Cruz 24 Apr.l Capital punishment, except for treason, abolished in the stateJ Epaphroditus Ransom elected governor. Nov. Constitution framed by a convention which met at Lansing 3' June; adopted by vote of the people 5 Nov. ]> Arrest of a band of desperadoes who for a year had terrorized Jackson county 21 Apr. ] State Teachers' Association organized Mch. 1 Gov. McClelland made U. S. secretary of the interior, lieut.- gov. Andrew Parsons acting governor 6 Mch. 1 State Normal school at Ypsilanti, established by act of 28 Mch. 1849, is opened for students Apr. Maine liquor law passed State asylum for deaf, dumb, and blind, established by act of legislature in 1848, opens in rented rooms at Flint Feb. ,1;- Hillsdale college (Freewill Baptist) established at Spring Ar- bor in 1844, chartered as Michigan Central college in 1845, is removed to Hillsdale and reorganized 1 Kalamazoo college (Baptist), organized in 1833, is reorganized.. Ship canal around St. Mary's falls opened Lands granted by Congress to aid in building a railroad from Ontonagon to the Wisconsin state line 1 State Reform school at Lansing opened 2 Sept. State Agricultural college at Lansing, established by act of legislature 12 Feb. 1853, opened for students May, 1 • State confers the grant of Congress made in 1856 on the Onton- agon and State Line Railroad company Olivet college at Olivet, founded in 1844, reorganized and under Congregational and Presbyterian government 1" State asylum for the insane at Kalamazoo opened for recep- tion of patients Albion college, at Albion (Methodist Episcopal), organized in 1841, is reorganized 1 ~ First Michigan regiment, ready and equipped 4 days after the pre dent's call, leaves Detroit under orders of the war de- partment 13 May, V State receives from the federal government a grant of 5,891,598 acres of swamp land in Michigan 1~ All departments of Michigan university open to women 1^ Cons' tution amended; all distinction of civil and political rights based upon color abolished; ratified by the people, 8 Nov. • Two State Relief committees, with headquarters at Detroit and Grand Rapids, for the relief of sufferers by forest fires in northern Michigan disburse $462,106.30 in cash and about $250,000 in clothing and supplies from almost every state in the Union, Canada, and abroad Oct. 13 Soldiers' monument at Detroit, erected by voluntary contribu- tions from citizens of the state, the corner-stone of which was laid 4 July, 1867, is unveiled 9 Apr. 18 Board of Fish Commissioners appointed to organize a state fish-breeding establishment ' Cornerstone of the new capitol at Lansing laid 2 Oct. ' State Board of Health appointed • • • ^^ Commission under legislative authority selects Ionia as the lo- cation for a state house of correction ■ Constitutional commission of 18 members convenes at Lan- sing and draws up a constitution 27 Aug. State public school for dependent children at Coldwater, or- ganized 1871, is opened for reception of children 21 May, If Battle Creek college chartered Revised state constitution ratified by people ; a separate vote on woman suffrage stands 40,077 for and 135,957 against, 3 Nov, Prohibitory liquor law repealed, and an annual tax imposed on dealers in and manufacturers of liquors ■•' Constitution amended, striking out art. iv. sec. 47, which pro- hibits any act authorizing the license for selling intoxica- ting liquors :• • ; State house of correction and reformatory at Ionia opened lor reception of prisoners ^° ^"^' ' MIC 511 MID state insane asylum at Pontiac opened July, 1878 Jew capitol at Lansing dedicated 1 Jan. 1879 ;tate school for the blind opened in a leased building at Lan- ; sing 29 Sept. ^legislature, after heated discussion and opposition, confirms i grant of 1857 to the Ontonagon and State Line Railroad com- i i)any, although the road had not been constructed, and lim- 1 itation of time had long expired lichigan Reform school for girls at Adrian, opened Aug. 'crest flres break out in Huron and Sanilac counties and burn over some 1800 square miles of territory, rendering 2900 fam- ilies homeless and destroying 138 lives Sept. ;ite purchased for state insane asylum near Traverse City osiah W. Begole, union or fusion candidate of the Democratic and Greenback parties, elected governor Nov. ijational Prison Association meets at Detroit. . ., 17 Oct. tate asylum for insane criminals at Ionia conipleted " ,tate Soldiers' Home near Grand Rapids dedicated 30 Dec. 1886 lOcaloption law passed by legislature , 1887 iCts passed to incorporate the Women's Christia<,f Temperance unions throughout the state " en counties hold local-option elections, and in e..ch case they resulted in prohibition Dec. " ecret ballot law, on the Australian ballot system, passed ;dwin B. Winans, Democrat, elected governor by 183,725 votes; i the Prohibition candidate received 28,651 votes ilxsenator Thomas W. Palmer of Detroit appointed chairman of the National Commission of the World's Columbian Expo- sition 27 June, " uenry B. Brown commissioned associate justice of the U. S. [supreme court, 30 Dec. 1890; is sworn in 5 Jan. 1891 jrof Alex. WincheJl, geologist, b. 1824, d. in Ann Arbor.. 19 Feb. " legislature places all penal and reformatory institutions under ) a single board, extends the Australian ballot system, and re- quires presidential electors to be elected by congressional I districts, instead of by general state ticket " (Wenty-fifth annual reunion of the Grand Army of the Repub- jlic opens at Detroit 4 Aug. " 1880 1881 1882 1885 1889 1890 Opening of the St. Clair River tunnel celebrated at Port Huron and Sarnia • 19 Sept. 1891 Ex-gov. Henry C. Baldwin d. in Detroit 31 Dec. 1892 TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS. William Hull Lewis Cass , George B. Porter. Steven T. Mason. , 1805 to 1813 1814 " 1831 1831 1834 1834 1835 I Resigns to become secretary ( of war. Died in office. Acting. Steven T. Mason, WMlliam Woodbridge. . James W. Gordon John S. Barry Alpheus Felch William L. Greenley. . Epaphroditus Ransom Jolin S. Barry Robert McClelland. . . . Andrew Parsons Kinsley S. Bingham.. Moses Wisner Austin Blair Henry H. Crapo Henry P. Baldwin John J. Bagley Charles M. Crosswell. . David H. Jerome Josiah W. Begole Russell A. Alger i Cyrus G. Luce I Edwin B. Winans I John T. Rich STATE GOVERNORS. 1836 to 1840 1840 " 1841 1841 1842 to 1846 1846 " 1847 1847 1848 to 1850 1850 " 1852 1852 " 1853 1853 1855 1859 1861 1865 1869 1873 1877 1881 1883 1885 1887 1891 1893 1855 1859 1861 1865 1869 1873 1877 1881 1883 1885 1887 1891 1893 Elected U. S. senator. Acting. Elected U. S. senator. Acting. ( Appointed U. S. secretary of I the interior. Acting. ( Elected by a fusion, Demo- { crats and Greelibackers. Re-elected 1894. UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF MICHIGAN. No. of Congress. Date. jucius Lyon phn Norvell figustus S. Porter illiam Woodbridge lewis Cass homas Fitzgerald ppheus Felch pwis Cass fiarles E. Stuart iichariah Chandler liusley S. Biugham ficob xM. Howard fiomas W. Ferry , jaac P. Christiancy achariah Chandler lenry P. Baldwin knar D. Conger 'lomas W. Palmer Irancis B. Stbckbridge. 'lines JIcMillan i)bn Patton, jr iilius C. Burrows 24th to 25th 24th " 26th 26th " 28th 27th " 29th 29th " 30th 30th 30th to 32d 31st " 34th 33d " 35th 35th " 43d 36th 37th to 41st 42d 44th to 46th 46th 46th 47th to 50th 48th " 51st 50th " 53d 51st " 53d " 54th " 1837 to 1839 1837 " 1841 1839 " 1845 1841 " 1847 1845 " 1848 1849 1847 to 1853 1851 " 1857 1853 " 1859 1857 " 1875 1859 " 1861 1862 " 1871 1871 1875 to 1879 1879 1879 to 1881 1881 " 1887 1883 " 1889 1887 " 1894 1«89 " 1894 " Seated 26 Jan. Resigned 1848. Nominated for president by the Democrats. Appointed /)ro tern, in place of Cass. Elected president pro tern. 9 June, 1856. Died 1861. Elected in place of Bingham. President j)ro tern. 9 Mch. 1875. Resigned. Elected in place of Christiancy. Died 1879. Appointed in place of Chandler. Elected in place of Chandler. Died in office 30 Apr. 1894. Term expires 1895. Re-elected. Appointed to succeed Stockbridge 5 May, 1894. Micmacs. Indians. i^ ; inicroin'eter, an astronomical instrument to measure iiall distances and minute objects in the heavens, such as the iparent diameters of the planets, etc., was invented bv Will- m Gascoigne, who was killed at Marston Moor, 2 Juiy^ 1644. was improved by Muj'ghens about 1652. Sir Joseph Whit- mth made a machine to measure the 1,000,000th of an inch |)out 1858 ; the measurement of the 30,000th of an inch is >w common. i llli'crophone (Gr. /iticpoc, little ; (pwvT], sound), a jime given by Wheatstone, in 1827, to an instrument for ren- ifiug weak sounds audible by solid rods. The name was ;5o given to an arrangement invented (in Dec. 1877) by prof. L E. Hughes (inventor of a printing telegraph), and shown i the Royal society, 9 May, 1878. 1 electric current is established between 2 imperfect conductors, in loose contact (such as pieces of charcoal, metallized by being plunged when heated into mercury), mounted on a piece of thin wood. Minute sounds produced on the Wood disturb the electric conductivity at the place of contact, and may be heard by tele- phone. The sonorous and electric waves are thus rendered syn- chronous and convertible. The tread of a fly sounds like that of ■a large quadruped. Telephone. nii'croscope§, said to have been invented by Jansen ; Holland about 1590, by Fontana in Italy, and by Drebbel , Holland, about 1621. they were made with double glasses ;ien the law of refraction was discovered, about 1624. Solar icroscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In England the icroscope was improved by Benjamin Martin (who invented and sold pocket microscopes about 1740), by Henry Baker, F.R.S., about 1763, and still more since 1800 by Wollaston, Ross, Jackson, Varley, Powell, and others. Diamond micro- scopes were made by Andrew Pritchard in 1824 ; and the use of " test objects," to prove the instruments, discovered by hira and Goring in 1824-40. A binocular microscope (i. e. for two eyes) was constructed by prof. Riddell in 1851, and Wenham's improvements were made known in 1861. Treatises on the microscope by J. Quekett (1848), by dr. W. B. Carpenter (1856 et seq.), by dr. Lionel Beale (1858-64), and Griffith and Henfrey's " Micrographic Dictionary " (1856 and 1875), are valuable. The Microscopical Society of London was estab- lished 20 Dec. 1839, and the Quekett Microscopical Club, 1865. In 1865 H. Sorby exhibited his spectrum, microscope, by which the 1,000,000th of a grain of blood was detected. mi'cro - taiim'eter, an instrument invented by T. A. Edison, applying the principle of the carbon micro- phone to delicate barometers, thermometers, hygrometers, etc., in the measurement of infinitesimal pressure ; announced July, 1878. middle ag^e§. Dark ages. Middle Creek, Ky., battle of, fought 10 Jan. 1862, in the valley of the Big Sandy. Gen. James A. Garfield, with about 1800 men, defeated gen. Humphrey Marshall, command- ing 2500 confederates. Midian, now Arz I?Iadiaii, a country of N.W. Arabia; anciently held by descendants of Midian, a son of MID 612 Abraham. Having enticed tlie Israelites to idolatry, they were severely chastised, 1452 b.c. They invaded Canaan about 1249 B.C., and were defeated by Gideon. Capt. Richard F. Burton explored ruiiiod cities of Midian in 1877, and found remains of ancient mines, many relics, and gold. An expedition, under liis command, equipped by the khedive of Egypt, sUrted from Suez, 10 Oec. 1877, and returned 20 Apr. 1878; bringing '25 tons of geological specimens, samples of silver and copper ore, coins and other antiquities, and i)hotogruphs of re- mains of ruined cities, etc. midland railway station, St. Pancras, N. Lon. don, with the largest known roof in the world (245 feet 6 inches wide, and G98 feet long), was opened for traffic 1 Oct. 1868. Tlie engineer was H. VV. Barlow. niid%vifery. Wonaen were the only practitioners among the Hebrews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, in Greece, 460 B.C., is styled father of midwifery as well as of physics. It advanced under Celsus, who flourished 37 a.d., and of (ia- len, who lived 131. In England midwifery became a science about the time when the college of physicians was founded, 10 Hen. VII. 1518. Dr. Harvey began the practice about 1603; Astruc affirms that madame de la Valliere, mistress of Louis XIV., in 1663, secretly employed Julian Clement, a sur- geon. Hilan (mll'an) (Lat. Afediolanum), capital of the ancient Liguria, now Lombardy, is reputed to have been built by the Gauls, about 408 b.c. The cathedral, or duomo, was built about 1385. Pop. 1890, 414,551. bc. Conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus 222 A.D. Seat of government of the Western empire 286 Council of Milan 346 St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan 375 Milan plundered by Attila ^ 452 Included in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 489; in the Lombard kingdom 569 Becomes an independent republic 1101 Emperor Frederic I. takes Milan, and appoints a podesta 1158 It rebels; is taken by Frederic and its fortifications destroyed, 1162 Rebuilt and fortified 1169 Milanese defeated by the emperor Frederic II 1237 Visconti become paramount in Milan 1277 John Galeazzo Visconti takes the title of duke 1395 Francesco Sforza, son in law of the last of the Visconti, sub- dues Milan and becomes duke 1450 Milan conquered by Louis XII. of France 1499 French expelled by the Spaniards 1525 Milan annexed to the crown of Spain 1540 Milan ceded to Austria 1714 Conquered by the French and Spaniards 1743 Reverts to Austria, Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain 1748 Seized by the French 30 .June, 1796 Retaken by the Austrians 1799 Regained by the French 31 May, 1800 Made capital of Italy, and Napoleon crowned with the Iron Crown here 26 May, 1805 Milan decree of Napoleon against all continental intercourse with England 17 Dec. 1807 Insurrection against the Austrians; flight of the viceroy, 18 Mch. 1848 Surrenders to the Austrians 5 Aug. " Treaty of peace between Austria and Sardinia 6 Aug. 1849 Peace of Villafranca; a large part of Lombardy transferred to Sardinia 12 July, 1859 Victor Emmanuel enters Milan as king 8 Aug. 1860 ]flilan decree. United States, 1807. mile'tUS, a Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, founded about 1043 b.c. The Milesians defended themselves success- fully, 623-612 B.C. During the war with Persia it was taken, 494, but restored, 449. Here Paul delivered his charge to the elders of the church of Ephesus, 60 a.d. (Acts xx.). military or martial laiv is built on no settled principle, but is arbitrary, and, in truth, no law; but some- times indulged, rather than allowed, as law. — Sir Matthew Hale. It has been several times proclaimed in parts of Great Britain, and in 1798 was almost general in Ireland, where it was also proclaimed in 1803. Habeas Corpus, Milligan CASE, United States. military department§ of the United States. The U. S. form 8 military departments, viz. : Department of the East, hd. qrs. Governor's island, N. Y. : New England states, Middle states, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, and District of Columbia. Department of the Missouri, hd. qrs. Chicago, 111. : Michigan, "Wis- MIL 1 Kansas, Arkansas, Indiatl Califoru a consin, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri Oklahoma territories. Department of California, hd. qrs. San Francisco, Cal and Nevada. Department of Dakota, hd. qrs. St. Paul, Minn. : Minnesota, N( Dakota, part of South Dakota, Montana, and part of WyomiUi Department of Texas, hd. qrs. Snn Antonio, Tex. : Slate of Tej Department of the Platte, lid. qrs Omaha, Neb. : Iowa. Nebrai part of Wyoming, Utah, i)art of Idaho, and jiart of South Dak Department of Colorado, hd. qrs. Denver, Col. : Arizona, Mexico, and Colorado. Department of the Columbia, hd. qrs. Vancouver Barracks, Wj Oregon, Washington, part of Idaho, and Alaska. Each under the supervision of a general officer of the arm military districts. United States, 1813. military events in the United StBt% Besides special mention, Statk records. United States militia, citizens of a state enrolled as soldiers for trail- ing and discipline, but called into active service only in emei- gencies, thus distinguished from the regular or constant sold Act of Congress requiring every citizen between 18 and 46 years of age to be enrolled in the militia, and armed and equipped at his own cost 8 May, 17 Act empowering the president, in case of invasion, to call out the militia of the states 28 Feb. Permanent appropriation of $200,000 a year to provide arms and equipments for militia, made l)y Congress 23 Apr. : Board to consider changes in the militia laws is convened by secretary of war Barbour, with Wiufield Scott as president. It reports apian "that a select corps of militia be formed, to consist in each state of one brigade for every congression- al representative, and that the officers assemble in camps of instruction ten days in each year;" that -'the office of adju- tant-general of militia be created, and that the U. S. furnish officers to instruct the camps " \n-. Congress enacts that whenever the president shall call out the militia, he may fix the period of service, not exceeding 9 months 17 July, isi Militia in the U. S. are officered and disciplined by state aiithi ity, but the Constitution makes the president commander : chief of the militia when in actual service of the U. S. In tl constitutions of Massachusetts, Vermont, Oregon, and South Cai< lina, it is declared that every member of society is bound to yic! his personal service or an equivalent to the state, for the defeii' of life, liberty, and property ; but in most of the states the inilii consists of all able-bodied male persons between 18 and 4.5, and r. person conscientiously opposed to bearing arms is excused from! service on paying an equivalent. The National Guard in the mili-|i tia of the states in 1891 included : 1 Infantry 92,203 Cavalry 4,554 Artillery 5,224 Total enlisted 101,981 Total commissioned 9,311 Number of men available for military duty, not enrolled, 9,121,253.1 The standing national force of England is traced to king] Alfred, who made all his subjects soldiers, 872-901. Commission of array to raise a militia 11'. Revived by Henry II Hi' Again revived W'l Said to amount to 160,000 men 1623J Militia Reserve act passed W^r 141,488 in 18(1 milky Way (Galaxy, from Gr. yakaKTOQ, milk) in tl heavens. Hera is said by Greek poets to have spilled her milk in the heavens after suckling Hermes or Heracles. Deraocri- tus (about 428 B.C.) taught that the Via Lactea consists of stars, and Galileo (1610-42) proved it by the telescope, "h: the midst of this gigantic collection of stars lost in this vortex of worlds, our little solar system lies. The dimensions of tli' centre of this system — the sun which appears to us so grea but which in reality is that of a star of the second or thin: magnitude — are found to represent but an atom of the lumi- nous sand of the Milky Way." — Richard A . Proctor. mill-boy of the Sla§]ie§, a term applied to Henn Clay (1777-1852), born Hanover county, Va. "Mill-boy,' from his carrying grain to be ground at a mill in that vicin- ity, and " of the Slashes," from his boyhood residence, so calk* because the timber had been slashed or cut off. millena'rians. Some suppose that the world wil end with the 7000th year from the creation ; and that during 1000 years (millennium) Christ and the saints will reign upoi the earth (Rev. xx.). The doctrine was inculcated in the 2i and 3d centuries by Papias, Justin Martyr, and others. millerites, followers of William Miller (1781-1849) who labored assiduously in the northern United States for H MIL ars (1833-43), preaching and prophesying the end of the )rld in 1843. His followers rapidly disappeared after the lay of probation " passed. Adventists. lUilli^ail, Case of. On 5 Oct. 1864, Lambdin P. Mil- an, while at home in Indiana, was arrested with others, for jasonable designs, by order of gen. Alvin P. Hovey, com- inding the military tlistrict of Indiana ; on 21 Oct. brought fore a military commission convened at Indianapolis by gen. )vey, tried on'certain charges and specifications, found guilty, d sentenced to be hanged, Friday, 19 May, 1865. Tiie pro- sdings of the military commission closed in Jan. 1865. When e Circuit court of the United States met at Indianapolis in 11. 1865, the grand jury did not indict Milligan, who then titioiied the court to be brought before it and tried by jury released. With the petition was filed the order appointing e commission, the charges, finding of the commission, with e order from the war department reciting that the sentence IS approved by the president, and directing that the sentence carried out without delay. The judges differed on 3 ques- ms : (1) Whether on the facts submitted a writ of habeas rpus should be issued ; (2) Whether Milligan ought to be ;charged; (3) Whether the military commission had acted thin its jurisdiction ; and these were submitted to the Su- ?me court of the U. S. The first 2 questions were answered I the affirmative, the third in the negative, justices Davis, ier. Nelson, Clifford, and Fields holding that Congress had [: the constitutional power to authorize such commission — It the Constitution forbids it, and is the supreme law of the id, in war as in peace. Chief-justice Chase, supported by •itices Wayne, Swayne, and Miller, held that Congress has ;■ power to authorize military commissions in time of war; j; all concurred in the answers given to the 8 questions sub- uLted, and Milligan was released. " This decision of the ;!irt overthrew the whole doctrine of military arrest and trial ;iprivate citizens in peaceful states." — Lalor^s " Cyclopaedia (Political Science," vol. ii. p. 433. Habeas cokpus. tHilliken's Bend, La., attacked by confederates liler gen. H. McCulloch ; repulsed 6 June, 1863, by Union Ibes (mostly colored), aided by the gunboats Choctaw and tington. Union loss, killed and wounded, 404. •Hill Springy, Ky., battle at. Gen. Zollicoffer, confed- *te, was here defeated by gen. George H. Thomas, with a 1; of 300 men, 19 Jan. 1862. Gen. Zollicoffer was killed. nillS, anciently, any machine for grinding cereals for food ; rdern meaning includes any machine or combination of ma- claery used for any intended purpose, as cotton-tnill, woollen- nl, grist-mill, saw-mill, cider-mill, etc. Moses forbade mill- «;ies to be taken in pawn, because it would be like taking a ii;[i's life to pledge (Deut. xxiv. 6). The hand-mill was in u among Britons before the Roman conquest. The Romans iioduced the water-mill. Cotton - mills moved by water v,e erected by sir Richard Arkwright at Cromford, Derby- s -e, Engl, who died 1792. Mechanics. flilwau'kee, known as the "Cream city," the me- t lolis of Wisconsin, situated on the western shore of lake ft higan, was founded by Solomon Juneau, who arrived there 1 Sept. 1818. The place and name were known as early as IXov. 1699, as John Buisson de St. Comes mentions being s(m-bound at Milwarck on that date. The east side was first Pited and named Milwaukee by Messrs. Juneau and Martin ii:835, the first sale of lots taking place in August of that yjr. In 1838 the population of Milwaukee was 700 ; 1840, ip, and by decades since, 1850, 20,061 ; 1860, 45,246 ; 1870, 7140; 1880, 115,587; 1890, 204,468; by this census the 16th •c| in the United States in point of population. Area of the •c| in 1890 was 17 sq. miles. Lat. 43° 5' N., Ion. 88° W. ll.-aukee visited by lieut. James Gorrell of the 80th Royal iierican regiment, stationed at Mackinaw 21 Aug. 1762 A;ander Laframbois, trader from Mackinaw, establishes mselfat Milwaukee, remaining 6 years 1785 J'ii Baptiste Mirandeau, a trader from Green Bay, settles at e of Milwaukee I795 ^' mon Juneau, founder of the city, arrives as clerk for his iier-inlaw, Jacques Vieux of Green Bay 14 Sept. 1818 ^ '^ invoice of goods landed at Milwaukee from a lake vessel, >e Chicago Packet, a schooner of 30 tons, capt. Britton 1823 ' ,1 trame building built for Solomon Juneau 1824 <-<,(^eorge H. Walker, who erected the first dwelling-house on ^ °'\uth side, arrives 20 Mch. 1834 Ji^uth side, L 513 MIL Byron Kilbourn, founder of Kilbourntown, now the west side, arrives Nov. 1834 First ferry established at the mouth of the river by Horace Chase 1835 First Protestant meeting (Methodist) May, " East side platted and named Milwaukee by Messrs. Juneau and Martin, and first recorded sale of lots 4 Aug. " West side platted by Kilbourn; first recorded plat dated, 9 Oct. " First election of town officers 19 Sept. " Post-office established, with Solomon Juneau as postmaster. . . " First white child, Milwaukee Smith, daughter of Uriel B. Smith, b lOOct! " First tavern opened by J. and L. Childs. on northeast cor. Broadway and Wisconsin st .' << Second tavern opened by Vieux, and known as the Cottage inn " [Destroyed by fire in 1845.] ' First Episcopal service conducted by rev. Henry Gregory of Syracuse, N. Y ]0 Jan. 1836 Stage-coaches begin running weekly to Chicago Mch. " First newspaper, Milwaukee A dvertiser, pub 14 July, " First brick building erected on Jackson st. by William Sivyer] May. " First vessel built near the intersection of North Water and Broadway, a schooner of 90 tons, the Solomon Junea^i " Steamer Columbus, first of regular line of lower lake steamers, arrives Aug. " First court-house built " First school on the south side, kept at the cor. of Florida and Greenbush sts. by Eli Bates, jr., and another school on Third St. kept by Edward West winter of 1836-37 First hotel, "the Belle View, afterwards the Milwaukee house, cor. Broadway and Wisconsin St., begun by Juneau and Martin in 1835, and completed , 1837 Milwaukee Sentinel first pub " School held in the Methodist church, southeast cor. East Water and Huron sts " First U. S. District court held " Village of Milwaukee orgnuized; Solomon Juneau elected president 14 Feb. " Village of Kilbourntown organized; Byron Kilbourn president. " First celebration of mass at the house of Solomon Juneau, Aug. ' ' First steamer, the Badger, 50 tons, built " First government light house, on blufi" at head of Wisconsin St., erected 1838 Ground broken for Kilbourn's famous Rock River canal, 4 July, " Wisconsin Marine and Fire insurance company organized. May, 1839 St. Peter's church, on Market st. west of Jackson St., built " Colony of 800 German immigrants land and camp on the lake shore near the foot of Huron st summer of " First fire engine, "Neptune No. 1," purchased " Kilbourntown added to Milwaukee, and divisions of the town designated as the east and west wards, 1839; Elisha Starr elected president 18 May, " First brick block built, northwest cor. Third and Chestnut sts. 1840 [Held the first theatre in Milwaukee; razed in 1876.] First brewery built at foot of Huron st. by Owens, Pawlet & Davis spring, '' Old First Presbyterian church, cor. Milwaukee and Mason sts., begun 1839, completed " First bridge built across the river, joining the east and west sides, between Chestnut and Division sts " First fire company organized at the Milwaukee house. .14 Feb. " First High school established in the old court-house by Charles Whipple 10 May, 1841 First cargo of wheat shipped " Brewery erected by Herman Reidelschoefer, northeast cor. Hanover and Virginia sts " Ordinance passed against hogs and cattle running at large 1842 First theatrical entertainment, " Shylock " 27 Sept. " Philetus C. Hale opens the first book store, on East Water St., 2 Nov. " First county buildings erected 1843 [Razed in 1870.] Harbor improvements begun " Milwaukee lodge of Odd Fellows No. 2, the first in the town, instituted Mch. " Milwaukee lodge of Freemasons No. 22, organized 5 July, " First German paper, the Wisconsin Banner, afterwards the Banner and Volksfreund, pub. by Moritz Schoeffler..7 Sept. 1844 First military organization, the Washington Guards (disbanded 1852), organized 8 Jan. 1845 Fire which destroys 2 entire squares 7 Apr. " Young Men's Association founded " First daily mail to Chicago 18 Nov. " Milwaukee incorporated as a city ; pop. 9660 31 Jan. 1846 Solomon Juneau elected first mayor 7 Apr. " First meeting of the common council 10 Apr. " Fire department organized " First Baptist church built at the southeast cor. Milwaukee and Wisconsin sts 1846-47 Female seminary opened by H. M. I.owe and John P. Mc- Gregor on southeast cor. Jackson and Oneida sts 18 Jan. 1847 Evening Wisconsin first pub 8 June, " First steam flouring mill erected by Goodrich & Easton on South Water st. ; begins operation 26 Sept. |' New jail built by William Si vyer " Corner-stone of St. John's cathedral laid 5 Dec. " First telegraph message sent from Milwaukee 17 Jan. 1848 Milwaukee Collegiate institute established by prof. Amasa Buck, " St. Rosa's Orphan asylum established 9 May, " First steam grain elevator (Sweet's), erected at Walker's Point, " MIL bU MIN Menomonee Locomoiive works, where the first locomotive built ill ihP state was constructed, established 1849 Milwaukee Grauunar school founded " First I'ublic school buildings erected ; 5 brick structures " I>eath8 from cholera, 104 July, Aug. " Milwaukee orph.m asylum. Protestant, on Marshall st. between Oneida and Biddle, established 4 Jan. 1860 First theatrical enlcrtainiiK'iii in (iiTman given 11 Feb. " Failure of Hemenway's bank 12 Feb. " Milwaukee Normal institute (ufterwnrds the Milwaukee Fe- male college) organized " Ordinance to legalize the widening of Spring st passed. 5 May, " Forest Home cemetery opened 3 Aug. '' Over ^X) deaths fW)m cholera. July-Sept. " Milwaukee and Mississippi railroad opened to Waukesha. 25 Feb. 1861 City omnibus line cstablishetl 20 Sept. " First railroad passenger depot in the state erected at the foot of Second st 1852 City first lighted with gas 23 Nov. " First e.Tpres8 comi>any established in Milwaukee 1 Feb. 1853 St. John's cathedral consecrated 31 July, " Fire begins at cor. Broadway and Huron st. and destroys 66 buildings, entailing a toUil loss of $400,000 24 Aug. 1854 Cobble-stone pavements introduced " Failure of the Germania bank 11 Jan. 1855 Light Guards (disbanded in 1870), organized 9 July, " Night watch tlrst esublished Sept. " Board of Trade organized, Horatio Hill president 16 Jan. 1856 First shipment of wheat direct to Liverpool, 14,000 bush, on schooner Dt-an Rictimond, leaves Milwaukee 19 July, arrives at Liverpool 29 Sept. " Solomon Juneau d. at Shawano 14 Nov. " Public funeral of Solomon Juneau held at Milwaukee. .26 Nov. " James H. Rogers's mansion, southwest cor. Fifteenth st. and Grand ave., completed 1857 Newhall house opened 25 Aug. " Chamber of Commerce organized (L. J. Higby, president) in Apr., and formally opened at No. 1 Spring st. (now Grand ave.) 22 Nov. 1858 New post-oflBce building, begun 1 May, 1866, opened 1 Jan. 1859 Municipal (police) court established 18 Mob. " Schooner ^W. S. Scott clears for Liverpool direct with 170,000 ft. of hardwood lumber (passage, 49 days) 31 May, " St. Mary's hospital founded " Ground broken for a street railroad from the foot of Wisconsin St. to Albion st. , 28 Nov. 1859 ; first trip made 30 May, 1860 Wreck of the Lady Elgin, capt. John Wilson; sunk after col- lision with schooner Augtisfa, on her return from Chicago with a party of about 400 excursionists; 225 citizens of Mil- waukee drowned, besides 62 other passengers 8 Sept. " Cross block burned; 5 lives lost; city records burned... 30 Dec. " Bank riot 24 June, 1861 Daily Herald established 21 Sept. " First steam fire-engine dates from 10 Nov. " Letter-carrier system introduced 1 Jan. 1865 Academy of Music opened. 31 Jan. " George H. Walker d 20 Sept. 1866 Plankington house begun. May, 1867; hotel opened Sept. 1868 Old Settlers club organized 5 July, 1869 Board of Public Works created " Fire-alarm telegraph introduced " Stock yards established 1870 Byron Kilbourn dies at Jacksonville, Fla 16 Dec. " Grand Opera House opened 17 Sept. 1871 City water works established 1872-73 Corner-stone of new court-house laid, 7 Sept. 1870; building completed at a cost of $650,000 22 Jan. 1873 City first supplied with water from tunnel under lake. .14 Sept. 1874 Immanuel Presbyterian church on Astor St., corner-stone laid 26 Aug. 1873 ; cost $170,000 ; dedicated. 3 Jan. 1875 Wisconsin Industrial school for girls organized 11 Feb. " Milwaukee Free Public library opened 8 July, 1878 National German- American Teachers' seminary opened. ...... " Telephone exchange opened 1879 Milwaukee County Pioneer Association organized 13 Nov. " Insane asylum opened 26 Mch. 1880 New library building completed 1 May, " New building for the Chamber of Commerce dedicated. 18 Nov. " Evening schools first established 22 Nov. " Exposition building corner-stone laid, 14 May, 1881; opened, 6 Sept. 1881 Electric light introduced at Schlitz's park " Daily Journal established 16 Nov. 1882 Newhall house burned ; 71 lives lost '. 10 Jan. 1883 Public funerals of the victims of the Newhall-house fire held at the Exposition building and at St. John's cathedral.25 Jan. " Milwaukee day school for the deaf opened " Milwaukee Club house opened ' 31 May, 1884 Failure of the Manufacturers' bank 15 June, " St. Paul's church, new edifice dedicated " State Normal school opened 1885 Old waterpower canal filled up " Semi-centennial of the first election of town officers. . .19 Sept. " Statue of Washington by Parks, presented by Miss Elizabeth Plankington, unveiled on Grand ave 7 Nov. " Anarchist riot 6 May, 1886 Demolition of the old Kilbourn mansion, northwest cor. Fourth St. and Grand ave.. begun 10 May, " New Insurance building erected " Layton Art gallery opened 5 Apr. 1888 Ex. -gov. Harrison Ludiugton d. (aged 78) 17 June, 1891 Firedesiroy8300 buildings; loss, $5,000,000; lOlivcslost, 28 Oct. 189 Davidson theatre (opened 1891) burned; 20 firemen thrown into the fire by the falling in of the roof ; 9 lives lost, and the rest badly injured 9 Apr. 189 MAYORS. Solomon Juneau 1846 Horatio N. Wells 1847 Byron Kilbourn 1848 Don A. J. Upham 1849 George H. Walkt-r 1851 Hans Crocker 1852 George H. Wall Mississippi, and on the river he meets father Hennepin " Nicholas Perrot erects a fort on lake Pepin, and takes posses- ! sion of the Minnesota country in the name of the king of t France 8 May, 1689 I Le Seur builds a trading-post on an island in the Mississippi, just above lake Pepin 1695 ! Sieur le Seur, on a search for mines in Minnesota, builds fort I L'Huillier on the St. Pierre, now the Minnesota Oct. 1700 t Jonathan Carver, the first British explorer of Minnesota, ar- ; rives at Mackinaw from Massachusetts, Aug. 1766 ; Green Bay, ; Wis., 18 Sept. ; at Prairie du Chien, 10 Oct. ; falls of St. An- i thony, 17 Nov. ; and ascends the Minnesota river to the I stream which now bears his name 1766 Xorthwestern Fur company builds a stockade at Sandy Lake. 1794 , Heirs of Carver's American wife dispose of their interest in an alleged grant of land in Minnesota to Carver (made by the ; Naudowessies Indians, 1 May, 1767) to Edward Houghton of Vermont, in consideration of 50,000? " Indiana territory created, including part of present state of ; Minnesota. ..." May, 1800 jrerritory of Upper Louisiana formed, including a large portion ' of Minnesota 20 Mch. 1804 jMinnesota east of the Mississippi a part of Michigan territory, 1805 iLieut. Z. M. Pike, ordered by gen. Wilkinson to visit Minnesota i and expel the British traders, arrives at the site of fort Snell- t ing, and in council with the Dakota Indians obtains a grant ! of land for the use of the U. S. 9 miles square on both sides ! of the river 23 Sept. " jiev. Samuel Peters alleges, in a petition to Congress, that he f has purchased from the Carver American heirs their right I to the grant made in 1767 1806 llinnesota east of the Mississippi included in Illinois territory, 1809 'art of Minnesota east of the Mississippi becomes a part of Michigan territory 1819 [{arracks erected at Mendota and occupied by a garrison which I came from Green Bay, Wis., by the Wisconsin river " lorner-stone of fort Snelling laid ; first called fort St. Anthony, ; I 20 Sept. 1820 [hree Mackinaw boats laden with seed wheat, oats, and pease, leave Prairie du Chien, 15 Apr. 1820, for the Scotch set- : tlement at Pembina, where the crops were destroyed by grasshoppers the previous year. Proceeding entirely by wa- ter, except a portage from Big Stone lake to lake Traverse, '^X miles, they arrive at Pembina 3 June, " '3v. Cass of Michigan, with an exploring party from Detroit under sanction of the U. S. government, reaching the Mis- sissippi by Sandy lake, ascends to Cass lake 21 July, " ^n. Leavenworth reports to the commissioners of the land office that the Indians do not recognize grant to Carver in •1767.... 1821 ■r^mill in Minnesota, erected under the supervision of the officers of fort Snelling on the site of Minneapolis 1822 mmittee on public lands report to the Senate on rev. Samuel 515 MIN Peters's claim to the Carver grant of 1767; the original deed not being produced, and for other reasons, it is resolved that the petition be not granted 23 Jan. 1823 First steamboat to navigate the Mississippi from St. Louis to the Minnesota river, the Virginia^ reaches fort Snelling, May, " An expedition fitted out by government, in charge of maj. S. H. Long, discovers that Pembina, the fort of the Hudson Bay company on Red river, is within the U. S. Long erects an oak post on the line, raises the U. S. flag, and proclaims the territory a i)art of the U. S 5 Aug. " A colony of Swiss from the Red River settlement establish themselves near fort Snelling 1827 Henry R. Schoolcraft, with an expedition for exploring the Mississippi, Crow Wing, and St. Croix rivers, reaches the Mis- sissippi by lake Superior and Sandy lake, and reaches the source of the west fork in Itasca lake 13 July, 1832 Rev. W. T. Boutwell establishes at Leech lake the first mission among the Indians in Minnesota west of the Mississippi, Oct. 1833 Jean N. Nicollet leaves fort Snelling to explore the sources of the rivulets that feed Itasca lake 26 July, 1836 Gov. Dodge of Wisconsin territory meets the Ojibways at fort Snelling, and they cede to the U. S. the pine forests of the valley of the St. Croix and its tributaries 29 July, 1837 Deputation of Dakotas conclude a treaty with the U. S. at Washington, ceding all lands east of the Mississippi Sept. " Minnesota is wholly included in Iowa, set off in 1838 from Wisconsin, which was set oft' from Michigan in 1836 1838 By order of secretary of war. troops from fort Snelling expel Swiss squatters on the military reservation east of the Mis- sissippi, between St. Paul and the fort 6 May, 1840 A log chapel, erected by father Lucian Galtier and dedicated to St. Paul (whence the name of the city) .^. . .1 Nov. 1841 Settlement begun at Stillwater by 4 proprietors, wfio erect a saw-mill ^ 10 Oct. 1843 Capt. J. Allen, with a detachment of dragoons, ascends the Des Moines river and crosses to the St. Peter (Minnesota) and Big Sioux rivers 1844 P'irst meeting in Minnesota on the subject of claiming territo- rial privileges for that part of Wisconsin territory not in- cluded in state constitution adopted 13 Mch. 1848, is held in Jackson's store. St. Paul 12 July, 1848 Convention at Stillwater to consider territorial government, 26 Aug. " H. H. Sibley, of St. Peters, elected delegate to Congress from Wisconsin territory not included in the state 30 Oct. " Extract from the diary of Harriet E. Bishop, first school-teach- er in St. Paul: "J. R. Clewett came into Mr. Irwine's house and said. ' My ! how this town is growing ! I counted the smoke of 18 chimneys this morning' " winter of " Congress establishes the territorial government of Minnesota; bounded on south by Iowa and Missouri river, west by the Missouri and White Earth rivers, north by the British pos- sessions, and east by Wisconsin, with St. Paul as capital, 3 Mch. 1849 First number of the Minnesota Pioneer issued by James M. Goodhue 28 Apr. " Alexander Ramsey, of Harrisburg, Pa., appointed governor of Minnesota territory, organizes the government at St. Paul, 1 June, " Chronicle and Register issued at St Paul 25 Aug. " First legislature, consisting of 9 councillors and 18 represen- tatives, meets at the Central house in St. Paul 3 Sei)t. " Act passed to send the Washington Monument Association a slab of red pipe-stone from the Minnesota quarry " St. Paul incorporated as a town Nov. ' ' Minnesota Historical Society organized by law 15 Nov. " Miss Frederika Bremer is the guest of gov. Ramsey 1850 Congress appropriates $20,000 for a territorial prison ^. . . 1851 Treaty at Traverse des Sioux, on Minnesota river, the Sioux cede all lands in Iowa and in Minnesota east of the Red River of the North, lake Traverse, and the Sioux river, 23 July, " Dog train with explorers, under dr. Rae, after search for sir John Franklin, arrives at St. Paul from the north. . .14 Feb. 1852 Prohibitory Liquor law passed; ratified by the people, 5 Apr., but declared void by Supreme court " Joint resolution of Congress changing the name of the river St. Pierre, or St. Peter's, to the Minnesota 19 June, " College of St. Paul, chartered as the Baldwin school, dedicated, 29 Dec. 1853 City ofSt. Paul incorporated 4 Mch. 1854 Convention held at St. Anthony, and the Republican party of Minnesota formed 29 Mch. " Hameline university at Red Wing chartered 3 Apr. " Duluth founded 1856 State Reform school at St. Paul opened " Bill to remove the government to St. Peter's passes the house; the council, Joseph Rolette, chairman of committee on en- rolled bills, being absent, after continuous session of 5 days and nights, is dissolved without acting on the bill 1857 Inkpadootah, a Dakota Indian, at the head of a band, massa- cres a settlement of whites at Springfield, capturing a num- ber of women and children 27 Mch. ' ' Congress grants to Minnesota 6 alternate sections of land per mile to aid in the construction of railroads Mch. " St. John's university opened at Collegeville " Constitutional convention assembles at St. Paul 14 July, 1857. Republicans and Democrats organize separately, prepare drafts, but unite and submit one constitution to the people (ratified 36,240 to 700), St. Paul the capital 29 Aug. " State issues $2,275,000 in bonds, out of $5,000,000 authorized MIN 616 by an amemlmont to the constitution, art. ix. sec. 10, called Miuuosota State Kailroad buuds, the credit of the state being pledged for interest und principal .^ Ifi Apr. 1858 .Minnesota admitted into the Union '.. ..11 May, " Maculester college oiwned at Macalester, Ramsey county '' State .Normal school at Winona opened 1860 Railroads default in interest and the state forecloses " Amendment to constitution, art. ix. sec. 10, amended 1858, for- bidding more bonds to aid railroads, and to sec. 2, providing that no tax or provision for interest or principal of bonds stuill l»e in force until rutitled by the ))eople Nov. '' First regiment of Minnesota volunteers leaves fort Snelling for Washington 22 June, 1861 8ioux Indians, under Little Crow, massacre the whites at Yel- low Medicine agency, 18 Aug. 1862; at New Ulin, in Brown county, 21 Aug. ; attack New Ulm and are repulsed, 23 Aug. ; besiege fort Kidgely for 9 days; attack Cedar City, McLeod county, 3 Sept. ; slate troops" under col. H. H. Sibley march against them, 26 Aug. ; U. S. troops under mj^j.-gen. Pope are despatched to the seat of war. and after a sharp battle at Wood Lake the Indians are defeated, and .500 are taken pris- oners, 300 of whom are sentenced to be hung 22 Sept. 1862 N nety-one captive white women and children surrendered by the Indians to col. Sibley near the Chippewa river. .27 Sept. " Thirty-eight of the 300 Indians sentenced are executed. 26 Dec. " Little Crow killed by a settler in the neighborhood of Hutch- inson, McLood county summer of 1863 Minnesota school for the deaf opened at Faribault " Gtonnet seminary opened at Minneapolis 1865 Prof Eames, state geologist, reports rich silver-bearing quartz near Vermilion lake, in the northeast part of the state " State insjine hospital at St. Peter opened 6 Dec. 1866 MinnesoUi school for the blind opened at Faribault " Carletou college opened at Northfleld 1867 City of .Minnea|>olis incorporated " Amendment to art. vii. sec. 1 of the constitution, striking out the word '• white," ratified by the people Nov. 1868 SUte Reform school at St. Paul opened " Augsburg Theological seminary opened at Minneapolis 1869 State university created by law, 1851 ; Congress grants it 46,000 acres of land, 1857, and same year the first building erected at St. Anthony ; chartered 1868, opened " State Normal school at Mankato opened " State Normal school at St. Cloud opened " Bill to remove seat of government from St. Paul to a place in Kandiyohi county passes both houses, but is vetoed " Convention at St. Paul organizes a State Temperance Society, 6 Oct. " Construction of the Northern Pacific railroad commenced at the Dalles of the St. Louis 15 Feb. 1870 Ship canal across Minnesota point at Duluth, begun " Legislature ratifies the XV. th Amendment, establishes a Board of Immigration, and amends the liquor law so as to allow lo- cal option " Minneapolis and St. Anthony incorporated as one city 1872 Act passes legislature establishing a State Board of Health " Act passed to create a fund for an inebriate asylum at Rochester, by tax upon saloon keepers 1873 State treasurer William Seeger impeached by the House of Representatives, 26 Feb.; pleads guilty, 22 May, "without any corrupt or wilful intent," and is removed from office. . . " Amendment to the constitution ratified by popular vote, per- mitting women to vote for school officers or on school ques- Cushman K. Davis, tions, and to be eligible to any office pertaining to schools, John S. PiMsbury, 2 Nov. 1875 Lucius F. Hubbard, Amendment adopted providing for biennial instead of annual Andrew R. McGill, sessions of the legislature Nov. 1877 William R. Merriam, Act pa^ed, creating a public examiner to superintend the William R. Merriam, books and financial accounts of public educational, charita- Knute Nelson, ble, penal, and reformatory institutions of the state 1878 Knute Nelson, MIN Minnesota Amber-cane Growers' Association organized at .Minneapolis ij State insane asylum at Rochester, provided for by act of leg- islature in 1878, opened i Jan. Ij Minnesota school for the feeble-minded opened at Faribault. . . Act of legislature creating Farmers' Board of Trade, to as- sume supervision over the agricultural interests of the state; one member appointed by the judge of each judicial district Alexander Ramsey appointed U. S. secretary of war 10 Dec. Second centenary of the discovery of the falls of St. Anthony celebrated at Minneapolis 4 July, North wing of asylum for the insane at-St. Peter destroyed by fire; 30 lives lost 15 Nov. State capitol destroyed by fire 1 Mch. Supreme court decides that the amendment to art. ix. of the state constitution, ratified in 1860, is invalid, as impairing the obligation of contracts; the legislature provides (or the settlement of state railroad bonds at 50 cents on the dollar. . William Windom secretary of the treasury 5 Mch. State Normal school located by law at Moorhead State public school for dependent children at Owatoiina founded State insane hospital located at Fergus Falls ....'. Acts passed: F'or aState reformatory at St. Cloud; a municipal government for Duluth; a high-license law where local option does not prohibit, and to abolish the State Board of Immigration, created in 1878 Soldiers' home opened at Minnehaha Falls Nov. State Normal school at Moorhead opened 29 Aug. 188H William Windom again secretary of treasury Mch 1881) Secret (Australian) ballot law, established in cities of over Jl 10,000 inhabitants, by act of Il State reformatory at St. Cloud opened Sept. ^1 Memorial day (30 May) made a legal holiday '• Nearly 100 lives lost by a tornado on lake Pepin 13 July, 1890 State insane hospital at Fergus Falls opened 3 July, •' William Windom, secretary of treasury, dies suddenly after re- j spending to a toast at a banquet given by the New York I Board of Trade at Delmonico's evening of 29 Jan. 1891 j Gen. H. H. Sibley, first governor of Minnesota, d. in St. Paul (aged 80) I8 Feb. " Whaleback steamer Charles W. Wetmore leaves Duluth with a cargo of grain for Liverpool 11 June, " Washburn-Crosby Company of Minneapolis sends out 175 cars containing 22,000 barrels of flour, consigned to the Russian Relief Committee of Philadelphia 23 Mch. 189^: Republican National convention assembles at Minneapolis (United Statks) 7 June, " Fire in Minneapolis; loss, $2,000,000 13 Aug. 189y TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS. Alexander Ramsey of Pennsylvania appointed 2 Apr. 1849 " 4 Mch. 1853 1857 Willis A. Gorman of Indiana. Samuel Medary. STATE. Henry H. Sibley elected Alexander Ramsey " Stephen Miller " William R. Marshall, Republican " Horace Austin. " '< " Oct. " Oct. " 7 Nov. " Nov. " Nov. " 2 Nov. " Nov. " 2 Nov. " Nov. term begins Jan. • Jan. " '' Jan. 1858 186:; I86r. 1861* 187;^ 187;". 1881 1891 1893 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF MINNESOTA. Name. No. of Congress. Date. James M. Rice William W. Phelps... Morton S. Wilkinson. Alexander Ramsey. . . Daniel S. Norton William Windom Ozora P. Stearns Samuel J. R. McMillan. Dwight M. Sabin Ciishman K. Davis William D. Washburn.. . Knute Nelson 35th to 37th 35th 36th to 38th 38th 39th to 41st 41st " 45th 4l8t " 43d 44th " 49th 47th " 49th 50th " 51st " 54th 54th " 1858 to 1863 1858 " 1859 1859 " 1865 1863 1865 to 1870 1870 " 1881 1871 " 1875 1875 " 1887 1881 " 1887 1887 " Seated 12 May, 1858. Seated 22 May, 1858. Died 13 July, 1870. [Appointed pro tern, in place of Norton; afterwards elected. [ signed. Secretary of treasury, Garfield's administration. Elected in place of Norton. Elected in place of Windom. Term expires 1899. i Elected gov. and after to the U. S. Senate. milior'ca, one of the Balearic islands. Port Mahon in Minorca was captured by lieut.-geii. Stanhope and sir John Leake in 1708, and was ceded to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in July, 1756, and adna. Byng fell a victim to public indig- nation for not relieving it. Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763; taken 5 Feb. 1782; again cap- tured by the British under gen. Stuart, without the loss of a man, 15 Nov. 1798 ; given up at the peace of Amiens, 25 Mch. 1802. lIi'not'§ Ledge lii^ht-hou§e. Light-house. mill'Otaur, a mythological monster, half man and half bull, offspring of Pasiphae, wife of Minos, king of Crete (1210 B.C.), and a bull. Daedalus built the labyrinth for it. Laby- rinths. It fed on human flesh, which the Athenians were obliged to furnish in the persons of youths and maideuf. Theseus slew it with the aid of Ariadne. minster or monasterium, a home for monks. Westminster, York. MIN 517 IIlillStrel§, originally pipers appointed by lords of naan- ors to divert copyholders at work, owed their origin to the Sax- on gleemen or harpers, and continued till about 1560. John of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into companies, even at noblemen's houses; but in Elizabeth's reign they were adjudged rogues and vagabonds (1597). " The last of all the Bards was he Who sung of Border chivalry; A wandering harper, scorned and poor He begged his bread from door to door, And tuned, to please a peasant's ear. The harp a king had loved to hear." —Scott, "The Lay of the Last Minstrel." mint, an office where money is coined by public au- thority, Athelstan made regulations to govern the mint about 928. There were provincial mints under control of that of London. Henry I. is said to have instituted a mint at Win- chester, 1125. Stow says the mint was kept by Italians, the English being ignorant of the art of coining, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators were incorporated by charter of king Edward III., including the warden, master, comptroller, assay-master, workers, coiners, and subordinates. The first entry of gold brought to the mint for coinage occurs in 18 Edw. III. 1343. Tin was coined by Charles II. 1684 ; and gun-metal and pewter by his successor, James, after his abdication. While sir Isaac Newton was warden, 1699-1727, the debased coin was called in, and new issued at the loss of the government. mint of the United States was established at Philadelphia, Pa., by act of Congress in Apr. 1792, and began to coin money the next year, but it was not until Jan. 1795 that it was put into full operation. It was the only mint until 1835, when other mints were established at Charlotte, N. C, Dahlonega, Ga., and New Orleans, La. In 1854 another was located at San Fran- cisco, Cal., and in 1870 at Carson Citj', Nev., and shortly after at Denver, Col., although no minting has ever been done at the latter place, only assaying. The mints at Charlotte, N. C, and Dahlonega, Ga., were discontinued in 1861. Assay, Coin. min'uet, a French dance, said to have been first danced by Louis XIV., 1653. I minus. Plus. ! minute-men. At a session of the Provincial Congress ; of Massachusetts, 23 Nov. 1774, it was voted to enroll 12,000 i minute-men— volunteers pledged to be ready for the field at I a minute's notice. I Min'yae, a race celebrated in ancient epic poetry of i Greece, but whose name almost disappears before history be- j gins. The adventurers who sailed in the Argonautic expedi- ; tion are called Minyans. lolcos is said to have been founded I by them. Their record is fabulous Orchomenus. I " In Thessaly, beside the tumbling sea, Once dwelt a folk men called the Minyse, For coming from Orchomenus the old, .... they built lolcos." j^ — William Morris, ' ' Jason. ' ' I miracle play§. Drama. [ Miranda's expedition. United States, 1809. I mirrors. Ancient mirrors were made of metal ; those |of the Jewish women of brass. Mirrors of silver were intro- nluced by Praxiteles, 328 b.c. Mirrors or looking-glasses were made at Venice, 1300 a.d. ; and in England, at Lambeth, near London, in 1673. The improvements in manufacturing plate- '^dass of large size have cheapened looking-glasses very much. Various methods of coating glass by a solution of silver, avoid- ing the use of mercury, so injurious to health, have been made y Liebig and others. Miscliianza entertainment. United 5TATES, 1778. Misere're (Psalm li.), sung at Rome in the " Tenebrce," he service in Holy or Passion week, in a peculiarly effective nanner, to old music. One arrangement is by Costa'nzo Festa, •atedl517. *' Missal" or " Mass-book," the Romanist ritual lompiled by pope Gelasius I. 492-96; revised by Gregory I. J90-604. Various missals were in use till the Roman missal Was MIS adopted by the council of Trent, 1 545-63. The " Missal " was superseded in England by the "Book of Common Prayer," 1649. Missionary Ridg^e, Tenn., battle of, 25 Nov. 1863. Chattanooga campaign. Mississippi, one of the Gulf states of the United States, is bounded north by Tennessee. The Tennessee river touches • the state in the extreme north- ~ east corner. On the west the Mississippi river separates it from Arkansas and Louisiana above lat. 31° N., which di- vides the state from Louisiana on the south, 110 miles east from the Mississippi river to the Pearl. That portion of tlie state east of the Pearl river extends south to the Gulf of Mexico, affording a coast line of about 80 miles. Ala- bama forms the entire eastern boundary. It is limited in latitude between 30° 13' and 35° N., and in longitude between 88° 7' and 91° 41' W. Area, 46,340 sq. miles, in 75 counties ; pop. 1890, 1,289,600. Capital, Jackson. Fernando De Soto, on his expedition, enters the present state of Mississippi near the junction of the Tombigbee and Black Warrior rivers; crosses the Pearl in Leake county, and reaches the Indian village of Chickasaw Dec. 1540 Indians attack and burn Chickasaw, which Pe Soto had forti- fied and occupied as winter-quarters Feb. 1541 De Soto reaches the Mississippi, which he crosses, probably within 30 miles of Helena, in boats built for the purpose, Apr. " Mississippi included in the proprietary charter of Carolina 1663 Louis Joliet and p6re Jacques Marquette descend the Missis- sippi as far as lat. 33° 1673 La Salle descends the Mississippi to its mouth 1682 Lemoine d'Iberville plants a colony on the bay of Biloxi, May, 1699 Iberville, Bienville, and chevalier de Tonti ascend the Missis- sippi to the present site of Natchez Feb. 1700 Fort Rosalie at Natchez erected by Bienville, governor of Lou- isiana, and completed 3 Aug. 1716 "Mississippi company," under sanction of the regent of France, chartered with exclusive privilege of the commerce of Louisiana and New France, with authority to enforce its rights, and obligated to introduce within 25 years 6000 white persons and 3000 negro slaves Aug. 1717 Mississippi company grams laud to various individuals and companies for settlements on the Yazoo, at Natchez, on the bay of St. Louis, and on Pascngoula bay 1718 Three hundred settlers locate at Natchez 1720 Three hundred emigrants, destined for the lands of Madame de Chaumonot, arrive at Tasciigoula 3 Jan. 1721 Seat of government of Louisiana removed from Biloxi to New Orleans 1723 Chopart, commander of fort Kosalie, demands that Great Sun, head of the Natchez tribe of Indians, should vacate White Apple village, about 6 miles from the fort, and surrender it to the French ; a conspiracy of Indians and the massacre of the garrison follow on '29 Nov. 1729 Destruction of the Natchez by the French and Choctaws, 28 Jan. -8 Feb. 1730 Mississippi company surrenders its charter; the king proclaims all Louisiana free to all his subjects 1732 Mississippi included in the proprietary charter of Georgia " Unsuccessful expedition of Bienville against the Chickasaws in the northern part of the present state of Mississippi, May, 1736 Capt. George Johnstone appointed governor of west Florida, including portion of Mississii)pi south of 31st parallel acquired by treaty of Paris 21 Nov. 1763 A second decree of the king in council extends the limits of west Florida north to the mouth of the Yazoo, to include the settlements on the Mississippi 10 June, 1764 Scotch Highlanders from North Carolina and Scotland build "Scotia,"' a settlement on the upper branches of the Homo- chitto, about 30 miles eastward from Natchez 1768-70 Richard and Samuel Swayze of New Jersey, the latter a Con- gregational minister, purchase land on the Homochitto, in Adams county, settle and establish a church 1772-73 James Willing secures authority from Congress, assembled at Lancaster, Pa., to descend the Mississippi and secure the neutrality of the colonies at Natchez, Bayou Pierre, etc 1778 Fort Panmure, formerly the French fort Rosalie, garrisoned by a company of infantry under capt. Michael Jackson, by order of the governor of west Florida " Gen. don Bernardo de Galvez. proposing to expel the English from Florida, storms fort Bute. 7 Sept. 1779, and captures Baton Rouge, commanded by lieut.-col. Dickinson, who sur- renders all west Florida upon the Mississippi, including fort Panmure and the district of Natchez, to the Spanish, 21 Sei)t. 1779 1782 1785 1788 1795 1796 MIS 81* Fort Paiimur© surreiuleroti by the Sjwniards to Insurgents, under the Britisli tint? after a siege of a week 30 Apr. IV>n Carlos cJe (JrandpiiS. apiwinted civil aud mililary com- inaiuler of the district of Natchez, '^9 July. 1781, takes meas- ures to punish Insurgents who had not tied after the capture of IVntwicola, and imprisons 7, charged with promoting a Smeral rebellion against government in the "district of iilchez " Definitive treaty of peace establishes the southern bound- ary of the U. S. at the 31st parallel N. lat, from the Mis- sissippi to the St. Mary's river; but in ceding Florida to S|>ikin no boundary on the north is meniioued, hence Spain claims north to the mouth of the Yazoo river; signed, 3 Sept. County of Bourlwn established by (loorgia of all lands east of the Mississippi between lat. 31° aud the mouth of the Yazoo, to whii-h Indian titles had been extinguished 7 Feb. Act erecting Bourl)on county repealeil 1 Feb. Four companies chartered bv the Georgia legislature with con- trol of more than 3,mX),0(X) acres of land in Mississippi at the rate of 2)4 cents por acre, to be paid into the state treasury (Yazoo spkculations) 7 Jan. Treatv at Madrid with Spain fixes the southern boundary of the'U S. at 31° N. lat. ; the western boundary the middle of the Mississippi river, with free navigation 27 Oct. Oeonda legislature rescinds grants to the Mississippi companies, * ^ 13 Feb. Spanish commissioner don Manuel Gayoso de I.emos meets the U. S. commissioner Andrew Kllicott at Natchez to carry out the provisions of the treaty regarding the boundary-line between the U. S. and Spain '24 Feb. 1797 Col. Ellicott, suspecting the fidelity of a committee of public safety, appointed by citizens impatient of delay in carrying out the provisions of the treaty, succeeds in dissolving the committee and securing the election of a permanent com- mittee of public safety July, " On 10 Jan. 1798, col. Ellicott receives notice from the governor- general of New Orleans that orders had been received from the king to surrender the territory, but it was not until the Spanish had lost hope from intrigues in the west that on 23 Mch. fort Nogales on Walnut hill was evacuated, and fort Panmure about miduiglit 29-30 Mch. 1798 Act of Congress approved creating Mississippi territory with boundaries as follows: Mississippi river on the west, the 31st parallel on the south, and a line drawn due east from the mouth of the Yazoo river to the Chattahoochee on the north, including the present state of Alabama. .7 Apr. " Georgia constitution of this year defines definitely the boun- daries claimed by the state, which include the Mississippi territory, established by act of Congress '-for the amicable settlement of limits with the state of Georgia and the estab- lishment of a government in the Mississippi territory " " Winthrop Sargent, former secretary of the Northwest territory, appointed first territorial governor of Mississippi, aud arrives at Natchez 6 Aug. " Gen. Wilkinson reaches Natchez and fixes headquarters at Loftus Heights, afterwards fort Adams 2G Aug. " Act of Congress supplemental regarding the government of the Mississippi territory, and providing that settlement shall be made with Georgia for claims on or before 10 Mch. 1803 1800 Seat of government removed from Natchez to Washington. 6 miles east, by act of assembly and council 1 Feb, 1802 Articles of agreement and cession under the Compromise- act, secures to the U. S. all territory south of Tennessee, north of the Spanish line of demarkation and eastward from the Mississippi to the Chattahoochee 24 Apr. " Outrages and murders by the bandit Mason and his gang along the great Natchez trace; the governor offers a reward for his head, which is brought to Washington by Little Harpe, who fled from Kentucky in 1799 and joined Mason in his depredations. Harpe and another of the band murder Mason for the reward, but are recognized, arrested, condemned, and executed at Greenville " Weekly newspaper, the Natchez Gazette, pub. by col. Andrew Marschalk at Natchez '< Natchez incorporated as a city 10 Mch. 1803 Jefferson college established at Washington by act of legisla- ture " "Mississippi Society for the Acquirement of Useful Knowl- edge " incorporated 8 Nov. " Natchez hospital for sick and distressed boatmen employed in the navigation of the Mississippi river and others, incor- porated 1804 Whole of the territory ceded to the U. S. by Georgia, north of the Mississippi territory and south of Tennessee, is annexed to Mississippi territory by act of Congress 27 Mch. " Aaron Burr, arrested at Natchez, gives bonds to appear before the territorial court 3 Feb. The court refusing release from bis recognizance, 5 Feb., next morning it was ascertained that he had made his escape 6 Feb. 1807 Judge Harry Toulmin's digest of the laws of Mississippi adopt- ed by the legislature 10 Feb. " Congress to extend the right of suff"rage in the territory per- mitting the people to elect delegates to Congress 9 Jan. 1808 Bank of Mississippi chartered 23 Dec. 1809 Mobile district, lying south of lat. 31° and between the Pearl and Perdido rivers, is added to Mississippi by act of. .14 May, 1812 Expedition under gen. F. L. Claiborne attacks the holy city of the Creek Indians called Escanachaha, on the east side of the Alabama river, which they burn 23 Dec. 1813 Enabling act for Mississippi passed by Congress, establishing MIS the eastern boundary, " a line drawn direct from the month of Bear creek on tile Tennessee river to the uorthwestein corner of Washington county on the Tombigbce, thence due south with western line of said county to the sea," aud the territory of Alabama created 1 Mch. 1817 Convention for framing a constitution meets at Washington, 7 July, 1817, and completes its labors 15 Aug. •» First General assembly meets at Washington (5 Oct. " .Mississippi admitted into the Union 10 Dec. " Bank of Mississippi in Natchez authorized by law to establish branches, and the state becomes a stockholder 4 Fob. 1818 By treaty with maj-gen. Jackson of Tennessee, and maj. gen. Thomas Hinds of Mississijipi, commissioners of the U. S , the Choctaws relinquish nearly 5,500,000 acres of land, which formed the county of Hinds ; known as the "New Purchase" treaty 18 Oct. 1820 Legislature appoints a committee to locate the seat of govern- ment by act of 12 Feb. 1821, and by a supplemental act styles the new capital Jackson 28 Nov. 1821 Board of Internal Improvement, consisting of the governor and 3 commissioners, organized 1829 Planters' bank chartered 10 Feb. 1830 Treaty of Dancing Rabbit creek, by which the Choctaws cede the rest of their lands in Mississippi to the U. S 28 Sept. '< Treaty at I'outotoo creek; the Chickasaws cede their lands in Mississippi and agree to remove from the state 20 Oct. 1832 Convention for framing a new constitution meets at Jackson, 10 Sept. 183'2, and completes its labors, 2(5 Oct. Constitution ratified at the next general election. " Appropriation made for the erection of a State-house and exec- utive mansion at the capital 2() Feb. 1833 Act approved incorporating the Mississippi Union bank and providing for $15,500,000 in state stock as capital as soon as a corresponding amount in private subscriptions should come in , 21 Jan. Supplementary act authorizes to an immediate iss»»e of $5,000,000 of state stock, which was sold at a heavy discount through the bank of the United States 15 Fel). Legislature sanctions the sale of stock for the bank State penitentiary at Jackson opened 15 Apr. Gov. McNutt by message advises repudiating the Union bank bonds sold to the U. S. bank of Pennsylvania, an institution not authorized by its charter to buy or sell such bonds Legislature by resolution denies that the state is under any obligation, legal or moral, to redeem the Union bank bonds.. State treas. Richard S. Graves arrested for embezzlement of state funds to the amount of $44,838.46. He escapes from the house of the sheriff' and tlees to Canada Robert J. Walker appointed secretary of U. S. treasury. .6 Mch. Law passed establishing common schools 4 Mch. Mississippi regiment, under command of col. Jefferson Davis, serves in the Mexican war ; University of Mississippi at Oxford, chartered in 1844, is opened Franklin female college at Holly Springs, opened in 1848, is chartered , 184» Mississippi institution for the education of the blind, at Jack- son, opened " Mississippi college at Clinton chartered and opened 1850 Gov. Quitman, arrested by the U. S. marshal for violation of the neutrality law of 1818 in abetting the expedition against Cuba, resigns as governor. He is acquitted, renominated, but declines 1851 Chickasaw female college at Pontotoc chartered and opened. . . 1852 Jefferson Davis of Mississippi appointed U. S. secretary of war by pres. Pierce 5 Mch. 1853 Mississippi institution for the deaf and dumbat Jackson opened, IS^A State lunatic asylum at Jackson opened 1855 Amendment to the constitution ratified, appointing the first • Monday in Oct. as day for general election, and making the term of office of the governor 2 years 2 Feb. 1856 Jacob Thompson secretary of the interior 6 Mch. 1857 Southern convention; delegates from 8 states assemble at Vicksburg and consider reopening the slave-trade 11 May, 1859 Whitworth female college at Brookhaven opened and char- tered " By joint resolution the legislature directs the governor to ap- point commissioners to the several slave holding states, ask- ing their co-operation in secession. Legislature adjourned, 30 -Nov. 1860 State convention meets at Jackson, 7 Jan. 1861, passes an ordi- nance of secession, 9 Jan., 84 to 15, and amends the state con- stitution by inserting "Confederate States" in the place of United States 15 Jan. 1861 Confederates occupy the unfinished fort on Ship island, under construction since 1855 .20 Jan. " State convention ratifies the constitution of the Confederate states 26 Mch. " Town of Biloxi captured by Federal naval force under capt. Melancthon Smith 31 Dec. " Confederate government removes the state archives from Jack- son to Columbus for safety 16 June, 1862 Chief military operations in Mississippi during 1862 were as follows : Gen. Beauregard evacuates Corinth, and Halleck takes possession, 29 May ; U. S. gunboat Essex bombards Natchez and the city surrenders, 10 Sept. ; Rosecrans defeats confederates under Price in a battle at luka, 19-20 Sept. ; unsuccessful attack on Corinth by the confederates under gen. Van Dorn, 3-4 Oct. ; Grenada occupied by gen. Hovey's expedition, 20.000 strong, 2 Dec. ; Van Dorn defeats the Fed- eral cavalry in battle of Cofleeville, 5 Dec. ; Holly Springs 1837 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1S45 1846 1848 MIS 519 surrendered to the confederates, 20 Dec. ; unsuccessful at- \ tack of federals on Viuksburg 27-29 Dec. 1862 linportaiit military operations during 1863: Col. Grierson with Federal troops makes a raid through the state from Tennes- see to Louisiana, 17 Apr. -5 May; naval battle of Grand Gulf, 29 Apr. ; McClernand defeats the confederates at Port Gib- son, 1 May; Raymond occupied by federals under gen. Mc- pherson, 12 May; McPherson occupies Jackson, 14 May; Grant defeats Pemberton at Champion Hills, 16 May, and at Big Black river, 17 May; Vicksburg invested by forces under gen. Grant, 18 May; Vicksburg surrendered, 4 July; Jackson evacuated by gen. Johnston, who had occupied it after the advance of the federals on Vicksburg, and the city is occupied by gen. Sherman 16 July, 1863 Sherman's Meridian expedition leaves Vicksburg 3 Feb. 1864 Forrest, confederate, defeats Sturgis at Guntown 10 June, " Upon the surrender of gen. Taylor to gen. Canby. gov. Clarke by proclamation recalls the state officers, with the archives, to Jackson, and convenes the legislature. He recommends a convention to repeal the ordinance of secession and re- model constitution 6 May, 1865 Judge William L. Sharkey appointed provisional governor by pres. Johnson, the Federal government not recognizing gov. Clarke and the legislature 13 June, " Amendments to the constitution of 1832 and ordinances adopted by a convention called by the provisional governor, which met at Jackson, 14 Aug., and completed its labors, 26 Aug. " Law conferring civil rights upon freedmen '' •Gov. Clarke arrested and imprisoned at fort Pulaski " By Reconstruction act Mississippi is placed in the 4th military district under maj. -gen. Ord 2 Mch. 1867 By order of gen. Ord, W. H. McCardle, editor of the Vicksburg Times, is confined in a military prison on charge of obstruct- ing the Reconstruction acts 13 Nov. " Maj. gen. Ord is directed by order of the president to turn over his command to gen. A. C. Gillem 28 Dec. " Legislature unanimously rejects the XlV.th Amendment. .Jan. 1868 ■Convention of landowners from Mississippi, Alabama, Tennes- see, and Louisiana, at Jackson, to organize a "Freehold Land and Colonization Company" to encourage emigration in each of these states 31 Mch. " «en. Irvin McDowell takes command of 4th military district, 4 June, " •Gov. Humphreys reluctantlj' forced to vacate the executive mansion for maj. -gen. Adelbert Ames, appointed provisional governor by gen. McDowell 15 June, " •Constitution framed by a convention under the Reconstruction act, which sits at Jackson, 7 Jan. to 15 May, 1868, is rejected by the people by 56,231 for and 63,860 against 28 June, " Ifational Union Republican party of Mississippi in conven- tion at Jackson, nominate Louis Dent for governor, the ma- jority of the Democrats concur 8 Sept. 1869 Rust university at Holly Springs chartered and opened " "Tougaloo university at Tougaioo established " At state election the constitution of 15 May, 1868, is ratified by 105,223 for and 954 against; the vote against disfran- chising Confederate soldiers almost unanimous, 30 Nov.-l Dec. " Congress readmits Mississippi into the Union 17 Feb. 1870 School law organizing a State Board of Education and provid- ing for a superintendent of public education " ■State Normal school at Holly Springs opened " 'Planters, Manufacturers, and Mechanics' Association of the state of Mississippi " incorporated 1871 Alcorn university at Rodney, created by act of legislature 13 May, 1871, opened 7 Feb. 1872 East Mississippi female college opened and chartered " ^tarkville female institute, opened in 1869, chartered " Any rate of interest agreed upon in writing made legal; 6 per cent, the legal rate in the absence of any agreement 1873 At a mass-meeting of taxpayers of Warren county at Vicks- burg., 2 Dec. 1874, a committee is sent to sheriff Peter Crosby and clerk of the Chancery court G. W. Davenport, to demand their resignations, "satisfied that said officials of this county were stealing and plundering our substance. " Cros- by resigned and Davenport absconded Dec. 1874 Political strife between state officers and citizen taxpayers leads to a conflict of races. Armed negroes approach Vicks- burg from various directions, are met by citizens, and dis- persed with considerable loss of life 7 Dec. " Legislature, convened in extra session by gov. Ames, 8 Dec. 1874, calls upon the president "by military power to sup- press domestic violence, to restore peace and order in this state, and to guarantee to all citizens the equal and impar- tial enjoyment of their constitutional and legal rights," 17 Dec. " Pres. Grant by proclamation orders the people of Warren county to refrain from forcible resistance to the laws, and to -submit peaceably to the authorities 21 Dec. " jPeople ratify the following amendment to art. xii. sec. 5 of ); the constitution of 1868: "Nor shall the state assume, re- deem, secure, or pay any indebtedness or pretended indebt- edness claimed to be due by the state of Mississippi to any person, association, or corporation whatsoever, claiming the same as owners, holders, or assignees of any bond or bonds now generally known as.Union bank bonds or Planters' bank ."onds" 1875 ontlict between office-holders and people still continuing, several riots occur, notably at Yazoo City, 1 Sept., and Clin- ton, 4 Sept. Gov. Ames again appeals to the president for MIS protection, which is refused, and at the state election the Republican party is generally defeated. Senator H. R. Rev- els, colored, wrote to the president: "My people are nat- urally Republicans, but as they grow older in freedom so do they in wisdom. A great portion of them have learned that they were being used as mere tools, and, as in the late election, not being able to correct the existing evil among themselves, they determined, by casting their bal- lots against these unprincipled adventurers, to overthrow them," Nov. 1875 Lieut. -gov. Alexander K. Davis impeached and found guilty, 13 Mch. ; T. W. Cardoza, superintendent of public education, resigns 21 Mch. ; gov. Ames, having been impeached 25 Feb., resigns his office 28 Mch. 1876 Amendment to the constitution abolishing the office of lieu- tenant-governor " State Board of Health created by act of legislature 1877 Acts passed by legislature: To establish and maintain in the state a system of public free schools; that Alcorn university be hereafter known as the Alcorn Agricultural and Mechan- ical college of the state of Mississippi; to establish the Agri- cultural and Mechanical college of the state of Mississippi; making the legislative sessions biennial 1878 Mississippi Valley Cotton Planters' Association organized at Vicksburg 1879 Mississippi Valley Labor convention meets at Vicksburg to consider the negro-exodus question 5 May, " Revised code of Mississippi laws made by hon. J. A. P. Camp- bell, adopted by the legislature 1880 Agricultural and Mechanical college of the state of Mississippi, for white students, opened at Starkville 6 Oct. " Shuqualak female college opened at Shuqualak, 1880; char- tered 1883 Southern Christian institute and industrial school at Edwards opened " Law passed prohibiting the selling or giving away of intoxi- cating liquors within 5 miles of the University of Missis- sippi " Interstate Levee convention assembles at Vicksburg 1 Oct. 1883 East Mississippi insane asvlum, established at Meridian in 1884, opened ." 12 Jan. 1885 Kavanaugh college, Holmesville, opened 1884, chartered " Industrial institute and college for education of white girls of Mississippi, chartered 1884, opened at Columbus 22 Oct. " General Local Option law passed 1886 Extensive negro emigration from the hill country of Mississippi to the river bottoms along the Mississippi in the Yazoo sec- tion commences in Hinds and Rankin counties Nov. " Laying of the corner-stone of the monument to the Confederate dead on the capitol grounds at Jackson 25 May, 1888 Legislature introduces the Australian ballot system of voting in all except congressional elections 1890 State treasurer Hemingway convicted of embezzling $315,- 612.19 by the Supreme court 1 Dec. " Constitutional convention which meets at Jackson, 12 Aug. 1890, adjourns 1 Nov., having promulgated a new constitu- tion to take effect 1 Jan. 1891 Monument to Confederate dead unveiled at Jackson. . .3 June, " A fire started by an insane inmate, J. D. Brown, consumes the main building of the State insane asylum at Jackson; the in- mates, nearly 600, are saved except Brown 16 Feb. 1892 TERKITORIAL GOVERNORS. "Winthrop Sargent appointed 10 May, 1798 William C. C. Claiborne " 10 July, 1801 Robert Williams " 1804 David Holmes appointed Mch. 1809 STATE GOVERNORS. . Nov. David Holmes term begins George Poindexter " " Walter Leake " " Lieut.gov. Gerard C. Brandon acting " David Holmes term begins. " Gerard C. Brandon " " Abram M. Scott " " Lieut.-gov. Fountain Winston acting " Hiram G. Runnels term begins Jan. Charles Lynch " " Alexander G. McNutt, Democrat " " Tilgham M. Tucker, " " " Albert G. Brown, " " " Joseph W. Matthews, " " " John A. Quitman, " " " John Isaac Guion, president of the senate, acting 3 Feb. James Whitefleld, " " " " 25 Nov. Henry S. Foote, Union term begins Jan. John J. McRae " " William McWillie " 16 Nov. John J. Pettus, Democrat " Jan. Jacob Thompson " " Charles Clarke " " W. L. Sharkey, provisional appointed 13 June, Benjamin G. Humphreys term begins 16 Oct. Gen. Adelbert Ames, provisional. appointed 15 June, James L. Alcorn, Republican term begins Jan. R. C. Powers acting Dec. Adelbert Ames, Republican term begins Jan. John M. Stone acting 29 Mch. Robert Lowry term begins Jan. John M. Stone " " 1817 1819 1821 1825 1827 1831 1842 1844 1848 1850 1851 1852 1854 1857 1864 1865 1870 1874 1876 1882 1890 MIS MIS UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF MISSISSIPPI. Name. No. of CoDRreM. Dftt«. 18th to 16th 1817 to 1820 15tb 1817 16th to 18th 1820 to 1825 19th " 22d 1825 " 1832 19th " 20th 1826 " 1829 2l8t 1830 2l8t to 23d 1830 to 1836 22d " 25th 1832 " 1838 24th " 29th 1836 " 1845 25th 1838 25th 1838 26th to 28th 1839 to 1846 29th 1845 29th to 30th 1845 to 1847 30th " 32d 1847 " 1851 30th " 32d 1847 " 1861 32d 1852 32d to 34th 1852 to 1857 32d 1852 " 1853 33d to 36th 1854 " 1861 35th " 36th 1857 " 1861 [37th, 38th, 39th, 40th 41st to 43d 1870 to 1874 41st 1870 " 1871 42d to 44th 1871 " 1877 43d 1874 44lh to 46th 1875 to 1881 45th " 48th 1877 " 1885 47th " 1881 " 49th " 53d 1885 " 1894 53d " 1894 " RemarkA. Walter Leake Thomas H. Williams David Holmes Powhatau Ellis Thomas U. Reed .... Robert H. Adams George Poiiulextor. . John Black Robert J. Walker James F. Trotter Thomas H. VVillianis Johu Henderson Joseph \V. Chalmers , Jesse Speight Jefferson Davis Henry S. Foote John I. McRae Stephen Adams Walter Brooke Albert G. Brown JeOerson Davis Adelbert Ames Hiram R. Revels (colored).. James Lusk Alcorn Henry R. Pease Blanche K. Bruce (colored). Lucius Q. C. Lamar James Z. George Edward C. Walthall A. J. MclAurin Seated 11 Dec. 1817. Resigned. Seated 11 Dec. 1817. Elected in place of Leake. Resigned. Appo'mted pro tern, in place of Holmes. Resigned. Elected in place of Holmes. Died 1829. Elected in place of Reed. Died 1830. ( Elected in place of Adams. Elected president pro tern. 25 June, \ 1834. Elected in place of Ellis. Resigned. Resigned. Elected in place of Black. Resigned. Appointed in place of Trotter. Elected in place of Walker. Died 1847. Elected in place of Speight. Resigned 1851. Resigned 1851. Appointed 2)ro tern, in place of Davis. Elected in place of Davis. Elected in place of Foote. Seat declared vacant 1861. Seat declared vacant 1861. , Congresses vacant.] Resigned. Elected in place of Ames. Appointed register of the treasury under Garfield. Secretary of the interior under pres. Cleveland. Term expires 1899. Resigned 18 Jan. Poor health. Elected in place of Walthall. Ilt§§i8§ippi river (Ind. Micke-sepi, "father of waters " ), the largest river in North America, and in length of navigable tributaries and facilities afforded to commerce the greatest river in the world, being the recipient of all waters flowing east from the Rocky mountains and west from the Alleghanies. Lake Itasca, in the state of Minnesota, lat. 47° 15' N., Ion. 95° 54' W., is considered the source of the Mis- sissippi. The outlet of lake Itasca is about 12 feet wide and 15 to 18 inches deep ; after flowing about 1330 miles, it unites with the Missouri (termed a tributar}', but properly the main stream), which, rising in the remote Rocky mountains, flows 3000 miles before reaching the junction, after which their united waters enter the gulf of Mexico, 1286 miles below. Its width at mean water-mark is about 3500 ft. at St. Louis, 4000 ft. at Cairo, and 2500 ft. at New Orleans. PRINCIPAL PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRIBUTARIES OF THE MISSISSIPPI, THEIR LENGTH, AND AREA OF TERRITORY DRAINED. Primary tributaries. Missouri (length, 3000 miles) Ohio (length from Pittsburgh, 957 miles; from Cou- dersport, 1265 miles) Arkansas (length, 1800 miles) Red (length, miles) Secondary tributaries. Length. Yellowstone 600 miles Platte 900 " Niobrara 450 " Kansas 250 " Osage 500 " Big Sioux 300 " Tenne.ssee 1100 " Cumberland 600 " Kentucky 260 " Licking 100 " Great Kanawha. 110 " Big Sandy 120 " Muskingum 110 " Sciota 250 " Green 300 " Wabash 500 " Canadian 900 " Cimarron 600 " Neosho 450 " 1200) Area drained. 518,000 sq. miles. Ouachita 500 214,000 189,000 97,000 LESSER PRIMARY TRIBUTARIES ABOVE THE MISSOURL Minnesota length, 450 miles I St. Croix " 200 ' Wisconsin Rock Iowa Des Moines Illinois 500 250 400 169,000 BELOW THE MISSOURL Kaskaskia length, 300 miles ' St. Francis " 450 White " 900 Big Black " 200 Yazoo " 500 " I With many bayous. J Mean annual discharge of the Mississippi into the gulf is com- 57,000 puted at 20,000,000,000,000 of cubic ft., varying in dry season? ' from 11,000,000,000,000 to 27,000,000,000,000 in wet. This amount being about X of the rainfall on the area of its drainage. Below the mouth of the Ohio the river traverses to tlie gulf rich alluvial bottom lands, often overflowed, with immense damage to property. The following notices mark the years of greatest recorded floods: Bienville, the F"rench commander, had selected a place for a settlement on the Mississippi, but the high water prevented, 1718. Water so high that many levees were broken and great damage done, from Dec. 1735 to June, 173G. Severe again in 1770, '82, '85, '91, '96, '99, 1809; very severe, highest 4 May, 1811, '13, '15, '16, '23, '24, '28, '44; very disastrous Ai)r., May, June; 1849, '50, '51, '58, the worst up to this time; 1859-62, the highest at Memphis ever known ; 1874, 1882, 1890 one of the worst ever known ; 1892-93. Levees. — To prevent these overflows the French began at once the erection of levees along the bank of the river in Louisiana, and when the engineer De la Tour laid out New Orleans in 1718, he directed that a levee be built on its river front. This was begun, in 1720, and finished 1727, being 5400 ft. long, 4 ft. high, and 1« ft. | wide at the top. During the year 1728 the work was extended above and below the city, the expense borne by each planter | along his own front. In 173.5 there were 12 miles of levees below j the city and 30 above. After Louisiana came into possession ot j the U. S., 1803, the work was greatly extended, and by 1828 had ' reached the mouth of the Red river, and in 1844 extended to Na- poleon, Ark. It was supposed that the immense swamp and bot- tom lands along the river above Louisiana acted as great reser- voirs for retaining the surplus water in times of floods, and if the water was prevented from entering them the floods would be much worse below, therefore the action of the government in ar- , ranging for a general system of embankment of the river above j Louisiana caused great alarm in that state, and in 1850 Congress j ordered the necessary investigation and survey of the river. The i work was placed in charge of capt. (later general) A. A. Humphrey and lieut. Abbott, U. S. A. ; and their elaborate report, covering 10 years' labor and investigations, was pub. 1861. These investiga- tions established that no diversion of tributaries was possible; j that no reservoirs artificially constructed could keep back the I spring freshets which caused the floods; that the making of cut- ; offs, sometimes advocated, would be in the highest degree injuri- ous; and finally, that levees, properly constructed and judiciously placed, would afford protection to the entire alluvial region. Hy 1860 the levees had reached Cairo, 111., and this system of protec- tion was in good condition when the civil war put a stop to fur- ther improvement. It is estimated that up to this time the le- vees along the Mississippi and its tributaries had cost $24,000,000. During the war and for some time after no attempt was made to extend or keep in repair the levees already built. After the great flood of 1874, Congress created a commission of .5 engineers to determine and report on the best system for perma- nent relief from floods. Their report, 1875, endorsed that of 18fil, and advocated a general levee system. Another complaint was now heard, and that was low water; 43 places below Red river being reported at times less than 10 ft., and 13 places less than 5 ft. The aggregate length of such places being 150 miles. To de- vise relief, 5 commissioners were appointed, 1878, who recommend- ed a narrowing of the wide places in the river to 3500 ft., whereby a depth of 10 ft. could be secured. Thereupon the Missi.ssippi River Commission was constituted by act of Congress, 28 June, : 1879, consisting of 7 members, to have in charge the improve- , ment of the Mississippi river below the mouth of the Ohio to the ] head of the passes at its mouth; to supervise the deepening of . its channel; to protect its banks; to improve and give safety to ; MIS navigation; to prevent disastrous floods, and to promote and facil- itate commerce. The following is from the report of the commis- ;Sion for 1893: "Below the junction of the Mississippi and the Ohio on the left bank, as far as Memphis, no general system of ievees exists or is required. On the right bank, below Cairo, lies •the St. Francis basin, extending from cape Girardeau, Mo., to Helena, Ark. This region is subject to overflow, but has never been protected; the local organizations and the general govern- ment are about to inaugurate a system of levees. On the left 'bank, a short distance below Memphis, and on the right bank at Helena, begin the existing levee systems— that on the left bank extending down to Vicksburg, and protects the Yazoo basin. It withstood the floods of 1892-93 without a break. On the right bank the levees extend from Helena to the mouth of the White river, intended to protect the White river basin; these are now being constructed. Below the Arkansas, on the right bank, a line of levees extend along the entire front of the Bayou basin to the Red river, 330 miles; not in good condition, crevasses of annual occurrence. On the right bank, below the Red river, the levees extend to about 70 miles below New Orleans. On the left bank, owing to the high bluff making them unnecessary, the levees only commence at Baton Rouge, and also extend 70 miles below New Orleans. Although the levees on both sides of the river have been much improved recently, no year passes without crevasses on one side or the other of the river; and much work is required to make them efHcient. " Outflow of the Mississippi into the gulf is through several chan- nels termed passes; the principal are I'ass a I'Outre, the North- east, South, and Southwest. The bars formed at the entrance of these outlets greatly impeded navigation. After several appro- priations by Congress, and repeated trials of different methods for deepening the channel permanently without success. Congress created a special board in 1874, which after visiting Europe and examining similar works of improvement there, reported in favor of constructing jetties, and selected the South pass for trial. A ■contract was therefore made with capt. James B. Eads (1820-87), who favored the jetty plan, to form and maintain for 20 years, in the South pass, a channel 30 ft. deep and 350 ft. wide. The South pass is 12% miles long, 700 ft. mean width, and 34 ft. mean depth, «nd discharges about 10 per cent, of the outflow of the entire river; the crest of the bar is 2>t^ miles to seaward from the mouth •of the pass, and the jetties extend 2}^ miles seaward. The work was begun 2 June, 1875, and flnished 1879. Up to the present time the general result has proved entirely satisfactory, and of great benefit to the commerce of the river. ]fli§§i»§ippi §clieine. Law's bubble, ]fIi§$OlOIl'g'lli, a town in Greece, taken from the Turks, 1 Nov. 1821, and heroically and successfully defended against the Turks by Marco Bozzaris, Oct. 1822-27 Jan. 1823. It was taken 22 Apr. 1826, after a long siege. Here lord Byron died, 19 Apr. 1824. It was surrendered to the Greeks in 1829. ]M[i§SOU'ri, one of the central United States, lies west of the Mississippi river, which separates it from Illinois, Kentuc- ky, and Tennessee. Ar- kansas bounds it on the south. On the west, a line drawn south from Kansas City in about 94° 30' Ion. separates the state from the Indian Territory and Kansas, while the Missouri river marks the boundary of Kansas con- tinuedandNebraska north of Kansas City. The state of Iowa forms the north- ern boundary. It is lim- ited in latitude from 36° 40° 80' N., and in longitude from 89° 2' to 96° 44' W. Area, 65,370 sq. miles in 115 counties; pop. 1890, 2,679,184. Capital, Jefferson City. 'ernando De Soto ascends the west bank of the Mississippi river as far as the present site of New Madrid 1541 -ouis Joliet and p^re Jacques Marquette descend the Missis- sippi to lat. 33° 1673 Robert Cavalier de La Salle descends Mississippi to its mouth. 1682 prospecting-party sent out by French governor of Louisiana i ascends the Missouri river to the mouth of the Kansas 1705 j.issouri included in a grant to Anthony Crozat for the exclu- 1 sive privilege of the commerce of Louisiana for 15 years, [ made by Louis XIV 14 Sept. 1712 lissouri included in a grant to the Mississippi company on [the resignation of Crozat Aug. 1717 iJad mining in St. Genevieve county by sieur Renault 1720 Lerre Ligueste Lacldde, head of Louisiana Fur company, who jiln 1763 obtained from the director-generul of Louisiana a mo- popoly of the fur trade with the Indians of Missouri, sends a party under Auguste Chouteau, who lays out St. Louis, 15 Feb. 1764 !• Ange de Belle Rive, the French commander of fort Char- J?'®*) about 15 miles above St. Genevieve, surrendering ihe fort to the British, removes with. oflScers and troops 17* 1 MIS to St. Louis and assumes command of upper Louisiana, 17 July, 1765 Spanish troops under capt. Rios reach St. Louis ; Rios takes possession in the name of the king of Spain 11 Aug. 1768 Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas, who was murdered at Cahokia, is buried at St. Louis, where he was a guest of St. Ange 1769 Blanchette, surnamed "The Hunter," builds a log hut on hills now occupied by the city of St. Charles, and establishes a military post under the governor of upper Louisiana " Lieut. -gov. don Pedro Piernas arrives at St. Louis to assume the Spanish authority over upper Louisiana 1770 Francisco Cruzat succeeds Piernas 1775 Don Ferdinaudo Leyba appointed gov. to-succeed Cruzat 1778 Massacre of whites near St. Louis by Indians who, led by Brit- ish, intended a general attack on the settlement, but were repulsed 26 May, 1780 Leyba removed and Francisco Cruzat reinstated. Under his government St. Louis was regularly fortified " Old St. Genevieve, which tradition says was founded by settlers from Kaskaskia in 1735, is destroyed by a flood, the inhabi- tants remove from river bottoms to the" present site 1785 New Madrid, settled as early as 1780, is laid out on an extensive scale by col. George Morgan of New Jersey, who had received a grant of over 12,000,000 acres of land from Spain 1788 Cruzat succeeded by don Manuel Perez as commandant general of the post of St. Louis " Zenon Trudeau succeeds Perez 1793 Daniel Boone of Kentucky moves to what is now St. Charles county 1795 Trudeau succeeded by Charles Dehault Delassus de Delusiere.. 179i8 Delassus appoints Daniel Boone commandant or syndic of the Femme Osage district , 1800 Maj. Amos Stoddard, agent of France for receiving upper Louis- iana from the Spanish, arrives at St. Louis, and on 9 Mch. Delassus surrenders the territory to him, and next day it is transferred to the U. S., maj. Stoddard in command, 10 Mch. 1804 Missouri included in the district of Louisiana, set off from the territory of Louisiana, and placed under the government of Indiana territory by act of Congress 26 Mch. " Exploring expedition of Lewis and Clarke up the Missouri river leaves St. Louis (United States) 14 May, " By act of Congress the district of Louisiana is regularly organ- ized into the territory of Louisiana, and pres. Jefferson ap- points gen. James Wilkinson as governor 3 Mch. 1805 Aaron Burr visits gen. Wilkinson at St. Louis Sept. " Lewis and Clarke expedition return to St. Louis 23 Sept. 1806 Missouri Gazette established and published at St. Louis by Joseph Charless July, 1808 Treaty effort Clark by which the Great and Little Osage tribes cede to the U. S. 33,173,383 acres of land in Missouri and 14.830,432 acres in Arkansas 10 Nov. " Town of St. Louis incorporated : 9 Nov. 1809 Town of New Madrid destroyed by an earthquake 16 Dec. 1811 Act of Congress changing the name of the territory of Louisi- ana to the territory of Missouri approved 4 June, 1812 Edward Hempstead first delegate to Congress Nov. " First General Assembly meets in the house of Joseph Robi- doux. between Walnut and Elm sts., St. Louis 7 Dec. " U. S. Congress confirms to Daniel Boone 1000 arpents (833 acres) of land in the P^emme Osage district 10 Feb. 1814 Capt. .lames Callaway, with 15 men, returning to the settlement of Loutre island with some horses they had recovered from the Sac and Fox Indians, are attacked by the Indians in am- bush and capt. Callaway and 3 of his men are killed. .7 Mch. 1815 By act of Congress tfie election of the council in Missouri terri- tory is by choice of the people 29 Apr. 1816 Steamboat General Pike ascends the Mississippi to St. Louis, 2 Aug. 1817 Bill authorizing people of Missouri to frame a state constitu- tion for admission into the Union introduced into Congress (U.MTKD States, 1819-1821) 13 Feb. 1819 By act of Congress, Arkansas territory is set off from Missouri, 2 Mch. " Independence, a pioneer steamboat, ascends the Missouri river and arrives at Franklin, Howard county 28 May, " Western Engineer, a steamboat constructed by col. S. H. Long for an expedition up the Missouri to the Yellowstone. leaves St. Louis 21 June, "• Act approved authorizing the people of Missouri territory to forma state constitution. Sec. 8 states: "That in all the territory ceded by France to the United States under the name of Louisiana north of 36° 30' of lat. and not included within the limits of the state contemplated by this act, slavery shall be and is hereby forever prohibited, but runa- way slaves may be lawfully reclaimed " 6 Mch. 1820 A constitutional convention meets at St. Louis, 12 June, com- pletes its labors 19 July, and the constitution is ratified by the people at the ensuing election " Art. iii. sec. 26 of state constitution requires the legislature "to pass such laws as may be necessary" to prevent free negroes and mulattoes from coming to and settling in the state " General Assembly, elected 28 Aug., meets in the Missouri hotel at St. Louis and organizes a state government. 19 Sept. " Daniel Boone dies at the residence of his son, on Femme Osage creek in St. Charles county 26 Sept. " Missouri admitted into the Union with conditions that the legislature should pledge the faith of the state that the free- negro clause should never be executed 2 Mch. 1821 MIS Conditions of admission of Missouri into the Union being ac- cepted, ures. Monroe approves the bill (Unitbu Status), 10 Aug. Thomas H. Benton enters the U. S. senate and serves continu- ously until 1851 SL Louis incorporated a city ; pop. 4800 9 Dec. Public reception of Ufayette in St. Louis 29 Apr. Gov. Frederick Bates d 1 Aug. Seat of goveruinout removed Trom St. Charles to Jefferson City, and legislature holds its first session there 20 Nov. Joseph Smith, the Mormon leader, having found a location for "Zion " at Independence, Jackson county, in 1831. which he names "The New Jerusalem," arrives from Kirtland, 0., with many followers St Louis university founded, 1829; incorporated Dec. Mormons in Missouri publish a paper, the Evening Star, the sentiments of which are obnoxious to the people, who tar and feather the bishop and 2 others, and throw the presses into the river. On 31 Oct. an encounter occurs in which 2 citizens and 1 Mormon are killed. On 2 Nov. the Mor- mons attack Independence, but are routed and forced to promise to leave the county before 1 Jan. 1834 (Mormons), 2 Nov. Congress adds the "Platte Purchase," a triangle north of the Missouri river, west of the western boundary of the state, and south of the northern boundary to Missouri, thus mak- ing it slave territory 7 June, Depredations and murders in Carroll county traced to a band of desperadoes composed principally of a family named Hetherly, old Mrs. Hetherly being a sister of the Kentucky brigands Big and Little Harpe. The band broken up by the arrest and imprisonment of some of its chief men, 17 July, State penitentiary at Jefferson City, created by act of the leg- islature in 1832, opened Bank of the sUte of Missouri established at St. Louis; capital, $6,000,000, about four-flnhs belonging to the state By proclamation of pres. Van Buren, the law of 7 June, 1836, regarding the Platte purchase, takes effect 28 Mch. Col. Richard Gentry's regiment (afterwards in battle at Okee- chobee lake, Fla.) leaves Columbia for the Seminole war, 6 Oct. State house burned with public papers and records 17 Nov. Act of Congress to ascertain the true boundary-line of Missouri on the north, described in the act of admission as "the parallel of latitude which passes through the rapids of the river Des Moines, making the said line to correspond with the Indian boundary-line" 18 June, Numerous conflicts occurring between the Mormons and people lead gov. Boggs to issue a proclamation to call out the militia and enforce the laws. Skirmishes occur at Crooked River and Haughn's Mills, near Breckenridge, between the militia and Mormons under G. W. Hinkle; in the latter 18 Mormons were killed, some of them after surrender. At Far West, Caldwell county, Joe Smith surrenders to the militia and agrees tbtit the Mormons shall leave the state Oct. Corner-stone of the University of the State of Missouri at Co- lumbia laid 4 July, Suicide of gov. Thomas Reynolds 9 Feb. Remains of Daniel Boone and his wife are removed from the cemetery at Marthasville, Mo., to Frankfort, Ky 17 July, Full complement of troops to form the first regiment of Mis- souri troops for the Mexican war arrives at fort Leaven- worth 18 June, State constitution completed, but rejected by the people CoL Doniphan, with 924 Missouri volunteers, defeats 4000 Mex- icans under gen. Heredia in the pass of Sacramento (Mexi- can WAR) 28 Feb. First line of telegraph between East St. Louis and the east com- pleted 20 Dec. Decision of the Supreme court of the U. S. upon the northern boundary, is confirmed by Congress, and the present bound- ary established by act 15 Feb. Claiborne F. Jackson, on 15 Jan. 1849, introduces resolutions in the state senate, questioning the power of Congress to legislate on slavery in the territories, and asserting that " the right to prohibit slavery in any territory belongs exclu- sively to the people thereof." Passed by the senate, 26 Jan., and by the assembly 6 Mch. Fire in St. Louis destroys 23 steamboats and their cargoes and a large section of the city 17 May, U. S. senator Thomas H. Benton, in the hall of the House at Jefferson City, opposes the "Jackson Resolutiens," as in the spirit of nullification and disunion, and appeals from the leg- islature to the people 26 May, Interstate convention at St. Louis unanimously indorses a national Pacific railway across the continent 16 Oct. Ground broken for the Pacific railroad by the mayor of St. Louis 4 July, William Jewell college at Liberty, chartered in 1849, opened. . . At a joint convention to choose a U. S. senator, Henry S. Geyer of St. Louis, Whig, defeats Thomas H. Benton, 80 to 55 on the 40th ballot 22 Jan. Missouri school for the blind opened at St. Louis State insane asylum at Fulton opened Missouri institution for the education of the deaf and dumb at Fulton opened Westminster college chartered and opened at Fulton House of Refuge at St. Louis opened Destruction of the Induxtrial Luminary, a newspaper pub- lished at Parkville, by a pro-slavery faction 14 Apr. 522 MIS 1821 1822 1825 1826 1833 1837 1838 1840 1844 1845 1846 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 L861, College of the Christian Brothers at St. Louis, opened 1861, chartered 18 Normal school at St. Louis opened 1( Gov. Trusten Polk resigns to become U. S. senator Mch. » Central college at Fayette, chartered 1855, opened « Dred Scott and family emancipated by Taylor Blow, under deed for that purpose from the family of Calvin C. Chaffee, who inherited them (Drkd Scott cask) 26 May, » First overland mail leaves St. Louis for San Francisco, 16 Sept. 18 First overland mail fi-om California arrives at St. Louis 24 days \%}4 hours from San Francisco 9 Oct. Howard female college at Fayette, opened in 1855, chartered. . 18 Washington university at St. Louis, chartered 1853, opened. ... Elizabeth Aull female seminary at Lexington chartered and opened Legislature calls a state convention, "that the will of the people may bo ascertained and effectuated," but providing that no ordinance of secession should be valid unless ratified by the people 18 .Ian. 18 Edward Bates of Missouri U. S. attorney-general 5 Mch. State convention assembles in the court-house at Jefferson City; 99 delegates. Sterling Price chosen president, 28 Feb. They adjourn to meet at St. Louis on 4 Mch., when a com- mittee reports against secession 9 Mch. In reply to pres. Lincoln's call for troops, gov. Jackson writes, " Not one man will the state of Missouri furnish to carry on such an unholy crusade " 17 Apr. U. S. arsenal at Liberty seized and garrisoned by state troops under order from gov. Jackson 20 Apr. Capt. Lyon, at the head of the U. S. forces in St. Louis, by a sudden move upon camp Jackson, compels an unconditional surrender of the state militia there 10 May, Gen. Harney, commandant at St. Louis, addresses the people of Missouri denouncing a military act of the legislature as indirect secession and unconstitutional 14 May, Gov. Jackson calls for 50,000 militia, "for the purpose of repelling invasion, and for the protection of the lives, liberty, and property of citizens of the state" 12 June, Gov. Jackson, with the state troops, proceeds to Booneville, leaving the capital to fall into the hands of Lyon. . .15 .lune. Gen. Lyon defeats the state troops under col. Marmaduke in battle at Booneville 17 June, An indecisive battle is fought at Carthage between state troops under gen. Jackson and federals under gen. Sigel, 5 July, "^ State convention makes Robert Wilson president in place of Sterling Price, made major-general in the Confederate army 22 July, *♦ State convention declares the office of governor, of lieutenant- governor, and of members of legislature vacant, and elects Hamilton R. Gamble as provisional governor 31 July, " Thomas C. Reynolds, ex-lieutenant-governor, proclaims from New Madrid that the forces of gen. Pillow had come on the invitation of gov. Jackson, "to aid in expelling the enemy," 31 July, " Gov. Gamble, by proclamation, promises protection to all cit- izens in arms who return peaceably to their homes, in which promise the U. S. war department concurs 3 Aug. "^ Gov. Jackson, returning from Richmond, Va., to New Madrid, issues a "Declaration of Independence of the State of Mis- souri " 5 Aug. " Federals under gen. Lyon defeat confederates under gen. James Rains at Dug Springs, 2 Aug., and are defeated by gen. Benj. McCulloch at Wilson Creek; gen. Lyon killed, 10 Aug. " Missouri is placed under martial law by gen. Fremont, at the head of the western department, and maj. McKinstry, U.S.A., is created provost-marshal -general 30 Aug. "^ By proclamation 30 Aug., gen. Fremont manumits 2 slaves of Thomas L. Snead, a secessionist of St. Louis 12 Sept. "^ Federals are defeated in battles at Blue Mills Landing, 17 Sept., Lexington, 20 Sept., and Papinsville 21 Sept. " State convention at Jefferson City requires each civil officer within 60 days to subscribe an oath to support the constitu- tion 16 Oct. " Lexington reoccupied by the federals, 16 Oct., who are also victorious at Fredericktown, 22 Oct., and at Springfield, 26 Oct. " Gov. Jackson issues (26 Sept. 1861) a proclamation from Lex- ington, convening the legislature in extra session at Masonic ^^ Hall in Neosho, Newton county 21 Oct Gen. Fremont is relieved by gen. David Hunter 2 Nov. Legislature at Neosho passes an act of secession, 28 Oct., and ^^ resolution requesting all members to sign it 2 Nov. Indecisive battle at Belmont between gens. Grant and Polk, 7 ^^ Nov. ; Warsaw destroyed by confederates 19 Nov. Maj. -gen. Halleck, who succeeded gen. Hunter, 7 Nov., declares martial law in St Louis, 23 Dec. ; and, some men returning from gen. Price's army having destroyed about 100 miles of the Missouri railroad, he extends the order to all the rail- ^^ roads in the state 25 Dec. Battles at Shawnee Mound and Milford, 18 Dec. 1861, and at ^^ Mount Zion 28 Dec. New Madrid captured by gen. Pope 14 -^^ch. lot-' Independence captured by the confederates H Aug. ^^ Battle at Newtonia, confederates victorious 30 Sept. Andrew AUsman, an aged citizen of Palmyra, taken in a raid by col. John C. Porter's band in Sept, and not heard oi afterwards; gen. McNeil hangs in retaliation 10 of Porter s ^^ raiders (Allsman, Case of) 18 Oct MIS Confederate gen. John S. Marmaduke repulsed at Springfield, 8 Jan., and at Hartsville 11 Jan. Gen. John H. McNeil repulses gen. Marmaduke in a battle at Cape Girardeau 26 Apr. Ordinance adopted by the state convention, ordaining that slavery should cease 4 July, 1870, subject to provisions with regard to age, etc 1 July, Death of gov. Gamble 31 Jan. Robbery and general massacre of citizens and Federal sol- diers in Centralia by guerilla band under Bill Anderson, 27 Sept. Bill Anderson killed in a fight near Albany, Ray county, 27 Oct. Central Wesleyan college at Warrenton chartered and opened. Gen. ?rice invades Missouri; defeats Curtis at Little Blue, 21 Oct., but is repulsed by federals at Big Blue, Little Osage, and Newtonia Oct, Constitutional convention meets at St. Louis, 6 Jan. 18()5, adopts an ordinance abolishing slavery 11 Jan. State Board of Immigration organized under act of legislat- ure State convention vacates on 1 May the offices of judges of the Supreme court, of all Circuit courts, and others 17 Mch. New constitution completed 10 Apr. Art. ii. sec. 9 provides that after 60 days " no person shall be permitted to practise as an attorney," "nor be competent as a bishop, priest, deacon, minister, elder, or other clergyman " to teach or preach or solemnize marriages unless he shall have tak- en, subscribed, and filed an oath 6f loyalty. Constitution ratified by the people, vote 43,670 for and 41,808 against, June, Judges of the higher courts decline to yield to the new judges appointed by gov. Fletcher under ordinance of 17 Mch., as not in the power of the convention. By special order, gen. Coleman is directed to use such force as may be necessary to establish the new judges in office, which he accomplishes 14 June, Lincoln Institute Normal school opened at Jefferson City Excitement in Lafayette from political strife and robbery and murder by desperadoes under Archie Clemmens, who is killed by troops sent to quell the disturbance spring of Legislature makes prize-fighting for money punishable by im- prisonment from 6 to 12 months, or a fine of $500 to $1000, 8 Feb. Monument to Thomas H. Benton, raised for the state govern- ment on Lafayette square, St. Louis, is unveiled 27 May, People reject the amendment striking out the word "white" in the suffrage clause, by 74,053 to 55,236 Original seal of the state of Missouri, which had disappeared from the seat of government in 1861, is restored to gov. McClurg by ex-lieut.-gov. Thomas C. Reynolds 26 May, Legislature ratifies XV.th Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, 10 Jan. State Agricultural college located at Columbia by law A movement set on foot in 1866 by col. B. Gratz Brown, fur universal amnesty, universal franchise, and revenue reform, divides the Republican party, at the state convention at Jefferson City, 31 Aug. 1870, into Radicals, and Liberals or "Bolters," headed by gen. Carl Schurz. The Liberal candi- date B. Gratz Brown elected governor 8 Nov. State Normal school at Warrensburg opened State Normal school at Kirksville opened Act passes over gov. Brown's veto directing that 422 bonds of the state of Missouri, of $1000 each, issued in 1852 and fall- ing due in 1872, " redeemable in gold or silver coin," be re- deemed in legal-tender notes 8 Feb. Seventy or 80 masked men stop a railroad train at Gun City, Cass county, and murder judge J. C. Stephenson, Thomas E. Detro, and James C. Cline, charged with complicity in the fraudulent issue of railroad bonds, which imposed a heavy burden upon the tax-payers in that county 24 Apr. Fulton Synodical female college, chartered in 1870, opened at Fulton State Normal school opened at Cape Girardeau Drury college at Springfield chartered and opened Railroad bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis, designed by James B. Eads and constructed by the Illinois and St. Louis 1 Bridge company, formally opened (Bridges) 4 July, State asylum for the insane established at St. Joseph Btate Railroad commission created by act of legislature. 27 Mch. prdinance passed by legislature to prevent the payment of 1918 bonds and coupons of $1000 each, executed by the Pacific railroad of Missouri under a law of 10 Dec. 1855, which ! had disappeared, but had not been cancelled or destroyed, 30 Oct. ifew constitution framed by a state convention which sat at Jefferson City, 5 May, 1875, to 19 Aug., is submitted to the people and ratified by a vote of 90,600 to 14,362 30 Oct. •onvention of 869 delegates from 31 states and territories as- sembles at St. Louis to take action upon the construction of the Southern Pacific railroad .' 23-24 Nov. [art Schurz of Missouri secretary of the interior 12 Mch. jtate lunatic asylum at St. Joseph burned; the 218 inmates ! escape 25 Jan. fCottey law" passed, to take effect immediately, providing Pthat county courts shall levy only 4 taxes: the state rev- enue tax, the state interest tax, tax for current county expenses, and school tax, unless ordered by the circuit court for the county or by the judge thereof in chambers, 8 Mch. 1870 1871 1873 1874 1875 1877 1879 3 MIS Laws creating a State Fish commission, a Bureau of Labor statistics, and appropriating $3000 for a state hatchery 1879 Proposed amendment to the constitution, art. xiv., embodying the "Maine Liquor law," passes the house, and is rejected in the senate by 12 to 10 "^ Convention of representatives of the commercial and agricult- ural and other productive industries of the Mississippi valley meets at St. Louis 26 Oct. 1881 Missouri River Improvement convention meets at St. Joseph. 4 states and 2 territories are represented 29 Nov. *' "Downing High License law" passed, which fixes the maxi- mum state and county tax on license for dram shops at $1200 per annum, and requiring a petition signed by two -thirds of the tax -payers of cities, towns, and town- ships before it is mandatory on the county court to issue licenses 1883 State Board of Health created by act of legislature " Kansas City ladies' college at Independence opened in 1871, chartered 1884 Some 75 of the " Bald-knobber " organization of Christian county are arrested in Mch.. some on the charge of murder, others for attending unlawful assemblies of "Regulators." All but the leaders are tried at Ozark and fined Aug. 1887 Reform school for boys established by law at Booneville " Fifty out of 78 elections under the "Wood Local-option law" result in favor of prohibition " State insane asylum No. 3 at Nevada opened 15 Oct. " Gov. Marmaduke d 28 Dec. " State institution for deaf and dumb at Fulton burned Feb. 1888 Bald knobber leader David Walker and 3 accomplices tried, Mch. and Apr. 1888. Sentenced to be executed on 18 May; postponed. Their Bald-knobber friends, for revenge, seize and hang 5 of the witnesses 14 Nov. " State industrial school for girls opened at Chillicothe Jan. 1889 Norman J. Coleman appointed secretary of agriculture. .12 Feb. " Australian Ballot Reform act, applicable to cities and towns of 5000 or over, passed by the legislature '* Act of legislature appointing the first Friday after the first Tuesday of Apr. to be observed as Arbor day " David Walker, William Walker, and John Matthews, Bald- knobbers, sentenced Apr. 1888, finally executed at Ozark, 10 May, " Interstate Wheat Growers' Association of Mississippi valley meets at St. Louis, N.J. Coleman presiding 27 Oct. " State treasurer E. T. Noland suspended from office for defalca- tion to the amount of $32,745.69 4 Mch. 1890 Woman's temperance crusade in Lathrop, etc., from 10 Feb. " Gov. Francis deposes state treasurer Noland for alleged short- age of about $33,000 in his accounts 4 Mch. " Semi-centennial of the laying of the corner-stone of the state university at Columbia celebrated .4 July, " Limited Kansas City express on the Mo. Pacific R. R. is "held up" by 7 highwaymen at Otterville, and express car robbed of $90,000 17 Aug. " Representatives from the Union Labor, Prohibition, and Green- hack parties meet at St. Louis, 3 Sept., and organize the Na- tional Reform party 5 Sept. " Gen. W. T. Sherman died at New York city 14 Feb. ; is buried at St. Louis 21 Feb. 1891 Legal rate of interest fixed at 8 per cent, by act of legislature, which adjourns 24 Mch. " National industrial conference (over 650 delegates from Farm- ers' Alliance and mutual benefit associations) meets at St. Louis and decides to act with the People's party in the presi- dential campaign 22 Feb. 1892 National Nicaragua Canal convention, with delegates from 25 or more states, meets in St. Louis 2 June, " TERRITORIAL GOVERNOR. duties July, 1813 William Clark STATE GOVERNORS. Alexander McNair term begins 19 Sept. Frederick Bates " Nov. Abraham J. Williams acting 1 Aug. Gen. John Miller term begins Nov. Daniel Dunklin " " Lilburn W. Boggs " " Thomas Reynolds (Dem.) " " M. M. Marmaduke acting 9 Feb. John C. Edwards (Dem.) term begins Nov. Austin A. King (Dem.) " >•' Sterling Price (Dem.) " Dec. Trusten Polk (Dem.) " " Hancock Jackson acting Mch. Robert M. Stewart (Dem.) term begins Dec. Claiborne F. Jackson (Dem.).. " 4 Jan Hamilton R. Gamble (provisional) elected 31 July, Willard P. Hall acting 31 Jan. Thomas C. Fletcher (Rep.).. . .term begins " Joseph W. McClurg (Rep.).... " " R. Gratz Brown (Lib.) " " Silas Woodson (Dem.) " " Charles H. Hardin (Dem.) " " John S. Phelps (Dem.) " " Thomas T. Crittenden (Dem.). " " John S. Marmaduke (Dem.).. " " Albert G. Morehouse acting 28 Dec. David R. Francis (Dem.) term begins Jan. William J. Stone (Dem.) " " 1820 1824 1825 1832 1836 1840 1844 1848 1852 1856 1857 . 1861 1864 1871 1873 1875 1877 1881 1885 1887 1889 1893 MIS 524 MOD UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF MISSOURI. N»in«. David Barton Thomas H. Benton . . . Alexander Buckner. . . Lewis F.Linn David R. Atchison Henry S. Geyer James Stephen Green. Trustcn Polk Waldo P. Johnson.... John B. Henderson . . . Robert Wilson B. Grata Brown Charles D. Drake Francis?. Bluir.jr Carl Schurz Lewis F. Bogy Francis M. Cockr^U. . . David H. Armstrong. . George G. Vest No. of CODKT«M. D«t«. 17th to 2l8t 17th " 3l8t 22d 23d to 27th 28th " 33d 32d " 34th 34th " 36th 36th " 37th 37th 37th to 40th 37th 38th to 39th 40th " 41st 4l8t "42d 41st " 42d 43d " 46th 44th " 45th 46th " 1821 to 1831 1821 " 1861 1831 " 1833 1833 " 1843 1843 " 1856 1861 " 1857 1867 " 1861 1857 " 18(52 1861 " 1862 1862 " 1869 1862 1863 to 1867 1867 " 1870 1871 " 1873 1869 " 1875 1873 " 1877 1875 " 1877 " 1879 1879 " Served 30 years as senator. Died 1833. Elected in place of Buckner. Died 1843. Elected president pro (em. 8 Aug. 1846; and again, 20 Dec. 1852 Elected, defeating Benton. Expelled 10 Jan. 1862. Appointed in place of Polk. Appointed in place of .Johnson. Elected in place of Wilson. Resigned. Elected in place of Drake. Succeeds Henderson. Elected to succeed Blair. Died 1877. Term expires 1899. Appointed in place of Bogy. Term expires 1897. IVIIssourl compromUe. United States, 1819, '20, '21, '50, '54. mlth'ridatC, a medical preparation in the forna of an ■electuary, supposed to be an antidote to poison, and the oldest ■compound known, is said to have been invented by Mithri- •dates, king of Pontus, about 70 b.c. Mithrida'ltC war, caused by the massacre of 80,- 000 Romans by Mithridates VI., king of Pontus, 88 b.c., and remarkable for its duration, many sanguinar}' battles, and cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken the •consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through much of Asia, crying out, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He is said to have killed him by causing melted gold to be poured down his throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C. Mithri- dates was defeated by Pompey, 66 b.c. ; and committed sui- cide, 63 B.C. Mitla, ancient ruins found in the Mexican state of Oxaca. The general character and design of the architect- ure and masonry is similar to that at Palenque, but the •work seems to indicate a higher degree of art and science. America, Copan. mitrailleuse (me-trdl-yuz') or mitrailleur {me- iral-t/er'), a machine-gun combining 37 or more large-bored rifles with breech-action, so that a shower of bullets may be rapidly projected by one man. It was invented in Belgium, adopted by Napoleon III. soon after the Prusso-Austrian war in 1866, and much used in the Franco-Prussian war in 1870. When fired it has a peculiar dry, shrieking, terrible sound. Modifications of the mitrailleuse have been made by Montigny and others. The Fosbery mitrailleuse was tried and approved at Shoeburyness, 11 Aug. 1870. It is mentioned in Grose's Military Antiquities (1801) that in England, in 1625, a patent was granted to William Drummond for a machine composed of muskets joined together, by the help of which 2 soldiers can oppose 100, and named " thunder carriage," or, more usu- ally, " fire carriage." An English mitrailleuse, a modification of the American Gatling, containing 50 cartridges, was tried at Woolwich, 18 Jan. 1872 ; 50 were ordered to be made by Armstrong. mitre. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by the Jewish high-priest, 1491 B.C. It had on it a golden plate inscribed "Holiness to the Lord" (Exod. xxxix. 28). The most an- cient mitre closely resembling the present one is upon the seal of the bishop of Laon, in the 10th century. — Fosbroke. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres ; but the council of Lyons, in 1245, directed them to wear hats. Mityle'ne or L the Indians retreated to almost impregnable positions in the ' lava beds. The troops were fired on and suffered much loss, I 27 Apr. The Indians were gradually surrounded. Jack and ! about 20 warriors held out desperately. Some surrendered, I and he was captured 1 June, tried July, and executed 3 Oct. • 1873. The remainder were placed on a reservation in the ( Indian Territory. California, Indians. ! mGe'§ia, now Bo§nia, Servia, and Bulgaria, ! was finally subdued by Augustus, 29 b.c. It was successfully invaded by the Goths, 250 a.d., who eventually settled here, i Moguls. Tartary. 1 lUoliacZ (mo-hach'), a town of Lower Hungary. Here , Louis, king of Hungary, defeated by the Turks under Solyman 1 II. with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by the fall of j his horse in a muddy brook, 29 Aug. 1526. Here also prince f Charles of Lorraine defeated the Turks, 12 Aug. 1687. I Moiiamniedanisni. Ma hometanism. I moliawks. Indians, Long Hbusfi. i Mohe'gans. Indians. I HollOCiii, ruffians who went about London at night (Wounding and disfiguring men and indecently exposing wom- en. 100/. were offered by royal proclamation in 1712 for ap- prehending any of them. — Northouck. Hoiian'na {ffakim ben- a link), *' The Veiled " prophet, ''Hinder of a sect in Khorassan in the 8th century. He pre- eaded to be an incarnation of God, and therefore veiled his ace, but really to conceal the loss of an eye. He rebelled igainst the caliph Almahdi, was for a time successful, but was iubdued in 780, when he and the remainder of his followers ook poison. He is the subject of a poem by Thomas Moore, n " Lalla Rookh," 1817. Moldavia. Danubian principalitieis. Moli'nistS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers of Louis wloUna, a Jesuit, 1535-1600. He maintained the harmony If the doctrines of predestination and free-will, 1588. The lolinists subsequently passed into the Jansenist controversy. ANSENISTS. |i Molly Maguires, Irish Ribbonmen who made forays I fisguised as women, named from Cornelius Maguire, baron I' Inniskillen, who in 1641 took part with sir Phelim O'Neil I the Irish rebellion. — A secret society in the mining dis- icts of Pennsylvania, 1870-80. Moluc'cas, an archipelago in the Indian ocean (chief island Amboyna), discovered by Portuguese about 1511, and held by them secretly until the Spaniards arrived and claimed them. Charles V. yielded them to John HI. of Portugal for a large sura of money, 1529. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them since — except from 1810 to 1814, when they were, subject to the English. MolWltZ, a town in Prussian Silesia. Here the Prus- sians, commanded by Frederick II., obtained a victory over the Austrians, 10 Apr. 1741. molyb'dcnuin, a whitish, brittle, almost infusible metal. Scheele, in 1778, discovered molybdic acid in a min- eral hitherto confounded with graphite. Hjelm, 1782, pre- pared the metal from molybdic acid; and in 1825 Berzelius described its chemical characters. — Gmelin. inon'aclliim (from the Gr. novoQ, alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Elijah, and the Nazarites men- tioned in Numb, vi., as early examples. The first Christian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the Essenes, whose life was austere, practising celibacj--, etc. About the time of Constantine (306-22) numbers of ascetics withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and anchorets, of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder of the Stylitae (or pillar saints), died 451. He is said to have lived on a pillar 20 years. "Three years I lived upon a pillar, high Six cubits, and three years on one of twelve; And twice three years I crouch'd on one that rose Twenty by measure; last of all, I grew, Twice ten long weary, weary years to this. That numbers forty cubits from the soil." — Tennyson, "St. Simeon Stylites." St. Benedict, the great reformer of western monachism, pub- lished his rules and established his monastery at Monte Ca- sino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, etc., are vari- eties of Benedictines. In 964, by decree of king Edgar, all married priests were ineffectually ordered to be replaced by monks. Religious orders expelled from France, by decree, 29 Mch. 1880. The anchorites of the r2th, 13th, and 14th centuries must not be confounded with anachorets and an- chorets, or hermits. The former were confined to cells ; the latter free to go where they pleased. Abbeys, Benedictines. Hlon'aco, the smallest of the sovereign principalities of Europe, situated on the Mediterranean, 9 miles from Nice, held by the Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By treaty on 2 Feb. 1861, the prince ceded the communes of Roque- brune and Mentone, the chief part of his dominions, to France for 4,000,000 francs. The present prince, Charles III., born 8 Dec. 1818, succeeded his father Florestan, 20 June, 1856. Heir : Albert, born 13 Nov. 1848. A commercial convention between the prince and France, signed 9 Nov. 1865, was re- garded as looking to abolition of the French navigation laws. Petitions against Monte Carlo, the great gaming establishment, Dec. 1880. It has its own coinage and issues its own postage- stamps. Area, 8 sq. miles; pop. 1878, 7049 ; 1890,12,000. monarchy. Historians reckon various grand mon- archies—those of Assyria, Babylonia, Chald^a, Egypt, Greeck, Media, Parthia, Persia, and Rome. monaiterie^^. Abbeys. Moncontour', a town near Poitiers, France. Here adm. Coligny and French Protestants were defeated with great loss by the duke of Anjou (afterwards Henry III.), 3 Oct. 1569. " Oh, weep for Moncontour! Oh, weep for the hour When the children of darkness and evil had power, When the horsemen of Valois triumphantly trod On the bosoms that bled for their right and their God!" —Macaulay, "The Battle of Moncontour." monetary conferences, international, opened at Paris, 16 Aug. 1878, and 19 Apr. 1881 ; Cologne, 11-13 Oct. 1882; Paris, 21 July, 5 Aug. 1885; again at Paris, Sept. 1889. money is mentioned as a medium of commerce in Gen. xxiii., 1860 B.C., when Abraham purchased a field as a sepul- chre for Sarah. The coinage of money is ascribed to Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, as coined in the temple of Juno Moneta, 269 b.c. Money was made of different metals, and even of leather and other arti- cles, both in ancient and modern times. It was made of paste- MON 526 MON I mon'OChord, a box of thin wood, with a bridge, over which is stretched a wire or cord, said to have been invented by Pythagoras, about 600 b.c. IVIonongahe'la, Battle of. Pennsylvania, 1755. monopolies (Gr. /xovoTrwXta, exclusive sale ; the com- mand of the market of anything for sale) were formerly so numerous in England that Parliament petitioned against them, and many were abolished, about 1601-2. Others were sup- pressed by 21 Jas. I. 1624. Sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchell were punished for abuse of monopolies, 1621. In 1630, Charles I. established monopolies of soap, salt, leath- er, and other common things, to supply a revenue without Parliament. It was enacted that none should be in future created by royal patent, 16 Chas 1. 1640. Monopolies estab- lished in France ruinous to that country prior to the revolu- tion of 1789. In the United States monopolies are formed for controlling the market by means of enormous capital, suffi- cient to buy up any article for which there is a demand, hold- ing it, and thus making a price for it, or in crowding out of business in various ways all competitors of less means, although equally capable of rendering the service of supplying the com- modity. Monopolies thus constitute the most serious evils of modern times — evils that in time will require to be abolished by government. Monotll'elites, heretics who affirmed that Jesus Christ had but one will ; were favored by the emperor Herac- lius, 630 ; they merged into the Eutychians. IVIonroe, James, administration of. United -States, 1817-25. Monroe doctrine. United States, 2 Dec. 1823. The doctrine has been repeatedly reaffirmed as the settled policy of the people and government of the United States. Monta'na, a northwestern frontier state of the Uiute< States, is included almost wholly between lat. 45° and 49< N., and Ion. 104° and 116° W It is bounded on the nortli by Britisli America, east bj North Dakota and South Da kota, south by Wyoming, th( Yellowstone National park and Idaho, and west by Idaho Area, 146,080 sq. miles in 1( counties; pop. 1890, 132,159 Capital, Helena. Sieur de la Verendrye and his sons, with a party of explorers, leave the Lake of the Woods, 29 Apr. 1742; they reach the upper Missouri and Yellowstone rivers and arrive at the Kooky mountains Jan. 11'. Lewis and Clarke's expedition cross Montana to the Pacific ocean. Returning, capt. Lewis descends the Missouri from the Great falls, and capt. Clarke the Yellowstone from Liv- ingstone, and meet at the mouth of the Yellowstone li Emanuel Lisa builds a trading-post on the Yellowstone 18( Gen. William H. Ashley of St. Louis builds a trading -post on the Yellowstone 18! American Fur company builds fort Union on the Missouri, 3 miles above the mouth of the Yellowstone 18! Steamboat Assiniboine, huWt by the American Fur company, ascends the Missouri to fort Union in 1833; winters near the mouth of Poplar creek, 60 miles above the mouth of the Yellowstone 18 boanl by the Hollanders so late as 1574. The czar Nicholas struck coins in platinum. Coin, Continental money, Cop- per, Gold, Silver. monoyem travelled with early English kings, and coined money as required. Mint. mongols. Tartary. Monitor and Merrimac. Hampton Roads, Va., 1861 ; Naval battles. monitorial §ysteni in education, in which pupils arp employed as teachers, was used by dr. Bell in the orphan asylum at Madras in 1795, and by Joseph Lancaster in Lon- don. Education. mollis. MONACHISM. M<»nniOUth, Battle of. Sir Henry Clinton left Phil- adelphia for New York on 18 June, 1778, with 11,000 British and an immense baggage and provision train. Washington pursued him, harassed him in New Jersey, and engaged him ne'ar Monmouth Court-house on Sunday, 28 June, 1778. The battle lasted all day. It was exceedingly sultry, and more than 50 American soldiers died of exhaustion. Night closed the conflict. Towards midnight Clinton silently withdrew to avoid another engagement in the morning, and escaped, leaving many sick and wounded behind. The Americans lost 228; less than 70 were killed. The British left about 300 dead on the field. It was in this battle that gen. Charles ^^^,y^S?'^S^j-i^-^;-^,i;,i;{^\^-yi^-^aiu;il.i^\. in command of the advance, received a reproof from gen.' Gallatin valley 1840 Washington, that finally led to Lee's dismissal. IIIonniOUth'§ rebellion. James, duke of Mon- mouth (b. at Rotterdam, 9 Apr. 1649), a natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Waters, was banished England for his connection with the Rye -house plot, in 1683. He invaded England at Lyme, 11 June, 1685 ; was proclaimed king at Taunton, 20 June; was defeated at Sedgmoor, near Bridge- water, 6 July ; and beheaded on Tower hill, 15 July. MonOC'aey, Md., Battle of. Here on 9 July, 1864, gen. Lew. Wallace with a force of about 5500 men success- fully resisted for 8 hours a Confederate force of about 20,000 under gen. Early, and prevented his reaching Washington. Federal loss, 98 killed, 579 wounded, and 1282 missing. De Smet establishes a mission on the St. Mary's river in the Bitter Root valley Sept. 1842 De Smet establishes St. Ignatius mission in the Flathead Lake valley 1845 American Fur company builds fort Benton 1846 Steamboat El Paso reaches the mouth of Milk river 1850 Francis Finlay, alias "Benetsee," a half-breed Scotch and Ind- ian trader, settled in what is now Deer Lodge county on Gold creek, discovers gold, and takes a sample to Angus Mc- Donald at the Hudson Bay company's post near St. Ignatius, 1852 Gov. Isaac I. Stevens explores a route for a Northern Pacific railroad from St. Paul across Montana to the Pacific ocean, under authority of Congress 1853 Sir George Gore leaves St. Louis with 40 men, explores the headwaters of Powder river, and builds a fort on Tongue river, 8 miles from its junction with the Yellowstone 1855 [In this part of Montana lies the peculiar tract termed by the French Mauvaises Terres (Bad Lands), usually described as the Little Missouri Bad Lands, extending from that riv west to the Little Big Horn, or from 104° Ion. W. to 108° W. watered by the Powder, Tongue, and Rosebud rivers. Th' labyrinth of ravines and singular and grotesque forms, devoid of vegetation, covers in the aggregate from 1600 to 2000 sq. miles. This singular formation is caused primarily by the subterranean fires of lignite coal veins or beds, and seconda- rily, by the action of water.] John Silverthorn trades tobacco and supplies with " Benetsee " for gold-dust 1858 Stern-wheel steamboat, the Chippewa, reaches fort Brn\6, 12 miles b«low fort Benton 17 July, 1859 Chippewa reaches fort Benton, the first steamboat to arrive there, but is followed the same day by the Key West, 2 July, 1860 Capt. James Fisk's first expedition, consisting of 100 men and 30 women and children from Minnesota, arrives at Gold creek, Deer Lodge county 26 Sept. 1862 Discovery of gold in the Alder gulch near present site of Vir- ginia City, Madison county, by a party of prospectors con- sisting of AVilliam Fairweather and others 22 May, 1863 Twenty-four outlaws, including the sheriff" and 2 deputies, hung by a vigilance committee, and 8 banished. At their trial and by confession it was found that these outlaws had mur- dered 102 people in Montana Dec. 1863-Feb. 1864 Law creating Montana territory out of a portion of Idaho ap- proved by pres. Lincoln 26 May, " Gold discovered in "Last Chance gulch," in Lewis and Clarke county, on present site of Helena 21 July, " Montana Post, first newspaper in the territory, started at Vir- ginia City Historical society of Montana incorporated 2 Feb. 186.5 First National bank of Helena, the first in Montana, organized, 1866 Helena Herald first issued Steamer Key West leaves Sioux City, 14 Apr. 1869, reaches the Yellowstone 6 May, and ascends that river to Powder river, a distance of 245 m iles 1'°^ Congress sets apart a tract near the headwaters of the Yellow- stone as a public park ; a small portion lies in Montana, bor- dering on Wyoming 1 Mch. 1B<2 Expedition under Thomas P. Roberts explores the upper Mis- ^^ souri from the three forks down to fort Benton ' Seat of government removed from Virginia City to Helena 18"5 Gen. Forsythe, under orders from gen. Sheridan, explores the Yellowstone, leaving Bismarck in the steamer Josephine, ^^ 15 June, ascending to Huntley, 418 miles June, Sioux Indians under Sitting Bull, near the Little Big Horn "• ■ I 1876 1879 MON , 527 river, massacre gen. George A. Custer, with 5 companies (276 men) of the 7th cavalry, no man escaping '25 June, Fort Assiniboine, near the Milk river, established 9 May, Uncalled territorial bonds, amounting to $45,000, redeemed and cancelled, thus extinguishing all registered indebtedness of the territory 1 Mch. 1883 Henry Villard, president of the Northern Pacific railroad, com- pletes the work on that road, by driving the last spike oppo- site the entrance of (iold creek into Deer Lodge river, 8 Sept. " Settlement in Deer Lodge and Gallatin counties of monogamic Mormons ex|)elled from Utah for apostasy " College of Montana at Deer Lodge, opened in 1883, chartered, 1884 Constitutional convention meets 14 Jan. 1884, and adjourns 9 Feb. ; its constitution was ratified by the people, 4 Nov., and submitted to Congress, asking admission into the Union " First steamboat to successfully navigate the Missouri river above Great falls is launched at Townsend 1886 Territorial legislature passes a local-option act, and provides for the observance of Arbor day 1887 Coal-mining begun in Cascade county 1888 Montana admitted to the Union by act of Congress 22 Feb. 1889 Legislature passes an Australian Ballot act " Constitutional convention meets at Helena,4 July, 1889; adopts a constitution and adjourns, 17 Aug. Constitution ratified by the people, 24,676 for and 2274 against 1 Oct. " Proclamation of pres. Harrison, admitting Montana into the Union as a state 8 Nov. " U. S. penitentiary at Deer Lodge becomes the property of the state of Montana upon its admission " Owing to a dispute concerning the election returns in Silver Bow county, a Democratic and Republican House, each claim- ing a quorum of 30 members, including those from the dis- puted county, convene. Gov. Toole, Democrat, sends a mes- sage to the Senate, comprised of 8 Republicans and 8 Demo- crats, and a Republican lieutenant-governor, and to the Democratic House also. The Republican Senate elects 2 U. S. senators, and the House and Senate in joint session elect 2 Democratic U. S. senators Dec. " To block legislation, the 8 Democratic senators flee the state, 6 going to the Pacific coast and 2 to St. Paul, until the ses- sion expires by constitutional limitation 5 Feb. 1890 Three Indian chiefs of the Comanches, Cheyennes, and Arapa- hoes, meet near Crow agency to behold the Great Si)irit on the rocks; beginning of the Messiah craze 3 June, " Rival houses of the legislature agree; the Republicans to have 28 members, the Democrats 27 and the speaker, subordinate offices, and control of committees 29 Jan. 1891 Montana university opened at Helena; first graduation. .June, " September 1st made a legal holiday, as "Labor day "' " Legislature failing to elect a U. S. senator, the governor appoints Lee Mantle, which appointee the senate refuses to seat, 28 Aug. 1893 TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS. I Sydney Edgerton term begins 22 June, 1864 I Thomas Francis Meagher.. acting 1865 ; Green Clay Smith term begins 13 July, 1866 , James M. Ashley •• • 9 Apr. 1869 i Benjamin F. Potts '• 13 July, 1870 s John Schuyler Crosby " 1883 I B. Piatt Carpenter " 1884 ' Samuel T. Hauser " 1885 ; Preston H, Leslie " 1887 1 Benjamin F. White " 1889 i STATE GOVERNORS. i Joseph K. Toole term begins [ John E. Kickards " MON 8 Nov. 1889 Ian. 1893 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF MONTANA. Name. Wilbur F. Sander Thomas C. Power Vacant Lee Mantle Thos. H. Carter. . No. of Congress. Fifty-first"^ Fifty-third Fifty-fourth Date. 1890 to 1893 1890 " 1895 to ■ 1895 " . Remarks Seated 16 Apr. 1890 Term expires, 1895 j Mon'taili§t§, followers of Montanus of Ardaba, in My- {M&, about 171, who was reputed to have the gift of prophecy, land proclaimed hintiself the Conaforter promised by Christ. I He condemned second marriages, permitted dissolution of ; marriage, forbade avoiding martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of 3 lents; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his female scholars, before the close of the 2d century.— Care. The eloquent father TertuUian joined the sect, 204. The ibest work on the Montanistic movement in the early church ■18 Ritschl's " Der Montanismus und die christliche Kirche des 2ten Jahrhunderts," Tubingen, 1841. Mont Blanc (mow bhn'), in the Swiss (Pennine) Alps, the highest mountain in Europe, is 15,781 feet above the sea level. The summit was first reached by Saussure, aided by :a guide named Balma, on 2 Aug. 1787 ; again by dr. Hamel (when 3 guides perished) in 1820, and by many before and Hnce. Accounts of the- ascents of John Auldjo, Charles Fel- ows (1827), and prof. Tyndall (1857-58), have been published. )7 ascents reported in 1873. Alps. Mont Ceni§ (mon sa-ne'). Alps, Tunnels. lUonteberio, a village in Piedmont, where Lannes de- feated the Austrians, 9 June, 1800, and acquired his title of duke of Montebello ; and where, after a contest of 6 hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians, who lost about 1000 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners, 20 May, 1859. The French lost about 670 men, including gen. Beuret. Hon'te Car'Io. Monaco. IHon'te Ca§i'no, a mountain in central Italy. Here Benedict formed his first monastery, 529, and organized the order of the Benedictines. After affording a refuge for many eminent persons, its monastic character was abolished by the Italian government in 1866, care being taken of its historical and literary monuments. monte di pieta (mon'te de pe'a-ta), charitable insti- tutions for advancing money on pledges, first established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 1462 et seq. The Franciscans, in 1493, began to receive interest, which was permitted by the pope in 1515. — iJ/on^s-t/e-/>z^/e, established in France 1777, were suppressed by the Revolution, but restored 1804; regulated by law, 1851-52. Pawnbroking. Montenegro (mon-ta-na'-gro), an independent prin- cipality in European Turkey, was conquered by Solyman II. in 1526; rebelled early in the 18th century, and established an hereditary hierarchical government in the family of Petro- vitsch Njegosch — permitted, but not recognized, by the Porte. Its independence was declared by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878. Area, 3630 sq. miles ; pop. about 236,000. Capital, Cettinje. princes. 1851. Daniel, b. 25 May, 1826; assassinated, 13 Aug. 1860. 1860. Nicolas, or Nikita (nephew), b. 7 Oct. 1841; married princess Milena, 8 Nov. 1860. Heir : Danilo, b. 29 June, 1871. niontenot'tC, a village in Piedmont, site of Bona- parte's first victory over the Austrians, 12 Apr. 1796. IVIoiltereau {mon-te-ro'), a town near Paris. On the bridge of Montereau, at a meeting with the dauphin, John. the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by Tanneguy de Chatel in 1419. This led to Henrj' V.'s conquest of France, the young duke Philip joining the English. Here the allied armies were defeated by the French, commanded by Napoleon, with great loss; but it was one of his last triumphs, 18 Feb. 1814. Monterey', a city of Mexico, founded Ijy the Spaniards, 1596. Mexican war. Montferrat' (Lombardy), house of, celebrated in the history of the Crusades, began with Alderan, who was made marquess of Montferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad of Mont- ferrat became lord of Tyre, and reigned from 1187 to 1191, when he was assassinated. William IV. died in a cage at Alexandria, having been thus imprisoned 19 months, 1292. Violante, daughter of John II., married Andronicus Palaeolo- gus, emperor of the east. Their descendants ruled in Italy amid perpetual contests till 1533, when John George Palaeolo- gus died without issue. His estates passed, after much con- tention, to Frederick II., Gonzaga, marquess of Mantua, in 1536, and next to the duke of Savoy. IVIontg'Oniery. Alabama; Confederate States ; United States, 1861. ]fIontg°oniery, Fort. Fort Montgomery. month (from mona, Anglo-Saxon moon), the 12th part of the calendar year. Calendar, French revolutionary calendar, January and other months, Jewish Era, Ma- hometan year. Year. Lunar month. — The period of one revolution of the moon around the earth (synodical); mean length, 29 d. 12 h. 44 min. 2.87 sec. Sidereal month. — Time of moon's revolution from a star to the same again, 27 d. 7 h. 43 min. 11.5 sec. Solar month. — The time the sun passes through one sign of the zodiac, 30 d. 10 h. 29 min. 4.1 sec. Information respecting the months of the Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, Romans. Persians, and other nations will be found in sir H. Nico- las's "Chronology of History." Montiel, Spain, battle of, 14 Mch. 1369, between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and his brother, Henry of Trasta- mare, aided by the French warrior Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter was defeated, and afterwards treacherously slain. Montlhery {mon-la'-ree), Seine-et-Oise, France, site of an indecisive battle between Louis XI. and a party of nobles, termed " The League of the Public Good," 16 July, 1465. IVIontmar'tre, heights of, near Paris, taken by Blu- MON f cber, 30 Mch. 1814 ; fortified during the communist insurrection, Mch. 1871; and retaken by the army of Versailles, 28 May. Montniirail (mon-me-rdl'), a town of Marne, France. Here Napoleon defeated the allies, U Feb. 1814. montrcal', the second citv in Lower Canada, built by the French, about 1642. Pop. 1871, 107,225; 1891, 216,650. Canada ; Fkknch in America ; Nkw Yokk, 1775. niOlllinient of London, built by sir Christopher Wren, 1671-77, in commemoration of the great fire. Its ped- estal is 40 feet high, and its total height 202 feet, the distance of its base from the spot where the fire commenced. It cost about 14,500/. The staircase is of 345 black marble steps. Of the 4 original inscriptions, 2^ were Latin, and the following in English — cut in 1681, obliterated by James II.; recut in the reign of William III. ; and finally erased by order of the com- mon council, 26 Jan. 1831 : THIS PILLAR WAS SET VP IS PKRPKTVAL RRMEMBRANCE OF THAT MOST ORBADFVL BVRN'ING OP THIS PROTESTANT CITY, BEGVN AND CARRTBD ON BY Y« TRKACHBRY AND MALICE OP Y* POPISH FACTION, IN Y« BEGINNING OP 8EPTKM. IN Y« YEAR OF OVR LORD 1666, IN ORDER TO T« CARRYING ON THEIR HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIRPATING T« PROTESTANT RELIGION AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERTY, AND Y* INTRO- DVCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. This provoked Pope's indignant lines : "Where London's column, pointing at the skies, Like a tall bully, lifts the head, and lies." Several have lost their lives by falling from this monument accidentally or voluntarily. Lyon Levy, a Jewish diamond- merchant, of considerable respectability, threw himself from it, 18 Jan. 1810, an occurrence noted by Barham in the " In- goldsby Legends " in " Misadventures at Margate," viz. : " And now I'm here, from this here pier it is my fixed intent To jump, as Mister Levi did from off the Monument!" monuments. The principal monuments in the Unit- ed States are the Bunker Hill, Washington's, Bartholdi's " Liberty Enlightening the World," Lincoln's, Garfield's, and Grant's. See separate articles, Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, New Yokk, Obelisk, Soldiers' monuments, Washington. moon, a satellite, and the only one of the earth. Opac- ity of the moon, and the true causes of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 b.c. Hipparchus made observations on the moon at Rhodes, 127 b.c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, and said that the moon borrows her light from the sun, 79*B.c.—Biog. Laert. Its diameter is about 2162 miles, and it revolves around the earth in 27 d. 7 h. 43 min. 11.461 sec. at a mean distance of 237,300 miles, its distance varying between 253,000 and 221,600 miles;, eccen- tricity of its orbit, mean, 0.05484; apparent diameter, 29' 21" and 33' 31"; its mean diameter, 31' 5" — nearly the same as the sun, 30'. Its surface is about 14,568,000 sq. miles, and its volume near 5,200,000,000 cubic miles. The moon's axis is nearly perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, deviating there- from by an angle of only 1^ 32' 9". There are therefore, properly speaking, no seasons on the moon. That the same hemisphere of the moon is constantly turned towards the earth is due to its rotation on its axis being equal to the time of its revolution in its orbit. As the moon has a slight oscillatory or balancing motion, called libration, we are enabled to see, according to Arago, -f-^^ of its surface, while ^-^^ remains al- ways unseen. When viewed with the naked eye the moon's disk shows parts much darker than others; for this conjectural causes have been given, one being the shadows cast by its im- mense mountain ranges, over 20,000 ft. high, and filled with volcanoes (supposed extinct) with craters large and very deep. Many of these have been named, as Tycho, Kepler, Copernicus, Teneriffe, Archimedes, Pico, etc. It has no perceptible atmos- phere ; if any exists, it does not extend a mile above its sur- face. It is probably without water, and therefore without animal or vegetable life. Years of observations at various sta- tions have proved that the moon has no discoverable influence on the weather. Light of the moon : if the whole sky was covered with full moons it would not give daj'light. The heat of the moon's rays is only observable by most delicate tests, and has been demonstrated by experiment within a few years ; but the sun's heat at the surface of the moon, according to sir J. Herschel, is equal to 212° F., or the boiling-point of water. The moon's centre of gravity does not coincide with its cen- tre of figure, but is 33 miles farther from us according to Hansen, whose estimate is not accepted by all astronomers. MOR I Maps of the moon constructed by Hevelius, 1647 ; Cassini Beer and Madler's map pub 1834 Hansen's "Tables of the Moon," calculated at the expense of the British and Danish governments, pub. by the latter igfit Prof John Phillips invited the British Association to make ar- rangements to obtain a "systematic representation of the physical aspect of the moon " 1862 British Association "lunar committee " publish 2 sections of a map of the moon, on a scale of 200 inches to her diameter, July, 186T Photographs of the moon tiikeu by Draper at New York, 1840; by Bond, 1850; by Warren de la Rue, 1857; by Rutherford... 1871 Earl of Rosse experiments on lunar radiation of heat 1868-73 Prof J. F. Julius Schmidt, of Athens, completed his map of the moon after 34 years' work; diameter 2 metres 187| Edmund Nelson pub, " The Moon, and the Conditions and Con- figurations of its Surface " July, 187fl Prof Schmidt's map pub. at Berlin i James Nasmyth and J. Carpenter pub. the result of many years' observations, in "The Moon," 1874; new edition ] Prof. S. P. Langley, of Washington, I). C, published the results of experiments relative to the temperature of the moon, Nov. 188' C. V. Boys, of South Kensington, announced at the Royal In- stitution his demonstration of the heat of the moon by a very sensitive thermopile of quartz filaments, according to ^ the anticipations of prof Piazzi Smyth 17 April et seq. 189^ Eclipses. Hoore'i Creek Bridge, N. C, battle at, be tween Americans, 1000 strong, and Tory Scotch settlers, iium bering 1500, on 27 Feb. 1776. The Tories were beaten, losini 70 ; the Americans none. Moore, properly the natives of Mauritania, but Nu midians and others, and now natives of Morocco and th neighborhood, are so called. They often rebelled against th _ Roman emperors, and assisted Genseric and the Vandals in' invading Africa, 429. They resisted the Arab Mahometans, but were overcome in 707, and in 1019 by them introduced into Spain, where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 they were defeated in Sicily by Roger Guiscard. The Moor- ish kingdom of Granada was set up in 1237, and lasted till 1492, when it fell before Ferdinand V. of Castile, mainly owing to internal discord. The expulsion of Moors from Spain was decreed by Charles V., but not fully carried out till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip III. completed the work. About lolS the Moors established the piratical states of Algiers and Tunis. In the history of Spain, Arabs and Moors must not be confounded. Morocco. moral philosophy, the science of ethics, defined as knowledge of our dutj', and the art of being virtuous and hap- py. Socrates (about 430 B.C.) is regarded as father of ancient,, and Grotius (about 1623) of modern. Ethics, Philosophy. IWorat', a town of Switzerland, where Charles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated by the Swiss, 22 June, 1476. A monument, made of the bones of the vanquished, was de- stroyed by French in 1798, and a stone column erected^ 400th anniversary kept, 1876. lHora'via, an Austrian province, occupied by Slavoni- ans about 548, and conquered by Avars and Bohemians, who submitted to Charlemagne. About 1000 it was subdued by Boleslas I. of Poland, but recovered by Ulrich of Bohemia in 1030. After various changes, Moravia and Bohemia were united with Austria in 1526. Moravia was invaded by Prus- sians in 1866, who made headquarters at Briinn, the capital, 13 July. The demand of the Moravians for home rule was resisted Oct. 1871. Area, 8583 sq. miles ; pop. 1890, 2,276,870. lIoravian§ or United Brethren, said to have been part of the Hussites, who withdrew into Moravia in the 15th century, but the brethren refer their sect to the Greek church of the 9th century. In 1722 they formed a set- tlement called Herrnhut, " the watch of the Lord," on the estate of count Zinzendorf. Their church consisted of 50O persons in 1727. They were introduced into England by count Zinzendorf about 1738; he died at Chelsea in June, 1760. In 1851 they had 32 chapels in England. They are zealou-s missionaries, and founded settlements in foreign parts about 1732. London Association founded in 1817. In 1735 a num- ber came over to Georgia, first Moravian settlement in the United States. In 1738 most of these removed to Pennsylva- nia, owing to Georgia's trouble with Spaniards in Florida, and in 1741 founded on the Lehigh the town soon after named Bethlehem by count Zinzendorf, then for the first time in ! America. Their labors among the Indians extended far and wide. The first Indian congregation gathered by Moravians. ' i MOR 529 MOR was at Pino Plains, Dutchess county, N. Y., at a place called She-kom-e-ko. Many Indian converts were killed by the whites, though not on account of their religion. Ohio, 1782 ; Pennsylvania, 1763-64, According to the census of 1890, Moravians have in the U. S. 94 churches ; church property, $681,250 : communicants, over 12,000. More'a, a name given to the Peloponnesus in the 13th century. Gkeece. THorey letter. During the presidential campaign of 1880 a letter on the Chinese question, purporting to have been written by the Republican nominee, gen. Garfield to H. L. Morey of Lynii, Mass., was published. It asserted that indi- viduals as well as companies have the right to buy labor where it is cheapest, etc. This letter appeared in New York, and was circulated by Democratic journals. Garfield at once de- clared the letter a forgery. It had no influence in the election. Horgan, William, fate of. In 1826 William Morgan and a David C. Miller of Batavia, N. Y., announced an expose of Freemasonry. Before the book was produced Morgan was arrested for a trifling debt and confined in Canandaigua jail, from whence he was secretly taken on the night of 12 Sept. 1826, to fort Niagara, at the mouth of the Niagara river, and was never heard of afterwards. Probably violence to a person so obscure never produced so much excitement; but the outrage was cruel and wanton. An earnest attempt was made to dis- cover the perpetrators, but without success. Such was the feeling against the order of Freemasons, that it created a po- litical party antagonistic to it (Anti-masonic) which nomi- nated state and national tickets, 1829-31. See " Thurlow Weed's Autobiography," pp. 210-335. jHorgan'S raid through Kentucky, Indiana, and Ohio. John H. Morgan, confederate, starts from Sparta, Tenn., with between 3000 and 4000 cavalry and several guns 27 June, 1863 Captures the 20th Kentucky at Lebanon, Ky 5 July, " Crosses the Ohio at Brandenburg, about 40 miles below Louis- ville, and enters Indiana 7 July, " At Salem, Ind., defeats " Home Guards " 9 July, " Cros.ses into Ohio at Harrison and passes north of Cincinnati, 13-14 July, " Attempts to recross into Kentucky at Bufflngton island, near Parkersburg, but is prevented by gun-boats and cavalry; leaves his guns, wagons, and 600 prisoners 19 July, " At Belleville, Morgan again attempts to cross the river, and some 300 of his men succeed by swimming their horses; but are closely pursued, and more than 1000 of his force sur- render; Morgan, with the remnant, pushes inland to East- port; they are captured near New Lisbon,Columbiana county, by cavalry under gen. Shackelford 26 July, " Morgan and several oflBcers are confined in the penitentiary at Columbus; he and 7 others escape by digging 26 Nov. " During this raid there were 4 skirmishes in Indiana, 12 in Ohio, and one engagement with a loss of 19 killed and 47 wounded of the U. S. troops; there were called out on this occasion 49,000 militia in Ohio, at a cost to the state of $212,318. The principal pursuers were brig. -gen. James M. Shackelford, brig. -gen. Henry M. Judah, and brig. -gen. Edward H. Hobson. Tennessee, 1864. morganat'ie (said to be derived from Morgeiigabe, the gift of a husband of a limited part of his property to such a bride on the morning after the marriage) marriag^es, when the left hand is given instead of the right, between a man of superior and a woman of inferior rank, and it is stipu- lated that she and her children shall not enjoy the rank or inherit the possessions of the former. The children are legit- imate. Such marriages are frequently contracted in Germany i by royalty and the higher nobility. It has been asserted that ' George I. of England was thus married to the duchess of Kendal ; the duke of Sussex to lady Cecilia Underwood , Fred- eric VI. of Denmark to the countess of Danner, 7 Aug. 1850; and several Austrian princes recently. Morgar'ten, Switzerland. 1300 Swiss defeated 20,000 Austrians under duke Leopold, 15 Nov. 1315, on the heights of Morgarten, overlooking the defile through which the enemy was to enter their territory from Zug. Switzerland. nioriee-daiice, an ancient dance peculiar to some country parts of England, and, it is said, also to Scotland ; per- formed before James I. in Herefordshire. Iflormons (calling themselves the Church of Jesus • Christ of Latter-day Saints), a sect founded by Joseph Smith, called the Prophet, who announced in 1823. at Palmyra, N. Y., that he had had a vision of the angel Moroni. In 1827 he said that he found the Book of Mormon, written on gold plates in Egyptian characters. This book is said to have been writtea about 1812 by a clergyman named Solomon Spaulding (or by- Martin Harris, who died Sept. 1875), as a religious romance ia imitation of the Scripture style. New York, 1830 ; Ohio, 181 2.. It was published in America in 1830, in England in 1841. It fell into the hands of Rigdon and Smith, who determined to palm it off as a new revelation. The Mormons command payment of tithes, permit and enjoin polygamy, encourage labor, and believe in miracles wrought by their leaders. Missionaries^ have propagated these doctrines in Europe with much success. Mormons organize a church at Manchester, N. Y 6 Apr. 1830 Settle at Kirtland, O., where they number 1000 in 1831 They found Zion, in Jackson county. Mo 1831-32 From 1833 to 1839 the sect endured persecution, driven from place to place, till the city Nauvoo. 111., on the Mississippi, was laid out, 1837, and a temple built 1840-41 Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum, in prison on a charge of treason, shot by an infuriated mob, and Brigham Young chosen seer June, 1844 Much harassed by neighbors; departure from Nauvoo deter- mined on 1845 Great Salt lake chosen "for an everlasting abode," and taken possession of (Utah) 24 July, 184T morocco or IflaroCCO, an empire in N. Africa,, formerly Mauritania. In 1051 it was subdued for the Fati- mite caliphs by the Almoravides, who eventually extended their dominion into Spain. These were succeeded by the Almohades (1121), the Merinites (1270), and in 1516 by the Scherifs, pretended descendants of Mahomet, the now reigning dynasty. The Moors have had frequent wars with Spanianls and Portuguese, due to piracy. Area, 219,000 sq. miles ; pop. about 9,000,000. Invasion of Sebastian of Portugal, who perishes with his army at the battle of Alcazar 4 Aug. 157S Tangiers acquired by England, 1662 ; given up 1683; Moors attack the French in Algeria, instigated by Abd-el-Kader; prince de Joinville bombards Tangiers, 6 Aug., and Mogador, 16 Aug. 1844- Marshal Bugeaud defeats Moors at the river Isly, and acquires title of duke. . .'. 14 Aug, " Peace between France and Morocco 10 Sept. " Spaniards, who possess several places on the coast of Morocco (Ceuta, Penon de Velez. Melilla. etc.), annoyed by Moorish pirates, declare war. . . .' 22 Oct. 1859" Negotiations fruitless; Spaniards increasing demands as sul- tan yielded ; Britain interfered in vain (Spain) 1859-60 A Moorish ambassador (the first since Charles II.) in London (gave 200<. to lord mayor for Loudon charities). . . June-Aug. 1860- British government guarantee loan of 426,000/. to the sultan to meet engagements with Spain 24 Oct. 1861 Affray between Jloors and Spanish cavalry of the fortress Me- lilla; several killed, 20 July ; peace restored 25 July, 1890 Spanish garrison at Melilla attacked by Moors (Rifflans).3 Oct. 1893- Garrison reinforced by troops from Spain 7 Oct. " Continued fighting about the town Oct. -Nov. " Spanish government rejects the sultan's terms for peace, 24 Nov. " Spanish governmentrequiresguaranteesforfuturepence ; indem- nity of 25,000,000 pesetas for loss of life and cost of war. 8 Dec. " Agreed to by the Moorish government 21 Dec. " New treaty between Spain and Morocco provides for a neutral zone and the punishment of the Rifflans who caused the trouble at Melilla 6 Mch. 1894 Sultan Muley-Hassan d. 7 June ; succeeded by his youngest son, Abdul-Aziz " [Succession will be contested, it is said (June, 1894), by Muiey-Ismail, brother of the late sultan.] SULTANS. Muley-Soliman 1794-1822 Muley-Abderahman 1822-1859' Sidi-Muley-Mohammed 1859-1873 Muley-Hassan 1873-1894 Abdul-Aziz 1894- morphia, an alkaloid, discovered in opium by Sertlirner in 1803. Horrill tariff, so called from its author, Justin S. Morrill, M. C. from Vermont, who introduced the bill in Con- gress. Tariff ; United States, 1860. mortar, a short cannon with a large bore and short chamber for throwing bombs; said to have been used at Naples in 1435, and first made in England in 1543. On 19 Oct. 1857, a colossal mortar, constructed by Eobert Mallet^ was tried at Woolwich, Engl. ; with a charge of 70 pounds it threw a shell weighing 2550 pounds 1^ miles horizontally,, and about f mile in height. lIortimer'§ Cro§S, Herefordshire, battle of. The earl of Pembroke and Lancastrians were here defeated by the young duke of York, afterwards Edward IV., 2 Feb. 1461. He assumed the throne in Mch, following. MOR 680 mortmain acts {nu>rt 7mn'», dead iiand). Whea the land in England was surveyed by William I., 1085-86, the whole was found to amount to 62,215 knights' fees, of which the church poaaessed 28,015, besides later additions, till the 7th of Edward 1. 1279, when the statute of mortmain was passed, from jealousy of the growing wealth of the church. It forbade gifts of es- tates to the church without the king's leave ; and this prohi- bition was extended to all lay fraternities, or corporations, in the 15th of Richard II. 1391. The word *• mortmain " is applied to such tenure of property as prevents alienation. Several statutes have been passed on the subject; legacies in mortmain were especially restricted by the 9 of Geo. II. c. 36 (1736). Ill €>8alC- work (the Roman opus tessellatuni) is of Asiatic origin, and is probably referred to in Esther i. 6, about 619 B.C. It had attained excellence in Greece in the time of Alexander and his successors, when Sosos of Pergamos, the most renowned mosaic artist of antiquity, flourished. He ac- quired fame by accurate representation of an " unswept floor after a feast." The Romans also excelled in mosaics, as evi- denced by the innumerable specimens preserved. Byzantine mosaics date from the 4th century a.d. The art was revived in Italy by Tafi, Gaddi, Cimabue, and Giotto, who designed mo- saics, and introduced a higher style in the 13th eentury. In the 16th century Titian and Veronese designed subjects for this art. Practice of copying paintings in mosaics came into vogue in the I7th century; and there is now a workshop in the Vatican where chemical science is employed in producing colors, and 20,000 different tints are kept. In 1861, dr. Salviati of Venice had established his manufacture of " enamel mosaics ;" and in July, 1864, he fixed a large enamel mosaic picture in one of the spandrils under the dome of St. Paul's cathedral, London. IVfOiCOW (mos'ko), the ancient capital of Russia, was founded, it is said, by Dolgorouki, about 1147. The occupation of the south of Russia by the Mongols in 1235 led to Moscow becoming the capital, and, beginning with Jaroslav II., 1238, its princes became the reigning dynasty. It is regarded as a holy city by the Russians. Pop. 1884, 753,469. Cathedralofthe Assumption built, 1326; of the Transfiguration, 1328 Kremlin founded 1367 Moscow plundered by Timour 1382 By the Tartars 1451, 1477 Massacre of Demetrius and his Polish adherents, the "Matins of Moscow" 27 May, 1606 Moscow ravaged by Ladislas of Poland 1611 University founded. 1705 Entered by Napoleon I. and the French, 14 Sept. ; the governor, Rostopchin, is said, douljtfuUy, to have ordered it set on fire (11,840 houses burned, besides palaces and churches), 15 Sept. 1812 French evacuate Moscow, and begin retreat 15 Oct. " [Before the pursuit ceased in Dec, over 300,000 of the French army was lost as prisoners, killed, or died of cold and hunger.] MoiquitO Coait, Central America, lying east of the state of Nicaragua, with a coast line of about 250 miles on the Caribbean sea. The Indians of this coast were long under pro- tection of the British, who held Belize and a group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The jealousy of the United States was aroused. In Apr. 1850, the 2 governments covenanted not " to occupy or fortify or colonize, or assume or exercise any dominion over, any part of Central America." In 1855 the U. S. charged the British government with infraction of the treaty ; but the latter agreed to cede the disputed territory to Honduras, with aome reservation. The matter wassettled in 1859. Nicaragua. lllO§§- troopers, desperate plunderers, and lawless fioldiers secreting themselves in mosses on the borders of Scot- land. In spite of severe laws they were not extirpated till the 18th century. "A stark moss-trooping Scot was he, As e'er couch'd border-lance by knee; Five times outlawed had he been By England's king and Scotland's queen. "—5'cott. motets, short pieces of church music, some of which are ■dated about the end of the 13th century. Good motets were written between 1430 and 1480 ; and very fine ones in the 16th and 17th centuries. The " Motet Society," for the publication of these, was founded in 1847, by William Dyce. Mother Ooose's melodies. Massachusetts, 1715. motion, an expression of energy. Heat. On 13 Nov. 1873, prof. Sylvester described to the London Mathemat- MOT i leal Society a machine for converting spherical into rectilinea and other motions, and for producing perfectly parallel motion the discovery of M. Peaucellier, a French engineer officer, aboi 1867. Kinematics. motor, a source or originator of mechanical poweil Electkicity ; Keely motor. motto. A short sentence or phrase added to a devic« or to an essay or discourse, indicating its aim or describim some rule of conduct. ^ motto of the united states and of the political diS VISIONS of the union, with date of adoption of seal. United States . Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas. California. Colorado. . Connecticut Delaware Dist. of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky.. Louisiana. . Maine Maryland. Massachusetts.... 13 Dec. 1780 Michigan 1835 Minnesota 1858 Mississippi .... Missouri 11 Jan. 1822 Montana 24 May, 1864 I Mch. 1867 24 Feb 1866 Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire. . New Jersey 11 Feb. 1785 3 Oct. 1776 New Mexico 9 Sept. 1850 New York 1809 North Carolina. . . 1893 North Dakota.... Ohio 6 Apr. 1866 Oregon 1857 Pennsylvania 2 Mch. 1809 Rhode Island 1664 South Carolina. . . .... South Dakota.... Tennessee Texas ... . i796 Utah Sept. 1866 Oct. 1779 Virginia Washington 1853 West Virginia. . . . 26 Sept. 1863 Wisconsin Wyoming 1868 Adopted. 20 June, 1782 29 Dec. 1868 i«63 3 May, 1864 1861 Oct. 1842 1846 5 Dec. 1799 5 Mch. 1866 26 Aug. 1818 25 Feb. 29 Jan. 20 Dec. 9 Jan.' 1861 1792 1820 12 Aug. 1648 Motto. (E pluribus unum. (Many i \ one.) Here we rest. None. Ditat Deus. (God enriches. ) (Regnant populi. (The peopl^ ( rule.) Eureka. (I have found it.) (Nil sine numine. (Nothingwith^ ( out God.) (Sustinetquitranstulit. (HewhoJ \ transplanted still sustains.) Liberty and independence. (Justitia omnibus. (Justice to \ all.) In God we trust. Wisdom, justice, moderation. Salve. (Welcome, or hail.) (State sovereignty— National ( union. None. (Our liberties we prize, and our ( rights we will maintain. ( Ad astra per aspera. (To the ( stars through difflculties.) United we stand, divided we fall Union, justice, and confidence. Dirigo. (I direct.) Fatti maschi parole femine. (Manly deeds and womanly words. ) -; Scuto bofa'ae voluntatis tuae coro- nasti nos. (With the shield of Thy good-will Thou hast covered us.) Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem. (With the sword she seeks quiet peace under lib- erty.) Si quseris peninsulam amcenam circumspice. (If thou seekest a beautiful peninsula, behold it here. ) j Etoile du nord. (The star of the ( north.) None. Salus populi suprema lex esto. (The welfare of the people is the supreme law.) Oro y Plata. (Gold and silver.) Equality before the law. All for our country. None. Liberty and prosperity. (Crescit eundo. (It increases by \ going.) ( Excelsior. (Higher, more ele- ( vated. ) ( Esse quam videri. (To be rather ( than to seem.) ( Liberty and union, one and in- ( separable, now and forever. (Imperiuminimperio. (Agovern- ( ment within a government.) The Union. (Virtue, liberty, and indepen- ( dence. Hope. ( Dum spiro, spero. (While I ( breathe 1 hope.) Under God the people rule. Agriculture, commerce. None. Freedom and unity. (Sic semper tyrannis. (Thus al- ( ways to tyrants.) Al-ki. (By and by.) I Montani semper liberi. (Moun- ( taineers always freemen.) Forward. (Cedant arma togae. (Let arms \ yield to the gown.) MOT 531 MUN mottoes, Royal. Dieu et mon Droit, first used by Richard I., 1198. Ich dien, " I serve," adopted by Edward the Black Prince at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Honi soit qui mal y pense, the motto of the Garter, 1349. Je maintiendrai, " I will maintain," adopted by William ILL, to which he added, in 1688, " the liberties of England and the Protestant relig- ion." Semper eadem was assumed by queen Elizabeth, 1558, and adopted by queen Anne, 1702. mound Builders, a people who at an unknown period inhabited the country from the Great Lakes to the gulf of Mexico. The only traces left by them are extensive mounds, whence the name. ' The remains of these earthworks are nu- merous north of the Ohio river, and especially in the state of Ohio, where there are supposed to be more than 10,000 mounds and 2000 earth-enclosures, many of them extensive. The most noted are found in Adams, Butler, Licking, Montgomery, Pike, Ross, and Washington counties. This ancient race seems to have occupied nearly the whole basin of the Mis- sissippi and its tributaries, as well as the fertile plains along the gulf. There is great diversity of opinion as to their origin, (late, degree of civilization, etc. ; but decisive evidence on these questions is lacking. Serpent mound. inountaitl Heado^r. Massacres, Utah. mountains. The Himalaya (abode of snow) range, north of India, are the loftiest mountains on the globe. Mount Everest— so named from sir Geo. Everest— is supposed to be the highest point of the earth's surface, 29,002 feet; another peak, recently measured, reaches 28,278 ft.; Kincliinjinga, 28,156 ft.; Dhawalagiri, 26,826, and Naudadevi, 25,700 ft. Many other points have been measured exceeding 25,000 ft., and the enumeration of all known peaks over 20,000 ft. would be wearisome. " It will not be surprising if peaks are event- ually discovered in this range exceeding 30,000 ft. in height." — Encycl. Brit. 9th ed. In North America an elevation of 10,000 feet is not reached east of 104° W. Ion. The follow- ing is a list of 10 of the highest peaks west of 104° of Ion.: (1) Mount St. Elias (Alaska), 19,500 ft.; (2) mount Cook (Alaska), 16,000 ft.; (3) mount Crillon (Alaska), 15,900 ft.; (4) mount Fairweather (Alaska), 15,500 ft. ; also mount Jeffer- son (Washington), same height; (5) mount Whitney, Cal., 14,898; (6) mount Harvard, Col., 14,452; (7) Fisherman's Peak, Cal, 14,448; (8) mount Rainier, Washington, 14,444; (9) mount Shasta, Cal., 14,442; (10) Uncompahgre, Col., 14,408. In all, there are 412 elevations of 10,000 ft. and over in western North America, of which the 10 mentioned above are the high- est.—" United States Geological Survey," compiled by Henry Gaunett, 1884. Alps, Andes, Appalachian, Volcanoes. mounts. Bernard, Calvary, Etna, Hecla, Moun- tains, Olivet, Vesuvius, Volcanoes. mournings for the dead. Israelites neither washed nor anointed themselves during mourning, which for a friend lasted 7 days ; on extraordinary occasions a month. Greeks and Romans fasted. White was used in mourning for the imperial family at Constantinople, 323. The ordinary color for mourning in Europe is black; in China, white; in Turkey, violet; in P^thiopia, brown ; white in Spain until 1498. Anne of Brittany, queen of 2 successive kings of France, mourned in black instead of white, then the custom, when her first hus- band, Charles VIII., died, 7 Apr. WdS.—Henault. mousquetaires {mous-ke-tairs') or musketeers, horse-soldiers under the old French regime, raised by Louis XIII., 1622. This corps was considered a military school for the French nobility. It was disbanded in 1646, but was re- stored in 1657. A second company was created in 1660, and formed cardinal Mazarin's guard. — Henault. Ifozambique (mo-zam-beek'), chief of the Portu- Ruese territories, E. Africa, was visited b}' Vasco de Gama, 1498; conquered by Portuguese under Tristan da Cunha and Albuquerque, 1506; a settlement was established, 1508. By a decree of 30 Sept. 1891, the colony of Mozambique was constituted as the free state of E. Africa, and divided into 2 provinces, Mozambique and Zambezi. The area of this state IS 300,000 sq. miles, and it extends along the coast from cape \ Delgado southward 1400 miles. The city of Mozambique is on a small coral islet close to the mainland. Hud campaign. Fredericksburg, Battle of. " mud-sills." United States, 1858, speech of Ham- mond of South Carolina. llug'gleto'nians, a sect so called from Ludowic Mug- gleton, a tailor, known about 1641, prominent about 1650 ; con- victed of blasphemy, Jan. 1676, died 1697. He and John Reeve affirmed that God the Father, leaving the government of heaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in a human form. They asserted that they were the two last witnesses of God who should appear before the end of the world, Rev. xi. 3. This sect existed 1850 ; the last member died in 1868. IflugWUmp (Algonquin, Mugquomp), signifying, in Eliot's translation of the Bible into the Indian tongue (1661), chief, leader, or captain. It was applied generally to Inde- pendent Republicans, especialh' to those who opposed Blaine in the national canvass of 1884 (probably used first in this sense in the New York Sun, 15 June, 1884). The word pleased the pop- ular fancy, and is often heard as a term of reproach for those who are supposed to fail in loyalty to party ; sometimes as an hon- orable epithet of independent voters. Political parties. millllberg, a town on the Elbe, Prussia. Here Charles v., emperor, defeated the German Protestants, 24 Apr. 1547, and captured John Frederick, elector of Saxony. Hullldorf, a town of Bavaria. Near this place Fred- erick, duke of Austria, was defeated and taken prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, 28 Sept. 1322. mulberry -trees (Gr. n6pov or fiopea), hence the bo- tanical name Morus, first introduced into England from Italy, about 1548. As the silk-worm thrives upon the leaves of the white mulberry, that variety is cultivated wherever the silk culture is carried on, notably in China and southern Europe. The fruit (berry) of the black and red species, the latter a na- tive of the United States, is agreeable to the taste. Shake- speare planted a mulberry-tree with his own hands at Stratford- upon-Avon ; and Garrick, Macklin, and others were entertained under it in 1742. Shakespeare's house was afterwards sold to Gastrel, a clergyman, who cut down the tree for fuel, 1765. A silversmith purchased it, and manufactured it into memorials. Flowers and Plants. mule, a hybrid animal generated between a jackass and a mare ; if between a stallion and a she-ass it is called a hinny. With the mule, procreation ceases. — Also, a spinning-machine invented in 1779 by Samuel Crompton, born at Bolton, Lanca- shire, in 1753; so called from combining the advantages of Hargreaves' spinning-jenny and Arkwright's adaptation. It is said that Crompton at the time knew nothing of the latter. He did not patent his invention, but gave it up in 1780. It produced yarn treble the fineness and much softer than any before produced in England. Parliament voted him 5000/. in 1812, now considered a most inadequate compensation. Mr. Roberts invented the self-acting mule in 1825. mummies (from Arab, mum, wax). The process of mummification or embalming the dead as performed by the Egyptians, occupying from 70 to 72 days, was accompanied with ritualistic ceremonies, fully described on recently dis- covered papyri, now known as the " Book of the Dead." It was formerly siqiposed that embalming was not practised in Egypt before 2000 B.C., but recent explorations set back the art to 3800 or even to 4000 b.c. The most ancient mummies, or at least desiccated human remains, not prehistoric, which are now known are fragments of the body of Menkara, third king of Dynasty IV., and builder of the smallest of the 3 pyr- amids of Gizeh. They are now in the British museum ; as- signed to about 4000 b.c. Next in antiquity comes the mummy of king Merenra, of Dynasty VI., now in the Bulak museum ; date, 3800 b.c. The most famous and interesting of all are the 36 royal mummies of Dynasties XVIL, XVIIL, XIX., and XXL, found in a vast tomb of the high-priests of Amen, at Dair al Bahari, on the left bank of the Nile opposite Karnak, July, 1881, more than 20 of them kings and queens; found with 4 royal papyri and other treasures, in all above 6000 objects. They are now in the Bulak museum. Em- balming among the Egyptians ceased about 700 a.d. mun'da, now Iflonda, a town of S. Spain. Here Cneius Scipio defeated the Carthaginians, 216 b.c. ; and here I Julius Caisar defeated the sons of Pompey, 17 Mch. 45 B.C., in I a desperate action. It is said that after the battle Csesar told MUN 582 MUS his friends that he had often fought for victory, but this was the first time he had fought for his life. Mundane eras. That of Alexandria fixed the cre- ation at 6502 «.c. This computation continued till 284 a.d., Alex, era 578G ; but in 285 A.D. 10 years were subtracted, and 6787 became 5777. This coincided with the Mundane era of Antioch (which dated the creation 5492 b.c.). — Nicholas. IHu'nich (Ger. Miinchen), capital of Bavaria, founded by duke Henry of Saxony, 962, was taken by Gustavus Adol- phus of Sweiien in 1632, by the Austrians in 1704, 1741, and 1743 ; and by the French under Moreau, 2 July, 1800. It abounds in schools, institutions, and manufactories. The university was founded bv king Louis in 1826. Pop. 1871, 169,693; 1875, 198,829; 1890, 348,317. murder, the highest offence against the law of God ((Jen. ix. 6, 2348 B.C.). A court of Ephet« was established by Demophoon of Athens for the trial of murder, 1179 b.c. The Persians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the heptarchy, murder was pmiished by fines only. In the laws of Alfred is found the earliest recog- nition of the criminal consequences of homicide apart from the damage to be paid to the relatives of the deceased or com- pensation to the person whose peace had been broken. So late as Henry VIII.'s time the crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. It was aggravated murder, or petit treason (a distinction now abolished), when a servant killed his master, a wife her hus- band, or an ecclesiastical person his superior (stat. 25 Edw. III. 1350). Under English law the unlawful killing of a human being is either murder or manslaughter; murder being unlaw- ful homicide with malice aforethought, and manslaughter un- lawful homicide without malice aforethought. In the United States the statutes seek to discriminate between the graver and less serious forms of the crime as 1st and 2d, etc., de- grees of murder, and some states define degrees of manslaugh- ter as well. Assassins, Crime, Executions, Trials. Uluret {moo-rd'), a town of S. France. Here the Albi- genses, under the count of Thoulouse, were defeated by Simon de Montfort, and their ally Peter of Aragon killed, 12 Sept. 1213. Murfreesborougli or 8tone River, Tenn., Battle of. During Dec. 1862, the Federal army of 41,421 in- fantry, 3266 cavalry, and 2223 artillery, with 150 guns, under maj.-gen. Wm. S. Rosecrans (Bragg's Kentucky campaign), lay at Nashville, Tenn., while between 35,000* and 40,000 con- federates, under gen. Braxton Bragg, lay partly at Murfrees- borough, about 30 miles southeast of Nashville, and partly at Triune, about 15 miles west of Murfreesborough. The fed- erals advanced Friday, 26 Dec. On the evening of 30 Dec. both armies were in battle order, the confederates lying across a stream called Stone river, easily fordable, about 3 miles from Murfreesborough. Rosecrans's plan was to attack the Confed- erate right, early on the 31st, but before this movement ac- complished anything Bragg anticipated it, attacked the Fed- eral right under gen. McCook, and drove it from its position as early as 10 a.m. This disaster baffled Rosecrans's plan and endangered his whole army. By reinforcing the right from the left wing he re-established his line almost at a right angle with the left, and held the ground till night. But the condi- tion of the federals was serious; they had lost much ground on the right and centre, though the left had repelled every attack; had lost 28 guns, 3000 prisoners, camp provisions, ammunition, etc., and their rear was threatened by the Con- federate cavalry; several brigade and regimental command- ers had fallen, and many regiments were weakened almost to dissolution. Rosecrans, however, held his position ready to meet the confederates again the next day. All day (1 Jan. 1863) both armies were inactive. On the 2d Rosecrans re- sumed his effort to turn the Confederate right; Bragg met the movement by pushing forward Breckinridge's division, which attacked at 4 p.m., at first successfully, compelling the federals to fall back across the river; but the success was transient, and the Confederate advance was driven back, with a loss of 1500 men and 4 pieces of artillery. The federals immediately reoccupied the ground and threw up temporary breastworks. Bragg, unable to dislodge Rosecrans, retired from his position 3 Jan. and occupied Murfreesborough, but evacuated it on 5 Jan., and fell back to the line of Duck river, \ leaving the field to the federals, who claimed a victory. Th retreat was ordered by Bragg, according to his official repor under the impression that Rosecrans had received large rein forcements. Federal loss was 1533 killed, 7245 wounded, am 3000 prisoners ; Confederate loss equal, if not greater, in kille( and wounded. In the critical condition of affairs in the north em states at this time the moral effect of this battle was high! favorable to the Union cause. Tullahoma campaign. Mu§eat', now Oman, an Arab state on the gulf o Oman, was conquered by the Portuguese under Albuquerqui in 1507, but recovered by the Arabs in 1648. Oman is prao tically on the footing of an independent Indian native state and essentially under British protection. Area, 82,000 sq miles; pop. 1,500,000. Capital, Muscat ; pop. 60,000. Ahmad bin Sa'id repelled a Persian invasion, and founded present dynasty 174] mu§e'um (Gr. movafiov, the temple of the Musei seat or haunt of the Muses ; hence also a place of study, school). The museum, a spot within the old walls of AthenJ where Musaeus, a Greek poet of the mythic age, son of Eu< molpus and Selene of Athens, sang and was buried. Also part of the palace of Alexandria, like the Prytaneum of AthensJ where eminent learned men were maintained by the public. The foundation is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who here placed his library about 280 b.c. British museum. niu§ie (Gr. fiovaiKii) to the Greeks included all the arts anc sciences presided over by the Muses, and in its most comprehen- sive sense denoted the entire mental training of a Greek youth. It is properly a language of the emotions or passions made mani- fest in harmonious sounds, and is developed by the science which treats of the properties and relations of sounds and the principles of harmony. St. Cecilia, a Christian martyr of the 2d centurj-, said to have enticed an angel from the celestial regions by her melodj', has long been considered the patron saint of music. " But bright Cecilia raised the wonder higher; When to her organ vocal brciith was given An angel heard and straight appeared, Mistaking earth for heaven." — Dryden, "St. Cecilia's Day." Jubal (3875 b.c.. Gen. iv. 21) is called " the father of all such as handle the harp and organ." The flute and harmony, or concord in music, are said to have been invented by Hyagnis, 1506 B.C. — Arund. Marbles. Pythagoras (about 555 b.c.) maintained that the motions of the 12 spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." Vocal choruses of men are first mentioned 556 b.c. — Dufresnoy. Pope Sylvester institutes a singing-school at Rome about 330 St. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, arranges the 4 diatonic scales known as "authentic modes," and introduces Chanting 350-70 Pope Gregory the Great adds to the authentic modes the "four plagal modes " (the 8 together are known as the "Gregorian modes") and adds tones to the Ambrosian chant 690-60i Schools of church music established in France and Germany by trained teachers sent from Rome 604-752 Organs introduced into churches by pope Vitalianus 657-72 Troubadours appear in Provence, in south of France 800 Hucbald, a Flemish monk, invents a system of scales, and pub- lishes it in his " Enchiridion Musicse " 930 Guide d'Arezzo, called "Inventor Musicse," founds the sys- tem of musical notation upon which our present method is based, and invents the terms ut^ re, mi, fa, sol, la 990-1050 [Many fallacies are still entertained as to the dated organ- ization of music in the church, and none greater than its ascription to St. Ambrose and pope Gregory, and the credit given Guido for the enunciation of its rules. From the end of the 10th century music in England was in advance of other nations, and remained so until its rise in Flanders in the loth century, and even then the English kept abreast of their contemporaries. — Encycl. Brit, "Music," 9th ed.] Franco of Cologne invents "rests" in music and a system of musical measure of time by shape of the notes 1220 Adam de la Halle and other troubadours flourish in England, Spain, and Italy, and minnesingers in Germany 1200-1300 Introduction of florid counterpoints ascribed to Jean de Muers, about 1330 Italy becomes the musical centre of Europe about 1400 Guillaume Dufay of the Belgian school, chapel-master at Rome, harmonizes melodies for 4 voices, and perfects the notes as now used (?) 1380-H30 Organ pedal introduced by Bernhardt at Venice 1490 Petrucci, an Italian, invents movable music types 1502 Virginal, a small keyed instrument, comes into use 1620 Claude Gondimel (c. 1510-72), a Fleming, opens the first school for musical tuition at Rome about 1540 Orlando di Lasso, last of the Belgian school, introduces the chromatic element into musical composition 1520-96 MUS 533 MUS 1600 <' Chorale " introduced by Luther in Germany 1524 Conservatory at Naples founded 1535 Christo|)her Tye receives the degree oC Doctor m Music from the University of Cambridge 1545 " Old Hundred " written ;,-.V, V ' ^^^^ I'alestrina arranges his celebrated " Missa Papae Marcelli tor 6 voices— soprano, alto, 1st and 2d tenor, 1st and 2d bass- first sung in the Sixtine chapel June, 1556 I'alestrina completes the divorce of secular airs from church music, and his 3 masses are accepted by a commission of cardinals appointed by the Council of Trent 1565 Violins introduced into England • 1577 Society formed in Florence to revive the ancient Greek art of musical drama about 1580 First opera produced in Florence; entitled "Dafne," libretto by Giulio Caccini, music by Peri 1594 Ludovico Viadana, first composer to write harmony as distin- guished from pure counterpoint, and to use " figured bass," ^ 1560-1625 First oratorio of note, "I/Anima e Corpo," by Emilio del Cavalieri, performed at Rome [The oratorio dates its existence and name from the meet- ings held by San Filippo Neri in the oratory of his church in Rome for'Veligious exercise and pious edification, 1556.] Thorough bass invented by Peri about " Renowned collection of madrigals, dedicated to queen Eliz- abeth by Thomas Morley and others and known as "The Triumphs of Oriana," pub , 1601 Monteverde brings out at the court of Mantua his opera "Arianna" 1607 Harpsichords introduced into England about 1610 Giacorao Carissimi invents the "arioso," which later on devel- ops into the "aria" 1660 I.ully establishes the French grand opera 1672 First English opera produced ; title "Psyche," author Matthew Lock. 1673 jSi as a name for the 7th note of the modern scale, introduced about 1675 Publication of dr. William Holder's " Treatise on Harmony ". . 1694 Double bass, said to have been invented by Salo, in 1580, intro- duced into the orchestra by Monteclair 1696 Equal tempered system of tuning introduced by Werckmeister and Bach about 1700 Handel's first opera, " Almira." produced at Hamburg 1705 Italian opera introduced into England; " ArsinoG " performed at Drury Lane 1706 Swell organ first introduced by Jordan 1712 Handel's first oratorio, " Esther," produced in England 1720 Gay's '• Beggar's Opera " first performed at Lincoln's Inn the- atre 1727 Royal Society of Musicians (charitable organization) founded in England .• 19 Apr. 1738 Madrigal society, oldest vocal musical association in Europe, founded in England by John Immyns 1741 Gluck's first opera, " Artaxerxes," produced at Milan " Emmanuel Bach first introduces a system of fingering for the harpsichord in which the thumb is used 1753 PiAXOFOKTK, originating in ideas of Cristofali, in 1711, and others coincidently, comes into popular favor 1760 Gluck's "Orfeo" produced, Vienna 1762 Mozart's opera, " Idomenco," produced at Munich 1781 Double bassoon first introduced into the orchestra at the Handel Commemoration in Westminster abbey 1784 Mozart produces "Figaro," 1786; "Don Giovanni," 1787; " Magic Flute " (ZauberflOte) and " Requiem " 1791 Claude J. Rougetde Lisle composes Marseillaise hymn. .24 Apr. 1792 Conservatoire de Musique established in Paris by the Conven- tion Nationale 3 Aug. 1795 Haydn's "Creation" composed 1796-98; first performed at Covent Garden, London 28 Mch. 1800 Beethoven's " Fidelo " with the Leonora overture produced at Vienna 1805 Royal Conservatorio of Milan opened 8 Sept. 1808 Modern metronome invented by John Maelzel 1816 First performance of Spohr's " Faust " at Prague " First musical journal in England, the Quarterly Musical Mag- azine and Review, pub 1818-28 Weber's " Der Freischutz " and " Preciosa" produced 1820 Royal Academy of Music founded at London 1822 . Donizetti's " Lucia di Lammermoor " produced at Naples .... 1835 Meyerbeer's "Robert le Diable," 1831, and "Les Huguenots" produced 1836 Publication of the Musical World begun in England " Wagner's " Rienzi " produced at Dresden 1842 Conservatory at Leipsic opened 1 Apr. 1843 Tonic 8ol-fa system, in which the letters d, r, m,f, s, I, t (for do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, or si) are used instead of notes, was invented by Miss Glover of Norwich, and improved by rev. John Curwen about 1844 Waguer's " Tannhauser " produced at Dresden 1845 Mendelssohn produces " Elijah " 1846 Royal Irish Academy of Music founded -1848 Verdi produces "II Trovator" at Rome, and "La Traviata " at Venice 1853 Conservatory at Stuttgart founded 1857. " Popular Monday concerts " at St. James hall, London, founded by S. A. Chappell, commence with a "Mendelssohn night," 14 Feb. 1859 Great Handel musical festival at Crystal palace, London, on the centenary of his death, commencing (Handel's commkm- ORATiONS) 20 June, " First public appearance of Miss Christine Nilsson in "La Traviata " 27 Oct. 1864 College of organists founded " Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde " produced at Munich 1865 Wagner Society in London gave concerts to introduce Wag- ner's " Musik der Zuknuft" (the due combination of music and poetry) Feb. 1873 Musical Association for the Investigation and Discussion of Subjects connected with the Art and Science of Music, founded by messrs. Spottiswoode, Wheatstone, Tyndall, G. A. Macfarren, J. HuUah, Sedley Taylor, Stone, Pole, Chap- pell, Barnby, and others in England 16 Apr. 1874 An orchestra supplied with wind instruments made of terra- cotta appeared in London " Bizet's "Carmen " first produced at Paris 3 Mch. 1875 Tonic Sol-fa Association in England founded 1853; the college established 1862 by rev. John Curwen; chartered " Wagner's "Lohengrin " performed at Covent Garden, 8 May; at Drury Lane, 13 June, 1875. " Tannhauser " performed at Covent Garden. 29 Apr. 1876 Three series of performances of Wagner's " Ring des Nibelun- gen," in 4 parts (" Kheingold," "Walkure," "Siegfried," and "GOtterdammerung"), at Bayreuth, before the empe- rors of Germany and Brazil, king of Bavaria, and other sov- ereigns and princes 13 Aug. et seq. " Wagner festival, Royal Albert hall, London (Wagner present), 7-19 May, 1877 Sullivan's "Pinafore," London 1878 National training school for music, building near the Albert hall, London, founded by the duke of Edinburgh, 18 Dec.1873; opened by him 17 May, 1876; first public concert. ..23 June, 1879 Wagner's " Parsifal " produced at Bayreuth " Sullivan's "Pirates of Penzance," LondOD '. 1880 Sullivan's " Patience," London 1881 First annual congress of National Society of Professional Mu- sicians held in England 1884 Sullivan's "Mikado " 1885 Janko keyboard for the piano, first publicly used by the inven- tor, Paul von Janko, in Vienna 1886 Alfred Cellier's " Nell Gwynne," London, 1876; "Dorothy".. " New Leipsic Conservatory of Music dedicated 5 Dec. 1887 Sullivan's "Yeoman of the Guard," London 1888 J. Joachim celebrates the 50th anniversary of his d^but as a violinist (made at Pesth, 1849) at Cambridge, Engl... 14 Mch. 1889 MUSICAL PKOGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. First practical instruction-book on singing, compiled by rev. John Tufts, pub. in New England 1712 Organ presented to the Queen's chapel, Boston, by Thomas Brattle, Esq Aug. 1718 Singing societies established in different parts of New England, 1720 " Beggar's Opera," written by John Gay in 1727 (probably) first produced in New York 3 Dec. 1750 William Billings of Boston publishes a collection of his musical compositions entitled "The New England Psalm Singer, or American Chorister," in 4 and 5 parts 1770 Stoughton. Mass., Musical Society organized 7 Nov. 1786 Oliver Holden of Charlestown, composer of "Coronation," publishes " The American Harmony " in 3 and 4 parts 1792 Mrs. Oldmixon, nee George, makes her d^but in America in " Inkle and Yarico" 5 Dec. 1798 Euterpean M usical Society, New York city 180Q Massachusetts Musical Society, Boston 1807 " Barber of Seville " sung by French artists in New Orleans, 12 July, 1810 Handel and Haydn Society organized in Boston, 20 Apr. 1815; incorporated 9 Feb. 1816 " Clari, the Maid of Milan," libretto by John Howard Payne, containing the song " Home, Sweet Home," first produced in New York 12 Nov. 1823 New York Sacred Music Society, organized 1823, gives its first concert 15 Mch. 1824 New York Choral Society gives its first concert at St. George's church, Beekman st 20 Apr. " Manuel Garcia, with his wife, his son Manuel, daughter Marietta (Malibran), appears in Italian opera in New York city, 29 Nov. 1825 Musical conventions in America originate in New Hampshire, where the Central Musical Society holds its first convention at Concord Sept 1829 Thomas Hastings, invited by various churches, coming to New York, organizes church choirs, and regulates psalmody on a more religious basis 1832 Boston Academy of Music, founded for instruction in the Pes- talozzian system, with liOwell Mason at the head, opens 1833 Harvard Musical Association established 30 Aug. 1837 Balfe's " Bohemian Girl " produced for the first time in America by the Seguin Opera company at the Park theatre, New York 25 Nov. 1844 Louis Moreau Gottschalk makes his d^but at Paris, France 1845 Tour of the Hutchinson family, temperance and anti-slavery singers in the U. S. and England 1846-58 Concert tour of Edward Remenyi, violin virtuoso, in the U. S., 1848 Germania orchestra give their first concert in America at Astor Place Opera-house, New York 5 Oct. " First public concert of the Mendelssohn Quintet club at Boston, 4 Dec. 1849 Jenny Lind sings in concert at Castle Garden, New Yoric, 11 Sept. 1850 Chamber music introduced in New York, 1849; Theodore Eis- feld opens his quartet-soirees at Hope chapel 18 Feb. 1851 Henrietta Sontag, who made her debut in England as Rosina, at the King's theatre, 19 Apr. 1828, appears in the U. S., Sept. 1852 MUS Dwigbt's Journal of Music founded in Boston GoUscbalk's first concert in New York city Cecilia Society of Cincinnati, 0., organizes and gives its first concert !'•> Sept. Peabody institute, Hultiinoro, Md. , founded Wagner's " TauikiAuser " produced for the first time in America, at the Sudt Theater, New York 27 Aug. Adelina Patti makes her ddbut in "Lucia" at the Academy of Music, New York 24 Nov. Clara Ix>uise Kellogg makes her ddbut in "Rigoletto" at the Academy of Music, New York Theodore Thomas begins his symphony soirees In New York, Dec. Oberliu Conservatory of Music founded ** Der NordamerikanischeSangerbiind " reorganized at Chicago, National Peace Jubilee held in Boston, Mass. ; over 10,000 sing- ers and 1000 musicians; P. S. Gilmore conductor, 15-20 June. New England Conservatory of Music established at Providence, R. I., 1859; removed to Boston. 1867 ; incorponited Beethoven's Conservatory of Music founded at St. Louis Kisk university "Jubilee Singers" make their "campaign for $20,000" Oct. 1871-May, World's Peace Jubilee and International Musical Festival held in Boston / 17 June-4 July, Beethoven Quintet Club organized iu Boston Music Teachers' National Association organized New York College of Music incorporated Cincinnati College of .Music incorporated Campanini's first appearance in the U. S American College of Musicians incorporated Opera " Erminie," by Jacobowski, first performed in the U. S. in New York. Opera "The Lion Tamer," by Richard Stahl, first sung in the U. S. at the Broadway theatre, New York city 30 Dec. " Montebanks," by W. S. Gilbert and Alfred Collier, first sung in the U. S. at Baldwin's theatre, San Francisco. Cal, 22 Sept. "Fencing Master," by Reginald De Koven (also composed "Robin Hood"), first performed in New York city at the Casino 26 Sept. " PRINCIPAL MUSICAL SOCIETIES IN THE UNITED STATES. Organized Baltimore, Md Oratorio Society 1880 f Handel and Haydn Society 1816 I Apollo Club 1871 Boston, Mass { Boylston Club 1872 IThe Cecilia 1876 ( Boston Symphony Orchestra 1880 ( Brooklyn Philharmonic Society 1857 i»w^i,i„„ M V Apollo Club 1877 Brooklyn, a. \ Amphion Musical Society 1879 I Caecilia Ladies' Vocal Society 1883 534 MUS 1856 1867 1864 1866 1868 1870 1871 1872 1873 1876 1878 1892 Buflalo, N. Y (Liedcrtafel • (Orpheus Singing Society. Chicago, III Apollo Musical Club Cincinnati, Apollo Club ny^^^i^^A i\ (Cleveland Vocal Society. . Cleveland, O | Bach Society Milwaukee, Wis Musik-Verein Minneapolis, Minn Gounod Club Newark, N. J Organized . . . 1848 . .. ]8(;9 ... 1871 ... 1H8I ... 1872 ... 1878 .... 1849 ,... 1883 Schubert Vocal Society 1880 Philharmonic Society 1842 Deutscher Liederkranz 1847 New York city ■{ Mendelssohn Glee Club 1865 I Oratorio Society 1873 I Symphony Society ]878 PhilftdPlnhia Pa j Orpheus Club 1871 Pbiladelpftia, Pa.... |TheCecilian 1874 Pittsburg, Pa. The Mozart Club 1877 Rhode Island Rhode Island Choral Association 1885 Salem, Mass Salem Oratorio Society 1867 San Francisco, Cal The Loring Club 1876 Springfield, Mass Hampden County Musical Association. . 1887 St. Louis, Mo St. Louis Choral Society 1879 Washington, D. C Choral Society 1883 Worcester, Mass Worcester County Musical Association. 1863 PKINCIPAL MUSICAL SOCIETIES IN ENGLAND. Philharmonic Society, organized 1813 Sacred Harmonic Society, organized 1833 Musical Union, founded by John Ella 1845 Glee Club existed from 1787 to 1857 Catch Club, founded 1761, centenary kept July, 1861 Cfficilian Society, founded by Z. W. Vincent and others in 1786, disbanded " „ MUSICAL FESTIVALS. First at Bologna, 1515, at a meeting of Francis I. of France and Pope Leo X. Several were held in Europe in the 18th century; for Haydn, at Vienna, 1808, 1811; others at Erfurt, 1811; Cologne, 1821; and often since. First in England at St. Paul's, London, about 1655, termed " Sons of the Clergy." Dr. Bysse, chancellor of Hereford, about 1724, proposed to the members of the choirs a collection at the cathedral door after morning service, when 40 guineas were collected and appropriated to charitable purposes. It was then agreed to hold festivals at Hereford, Gloucester, and Worcester, in rotation annually. Until 1753 the festival lasted only 2 days; it was then extended at Hereford to 3 evenings; and at Gloucester, in 1757, to 3 mornings, to introduce Hanciers "Messiah," which was warmly received, and has been performed annually since. Musical festivals are now frequently held in the different cities of the U. S. Handel's commemora- tions. EMINENT MUSICAL COMPOSERS. Abbreviations: Or. oratorio, Op. opera, Ms. mass, Md. madrigal, An. anthem, So. sonata, Sy. symphony, GL glee. Date. Name. Compositions. 1500-60 Christopher Tye An *■' I will exalt Thee " 1514-94 Giovanni P di Palestrina Ms Md etc 1523-85 An. " I will call and cry." iXon Nobis Domine; An. "Bow down thine ear;" Md. "While the bright sun ;" \ also, Ms. Or. L'Anima e del Corpo. Md. " My bonny lass she smileth." Op. Orfeo, Arianna, etc. An. " Hosanna to the son of David ;" Md. " Oh that the learned poets." ^^ Or. Passion, Resurrection, etc. ; also, Op. J^B Op. Dafne, 1594; Eurydice, 1600. ^H Or. Jonah, Jephtha, etc. ^H Op. Psyche. '^1 Op. Tragedies Lyriques; also. So. .-^M An. "0 give thanks ;" Op. Dido and ^neas. King Arthur; also, So. ^H A fugue for two choirs; Tu es Petrus; Op. Carlo Re d'Almagna; also, Ms., S^H Or. Bleedingand Dying Jesus; also, Op. ^H An. "God is gone up." ^H Op. Castor and Pollux. ^H Or. Passion (St. Matthew and St. John) ; also, Ms., So. ^H Or. Messiah, Israel in Egypt, Esther, Samson, Saul; Op. Almira, Rinaldo, j^H Or. Death of Abel; Op. Olympiade; also, Ms. ^^H Various Ms., Op., Sy. ^^^H Or. Der Tod Jesu ; also Ms., Op. j^H Op. Artaxerxes; Or. Judith; also, Gl. ^^H An. " By the waters of Babylon ; " Op. The Chaplet; also. So. ^H Op. Orfeo, Alceste, Iphigenia. ^^H Op. Ariadne aufNaxos; Medea. ^^H Op. Roland, Labuona Figliuola, Diden, Cecchina. ^H Op. Liederspiele. ^^H (Or. Creation, Seasons; Sy. London symphonies, Toy symphonies, etc.; also HB? \ So. An for seven voices " Call to remembrance ■" also Gl 1538-1623 1550-1600 1563 1604 1566-1651 1583-1625 Orlando Gibbons 1585 1672 Heinrich Schiitz c. 1594 1604 74 Jacopo Peri Giacomo Carissimi , 1620-77 Matthew Immanded by lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, ,r Marmaduke Langdale the left, -and the king himself the re- rve. The king fled, losing his cannon, baggage, and nearly '00 prisoners, 14 June, 1645. Xashville, capital of Tennessee, pop. 1890, 76,168. NAT Nashville, Tenn., Battle of. After the battle of Fuank- LiN, gen. Schofield retreated to Nashville, 1 Dec. 1864, closely followed by Hood, who established his lines near that city, 4 Dec. From this time till 14 Dec. the armies fronted each other. Gen. Thomas was delayed in attacking Hood, although now superior in numbers; first, from want of horses, and sec- ond, owing to inclement weather, the ground from 9 to 14 Dec. being covered with ice, rendering it almost impossible to move horse or man. Gen. Grant becoming impatient of delay, signed an order suspending gen. Thomas, and placing gen. Schofield in command, 9 Dec, but fortimately it was not sent. On 15 Dec, the weather moderating, Thomas advanced against Hood and by skilful manoeuvres succeeded in driving the confederates, before night, from every position held by them in the morning, capturing 16 guns and 1200 prisoners. During the night Hood fell back a short distance to a strong position at Overton's hill on the Franklin pike. Again the manoeuvres on the Confederate left, with attacks on their front, broke their line at 4.30 p.m. on the 16th, and their retreat be- came a rout. The pursuit was kept up as rapidly as the weather and state of the roads would permit until Hood crossed the Tennessee with the remnant of his army, 28 Dec. The loss in killed and wounded on either side was not severe, but the Confederate prisoners captured numbered 5000, with 53 guns. The confederates in the campaign from*? Sept. 1864, to 20 Jan. 1865, lost in prisoners 13,000 men, besides the killed and wounded, and 72 guns. The Federal loss was about 10,000 in all during the same time. Gen. Hood was relieved of com- mand at his own request, 23 Jan. 1865, at Tupelo, Miss. Gen. Logan, under orders from gen. Grant, had reached Louisville, Ky., on his way from Washington to relieve Thomas, 15 Dec, but learning of the success of the Union troops, did not pro- ceed farther. ZVassau, a German duchy, made a county by the em- peror Frederick I. about 1180, for Wolfram, a descendant of Conrad L of Germany; from whom are descended the royal house of Orange now reigning in Holland (Holland, Orange), and the present duke of Nassau. Wiesbaden was made the capital in 1839. On 25 Apr. 1860, the Nassau chamber strongly opposed the conclusion of a concordat with the pope, and claimed liberty of faith and conscience. The duke adopted the Austrian motion at the German diet, 14 June, and after the war the duchy was annexed to Prussia by decree, 20 Sept., and posses- sion taken 8 Oct. 1866. Pop. of the duchy in 1865, 468,311. IVatal, Cape of Good Hope. Vasco de Gama landed here on 25 Dec. 1497, and hence named it Terra Natalis. Area, 20,460 sq. miles ; seaboard, 200 miles. Pop. 1876, 326,957 (20,490 whites) ; 1891, 543,913. (For the war, Zululand, 1879.) Dutch attempted to colonize it about 1721 Zulu power established about 1812 Lieut. Farewell, with some emigrants, settled 1823 Capt. Allen Gardiner's treaty with the Zulus 6 May, 1835 Dutch republic, Natalia, set up; put down by British. 12 May, 1842 Natal annexed to the British possessions 8 Aug. 1843 Made a bishopric (dr. John Wm. Colenso, bishop), 1853; and an independent colony 1856 Attempts to depose bishop Colenso for unsound doctrine fail- ing, the rev. W. R. Macrorie was sent out as bishop of Ma- ritzburg, to act with clergy opposed to the bishop Dec. 1868 Railway to Orange Free State opened 13 July, 1892 IVat'cliez. Indians; Mississippi, 1729-30. Bfationai Academy of Desig^n, New York city, founded 1826. Painting. IVationai Academy of Science was incorpo- rated by an act of Congress, 3 Mch. 1863 ; 1st meeting 22 Apr. 1863, Alexander D. Bach 1st president ; duties consist in the investigation, examination, experimenting, and reporting on any subject of science and art. The actual cost of investiga- tion, etc., to be paid for by the U. S. government ; no other compensation to be received. At first the number of members was limited to 50; since 1870 to 100; a limited number of foreign members admitted. ]¥ational Assembly, French. Upon the proposi- tion of abb6 Sieves, the States-general of France constituted themselves a National Assembly, 17 June, 1789. On the 20th the hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the king ; upon which the deputies of the tiers etat repaired to the Jeu de Paume. or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until thev had framed a constitution for France. On the 22d thev NAT 540 NAT met at the church of St. Louis. They abolished the state religion, aiuiulled monastic vows, divided France into departs ments, soUi national domains, established a national bank, is- sued assignats, and disstilved 21 Sept. 1792. National Con- vention OK Franck. In 18J8 the legislature was again termed National Assembly. It met 4 May, and a new con- stitution was proclaimed, 12 Nov. A new constitution was once more proclaimed by Louis Napoleon in Jan. 1852, after dissolving the National Assembly, 2 Dec. 1851. iVational Assembly, German. (inuMANY, 1848. iiutioiiiil cemeteries, Cemktkries. National Couventlon of France, consti- tuted in the hall of the Tuileries 17 Sept., and formally opened 21 Sept. 1792, when M. Gregoire, at the head of the National Assembly, announced that that assembly had ceased its func- tions. It was then decreed " That the citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare that the National Convention is constituted." On the first day it abolished royalty and declared France a republic. 17 Jan. 1793, it pronounced sentence of death on Louis XVI. 5 Oct. 1793, it declared all dates should be computed from the founda- tion of the republic, 22 Sept. 1792. 16 Oct. 1793, it sentenced Marie Antoinette to the guillotine. 21 Oct. 1793, it condemned to death 21 Girondists. 5 Apr. 1794, it sentenced to death Danton, Desmoulins, and many others of the Cordeliers. 27 July, 1794, it condemned to death Robespierre, and 26 Oct. 1794, it dissolved, when a new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed at the Little Luxem- bourg, 1 Nov. 1795. Directory, French revolution. The Chartists in England formed a national convention in 1839. national debt of the United States. The following statement shows the principal of the national debt of the U. S. on 1 Jan. of each year until 1843, and on 1 July in each year until 1890, and 1 June since : 1 Jan. 1791 $75,463,476.52 1792 77.227,924.66 1793 80,352,634.04 1794 78,427,404.77 1795 80,747,587.39 1796 83,762,172.07 1797 82,064,479.33 1798 79,228,529.12 1799 78,408,669.77 1800 82,976,294.35 1801 83,038,050.80 1802 80,712,632.25 1803 77,054,686.30 1804 86,427,120.88 1805 82,312,150.50 1806 75,723,270.66 1807 69,218,398.64 1808 65,196,317.97 1809 57,023,192.09 1810 53,173,217.52 1811 48,005,587.76 1812 45,209,737.90 1813 55,962,827.57 1814 81,487,846.24 1815 99,833,660.15 1816 127,334.933.74 1817 123,49i;965.16 1818 103,466,633.83 1819 95,529,648.28 1820 91,015,566.15 1821 89,987.427.66 1822 93,546,676.98 1823 90,875,877.28 1824 90,269,777.77 1825 83,788,432.71 1826 81,054,059. 99 1827 73,987,357.20 1828 67,475,043.87 1829 58,421,413.67 1830 48,565,406. 50 1831 39,123,191.68 1832 24,322,235.18 1833. 1834. 1835. 1836. 7,001,698.83 4,760.082.08 37,733.05 37,513.05 336,957.83 3,308,124.07 10,434,221.14 3,573,343.82 5,250,875.54 1842 $13,594,480. 73 1843 20,601,226.28 1840. 1841. 1 July. 1843 32,742,922.00 1844 23,461,652.50 1845 15,925,303.01 1846 15;550,202.97 1847 38,826,534.77 1848 47,044,862.23 1849 63,061,858.69 1850 63,452,773.55 1851 68,304,796.02 1852 66,199,341.71 1853 59,803,117.70 1854 42,242,222.42 1855.... 35,586,956.56 1856 31,972,537.90 1857 28,699,831.85 1858 44,911,881.03 1859 68,496,837.88 1860. 64,842,287.88 1861 90,580,873.72 1862 524,176,412.13 1863 1,119,772,138.63 1864 1,815,784,370.57 1865 2,680,647,869.74 1866 2,773,236,173.69 1867 2,678,126,103.87 1868 2,611,687,851.19 1869 2,588,452,213.94 1870 2,480,672,427.81 1871 2,353,211,332.32 1872 2,253,251,328.78 1873 2,234,482,993. 20 1874 2,251,690,468.43 1875 2,232,284,531.95 1876 2,180;395,067.15 1877 2,205,301,392.10 1878 2,256,205,892.53 1879 2,349,567,482.04 1880 2,120,415,370.63 1881 2,069,013,569.58 1882 1,918,312,994.03 1883 1,884,171,728.07 1884 1,830,528,923.57 1885 1,863,964,873.14 1886 1,775,063,013.78 1887 1,657,602,592.63 1888 1,692,858,984.58 1889 1,619,052.922.23 1890 1,552,140.204.73 1 June. 1891 1,546,215,876.00 1892 1,603,440,970.61 1893 1,556,281,905.63 1894 1,638,045,005.18 The following is a statement of the various refunding oper- ations of the national treasury : House of RcpreseuUitives by resolution, 21 Sept. 1789, directed Ham- ilton, secretary of tlio treasury, to prepare a plan for supportiug the public credit. He responded in his first report, 9 Jan. 1790. First Refunding act, embodying Hamilton's suggestions, was ap- proved 4 Aug. 1790. Under it the state debts, and the foreign and domestic debt of the nation, were consolidated and refunded in 3 classes of bonds. The loans authorized being insufficient to re- fund 'the whole, a new loan was authorized by act approved 3 Mch. 1795. Ne.xt effort to refund was in 1807. An act for conversion of various outstanding stocks into a new 6- per cent, stock, was approved i;( Feb. 1807. Holders of old bonds did not all respond, and the scheme partially failed. Next effort was in 1812, under an act for conversion of old 6-por- cent, and deferred stocks into new 6per-cent. stock, approved 6 July, 1812. About $3,000,000 was converted. Next effort, in 1822, when an act, approved 20 Apr, authorized a 5- per-cent. stock in exchange for outstanding 6 and 7 percent, stocks, failed almost entirely. Next effort, in 1824, under act approved 26 May, authorizing a 4)<^- per-cent. bond, was in part successful, but a new attempt under act approved 3 Mch. 1825, failed, the interest offered (4><^ per cent.) being too low. The debt matured and was paid during the next 10 years, being practically extinguished in 1836. A new debt grew up, and in 1861 amounted to $90,580,873.72. The civil war swelled it, until, on 31 Aug. 186.5, the interest-bearing bonds amounted to $2,381,530,294.96, as follows: , Four-per-cenls $618,127.98 Five per cents 69,175,727.65 ! Six-per-cents 1,281,736,439.33 ' Seven and three tenth per cents 8.30,000,000.00 Some of these were paid, others converted into five twenty consols of 1865, 1867, and 1868, at 6 per cent. Refunding at lower rates was impossible until the credit of the government should be es- tablished more firmly, the 6-per cent, bonds being then below par. Improvement of credit may be said to have been begun by the act of 18 Mch. 1869, pledging the faith of the government for payment of the debt in coin. First post-bellum refunding act was approved 14 July, 1870, and an amendatory act 20 Jan. 1871. Our 6-per-cent. bonds were still at a discount in 1870; but the improvement was so rapid that the secretary of the treasury (Boutwell) gave notice on 28 Feb. 1871, of subscriptions for a new 5-per-cent. loan under the refunding act. The books were opened on 6 Mch., and by 1 Aug. the sul> scriptions received amounted to $65,775,550. Early in that montli a " syndicate " or association of bankers was formed, which took the remainder of $200,000,000 offered, and the transaction was completed before 1 Apr. 1872. Further sales of 5-per-cent. bonds were made until the amount au- thorized by the act, $500,000,000, had been sold, and a like amount of 6-per-cent. bonds retired. On 24 Aug. 1876, the secretary of the treasury (Morrill) contracted with bankers for the sale of $300,000,000 4><^-percent. bonds for • refunding. Of this sum was sold, before 4 Mch. 1877, about $90,000,000. and that amount of 6 percent, bonds was retired. On 6 Apr., his successor, secretary Sherman, announced that the ; 4X-per-cent. loan would be limited to $200,000,000, and before 1 July, 1877, this amount had been taken. Of the proceeds. $15,000,000 was applied to resumption of specie payments, the remainder to retirement of old bonds. On 9 June, 1877, the first contract for sale of 4-per-cent. bonds was made. For 30 days this loan was open to the public, under agree- ment with the bankers contracting for it, and $75,496,550 was taken, of which $25,000,000 were applied to resumption. At the end of 1878 there had been sold for refunding $173,085,450 of 4-per- cent, bonds. The fear that refunding operations would cause an outflow of gold to Europe in payment of called bonds led the secretary to make a contract, 21 Jan. 1879, by which $5,000,000 of the 4-per-cents. was to be taken to England each month. An act approved 25 .Fan. 1879, authorized exchang^of 4-per-ccnt. consols of 1907 for equal amounts of 6-per-cent. five-twenty bonds, upon terms favorable to the holders. Refunding certificates of $10 each, designed to popularize the loan, were authorized by act , approved 26 Feb. 1879. I On 4 Apr. 1879, subscriptions to the 4-per-cent. loan were received, I amounting to more than $132,000,000. About half of these were rejected, and sales ceased. On 16 Apr. 1879, $150,000,000 of 4-per-cents, and $45,000,000 of re- funding certificates were offered, the bonds at a premium of one half of 1 per cent., and 4-per-cents. also in exchange for ten-for ties. Within 2 days the subscriptions e.xceeded the offering by nearly $35,000,000. A subscription for $40,000,000 of the certifi cates was declined, in order that the loans might be distributed widely, and restrictions were placed upon the sale of certificates, which was completed in June, 1879. All interest bearing obligations of the government, then subject to redemption, were thus refunded without loss to the government or disturbance of business, saving $19,900,846.50 in yearly interest. The interest-bearing debt 1 Mch. 1895, included: Funded loan of J891, i)4 per ct. ; cont'd at 2 per ct.. $25,364,500 Funded loan of 1907, 4 per cent 550,623,900 Loan of 1904, 4 per cent., act of 14 Jan. 1875 99.280,000 Loan of 1925, 4 per cent., act of 14 Jan. 1875 62,400,000 Refunding certificates, 4 per cent 55,310 Total $746, 723, 710 NAT national debt of Great Britain. -The first mention of parliamentary security for a debt of the nation occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present national debt may be said to have commenced in the reign of William III., 1689. In 1G97 it amounted to about 5,000,000/., and was thought of alarming magnitude. The sole cause of the increase has been war. By act of 31 May, 1867, the conversion of 24,000,000/. of the debt into terminable annuities was provided for. The law is consolidated by the National Debt act, passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; amended by act passed 2 Aug. 1875. Sinking fund. Debt. 1689. William III £664,263 1702. Anne 16,394,702 1714. George 1 54,145,363 1763. George III. (end of Seven Years' war), nearly 138,865,430 1786. After American war. 249,851,628 1793. Beginning of French war 244,440,306 1802. Close of French war 571,000,000 1815. At Peace of Paris 861,039,049 1830 840,184,022 1854. Commencement of Crimean war 769,082,549 1857. Close of Crimean war 808,108,722 I860 802,190,300 1870 748,286,181 1880 737.821,259 1890 •. 618,212, 157 1891. . . .-. 615,612,161 These figures do not include the terminable annuities which in 1891 were estimated at 68,458,798Z. Sir Stafford Northcotes act provides the annual charge of 28,000,- OOOZ. ; the surplus to reduce the debt— 1876. Total charge on management and interest, 31 Mch. 1891, was 25,207,000?. ; whole debt about $3,350,000,000, or |88 per capita. national debt of France. Following shows the growth of the French national debt from 1800 estimated in dollars : 1800. First Republic $143,000,000 1815. NapoleonI 254,500,000 1830. Louis XVIII. and Charles X 885,200.000 1848. Louis Philippe 1,182,600,000 1852. Second Republic 1, 103,200,000 1871. Napoleon III 2,490,800,000 1889. Third Republic 4,250,200,000 1891. " " 6,400,000,000 Or over $160 per capita. OTHER FOREIGN NATIONS, COMPILED FROM THE llTH UNITED STATES CENSUS, 1890. I Debt leas sinking I fund, 1890. Austro-Hungary Brazil Bavaria Prussia Saxony Wurtemberg Cape of Good Hope. Canada New South "Wales. . . New Zealand Queensland South Australia Victoria Greece Italy Mexico Netherlands Peru Russia Spain Turkey Egypt $2,866,339,539 585,345,927 335,503,105 1,109,384,127 143,897,747 107,735,500 110,817,720 237,533,212 233,289,245 184,898,305 129,204,750 102,177,500 179,614,005 107,306,518 2,324,826,329 113,606,675 430,589,858 382,175,655 8,491,018,074 1,251,453,696 821,000,000 517,278.200 Debt per capita. $70 42 60 37 41 52 77 47 214 298 333 321 161 49 76 9 95 145 30 73 37 75 national gallery, London. Painting. national guard of France was instituted by the Committee of Safety at Paris on 13 July, 1789 (the day be- fore destruction of the Bastile), to maintain order and defend the public liberty. Its first colors were blue and red, to which white was added, when its formation was approved by the king. Its action was soon paralyzed by the Revolution, and it ceased under the consulate and empire. It was revived by Napoleon in 1814, and maintained by Louis XVIII., but broken lip by Charles X., after a tumultuous review in 1827. It was revived in 1830, and helped to place Louis Philippe on the throne. Its reconstitution and enlargement from 80,000 to 100,000 men led to the frightful conflict of June, 1848. Its constitution was changed in Jan. 1852, when it was subjected entirely to the control of the government. Formerly it had many privileges, such as choosing officers, etc. In consequence 541 j^^-r of the defection of part of the national guard and the incom- petency of the rest during the outbreak in Paris in 1871, its gradual abolition was decreed by the National Assembly at Versailles (488-154), 24 Aug. 1871. The peaceful disarma- ment began in Sept. National guards have been established in Spain, Naples, and other countries during the present cen- tury. national guard, United States. Army, Militia. IVational Republican party. Political parties. nationalism, the doctrine in the United States that the general government should exercise a larger control over affairs of national importance, as for instance : (1) control of telegraphs, telephones, and express companies ; (2) national- ization of railroads ; (3) ownership of mines, oil and gas wells ; (4) control of heating, lighting, and street-car service of cities, all carried on in the interest of the general public and not for individuals or corporations ; in other words, for use and not for profit ; (5) children to be educated until 17 years of age ; child labor prohibited, etc. Bellamy's novel, " Looking Backward," 1888, expresses these views. nativity. The coming into life or into the world. 1. Especially the birth of Christ, 25 Dec. (Christmas) ; festival observed by all Christian nations. 2. ThatT of the Virgin Mary, 8 Sept. ; festival not observed by Protestants. Pope Sergius I., about 690, established it, but it was not generally received in France and Germany till about 1000 ; nor by east- ern Christians till the 12th century. 3. That of St. John the Baptist, 24 June, midsummer-day, said to have been instituted in 488. natural history was studied by Solomon, 1014 b.c. (1 Kings iv. 33) ; Aristotle (384-322 b.c.) ; by Theophrastus (394-297 B.C.) ; and by Pliny (23-79 A.D.). Botany, Flow- ers AND Plants, Zoology. natural philosophy. Philosophy. natural selection. Species. naturalism, a realistic style in literature, mainly in- troduced by Balzac, 1829 et seq. Edmond and Jules de Goncourt published "Medical and Phys- iological Novels " 1846 et seq. Emile Zola, in his '• Rougon-Macquart " series, 1871 et seq., portrayed deformed and diseased rather than healthy char- acters. A dramatized form of his "Assommoir," entitled " Drink, " was performed in London 1879 naturalization is defined to be the making a for- eigner or alien a citizen of any nation or state, granting him the rights of a citizen or a subject that by birth he did not have. First American naturalization law passed by the colonial leg- islature of Maryland 1666 Naturalization authorized by law in Virginia, 1671; in I^ew York, 1683; in South Carolina, 1693; in Massachusetts 1731 General law in New York 1715 Act of British Parliament for colonial naturalization 1740 Uniform law passed by Congress (United States, 1802), 26 Mch. 1790 Supreme court decided that legislation on this subject belongs exclusively to the nation 1817 Conditions and manner of naturalizing an alien are prescribed by sees. 2163-74 of the Revised Statutes of the United States. Natu- ralization of Chinamen is prohibited by sec. 14, chap. 126. laws of 1882. All naturalized citizens of the U. S. receive the same protection from that government when abroad as native-born citizens. In England the first act of naturalization was passed in 1437 ; and similar enactments were made in later reigns ; often special acts for individuals. An act for naturalization of Jews passed May, 1753; but was repealed in 1754, on the petition of all the cities in England. Jews. The act naturalizing prince Al- bert passed, 3 Vict. 7 Feb. 1840. A committee to inquire into the naturalization laws, appointed May, 1868, earl of Claren- don chairman, met 25 Oct. 1868; reported about Feb. 1869; and new acts were passed 12 May, 1870, and 25 July, 1872, under which British subjects may renounce their allegiance. By convention signed 3 Feb. 1871, the nationality of British subjects is made dependent on choice and not on birth. nature-printing consists in pressing objects, such as plants, mosses, feathers, etc., into plates of metal, causing NAV 542 NAV them, as it were, to engrave themselves ; and afterwards tak- ins? casta or copies for printing. Kniphoff of Erfurt, between 17-28 and 1757, protluced his llerlxiHum vivum by pressing plants (previously inked) on paper; the impressions being afterwards colored by hand. In 1833, Peter Kyhl, of Copen- hagen, made use of steel rollers and lead plates. In 1842 Mr. Taylor printed lace. In 1847 Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants ; and in the same year dr. Branson sug- gestetl electrotyping the impressions. In 1849, prof. Leydolt of Vienna, by assistance of Andrew Worring, obtained impres- sions of agates and fossils. The first practical application of this process is in Von Heutler's work on the mosses of Ar- pasch, in Transylvania; the second (first in England) in " The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited by dr. Lind- ley, with illustrations prepared under superintendence of Hen- ry Bradbury in 1856-56, who also, in 1859-60, printed "The British Seaweeds," edited by W. G. Johnstone and Alex. Croall. The prt)ces8 was applied to butterflies by Joseph Merrin, of Gloucester, in 1864. navfftl battlei. The first sea-fight on record is that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 664 B.C.— Blair. The following are among the most celebrated naval engage- ments (see separate articles) : Battle of Salamis; Greeks victorious over the Persians; most imiwrtant naval battle of ancient times. 20 Oct. Battle of Kurymedon ; Cimon the Athenian defeats the Persians both by sea and land the same day , 466 Athenian fleet under I'hormio defeats the Peloponnesian fleet near Naupaktus 429 Battle of Cyzicus; lAcedsemonian fleet taken by Alcibiades the Athenian 410 Battle of Arginusae 406 Battle of .(Egospoumos (S|)arlans victors) 405 Persian fleet, under Conon the Athenian, defeats the Spartan at Cnidos; Pisander, the Spartan admiral, is killed, and the maritime power of Sparta destroyed 394 Battle of MylsR (Romans defeat Carthaginians) 260 Roman fleet, off Trepanum. destroyed by the Carthaginians. . . 249 Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul Lutatius 241 Battle of Actium 31 Emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths and sinks 2000 of their a.d B.C. 480 ships 269 Battle of Lepanlo (Turks defeated) 7 Oct. 1571 Bay of Gibraltar; Dut<-h and Spaniards (a bloody and decisive victory for the Dutch) 25 Apr. 1607 Austrians defeat Italians at Lissa 20 July, 1866 PRINCIPAL NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. [Hallam affirms that the naval glory of England can be traced "in a continuous track of light" from the period of the Commonwealth] Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail of Danish pirates on the Dorset and Hampshire coast. — Asserts "Life of Alfred". 897 Edward III. defeats the French near Sluys 24 June, 1340 Off V7inchelsea; Edward III. defeated the Spanish fleet of 40 large ships, and captured 26 29 Aug. English and Flemings; latter signally defeated Earl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet of 100 sail, and captures 80 24Mch. Near Milford Haven; English take 8 and destroy 15 French ships . Off Harfleur; duke of Bedford takes or destroys nearly 500 French ships 15 Aug. In the Downs; Spanish and Genoese fleet captured by earl of Warwick Bay of Biscay; English and French, indecisive 10 Aug. Sir Edward Howard attacks French under Prior John ; repulsed and killed 25 Apr. Spanish Armada destroyed 19 July, Dover strait; Dutch adm. Van Tromp defeated by adm. Blake, 28 Sept. Dutch surprise the English in the Downs, 80 sail engaging 40 English, take or destroy several, 28 Nov. ; Van Tromp sails the Channel with a broom at mast-head, as hav- ing swept the English from the seas 29 Nov. English adm. Blake defeats Van Tromp off Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11 men-of-war and 30 merchantmen, 18-20 Feb. Off the North Foreland; Dutch fleet under Van Tromp, English under Mlake, Monk, and Deane, nearly 100 men-of-war each; 6 Dutch ships taken, 11 sunk, the rest ran into Calais roads, 2 June, On the coast of Holland; Dutch lose 30 men-of-war, and adm. Tromp was killed (7th and last battle) 31 July, Spanish fleet vanquished and burned in the harbor of Santa Cruz by Blake 20 Apr. English and French; 130 of the Bordeaux fleet destroyed by the duke of York (afterwards James II.) 4 Dec. Duke of York defeats Dutch fleet off Harwich ; Opdam, Dutch admiral, blown up with all his crew; 18 capital ships taken, 14 destroyed 3 June, Earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war and 2 India ships. 4 Sept. Dutch and English fleets contend for 4 days; English lose 9, and the Dutch 15 ships 1-4 June, 1350 1371 1387 1405 1416 1459 1512 1513 1652 1653 1657 1664 1665 1 1661 167 167 167 169 169 169 170 1711 17* Decisive victory at ipouth of the Thames; Dutch lose 24 men- of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 4000 seamen 25, 26 July, Dutch adm. l)e Ruyter sails up the Thames and destroys soine ships 11 June, Twelve Algerino ships-of-war destroyed by sir Edward Si)ragg, 10 May, Battle of Southwold bay (Solkbay) 28 May, Coast of Holland; by prince Rupert, 28 May, 4 June, and 11 Aug., sir E. Spragg killed; D'Estr^es and Ruyter defeated.. Off Beachy Head ; English and Dutch defeated by French under Tourville 30 June, But defeat him near cape La Hogue m May, Off St. Vincent; English and Dutch squadrons, under adm. Rooke, defeated by French it; June, Off Carthagena; adm. Benbow and French fleet under adm. Du Casse 19 Aug. [French retire. For their conduct in this action the Eng- lish capts. Kirby and Wade were shot at Plymouth.] Sir George Rooke defeats the French fleet off Vigo 12 Oct. Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by sir George Byng, in the Faro of Messina 31 July, Off cape Finisterre; the French fleet of 38 sail taken by adm. Anson 3 May, Off Finisterre; when adm. Hawke took 7 men-of-war of the French 14 Oct. Adm. Pocock defeats French fleet in the East Indies, in 2 ac- tions, 1758, and again Adm. Boscawen defeats French under De la Clue, off cape Lagos 18 Aug. Adm. Hawke defeats French fleet under Conflans, in Qiihkho.n Bay, preventing a projected invasion of England 20 Nov. Near cape St. Vincent ; adm. Kouney defeated Spanish Jleet under adm. don Langara 16 Jan. Rodney defeated French going to attack Jamaica; took 5 ships of the line, and sent the French admiral, comte de Grasse, prisoner to England ^. 12 Apr. British totally defeated fleets of Fiance and Spain iu bay of Gibraltar 13 Sept. Dutch fleet, under adm. Lucas, in Saldanha bay, surrenders to sir George Keith Elphinstone 17 Aug. British victory off Capk St. Vincent 14 Feb. Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz; Nelson loses his right arm (Nelson's Victories) 24 July, Victory of Campkrdown 11 Oct. Of the Nile 1 Aug. Copenhagen bombarded 2 Apr. Victory off Trafalgar 21 Oct. Adm. Duckworth passes Dardanelles 19 Feb. Copenhagen fleet captured 8 Sept. Russian fleet in the Tagus surrenders to British 3 Sept. Bay of Rosas, where lieut. Tailour, by direction of capt. Hallo- well, takes or destroys 11 war and other vessels (Rosas bay), 1 Nov. Off LissA ; victory gained over a Franco- Venetian squadron by capt. William Hoste 13 Mch. Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth 27 Aug. Navarino 20 Oct 1827 Bombardment and capture of Acre, by British squadron under adm. Stopford with trifling loss; the Egyptians lost 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 prisoners (Syria) 3 Nov. 1840 naval battles of the United States. The navy, during the Revolution, was of little account. The principal exploits were performed by privateers. In Dec. 1775, a navy was established by Congress, and officers appointed. Esek Hopkins was made commander-in-chief, and in the spring of 1776 went southward with a small squadron. Navy, United States. British armed schooner J»farpareats carrying 20 guns— 96 guns in all, with 1000 men— on Jjke Cham plain, near Plattsburg. American loss, 52 killed !id 58 wounded; British loss over 200; among the killed was 5wnie (New York) 11 Sept. ' ' Privateer General Armstrong, capt. Sam'l C. Reid, 7 guns and 90 men, destroyed by a British squadron in the harbor of Fayal, one of the Azores (Portuguese), a neutral port. After repulsing 3 attacks, capt. Reid scuttles the Armstrong and returns with his men to the shore. During the 10 hours of this assault the British lost over 300 in killed and wounded. The American loss was 2 killed and 7 wounded, 26 Sept. 1814 [One of the guns used on the .General Armstrong in this engagement — "Long Tom "—was presented to the U. S. by the king of Portugal, and brought over Mch. 1893.] President, 44 guns, capt. Decatur, just out from New York, pur- sued and captured by the British frigates Endymion 40 guns, Pomone 38, Tenedos 38, and Majestic. A running fight was kept up from 3 p.m., principally with the Endymion. until 11 P.M., when, surrounded by the other ships, Decatur surren- dered his sword to capt. Hayes of the Majestic. American loss, 24 killed, 56 wounded; British, 11 killed, 14 wounded, 15 Jan. 1815 Constitution, 52 guns, 470 men, capt. Stewart, off cape St. Vin- cent, captures the British frigate Cyane, 36 guns, 185 men, capt. Falcoln. and the brig Levant, 18 guns, capt. Douglass. American loss, 15; British, 77 20 Feb. " Sloop-of- war ^Tornet, 18 guns, capt. Biddle, captures the British brig Penguin, 18 guns, capt. Dickenson, 132 men, off Brazil, 23 Feb. " [This was the last regular naval battle in the war of 1812, although the U.S. sloop of- war Pteacocfc captured the British sloop Nautilus in the strait of Sunda, 30 June, 1815, long after peace was declared.] Com. David Conner, with the U.S. fleet, bombards Vera Cruz, in conjunction with the land forces under gen. Scott. , .Mch. 1847 Capt. Duncan N. Ingraham of the U.S. sloop of- war St. Louis rescues Koszta from the Austrian brig Hussar (Koszta af- fair; United States, 1854) 2 July. 1853 U.S. frigates Congress and Cumberland destroyed by the Con- federate iron -clad Merrimac (Hampton Roads; Virginia, 1861-62) 8 Mch. 1862 Battle between the Monitor and Merrimac (Hampton Roads). 9 Mch. " Farragut passes forts Jackson and St. Philip, below New Or- leans, 24 Apr. 1862, and anchors before the city 25 Apr. " Kearsarge destroys the Alabama (Alabama) 19 June, 1864 Farragut forces his way into Mobile bay, defeats the Confeder- ate fleet, and captures the Confederate ram Tennessee. The Union loss 165 killed and 170 wounded 5 Aug. " naval reserve. Navy, United States, 1891. IVavarino (nd-vd-ree'-no), a fortified seaport town of S.W. Greece, settled by the Arabs, 6th centurj' ; taken by the Turks, 1500; by Venetians, 1686; by Turks, 1718; by Greeks, 1821 ; by Turks, 1825. Near here, on 20 Oct. 1827, the com- bined fleets of England, France, and Russia, under adm. Cod- rington, nearly destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleet. More than 30 ships, many of them 4-deckers, were blown up or burned, chiefly by Turks, to prevent capture. This defeat of the Turks virtuallj' secured the independence of Greece. The destruction of Turkish naval power was characterized by Wellington as an "untoward event." Wavarre {na-var'), now a province of Spain, was part of the Roman dominions, and was conquered from the Saracens by Charlemagne, 778. His descendants appointed governors, one of whom, Garcias Ximenes, took the title of king in 857, In 1076, king Sancho IV. was poisoned, and Sancho Ramorez of Aragon seized Navarre. In 1134, Navarre became again independent under Garcias Ramorez IV. In 1234, Thibault, count of Champagne, nephew of Sancho VII., became sover- eign ; and in 1284, by marriage of the heiress Jane with Philip IV. le Bel, Navarre fell to France. SOVEREIGNS OF NAVAHRE. 1274. Jane I. and (1284) Philip le Bel of France. 1305. Louis X., Hutin, of France. 1316. Philip v., the Long, of France. 1322. Charles L, the Fair, IV. of France. 1328. Jane IL (daughter of Jane I. ),and her husband Philip d'Evreux. 1349. Charles II., the Bad. 1387. CharlesIIL, the Noble. 1425. Blanche, his daughter, and her husband. John of Aragon. 1441. John II., alone, became king of Aragon in 1458. He endeav- ored to obtain the crown of Castile also. 1479. Eleanor de Foix, his daughter. " Francis Phoebus de Foix, her son. 1483. Catharine (his sister) and her husband John d'Albret. Ferdi- nand of Aragon conquers and annexes all Navarre south of the Pyrenees, 1512. NAVARRE ON THE NORTH (FRENCH) SIDE OF THE PYRENEES, 1516. Henry d'Albret. 1555. Jane d'Albret and her husband Anthony de Bourbon, who d. 1562. 1572. Henry III., who became in 1589 king of France (as Henry IV.) This kingdom formally united to France in 1609. NAV 644 NAV liavlfratiOll (from Lat. naru, ship, and of/nr, to lead or «lireci), the science or art bj' which a mariner coiuiucts a vessel from one port to another; it includes a thonnigli kiiowl- ■edge of mathematics, astronomy, geography, etc., and began with Egyptians and Phoenicians. The tirst navigation laws were those of the Kliodians, 916 b.c. The first account of a ■considerable voyage is that of Phoenicians round Africa, 604 &C.— Blair. Piano charts and mariner's compass used about 1420 Variation of compass observed by Columbus 1492 Thai obliiiue rhomb lines are spiral, discovered by Nonius 1537 First treatise on navigation 1545 Log tlrst mentioned by Bourne 1577 Mercator's chart 1599 Davis's (quadrant, or backstaff, for measuring angles about 1600 Logarithmic tables applied to navigation by Gunter 1620 .^{iddle-latitude sailing introduced 1623 Mensuration of a degree, Norwood 1631 Hedley's quadrant 1731 Harrison's timekeeper used 1764 ^' Nautical Almanac " first published 1767 Barlow's theory of deviation of the compass 1820 Quarterly Journal of Xaval Science, edited by E. J. Reed, pub. COMPA88, Latitcuk, Longitcdk, Maps, Steam. April, 1872-75 navigator§ or naY'vie§. Workmen building rail- ways probably derived this name (about 1830) from working upon inland navigation in Lincolnshire, etc. They are doubt- fully said to be descendants of the original Dutch canal la- 4)orers. IiaTy, the armed vessels and crew of a nation. The Phoe- nicians and the Greeks were the first to place much dependence •on this method of warfare. Afterwards the Garth agenians, and later the Romans, maintained large navies. Since the inven- tion of gunpowder and the steam-engine the construction of ■war-ships has been a subject of scientific study. The position of Great Britain has compelled her to depend on ships for de- fence or invasion, until she has become the greatest naval na- tion in the world. Other nations have followed her example, ■until now one of the principal branches of the national ex- penditure of every maritime country is the building and main- taining of its navy. Naval battlks. navy of the United States. The present U. S. navy •dates from an act of Congress 30 Apr. 1798, establishing a navy department. An act of 3 Mch. 1815 authorized a board of commissioners for the navy, but an act of 31 Aug. 1842 abolished it; reorganized the navy department with 5 bureaus, increased to 8 by act of 6 July, 1862 : 1. Yards and ■docks; 2. Navigation; 3. Ordnance; 4. Provision and cloth- ing ; 5. Medicine and surgery ; 6. Construction and repair ; 7. Equipment and recruiting ; 8. Steam engineering. Law passed establishing a marine committee, consisting of John Adams, John lijingdon, and Silas Dean 13 Oct. 1775 Act of Congress for building 13 frigates: 5 of 32 guns, 5 of 28 guns, and 3 of 24 guns 13 Dec. " •Congress appoints Esek Hopkins, commander-in-chief of the American fleet, consisting of the Alfred, 30 guns; Columbus, 28 guns; Andrea Dona, 16 guns; Sebastian Cabot, 14 guns; Providence, 12 guns 22 Dec. " Board of Admiralty established by resolution of Congress, 28 Oct. 1779 Secretary of marine created by resolution of Congress. . . 7 Feb. 1781 Pirst line-of-battle ship, America, built at Portsmouth, N. H., under act of 9 Nov. 1776, completed " SHIPS IN THE UNITED STATES NAVAL SERVICE DURING THE REVOLUTION, WITH THE FATE OF EACH. Name. No. of guns. Fate. Alliance 32 32 20 30 16 40 24 32 28 28 14 18 32 24 14 10) 28 1 Sold after the war America ( Presented to the French govern- \ ment, 1782. Borrowed from France and returned Ariel Alfred Captured by the British, 1778. Destroyed in the Delaware, 1777. Sunk after action, 1779. Captured at Charleston, 1780. Captured off Virginia coast, 178L Destroyed in the Hudson, 1777. Destroyed in the Delaware, 1778. Driven ashore by the British, 1777. Left the service, 1779. Andrea Doria Bonhomme Richard. . donfederacy Congress •Cabot Cerf Deane (Hague) Captured before getting to sea, 1778. Captured in the Delaware, 1777. Destroyed in the Penobscot, 1778. Eflangham Destroyed in the Delaware, 1777. SHIPS IN THE UNITED STATES NAVAL SERVICE. — (Coutinu Gates Hancock Hampden Hornet Independence. . . Le.Kington Montgomery Pallas Providence Queen of France. Randolph Raleigh Reprisal Ranger Revenge Saratoga Surprise Sachem Trumbull Vengeance Virginia Washington Warren Wasp No. of gun». Seized by the French, 1777. Captured by the British, 1777. Lost at sea, 1778. Seized by the French, 1777. Destroyed in the Delaware, 1778. Captured in English channel, 1771 Destroyed in the Hudson, 1777. Left the service, 1779. Captured at Charleston, 1780. ( Destroyed in action with Yarmo I 1778. Captured, 1778. Foundered at sea, 1778. Captured at Charleston, 1780. Sold, 1780. Lost at sea, 1780. Seized by the French, 1777. Destroyed in the Delaware, 1778; Captured, 178L Left the service, 1779. Captured before getting to sea, 17' Destroyed in the Delaware, 1778. Destroyed in the Penobscot, 1779. Destroyed in the Delaware, 1778, Secretary of war given control of naval affairs .7 Aug. 1 Act to provide for 6 ships, 27 Mch. 1794; 3 to be completed in. 1 U. S. frigate Constitution, 44 guns, launched at Boston; United States, 44 guns, at Philadelphia; Constellation, 36 guns, at Baltimore 1 Act to establish a navy department, with Benjamin Stoddard secretary of the navy 30 Apr. I A marine corps raised by act of Congress 11 July, Act appropriating the surplus of a fund for the relief of sick and disabled seamen to build marine hospitals 16 July, Navy consists of 33 gun-ships, carrying 922 guns I Site for Norfolk navy yard at Gosport, Va., on the Elizabeth river, purchased for $21,382; it contains 109 acres; defences, forts Monroe and Calhoun 23 Jan. 1 Site for a navy-yard at Washington purchased for $4000. Pres- ent area, 42 acres; defence, fort Washington 17 Mch. " Rules and regulations for the navy adopted by Congress, to supersede act of 2 Mch. 1799 23 Apr. " Site for a navy-yard purchased at Kittery, Me., opposite Ports- mouth, N. H., for $110,500; area, 164 acres; defences, forts McClary and Constitution 13 June, " Site for navy-yard purchased at Charlestown near Boston; area, 84 acres; cost, $163,000; defences, forts Warren and Independence 30 Aug. " Site purchased for a navy-yard at Brooklyn, N. Y. ; price, $415,000; area, 193 acres 18 May, 1801 Marine hospital established at New Orleans by act of Congress, 3 May, 1802 $200,000 appropriated annually for 3 years for timber for ship building and other naval purposes 30 Mch. 1812 At the opening of the war with Great Britain the American navy consisted of : FRIGATES. Guns. Commissioned. Constitution 44 1798 United States 44 -. " President 44 1799 Chesapeake 36 " NewYork 36 " Constellation 36 1798 Congress 36 1799 Boston 32 1798 Essex 32 1799 Adams 32 " CORVETTE. John Adams 26 1799 SCHOONERS. Guns, Vixen 12 Nautilus 12 Enterprise 12 Viper 12 BOMB ketches: Vengeance, Spit fire, iEtna, Vesuvius. GCTN-BOATS: 170. Most of the larger vessels carried more guns than the rating showrj above. Naval battles. Robert Fulton builds a floating battery (Batteries) • • • 181^ $1,000,000 annually for 8 years appropriated for gradual in- crease of the navy (repealed, 3 Mch. 1821) 29 Apr. 181<) Public lands producing ship timber reserved from sale by act of Congress 1 Mch. 181 ^ Act to employ the navy to suppress the slave-trade 3 Mch. l»l.' Site for the Pensacola navy-yard presented to the government, 10 Mch. 182H Monument erected in Washington navy-yard in 1808 to officers who fell in the war with Tripoli, removed to Capitol square. . . W- Steamer Mississippi launched at Philadelphia (armed with I Paixhan guns) • • 1°* , Pi-inceton, first war screw-propeller, launched at Philadelphia j ■(United States, 1844) l"*"! BRIGS. Guns. ....16 ,...16 ....16 SLOOPS-OF-WAR. ....18 Hornet. ....18 NAV U. S. Naval academy at Annapolis opened 10 Oct. The navy at the beginning of the Mexican war consisted of : 10 ships of the line 786 guns. 13 frigates, first-class 582 " 2 frigates, second-class 72 " 23 sloops-of-Wiir 438 " 8 brigs 80 " 9 schooners 17 " 11 steamers 20 " 4 Store-ships 22 " 8(7 '.iO 17 guns Publieation of "American Nautical Almanac" for 18.55 pro- vided for by act of. 3 Mch. Congress abolishes flogging in the navy and on board vessels of comuierce 28 Sept. Site of Mare Island navy-yard, 23 miles from San Francisco, Gal., purchased; area, 876 acres; price, $83,491; defences, fort PoiQt and Alcatraces island 4 Jan. Sloop-of war Portsmouth armed with 16 8-inch Dahlgren guns; first vessel in the navy carrying only shell-guns Naval monument removed from west front of Capitol to the grounds of the Naval academy at Annapolis The navy at the commencement of the civil war consisted of : 546 NAV 1845 1846 1849 1850 1853 1856 1860 84 guns. 400 " 406 " 16 " 7 " 2.. 100 guns. 11.. 232 " Available force. I In commission. 1 ship of the line 8 frigates 20 sloops 3 brigs 3 store-ships 6 steam frigates 212 " 5 first-class steam -sloops 90 " 4 first-class side wheel steamers. 46 " 8 second-class steam-sloops 45 " 5 third-class screw steamers 28 " 4 sec'd-class side- wheel steamers 8 " 2 steam tenders 4 " 69 1346 guns. 42. .555 guns. . Ericsson's battery, the Monitor, completed and delivered to the U. S. government for trial (Hampto.v roads) 5 Mch. Congress enacts " that from and after the first day of Sept. 1852, the spirit ration in the navy of the U. S. shall forever cease, and thereafter no distilled spirituous liquors shall be admitted on board of vessels- of -war, except as medical 14 July, 3. 7 1. 12 5. 90 3. 35 8. 45 5. 28 3. 5 1. 1 1861 1862 Officers of the navy divided into 9 grades 16 July, New Ironsides, of wood, with 4-inch armor plate, built at Phila- delphia, 4015 tons, 700 horsepower, speed of 6 knots; arma- ment, 20 11-inch smooth-bore guns Monitor sunk off" North Carolina during a gale 31 Dec. Rank of vice-admiral created by Congress and bestowed on David G. Farragut , 21 Dec. Navy at the close of the civil war consisted of 671 vessels; combined tonnage, 510,396; mounting 4610 guns Rank of admiral created; be.stowed on Farragut 25 July, [David I). Porter made vice admiral same date.] Site for navy-yard at League island, Delaware river, presented to the government by Philadelphia; area, 923 acres; defences, forts Delaware and Mifliu 4 Aug. Torpedo school established at Newport, K.I Adm. Farragut dies at Portsmouth, N. H 14 Aug. Vice-adm. Porter made admiral 17 Oot. First advisory board appointed to consider need of appropriate vessels for the navy, June, 1881, report, that it should con- sist of 70 unarmored cruisers of steel 7 Nov. Frigate Constitution (-'Old Ironsides" ) is formally put out of commission and consigned to '-Rotten Row" in the Brook- lyn navy-yard 15 Dec. Trenton is the first man of war in the world to be lighted by electricity Congress prohibits repair of wooden ships at more than 20 per cent, of the cost of a new vessel 3 Mch. Contract for 6700 tons of steel armor plates and 1220 tons of gun forgings, awarded to the Bethlehem Iron Works com- pany, at Bethlehem, Pa May, Adm. David D. Porter d 13 Feb. [Rank of admiral and vice admiral became extinttt. High- est rank is again rear-admiral.] In 1888 W. C. Whitthorne, member of Congress from Tennes- see, introduced a bill authorizing the maritime states to or- ganize a naval force to constitute a naval reserve, to be trained and fitted for operating the coast and harbor defence vessels, etc., in time of war, thus liberating the regular naval force to man the heavy sea-going war-ships, etc. Massa- chusetts was the first state to act, and passed laws defining what should be done. New York followed, and now (1894) most of the maritime states have responded. Total number of men enrolled Jan. 1894 was 2456. On 2 Mch. 1891, Con- gress appropriated $25,000 for the equipment of the force and another appropriation of a like amount 1865 1866 1868 1869 1870 1881 1887 1891 1892 THE NEW U.NMTED STATES NAVY, 1895. UNAKMOKKD VESSELS. Name, and act of Congress authorizing. Wliere built and when launched Class and displacement in tons. maximum speed in knots. Contract price.* Number of guns calibre. 4 8-in. ; 8 6-in. ; 2 8-in. ; 6 6-in. 2 8-in. ; 6 6-in. 2 4-in. 2 8-in. 6 6-in. 4 6-in. 12 6-in. 4 8-in. ; 6 6-in. 12 6-in. 12 6 in. 6 6-in. 6 6-in. 4 8-in. ; 10 5-in. 1 6-in. ; 10 5-in. 4 4-in. 1 6-in. ; 10 5-in. 2 6-in. ; 8 5-in. 2 6-in. ; 8 5-in. 2 6-in.; 8 5-in. 8 4-in. 8 4-in. 1 8-in. ; 2 6-in. ; 18in. ; 2 6-in. ; 4 12-in. ; 6 4-in. 4 10-in. ; 2 4-in. 4 10 in. ; 2 4-in. 4 lOin. 4 10-in. 4 10-in. ; 6 6-in. 2 12-in. ; 6 6-in. 3 15-in. pneuma 2 12-in. ; 2 10-in 6 8-in! ; 12 4-in. 4 13-in. ; 8 8in. 8 8in.; 12 5-in. 4 13-in. ; 8 8-in. 4 12-in. ; 8 8-in. 4 13-in. ; 8 »-in. and Chif-icfo Ancr 1882 Chester 1886 P. p. c— 4500 P. p. c— 3189 P. p. c— 3189 Despatch boat— 1485 P. c— 4040 P. p. c— 1700 P. p. (G. b.)-— 890 P. C.-4083 P. c— 4400 P. c— 4325 P. c— 4083 P.p. c. (G. b.)— 1700 P. p. c. (6. b.)— 1700 P. c— 5500 P. c— 3183 G. b 838 P. c— 3183 P. c— 2000 P. c— 2000 P.O. -2000 P. p. (G. b. )— 1050 P. p. (G. b.)-1050 P. c. -7400 P. C.-7400 AKMOKED VESSE B. s., 2 T.— 6060 B. s.,2 T.— 3990 B. s.,2 T.— 3990 B. S.,2 T.— 3990 B. s.,2 T.— 3990 Cruiser— 6648 B. s.,2T.— 6300 I), c. —930 B. s.— 4138 T. b.— 116 Cruiser— 8150 Ram-2183 T. b.— 120 B. s.,2 T.— 10,231 Cruiser— 9250 B. s.,2 T. -10, 231 B. s -10,286 B. s.,2 T.— 10,231 Ram— 2050 5,248—16.3 4,030—16.6 4,000—16.4 2,240-15.3 6,943-18.8 3,660—17.2 1,513-13.7 9,231—19.6 10,725—20.6 8,815—19.7 10,400—20.2 3,533—17.5 3,513—17.1 13,500-21.7 10,000—19 1,300-13 10,000—19 5,400-19 5,400—17 5,400—17 1,600-14 1,600-14 21,000—22.8 21,000—23 LS. 4,000-13 3,000—14 1,600-12 1,600-12 1,600—12 9,000—17 8,600—17 4,4.50—21.7 5,400—16 1,720—22.5 16,500—20 4,800-17 1,800-24 9,000-16.2 16,900-21 9,000—16.2 11,000—16.5 9,000—16.2 4,800-17 $889,000 619,000 617,000 315,000 1,017,-500 (4 T.t.) 455,000 (6 T. t. ) 247,000 1,248,000 (6 T. t.) 1,325,000 (5 T. t.) 1,350,000 (5 T.t.) 1.428,000(61. t.) 490,000 (6 T.t.) 490,000 (6 T.t.) 1,796,000(6 1. t.) 1,100,000 (6 T.t.) 250,000 (2 T. t.) 1,100,000 (6T. t.) 612,500 (6T. t.) 612,500 (6 T.t.) 612,500 (6 T.t.) 318,000(1 T.t.) 318,000(1 T.t.) 2,725,000 (6 T.t.) 2,690,000 (6 T.t.) 2,300,970 1,592,849 1,590,930 1.891,077 1.637,110 2,-500,000 (6 T.t.) 2,-500,000 (6T. t.) 350,000 1,628.950 82,7-50 (3T. t.) 2,985,000 (6 T.t.) 930,000 113,500 (3T. t.) 3,020,000 (6 T.t.) 2.986,000 (6 T.t.) 3,020,000 (6 T.t.) 3.010,000 (6 T.t.) 3,180,000 (6 T.t.) 930,000 2 5-in Boston, Aug. 1882 " 1885 " 1885 " 1884 San Francisco, 1888... Philadelphia, 1888....' Baltimore, 1888 '■ Philadelphia, 1890.... i 1888....! " 1889....; San Francisco, 1889... Chester, 1889 1889 Dolphin Mch 1883 Charleston, Mch. 1835 Yorklown Mch 1885 Petrel Mch 1885 Baltimore Aug 1886 . . . Philadelphia, Mch. 1887 .San Francisco, Mch. 1887 ;Bennington, Mch. 1887 San Francisco, 1892. . . 1 New York, 1892 ■ Elizabethport, 1892.... Norfolk, 1892 ' Baltimore, 1891 1891 Boston, 1892 Bath, 1891 '• 1892 Philadelphia, 1892.... " 1893.... Chester, 1888 Mare island, 1892 Wilmington, 1892 Philadelphia, 1892.... Chester, 1888 New York. 1890 Norfolk 1892 ,:!iucinnati, Sept. 1888 liiincroft Sept 1888 Raleigh Sept 1888 Alontgomery, Sept. 1888 Detroit Sept 1888 »rarblehead, .Sept. 1888 'tlachias, Mch. 1889 iJastine, Mch. 1889 polumbia, June, 1890 Hinneapolis, Mch. 1891 'uritan, Mch. 1885 fonadnock, Mch. 1885 iinphitrite, Mch. 1885 'error, Mch. 1885 iliantonomoh, Mch. 1885 taine, Aug. 1886 exas, Aug. 1886 esuvius, Aug. 1886 (onterey. Mch. 1887 ushing, Mch. 1887 ew York. Sept. 1888 larm, Mch, 1889 ricssou, Jan. 1890 ' assachusetts, .June, 1890. . . . rooklyn, 1890 8 4-in. 8 4-in. Philadelphia, 1888.... San Francisco, 1891 . . . Bristol, 1890 tic. Philadelphia, 1891 .... Bath, 1892 Dubuque, la., 1892 Philadelphia, 1893.... Philadelphia, 1893.... Philadelphia, 1893.... 1 Philadelphia, 1893.... San Francisco, 1893... Bath, Me., 1893 4 6-in. idiana, June. 1890 'wa, 1891....' 4 6-in. regon, June, 1890 4 6-in. •atahdin, 1889 Note— In above table, the abbreviations in column 3 signify: P. p. c, partly protected cruiser; P. c, protected cruiser; G. b., gun-boat; B. s., battle ship; D. c, iiamite cruiser ; T. b., torpedo boat ; T., torpedo ; in column 5, T. t., torpedo tube. * Does not include total cost ol construction, equipments, etc. [The navy also includes about 75 iron and wood sailing and steam vessels, and 15 1-turret monitors.] 18 \ V"i- UTT NAV 646 NAV 1 6 Rear-admirals 10. Commodores.. 45. Captains 86. Comrattmlors. OFFU'i'.US OF THi-: NAVY. WITH NUMBER IN EACH RANK, AND PAY. Yearly pay at se.. lo rank with mtijor- generals $60U0 " brigadier-generals 5000 " colonels 4500 " lieutenant colonels 3500 74. Lieutenaut-coiiuiiaiHkTs 250. Lieutenants 75. Masters or lieutenants (Junior grade) 173. Ensigns 300. Mid.shipmen For admiral and vice-admiral see this record, 18(>4, '6(5, navy of (Ireat Britain. The British navy, originally governed by n h>rd hij;h admiral, has, since the reign of ijueen Anne, been luuler a Board of Admiralty of 7 members— the first lord always a member of the cabinet and supreme in au- thority, and 6a.ssistant commissioners. The senior naval lord directs the movements of the fleet and is responsible for disci- pline. The second naval lord directs the manning and officer- ing. The junior naval lord directs the food supply and trans- ports. The parliamentary civil lord and the civil lord deal with the material and armament of the fleet. The parlia- mentary and tinancial secretary deals with all questions of expenditure. Fleet of galleys built by Alfred 897 Fleet for opposing tlie Danes, equipped by contributions of every town in England, gathers at Sandwich 1007 Fleet collected by Edward the Confessor to resist Norwe- gians 1042 Fleet collected by Harold to resist Normans 1066 Richard I. collects a fleet and enacts naval laws about 1191 Royal Harry, a two-decker, built by Henry VII. ; considered the beginning of the royal navy 1488 Henri Grace d Dieu launched at Erith; 1000 tons, 141 guns, the heaviest 6000 lbs., first British vessel with port-holes for cannon (burned at Woolwich, 27 Aug. 1553) 13 June, lol4 Sovereign of the Seas, 1547 tons, 132 guns, the heaviest 6500 lbs. ; launched at Woolwich 1637 Victoi-y, built 1737, lost in Channel with 1000 men .4 Oct. 1744 Naval uniforms first introduced 1748 Royal George, 2041 tons, 100 guns, the heaviest 7250 lbs. ; built at Woolwich, 1746; capsized at Spithead 29 Aug. 1782 Navy list first officially compiled and published monthly by John Finlaison, the actuary 1814 Screw propeller introduced into the royal navy 1840 Birkenhead, the 1st iron war-steamer in the British navy 1845 Duke of Wellington, 131 guns, the heaviest 10,600 lbs., is launched at Pembroke 1852 Naval review by queen Victoria, at Spithead 11 Aug. 1853 Review of the Baltic fleet at Spithead by queen Victoria, 23 Apr. 1856 Naval reserve force authorized by act of . .' 13 Aug. 1859 Warrior, the first English iron-plated steam-frigate, 6170 tons, costing about 400, OOOi., launched 29 Dec. 1860 Twin screws for vessels of light draught introduced 1863 Steam-ram Valiant launched 14 Oct. " Royal School of Naval Architecture established at South Ken- sington 1864 Sir Robert Sepping's collection of naval models, from Henry VIII. 's time, deposited in South Kensington museum.. Dec. " Naval review before viceroy of Egypt, at Spithead 17 July, 1867 Unarmored iron frigate /nconstan^, first iron hull sheathed with wood, the oldest of modern type, launched 12 Nov. 1868 Monarch, first British armor-clad turret -ship, launched at Chatham 25 May, " Devastation, first British sea-going mastless ship, launched, Mch. 1869 Captain founders near Finisterre (Wrecks) 7 Sept. 1870 Thunderer, ocean-going turret-ship, launched at Pembroke, 25 Mch. 1872 Naval review at Spithead, before the shah of Persia. ..23 June, 1873 Royal Naval Artillery Volunteer force, established by act, 5 Aug. " Temeraire, carrying upper- deck armament in 2 fixed open- topped turrets, mounted on the disappearing plan, launched at Chatham 9 May, 1876 Shannon, with broadside guns on open deck and without ar- mor, built at Pembroke and commissioned 1877 Grand naval review by queen Victoria, at Spithead 13 Aug. 1878 Boiler of the Thunderer explodes, 14 July, 1876; a gas explo- sion occurs in the coal-bunkers, 10 Dec. 1878, and one of her 2 38-ton guns bursts 2 Jan. 1879 Great naval demonstration at Portsmouth; attack on forts; electric light used at night 10 Aug. 1880 Polyphemus, double-screw, steam armor-plated ram and tor- pedo boat, 2610 tons, is launched at Chatham 15 June, 1881 Benbow, an armor-clad battle-ship, 2 of her guns of 111 tons each, the heaviest in any ship to the time; launched 1885 Naval Defence act, authorizing 10 first-class battle -ships each of 14,150 tons' displacement, and 9 first-class cruisers, 29 second-<;lass cruisers, 4 third-class cruisers, 18 torpedo gun- boats, passed 31 May, 1889 Royal Naval Exhibition-opened at Chelsea 2 May, 1891 „„,„^„ ( 1st 4 years 2800 ■™'y°'^^ [ after 4th year 3000 „„„,„. ^ (1st 5 years 2400 •^'"P^'^'^s {after 5th year 2600 Ist lieutenants i ^^^ ^ y®^""^ ^^"^ ■ ist lieutenants {after 5th year 2000 ^ , . 1200 .. 1400 ,. 500 "-'»«"« •••■!SerS7e Victoria sunk off Tripoli, Syria (Wrecks) 22 June, 181 According to the estimate for 1893-94, the approximate aggre- gate cost of the effective and noneffective (in building) of. the British navy, under the Naval Defence act, amounts to 58,302,561^. Under construction, by a more recent act, are the battle-ships Renown, Majestic, and Magnificence, and the first-class cruis- ers Powerful and Terrible, over 12,000 tons each. CONDITION OF BRITISH NAVY AT VARIOUS INTERVALS SINCE 1603. 1685 1760 1803 1850 1890 42 179 325 450 585 Tons. 17,000 104,000 321,000 461,000 570,000 680,000 10,600 24,800 17,200 6,790 10,000 51,000 180,000 48,000 65.000 Strength of the British navy when the Naval Defence act is fully carried out will be as follows : Ships. Number. Armored 77 Protected 88 Unprotected 336 , Total 501 1,127,049 J Tons. 618,500 ^ 309,915 I 198,634 (- 189* ARMOR-CLAO BATTLE-SHIPS OF 10,000 TONS AND OVER. Minotaur (cruiser) Northumberland (cr.). Dreadnought Inflexible Rodney Howe Benbow Camperdown Agincourt (cruiser) . . . Sans Pareil Trafalgar. Nile Hood Royal Sovereign. . Empress of India. Repulse Royal Oak Ramillies Resolution Revenge Centurion Barfleur Launch. 1863 1866 1875 1876 1884 1885 1885 1885 1885 1886 1887 1887 1888 1891 1891 1891 1892 1892 1892 1892 1892 1892 1892 Tons. 10,690 10,780 10,820 11,880 10.300 10,300 10,600 10,600 10,690 10,600 10,470 11,940 11,940 14,150 14,150 14,150 14,150 14,150 14,150 14,150 14,150 10,500 10,500 power. 6,700 6,560 8,210 8,010 11,500 11,500 11,500 11,500 6,870 11,500 14,000 10,500 12,000 13,000 13,312 13.000 13,000 13,000 13,000 13,000 13,000 13,000 13,000 Speed. 13 2 14.1 14.2 13.81 16.7 16.7 17 17 14.8 17.43 16.75 16.5 16.5 17.5 18 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 18.2 18.2 Heavy guns. 17 12-ton. 17 12 " 4 38 " 4 80 " 4 69 " 4 67 " 2 111 " 4 66 " 17 12 " 4 66 " 2 111 " 4 67 " 67 navy of France is first mentioned in history in 728, when, like the early navy of England, it consisted of galleys ; in this year the French defeated the Frisian fleet. The French navy was in its splendor about 1781, but was reduced in the wars with England. It was much increased by the emperor Napoleon III., and in 1859 consisted of 51 ships of the line and 398 other vessels. Statistics of the reconstructed navy of France are given below. French fleet almost annihilated by Edward III. at the battle of Sluys 24 June, 1340 French fleet increased through Colbert, minister to Louis XIV., about 1697 Academic de Marines founded l'^^^ First line-of-battle ship with screw propeller, the Napoleon, launched at Toulon 16 May, 1850 Thirteen men-of-war launched, 9 of them ships of the line. . . . 18o4 La Gloire, a wooden screw-steamer of 900 horse-power, armed with iron plates 43<^ inches thick, launched • 1°''^' Programme for reconstructing navy drawn up by minister of marine, and adopted by National Assembly; 217 new ar- , mored ships proposed "' | Redoutable, first French war-ship in which steel was largely ; used, is launched at L'Orient Sept 18vt» , NAV 647 VARYING STRENGTH OF THE FRENCH NAVY IN YEARS PAST. NEB Year. 1 • Vessels. Guns. Men. 1780 260 13,300 78,000 1810 212 6,000 94,000 1840 146 7,600 24,500 1868 480 2,750 43,100 1889 348 1,450 54,000 Navy comprises : 58 sea-going armor-clads ; 18 coast-defence armor clads ; 6 deck-protected cruisers; 146 torpedo-boats (steel) ; 185 unprotected vessels. Total, 413 Apr. 1891 ARMOR-CLAD BATTLE-SHIPS OF 10,000 TONS OR OVER. Name. Launch. Admiral Duperr6. Devastation Admiral Baudin.. Neptune Formidable Heche Marceau Magenta Brenus Massena Charles Martel . . . Janregniberry.... Bouvet LazareCarnot... . Henri Quatre Charlemagne St. Louis 1879 1879 1883 1885 1885 1885 1887 1889 1891 1892 1893 1893 1893 1898 1893 1893 1893 Tons. 11,100 10,100 11,380 10,581 11,380 10,581 10.620 10;610 10,980 11,730 11,800 11,820 12,205 11,820 10,780 10,780 10,780 Horse- power. 6,102 8,500 6,000 8,500 6,000 11,000 11,000 13.500 11,000 13,000 13,270 11,000 13,270 14,000 14,000 14,000 Speed. Heavy guns. 14.22 15.17 15 15 15 15 16 16.5 17.5 18 17.5 18 18 18 18 18 18 48 tons. 48 " 75 " 48 " 75 " 48" 48 " 48 " 75 " 50 " 50 " 75 " 75 " 75 " 75 " 75 " 75 " navy of Italy. The navy of Italy has existed since 263 B.C., when the Romans built 100 "quinquereraes" and 20 "triremes," patterned after a Carthaginian vessel which was driven ashore on the coast of Italy. OFFICIAL REPORT OF THE ITALIAN NAVY, 1 JAN . 1891. Iron. Steel. Wood. TotaL No. of guns. Men. 12 9 29 33 4 134 2 3 39 47 16 206 359 53 303 11,638 1,673 i Totals 50 171 44 269 715 19,224 REPRESENTATIVE ARMOR-CLAD BATTLE-SHIPS OF ITALY. Ship. Launch. Tons. Horse- power. Speed. Heaviest guns. ; Duilio 1876 1878 1880 1882 1884 1885 1885 1889 1890 1891 11,138 11,202 15,900 15,900 11,000 11,000 11,000 13,251 13,251 7,710 7,500 18,000 16,150 10,000 10,000 10,000 19,500 22,800 15 15.5 18 18 16 16 16 18 19 18 100 tons. 100 " 100 " 100 " 105 " 105 " 105 " 67 '• 105 " Dandolo ' Italia iLepanto... Lauria : Doria Morosini ' Umberto iSicilia i— . ' 1 "" RELATIVE STRENGTH OF OTHER FOREIGN NAVIES. Germany . Russia..., twstria ^'Netherlands , ^?pain 5weden Norway purkey Wenmark . . . . jihina had 9 iron-clads and 121 other vessels of war iu 1888. IVazarene, a name given to Jesus Christ and his dis- iples; afterwards to a sect in the 1st century who rejected ■hrist's divinity. A sect named Nazarines, resembling the ociety of Friends in Great Britain, became prominent in Hun- ary in 1867. ^ebra§ka, the 37th state of the Union in the order of Kimissvon, borders upon the Missouri river between lat. 40° \ from which river it extends west from Ion. 95° 23' stance of about 420 miles to Ion. 104°. It is bounded y South Dakota, east by Iowa and Missouri, south by Kansas and Colorado, which cuts off a square from the south- western part of the state, and on the west by Colorado and Wyoming. Area, 76,855 sq. miles in 90 counties ; pop. 1890, 1,058,910. Capital, Lincoln. Emanuel Lisa founds a trading post at Bellevue 1805 American Fur com- pany founds a fort at Bellevue, 1810, where col. Peter A. Sarpy locates as their representative, 1824 Fort Kearney, on the Platte, established for the protection of the Oregon trail 1848 Most of the present Nebraska, and much more on the north, was acquired from France by treaty ced- ing Louisiana in 1803. It became a portion of the territory of Louisiana in 1805, and a part of the Indian country in 1834. That part west of 103° Ion. was acquired from Mexico by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, proclaimed 4 July, " Omaha founded 1854 Congress orgnnizes the territory of Nebraska between lat. 40° and 49°, and between the Missouri river and Minnesota on the east and Utah territory on the west ., .30 May, " Francis Burt, appointed governor, dies soon after reaching the territory ; Thomas B. Cuming acting governor 13 Oct. " Legislature and delegates to Congress first elected 12 Dec. " First legislature convenes at Omaha 16 Jan. 1855 Capitol at Omaha comi)leted Jan. 1858 Gov. Black issues a proclamation calling out volunteers for the Federal army 1 May, 1861 .\ct to enable the people to form a state government. .19 Apr. 1864 Constitution framed by convention, 9Feb. 1866; ratified by the people, 3938 for and 3838 against 21 June, 1866 A(;t to admit Nebraska as a state is passed over a veto, " upon the fundamental condition that within the state of Nebraska there should be no denial of the elective franchise or of any other right to any person by reason of race or color, except Indians not taxed"; the Nebraska legislature accepting . these conditions 8-9 Feb. 1867 Act admitting Nebraska accepted by legislature 20 Feb. " Nebraska admitted by proclamation of the president. . . 1 Mch. " A band of Indians wreck a freight train by placing obstruc- tions on the track, and murder all the train hands. Gen. Augur sends a detachment of troops, who engage 500 Sioux Indians in battle at Plum creek, near Omaha 16 Aug. " Nebraska State Normal school opened at Peru " Seat of government removed from Omaha to a point in lian- caster county named Lincoln, in honor of pres. Lincoln " Union Pacific railroad, chartered by act of Congress 1 July, 1862, is opened for traffic 10 May, 1869 Nebraska institute for the deaf and dumb opened at Omaha. . . " State penitentiary located at Lincoln " Legislature ratifies the XV. th Amendment 17 Feb. 1870 State board of 3 commissioners of immigration provided for by act of legislature " Gov. David P. Butler impeached for corruption in office, in appropriating to his own use $17,000 of school fund, 2 June, 1871 Insane hospital at Lincoln opened " Omaha Daily Bee established by Edward Rosewater at Omaha. " University of Nebraska at Lincoln, chartered 1869, opened. . . " Doane college at Crete chartered and opened 1872 Nebraska Relief and Aid Society, gen. E. 0. C. Ord at the head, organized at request of the governor to relieve sufferers from famine caused by drought and locusts 18 Sept. 1874 Legislature authorizes $50,000 in state bonds for relief of suf- ferers by locusts and famine 1875 New constitution framed by a convention which met at Lin- coln, 11 May, 1875, completing its labors 12 June, is ratified by the people 12 Oct. " Institution for the blind at Nebraska City opened 13 Jan. 1876 Convention of governors from the western states and terri- tories at Omaha to consider the grasshopper pest Oct. " Ponco chief Standing Bear and 25 followers on their way from the Indian territory, which they left in Jan. 1879, to their old home in Dakota are arrested on the Omaha reservation by brig. -gen. Crook, to be returned to the Indian territory. On 8 Apr. H. Tibbies, assist. -editor of the Omaha Herald, ap- plies for a writ of habeas corpus on their behalf, to be served on gen. Crook. This writ was issued by judge Dundy of the U. S. district court of Nebraska, who decides that an Indian has a right to a habeas corpus in a Federal court. The sec- retary of war at Washington issues immediate orders for the release of Standing Bear and his followers 13 May, 1879 Creighton college at Omaha opened and chartered " New school-law, repealing and remodelling the old system of public instruction, passed by legislature J881 State industrial school for juvenile ofl'enders opened at Kear- ney 30 Nov. " State Home for the Friendless located at Lincoln, founded by act of legislature in 1881, is opened 1 Jan. 1882 Gates college at Neligh chartered in 1881 ; opened " NEB 548 NES 1889 1890 At sute ele«-t»on E. P. Ingorsoll, president of the State Farmers' Alliance anil candidate of the Greenback and Anti-Monopoly parlies, receives 1C,«.»91 votes, as against 28,562 for J. S. Mor- ton, Dem., and 43,495 for James W. Dawes, Rep Nov. 1882 Amendment to the constitution extending suflVage to women faceted : 26,766 for and 60,693 against Nov. " Nebraska Central college at Central City chartered and opened, 1886 Nebraska Institution for feeble-minded youth at Beatrice opened May, 1887 Insane hospital at Norfolk opened 1888 Soldiers and sailors' home at Grand Island opened July, First Monday in Sept. made a legal holiday; "Labor day".. Industrial home for women and girls at Milford opened, 1 May, Asylum for incurable insane at Hastings opened 1 Aug. Convention of 250 delegates representing Kansas, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska, meets at Omaha to unite in a central prohib lion organization 18 Dec. At state election the vntc for governor stands as follows: James E. Boyd, Deni.. 71 :!;;i ; lohn H. Powers, People's Indepen- dent, 70,187; l.ii. ,Ms l> i;i.liards. Rep., 68,878; B. L. Paine, Prohibition, 367G. A so|iar;ite vote on adding a prohibitory liquor clause to the constitution stood: For the amendment, 82,292; against, 111,728 Nov. Candidates on the Independent ticket prepare to contest the election, and taking of testimony begins at Lincoln. . .5 Dec. " The 3 candidates (Dem., Rep., and Ind.) claim the governor- ship 9 Jan. 1891 Gov. Thayer surrenders possession of the executive apartments to Bovd under protest 15 Jan. " Supreme court of the state gives a decision ousting Boyd on ground that he is an alien and reinstating Thayer 5 May, " Ex-gov. David Butler d. near Pawnee City 25 May, " Eight-hour law goes into effect 1 Aug. " U. S. Supreme court declares James E. Boyd to be the rightful governor of the state 1 Feb. 1892 Public demonstration in honor of inauguration of gov. Boyd takes place at Lincoln 15 Feb. " Silver anniversary of Nebraska celebrated at Lincoln. .25 May, " First national convention of People's party at Omaha, nomi- nate Weaver and Field for president and vice president, 4, 5 July, " U. S. senator Allen makes the longest continuous speech (on the Silver-Purchase Repeal bill) ever delivered in the U. S. senate, speaking 14»^ hours 13 Oct. 1893 Interstate irrigation congress meets at Omaha 21 Mch. 1894 TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS. Francis Burt appointed Thomas B. Cuming acting Mark W. Izard appointed " William A. Richardson " 1857 J. Sterling Morton acting 1858 Samuel Black appointed 1859 Alvin Saunders " 1861 STATE GOVERNORS. David Butler term began 1867 William H. James acting 2 June, 1871 Robert W. Furnass term began 9 Jan. 1873 Silas Garber " " 1875 Albinus Nance " " 1879 James W.Dawes " " 1883 John M.Thayer " " 1887 Lorenzo Crounse " " 1893 Silas A. Holcomb " " 1895 I 1854 .13 Oct. UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF NEBRASKA. Name. j No. of Congress. Date. Remarks. John M. Thayer 40th to 42d 1867 to 1871 Thomas W. Tipton 40th " 44th 1867 " 1875 Phineas W. Hitchcock, 42d " 45th 1871 " 1877 Algernon S. Paddock. . 44th " 47th 1875 " 1881 Alvin Saunders 45th " 48th 1877 " 1883 Charles H. Van Wyck, 47th " 50th 1881 " 1888 Charles F. Manderson, 48th " 54th 1883 " 1895 Algernon S. Paddock.. 50th " 53d 1888 " 1893 (Term expires \ 1899. William V. Allen 53d '• 1893 " John M, Thurston 54th " 1895 " nebular hypothe§i§, proposed by sir William Herschel, 1811, supposes that the universe was formed from shapeless masses of nebulous matter. It has been widely dis- cussed. In Oct. 1860, Mr. Lassell strictly scrutinized the Dumb- bell nebula, and stated that the brightest parts did not appear to be stars. In 1865, William Huggins reported that he had analyzed certain nebulae by their spectra, and believed them to be entirely gaseous. In later years the spectroscope has proved beyond doubt the existence of many true nebulae, or cloud-like aggregations of gaseous matter, in the heavens. Astronomy. iiec'roinaiicer§. Magic. needle -g^lin (Zundnadelgewehr), a musket invented by J. N. Dreyse, of Sommerda, about 1827, made a breech- loader in 1836, and adopted by the Prussian general MaiUeuffel about 1846. It was effective in war with Denmark in 1864, and with Austria in 1866. The charge is fired by pressing a .79^. i fine steel rod or needle into the cartridge. The principle claimed for James Whitley, of Dublin, 1828 ; Abraham ]\Iosa 1831 ; and John Hanson, of Huddersfield, 1843. needier. "The making of Spanish needles was fir taught in England by Elias Crowse, a German, about the 8 year of queen Elizabeth, and in queen Mary's time a iiegi made fine Spanish needles in Cheapside, but would teach " art to none." — Stow. neg^ro plot. New York, 1741. ne)^U§ (wine and water), said to be named after Francis Negus about 1714. The sovereign of Abyssinia termed negus. IVelieini'all, a celebrated Jewish leader. In the year of the reign of Artaxerxes, king of Persia 445 b.c., obtained permission to return to Jerusalem and rebuild walls. These walls said to have enclosed about 50 acres ai contained about 15,000 Jews and 5000 slaves. ]\[el$on'§ victOrie§, etc., see separate articles, Horatio Nelson, born at Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk 29 Sept. 175f Sailed with capt. Phipps to the North pole 177:: Distinguished himself in West Indies 178( Lost an eye at the reduction of Calvi, Corsica 179 Captured Elba 9 Aug 179ii With Jervis at victory off St. Vincent, 14 Feb. ; knighted and made rear admiral 20 Feb. 1' Lost right arm at unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz, 25, 26 July, Gained battle of the Nile, 1 Aug. ; created baron Nelson of the Nile. 6 Nov. 1 Attacks Copenhagen, 2 Ai)r. ; created viscount, 22 May; attacks Boulogne flotilla, destroys several ships 15 Aug. 1801 Appointed to chief command in Mediterranean 20 May, 180;i Pursues French and Spanish fleets, Mch. -Aug. ; returns to England. Aug. ; reappears at Cadiz, defeats the fleets in Tra falgar bay, but is killed 21 Oct. 1805 IVeme'an g'anie§, celebrated at Nemea, in Achaia, said to have been instituted by Argives in honor of Archerao- rus, who died by a serpent's bite; and revived by Hercules, 1226 B.C. The conqueror was rewarded with a crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley. They were celebrated every 3(1 year, or, according to others, on the 1st and 3d year of every Olympiad, 1226 B.C. — Herodotus. They were revived by the emperor Julian, 362 a.d,, but ceased in 396. Bfeo-Piatoni§m or Bi^eiV-Platonisni. Phi- losophy. ; neplia'lia, sacrifices of sobriety among the Greeks, when they oflfered mead instead of wine to the sun and moon, to nymphs, to Aurora, and to Venus ; and burned any wocni but the vine, fig-tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of drunkenness (613 b.c.). nepll'OSCOpe (Gr. v((poQ, a cloud). An apparatus foi measuring velocity of clouds, invented by Karl Braun, report- ed to the Academy of Sciences, Paris, 27 July, 1868. l^eptline, a primary planet, the most distant of our system. Mean distance from the sun, 2,745,998,000 miles: revolves around the sun in 165 years ; diameter, 37,000 miles. It was first observed on 23 Sept. 1846, by dr. Galle at Berlin, in consequence of a letter from M. Le Verrier, who had com- puted its position from the anomalous movements of Uranus, Calculations to the same effect had been previously made bv J. Couch Adams, of Cambridge. A satellite of Neptune waf discovered by Mr. Lassell on 10 Oct. following. Neptune if said to have been seen by Lalande, and thought to be a fixec star. The sun's light and heat Neptune receives are but ^^^j of that received by the earth.— The Greek god Poseidon bt came the Roman Neptune. neptU'nluin, a new metal discovered in tannalite, froir Connecticut, by R. Herrmann in 1877 ; not admitted by chem j ists. I IVer'vii, a warlike tribe in Belgic Gaul, defeated by Juliuij Caesar, 57, and subdued 53 b.c. " You all do know this mantle; I remember The first time ever Caesar put it on: 'Twas on a summer's evening, in his tent That day he overcame the Nervii." —Shakespeare, "Julius Csesar," act. iii. sc. n. i ZVestorians, followers of Nestorius, bishop of ConstaU; i NET 549 tinople (428-31), regarded as a heretic for maintaining that, though the virgin Mary was the mother of Jesua Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of God, since no human creature could impart to another what she had not herself; he also held that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all. He was opposed by Eutyches, and died 439. Eutychians. Nestorian Christians in the Levant administer the sacrament with leavened bread in both kinds, permit priests to marry, and use neither confirmation nor auricular confession. — Du Pin. A Nestorian priest and deacon were in London in July, 1862. Netherlands. Holland. Bfeilfcliatel (nush-a-tel), a canton in Switzerland, for- merly a lordship, afterwards a principality. The first known lord was Ulric de Fenis, about 1032, whose descendants ruled till 1373, after which, by marriage, it frequently changed gov- ernors. On the death of the duchesse de Nemurs, the last of tlie Longuevilles, in 1707, there were many claimants, among them William III. of England. He and the allies gave it to Frederick L of Prussia, with the title of prince. In 1806 the principality was ceded to France, and Napoleon bestowed it on gen. Berthier, who held it till 1814, when the allies re- stored the king of Prussia, with the title of prince, with cer- tain rights and privileges ; but annexed it to the Swiss con- federation. After an unsuccessful attempt in 1831, Neufchatel repudiated allegiimce to Prussia, and proclaimed itself a free and inde- pendent member of the Swiss confederation 1848 ; King of Prussia protested; and a protocol of England, France, I and Austria recognized his claims 1852 j Some of his adherents, headed by the count de Pourtal^s, rose i against the republican authorities, who quickly subdued and I imprisoned them, to await trial Sept. 1856 ( War threatened by Prussia, and great energy and determina- |i tion manifested by the Swiss. On the intervention of Brit- l ain and France a treaty was signed, the king of Prussia virt- ually renouncing his claims for a pecuniary compensation, ! which he eventually gave up. He retains the title of prince ! of Neufchatel, without political rights 11 June, 1857 J Prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released without trial 18 Jan. " i ]\reu§tria, or We§t France, a kingdom allotted 't to Clotaire by his father, Clovis, at his death, in 511. His de- j scendant Charlemagne became sole king of France in 771. It I was conquered by the Northmen, and hence named Nok- ; MANDY, I neutral g^round extended along the eastern side i of the Hudson river northward from Spuyten Duyvil creek i 40 miles or more. This region, during the occupancy of New i York city by the British, 1776-83, suffered much from ma- ! rauders, both American and British ; the former were termed \ " Skinners," and the latter " Cowboys." Oklahoma for " Neu- I tral Strip " or " No Man's Land." i neutral powers. By the treaty of Paris between Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Turkey, and 1 Sardinia, 16 Apr. 1856, privateering was abolished; neutrals i might carry an enemy's goods not contraband of war ; neutral (goods not contraband were free even under an enemy's flag ; and blockades to be binding must be effective The United States acceded to these provisio.ns in 1861. Inteunational LAW. Xevada, one of the western states of the American I nion, is bounded north by Oregon and Idaho, east by Utah and Arizona, south b\' Arizona and California, and west by California. It is limited in latitude by 35° to 42^ N., and in longitude by 114° to 120° W. ; and has an area of 110,- 700 sq. miles in 14 counties. Pop. 1890. 45,761. Capital, Carson City. Father Francisco Garces sets out from Sonora for California, and passes through the southern portion of Nevada 1775 eter Skeen Ogden, ot the "Hudson Bav Fur company, discov- ers the Humboldt river ". 1825 edediah S. Smith crosses the southeast corner of Nevada on his way from Great Salt lake to Los Angeles, Cal, and on NEV his return crosses the Sierra Nevada and the entire state of Nevada from west to east 1827 Joseph Walker and 35 or 40 men, trappers, pass through Ne- vada from Great Salt lake, by the Humboldt river into Cali- fornia 1832-33 A party under Elisha Stevens, sometimes called the Murphy company, pass through Nevada down the Humboldt in wag- ons on their way to California 1844 Gen. J. C. Fremont's expedition crosses Nevada from near Pilot Knob into California 1845 Nevada included in the territory ceded to the U. S. by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 2 Feb. 1848 H. S. Beatie takes possession of the present site of Genoa, erects a log-house, and opens a supply depot for emigrants. . 1849 Gold discovered in small quantities in Gold caflon, near Day- ton, by Abner Blackburn July, " An immigrant named Hardin discovers silver in the Black Rock range IX miles from the place settled in 1866 as Har- dinville " Nevada included in the territory of Utah by act of 9 Sept. 1850 Trading-post erected on land where Carson City now stands. . . 1851 E. Allen, and Hosea B. Grosch discover silver ore in Gold canon 1853 Carson City laid out in Eagle Valley by Abraham V. Z. Curry, who built a stone house there 1858 Chinese first introduced into Nevada to work on a mining- ditch at Gold canon '< Territorial Enterprise started at Genoa by William L. Jernegan and A. James 18 Dec. " Penrod Comstock & Co. discover the so called Comstock lode in Six Mile canon 11 June, 1859 First settlement on the site of Reno made by C. W. Fuller " A constitution for the unorganized territory of Nevada, pre- pared in July, is adopted by the people 7 Sept. " First Pony express reaches Carson Valley in 8)4 days from St. Joseph, Mo. The news by it is telegraphed to San Francisco and published there in 9 days from New York 12 Apr. 1860 First Catholic church in Nevada erected at Genoa by father Gallagher " ~ War between the settlers and the Pah Utes Indians opens by an attack on Williams station, 7 May. Battle at Pyramid lake fought 12 May, and at fort Storey 3 June, after which the Indians disperse " Territory of Nevada organized by Congress 2 Mch. 1861 Jesse L. Bennett, a Methodist preacher in Carsou Valley during 1859, delivers the first sermon ever preached in Virginia City, then the capital " Gov. Nye proclaims the territory organized 11 July, " Carson City declared the permanent seat of government by act of the legislature 25 Nov. " Butler Ives, commissioner on the part of Nevada, and John F.' Kidder of California, meet in Lake Valley to establish the boundary-line between California and Nevada 22 May, 1863 Discovery of a salt basin 5 miles square, near the sink of the Carson river, containing pure rock salt to a depth of 14 feet, 1864 Under act of 21 Mch. 1864 a convention to form a state consti- tution meets at Carson City, 4 July ; Nevada admitted by proclamation of 31 Oct. ' ' State prison located at Warm Springs, Carson City " Freemasonry established in the state in Feb. 1862, and the Grand Lodge of Nevada organized Jan. 1865 Sutro Tunnel comjiany chartered to build a tunnel some 4 miles long to intersect and drain the Comstock lode at a depth of 1600 feet 4 Feb. " Eastern boundary of Nevada extended one degree by act of Congress 5 May, 1866 First railroad locomotive enters the state, running from the California side to Crystal Peak 1867 U. S. Supreme court declares unconstitutional an act of Ne- vada legislature levying a capitation tax of one dollar on every person leaving the state by any railroad, stage-coach, or other carrier of passengers 1868 Legislature ratifies XV. th Amendment to the Constitution ot the U. S 1 Mch. 1869 State orphans' home at Carson City erected " U. S. branch mint at Carson City, founded in 1866, begins op- erations 1 Nov. ' ' Corner-stone of the state capitol laid, 9 June, 1870, and build- ing completed and occupied Aug. 1871 Lieut-gov. Denver refuses to surrender the state prison to his successor in oflace, P. C. Hyman, until compelled by militia and 60 armed men under gen. Van Bokkelen, with one piece of artillery 1873 Construction of new state prison at Reno begun 1874 State University of Nevada, chartered in 1864, is opened at Elko " Bishop Whitaker's school for girls opened at Reno 1876 Legislature by joint resolution amends the constitution so as to exclude from the privilege of electors any bigamist or polygam ist 1877 State Fish commission appointed by act of legislature, and a hatchery established at Carson City 1873 Completion of the Sutro tunnel celebrated in the Carson Valley (Tunnels) 30 June, 1879 State asylum for the insane at Reno opened 1 July, 1882 Nickel mines discovered in Humboldt county " U. S. branch mint at Carson City closed 1885 State university removed from Elko to Reno and reopened, Mch. 1886 Acts of legislature passed providing for State Immigration bureau and for the observance of Arbor day in the state 1887 NEV Fourteen constitutional amendments voted upon by the peo- ple, who reject one to autliorize lotteries, and adopt one giv- ing women the right to hold school offices. Election held, 11 Feb. Legislature appropriates $100,000 for a hydrographic survey of the state, and provides for State Board of Reclamation and Internal Improvement (Ikrigatio.n) Gov. Stevenson dies, and is succeeded by lieut.-gov. Frank Bell, acting. 21 Sept. 1890 TERRITORIAL GOVKUNOR. James W. Nye commissioned 22 Mch. 1861 STATE tiOVEKNOKS. James W. Nye acting 31 Oct. 1864 Henry G. Blasdel assumes office 5 Dec. " Luther R. Bradley. Dem " " Jan. 1871 John H. Kinkead, Hep " " Jan. 1879 Jewett W. Adams, Dem " " Jan. 1883 Christopher C. Stevenson, Rep. " " Jan. 1887 Frank Bell acting 21 Sept. 1890 Roswell K. Colcord, Rep assumes office Jan. 1891 John E. Jonea " " Jan. 1895 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF NEVADA. Nui«. No. of Congre**. Date. Remarks. James W.Nye 39th to 43d 1866 to 1873 William M.Stewart. 39th " 44th 1865 "1875 John P. Jones 43d " 1873 " Term expires 1897. William Sharon.... 44th " 47th 1875 " 1881 James G. Fair. 47th " 50th 1881 " 1888 William M.Stewart. 50th " 1888 " — Term expires 1899. ]VevilIe'8 Crosi, or Durham, Battle of, between the Scots, under king David Bruce, and the English, it is said (probably incorrectly) under Philippa, consort of Edward III., and lord Percy, 12 or 17 Oct. 1346. More than 15,000 Scots were slain, and the king taken. New Ain§terda]ii. New York. Neivark, Canada. United States, 1813. Hifewbern, N. C. North Carolina, 1862. New B run 8 wick, first settled by the French, 1604, and called, with Nova Scotia, Acadia, was taken from Nova Scotia, and received its name as a separate colony in 1785. It was united with Canada for legislative purposes by an act passed 29 Mch. 1867. Area, 27,177 sq. miles. Population of New Brunswick in 1865, 272,780; in 1871,285,594; 1881. 288,265. New^burg^ addre§S. United States, 1783. Newbury, a borough of Berkshire, Engl. Near here were fought 2 battles, (1) 20 Sept. 1643, when Charles I. ob- tained some advantage over the parliamentary forces under Essex. Among the slaui was Lucius Cary, viscount Falkland. (2) A second battle of dubious result between royalists and parliamentarians under Waller, 27 Oct. 1644. New Caledonia, an island in the Pacific ocean, dis- covered by Cook on 4 Sept. 1774, was seized by the French, 20 Sept. \S5B, and made a penal colony. Area, 6000 sq. miles ; pop. 1889, 62,762. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Northumberland, the Roman PonsyElia, first coal port in the world, and commercial metropolis of the north of England. Coal mines were discov- ered here about 1234. The first charter granted townsmen for digging coal by Henry III. in 1239. In 1306 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London by royal proclama- tion, chiefly because it injured the sale of wood, which then abounded near the city; but the prohibition did not last long, and Newcastle coal has been exported for more than 500 years. Castle built by Robert Courthose, son of William 1 1080 Taken by William II 1095 St. Nicholas church built, about 1091; burned 1216; restored by Edward I., to whom John Baliol did homage here, 1292; rebuilt 1359 Newcastle surrenders to the Scotch 1640 Who here gave up Charles I. to the parliament 30 Jan. 1647 T. Bewick, the wood engraver, d 1828 Strike of 9000 engineers for day of 9 hours about 16 May, 1871 College of Physical Science in Durham university opened, Oct. " Engineers' strike ends; terms, 9 hours a day, to begin on 1 Jan. 1872 ; men to work overtime when needed ; wages unchanged; arranged by R. B. Philipson and Joseph Cowen, 6 Oct. " 550 NEW New swing-bridge over the Tyne (281 feet long; weight, 1450 tons, lifted by a hydraulic crane) ; begun 1868 ; completed, June, 189 New^ Ciiurch, Swedenborgians. New Eng^land includes Connecticut, Maini Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vk] MONT. New^ Foreit, a royal forest and hundred of Hami sfiire, Engl., was made ("afforested") by William the Co queror, 1079-85. It is said that the whole country for miles was laid waste. William Rufus was killed here by i arrow shot by Walter Ty^^^j ^^at accidentally glanced frol a tree, 2 Aug. 1100, on whose site is now a triangular ston The New Forest Deer Removal act was passed 14 and 15 Vii c. 76, 7 Aug. 1851. Agitation for preservation of this forea autumn, 1870. Forests. Newfound 'land, a large island at the entrance oP the gulf of the St. Lawrence, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima Vista, 24 June, 1497, and formally taken possession of by sir Humphrey Gilbert, 1583. In Elizabeth's time other nations had the advantage of English in the fishery. In 1577 there were 100 fishing-vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 150 from France, and only 15 (but larger) from England. — Fiakluyt. But the English fishery by 1625 h increased so that Devonshire ports alone employed 150 shi which sold fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy. The 80V( eignty of England was recognized in 1713. Newfoundlai obtained a colonial legislature in 1832. On 14 Jan. 18. a convention between England and France confirmed the French certain privileges of fishery in exchange others. The English colonists were dissatisfied. Newfoun( land consented to union with the dominion of Canaii Mch. 1869. Area, 42,200 sq. miles ; pop. 1874, 164,389; 18 193,124. Fishery dispute.— Ai Fortune bay, U. S. fishers set nets on Sunday, 13 Jan. 1878, contrary to local regulations; they were forcibly removed; controversy ensued, Mr. Evarts for the U. S. , sent despatch, 24 Aug. ; correspondence, Sept. , Oct.; marquis of Salisbury refused compensation; but earl Granville granted it; 15,000i. awarded by arbitration, 28 May, 1881 New France. Canada, French in America. Newg^ate, London. The prison was named from the gate once part of it, and stood a little beyond the Sessions- house in the Old Bailey. It was used as a prison for persons of rank as early as 1218; but was rebuilt 2 centuries later by the executors of sir Richard Whittington, whose statue with a cat stood in the niche till destroyed by the great fire of 1666. It was then reconstructed ; but, becoming an accumulation of misery and inconvenience, was pulled down and rebuilt be- tween 1778 and 1780. During riots in 1780, the interior wa.s destroyed by fire, but soon after restored. Newgate was dis- used as an ordinary prison 31 Dec. 1881. — Griffiths " Chroni- cles of Newgate " pub. Jan. 1884. New Orana'da, a federal republic of South America, discovered by Ojeda in 1499, and settled by the Spaniards in 1536. It formed part of the republic of Bogota, established 1811; and with Caracas formed the republic of Colombia, 17 Dec. 1819. Colombia. New Ouinea or Papua, Pacific ocean, between the equator and 11° S. lat., and 131° and 151° E. Ion., the larg- est island in the world (excluding Australia). It is 1490 miles long and greatest width 430 miles; area, 306,000 sq. miles; discovered by the Portuguese after their settlement of the Moluccas, between 1512 and 1530. It was visited by Saave- dra, a Spaniard, in 1528. It is said to have been named by Ortiz de Retes, a Portuguese, 1549. Torres strait, which di- vides New Guinea and Australia, discovered by Torres, a Spaniard, in 1606, was frequently visited by the Dutch in the 17th century. They established a colony with a fortress, named Dubus, on the S.W. coast, in 1828, but it failed and was removed in 1835. Inhabitants partly Malays, but the majority " Papuan negroes." New IIanip§llire, one of the eastern states of the American Union, lies between Maine on the east and Ver- mont and Quebec on the west, from which it is separated by; the Connecticut river. Quebec bounds it on the north andi NEW 551 NEW Massachusetts on the south. The Atlantic, on the southeast corner, forms a coast-line of 18 miles, affording a good harbor at Portsmouth. Area, 9305 sq. miles, in 10 counties; pop. 1890, 376,530. Capital, Con- cord. Isew Hampshire formed a part of the grant to the colonies of Virginia and Plymouth, extending from lat. 34° to lat. 45° north, 10 Apr. 1606 Capt. John Smith, ranging the shore of New England, explores the harbor of Piscataqua 1614 Ferdinando Gorges and capt. John Mason, members of the Plymouth council, obtain a joint grant of the province of Lacouia, comprising all the land between the Merrimac river, the great lakes, and river of Canada 10 Aug. 1622 Gorges and Mason establish a settlement at the mouth of the Piscataqua, calling the place Little Harbor, and another set- tlement, 8 miles farther up the river, Dover 1623 Mason, having agreed with Gorges to make the Piscataqua the divisional line, takes from the Plymouth council a patent of i that portion lying between that river and the Merrimac, and , calls it New Hampshire 7 Nov. 1629 Company of Laconia dividing their interests, Mason procures j for himself a charter of Portsmouth 1631 I Towns of Portsmouth and Northam laid out 1633 1 A number of families from England settle on Dover Neck and [ build a fortified church " : Mason's estate, after a few specific bequests, goes to a grand- i son Robert Tufton, who takes the surname of Mason 1635 ! George Burdet, a clergyman from Yarmouth, Engl., succeeds j VViggin as governor of the Dover plantations 1636 ; Rev. John Wheelwright, banished from Boston as a result of ! the Antinomian controversy, and a few friends settle Exeter, 1 and form a government with elections by the people 1638 I Hampton, considered as belonging to the colony of Massachu- i setts, founded " [ Burdet succeeded by capt. John Underbill " \ People of Portsmouth form a provisional government 1639 [ Provisional government established at Dover 22 Oct. 1640 iFour governments in New Hampshire subscribe to a union i with Massachusetts, 14 Apr. 1641, which goes into effect, giv- ; ing New Hampshire's representatives a vote in town affairs without regard to religious qualifications 9 Oct. 1641 ;Colonies of Connecticut, New Haven, New Plymouth, and Mas- I sachusetts (including New Hampshire) form a confederacy. . 1642 White mountains explored by capt. Neal " ; Quakers William Robin.sou and Marmaduke Stevenson exe- i cuted for returning to the province after banishment, • 27 Oct. 1659 jWilliam Leddra hung for being a Quaker 14 Mch. 1660 jWarrant issued at Dover, directing 3 Quakeresses to be whipped i out of the province. Stripped and tied to a cart, they are I publicly whipped at Dover and Hampton, but freed at Salis- 1 bury through the agency of Walter Barefoot Dec. 1662 jlndians in King Philip's war ravage Somersworth and Durham, . and between Exeter and Hampton Sept. 1675 IFour hundred Indians captured by strategy at Dover. 7 or 8 ^ are put to death, 200 discharged, and the balance sold in j foreign parts as slaves 7 Sept. 1676 jKing's bench decided that Massachusetts had no jurisdiction ( over New Hampshire and Mason's heirs none within the territory they claimed. To establish Mason's title, the king r makes New Hampshire a distinct province, with John Cutts ; of Portsmouth president 8 Sept. 1679 ,^oyal commission declaring New Hampshire a royal province ' reaches Portsmouth 1 Jan. 1680 'resident Cutts dies, and is succeeded by maj. Richard Wal- dron of Dover 5 Apr. 1681 ilason surrenders one-fifth of his quit rents from the province to Charles II., and thus secures the appointment of Edward j Cranfleld as lieutenant-governor with extraordinary powers, 1 and devoted to his interests. . . ^ 25 Jan. 1682 'ranfield suspends Waldron and Richard Martyn, both popular : leaders, from the council 15 May, " Mward Gove, voicing the popular feeling against gov. Cran- fleld, with a tumultuous body from Exeter and Hampton, de- clares for liberty and reform. Finding the people not yet ready for revolt, he surrenders, is convicted of high-treason ana imprisoned in the tower of London 1683 eople, called upon by the governor to take leases from Ma- sou, refuse to acknowledge his claim 14 Feb. " ssembly refuse money for the Cranfield government 1684 raufield, by authority of the governor and council, without the concurrence of the assembly, imposes taxes; but, unable ' to enforce payment, obtains a leave of absence and returns to England, Walter Barefoot, his deputy, succeeding as chief magistrate 9 Jan. 1685 idians attack Dover; surprise maj. Waldron in his own home, and massacre him and many other settlers, taking 29 captives, fwhom they sell as slaves-to the French in Canada. . .27 Jan. 1689 jiople of New Hampshire effect a governmental union with 'Massachusetts 12 Mch. 1690 3W Hampshire is purchased from the Mason heirs by Samuel Allen of London, who prevents its insertion in the charter of William and Mary, and becomes its governor, appointing his son-in-law, John Usher, as lieutenant-governor..! Mch. 1692 Law passed requiring each town to provide a school-master, Dover excepted, it then being too much impoverished by Indian raids to do so 1693 Sieur de Villieu, and -AM) Indians, approach Durham undiscov- ered, and, waiting in ambush during the night, at sunrise at- tack the place, destroy 5 houses, and carry away 100 cap- tives 17 July, 1694 Richard Earl of Bellomont is installed governor of New York, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire; council and courts re- organized of opponents of the Mason claim 31 July, 1699 Earl of Bellomont dies at New York, 5 Mch. 1701, and Joseph Dudley is appointed governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire by queen Anne, his commission being published at Portsmouth 13 July, 1701 An attack of Indians on Durham is repulsed by a few women in disguise firing upon the Indians, who suppose the place well garrisoned Apr. 1706 Indian hostilities cease on the arrival of news of the treaty of Utrecht, and a treaty ratified with them 11 July, 1713 George Vaughan made lieutenant-governor and Samuel Shute commander-in-chief of the province 13 Oct. 1716 V^aughan superseded by John Wentworth, by commission signed by Joseph Addison, English secretary of state. 7 Dec. 1717 Sixteen Scottish families settle at Londonderry, and the first Presbyterian church in New England is organized by rev. James McGregorie 1719 Capt. John Lovewell makes his first excursion against the Indians in New Hampshire Dec. 1724 A grant of land made by New Hampshire to the survivors of the Lovewell defeat at Fryeburg, Me., overlaps a. similar grant by Massachusetts in Bow county, which leads to a boundary litigation between New Hampshire and Massachu- setts, which lasted 40 years. Grants made. . . 18-20 May, 1727 Duration of assembly limited to 3 years unless sooner dis- solved by the governor 21 Nov. " David Dunbar appointed lieutenant-governor 24 June, 1731 New Hampshire petitioning the crown in 1732 to decide the boundary question, obtains a royal order appointing commis- sioners, from the councillors of the neighboring provinces, to decide the question ; board meets at Hampton Aug. 1737 Commissioners fix upon the present eastern boundary of New Hampshire. For the southern boundary an appeal is made to George III., who decides upon the present line, giving New Hampshire a territory 50 miles long by 14 broad in ex- cess of her claim 5 Mch. 1740 Bennington Wentworth appointed governor and commander- in-chief of New Hampshire 1741 George Whitefield preaches in New Hampshire 1744 Indian depredations in the New Hampshire settlements; at- tacks on Keene, Number Four (Charlestown), Rochester, capture of fort Massachusetts at Hoosuck Apr. -20 Aug. 1746 Three companies of rangers under Robert Rogers and the 2 brothers John and William Stark, formed from the New Hampshire troops by the express desire of lord Loudon 1756 First newspaper in New Hampshire and the oldest in New England, New Hampshire Gazette, published at Portsmouth, Aug. " On application of New York, the king in council declares the western bank of the Connecticut river the boundary between New Hampshire and New York 20 July, 1764 Concord, settled in 1727, is called Rumford in 1733, and takes the name of Concord (Rumford medal) 1765 George Meserve appointed stamp distributer for New Hamp- shire, resigns his office before landing at Boston, 9 Sept. 1765, compelled to make a formal resignation 18 Sept. It being suspected that he still intended to distribute the stamped paper, he is compelled to give up his commission, and is sent back to England.... 9 Jan. 1766 John Wentworth, apjiointed governor in place of his uncle, removed by the British ministry on charge of neglect of duty, 11 Aug. 1767 Dartmouth college at Hanover chartered 30 Dec. 1769 Nathaniel Folsom and John Sullivan appointed delegates to Congress at Philadelphia by a convention of 85 deputies, which met at Exeter 14 July, 1774 By the request of a committee of the people, a cargo of tea consigned to a Mr. Parry of Portsmouth is reshipped to Halifax, 25 Jan. 1774. A second cargo consigned to Parry, arriving, the jieople attack his house, and quiet is only re- stored by sending of the vessel to Halifax 8 Sept. " Town committee of Portsmouth, hearing of the order by king in council prohibiting exportation of gunpowder to America, seize the garrison at fort William and Mary, and carry off 100 barrels of gunpowder, 11 Dec. ; next day they remove 15 cannon with small-arms and warlike stores 12 Dec. " Armed men dismantle a battery at Jerry's Point on Great island and bring 8 pieces of cannon to Portsmouth . .26 May, 1775 Convention of the people assembles at Exeter June, " New Hampshire troops in the battle of Bunker Hill. . .17 June, " Gov. Wentworth convenes the assembly, 12 June, and recom- mends the conciliatory proposition of lord North, to which the house gives no heed. They expel 3 new royalist mem- bers, and the governor adjourns the assembly to 28 Sept., and sails for Boston. From the Isles of Shoals he adjourns the assembly until Apr. 1776, his last official act Sept. " A constitution for New Hampshire is framed by a Congress styling itself the House of Representatives, which assembles at Exeter, 21 Dec. 1775, and completes its labors 5 Jan. 1776 NEW Under the new form of government, Mcshech Wcuro is ap- pointed president of the council and of an executive coiu- mittoo chosen to sit during the recess of the council, as president of New Hampshire John Sullivan of Now Hampshire appointed brigadier-general by Congress ^ Sh\po{ war Kaleigh built at Portsmouth by decree of Congress, A convention of both houses reports a declaration of inde- pendence, which was adopted and sent forthwith to the del- egates of New Hampshire in Congress 15 Juno, Declaration of Independence of the United States signed by Josiuh Barilott and William Whipple of New Hampshire, 2 Aug. 1776, and by a third representative from the stiilo, Matthew Thornton Nov. New Hampshire troops engage in the battle of Bennington, under John Stark, who is made brigadier-general by Con- gress 18 A ug. Articles of confederation ratified by New Hampshire, 4 Mch. 1778, and signed by the state representatives at Philadelphia, Josiah Bartlett an'd John Wentworth 8 Aug. Phillips acidemy at Exeter founded Daniel Webster b. at Franklin, N. H 18 Jan. Sixteen towns on the eastern side of tlio Connect cut river re- fuse to send delegates to a constitutional convention in New Hampshire, and desire to be admitted into the new state of Vermont. Vermont agrees to accept these additional towns, but Congress in its act of admission makes it an indispensa- ble |)reliminary that the revolted towns shall be restored to New Hampshire. The towns at last accept the situation and become part of New Hampsliire A convention which meets at Concord, 10 June, 1778, frames a constitution which is rejected by the people. A new con- vention meets at Exeter in 1781, and after 2 years a consti- tution is framed which goes into effect , 2 June, John Laugdon and Nicholas Gilman,delegates from New Harap- • shire, sign the Constitution of the U. S 17 Sept. Convention assembles at Exeter, 13 Feb., adjourns to Concord, and ratifies the Constitution of the U. S, by a vote of 57 to 47 21 June, Pres. Washington, on a tour of observation, arrives at Ports- mouth 30 Oct. Portsmouth Journal established at Portsmouth An academy, the second in the state, opened at New Ipswich, Publication of Concord Herald begun by George Hough.. 5 Jan. Academies incorporated at Atkinson and Amherst Four post-routes appointed through the interior of the state. . New Hampshire Medical Society incorporated Bank established at Portsmouth Convention assembles atConcord,7 Sept. 1791, revises the state constitution, changes the title of the chief magistrate from president to governor, and completes its labors 5 Sept. Elder Jesse Lee, coming from Virginia, visits New Hampshire; founds the first Methodist society in the state A privateer ship, the McClary, fitted out during the war at Portsmouth under the sanction of the legislature, captures an American merchant ship, the Susanna, bound for an ene- my's port laden with supplies. The matter is brought into court, and the U. S. Court of Appeals reverses the judgment of the State court and awards $32,721.36 damages to the owners of the Susanna. Tlie legislature of New Hampshire, in special session, prepares a spirited remonstrance against this action as "a violation of state independence and an unwarrantable encroachment in the courts of the United States " Bridge constructed over the Piscataqua near Portsmouth, from Newington to Durham, nearly i^ mile in length Academy at Haverhill established Academy at Gilmanton incorporated First Xew Hampshire turnpike, extending from Concord to the Piscataqua bridge, chartered Medical department of Dartmoutii college established Keene Sentinel established at Keene Mch. New Hampshire Missionary Society, the earliest charitable so- ciety of a religious character in the state, incorporated Farmer^s Cabinet published at Amherst 11 Nov. First cotton factory in state erected at New Ipswich PLicataqua Evangelical Magazine pub. at Portsmouth Law passed dividing towns into school districts From the preaching and teachings of Mr. Murray in 1773, the Universalists are recognized as a religious sect in New Hampshire 13 June, From 1680 to 1775 the seat of government was at Portsmouth. From 1775 to 1807 the legislature adjourned from town to town, assembling at Exeter, Concord, Hopkinton, Dover, Amherst. Charlestown, and Hanover. The legislature of 1807 adjourns from Hopkinton to Concord for regular sessions.. . . New Hampshire Iron Factory company, incorporated at Fran- conia in 1805, erects and puts in operation a blast-furnace. . . Horace Greeley b. at Amherst 3 Feb. State prison at Concord established Kimball Union academy at Plainfield incorporated New Hampshire troops under gen. John McNiel take part in the battle of Chippewa, 5 July, 1814, and at Niagara, 25 July, Law passed giving to the state complete jurisdiction over Dart- mouth college, the charter for which requires the trustees, professors, tutors, and officers to take the oath of allegiance to the British king 27 June, Trustees and overseers of Dartmouth college, summoned by the governor to meet at Hanover, 26 Aug. 1816, refuse to act under the law of 27 June, or to report to the governor as re- quested 28 Aug. 652 NEW 1777 1778 1781 1782 1784 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1796 1798 1799 1801 1802 1803 1805 1807 1811 1812 1813 1814 1816 . 186ffl . 1867 Pres. John Whoelock ol Dartmouth college d 4 Apr. U Pres. James Monroe, on his tour of the Northern states, visits Portsmouth, Dover, Concord, and Hanover State-house at Concord erected Gen. Benjamin Pierce, appointed sheriff of Hillslioruiigh county by gov. Plumer, liberates 3 aged men confined for debt in Amherst jail, by paying their debts 20 Nov. Ij Toleration law making all religious sects on equal ground, and dependent on voluntary contributions 1819 Control of Dartmouth college, after 2 years or more of litiga- tion, awarded by the Supreme court of the U. S. to the trus- tees [Result chiefly due to the eflbrts of Daniel Webster.] Law of 29 June, 1821, imposing an annual tax of one-half of one percent, on the capital stock of banks, for school pur-" poses. The sum accrued is divided among the towns I82,i Gov. Matthew Harvey, appointed judge of the U. S. District court for New Hampshire, is succeeded by Joseph M. Har- per, acting-governor Feb. 18bi Levi Woodbury secretary of the navy May, <' Levi Woodbury secretary of the U. S. treasury 27 June, 1884 Nashua and Lowell railroad incorporated 1836 Act passed providing for a scientific, geological, and mineral- ogical survey of the state 3 July, 1889 New Hampshire asylum for the insane at Concord, founded Oct. 1842 Office of state commissioner of common schools created 1846 Law authorizing towns to establish public libraries 1849 Office of school commissioner abolished; a Board of Education constituted of county school commissioners June, Democratic National convention at Baltimore, Md., nominates gen. Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire for president, 9 May, New Hampshire Conference seminary and female college at Tilton, opened 1845, receives its charter Property qualification for state officers abolished Franklin Pierce inaugurated president 4 Mch. Gold discovered at Plainfield, in the Connecticut valley 1864 State Teachers' Association incorporated " House of Reformation for Juvenile and Female Offenders at Manchester dedicated 12 May, 18" First regiment of Federal troops leaves Concord for the seat of war 25 May, 1861 Franklin Pierce's remarkable speech at Concord on the \ " war " 4 July, 1863i "Soldiers' Voting bill," passed 17 Aug., is returned 26 Aug. with a veto, but becomes a law because retained in the gov- ernor's hands more than 5 days 17 Aug. 18C4 Law authorizing a commissioner to edit early provincial rec- ords, and rev. dr. Bouton of Concord chosen Office of superintendent of public instruction created. , Revision and codification of the laws,ordered by the legislature of 1865, completed ' New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, at Hanover, chartered 186G, opened 4 Sept. 186& Legislature ratifies the XV. th Amendment to the U. S. Consti- 1 tution 1 July, 1869] Robinson female seminary at Exeter, chartered 1867, opened. , " City training school, Manchester, opened " Ex-pres. Pierce d es at Concord 8 Oct. " Labor Reform party holds its first state convention 28 Jan. 187( Act passed creating a state Board of Agriculture " James A. Weston, Democrat, receives 34,700 vote.s for governor, and James Pike, Republican, 33,892. The legislature elect Weston by 326 to 159 June, 1871 State Normal school at Plymouth opened " Orphans' Home and School of Industry on the aiicestral Web- ster farm, near Franklin, opened " Compulsory Attendance School law goes into effect " Weston re-elected by the legislature, no choice by the people; legislature meets.* 3 June, 1874 There being no choice for governor at the election, 9 Mch. 1875, Person C. Cheney is chosen by the legislature 9 June, 1875 Thirteen amendments to the constitution, proposed by a con- vention at Concord, 6 to 16 Dec. 1876, are adopted except 2, one of which was "to strike out the word Protestant" in the Bill of Rights 1877 William E. Chandler of New Hampshire appointed secretary of the navy 1 Apr. 188- Prohibitionists in state convention at Nashua adopt a consti- tution for the State Temperance union 7-8 June, '• Bronze statue of Daniel Websffer, 8 feet in height, cast at Munich, and gift of Benjamin P. Cheney, is erected in the State-House park. Concord, and dedicated 17 June, 188»i For governor : David H. Goodell, Republican, 44,809 votes ; Chas. H. Amsden, Democrat, 44,093; Edgar L. Carr, Prohibi- tion, 1567: the choice devolves upon the legislature Nov. 18.'^'* State Constitutional convention meets at Concord, 2 Jan. 1889; among the 7 amendments submitted to the people one favor- ^ ing prohibition is lost 12 Mch. 18«.. Legislature elects Goodell governor by 168 to 114 5 June, '^ Gov. Goodell stricken with paralysis 17 Mch. 18(K Statue of gen. John Stark, for which the legislature appropri- ated $12,000, unveiled in the state-house yard. Concord, 23 Oct. ' Vote for governor: Hiram A. Tuttle, Republican, 42,479; Charles H. Amsden, Democrat, 42,386; Josiah M. Fletcher, Prohibi- tion, 1363; no choice Nov. ' , State Soldiers' home established at Tilton, 1889 ■, dedicated, 3 Dec. '■ j Hiram A. Tuttle elected governor by legislature 7 Jan. 189]j J. H. Gallinger elected U. S. senator 20 Jan. ' i NEW 553 Legislature makes the first Monday in Sept. (Labor day) a legal holiday, directs removal of the New Hampshire College of j^griculture and the Mechanic Arts from Hanover to the farm of the late Benjamin Thompson of Durham, and passes a se- cret or Australian Ballot act at its session 7 Jan.-ll Apr. 1891 Ex gov. Samuel W. Hale d. at Brooklyn, aged 68 16 Oct. " John Greenleaf Whittier, b. 1807, d. at Hampton Falls..? Sept. 1892 Insane asylum at Dover burned; 45 lives lost 9 Feb. 1893 GOVERNORS. Me.sheck Weare assumes ofiQce 1775 Jolin Langdon " 1785 Jolm Sullivan " 1786 John Langdon " 1788 John Sullivan " 1789 Josiah Bartlett ; " 1790 John Tayjor Oilman " 1794 .Fohn Langdon " 1805 Jeremiah Smith " 1809 John Langdon. " 1810 William I'lumer " 1812 John Taylor Oilman " 1813 William Plumer " 1816 Samuel Bell. " 1819 Levi Woodbury " 1823 David L. Morrill " 1824 Benjamin Pierce " 1827 John Bell " 1828 Benjamin Pierce " 1829 Matthew Harvey " 1830 Joseph \r. Harper acting Feb. 1831 Samuel Dinsmoor assumes office June, 1831 William Badger Isaac Hill John Page Henry Hubbard John H. Steele Anthony Colby Jared W. Williams. .. Samuel Dinsmoor Noah Martin Nathaniel B. Baker. . . Ralph Metcalf. William Haile Ichabod Goodwin Nathaniel S. Berry. . . Joseph A. Gilmore Frederick Smyth Walter Harriman Onslow Stearns James A. Weston Ezekiel A. Straw James A. Weston Person C. Cheney Benjamin F. Prescott. Nathaniel Head Charles H. Bell Samuel W. Hale Moody Currier Charles H. Sawyer. .. David H. Goodell Hiram A. Tuttle John B. Smith Charles A. Busiel NEW ssumes office 1834 1839 1842 1844 1846 1847 1849 1852 1854 1855 1857 1859 1861 1863 1865 1867 1869 1871 1872 1874 1875 1877 1879 1881 1883 1885 1887 1889 1891 1893 1895 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon Paine Wingate Samuel Livermore Simeon Olcott James Sheafe William Plumer Nicholas Oilman Nahum Parker Chiirles Cutts Jeremiah Mason Thomas W. Thompson. David L. Morrill Clement Storer John F. Parrott Samuel Bell Levi Woodbury I Isaac Hill ' John I'age Henry Hubbard , Franklin Pierce i Leonard Wilcox ; Levi Woodbury , Charles 0. Atherton... ! Benning J. Jenness — ; Joseph Cilley , John P. Hale Moses Norris, jr , Charles O. Atherton. . , iJohu S. Wells , Jared W. Williams — ;James Bell John P. Hale ■Daniel Clark , ! George G. Fogg Aaron H. Cragin . James W. Patterson. Bainbridge Wadleigh .KUward H. Rollins . . Henry W. Blair Austin F. Pike ^erson C. Cheney... . iVilliam E. Chandler, 'acob H. Oallinger. . . No. of Congress. 1st to 3d 3d " 6th 7th " 9th 7th 7th to 9th 9th " 13th 10th 11th 13th to 15th 13th " 14th 14th " 18th 15th " 16th 16th " 19th 18th " 24th 19th " 22d 22d " 24th 24th 24th to 27th 25th " 27th 27th 27th to 29th 28th 31st 29th 29th 30th to 33d 31st " 33d 33d 34tb 34th to 38th 35th " 39th 39th 39th to 44th 40th " 43d 43d " 46th 45th " 48th 46th " 52d 48th " 49th 49th " 50th 50th " 52d " 1789 1789 to 1793 1793 " 1801 1801 " 1805 1801 " 1802 1802 " 1807 1805 " 1814 1807 " 1810 1810 1813 to 1817 1815 " 1817 1817 " 1823 1817 " 1819 1819 " 1825 1823 " 1836 1825 " 1831 1831 " 1836 1836 1836 to 1842 1837 " 1842 1842 1842 to 1845 1843 " 1849 1845 " 1846 1846 " 1847 1847 " 1853 1849 " 1855 1853 1855 1853 1855 to 1857 1855 " 1865 1857 1866 1866 1867 1866 " 1875 1867 " 1873 1873 " 1879 1877 " 1883 1879 " 1891 1883 " 1886 1886 " 1888 1888 " 1891 " Elected president of the senate, 6 Apr. 1789, for the purpose of opening and counting the votes for president and vice-president of the U. S. Elected president pro tern. 5 Nov. 1792. Elected president pro te.m. 6 May, 1796, and 2 Dec. 1799. Resigned 1801. Elected in place of Samuel Livermore. Resigned. Elected in place of James Sheafe. Died. Resigned. Elected in place of Parker. Resigned. Elected in place of Oilman. Elected in place of Mason. Resigned. Elected in place of Hill. Resigned. Elected in place of Pierce. Resigned. When he was a member of the House he introduced the famous resolution, 11 Dec. 1838, known as the Atherton gag. Appointed pro tern, in place of Woodbury. Elected in place of Woodbury. Died 11 Jan. 1855. Died 1853. Appointed in place of Norris. Appointed in place of Atherton. Died 1857. : Elected in place of Bell. Elected president pro iem. 26 Apr. 1864, [ and 9 Feb. 1865. Resigned. Appointed in place of Clark. Died 1886. Appointed in place of Pike. Term expires 1901 To succeed Blair. Term expires 1897. IVew Harmony. Robert Owen was the first social- st to form a non-religious community in America. In 1824 le purchased the town of Harmony (Harmonists), called it ^ew Harmony, and organized a community which on 12 Jan. 826 adopted a constitution as "The New Harmony Comrau- ity of E,quality." 4 July, 1826, at New Harmony, Owen de- [vered his Declaration of Mental Independence against the rinity of man's oppressors, " Private Property, Irrational Re- gion, and Marriage." Socialism. ! Kew Hebrides, a group of islands in S. Pacific 'Can, discovered by Quiros, who, believing them a continent, 18* named them Tierra A usfral del Espiritu Santo, in 1606. Bou- gainville in 1768 found them to be islands ; and in 1774 Cook gave them their present name. . Bfew Holland. Australia, New South Wales. New Ireland, an island in the Pacific, lat. 2° 3' S., Ion. 152° P:. ; 200 miles long, 25 miles average width. An attempt of the French marquis de Rays to colonize this island was reported a failure in Aug. 1880 and May, 1881. ]Ve"%r Jersey, one of the middle Atlantic states of the United States of America, lies between lat. 38° 56' and 41° 21' NEW 654 NEW N., and Ion. 78^^ 53' 51" and 75^ 33' W. It is bounded on the north by New York, east by New York and Atlantic ocean, south by Delaware bay, and west by Delaware and Penn- sylvania, frona which it is sep- arated by the Delaware river. Area, 8715 sq. miles, in 21 counties; pop. 1890, 1,44-1,933; capital, Trenton. Henry Hudson, in the shl|) Half Moon, enters Dela ware buy, 28 Aug. 16U9, uud coasts the easiern shore of New Jersey on bis way to Saudy Hook, whore he anchors, 3 Sept. 1609 First Dutch setllemeut on the Delaware is made near Gloucester, N. J., where fort Nassau is built 1623 Capt. Thomas Young, receiving a commission from Charles I., sails up the Delaware river until "slopped from further proceeding by a ledge of rock which crosseth the river" (Trenton falls) 1 Sept. 1634 Number of English families settle on Salem creek, at a place called by the Indians Asamohaking 1640 Dutch acquire by deed a large tract of land in the eastern part of New Jersey called Bergen 30 Jan. 1658 Royal charter executed by Charles II., in favor of the duke of York, of the whole region between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers 20 Mch. 1664 Present slate of New Jersey granted by the duke of York to lord John Berkeley and sir George Carteret by deed of lease and release, to be called Nova Caesaria or New Jersey, 23-24 June, '• By license from col. Nicholls, governor under the duke of York, a company, the " Elizabelhtown Associates," purchase the site of Eliz ibelhlown from Indians, and establish the first permanent settlement in New Jersey 28 Oct. '• Philip Carteret, appointed first English governor of New Jer- sey, arrives at Elizabelhtown with 30 settlers Aug. 1665 Newark settled by 30 families from Connecticut 17 May, 1666 Grant of 276 acres issued for Hoboken 12 May, 1668 Session of the first legislative assembly of New Jersey held at Elizabelhtown 26 May, '• Bergen chartered 22 Sept. " Settlers under grants from gov. Nicholls form an independent government whose deputies at Elizabelhtown elect James Carteret governor 14 May, 1672 Gov. Philip Carteret returns to England to lay the matter of the government of New Jersey before the proprietors '• First Friends' meeting house built at Shrewsbury '• Lord Berkeley sells his half interest in the province to 2 Eng- lish Quakers, John Fenwick and Edward Byllinge. . .18 Mch. 1673 New Netherlands, including New Jersey, surrendered to the Dutch July, " New Jersey again becomes an English province, under treaty of peace between England and Holland 9 Feb. 1674 Edward Byllinge, becoming financially embarrassed, assigns his interest to William Penn and others 10 Feb. " Philip Carteret returns and resumes authority in New Jersey, meeting the General Assembly at Bergen 6 Nov. " Fenwick, sailing from London in the ship Griffith, arrives with a small company of Quakers and settles at Salem June, 1675 " Concessions and Agreements " of the proprietors of the Fen- wick and Byllinge purchase in New Jersey issued; Fenwick to have one-tenth interest, and the assignees of Byllinge nine-tenths, and a government established 3 Mch. 1676 Quintipartiie deed executed between William Penn and others, assignees of ByUinge, and sir George Carteret, for a division of New Jersey into east and west, by a line drawn from Little Egg harbor to the most northerly point or boundary on the Delaware, Carteret retaining East Jersey 1 July, " Richard Hartshore and Richard Guy of East Jersey, and James Wasse sent from England, authorized to establish a govern- ment for West Jersey, by the proprietors 18 Aug. ' ' First recorded public action for the establishment of schools in Newark 21 Nov. ' ' Nine executive commissioners appointed by the proprietors of West Jersey under a constitution promulgated 3 Mch. 1676, accompanied by a large number of settlers, arrive from Eng- land and purchase from the Indians a tract of land on the Delaware between Assunpink and Old Man's creek Aug. 1677 Burlington laid out by agents of the London Land company. . . " Ship Shields, from Hull, the first ship to ascend the Delaware to Burlington, bringing settlers 10 Dec. 1678 Sir George Carteret, proprietor of East Jersey, d 1679 Asserting that the grant of the duke of York to Berkeley and Carteret did not convey the government, sir Edmund Andros claims the government of New Jersey, and appears before the General Assembly at Elizabethtown, which repudiates his authority 2 June, 1680 Duke of York having submitted the claim of governmental power in New Jersey to a commission, which decides against Andros, he makes a second grant of West Jersey to the pro- prietors, 6 Aug., and of East Jersey 6 Sept. " Vicinity of Trenton settled by Phineas Pemberton " First yearly meeting of Friends for discipline in this country held at Burlington 28 June, 1681 I First assembly meets at Burlington and organizes a govern- ment, with Samuel Jennings as deputy governor 25 Nov. U Carteret's heirs sell East Jersey to a company of proprietors, including William Penn and 11 others 1-2 Feb. 1(| Penn company, now increased to 24 proprietors, secure a new conveyance of East Jersey from the duke of York, with full powers of government 14 Mch. Robert Barclay appointed for life first governor of East Jersey under the new proprietary, with Thomas Rudyard as deputy, Revenues of Matenitunk island, in the Delaware opposite Bur- lington, set apart for education. This is believed to be the first school fund in America i( Perth Amboy laid out into lots First tavern or hotel in the province established at Woodbridge. Site of Camden occupied by messrs. Cooper, Runyon, and Morris U First Episcopal church in New Jersey, St. Peter's, founded at Perth Amboy ifl Byllinge dies, and dr. Samuel Coxe of London purchases his interest in West Jersey 1687 First Baptist church in East Jersey built at Middletown 1688 Gov. Barclay d 3 Oct. 16 Presbyterian churches established in Freehold and Wood- bridge u First school law of the state enacted by the General Assembly of East New Jersey at Perth Amboy, to maintain a school- master within the town 12 Oct. IJ Burlington incorporated Salem incorporated i(j Government of New Jersey surrendered to the crown, and both provinces united : 17 Apr. 1% Edward Hyde, lord Cornbury, appointed governor of New York and New Jersey by queen Anne 16 Nov. General Assembly meets at Perth Amboy 10 Nov. it First association of Seventh day Baptists formed in Piscata- way Apr. n Lord Cornbury, removed from oflice by queen Anne, is impris- oned for debt by his creditors 11 Paper money first issued in New Jersey Assembly votes to aid the English expedition against the French in Canada 16 July, it Schuyler copper mines near Belleville discovered by Arent Schuyler n First freestone quarried in New Jersey 17 Law providing for triennial elections of deputies to assembly and triennial sessions alternately at Burlington and Amboy, IW Gov. Montgomery d 1 July, 1731 Executive of New Jersey separated from New York, and Lewis Morris appointed governor 1738 Weelily mail from Philadelphia to New York, carried by post- boys through New Jersey, established 1739 Rev. George Whitefield visits Elizabethtown 1740 First iron run at furnace in Oxford, Warren county 9 Mch. 1743 Gov. Morris dies at Kingsbury, near Trenton 21 May, 174t College of New Jersey at Elizabethtown incorporated " College of New Jersey removed to Newark 1748 Trenton public library founded 1750 First printing press in the province established at Woodbridge by James Parker 1751 College of New Jersey finally located at Princeton, and Nassau hall erected 1756 Stage line established from New York to Philadelphia by way of Perth Amboy and Trenton Nov. " Gov. Jonathan Belcher d. aged 76 31 Aug. 1757 New American Magazine, pub. at Woodbridge by James Parker, and edited by Samuel Nevil under the signature of "Syl- vanus Americanus" Jan. 175B Special conference with Indians at Easton, the governor, Fran- cis Bernard, obtains from the chief of the united nations of the Minisinks,Wapings, and other tribes, for $1000, a release of the Indian title to every portion of New Jersey 18 Oct. " Yearly meeting of the Society of Friends transferred from : Burlington to Philadelphia 1761 \ William Franklin, natural son of Benjamin Franklin, appointed j governor (the last royal governor of New Jersey) 1763' William Coxe, appointed stamp distributer in New Jersey, ; voluntarily resigns his office Sept. 1765 Joseph Borden, Hendrick Fisher, and Robert Ogden, delegates i to a convention of 9 colonies at New York, 7 Oct. 1765; it i publishes a declaration of rights, and adjourns 24 Oct " J First medical society in the colonies organized in New Jersey, 23 July, 1766 First convention of Episcopal ministers of Connecticut, New ; York, New Jersey, and Philadelphia, is held at Elizabeth- town Nov. " ! Rutgers college at New Brunswick chartered under the name ^ j of Queen's college by George III 17'''; Isaac Collins, appointed public printer for New Jersey, begins , the publication of an almanac which continues 20 years 1 '71 Stephen Crane, John de Hart, James Kinsey, William Living- ston, and Richard Smith, chosen delegates to the Congress at Philadelphia by a convention at New Brunswick.. 21 July, 17(1 Assembly of New Jersey unanimously approves the proceed- ings of Congress as reported by the delegates 11 Jan. 177»: Provincial congress of New Jersey at Trenton, elects Hendrick ^^ | Fisher president, and assumes authority 23 May, j Provincial legislature, convened by gov. Franklin 16 Nov., is ^^ ^ prorogued 6 Dec. ; Gov. Franklin, sympathizing with the action of the British j government, is arrested and sent to East Windsor, Conn., I where (until exchanged in 1778) he is held as a prisoner. .... 177tj NEW 555 provincial congress convenes at Burlington, 10 June, 1776, ap- points a committee to prepare a constitution, 24 June, who report, 26 June, a constitution which is confirmed — 2 July, 1776 Ordinance passed denouncing the penalty of treason upon all who should levy war against and within the state, or be ad- herent to the king of Great Britain 18 July, " Abraham Clark, John Hart, Francis Hopkins, Richard Stock- ton, and John Witherspoon, delegates from New Jersey, sign the "Declaration of Independence " 2 Aug. " Legislature meets at Princeton 27 Aug., and in joint ballot chooses William Livingston governor of the state 31 Aug. " Fort Washington being captured by the British, gen. Greene abandons fort Lee, Bergen county 19 Nov. ' ' Washington retreats through New Jersey Nov. " Washington crosses the Delaware into Pennsylvania 8 Dec. " Battle of Trenton 26 Dec. " Battle of Princeton 3 Jan. 1777 Army under Washington winters at Morristown " •Gen. Maxwell captures Elizabethtown together with 100 British troops 23 Jan. " Five vessels, part of a fleet bringing supplies for the British at New Brunswick, are sunk near Amboy 26 Feb. " «en. Howe evacuates New Jersey for the purpose of approach- ing Philadelphia bj'^ water, crossing to Staten Island, 30 June, " By act of assembly the word " state " is substituted for " col- ony" in the Constitution adopted in 1776 20 Sept. " Battle at Fort Mercer. Col. Greene repulses a force of Hes- sians under count Donop 22 Oct. " New Jersey Gazette, the first newspaper in the state, is pub. at Burlington by Isaac Collins 3 Dec. " Battle of Monmouth Court-house 28 June, 1778 Isaac Collins prints 5000 copies of a family Bible at Trenton. . . " Assembly ratifies the "Articles of Confederation " 19 Nov. " John Witherspoon and Nathaniel Scudder, delegates from New Jersey, sign the " Articles of Confederation " 26 Nov. " British at Paulus Hook surprised by maj. Henry Lee.. 19 Aug. 1779 New Jersey Journal established by Shepherd Kollock at Chat- ham " American army winters at Morristown Dec. " Five thousand troops under gen. Clinton drive back the Amer- icans under gen. Greene at Springfield, burn the town, and then retreat 23 June, 1780 Elias Boudinot of New Jersey chosen president of the Conti- nental Congress 4 Nov. 1782 Continental Congress meets at Princeton 30 June, 1783 New Brunswick incorporated 1784 •Continental Congress meets at Trenton 1 Nov. " William Livingston, David Brearley, William Patterson, and Jonathan Dayton, delegates from New Jersey, sign the Con- stitution of the U. S 17 Sept. 1787 •Constitution of the U. S. adopted unanimously without amend- ments by the assembly of New Jersey 18 Dec. " ■Gen. Washington is received by a committee of Congress at Elizabethtown, 23 Apr., and escorted to New York, where he is inaugurated president of the U. S 30 Apr. 1789 Gov. Livingston dies at Elizabethtown 25 July, 1790 Trenton made the capital of the state 25 Nov. " Trenton incorporated 13 Nov. 1792 First factory at Paterson built, and calico goods printed, the first in New Jersey 1794 Interstate traffic in slaves forbidden by the legislature, 14 Mch. 1798 Women vote at the Elizabethtown municipal election 1800 ; [The constitution of 1776 permitted women to vote.] j Morris turnpike, from Elizabethtown to the Delaware river, I chartered 1 Mch. 1801 , Act for the gradual abolition of slavery, making free all persons ; born in the state after 4 July, 1804, passed 15 Feb. 1804 ; Newark Bank and Insurance company chartered " ' William Lewis Dayton born in Baskingridge 17 Feb. 1807 Act confining sufl'rage to white male citizens 16 Nov. " Bible Society organized , 1809 Princeton Theological seminary established by the Presbyte- rian church 1812 ' Act passed creating a fund for free schools 12 Feb. 1817 Jersey City incorporated 28 Jan. 1820 Sam. L. Southard of New Jersey secretary of the navy, 16 Sept. 1823 Morris canal, from Newark to Phillipsburg on the Delaware, commenced 1825 ; Camden and Amboy railroad incorporated 4 Feb. 1830 Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon, purchases an estate of 1400 acres at Bordentown, immediately after the downfall of his brother at Waterloo, where he resides until 1832 Legislature appropriates $2000 to extinguish all Indian titles to land in the state " Boundary between New Jersey and New York settled by a board of joint commissioners, is confirmed by legislatures of ; both states in Feb. , and by act of Congress 28 June, 1834 Mahlon Dickerson appointed secretary of the navy under pres. I ^ Jackson 30 June, " St. Mary's Hall, college for the superior instruction of women, j chartered and opened at Burlington 1837 State Educational convention held at Trenton to reorganize the school system 27-28 Jan. 1838 John Stevens, engineer and inventor, petitions Congress for protection to inventors, which results in the patent laws of 10 Apr. 1790. He builds a steamboat propelled by twin j screws that navigates the Hudson river in 1804. Establishes , * steam ferry from Hoboken to New York city, 11 Oct. 1811, |! and at the age of 78, builds an experimental locomotive, which carries passengers at 12 miles an hour on his experi- mental track at Hoboken in 1826. He d. in Hoboken, 6 Mch. " NEW 1839 1840 1844 1846 1848 1853 1856 1861 1865 1866 1867 At the state election for members of the House of Representa- tives, the returns are contested, the Democratic candidates claiming a majority of about 100 votes in a poll of 57,000. The Whig candidates receive certificates of election under the " Broad " seal of the state 9-10 Oct. 1838 Clerk of the House of Representatives, H. A. Garland of Vir- ginia, refuses to call the names of the Whig delegates from New Jersey, on the ground that the seats were disputed ; at the opening of Congress (as there were 5 contested seats, and as the House stood without New Jersey 118 Whig to 119 Democrats, success to either party in this controversy meant a control of the House; hence the controversy) 2 Dec. 1839 A speaker of the House was elected (Robert M. T. Hunter) by compromise, but the 5 Democratic contestants are seated on tiie report of a committee declaring them elected by a vote of 111 to 81 16 July, [This governmental flurry is known as the " Broad Seal war. "] New Jersey Historical Society founded at Trenton 27 Feb. Constitutional Convention assembles at Trenton 14 May, com- pletes its labors 29 June, and the constitution is ratified by the people 13 Aug. Town superintendent of schools first authorized 7 Apr. State lunatic asylum at Trenton opened 15 May, Bordentown female college at Bordentown, opened in 1851, re- ceives its charter State Normal school established at Trenton 8 Oct. State Union convention at Trenton resolves in favor of a com- promise between the northern and southern states. . .11 Dec. Committee on national affairs in the legislature report joint resolutions endorsing the Crittenden compromise, which were adopted 25 Jan. Legislature appropriates $2,000,000, and an annual tax of $100,000 for military purposes 30 Apr. In response to a proclamation by gov. Olden, 17 Apr., 4 regi- ments of New Jersey Volunteers, under gen. Runyon, are despatched to Annapolis 3 May, Soldiers' Children's home at Trenton incorporated 23 Mch. Rutgers scientific school at New Brunswick opened Sept. State Board of Education established Legislature ratifies theXIV.th Amendment to the Constitution of the U. S 11 Sept. Home for disabled soldiers established at Mount Pleasant, Newark New Jersey State Reform school at Jamesburg opened Legislature, by resolution, withdraws its ratification of the XIV. th Amendment Apr. 1868 George M. Robeson of New Jersey secretary of the navy, 25 June, 1869 Camden and Amboy railroad and Delaware and Raritan canal surrender their reserved rights, after 40 years of monopoly, opening the carrying trade across the state " Governor of New Jersey accepts the war vessel bequeathed to the state by Edwin A. Stevens, known as the "Stevens bat- tery," together with $1,000,000 for its completion, which is placed under the superintendence of gen. George B. McClellan and gen. John Newton " Legislature refuses to ratify the XV. th Amendment to the Constitution of the U. S 15 Feb. 1870 Stevens Institute of Technology at Hoboken opened 1871 State industrial school for girls at Trenton opened " Free school system inaugurated in New Jersey Apr. " Legislature passes a "general railroad law," providing that "no franchise heretofore granted to construct a railroad, or to build or establish bridges or ferries, or operate any line of travel, shall hereafter continue to be or be construed to re- main exclusive " 1873 Compulsory Education law passed 1874 By act of legislature, 27 Mch. 1874, the Stevens battery, in construction since 1843, which had cost over $2,500,000, still unfinished, is sold to U. S. government for $145,000. .2 Nov, " Newark City Home reform school opened at Verona " People ratify 28 amendments to the constitution, proposed by the legislatures of 1874 and 1875 7 Sept. 1875 State insane asylum at Morristown opened Aug. 1876 Act passed creating a State Board of Health 1877 Soldiers' Children's home closed " Centennial anniversary of the capture of Princeton celebrated by a mock fight of Newark and Pennsylvania militia. 3 Jan. " Convention of colored men held at Princeton to consider the condition of their race, politically and socially 22 Aug. " Bureau of Labor and Statistics created by act of legislature. . . 1878 Liberal League of New Jersey, the outgrowth of the Citizens' Protective Association of Newark, in state convention at Newark, demand remodelling of the Sunday laws Sept. 1879 Thomas Alva Edison establishes a laboratory at Menio park, 1876; exhibits his newly-invented system of electric light- ing by incandescent carbon vacuum lamps Dec. " Public Normal school at Newark opened " St. Benedict's college at Newark, opened in 1868, chartered.. . . 1881 Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen appointed secretary of state under pres. Arthur '. 12 Dec. " Act passed to create a council of state charities and correction, to consist of 6 persons appointed by the governor — 28 Mch. 1883 Law enacted to abolish and prohibit the employment under contract of convicts and inmates of prisons, jails, peniten- tiaries, and all public reformatory institutions of the state. . 1884 New Jersey school for deaf-mutes at Chambersburg, near Tren- ton, opened 1885 Gen. George B. McClellan, b. 1826, d. at Orange 29 Oct. " State Board of Agriculture established 1887 NEW Acts of legislatur*' passed making Ijibor day, the first Monday in Septoinber, a legal holiday, and giving women the right to vote at schooUlistrict meetings New Jersey homo for the education and care of feeble-minded chiltlren oiwued Local option and high-licenso law, passed in 1888, is repealed, and a high-license law enacted Horatio Allen, the first locomotive engineer in the U. S., d. at Montrose, aged 88 1 Jan. Governor's salary raised to $10,000 per year by law 16 Jan Australian ballot law adopted at session ending 23 May, Strike of over 3000 em|)loy^8 in the Clark's thread mills at Newark and Kearney begins 10 Dec. Saturday half holiday established, and Rutgers scientific school awarded the funds granted by Congress in aid of colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts at session. . ..13 Jan. -20 Mch. Spinners' strike in the Clark's thread mills declared off. 18 Apr. Smokeless powder used for the first time in this country at Sandv Hook in an 8-inch rifled gun 25 July, Walt Whitman, poet, b. 1819, d. at Camden 26 Mch. U. S. practice cruiser Bancroft, the first war-ship built in the state, is launched at the yards of Samuel L. Moore & Sons Co. in Elizabeth 30 Apr. City of Faterson celebrates the 100th anniversary of its found- ing 4 July. Democrats and Republicans organize separate senates at Trenton— the governor recognizing the Democratic senate, 9 Jan. Republican senators force their way into the senate chamber, 10 Jan. Supreme court of New Jersey decides that the Republican sen- ate is lawful 21 Mch. Republican senate recognized as the legal senate 22 Mch. GOVERNORS. Peter Minuit, gov. of New Netherlands assumes office Wouter Van Twiller, " " .... William Keift, " *' .••• John Printz, gov. of New Sweden " .... Peter Stay vesant, gov. of New Netherlands. . " .... Philip Carteret, first Engl, governor.. " Edmund Andros, under duke of York " .... 566 NEW East Jersey. Philip Carteret 1676 Robert Barclay 1682 Thomas Rudyard, deputy. . " Gawen I^awrie, " . . 1683 Lord Neill Campbell, " .. 1686 Andrew Hamilton, " . . 1687 Edmund Andros 1688 John Tatham 1690 Col. Joseph Dudley 1691 Andrew Hamilton 1692 Jeremiah Basse 1698 Andrew Bowne, deputy 1699 Andrew Hamilton " West Jersey. Board of Commissioners. . . Edward Byllinge. . ; Samuel Jennings, deputy.. Thomas Olive, " .. John Skeine, " Daniel Coxe Edward Hunloke, deputy.. West Jersey Proprietors. . . Andrew Hamilton Jeremiah Basse Andrew Hamilton 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1894 1624 1633 1638 1642 1646 1664 1674 1676 1679 1685 1687 1690 1691 1692 1697 ROYAL GOVERNORS. Edward Hyde, lord Corubury assumes omco Lord Lovelace " Richard IngoUisby, lioutenant governor Robert Hunter William Burnett John Montgomery '' Lewis Morris, president of council " William Crosby " John Anderson, president of council " John Hamilton, president of council " Lewis Morris " John Hamilton, president " John Reading, president " Jonathan Belcher " John Reading, president " Francis Bernard " Thomas Boone " Josiah Hardy " William Franklin " STATE GOVERNORS. William Livingston ! .assumes office. William Patterson Richard Howell " Joseph Bloomfield " John Lambert, acting " Joseph Bloomfield " Aaron Ogden " William S. Pennington ♦' Mahlon Dickerson " Isaac H. Williamson " Peter D. Vroom " Samuel Lewis Southard " Elias P. Seeley " Peter D. Vroom " Philemon Dickerson " William Pennington " Daniel Haines " Charles C. Stratton " Daniel Haines " George F. Fort " Rodman M. Price " William A. Newall " Charles S. Olden " Joel Parker. " Marcus L. Ward " Theodore F. Randolph " Joel Parker " Joseph D. Bedle " George B. McClellan " George C. Ludlow " Leon Abbett " Robert S. Green " Leon Abbett " George T. Werts " I 170! 1708 1709 1710 1720 1728 1731 1733 173ff 1738 1748 1747 175T 1758 1760 1761 1763 177( 179( 1791 1801 1802 1803 1813 18ial 1811 181' 1821 183fl 1839 183a 183T 184» 1844 1848 1851 1854 1857 1860 1863 186ft 1869 1872 18T5 1878 1890 1893 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF NEW JERSEY. Name. No. of Congress. Date. Remarks. ■ Jonathan Elmer William Patterson Philemon Dickenson John Rutherford Frederick Frelinghuysen . .. Richard Stockton Franklin Davenport James Schureman Aaron Ogden Jonathan Dayton John Condit Aaron Kitchel John Lambert James J. Wilson Mahlon Dickerson Samuel L. Southard. Joseph Mcllvaine Ephraim Bateman Theodore Frelinghuysen Samuel L. Southard Garrett D. Wall William L. Dayton Jacob W. Miller Robert F. Stockton John R. Thomson William Wright John C. Ten Eyck Richard S. Field John W. Wall William Wright Frederick T. Frelinghuysen. John P. Stockton Alexander O. Cattell John P. Stockton Frederick T. Frelinghuysen. Theodore F. Randolph John R. McPherson William J. Sewell Rufus Blodgett James Smith, jr W. J. Sewell 2d 5th 4th 6th 6th 1st to 1st 1st to 2d " 3d 4th 5th 6th 6th to 8th 6th " 9th 15th 11th 14th 16th 23d 18th 19th 20th 23d 27th 27th 32d 33d 32d 33d to 37th 33d " 36th 36th 37th 38th to 39th 39th " 41st 39th 39th to 42d 41st " 44th 42d " 45th 44th •' 47th 45th " 54th 47 th " 50th 50th " 52d 53d •' 54th " 8th 9th 11th 14th 15th 16th 18th 19th 21st 23d 24th 27th 27th 1789 to 1791 1789 " 1790 1790 " 1791 1791 " 1798 1793 " 1796 1796 " 1799 1798 " 1799 1799 " 1801 1801 " 1803 1799 " 1805 1803 " 1817 1805 " 1809 1809 " 1815 1815 " 1821 1817 " 1833 1821 " 1823 1823 " 1826 1826 " 1829 1829 " 1833 1833 " 1842 1835 " 1842 1842 " 1851 1841 " 18,53 1851 " 18.53 1853 " 1862 1853 " 1859 1859 1863 to 1866 1866 " 1869 1865 " 1866 1866 " 1871 1869 " 1875 1871 " 1875 1875 " 1881 1877 " 1895 1881 " 1887 1888 " 1893 Resigned. Elected governor of New Jersey. Elected in place of Patterson. Resigned. Resigned. Elected in place of Frelinghuysen. Appointed in place of Rutherford. Resigned. Elected in place of Schureman. Resigned. Resigned. Elected in place of Wilson. Resigned. Elected in place of Southard. Died 1826. Elected in place of Mcllvaine. Resigned. /President pro tern. 11 Mch. 1841. Resigned May, 1842. \ June, 1842. Elected in place of Southard. Resigned. Died 1862. Died I Appointed pro attack on the Spanish settlements, but the plan is discovered ! and broken up by gov. Concha, who arrests and imprisons the ! leaders, hanging 9, and selling the others into slavery 1650 IFour Indians are hung and 43 whipped and enslaved on convic- j tion by a Spanish tribunal of bewitching the superior of the ' Franciscan monastery at San Yldefonso 1675 iPueblo Indians under Popg, reduced to abject slavery by the Spanish, rise in rebellion. Their plan of a general massacre ! on 10 Aug. 1680, being discovered, they begin 2 days earlier I a massacre of the Spanish, who are obliged to flee the country, : the Pueblos taking possession of Santa Fe 21 Aug. 1680 Mew Mexico reconquered by the Spanish under Diego de V'ar- i gas Zapata Lujan 1692 jSevere famine arising in the Spanish settlements, the Indians of 14 pueblos enter upon a desolating but unsuccessful war for the expulsion of the Spanish 1696 Albuquerque founded during the administration of the duke I of Albuquerque 1701-10 Lieut. -col Carrisco discovers the Santa Rita mines near Sil- i ver City 1800 Baptiste Lalande, a Frenchman from Kaskaskia, reaches Santa ! F€ with a stock of merchandise, which he disposes of at a I very large proflt 1804 James Pursley, a Kentuckian, leaves St. Louis in 1802, and after ■ 3 years' wandering reaches Santa Fe 1805 Ijieut. Zebulon M. Pike, of the U. S. army, builds a fort on the I Rio del Notre on Spanish soil, supposing it to be the Red I river and American possessions, during the month of Feb. i 1807. With his party he is taken to Santa Fe by a Spanish ■ escort, where they arrive 3 Mch. From there he is sent to j Chihuahua under escort, arriving 2 Apr. , and has an audience ', with the commanding general don Nemecio Salcedo. After some detention he is sent forward, reaching San Antonio, :^ Texas, 7 June, and Natchitoches 1 July, 1807 ;'apts. Glenn, Becknell, and Stephen Cooper visit Santa Fe with small parties and a limited quantity of goods for trade. . . 1821-22 I'irst wagon trains from Independence, Mo., to Santa Fe 1824 ifew Mexico made a territory of the republic of Mexico. 6 July, " 'anta F6 trail made an authorized road by act of Congress; the ! bill introduced by Thomas H. Benton, and passed Jan. 1825 aravans being often attacked by Indians, U. S. government details 4 companies as escort on the Santa F6 road.. 1828 Id Placer gold-mines discovered about 30 miles southwest of San ta F€ " ; xen first used on the Santa Fe trail 1830 I Spanish newspaper. El Crepusculo, pub. at Taos 1835 few Mexican constitution goes into effect, changing the terri- 1 tory into a department, centralizing power, and imposing ex- j tra taxes. The new system being obnoxious, the arrest and I imprisonment of a local judicial officer on what the people i considered a false charge, provokes a revolution, 1 Aug. 1837, NEW which is central at Santa Cruz, but which is soon quelled by gen. Manuel Armijo New Placer gold mines discovered Expedition under gen. McLeod sets out from Austin, Tex., 18 June, 1841, to ascertain the feeling of the New Mexican peo- ple with respect to aunion with Texas. When near San Mi- guel the force is met by Damacio Salazar and his Mexican troops, seized and imprisoned at San Miguel, from whence they are marched under guard to the city of Mexico. . 17 Oct. Pros. Santa Aiia, by decree, closes the frontier custom-house at Taos, 7 Aug. 1843, but repeals the act 31 Mch. Gen. Stephen W. Kearney, in command of a body of U. S. troops known as the "Army of the West," enters Santa Fe and takes formal possession 18 Aug. Gen. Kearney establishes a government for the territory of New Mexico, with Santa F€ as capital, proclaiming himself pro- visional governor 22 Aug. Fort Marcy established near Santa Fe 23 Aug. Gen. Kearney promulgates the " Kearney Code of Laws," and proclaims Charles Bent governor of the territory 22 Sept. Donaciano Vigil becomes acting governor in the room of gov. Charles Bent, who is assassinated at Taos 19 Jan. Revolt against the U. S. government in New Mexico, planned by dons Diego Archuleta and Tomas Ortiz, breaks out at Taos, but is suppressed by American troops under col. Sterling Price, and gov. Montoya, prominent in the rebellion, is tried by court-martial and executed 7 Feb. 6 others, convicted of participating in the murder of gov. Bent, are executed, 3 Aug. Santa Fe Republican, the first newspaper printed in English, begins its career By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, concluded 2 Feb. 1848, and proclaimed in Santa F6 in Aug. following, New Mexico becomes a part of the U. S Aug. People of New Mexico, in convention at Santa F6, petition Congress for a territorial government, oppose the dismem- berment of their territory in favor of Texas, and ask protec- tion of Congress against the introduction of slavery. .14 Oct. By proclamation of gov. Munroe, in Apr. 1850, a convention assembles at Santa F6 15 May, and frames a constitution for the territory of New Mexico, 25 May, prohibiting slavery and fixing the east and west boundaries at 100° and 111°. This constitution was ratified by the people 20 June, by a vote of 8371 for to 39 against, and Henry Connelly was elect- ed governor, but the movement was not recognized Act of Congress establishing a territorial government for New Mexico approved 9 Sept. First legislative assembly convenes at Santa F6, and declares it the capital of the territory 2 June, Santa F^ incorporated as a city Gov. James S. Calhoun dies while on his way to the states, and John Greiner becomes acting governor .30 June, Academy of Our Lady of Light, in charge of the sisters of Loretto, organized at Santa Fe Christopher or '' Kit" Carson appointed Indian agent in New Mexico Territory acquired from Mexico under the Gadsden purchase is incorporated with the territory of New Mexico 4 Aug. School law passed requiring compulsory attendance, and the appointment of teachers by the justice of the peace in each precinct, who is entitled to collect the sum of 50 cents per month for each child attending 23 Jan. Maj. Isaac Lynde, U. S. A., in command at fort Fillmore, sur- renders the fort and his entire command of 700 to lieut.- col. John R. Baylor, confederate 27 July, Confederates under gen. H. F. Sibley defeat the federals under col. Canby at Valverde, 10 miles below fort Craig 21 Feb. Battle at Apache canon, near Santa Fe; col. Slough defeats the confederates under col. Scurry 28 Mch. Santa F6, in possession of the confederates since 11 Mch. 1862, is recovered by the federals 21 Apr. Territory of Arizona formed from part of New Mexico, 24 Feb. Gov. Connelly dies ; W. F. M. Arny acting governor. Portion of New Mexico above 37°"attached to Colorado By act of Congress peonage is abolished and forever prohibit- ed in the territory of New Mexico 2 Mch. Governor in his message announces telegraphic communica- tion with the North Archives of New Mexico, partly destroyed in 1680, are further depleted under the rule of gov. Pile, when they are sold for waste paper and only about one quarter of them recovered.. Legislature provides for common schools, under a board of supervisors and directors elected by each county Serious election riot at La Mesilla 2 Sept. Gov. Mar.sh Giddings dies, and is succeeded by William G. Ritch as acting-governor 3 Jan. Ute Indians removed from New Mexico to the Colorado reser- vation Apr. -July, Locomotive on the new Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe rail- road reaches Las Vegas 4 July, New Mexico Historical Society, organized in 1859-60, is reor- ganized Bureau of Immigration established by act of legislature University of New Mexico at Santa F€ chartered and opened. . Public-school law passed creating the office of county superin- tendent, and providing for the election by the people of 3 commissioners for each precinct Act of assembly passed establishing an orphans' home and industrial school at Santa F€ Destructive raids in the southwestern portion of the territory by Apache Indians from Arizona May. June, and Oct. Territorial prison at Santa FtS completed and opened 1837 1839 1841 1844 1846 1847 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1860 1861 1862 1863 1865 186T 1868 1870 1871 1875 1878 1879 1880 1881 1884 1889 1890 1892 NEW New Mexico school for the douf ami dumb at Santa F^ opened, Ramona Indian school for girls located at Santa V6 New capitol building completed at Santa FtS, under act of 28 Mch. 1884, creating a capitol building committee Legislature passes over the governor's veto an act abolishing the office of attorney-genenil and substituting that of solici- tor general 16 f'eb. Acts of the legislature passed creating a state university at Albuquerque, an agricultural college at lias Cruces, and a school of mines at Socorro Insane asylum at Ias Vegas created by act of legislature Territorial Board of Health provided for by act of legislature. . Constitutional convention meets at Santa F6 3 Sept., adopts a constitution for the proposed state of New Mexico, and ap- points a committee to present it to Congress 21 Sept. Agricultunil college at I^s Cruces opened 21 Jan. Constitution, amended by a convention which reconvened at Santa V6 18 Aug., is rejected by the people by 16,180 votes (br and 7943 against, at an election held 7 Oct Ballot-box in Santa V6 county disappears mysteriously, and the commissioners of Santa F6 refuse to canvass the vote in that precinct, while Democratic commissioners in Taos county throw out returns favoring Republicans. After liti- gation before justice Seeds of the District court, in Dec. sec. Bei^jamin .M. Thomas, acting-governor, swears in the Repub- lican candidates in both precincts Dec. Second Friday in Mch. designated as Arbor day, a territorial Boiird of Education created, and a high-license bill passed by the legislature, at session 29 Dec. 1890-26 Feb. Ex-gov. Samuel B. Axtell d. at Morristown, N. J., aged 72, 6 Aug. Forest preserve in New Mexico set apart by proclamation of pre& Harrison H Ja°- Territorial capitol building at Santa F€ burned 12 May, " GOVERNORS. [A list of the governors ruling in New Mexico previous to 1846, with notes, may be found in " Historical Sketches of New Mexico," by L. Bradford Prince. A list of names only, in "The Annual Statistician and Economist," L. P. McCarty, 1889, and elsewhere.] U. S. MILITARY GOVERNORS. Gen. Stephen W. Kearney assumes office 22 Aug. Charles Bent appointed 22 Sept. Donaciano Vigil acting 19 Jan. Lieut. -col. J. M. Washington appointed Maj. John Munroe " TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS. James S. Calhoun assumes office 3 Mch. Col. E. V. Sumner. acting John Greiner. " William Carr I,ane appointed William S. Messervy acting 4 months David Meriwether. appointed W. H. H. Davis acting Abraham Rencher appointed Henry Connelly " W. F. M. Amy acting Robert B. Mitchell appointed William A. Pile " Marsh Giddings " William 6. Ritch acting Samuel B. Axtell appointed Lewis Wallace ... " Lionel A. Sheldon " Edmund G. Ross " L. Bradford Prince " William T. Thornton " 558 NEW 1846 1847 1848 1849 1851 1852 1853 1857 1861 1865 1866 1869 1871 1875 1878 1881 1885 New^ Netlierland. New York, 1614. ^ew Orleans. The site of New Orleans, "the Crescent City," was selected by M. de Bienville, governor of Louisiana, as a location for the chief city of the colony in 1718, and settled by a detachment of 25 convicts, as many carpenters, and some settlers from the Illinois country. The seat of government was established there in Aug. 1722, at which time the population numbered 300, and the town con- sisted of about 100 houses. New Orleans came under American rule 20 Dec. 1803, after the cession of Louisiana to the United States by France, and at this time had a population, including the suburbs, of about 10,000. In 1820 the pop. was 27,176, and bv decades since: 1830, 29,737; 1840, 102,193; 1850, 116,37.5; 1860, 168,675; 1870, 191,418; 1880,216,090; 1890, 242,039. Area (U. S. census, 1890), 37.09 sq. miles. Lat. 30° N., Ion. 90^ 5' W. Bienville sends sieur Le Blond de la Tour to the settlement, who surveys the town, marks ofl' streets, and builds a levee along the river front 1718-20 Seat of government of Louisiana removed to New Orleans, Aug. 1722 Storm destroys 30 houses, the church, and hospital 11 Sept. " Arrival of the Ursnline nuns 1727 Arrival of the " fiUes a la cassette " or casket girls, sent from France in care of the Ursulines, to be disposed of in marriage under their discretion 1727-28 Ursuline convent erected on square bounded by the river and Chartres st., below Ursuline st. (occupied by them for 94 years) , I7i Charity hospital founded by a sailor, Jean Louis 1' First sugar-cane grown in Louisiana introduced from St. Do- mingo, and planted by the Jesuits in the angle of Common and Tchbupiloulas sis 175| First sugar mill erected by .M. Debrcuil on his plantation, now part of the 3d district (adjoining the 2d on the river) 17| Spain takes formal possession of Louisiana 171 [From this time until 1800 New Orleans remained subject to the Spanish government. Louisia.na.] A cabildo established, composed of 6 perpetual rigidors, 2 or- dinary alcaldes, an attorney-general syndic, and clerk, 21 Nov.] Special revenue assigned to the city of New Orleans:- an annn tax of $40 on every tavern, billiard table, and coffee-hou and $20 on every boarding house; an impost of $1 on evei barrel of brandy brought to the city, and a tax of $375 on thl butchers of the place ; an anchorage tax of $6 on every vessel of over 200 tons and $3 on smaller 22 Feb. 1 John James Audubon b. at New Orleans 4 May. 171 Charity hospital of St. Charles, a brick structure erected by don Andres Almonaster y Roxas at a cost of $114,000 on west side of Rampart, between Toulouse and St. Peter sts., on site of the charity hospital founded by Jean Louis and destroyed by a hurricane in 1779 1784-8*" Fire breaks out in the rear of the government buildings and destroys 856 buildings, nearly half the town 21 Mch. 178t St. Louis cathedral, begun 1792, completed 171 Le Moniteur de la Louisiane, the first newspaper, published entirely in French, established ' Second great fire destroys in 3 hours 212 houses 8 Dec. ' Police department established, 1792, and 4 years after there were 13 night-watchmen in the town and 80 street lamps in operation 171 Carondelet canal, begun 1794, completed «• Salcedo, in the hall of the cabildo, delivers to Laussat, the French colonial prefect, the keys of New Orleans 30 Nov. I81 Municipal government, composed of a mayor and council, es- tablished in place of the cabildo by Laussat ' Laussat gives over the keys of the city to commissioners Clai- borne and gen. Wilkinson of the U. S 20 Dec. ' Incorporated as a city under American charter with mayor, recorder, treasurer, and council of 14 aldermen 17 Feb. 1805 Aaron Burr arrives in New Orleans 26 June, " Batture riots; second and most serious outbreak occurring, 15 Sept. 1807 Christ's church, a small octagonal structure, erected on cor. Bourbon and Canal sts 1809 First vessel propelled by steam, the Orleans from Pittsburg, arrives at New Orleans 10 Jan. 1812 New Orleans college built and put into operation at cor. Bayou road and St. Claude st " Gen. Jackson arrives at New Orleans (Louisiana) 2 Dec. 1814 Battle of New Orleans fought (United States) 8 Jan. 1815 Portion of city flooded to the aepth of 3 to 4 feet, the flood continuing nearly a month; cause, the breaking of the Macarty levee 6 May, 1816 First cobble-stone pavement laid on Gravier st. , between Tchou- pitoulas and Magazine sts 1817 One central and 2 primary schools established by legislative act Mch. 1826 Seat of government removed to Donaldsonville 1829 Parish prison on Orleans St., near Congo square, built at a cost ' of $200,000 1830 New Orleans again made the seat of government 8 Jan. 1831 Cholera destroys 3^ of the entire population, about 6000 deaths occurring in 20 days; it makes its appearance about 25 Oct. 1832 Bank's Arcade, "a glass roofed mercantile court in the midst of the St. James's Hotel in Magazine St.," built 1833 First water-works company chartered under the name of the Commercial Bank " Charity hospital in Common st. erected at a cost of $150,000, 1832-34 State-house, formerly the Ursuline nunnery, occupied as the seat of the archbishop of Louisiana 1834 Streets lighted with gas " Jackson barracks built 1834-35 St. Charles theatre built at a cost of $350,000 1835 Branch U. S. mint of New Orleans founded " New charter dividing the city into 3 distinct municipalities: the old town, the Faubourg Ste. Marie, and the Faubourg Marigny, with a mayor and general council over the whole city. 1836 Mississippi river water furnished through mains under the principal streets " Merchants' Exchange on Royal St., below Canal, completed... " New Orleans Picayune, daily, established 1837 First St. Charles hotel, called the Exchange hotel, begun 1835, completed at a cost ot $600,000 1838 State library of Louisiana founded " Modern system of free public schools established in the city of Lafayette 1841 Boys' House of Refuge opened 1843 Library of the New Orleans l^aw Association founded 1844 Public school and Lyceum library founded " Over 2800 deaths from yellow-fever during summer and fall of 1847 Large portion of the city overflowed by the breaking of the levee in front of Sauve's plantation above New Orleans, 3 May, 1849 ; 200 squares under water to a depth of from 4 to 6 i feet; flood at its highest point 30 May, 1849 Seat of government removed to Baton Rouge 1850 : NEW 559 St. Charles hotel burned (restored 1852-53) 16 Feb. 1850 Telegraphic line to St. Louis completed " First granite block pavement laid " Three municipalities, together with the city of Lafayette, con- solidated by a new charter 12 Apr. 1852 Yellow-fever breaks out in June; reaches its maximum 22 Aug., on which day over 283 deaths were reported. The total interments in the cemeteries between 1 June and 1 Oct. were 11,000 1853 Bronze equestrian statue of gen. Jackson erected in the Place d'Armes, now Jackson square 1855 Banks suspend specie payment 18 Sept. 1861 New Orleans surrendered to flag-officer Farragut, 26 Apr., and formal possession taken by land forces under gen. Butler (Louisiana) 1 May, 1862 Times- Democrat established 1863 Negro political riot; many negroes killed and wounded, 30 July, 1866 Water- works purchased by the city 1869 New charter, adopting the administrative system, and annexa- tion of Jefferson City 1870 Straight university, chartered 1869, opened " Exposition park, 250 acres, purchased by a commission ap- pointed 1871 New Orleans university chartered and opened 1873 City of Carrolton annexed 1874 New Orleans City Item established 1877 City disposes of its water-works system to a private corpora- tion—the New Orleans Water-works company 10 Apr.. " Tellow-fever epidemic; about 4500 deaths; first case reported, 23 May, 1878 Auxiliary Sanitary Association of New Orleans organized, 31 Mch. 1879 The States established 1880 Seat of government, which had been in New Orleans since the civil war, again removed to Baton Rouge " Southern university chartered and opened " New Orleans Drainage and Sewerage company, organized 17 Mch. 1880, and ordinance adopted by council providing for a contract with the company for drainage of the city. .12 Apr. 1881 Southern Academic institute opened " New city charter adopted by the legislature June, 1882 Tulane University of Louisiana chartered and opened 1884 World's Industrial Cotton Exposition opened by pres. Arthur getting the machinery in motion by telegraph from Washing- ton, 16 Dec. 1884; continues until 31 May, 1885 New Orleans Normal school established '' New Orleans public school for deaf-mutes opened 1886 Evening News established 1889 New Orleans New Delta established 1890 David C. Hennessy, chief of police, shot by Italians, supposed to be Maffia, near his home 15 Oct. " Eleven Italians, implicated in the killing of chief Hennessy, are massacred in the parish prison (United States) 14 Mch. 1891 Gen. Beauregard d. aged 75 years 20 Feb. 1893 St. Charles hotel burned ; loss $500,000 28 Apr. 1894 U. S. court of appeals at New Orleans decided that the city is not liable for damages for the death of the Sicilians (Maffia) killed Mch. 1891 30 May, " NEW MAYORS. 1 Joseph Mather 1807-12 1 Nicolas Girod 1812-15 Augustin Macarty 1815-20 Joseph Rouffignac 1820-28 Denis Prieur 1828-40 William Freret 1840-43 ; Denis Prieur 1843-44 ! Edgar Montegut 1844-46 A. D. Crossman 1846-54 John Lewis 1854-56 ; Charles M. Waterman. . . 1856-58 i.Gerard Stith 1858-60 'John T. Monroe 1860-62 Twelve mayors by U. S. military appointment. 1862-66 JohnT Monroe 1866-68 John R. Conway 1868-70 Benjamin F. Flanders.. . 1870-72 Louis Alfred Wiltz 1872-74 Charles J. Leeds 1874-76 Edward Pilsbury 1876-78 Isaac W. Patton 1878-80 Joseph A. Shakspeare. . . 1880-82 W. J. Behan 1882-84 J. V. Guillotte 1884-88 Joseph A. Shakspeare. . . 1888-92 John Fitzpatrick 1892-96 i Newport, R. I., a celebrated watering-place. Rhode jIsLAND, 1639, and throughout. Here bishop Berkeley, and •Smybert, the earliest professional portrait-painter in Anoerica, 'resided for a while. It is near the entrance of Narragausett bay, and was the scene of many stirring events during the American Revolution, being occupied alternately by British and American troops. French, under Rocharabeaii, also lauded in 1780. IVew Rugby, Tenn., a colony of British farmers and others, fomided on English principles by Thomas Hughes, formerly M.P., author of "Tom Brown's School-daj-s," etc.; inaugurated 5 Oct. 1880. news-letters. Newspapers. Ne W^ Soiltll Wales, the principal and oldest colony >f Australia, on the eastern coast of New Holland, was ex- jlored, taken pos.session of, and named by capt. Cook in 1770. At his recommendation a convict colony was tirst formed here. ^^apt. A. Phillip, first governor, arrived at Botany bay with 800 convicts, 20 Jan. 1788; but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about 7 miles from the head of Port Jackson, as a better situ- ation for the capital. A new constitution was granted in 1855 (18 and 19 Vict. c. 54). Area, 310,700 sq. miles; pop. 1891, 1,134,207. newspapers. Before the invention of printing, news was circulated by manuscript news-letters, the earliest of which was the Acta Diurna, said to have been issued at Rome 691 b.c. As late as 1703 John Campbell published his news-letter in Boston, Mass., and 9 or more numbers are in the collection of the Massachusetts Historical society. The era of newspapers, printed from metal type with printing ink, began with the publication of the Gazette at Nuremburg, Ba- varia, in 1467. (Those marked with * in existence in 1892.) Magazines. Chronicle printed at Cologne by Ulric Zell 1499 Gazetta printed in Venice 1570 * Die Frankfurter Oberpostamts Zeitung, called the first daily paper in the world, appeared in Frankfort, Germany 1615 Nathaniel Butters publishes 1 or 2 numbers of The Courant, or Weekly Newesfrom Forain Partes, sold in London streets by "mercury women" and "hawkers" 9 Oct. 1621 First known issue of the Weekly Newes, published at London by Nicholas Bourne and Thomas Archer 23 May, 1622 * Gazette de France established at Paris 1631 * Postoch Inrikes Tidning established at Stockholm, Sweden. . 1644 First newspaper advertisement (a reward offered for 2 stolen horses), in the London Impartial Intelligencer Mch. 1648 Mercurius Politicus issued in Leith, Scotland t Oct. 1653 * Oxford Gazette, first official organ of the court, afterwards the London Gazette, the only authorized newspaper, con- tained little more than proclamations and advertisements, established Nov. 1665 First Irish newspaper, Dublin News-letter, established by Joseph Ray 1685 [News writers at this time collected from the coffee-houses information which was printed weekly and sent into the country and called news letters.] Pile's Occurrences published in Dublin, Ireland 1700 Daily Courant, first daily newspaper in English, published by Elizabeth Mallet, in London Mch. 1702 St. Petersburg Gazette published in Russia 1703 * Edinburgh Courant established 1705 Orange Postman, father of the penny press, established in England 1706 To prevent abuse of liberty of the press, queen Anne imposes a tax on newspapers ; June, 1712 Journal de Paris, ou Paste au Soir, first daily paper in Paris, established , 1777 * The Times (daily) established in London 1 Jan. 1788 * Allgemeine Zeitung established at Leipsic 1798 First newspaper in Turkey, The Spectator of the East, issued at Smyrna by M. Blecque 1827 * London Evening Standard established " * Spectator (weekly) established at London 1828 * Athenaeum (literary and scientific weekly) established in London " La Caricature, a comic French paper established by Charles Philopon July. 1830 Copies of The English Mercuric (1588) in the British museum are proved to be forgeries (executed about 1766) by T. Watts, 1839 * Punch (comic weekly) established at London 1841 * Illustrated London News (weekly) established 1842 * London Daily News established 21 Jan. 1846 Reuter's Telegram company founded in London 1849 * Notes and Queries (literary and antiquarian weekly) estab- lished in London " Stamp duty on newspapers in England abolished 15 June, 1855 * Saturday Review (literary weekly) established at London. . . •• * London Daily Telegraph established June, ■' * London Morning Standard (daily) established 29 June, 1857 * Pall Mall Gazette established in London 1865 London Press association founded 1868 * Academy (literary weekly) established in London 1869 Number of newspapers in the United Kingdom in 1891 was 2233, of which 183 were daily, published as follows: Total. Daily ....142 t.„ , A (London 470) England., p^^^j^^^g ^293 Wales 90. Scotland 201. Ireland 157 . Isles 22. new^spapers in the United States. The increase of newspaper literature in the U. S. is marvellous. In 1783 there were but 43 newspapers ; in 1801 there were 200 weekly and 17 daily journals. In 1830, with a population of 23,500,000, 852 newspapers were published (50 dailies), issuing 68,117,796 cop- ies yearly; in 1840,1631 newspapers, with 195,838,673 copies yearly ; in 1850, 2526 newspapers with 426,409,978 copies year- ly ; in 1860, 4051 newspapers, with an annual issue of 928,000,000 copies, being an increase of 118 per cent, in 10 years. In 1870 there were 5871 newspapers, with a circulation of 20,842,475 cop- ies. In 1880 there were 980 daily, 8718 weeklv, and 1075 other NEW newspapers and periodicals. The circulation of daily news- papers was 3,637,424 ; that of weekly newspapers, 19,459,107 copies. The number of copies printed in 1880 was 2,077,- «;59,675. (Those marked with * in existence in 1894.) Kirst and only issue of I^ublic Occurrences botli Foreign and Domestick, a proposed monthly at Bostou, Mass '25 Sept. 1690 Newspaper reporting begun by tlio Huston News-Letter ; re- port of execution of C pirates published, with prayer, etc., "as near as it could be taken in writing in the great crowd " 30 June, 1704 John Peter Zenger, editor of the New York Weekly Journal, arrested; tirst prosecution for newspaper libel on this conti- nent.... 17 Nov. 1734 "Carriers' addresses" originated by William Bradford of the fennsylvania Journal 1 Jan. 1776 560 NEW Estab'd Universal Instructor in all the Arts and Sciences, and PtMin sylvania Gazette, Philadelphia, Ucnjainin Frauiclin. Called Pennsylvania Gazette after 28 Sept. 17'29 172j Weekly Rehearsal, Boston, Jeremy Gridley; became Bo.stou Kvening Post, '21 Aug. 1735; suspended 1775 '27 Sept. 173] South Carolina (iazette, Charleston, Thomas Whitoinarsh, 8 Jan Khode Island Gazette, Newport, James Franklin. First in state; 1'2 numbers published 27 Sept. 173! New York Weekly Journal, John Peter Zenger; suspended 1752. 5 Nov. 1731 Boston Weekly Post- Boy, Kills Huske 17* Virginia Gazette, Williamsburg, William Parks (first in state), Aug. 173( Pennsylvania .lournal and Weekly Advertiser, Philadelphia, William Bradford 174 New York Evening Post, Henry de Forrest (ran one year) 174< Independent Advertiser, Boston, Samuel Adams 4 .Ian. 1741 Isaiah l-homas, editor or Massachmetts Spy, advertises to pay , ^ew York Mercury, Hugh Gaine (called Gaine's New York (Ja 10 shilhngs per pound for paper rags.. ........... .^.16 Nov. 1780 ^^^^^ ^^^ Mercury after 1767).. 3 Aug. 1 First daily newspaper in the U. S., The American Daily Ad vertiser, issued in Philadelphia 1784 Satioiuil Intelligencer and Washington Advertiser, organ of the administration of Thomas Jefferson, established by Samuel Harrison Smith 1801 Enos Bronson, editor of the United States Gazette of Philadel- phia, gives first full market-reports of prices current 1806 yiles's Weekly Register established in Baltimore by Hezekiah Niles 7 Sept, 1811 Nathan Hale, first to make editorial articles prominent, as- sumes editorship of the Boston Daily Advertiser 7 Apr. 1814 lioston Recorder, first religious newspaper in the U. S., pub- lished by Nathaniel Willis, Edward Morse, editor 3 Jan. 1816 * American Farmer, pioneer agricultural paper in the U. S., established at Baltimore, Md., by John S. Skinner 2 Apr. 1818 First Sunday newspaper in the U. S., the Sunday Courier, es- tablished by Joseph C. Melcher in New York 1825 United States Telegraph becomes organ of gen. Jackson's ad- ministration at his accession 4 Mch. 1829 First regular news-boat, to intercept packet ships for foreign intelligence, instituted by the New York Journal of Com- merce 1830 United Stales Telegraph succeeded by the Globe as official organ of the administration Dec. " Garrison's Liberator (anti-slavery) founded at Boston Jan. 1831 *Spirit of the Times, first weekly sporting paper in the U. S., established in New York by William T. Porter " New York Journal of Commerce establishes a pony express from Philadelphia to New York.. 1833 *Sun begun as a one-cent paper in New York, by Benjamin H. Day 3 Sept. " " Moon Hoax," by Richard Adams Locke, in New York Sun. . 1835 Shorthand reporters first employed on daily press in the U. S 1837 First report of religious anniversary meetings in New York Herald (disapproved by the clergy) 1839 First reported sermons in New York Herald (Tuesday's) 1844 Washington Union, edited by Thomas Ritchie and John P. Heiss, succeeds Globe, organ of Polk administration. .1 May, 1845 New York Associated Press organized 1849 " Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. Stowe, appears as a serial in the Washington National Era, an organ of abolitionists 1851-52 "Blanket-sheets" in vogue; the New York Journal of Com- merce, enlarged to 35x58% inches, announces itself "the largest daily paper in the world" 1 Mch. 1853 Origin of " interviewing" ; New York Herald sends special reporter to Peterborough to interview Gerrit Smith on the John Brown raid 1859 Newspapers first stereotyped by the paper process " James Gordon Bennett, founder and proprietor of the New York Herald, d. aged 77 1 June, 1872 Horace Greeley, founder of New York Tribune, d 29 Nov. " NUMBKR OF NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS PUBLI8HKD IN THE UNITED STATES AND BRITISH AMERICA IN 1894; Daily , Semi -weekly. Weekly Bi weekly Tri weekly Semi-monthly Monthly Bi-monthly Quarterly Total. 1,841 242 14,000 87 34 352 3,155 77 221 20,009 106 20 613 4 2 22 139 1 7 Total. 1,950 264 14,616 91 36 374 3,297 78 228 914 11 20,934 NEWSPAPERS IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1700 TO 1800. Papers marked with * still published (1894). Hshed Boston News-Letter, John Campbell, publisher 24 Apr. 1709 Boston Gazette, William Brooker 21 Dec. 1714 American Weekly Mercury, Philadelphia, Andrew S. Bradford, 22 Dec. " New England Courant, Boston, James Franklin 7 Aug. 1721 New York Gazette, William Bradford Oct. 1725 New England Weekly Journal, Boston, Samuel Kneeland, 20 Mch. 1727 Maryland Gazette, Annapolis, William Parks. First in the state; suspended 1736; revived 1745; suspended 1839 " Boston Gazette or Weekly Advertiser, Samuel Kneeland; sus- pended Mch. 1755 -A Jan. 178 Connecticut Gazette, New Haven, James Parker and John Holt, 1 Jan. 175 Boston Gazette and Country Gentleman, Edes & Gill ; sus- pended 1798 7 Apr. North Carolina Gazette, Newbern Dec. * New Hampshire Gazette, Portsmouth, Daniel Fowle. Oldest paper in the U. S. Daily established 1852; weekly 7 Oct. 17S Boston Weekly Advertiser, Green & Russell 22 Aug. 178 South Carolina and American General Gazette, Charleston, Rob- ert Wells 175 * Newport Mercury, Rhode Island, James Franklin 12 June, New London Summary, New London, Conn., Timothy Green; suspended in 1763 8 Aug. New York Gazette, William Weyman 16 Feb. 175 Wilmington Courant, Delaware, James Adams. Published for 6 mouths and the only paper in the state 17i Providence Gazette and Country Journal, Rhode Island 17i Rivington's Royal Gazette, New York, James Rivington. Changed to Rivington's New York Gazette and Universal Advertiser at close of the Revolution, and suspended in 1781 " Georgia Gazette, Savannah, James Johnston. Ran for 27 years, 17 Apr. 17i New London Gazette. Name changed to Connecticut Gazette in 1773. . . ". 1st Nov. ' Cape Fear Gazette and Wilmington Advertiser, Wilmington, ' N. C. , Andrew Stewart ; suspended in 1767 " * Connecticut Courant, Hartford, Thomas Green. First regular issue, 19 Nov. 1764 29 Oct. 1764 Portsmouth (N. H.), Mercury and Weekly Advertiser, Ezekiel Russell; suspended in 1768 17615 Gazette and Country Journal, Charleston, S. C, Charles Crouch, " Constitutional Courant, Burlington, N. J., "Andrew Marvel" (William Goddard), publisher 21 Sept. " Virginia Gazette, Williamsburg, William Rind May, 1766 New York Journal or General Advertiser, John Holt.. 29 May, 1767 ♦Connecticut Journal and New Haven Post-Boy, Thomas and Samuel Green; now the Connecticut Herald and Journal. Oct. " Boston Chronicle, Mein & Fleming 21 Dec. " Pennsylvania Chronicle and Universal Advertiser, Philadelphia, William Goddard " * Essex Gazette, Salem, Mass., Samuel Hall. Name changed to Salem Gazette in 1781 5 Aug. 1768 Cape Fear Mercury, Wilmington, N. C, Adam Boyd 13 Oct 1769 * Massachusetts Spy, Isaiah Thomas & Zechariah Fowle, pub- lishers, Boston, Mass. Removed to Worcester in 1775. Name changed to Thomas's Massachusetts Spy or Worcester Ga- zette in 1781; now styled. The Worcester Spy July, 1770 Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser, William Goddard, Aug. 1773 Norwich (Conn.) Packet Oct. " Essex Journal and Merrimack Packet, or the Massachusetts and New Hampshire General Advertiser, Newburyport, 4 Dec. " Independent Chronicle and Universal Advertiser, Boston, Powers & Willis. United with Boston Patriot in 1819, and absorbed by Daily Advertiser, 1832 1776 New York Packet and American Advertiser, Samuel Loudon, Jan. " Continental Journal and Weekly Advertiser, Boston, John Gill, 30 May, " New Jersey Gazette, Isaac Collins. First regular newspaper issued in the state 3 Dec. 1777 New Jersey Journal, Chatham, N. J., David Franks 1778 Independent Ledger and American Advertiser, Boston, Draper & Folsom -. .. 15 June, " American Herald, Boston, Edward E. Powars 1781 Vermont Gazette or Green Mountain Post-Boy, Westminster, Judah Paddock Spooner & Timothy Green " Massachusetts Centinel and the Republican Journal (semi- weekly). Warden & Russell. Changed to Columbian Cen- tinel, 16 June, 1790, and absorbed by Boston Daily Adver- tiser in 1840 .'.24 Mch. 1784 American Daily Advertiser, Philadelphia, Benjamin Franklin Bache. The first American daily. Changed to I'oulson's Advertiser in 1802, and absorbed by the North American, first issued .28 Oct. 1839 " Falmouth Gazette and Weekly Advertiser (Me.), Thomas B. Wait and Benjamin Titcomb. Called Cumberland Gazette in 1786 1 Jan. 1785 New York Daily Advertiser, Francis Childs & Co 1 Mch. " NEW 561 NEW * Pittsburg (Pa.) Gazette. First newspaper printed west of the Alleghany mountains 29 July, 1785 * Hampshire Gazette, Northampton, Mass., William Butler, 6 Sept. " Independent Journal, New York, J. & A. M'Leau. Changed to New York Gazette in 1788, and absorbed by the Journal of Commerce in 1840 1787 Herald of Freedom and Federal Advertiser, Boston, Freeman & Andrews 15 Sept. 1788 United States Gazette, New York, John Fenno. Removed to Philadelphia in 1790. Special organ of Alexander Hamilton. Absorbed by North American, 1847 1789 National Gazette, Philadelphia, Philip Freneau; suspended in 1793 Oct. 1791 * Impartial Intelligencer, Greenfield, Mass., Thomas Dickman. Changed to Greenfield Gazette the same year. United with Courier in 184 L as Gazette and Courier 1 Feb. 1792 State Gazette, Trenton, N. J " Massachusetts Mercury (tri-weekly), Boston. Alexander Young & Samuel Etheridge. New England Palladium added to the title in 1801. Absorbed by the Advertiser about 1830. .1 Jan. 1793 * Rutland (Vt.) Herald " * Centiuel of the Northwestern Territory, now the Cincinnati Gazette; first newspaper and first printing-office north of the Ohio; established by William Maxwell 9 Nov. " * Minerva, New York, Noah Webster, editor. Name changed to Commercial Advertiser in 1794. Oldest daily in New York city 9 Dec. " * Utica (N. Y.) Gazette; combined with the Herald, established 1847 as Morning Herald and Gazette " * Newburyport (Mass. ) Herald (daily established 1832) '• * Sciota Gazette, Chillicothe, 0., Nathaniel Willis 1796 Western Spy and Hamilton Gazette; changed to Natioi>al Re- publican and Ohio Political Register in 1823 1799 SELKCTKD LIST OF DAILY NEWSPAPERS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1894, wrru A CIRCULATION OF 8000 AND UPWARDS. Estftb- Name. Where published. lished. North American Philadelphia, Pa 1771 American Baltimore, Md 1773 Commercial Gazette Pittsburg, Pa 1786 Evening Post New York 1801 News and Courier Charleston, S. C. 1803 Commercial Buftalo, N. Y 1811 Advertiser Boston, Mass 1813 Commercial Gazette Cincinnati, 1827 Advertiser Montgomery, Ala 1828 Courier Buffalo, N. Y " Courrier des Etats-Unis New York " Inquirer Philadelphia, Pa 1829 Evening Journal Albany, N. Y 1830 Post Boston, Mass 1831 Sun New York 1833 New Yorker Staats-Zeituug. New York 1834 Herald New York 1835 Free Press Detroit, Mich " Republic St. Louis, Mo " ' Public Ledger Philadelphia, Pa 1836 I Sun Baltimore, Md 1837 ! Picayune New Orleans, La " 1 Hawk-Eve Burlington, la 1839 1 Times . .' Hartford, Conn 1841 ! Tribune New York " ' Enquirer Cincinnati, 1842 Plain Dealer Cleveland, " ; Republican Springfield, Mass 1844 ; Sentinel Milwaukee, Wis " • Herald Boston, Mass 1846 ! Tribune Chicago, 111 " ( Express Buffalo, N. Y " I Dispatch Pittsburg, Pa " 1 Blade Toledo, 1847 Evening Item Philadelphia, Pa " i Dispatch Richmond, Va 1850 ; Times New York 1851 ; Globe-Democrat St. Louis, Mo. , 1852 • Evening Star Washington, D. C " (Times Chicago, III 1854 ! Pioneer Press St. Paul, Minn 1855 Morning Call San Francisco, Cal 1856 Press Philadelphia, Pa 1857 Rocky Mountain News Denver, Col 1859 World New York 1860 , Morning Oregoniau Portland, Or 1861 I Evening Bulletin Providence, R. 1 1863 [ Commercial Louisville, Ky " I Times- Democrat New Orleans, La " ! Chronicle San Francisco, Cal 1865 1 Examiner San Francisco, Cal " ; Republican Denver. Col 1866 {Tribune Minneapolis, Minn 1867 I News New York " I Courier Journal Louisville, Ky 1868 {Constitution AtlauU, Ga " I >fews Indianapolis, Ind 1869 [Record Philadelphia, Pa 1870 jBee ; Omaha, Neb 1871 i^^'obe Boston, Mass 1872 Inter-Ocean Chicago. Ill " Kvening News Buffalo, N. Y 1873 Name. Where published. Eatab'd. News Chicago, 111 1875 Times Philadelphia, Pa " Call Philadelphia, Pa '• Times Louisville, Ky 1877 Journal Minneapolis, Minn 1878 Press Cleveland, O " News New Haven, Conn 1879 Capital Topeka, Kan " Star Kansas City, Mo 1880 Chronicle St. Louis, Mo " Post Cincinnati, " Times Pittsburg, Pa " Herald Chicago, 111 1881 Morning Journal New York 1882 Journal Milwaukee, Wis " Evening News Newark, N. J 1883 Press Pittsburg, Pa " Times Richmond, Va 1886 Age-Herald Birmingham, Ala 1887 Telegraph Seattle, Wash 1890 Recorder New York 1891 Many of these publish also weekly or serai-weekly and Sunday editions. WEEKLY PAPERS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1894, WITH A CIRCULATION OF 40,000 AND UPWARDS. j._j^^_ Name. Where published. lished. Christian Advocate New York 1826 Youths Companion Boston, Mass 1827 Telegram Harrisburg, Pa 1828 Sunday Mercury New York , : . . 1839 Yankee Blade Boston, Mass 1841 Ledger New York 1844 Scientific American New York 1845 Street & Smith's N. Y. Weekly New York " National Police Gazette New York 1846 Ohio Practical Farmer Cleveland, 1848 Harper's Weekly New York 1856 Sunday School Times Philadelphia, Pa 1859 Fireside Companion. . . , New York 1860 Saturday Night Philadelphia, Pa 1865 Harpers Bazar New York 1867 Witness New York 1871 Family Story Paper New York 1873 Germania (semi-weekly).. Milwaukee, Wis " Der Haus- und Bauernfreund Milwaukee, Wis " Union-Signal Chicago, 111 1874 Golden Rule Boston, Mass 1875 National Tribune Washington, D. C 1877 Puck New York " National Stockman and Farmer Pittsburg, Pa " Christian Herald and Signs of \ ^ ^ ^ ,j>-„ Our Times | ....^ew lorK i»(» Texas Sittings New York and London. . . " Graphic .Chicago, 111 1879 Telegram Elmira, N. Y " Town Topics New York " Farmer's Home Dayton, 1880 Sporting News St. Louis, Mo " Golden Days Philadelphia, Pa " Judge New York 1881 Argosy New York 1882 Saturday Globe Utica, N. Y " Pennsylvania Grit Williamsport, Pa " Voice New York 1883 Sunday Telegram Albany, N. Y 1886 Catholic News New York " National Economist Washington, D. C 1888 Saturday Blade Chicago, 111 " Union Gospel News Cleveland, " Good News New York 1889 neiV Style. Pope Gregory XIII., to rectify errors of the 'current calendar, published a new one, in which 10 days were omitted — 5 Oct. 1582 becoming 15 Oct. The " new style" was adopted in France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Holland, Flanders, Portugal, in 1582; in Germany in 1584; in Switzer- land in 1583 and 1584; in Hungary in 1587; and in Great Britain in 1752, when 11 days were dropped— 3 Sept. being reckoned as 14 Sept. The difference between old and new style up to 1699 was 10 days; after 1700, 11 days; after 1800, 12 days. In Russia, Greece, and the east, old style is retained. Calendar. ]^ew Testament. Bible. IVewtOllian pllilOSOpliy, doctrines respecting gravitation, etc., taught by sir Isaac Newton in his " Prin- cipia," pub. in 1687. Gravitation. He was born 25 Dec. 1642; became master of the mint, 1699; president of the Royal society, 1703, and died 20 Mch. 1727. ^ew Year's day, etc. The beginning of the Jew- ish year was changed and the Passover instituted 1491 b.c. A feast is said to have been instituted by Numa and dedicated to Janus (who presided over the new year) 1 Jan. 713 b.c. NEW On this day the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal with salt incense, and wine; mechanics began something in their art or tnide; men of letters did the same, as to books, poems, eta ; and consuls, though chosen before, assumed their office. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New Years gifts among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, who ac- cepted as of good omen a present of branches cut in a wood con- secrated to Sirenia. the goddess of strength, received on the first dav of the now year, and sauclioued the custom, calling such gifts Stfense, 747 B.C. Ykak. XeW York, one of the original 13 states of the United States, lies between 40° 29' 80" and 45° 0' 42" N. lat., and between 71° 51' and 79° 45' 54" W. Ion. It is separated from Canada on the north by the eastern portion of lake Erie, lake Ontario, and the river St. Lawrence; on the east lie Vermont, Massachu- setts, and Connecticut; on the south, the Atlantic ocean. New Jersey, and Pennsyl- vania ; on the west, New Jer- sey, Penn.sylvania, lakes Erie and Ontario, and the rivers Niagara and St. Lawrence. Its greatest length, north and south, is 312 miles, including Staten Island, while east and west it is 412 miles, including Long Island. It contains 49,170 sq. miles, in 60 counties. Top. 1890, 5,997,853. It is the " Empire state " of the Union in wealth and population. Capital, Albany. Giovanni da Verazzano, a Florentine, under commission of Francis I. of France, with a single caravel, the Dauphin, en- ters the bay of New York Apr. 1524 Half Moon, 80 tons, leaves Amsterdam ; Henry Hudson, an Englishman, commander 4 Apr. 1609 Samuel de Champlain, coming from the north with a war party of Hurons, discovers lake Champlain July, " Defeats the Iroquois near Ticonderoga; hence dates the enmity between the French and Iroquois; fire-arms first seen by the Indians 30 July, " /fa//3/oon enters New York bay 11 Sept. " Anchors for the night above the site of Yonkers 13 Sept. " Anchors near West Point 14 Sept. " Anchors near Catskill landing 15 Sept. " Stops near the site of Hudson 17 Sept. " Anchors just below Albany 19 Sept. " Despatches a boat to sound the river farther up 22 Sept. " Begins his voyage down the river 23 Sept. " Sails out of the Narrows 4 Oct. " [Fate of the Half Moon: wrecked on Mauritius island, 6 Mch. 1615.] Hendrick Christiaensen and Adriaen Block sail 2 Amsterdam vessels, the Fortune and the Tiger, to Manhattan island 1611 Tiger accidentally burned at Manhattan 1613 Christiaensen builds "fort Nassau," a trading house, 36x26 feet in a stockade 58 feet square, with a moat 18 feet wide on Castle island (below Albany) 1614 Block builds the Onrust (Restless) of 18 tons at Manhattan; launched near the Battery spring of " In the Onrmt he passes Hell Gate and coasts along as far as Nahant bay " States general of Holland name the country about Manhattan "New Netherland," and grant its trade by charter to Am- sterdam merchants Oct. " Christiaensen killed by Indians (first such recorded since Hud- son's voyage) 1615 Champlain, with 10 Frenchmen, joins a party of Hurons and* allies moving against the Iroquois 1 Sept. " I^nds from lake Ontario near Henderson, Jefferson county, Oct. " They attack the Iroquois castle at Onondaga lake, near Liver- pool, Onondaga county, and are repulsed 10-16 Oct. " A trading post fortified at the mouth of the Tawasentha (Neman's Kill) creek, near Albany, by Jacob Eelkins; first formal treaty between the Indians and the Dutch " New Netherland charter expires; not renewed by the States- general 1 Jan. 1618 Fort Orange built (South Market st. , Albany) 1623 New Netherland a province under the Amsterdam chamber. . . " New Amsterdam settled " [New York city for further local history] New Netherland brings from the Texel 30 families, chiefly Walloons (French Protestant refugees) Mch. " Reaching the Hudson, some 8 families settle near fort Orange; the rest on Long Island at the Waal - bogt, Wahle - Bocht, or " Walloons' bay," now corrupted into Wallabout, May-June, " Cornelis Jacobsen May, first director or governor of New Netherland under the Dutch West India company 1624 Sarah Rapelje the first known white child born in New Neth- erland 7 June, 1625 Peter Evertsen Hulft fits 3 vessels, each of some 250 tons, for New Amsterdam; lands at Nutten (Governor's island), July, " ?9^illiam Verhulst succeeds May as director " 502 NEW Peter Minuit, director, leaves Amsterdam in Sea-Mew... 9 Jan. 1C26 Arrives at Manhattan 4 May, " Manhattan island, "rocky and full of trees," ceded by Indians to the Dutch West India company for 60 guilders (|23) " A blockhouse built, surrounded by a palisade of cedar post.s, at the extreme southern end of the island and called fort Amsterdam •' Six farms or "boweries" laid out on the island, and .«!peti- mens of the harvest sent to Holland to show the fertility of the soil " Dutch in friendly relations with the Plymouth colony of New England 1627 Dutch inform Plymouth of the " Fresh " river (Connecticut). . " Population at Manhattan estimated at 270 1628 Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, a merchant of Amsterdam, jiurchases land of the Indians around fort Orange through his agent, becoming patroon of the manor of Rensselaerwyck 1630 Michael Pauw purchases of the Indians the site of Jersey City (Pavonia) and Staten Island ■' Neiv Netherland (800 tons) built at Manhattan 1631 Mohawks receive fire-arms from the Dutch Peter Minuit, director, recalled Mch. 1632 Ship Eendragt from Manhattan attached in Plymouth harbor, Engl., on a charge of illegally trading 3 Ai)r. British ministry claim New Netherland as English territory . . Eendragt released 27 May, " Dutch occupy the west end of Long Island " Wouter Van Twiller, clerk of the West India company, marries a niece of Kiliaen Van Rensselaer; made governor 1633 Friendly intercourse with the Virginians Jacob Eelkins (the same person who had previously established a trading post up the Hudson) visits Manhattan in the William, a London vessel from New Plymouth, and sail.s up the Hudson to fort Orange in defiance of the governor (the first English vessel to ascend) 24 Apr. " William brought down to Manhattan and forced to sea. . .May, '« A small trading-post, called the "House of Good Hope," built and fortified with 2 pieces of cannon by the Dutch, on or near the site of Hartford, Conn " Wealthy colonists from Holland settle at fort Orange 1636 Jacob Van Corlaer purchased from the Indians a plat on Long Island, the first recorded grant in King's county June, " States-general notified of the ineflficiency of the governor through Van Dincklagen Aug. " Gov. Van Twiller personally purchases from Indians the island Paggauck, south of fort Amsterdam; supposed to contain 160 acres; called by the Dutch Nooten or Nutten island (from its excellent nuts). Now "Governor's island " 1637 Jonas Bronck purchases a tract in West Chester, opposite Haer- lem June, " Pavonia and Staten Island purchased by the Amsterdam di- rectors of Michael Pauw for 26,000 guilders ($10,000) " De Vries reiterates the charges of Van Dincklagen against gov. Van Twiller ; Van Twiller recalled " William Kieft director and commissioned. 2 Sept. " Arrives at New Amsterdam 28 Mch. 163H Purchases of the Indians part of Long Island for the comj)any, 1639 Thomas Belcher takes up a tract (in Brooklyn) " Lion Gardiner purchases Gardiner's island (the first permanent English settlement in the state) 10 Mch. 1640 Southampton, Long Island, settled by the English " Rensselaerwyck rapidly increases in wealth and population. . . " Indians near Manhattan alienated by the conduct of the Dutch, " Expedition against the Raritan Indians (Delawares); several Indians killed and crops destroyed 16 July, " Contributions levied on the Tapjian Indians by gov. Kieft, but refused Oct. " Reformed Dutch church established " Raritan Indians destroy De Vries's colony on Staten Island, June, 1641 Kieft sets a price on their heads July, " Kieft, anticipating an Indian war, consults the heads of fami- lies in New Amsterdam 23 Aug. " These chose "12 select men" to act for them; the first rep- resentative assembly in the province 29 Aug, " Ex gov. Minuit dies at fort Christina " "Select men" dissenting from the governor's warlike policy, he dissolves them Feb. 1642 George Baxter, an exile from New England, English secretary; salary 250 guilders ($95) " Johannes Megapolensis the first clergyman in Rensselaerwyck, with a residence and 1000 guilders ($380) " Anne Hutchinson takes refuge near New Rochelle from relig- ious persecution in Massachusetts " Dutch at fort Orange seek in vain to ransom Jogues (a French missionary, prisoner of the Iroquois), but his life is spared. . " Kieft rashly provokes an Indian war by sending soldiers to destroy the Indians at Pavonia and Corlaer Hook 25 Feb. 1643 Thus aroused, the Indians begin a war of retaliation " They attack trading- vessels on the river Aug. " Capt. John Underbill, a hero of the Pequot war (Connectici-t, 1636-37) enters the Dutch service Sept. " Anne Hutchinson (Massachusetts, 1636, '37, '38) killed, the settlement destroyed, and her granddaughter, 8 years old, captured " Throgmorton's settlement attacked and destroyed " Gravesend, Long Island, attacked, but Indians repulsed '" Father JogueS escapes from the Indians at fort Orange ; is brought to New Amsterdam and sails for Europe " First church, 34 by 19 feet, built at fort Orange, with canopied pulpit " NEW 563 English under Robert Fordhara, from Stamford, settle Hemp- stead, Long Island, early in 1644 English and Dutch destroy an Indian village near Hempstead, '' Captain Underhill destroys an Indian village at Stamford, kill- ing 600 Indians; 15 Dutch soldiers wounded 12 Mch. " Kieft proclaims a public thanksgiving for the victory Mch. " Complaints against Kieft; his recall demanded " Kiliaen Van Rensselaer dies at Amsterdam, Holland " End of Indian war; treaty with some of the tribes 22 Apr. 1645 General treaty with the Indians after 5 years of disturbance, 30 Aug. " [The treaty provides for the surrender of Anne Hutchin- son's granddaughter. After nearly 4 years of captivity, she wished to remain with the Indians.] Several Englishmen obtain a patent from gov. Kieft for about 16,000 acres about Flushing, Long Island, and settle. .19 Oct. " Adriaen Van der Donck buys of Indians land as far as " Spyt den Duyvel ; " States general confirm the title (the Dutch name, "de Jonkeers Landt," became Yonkers) 1646 States general, at the request of the company (July 13), ratify Stuy vesant's commission as governor 28 July, " Patent issued to Cornelis Antonissen Van Slyck for a colony in Kaatskill Aug. " Father Jogues returns to Canada, revisits the Mohawks, and is put to death 18 Oct. " Breuckelen (Brooklyn) obtains a municipal government, 26 Nov. " Kieft protests against English encroachments on New Netlier- land " Peter Stuyvesant lands at New Amsterdam 11 May, 1647 Kieft embarks for Holland in the Princess 16 Aug. " Princess shipwrecked in Bristol channel; Kieft, dominie Bo- gardus, and about 80 others perish 22 Sept. " Thomas Chambers, a farmer, with others from near the present city of Troy, coming to Esopus, now Kingston, are the first settlers of Ulster county 1652 [The name Esopus long continued in popular use after " Kingston" was legally adopted.] Flatbush settled " States-general recall Stuyvesant 27 Apr. " His recall revoked 16 May, " First public debt of New Amsterdam about 6000 guilders, 15 Mch. 1653 Dutch vessels excluded from New England harbors " Landtdag (convention) at New Amsterdam 8 Dec. " Convention organized. New Amsterdam had 3 representatives; Breuckelen, 3; Flushing. 2; Newtown, 2; Hempstead, 2; Flatlands, 3; Flatbush, 2; Gravesend, 2; 4 Dutch and 4 Eng- lish towns sent 10 Dutch and 9 English delegates 10 Dec. " Governor dissolves the convention 14 Dec. " Pirates and robbers infest East river and plunder shores 1654 First church formed at Flatbush; Johannes Theodorus Polhe- mus, dominie " News of a projected attack by the English received by gov. Stuyvesant 29 May, " New Amsterdam put in a state of defence June, " Treaty of peace between England and Holland " General Thanksgiving day appointed 12 Aug. " Discovery of salt springs in central New York by father Le Moyne Aug. " English settle at Westchester under Thomas Pell Nov. " Seal and coat of arms of New Amsterdam received from Hol- land 8 Dec. " Gov. Stuyvesant sails to West Indies to establish trade, 24 Dec. " Indian invasion 15 Sept. 1655 Hoboken, Pavonia, and Staten Island laid waste, 100 killed. 150 made prisoners, $76,000 of property destroyed 15-20 Sept. " Governor returns; prompt measures for defence 12 Oct. " Prisoners ranssomed from the Indians 26 Oct. " Settlement of Jamaica, Long Island Mch. 1656 Thirty-five thousand beaver and other skins exported from fort Orange " New church at Beaverwyck (Albany) June, " French Jesuit missionaries among the Iroquois " Proclamation against the Quakers 1657 [Any person entertaining a Quaker for a single night to be fined 501., one-half to the informer, and vessels bringing any Quaker into the province to be confiscated. —J5/-od/ieads, 'Hist. N. Y.," vol. i. p. 637.] Village laid out at Esopus (Kingston) 31 May, 1658 French are obliged to abandon their colonizing efforts among the Iroquois after " Massachusetts grants land to English colonists on the Hudson, 1659 Purchase of Schenectady Flats 27 July, 1661 Municipal charter granted to Esopus, now to be called " Wilt- wyck " (Indian Village) " Curtius returns to Holland and is succeeded by dominie Al- gidius Luyck " [The high-school gained such a reputation that pupils were sent to it from fort Orange, South River, and Virginia.] John Browne arrested for harboring Quakers 1662 Village of Esopus attacked by Indians and partly burned, June, 1663 Browne banished. Goes to Amsterdam and appeals to the West India company. The directors rebuke Stuyvesant and enjoin moderation. Persecution ceases " Severe earthquake throughout New Netherland, New England, and Canada " Trouble with England and the English colony; a general pro- vincial assembly called by the governor to consider the state of the province 19 Mch. 1664 Charles II. of England grants to the duke of York, his brother, territory including the New Netherland 22 Mch. " NEW Duke of York sends 4 ships against New Netherland: Guinea, 36 guns; Ettas, 30 guns; Martin, 16 guns, and William, 10 guns, with 450 soldiers; col. Richard NicoUs in command, to be deputy-gov«rnor Apr. 1664 Delegates meet at New Amsterdam ; Jeremias Van Rensselaer of Rensselaerwyck chairman, as being from the oldest " colonie " lo Apr. " It is decided to be impossible to take active measures against the English, who were 6 times their number, and could bring overwhelming aid from Hartford 22 Apr. " Mohegans devastate the east side of the Hudson 11 July, " Population of New Amsterdam, 1500; of the province, 10.000. . " English squadron at Nyack bay 28 Aug. '' Surrender of fort Amsterdam 8 Sept. " Surrender of fort Orange 20 Sept. " First treaty between the English and the Iroquois; this friend- ship continues for over a century 24 Sept. •' Name of New Amsterdam changed to New York and fort Orange to Albany " Dutch government denounces the conquest of New Netherland and demands its restitution 6 Nov. " West India company recall Stuyvesant 28 Nov. " Principal Dutch residents, including gov. Stuyvesant and Van Rensselaer, swear allegiance to Charles II. and the duke of York " Long Island adjudged to New York " Stuyvesant returns to Holland with strong testimonials of ap- proval May, 1665 Negro slavery recognized " Race-course at Hempstead, L. I., selected by gov. Nicolls and named "New Market" May, " Holland urgently demands the restoration of New Netherland, " Ralph Hill and his wife Mary arrested for witchcraft and sor- cery, but the jury (including Jacob Leisler, afterwards gov- ernor) " found nothing considerable against them " " Peter Stuyvesant returns to New York Oct. 1667 Gov. Nicolls relieved at his own request " Gov. Nicolls leaves New York 17 Aug. 1668 Col. Francis Lovelace jrovernor 28 Aug. " Staten Island adjudged to New York " Twenty whales captured in New York harbor during spring of 1669 Name " Kingston "given to Esopus 25 Sept. " La Salle, Dollier, and Galin6e explore lakes Ontario and Erie; possession taken for France " Staten Island purchased from the Indians for the duke of York, 13 Apr. 1670 Katherine Harrison, widow, banished from Weathersfleld, Conn., for witchcraft, comes to Westchester. Citizens com- plain, but on inquiry the court of assizes finds nothing against her and directs her release. But the people of West- chester become " uneasy," and she is obliged to leave, July-Aug. •' George Fox, the Quaker, visits Long Island 1672 Monthly post between New York and Boston ; first post mes- senger 22 Jan. 1673 Dutch fleet of 7 vessels, with 1600 men, arrives off Sandy Hook. The Dutch of New York welcome iheir countrymen. .7 Aug. " Dutch fire on fort James, which returns a shot. Fort James and New York surrender to the Dutch 9 Aug. " [Province again named New Netherland, fort James called fort Willem Hendricks, and the city of New York, New Orange.] Anthony Colve appointed governor Aug. " Albany and Esopus reduced '• -" French build fort Frontenac on lake Ontario " Peace between England and Holland; New Netherland re- j stored to England Feb. and Mch. 1674 New patent granted to the duke of York by Charles IL, 29 June, " Maj. Edmund Andros appointed governor 1 July, " Formal delivery of New Netherland to the English 10 Nov. " Capt. John Manning, who surrendered New York to the Dutch in 1673, court-martialled and sentenced to have his sword broken over his head, and forbidden to wear a sword or serve the crown Feb. 1675 Philip of Pokanoket's or King Philip's war (Massachusetts). . " New fort built by La Salle at Frontenac 1676 Andastes, a powerful tribe of Indians occupying western Penn- sylvania and the southern shore of lake Erie, finally con- quered by the Iroquois " Gov. Andros asserts English sovereignty over the Iroquois " Father Hennepin among the Mohawks 1677 France denies English sovereignty over the Iroquois " Fresh discoveries in the interior of New York; a large tract purchased from the Indians by Louis du Bois, Jean Has- brouck, and others. The governor confirms the grant ex- tending along the Shawangunk mountains and along the Hudson river, now Ulster county 16 Sept. '' Prince William of Orange marries Mary, daughter of the duke of York, afterwards .lames II. of England. . . r 4 Nov. " Gov. Andros allowed to return to England " to look after his own interests" 17 Nov. •' New York, as described in London by gov. Andros, contains 24 towns, villages, or parishes, in 6 precincts or courts of ses- sions; servants are much wanted; slaves, mostly from Bar- badoes, are scarce, worth 301. to 351. A merchant with 500/. or 1000/., is thought substantial, and a planter worth half that in movables is accounted rich. The value of estates in the province is about 150,000/. 15 vessels, of 100 tons each, trade with the province each year from Old and New England. 5 small ships and a ketch belong to New York, of which 4 were built there. The exports are provisions, funs, tar, NEW and lumber. The imports of English manufactures amount to 50,000/. yearly. The customs, excises, and quit-rents do not nearly suftlco for the public expenses. The chief trading places are New Vork and Southampton on Long Island for foreign commerce, and All)any for Indian IrafBc. There are about 2000 males able to bear arms, 140 of them horsemen. Fort James at Now York is a square of stone with 4 bastions, mounting 46 guns; fort Albany at Albany is a small stockade with 4 b^tions and mounting 1*2 guns, sufficient against the Indians. Ministers are scarce and religions many, so that there are no records. of marriages or births in New York. There are about 20 churches in the province, mostly Pres- byterians and Independents, with some Quakers, Anabaptists, and Jews, all sui)portcd by free gifts. The duke maintains an Episcopalian chaplain, which is all the "certain allow- ance " of the church of England. In New York there are no beggars, but all the jwor are cared for Gov. Audros knighted by the king in London Gov. sir Edmund Andros lands in New York after a 9 weeks' voyage 8 Aug. Jacob Leisler, with other New-Yorkers, on the way to England, captured by a Turkish corsair; they are ransomed, Leisler for 2000 Spanish dollars French at Niagara; first mass by father Hennepin; a bark cabin built near Lewiston 19 Dec. La Salle builds fort Conty at the mouth of the Niagara river, "a habitation " with a palisade Jan. La Salle begins building the Griffin (named in compliment to Frontenac, governor of Canada, whose armorial supporters were 2 griffins), of (50 tons' burden, above Niagara Falls at the mouth of Cayuga creek, near La Salle, Niagara county, 26 Jan. Oriffin enters' lake Erie (with La Salle, Tonti, and others on board. She proceeds to Green Bay, Wis. After leaving that place to return loaded with furs, she is never heard of), 7 Aug. Great comet seen in New York and New England; a day of fasting and humiliation appointed 1 Dec. Sir Edmund Andros recalled and leaves New York 11 Jan. Anthony Brockholls, by special commission, appointed pro- visional governor Jan. Col. Thomas Dougan, appointed governor, reaches New York, 25 Aug. First assembly under English rule 17 Oct. Charter of liberty adopted. The assembly to meet once in 3 years at least; every free-holder an elector; entire freedom of conscience and religion guaranteed; no tax levied without the consent of the representatives 30 Oct. New York divided into 10 counties. The county of New York, Manhattan island. Westchester county containing all the land eastward of Manhattan as far as the government ex- tends, and northward along the Hudson to the Highlands. Dutchess county extended from AVestchester northward to Albany county, and from the Hudson river eastward to Massachusetts and Connecticut. Albany county included all the territory on the east of the Hudson, north of Dutchess, and on the west side to Saratoga. Ulster county, which was named after the duke of York's Irish earldom, embraced all the territory from the Highlands to the southern boundary of Albany county, near Saugerties. Orange included the region on the west side of the Hudson from the New Jersey bound- ary northward to Ulster and west to the Delaware river. Richmond, all Staten Island. Kings, the western portion of Long Island ; Queens, the central, and SuOfolk the eastern portion 1 Nov. A high sheriff commissioned for each county Agreement as to the boundary between New York and Con- necticut 28 Nov. Gov. Dongan commissions James Graham flrst recorder of New York city 16 Jan. Francis, Lord Howard, governor of Virginia, visits New York and is made " freeman " of the metropolis. First British peer thus honored 29 June, Iroquois submit to the king of England 30 July, Death of Charles II 6 Feb. James, duke of York, becomes king as James II " Colonial post-office established by New York 2 Mch. New York charter not confirmed by James II [No colonial assemblies under James II.] City of Albany incorporated; Peter Schuyler first mayor, 22 July, Albany charter published 26 July, Robert Livingston secures the Indian title to the territory on the Hudson opposite Catskill to a point opposite Saugerties, and eastward to Massachusetts. Gov. Dongan confirms his title by patent with manorial privileges. This territory embraced 160,240 acres (Anti-rentism) July, Charters of liberties repealed (adopted 1683) Population of the province about 18,000 Governor's salary fixed at 600/. sterling, to be paid out of the provincial revenues French invade and occupy the Seneca country in New York, destroy many thousand bushels of corn and many hogs ; then fall back and build a palisaded fort at the mouth of the Niagara river, on the east side Francis Stepney, a dancing-master, being forced to leave Bos- ton, comes to New York, but is forbidden to teach. . .3 June, Iroquois appeal to the goveraor for protection against the French. He supplies them with arms and ammunition, Aug. French continue to assert their sovereignty over the Iroquois, French governor of Canada makes peace with the Iroquois. . . Gov. Dongan required to surrender the government of New York to Andros 22 Apr. 504 NEW 1678 1679 1680 1681 1683 1684 1685 French fort at Niagara demolished 6 July, Gov. -gen. Andros reaches New York 11 Aug. Francis Nicholson lieutenant-governor of New York Revolution in England; James II. flees to France; William, prince of Orange, arrives in England Dec. William and Mary proclaimed king and queen 13 Feb. War declared between England and France May, Frontenac reappointed governor of Canada 21 May, Jacob Leisler seizes fort James 3 June, Leisler assumes command of New York 12 June, William and Mary proclaimed in New York 22 June, Lieut. -gov. Nicholson leaves New York for England.. .24 June, Leisler summons a convention June, Iroquois ravage the country about Montreal 5 Aug. Leisler commissioned commander-in-chief by the assembly, pending instructions from England 16 Aug. Henry Sloughter appointed governor of New York 2 Sept. Frontenac returns to Quebec from France Sept. Leisler assumes the title of lieutenant-governor 10 Dec. Frontenac organizes 3 expeditions against the English: one against New York, the second against New England, and the third to ravage Maine Jan. Party of 210, including 80 Indians, advance towards Schenec- tady and Albany Jan.-Feb. They surprise and burn Schenectady, about 16 miles from Al- bany, then the western frontier post of New York, contain- ing upwards of 40 well-built houses surrounded by a palisade, kill 60 or more people, and carry away many captives; some escape to Albany 8-9 Feb. French retreat, and are pursued by the Iroquois Colonial congress called at New York by Leisler. 2 Apr. Expedition against Canada fails Gov. Sloughter sails for New York 1 Dec. Leisler refuses to give up the fort at New York to Richard In- goldsby, gov. Sloughter's deputy Jan. Arrival of gov. Sloughter .19 Mch. Leisler imprisoned 20 Mch. Leisler, Milborne, and others indicted for treason and murder, Apr. Eight of the prisoners convicted " Petition for Leisler's pardon. Others demand his execution. Gov. Sloughter signs the death-warrant of Leisler and Mil- borne 14 May, Leisler and Milborne executed 16 May, Gov. Sloughter d 23 July, Richard Ingoldsby acting governor " Gov. Sloughter succeeded by Benjamin Fletcher 29 Aug. Frontenac sends an expedition against the Mohawks. ..15 Jan. Peter Schuyler of Albany pursues the French with English and Iroquois; they escape across the upper Hudson on floating cakes of ice Feb. Fort Frontenac rebuilt by the French Frontenac prepares a great expedition against the Iroquois; but only destroys 3 villages and some corn William Kidd, with the Adventure, of 30 guns, sails from New York with a crew of 155 men, commissioned as a privateer against the French, and pirates in the Indian ocean. . .6 Sept. [This was something of a "private enterprise." Some noblemen of the English ministry invested 6000/. in the un- dertaking. Kidd and Robert Livingston of New York were to have one fifth of the proceeds.] Richard Coote, earl of Bellomont, appointed to succeed gov. Fletcher in 1695; not commissioned until 1697, and only reached New York 2 Apr. John Nanf'an,a kinsman of gov. Bellomont, appointed lieuten- ant-governor Louis de Buade, count de Frontenac, governor of Canada, d. aged 78 22 Nov. Remains of Jacob Leisler and Milborne disinterred by friends and honorably buried in the Dutch church, Garden street. . . Gov. Bellomont dies at New York (is buried there) 5 Mch. Kidd is denounced as a pirate, and returning to New York, and thence to Boston, is there arrested and ultimately sent to England, where he is tried, convicted, and hanged, with 9 accomplices, at Execution dock, London 24 May, William III. of England d 8 Mch. Queen Anne succeeds " Lieut. -gov. John Nanfan acts as governor until the arrival of Edward Hyde, lord Cornbury (son of the 2d earl of Claren 3 1692 1G96 1699 1701 don). May, Yellow-fever in New York. General assembly at Jamaica, L. I, Lord Cornbury prohibits Presbyterians from preaching with- out his license Lord Cornbury removed; succeeded by lord Lovelace, who ar- rives at New York 18 Dec. Slave market established at the foot of Wall street. New York, Lord Lovelace d 12 May, Lieut, -gov. Ingoldsby, acting-governor Expedition fitted out against Montreal ; failure Peter Schuyler takes to England 5 distinguished chiefs of the Iroquois to visit the queen Richard Ingoldsby displaced; Gerardus Beekman acting gov- ernor from 10 Apr. Robert Hunter, governor, arrives at New York with 3000 Ger- man Lutherans, refugees from the Palatinate of the Rhine, 14 June, Preparations to invade Canada. Nicholson leaves Albany with 4000 men, and a fleet under sir Hovenden Walker sails from Boston with 7000 men and a fine train of artillery, against Quebec and Montreal 30 July, Fleet loses 8 transports and more than 1000 men on the rocks 1707 1708 1709 NEW 565 at the mouth of the St. Lawrence aud sails for England; the army disbands IVll Tuscaroras, a branch of the Iroquois, leave North Carolina and join their brethren in New York, near Oneida lake, thus forming the Six Nations 1712 Pretended discovery of a negro insurrection in New York; 19 negroes hung " Schoharie Flats settled by Germans from the Palatinate 1713 Peace of Utrecht between England and France 11 Apr. " Queen Anne d. ; succeeded by George I. (elector of Hanover), 1 Aug. 1714 Court of Chancery established and confirmed. Lewis Morris appointed chief justice of the province 1715 Gov. Hunter resigns; Peter Schuyler acting -governor, 19 July, 1719 William Burnet, son of bishop Burnet, governor, arrives at New York 17 Sept. 1720 English establish a trading post at Oswego 1722 William Bradford issues the New York Gazette, the first news- paper in the province Oct. 1725 Fort Niagara built by the French 1726 George L of England d. ; George IL, his son, king 11 June, 1727 Gov. Burnet succeeded by .John Montgomery 15 Apr. 1728 Boundary with Connecticut established May, 1731 Gov. Montgomery d 1 July, " Rip Van Dam acting governor " Population in the province of New York 50,289 " " city " " 8,632 Total number of negroes ' 7,231 . William Cosby, governor of New York, arrives .1 Aug. 1732 First stage runs between New York and Boston, round trip 28 days " John Peter Zenger establishes the New York Weekly Journal in the interests of the people 5 Nov. 1733 Zenger arrested for libel and imprisoned 35 weeks Nov. 1734 Andrew Hamilton of [Philadelphia successfully defends Zenger. "The magistrates of New York present him with a gold box as a token of their esteem for his noble advocacy of popular rights " July, 17.35 Gov. Cosby d 10 Mch. 17.36 George Clarke governor " Law disfranchising Jews in New York 1738 Capt. Norris, of the ship Tartar lying in the hnrbor of New York, applies to the mayor for authority to impress 30 sea- men. The governor and council order the mayor to assent; I but he refuses, and the matter is passed by " Supiiosed negro plot to burn New York. 13 negroes burned, 20 hung, and 70 transported to the West Indies (all probably innocent victims to groundless fear) Mch. 1741 Sir George Clinton governor 20 Sept. 1743 "War of the Austrian succession" between England and France 1744 J French and Indians destroy the village of Saratoga and carry ; away captive over 100 men, women, and children 28 Nov. 1745 I Peace between England and France Oct. 1748 I Theatre established in New York city 1750 ' First house on the present site of Troy 1752 ! Gov. Clinton resigns 7 Sept. 1753 ; Sir Danvers Osborne governor " i Gov. Osborne commits suicide by hanging 12 Sept. " i James De Lancey acting-governor " Convention representing New Hampshire,Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, at Albany to consider a colonial confederacy 19 June, 1754 [Articles of union drawn by Benjamin Franklin, Pennsyl- vania.] : King's college (now Columbia), New York city, founded, with ; rev. William Samuel Johnson, D.D., first president " ' Sir Charles Hardy governor 1755 , Fort Edward and fort William Henry built " ; Battle of Lake George. Defeat of the French, and capture of their leader, baron Dieskau 8 Sept. " [He was severely wounded, not mortally, as often asserted. He was exchanged in 1763, and, returning to France, was pensioned.] Fort Oswego, with 1600 men, 120 cannon, 14 mortars, 2 sloops, and 200 boats and bateaux, surrenders to Montcalm.. 14 Aug. 1756 Montcalm, governor of Canada, besieges fort William Henry at the head of lake George with about 8000 French and 2000 Indians 2 Aug. 1757 Col. Monroe surrenders with the garrison of nearly 3000 (Fort William Henry) 9 Aug. " lames de Lancey governor; sir Charles Hardy goes to England, " jen. Abercrombie attacks Fort Ticonderoga and is repulsed, 8 July, 1758 E'ort Frontenac surrenders to the English under col. John Bradstreet 27 Aug. " j^ort Stan wix built (Fort Schuyler) " i'^Dglish under gen. John Prideaux besiege fort Niagara; gen. : Prideaux killed 20 July, 1759 i'rench surrender the fort : 25 July, " iJattle of Quebec; gen. Wolfe killed 13 Sept. " liurrender of Quebec 18 Sept. " ,lov. De Lancey d : 30 July, 1760 ;adwalladerColden acting governor " " iapitulation of M. de Vaudreuil at Montreal and the entire re- i duction of Canada 8 Sept. " feath of George II. ; George III. succeeds 25 Oct. " \ obert Monckton governor Nov. 1761 ikes command of an expedition against Martinique, and leaves the government to Cadwallader Golden , " NEW New York claims jurisdiction over the present state of Ver- mont ; hence a controversy with New Hampshire 1762 Sir Henry Moore, governor, arrives 1765 Sons of Liberty organized in New York " Colonial convention in New York to consider the Stamp act, 7 Oct. " [Colonies represented were Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New .Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- ware, Maryland, and South Carolina. Virginia, North Caro- lina, and Georgia were prevented from sending delegates by their governors.] Stamp act to go into operation, causes great disturbance in New York 1 Nov. " Repeal of the Stamp act 18 Mch. 1766 English treaty with the Iroquois, Delawares, Shawnees, and Mingoes at fort Stanwix (Kentucky, Pennsylvania).. .5 Nov. 1768 Sir Henry Moore dies; Cadwallader Golden again acting-gov- ernor 1 Sept. 1769 Boundary settled between New York and New Jersey " Liberty pole in New York city cut down by British soldiers, 13 Jan. John, lord Dunmore, governor ■. Gov. Dunmore transferred to Virginia; William Tryon last royal governor of New York Line of jurisdiction between New York and Massachusetts Gov. Tryon gives 10,000 acres of land to King's college, and founds a chair of law New York publishes a Declaration of Rights 23 May, Sir William Johnson dies at Albany, aged 60 11 July, Delegates chosen to 1st Continental Congress 25 July, Provincial convention in New York; delegates to^the Conti- nental Congress appointed 22 Apr. Fort Ticonderoga surprised and taken by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold with 80 men 10 May, Crown Point surrenders 12 May, Benedict Arnold captures St. Johns, Canada 16 May, First Provincial congress in New York; Nathaniel Woodhull, president, appoints a Committee of Safety 22 May, [Gen. Woodhull was wounded and captured at the battle of Long Island, 30 Aug. 1776. and died a few days afterwards.] Gen. Tryon retires to the Asia, an armed English ship in the harbor of New York City and county of New York ask advice from Congress how to deal with the British troops expected in the city, and the military stores captured at Ticonderoga May, Richard Montgomery commissioned brigadier-general by Con- gress : 22 June, Congress orders capt. Lamb to remove the cannon from the fort at New York to the highlands; 24 pieces secured, 23 Aug. [English ship Asia, lying in the harbor, attempted in vain to prevent this. Alexander Hamilton, then a student in King's (Columbia) college, assisted in securing the cannon.] Col. Ethan Allen taken prisoner with 38 men by the British near Montreal 25 Sept. Montreal captured by gen. Richard Montgomery 13 Nov. Gen. Montgomery attempts the capture of Quebec; he is killed and the Americans repulsed 31 Dec. On the news of the Declaration of Independence, the leaden statue of the king of England in New York is made into 42,000 bullets 6 July, Northern army falls back from Crown Point to Ticonderoga, 7 July, New York Provincial congress at White Plains sanctions the Declaration of Independence, making the 13 colonies unani- mous (Declaration of Independence) 9 July, [This congress meets 4 times up to 9 July, 1776, when it takes the name Convention of the Representatives of the state of New York, meeting at Kingston.] One sloop, 3 schooners, and 5 smaller boats, carrying 58 guns and 86 swivels, built at Whitehall by the Americans to con- trol lake Champlain ; manned by about 400 men 22 Aug. Lord Howe lands 10,000 men and 40 guns near Gravesend, L. I., 22 Aug. Americans under gen. Sullivan defeated by gen. Howe, and gens. Sullivan and Sterling taken prisoners; battle of Long Island 27 Aug. [Gen. Howe was decorated with the order of the Bath for this success by the British government.] Gen. Washington withdraws his forces to the city of New York from Long Island night of 29th and morning of 30 Aug. British use condemned hulks moored in Wallabout bay as prison-ships; it is estimated that 11,400 American prisoners died in them during 6 years beginning New York city evacuated, occupied by the British 14 Sept. Battle of Harlem Heights; British repulsed 16 Sept. Nathan Hale executed as a spy at New York by command of gen. Howe (Hale) 22 Sept. Fleet on lake Champlain under Benedict Arnold meets a vastly superior British armament under capt. Pringle, and is de- feated with a loss of about 90 men 11-13 Oct. Battle of White Plains; Americans driven back 28 Oct. Washington crosses the Hudson 12 Nov. Fort Washington on the Hudson captured by the British, with 2000 prisoners and artillery 16 Nov^- Fort Lee, opposite fort Washington on the Hudson, evacuated by the Americans under gen. Greene 18 Nov. New York convention adopts a constitution.. . .6 Mch. -13 May, [It made the governor elective and remained in force 45 years, ] Gen. Burgoyne with 7173 British and German troops, besides 1770 1771 1773 1774 1776 1776 NEW ^6 several thousand Cauadiaus and Indians, appears before Ti- conderoga 1 -'uly, 1777 George Clinton elecled governor 3 July, " John Jay appointed chief justice and Robert R. Livingston chancellor " Giirrmon under gen. St. Clair abandon Ticonderoga, and retreat through Vermont (Hubbabdton) 6 July, " Murder of Jane McCrea by the Indians near fort Edward (see Lossing's " Field Book of the Revolution," vol. i. pp. 98, 99), 27 July, '< Gen. St Clair joins gen. Schuyler at fort Edward, which is abandoned, and the Americans retire across the Hudson to Saratoga, and thence to Stillwater; Burgoyne roaches the Hudson 29 July, " St. Leger. co-operating with Burgoyne, advances from Mon- treal with a large force of Caniidians and Indians; invests fort Stanwix (Schuyler) « Aug. " Gen. Herkimer, with about 800 men, advances to the relief of fort Stanwix; when within 6 miles of the fort, falls into an ambuscade, is mortally wounded, but repulses the enemy with aid from the fort under col. Wiilett (Okiskanv). . .6 Aug. *' Two detachments of British and Indians from Burgoynes army, numbering about 500 men each, under cols. Baume and Breyman, defeated by gen. John Stark near Hoosick, N. Y. , 6 miles from Benninoto.v 16 Aug. " Gen. Philip Schuyler superseded in command of the northern army by gen. Horatio Gates 22 Aug. " A detachment of Americans under gen. Sullivan lands on Staten Island, surprises 2 regiments of Tories, and captures many prisoners 22 Aug. " St. I^ger retreats from fort Stanwix to Montreal, losing most of his baggage and stores, before gen. Arnold, sent with 3 regiments by gen. Schuyler to relieve fort Stanwix. .22 Aug. " Gen. Gates encamps at Stillwater 8 Sept. " Gen. Burgoyne encamps at Saratoga 14 Sept. " Battle of Stillwater; both armies claim the victory, but the Americans had greatly the advantage (Bemis's Heights), 19 Sept. " Forts Clinton and Montgomery, on the Hudson, taken by sir Henry Clinton (Clinton and Montgomery forts) 6 Oct. " Battle of Saratoga; British defeated (Bemis's Heights). .7 Oct. " Surrender of the army under gen. Burgoyne 17 Oct. " [Total number surrendered, 5642 (Convention troops) ; previous losses about 4000.] Lieut. -col. Baylor's troop of horse (unarmed) surprised and mostly killed and wounded (67 out of 104) by a party of British under Grey, near old Tappan, on the night of 27 Sept. 1778 Schoharie ravaged by Indians and Tories 16 Oct. " Cherry Valley ravaged by Indians and Tories 11-12 Nov. " Settlement at Elmira. " Sir Henry Clinton captures Verplanck's and Stony Point, June, 1779 SroNY Point surprised and captured, with 500 prisoners, by gen. Anthony Wayne 16 July, " Gen. Sullivan leaves the Wyoming valley with a force of 3000 men. 31 July, on an expedition against the Six Nations. He is joined at Tioga Pont, 22 Aug., by gen. James Clinton, with 1600 men. They attack and disperse a body of Indians and Tories at Chemung (now Elmira) 29 Aug. " [In the course of 3 weeks the troops destroy 40 Indian vil- lages and extensive flelds of grain ] Verplanck's and Stony Point evacuated by the British Oct. " Command in the Highlands of the Hudson, with the works at West Point, is given to gen. Benedict Arnold 3 Aug. 1780 Major John Andr6, adjutant-general of the British army, lands from the British sloop of war Vulture, a little below Stony Point, and meets gen. Arnold on the night of 21 Sept. " Attempting to return to New York, he is captured by 3 sol- diers, John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart, near Tarrytown 23 Sept. " Arnold, hearing of the capture of Andr6, escapes to the Vul- ture 24 Sept. " [Arnold received from the British government 10,000Z. and commission of brigadier-general] A military board, gen. Nathaniel Greene president, convict Andr6 as a spy 29 Sept. " Gen. Washington approves the finding of the board. . .30 Sept. " Major Andr6 hung at Tappan at 12 o'clock noon, and buried there 2 Oct. " [Andre's remains were disinterred Aug. 10, 1821. and taken to England and placed in a vault in Westminster abbey, 28 Nov. 1821. See 1879 of this record for monument.] Ann Lee, founder of the Shakers, coming from England, settles with a body of that sect near Albany, 1774, and establishes a community of them at New Lebanon (Shakers) " William Alexander (lord Stirling), major-general in the Amer- ican army, dies at Albany, aged 57 15 Jan. 1783 Order of the Cincinnati founded by the offlcers of the army en- camped on the Hudson (Cincinnati, Order op) ..13 May, " Treaty of peace with Great Britain signed at Paris 3 Sept. " British evacuate New York city 25 Nov. " Long Island and Staten Island evacuated by the British, who embark 4 Dec. " Gen. Washington bids farewell to his offlcers at Fraunce's tav- ern. New York 4 Dec. " University of the State of New York is established by an act of the legislature 1 May, 1784 [Governing body of the university is a board of regents, chosen by the legislature and holding office, without pay, for life, under certain restrictions. An annual meeting of the board is held the second Thursday of Jan. ; the semi-an- nual meeting is held on the first Tuesday of July.] NEW Town of Hudson settled by Seth and Thomas Jenkins, from Providence. R. I Hugh White, from Middletown, Conn, the first settler at Whites- town, Oneida county Continental Congress meets in New York 11 Jan. Population of the state, 238,897 Dispute between Massachusetts and New York about lands, settled by commissioners appointed by the 2 states [A pre-emption title to certain territory in New York was claimed by Massachusetts under its colonial charter, which extended to the Pacific. The charter of New York interfering with this claim, the differences were settled by commission- ers : New York retained the sovereignty and jurisdiction of the territory in dispute, and Massachusetts the property of the soil. See 1773.] Samuel Prevost, rector of Trinity church, consecrated biphop at Lambeth palace, Engl., for the state Columbia college incorporated Oliver Phelps, of Granville, Mass., explores the wilderness from the German Flats to the present site of Canandaigua Binghamton settled by William Bingham from Philadelphia.. Syracuse settled New York accepts the Constitution of the U. S., with amend- ments 25 July, First number of the Federalist appears in New York. ..27 Oct. " Doctors' mob," caused by the discovery of human remains for dissection in the hospital in New York city. . .13-14 Apr. Oliver Phelps and Nathaniel Gorham purchase of the Six Na- tions 2,500,000 acres— part of the land already granted them by Massachusetts— in western New York (see 1787). The leading chiefs were Farmer's Brother and Red Jacket Ebenezer Allen erects a mill where Rochester now stands First house built in Canandaigua New York ratifies the Constitution of the U. S 26 July, Congress meets in New York, in the old City Hall, corner of Wall and Nassau streets, opposite Broad; only 8 senators and 13 representatives present 4 Mch. House obtains quorum and organizes 30 Mch. [Frederic A. Muhlenburg speaker.] Senate having a quorum, organizes 6 Apr. [John Langdon, N. H., chosen to preside at the counting of votes for president. All the 69 votes were cast for Wash- ington, and 34 for John Adams, who became vice-president.] John Adams takes the chair of the Senate '. 21 Apr. Washington arrives at Elizabeth Point, and is escorted to New York by a committee from both houses in a barge rowed by lb pilots dressed in white 23 Apr. [His progress from Mount Vernon had been a continuous triumphal procession.] Oath of office taken by Washington 30 Apr. [Oath was administered by chancellor Livingston in the balcony of the City Hall] First recorded party contest in New York state; votes polled, 12,453 Oliver Phelps opens in Canandaigua the first private land office in America, for the sale of forest land to settlers (Land) U. S. buys of Stephen Moore the site of West Point [It purchased the tract adjoining in 1824, and in 1826 New York ceded jurisdiction over it to the U. S.] Population of the state 340, 120 ) Rank among the states 5th | Population to the sq. mile 7.1 ) 11th, 12th, 13th, and 14th sessions of the Continental Congress met in New York city — that is, from 11 Jan. 1785 to 21 Oct. 1788. Also the 1st and 2d sessions of the first Congress un- der the Constitution 4 Mch. 1789-12 Aug. Phelps & Gorham sell to Robert Morris 1,204,000 acres of their Massachusetts purchase in western New York for 8d. an acre, Boundary between New York and Vermont established Geneseo settled by William and James Wadsworth from Con- necticut Congress leaves New York city and meets in Philadelphia, Dec. Part of Vermont formed Cumberland and Gloucester counties in New York till. Society for the promotion of agriculture, arts, and manufact- ures established at New York Hamilton Oneida academy established Auburn first settled by col. Hardenbergh Paper mill erected at Troy, which makes from 4 to 5 reams of paper daily French privateer fitted out in New York is seized by militia by order of gov. Clinton 14 June, Frederick William Augustus, baron Steuben, major-general in the Revolutionary army, d. at Steubenville, Oneida county, 28 Nov. Union college incorporated at Schenectady George Clinton, after 18 years' service, declines re-election as governor, and is succeeded by John Jay Legislature appropriates $50,000 for public schools Sloop Detroit the first American vessel on lake Erie Massachusetts deeds to Robert Morris of Philadelphia nearly 3,300,000 acres of land in western New York (see 1787), 11 May, [Robert Morris, b. Engl 1733, d. Philadelphia, 1806, was a delegate to the Continental Congress, 1776-78, and signer of Declaration of Indei)endence. He greatly assisted the gov- ernment financially during the Revolution, but in his old age embarked in vast land speculations which proved ruinous to his fortunes. He passed his latter days in prison for debt.— Drake, " Diet, of Amer. Biog."] He extinguishes the Indian title, sells several tracts from the 178 17» 178 178 1790 1791 1793 1794 1795 1796 NEW 567 1800 east side along the Genesee river, and mortgages the residue to Wilhehn Williui< and others of Amsterdam, Holland, called the Holland Land company 1796 [By this purchase the Holland Land company acquired the present counties of Niagara, Erie, Chautauqua, Cattaraugus, Wyoming, except some small reservations, and most of the counties of Alleghany, Genesee, and Orleans.] State road from Whitestown to Geneva built " Forts Oswegatchie (now Ogdensburg), Oswego, and Niagara evacuated by the British " John Fitch moves a small boat on Collect pond in New York city by a small steam engine and a "worm-screw" project- ing from the stern of the boat " Albany becomes the permanent capital of the state at the 20th session of the legislature 1797 Shakers at Watervliet begin the manufacture of brooms, sold at 50 cts. each 1798 I^egislature grants to chancellor Livingston an exclusive right to navigate the inland waters of the state by vessels propelled by fire or steam " New York appropriates $1,200,000 to defend her harbor against France " Washington nominates Alexander Hamilton as first in rank of major-generals in the Provisional army " Road cut from the Genesee to Buffalo and Lewiston " Legislature enacts the gradual abolition of slavery Apr. 1799 Population of the state 589,051 "j Rank among the states 3d I Population to the sq. mile 12.4 j Per cent, of increase 73.1 J George Clinton again elected governor 1801 Democrats predominant, led by col. Aaron Burr, the Clintons, and Livingstons *' Buffalo laid out by the Holland Land company, who open an office at Batavia, Joseph Ellicott agent, for the sale of land. . " Academy of fine arts founded at New York city " Duel between col. John Swartwout and De Witt Clinton. 5 shots exchanged ; Swartwout slightly wounded 1802 Military academy established at West Point by Congress «' Gen Joseph G. Swift first graduate 12 Oct. " Burr's Democratic friends resolve to support him for governor against any regular nominee. He is formally nominated at Albany ; a meeting held at New York city ratifies it 1804 Morgan Lewis elected as the regular Democratic candidate.. . . " Burr proposed as Federalist candidate in coalition with his faction ; the plan defeated by Alexander Hamilton " This opposition of Hamilton to Burr culminates in a duel at Hoboken. in which Burr kills Hamilton 11 July, " New York Historical Society founded " Philip Schuyler dies at Albany, aged 73 18 Nov. " I^egislature appropriates the proceeds of the remaining state lands, over a mill on acres, for the school fund 1805 Corner-stone of the old state capitol laid at Albany 23 Apr. 1806 Robert Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont, makes first trip. New York to Albany ; average speed, 5 miles an hour 7 Aug. 1807 Daniel D. Tompkins elected governor " Finst carding and cloth dressing establishment erected on the Holland purchase at Batavia by William H. Bush 1808 James Geddes of Onondaga surveys a route for a canal from lake Erie to the Hudson river, and reports it practicable. . .1808-9 First house built in Rochester 1810 Population of the state 959,049 ] Rank among the states 2d I ,< Population to the sq. mile 20.1 f Per cent, of increase 62. 8 J A commission appointed to inquire into the practicability of a canal from lake Erie to the Hudson explores the whole route, " It reports in favor of the canal; estimated cost, $5,000,000 1811 West Point reorganized and made efficient 1812 Hamilton college, at Clinton, Oneida county, established " " Detached militia " of New York arranged by the War depart- ment in 2 divisions and 8 brigades 21 Apr. " War declared against Great Britain by the U. S 20 June, " [British forts near the state were : Fort Erie, opposite Buf- falo, with a small garrison ; a small stockade at Chippewa, a little above Niagara falls, and a small earthwork, fort George, near the mouth of the Niagara river; while at York (now Toronto) there was an old fort and block-house, and near Kingston, formerly fort Frontenac,was a small battery.] Stephen Van Rensselaer ('the patroon) of Albany commissioned major general and assigned to the 1st division, and Benja- min Mooers of Plattsburg to the 2d " British attack Sackett's Harbor and are repulsed 29 July, " Lieut. J. D. Elliott captures the Caledonia and Detroit, British vessels anchored near fort Erie, opposite Buffalo 8 Oct. '• [Congress votes lieut. Elliott a sword for this exploit.] Battle of Queenstown, Upper Canada, and death of sir Isaac Brock, governor of Upper Canada 12-13 Oct. " [The Americans, at first successful, are finally beaten.] Albany Argus started in Albany, Jesse Buel editor 13 Jan. 1813 Ogdensburg attacked and captured by the British 22 Feb. " York (now Toronto) taken by the Americans; gen. Pike killed, 27 Apr. " Fort George, Canada, at the mouth of the Niagara river, evacu- ated by the British 27 May, " fort Erie captured by the Americans 28 May, " British repulsed at Sackett's Harbor 29 May, " ' Perry's victory on lake Erie (Naval battles) 10 Sept. " ' Burning of the village of Newark, Canada, near fort George, by the Americans under gen. McClure,who was severely cen- sured, and fort George evacuated 10 Dec. " NEW British capture fort Niagara 19 Dec. 1813 They burn Buffalo and Black Rock (Buffalo) 30 Dec. " Fort Ontario at Oswego captured by the British (Fort On- tario) 5-6 May, 1814 Fort Erie occupied by the Americans 3 July, " Battle of Chippewa, Canada: Americans victorious 5 July, " Battle of Bridgewater, or Lundy's Lane, Canada, one of the most destructive of the war. ' The Americans, 2600 strong, lose 858 men killed and wounded, and the British (4500) lose about 20 more; fought from 8 p.m. to midnight 25 July, " [Here gen. Winfleld Scott greatly distinguished himself] Fort Erie besieged by the British 4 Aug. " Col. Drummond assaults the works and is repulsed 15 Aug. " Com. McDocough defeats British fleet on lake Champlain at Plattsburg, under com. Downie (Naval battles) 11 Sept. " Gen. Macomb with about 6000 men, defeats 12,000 British under sir George Provost, at Plattsburg 11 Sept. " Americans make a successful sortie at fort Erie and destroy the British works 17 Sept. " British raise the siege after 56 days 21 Sept. " Americans, under gen. Izard, abandon fort Erie and blow it up, 5 Nov. " Treaty of peace ratified and promulgated 17 Feb. 1815 Robert Fulton dies in New York city 24 Feb. " General disappearance of the Federal party 1815-17 [The 2 political parties of the nation up to this period were the Federal and Republican, afterwards called Democratic. Virtually but one party remained after the collapse of the Fed- eralists, until the Whigparty was formed. Political parties.] De Witt Clinton elected governor to succeed gov. Tompkins, chosen vice president of the U. S 1817 Legislature abolishes slavery from 4 July, 1827 Apr, " Erie canal begun at Rome, Oneida county .* 4 July, " State grants $20,000 to county agricultural societies to promote agriculture and family domestic manufactures " First paper mill west of the Genesee river built by William H. Bush at Batavia " State library founded at Albany 21 Apr. 1818 [It is open daily for the use of the public] First steamboat, Walk-in-the-water, on lake Erie " [360 tons, built at Black Rock, a suburb of Bufialo. Her engine and boiler were made in New York. She was lost in a gale in 1821.] Hamilton Theological seminary, Madison county, incorporated, 1819 [The oldest American Baptist divinity school.] Steamship Savannah, 380 tons, capt. Moses Rodgers, sails from New York, where she was built, for Savannah, Ga 10 Apr. " [Arriving there 17 Apr. she sails from that port 24 May for St. Petersburg, Russia, via Liverpool, reaches L. 20 June, sails for St. P. 23 July; return to Savannah 50 days from St. P. Dec. 1819; first Amer. steamship to cross the Atlantic] Population of the state i;372,lllT Rank among the states 1st! |q„„ Population to the sq, mile 28.8 [ ^'^^^ Per cent, of increase 43 j [From this time the state has been styled the "Empire State."] Lockport, Niagara county, settled 1821 Revised state constitution adopted and ratified Feb. 1822 Joseph C. Yates governor " Champlain canal begun 1816, finished 1823 De Witt Clinton elected governor 1824 Lafayette lands in New York city (United States) 15 Aug. " New State prison commenced at Sing Sing 1825 Geneva college, Geneva, Ontario county, incorporated " [Name changed to Hobart college, 27 Mch. I860.] Daniel D. Tompkins, b. 1774, d. on Staten Island 11 June, " [Governor 1807-17, vice-president 1817-25.] Erie canal completed 26 Oct. " [Tidings of the opening conveyed from Buffalo to New York in 80 minutes by firing relays of cannon.] First boat. Seneca Chief, conveying the governor and others, passes from lake Erie to the Hudson, and reaches New York city. Grand celebration 4 Nov. ' ' [The Erie canal was 8 years in building. As originally built, it was 40 ft. wide at the top, 28 ft. wide at the bottom, and 4 ft. deep, and 352 miles in length ; cost, $9,027,456. The legislature, in 1835, ordered its enlargement to 70 ft. wide at the top, 42 ft. wide at the bottom, and 7 ft. deep, at a cost of about $25,000,000. Canals.] Delaware and Hudson canal commenced 1826 Abduction of William Morgan from Canandaigua (Morgan, William) 12 Sept. " Thurlow Weed edits the Anti- Masonic Enquirer, at Rochester, N. Y 1826-27 Owing to Morgan's abduction, a county convention at Le Roy, Genesee county, begins the anti-Masonic movement 1827 Journal of Commerce started in New York city " Gov. De Witt Clinton d. suddenly at Albany, aged 59.. .11 Feb. 1828 Nathaniel Pitcher acting-governor " Oswego canal finished " Martin Van Buren elected governor; resigns 12 Mch. 1829 Enos T. Throop acting-governor " Manufacture of brick by machinery successfully begun in New York " John .Jay dies at Bedford, Westchester county 17 May, " [No one of the great men of the Revolution approached so near Washington in lofty disinterestedness as John Jay.— Hildreth.] Sam Patch jumps from the Genesee falls at Rochester and is killed " 1832 1833 1834 1836 1837 NEW 568 Albany Evening Journal started, edited by Thurlow Weed. . . . First omnibus buili and used in New York city Book of Mormon tli-sl published by E. B. Grandiu at Palmyra (MOKMO.NS) [Real author was rev. Solomon Spaulding. Ohio.] Population of tlio slate 1,918,008 ' Rank among the states 1st Population to the square luilo 40.3 Per cent, of increase 39.8 University of the City of Now York opened First locomotive engine, " The Best Friend," built in the U. S., finished at West Point fouudery, New York city, and tested, 9 Dec. [For the South Carolina railroad.] Albany and Schenectady railroad opened 16 miles [Second locomotive built in the U. S. was for this road, the " He Witt Clinton," built in Now York city.] Chloroform first obtained by SamuelGuthrio of Sackett's Harbor, [About the same time made by Liebig in Germany and Souberein in France. First used as an anaesthetic, 1834.] Imprisonment for contract debt, except for fraud, abolished. . . Whig party formed [Mame suggested -by James Watson Wel)b of the New York Courier ami Enquirer.—'' Kmpire State," Lossing.] Cholera in New York city, 27 Juno until 19 Oct. ; 4000 die Buffalo and Utica incorporated as cities First horse street railroad in the world opened in Fourth ave., New York cilv Red Jacket, the Indian chief, dies near Buffalo, aged 78, 20 Jan. Anti slavery socitUy of New York organized 2 Oct. William L. iMarcy governor Riot in New York against the abolitionists A geological survey of the state ordered , Union Theological seminary in New York city founded Schenectady and Utica railroad opened Aaron Burr dies in New York, aged 80 14 Sept. Legislature appropriates $200,000 a year for 3 years to form township and district libraries (one of the best appropria- tions ever made of public funds for educational purposes, aside from public schools) American and Foreign Bible Society established in New York, " Patriot war — Canada " Navy island in Niagara river occupied by the " Patriots," Dec. " Steamer Caroline, at Schlosser's landing, on the American side of Niagara river, is fired and sent over the falls by Canadian soldiers under col. McNab night of 29 Dec. " Auburn and Syracuse railroad opened " William H. Seward, Whig, elected governor over William L. Marcy, Democrat 1838 Rutgers female institute, New York city, opened 11 Apr. " [Name changed to college, 1867.] Free banking law passed " Steamboat Lexington burned in Long Island sound 13 Jan. 1840 First state-prison library in the U. S. started at Sing Sing '' Population of the state 2,428,921 ~ Rank among the states 1st Population to the square mile 51 Per cent, of increase 26.5^ Railroad completed from Boston to Albany. 1841 Steam packet President sails for Liverpool (never heard from), 11 Mch. " First Washington Temperance meeting in New York. .24 Mch. " Steamboat Erie burned on lake Erie; 180 perish 9 Aug. " Auburn and Rochester railroad opened " Croton aqueduct finished; 5 years in construction; cost, $12.500,000 ; length, ^y^ miles (Croton aqueduct) 1842 Attica and Buffalo railroad opened " William C. Bouck governor 1843 Armed resistance begun by anti-renters in Albany, Delaware, and Rensselaer counties 1844 [Tenants of the patroon refuse to pay rent. Anti-rentism.] State Normal school established at Albany " Silas Wright, jr., governor 1 Jan. 1845 Steamer Swallow, capt. Squires, from New York to Albany, strikes a rock near Athens; many passengers drowned, 7 Apr. " Gov. Silas Wright proclaims Delaware county in a state of insurrection on account of anti-rentism 27 Aug. " Packer Collegiate institute, Brooklyn, L. I., opened " Madison university at Hamilton, Madison county, chartered, 26 May, 1846 [Hamilton Literary and Theological seminary, at the same place, established in 1819, is included in this charter.] State constitution revised and adopted Nov. " O.vEiDA community established 1847 Meeting at Seneca Falls to advocate political equality of women 1848 Hamilton Fish elected governor by the Whigs " " Spirit rappings " phenomena begun in the house of John D. Fox, Hydersville, and afterwards in Rochester on his re- moval there the same year (Spiritualism) " Continuous railroad ; Boston to New York opened 1 Jan. 1849 Population of the slate 3,097,394 1 Rank among the states 1st ! .. „-„ Population to the sq. mile 65 f Per cent, of increase 27.5 J University of Rochester, at Rochester, chartered 8 May, " Arctic expedition in search of sir John Franklin sails from New York under lieut. De Haven and dr. Elisha Kent Kane, 24 May, " Collins line of steamships begin between New York and Liver- pool—an American line " NEW Wa.shington Hunt elected governor by the Whigs, with a ma- jority of 262 over Horatio Seymour,' Democrat 18Ci Eric railroad complete, Piermont on the Hudson to lake Erie. A train goes over the road with the directors 28-29 Apr. 185 Hudson River railroad opened James Fenlmore Cooper, b. 1789, d. at Cooperstown, N. Y., 14 Sept. Whig party disappears from slate and national politics after . . 185' Second Arctic expedition in search of sir John Franklin sails from New York under dr. Kane. Funds mostly furnished by Henry Grinnell, of New York, and George Peabody. Grin- nell land discovered 30 May, New York Clearinghouse established District libraries of the state have 1,604,210 volumes [This number was reduced more than one-half through carelessness and loss up to 1890.] New York Central railroad form6d by consolidating the local railroads Continuous line of railway opened, New York to Chicago First train over a uniform gauge from Buffalo to Erie and Chicago 1 Feb. Office of the Stale Superintendent of Public Instruction created by a law of. 30 Mch. First kerosene oil factory in the U. S. established on Newtown creek, Long Island June, [Name kerosene originated by Abraham Gesner, who made oil from coal on Prince Edward isle in 1846.] Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic institute, non-sectarian, chartered Railway suspension bridge at Niagara falls completed Charter of the Elmira female college [First charter granted by the state for a female college.] Last survivor of Washington's Life guard, sergeant Uzel Knapp, dies, aged 97, at New Windsor, Orange county (Life guard, Washington's) 11 Jan. 185 St. Lawrence university, Canton, St. Lawrence county, incor- porated 3 Apr. Dudley observatory built at Albany Alfred university, at Alfred, opened 188 Ingham university, at Le Roy, Genesee county, incorporated, 3 Apr. Failure of the Ohio Life and Trust company in New York; a commercial panic spreads throughout the U. S 24 Aug. First telegraphic despatch received in New York from Loudon by the Atlantic telegraph (Electricity, submarine) . .5 Aug. 18S [First messages were the only intelligible ones received.] Edwin D. Morgan, Republican, elected governor M. Blondin (6mile Gravelet) crosses the Niagara river, just be- low the falls, for the first time on a tight- rope 30 June, 1859 Washington Irving, b. New York city, 1783, d. at Tarrytowii, N. Y. 28 Nov. " Population of the state 3,880,735') Rank among the states 1st I «q«j^ Population to the square mile. . 81.3 | Percent, of increase 25. 2 J William H. Seward before the Republican convention at Chi-" cago as a candidate for the presidency " St. Stephen's college, Annandale, Dutchess county, Prot.-Epis. ; date of charter " Erie canal enlargement completed; entire cost, $52,491,915.74. 1862 Manhattan college at Manhattanville, New York city, incor- porated by the regents 2 Apr. 1863 "Peace Meeting" held in New York city, called by leading Democrats to devise means for ending the civil war, 3 June, " Clement C. Moore, b. in New York, 1779, d. at Newport, R. I., 10 July, " [Author of the ballad, " 'Twas the night before Christmas. "] Draft riots in New York city 13-16 July, " [About 1000 killed. Claims for damages amounting to $1,500,000 presented.] Normal school at Oswego established " Number of troops furnished by the state in the civil war in all branches of the service reduced to a 3 years' standard was 392,270, about 12 per cent, of the population 1865 Eliphalet Nott, b. 1773, d. at Schenectady 29 Jan. 1866 [Made president of Union college in 1804. Over 3700 stu- dents graduated during his presidency.] Fenian raid into Canada; about 1200 men cross Niagara river near Buffalo, camping near old fort Erie 31 May, " Slight conflict takes place near Ridgeway 2 June, " [Force withdraws the next evening.] Vassar female college at Poughkeepsie incorporated, 11 Jan. 1861; name changed by legislature to Vassar college. .1 Feb. 1867 [Founded by Matthew Vassar.] Normal school at Brockport established " Public schools made entirely free 1 Oct. " State Board of Charities organized " Memorial or Decoration day made a legal holiday; date of first celebration 30 May, 1868 Wells college, Aurora, N. Y., founded " Normal school at Fredonia established " Commission of Fisheries created by an act passed " Cornell universilv at Ithaca opened to students Oct. " [Founded by Ezra Cornell in 1865.] Normal school at Potsdam, St. Lawrence county, established. . 1869 Normal school at Cortland opened " Henry Jarvis Raymond, journalist, b. Lima,Livingston county, N. Y., 24 Jan. 1820, d. in New York city 18 June, " [He started the New York Times in 1851.] j Financial panic in New York city culminates in " Black Fri- day ;" the price of gold reaches 162)4 24 Sept. ; NEW [During the excitement it is estimated tluit contracts were made for the sale of $500,000,000 of gold. The crisis ruined thousands, and disarranged the business of the country.] Cardiff giant discovered on the farm of Wm. C. Newell, near Cardiff, Onondaga county 16 Oct. [The originator of this successful hoax was George Hull of Binghampton. who, after maturing his plan, went to Iowa in 1868 and quarried, near fort Dodge, the block of gypsum out of which at Chicago the giant was made. Securely boxed it wns shipped to Binghampton by rail and thence to Cardiff and secretly buried, 9 Nov. 1«68, on the farm of Newell at the bottom of a partly dug well; here it was found by some workmen employed a year later to finish the well. When found it had cost Hull $'2600. It gave rise to much contro- versy, and proved a financial success to its owners.] Population of the state 4,382,759 ] Rank among the states 1st '■ Population to the sq. mile 92 | Per cent, of increase 12.9 J Lenox Public library, New York city, incorporated. . .20 June, [Endowed by James Lenox with his private library, which in American history and certain other departments is unri- valled. Library of George Bancroft, consisting of 15,000 bound volumes and 5000 pamphlets, purchased Apr. 1893, for $80,000.] Cornerstone of the new capitol at Albany laid 24 June, Syracuse university (Meth. Rpis.) founded at Syracuse Capt. Hall sails from New York in the U. S. ship Polaris, on an Arctic exploring expedition (Nor'thkast and Northwest PASSAGES) 29 June, Normal S( hool opened at Geneseo Normal school opened at Buffalo William M. Tweed arrested in New York city 27 Oct. [His bail bond was fixed at $2,000,000.] Legislature establishes a commission of state parks. . .23 May, Topographical survey of the Adirondack wilderness begun by the state under the supervision of V'erplanck Colvin Susan B. Anthony and some other women vole at Rochester (Women, Advancement of) 5 Nov. Horace Greeley d 29 Nov. One hundred and nine short horn cattle sold at a public sale at New York Mills, N. Y., for about $382,000 10 Sept. [Highest price paid was for a cow, $4600, and $2700 for a calf 5 months old.] Commercial panic beginning in the Stock exchange of New York spreads throughout the country 19 Sept. International Railway Bridge crossing Niagara river at Black Rock (Buffalo) to Canada, built under authority of Congress and the British Parliament and the state and province gov- ernments at a cost of over $1,500,000. Total length 3651>^ ft., over the river proper 1967i^ ft. Began 1870, o])ened 31 Oct. Tweed sentenced to 12 j'ears in the penitentiary 22 Nov. [He is discharged, but is rearrested, and escapes 4 Dec. 187.5. He goes to Spain, is there arrested at Vigo, and brought back, 24 Nov. 1876. He dies in prison, 12 Apr. 1878.] Compulsory educational law passed 15 Apr. Term of the governor changed from 2 years to 3 New York State Soldier's Home incorporated at Bath. .15 May, Hallett's Point reef, "Hell Gate," successfully blown up; work directed by gen. John Newton, U. S. army, from the beginning, 1869. The excavations were completed in 1875 ; but for want of an appropriation the reef was not destroyed until 24 Sept. Cornelius Vanderbilt d. at New York 4 Jan. Rock salt first discovered in the state by Charles B. Everest, 4 miles from Warsaw, Wyoming county, while boring for oil at a depth of 1279 feet; strata of salt 70 feet thick. .20 June. William CuUen Bryant, b. 1794, d. New York city [Editor of the Evening Post, 1826.] Cyrus W. Field erects a monument in memory of maj. John Andre on the site of his grave at Tappan [This monument was badly damaged by attempts to blow it up on the nights of 31 Mch. and 1 Apr. 1882.] ;Alonzo B. Cornell, Rep , elected governor New capitol at Albany opened 12 Feb. ; State Board of Health authorized by law 18 May, Commission for the protection of game and fish established by law 26 June, New York and Connecticut Joint boundary commission award to New York a small strip, 4.68 sq. miles in area, called the "oblong tract," east of the straight-line boundary which runs north and south 20 miles east of the Hudson river, as agreed upon, 1685. It was given to New York by a faulty survey, 1787, and came into dispute in 1856. This commis- sion also established the southern boundary of Connecticut through the middle of Long Island sound il'opulation of the state 5,082,871 iHank among the states 1st Population to the sq. mile 106.7 Per cent, of increase 15.97 Nfew York agricultural experiment station instituted by law, 26 June, [Egyptian obelisk erected in Central park 22 Jan. [Brought from Alexandria, Egypt, to New York by the steamer Dessong, commander Henry H. Gorringe, U. S. navy, which sailed from Alexandria, 12 June, reaching New York, 20 July, 1880. Total height, 90 ft. ; height of shaft, 69 ft. ; I weight of shaft in pounds, 443,000. Total expense of re- »">val and erection, $103,732, paid by William H. Vanderbilt. I This obelisk is supposed to have been made 1591-1565 B.C. ' at Heliopolis; removed to Alexandria 22 b.c. Obelisks.] Alfred B. Street, poet, b. at Poughkeepsie, 1811, d. at Albany, ' NEW U. S. senators Conkling and Piatt resign 16 May, Warner Miller and Elbridge G. Lapham elected 17 July, William G. Fargo, pres. of the American Express company, b. 1818, d. at Buffalo 3 Aug. Thurlow Weed, politician and journalist, d. in New York city, aged 85 22 Nov. Grovor Cleveland, Dem., elected governor Nov. Edwin D. Morgan, b. 1811 ; d. in New York city 14 Feb. Commission of statistics of labor established by law 4 May, East River suspension-bridge, connecting New York and Brook- lyn, opened (Bridges) 24 May, Civil-service commission created by law 29 May, [Three commissioners, to be appointed by the governor with Ihe advice and consent of the senate.] Centennial of the disbanding of the army of the Revolution celebrated at Newburg 18 Oct. 1870 ^®^ railroad (cantilever) bridge across the Niagara below the falls opened 20 Dec. New York state dairy commission established by law. .24 Apr. Gov. Cleveland nominated for president of the U. S. at the Democratic National convention in Chicago 8 July, Susan Warner, b. in New York city, 1818, d. there 18 Mch. [Author of " Wide, Wide World," and other novels.] Richard Grant White, critic, philosopher, and Shakespearian scholar, b. 1822, d. in New York city ,s Apr. Common schools cost the state $13,466,367.97 Legislature authorizes the governor, with the advice and con- sent of the senate, to appoint 3 forest commissioners, 15 May, [To control and superintend the forest preserve, being lands owned or to be acquired by the state within Essex, Franklin. Fulton, Hamilton, Herkimer, Lewis, Saratoga, St. Lawrence, Warren, Washington, Greene, Ulster,, Sullivan, Oneida, and Clinton counties, except the towns of Altonaand I Dannemora; to be kept forever as wild forest lands; not to be sold or leased. The commissioners also superintend forest and tree planting throughout the state.] Niagara Falls reservation made a state park 16 July, [State park extends along the river front from the upper su.spension-bridge to a point nearly a mile above the falls. It includes what was formerly known as Prospect park, at the edge of the American falls, and Goat island, with the group of smaller islands. The total area is 115 acres.] Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, b. 1822, d. at Mt. McGregor, near Sara- toga 23 July, David B. Hill, Dem., elected governor Commission created to report the most humane and practical method of executing the death sentence 13 May, [It consisted of Elbridge T. Gerry, dr. Alfred P. Southwick, and Matthew Hale. Their report of Jan. 1888, recommended the use of electricity.] State Board of Arbitration created by law 18 May, [To consist of 3 members.] Ofl3ce of factory inspector established for the state " Arthur Quartley, artist, d. in New York city 19 May, Normal school at New Paltz, Ulster county, opened 1874 John Kelly, Dem. politician, d. in New York 1 June, Orson S. Fowler, phrenologist, b. 1809, d. at Sharon Station, 1876 ; N. Y. 18 Aug. Total cost of new capitol at Albany, $17,914,875.02, to. .30 Sept. William Dorsheimer, b. at Lyons, N. Y., 1832, d. at Savannah, Ga 26 Mch. [Elected lieut.-gov. by the Democrats, 1874 and 1876.] 1877 Cornelius R. Agnew, surgeon, b. 1830, d. in New York, 18 Apr. John T. Hoffman, b. 1828, d. in Germany 10 June, [Elected governor by the Democrats, 1868 and 1870.] 1878 E. P. Roe, b. 1838, d. in New York city 19 July, [Author of " Barriers Burned Away " and other novels.] Centennial of the first inauguration of George Washington cele- brated in New York 29, 30 Apr.-l May, 1879 State Normal school at Oneonta,Otsego county, opened Population of the state 5,997,853 Rank among the states 1st Population to the sq. mile 121.98 Per cent, of increase 18 , 1880 Henry R. Pierson, chancellor of the University of the state of New York, d. at Albany 1 Jan. Miss Pink E. Corkran, "Nellie Bly," of the New York World, finishes a trip around the world eastward, in 72 days, 6 hr. 11 min 25 Jan. George William Curtis elected chancellor of the Board of Re- gents of the state of New York 30 Jan. Schenectady commemorates the 200th anniversary of the mas- sacre by French and Indians 9 Feb. John Jacob Astor, b. 1822, d. in New York 22 Feb. Gov. Hill signs the Adirondack State Park bill appropriating $25,000 for park purposes 11 Mch. Charles T. Saxton introduced in 1888 the first bill embodying the Australian ballot system presented to any legislature in the U. S., passes the assembly by 72 to 51, 13 Mch., but is vetoed by gov. Hill 31 Mch. Gov. Hill approves the Corrupt Practices act for preventing bribery nnd intimidation at elections 4 Apr. Compromise Election bill, allowing a "paster ballot" and a series of tickets, instead of a "blanket ballot," is approved by the governor 2 May, Gen. Clinton B. Fisk, b. 1828, d. in New York ,9 July, Maj. -gen. John C. Fremont, b. 1813, d. in New York. . .13 July, Dr. C. H. F. Peters, astronomer, the discoverer of 50 asteroids, b. 1813, d 18 July, First execution in the world by electricity, William Kemmler (murderer) at Auburn prison 6 Aug. 1881 1882 1884 1889 1890 NEW 570 Strike of 3000 trainmen owing to discharge of certain Knights of Labor on the New York Central railroad 8 Aug. 1890 Boundary-line with Pennsylvania agreed upon by commission- ers from each state, 20 Mch. 1886, and contlrmed by the leg- islatures, approved by the Congress 19 Aug. •' Single tax convention meets in New York city, 2 Sept., and adopts a platform 3 Sept. " Strike on the New York Central railroad declared off. .17 Sept. Gov. Hill is elected U. S. senator from New York, receiving 81 votes on joint ballot, to 79 for Evarts 21 Jan. 18i)l Secretary of the treasury, William Windom, b. 1827, dies sud- denly at a banquet at Delraonico's, New York 29 Jan. " James Redpath, journalist, b. 1833, d. in New York city, 10 Feb. ' ' Board of Regents of the University adopt a plan for university extension under a University Extension council of 5 repre- sentatives of colleges to be appointed annually 11 Feb. " Gen. William T. Sherman, b. 1820, d. at New York 14 Feb. " Ex-governor Lucius Robinson d. in Elmira, aged 81. . . .23 Mch. " I^gislatureappropriatesflO.OOOforuniversltyextenslon, 16Apr. " Ground broken for Grant monument In New York 27 Apr. " Charles Pratt, philanthropist, b. 1830, d. at New York. .4 May, " School children of the state choose the rose as state flower by a vote of: rose, 294,816; golden-rod, 206,402; majority, 88,414 8 May, " Benson John I^osslng, historian, b. 1813, d. at Chestnut Ridge, Dutchess county 3 June, " Chauncey Vibbard, called " the father of the American rail- way," d. at Macon, Ga 5 June, " Statue of Henry Ward Beecher unveiled at Brooklyn. .24 June, " Four murderers, Slocum, Smiler, Wood, and Jugiro, executed by electricity at Sing Sing 7 July, " A train on the New York Central railroad runs from New York to East Buffalo, 436 miles in 426 minutes, running time. Of this, 37 miles was at a rate averaging 70.78 miles per hour, and 151 miles at a rate of from 65 to 70 miles 14 Sept. " First regular Empire State Express makes the run from New York to Buffalo in 8 hrs. 42 min 26 Oct. " Field, Lindley, Wiechers & Co. , stock-brokers of New York city, make an assignment, liabilities $2,000,000; and E. M. Field Bald to be Insane 27 Nov. " A lunatic enters the oflBce of Russell Sage, in New York; being refused his demand for $1,250,000, he drops a hand-bag con- taining explosives, killing himself, a bystander, bruising Sage and others, and wrecking the building 4 Dec. " Martin D. Loppy, the wife-murderer, executed by electricity at Sing Sing 7 Dec. " Randolph Rogers, American sculptor, b. 1825, d. at Rome, N. Y 14 Jan. 1892 Dr. Wesley Newcomb, one of the leading conchologists of the world, d. at Ithaca, N. Y. , aged 84 years 27 Jan. " NEW "Greater New York " bill fails in Assembly 15 Mch. Legislature appropriates $300,000 for the Columbian Exposi- tion 22 Mch. Charles Kendall Adams resigns the presidency of Cornell uni- versity 5 May, Prof Jacob Gould Schurman elected in his place 18 May, Cyrus W. Field, b. 1819, d. at Ardsley, N. Y 12 July, Switchmen's strike at Buffalo, on the Erie railroad, begins: strikers burning freight trains and destroying about $1,000,000 worth of property 14 Aug. 65th and 74th regiments of national guards are ordered out at Buffalo by gen. Doyle 15 Aug. National guards from New York, Brooklyn, and elsewhere, about 8000 men, ordered to Buffalo by gov. P'lower, on appeal from the sheriff and mayor at Buffalo 17 Aug. Ex-gov. Myron H. Clark dies at Canandaigua, aged 86, 23 Aug. Switchmen's strike at Buffalo declared off by grand-master Sweeney 24 Aug. George William Curtis, b. 1824, d. at West Brighton, Staten Island 31 Aug, Ex-U. S. senator Francis Kernan, b. 1816, d. at Utica. . .7 Sept. Opening in New York city of the Continental Congress of the Salvation Army of the U. S 21 Nov. Act authorizing the purchase of Fire island for quarantine purposes signed n Mch. Naval review and parade at New York city 27-28 Apr. [10 nations participate.] "Viking ship " arrives at New York city 17 June, State monument to its fallen soldiers dedicated on the battle- field of Gettysburg 2 July, Hamilton Fish, ex-governor and ex-secretary of state, b. 1808, d. at Garrison's, N. Y 7 Sept. State Normal school building burned at Oneonta, loss $200,000, 15 Feb. John Y. McKane of Gravesend, L. I., found guilty of election frauds and intimidation, and sentenced at Brooklyn to 6 years in Sing Sing prison 19 Feb. Joseph Keppler, founder of Ihick, d. in New York city, 20 Feb. " Greater New York " bill, after repeated defeats, passes the Assembly, 8 Feb., Senate, 27 Feb., and is signed by the governor (New York city) 28 Feb. David Dudley Field, b. 1805, d. at Gramercy Park, New York ci 181 ity. ,13 Apr. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, b. 1827, d. in Brooklyn 14 Apr. Constitutional convention meets at Albany 8 May, Richard Croker, leader of "The Tammany Hall Society," re- signs the position 10 May, Brooklyn Tabernacle (dr. Talmage's) and adjoining buildings burned 13 ^fay. GOVERNORS OF NEW YORK. UNDER THE DUTCH. Term of oflSce. Cornells Jacobsen May. William Verhulst Peter Minuit Wouter Van Twiller William Kieft Peter Stuyvesant Richard Nicolls. . . Francis Lovelace. Anthony Colve. 1624 1625 4 May, 1626 to 1633 Apr. 1633 " 1638 28 Mch. 1638 " 1647 11 May, 1647 " 1664 Surrendered to the English. UNDER THE ENGLISH. 8 Sept. 1664 to 1668 i Resigned. 17 Aug. 1668 " 1673 | Surrendered to the Dutch. DUTCH RESUMED. 1673 to 1674 I Edmund Andros , Thomas Dongan Francis Nicholson Jacob Leisler Henry Sloughter Richard Ingoldsby Benjamin Fletcher , Richard, earl Bellomont.. John Nanfan Jj)Td Cornbury , John, lord Lovelace Richard Ingoldsby , Gerardus Beekman , Robert Hunter Peter Schuyler William Burnet John Montgomery Rip Van Dam , William Cosby George Clarke George Clinton Sir Dan vers Osborne James De Lancey Sir Charles Hardy , James De Lancey Cadwallader Golden Robert Monckton Cadwallader Golden Sir Henry Moore Cadwallader Golden John, lord Dunmore , William Tryon 10 Nov. 27 Aug. 3 June, 19 Mch. 26 July, 30 Aug. 3 May, 18 Dec. 9 May, 10 Apr. 14June, 21 July, 17 Sept. 15 Apr. 1 Aug. 2 Sept. 10 Oct. 12 Oct. 3 Sept. 3 June, 4 Aug. 26 Oct. 18 Nov. 18 Nov. 12 Sept. 19 Oct. 9 July, ENGLISH 1674 to 1683 1683 " 1688 1688 " 1689 1689 " 1691 1691 1691 " 1692 1692 " 1698 1698 " 1701 1701 " 1702 1702 " 1708 1708 " 1709 1709 " 1710 1710 1710 " 1719 1719 " 1720 1720 " 1728 1728 " 1731 1731 " 1732 1732 " 1736 1736 " 1743 1743 " 1753 1753 1753 " 1755 1755 " 1757 1757 " 1760 1760 " 1761 1761 1761 " 1765 1765 " 1769 1769 " 1770 1770 " 1771 1771 " 1777 RESUMED. Lieutenant governor. Dies in oflQce. Deputy-governor. Dies in ofiSce. Acting-governor. Commission revoked. Dies in ofBce. Lieutenant-governor. President of the council. President of the council. Transferred to Massachusetts government. Dies in office. President of the council. Dies in office. President of the council. Lieutenant-governor. , Commits suicide 5 days after his arrival. Lieutenant governor. Dies in office. President of the council. Lieutenant-governor. Sails at the head of an expedition against Martinique. Dies in office. Appointed governor of Virginia. Last royal governor of New York. NEW 571 NEW GOVERNORS OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. When elected. Opponents. Party. George Clinton. John Jay George Clinton. Morgan Lewis. Daniel D. Tompkins. John Taylor De Witt Clinton . . . Joseph C. Yates . . , De Witt Clinton... Nathaniel Pitcher . Martin Van Buren . Enos T. Throop. William L. Marcy. William H. Seward. William C. Bouck . Silas Wright, jr John Young Hamilton Fish. Washington Hunt , Horatio Seymour. Myron H. Clark Johu A. King.. Sdwin D. Morgan . jioratio Seymour., lleuben E. Fenton. ■ohn T. Hoffman. . I'ohn A. Dix iSamuel J. Tilden . ';ucius Robinson.. lonzo B. Cornell rover Cleveland. avid B. Hill. oswell P. Flower. svi P. Morton. Dem.-Rep. 1777 1780 1783 1786 1789. . 1792.. 1795.. 1798.. 1801.. 1804.. 1807.. 1810.. 1813.. 1816.. 1817.. 1817.. 1820. . 1822.. 1824.. 1826.. Robert Yates , John Jay. Robert Yates Robert R. Livingston. Stephen Van Rensselaer Aaron Burr. Morgan Lewis. Jonas Piatt. Stephen Van Rensselaer. Rufus King , Peter B. Porter. Daniel D. Tompkins. Solomon Southwick. Samuel Young. William B. Rochester , Democrat Whig Democrat Whig Democrat . . Whig Republican. Democrat . . Republican . Democrat . . Republican. Democrat . . Republican. Democrat . . 1828. . ;1829,. 11830.. 1832.. 1834.. 1836.. 1838.. 1840 1842.. 1844., 1846.. 1848. . 1850. . 1852. . 1854.. 1858. 1860. 1862. (1864. 11866. (1868. U870. 1872 1874. 1876. (Smith Thompson I Solomon Southwick. ( Francis Granger ( Ezekiel Williams. Francis Granger William H. Seward (Jesse Buel. \ Isaac S. Smith. William L. Marcy .... (William C. Bouck (Gerrit Smith. I Luther Bradish. (Alvan Stewart. ( Millard Fillmore (Alvan Stewart. (Silas Wright, jr JOgden Edwards. ( Henry Bradley. (John A. Dix \ Reuben H. Walworth. ( William Goodell. Horatio Seymour I Washington Hunt (Minthorne Tompkins. ( Horatio Seymour J Daniel Ullman. ( Green C Bronson. {Amasa J. Parker Erastus Brooks. I (Amasa J. Parker I Lorenzo Burrows. (Gerrit Smith. ( William Kelly. ( James T Brady. James S. Wadsworth. . Horatio Seymour John T. Hoffman John A. Griswold Stewart L. Woodford. . Francis Kernan John A. Dix Edwin D. Morgan f Lucius Robinson J John Kelly I Harris Lewis. [ John W. Mears. ( Charles J. Folger ^Alphonso A. Hopkins.. ( Epenetus Howe Republican. 1891. 1894. (Ira Davenport ( H. Clay Bascoui (Warner Miller ( W. Martin Jones f J. SloatFassett } John W. Bruce (Daniel De Leon (David B. Hill J Everett P. Wheeler. 1 F. E. Baldwin I Charles B. Matthews Dem.-Rep. Anti-masonic. Anti-masonic. Anti-masonic. Whig. Whig. Democrat. Whig. Democrat. Democrat. Democrat. Republican. Democrat Republican. Democrat. Republican. Democrat. Tam.-Dem. Republican. Prohibition. Greenback. Republican. Prohibition. Republican. Prohibition. Republican. Prohibition. Socialist. Democrat Prohibition. Socialist. First opposing candidate. Tompkins elected vice-pres. Lieutenant-governor. Acting, Clinton dies in office. Lieutenant-governor. Acting. ; Resigned. Appointed secre- ; tary of state by Jackson. Lieutenant-goyernor. Acting. I Cleveland resigns, 1884. ( Elected president Lieutenant-governor. Acting, le first governors of the- state entered office on 1 July following [ election, but since 1823 the date has been 1 Jan. The term of ,j, office was, up to 1823, 3 years; then until 1876, 2 years; from 1876 until 1895, 3 years; from 1895, 2 years. The governor and lieutenant-governor must be 30 years of age, a citizen of the U. S., and 5 years a resident of the state. NEW 672 NEW UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF NEW YORK. I Nam*. Philip Schuyler Ruftis King Aaron Burr John I^wrenco Philip Schuyler John Sloss Hobart William North James Watson Gouverneur Morris John Armstrong De Witt Clinton Theodore Bailey Samuel L. Mitchell Johu Smith Obadiah German Rufus King Nathan Sanford Martin Van Buren Nathan Sanford Charles E. Dudley William L. Marcy Silas Wright, jr Nathaniel P. Tallmadge. Henry A. Foster Johu A. Dix Daniels. Dickinson William H. Seward Hamilton Fish Preston King Ira Harris Edwin D. Morgan Roscoe Conkling Reuben E. Fen ton Francis Kernan Thomas C. Piatt Elbridge G. Lapham Warner Miller William M. Evarts Frank Hiscock David B. Hill Edward Murphy, jr So. of CongreM. 4th 5th 6th 1st 1st to '2d " 4th " 5th 5th 5th 6th to 6th 6th 6th 7 th 8th 7th " 8th 8th 8th to 11th 8th '• 13th nth " 14th 13th " 19lh 14th " 17 th 18th " 20th 19th " 2'2d 20th " 23d 22d 22d to 28th 23d " 28th 28th 28th to 31st 28th " 32d 31st " 37th 32d " 35th 35th " 38th 37th " 40th 38th " 41st 40th " 47th 41st " 44th 44th " 47th 47th 47th to 49th 47th " 50th 49th '> 52d 50th " 53d 52d " 53d " Date. 1789 to 1791 1789 " 1796 1791 " 1797 1796 " 1800 1797 " 1798 1798 1798 1799 to 1800 1800 " 1803 1801 " 1804 1802 " 1803 1803 " 1804 1804 " 1809 1803 " 1813 1809 " 1815 1813 " 1825 1815 " 1821 1823 " 1828 1826 " 1831 1828 '' 1833 1831 " 1832 1832 " 1844 1833 " 1844 1844 1845 to 1849 1845 " 1851 1849 " 1861 1851 " 1857 1857 " 1863 1861 " 1867 1863 " 1869 1867 " 1881 1869 " 1875 1875 " 1881 1881 1881 to 1885 1881 " 1887 1885 " 1891 1887 " 1893 1891 " 1893 " Resigned. Appointed minister to Great Britain by Washingtoi Vice-president of the U. S., 1801-5. Resigned. Elected president pro tern. 6 Dec. 1798. Resigned. Elected in place of Schuyler. Resigned 1798. Appointed in place of Hobart. Elected in place of Hobart. Resigned. Elected in place of Watson. ( Elected in place of Lawrence. Resigned 1802. Appointed [ place of De Witt Clinton. Resigned. Resigned. Resigned. Elected in place of Armstrong. Elected in place of De Witt Clinton. Appointed minister to Great Britain by pres. John Q. Adams, 18 Resigned. Elected governor of the state. Elected in place of Van Buren. Resigned. Elected in place of Marcy. Resigned. Resigned. Appointed pro tern, in place of Wright. Elected in place of Wright. Elected in place of Tallmadge. Resigned to enter the cabinet of pres. Lincoln. Committed suicide, New York city, 13 Nov. 1865. Resigned 14 May. The first Democratic senator from New York since 1851. Resigned 14 May. Elected in place of Conkling. Elected in place of I'latt. Term expires 1897. Term expires 1899. ]¥ew York city, the metropolis of the United States, covers an area of 41|^ sq. miles, comprising Manhattan island, Ward's, Randall's, and Blackwell's islands in the East river, and Governor's island in New York bay, also the portion north of Manhattan island annexed in 1874. (" Greater New York," see this record, 1894.) Lat. 40° 44' N. ; Ion. 74° W. First settled by the Dutch, it was known as New Amsterdam, and in 1656 had 17 streets and about 1000 inhabitants, including negro slaves ; 8 years later it was surrendered to the English, and received its present name. In 1712 the population was 6840; in 1731, 8632; in 1774, 22,760. Since 1790 the popula- tion according to the U. S. census has been : 1790 33,131 1800 60,489 1810 96,373 1820 123,706 1830 202,589 1840 312,710 1850 515,507 1860 805,651 1870 942,292 1880 1,206,299 1890 1,515,301 Manhattan island ceded to the Dutch by the Indians for about $23, 6 May, and fort Amsterdam and a stone warehouse built, 1626 Everardus Bogardus, first clergyman, and Adam Rolandsen, school- master, arrive at Manhattan Apr. 1633 First church built on Broad street " Gov. Kieft builds a stone hotel on northeast corner Pearl street and Coenties slip, fronting the North river (afterwards the StadtHuys) 1642 Stone church built, 72x50 ft, and 15 ft. high (cost $950), with- in the fort " First recorded sale of city lots: one of 30 ft. front, by 110 ft. deep, on Bridge street, sold for $9.60 " School, taught at first by dr. La Montagne, opened in a room in the Stadt-Huys Apr. Proclamation of the governor naming first officials of New Am- sterdam 2 Feb. Seal and coat-of-arms received from Holland 8 Dec. New Amsterdam has about 1000 people, including negro slaves, 1656 First street paved: Dehoogh, now Stone street, between Broad and Whitehall sts 1657 A "rattle-watch" from 9 p.m. until morning drum-beat estab- lished. 1658; and 250 leather fire- buckets, also hooks and ladders, ordered from Holland, arrive 12 Aug. 1658 Alexander Carolus Curtius, the first Latin school-master, ar- rives 4 July, 1659 He returns to Holland, dominie Algidius Luyck succeeds 1661 ["The high-school gains such a reputation that pupils come from 'Fort Orange,' 'South River,' and even Virginia."] Fort Amsterdam surrendered to the English (name of New Am- sterdam changed to New York) 8 Sept. 1664 Capt. Thomas Willett of Plymouth, Engl, first mayor; Thomas Delavall, OloflfStevenson Van Cortlandt, Johannes Van Brugh, 1652 1653 1654 Cornells Van Ruyven, and John Lawrence, aldermen; AUaid Anthony, sheriff" 15 June, IfljB Peter Stuyvesant dies at his " Bouwery," aged 80 Feb. 16W [A pear-tree, brought from Holland and planted by him, stood at corner of Third ave. and Thirteenth st. until 1867.] Monthly post established between New York and Boston. 22 Jan. 1673 ' New York surrendered to the Dutch, who name it New Orange, 9 Aug. " Peace declared between England and Holland, Feb.-Mch. 1674, and New Netherland formally delivered to English. .10 Nov. 1671 New docks to meet increase of commerce built by city tax, Nov. 1676 City divided into 6 wards, each with one alderman, as fol- lows: Southward, Nicholas Bayard; Dock ward, .John Inians; Eastward. William Pinhorne; North ward,Gulian Verplanck; Westward, John Robinson; Outer ward, William Cox. 8 Dec. 1683 James Graham commissioned first recorder 16 Jan. 1684 New charter, known as the Dongan charter, granted by James II., issued 27 Apr. 1686 Old South or Garden Street Dutch Reformed church erected (re- built, 1766) 1693 William Bradford sets up the first printing-press in New York, 12 Apr. " Nassau street opened June, 1696 Streets first lighted with lanterns 1697 Trinity church, begun 1696, opened for service 13 Mch. 169S New city hall built on Wall street, facing Broad; corner-stone laid 1699, completed 1700 Nicholas Bayard convicted of high-treason, 9 Mch., and sen- tenced to death ; on confession is pardoned 30 Mch. 1702 Yellow-fever visitation " Act passed to establish a public grammar-school 1703 Corner-stone of French Huguenot church laid on north side of Pine street (then King St.), near Nassau 8 July, 1701 City charter granting ferry privileges issued 1708 Jewish synagogue erected on Mill street 1709 Slave-market established at the foot of Wall street " Pretended discovery of a negro insurrection in the city, 6 Apr. The result, says gov. Hunter, was "27 condemned, whereof 21 were executed; some were burned, others hanged, 1 broken on the wheel, and 1 hung alive in chains " 171'2 First Presbyterian church, a stone structure, built on Wall street, between Nassau and Broadway (rebuilt 1748, and stood mitil 1844) 17W New York Gazette (weekly), the first newspaper in New York, published by William Bradford; first issued 16 Oct. 1725 Library of rev. John Millington of England, 1600 volumes, do- nated to New York, Sept. 1728, and added to that of rev. John Sharp (1700), and placed in the city hall for public use 1729 First smelting furnace built near corner of Centre and Reade sts 173-' New charter, under seal of George III., formally presented to the city 11 Feb. 1731 First fire-engines received from England " NEW New Dutch church erected on cast side Nassau street; corner- stone laid 1727, opened 1729, completed (rebuilt 1764) Plot at the lower end of Broadway laid out for a bowling-green by the corporaliou Monthly stage route opened between New York and Boston. . . New York Weekly Journal established by John Peter Zenger, 5 Nov. First poor-house built on the common (City Hall park) Zenger imprisoned for libel, 17 Nov. 1734; defended by Andrew Hamilton and acquitted July, Alleged conspiracy to burn the city; 154 negroes and 21 whites arrested, of whom 13 negroes were burned at the stake, 18 hanged, and 71 transported, and Hughson (a white man), his wife and maid, and John Ury, a nonjuriug Episcopalian cler- gyman, hanged; all probably innocent Mch. et seq. A play enacted at a theatre in Nassau st 5 Mch. Merchants' exchange or Royal exchange at foot of Broad street, built upon arches, completed First regular theatre opened in Nassau street by Lewis Hallam's company performing " The Conscious Lover " 17 Sept. New York Society library founded King's (now Columbia) college founded; rev. William Samuel Johnson, D. D., first president Ferry to Staten Island established Stage route to Philadelphia, "three days through only," estab- lished Corner-stone of Columbia college laid 23 Aug. First British packet-boat carrying the mail between New York and Falmouth, established .' St. Andrew's society organized; Philip Livingston first presi- dent Beekman Street theatre opened with the tragedy "Fair Peni- tent " 18 Nov. [Destroyed by a mob, 1766.] Lamp-posts erected and streets lighted at public cost Light-house at Sandy Hook completed and first lighted. .June, Rhinelander sugar-house, used during the Revolution as a British prison, erected by Bernart R. Cuyler First sermon in English, in the Middle Dutch church. , .15 Apr. Sons of Liberty organized Stamp Act congress meets in New York 7 Oct. Non importation agreements signed by more than 200 mer- chants at a meeting held 31 Oct. St. Paul's church, cor. Broadway and Vesey sts., completed ex- cept the spire Old Brick church, cor. Nassau and Beekman sts., erected John Street theatre opened 7 Dec. 'iVesley chapel, on site of St. John's M. E. church, dedicated, [Rebuilt, 1817 and 184L] 30 Oct. Attempts by British soldiers to cut down the Liberty pole, on evenings of 13, 14, and 15 Jan. They succeed 16 Jan. Collision between Sons of Liberty and British soldiers; 1 I citizen killed and 3 wounded 18 Jan. New York Chamber of Commerce, founded 5 Apr. 1768, incor- porated by royal charter 13 Mch. [Statue of William Pitt erected at junction of Wall and Will- I iam sts 7 Sept. First Provincial Congress at New York appoints a committee of safety 22 May, First regiment organized in New York city under col. Alex- ander McDougal, and company of artillery under John Lamb, I 28 June, i Gilded leaden statue of George IIL, erected in the Bowling j Green 16 Aug. 1770, torn down by the people 9 July, ' [Most of it was melted into 42,000 bullets in Connecticut] Waterworks for supply of the city through wooden pipes, 1 in course of construction 'City evacuated by Americans, occupied by British 14 Sept. IFire destroys 493 houses, burns Trinity church, and "con- i sumes the fourth part of the city," begins near Whitehall I slip 21 Sept. ICapt. Nathan Hale executed as a spy by the British in the i Rutger's orchard on East Broadway 22 Sept. City records, carried off by gov. Tryon, 1775, restored Oct. iBritish evacuate the city 25 Nov. First American post-office opened at 38 Smith st 28 Nov. ;3en. Washington bids farewell to his ofllcers at Fraunce's ! tavern. New York 4 Dec. [First American city government established; James Duane I appointed mayor by the governor 7 Feb. ,?irst meeting of the common council 10 Feb. \Emj)ress of China, capt. Green, bound for Canton with mer- i chandise, leaves port 22 Feb. Bank of New York established [Chartered 21 Mch. 1791.] Chamber of Commerce reincorporated by law 13 Apr. /ustom-house established at the port of New York by act of ^ legislature 18 Nov. Jontinental Congress assembles in the city 11 Jan. ociety for the manumission of slaves, organized 1785, holds _ its first quarterly meeting at the Coffee-house 12 May, 'heatres reopened in the city harter for King's college altered, changing the name to Co- lumbia college, 1 May, 1784; first commencement. . . .11 Apr. iunker's Mansion-house erected at 39 Broadway as a resi- dence by gen. Alexander Macomb 'irst Catholic church built 573 NEW 1731 1732 1733 1734 1741 1750 1753 1754 1755 1756 1761 1762 1763 1764 1765 1766 1767 1776 1781 1783 1784 1785 1786 irst city directory published harter of Columbia college amended irst number of the Federalist papers printed in the Inde- pendent Journal or Weekly Advertiser 27 Oct. Doctors' mob, caused by the discovery of human remains for dissection in the hospital 13, 14 Apr. City hall, erected 1700, remodelled for U. S. government use, and called " New Federal Hall " "The Power of Sympathy; or, theXriumphof Nature," pub. by Robert Hodges, advertised as " first American novel," 4 Feb. Oath of office as president of the U. S. administered to gen. Washington by chancellor Livingston on the balcony of the City hall 30 Apr. Tammany Society or Columbian Order organized 12 May, "President's March," composed by one Fayles, German, leader of the John Street theatre orchestra. First played on the president and Mrs. Washington entering the theatre box (Hail! Columbia) 24 Nov. Corner-stone of new Trinity church laid 21 Aug. 1788, and church consecrated 25 Mch. Fort at the Battery taken down and ground levelled New York Dispensary established General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen of the City of New York, organized 17 Nov. 1785, chartered 14 Mch. [Apprentices' Library instituted by it, 1820.] Third centenary of the discovery of America celebrated, 12 Oct. Minerva, edited by Noah Webster, soon after and still called the Commercial Advertiser, first issued 9 Dec. Yellow-fever scourge; 525 deaths 6 Oct. 1794-19 July, System of underground sewers first established New York Missionary Society founded Park theatre, on Park row near Ann St., opened 29 Jan. Yellow-fever; 329 deaths during Aug., 924 during Sept. ; total in the city, 1524 Aug. -Nov. Charles Brockden Brown, "America's earliest romance writer," publishes his first novel, " Wieland ; or, the Transfgrmation," Vauxhall garden, east of Broadway, between Fourth st. and Astor place, founded (remained until 1826) New York Evening Post first issued 16 Nov. New York Historical Society founded 20 Nov. New York orphan asylum organized 15 Mch. Free School Society incorporated, De Witt Clinton president, 1805, and first free school opened 19 May, First issue of the Salmagundi 24 Jan. Clermont, Fulton's steamboat, leaves the city for Albany on her first trip, going 150 miles in 32 hours 11 Aug. College of Physicians and Surgeons organized American Academy of Fine Arts, organized 1802, incorporated, 13 Feb. " Knickerbocker's History of New York " pub Brick school-house erected on Chatham St., dedicated. .11 Dec. Fire which destroys from 80 to 100 large buildings begins in Chatham st. , near Duane 19 May, City hall — corner-stone laid by Edward Livingston, 30 Sept. 1803— completed First steam ferry from New York to Jersey City established. . First steam ferry-boat between New York and Brooklyn, the Nassau, begins running 10 May, Collect pond, on the site of the Tombs, filled up First steamship to cross the Atlantic, the Savannah, sails from New York, where she was built, for Savannah, Ga. . .10 Apr. New York Observer first issued Old Park theatre burned 25 May, Yellow-fever in New York U. S. government cedes Castle Garden to the city Assay ofiice in Wall st. erected Gen. Lafayette lands in New York 15 Aug. First gas-pipes laid, and residence of Samuel Leggett, 7 Cherry St., the first house lighted with gas Foundation of the Merchants' exchange laid First opera troupe appears in New York (Mrsic) Gov. Clinton and party arrive at New York on the first boat, the Seneca Chief, from Lake Erie by Erie canal 4 Nov. National Academy of the Arts of Design organized ; Samuel F. B. Morse, president 18 Jan. New York theatre, on present site of Bowery theatre, and then the largest in U. S. (seating capacity 3000), opened 22 Oct. [In it appeared Forrest, Booth, Charlotte Cushman, and others. It was burned 1828, 1836, and 1838.] Bellevue hospital established Nov. Journal of Commerce started Superior court of the city established Fire destroys more than $600,000 worth of property Manufacture of bricks by machinery successfully begun in New York Mercantile Library founded, 1820; building on Astor place erected Stage line from Bowling Green to Bleecker st. opened Spirit of the Times, first sporting paper in the U. S., started in New York Four thousand deaths from cholera 27 June to 19 Oct. First horse-railroad in the world opened in Fourth ave John Stephenson's first street-car, the John Mason, makes its initial trip between Prince and Fourteenth sts 26 Nov. Sun, the first one-cent daily paper, started Anti-slavery Societyof New York organized 2 Oct. Riot against the abolitionists; mob dispersed by the National Guard H July, New York Herald, James Gordon Bennett, editor, first issued, 6 May, Convention of more than 100 delegates from the state at large meet in the City hall, Oct. 1830, and found the University of the City of New York, which opens Fire destroys 693 buildings, including the marble Exchange in Wall St. and South Dutch church in Garden st ; loss esti- 1788 1789 1790 1792 1793 1795 1796 1798 1799 1801 1804 1807 1808 1809 1811 1812 1814 1817 1819 1820 1822 1823 1824 1825 1829 1830 1831 1832 1834 1835 NEW 574 1849 mftled. f20.000,(XH) (drc breaks out on the evening of the 16th, tJiermometor at zero, a gale blowing) 16-17 Dec. 1836 *' Shakespeare Tavern," cor. Fulton and Nassau sts., demol- ished 1836 Astor House opened 81 May, *' [At the time the finest hotel in the U. 8.] Union Theological seminary (Presbyterian) founded " Union club organized. Aug. " Hroad riot 10 Feb. 1837 New Vork banks suspend 10 May, " American ami Foreign Bible Society established " Fourth avouiio tunnel opened 26 Oct. " Tombs building liuished 1838 Express line to Boston opened by W. F. Harnden 4 Mch. 1839 New York Tribune, Horace Greeley, editor, first issued. 10 Apr. 1841 Property (lualitication for city voters abolished 1842 Celebration of tlie completion of the Croton aqukduct. .14 Oct. " •Mayor Harper institutes a uniformed police corps of 200 men under city ordinance enacted 1844 Fire destroys 345 buildings; it begins in Now St., and an ex- plosion ot" .saltpetre wrecks several buildings and puts the flre beyond control • 19 July, 1845 Telegniph line between New York and Philadelphia opened. . . 1846 Present Trinity church begun 1839, consecrated " German Liederkranz founded 9 Jan. 1847 College of St. Francis Xavier (Roman Catholic) opened " [Incorporated by the regents, 10 Jan. 1861.] First steam grain-elevator in the port of New York erected by col. Daniel Richards 1846-47 Park theatre burned 16 Dec. 1848 College of the City of New York established as the New York Free academy 1847, and opened (incorporated 1866) Jan. Astor place riot against Macready, an English actor; 141 sol- diers wounded, 34 of the mob killed, and many wounded, 10 May, " Cholera begins in the Five Points; number of deaths estimated, 3000 14 May et seq. " Amended city charter passed 2 Apr. ; takes effect 1 June, " Taylor's machine-shop flre ; 63 lives lost 4 Feb. 1850 American Bible Union organized 10 June, " Jenny Lind's first concert in U. S. in Castle Garden 11 Sept. " Erie railway opened from Piermont to Goshen, 23 Sept. 1841, and to Dunkirk 22 Apr. 1851 New York Times, Henry J. Raymond, editor, first issued, 18 Sept. " Hudson River railroad opened to East Albany 3 Oct. " New York Ledger first issued " Young Men's Christian Association organized (building in Twenty-third st. erected 1869 at total cost of $500,000). .June, 1852 American Bible Society organized, 8 May, 1816, and Bible House erected at cost of $300,000 " Five Points' Mission founded 1850; corner-stone of mission building laid, 27 Jan. 1853; building dedicated 18 June, 1853 Crystal palace opened for a universal industrial exhibition, 14 July, " Clearing-house established 11 Oct. " Children's Aid Society organized (incorporated 1856) " Harper & Brothers' publishing-house burned; loss $1,250,000, 10 Dec. " Astor Library, incorporated 13 Jan. 1849, opened 9 Jan. 1854 American Geographical Society, founded 1852, chartered " Academy of Music formally opened; Giulia Grisi and signor Mario in "Norma" 2 Oct. " Castle Garden becomes an emigrant depot 1855 Five Points' House of Industry established 1850, and building erected 1856 Harper^s Weekly begun ; Theodore Sedgwick, editor 13 Jan. 1857 St. Vincent's hospital (Roman Catholic), Eleventh St., founded 1849 ; incorporated 13 Apr. " Ohio Life and Trust company fails, and a commercial panic spreads throughout the U. S 24 Aug. " Fulton Street prayer-meeting organized Sept. " Metropolitan Police act passed " St. Luke's hospital incorporated 1850 ; building commenced 1854, and opened May, Cooper Institute opened to the public Firs't message from London by Atlantic telegraph 5 Aug. Crystal palace burned 5 Oct. Great fire in Elm st. ; 50 lives lost 2 Feb. Central park ; work begun 1856; opened to the public New York World first issued June, Mass convention in Union square; more than 100,000 persons present 20 Apr. Produce exchange organized (new building on Bowling Green opened 1884) " Manhattan college at Manhattanville incorporated 2 Apr. 1863 Draft riots ; about 1000 persons killed 13-16 July, " Corner-stone of National Academy of Design laid Oct. " Metropolitan fair in aid of the sanitary commission; main building on Fourteenth st. opened 4 Apr. 1864 Journal of Commerce and the World suppressed by order of pres. Lincoln 18 May, " Mr. Seward telegraphs the mayor of New York of a conspir- acy to burn the principal cities of the north 2 Nov. " Maj.-gen. B. F. Butler takes command in the city of New York 4 Nov. " Attempt made to fire hotels in New York city 25 Nov. " [Robert Kennedy arrested and subsequently hung.] Union League club instituted Feb. 1863; incorporated Feb. 1865 Volunteer Fire Department and hand fire-engines replaced by paid department and steam 2 May, " ! M. All NEW iounded establi.slied 26 Feb. ly for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, 1858 1861 ht'iiiy iJf.Tgti, president, organized Apr. National Academy of the Arts of Design erected and completed at a cost for site and building of $237,000 County Court-house, building begun 1861, and occupied I867I Single track elevated railroad operated by a cable, opened from Battery place to Thirtieth st 2 July, Barnum's Museum burned, 13 July, 1865, and again 2 Mch. 186^ Financial panic culminates in "Black Friday;" gold 162)^, 24 Sept. 18691 Tweed-Frear city charter, consolidating county and city, etc., becomes a law 5 Apr. ISldM Riot between Orangemen and Irish Catholics 12 July, 1871 [The occasion was an Orange parade on the anniversary of the battle of Aghrim, Ireland, when Williajn IIL of England overthrew the cause of James II.] Grand Central station at Forty-second St. opened ^ . . .9 Oct. William M. Tweed arrested (New York, 1871 et seq.) 27 Oct. Horace Greeley d 29 Nov. 187^ City charter amended 187ij Young Women's Christian Association founded 1870; incorpo- rated Society for the Suppression of Vice incorporated Commercial panic which spreads throughout the country be- gins on the Stock exchange 19 Sept. Morrisunia, West Farms, and Kingsbridge annexed by act 23 May, 1873, taking effect 1 Jan. 18749 Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children organized 1874 ; incorporated 187(1 North Dutch church, erected 1769, cor. Fulton and William sts., demolished Railroad approach in Fourth ave. leading to Grand Central sta- tion, tunnels, etc., completed " New post-ofBoe first occupied 1 Sept. " Society for the Prevention of Crime, rev. dr. Howard Crosby, president, founded 1876 Hallett's Point reef blown up (New York) 24 Sept. " Cornelius Vanderbilt dies in New York 4 Jan. 1877 Lenox Library incorporated 20 June, 1870; opened to the pub- lie (New York) • 4 Jan. " New building of New York Hospital- in Fifteenth st. opened, 16 Mch. " [This hospital was organized 1770; chartered by king George III., 13 June, 1771; corner-stone of building laid, 27 July, 1773; burned, 28 Feb. 1775; rebuilt and opened, 3 Jan. 1791, and abandoned, 19 Feb. 1870.] Bronze statue of Fitz Greene Halleck unveiled in Central Park 16 May, " Burning of Greenfield candy-works; 50 to 60 lives lost. 20 Dec. " First building of American Museum of Natural History— cor- ner-stone laid by pres. Grant, 2 June, 1874 — opened. . . 22 Dec. " Metropolitan elevated railroad opened from Rector st. to the park 5 June, 1878 University club chartered 1865; reorganized May, 1879 St. Patrick's Cathedral (Roman Catholic), corner-stone laid, 15 Aug. 1858; dedicated by cardinal McCloskey 25 May, " Metropolitan Museum of Art formally opened by the president of the U. S 30 Mch. 1880 Broadway, for about a mile, lighted with electricity 20 Dec. " Egyptian obelisk erected in Central park (New York, Obe- lisks) 22 Jan. 1881 Old Walton house, erected 1754, on Pearl St., opposite Harper & Brothers' publishing-house, torn down " Elephant "Jumbo " arrives in New York 9 Apr. 1882 Thurlow Weed, politician and journalist, dies in New York, aged 85 22 Nov. " East River or Brooklyn Bridge opened (Bridges) 24 May, 1883 Metropolitan Opera-house opened Oct. " Centennial of the final evacuation of New York by the British celebrated 25 Nov. " Failure of the Marine Bank and of Grant & Ward 6-7 May, 1884 Panic in Wall st 14 May, '• Corner-stone of the pedestal of the Bartholdi statue laid on Bediow's island ., 5 Aug. '' Collapse of 8 partly finished buildings; 12 injured 12 Apr. 1885 Gen. Grant's body buried at Riverside park 8 Aug. " Flood rock blown up 10 Oct. " General tie-up of street-railroads by Knights of Labor. .5 June, 1886 " Boodle " aldermen arraigned for Bribery 19 Oct. " Bartholdi's statue of Liberty Enlightening the World un- veiled 28 Oct. " Ex-pres. Chester A. Arthur d. in New York 18 Nov. " Fire in horse-car barns; 1200 horses suffocated 27 May, 1887 Henry Bergh b. 1823, d. in New York 12 Mch. 1888 [Founder of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, 1866.] Great blizzard in New York and vicinity 12-13 Mch. " Roscoe Conkling, b. at Albany, 1829, d. in New York. . .18 Apr. " Mary Louise Booth, b. 1831, d. in New York 5 Mch. 1889 [Author "History of the City of New York " and editor of Harper's Bazar.] Centennial of first inauguration of Washington, 29 Apr.-l May, " Corner-stone of Washington Memorial Arch in Washington square laid 30 May, 1890 New Croton aqueduct first used 15 July, " Bronze statue of Horace Greeley by John Q. A. Ward unveiled in front of the Tribune building 20 Sept. " Corner-stone of Criminal Courts building, north of the Tombs, laid 25 Oct. NEW One hundred and twenty-fourth anniversary of the Old John Street Methodist church celebrated 26 Oct. [Oldest Methodist church in America.] Manhattan Athletic club, "Cherry Diamonds," organized 1877; club-house opened 29 Nov. •Castle Garden formally surrendered to the city by the State Commission of Immigration, and immigrant depot removed to Ellis island 31 Dec. First Sunday opening of the Metropolitan museum; 10,000 visitors 31 May, More than 60 persons killed by the collapse of a building on Park place , 22 Aug. " Greater New York " bill killed in the assembly 15 Mch. Corner-stone of Grant monument in Riverside park laid by pres. Harrison 27 Apr. Hamburg-American steamship Moravia arrives at NeW York, bringing the first case of cholera (Unitkd States) 30 Aug. Columbus celebration 10-12 Oct. Jay Gould, b. 182(), d. in New York 2 Dec. €orner stone of Cathedral of St. John the Divine laid. . .27 Dec. United Charities building, the gift of John S. Kennedy to the 4 leading charity organizations of New York, formally dedi- cated 6 Mch. Two-hundredth anniversary of the introduction of printing into the city celebrated 12 Apr. International review of war-ships in New York harbor and Hudson river by pres. Cleveland passing between the 2 lines, 3 miles long, in the Dolphin. 27 Apr. Infanta Eulalia arrives at New York 18 May, Edwin Booth d 7 June, Madison Square bank closes its doors 9 Aug. Statue erected by the Sons of the Revolution to the memory of Nathan Hale in the City Hall park unveiled 25 Nov. Bronze statue of Roscoe Conkling unveiled on southeast corner Madison square 3 Dec. [Placed here as the point where he was overcome by the great blizzard of 12 Mch. 1888.] <5reater New York bill passed Assembly 8 Feb., Senate, 27 Feb., signed 28 Feb. [Greater New York will include the city of New York, Brooklyn, Long Island .City, Flatbush, ' Flushing. New Utrecht, Gravesend, etc., with adjacent territory, increasing the area to over 300 sq. miles, with a population of nearly 3,000,000, next to London the largest city m the world.] MAYORS. Thomas Willett IGGS Thomas Delavall 1607 Cornelius Steenwyck 1668 Thomas Delavall 1671 Matthias Nicoll 1672 Ji)hn Lawrence 1673 Johannes De Peyster*. . . J Johannes Pietersen Van [ 1674 Brugh* ) William Dervall 1675 Nicholas De Meyer 1676 Stephen Van Cortlandt 1677 Thomas Delavall 1678 Franpois Rombouts 1679 William Dyre 1680 575 NIA 1891 race. The right of Great Britain to New Zealand was recog- nized at the peace of 1814. Pop. 1858, European, 59,413 ; 1871, 256,260; 1881, 489,933; 1891, 626,830, and 41,523 ]VIaoris,- total, 668,353. New Zealand company established and Wellington founded. . . . 1839 First governor, capt. Hobson 1840 Auckland founded <■<■ Nelson and New Plymouth founded 1841 Otago founded 1848 Canterbury founded 1850 Present form of government established. ......V...V...... 1852 IVej's execution. Michel Ney, b. 1769, duke of Elchingen, prince of the IVIoskwa, a marshal of France, who at the battle of Friedland was characterized by Napoleon as " le brave des braves," was shot as a traitor, 7 Dec. 1815. On 7 Dec. 1853, his statue was erected where he fell. After the abdication of Napoleon I., 5 Apr. 1814, Ney swore allegi- ance to Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France from Elba, Ney marched against him; but his troops deserting, he regarded the Bourbon cause as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris, Mch. 1815. Ney led the French charge at Waterloo, where his clothes were pierced with bullets, and 5 horses shot under him; night and defeat obliged him to flee. Though included m the de- cree of 24 July, 1815, which guaranteed the safety of all French- men, he was arrested on 5 Aug. at the castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought to trial before the Chamber of Peers, 4 Dec. The 12th article of the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor in vain. Xez Percei (Pierced Noses), a tribe of Indians belong- ing to tif ^ihaptin nation and inhabiting parts of Idaho, Or 'ashington early in this century. In 1877, un- der -- .-: -ph, they attempted to defend their possessions against tf-. w.hites, out in vain. Indians. IKl. the lak^ Corneli us Steenwyck .. 1682 ^- •■ ' "•■■••lie .. 1684 cird. . . 1685 ■'. Cortlandt . . .. 1R86 i icr ueiiuioy . . liJSS John Laurence . . l''.-^^ Abraham De Peyster Charles 1 '.dowick .. V'", William Merritt \-r.h> Johannes De Peyst'^ . S David Provost .. lo'jy Isaac De Riemer .. 1700 Thomas Noell .. 1701 Philip French . . 1702 William Peartree . . . . . . 1703 Ebenezor Wilson . . . . 1707 Jaf-obus Van Cortlandt . . .. 1710 Caleb Heathcote - . .. 1711 .. 1714 Robert Walters .. 1720 Johannes Jansen .. 1725 Robert I^urting. .. 1726 Paul Richard .. 1735 JohnCruger, sr .. 1739 Stephen Bayard .. 1744 Edward Holland .. 1747 John Crugor, jr .. 1757 Whitehead Hicks .. 1766 David Matthews .. 1776 Richard Varick ITV., Edward Livingston ItjOl Do Wilt Clinton 1803 Marians Willett 1807 D- Witt Clinton 1808 Jacob Radcliff, 1810 De Witt Clinton 1811 John Ferguson 1815 Jacob Radcliff. " Cadwallader D. Golden 1818 Stephen Allen 1821 William Paulding 1824 Philip Hone 1826 William Paulding 182T Walter Bowne 1829 Gideon Lee 1833 Cornelius W. Lawrence 1834 Aaron Clark 1837 Isaac L.* Varian 1839 Robert H. Morris 1841 James Harper. 1844 if ui.au. 7. "^i-ady 1847 William F. H.. , 'nevA*- „- ^-y Caleb S. Woodhull ...:..... 1849 Ambrose C. Kingsland. ... . 1851 Jacob A. Wostervelt 1853 Fernando Wood 1855 Daniel F. Tieman 1858 Fernando Wood 1860 George Opdyke . ; 1862 C. Godfrev Gunther 1864 | John T. Hoffman 1866 Thomas Coman (acting) 1868 A. Oakev Hall 1869 William F. Havemeyer... 1873 William H. Wickham 1875 Smith Ely 1877 Edward Cooper 1879 William R. Grace 1881 Franklin Edson. . .' 1883 William R. Grace 1885 Abram S. Hewitt 1887 Hugh J. Grant 1889 Thomas F. Gilroy 1893 James Duaue 1784 1 William L. Strong 1895 * Burx'.masters under the Dutch. Kew Zealand Ci» the Pacific), discovered by Tasman in 1642. It consists of 2 islands, separated by Coo^ strait. The North island contains 44,000 sq. mil^s, and South island 58,000~sq. miles. . They v,'ere supposed to be part of a southern continent, till circumnavigated by capt. Cook, 1769-70. In 1773 he planted European garden-seeds here and in 1777 found fine potatoes. The natives are called Maoris, a Polynesian •I river and I1ei11§. The Niagara river, r of Waters," is 36 miles in length ; 22 from le falls, and 14 from the falls to lake Ontario. Ill - desceneL '■^?fi feet, 216 of it in the falls and ra: Goat island, contaiijii.j 61 acres, at the verge ct the ciiii, ..ides the American falls, UOu fe^t wide>nd 164 feet high, from the Horseshoe or Canadian falls, 2000 feet wide and varying in height from less than 150 feet neeii' /he centre to 159 feet at the outer edges. The 'New York ^tate engineer reports that comparisons of surveys show the mean total recession of the American fall has been BO^j^ feet, and of the Horseshoe falls 104^^^^ feet in 48 years. The boundary- line between the United States and Canada is the deepest channel of the Horseshoe falls. Cave of the Winds. Father Hennepin publishes a descrijnion of the falls 1678 La Salle launches his ship, the Griffin, at Cayuga creek, about 5 miles above the falls (New York) 1679 A mass 40 feet wide and 160 long breaks off' from Table rock on the Canada side just below the falls July, 1818 Niagara river, obstructed by ice at lake Erie, runs nearly dry above the (kUa for one day 29 Mch. 1848 Niagara gorge below the falls i in an iron basket hung on a wire cable suspor .'.hannAi ^j-^barijo^ EUet: foresha''- v^- " .^e " Portions .»■' i~ii and in 1829, and the remaiii ><» feet wide, falls 29 June, 1850 Snspens'i , > oss Niagara gorge, 2 miles below the falls; i.rsi m^.-Manive crosses (Bridges) Mch. 1855 M. Blondin (fimile Gravelet) crosses the gorge just below the falls on a tight-rope 30 June, 1859 Steamer Maid of the Mist safely passes the rapids below the falls 15 June, 1861 Suspension bridge at Queenston Heights, built 1856, is wrecked by floating ice and a tornado 1866 Suspension bridge, >^ of a mile below the falls, completed (for pedestrians and carriages) (Bridges) 1869 Visited by prof. Tyndall - Nov. 1872 Terrapin Tower, at the G 'sland end of Horseshoe falls, built in 1833, being considerea unsafe, is blown up 1873 International railway bridge crossing the river at Black Rock (Buffalo) opened (New York) " Capt. Matthew Webb, ftimous English swimmer, drowned in an attempt to swim through the whirlpool rapids at Niagara. 24 July, 1883 'New Maid of the Mist passes the lower rapids and whirlpool in safety ..6 Sept. • Cantilever bridge across the gorge, about 300 feet above the Roebling suspension bridge, completed and opened (Bridux-cv 20 Dec. State Reservation at Niagara falls opened as a park (New York) ... 16 July 1885 Nia liSS NIA 576 NIE Charles A. Percy passes safely through the Whirlpool rapids, 16 Sept. 1888 Waltor P P;iniplH)ll swims the Whirlpool rapids in a cork -jacket, 16 Sept. 1889 ■\Va le great tunnel and turbine wheels started, 25 Jan. 1894 \ia;;ara, Fort. Fokt Niagara. IVibeliiiigreiiot or ]Vibelun|j[cii-L., the emperor Severus defeated his rival, Pescennius Niger, and again at Issus, and soon after captured and put him to death. The first general council was held here 19 .June-25 Aug. 326, which adopted the Nicene Creed and condemned the Arians. It was attended by 318 bishops, who settled the doctrine of the Trinity and the time for observing Easter. An addition to the creed was made, 381, was rejected, 431 (when it was decreed unlawful to make further additions), but accepted, 451. When the crusaders took Constantinople, and established a Latin empire there in 1204, the Greek emperors removed to '^'^ic.'Ba, and reigned there till they returned to Tonocantinople, 1261. Eastern EMi'iRE. It was t :.^«rt"'by the Ottoman Turks in 1330. JVicara'g^ua, a state of Central Ameeica, joined the federal union of 5 Central American states in 1823, which lasted until 1889. At the commencement of 1865 it was dis- turbed by 2 political parties— that of pres. Chamoro,who held Grenada, the capital, and that of the democratic chief, Castel- lon, who held Ijeon. The latter invited Walker, the filibuster, to his assistance, who soon became sole dictator. By the united eflforts of the confederated states the filibusters were all ex- pelled in May, 1857. Filibusters. The present constitution was adopted 19 Aug. 1858. Great Britain, by the Clayton- Bulwer treaty of 1850, resigned all claims to the Mosquito Coast, and by the treaty of Manaqna, in 1860, ceded the pro- tectorate to Nicaragua. Revolt against pres. Sacasa began 30 Apr. 1893 Revolutionists successful 5 May, '• "^J^hH,ioni8ts institute a provisional government with Morales ^ May, " .11 May, * president Revolutionists m possession of the Nicaragua canal Government troops defeated ! ! !l9 May Free. Sacasa resigns; provisional government takes contrc.. ' 31 ' " Provisional government formed under pres. Mach«do.. .2 " Revolt against tlie provisional government r j " Gen. Zelaya, leader of the later revolutionists, made preside. ., XT' 5 Aug. " Nicaragua seizes the Mosquito country 18 Feb 1894 A British force lands at Bluefields to protect the autonomy of Mosquito 2 Mch " U. S. cruiser San Francisco at Bluefields. .*.'...*....... .15 Apr! " iVicara$?ua canal. In Mch. 1887, Nicaragua con- ceded to a New York association exclusive right of way through Nicaragua for a ship canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Tlie rcate surveyed begins at Greytown, on the Atlaiiti v>;.8t, f./iiowing the San Juan river 72J miles, and Jal: "^ '.tji miles; thence to Brito, on the Pacific coast; to; j% miles. Only 28^% miles require excavation, el of the canal and lake is 110 feet above the .-> 153J miles without locks. Estimated cost * to $100,000,000. .la explores Nicaragua and sends his lieuten- :;ircumnavigate the great lake 1522 "^t^^r, Antonio Galvao, proposes 4 routes for a " " one by lake Nicaragua and the 1550 VfauueTG^Seo.'^T.^^*^ ^"^ ^^^°''^ govern m en i,' by don 1781 'ss the isthmus; a river. Route for a canal surveyed for the government of Central Amer- ica by .lohn Baily 1838 Col. 0. W. Childs makes surveys between lake Nicaragua and the Pacific, and locates a route for a canal through the divide fi"om the mouth of the river Lajas to Port Brito on the Pacific, 1850 U. S. government makes a survey for a canal route 1872-73 Maritime Ship-canal company incorporated 20 Feb. 1889 First e.x-pedition for construction leaves New York, 25 May, 1889; lands at Greytown 3 .luno, " Maritime Ship -canal company goes into the hands of a re- ceiver 30 Aug. 189a [Application made by LoiiisChableof New York city. Judge Benedict of the U. S. Circuit Court names Thomas B. Atkins, secretary of the Maritime Ship-canal company, as receiver.] Several bills presented in Congress, both in the House and Senate, for the purpose of obtaining assistance from the U. S. government in building the canal 1893-94 Senator Morgan of Alabama introdu(;es a bill fixing the stock of the company at $100,000,000, and the company to issue bonds to the amount of $70,000,000, to be guaranteed by the U. S., etc 22 Jan. 1894 Bflce (nees), a city of S. France, originally a Roman col- ony from Massilia, now Marseilles. In the middle ages it was subject to Genoa, and suffered from frequent wars, being taken and retaken by the imperialists and French. It was seized and annexed to France, 1792; taken by Austrian* under Melas, 1800; restored to Sardinia in 1814; again an- nexed to France under treaty of 24 Mch. 1860, the people voting nearly unanimously for this change. French troops entered 1 Apr., and took definite possession 14 June. Gari- baldi, a native, protested against this annexation. IVic'las, Peace of, between Athens and Sparta for 50 years, 421 B.C., negotiated by that unfortunate Athenian gen- eral, who, with his colleague Demosthenes, was put to death after the failure of the expedition against Syracuse, 413 b.c. nickel, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic metal, em- ployed in the manufacture of German silver. Cronstadt, in 1751, discovered nickel in the mineral copper-nickel. Lan- caster county, Pa., furnishes nearly all the nickel for Araer- I ican coinage. Elkments. l^iCObar' i§les, 20 in number, Indian ocean, south of bay of Bengal, given up by Denmark and occupied by Great Britain to suppress piracy; announced June, 1869. Largest, " Great Nicobar," 30 miles long, 14 wide. IVIc'OJack cave, in the Raccoon mountains, Ga.,. about 4 miles in extent. ]VICOla'itane§, a sect mentioned in Rev. ii. 6, 15, as- cribed to Nicolas, one of the first 7 deacons (Acts vi.), said to have advocated community of wives, and denied the divinity of Christ. IViCOme'clia, the metropolis of Bithynia, N.W. Asia Minor, founded by kingNicomedes I., 264 b.c, on the remains of Astacus; destroj-ed by an earthquake, 115 a.d. ; and ro_ stored by the emperor Adrian, 124. Roman e:;r.perors often resjded here du>-j^,g eastern wars. 'Here Diocletian abdicated, 305; uiiu CoVistantine died at his villa near by, 337. It sur- rendered to Seljukian Turks, 1078 ; and to Orchan and Otto- man Turks in 1338. ]%ricop'olis, a town of Bulgaria, on the Danube, founded by Trajan. Here the allied Christian powers under Sigismund^ king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, fought the Turks un- der Bajazet. In this, called the first battle between Turks and Christians, the latter were defeated, losing 20,000 slain and as many wounded and prisoners, 28 Sept. 1396. Nicopo- lis was taken by Russians after a severe conflict (2 pachas, about 6000 men, 2 monitors, and 40 guns were captured), 15, 16 July, 1877.— A city in Pontus, Asia Minor ; near here was fought the last battle between Romans under Pompey and Mithridates, in which the latter was defeated, 66 b.o. nicotine, a volatile liquid alkaloid, constituting th« active principle of the tobacco plant. In a pure state itl is intensely poisonous. Vauquelin in 1809 ascertained thafcf the acrid principle of tobacco was volatile and capable of sepa- ration from its compounds by means of a fixed alkali. Posselt and Reimann in 1828 succeeded in obtaining it in a state of! comparative purity from the leaves of the tobacco plant. Tobacco. niellO-VTOrk, believed to have been produced by rubbing a mixture of silver, lead, copper, sulphur, and borax I NIE 577 NOB into engravings on silver, etc., an art known to the ancients, and practised in the middle ages, which is said to have sug- gested to Maso Finiguerra the idea of engraving upon copper, about 1460. IVieilieil {nee'men) or Memel, a river flowing into the Baltic, and separating Prussia from Russia. On a raft on this river the emperor Napoleon met Alexander of Russia, 22 June, 1807, and made peace with him and Prussia. He crossed the Niemen to invade Russia, 24 June, 1812, and recrossed with the remnant of his army, 28 Dec. Near it the Poles defeated the Russians, 27 May, 1831. IViger (ni'je?-), the great river of western Africa, as the Nile is of eastern Africa. First definite knowledge obtained through Mungo Park, and later Richard and John Lander, 1830. It rises on the inner side of Mt. Loraa, one of the sum- mits of the Kong mountains, flows northeast to Timbuktoo, lat. 17° 30' N., thence turning to the southeast empties into the gulf of Guinea, about lat. 5° N. Total length, 3000 miles. Its delta extends along the coast 120 miles and inland 150 miles, forming an extensi/e swampy region. Africa, 1841 ; Park. IVillilism, a popular nara6 for a school of philosophy which believes notliing without physical evidence, renounces divine revelation and all faith in the supernatural. ]\ihili§t§, a body or school of radicals in Russia said to aim at the overthrow of all existing forms of government, and the reconstruction of society on a communistic basis. The name was first given by the novelist Turguenieff in 1862 to the socialists who denounced the institution of marriage ; but has come, especially since 1892, to be generally applied to all the many agitators and conspirators who secretly strive to break down imperialism in Russia, to make way for some form of democracy. The assassination of czar Alexander II. in 1881 was doubtless one of the efforts of the Nihilists to terror- ize the government. Mka COIlte§ti§. Factions. BiTile, Egypt. This great river flows in greater part from lake Victoria Nyanza, an enormous body of water in Ckn- tkal Africa, and in a known course of 1250 miles receives no tributary streams. Total length, 8370 miles. The trav- els of Bruce were undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. He set out from England in June, 1768; on 14 Nov. 1770 discovered the source of the Blue Nile, lake Tana, Abys- sinia, and returned home in 1773, considering the Blue Nile the main branch, and so claiming for himself the honor of dis- covering Caput Nili. This river overflows regularly every year, from about 15 June to 17 Sept., when, having fertilized the land, it begins to decrease. It must rise 16 cubits to irri- gate the average amount of land cultivated. The first nilom- eter (a pillar) was set up by Solyman the caliph, 715. At Thebes the average rise is 40 feet ; at Cario, 27 feet ; but in 1829 the inundation was so excessive that 30,000 people were drowned and an immense amount of property destroyed. Africa. A bridge over the Nile (over 1300 jfeet long) at Cairo was completed by a French company, Aug. 1872. IVile, Battle of the (or Aboukir), 1 Aug. 1798, near Roset- ta, between the French fleet under Brueys and the British under sir Horatio Nelson. 9 French line-of-battle ships were taken, 2 burned, and 2 escaped. The French ship L'Orient, with Brueys and 1000 men on board, blew up, and only 70 or 80 escaped. Nelson's exclamation upon entering battle was "Victory or Westminster Abbey !" Ninety-§ix, Siege of. Fort Ninety-six. Mn'eveh, capital of the Assyrian empire (Assyria), founded by Ashur about 2245 b.c. Ninus reigned in Assyria, and named this city Nineveh, 2069 -R.c.—Abbe Lenglet. Jo- nah preached against Nineveh (about 862 b.c.). It was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 b.c. Layard and others since 1839 have made immense excavations near Mosul, at Koyunjik and other places, revealing the ruins of a city which for centu- ries had been almost forgotten. Botta began explorations at Khorsabad in 1843, and pub. "Monuments de Ninive," 1849- 1850. In 1848 Mr. Layard pub. " Nineveh and its Remains," and in 1853 "Discoveries," made on his second visit in 1849- 1850. Hormusd Rassam, in 1854, discovered an ancient palace. 19 George Smith described his excavations and their results in 1873-74, in " Assyrian Discoveries," 1875. He died at Aleppo, 19 Aug. 1876. Assyria. Mr. Rassam, appointed his successor, among other valuable discoveries at Balawat, 9 miles northeast of Nimroud, and at Koyunjik, etc., found a bronze monument with inscriptions recording the names, title, genealogy, and exploits of king Assur-nazir-pal (885-860 b.c.), builder of the palaces and temples of Kalakh, capital of the middle Assyrian empire. The forms, features, costume, religion, modes of warfare, and cere- monial customs of its inhabitants stand before us as distinct as those of a living people ; and the sculptures and cuneiform in- scriptions reveal much of Assyrian historv. Among sculptures that enrich the British museum may be mentioned the winged bull and lion, numerous hunting and battle pieces, and a bas-relief of an eagle-headed human figure, probably representing the Assy- rian god Nisroch (from Nisr, "an eagle or hawk"), whom Sen- nacherib was worshipping when assassinated by his 2 sous, about 710 B.C. (2 Kings xix. 37). I^i'obe, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Tantalus, king of Lydia, and wife of Amphion, by whom she had 7 sons and 7 daughters. Through her pride in her children she in- curred the envy and hatred of Latona, who thereupon incited her children, Apollo and Artemis, to slay the children of Niobe, which they did with their arrows. Through excessive grief for her children, Niobe was changed into a statue of stone. This legend has furnished numerous subjects for art — especially sculpture. "The Niobe of nations! there she stands Childless and crownless in her voiceless woe." —Byron, "Childe Harold." Ilio'biuin, a rare metal, discovered by Hatchett in the black earth columbite, and named columbium, 1801. It was pronounced to be identical with tantalum by WoUaston ; but was rediscovered by H. Rose in 1846, and named niobium. \Nirvana, a term of Hindu philosophj-, indicating an- nihilation of selfhood, or absorption of the individual in the universal. Buddhism. Tli'§i pri'Ui (" unless before "), words in a writ summon- ing a person to be tried at Westminster, Engl, unless the judges should come to hold their assizes in the place where he is. Judges sit in Middlesex, Engl., by virtue of 18 Eliz.c. 12 (1576). 7¥i§ine§ {nemz) or IVimei (neem), S. France, was the flourishing Roman colony Nemausus. Its amphitheatre was in- jured by the English in 1417. The inhabitants embraced Protestantism, and suffered persecution in consequence; and Nismes has witnessed many religious and political contests. The treaty termed Pacification of Nismes (14 July, 1629) gave religious toleration for a time to the Huguenots. nitre. Saltpetre. nitric acid, a compound of nitrogen and oxygen, for- merly called aqua-fortis, first obtained in a separate state by Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about 1287; but we are in- debted to Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier for knowledge of its properties. H. Cavendish demonstrated its nature in 1785. Nitrous acid was discovered by Scheele about 1774. Nitrous gas was accidentally discovered by dr. Hales. Ni- ti'ous-oxide gas (laughing-gas) was discovered by dr. Priest- ley in 1776. Its use as an anaesthetic began in America in 1864 ; at Pari.s, 1866 ; in London, 31 Mch. 1868, ingenious apparatus having been invented for its application. ni'trog^en or azote (from the Greek a, " no," and l^cno or Z,u), " I live"), an irrespirable elementary gas, an important element in food, discovered by Rutherford about 1772. Before 1777, Scheele separated oxygen of air from nitrogen, and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier discovered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these. Nitrogen combined with hydrogen forms the volatile alkali ammonia, freely given off by decom- posing animal and vegetable bodies. nitro - glycerine (also called nitroleum), an in- tensely explosive amber-like fluid, discovered by Sobrero in 1847, produced by adding glycerine (in successive small quan- tities) to a mixture of 1 part of nitric acid and 2 parts of sul- phuric acid. Alfred Nobel, a Swede, first employed it as an explosive in 1864. nobility. The Goths, after seizing part of Europe, re- warded heroes with titles of honor to distinguish them from NOB common people. The right of peerage seems to have been at first territorial. Patents to persons of no estate were first granted by Philip the Fair of France, 1095. George Neville, duke of IJetlford (son of John, marquess of Montague), en- nobled in 1470, was degraded from the peerage by Parliament for want of property, 19 Edw. IV. 1478. Noblemen's privi- leges were restrained in June, 1773. Lords. See names of various orders of the nobility. lu 1845 a statistical writer said that thoro were 500,000 nobles in Russia, 239,000 in Austria; in Spain {in 1780), 470,000; in France {before 1790), 360,000 (of whom 4120 were of the andenne no- blesse) ; in the United Kingdom, 1631 with transmissible titles (dukes to baronets). nobility of France preceded that of England. On 18 June, 1790, the National Assembly decreed that hereditary no- bility could not exist in a free state; that the titles of dukes, counts, marquises, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others be abolished ; that all citizens take their family names ; liveries and armorial bearings also to be abolished. The rec- ords of the nobility, 600 volumes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV., 25 June, 1792. A new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon I., 1808. The hereditary peerage was ab>olished 27 Dec. 1831 ; reinstituted by Napo- leon IIL, 1852. nobility, order of. Proposed and rejected in Massa- chusetts, iGSG.—Bwicroft, vol. i. p. 385. noble, an English gold coin (value 6s. 8c?.), first struck in the reign of Edward III., 1343 or 1344, said to have derived its name from the excellence of its metal. nocturne, a name given by John Field (d. 1837) to a new musical composition. He was followed by Chopin, who died 1849. The term was adopted by Mr. Whistler, the artist, for night pieces, in which he began with line, form, and color, 1877-78. '^noluniu§ leges Angliae mutari." Bas- tards, Merton. No ]VIan'§ Land. Neutral ground. Nominaliits or Conceptualists, a scholastic sect, opposed to Realists, maintain that general ideas have no existence save in the names we give them. The founder of the sect, Jean Roscellin, a canon of Compifegne, was condemned by a council at Soissons, 1092, but the controversy was revived in the 12th century. Among the Nominalists are reckoned Ab^lard, St. Thomas Aquinas (partially), Occam, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Dugald Stewart. The Realists assert that general ideas are realities. Philosophy. noininatin§r convention§. United States. noms de plume. Literature. non-COnfornii§t§. Protestants in England are di- vided into conformists and non-conformists, or churchmen and dissenters. The first place of meeting of the latter in Eng- land was at Wandsworth, near London, 20 Nov. 1572. The name " non-conformists " was taken by Puritans when the act of Uniformity took eifect, 24 Aug. 1662 (termed " Black Bar- tholomew's day"), when 2000 ministers of the established re- ligion resigned, not choosing to conform to the statute passed " for the uniformity of public prayers and administration of the sacraments." Dissenters, Puritans. The laws against them were relaxed by the Toleration act, 24 May, 1689.— The Non-conformist (edited by Edward Miall, since M. P.) first ap- peared 14 Apr. 1841. nones, in the Roman calendar, the 5th day of each month, except March, May, July, and October, when the nones fell on the 7th. non- intercourse with France. United States, 1798. With England, United States, 1807, '09, '10, 1812. nonjurors thought James II. unjustly deposed, and refused to swear allegiance to William III. in 1689. Among them were Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury; Ken, bishop of Bath and Wells ; and the bishops of Ely, Gloucester, Nor- wich, and Peterborough, and many of the clergy, who were de- prived 1 Feb. 1691. Nonjurors were subjected to double taxa- tion, and obliged to register their estates. May, 1723. They formed a separate communion, which existed till about 1800. 578 NOR " Non nobis, Doinine I" ("Not unto us, o Lord etc., Psa. cxv. 1), a musical canon, sung as a grace at put feasts, was composed by W. Birde in 1618. non-resistance oatll (declaring it unlawful take arms against the king upon any pretence), enforced the Corporation act, 1661, was repealed in 1719. IVootka sound, Vancouver's island, discovered capt. Cook in 1778. Here a few British merchants of the E< Indies formed a settlement in 1786 to supply the Chine market with furs; but the Spaniards, in 1789, captured] English vessels and took possession. The British minist demanded reparation ; the affair was amicably terminated a convention, and a free commerce confirmed to England 1790. Washington. " BfO Popery riots." Gordon's " No Popef riots. IVordling^en, a town of Bavaria. Here Swedes und count Horn were defeated hy Austrians, 27 Aug. 1634 ; a| Austrians and allies by Turenne in 1645. ]¥or'folk (nor'fok), Va. Virginia, 1776, 1861, '62. IVorfollC island, Pacific ocean, discovered in 171 by capt. Cook, then inhabited only bj' birds; area, 10 miles. The settlement was made by a detachment from Pd Jackson under governor Phillip, in 1788, in Sydney bay the south side of the island. This was at one time the mc dreaded penal colony of Great Britahi. The island was aba doned in 1809, but reoccupied as a penal settlement in 18S Some of the descendants of the mutineers of the Boun/i/ w€ removed to it in June, 1856, from Pitcairn's island. normal schools (from norma, a rule), schools the instruction of teachers. One established at Paris by la| 30 Oct. 1794, opened 20 Jan. 1795, under the direction of '. Place, La Harpe, Haii}--, and other eminent men, was closed. Another, established by Napoleon in 1808, was closed' in 1822. The plan was revived in 1826, and has been carried out extensively in England and other countries. For the United States, see each state separately. Education. First in New York at Albany 18M IVor'mandy, N. France, part of Neustria, a kingdom founded by Clovis in 511 for his son Clotaire, which, after various changes, was united to France by Charles the Bald in 847. From about 800 it was devastated by Scandinavians, termed Northmen or Normans, and to purchase repose Charles the Simple of France ceded the duchy to their leader Rollo, 847, who held it as a fief of the crown of France, as did his successors until William, the 7th duke, acquired England, in 1066. It remained a province of England till the reign ol' John, 1204, when it was reunited to France. It was recon- quered by Henry V., 1418, and held by England partially till 1450. The English still possess the islands on the coast, of which Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. DUKES. 912. Rollo (or Raoul), baptized as Robert. ;^ \ 927. William I., Longsword. '^:- \ 943. Richard I. the Fearless. W i 996. Richard II. the Good. %■■ \ 1027. Richard III. *• i 1028. Robert I. the Devil. ' \0m. William II. (I. of England). 1087. Robert II., Courthose (his son), after a contest despoiled by; his brother. 1106. Henry I. (king of England). 1135. Stephen (king of England). 1144. Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet. 11.51. Henrv II. (king of England in 1154). 1189. Richard IV. (I. of England). 1199-1204. Arthur and John of England. Xorridgewock, Me. Maine, 1724. 1 IVorsemen in America. America. I IVortliallerton, a borough of Yorkshire. Near her was fought the " Battle of the Standard," where the Engli&l defeated the Scotch, 22 Aug. 1138. The archbishop of Yorl! brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage whei, they were hotly pressed by the invaders, headed by kinj, David. North America. America, Canada, Indian' United States. NOR 679 NOR Banks in the United T^orth America, Bank of. States. " North American." Newspapers, 1771. North Anna, Crossing of. Grant's Virginia cam- paign. North Carolina, one of the Atlantic states of the United States, is bounded north by Virginia, east by the At- lantic ocean, with a coast line of over 400 miles, southeast by the Atlantic ocean, south by South Carolina and Georgia, west by South CaroHna and Tennessee. It lies between 3.3° 50' and 36° 33' N. lat., and between 75° 27' and 84° 20' W. Ion. Area, 52,250 sq. miles in 96 counties ; pop. 1890, 1,617,- 947. Capital, Raleigh. For first exploration of coast, Vir- ginia, 1584-90. John Porey, secretary of the colony of Virginia, explores the couhtry to the Chowan river, 1C22 Charles I. grants a patent for all the territory between 36° and 31° N. latitude to sir Robert Heath 1629-30 [If no immediate colonization ensued, if the plans formed in England by sir Robert Heath or by lord Maltravers, Heath's assign, were never realized, the desire to extend the settlements to the south still prevailed in Virginia.— 5an- croft, "Hist, of the U. S.," vol. ii.] Roger Green, with colonists from Virginia, settles on the Ro- anoke and the Chowan rivers July, Chief of the Yeopim Indians grants to George Durant land in Perquimans county ■Charles II. grants to the earl of Clarendon and 7 others, viz. : Monk, duke of Albemarle, lord Craven, lord Ashley Cooper (earl of Shaftesbury), sir John Colleton, lord .John Berke- ley, sir William Berkeley, his brother, and sir George Carteret, territory extending westward from the Atlantic ocean between lat. 31° and 36°, which they call Carolina, 20 Mch. 1663 Berkeley, governor of Virginia, visits Carolina, organizes a government for the northern part, calling it Albemarle county, and appoints William Drummond governor " Several hundred persons, under sir John Yeamans, land at the junction of Cape Fear river and Old Town creek, and lay out a village called Charlestown, near the present site of Wil- mington 29 May, 1665 I 1831 1833 1834 1837 183.' 181]'. 184( 1841 1845 NOR 581 Battle of Hatteras inlet, forts Hatteras and Clark taken by fed- erals under gen. Butler and com. Stringham 29 Aug. 1861 Union movement, soon after suppressed, begun by a conven- tion in Hyde county, which declares independence of the state government, 12 Oct. A convention is called, which elects M.N. Taylor pro visional governor, after declaring vacant all state offices 18 Nov. " Joint naval and military expedition against North Carolina under flag officer L. M. Goldsborough and gen. Burnside sails from Hampton Roads, Jan. 1862 ; engages in the battle of Roanoke island, 8 Feb., and occupies Elizabeth City 11 Feb. 1862 €en. Burnside defeats confederate gen. Branch, and occupies New-Berne. Federal loss, 100 killed, 500 wounded. .14 Mch. " Fort Macon surrendered to the federals 26 Apr. " Edward Stanley, commissioned by pres. Lincoln temporary governor of that part of North Carolina still under Federal control, arrives at New-Berne 26 May, " Battles at Kingston, 14 Dec, White Hall, 16 Dec, and Golds- borough 17 Dec " Plymouth surrendered by gen. Wcssels to the confederates un- der gen. Hoke 20 Apr. 1864 Naval battle of Albemarle sound; the Sassacus defeats the Con- federate ram Albemarle 5 May, " Confederate ram Albemarle blown up by lieut. Gushing at Plymouth 27 Oct. " Plymouth recaptured by com. Macomb 31 Oct. " Fort Fisher bombarded by adm. Porter, 24 Dec, and an attack by gen. Butler and adm. Porter successfully repulsed, 25 Dec " Fort Fisher captured by adm. Porter and gen. Terry — 15 Jan. 1865 Federals under gen. Cox capture fort Anderson 18 Feb. " Wilmington captured by gen. Schofleld 22 Feb. " Battles at Wise's Forks, 8 Mch., at Fayetteville and at Kingston, 10 Mch. " Gen. Sherman occupies Fayetteville, 12 Mch., and destroys the arsenal 14 Mch. " Sherman crosses the Cape Fear river, 15 Mch. ; federals under gen. Slocum defeat confederates under Hardee in the battle of AvERASBORO, 16 Mch. ; Sherman defeats Johnston at Ben- TONViLLE, 19 Mch. • the armies of Sherman, Terry, and Scho- I field join at Goldsborough, 23 Mch. ; Boone, N. C, is captured i by Stoneman 28 Mch. " jStoueraan defeats confederates under Pemberton at Grant's 1 creek, 12 Apr., and captures Salisbury 12 Apr. " ■ Raleigh occupied by gen. Sherman 13 Apr. " 'Sherman and Johnston meet at Durham station, 17 Apr. ; they ' s gn an agreement for peace, 18 Apr. ; it is rejected at Wash- i ington, 21 Apr. ; gen. Grant arrives at Raleigh 24 Apr. " iGen. J. E. Johnston surrenders to Sherman ; agreement signed j at Bennett's house, near Durham station 26 Apr. " ;Maj -gen. J. M. Schofleld, appointed to command the department I of Xorth Carolina, makes his headquarters at Raleigh. ..Apr. " (William W. Holden proclaimed provisional governor of the state . by pres. Johnson 29 May, " (Maj. gen. Thomas H. Ruger succeeds Schofleld in command of i the department of North Carolina June, " Convention cilh ^ by prov. gov. Holden meets at Raleigh, 2 ; Oct., repeals the ordinance of secession, adopts an ordinance , prohibiting slavery, 9 Oct., and adjourns 19 Oct. " •People ratify the repeal of the ordinance of secession by 20,506 , to 2002, and the ordinance prohibiting slavery by 19,039 to ■ 3039 7 Nov. " liov. Holden is relieved of his trust by pres. Johnson, and gov. '- Worth assumes office 23 Dec. " ;]onvention of colored delegates meets at Raleigh to promote the mental and political elevation of their race 1 Oct. 1866 -egislature passes an act "granting a general amnesty and par- ■ don to all officers and soldiers of the state of North Carolina, ! or of the late Confederate States armies, or of the United States, for offences committed against the criminal laws of i North Carolina " 22 Dec. " lien. D. E. Sickles assigned by the president to command the ; Second Military district, >forth and South Carolina, with 1 headquarters at Columbia 11 Mch. 1867 lien. Sickles removed, and gen. Edward R. S. Canby appointed ! to the command 26 Aug. " lonservative mass-meeting at Raleigh, define their aim "to I' ward off the dangers which threaten us from the success of the ultra- Republicans or Radical party in the state," 27 Sept. " onvention called under the Reconstruction acts of Congress ; by gen. Canby assembles at Raleigh, 14 Jan.; frames a con- stitution and adjourns, 16 Mch. Constitution is ratified by a popuhir vote of 93,118 to 74,009 Apr. 1868 oith Carolina readmitted into the Union 25 June, " IV. th Amendment to the Constitution of the U. S. rejected by North Carolina, 4 Dec. 1866, is ratified by legislature. .4 July, " egislature ratifies the XV. th Amendment 5 Mch. 1869 cts of violence by secret organizations in Lenoir, Jones, Orange, and Chatham counties, lead gov. Holden to issue a proclama- tion of admonition and warning 20 Oct. " ving to alleged outrages of the " Ku-Klux," gov. Holden pro- claims Alamance county in a state of insurrection, 7 Mch. '1«70, and Caswell county, 8 July, and sends militia into the disturbed counties under col. Kirk July, 1870 >1. Kirk arrests persons implicated in deeds of violence; writs oj habeas corpus are issued by chief-justice Pearson, but col. Kirk refuses to produce 4 of his prisoners, 16 July; during I'loceedings in the state and U. S. courts gov. Holden orders "1. Kirk to obey the writs 19 Aug. " ■w state penitentiary at Raleigh occupied " v. Holden impeached of malfeasance in office, 14 Dec. 1870; convicted and removed from office 22 Mch. 1871 NOR Office of the State Commissioner of Immigration established. . , 1871 Rutherford college at Rutherford opened " Corner-stone of the Tilestou normal-school building at Wilming- ton laid 30 Nov. " State Educational Association established 11 July, 1873 Eight amendments to the constitution ratified by the people, one for biennial meetings of the legislature 7 Aug. " Act passed for amnesty and pardon to members of secret or other organizations known as Heroes of America, Loyal Union League, Red Strings, Constitutional Union Guards, Whitebrother, Invisible Empire, Ku-Klux-Klan, North Caro- lina State troops, North Carolina militia, and Jayhawkers. . . " Chang and Eng, the Siamese twins, b. at Bangesau, Siam, 15 Apr. 1811, d. at their home, near Mount Airy 17 Jan. 1874 Local Option law passed " Got. Tod R. Caldwell d. at Hillsborough, and is succeeded by lieut. -gov. Curtis H. Brogden 17 July, " Shaw university at Raleigh chartered 1875 Act changing the day for state elections to the Tuesday after the first Monday in November passed " Bureau of Agriculture, Immigration, and Statistics established, " Constitutional convention meets at Raleigh 6 Sept. ; adjourns 12 Oct. Constitution ratified at the state election by 122,912 to 108,829 " Biddle university at Charlotte chartered 1877 State Colored Normal school at Fayetteville opened " State Industrial Association organized by colored people 1879 State insane asylum for colored people opened at Goldsbor- ough 1880 State Colored Normal school at Salisbury opened 1881 Plymouth State Normal school at Plymouth opened " Prohibition bill, passed to take efiect 1 Oct. 1881, if r&tified by people, is lost by 48,370 votes to 166,325 1 Aug. " State hospital for the insane at Morganton, known as the Western, opened ^ 1883 Survey of state oyster beds, covering 1,307,000 acres, by de- partment of agriculture aided by Federal government 1886 State Colored Normal school at Goldsborough opened 1887 Convention representing nearly all southern states east of the Mississippi at Hot Springs under the auspicesof the southern railroad and steamship companies, to promote immigration, resolve to establish Southern Immigration Association, head- quarters in New York 25 Apr. 1888 Annual meeting of the Interstate Farmers' Association held at Raleigh 21 Aug. " State Agricultural college at Raleigh opened Oct. 1889 School law revised, requiring school-books recommended by the State Board of Education, and giving funds hitherto de- voted to normal schools for white teachers, for county teach- ers' institutes " Confederate pension laws of 1885 amended, increasing the pension funds, and excluding persons worth $500 and widows not indigent from relief. *' Negro exodus, fostered by emigration agents from western states, depopulates North Carolina nearly 50,000 " Laws creating a railroad commission and regulating railroad charges and management; locating a school for white deaf and dumb children at Morganton; establishing a normal and industrial school for girls at Greensborough; declaring the birthday of Robert E. Lee (19 Jan.) a legal holiday; estab- lishing a normal school for the colored race at Elizabeth Ctty; and incorporating a Soldiers' Home for needy Confed- erate soldiers at camp Russell, near Raleigh. Session begins 8. Jan. and closes 9 Mch. 1891 Gov. Daniel G. Fowle dies suddenly of apoplexy, in Raleigh, 7 Apr., and lieut. -gov. Thomas Holt is sworn in 8 Apr. " Southern Inter-state exposition opens at Raleigh 1 Oct. " Ex-gov. William Worth Holden d. at Raleigh, aged 74, 1 Mch. 1892 Col. L. L. Polk, president of the National Farmers' Alliance, dies in Washington, D. C 11 June, " New state seal ordered 1893 Zebulon B. Vance, U. S. senator, d. at Washington, aged 64, 14 Apr. 1894 PROPRIETARY GOVERNORS. COLONY OF ALBEMARLE. William Drummond appointed 1663 Samuel Stephens " Oct. 1667 George Cartwright president of council 1674 Miller.. .-. " " July, 1677 John Culpepper usurps the government Dec. " John Harvey president of council 1680 John Jenkins appointed governor June, " Henry Wilkinson " " Feb. 1681 Seth Sothel " " 1683 Philip Ludwell " " 1689 Alexander Lillington " deputy governor 1693 Thomas Harvey " " " 1695 NORTH CAROLINA. Henderson Walker president of council 1699 Robert Daniel appointed deputy governor 1704 ThomasCarey " " " 1705 William Glover president of council May, 1709 Edward Hyde " " Aug. 1710 Edward Hyde appointed governor 24 Jan. 1712 Thomas Pollock president of council 12 Sept. " Charles Eden assumes office as governor.. .28 May, 1714 Thomas Pollock president of council 30 Mch. 1722 William Reed " " 7 Sept. " George Burrington assumes office as governor. . .15 Jan. 1724 Sir Richard Everard " " " . .17 July, 1725 NOR 682 NOR I ROYAL GOVERNORS. George Burrington assumes offlco 26 Feb. 1731 Nathaniel Rice president of council 17 Apr. 1734 Gabriel Johnston assumes office 2 Nov. " Nathaniel Kice president of council 1752 Matthew Rowan " " 1 Feb. 1753 Arthur Dobbs assumes office 1 Nov. 175* William Tryon " " 27 Oct. 17f>4 James Hascll president of council 1 July, 1771 Josiab Martin assumes office Aug. " STATE GOVERNORS (elected by the Assembly). Eleited. Richard Caswell Dec. 1776 Abner Nash •' 1779 Thomas Burke July, 1781 Alexander Martin 1782 Richard Caswell 1784 Samuel Johnston 1787 Alexander Martin 1789 Richard Dobbs Spaight 1792 Samuel Ashe 1795 William R. Davie 1798 Benjamin Williams. 1799 James Turner 1802 Elected. Nathaniel Alexander 1805 Bei^amin Williams 1807 David Stone 1808 Benjamin Smith 1810 William Hawkins 1811 William Miller 18U John Branch 1817 Jesse Franklin 1820 Gabriel Holmes 1821 Hutchings G. Burton 1824 James Iredell 1827 John Owen 1828 Elected. Montford Stokes 1830 David L. Swain 1832 Elect! Richard Dobbs Spuight .... 18 It li m 181 181 18j 181 la STATE GOVERNORS (elected by the people) Edward B. Dudley assumes office 1 Jan. 185 John M. Morehead " " u ' William A. Graham " '* Charles Manly " " David S. Rcid " " Thomas Bragg »< " John W. Kllis " " '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. Henry T. Clarke acting. !!!!.!'.'. Zebulon B. Vance assumes office 17 Nov". ^ William W. Holden provisional governor 12 June isi Jonathan Worth assumes office 15 Dec. William W. Holden " " 4 jniv 181 Tod R. Caldwell " " ^' i^, Curtis H. Brogden acting 17 July 18« Z. B. Vance assumes office ' is' Thomas J. Jarvis " " 18 Jan la Alfred M. Scales " " c JS Daniel G. Fowle " " .' u ^^ Thomas M. Holt " " " la Elias Carr " " " u jg UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF NORTH CAROLINA. Name. No. of Conf^ess. Date. Benjamin Hawkins... Samuel Johnston Alexander Martin.... Timothy Blood worth. Jesse Franklin David Stone... James Turner Jesse Franklin David Stone Nathaniel Macon Montford Stokes John Branch James Iredell Bedford Brown Willie P. Mangum Robert Strange William A. Graham... Willie P. Mangum William H. Haywood. George E. Badger Davids. Reid Asa Biggs Thomas L. Clingman., Thomas Bragg Ist to 1st " 3d " 4th " 6th " 7th " 9th " 10th " 13th " 14th " 3d 2d 6th 7th 9th 9th 14th 13th 14th 20th Joseph C. Abbott John Pool Matt. W. Ransom Augustus S. Merrimon. Zebulon B. Vance Thomas J. Jarvis J. C. Pritchard Marion Butler 14th " 18th 18th " 21st 20th " 22d 21st " 26th 22d " 24th 24th " 26th 26th " 28th 26th " 33d 28th " 29th 29th " 34th 33d " 36th 34th " 35th 35th " 36th 36th 37th 40th to 42d 40th " 43d 42d 43d 46th 53d 54th 54th 54th 46th 53d 54th 1789 to 1795 1789 " 1793 1793 " 1799 1795 " 1801 1799 " 1805 1801 " 1807 1805 " 1816 1807 " 1813 1813 » 1815 1815 " 1828 1816 " 1823 1823 " 1829 1828 " 1831 1829 " 1840 1831 " 1836 1836 " 1840 1840 " 1843 1840 " 1854 1843 " 1846 1846 " 1855 1854 " 1859 1855 " 1858 1858 " 1861 1859 " 1861 38th, and 39 th 1868 to 1872 1868 " 1873 1872 " 1875 1873 " 1879 1879 " 1894 1894 " 1895 1895 " 1895 " Elected president pro tern. 10 Mch. 1804. Resigned. Resigned. Elected presidentpro tern. 20 Mch. 1826. and 2 Mch. 1827. Resigne Elected in place of Turner. Resigned. Elected in place of Macon. Elected in place of Branch. Resigned. Resigned. Elected in place of Mangum. Resigned. Elected in place of Strange. Elected in place of Brown. Elected president jprole§, French assemblies of nobles, bishops, knights, and lawyers. An assembly of notables was con- vened by the duke of Guise, 20 Aug. 1560, and later by NOT 585 NUR other statesmen. Calonne, minister of Louis XVI,, sum- moned one which met on 22 Feb. 1787, on account of the king's disordered finances, and again in 1788, when he opened his plan ; but reforms interfered with private interests. Ca- lonne was dismissed, and soon retired to England. Louis hav- ing lost his confidential minister, De Vergennes, by death, called De Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. The notables re- assembled on 6 Nov. 1788. In the end, the States-general were convoked 5 Dec, and hence the National Assembly. The notables were dismissed by the king, 12 Dec. 1788. — The Spanish notables assembled and met Napoleon in obedience to a decree issued by him at Bayonne, 25 May, 1808. notaries public, said to have been appointed by the primitive fathers of the Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the martyrs of the first century. — Du Fres- noy. The name was afterwards given to a legal office to attest deeds and writings, and establish their authenticity every- where. A statute to regulate public notaries was passed in 1801, and others since. Wotre Dame (jw-tr dam'), the cathedral at Paris, was founded in 1163. It narrowly escaped destruction by com- munists. May, 1871. It has been beautifully and judiciously restored, at a cost of about $1,250,000, under the superintend- ence of Viollet-le-Duc, 1866 et seq. Bfova Seotia, one of the provinces of the dominion of Canada, is a peninsula lying southeast of New Brunswick, and nearly separated from it by the bay of Fundy. It was dis- covered by Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Verazzano, 1524. French settled at Port Royal, 1605-7, and named the country Acadia. Partial settlement made in 1622 by Scotch under sir William Alexander, in the reign of James I. of England, and named Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed proprietors. Ceded to France by the treaty of Breda, 1667 ; to England by treaty of Utrecht, 1713 ; disputed posses- sion for a number of years until confirmed to England in 1763. j Nova Scotia was divided into 2 provinces in 1784, and was made a bishopric in Aug. 1787. King's college, Windsor, was founded in 1788. Baronets. Gold was found in Nova Scotia in 1861. By act of 29 Mch. 1867, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were united with Canada for legislative pur- poses. On the agitation for secession John Bright pre- sented a petition in the commons, 15 May; his motion for a royal commission of inquiry negatived, 16 June, 1868. The agitation soon subsided. Area, 20,550 sq. miles. Pop. 1881, 440,572 ; 1891, 450,523. French in America. Xovatians, a sect which denied restoration to the church to those who relapsed during persecution, began with Novatian, a Roman presbyter, in 250. Cathari. ]\[OVa Zembia (" New Land "), a large island in the Arctic ocean, about 600 miles in length, north and south, from 70° to 77° N. lat. Area about 40,000 sq. miles. First known geographically when sighted by sir Hugh Willoughby, 1553. Russia, to which it belongs, established a permanent station here for scientific observations. Novels (Novellas), a part of Justinian's Code, published 535. Literature, Romances. Bfovember (novem, nine), anciently the 9th month of the year. When Numa added January and Februarj', in 713 B.C., it became the 11th as now. The Roman senators wished to name this month in which Tiberius was born by his name, in imitation of Julius Caesar and Augustus; but the emperor refused, saying, " What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Caesars ?" Bfov'gorod, a city of central Russia, made the seat of his government by Ruric, a Varangian chief, in 862, at the foundation of the Russian empire. Novgorod became a re- public about 1150. In 1475 Ivan III. entered and abolished I its charters, and a century later Ivan the Terrible destroyed I the last vestige of its independence. In the beginning of the ' 17th century the Swedes occupied Novgorod for 7 years. The city is supposed to have had a population of at least 400,000 in the 15th century ; now about 17,000. A national monument ■ was placed here, 20 Sept. 1862, by the czar in memory of the origin of the Russian empire. Novi, a town of N. Italy. Here the French under 19* " Joubert were defeated by the Russians under Suwarrow with immense loss, 15 Aug. 1799. Among the French slain were their leader, Joubert, and other distinguished officers. "]\[o'vum Or'ganuin," the great work of lord Bacon, containing his system of philosophy, was pub. 1620. IVu'bia, the ancient Ethiopia supra iEgyptum, said to have been the seat of the kingdom of the Meroe, received its name from a tribe named Nubes or Nubates. The Christian kingdom, with Dongola, the capital, lasted till the 14th century, when it was broken up into Mahometan principalities. It waa subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been conquered by Ibrahim Pach& in 1822, until the revolt of the Mahdi in 1882, when all of this region passed out of the hands of the Egyp- tians. Soudan. nucleus theory in cliemistry. Compound Radical. :Wulliflcation ordinance of South Caro- lina. South Carolina ; United States, 1832-33. Numantine war. The war between Romans and Celtiberians (Celts who possessed the country near the Iber, now the Ebro) began 143 B.C., the latter having given refuge to their allies the Sigidians, who had been defeated by the Romans. Numantia, an unprotected city, \^ithstood a long siege, in which the army of Scipio Africanus, 60,000 men, was opposed by no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The Numantines fed upon horse-flesh, and their own dead, and then drew lots to kill one another. At length they set fire to their houses, and destroyed themselves, so that not one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, 133 b.c. (Nothing in the annals of ancient Rome exhibits its remorse- less and vindictive spirit more than this war.) numerals. The use of visible signs to denote num- bers can be traced to remote times ; but our present decimal sj'stem in its complete form with the zero is of Indian or Hindu origin. From the Hindus it passed to the Arabians, probably about 750 a.d. In Europe the complete system was derived from the Arabs in the 12th century. The use of numerals in India can be traced back to the Ndna Ghat in- scriptions supposed to date from the early part of the 3d cen- tury B.C. The earliest known example of a date written on the modern system is of 738 a.d. Abacus, Arithmetic IVuniid'ia, a country of N. Africa, the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which began 111 b.c., and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined Cato, and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 b.c., when Numidia became a Roman province. Mauritania. numismat'iCS, the science of coins and medals, an important aid to the study of history. In England Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Pinkerton (1789), published works on medals. Pellerin's " Recueil des Medailles," 9 vols. 4to (1762). Ruding's "Annals" is the great work on British coinage (new edition, 1840). The Numismatic Society in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes the Numismatic Chronicle. Yonge Akerman's " Numismatic Manual" (1840) is a useful introduction to the science. For- eign works are numerous. Coin, Medals. nun'cio, an envoy from the pope to Catholic states. The pope deputed a nuncio to the Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission to audience by James II., July, 1687, hastened the English Revolution. nunnery. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired at the close of the 3d century. The first founded in France, near Poictiers, by St. Marceilina, sister to St. Martin, 360.— Dw Fresnoy. The first in England was at Folkestone, in Kent, by Eadbald, or Edbald, king of Kent, Q30.—Duf/dale. Abbeys ; French in America, 1639; Monachism. The nuns were expelled from convents in Germany, in Julj', 1785 ; in France, in Jan. 1790. In Feb. 1861, monastic establishments were abolished in Na- ples, with compensation to inmates. For memorable instances of fortitude of nuns, Acre, Coldingham. Nu'remberg, a mediaeval city of Germany dating from the 11th century, and a free imperial city from 1219. From this citv Charles IV. of Germany issued his famous GoLDKN BULi^ 1355, Hiid here Albert DUrer was bcM-n, 1471. In 1522, the diet here demanded ecclesiastical reforms and a general council, and in 1532 secured religious liberty to the Protestants. It was annexed to Bavaria in 1805. Now noted for having maintained its mediaeval aspect substantially un- impaired, so that it is virtually in its architecture a city of the middle ages. Pop. 1890, 142,403. 686 OBE " In the valley of the Pegnitz, where across broad meadow-land" Rise the blue Francouian mountains, Nuremberg the ancient] stands." — Longfellow, "Nuremberg.' ]VuUen i§laild. New York, 1637. IVysf adt, a seaport town of S.W. Finland. By treaty,] signed here 30 Aug. 1721, Sweden ceded Livonia, Esthonia and other territories to Russia. O O, the 15th letter and 4th vowel of the English alphabet, is the o fiiKpov, little or short o of the Greek. Traced to the Phoenician, but as yet no evidence of the letter found in the Egyptian. In Irish or (laelic surnames it signifies son of, as O'Brien, son of Brien, etc. oak (Ang.-Sax. ac. The name common to the Teutonic tongue. Lat. Quercus, a tree belonging to the order Cupu- Uferae), styled the monarch of the woods, and an emblem of strength, virtue, constancy, and long life. That produced in England is considered to be the best for ship-building, except the live-oak of the United States. Flowers and plants. In June, 403, the "Synod of the Oak " was held at Chalcedon. The constellation Robur Caroli (the oak of Charles), was named by Dr. Halley in 1676, in memory of the oak in which Charles II. saved himself from his pursuers, after the battle of Worcester, 3 Sept. 1651. Boscobel, Races. Charter oak (Connecticut) 1687-1856 Heme's oak, Windsor park, mentioned in "Merry Wives of Windsor," destroyed by wind(HERNE's oak) 31 Aug. 1863 Existing oaks, 1879: Cowthorpe, Yorkshire; girth at the ground, 55 feet 6 inches. Newland, Gloucester (mentioned in Domes-day Book), 46 feet. " Talking Oak," poem by Tennyson. Literature. Oate§'§ plot. Titus Oates, at one time chaplain in the British navy, was dismissed for immoral conduct, and be- came a lecturer in London. In conjunction with Dr. Tongue, he invented a plot of the Roman Catholics, who he asserted had conspired to assassinate Charles II. and extirpate the Protestant religion. He made it known, 12 Aug. 1678, and about 18 Roman Catholics were accused, and, upon false tes- timony, convicted and executed ; among them the aged vis- count Stafford, 29 Dec. 1680. Oates was afterwards tried for perjury (in the reign of James II.), and, being found guilty, was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, May, 1685. On the accession of William and Mary he was pardoned, and a pension of 3/. a week granted to him, 1689. oaths, solemn appeals to God for the truth of an affir- mation. There are 2 classes of oaths : (1) assertatory, when made as to a fact, etc. ; (2) promissory, oaths of allegiance, of office, etc. Taken by Abraham, 1892 B.C. (Gen. xxi. 24), and authorized 1491 B.C. (Exod. xxii. 11). The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced by the Sax- ons into England, 600. — Rapin. That administered to a judge was settled 1344. Icelandic oath : " Name I to witness that I take oath by the ring, law-oath, so help me Frey and NiOrdh, and almighty Thor, as I shall this suit follow or defend, or witness bear, or verdict or doom, as I wit rightest and soothe stand most law- fully," etc about 925 Of supremacy, first administered to British subjects, and rati- fied by Parliament, 26 Henry VIII. {Stow's Chron.) 1535 Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as 528 ; and the words " So help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until. . . 1550 Ancient oath of allegiance in England, " to be true and faith- ful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honor; and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him therefrom," to which James I. added a declaration against the pope's authority 1603 It was again altered 1689 Afflrmation of a Quaker authorized instead of an oath, by statute, in 1696 et seq. Of abjuration, being an obligation to maintain the govern- ment of king, lords, and commons, the church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and abjuring all Ro- man Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 Will. Ill 1701 Affirmation, instead of oath, was permitted to Quakers and other dissenters by acts passed in 1833, 1837, 1838, and 1863 (Affirmation). In 1858 and 1860 Jews elected members of Parliament were re- lieved from part of the oath of allegiance (Jews). By 24 and 25 Vict. c. 66, a solemn declaration may be substi- tuted for an oath by persons conscientiously objecting to be sworn in criminal prosecutions 1861 A bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman Catholics (passed by the commons) was rejected by the lords 26 June, If. Oath to be taken by members of Parliament was modified and made uniform by an act passed 30 Apr. New oath of allegiance by 31 and 32 Vict. c. 72 (1868), for mem- bers of the new Parliament: " I do swear that I will be faith- ful and bear true allegiance to her majesty queen Victoria, her heirs and successors, according to law, so help me God." (Bradlaugh case. Parliament, 1880.) New Parliamentary Oaths bill brought in; discharged. .5 July, 188 Following is the form of the oath of allegiance Washington was directed by Congress to administer to the officers of the army before leaving Valley Forge: "I [name and office], in the armies of the United States of America, do acknowledge the United States of America to be free, independent, and sover- eign states, and declare that the people thereof owe no alle- giance or obedience to George III., king of Great Britain; and I renounce, refuse, and abjure any allegiance or obedience to him ; and I do that I will to the utmost of my power sup- port, maintain, and defend the said United States against the said king George III. , his heirs and successors, and his or their abettors, assistants, and adherents, and will serve the said United States in the office of which I now hold with fidel- ity according to the best of my skill and understanding, " June, 1778 ' [By act of Congress, 3 Aug. 1861, the oath of allegiance for the cadets at West Point was amended so as to abjure all allegiance, sovereignty, or fealty to any state, county, or country whatsoever, and to require unqualified support of the Constitution and the national government.] Oaths of allegiance, as a condition of pardon, required of per- sons who had participated in the rebellion 1866 [ The oath required of persons appointed to office from the southern U. S., declaring that they had in no way aided or abetted the rebellion, was called the "ironclad oath." Its terms were modified as soon as all apprehension of further difficulty at the South had passed away.] Affirmations ordered to be accepted for oaths in France, 2 Feb. ; in Spain April, 1883 Ob'eli§k (Gr. 6/3«X6c, a spit; fiovoXlOog, a single stone), a column of rectangular shape, slightly ta[)ering from the bottom to near the top, which draws sharply to a point in the form of a pj'ramid. The Egyptian symbol of the supreme god. The first mentioned in history was that of Rameses, king of Egypt, about 1485 B.C. The Arabians called them Pharaoh's needles, and the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun. Several were erected at Rome ; one by the emperor Au- gustus in the Campus Martius, on the pavement of which was a horizontal dial that marked the hour, about 14 b.c. Of the obelisks brought to Rome by the emperors, several have been re- stored and set up by various popes. One was excavated and set up in the piazza of St. John Lateran, Rome, by Sixtus V. 1588. In London are 3 English obelisks: first in Fleet St., at the top of Bridge St., erected to John Wilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775; and immediately opposite to it, at the south end of Farring- don St., stands another of granite to the memory of Robert Waith- man, lord mayor in 1824, erected 25 June, 1833; the third, at the south end of the Blackfriars road, marks the distance of one mile and a fraction from Fleet st. Egyptian obelisks. 42 are known, some broken: 12 at Rome; 1, from Luxor, set up in the Place de la Concorde, Paris, Oct. 1836; 5 in England (2 British Museum, 1 Alnwick, 1 Soughton hall, 1 on Thames embankment) ; 1 in New York. Obelisks improperly named "Cleopatra's Needles" were erected by Thothmes III. at On (Heliopolis), about 1500 B.C. One was re- moved to Alexandria by Augustus, about 23 B.C. After being long imbedded in the shore, it was acquired for Great Britain by sit Ralph Abercromby in 1801, but not removed. It was offered to the British government by Mehemet Ali, and again by the Khedive, 15 Mch. 1H77. Erasmus Witeon having offered to pay all expenses, John Dixon, the engineer, undertook to convey it to England. The vessel Cleopatra, containing it, sailed with the Olga, 21 Sept. During a violent gale the vessels were separated, 14, 15 Oct. ; 6 lives OBE 587 were lost in a fruitless attempt to recover it. The Cleopatra, which was abandoned, was found by the Fitzmaurice (capt. Carter), and towed to Ferrol, whence it was towed by the Anglia, and arrived in London, 20 Jan. 1878. Salvage awarded was 2000Z., 6 Apr. 1878. After much discussion, the Thames embankment (between Charing Cross and Waterloo bridges) was selected for its site, where, by much engineering skill, it was placed, 12 Sept. 1878. Obelisk weighs 186 tons, 7 cwt., 2 stones, 11 lbs. Height, from base to point, 68 feet 5)4 inches. It was placed under the care of the metropolitan board of works by act passed 22 July, 1878. Fellow of the obelisk of London (reared at Heliopolis about 1500 B.C. by Thothmes IIL, and removed to Alexandria about 23 b.c.) was offered to the U. S. in 1877. Offer was confirmed. May, 1879. The work of lowering the shaft begun by lieut.-com. Gorringe, 6 Dec. 1879. New York, Jan. 1881. Ober-Ammergau pa§§ion-play. Drama. Oberlin college, at Oberlin, Lorain county, O., founded in 1833 by the rev. John J. Shipherd and Philo P. Stewart, and so named in honor of J. F. Oberlin (1740-1826), a Protestant pastor of Waldbach, Alsace. Colleges. Oblong tract, The. A tract of land claimed by Connecticut, 580 rods in width, containing 61,440 acres, and OCT called from its form " The Oblong." This was ceded to New York as an equivalent for lands near Long Island sound, now including the towns of Greenwich, Stamford, New Canaan, and Darien, surrendered to Connecticut, by agreement of the commissioners of New York and Connecticut, 1731. But the dividing line of " The Oblong " was not run correctly, and this gave rise to a vexatious controversy which was not settled until 1880. New York, 1880. ob§ervatory, a building with apparatus for observing natural, especially astronomical, phenomena. The first is said to have been the top of the temple of Belus, at Babylon. On the tomb of Ozimandyas, in Egypt, was another, with a golden circle 200 feet in diameter; that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was at Alex- andria, about 300 B.C., erected by Ptolemy Soter. The first observatory in Europe was erected at Nuremberg, 1472, by Walthers. The 2 most celebrated of the 16th century were the one erected by landgrave William IV. at Cassel, 1661, and Tycho Brahe's at Uranienburg, 1567. The first attempt in the United States was at the University of North Carolina, 1824 ; and the first permanent one at Williams college, 1836. PRINCIPAL ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORIES, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE SIZE OF REFRACTOR. Lick Pulkowa Nice Paris Vienna Washington . Mccormick's , Newall's Princeton Mt. Etna Strasburg Milan Chicago Warner Washburn Edinburgh... Brussels Madrid Rio Janeiro. . Paris Huggins Paris Tacubaya Bordeaux Nice Pulkowa Harvard Lisbon Litchfield . . . , Coopers ..... Cadiz Rutherfurd's.. Allegheny Dudley Greenwich . . , Algiers , Ann Arbor Vassar Glasgow Oxford university Paris Lick Vienna Middletown university White's Dresden Sunderlin Dublin Cambridge university. Potsdam Mt. Lookout Hastings. . . Place. Hamilton, Cal Russia South France France Austria Washington, D. C Virginia, U. S Gateshead, Engl Princeton, N. J Sicily Germany Italy Chicago, 111 Rochester, N. Y Madison, Wis Scotland Belgium Spain Brazil France Tulse Hill, London, Engl France Mexico France South France Russia Cambridge, Mass Portugal Hamilton college, Clinton, N. Y. Markree, Sligo, Ireland San Fernando, Portugal Columbia college, N. Y Pennsylvania, U. S Albany, N. Y England France Africa Ann Arbor, Mich New York Missouri, U. S England France Hamilton, Cal Austria Middletown, Conn Brooklyn, N. Y Saxony England Ireland England Germany Cincinnati, ; New York Size of refractor. Maker and date furnished. 36 inches A. Clark & Sons, 1887. 30 A. Clark & Sons, 1884. 29.9 " Henry Bros., 1886. 28.9 " Martin, 1885. 27 Grubb. 1882. 26 " A. Clark, 1873. 26 A. Clark, 1883. 25 Cooke, 1870. 23 A. Clark & Sons, 1883. 2L8 " Merz, 1880. 19.1 " Merz, 18T9. 19.1 " Merz, 1879. 18.5 " A. Clark, 1864. 16 A. Clark & Sons, 1880. 15.5 " A. Clark & Sons, 1879. 15.1 " Grubb, 1875. 15 " Merz & Son, 1877. 15 " Merz. 15 » 15 " Lerebours & Brunner, 1854. 15 " Grubb, 1882. 15 Henry. 15 Cauchoix, 1882. 14.9 " Merz & Son. 14.9 " Henry. 14.9 " Merz & Mahler, 1840. 14.9 " Merz, 1843. 14.6 " Merz, 1863. 13.5 " Spencer & Eaton, 1856. 13.3 " Cauchoix, 1834. 13 " Brunner. 13 " Rutherfurd & Fitz. 13 Fitz, remounted by Clark, 1874. 13 Fitz, 1856. 12.8 " Merz. 12.7 " Henry. 12.5 " Henry. 12.5 " Fitz. 12.3 " A. Clark, 1855. 12.3 " A. Clark, 1876. 12.3 " Grubb. 12.2 " Secretan. 12 A. Clark & Sons, 1881. 12 " A. Clark & Sons, 1882. 12 " A. Clark. 12 " A. Clark. 12 " Grubb, 1880. 12 " Cooke. n.9 " Cauchoix, 1868. n.5 " Cauchoix, 1840. 11.5 " Schroder, 1874. n.3 " Merz, 1846. [Obs. 1886-87. 11 Clark, removed to Harvard College [There are many others, both in Europe and the U. S., with refractors ranging from 10 in. downwards.] occult sciences (from occultus, concealed). Al- chemy, Astrology, Magic, etc. ocean areas and depth. The Challenger's expedition states the areas and depth as follows : Area. Greatest depth. Atlantic 24,536,000 sq. miles 27,366 feet. " ■" .30,000 " .18,582 " 9,000 Pacific 50,309,000 Indian 17,084,000 Arctic 4,781,000 Antarctic 30,592,000 Deep-sea soundings. .25,200 OC'tarch, the chief of the kings of the heptarchy, was called Rex gentis Anglorum. Hengist was the first octareh, 455, and Egbert the last, 800. Britain. Some authors call the English heptarchy the octarchy. OctO'ber, the 8th month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, and the 10th in the year of Numa, 713 B.C. October still retained its first name, although the senate or- dered it to be called Faustims, in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus the emperor; and Commodus called it Invictus and Domitianus. October was sacred to Mars. OCT ' octrois (potrwa' ; from Latin auctorium, authority), a terra applied to concessions from sovereigns, and to taxes levied at the gates of towns in France on articles of food entering the cit}'. These octrois, of ancient origin, were suppressed in 1791; re-established, 1797; and reorganized in 1816, 1842, and 1852. In 1859 the octrois of Paris produced above 54,000,000 francs. The Belgian government became verj popular in July, 1860, by abolishing the octrois. Odd-reIloiV§, a name adopted by members of a social institution having signs of recognition, initiatory rites and ceremonies, grades of dignity and honor; object purely social and benevolent, confined to members. Mention is made by Defoe of the society of " Odd-fellows," but the oldest lodge, the name of which has been handed down, is the " Koyal Aristarchus" No. 9, which met 1745 in London. Inde- pendent order of Odd -fellows formed, Manchester, Engl., 1813. Odd-fellowship was introduced into the United States from Manchester, 1819; and the Grand Lodge of Maryland «nd the U. S. was constituted 22 Feb. 1821. In 1842 the so- ciety severed its connection with the Manchester unity. In 1843 it issued a dispensation for opening the Prince of Wales Lodge No. 1, at Montreal, Canada. The American society, including the U.S. and Canada, has its headquarters at Balti- more. In 1882 its membership was 500,000; income,$6,000,000; disbursements for relief of members, $2,000,000. In 1891 its membership was 647,471 ; total relief paid, over $3,000,000, of which $175,000 went to the education of orphans. ode (Gr. y'^<7 or aoiSfj, a song, a short poem or song), among the Greeks originally extempore songs in honor of the gods. Anacreon's odes were composed about 532 ; Pindar's, 498 or 446 ; and Horace's from 24 to 13, all B.c. An ancient ode consisted of strophe, antistrophe, and epode. Literature. Odom'eter (from the Gr. 666g, way, and fierpov, meas- ure). Pedometer.. Odontorog^y (from the Gr. oSovtsq, teeth), the science of the teeth, may be said to have begun with the re- searches of prof. Richard Owen, who in 1839 made the first definite announcement of the organic connection between the yascular and vital soft parts of the frame and the hard sub- stance of a tooth. His comprehensive work " Odontography " (illustrated with beautiful plates) was published 1840-45. The Odontological Society was established 1856. Dentistry. Od'rysae, a people of Thrace. Their king. Teres, re- tained his independence of the Persians, 508 b,c. Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, and in 429 aided Amyntas against Perdiccas II. of Macedon with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces, killed in battle with the Triballi, 424, was succeeded by Seuthes, who reigned prosperously. Cotys, an- other king (382-353), disputed the possession of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens. After 9 or 10 years' warfare, Philip II. of Macedon reduced the Odrysae to tributaries, and founded Philippopolis and other colonies, 343. The Romans, after their conquest of Macedon, favored the Odrysae, and in 42 their king,'Sadales, bequeathed his territories to the Romans. The Odrysae, turbulent subjects, and often chastised, were finally incorporated into the empire by Vespasian, about 70 a.d. Od'yl, Od, or odic, the name given in 1845 by baron von Reichenbach to a so-called new " imponderable, or influ- ence," said to be developed b}'^ magnets, cr3'stals, the human body, heat, electricity, chemical action, and the whole ma- terial universe. The odylic force is said to give rise to lu- minous phenomena, visible to certain sensitive persons only. The baron's " Researches on Magnetism, etc., in Relation to the Vital Force," translated by dr. Gregory, was pub. 1850. Mesmerism. "That od-force of German Reichenbach Which still from female finger-tips burnt blue." — E. B. Browning, "Aurora Leigh," bk. vii. cecumen'ical bi§taop (Gr. oiKov/Jievr), the habita- ble, ^fofec understood), "universal bishop," a title assumed by John, bishop of Constantinople, 587. Councils of the CHURCH. (^ mill levied for the support of common schools, Return Jonathan Meigs, jr., one of the first settlers of Marietta, and governor of the state, 1810-14, dies at Marietta. .29 Mch. Great tornado, "the Burlington storm," passes through Lick- ing county 18 May, Ohio and I^ke Erie canal begun, gov. Clinton of New York re- moving the first shovelful of earth 4 July, Haumee canal begun Lafayette visits Ohio; received with great honor Akron settled Franklin college (United Presbyterian) founded at New Athens, Ken yon college (Protestant Episcopal) opened at Garabier Western Reserve college (now Adelbert college, Cleveland) opened at Hudson (see 1882) David S. Stanley, brigadier-general U. S., born at Cedar Valley, Wayne county 1 June, George Crook, major-general U. S., born at Dayton 8 Sept. Ohio Mechanics' institute established at Cincinnati County school tax increased to % mill Population: 937,903, 22.7 to sq. mile; 4th state in population.. College of Teachers organized at Cincinnati St. Xavier college (Roman Catholic) opened at Cincinnati James A. Garfield born at Orange, Cuyahoga county. ..19 Nov. Dennison university (Baptist) established at Granville Great floods throughout Ohio Lane Theological seminary (Presbyterian) opened at Cincinnati, Charter granted to the "Cincinnati, Sandusky, and Cleveland railroad 5 June, Mormons, under Joseph Smith, settled at Kirtland, Lake county, Ohio and Lake Erie canal, from Portsmouth on the Ohio to Cleveland on lake Erie, 307 miles, cost $5,000,000, finished, Law school opened at Cincinnati college Oberlin college (Congregational) opened at Oberlin School tax increased to 1 mill Maumee canal, Cincinnati to Defiance, 178 miles, where it meets the Wabash and Erie; whole distance to lake Erie, 265 miles, cost $3,750,000, finished County school tax increased to 1)^ mills Charter granted to the Sandusky, Mansfield, and Newark rail- road 11 Mch. Charter granted to the Cleveland, Columbus, and Cincinnati railroad, capital $3,000,000 16 Mch. Marietta college (Presbyterian) established Mad River and Lake Erie railroad, from Dayton to Sandusky, 153 miles, commenced (first in the state) Sept. City charter granted Cleveland Northern boundary of the state changed from parallel of the most southern point of lake Michigan to a direct line run- ning from this point to the most northern cape of Maumee bay, giving the state its present boundary (see this record, 1816 1816 1818 1819 u 1820 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1828 1829 1830 1831 u 1832 1834 1835 1802) . Prof. W. W. Mather makes the first geological survey of the state 1837 Muskingum college (non sectarian) opened at New Concord. . . " A portion of the Mad River and Lake Erie railroad opened; first in the state 1838 Gen. George A. Custer born at New Rumley, Harrison co., 5 Dec. 1839 Population: 1,519,467, 37.3 to sq. mile, 3d state in population.. 1840 First railroad completed; Cincinnati to Springfield 1842 Cleveland Medical college opened " Cincinnati Wesleyan university for women (Methodist Epis- copal) opened " Corner-stone of the Cincinnati observatory laid 1843 Cincinnati Historical Society organized , 1844 Ohio Wesleyan university (Methodist Episcopal) opened at Delaware ' " Wittenberg college (Evangelist Lutheran) opened at Spring- field 1845 Richmond college (non sectarian) opened at Richmond.. " Farmers college (non-sectarian) opened at College Hill 1846 Five volunteer regiments raised for the Mexican war " Otterbein university (United Brethren) opened at Westerville, 1847 Philip H. Sheridan, general U. S. army, born at Albany, N. Y., 1831, appointed to West Point from Ohio 1848 Homoeopathic hospital opened at Columbus 1849 « OHI No railroads of importance constructed in Ohio prior to 184 Columbus and Xenia railroad opened to Cincinnati 18603 Xenia college (Methodist Episcopal) opened at Xeuia Capital university (Evangelist Lutheran) opened at Columbus, Population: 1,980,329, 48.6 to sq. mile, 3d state in population.. Urbana university (Now Church— Swedenborgian) opened at Urbana l Railroad opened from Cleveland to Columbus, 135 miles Heidelberg college (Reformed German) opened at Tifiln Second constitution of the state: Convention met at Columbus G May, 1850; adjourned 7 July on account of the cholera; re- assembled at Cincinnati 2 Dec. ; completed its labors, 10 Mch. Ratified by the people 126,663 to 109,699 186! Governor's term of office 2 years from 1 Jan. Cleveland and Pittsburg railroad opened Laws reorganizing common schools, creating state school com- missioner, Board of Education, abolishing rate bills, state tax of X mill yearly in place of county tax 14 Mch. 181 Antioch college (Unitarian) opened at Yellow Springs Cleveland and Toledo railroad opened Railroad opened from Wheeling, Va., to Columbus, 137 miles.. U Ohio Central college (United Presbyterian) opened at Iberia . . . Baldwin university (Methodist Episcopal) opened at Berea 181 [Previously known as Baldwin institute.] Ohio State and Union Law school opened at Cleveland It is made a penitentiary off"ence to claim or hold slaves in the state, or to attempt to carry from the state as a slave any person of color 186' Arrest and confinement in the county jail at Cleveland of prof. Henry E. Peck of Oberlin college and others under the Fugi- tive-slave law for rescuing at Wellington the negro "Little John," taken from Oberlin as a slave by a U. S. deputy mar- shal 13 .Sept. 18 Indicted in the U. S. court Dec. Bushnell, one of the rescuers, is found guilty in the Federal court at Cleveland 15 Apr. 1 Supreme court of Ohio refuse Bushnell's application for a habeas corptts, the proceeding against him in the Federal court not being terminated 28 Apr. Severe frosts throughout the state destroy most of the wheat, 5 June, Gov. Dennison, on the requisition of gov. Letcher, refuses to arrest Owen Brown and Francis Merriam, indicted in Vir- ginia for acts at Harper's ferry 8 Mch. li Tornado on the Ohio river from Louisville, Ky., to Marietta; 150 lives lost and property destroyed to the amount of $1,000,000. Great damage done in Cincinnati 21 May, " Population: 2,339,511; 57.4 to sq. mile; 3d state in population, " U. S. calls for 13 regiments from Ohio 15 Apr. 186 Law authorizing the acceptance of 10 regiments beyond re- quired number, and providing $500,000 to support them " Two regiments organized at Columbus and sent forward with- out arms or uniforms to Washington 18 Apr. " $1,000,000 appropriated to prepare the state for war. . . " " Law declaring the property of volunteers free from execution for debt during term of service " Adjutant-general of the state reports that the following troops have been raised: infantry, 67,546; cavalry, 7270; artillery, 3028; total for 3 years' service, 77,844, up to 31 Dec. " Under the "3 months' call " the state had furnished 22,000 in- fantry, 180 cavalry, and 200 artillerymen " Gen. Kirby Smith threatens Cincinnati 6, 7 Sept. 1862 Ohio state university founded " Clement L.Vallandigham, a resolute, persistent, and dangerous opponent of the North in the civil war, arrested by gen. Burnside (United States) 5 May, 1863 Democratic convention nominates Clement L. Vallandigham for governor .11 June. " Confederate gen. John H. Morgan, with cavalry, crosses the Ohio on a raid through Indiana and Ohio 3 July, " Captured with most of his command at New Lisbon. .26 July, " Confined in Ohio penitentiary, he escapes (Morgan's raid), Nov. " Wilberforce university (Methodist Episcopal, African) founded near Xenia " Soldiers' monument erected at Cincinnati 1864 German Wallace college (Methodist Episcopal) established at Berea , " Number of men, reduced to a 3-years' standard, furnished by Ohio for the civil war, 240,514, from 15 Apr. 1861, to. .9 Apr. 1865 Willoughby college (Methodist Episcopal) established at Wil- loughby " University of Wooster (Presbyterian) established at Wooster. . . 186ff One Study college (Methodist Episcopal) established at Scio, Newmarket station, Harrison county " Cincinnati suspension bridge opened to the public 1867 Hiram college (Disciple) opened at Hiram " Storrs township, Mount Auburn, and Corryville annexed to Cincinnati 1870 j Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical cojlege, state control, opened at Columbus " j Cincinnati university (non-sectarian) opened at Cincinnati " j Population: 2,665,260; 65.3 to sq. mile; 3d state in population, " { Vallandigham accidentally kills himself with a revolver while illustrating in court a case of homicide 18 June, 1871 j Buchtel college (Universalist) opened at Akron " j Completion of the canal around Louisville 1872 McCorkle college (Presbyterian) opened at Bloom field 1873 Revised constitution rejected by the people " Wilmington college (Friends) opened at Wilmington 18'^ Ashland college (Brethren) opened at Ashland 1878 Population: 3,198,062; 78.5 to sq. mile; 3d state in population, 1880' OHI Train leaves Washington for Cleveland, bearing the remains of pres. Garfield 23 Sept. Arrives at Cleveland 24 Sept. His remains lie in state 24-25 Sept. Western Reserve college at Hudson removed to Cleveland and renamed Adelbert, after a son of Amasa Stone, who gave the college $500,000 Great flood in the Ohio, submerging parts of Cincinnati and Louisville; at Cincinnati the river rose 66 ft 10-15 Feb. Ninety-fifth anniversary of the settlement of Ohio celebrated at Marietta Great flood of the Ohio; thousands rendered homeless. Con- gress appropriates $.500,000 for relief 12-15 Feb. Riots at Cincinnati, because of failure to punish criminals by law; 42 killed and 120 wounded 28-30 Mch. " Dow law " passed, taxing the liquor trafiic State Board of Health established After a long struggle in the legislature, John Sherman is re- elected U. S. senator over Allen G. Thurman, 84 to 61, 12 Feb. Waterspout at Xenia destroys 25 persons, 100 houses. . .19 May, Charles Whittlesey, geologist and scholar, b. 1808, d. in Cleve- 18 Oct. 591 OHI 1881 1882 1884 1885 land. in Ohio at Ma- 7 Apr. Centennial celebration of the first settlement rietta Sunday liquor law passed Ohio Valley and Central States Centennial exhibition opens at Cincinnati • 4 July, Organization of "White Caps" disband on promise from au- thorities not to proceed against them; last outbreak, the whipping of Adam Berkes in Sardinia, Brown county, ac- cused of immoral conduct 17 Nov. Wife of ex-pres. Hayes, b. 1831, d. at Fremont 25 Jupe, Population: 3,672,316; 92.1 to sq. mile; 4th state in popula- tion Calvin S. Brice elected U. S. senator 14 Jan. Woman's Christian Temperance League organized at Cleve- land 23 Jan. Lieut. -gov. Lampson, Republican, unseated by Democratic ma- jority in the Senate 30 Jan. First Monday in Sept. (Labor day) made a legal holiday by leg- islature, which adjourns 28 Apr. Garfield memorial at Lakeview cemetery, Cleveland, dedicated (Garfield monument) 30 May Ex-gov. Edward F. Noyes dies at Cincinnati, aged 58.. .7 Sept! Legislature meets in extraordinary session, 14 Oct., pass- es a bill suggested by gov. Campbell, abolishing 2 public boards of Cincinnati, and creating a non-partisian Board of Improvement, appointed by the mayor, and adjourns, 24 Oct. Charles Foster, secretary of the U. S. treasury 25 Feb. Modified Australian Ballot act passed at an adjourned session of the legislature 6 Jan.-4 May, People's party organized at the National Union Confer- ence, held at Cincinnati, 1418 delegates from 32 states, 19 May, City of Hamilton celebrates its centennial 19 Sept. William McKinley, jr., inaugurated governor 11 Jan. National Prohibition convention meets in Cincinnati, 29 June, Gen. John Pope, b. 1823, d. at Sandusky ."". 23 Sept. Ex-pres. Hayes, b. 1822, d. at his home at Fremont 17 Jan. Gen. J. S. Coxey's army of the Commonweal, numbering 75 men, organizes at Massilon, moves from that place to Can- ton, 8 miles (United States) 25 Mch. 1889 1890 1891 1893 1894 Edward Tiffin Thomas Kirker Samuel Huntington Return Jonathan Meigs. Othniel Looker Thomas Worthington. . . Ethan Allen Brown Allen Trimble Jeremiah Morrow Allen Trimble Duncan McArthur Robert Lucas Joseph Vance Wilson Shannon Thomas Corwin Wilson Shannon Thomas W. Bartley Mordecai Bartlev William Bebb..". Seabury Ford Reuben Wood William Medill Salmon P. Chase William Dennison David Tod John Brough Charles Anderson Jacob Dolson Cox Rutherford B. Hayes.. Edward F. Noyes William Allen Rutherford B. Hayes.. Richard M. Bishop Charles Foster George Hoadley Joseph B. Foraker James E. Campbell. . . William McKinley, jr. TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS. Name. Term began. Term expired. Politics. Remarks. Arthur St Clair 1788 1802 1802 1803 Deposed by pres. Jefferson. Acting. Charles W. Byrd STATE GOVERNORS. 1803 1807 1808 1810 1814 1814 1818 1822 1822 1826 1830 1832 1836 1838 1840 1842 1844 1844 1846 1849 1850 1853 1854 1856 1860 1862 1864 1865 1866 1868 1872 1874 1876 1878 1880 1884 1886 1890 1892 1807 1808 1810 1814 1814 1818 1822 1822 1826 1830 1838 1840 1842 1844 1844 1846 1849 1850 1853 1854 1856 1860 1862 1864 1865 1866 1868 1872 1874 1876 1878 1880 1884 1886 1890 1892 1894 Democrat. Whig. Democrat. Whig. Democrat. Whig. Democrat. Republican. Democrat. Republican. Democrat. Republican. Democrat. Republican. Democrat. Republican. Resigned to take seat in U. S. senate. Acting. Resigned to become postmaster-general. Acting. Resigned to take seat in U. S. senate. Acting. Resigned; appointed minister to Mexico. Acting. Resigned ; appointed U. S. consul at Valparaisa Acting. Died in Cleveland, 29 Aug. 1865. Acting. Reelected 1894. UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF OHIO. Name. No. of Congress. Date. Remarks. 8th to 10th 8th " 10th 10th " 11th 10th " 11th 11th 11th to 13th 11th " 13th 13th " 14th 13th " 16th 14th " 23d 16th "17 th 17th " 19th 19th " 20th 20th " 23d 22d "25th 1803 to 1808 1803 " 1807 1809 " 1810 1807 " 1809 1809 1810 to 1813 1811 " 1814 1814 " 1815 1813 " 1819 1815 " 1833 1819 " 1821 1822 " 1825 1825 " 1828 1828 " 1831 1831 " 1837 (Seated 25 Oct. 1803. Tried by the senate for complicity with Thomas Worthington ( Resigned 25 Apr. 1808. Seated 17 Oct. 1803. Return Jonathan Meigs Elected in place of Smith. Resigned. Elected governor. Edward Tiffin Resigned. Stanley Griswold Appointed in place of Tiffin. iUexander Campbell Thomas Worthington Elected in place of Tiffin. Elected in place of Meigs. Resigned. Elected governor. Joseph Kerr Elected in place of Worthington. Jeremiah Morrow William A. Trimble ^ Ethan Allen Brown Died 13 Dec. 1821. Jacob Burnett Elected in place of Harrison. Thomas Ewing OHI 592 OLD UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF OHIO. —(Continued.) Nam*. Thomas Morris Williiim Allen Beijjaniiu Tappan.. Thomas Corwin Thomas Ewing..... Salmon P. Chase... Benjamin F. Wade. George E. Pugh. .... Salmon P. Chase. . . John Sherman Allen G. Thurman... Stanley Matthews George H. Pendleton. James A. Garfield. . . . John Sherman.. . Henry B. Payne. Calvin C. Brice.. No. of Cong^reaa. 23d to 26th 25th " 3l8t 2()th " 29th 29th " 3l8t 31st 31st to 34th 32d " 41st 34th " 37th 37th 37th to 45th 4l8t " 47th 45th " 46th 46th " 49th 47th 47th to 49th " 62d 52d " Dnte. 1833 to 1839 1837 •' 1849 1839 " 1845 1845 " 1860 1850 1849 to 1855 1851 " 1869 1855 " 1861 1861 1861 to 1877 1869 "1880 1877 " 1879 1879 " 1885 1886 1891 1891 Resigned. Appointed secretary of treasury. Appointed in place of Corwin. Free-soil party. Governor of the state, 1856. Free-soil, then a Republican. President pro tern. 2 Mch. 1867. Democrat. ; Republican. Resigned 6 Mch. 1861, to become secretary of [ treasury. Elected in place of Chase. Republican. Resigned. Appointed secretary of treasury, 1877. >. Democrat. President pro tem. 15 Apr. 1879. Republican. Elected in place of Sherman. Democrat. Hesigued to accept the presidency of the U. S. , Nov. 1880. 1 Elected in place of Garfield. President pro tem. 7 Dec. 1885. [ Term expires 1899. Democrat. Democrat. Term expires 1897. Ohio company. Omo, 1748-87. Olllll'§ IA'W, for determining the quantity of the elec- tro-motive force of the voltaic battery, was published in 1827. It is in conformity with the discovery that the earth may be employed as a conductor, thus saving the return wire in elec- tric telegraphy. Electricity. oil. The term oil is a generic expression, under which are included several extensive series of bodies of diverse chemical character and physical properties, however having in common these characteristics: that they are compounds consisting principally, in some cases exclusively, of carbon and hydrogen, are mostly insoluble in water, and are all read- ily inflammable. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 b.c. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will yield a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and after lighting by coal- gas began, messrs. Taylor and Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil -gas on a large scale, 1815. The idea of using oil to calm the waves originated with Benjamin Frank- lin, and was tried successfully by him. — Sparks, " Works of Franklin," vol. vi. pp. 253 and 357. It is commonly practised in heavy storms at sea-, and guns are used in throwing oil- shells so as to extend the area of oil surface. The principal oils of commerce are: from vegetable sources, almond, cotton- seed, rape-seed, linseed, hemp-seed, castor, cocoanut, croton , from animal (fats), butter, lard, tallow , from fish, cod, sperm, whale-, insect, beeswax; mineral, coal-oil (Petroleum). Okeecho'bee ISwamp, Battle of. Florida, 1837. OklahO'ma is a territory of the United States of America, formed in 1890 from the western part of the Indian territory and the Public Land strip or No Man's Land, a strip 167J miles long and 34J miles wide, lying north of Texas and west of 100° Ion. Oklahoma is bounded on the north by Kansas and Colorado, east by the Indian territory, south by Texas, and west by Texas and New Mexico. Area, 39,030 sq. miles ; pop. 1890, 61,834. Capital, Guthrie. No Mans Land ceded to the U. S. by Texas 25 Nov. 1850 Extensive scheme organized to take possession of the portion of Oklahoma not occupied by Indians, and parties from Mis- souri and Texas enter the territory, but are ordered removed by proclamation of pres. Hayes 26 Apr. 1879 Second proclamation to prevent settlement in Oklahoma, 12 Feb. 1880 Expedition under David L. Payne— who had organized in Kan- sas the Oklahoma Town company and the Southwest colony —with 25 men, enter the territory and begin the settlement of the town of Ewing, but within 3 weeks they are arrested by U. S. troops and imprisoned " Payne enters Oklahoma with a colony of 600 men, women, and children, and founds the town of Rock Falls May, 1884 Under proclamation by pres. Arthur, 1 July, the settlement at Rock Falls is broken up by U. S. troops Aug. " Many armed men under W. L. Couch encamp at Stillwater on the Cimmaron river and defy the military Dec. " Couch and his forces surrender to the U. S. troops, and are marched across the Kansas line and arrested under Federal warrants 27 Jan. 1885 Inhabitants of No Man's I^and organize the territory of Cimma- ron, not recognized by Congress 1886 Delegates of Creek nation meet in Washington 19 Jan., and cede the western half of their domain for $2,280,857.10; rati- fied by the Creek council 31 Jan., by Congress 1 Mch. 1889 Seminoles execute a release and conveyance of their lands ceded by treaty in 1866 16 Mch. " Oklahoma opened for settlement by proclamation of iires. Har- rison, 27 Mch., to take effect at noon, 22 Apr. During the afternoon of this day 50,000 or more settlers, en( aniped on the borders of the territory, enter and locate 22 Apr. First bank in Guthrie opened in a tent with a capital of $50,000, 22 Apr. An attempt to form a provisional government for Oklahoma fails. Convention meets at Guthrie 22 May, Proclamation of the president against the occupation of the Cherokee strip 17 Feb. Many "boomers " invade the Cherokee strip 23 Mch. I'res. Harrison signs act creating territory of Oklahoma, 2 May, George W. Steele appointed first governor May, First election held for representative at large 5 Aug. Congress appropriates $47,000 for the relief of destitute persons in the territory 8 Aug. Milton W. Reynolds, Republican, elected representative at- large, dies from over-exertion during the canvass 9 Aug. First meeting of the legislature at Guthrie .27 Aug. Santa F6 and Rock Island railroad companies bring into the territory and loan to the needy farmers, without interest, 25,000 bush, seed wheat Agricultural college founded in Payne county; a normal school located at Edmond if the people give it $5000 and 40 acres of land; a territorial university located at Norman, Cleveland county; public schools established; Australian ballot system introduced ; legislature adjourns 24 Dec. Cherokee strip closed to whites by order of president. .13 Aug. New Indian lands in Oklahoma (about 300,000 acres) opened for settlement 'i'i Sept. Resignation of gov. Steele accepted by pres. Harrison. . .18 Oct. Statehood convention meets at Oklahoma City 15 Dec. State Agricultural college at Stillwater opened " Proclamation of the president, 12 Apr., opens to settlement Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indian lands from 19 Apr. Cherokee outlet or strip, about 9409 sq. miles, was ceded to the U. S. by the Cherokees, 19 May, 1893; the U. S. paying $8,300,000 in 5 annual instalments, beginning 4 Mch. 1H75, interest 4 per cent, on deferred payments, besides paying $300,000 to the Cherokees at once, and $110,000 to other tribes, making in all about $8,710,000. By proclamation of the president, Aug. 23, the strip was opened at noon 16 Sept. [It is estimated tliat 100,000 people had gathered on the boundary line awaiting the opening.] TEUKITOKIAL G0VP:RN0RS. 189(1 I 1891 1892 1893 . .resigns 1891 , Republican 1891- , Democrat 1893 George W Steele Abraham J Seay William C. Renfrow . , Old Bailey Sessions eourt is held in England for the trial of criminals, and its jurisdiction comprehends the county of Middlesex as well as the city of London. It is held I 8 times in the year by the royal commission of oyer and ter- miner. The judges are the lord maj'or, those aldermen who have passed the chair, the recorder, and the common sergeant, who are attended by both the sheriffs and one or more of the national judges. The court-house was built in 1773, and en- larged in 1808. Old Catholies, the name assumed by German Ro- man Catholics rejecting thedogma of papal infallibility, head- ed by prof. DoUinger of Munich. After 3 days' conference at Munich, Sept. 1871, they decided on independent worship, first meeting in a church given by the town council of Munich. The abbe Michaud began a similar movement in Paris in Feb. 1872. Dr. DoUinger advocated union with the Church of England, Mch. 1872. Pere Hyacinthe (Charles Loyson), president of the party at Rome, issued a programme respecting the Vatican decrees, recognizing ecclesiastical authorities, de- manding reform, yet opposing schism, about 5 May, 1872. OLD The bishops of Lincohi (Wordsworth) and Ely (Browne), and the dean of Westminster (dr. Stanley), by invitation attended the conference at Cologne, and delivered addresses, 20-22 Sept. 1872. The Old Catholics elected their tirst bishop, dr. Joseph Reinkens, 1 June, 1873, who was recognized by the emperor and other powers. First synod held in Germany at Bonn, opened 27 May, 1874 Congress of Old Catholics held at Constance, 18 Sept. 1873; at Freiburg 6 Sept. " Dr. DOlliuger received delegates from eastern and western churches at Bonn, with a view to union with the Old Cath- olics, only preliminaries were agreed on U Sept. " First Old Catholic church in Berlin opened 30 Nov. " In Prussia about 20,000 Old Catholics (about 8,000,000 Romanists), 1875 Congress at Bonn; bishop of Winchester, canon Liddon, and several Oriental clergy present, 12 Aug. ; agreement respect- ing the FiLioQUE clause Itj Aug. " Old Catholifs at Bonn ask by circular for a church (they reject the Vatican decrees of 18 July, 1870; do not secede from the Catholic church, but desire Catholicism free from xlebasing doctrines; repudiate papal infallibility and supremacy; sanc- tion reading of the Bible, worship in the vulgar tongue, and marriage of priests) Dec. '• Congress at Bonn; strong opposition to celibacy of clergy; question deferred early in June, 1876 Old Dominioil. Virginia is so called because it was sometimes recognized as a separate dominion, as Spenser dedi- cates his "Faerie Queene," 1590, to Elizabeth, queen of Eng- land, France, Ireland, and Virginia. When James VI. of Scot- land (I. of England) came to the English throne, Scotland was added and Virginia was called in compliment the 5th kingdom. And as Virginia stood firm for Charles 11. after the execution of his father (Virginia, 1644-52), Charles, in gratitude, caused the arms of Virginia to be quartered with those of England, Scot- land, and Ireland, as an independent member of the kingdom. Old Iroilside§, a name given to the frigate Constitu- tion. Navy ; United States, 1797-1812, etc. Old Man of the mountain, in the Franconia mountains. New Hampshire. *' The Great Stone Face then was a work of Nature in her mood of majestic playfulness, formed on the perpendicular side of a mountain by some im- mense rocks, which had been thrown together in such a posi- tion as, when viewed at a proper distance, precisely to resem- ble the features of the human countenance. It seemed as if an enormous giant or a Titan had sculptured his own likeness on the precipice."— /Taw/Aome, " The Great Stone Face." I Old Probabilltie§. Weather bureau. I Old style. New style. i Oldenburg", a grand-duchy in North Germany, was ; annexed to Denmark in 1448; in 1773 Christian VII. ceded i the country to Russia in exchange for Holstein Gottorp, and ! soon after the present dignity was established. The duke joined the North German confederation 18 Aug. 1866, and ob- i tained a slight increase of territory from Holstein, 27 Sept. ! following. Area, 2479 sq. miles; "pop- 1864,301,812; 1871, j 314,591 ; Dec. 1875, 319,314 ; 1880, 337,478 ; 1890, 354,968. defiant gas, a combination of hydrogen and carbon i which burns with much brilliancy. In 1862 Berthelot formed j it artificially by means of alcohol. ) Oleron, Laws of, relating to sea affairs, are said to have \ been enacted by Richard I. of England, when at the island of t Oleron, France, 1194, which is now doubted. I olives, the fruit of a tree belonging to the order Olea- [ cecB. They are named in the earliest accounts of Egypt and \ Greece ; and at Athens their cultivation was taught by Ce- crops, 1556 b.c. They were first planted in Italy about 562 b.c. The olive has been cultivated in England since 1648 a.p. ; the Cape olive since 1730. Its introduction into California by the Spanish monks, and recently the introduction of the best varieties from France and Italy, together with adaptability of climate and soil near the Pacific coast, have made its cultivation exceedingly remunerative, and placed California among the great olive-producing countries of the world. Ol instead. Case of. During the American Revolution capt. Gideon Olmstead, with some other Connecticut men, was . captured at sea by a British vessel and taken to Jamaica, where the captain and 3 others of the prisoners were compelled or persuaded to enter as sailors on the British sloop Active, then about to sail for New York with stores for the British there. 5 OME When off the coast of Delaware the captain and the other 3 Americans contrived to secure the rest of the crew and officers (14 in number) below the hatches. They then took possession of the vessel and made for Little Egg harbor. A short time after, the A dive was boarded by the sloop Convention of Phila- delphia, and, with the privateer Girard, cruising with her, was taken to Philadelphia. The prize was there libelled in the state court of admiralty. Here the 2 vessels claimed an equal share in the prize, and the court decreed ^^ to the crew of the Con- vention, 34 tt) the state of Pennsylvania as owner of the Con- vention, Y^ to the Girard, and the remaining 34 only to Olm- stead and his 3 companions. Olmstead appealed to Congress, and the committee of appeals decided in his favor. The Pennsylvania court refused to yield, and directed the prize sold and the money paid into court to await its further order. This contest continued until 1809, when the authorities of Pennsylvania offered armed resistance to the U. S. marshal at Philadelphia, upon which he called to his assistance a posse' comitatus of 2000 men. The matter was, however, adjusted without an actual collision, and the money, amounting to $18,000, paid to the U. S. marshal. OlmiitZ, the ancient capital of Moravia. Gen. Lafa- yette was confined here by the Austrians from 1792 until 25 Aug. 1797. French revolution, Lafayette. Here the em- peror Ferdinand abdicated on behalf of his nephew, Francis Joseph, 2 Dec. 1848; and here the latter promulgated a new constitution, 4 Mch. 1849. A conference was held here 29 Nov. 1850, under the czar Nicholas, when the difficulties be- tween Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs of Hesse- Cassel were arranged. Olus'tee, Fla., Battle of, 20 Feb. 1864. Gen. Truman Seymour was defeated by the confederates under gen. Finne- gan. The federals, 5000 strong, lost about 2000 killed, wounded, and prisoners. The expedition was a total failure, and returned to Hilton Head. Olym'piads, the era of the Greeks, dating from 1 July, 776 B.C., the year in which Choroebus was successful at the Oh'mpic games. This era was reckoned by periods of 4 years, each period being called an Olympiad, and in marking a date the year and Olympiad were both mentioned. The computa- tion of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, 440 a.d. Olympie games, most famous of the Greek festivals, said to have been instituted in honor of Zeus by the Idaei Dac- tyli, 1453 B.C., or by Pelops, 1307 b.c., revived by Iphitus, 884 B.C., were held at the beginning of every 4th year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus (now the Morea), to exercise the youth in 5 kinds of combats, the conquerors being highly honored. The prize contended for was a crown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to this use. The festival was abolished by Theodosius, 393 a.d., the first year of the 294th Olympiad. In 1858 M. Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave funds to re-establish these games, under the auspices of the queen of Greece. Olyinpie'iuni, near Peloponnesus, the great temple of Zeus erected by Libon of Elis, at the charge of the Eleans, after their conquest of the country, 572-472 b.c. For this temple Phidias made the colossal statue of the god, in gold and ivory, 437-433 B.C. German explorations by Hirschfeld and BOtticher, planned by prof. Ernst Curtius, the historian, began in Oct. 1875, aided by the Ger- man government. Torsos and other relics were found. Above 904 objects in marble, many coins, bronzes, inscriptions, etc. , found, 1875-78. Explorations closed, Nov. 1880. These excavations have determined the exact position of the principal buildings, the plan of the Altis, with the main local conditions of the festival. Olyn'ttlUS, a city of N. Greece, subdued in war by Sparta, 382-379 b.c. It resisted Philip of Macedon, 350 b.c., by whom it was destroyed, 347. Demosthenes delivered 3 orations on its behalf, 349. Omahas. Indians. omens. Augur. Amphictyon was the first who is re- corded as having drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 b.c. Alexander the Great and Mithridates the Great are said to have studied omens. At the birth of the latter, 131 b.c., there were seen for 70 days together 2 splendid comets ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithridates throughout his life. — Justin. OMM 694 ORA I Ommi'adei, a dynasty of Mahometan caliphs, be- ginning with Moawiyah, of whom 14 reigned in Arabia, 661- 760 ; and 18 at Cordova, in Spain, 755-1031. omnibUi (Lat. omnibus, for all), including all or a great number. Covering or designing to cover many cases or things. — A long- bodied 4-wheeled vehicle for passengers. The idea of such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal, about 1662, when similar carriages were started, but soon discontinued. They were revived in Paris about 11 Apr. 1828 ; and introduced into London by a coach-proprietor named Shillibeer. The first omnibus started from Paddington to the Bank of England on Saturday, 4 July, 1829. Oinnibu§ bill. United States, Jan., May, etc., 1850. onuiiin'eter, a new surveying apparatus (combining the theodolite and level, and comprising a telescope and mi- croscope), invented by Eckhold, a German engineer, to super- sede chain measuring ; announced Sept. 1869. Onei'da community was founded by John H. Noyes, of New Haven, Conn., who in 1834 joined the Perfec- tionists, a new sect who professed the belief that every being is either whoUj' sinful or wholly righteous, similar to the English sect of Princites. In 1847 he established the Oneida community at Oneida creek, N. Y., where both sexes lived in a " Unitary Home," and where was practised a community of wives as well as goods. Branches were established at Wal- lingford. Conn., and Willow Place, near Oneida. The commu- nity are also known as "Free Lovers" and " Bible Communists." Opposition to this community, under the lead of prof. Mears, of Hamilton college, and others, resulted in its dissolution in 1879. Since 1881 it has maintained simply the standing of a business corporation. Oneidas. Indians. Ononda'g-as. Indians, Long House. Ontario, Province of, formerly Canada West or Upper Canada; capital, Toronto. Area, 219,650 sq. miles; pop. 1861, 1,396,091; 1871,1,620,851; 1881, 1,923,228; 1891,2,112,989. operas. Adam de la Hale, a Trouvere, surnamed " le Bossu d'Arras," born in 1240, is, as far as has yet been ascer- tained, the composer of the first comic opera, " Li Gieus (Le Jeu) de Robin et de Marion." The Italian opera began with the "II Satiro" of Cavaliere,andthe "Dafne"of Rinuccini,with music by Peri, about 1590. Their "Eurydice" was presented at Florence, 1600, on the marriage of Marie de Medicis with Henry IV. of France. " L'Orfeo, Favola in Musica," com- posed by Monteverde, was performed in 1607, and is supposed to have been the first opera that was ever published. About 1669 the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera in Paris, where, in 1672, was acted " Pomona." For list of operas and composers. Music. Oph'icleide (6tain Robert Gray enters the Columbia river in the Ameri- can ship Columbia trom Boston 7 May, 1792 Lieut. Broughton of the British navy ascends the Columbia river, about 100 miles to the region of the cascades, Oct.-Nov. " By purchase, the U. S. acquires the claims of France to Ore- gon 30 Apr. 1803 Lewis and Clarke U. S. government expedition descends the Columbia to its mouth, where it arrives 5 Nov. 1805 Capt Nathaniel Winship, a New-Englander, builds the first house in Oregon, at Oak Point ou the Columbia 4 June, 1810 Pacific Fur company, of which John Jacob Astor was a leading member, establishes a trading-post at the mouth of the Co- lumbia river, which it calls Astoria 1811 D. McKeuzie explores the Willamette river 1812 Convention between U. S. and Great Britain for joint occupa- tion of Oregon concluded in London 20 Oct. 1818, ratified, 19 Jan. 1819 Convention between the U. S. and Russia regulating fishery and trading on the Pacific coast, and fixing 54° 40' as the northern boundary claimed by the U. S., concluded at St. Petersburg 5-7 Apr. 1824, and ratified 12 Jan. 1825 Convention between the U. S. and Great Britain : the articles of 1819 are indefinitely extended, with proviso that either partv might annul the agreement on 12 months' notice, 6 Aug. 1827 Capt. Nathaniel J. Wyeth of Wenham, Mass., establishes a fish- ery on Sauvies island, at the mouth of the Willamette 1832 John McLeod and Michael la Framboise erect fort Umpqua, a post for the Hudson Bay company on the Umpqua river " Jason and Daniel Lee, Methodist missionaries, reach Oregon in capt. Wyeth 's second overland expedition, which left Inde- pendence 28 Apr. 1834, and establish a mission on the banks of the Willamette, 60 miles from its mouth 6 Oct. 1834 Methodist mission station established on Clatsop plains, near Youug bay 10 Feb. 1841 First meeting of settlers at the Methodist mission to make a code of laws for the settlements south of the Columbia river 17-18 Feb. '« Star of Oregon, the first American ves.sel constructed of Ore- gon "timber, is launched from Oak island in the Willamette, and sails for San Francisco " A. provisional government and organic laws for Oregon are adopted by the people met at Champoeg, and Oregon City fixed as the seat of government 5 July, 1843 First house in Portland erected by A. L. Lovejoy and F. W. Pettygrove 1845 Publication of the Oregon Spectator begun at Oregon City. 1846 Resolutions pass the House of Representatives giving notice to Great BriUin that the convention of 1818 and 1827 for joint occupation of Oregon should be terminated at the expiration of 1'2 months from the notice 9 Feb. " Articles of the Oregon convention between U. S. and Great Britiiin held 15 June, 1846, are ratified in London, 17 July, and proclaimed (United States) 5 Aug. " First sale of town lots for Salem 10 Sept. " First mail contract in Oregon let to Hugh Burns in the spring of 1846, and first regular mail service in the territory is es- t;ibli.shed by the U. S. government 1847 Congress enacts a territorial government for Oregon. . .14 Aug. 1848 Gen. Joseph Lane, first territorial governor, arrives, and pro- claims the territorial government 3 Mch. 1849 About $50,000, in 5 and 10 dollar gold pieces, coined and put into circulation by the Oregon Exchange company. This is known as " beaver money " " First territorial legislature meets at Oregon City 16 July, " Gens. Smith and Vinton arrive in Oregon to examine the country with reference to the location of military posts, 28 Sept. " Hudson Bay company conveys to U. S. the rights of the company under its charter and the treaty with Great Brit- ain " Seat of government located at Salem by legislature, the peni- tentiary at Portland, and the university at Corvallis 1850 Five of the Cayuse Indians, principals in the massacre of dr. M. Whitman and other missionaries at WaQlatpu, 29 Nov. 1847, are delivered to the Oregon authorities, tried at Oregon City, condemned, and executed 18 June, " Schooner Samuel Roberts, with an exploring party formed in San Francisco to discover the mouth of the Klamath river, enters the Umpqua river 6 Aug. " Oregon Donation act; Congress grants each missionary station then occupied 640 acres of land, with the improvements. To each white settler. 640 acres. To each emigrant settling in Oregon between 1 Dec. 1850 and 1 Dec. 1853, 160 acres, 27 Sept. " Troops under maj. Philip Kearny engage the Indian.'; in the battle of Rogue river 23 June, 1851 A party of 23, under T' Vault, set out to explore the interior, 24 Aug. 1851. 1 Sept., all but 9 turn back, at the Rogue river, about 50 miles from the ocean. These reach the head- waters of the Coquille 9 Sept. ; descend it, are attacked, and 5 of the 9 killed l)y Indians 14 Sept. " Yam Hill River bridge, the first in the country, constructed at Lafayette " Gold discovered by some half-breeds in the sand of the old sea-beach at the mouth of a creek near the Coquille 1852 Willamette university at Salem, opened 1844; chartered 1853 War with the Indians of Rogue river, begun in June, ended by a treaty signed by Joel Palmer, superintendent of Indiah affairs, and Samuel H. Culver, Indian agent. By this treaty the Indians sell their lands, comprising the whole Rogue River valley, to the U. S. for $60,000 8 Sept. Town of Roseburg laid out Pacific university and Tualatin academy, at Forest Grove, opened in 1848, is chartered T. J. Dryer and party ascend mount Hood, and ascertain that it is an expiring volcano still emitting smoke and ashes, Aug. Gov. Davis resigns Aug. 1854; Geo. Law Curry appointed, Nov. Volunteer company under J. A. Lupton attack an Indian camp at the mouth of Butte Creek, killing 23 and wounding many, early in the morning. Daylight showed that the dead were mostly old men, women, and children 8 Oct. In retaliation, the Indians plunder and massacre settlers in the upper Rogue River valley 9 Oct. Astoria chartered Gov. Curry issues a proclamation calling for 5 companies of vol- unteers, 15 Oct., and orders all companies not duly enrolled by virtue of said proclamation to disband 20 Oct. Convention of Free soilers meets at Albany 27 June, and drafts a platform for the anti-slavery party, to be reported at an adjourned meeting appointed at Corvallis for 30 Oct. Volunteer force organized, 12 Oct., by col. J. E. Ross, engages the Indians at Rogue river, near Galice creek, 17 Oct., and at Bloody Springs or Grave Creek hills 30 Oct. New state-house at Salem burned, with tlie library and furni- ture; the work of an incendiary 30 Dec. Indians murder 13 out of 15 of the garrison at Wlialeshead, on Rogue river, during the absence of the rest (22 P'eb.) at a dancing-party; murder many farmers near the fort, and burn their houses and barns; 130, who escaped the massacre and fled to the fort, are besieged 31 days, until relieved by 2 com- panies under col. Buchanan Mch. Troops under capt. A. J. Smith attacked at the Meadows, on the Rogue river, where the Indians had agreed to meet and give up their arms, by Indians under chief John, 27 May; they are rescued by capt. Augur 28 May, Chief John surrenders 29 June, Willamette woollen mills at Salem erected Convention assembles at Albany, and organizes the Free-state Republican party of Oregon 11 Feb. Oregon Constitutional convention assembles at Salem, 17 Aug. ; completes its labors, 18 Sept. ; constitution ratified by the people; majority in favor of adoption, 3980; against slavery, 5082 ; against free negroes, 7559 9 Nov. Stage line opened from Portland to Salem Coal discovered at Coos Bay, near Empire City, 1853, and mines discovered by James Aiken at Newport and Eastport, opened, State legislature meets, 5 July, and gov. Whiteaker is inaugu- 185 18S 18S rated. July, Act admitting Oregon signed by the president 14 Feb. Gov. Whiteaker convenes the legislature, and completes the organization of the State government 16 May, Joseph Lane, ex-governor of Oregon, nominated for vice-presi- dent of the U. S. on the Breckinridge ticket 23 June, McMinnville college at McMinnville chartered in 1859; opened. Fort Stevens, at the mouth of the Columbia, completed First National bank of Portland, the oldest west of the Rocky mountains, is established July, Mount Hood, not previously in eruption since the settlement of California, continues for a month or more to emit smoke and flames, followed by the earthquake of 8-9 Oct. Oregon ratifies XIII. th Amendment to Constitution 11 Dec. Oregon ratifies the XIV. th Amendment by 1 majority, and this act is disputed, as secured by the votes of 2 Republican members of the House afterwards expelled 19 Sept Cincinnatus H. Miller (Joaquin Miller) appointed judge of Grant county Cargo of wheat shipped from Oregon direct to Australia by the bark Whistler Grading for Oregon Central railroad begun at Portland, 14 Apr. , of the rival Oregon and California railroad 16 Apr. First full cargo of wheat exported from Oregon direct to Europe, sent by Joseph Watt to Liverpool by the Sallie Brown State Agricultural college at Corvallis opened St. Helen's hall, Portland, chartered and opened Legislature rejects the XV. th Amendment to the Constitution of the U. S., and protests against the treaty with China Oregon school for deaf-mutes at Salem opened Reform school at Portland established by act of legislature Legislature rescinds the resolution of 1870, rejecting the XIV. th and XV. th Amendments Capt. Jackson, commissioned to remove the Modocs to a reservation, fights them on Lost river, near Tule lake, 29 Nov. First convention of the Oregon State Woman's Suffrage Associa- tion held at Portland Feb. Oregon institute for the blind at Salem opened Congress grants public lands in Oregon to construct a military road across the state, 2 July, 1864; tiie legislature grants 1920 acres of this for each mile to be built by the Oregon Central Military Road company, which builds to the summit of the Cascade mountains in 1867 ; the company sells its lands, to the Pacific liand company of San Francisco Oregon Pioneer Association organized 18 Oct. State Board of Immigration created by law 28 Oct. Oregon and Washington Fish Propagating company incorpo- rated; hatching establishment near Oregon City Apr. University of Oregon at Eugene City, chartered in 1872, is opened 18 Oct. 1858 1859 1864 1866 1866 1867 1870 a 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 ORG 597 Constitutional amendment, that " the elective franchise in this state shall not hereafter be prohibited to any citizen on ac- count of sex," passed and approved by the governor 1880 State asylum for the insane at Salem completed 1883 Amendment conferring the suffrage on women is lost; 28.176 votes against to 11, '223 in favor 2 June, 1884 Local Option bill passed by the legislature 1885 State Normal school at Drai n created by lav? " Bill passed creating a State Board of Agriculture " First Saturday in June made a legal holiday, " Labor day ". . . 1887 State reform school for juvenile offenders established by law. . 1889 State convention at Salem forms an amalgamated party, in- cluding Prohibitionists, Grangers, Free-traders, Green- backers, American Party men, Knights of Labor, Union Labor, and Woman Suffragists, under the title "Union Party," to oppose the Republicans and Democrats. . .14 Sept. " Australian ballot law enacted, and State Board of Charities and Correction established at the session 12 Jan. to 20 Feb. 1891 Women over 21 years of age and citizens of the U. S. and of the state made eligible to all educational offices 1893 ORL TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS. George Abernethy appointed Joseph Lane " J. P. Gaines *< .' " ; ; Joseph Lane u ..... George L. Curry ...",.' " John W.Davis '< ..... George L. Curry " 1846 1849 1853 1854 STATE GOVERNORS. John Whiteaker asumes office 1859 Addison C. Gibbs '' " i^q^ George L. Woods " " ....,...'....'.' 1866 Lafayette Grover " " .............. 1870 S. F. Chadwick acting .....*.' .' .' * .' .{ *Feb 1877 W.W.Thayer assumes office 1878 Zenas Ferry Moody " " ^§32 Sylvester Pennoyer, Dem " " ".V. .".'.'. .ijaii" 1887 William Paine Lord " " . . ........ ... 1896 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF OREGON. No. of Congress. Remarks. ' Delazon Smith. I Joseph Lane. . . Edward D. Baker Benjamin Stark Benjamin F. Harding. James W. Nesmith George H. Williams. . . Henry W. Corbett James K. Kelly John H. Mitchell Lafayette F. Grover. . . James H. Slater Joseph N. Dolph John H. Mitchell George W. McBride... 3oth 35th to 37th 36th 37th 37th to 39th 37th " 40th 39th " 42d 40th " 43d 42d " 45th 43d " 46th 45th " 47th 46th " 49th 47th " 54th 48th " 54th " 1859 to 1860 1859 " 1861 1860 " 1861 1862 1862 to 1865 1861 " 1867 1865 " 1871 1867 " 1873 1871 " 1877 1873 " 1879 1877 " 1883 1879 " 1885 1883 " 1895 1885 " 1895 " Seated 14 Feb. Seated 15 Feb. I Seated 5 Dec. B. London, Engl., 1811; killed at battle of Ball's [ Bluff, Va., 21 Oct. 186L Appointed in place of Baker. Elected in place of Baker. Term expires 1897. Term expires 1901. Org'an, a development of the pandean-pipes ; the "or- gan " ill (ien. iv. 21 should be translated joipe. The invention is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 b.c. ; and to Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 250 b.c. The organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was applied to religiou.s devotions in churches about a.d. 657. — Bellarmin. Organs were used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus 658. — Ammonius. It is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, when one was constructed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haarlem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 stops and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 110 stops and 5300 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. Of the organs in England, that at St. George's hall, Liverpool, by Mr. Willis, was the largest; next in order, that at York minster, and that in the Music-hall, Birmingham. In Lon- don, the largest was, perhaps, that of Spitalfields church ; and that in Christ church was nearly as extensive. The erection of the famous Temple organ was competed for by Schmidt and Harris ; after long disputes, the question was referred to vote, and Mr. Jefferies, afterwards chief-justice, gave the casting- vote in favor of Schmidt (called father Smith), about 1682. A monster organ was erected in the Crystal palace, Sydenham, in June, 1857. The organ by Willis, at the Royal Albert hall, is now said to be the largest in the world, 1871. The largest organ ever in America was in the Music-hall, Boston. It was built by Walker, and had 4 manuals, 89 stops, and 4000 pipes. Other organs in the United States having from 2500 to 4000 pipes are those in Trinity and St. George's churches, New York ; Plymouth church, Brooklyn ; Holy Trinity and Temple Emanuel, New York. These are all the work of American builders. Music. org^ailic Clieini§try. Chemistry. orgies (Gr. Opyla), secret rites of worship practised by the initiated alone, especially in the worship of Dionysus (Bacchus.) These rites, celebrated by women clad in fawn- skins with hair dishevelled, swinging the thyrsus and beating the cymbal, prevailed in almost all parts of ancient Greece. The celebrants were called Maenads or Bacchae. Their ecstatic enthusiasm was accompanied with coarse and frantic revels, often of an immoral character. Oriel college, Oxford, founded in 1326, by Adam de Brome, archdeacon of Stow, and almoner to king Edward II. This college derives its name from a tenement called VOriole, on the site of which the building stands. Or'igeili§t§ pretended to draw their opinions from the writings of Origen (185-253), one of the most distinguished and influential theologians of the earh' church. They main- tained that Christ was the son of God only by adoption and grace ; that souls were created before the bodies ; that the sun, moon, stars, and the waters that are under the firmament have souls ; that the torments of the damned shall have an end ; and that the fallen angels shall, after a time, be restored to their first condition. They were condemned by councils, and the reading of Origen's work was forbidden. — Burke. These doc- trines were condemned by the council of Constantinople in 553. " Origin of Species," Darwin's. Literature. Ori'on, in Greek mythology a giant and hunter noted for his beauty and prowess, son of Hyriens of Hyria in Boeotia. After his death he was placed with his hounds among the stars, hence the name of one of the most beautiful constella- tions in the heavens ; mentioned in Job ix. 9, xxxviii. 31 ; Amos V. 8 ; also by Homer and Hesiod. " Many a night from yonder ivied casement, ere I went to rest, Did I look on great Orion sloping slowly to the west." Tennyson, " Locksley Hall. " OriS'kany, N. Y., Battle of. New York, 1777. Orkliey and Shetland isles, north of Scotland, were conquered by Magnus III. of Norway, 1099, and were ceded to James III. as the dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; united with Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. Area, 957 sq. miles; pop. 1891, Orkney, 30,438; Shetland, 28,711. The bishopric of Orkney, founded by St. Servanus early in the 5th century — some affirm by St. Colm — ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 1689. Bishops iic Scotland. Orleans ipr-la-on'), a city in central France, formerly Aurelianum : gave title to a kingdom, 491, and afterwards to a duchy, usually held by one of the royal family. Attila the Hun, besieging it, was defeated by Aetius and his allies, 451. It was besieged by the English under earls of Salisbury and Suffolk, 12 Oct. 1428 ; bravely defended by Gaucour (as its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VL, king of France), and relieved by the heroism of Joan of Arc, afterwards sur- named the Maid of Orleans, 29 Apr. 1429, and the siege was raised 18 May. Joan of Arc. (The 439th anniversary was celebrated lo" May, 1868). During the siege of Orleans, Feb. 1563, the duke of Guise was assassinated. Pop. 1891, 63,705. Franco- Prussian war, 11 Oct., 10 Nov., 4-5 Dec. 1870. ORM o DUKES OF ORLEANS. Louis contended for the regency with John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, by whose instigation ho was assassinated 1407 Charles, taken prisoner at Agincourt, 1415; released, 1440; d.. 1465 Louis, became Louis XII. of France, when the duchy merged In the crown 1498 Bourbon ftrancA. —Philip, youngest son of Louis XIII., b. 1040; d ITOl Philip II., son, b. 1673; regent, 1715; d 1723 Louis, son, b. 1703; d 1752 Louis Philippe, son, b. 1725; d 1785 Louis Philippe Joseph, son, b. 1747; opposed the court In the French revolution; took the name Egaliti, 11 Sept. 1792; voted for the death of Louis XVI. ; was guillotined (Frknch Rkvolutio.n) 6 Nov. 1793 Louis Philippe, son, b. 6 Nov. 1773; chosen king of the French, 9 Aug. 1830 ; abdicated 24 Fob. 1848; d 26 Aug. 1850 [His quoen, Marie Am(5lie, d. 24 Mch. 1866 (France).] Ferdinand Philippe, son, duke of Orleans, b. 3 Sept. 1810; d. through a fall 13 July, 1842 Louis Philippe, son, count of Paris, b. 24 Aug. 1838; married Maria Isabella, daughter of the duke of Montpensier, 30 May, 1864 [A daughter, Maria Amelia, b. 28 Sept. 1865.] Demand of the Orleans princes to return to France, 19 June, refused by the legislative assembly after discussion. .2 July, 1870 Their request to serve in the army after the fall of the empire declined Sept. " [The due de Chartres served incognito.] After discussion, the due d'Aumale and the prince de Joinville permitted to sit in the national assembly 19 Dec. " Afler much discussion, the comte de Paris at a personal inter- view recognized the comte de Chambord as the legitimate head of the Bourbon family and king of France 5 Aug. 1873 [For consequent proceedings, France, 1873 et seq] Bodies of king Louis Philippe and others of his family re- moved from England to the mausoleum at Dreux. . . .9 June, 1876 or'milllllll, a metrical version of the Gospels and Acts, in early English, made by Orm, an ecclesiastic, in the 12th century, printed at Oxford in 1852, from a MS. in the Bod- leian library. Liteuature. ornithorog^y. Birds. ornithorhyn'cllUS, the duck-billed platypus, or water-mole, a singular compound of the mammal and the bird, a native of Australia, was first described by dr. Shaw in 1819. orphan-houses. The emperor Trajan first formed establishments for this purpose. Pliny relates in his pane- gyric that he had caused 5000 free-born children to be sought out and educated, about 105 a.d. Orphan-houses properly so called are mentioned for the first time in the laws of the em- peror Justinian. At the court of Byzantium the office of in- spector of orphans, orphanotrophos, was so honorable that it was held by the brother of the emperor Michael IV. in the 11th century. Foundling hospitals. Orphanotropheon at Halle, established by August Francke. .1698-99 Orphan working asylum for 20 boys was established at Hox- ton in 1758. It is now situated at Haverstock hill, and con- tains 350 boys and girls. Asylum for female orphans, Lambeth; removed to Bedding- ton, near Croydon; instituted 1758 London orphan asylum, founded 1813; removed to Clapton, 1823; new building at Watford, founded by the prince of Wales, 13 July, 1869; opened 20 July, 1871 First orphan asylum in U.S., called "Bethesda," founded about 9 miles from Savannah, Ga., by George Whitefleld 1740 Second was the Charleston orphan asylum, Charleston, S. C. .. 1792 Orphan Asylum Society of New York, and St. Stephen's female orphan asylum of Philadelphia, Pa., chartered 1807 Next founded was at Annapolis, Md 1828 They have rapidly increased (see the states separately) since. . 1840 or'rery, a planetary machine to illustrate and explain the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been co- eval with the Clepsydra. Ptolemy devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about 130. The plan- etary clock of Finee was begun 1553. The planetarium of De Rheita was formed about 1650. The planetarium, now termed the orrery, it is said, was constructed by Rowley, after a pattern devised by the clock-maker George Graham, at the expense of Charles Boyle, earl of Orrery, about 1715. A large planetarium was constructed by the rev. William Pearson, for the Royal Institution, London, about 1803. An excellent planetarium, constructed in London by signor N. Perini, was exhibited in Dec. 1879. Orsini's plot against the emperor Napoleon III. France, Jan. 1858. 0§ceo'la, chief of the Seminoles. Florida ; United States, 1835. J OTT Oi'inllinifOne of the heaviest-known metals, discovered in platinum ore by Tennant in 1803. Elements. OmIcIIcI mailifCMtO. For the purpose of promoting negotiations with Spain for the purchase of Cuba by the United States, Soul6, the American minister to Spain (empowered to negotiate for the purchase of Cuba), Mason, minister to France, and Buchanan, to England, met at Ostend, Belgium, 9 Oct. 1854, and after 3 days' session adjourned to Aix-la-Chapelle, and thence wrote to the U. S. government, 18 Oct. 1854, their views of the polic}' of the U. S. : That, as Spanish oppression in Cuba was such that Cuba would speedily resort to arms to free her- self, (1) the U. S. should offer Spain for Cuba a sum not to ex- ceed $120,000,000; and (2) in event of Spain's refusal to sell, the U. S. would be justified in taking possession of Cuba by force. This proposition passed unrebuked by the government at Washington ; but pres. Pierce did not think it prudent to act upon the advice, and Soule, disgusted, soon after resigned and returned home. OlS'traciiin (Gr. mrpaKov, a potsherd or shell), a mode of proscription at Athens, is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; others ascribe it to Cleisthenes, about 510 B.C. The people wrote the names of those whom they most suspected upon small shells ; these they put in an urn or box and presented to the senate. Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest written was sentenced by the coun- cil to be banished from his altar and hearth. 6000 votes were required. Aristides, noted for his justice, and Miltiades, for his victories, were thus ostracized. The custom was abolished by ironically proscribing Hyperbolus, a mean person, about 338 b.c. 0§trich, a very large bird of the genus Struthio (its ancient name), a native of Africa (see Job xxxix. 13). Os- triches were hatched and reared at San Donato, near Florence, 1859-60 ; and at Tresco abbey, the seat of Augustus Smith, in the Scilly isles, 1866. There are several ostrich ranches in California where ostriches are reared with success. 0§'trogOth§ or Eastern Ooth§, were distin- guished from the Visigoths (Western Goths) about 330. Af- ter ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, etc., their great leader, Theodoric, established a kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553. Italy. 0§troIeil'ka, a town of Poland. Near here the French defeated the Prussians, 16 Feb. 1807. In another bat- tle here, between the Poles and Russians, the slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained masters of the field, 26 Mav, 1831. Oswe'gO, a city of New York, southeastern shore of lake Ontario. Pop. 1891, 21,842. Fort Ontario; New York, 1722, 1756, 1814. Otahei'te or Tahiti (ta-hee'-tee), one of the group of the Society islands in the south Pacific ocean, seen by Byron in 1765, and visited in 1767 by capt. Wallis, who called it George III. island. Capt. Cook came here in 1768 to ob- serve the transit of Venus ; sailed around the island in a boat, and stayed 3 months ; he visited it twice afterwards. Cook. Omai, a native of this island, was brought to England by Cook, and carried back in his last voj'age. In 1799 king Pomare ceded the district of Matavai to some English mis- sionaries. Queen Pomare was compelled to put herself under the protection of France, 9 Sept. 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite and the neighboring islands were taken possession of by adm. Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. The island was formally annexed to France 29 June, 1880. Area, 412 sq. miles; pop. 11,200. O'theoSCOpe (Gr. ojOku), I propel), apparatus invented by W. Crookes for studying molecular motion, the effects of radiation ; described bj' him Apr. 1877. Ot'tawa, formerly BytOWn, a city of Ontario, on the river Ottawa, was appointed to be the capital of Canada by queen Victoria in Aug. 1858. The executive council met here 22 Nov. 1865, and the Canadian parliament was, for the first time, opened here bv the gov.-gen. lord Monck, on 8 June, 1866. Pop. 1871, 21,545 ; 1890, 44,150. Ottawa§. Indians ; Pontiac's war. Otterburn, a township of Northumberland. In 1388 the OTT 599 OXY Scotch besieged Newcastle, and were driven off by Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland. Percy pursued them to Otterburn, where a battle was fought on 10 Aug., in ■which the earl of Douglas was killed and Percy taken prison- er. On this battle the ballad of " Chevy Chace " is founded. Ottoman empire. Turkey. Ollde iowd) or Oudh, N. India, formerly a vice- royalty held by the vizier of the great mogul. About 1760 it was seized by the vizier Sujah-ud-Dowlah, ancestor of the late king. Area, 24,246 sq. miles ; pop. 1891, 12,652,730. Battle of Buxar; Sujah and his ally, Meer Cossim, are defeated, and the Britisli coutrol Oude 23 Oct. 1764 Reign of Asoph-ud-nowlah,who cedes Benares, etc., to the East India company, who place troops in Oude (Chunar) 1775-81 In consequence (by virtue of the treaty of 1801), Oude is an- nexed to the British territories by decree, proclaimed 7 Feb. 1856 Olldenarde', a town of Belgium. Here the English and allies, under the duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene, thoroughly defeated the French besiegers, 11 July, 1708. ounce (from undo), the 16th part of the pound avoir- dupois and 12th of the pound troy. Its precise weight was fixed by Henry III., who decreed that an English ounce should be 640 dry grains of wheat ; that 12 of these ounces should be a pound ; and that 8 pounds should be a gallon of wine, 1233. Metric system. Ourique (oo-reeF), a town of Portugal, where Alfonso, count or duke of Portugal, is said to have encountered 5 Sara- cen kings and a great army of Moors, 25 July, 1 139, an 1 signally defeated them ; and then to have been hailed the first king. Lisbon, the capital, was taken, and he soon after was crowned. OVariOt'omy. This important surgical operation of removing the fetus from the womb was devised an?\ D, H. Agnew's " Prin- ciples and Practice of Surgery," vol. ii. p. 803. Surgery. ovation, public ceremonies held to honor an individual. In Roman antiquity, when a victory had been gained with little difficulty or the like, a lesser triumph was granted called ovaiio, in which the general entered the city on foot or on horseback crowned with myrtle and not with laurel, and sacri- ficed a sheep (ovis, whence the name), instead of a bullock. Publius Posthumius Tubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 b.c. overland mail. California; Missouri, 1858; United States. Owhy'liee. Hawaii. OXal'ie acid, which exists in several plants, especially in sorrel, is now abundantly obtained for use in the arts from sawdust acted upon by caustic potash or soda, according to dr. Dale's process, patented in 1862. Oxford, an ancient city of England, restored by king Alfred, who resided here and established a mint, etc., about 879. Canute held a national council here 1018 Stormed by William 1 1067 Charter by Henry II., the city granted to burgesses by John. . 1199 1 Henry III. holds the " mad " parliament here 1258 ; Bishops Ridley and Latimer burned here, 16 Oct. 1555; and ; archbishop Cranmer 21 Mch. 1556 i Fatal (or Black) Oxford assizes; the high-sheriflf and 300 others j died of a jail fever caught from prisoners 1557 ! Charles I. took Oxford, 1642, and held a parliament here 1644 : Taken by the parliament 24 June, 1646 [Charles II. held parliaments here 1665 and 1681 1 Oxford marble§. Arundelian marbles. Oxford univer§ity. An academy here is described as ancient by pope Martin II. in a deed, 802. Alfred founded *' the schools " aboivt 879. Charter granted by Henry III 1248 Charter of Edward III., 1355; of Henry VIII 1510 University incorporated by Elizabeth 1570 Empowered to send 2 members to Parliament 1604 Bodleian library opened, 8 Nov. 1602; building completed 1613 Botanic garden, etc., established by the earl of Danby 1622 Radcliffe library opened, 13 Apr. 1749; the Radclifl'e observa- tory completed 1786 i commission appointed (31 Aug. 1850) to inquire into its "state, studies, discipline, and revenues;" reported 27 Apr. 1852 \cts making alterations passed 1854, 1856 Jniversity museum opened July, 1860 ^Examination statutes passed 1801, 1807, 1850, 1862 Extension of the university proposed at a meeting held 16 Nov. 1865 University tests abolished by act passed 16 June, 1871 Royal commission to inquire respecting university property, etc., appointed 6 Jan. 1872 Income in 1871 reported to be— university, 47,589i. Os. 3d. ; col- leges and halls, 366,253^. 16s. 3d. ; total,413,842i. 16s. 6d., Oct. 1874 Hebdomadal board reported that about 100,000Z. was needed for education in science June, 1875 Lord Ilchester's bequest to promote the study of Slavonian lit- erature, especially Polish ; first lectures given May, " New commission appointed (lords Selborne and Redesdale, Montague Bernard, sir M. W. Ridley, dean Burgon, and jus- tice Grove) ; announced 27 Mch. 1876 Oxford University bill withdrawn, July, 1876; the Universities act passed lo Aug. 1877 Commission publish a new scheme for professors, etc., very restrictive 2 Nov. 1880 Statute admitting women to examination passed 29 Apr. 1884 COLLEGES. University, said to have been founded by king Alfred. 872; founded by William, archdeacon of Durham about 1232 Balliol, founded by John Baliol, knight (father to Baliol, king of the Scots), and Deborah, his wife 1263 Merton college, by Walter de Merton, bishop of Rochester 1264 Exeter, by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter 1314 Oriel college, by king Edward II. ; Adam de Brome, archdea- con of Stowe 1326 Queen's college, by Robert de Eglesfleld, clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, consort of Edward III 1340 New college, by William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester; first called St. Mary of Winchester, founded 1379; occupied 1386 (500th anniversary celebrated 14 Oct. 1879). All-Souls' college, by Henry Chlchely, archbishop of Canter- bury 1437 Magdalen, by William of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester 1456 Lincoln college, by Richard Fleming, 1427; finished by Rother- ham, bishop of Lincoln 1479 Brazenose, by William Smyth, bishop of Lincoln, and sir Rich- ard Sutton 1509 Corpus Christi, by Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester 1516 Christ church, by cardinal W^olsey, 1525; and afterwards by Henry VIII 1532 Trinity, by sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a previous insti- tution called Durham college 1554 St. John's, by sir Thomas Whyte, lord mayor of London 1555 Jesus college, by dr. Hugh Price and queen Elizabeth 1571 Wadham, by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his wife 1613 Pembroke, by Thomas Teesdale and Richard Wightwick, clerk, 1624 Worcester, by sir Thomas Coke, of Beutley, in Worcestershire; it was originally called Gloucester college 1714 Keble college ; first stone laid by archbishop of Canterbury, 25 Apr. 1868; consecrated ...23 June, 1870 Hertford college, 1312 ; dissolved in 1805, and a Hertford schol- arship appointed; revived, and Magdalen hall incorporated with it 1874 Indian institute founded 1879 HALLS (not incorporated). St. Edmund's 1269 St. Mary's 1333 New Inn hall 1392 St. Mary Magdalen (incorporated with Hertford college, 1874). 1487 St. Alban's 1547 First professorships. — Divinity (Margaret), 1502; Divinity, Law, Medicine, Hebrew, Greek, 1540, etc. Number of undergraduates, 1893 3,197 Members of the convocation, 1893 6,087 " on the book, 1893 12,165 Matriculated, 1865 524 " 1875 718 " 1891 802 DEGREES CONFERRED. L I M.D. I B.M. B.D. 1 4 I 7 2 2 .. I 6 I 2 ! 9 — Oxford University Calendar, 1893. Oxford'§ assault on queen Tietoria. Edward Oxford, a youth who had been a servant in a public- house, discharged 2 pistols at queen Victoria and prince Al- bert, as they were proceeding up Constitution hill in an open phaeton from Buckingham palace, 10 June, 1840. He stood within a few yards of the carriage, but no one was injured. Oxford was tried at the Old Bailey (10 July), was adjudged insane, and sent first to Bethlehem hospital, next to Broad- moor; and set at liberty in 1868, on condition of going abroad. Ox'US (the Persian and Turkish Djihoun; local name, Amou Darya), a river of central Asia; supposed to have changed its course before 1000 a.d., and to have resumed its ancient bed in 1878. OX'ygen, a gas (named from the Gr. o^vg, sharp, and the root yev-, produce, as it was long supposed to be the essential element of acids), is the most abundant of all substances, con- 1865. 1875. 189L M.A B.A. D.D. DC.L M.D. |B.M. B.D. B.C.L. B.M. 343 297 5 15 1 4 7 4 3 294 394 2 11 2 2 2 5 1 392 521 12 10 6 2 9 12 14 B.Mu 6 11 11 600 stituting about one-third of the solid earth, and forming about nine-tenths «»f water and one-fifth of the atmosphere. It was first separated from red oxide of mercury by Priestley, 1 Aug. 1774, and by Scheele, who was ignorant of Priestley's discov- erj*, in 1776. It is a supporter of animal life (in respiration) and of combustion. An oxygen-gas company was announced in Dec. 1864, its object being the cheap manufacture of oxygen for it^ application to the production of perfect combustion in lamps, stoves, furnaces, etc. Oxygen was liquefied by Kaoul Pictet at Geneva (pressure, 320 atmospheres, temp. —140 C), 22 Dec. 1877. Air, Gas, Ozone, Water, etc. A statue of Joseph T*riestley, 1733-1804, at Birmingham, was unveiled by prof. T. H. Huxley, 1 Aug. 1874, the centenary of the discovery of oxygen. This was also celebrated at Nor- thumberland, Pa., where he was buried, Feb. 1804, having left England 1794, and settled at Northumberland. A method of obtaining oxygen from air devised and patented by M. Margis, of Paris. The principle is that of dialysis, or diffusion under pressure (Gas, liquefaction) Sept. 1882 Prof. Dewar obtained 2 cubic centimetres (one-tenth of a fluid oz.) of liquid oxygen by means of liquid ethylene (the Illuminating part of coal gas), temp. —140 C. (by Wroblewski and Olzewski's method) at the Royal institution, London, 26 June, 1884 He first exhibited solid oxygen in the form of snow (tempera- ture —200 C.) produced by placing liquid oxygen in a partial vacuum, at the Royal institution 27 May, 1886 Prof. Dewar exhibited between 300 to 400 centimetres liquid oxy- gen at the Faraday centenary, 26 June, 1891. The feeble mag- netism of oxygen, demonstrated by Faraday, was shown by prof. Dewar to be greatly increased when reduced to the liquid state by a temperature of — 180 C. ; announced 10 Dec. 1891. Some liquid oxygen placed in the magnetic field sprang to the poles and adhered to them till evaporated ; this was publicly shown by the professor at the Royal institution, 10 June, 1892. Sev- PAD oral pints of liquid oxygen and liquid air were tlion produced i\ the presence of the audience. €>y§ter (the Lat. Ostrea edulis). British oysters are eel ebrated by the Roman satirist Juvenal {Sat. iv. 140), abou 100. OZOR'erit, a mineral hydro-carbon found in Moldavii and Wallachia. From it is distilled a substance suitable fo making candles; introduced in the autumn of 1871. O'ZOlie (from Gr. o^hv, to yield an odor) was discovere( by Schonbein of Basel in 1840, when experimenting with th( then newl}' invented battery of sir William Grove, and wa recognized by him successively as a minute constituent of th( oxygen gas resulting from the electrolysis of water effecte( by a current of high tension ; of air or oxygen, through whicl electric discharges have taken place; and of air in whicl moist phosphorus has been undergoing slow oxidation. Marignac determined the action of ozone on various substances to be due to oxidation 184| Ozonometers constructed M. Schonbein announced hisdiscovery of another modification of oxygen, which he termed antozone, hitherto found only in the compound state (in peroxides of sodium, potassium, etc. ), 1851 French Academy of Sciences appointed a committee to in- quire into the nature and relations of ozone 4 Dec. Andrews and Tait demonstrated ozone to be a condensed form of oxygen i860. This further established by Soret and Brodie, by quantitative reactions. (Odling suggested and Brodie proved ozone to be 3 molecules of oxygen in the space of 2) 187! Ozone, generated by a current produced by Wilde's magneto- electric machine, employed to bleach sugar, by Edward Beane's patent Aug. 18( Liquefied by Hautefeuille and Chappuis Oct. 1 P, the 16th letter and 12th consonant of the English al- phabet, known to the Greeks, Phoenicians, and Egyptians. Pacific ocean. America, Balboa, Magellan; Ocean. Pacific railroadi. Senate committee reports favorably Asa Whitney's bill for northern railway to the Pacific (Whitney was a merchant of New York city, zealous for such a road); senator Benton speaks against it ; tabled by the Senate, 27 to 21 1848 Again agitated by Whitney without success 1849 Benton introduces a Pacific railroad bill into Congress " Act providing for surveys passed Mch. 1853 UNION PACIFIC AND CENTRAL, PACIFIC. Bill passes the House, 6 May, 1862, 79 to 49; Senate, 20 June, 35 to 5; approved 2 July, granting as subsidies 6 per cent, gold bonds, to the Union Pacific, $16,000 per mile for the great plain west from Omaha; $48,000 per mile for 150 miles over the Rocky moun- tains; $32,000 per mile for the remainder; in all 1034 miles, $27,236,512. For the Central Pacific, $16,000. $48,000, and $:{2,- 000 per mile: in all 883 miles, $27,855,562. Each company also received 12,800 acres land per mile of road, in all 25,000,000 acres, by a subsequent act, 2 July. 1864. The companies were allowed to issue an equal amount of their own bonds, which were to be a first lien on the road, the government bonds the second. Time fixed for opening, 1 July. 1876; opened 10 May, 1869. General direction nearly east and west on 40th degree of latitude. 1865 40 1866 265 Miles built by the Union Pacific -| 1867 245 (8 350 i9 134 Miles built by the Central Pacific. 1865. 1866. 1867. Total 1034 56 Total 743 " Sacramento to San Francisco 140 " Grand total 1917 " NORTHERN PACIFIC. Charter granted, 2 July, 1864, and subsidies; from lake Superior to Puget sound, 1800 miles, and thence to the Columbia river, 200 miles; land granted to this railroad was 47,000.000 acres or 73,000 sq. miles. Road to be finished 4 July, 1879 ; commenced July, 1870 ; company became embarrassed in 1873; ceased work; reorganized 1875; time extended; finished 9 Sept. 1883; last spike driven by Henry Villard on the Pacific slope, 50 miles west of Helena, Mon. Great Northern extension, from Pacific Junction, Montana, to Lowell, on Puget sound (the 5th transcontinental line) com- pleted 6 Jan. 1893 ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC. Chartered 27 July, 1866. From Springfield, Mo., to the Pacific, nearly on 35th degree of latitude, in all a distance of nearly 2000 miles. The land granted to this road was 12,800 acres per mile in the states and 25,000 acres per mile in the territories, in all 42,000,000 acres. SOUTHERN PACIFIC. Chartered 3 Mch. 1871, extending from Marshall, Tex., to El Paso, thence through New Mexico, Arizona, to Los Angeles, Cal., along 32d degree of latitude. The land grant the same per mile as the others. Pacification, Edicts of, a name given to edicts of toleration granted by the French kings to the Protestants. Ghent. First edict, by Charles IX., permitting the reformed religion near all the cities and towns in the realm Jan. 1562 Reformed worship permitted in the houses of lords justiciaries, and certain other persons Mch. 1563 These edicts revoked, and all Protestant ministers ordered to quit France in 15 days 1568 Edict allowing lords and others to have service in their houses, and granting public service in certain towns 1570 [In Aug. 1572, the same monarch authorized the massacre of St. Bartholomew (Bartholomew).] Edict of Pacification by Henry III., Apr. ; revoked, Dec. 1576; renewed for 6 years Oct. 1577 [Several edicts were published against the Protestants after the 6 years expired.] Edict of Henry IV. , renewing that of Oct. 1577 1591 Edict of Nantes by Henry IV 13 Apr. 1598 Pacification of Nismes 14 July, 1629 padlock, a portable lock that, with hasp and staple, fastens a door, gate, etc.; said to have been invented br Beecher at Nuremberg, 1540, but mentioned much earlier. Pad'ua, the Roman Patavium, in Venetia, N. Italy, a city said to have been founded bj' An tenor soon after the fall of Troy, 1183 b.c. It flourished under the Romans. Patavian Latin was considered inelegant, and is traced by some critics in Livy, a native of Padua. After being an independent re- public, and a member of the Lombard league, Padua was ruled by the Carrara family from 1318, with a short interruption, till 1405, when it was seized b}' the Venetians. The university was founded about 1220. It was closed through disturbances, PAG 601 1848-50. Pop. 1881, 47,334. Scene of Shakespeare's "The Taming of the Shrew." '■'■ Hortensio. What happy gale Blows you to Padua here, from old Verona?" —Act i. sc. ii. pag^a.ll§ (Lat. paganus, belonging to a district or canton), a name given by the early Christian church to all not accept- ing its doctrine ; so called because the villagers and country- men long remained unconverted. The word now means the heathen, worshippers of idols in general. Constantine ordered the pagan temples to be destroyed throughout the Roman em- pire, 331 ; his nephew, Julian, attempted their restoration, 361 ; but paganism was renounced by the Roman senate in 388, and finally overthrown in the reign of Theodosius the younger, about 391. painting'. The art of laying on, or reproducing objects by, colors. Osymandyas (in Egypt) caused his exploits to be represented in painting, 2100 b.c. — Usher. Polygnotus of Athens paints in outline in 4 unshaded colors on b.c. a colored ground about 460 Zeaxis of Heraclea and Parrhasius of Ephesus flourish. . .about 400 Pausias of Sicyon invents the process .of encaustics. . .about 360-330 Apelles, most celebrated for his painting of Venus, "Aphrodite Emerging from the Waves," flourishes about 332 AntiphilUf, an Egyptian, reputed inventor of the grotesque (Pliny) " Art introduced at Rome from Etruria by Quintus Fabius, styled Pictor [Livy) 291 A.D. Painting on canvas said to have been known at Rome 66 Council of Constantinople replaces the lamb, former symbol of our Lord in painting, by the man Christ 692 *' Achirotapeton" or "picture made without hands," held authentic by the Romish church, placed in the chapel of the Sancta Sanctorum 752 Art of miniature painting, imperfect among the Greeks, is ap- plied to Christian uses in the 4th century, and practised ex- tensively by the Byzantine school about 800 Painting on glass practised in France and Germany about 1100 Guido of Sienna, first recognized Italian painter, paints the "Enthroned Madonna " in church of San Domenico 1221 Period of the " Renaissance," culminating with Michael Angelo and Raphael, begins about 1400 Jan van Eyck of Flanders, by mixing colors in oil and resin, supersedes drying in the sun about 1415 Masaccio (Tommaso Guidi), pioneer of realists, and leader in the study of the nude, flourishes about 1425 j Andrea Mantegna, the first artist who engraved his own works, i born near Padua 1431 The Last Supper" (known by Raphael Morghen's engraving), on the refectory wall of the old convent of Santa Maria della Grazie, Milan, completed by Leonardo da Vinci 1498 The Assumption of the Virgin " in the Academy of Fine Arts, Venice, was painted by Titian for an altar-piece in the church of Santa Maria de Frari 1516 The Transfiguration," now in the Vatican, was left by Raphael unfinished at his death 1520 The Nativity " or " Santa Notte," in the Dresden gallery, was painted for Alberto Pratonieri by Correggio and finished. . . . 1527 The Last Judgment," a fresco by Michael Angelo over the i altar of the Sistine chapel at Rome, completed 1541 j "The Descent from the Cross," in the church of San Triniti de Monti at Rome, by Daniel da Vol terra, who lived 1509-66 i Jacopa da Ponte, the first Italian genre-painter, d 1592 ' "The Last Communion of St. Jerome," in the Vatican, made for the monks of Ara Cceli by Domenichino, who lived, 1581-1641 "The Aurora," one of the best-preserved frescos in Italy, on ceiling of the Rospigliosi palace, Rome, by Guido Reni; fin- ished about 1610 "The Portrait of Beatrice Cenci," in the Barberini collection at Rome, ascribed to Guido Reni about 1600-10 "The Descent from the Cross," in the Antwerp cathedral, the chef-d'oeuvre of Flemish art, was painted by Rubens, about 1610-15 "The Immaculate Conception," in the Salon Carrg of the ; Louvre, was painted by Murillo 1678 : Robert Feke, the earliest native colonial painter in America, 1 executes several portraits in Philadelphia, Pa. , .■ 1746 '"The Sistine Madonna," originally an altar-piece by Raphael [ for the cloister of San Sisto in Piacenza, Italy, purchased by i king Augustus IlL of Saxony and removed to Dresden 1753 'Charles Wilson Peale executes the first portrait of George ; Washington as a Virginia colonel 1772 Benjamin West succeeds sir Joshua Reynolds as president of , the Royal Academy, England 1792 Pope Pius VII. purchases for the Vatican the " Nozze Aldo- brandini," one of the finest ancient paintings in Rome, rep- resenting in 10 figures a Greek marriage 1818 mtional gallery, London, Engl, established 1824 [Began by purchase of the Angerstein collection of 38 pict- ures for 51,0001. by the government; since increased by gifts and purchases to over 1100 paintings.] First exhibition of paintings ever held in Egypt in modern times opened in Cairo 20 Feb. 1891 PAI kminp:nt painters. Florentine. Born. Died. Giovanni Cimabuc 1240-1302 Giotto di Bordone 1276-1336 Fra Angelico (II Bea- to) 1387-1455 Andrea Mantegna 1431-1506 Domenico Ghirlandajo. 1449-1494 Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519 Filippino Lippi 1460-1504 Fra Bartolommeo (Bac cio della Porta) Michael Angelo Buona- rotti Andrea del Sarto (An- drea d'Agnolo) Daniele da Volterra. . . Carlo Dolci Born. Dieusly, but tyrannically: he was succeeded, on his death in 1840, by.Vibal. From 1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The president, C. A. Lopez, elected in 1844, was succeeded by his son, Francis S. Lopez, Sept. 1 862. Paraguay was recognized as an independent state by the Ar- gentine Confederation, 14 July, 1852. and by Great Britain in 1853. Area, 98,000 sq. miles; pop. 1857, 1,337,431 ; 1873, 221,- 079 ; 1876, 293,844 ; 1887, 329,645. Hostilities between Paraguay and Brazil; a Brazilian steamer captured as an intruder on the Paraguay 11 Nov. 1864 Brazil invaded Dec. " Lopez invades the Argentine republic, which immediately makes alliance with Brazil 14 Apr. 1865 Army of Lopez defeated Sept. " Allies capture Uruguyana and a Paraguayan army 18 Sept. " [For details of the war, Brazil, 1865-69.] A provisional government installed; Lopez defeated; pro- claimed an outlaw 17 Aug. 1869 Lopez killed near the Aquidaban 1 Mch. 1870 Peace signed with Brazil and the Argentine republic. . 20 June, " Pres. Salvador Jovellanos elected for 3 years 12 Dec. 1871 Pres. Juan BautistaGill 25 Nov. 1874 President and his brother assassinated; announced, Apr.; Hi- ginio Uriarte president 12 Apr. 1877 President, Candido Bareiro (for 4 years) 25 Nov. 1878 Don Juan G. Gonzales elected president 1890 para§ols were used by the ancient Egyptians. Came into general use in the United States about 1820. parclimeilt (Gr. Trepyafirjvr}, parchment; lit. paper of Pergamum), the skin of anijuals prepared for writing. First used for books by Eumenes (some say by Attalus) of Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 b.c. From being first written on in this library, parchment was called " Perga- men(B cka7'tcB" but it was not invented at Pergamus. Ptolemy of Egypt, to check if possible the growth of the Pergamenean library, forbade the exportation of papj'rus from Egypt, thus forcing Eumenes to use parchment instead of papyrus for books.— ^n^Aow, "Class. Diet." Parchment books from this time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the world are written on the skins of goats. The Persians and others are said to have written all their records on skins long before Eumenes' time. Parchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented and pat- ented in 1857 by W. E. Gaine, C.E., who discovered that when paper is drawn through a mixture of 2 parts of concentrated sul- phuric acid and 1 part of water, it is converted into a strong, tough, skin-like material. It must be instantly washed with wa- ter. Its great strength points out many applications, e. g.. maps, school and account books, and drawing-paper. In 1859 it appeared that a similar invention had been made in Paris by Figuier and Pouraarede in 1846. pardon, an act of grace remitting punishment for a crime. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations, first by Edward IIL in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege sum dignitatis ; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. 1535. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeachment of the House of Commons: stat. Will. III. 1700. In the United States the president has power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the government except in cases of impeachment; as has the governor in many states within his jurisdiction He can also commute a sentence. Parian marbles. Paros. Paris (formerly Luietia Parisio?'uni), the capital of France, situated on the river Seine, which cuts it into 2 un- equal parts, the larger being towards the north. It includes 3 isles: la ville (the city), the ile St. Louis, and the He Lou- viers. In the time of Julius Caesar, Lutetia comprised the city only. It was greatly improved by the emperor Julian, who made it his residence while he governed Gaul, 355-361. It became successively the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, Soissons, and Neustria, and eventually of all the kingdom. Many ecclesiastical councils were held at Paris, 360-1628. The representative of the house of Orleans is styled count of Paris. Population of Paris in 1856, 1,178,262; *in 1872, esti- mated population, 1,851,792; in 1876,1,988,806; 1891,2,447,- 957. Clevis makes Paris his residence about 508 St. Denis founded 613 Hotel-Dieu hospital founded by bishop Landry about 656 Paris ravaged by the Normans (or Danes), 845, 855, 861; suf- fered from famine 845-940 Defended against Danes by count Eudes and bishop Goslin. . . ■ 885 PAR 606 PAR University founded about 1200 Rebuilt 1231 Church of Notre Dame built 1100-1270 rarliiimont established 1302 Suflers by faciiuus of Araiagnacs and Burgundians 1411-18 Taken by the Knglish 1420 Retaken by the French 1436 Pont Notre Dame built 1499 Louvre commenced (Ix)Uvrk) 1522 Hotel de Ville founded 1533 Boulevards commenced 153(5 Fountain of the Innocents erected 1551 Tuilcries begun (Tuilkriks) 15G4 Massacre of St. Bartholomew's 24 Aug. 1572 Pont Neuf begun 1578 Vainly besieged by Henry IV 1589-90 Entered by him Mch. 1594 Hospital des luvalides , 1595 Place Koyale begun 1()04 Hotel Dieu founded.... 1606 Jardin des Plantes formed 1610 I.UXK.MBOUKG, bv Mary de' Medici 1615 Palais Koyal built 1629 Val de-Grace 1645 Conflicts of the Fronde 1648-53 Royal palace at Versailles built; the court removed there.. 1661-72 Academy of Sciences founded 1666 Observatory established 1667 Champs lllys^es planted 1670 Arch of St. Denis erected 1672 Palace d'felysde Bourbon built 1718 Palace of the Deputies 1722 Military school 1751 Pantheon, Ste. Genevidve, founded 1764 Fkkxcu RKvoLiTTioN breaks out; the Bastile taken 14 July, 1789 Pont de Louis XIV. finished 1790 Cemetery of P6re La Chaise consecrated 1804 Pont des Invalides. etc., erected 1806 Paris surrenders to the allies 30 Mch. 1814 Paris lit with gas 1819 Fortifications of Paris (for which 140,000,000 of francs were voted, 1833) commenced 15 Dec. 1840; completed Mch. 1846 Paris much improved by Louis Napoleon (probable cost 320,000,000 francs) 1S53-62 Industrial Exhibition opened by emperor and empress, 15 May; visited by Victoria and prince Albert (first English sovereign in Paris since 1422), 24 Aug. ; closes 15 Nov. 1855 Bois de Boulogne opened as a garden of acclimatation. . .6 Oct. 1860 Decree for an international exhibition of agriculture, industry, and fine arts at Paris in 1867; commissioners appointed, 21 Feb. 1864 International Exhibition on the Champ de Mars (with a new park, comprising more than 100 acres); the oblong building designed by Leplay (enclosing 35 acres), 1245 feet wide, 1500 feet long, consisting of circles within circles; the external corridor was a belt of iron, 85 feet high and 115 feet wide; opened by the emperor and empress 1 Apr. 1867 Visits by prince of Wales; kings of Greece, Belgium, Prussia, and Sweden; czar of Russia, viceroy of Egypt, sultan of Turkey, emperor of Austria, and other sovereigns, May-Nov. " Exhibition closed (instead of on 31 Oct.) Sunday, 3 Nov. ; gross receipts, 9,830,369 francs. International Exhibition: site, 2 unequal parts divided by the Seine. The main building in the Champ de Mars covers 263,593 square yards (765 by 360 yards); the Trocadbro pal- ace is a stone structure, with a rotunda supported by col- umns, crowned by a dome, flanked by 2 lofty towers, the exterior gallery ornamented with statues. Exhibition opened by the president, marshal MacMahon ("in the name of the republic"), in presence of the prince of Wales, the due d'Aosta, etc 1 May, 1878 111,955 persons visited exhibition (a fete day) 15 Aug. " Closed Sunday 10 Nov. ' ' Total admissions, 16,032,725; daily average, 82,000; gross re- ceipts, 12,653,746 francs. Universal exhibition of arts, manufactures, etc., opened by pres. Carnot 6 May, 1889 Offlcially closed 6 Nov. " [ Greatest exhibition hitherto. Chief building, the Eiffel Tower, 985 feet high, mostly of iron. Total visitors, 28,149,353; 402,065 admitted 13 Oct. (the largest number for any one day).] Receipts, 41,000,000 francs; surplus, 4,000,000 francs. Exhi. BITIO.VS. Telephone between London and Paris opened 18 Mch. 1891 Behring sea court of arbitration meets in Paris (Behring sea), 23 Mch. 1893 Marie Franp ols Sadi Carnot, 4th president of France, b, 1837, as.sassinated at Lyons by Cesare Santo, an anarchist, on Sunday, 24 June. State funeral at Paris 1 July, 1894 France, Franco-German war. IMPOKTANT TREATIES OF PAKIS. Between England, France, Spain, and Portugal; cession of Canada to Great Britain by France, and Florida by Spain, 10 Feb. 1763 Between France and Sardinia; the latter ceding Savoy, etc., 15 May, 1796 Between France and Sweden, Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rugen given up to the Swedes, who adopt the French prohibitory system against Great Britain 6 Jan. 1810 Capitulation of Paris: Napoleon abdicates 11 Apr. 181 1 Convention of Paris, between PYance and the allied powers; boundaries of Franco as on 1 Jan. 1792 23 Apr. " Peace of Paris ratified by France and all the allies 14 May, " Convention of St. Cloud, between marshal Davoust and Wel- lington and Blucher, for the surrender of Paris 3 July, 181 » [The allies entered it on the 6th.] Treaty of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the prisoner of those powers, and confiding his safeguard to England 2 Aug. " Establishing boundaries of France; certain fortresses to be oc- cupied by foreign troops for 3 years 20 Nov. '« Treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chaumont and Vien- na, same day 20 Nov. " Treaty of Paris, confirming the congress of Vienna 10 June, 18i; Treaty of Paris between Russia and Turkey, England, France, and Sardinia (revised 13 Mch. 1871 ; Russia) 30 Mch. 1865 Declaration of Paris, signed by European powers, not by U. S., Mch. 1856: 1. Privateering abolished. 2. Neutral flags to protect enemy's goods, except contraband of war. 3. Neutral goods under an enemy's flag exempt. 4. Blockade to be binding must be effective. This declaration was censured in Parliament in 187L Assented to by U. S. 1861. Treaty of Paris between England and Persia 4 Mch. 1867 Treaty of Paris between the European powers, Prussia, and Switzerland, respecting Neufchatel 26 May, " Commercial treaty between France and England 23 Jan. 186ii Convention between France and Italy for withdrawal of French troops from Rome 15 Sept. 18C i pari§llC§ (Gr. TrapoiKog, dwelling beside or near), ter- ritory of an ecclesiastical society. Their boundaries in Eng- land were first fixed by Honorius, archbishop of Canterbury, 636. They were enlarged, and the number of parishes was consequenth' reduced in the 16th century, when there wen; 10,000. Parish registers were commenced in 1538. The stat(! divisions of Louisiana are termed parishes instead of counties. park, Central, New York, in the centre of New York city is the Central park, open to everybody. It extends from Fifty-ninth street to One Hundred and Tenth street, 13,507 feet. Its breadth, from Fifth to Eighth avenue, is 2718 feet; its area 862 acres. There are 9 miles of roads, 5j of bridle paths, 28J of walks. It contains the great Crotoii reservoir for the use of New-Yorkers, with a surface of 9G acres and a depth, when full, of about 38 feet; its capacity more than 1,000,000,000 gallons. 'J'he cost of the reservoir was nearly $600,000. The park was laid out in 1858. li contains the American Museum of Natural Historj', and the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Archaeology; of which the Cesnola collection of Cypriote antiquities is a chief feature. Frederick L. Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were the landscape architects. parkesine {parh'-seen). A new substance, obtained from various vegetable bodies and oil, the same as xylotile. i It can be formed with the properties of ivory, tortoise-shell,], wood, india-rubber, gutta-percha, etc. It is named after jj Alexander Parkes of Birmingham, its inventor, and was" shown by him at the exhibition in 1862. In Dec. 1865, at the Society of Arts, parkesine was proved to be an excellent electric insulator, and' therefore likely to be suitable for tele- graphic purposes. parks. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fluvius Lupinus, Pompey, and Hortensius had large parks. In England the first great park of which particular mention is made was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I. in 1125. Among the noted parks in Europe are those in and near Paris: Fontainebleau, 41,000 acres ; St. Cloud, 1000 acres ; Bois de Boulogne, 2500 acres, and the Bois de Vincennes, 22'^6 acres; the last 2 acquired by the municipality of Paris in 1854. Vi- enna has its " Prater park," 2300 acres, and Munich its Royal park, 1300 acres. Phoenix park, in Dublin, Ireland, contains 1752 acres. The civic parks of England, Scotland, and Ireland y are numerous, acts for their establishment in England and ■ Ireland passed 12 July, 1869, and in Scotland, 18 Mch. 1878. H The most noted parks of London and vicinity are as follows: Green park, 70 acres, near Buckingham palace, enclosed by Henry VIII 1530 St. James, 90 acres, laid out by Henry VIII ". Hyde park, 390 acres, which became crown property 1535 Richmond park, 2253 acres, enclosed by Charles 1 1625-50 Greenwich park, 180 acres, laid out 1660-80 Regent's park, 470 acres, laid out 1812 Kensington Gardens, 210 acres, connected with Hyde park by a bridge, opened 1^26 Victoria park, 290 acres, opened to the public 18^5 Battersea park, 180 acres, opened Apr. 1858 Heme's oak in Windsor park blown down 1863 PAR 607 PAR <5mithwark park, 62 acres, laid out at a cost of 100,OOOZ. and opened to the public. 19 June, 1869 Finsbury park, 115 acres, opened .7 Aug. " Eoping Forest, 5600 acres, preserved by act of Parliament, is dedicated to the people 6 May, 1882 Burnham Beeches purchased by the city of Loudon for a public park in 1879 and dedicated 3 Oct. 1883 park§ in the United States. The development of the park system, national, state, and civic, in the U. S., is recent, though Boston had its " Common," part of a purchase for a oow pasture in 1634, and since 1878 protected from encroach- ment by law. Interest in public parks was created by the papers of A. J. Downing in 1849, and led to the establishment of Central park (862 acres) in the city of New York in 1857. The national parks or reservations in the U. S. are : YosEMiTE park and Mariposa grove, on the Merced river in Mariposa county, Cal., discovered in 1851 and established by Congress. 1864 Yellowstone National park, 3575 sq. miles, nearly all in north- western Wyoming, established by act of Congress 1 May, 1872 [Canada has also reserved 260 sq. miles in the Rocky mountain region, reached by the Canadian Pacific railroad at Banff, as a public park, and on 24 May, 1888, the reserva- tion at Niagara falls, Canada side, was opened.] In 1885 a forestry commission (New York) was appointed by New York state for the preservation of the Adirondack for- est. State reservation at Niagara Falls opened to the public, 15 July, 1885 IMPORTANT CIVIC PARKS IN THE UNITED STATES. Fairmount park, Philadelphia, 2740 acres, acquired by purchase and gift 1844-67 Prospect park, Brooklyn, 550 acres, established 1859 Druid Hill park, Baltimore, 693 acres, acquired by the city 1860 Chicago park system comprises 2 south parks, 372 and 593 acres; Jackson park, 600 acres; Douglas park, 171 acres; Garfield park, 185 acres; Humboldt park, 194 acres, and Lincoln park, 310 acres, a total, including 31)4 miles of boulevards, of 2530 acres; cost about $10,000,000 1869 Buffalo park system, 638 acres and 17 miles park driveways; work begun 1871 Parks of Cincinnati are Eden park, 207 acres, and Burnett Wood, 168 acres, established 1872-73 Boston, Back Bay park system, comprising: Charles River em- bankment, 69 acres; Back Bay park, 106 acres; Muddy river, 110 acres; Jamaica park, 120 acres; Arnold Arboretum, 167 acres; West Roxbury, 485 acres; in all, including park- ways, 1059 acres, established 1877 Detroit has Belie Isle, containing about 700 acres, bought 1880 Colden Gate park, extending to and along the ocean at San Francisco, contains 1043 acres. St. Louis has 2 parks, Tower-Grove, 276 acres, and Forest park, 1370 acres. Parks of New York are under the control of a board of 4 com- missioners who hold office for 5 years. Besides Central park, mentioned above, there are: Bowling Green (the cradle of New York); Battery, with Castle Garden; Bryant park, so named in 1884, once the site of Crystal palace; City Hall park. East River park. Mount Morris park, Morningside park; Riverside park, 178 acres, the burial-place of gen. U. S. Grant; Pelham Bay park, 1700 acres, established in 1888; Van Cortland park, 1059 acres, established in 1888; Bronx park, 653 acres, on both sides of the Bronx river; and several others, as Gramercy, Jeanette, Claremont, Crotona, Audubon, I and St. Mary's. \ Park'§ travels. Mungo Park set sail on his first j voyage to Africa under the patronage of the African Society, \ to trace the source of the river Niger, 22 May, 1795 ; and re- I turned 22 Dec. 1797, after having fruitlessly encountered great I danger. He sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, 30 ! Jan. 1804, sent by British government ; but never returned. j His murder at Broussa on the Niger, Nov. 1805, was well au- I thenticated. His "Travels in Africa" pub. in 1799. I Par'liamcilt (from the French parlement, discourse) ! derives its origin from the Saxon general assemblies, called Witenagemotes. The name was applied to the assemblies of the state under Louis VH of France, about the middle of the ^'^'^th century ; but, it is said, not in English law till the stat- ute ^ ^f Westminster I., 3 Edw. 1. 1272 ; and yet Coke declared jtn his a Institutes," and when speaker (1592), that this name pas use d in the time of Edward the Confessor, 1041. The j rst clea r account we have of representatives of the people "rmuig ^^ House of Commons is in 43d Hen. HI. 1258, the ' ^'^"tes of • Oxford, directing that 12 persons be chosen to rep- esent the c ommons in 3 parliaments, which, by the 6th stat- ute, were to be held yearly. — Burton's Annals. The general epresentation bv knights, citizens, and burgesses took place, ^9 Hen. HI. 12t% ^ ' ' -DUgdale's Summons to Parliament., edit, powei • and jurisdiction of Parliament are absolute nd cannot be conh 'ned, either for causes or persons, within The any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing laws. It can regulate or new-model the succ t.. .pt.. Jch.. June. J May . 17741 1780 1 1784=1 nm 17961 PAR * OF THE UNITKD KINGDOM. First Parliament after the union with Ireland 22 Jan. 1801 Day of meeting. When dissolved, III.. George IV.. William IV^ Victoria . r 27 Sept 1796 I 16 Nov 1802 15 Dec 1806 22 June 1807 24 Nov 1812 14 Jan 1819 23 Apr 1820 14 Nov 1826 26 Oct 1830 14 June 1831 '29 June 1833 19 Feb 1835 15 Nov 1837 19 Aug 1841 18 Nov 1847 4 Nov 1852 1 Apr 1857 31 May 1859 1 Feb 1866 10 Dec 1868 5Mch 1874 29 Apr 1880 12 Jan 1886 5 Aug ". . " [ 4 Aug 1892 29 June 1802 24 Oct 1806 29 Apr 1807 24 Sept 1812 10 June 1818 29 Feb 1820 2 June 1826 24 July 1830 22 Apr 1831 3 Dec 1832 30 Dec 1834 17 July 1837 23 June 1841 23 July 1847 1 July 1852 21 Mch 1857 23 Apr 1859 6 July 1865 11 Nov 1868 26 Jan 1874 23 Mch 1880 18 Nov 1885 26 June 1886 28 June 1892 Parliament of Ireland, it is said, began with conferences of the English settlers on the hill of Tara, in 1173. Writs for knights of the shire were issued in 1295. The Irish Parliament met last on 2 Aug. 1800, the bill for the union having passed. Parliament of Paris was made the chief court of justice in Fjauce b}'^ Philip IV.; at his suggestion it re- voked a bull of pope Boniface VIII., 1302. It was suppressed by Louis XV., 1771 ; restored by Louis XVI., 1774; demand- ed a meeting of the States-general in 1787 ; and was suspended by the National Assembly, 3 Nov. 1789. Communes. Parliament of Religrion§ held at the World's . Fair in Chicago in 1893. The objects proposed were : (1) To I bring together in conference the leading representatives of i different religions ; (2) to define and expound the important ; truths they hold and teach in common; (3) to promote and , deepen human brotherhood ; (4) to strengthen the foundations i of theism and the faith in immortality ; (5) to hear from '• scholars, Brahman, Buddist, Confucian, Parsee, Mahometan, ; Jewish, and other faiths, and from all sects and denominations i of the Christian church, accounts of the influence of each belief on literature, art, science, commerce, government, social life, etc.; (6) to record the present condition and outlook of the va- rious religions of the world. In June, 1891, the committee ap- ; pointed for that purpose sent from Chicago a general address ! to all governments and to the chief representatives of the dif- : ferent religions asking for approval. The result was that the I Parliament of Religions was opened at Chicago 11 Sept. 1893 and ' closed 27 Sept. The large attendance expressed the great and i general interest in such an assemblage. " Parliament of Relig- jions," by rev. John Barrows, D.D., 2 vols., pub. Chicago, 1893. * Parliament of Scotland consisted of barons, ; prelates, and abbots, and occasionally of burgesses. A great national council was held at Scone by John Baliol, 9 Feb. 1292, and by Robert Bruce at Cambuskenneth in 1326. A house of commons was never formed in Scotland. The Parliament of Scotland sanctioned the act of union on 16 Jan. 1707, and (net for the last time on 22 Apr. same year. Parma, a city and country of N. Italy, founded by the incient Etrurians. It took part with the Lombard league in 'he wars with the German emperors. It was made a duchy 'with Placentia), 1545. Pop. 1892, 51,500. Jnited to Spain by Philip V.'s marriage with Elizabeth Far- , »ese 1714 )uke of Parma made king of Etruria Feb. 1801 'arma united to France: with Placentia and Guastalla con- ferred on Maria Louisa, ex-empress, by treaty of Fontaine- ,^,leau 5 Apr. 1814 •uke Charles 11. abdicates in favor of his son Charles III., , , ■ 14 Mch. 1849 narles III. stabbed by Antonio Carra, 26 Mch., d 27 Mch. 1854 . [Carra did this in revepge of a private injury, and on be- ■ half of the Giovane Italiane. He was acquitted through a flaw in the evidence, and died in Philadelphia, 1887.] arma is now part of the province of Emilia in Italy, to which It was annexed by decree after a plebiscite 18 Mch. 1860 20 ^ PAR Parnell and Parnellites., Charles Stewart Par- nell, the principal leader of the more energetic section of the Home-rule party (Parnellites),1880 et seq., was born 28 June, 1846, at Avondale, county Wicklow, Ireland. He was grand- son of com. Charles Stewart, U.S.N. , his father, John Henry Parnell, having married Delia Tudor Stewart, daughter of the commodore. Elected M.P. for county Meath, 1875-80 ; for Cork, 1880-91. Became Irish parliamentary leader with great influence, which he lost greatly Nov. 1890. He died suddenly near Brighton, 6 Oct. 1891; funeral at Dublin, 11 Oct. 1891. Home-rule ; Ireland, 1879 et seq. Times articles headed "Parnellism and Crime," 7, 10, 14 Mch. et seq. 1887 Third series, pub. June, 1887, related to the Cla« na Gael, based upon statements in United Ireland (Dublin), Irish World (New York), and other papers. The Times published the fac- simile of a letter alleged to be signed by Parnell (dated 15 May, 1882), in which he is made to say, " though I regret the accident of lord Cavendish's death, I cannot refuse to admit * that Burke got no more than his deserts " 18 Apr. " This letter Parnell in Parliament termed an anonymous fab- rication 1 A. M. , 19 Apr. " F. H. O'Donnell v. John Walter and others (for libel in the Times, " Parnellism and Crime "); damages claimed, 50,000Z., Queen's Bench division, no case, verdict for defendants, 2-5 July, 1888 Court of Sessions, Edinburgh, dismisses Parnell's action against - the Times 23 Oct.1888 and 5 Feb. 1889 Parnell moves for a trial in excl^equer division, Dublin; after- wards stopped 11 Feb. " Parnell's action against the Times in London deferred till Michaelmas week 18 June, " PARNELLITE COMMISSION. Sir James Hannen, president; commission constituted by act passed 13 Aug. 1888. Sir Charles Russell, Mr. Asquith, and others counsel for Parnell and other M.P. "s; attorney-general sir Richard Webster, W. Graham, and others for the Times. Proceedings begin, 22 Oct. 1888. Examination of Parnell's alleged letters, 14 Feb. 1889. Richard Pigott, Irish journal- ist, who had sold the letters to Mr. Houston, on cross-exami- nation, grossly prevaricated 20-22 Feb. " Pigott fled to Paris; his confession of forging alleged letters, and of perjury read in the court, 27 Feb. (57th sitting); the ' attorney- general, on behalf of the Times, accepted the con- fession and expressed deep regret for the publication, 27 Feb. ; confirmed by the Times 28 Feb. " Pigott commits suicide at Madrid 1 Mch. " Sir Charles Russell's address ends .12 Apr. " Patrick Malloy sentenced to 6 months' hard labor for perjury before the commission 15 Apr. " Commission continued until thel28th sitting; sir Henry James's address for the Times, occupying from 31 Oct. to 22 Nov. " Report of the commissioners was laid before Parliament 13 Feb. 1890. The following is an abridgment of their conclu- sions: I. That the respondent members of Parliament col- lectively were not guilty of conspiring for the absolute Inde- pendence of Ireland as a separate nation, but that some of them (niessrs. M. Harris, Dillon, W. O'Brien, W. Redmond, O'Connor, J. Condon, and J. J. O'Kelly), together with Mr. Davitt, established the Land League maihly for that purpose. II. That the respondents [44] did conspire to promote agrarian agitation, the non-payment of rents, and the expulsion of the landlords (styled the English garrison). III. They ac- quitted Mr. Parnell and others of insincerity in denouncing the Phoenix Park murders, and found the facsimile letter a forgery. IV. They found that the respondents did dissemi- nate the Irish World and other newspapers, intending to in- cite to sedition and other crimes. V. That the charges of incitement to crime, except by intimidation, and of pay- ments for that purpose, were not proved. VI. They found that the respondents did not denounce the system of intimi- dation, though they knew its effects. VII. That they de- fended persons charged with agrarian crime, and supported their families, but it was not proved that they subscribed for testimonials for, or were intimately associated with, noto- rious criminals, or aided their escape by payments. VIIL They found that the respondents made payments to com- pensate persons injured in the commission of crime. IX. That the respondents did invite and obtain the assurance and co-operation of the Physical Force party in America, in- cluding the Clan-na-Gael, and did not repudiate the action of that party. [Other allegations against Mr. Parnell not proven.] Report adopted with thanks, by the Commons, after 7 days' debate, 3-11 Mch. ; by the Lords (without a division), 21 Mch. 1890. Mr. Gladstone's amendment rejected by 339 to 268. Parnell v. Walter and another, for libel, Queen's Bench division, justices Denman and Wills; damages claimed, 100,000i. ; 40s. paid into court, 11 Jan. Verdict for the plaintifl", by consent, 5000i. damages 3 Feb. 1890 [Publication voted not a breach of privilege by the Com- mons (260-212), 11 Feb. 1890.] After the divorce suit, capt. O'Shea, Mrs. O'Shea, and C. S. Parnell, 15-17 Nov. 1890, Mr. Parnell was requested by W. E. Gladstone and other English liberals to retire as chairman PAR 610 of the Irish party. He declined, and in a manifesto to the | people of Ireland reported private conferences with Mr. Gladstone and John Morley, 29 Nov. Irish Roman Catholic bishops demanded Mr. Parnell's retirement, 3 Dec. After a week's angry discussion in the commons' committee-room No. 15, the Irish party divided; Justin McCarthy, the vice- chairiuiin, was elected chairman by 44 members; Mr. Parnell continuing chairman with 26 followers, 6 Dec. Manifestoes of the -2 parties issued 9, 10 Dec. 1890 Collapse of negotiations (chiefly at Boulogne) of Mr. Parnell, with messrs. Wm. O'Brien, Dillon, Justin McCarthy, Sexton, and others; Mr. Parnell refuses to resign the leadership, 11 Feb. ; counter manifestoes issued 12 Feb. et seq. 1891 Dispute between Mr. Parnell and Mr. McCarthy respecting the disposal of the league funds (in Paris) Feb. , Mch. " Mr. Parnell in his campaign visits Roscommon, 22 Feb., Drog- heda, and other places 1 Mch. et seq. " Natio.\al Fedkration established by Anti-Parnellites, 10 Mch. " Nine Paruellites, 72 Anti-Parnellites, elected M.P July, 1892 Par'os, now Paro, one of the Cyclades. After the battle of Alarathon it was besieged 2G days by Miltiades with- out success, and thus proved the cause of his disgrace. It waa on this island that the marble (Parian Chronicle) was dijpovered. Arundelian makbles, Marble. Parseei, or Oliebre§, the followers of Zerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the battle of Kadseah, their army was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy annihi- lated at the battle of Naharand in 641. Many submitted to the conquerors, but others fled to India, and their descendants still re- side at Bombay (where they are termed Parsees), and where they numbered 114,698 in 1849. Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy,the3d bar- onet, was elected president of the community there, July, 1877. Dadabhai Naoroji, a Parsee merchant, was for several years professor of Gujerajti at University college, London. Bombay. Par'tlienon (from Gr. irapOevoQ. virgin), a temple at Athens dedicated to Pallas, erected about 442 b.c. In beauty and grandeur it surpassed all other buildings of its kind, and was built entirely of Pentelic Marble. The ex- pense of its erection was estimated at 6000 talents. The archi- tects were Ictinus and Callistratus. In it Phidias placed his renowned statue of that goddess, 438 b.c. This temple had resisted all the outrages of war and time ; had been a Christian church and later a Turkish mosque, and still remained entire until the Venetians under gen. Konigsberg besieged the Turks in the citadel of Athens in 1687, when a Venetian bomb, ex- ploding near the temple, fired the powder which the Turks kept within, and entirely destroyed its roof and most of the wsills. Acropolis ; Elgin marbles. Par'thia, a country of Asia, to the south of the Caspian sea. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians who, being exiled, as their name implies, from their own countr}', settled near Hyrcania. Arsaces laid the foundation of an em- pire which ultimately extended over a large part of Asia, 250 B.C. At the battle of Carrhae, they utterly defeated the Romans under Crassus, whom they put to death, 53 b.c., and though afterwards sometimes defeated by the Romans, they were never wholly subdued by them. The last king, Arta- banus V., was killed 226 a.d. ; and his territories were annexed to the new kingdom of Persia founded by Artaxerxes, who had revolted against Parthia. parties. Political parties. partition treaties. The first treaty between Eng- land and Holland for regulating the Spanish succession (de- claring the elector of Bavaria next heir, and ceding provinces to France) was signed 19 Aug. 1698 ; and the second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the archduke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarch, Joseph Ferdinand having died in 1699), 13 Mch. 1700. Treaties for the partition of Poland: beginning with a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, 17 Feb. 1772, and consummated between the same powers and Austria, 5 Aug. same year; the second between Russia and Prussia, 1793 ; third and final between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, 24 Oct. 1795. Poland. pasig'raphy (from Gr. iracn, for all), a system which professes to teach people to communicate with each other by means of numbers which convey the same ideas in all languages. A society for this purpose was established at Mu- nich ; and the president, Anton Bachmaier, published a dic- tionary and grammar for German, French, and English, 1868- 1871 ; 4334 mental conceptions may be thus communicated. 1 PAS pasquinades'. Small satirical poems obtained tl name about 1533. At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, idle persons to assemble to listen to his sallies, to relate anecdotes, and rail the passers-by. After the cobbler's death, his name was given a statue to which lampoons were affixed. Passar'oi¥itz treaty, concluded 21 July, 17I between Germany, Venice, and the Turks, by which Austi ceded certain commercial rights, and obtained from Turk< the Temeswar, Belgrade, and part c ,osnia, Servia, and Wi lachia. The Turks gained the More Passau (a city of Germany), Treaty of, whereby relij ious freedom was established, was ratified between the en peror Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Germany, j July, 1552. In 1662 the cathedral and great part of Passi were consumed by fire. Passion-play (Passion of Christ). Drama. Passion-weeii, the name givea since the Refoi tion to the week preceding Easter, was formerly applied the fortnight. Archbishop Laud says the 2 weeks were called " for a thousand years together," and refers to an epi tie by Ignatius, in the first century, in which the practice said to have been "observed by all." The week precedii Easter is now by some termed " Holy-week," the previ( week " Passion-week." Passion Music. Gregory Nazianzen (330-90 a. d.) is said to have fii set forth the history of the Passion in a dramatic form. Guidetti, in 1586, published music for this subject, which has b( treated since by many composers. J. S. Bach's great " Passion- Musik," first performed on Good Frid 1729, has been revived with great success in England, beginnii with that "according to St. Matthew," 6 Apr. 1854. Pass'over, the most solemn festival of the Jews stituted 1491 b.c. (Exod. xii.) in commemoration of thi coming out of Egypt; because the night before their depai ure the destroying angel, who put to death the first-bom the Egyptians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews with" out entering them; the door-posts being marked with the blood of the Paschal lamb killed the evening before. The Passover was celebrated in the new temple, 18 Apr. 615 b.c— Usher. passport, a document permitting the bearer to pass the barriers of an army or government, usually containing a de- scription of his person. Passports are still required upon the frontiers of some countries of Europe, from all foreigners en- tering them, notably in Russia; and it is customary in Ger- many, and even in Italy, to ask them from suspicious persons. They are issued to citizens by the government, on applica- tion, for a small fee ; now $2 in the United States, and only 6d. in Great Britain. Passports were abolished in Norway in 1859 ; in Sweden in 1860 ; and (with regard to British sub- jects) in France, 16 Dec. 1860; in Itah', 26 June, 1862; in Portugal, 23 Jan. 1863 ; and are falling into disuse in most countries. The passport system, revived in France on ac- count of the war, 1 Aug. 1870, was abolished by M. Thiers, 10 Apr. 1872, in compliance with the wish of the British gov- ernment. pastel, a roll of paste made of different colors ground with gum water, used as a crayon. Pastel painting has been recently much practised. The Society of British Pastellists first exhibited in London, 18 Oct. 1890. Its members included Mr. Watts, Orchardson, and other eminent artists. Paston letters, the correspondence of a Norfolk family, 1422-83, giving a picture of social life in England, were edited by sir John Fenn, and published in 5 volumes, quarto, 1787-1823. Their authenticity was questioned, Sept. 1865, but was satisfactorily vindicated b}'^ a committee of the Soci- ety of Antiquaries in May, 1866. Part of the MS. was soon after purchased by the trustees of the British museum. The publication of a new edition, by James Gairdner, with addi- tional letters, 1872-75. .The MS. of the second series, with other letters, was found in 1875, by Mr. Frere of Roydon hall, near Diss, Norfolk. The MS. of the first series, long lost frona the Royal library, found in the library of col. Geo. Tomhne. at Orwell piark, London, who died 1889 ; announced Apr. 1890. Patago'nia, all that part of South America lying south of the river Rio Negro and north of the strait of Ma- \ PAT gellan,bv whom it was discovered, 1520, and so named on ac- count of 'the " big feet " of the natives. By a treaty between Chili and the Argentine Republic in 1881, all that part of Pat- agonia to the east of the Andes was placed under the jurisdic- tion of the Republic. Area of Patagonia and Terra del Fuego estimated at 375,000 sq. miles. Patay', a city of France, where Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, was present when earl of Richemonte signally defeated the English, 18 June, W'' Talbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forcjecl to flee. In consequence, Charles VII. of France entered Kneims in triumph, and was crowned 17 July, following year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full armor, and holding the sword of state. Joan of Arc. patenti or letters-patent, properly, open letters (from pateo, I lie open), in England, licenses and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted for titles of nobility were first made 1344, by Edward III. They were first grant- ed for the exclusive privilege of printing books in 1591. The property and right of inventors in arts and manufact- ures were secured by letters-patent by an act passed in 1623. First commissioners of patents were appointed 1852; viz., the lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attorney- general for England and Ireland, the lord advocate, and the solicitors-general for England, Scotland, and Ireland. In 1853, j a journal was published under their authority, and indexes of patents from Mch. 1617 to the present time. patents in the United States. First patent law ap- proved, 10 Apr. 1790. Only 3 patents were granted the first j'ear (the first being to Samuel Hopkins for making potash and , pearlash, 31 July, 1790), 33 the second, and 11 the third. In 1 1836 the patent-office was burned with most of the records ^ i thereupon Congress revised the whole system that year, all ! previous acts being substantially repealed and the present 1 system substituted with a new record. The patent-office is i at Washington, D. C, and occupies one of the finest buildings I in the country, and is under the supervision of a commis- jsioner of patents, with a salary of $5000 a year, who, appoint- !ed by the president, makes a yearly report to the secretary iof the interior, to whose department he belongs. A larger jnumber of patents are granted than in any other country. i NUMBER OF PATENTS ISSUED FROM 1836. 1836-46 5,019 1846-56 12,578 1856-66 44,334 1866-76 125,155 1876-86 169,478 1886-94 156,453 Total 513,017 Nunber issued prior to 1836 9,957 Grand total 522,974 [This enumeration does not include designs, re-issues, • trade-marks, or labels. Registration of labels practically 1 ceased 27 May, 1891, under decision of the U. S. Supreme ■ court, in the case of Higgins vs. Keuffel] Receipts from patents in 1837 $29,289.08 "1892 1,288,809.13 Total receipts from 1837-93 29,209,915.13 f.Oflacial gazette of the patent ofQce, published monthly, gives a de- f scription and illustration of every patent issued.) pa'triarcll, properly, a ruler by virtue of fatherhood, he head of a family or tribe (a name given to Abraham, saac, Jacob, and his sons). The ecclesiastical historian Soc- ates gives this title to the chiefs of Christian dioceses, about -1^0. It was first conferred on the 5 grand sees of Rome, Con- tantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin liurch had no patriarchs till the 6th century. The first Dunders or heads of religious orders are called patriarchs. 'ectarius, bishop of Constantinople, as ex officio chief of the east- f'^rn bishops, was nominated patriarch of Constantinople at the iecond general council of Constantinople, 9 July, 381. This led he way to the schism between the Eastern and Western churches. jiatri'eians, the senators of Rome; their authority be- n with the city itself. Rome, patroon', a title given to early Dutch settlers of New irk or New Netherlands, who, having bought lands of the |dians, had such title confirmed by the Dutch government, pe first who made such purchases were Killian Van Rensse- [er, Samuel Godyn, Sarhuel Bloemart, and Michael Pauw, ''30. Godyn and Bloemart purchased on the Delaware ^'er; Pauw in New Jersej', from Hoboken to the Kills; 611 pAV Van Rensselaer on the upper Hudson, a tract 42 miles east and west and 24 miles north and south, with Albany its cen- tre; Livingston, Phillipse, Van Cortland, and others came afterwards. Anti-rentism ; New York, 1630, 1686. Paulian'ists or Paulin'ians, followers of Paul, bishop of Samosata, afterwards patriarch of Antioch, 260, who is said to have denied Christ's divinity and the trinity; he was excommunicated (269) by a council at Antioch. Pauli'eians, a sect of Christian reformers, arose about 652. Although they were severely persecuted, they spread over Asia Minor in the 9th century, and finally settled at Montford, in Itah', where they were attacked by the bisliop of Milan in 1028. Severe decrees against them were made in 1163, and they gradually dispersed ; very probably sowing the seeds of the great reformation of the 16th century. Paul's, St., cathedral, London. First church, built on the site of a temple to Diana, supposed to have been destroyed during the Diocletian persecution (302), rebuilt in the reign of Constantino 323-337 Demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by Ethelbert and Sebert about 597-610 Destroyed by the great fire, 1086; Mauritius, bishop of Lon- don, commenced a magnificent edifice, with the highest spire in the world, about 1087 ; completed 1240 It was destroyed by the fire of Sept. 1666 First stone of the present edifice laid 21 June, 1675 Choir opened for divine worship.* 2 Dec. 1697 Whole edifice completed under sir Christopher Wren (except some decorations, finished 1723) 1710 [Total cost 1,511,202?.] Ball and cross restored by Mr. Cockerell 1822 Peal of 12 bells (by Taylor, of Loughborough) given by the corporation and some of the companies; dedicated. . .1 Nov. 1878 Reconciliation service after desecration of the cathedral by suicide of Edward Easton ou 28 Sept 13 Oct. 1890 dimensions. Feet. Length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to east end 510 Breadth, north to south portico 282 Height from ground to top of cross 404 Circumference of dome 420 Entire circumference of the building 2292 Diameter of ball 6 Paul's cross, St., London, near the cathedral, a pul- pit or speaking-place used not only for preaching but for political speaking as well. Here the most eminent divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in the forenoon, and to this place the court, the mayor, aldermen, and principal citizens used to resort. It was used as early as 1259, but was demolished in 1643 by order of Parliament. Paul's school, St., London, was endowed in 1512 by John Colet, dean of St. Paul's, for 153 boys, " of every na- tion, country, and class," in memory of the number of fishes taken by Peter (John xxi. 11). The first school-house was burned in 1666 ; the second, by Wren, was taken down in 1824, and the present building erected by George Smith. William Lilly was the first master, and his grammar was till recently used by the school. — Timhs. PaulUS's Hook, Capture of. The British had a small garrison (500 men under maj. Sutherland) at Paulus's Hook (now Jersey City), opposite the city of New York, in the summer of 1779. The post was attacked at 3 o'clock in the morning of 19 Aug. by maj. Henry Lee with 300 picked men. 30 of the garrison were killed and 160 made prisoners; the re- mainder retreated to a strong circular redoubt, too strong to be captured, and Lee fell back with his prisoners to camp. Con- gress rewarded Lee with thanks and a gold medal. pavements. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved their towns; the Romans in the time of Augustus had pavements in many of their streets; the Appian Way, a paved road, was constructed 312 b.c. Pave- ments of blocks of lava, worn into ruts by wheels, are met with in Herculaneum and Pompeii. Roads built of heavy flags of freestone, of unknown age, exist in Peru, 1500 to 2000 miles in extent. In Mexico, among the ruins of Palenque, are found pavements of large square blocks of stone. Modern pavements are, wood, vitrified bricks, or stone blocks set in cement, or asphalt laid in sheets. Of the last, the city of Buffalo, N. Y., had within its limits in 1894 180 linear miles, or more than any other city in the world. Cordova in Spain paved by Abderrahman II 850 Streets in Paris first paved by Philip Augustus 1184 PAV 612 PEC I London streets first paved 1653 Stone tramwiiv; panillel wheel tracks of blocks of granite, built from West India docks to Whitechapel. London 18i9 Part of Broadway, Now York city, between Chambers and War- ren sts., paved with hexagonal wooden blocks 1836 Experimental pavement of asphalt laid at the entrance of the Place de la Concorde, Paris 1837 Artificial asphalt from gas works used in England about 1838 Wood pavement of hexagonal blocks bedded in gravel intro- duced in England " Pavement of granite blocks 3 in. broad and 9 in. deep on a bed of concrete 1 ft. thick, the first of modern set pave- ments, laid on Blackfriars bridge, London 1840 Nicolson pavement ; wooden blocks on end on a foundation of hemlock boards, introduced in Boston, Mass 1848 Asphalt first used extensively for pavement in Paris 1854 Claridge's patent asphalt laid in Trafiilgar square, London, Jan. 1864 Wood pavement of concrete foundation laid in London 1872 Pavement of vitrified brick laid in Charleston, W. Va 1873 Fifth ave., New York city, from -iCth to 27th sts., laid with NeufchAtel asphalt July, 1879 Pa'via, a city of N. Italy, the ancient Ticinum or Papia. Its university, ascribed to Charlemagne (really founded in the 14th century), is said to be the oldest in Europe. Pavia was built by the Gauls, who were driven out by the Ronoans, and these by the Goths. In 568 it was taken by the Lombards, and became their capital. In the 12th century it was erected into a republic, but soon after was subjected to Milan, and fol- lowed its fortunes. On 24 Feb. 1525, in a battle near here, thfe imperialists defeated the French, whose king, Francis I., after killing 7 men with his own hand, was at last obliged to sur- render. It was long asserted that Francis wrote to his moth- er, Louisa of Savoy, regent of the kingdom during his ab- sence, saying, Tout est perdu, madame, fors Vhonneur (All is lost, madam, except honor). The words are now said to have been, Vhonneur et la vie qui est saulvL Prisoners. Pavo'nia, territory now occupied by Jersey City and Hoboken, so called by the Dutch when first settled by them, 1630. New York. paiW^nbroRing'. The Roman emperors lent money upon land. The origin of borrowing money on pledges is referred to Perugia, in Italy, about 1462. The institutions were termed Monte di pieta. Soon afterwards, it is said that the bishop of Winchester established a system of lending on pledges, but without interest. The business of pawnbrokers was regulated in England in 1756, and licenses issued in 1783. The rate of interest on pledges was fixed in 1800. In 1860 an act was passed enabling pawnbrokers to charge a half- penny for every ticket describing things pledged for a sum under 6s. Number of pawnbrokers in Great Britain in 1871, 3540 ; it increases faster than the population. In the United States this business is confined to the large cities, and is car- ried on without that watchful care bestowed upon it by the government in other countries, especially in Great Britain. Pawnees. Indians. pax, a small tablet, generally silver, termed tabula pads or osculatorium ; kissed by the Roman Catholic priests and laity ; substituted for the primeval kiss of peace in the early church. The pax is said to date from the 12th century. Paxton boys, Massacre of the Indians. Pennsyl- vania, 1763. Peabody fund. George Peabody, an American merchant (b. S. Danvers,Mass., 18 Feb. 1795 ; d. London, Engl., 4 Nov. 1869), who had made his fortune in London, gave, on 12 Mch. 1862, 150,000/. ; on 21 Jan. 1866, 100,000Z. ; on 5 Dec. 1868,100,000/.; and by his wiU directed his trustees to pay 150,000/.— in all 500,000/., to ameliorate the condition of the London poor. An autograph letter, promising her portrait in miniature, was sent him by queen Victoria 28 Mch. 1866 [Inscription on the miniature sent: "V.R. Presented by the queen to G. Peabody, Esq., the benefactor of the poor of London."] First block of buildings for working classes, termed "Peabody dwellings," in Commercial St., Spitalfields, was opened 29 Feb. 1864; and others Since, in Spitalfields, Islington, Shad- well, Westminster, Chelsea, Bermondsey, etc. ; they have been found to be self supporting, 1878. In 1879, net gain, 24,786^.] Mr. Peabody's statue, at the east end of the Royal Exchange, was inaugurated by the prince of Wales 23 July, 1869 Funeral service at Westminster Abbey 12 Nov. " Funeral at Portland, Me., prince Arthur present 8 Feb. 1870 [He also gave large sums for educational purposes in the U. S., as follows]: 18 $30,000 to found Peabody institute at South Danvers, Mass. ... f 150,000 to same institute soon after. $50,000 to similar institute at North Danvers $300,000, afterwards increased to $1,000,000, to found Peabody institute at Hallimore, Md 181 $300,000 to scientific departments of Harvard and Yale col leges 18( $2,100,000, afterwards increased to $3,500,000, to promote edu cation in the Southern states $200,000 to other objects , $315,000 to various educational institutions 18< peaee. A temple was dedicated to Peace by Vespi sian, 75. The gates of the Roman temple Janus Quirini were always shut in time of peace ; they were closed on] once between the time of Nuraa and Augustus; viz., at tl close of the first Punic war. Peace of religion (between Catholics and Protestants) signed at Augsburg 15 Sept. 15l Benj. Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge, appointed by Congress, meet lord and adm. Howe on Staten Island in a peace conference without result 11 Sept. 17 Earl of Carlisle, George Johnstone, and William Eden, com- missioners of Great Britain, arrive at PKiladelphia. .4 June, 17 [As they had no power to acknowledge the independence of the colonies. Congress declined to appoint commissioners to meet them.] Motion in House of Commons by gen. Conway for a cessation of hostilities; lost by a majority of one 22 Feb. 17 Conway again moves, "That the house would consider as ene- mies to his majesty and the country all those who should advise or by any means attempt the further prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North America ;" carried without a division the same day 4 Mch. Peace treaty of 1814. United States. Peace conference at Washington, D. C. ; a vain attempt to pre- vent the civil war (Unitkd States) 4 Feb. II Horace Greeley, sent by pres. Lincoln, confers in the interest of peace with confederates, among them Clement C. Clay of Alabama, and James P. Holcombe of Virginia, at the Clifton house, Niagara falls, without result July, II Rev. col. James F. Jaques, 73d Illinois, and J. R. Gillmore visit Richmond; confer with pres. Davis on peace, without result, June-July, Peace conference at Hampton Roads brought about by Francis P. Blair, sr. ; Confederate commi.ssioners Alexander H. Ste- phens, John A. Cainpbeli, and R. M. T. Hunter, meet pres. Lincoln and sec. Seward on steamer in Hampton Roads, without result 3 Feb. li A peace congress met at Berne, Switzerland 24 Sept. 186ft Congress at Lugano, 23 Sept. 1872; at the Hague, 25 Sept. 1873; at Paris, 6 Sept. 1875; at Geneva, Oct. 1877; at Paris, 25 Sept. 1878 ; at Brussels, 17 Oct. 1882 ; at Berne 4-9 Aug. 1884 Meeting at Crystal palace near London, 22 July, 1885; another meeting 16 July, 1886; at Geneva, 9 Sept. 1887; at Paris, 23 June, 1889; in London, 14 July, 1890; Rome, 11 Nov. 1891; Berne Aug. 1892 The principle of arbitration in place of war was adopted by the Pan-American Congress at Washington; treaty signed for several states 28 Apr. 1890 peaelies (fruit of a small tree, Persica vulgaris, of the order Rosacece) are said to have been introduced into England from Persia about 1562. Flowers and Plants. Peach ■ tree Creek, Ga., Battle of. Atlanta CAMPAIGN, 20 July, 1864. Pea Ridg^e, Battle of. Arkansas, 1862. pearls, mentioned Job xxviii. 18. M. R^a^imur, in 1717. alleged that pearls are formed like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 80,000/. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II., of the size of a pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats. A pearl named the Incom- parable, spoken of by De Boote, weighed 30 carats, equal to 5 pennyweights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 110,400/. Peasants' war. Jacquerie. " Peculiar People," a small sect" in Essex and other parts of England, formed about 1845. 2 members, Thom- as and Maryanne Wagstaife, were tried and acquitted of man- slaughter, 29 Jan. 1868. They had neglected getting medical assistance for their sick child, and depended on the efiicacy of their elders' prayers and anointing it with oil (James v. 14). The child died. On 8 May, 1872, a father was convicted for neglecting to get medical advice for his child who died of small-pox ; . and the sect agreed to modify their practice. Es- tablishments for healing diseases by prayer exist in Germany. This sect is known in the United States under the name ol " Faith Healers," and also as " Christian Scientists." FED 613 FED pedestrian! §111 (Lat. pes, the foot ; pedes, one that moves on foot. The act or practice of walking). It is said that Euchidas, a citizen of Platsea, went thence to Delphi, and re- turned with the sacred fire the same day before sunset, having travelled 125 miles. He fell dead from the exertion. Authen- tic records of pedestrian feats begin about the close of the 18th century, when Foster Powell, in 1773, walked on a wager of 100 guineas from Hicks hall, London, to York, and return, a dis- tance of 394 miles, in 6 days less about 6 hours. From this time records of professional and amateur walking and running matches are numerous. The greatest distance hitherto walked by ail American without rest is 121 miles 385 yards, by C. A. Harriman, Truckee, Cal., 6-7 Apr. 1883. In England, Peter Crossland, Manchester, covered 120 miles 1560 yards without resting, 11-12 Sept. 1876. Foster Powell walks from Falstaff inn, Canterbury, to London bridge and back, 112 miles, in 23 h. 50 min. ; the best record up to that time 1787 Powell, on a wager of 20 guineas to 13, walks from London to York and return in 5 days, 16 h. 10 min Aug. 1790 Daniel Crisp walks 1 mile in 7 min. 50 sec 1802 Capt. Barclay Allardice of Ury runs a mile in i min. 50 sec, out- pacing John Ireland, a noted swift runner 1804 Capt. Barclay Allardice walks 1 mile each hour for 1000 suc- cessive hours on Newmarke't Heath for a wager of 1000 guineas 12 p.m. 1 June-4 p.m. 12 July, 1809 Thomas Standen of Salehurst, aged 60, walks 1100 miles in 1100 hours (1 mile in each hour), finished July, 1811 Richard Manksof Warwickshire walks 1000 miles in 1000 hours at Sheffield 17 June-29 July, 1850 Charles Westhall, at Slough, walks 1)4 miles in 58 min. 25 sec. in 1857 ; and at Newmarket, 21 miles in 59 seconds less than 3 hours Feb. 1858 L. Bennett (Deerfoot) runs 11 miles, 970 yards in 1 hour, Lon- don, Engl 3 Apr. 1863 Miss Richards walks 1000 miles in 1000 hours, 18 May-29 June, 1874 Edward Payson Weston, at Newark, N. J., walks 500 'miles in 5 days, 23 h. 34 min 21-26 Dec. " Bella St. Clair walks 1000 miles in 950 hours 25 July et seq. 1876 William Gale, aged 45, walks 1500 miles in 1000 consecutive hours, at Lillie Bridge, London, 26 Aug. -6 Oct., and 4000 quar- ter miles in 4000 consecutive 10 minutes, at Agricultural hall, London, completed 17 Nov. Match of 17 pedestrians at Agricultural hall, London, won by O'Leary, who walked 520 miles in 6 days 18-23 Mch. Six days' walking-match for championship, at Agricultural hall, won by W. Corkey; 18 competitors; 521 miles, 28 Oct.-2 Nov. " Weston walks 550 miles in 6 days at Agricultural hall, and wins the Sir John Astleybelt 16-21 June, 1879 Blower Brown walks 553 miles in 6 days; champion of Eng- land 16-21 Feb. 1880 John Meagher walks 8 miles, 802 yards in 1 hour. New York city 29 Nov. 1882 Weston walks 5000 miles in 100 days, abstaining from alcohol.. 1883 Zoe Gayton, an actress, walks from San Francisco to New York, 3395 miles, in 6 months, 26 days, receiving $1300; arrives at New York. 27 Mch. 1891 1877 1878 PROFESSIONAL AND AMATEUR WALKING RECORD. Nationality. Sec, 4. 5 6 7 llOO ,200. '300. 400. 500. 1531. Professional Amateur Professional Amateur Professional Amateur Professional Amateur Professional Amateur Professional Amateur Professional. . . .' Amateur Professional. . , . Amateur Professional Amateur Professional Amateur Professional Amateur Professional. . . . Amateur Professional Amateur Professional English. . . American. English. . . American. English. . . American. English. . . .American. English. . . American. English. . . American. English... 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 7 8 18 19 40 66 96 130 138 23 29.6 14 48.6 2L5 9.2 38 10 10 17 1 57 4 28.4 37 8.5 14 8 45 40.75 57 52 16 25.5 15 50 30 50 W. Perkins F. P. Murray J. W. Raby F P. Murray J. W. Raby F P. Murray J. W, Raby W H. Meek J. W. Raby H. Curtis J. W. Raby H. Curtis J. W. Raby H. Curtis John Meagher J. B. Clark J. W. Raby E. E. Merrill J. W. Raby E. E. Merrill W. Perkins Thomas Griffiths.. . J. Hibberd A. W. Sinclair William Howes . . . A. W. Sinclair George Littlewood. London New York London Brooklyn, N. Y. London New York London Birmingham, Engl. London Birmingham, Engl, London Birmingham, Engl. New York London. London Boston, Mass. London Sheffield, Engl. 1 June, 1874 27 Oct. 1883 20 Aug. <' 30 May, 1884 20 Aug. 1883 6 Nov. " 20 Aug. (( 12 July, 1884 20 Aug. 1883 12 July, 1890 20 Aug. 1883 12 July, 1890 20 Aug. 1883 12 July, 1890 29 Nov. 1882 8 Sept. 1880 3 Dec. 1883 5 Oct. 1880 3 Dec. 1883 5 Oct. 1880 1 July, 1877 3 Dec. 1870 14 May, 1888 14 Nov. 1879 15 May, 1880 26 " 1881 7-11 Mch. 1882 ECORD OF GREATEST DISTANCE COVERED IN 6 DAYS' ' GO-AS-YOU-PLEASE" WALKING MATCHES (72 HOURS— 12 HOURS DAILY.) Mile?. Yards. Name. Nationality. Place. Date. 78 1280 162 704 150 800 229 1408 216 1280 296 1056 282 320 362 528 349 1120 G. Littlewood. John Dobler... G. Littlewood . John Dobler. . , G. Littlewood. , John Dobler.., G. Littlewood , John Dobler.., C. Rowell John Dobler.., C. Rowell Gus. Guerrero. English. . , American English. . , American English. . American English. . American English. . American English. , American London Buffalo, N. Y. London Buffalo, N. Y. London Buffalo, N. Y. London Buffalo, N. Y. London Buffalo, N. Y. London Boston, Mass 24 Nov. 1884. 9 Aug. 1880. 25 Nov. 1884. 9-10 Aug. 1880. 24-26 Nov. 1884. 9-11 Aug. 1880. 24-27 Nov. 1884. 9-12 Aug. 1880. 27 Apr.-l May, 1 9-13 Aug. 1880. 27 Apr. -2 May, 1 13-18 Apr. 1891. PROFESSIONAL AND AMATEUR RUNNING RECORD. '-,]< Nationality. Time. Name. Place. Dat«, Hours. Min. Sec. "\ Professional Amateur Professional Amateur Professional Amateur American •• .. 5.25 5.5 9.8 9.8 9.8 59 58 New York 22 Nov. 1884 12 Dec. " . ( H M Johnson Cleveland, 31 July, 1886 22 Feb. 1888 'M Oakland Cal 1 John Owen jr Washington, D. C. Boston Mass 11 Oct. 1890 1 1 5 Sept. 1881 29 May. 1880 ( L. E. Meyers Staten Island PED PROFESSIONAL AND 614 PEN AMATEUR RUNNING RECORD.— (Conttnued.) Nationality. Time. Name. Place. Date. Hour.. Min. S«c. 1000 1 Mlle«: M 1 Professional. . . . Amateur. Professional Amateur Professional. . . . Amateur Professional. . . . Amateur Professional — Amateur Professiousil Amateur Professional — Amateur Professional — Amateur Professional. . . . Amateur Professional Amateur Professional Amateur Professional. . . . Amateur Professional Amateur Professional Amateur Professional English American English American English Scotch. ..'. English Scotch *i 1 5 6 13 17 35 58 84 109 135 141 2 2 4 t 9 14 14 19 19 24 24 29 30 34 35 40 40 45 f^ 11 52 55 18 26 36 9 17 31 18 ib 17 13 12.75 17.8 11.5 17.4 19.5 24 25.4 33.8 40 53.6 50 17.8 45 37 20 57.4 21 12 6.6 20 51.2 4.5 26.2 30 14 28 6 18 20 30 W Cummings Preston Engl. . 30 Apr. 1881 8 Oct. " 23 Aug. 1885 26 " 1895 1 " 1865 26 Apr. 1884 14 May, 1888 3 June, 1893 8 Nov. 1888 10 June, 1893 11 May, 1863 24 Sept. 1895 11 May, 1865 22 Oct. 1895 11 May, 1865 28 July, 1884 1 June, 1851 28 July, 1884 IJune, 1855 7 Apr. 1884 18 Sept. 188J 7 Apr. 188^ 4 Oct. 18H 22 Mch. 189< 21 Feb. 188' 11 Apr. 188i 27 Feb. 1885 22 " 27 " 2 Mch. " 6-11 Feb. 188j 5 May, 188< 1 Dec. 1881 L E Meyers New York W G George London Engl T P ConnefT . . Cambridge, Mass William Lang W. G. George London Engl P Cannon Glasgow * English u [ American English " ,* American English E C. Willers London Engl J White M S Thomas U n "" J White ,, 4, "1 7 j 8 9J 10 5W 60| 100 S Thomas 41 ,, J. White u u (( <1 J. Howitt (( u (( a J Howitt ii "'...., W G. George W Cummings (1 u W G George (< u Halifax, N. S W. H. Morton J E. Dixon u Charles Rowell New York J. Saunders Charles Rowell 200 (( 800 U (( (( 400 Jas Albert (( 600 P. Fitzgerald (1 600 G Littlewood << 623 K PedO-BaptistS (Gr. Traig iraiSog, child, and BajTrrig, one who dips), a term (not a sect) implying a belief in infant baptism. pedometer and odometer, apparatus for meas- uring the distance traversed by a walker or carriage. Odometers, or road-measurers, are said to have been known in the 15th century; improved in England by Butterfield about 1678; and by Meynier, in France about 1724 Ralph Gouts's pedometer, for indicating the number of steps taken by a walker, was patented 4 Nov. 1799 William Payne's pedometer for the waistcoat pocket, patented, 15 Feb. 1831 William Grayson's odometer, or road-measurer, to be attached to carriages, was patented 1 Dec. 1851 peere§ses of the United Kini^dom {in their own right). 6 in 1891 : baronesses Berkeley, Berners, Bol- sover, Burdett-Coutts, Macdonald of Earnscliff, viscountess Hambleden. peers. Lords. Peg^U (^pe-goo'), a province of the Burmese empire, dis- covered by the Portuguese, 1520. This province was annexed to the British Indian possessions by proclamation, 20 Dec. 1852. In Feb. 1862, it was united with Arracan and Tenassarim as British Burmah. Peking' was made the capital of China about 1260. Here was held the court of the Mongol or Yuen dynasty, 1280-1368. Marco Polo visited it in i271. In 1369 "Hung- wu, of the Ming dynasty, removed to Nankin, which was the capital till Yung-lo removed his court to Peking in 1410, and by him and his successors the city was enlarged, fortified, and beautified. It was visited by lord Macartney, Sept. 1793 ; surrendered to the allied English and French armies, 12 Oct. 1860 ; and evacuated by them 5 Nov., after peace was signed, 24 Oct. It was described as desolate, and the inhabitants scat- tered and indigent. About 8 miles northwest lies the imperial park, with the famous Summer palace; it was sacked by the French and English troops in 1860 and left a heap of ruins, and so remains. The population in 1864 was estimated at 1,600,000. English and French representatives were settled at Peking, Mch. 1861. Pela'g^ians, followers of Pelagius, a Briton, appeared at Rome about 400. Their doctrines were condemned by councils at Jerusalem, Carthage, and other places, 415, 530. They maintained : 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and, whether he had sinned or not, would certainly have died. 2. That the consequences of Adam's sin were confined to his own person. 3. That new bor i infants are in the same condition as Adam before the fall. 4. That the law qualified men for the kingdom of heaveu, an^d. of English money, or 14 cents. Pennymites, a term first applied to the inhabitants of Penns)'lvania by the Susquehanna settlers. Penob'SCOt. Maine throughout. PenrU€ldOCk'§ rebellion, on behalf of Charles II., was suppressed, and col. John Penruddock himself exe- cuted, 16 May, 1655. Pen§aeola. Florida, United States. pen§lon iystem. In several countries pensions are granted to servants of the crown and public, and in England a committee, appointed in 1834, designated those entitled to pen- sions " who by their useful discoveries in science, and attain- ments in literature and the arts, have merited the gracious con- sideration of their sovereign and the gratitude of their country." Under this regulation there was expended by the British gov- ernment during the year ending 31 Mch. 1891, in pensions. For naval and military service £29,720 For political and civil service 13,841 For judicial service 43,977 Miscellaneous 4,067 Total £91,605 In the United States, pensions have been granted for mer- itorious service from time to time since 1790, when baron Frederick William Steuben was granted by act of Congress an annuity of $2500 during life for "sacrifices and eminent ser- vices made and rendered to the U. S. during the late war." Pensions of $5000 are now paid to the widows of gens. Grant and Garfield, and there are on the pension rolls 22 widows of prominent officers in the army and navy who receive pensions of from $1200 to $2500, the latter being granted to the widow of adm. David D. Porter. There were on the pension rolls of the U. S. 30 June, 1893, 966,012 pensioners, classified as follows : Widows and daughters of Revolutionary soldiers 17 Army invalid pensioners , 360,658 Army widows, minor children, etc 107,627 Navy invalid pensioners 4,782 Navy widows, minor children, etc 2,578 Survivors of the war of 1812 86 Widows of soldiers in war of 1812 5,425 Survivors of Mexican war 14,149 Widows of soldiers in Mexican war 7,369 Indian wars (1832-42), survivors 2,544 " " " widows 1,338 Under act of Congress, 27 June, 1890 : Army invalid pensioners 365,084 Army widows, minor children, etc 77,838 Navy invalid pensioners 12,119 Navy widows, minor children, etc 4,114 Under act of Congress, 5 Aug. 1892 : Nurses 284 Total 966,012 Of these, 961,917 are in the U. S., 2002 in Canada, 740 in Great Britain, 590 in German}^, 239 unknown, and the remain- der scattered throughout other foreign countries. Continental Congress passes a resolution to provide for dis- abled soldiers of the Revolution by pension 26 Aug. 1776- Continental Congress recommends to the states to provide for invalid soldiers 7 June, 1785 Pensions heretofore granted by the several states to be paid by the U. S. government by act of Congress 29 Sept. 1789 Pension to be paid, not to exceed one half monthly pay, to soldiers enlisting under act of this date and wounded or dis- abled in service 30 Apr. 1790' Act directing arrears of pensions now due to be discharged by PEN certificate, and widows and orphans of those killed or who died in service to be entitled to the benefits of this act 11 Aug. Officers and seamen in the navy wounded or disabled to be placed on the pension lists by act of. 1 July, Money accruing from prizes constitutes a fund for payment of naval pensions by act of 2 Mch. 1799, and 23 Apr. Law enacted providing pensions for widows and children of oflBcers dying in the service of wounds received in actual battle, at rate of one half monthly pay for 5 years. ..16 Mch. All persons on list of states for disabilities incurred in the Revolution are made U. S. pensioners by act of 25 Apr. Special pension granted to Robert White of Reading, Vt., who lost both arras at fort Erie, $40 per month; to J. Wrighter, Trenton, N. J., who lost his right arm and leg at Little York, Can. , $30 per month ; to John Young of Boston, Mass. , who lost botharmsatFrenchcreek,$40; and to J. Crampersey, Beverly, Mass., who lost both arms, $40; by act of Congress. . .22 Feb. Militia disabled in service to be placed on pension rolls in same manner as if of the regular army, and special pension granted William Monday of Baltimore, who lost both arras in battle at Leonard's creek, $20; by act of Congress, 16 Apr. Pensions heretofore or hereafter granted to be: for highest rate of disability, first lieutenant, $17 per month; second lieutenant, $15 per month; third lieutenant, $14; ensigns, $13; non commissioned and privates, $8 per month.. 24 Apr. Young King, a Seneca Indian, for meritorious service, granted a pension of $200 per annum, by act of Congress 26 Apr. Act of Congress passed placing on pension list all revolution- ary ofilcers at $20 per month, arid soldiers and seamen at $8 per month who had served 9 months in the war. .18 Mch. [27,948 persons applied for the benefit of this act; 18,000 were admitted; the expenditure for the first year was $1,847,900, and for the second, $2,766,440.] Pension Bureau established with a commissioner of pensions (hitherto under the secretary of war); J. L. Edwards first commissioner 2 Mch. Pension business of the navy department transferred to the commissioner of pensions, by act of 4 Mch. Pension office becomes a bureau of the newly created depart- ment of the interior 3 Mch. Samuel Downing of Saratoga county, N. Y., the last revolu- tionary pensioner under general acts, dies, aged 101, 18 Feb. John Gray, Noble county, 0., a revolutionary pensioner by special act of 22 Feb. 1857, dies, aged 105 28 Mch. Daniel F. Bakeraan of Cattaraugus county, N. Y., a revolu- tionary pensioner under same act, dies, aged 109 5 Apr. Surviving veterans and widows of deceased soldiers of the war of 1812 who served 60 days, allowed a service pension of $8 per month by act of Congress 14 Feb. Total disability rates for pensioners raised: lieutenant-colonel and higher in the army, captains, commanders, etc., in the navy, to receive $30 per month; majors in army and lieu- tenants in navy, $25; captains, $20; first lieutenants, $17; second lieutenants, $15; cadet midshipmen, etc., $10; en- listed men, $8; by act of Congress 3 Mch. Act passed to place colored persons, now prohibited from re- ceiving pensions on account of being borne on the rolls of their regiments as "slaves," on the same footing as other soldiers 3 Mch. Fifty-eight pension agencies in the U. S. consolidated; 18 now (1894) perform the business Soldiers and widows of soldiers who served 14 days in the war 1790 1797 1800 1802 1808 1816 621 PEN of 1812, granted a pension of $8 per month by act of Congress, 9 Mch. 1878 Arrears of pension act passed, dating all pensions granted under general laws, from the death or discharge from service of claimant 25 Jan. 1879 Pensions under acts of 14 Feb. 1871, and 9 Mch. 1878, $8 per month increased to $12, by act of Congress 19 Mch. 1886 Surviving officers and enlisted men of the military and naval services of the U. S. who served 60 days with the army or navy in the Mexican war, over 62 years of age or disabled, to receive a pension of $8 per month, by act of 29 Jan. 1887 Act granting pensions of $6 and $12 per month to all persons who served 90 days or more in the army, and who are suffering from permanent mental or physical disability, which incapacitates them for manual labor, and to their widows 27 June, 1890 Act of Congress granting pensions to army nurses 5 Aug. 1892 Of the 86 survivors of the war of 1812 the oldest is 106 years, the youngest 87 1893 INCBEASE OF PENSION ROLL SINCE 1861. 1818 1849 1867 1873 1877 Total number of applica- tions. Total number of claims allowed. 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 186& 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 2,487 49,332 53,599 72,684 65,256 36,753 20,768 26,066 24,851 43,969 26,391 18,303 16,734 18,704 23,523 22,715 44,587 57,118 141,466 31,116 40, 48,776 41,785 40,918 49,895 72,465 75,726 81,220 105,044 363,799 198,345 119,361 Number of pensioners. Invalids. 1 Widows, etc. 462 7,884 39,487 40,171 50,177 36,482 28,92> 23,196 18,221 16,562 34,333 16,052 10,462 11,152 9,977 11,326 11,962 31,346 19,545 27,394 27, 38,162 34,192 35,76' 40,857 55,194 60,252 51,921 66,637 156,486 224,04' 121,630 2,034,695 1,357,921 Total amount paid prior to 1861 (1789-1860) 4,299 3,818 6,970 27,656 50,106 71,070 83,618 4,337 4,341 7,821 23,479 35,880 55,652 67,565 75,957 82,8591105,104 87,521 111,165 93,394 114,101 113,954]118,275 119,500118,911 121,628|114,613 122,989,111,832 124, 239 [107, 128,723:103,381 131,649 92,349 138,6151104,140 145, 410 1 105, 392 164,110 182,633 206,042 225,470 247,146 270,346 306,298 343,701 373,699 415,654 536,821 703,242 759,706 104,720 103,064 97,616 97,286 97,979 95,437 99,709 108,856 116,026 122,290 139,339 172,826 206,306 Total. Disbursement!. 8,636 8,159 14,791 51,135 85,986 126,722 153,183 169,643 187, 198, 207,495 232,229 238,411 236,241 234,821 232,137 232,104 223,998 242,755 250,802 268,830 285,697 303,658 323,756 345,125 365,783 406,007 452,557 489,725 537,944 676,160 876,068 966,012 $1,072,461.55 790,384.76 1,025,139.91 4,504,616.92 8,525,153.11 13,459,996.43 18,619,956.46 24,010,981.99 28,422,884.08 27,780,811.81 33,077,383.63 30,169,341.00 29,185,289.62 30,593,749.56 29,683,116.63 28,351,599.69 28,580,157.04 26,844,415.18 33,784,526.19 57,240,540.14 50,626,538.51 54,296,280.54 60,431,972.85 57,273,536.74 65.693,706.72 64,584,270.45 74,815,486.85 79,646,146.37 89,131,968.44 106,493,890.19 118,548,959.71 141,086,948.84 158,155,342.51 $1,576. .503, 554. 42 $79,713,465.20 Grand total \ $1,656,217,019.62 INCREASE OF HIGHEST RATES FOR DISABILITY AS ESTABLISHED BY ACTS OF CONGRESS SINCE 1864. Disability. Monthly pension by Act of Congress. Loss of both hands. " feet... " " eyes.. $25.00 20.00 25.00 3 Mch. 1865. $31.25 3L25 31.25 Loss of 1 hand and 1 foot 20.00 24.00 " 1 hand or 1 foot 18.00 ' ' 1 arm above elbow or 1 leg above knee " 1 arm at shoulder or 1 leg at hip Incapacity for performing manual labor Totally deaf, 3 Mch. 1873, $13.00; 27 Aug. 1888, $30.00 , Permanent helplessness, 4 Mch. 1890, $72.00 Totally helpless, 18 June, 1874, $50.00; 16 June, 1880, $72.00, dating from 17 June, 1878 i June, I n June, 1874. 1878. $50.00 50.00 50.00 28 Feb. 1877. $72.00 72.00 72.00 24.00 30.00 .00 $100.00 30.00 36.00 45.00 $100.00 72.00 72.00 36.00 30.00 36.00 45.00 30.00 30.00 72.00 72.00 AMOUNT DISBURSED AT THE DIFFERENT PENSION AGENCIES FOR THE YEAR ENDING 30 JUNE, 1893. Location of agency. Amount. 1. Augusta, Me $3,096,877.58 2. Boston, Mass 8,626,953.39 3. Buffalo, N. Y 7,619,080.82 4. Chicago, 111.. 12,048,088.22 5. Columbus, 16,556,521.35 6. Concord, N. H 3,424,287.91 7. Des Moines, la 9,246,332.92 8. Detroit, Mich 7,782,720.72 9. Indianapolis, Ind 11,919,097.35 10. Knoxville, Tenn 8,324,548.00 11. Louisville, Ky 4,879,388.08 12. Milwaukee, "Wis 7,819,024.89 13. New York city 8,338,-523.17 14. Philadelphia, Pa. 8,994,666.70 Location of agency. Amount. 15. Pittsburg, Pa 7,499,455.99 16. San Francisco, Cal 3,134,832.88 17. Topeka, Kan 16,456,194.76 18. Washington, D. C 12,278,263.71 Paid by treasury settlements 110,484.07 Total $158,155,342.51 [Total amount appropriated for the year ending 30 June, 1893, by the U. S. government, including the Deficiency Appropriation act of 3 Mch. 1893, amounting to $13,844,437.35, $160,581,787.35.] pentam'eter ver§e (5 feet), first used about the 7th century b.c. ; Pope's " Essay on Man " an example. Elegy. Penta'teucll, the 5 books of Moses, probably written about 1452 b.c Bible. I*eil'tecO§t signifies the 50th, and is the solemn fes- PEN 6^ PER tival of the Jews, called also " the feast of weeks," because it was celebrated 50 days, or 7 weeks, after the feast of the Pass- over, 1491 B.C. (Lev. xxiii. 15; Exod. xxxiv. 22). Whit- suntide. Pentlaild llill§, near Edinburgh. Here the Scotch Presbyterians, since called Camkronians, who had risen against the government on account of the establishment of episcopacy, were defeated by the royal troops, 28 Nov. 1666. Penzance, Cornwall. The town was burned by the Spaniards, July, 1595. It was taken by Fairfax in 1646. Here sir Humphry Davy was born, 17 Dec. 1778, and here was inaugurated his memorial statue, 17 Oct. 1872. pep§in, a peculiar organic substance found by Schwamm in the gastric juice, and named by him from -Trs^pig, digestion. It was experimented on by M. Blondlot in 1843, and has since been prescribed as a medicine. Pepy§'8 ipSp'-is or pips) " Diary." Samuel Pepys was born 23 Feb. 1632 ; became secretary to the English ad- miralty about 1664; president of the Royal Society, 1684; died 26 May, 1703. His " Diary," as published, begins 1 Jan. 1659-60; ends 31 May, 1669. The MS. at Magdalen college, Cambridge, was deciphered by the rev. John Smith. The first edition (with a selection from his correspondence), by Richard, lord Braybrooke, ap- peared in 1825. The new edition, "deciphered, with addi- tional notes, by the rev. Mynors Bright," began in » 1875 Pequot§. Connecticut, 1636-37 ; Indians. *' Percy'§ Reliques." The earliest ballads of the English language that had been preserved in manuscript or printed in the rudest manner, collected, systematized, and ex- plained by dr. Percy, bishop of Dromore, and so named after him. Literature. Per'ekop, an isthmus, 5 miles broad, connecting the Crimea with the mainland. It was called by the Tartars Orkapou, "gate of the isthmus," which the Russians changed to its present name, which signifies a barren ditch. The lines across the isthmus were forced by the Russian marshal Munich, May, 1736, and the fortress was taken by Lacy, July, 1738. It was again strongly fortified by the khan, but was again taken by the Russians in 1771, who have since retained it. perfumery, the art or practice of making perfumes for the gratification of the sense of smell. In Exod. xxx. (1490 B.C.) directions are given for making incense. Per'gamos. Seven CHURCHES, 3. Peri (Persian), an imaginary female being like the elf or fairy, represented in Persian mythology as a descendant of fallen angels, excluded from Paradise until their penance is accomplished. " Farewell— farewell to thee Araby's daughter (Thus warbled a Peri beneath the dark sea)." — Moore's " Lallah Rookh," song Araby's Daughter. periodical literature. Newspapers, Maga- zines, Review^s. " PeriplUS." The voyage of Hanno, the Carthaginian navigator, probably in the 6th century b.c. His account of his travels,writteninthe Punic language, was translated into Greek; an English translation edited by Falconer, London, in 1797. perjury, the formal and wilful attestation by oath of a falsehood. The early Romans threw the offender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; and the Greeks set a mark of infamy upon him. After the empire became Christian, any one who swore falsely upon the Gospels was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the primitive church enjoined 11 years' penance; and in some countries the false swearer became liable to any punishment to which his testimony has exposed an innocent person. In England perjury was punished with the pillory, fine, and imprisonment, 1562. Perhaps the most notorious perjurer of modern times was Titus Gates. Gates. Peronne {pe-ron'), a town of N. France. Louis XI. of France, having placed himself in the power of the duke of Burgundy, here was forced to sign a treaty, confirming those of Arras and Conflans, and recognizing the duke's independence, 14 Get. 1468. The notables declared the treaty invalid and the duke a traitor, Nov. 1470. perpetual motion. For this purpose machines have been constructed by the marquess of Worcester and many others, although the impossibility of attaining it wai demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton and De la Hire, and af firmed by tlie Academy of Sciences at Paris, 1775. It is stij an object of experiment with many fanatics. Kkkly motor Perry'§ victory. Naval battles. Perryville, Ky. Bragg's Kentucky campaign. per§eeution§. Historians usually reckon 10 genera! persecutions of the Christians. Barthoi.omkw, St., Here tics. Huguenots, Inquisition, Jews, Massacres, Protes TANTS, etc. I. Under Nero, who, having set fire to Rome, threw the odium upon the Christians; multitudes were massacred; wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn and devoured by dogs; crucified, burned alive, etc 64-61 II. Under Domitian gj III. Under Trajan 10 IV. Under Marcus Aurelius 166-T V. Under Septimus Severus 199-20 VI. Under Maximus 235-31 VII. Under Decius, more bloody than any preceding 250-5 VIII. Under Valerian 258-6 IX. Under Aurelian 271 X. Under Diocletian, who prohibited divine worship; houses filled with Christians were set on fire, and many of them were bound together with ropes and cast into the sea 303-1 Persep'oli§, the ancient splendid capital of Persia Ruins of this city still exist. Alexander is accused of setting fire to the palace of the Persian kings here, 331 b.c the royal feast for Persia won," while under the influence ol wine and instigated also by Thais as a penalty for the cruel ties inflicted by the Persians upon the Greek prisoners. Dry den makes this act of Alexander due to music by Timotheus. "And the king seized a flambeau with zeal to destroy; Thais led the way To light him to his prey. And like another Helen fired another Troy." — "Alexander's Feast." Persia or Iran, in the Bible called Elam, a country of Asia, is said to have received its appellation from Perseus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and es- tablished a petty sovereigntj'. The name is more probably of Indian origin, Persia was included in the first Assyrian monarchy, 900 B.C. When that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, etc., it appertained to Media. Area about 628,000 sq. miles— a large portion desert; pop. of the present kingdom about 9,000,000. b.^ Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of the Magi 21ll Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher,- generally confounded with the king of Bactria lOlJJ, Cyrus, king of Persia, 559; overthrows the Medo-Babylonian monarchy about 557; conquers Asia Minor about 548; mas- ter of the East, 536; killed in war with the Massageta? 52()h Cambyses his son, king, 529 ; conquers Egypt 525 False Smerdis killed ; Darius Hystaspis king, 521 ; conquers Babylon 517 Conquest of Ionia; Miletus destroyed 498 Darius equips 600 sail, with an army of 300.000 to invade the Peloponnesus, which is defeated at Marathon 490 Xerxes king, 485; recovers Egypt, 484; enters Greece in the spring at head of an immense force; battle of Thermopylae. 480 Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 of his troops, and is defeated in a naval engagement off Salamis 480 Persians defeated at Mycale and Platsea 22 Sept. 479 Cimon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 250 vessels, takes sev- eral cities from the Persians, and destroys their navy, con- sisting of about 340 sail, near Cyprus 470 Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Artabanus 465 Artaxerxes I. (FiOngimanus) king, 464; marries Esther 458 Xerxes II. king, slain by Sogdianus, 425; who is deposed by Darius II. (Nothus) 424 Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) king, 405; battle of Cunaxa, Cyrus the younger killed 401 Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks (Retreat) " War with Greece, 399; invasion of Persia Peace of Antalcidas Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) kills all his relations at his accession. He {skilled byhisministerBagoas,andhisson,Arses,made king, Bagoas kills him and sets up Darius III. (Codomanus), by whom he himself is killed Alexander the Great enters Asia; defeats the Persians at the river Granicus, 334 ; near Issus, 333 ; at Arbela 331 Darius III. treacherously killed by Bessus Persia partly reconquered from the Greeks; subjugated by the Parthians 250 Artaxerxes I. founds the Sassanides dynasty; restores king- a.d. dom of Persia 226 Religion of Zoroaster restored and Christianity persecuted. . . 227 Artaxerxes murdered; succeeded by Sapor I.; Armenia be- comes independent under Chosroes 240 Sapor conquers Mesopotamia, 258 ; repels the Romans and slays the emperor Valerian 260 i 387 359 336 PER 623 PER Sapor assassinated; succeeded by Hormisdas I., who favors the Manichees 272 Varaues I. (Baliaram) persecutes them and the Christians 273 Varaues II. defeated by the emperor Probus; makes peace. . . 277 Persia invaded by the emperor Carus, who conquers Seleucia and Ctesiphon 283 Varanes III. king, 293 ; Narses 294 Emperor Galerius conquers Mesopotamia, etc 298 Peace with Diocletian " Hormisdas II. king 301 or 303 Ormuz built about " Sapor II. king, 309; proscribes Christianity, 326; makes war successfully with Rome for the lost provinces 337-60 Emperor Julian invades Persia; slain near the Tigris, 26 June; his successor Jovian purchases his retreat by surrendering provinces 363 Sapor annexes Armenia, 365; and Iberia, 366; makes peace Willi Home 372 Arta.xorxes II. king, 380; Sapor III 385 Armenia and Iberia independent 386 Varaues IV., 390; Yezdejird I., 404; conquers Armenia 412 Varanes \^, 420, persecutes Christians; conquers Arabia Felix, 421; m.ikes peace with the Eastern Empire for 100 years. . . 422 Armenia again united to Persia 428 Wars with Huns, Turks, etc 430-32 Yezdejird II. king, 440; Hormisdas III., 457; civil war, 458-86; Feroze king, 458; Pall.is, 484; Kobad, 48o; Jamaspes, 497; Kobad again 497 His son Chosroos I. king; long wars with Justinian and his successors, with various fortune 531-79 Successful campaigns of Belisarius 541-42 Hormisdas IV^. continues the war; degrades his general, Baha- ram, who deposes him ; but is eventually defeated 590 Chosroes II., 591; renews the war w.th success, 603; Egypt and Asia Minor subdued 614-16 Chosroes totally defeated by the emperor Heraclius, who ad- vances on Persia 627 Chosroes put to death by his son Siroes, 628; Artaxerxes III. king, 629; Purandokt, daughter of Chosroes, reigns, 630; Sbeuendeh, her lover, 631 ; Arzemdokt, her sister, 631; Kesra, 631; Ferokhdad, 632 ; Yezdejird III 632 Pensia invaded by the Arabs; the king flees, 651; is betrayed to them and is put to death, and his army exterminated. . . 652 Persia beconiiis the seat of theShiite or Katimite Mahometans. 661 Taherite dynasty established, 813; Sofferide, 872; Samanide. 902 Persia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Seljukian Turks, 1038; who areexpelled,1194; subdued byGenghis Khan and the Mongols, 1223 Bagdad made the capital 1345 Poet Haliz died about 1388 Persia invaded by Timour, 1380 ; ravaged by him 1399 Poet Jami born 1414 Persia conquered by the Turcomans 1468 Who are expelled by the Shiites, who establish the Sophi dy- nasty under Ismail 1 1501 Ispahan made the capi tal 1590 Turks take Bagdad; great massacre 1638 Georgia revolts to Russia 1783 Teheran made the capital 1796 War with Russia 1826-29 Rupture with England through the Persians taking Herat, 25 Oct. ; war declared 1 Nov. 1856 Persians defeated ; Bush ire taken 8-10 Dec. " ' Gen. Outram defeats the Persians at Kooshab, 8 Feb. ; and at i Mohammerah 26 Mch. 1857 , Peace rati tied at Teheran 14 Apr. " f Commercial treaty with France, etc June, " 1 Herat given up by the Persians July, " I Shah reorganizes the government 9 Sept. 1858 . Railways in process of formation 1865 [ Electric telegraph introduced 1867 I Great sufferings from 3 years' drought, with fever and cholera; about 16,000 persons perished at Ispahan, etc July-Oct. 1871 Concession to baron Julius de Renter to make railways, water- works, etc., for 70 years, with great power '25 July, 1872 I Prosperity restored through a good harvest Mch. 1873 ! Shah visits Europe summer of " ! Postal service established Jan. 1877 Shah visits Europe in summer; returns to Teheran 9 Aug. 1878 Rebellious incursions of the Kurds suppressed after much ! bloodshed (Kurdistan) Oct. -Dec. 1880 I First railway in Persia, from Teheran to Azim, opened. .25 June, 1888 i River Karun decreed open to all nations 9 Sept. " ; Shah visits Europe 1889 Imperial bank of Persia established 23 Oct. " A.D. SHAHS. 1502. Ismail, or Ishmael; conquers Georgia, 1519. lo'23. Tamasp, or Thamas, I. 1576. Ismail II. Meerza. 1577. Mahommed Meerza. 1582. Abbas I. the Great; makes a treaty with English, 1612; d. 1628. ; 1628. Shah Sophi. 1641. Abbas II. ! 1666. Shah Sophi II. { 1694. Hussein; deposed, i 1722. Mahmoud, chief of the Afghans. '. 1725. Ashraff the usurper; slain in battle. 1730. Tamasp, or Thamas, II. ; recovers the throne of his ances- tors from the preceding. [Thamas- Kouli- Khan, his general, obtains great suc- cesses in this and the subsequent reigns.] 1732. Abbas III., infant son of Tamasp, under the regency of Kouli- Khan, who afterwards proclaims himself king as 1736. Nadir Shah (the victorious king); conquers India, 1739; as- sassinated at Khorassan by his nephew, 1747. Shah Rokh. 1751. [Interregnum.] 1759. Kureem Khan. 1779. Many competitors for the throne, and assassinations till 1795. Aga Mahommed Khan obtains the power, and founds the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty; assassinated, 1797. 1798. Futteh Ali Shah. 1834. Mahommed Shah, grandson of Futteh; d. 10 Sept. 1848. 1848. Nasr-ed din, son; b. 18 July, 1831; the present shah of Persia. Heir: son, Muzaffer-ed-din, b. 25 Mch. 1853. per§pective, in drawing, is the art of representing objects on a plane surface in the proportions due to their rela- tive distances from the eye. Observed by the Van Eycks (1426-46), and treated scientifically by Michael Angelo, Leo- nardo da Vinci, and Albert Diirer, early in the 16th century. Guido Ubaldo published a treatise in 1608 ; Dubreuil's treatise (the " Jesuits' perspective ") appeared in 1642, and the mathe- matical theory was demonstrated by Brook Taj'lor in 1731. Perth, the old capital of Scotland, said to have been founded by Agricola about 70 a.d. It was besieged by the regent Robert, 1339. On 20 Feb. 1437, James I. was mur- dered at the Black Friars' monastery here, by Robert Graham and the earl of Athol, for which they suffered condign pun- ishment. This murder is powerfully delineated in Rossetti's poem, " The King's Tragedy." Gowrie's conspiracy occurred here, 6 Aug. 1600. Perth was taken from the French garrison by the reformers, 26 June, 1559. The "Articles of Perth," relating to religious ceremonies, were agreed to bj' the General Assembly of Scotland, 25 Aug. 1618. Perth was taken by Cromwell in 1651, and by the earl of Mar after the battle of Dunblane, in 1715. Pop.'l891, 30,760. Scene of Scott's « Fair Maid of Perth." Litkkature. Peru', a country of South America, was long governed by incas, said to be descended from Manco Capac, who ruled in the 11th centur3\ Area, 463,747 sq. miles; pop. 2,621^844, and about 350,000 uncivilized Indians. Peru explored and conquered by Francisco Pizarro and Alma- gro 1524-33 Last inca, Atahualpa, put to death 29 Aug. 1533 Pizarro assassinated at Lima 26 June, 1541 Fruitless insurrection of the Peruvians under Tapac Amaru, an inca 1780 San Martin proclaims the independence of Peru 28 July, 1821 War against Spain 14 Jan. 1824 Bolivar made dictator Feb. ' ' Mariano Prado president 28 Nov. ' ' Spaniards defeated at Ayacucho, and freedom of Peru and Chili achieved 9 Dec. " New Peruvian constitution signed by the president of the re- public 21 Mch. 1828 War with Colombia ; treaty of peace 28 Feb. 1829 After a succession of fierce party conflicts, gen. Ramon Castilla becomes president ; firm and politic 1845 New constitution, 1856; modified 1860 Spanish admiral Pinzon took possession of the Chincha isles (valuable for guano) belonging to Peru, stating that he would occupy them till the claims of his government on Peru were satisfied 14 Apr. 1864 American congress at Lima; plenipotentiaries from Chili and other states meet to concert measures for defence against European powers Nov. " Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, 28 Jan. ; Chinclia islands restored 3 Feb. 1865 j Peru joins Chili, and declares war against Spain Feb. 1866 Spanish admiral Nunez, in his attempt to bombard Callao, re- pulsed and wounded 2 May. •• Spaniards quit Peruvian waters 10 May, •' Several towns in Peru suffered by great earthquakes (Earth- quakes) 13-15 Aug. 1868 Gold mines discovered at Huacho Oct. 1871 MilitaryinsurrectionatLima; Tomas Gutierrez, minister of war, makes himself dictator, and imprisons pres. Balta. . .22 July, 1872 Unsupported by the people, and not recognized by diplomatic representatives, he orders Balta to be shot; is himself com- pelled to fly; caught; killed by the people, and hanged to a lamp-post ; col. Zavallos, vice-president, assumes the' gov- ernment; order restored; about 200 lives were lost during the coup d'etat 26 July, " Manuel Pardo, elected president by the people, assumes office, 2 Aug. " Talisman sailed from Cardiff for South America; consigned to Peruvian rebels; seized and condemned as a prize, and Eng- lish sailors imprisoned, Nov. 1874-Nov. 1875; report on ill- usage ; English government promises inquiry Mch. 1876 Pres. Mariano I. Prado 2 Aug. " Reported insurrection of Nicolas de Pierolas, with about 60(iO men, to establish a southern confederacy 6-10 Oct. " He sails away with the iron -clad Huascar, 29 May; is iit- PER 624 tacked by adm. De Horsey, with the British war- vessels Shah and Amethyst, as piratical, for attacking mail ships; is com- pelled to run iuto Lima and surrender; the Peruvians resent British interference and threaten reprisals June, 1877 Peru and Bolivia dociuro war against Chili, announced. .2 Apr. 1879 [For the events of the war, Cuiu, 1879-81.] Lima occupied by the Chilians 17 Jan. 1881 Eflbrts made by the United States to promote the restoration of i)eace, leads to some misunderstanding in Chili " Pres. Iglesias forms a ministry about 12 Sept. ; be signs peace with Chili at Aucon 20 Oct. 1883 Lima evacuated by the Chilians 23 Oct. " Arequipa surrendered to the Chilians 26 Oct. " Gen. Iglesias'sgovernmentconflrmed by elections, about 29 Jan. 1884 Treaty with Chili ratifled by the notables, Mch. ; partial evac- uation of Peruvian territory May, " Internal disturbances continue through 1884-85 Revolutionary attempt of Pierola's supporters near Lima de- feated 2 Dec. 1890 peruke, periu^ig, or wig, an artificial cap or covering of hair for the head. The ancients used false hair, but the present peruke was first worn in France and Italy about 1620; introduced into England about 1660, and pre- vailed naore or less till about 1810. It is said that either bishop Blomfield (of London) or Tomline (of Lincoln) obtained permission for the bishops to discontinue wear- ing wigs in Parliament, of which they gradually availed themselves. On account of the heat, sir J. P. Wilde, and other judges and sev- eral counsel, appear in court without wigs, 22, 23 July, 1868. Peruvian bark. Cinchona. pe§$iuii!!iin (from pessimus, the worst), the opposite doc- trine to Optimism. James Sully's " Pessimism, a History and a Criticism," was published in 1877. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), an eminent pessimist, says, "All life is effort ; all eflFort is painful; the pains of life must predominate." Phi- ix>soPHV. Pessimism is a form of atheism, a disbelief in the infinitude of good or its power to use evil to express itself. " Let Love clasp Grief lest both be drown'd." Hades. — Tennyson, "In Memoriam." Pe§taiOZZian (pes-td-lot'-se-an) §ysteni of edu- cation was devised by John Henry Pestalozzi, born at Zurich in Switzerland, in 1746, died 17 Feb. 1827. In 1775 he turned his farm into a school for educating poor children in reading, writing, and working ; but he did not succeed. In 1798 he established an orphan school, where he began with the mutual- instruction or monitorial system, since adopted by Lancaster ; but his school was soon after turned into a hospital for the Austrian army. In 1802, in conjunction with Fellenberg, he established his school at Hofwyl, which at first was successful, but eventually declined through mismanagement. petard' or petar, an invention ascribed to the Hu- guenots in 1579. Petards of metal, nearly in the shape of a hat, were employed to blow up gates or other barriers, and also in countermines to break through into the enemy's gal- leries. Cahors was taken by Henry IV. by means of petards, in 1580, when it is said thej' were first used. "Hoist with his own petar." —Shakespeare, "Hamlet, "act iii. sc. iv. Peter tiie ivild boy, a savage creature found in the forest of Hertswald, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, and feedingon grass and moss, Nov. 1725. At this time he was supposed to be 13 years old. He died, while under the care of an English farmer, Feb. 1785. He preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark of trees to any other kind of food. No efforts could greatly change his savage habits or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. Lord Monboddo represented him to be a proof of the hypoth- esis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." Peterborough, anciently ]flecle§haiii$tede, a city of Northamptonshire, Engl. ; obtained its present name from a king of Mercia founding an abbey and dedicating it to St. Peter, about 655. The church, destroyed by the Danes, was rebuilt with great beauty. First bishop was John Cham- bers, the last abbot of Peterborough, 1541. PeterlOO. Manchester, 16 Aug. 1819. Peter§burg, Grant's Virginia campaign, Mine EXPLOSION, Virginia. Petersburg, St., the modem capital of Russia, founded by Peter the Great, 27 May, 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick ; and the next year the PET emperor, with his own hands, laid the foundation of a housi of the same material. The seat of emj)ire was transferrec from Moscow to this place in 1711. Russia. Pop. 1890 winter 1,003,315, summer 849,315. " Peace of St. Petersburg, between Russia and Prussia, the for- mer restoring all her conquests to the latter, signed. .5 May, 1761 Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of Poland (Paktitio.v TREATIES) 5 Aug. 177! Great Are, 11,0(X» houses burned nsi Treaty of St. Petersburg leads to a coalition against France, 8 Sept. 180( Treaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, between Berna- dotte, prince royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander; the former agreeing to join in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive Norway, 24 Mch. 181! Winter palace burned 29 Dec. 183' Railway to Moscow finished 185! " ' ' Berlin opened 5 May, 186 Grand new Alexander II. bridge over the Neva opened, 12 Oct. 187 Peter's eiiurell, St., Rome, originally erected bj Constantine, 306. About 1450, pope Nicholas V. commence< a new church. The present magnificent pile was designed bj Bramante ; the first stone laid by pope Julius II. in 1506. Ii 1514 Leo X. employed Raphael and two others to superinten( the building. Paul III. committed the work to Michael Angelo who devised the dome, in the construction of which 30,000 Iba of iron were used. The church was consecrated 18 Nov. 1626 The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, am the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to i height of 324 feet ; the length of the interior is 600 feet, form, ing one of the most spacious halls ever constructed. Th length of the exterior is 669 feet ; its greatest breadth withii is 442 feet ; and the entire height from the ground 432 feet. Peter's penee, presented by Ina, king of the Weal Saxons, to the pope at Rome, for the endowment of an EnglisM college there, about 725 ; so called because agreed to be paid on Peter mass, 1 Aug. The tax was levied on all families possessed of 30 pence yearly rent in land, out of which they paid 1 penny. It was confirmed by Offa, 777, and was after- wards claimed by the popes as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till suppressed by Henry VIII., 1534. — Camden. A public collection (on behalf of the pope) was for- bidden in France in 1860. Peterwardein, a fortress in Slavonla, Austria, was taken by the Turks, July, 1526. Here prince Eugene of Savoy gained a great victory over the Turks, 5 Aug. 1716. petitions. The right of petitioning the crown and Parliament for redress of grievances is a fundamental principle of the British constitution. Petitions are extant of the date of Edward I. In the reign of Henry IV. petitions began to be addressed to the House of Commons in considerable numbers. The right of petition is secured by the Constitution of the United States; but in Jan. 1800, great excitement and rancorous debate were induced in Congress by the presentation of a petition from free negroes. John Quincy Adams, who was a champion of the right of petition, presented a petition in Congress purport- ing to come from slaves — the first of the kind ever offered— Feb. 1837. Atherton gag ; United States, 1838. Pe'tra, the ancient Seta, in Mount Seir, near Mount Hor, in the land of Edom. In the 4th century B.C. it was held by the Nabathaeans, who successfully resisted Antigonus, About 70 A.D. it was the residence of the Arab princes named Aretas. It was conquered by Cornelius Palma, and annexed to the empire under Trajan, 105, to which period its remarkable monuments are ascribed. It was an important station for commercial traffic with Rome. Its ruins were discovered by Burckhardt in 1812, and described by him and others since. Petrarch and Laura, celebrated for the refined passion of the former for the latter, begun in 1327, and the chief subject of his sonnets. He was born 1304; crowned with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, 8 Apr. 1341 ; and died at Arqua, near Padua, 18 July, 1374, Laura died 6 Apr. 1348. A commemoration of his death at Avignon and other places, 18 July, 1874. Literature. petroleum (Gr. ireTpa, rock; eXaiov, oil). An oily substance of great economic importance as a source of light. It is obtained chiefly from coal strata. Its distribution is ex- tensive, reaching every continent. In Alsace, German}', it was discovered in 1735, permeating sandstone, which is mined like coal, and the petroleum afterwards extracted. The oil- PEW lands of Peru were developed by American capital in 1864, but Russia and the United States furnish most of the world's sup- ply. In 1872 oil from the Baku wells, Russia, was used as fuel for the production of steam. Baku, which is a port on the western coast of the Caspian sea, was a resort for the Persian fire-worshippers, 600 B.C., and petroleum is known to have ex- isted in that vicinity for 2500 years. Marco Polo, in his jour- nal written in the 13th century, said that at Baku was "a fountain of oil in great abundance . . . not good to use with food, but good to burn, and is also used to anoint camels that have the mange." This use of petroleum or rock-oil as a medi- cine obtained among the Indians of America before its discov- ery in central New York by French missionaries in 1627 ; and in the early part of the present century it was collected from the surface of oil-springs by the whites, by spreading woollen blankets thereon and wringing out the adhering scum, its prin- cipal use being as a medicine under the name of Seneca oil. In a map of the countries about lakes Ontario and Erie, pre- pared by messrs. Dollier and Galinee, missionaries of the or- der of St. Sulpice, appears a "Fontaine de bitumen" near the present site of Cuba, Alleghany county, N. Y 1670 In a map of the Middle Colonies, published by Mr. Evans, ap- pears "Petroleum," marked near the mouth of Oil creek, on the Alleghany river, Pa 1755 Petroleum, as found in oil springs on the Alleghany river, de- scribed by David Zeisberger, missionary of the Moravian church 1767 Highest annual yield of petroleum along Oil creek estimated by gen. Samuel Hays at 16 barrels, worth fl per gallon in Pittsburg, 1803 Petroleum observed and described in salt wells in Washington county, Ohio 181^ S. M. Kier, of Pittsburg, Pa., bottles and sells as medicine, at 50 cts. per pint, petroleum or rock-oil 1849 Petroleum first refined at Pittsburg, Pa 1854 Penn.sylvania Rock Oil company, the first oil company in the U. S. , organized with a capital of $500,000 " William Smith and sons, in the employ of the Pennsylvania Rock Oil company, boring for oil on Oil creek, "strike oil " at a depth of 69 1^ feet (Pennsylvania) 28 Aug. 1859 Highest price for petroleum reached in the U. S., $19.25 per barrel of 42 gallons 1860 Price of petroleum in the U. S. reaches its lowest mark, crude oil being quoted at 10 cts. per barrel Jan. 1862 First flovsing oil well on Black creek, Canada, begins. ..11 Jan. " "Shooting" oil wells, by explosion of nitroglycerine to in- crease their production, first suggested and put into practical operation by col. E. A. L. Roberts " Crude petroleum quoted at $12.12><^ per barrel July, 1864 Tank cars first used for railroad transportation of oil 1865 First successful pipe-line, 4 miles in length, laid by Samuel Van Syckel at Pithole, Pa " Combination of oil- refiners in the U. S., under the name of Standard Oil company 1872 United Pine Line, first known as the Fairview Pipe Line, incor- porated". 29 Apr. 1874 Construction of long-distance pipe-lines begun by the United Pipe Lines company 1880 Standard Oil Trust organized 1881 A well on Thorn creek, Butler county. Pa., flows for a few hours at the rate of 9000 to 10,000 barrels per day. Well shot 27 Oct. 1884 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED STATES AT VARIOUS PERIODS SINCE 1871- Year ending Jane. Barrels of 42 gallons. Gallons. Exported gallons. Value. 1871 1875 5,558,775 10,083,828 22,382,509 21,750,619 21,486,406 233,468,550 423,520,776 940,065,378 913,525,998 902,429,052 149,892,691 221,955,308 423,964,699 574,668,180 664,068,170 $36,894,810 30,078,568 36,218,625 50,257,947 51,403,089 1880 1885 1890 625 PHI pharash, a Hebrew word for separated, because they pre- tended to a greater degree of holiness than the rest of the Jews (Luke xviii. 9-12). The Talmud enumerates 7 classes of Pharisees. The word also indicates a giver without charity : "A long row of alms-houses amply endowed By a well esteemed Pharisee, busy and proud." —Jane Taylor, "The Philosopher's Scales." pharmacopce'ia. Medical SCIENCE. pliar'inacy. Medical science. Plia'ros, of Ptolemy Philadelphus of Alexandria, was esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white marble, completed about 283 b.c. On the top fires were constantly kept to direct sailors in the bay. The building cost 800 talents, which are equivalent to f 850]|000, if Attic ; or, if Alexandrian, double that sum. It is said that there was this inscription upon it — " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ; " but Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote the above inscription. When the mortar had decayed, Ptolemy's name disappeared, and the following inscription became visible: " Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors." Light-houses. Pharsa'lia, a strong city in Thessaly, N. Greece. Near it Julius Caesar defeated his rival Pompey, 9 Aug. 48 B.C., and became virtually master of the known world. Pom- pey fled to Eg^'^pt, where he was treacherously slain, by order of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body left naked on the strand, till burned by a faithful freedman, Philip. plienol or pheilic acid, names for carbolic acid. phenopllthal'inoscope, an apparatus for inves- tigating the movements of the eyeball ; invented by Bonders of Utrecht, and announced in 1870. Phig^a'liail marbles, in the British museum, were purchased for it by the prince regent in 1815. They consist of portions of the frieze taken from the temple of Apollo Epicurus at Phigaleia in Arcadia, and are reputed to be works of the earlier school of Phidias, who died 432 b.c. The bas-reliefs represent the conflicts of the Greeks and Amazons, and of the Centaurs and Lapithae. Philaderphia, the third city in the United States in population, and the metropolis of Pennsylvania, was laid out in 1682 at the narrowest part of the peninsula formed by the confluence of the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers, now included between Vine and South streets. The following year the place contained about 80 houses and 500 people. A charter, evidently genuine, found in the possession of col. Alexander Biddle in 1887, and dated " Third Month, 20th, 1691," shows incorpora- tion as a city by William Penn 10 years earlier than the date usually given, when the first recorded mayor, Edward Shippen, was appointed. On 2 Feb. 1854, the city was enlarged to in- clude the county of Philadelphia, taking in 9 districts: South- wark. Northern Liberties, Kensington, Spring Garden, Moya- mensing, Penn, Richmond, West Philadelphia, and Belmont; also 6 boroughs and 13 townships. Present area 128J sq. miles; lat. 40° N., Ion. 75° W.; population at various dates: I pews in churches. " In a London will we read of sedile I vocatum pew" (a seat called pew), 1453. Pews were censured ! by Latimer and Bradford, 1553. — Walcot. The church of I Geddington St. Mary, Northamptonshire, long contained a I pew dated 1602. The rev. W. M. H. Church (vicar 1844-46) j restored and reseated the church, and preserved the panel j, with the date in the door of the surplice press. Another pew \ in the chancel was dated 1604. pha'lanx. The Greek phalanx consisted of 8000 men j in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears crossing 1 each other. The battalion of Philip of Macedon, called the I Macedonian phalanx, was formed by him about 360 b.c. In the battles of Cynoscephalae and Pydna the Grecian phalanx competed with the Roman legion for supremacy', and the vic- ■ tory secured to the legion in both battles would seem to prove its superiority. Army, Pike. Phar'isees, a sect among the Jews; so called from 1700 4,500 1749 12,500 1760 18,756 1783 37,000 1800 70,287 1810 110,210 1820 137,097 1830 188,797 1840 258,037 1850 408,762 1860 565,529 1870 674,022 1880 847,170 1890 1,046,964 One of the earliest surveys of city lots recorded, that of David Hammon on Walnut st. (then Pool) entered, 10 July, 1682 Blue Anchor Inn, northwest cor. Front and Dock sts., after- wards called the "Boatman and Call," built by George Guest, " Laying out of Philadelphia completed under the personal su- pervision of William Penn Dec. " First meeting of the governor and council held in Philadelphia 10 Mch., and of the General Assembly 12 Mch. 1683 Brick Quaker meeting-house built on Centre square 1684 William Bradford establishes the first printing-press in Phila- delphia, and prints his "Kalendarium Pennsylvaniense, or America's Messenger;" an almanac edited by Samuel Atkins, and the first work printed in Philadelphia 1685 First regular jail built in the middle of Market St., near Second, 1687 " William Penn Charter " school, on Fourth St., below Chest- nut, established in charge of George Keith 1689 Christ church (Episcopal) built (enlarged 1711 and 1727) 1695 "Slate Roof House" (removed in 1867 to make way for the PHI 626 PHI Chamber of Commerce) erected about 1698, and the largest at that time in Philadelphia, occupied by William Penu, Jan. 1700 Gloria Dei church (Swedish) on Swanson St., dedicated. .2 July, " First watchman "to go round ye town with a small bell in yo night time" appointed 13 July, " Charter as a borough city granted Philadelphia by William Penn, and Edward Shippen appointed mayor 25 Oct. 1701 Anthony Morris elected mayor by the common council. .5 Oct. 1703 First Presbyterian church, called " Butlonwood church," built on south side Market st., between Second and Third 1704-5 Philadelphia Baptist Association organized, and church built at Pennepek or Lower Dublin 1707 Court-house built on arches, used as a town hall and seat of municipal council and legislature until 1735, erected on High St., between Second and Third 1710 First almshouse established by the Friends in a house on south side of Walnut St., between Third and Fourth 1713 Ferry to Gloucester established 1715 Fire-engine purchased by the council from Abraham Bickley tor 601 8 Dec. 1718 Ordinance passed for paving the streets with stone, and foot- ways with brick Apr. 1719 American Weekly Mercury, the first newspaper in America out- side of Boston, established by Andrew S. Bradford. . .22 Dec. " Benjamin Franklin, aged 17, arrives in Philadelphia Oct. 1723 Carpenters' Guild established 1724 Junto, or club for mutual improvement, organized by Frank- lin (the basis of the American Philosophical Society) 1727 Friends' almshouse erected on site of one established 1713 (stood until 1841) 1729 Franklin begins i\\Q Pennsylvania Gazette 28 Sept. " Three flre-engines, total value about lOOf., and 200 leather flre- buckets ordered from England, arrive Jan. 1731 Franklin founds the Library of Philadelphia, sustained by sub- scription 8 Nov. " Catholic chapel of St. Joseph, on Walnut st. , erected and mass celebrated by father Greaton 26 Feb. 1732 "State in Schuylkill" (Schuylkill Fishing company) organ- ized 1 May, " First stage route from Philadelphia to New York estal)lished. . " Franklin's first " Poor Richard " almanac for 1733 Dec. " State-house, south side of Chestnut, between Fifth and Sixth sts., building begun 1732; first occupied by legislature. .Oct. 1735 Union Fire company established 7 Dec. 1736 Franklin stove invented by Benj. Franklin 1742 Franklin establishes the American Philosophical Society 1743 [Society died out 10 years later, to be revived in 1769.] Second Market house, on Second St., south of Pine, established, 1745 Citizens associate for military defence at a meeting. . . .21 Nov. 1747 First theatrical company appears in Philadelphia 1749 St. Andrew's Society formed " Streets lighted with lamps Sept. 1751 Hallam's company give their first theatrical performance in a brick warehouse in King or Water St., between Pine and Lombard sts. ; play, "The Fair Penitent " 25 Apr. 1754 Chime of 8 bells hung in Christ church " Pennsylvania general hospital, projected by dr. Thomas Bond; chartered 1751; opened Feb. 1752; corner-stone of building, on Pine St., between Eighth and Ninth, laid 28 May, 1755, and eastern wing opened Dec. 1756 First commencement at the college, on Fourth st. below Arch; chartered 16 June, 1755, and afterwards developed into the University of Pennsylvania 17 May, 1757 Act for " regulating, pitching, paving, and cleansing the streets, lanes, and alleys, etc., within the settled parts of Philadel- phia," passed 1762 First medical college in Philadelphia organized by dr. William Shippen, jr Nov. " First fish market established between King and Front sts., Apr. 1764 Non-importation agreement subscribed to by merchants and traders of Philadelphia 25 Oct. 1765 First issue of the Pennsylvania Chronicle and Universal Adver- tiser by William Goddard 6 Jan. 176C Old Southwark theatre, corner South and Apollo sts. , opened (burned 9 May, 1821) 12 Nov. " Transit of Venus successfully observed by the Am. Phil. Soc. at temporary observatory in the State-house yard.. . .3 June, 17£9 Methodist service held in an unfinished church bought and presented to the society, and named St. George's Nov. " Carpenters' hall built on south side Chestnut, between Third and Fourth sts 1770 Sailors' mob; dr. Shippen's house damaged by rioters; the out- come of an excitement caused by supposed removal of dead bodies from the city burying-grounds for dissection in the medical college " Tammany Society started 1 May, 1772 First Continental Congress assembles at Philadelphia. . .5 Sept. 1774 Philadelphia troop of light horse associated 17 Nov. " A piano, probably the first built in this country, made by John Behreut in Third St., below Brown. " Made of mahogany, be- ing of the nature of a harpsichord, with hammers and sev- eral changes" 1775 New jail on Walnut st. completed and occupied Jan. 1776 Philadelphia Society for Assisting Distressed Prisoners estab- lished (see 1787) " Signing of the Declaration of Independence celebrated by a grand demonstration 8 July, " Small pox and camp-fever cause 2500 deaths i776-77 Philadelphia occupied by the British under gen. Howe, 27 Sept. 1777 Meschianza, on occasion of gen. Howe's farewell, held at the Wharton mansion an*grounds at Walnut grove {junction of Fifth and Wharton sts. ) 18 May, 177.'; British evacuate Philadelphia 18 June, " American Philo.soi>hical Society revived by union of 2 scien- tific societies, 17(>9; incorporated 15 Mch. 178(' Bank of North America incorporated 18 Dec. 178; First English Bible printed in the U. S., published by R. Aitken, Market st 178". First manufacture of fustians and Jeans in the U. S. begins in Philadelphia " Hot-air balloon ascension attempted from the prison-yard by Mr. Games of Baltimore, who was thrown out by basket striking prison-wall; balloon takes fire in mid-air. . .17 July, Vl^i American Daily Advertiser, afterwards the Aurora, the first daily newspaper issued in America ; Benjamin Franklin Bache, editor 'i.i Dec. " Two city directories issued : one by John Macphcrson in Oct. and one by Francis White 178f Skiff-steamboat built by John Fitch and navigated at Philadel- phia 26 July, 178C "Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons," an outgrowth of the society of 1776, established, with rt. rev. William White, D.D., president May, 178' Gen. Washington's birthday first celebrated officially by pub- lic salute of artillery 22 Feb. 178S Celebration of the new Union by a federal procession.. .4 July, " Levi and Abraham Doane, brothers, outlaws, hung on the commons 24 Sept. " [They were of the noted Tory family of 6 brothers, the terror of Bucks county. The legislature set a price on their heads, 8 Apr. 1783. Joseph was shot and killed in Bucks county, 1783; Moses captured and executed, 1783 ; the hanging of Levi and Abraham left 2, Mahlon and Eleazar, under ban.] City incorporated by act 11 Mch. 1789 Samuel Powel, first of the mayors elected by the council un- der new charter 13 Apr. " Steamboat, 60 ft. in length, runs from Philadelphia to Burling- ton Dec. " Franklin d. in Philadelphia, aged 84 17 Apr. 1790 U. S. government removed from New York to Philadelphia, and Congress holds Jts session in the county court-house, erected and completed in Mch. 1789 6 Dec. " Bank of North America begins keeping accounts in dollars and cents 1791 "Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania " incorporated. . " Bank of the United States, chartered 25 Feb. ; subscription for stock opened, 4 July, and bank commences business in Carpenters' hall Dec. " [Branch banks established in Boston, New York, Balti- more, Washington, Norfolk, and Savannah.] U. S. mint established by act, 2 Apr. 1792; mint erected on east side Seventh st., above Filbert, and coining begun. .Oct. 1792 Blanchard, the French aeronaut, makes a balloon ascension from the prison -yard; witnessed by gen. Washington; he lands near Cooper's Ferry, N. J. 9 Jan. 1793 Bank of Pennsylvania chartered 30 Mch. " Yellow-fever epidemic; about 5000 deaths 1 Aug. -9 Nov. " New theatre on Chestnut st, above Sixth, opened (burned 2 Apr. 1820 ; rebuilt and opened 2 Dec. 1822) 17 Feb. 1794 First turnpike road in the U. S. completed from Philadelphia to Lancaster, Pa., 62 miles " White Fish, a small schooner, 23 ft. long, 6 ft. beam, arrives at Market st. wharf, after a voyage of nearly 1000 miles (29 cov- ered by 5 portages), from Presque Isle on lake Erie, crossing New York state, and descending the Hudson to New York; boat in charge of John Thomson and David Lummis, 10 Nov. 1795 Select council, consisting of 12 citizens to serve 3 years, created by act of legislature 4 Apr. 1796 David Rittenhouse, astronomer, dies at his home, corner Arch and Seventh sts 26 June, " First gas-light in America, exhibited by Ambroise& Co., manu- facturers of fire-works, at their amphitheatre in Arch st., above Eighth Aug. " Yellow-fever epidemic; 1292 deaths 17 Aug. -Nov. 1797 Act passed allowing chains to be placed across the streets in front ofchurchesduring service to prevent passage of wagons, 4 Apr. 1798 Yellow-fever epidemic, 3645 deaths " Bill to remove the seat of state government to Lancaster after Nov. 1799, signed by the governor 3 Apr. 1790 U. S. government removed from Philadelphia to Washington, July, 1800 Ground broken for water- works in Chestnut St., 12 Mch. 1799, and city first supplied with water from the Schuylkill through street mains 1 Jan. 1801 The Portfolio, by " Oliver Oldschool " (Joseph Dennie), first issued., 3 Jan. " Philadelphia Society for the Free Instruction of Indigent Boys opens a night school, 1800, and is incorporated " Charles Wilson Peale opens his museum in the upper part of the State-house spring of 1802 [In his collection were the Ulster county, N. Y., mastodon skeletons. Museum removed to the Arcade building, 1828.] Republication of the "Encyclopaedia Britaunica" begun, 1790, by Thomas Dobson at the Stone-house in Second St., near Chestnut, and completed 1803 Philadelphia hose company organized 15 Dec. Bank of Philadelphia incorporated 5 Mch. 1804 Coach route established from Philadelphia to Pittsburg. . . Aug. " Corner-stone of permanent bridge across the Schuylkill laid, 18 Oct 1800 ; bridge opened to the public 1 Jan. 180t> "Orukter Amphiboles, or Amphibious Digger," a heavy mud 1806 1807 180S 1809 PHI 627 flat, with machinery for cleaning docks, run by a steam- engine, invented by Oliver Evans, designed for land or wa- ter, is exhibited on wheels on Centre square July, Commission house for sale of cotton yarns and thread made at Providence. R. I. (the first in the U. S), opened Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts incorporated, 17 Mch. 1806, and building erected the same year in Chestnut st. between Rlevcnth and Twelfth sts Farmers and Mechanics' National bank organized 17 Jan. Adelphi school or "Hollow School," on Pegg's Run, in the Northern Liberties, opened under auspices of Philadelphia Association for the Instruction of Poor Children 11 Jan. New building of Bank of Philadelphia, northwest cor. Fourth and Chestnut sts., completed (stood until 1836) Steamboat Phcenix arrives at Philadelphia from New York; the first steamboat navigating the ocean June, Philadelphia's first fountain, a carved wooden figure of Leda and the swan, by Rush, erected on Centre square New prison in Arch st. opened (abandoned 1836) " First Sunday school, under the control of the churches and confined to religious instruction, organized " E.xperimental railroad set up in the Bull's Head tavern yard by Thomas Leiper, on which, with a grade of 1)4 inches in a yard, a single horse "hauled up a 4-wheeled carriage loaded with the enormous weight of 1696 pounds " Sept. " First steam ferry between Philadelphia and Camden 1810 George Frederick Cooke, English tragedian, makes his first appearance at Chestnut-street theatre as Richard III.; re- ceipts the first night, $1,348.50.. . . : 25 Mch. 1811 Academy of Natural Sciences founded 21 Mch. 1812 Spring Garden st. bridge built by the Upper Ferry Bridge company over the Schuylkill and opened Jan. 1813 [Burned 1 Sept. 1838, and replaced by a wire suspension bridge built by Charles Ellet, and completed 2 Jan. 1842. This was re- placed in 1875 by bridge built by Keystone Bridge company.] Bdigious Remembrancer, first religious weekly newspaper in the U. S., established 4 Sept. " Athenaeum of Philadelphia founded, 1814; incorporated. 5 Apr. 1815 Fairmount water-works pumping station completed 7 Sept. " [Dam completed, 1822.] Second United States bank established 10 Apr. 1816 State-house property purchased by city from the state " White & Hazard erect a wire suspension foot-bridge at the falls of Schuylkill " Gas-lights exhibited in Peale's museum, Apr. 1816, and theatre lighted by gas; the first place of amusement in the U. S. so lighted 25 Nov. " Philadelphia Sunday and Adults' School Union formed; Alex- ander Henry president 1817 First U. S. custom-house erected on Second st. below Dock, and opened 12 July, 1819 '. Musical Fund Society established 1820 i Apprentices' l^ibrary incorporated and Philadelphia Iaw Li- I brary established 1821 1 Saturday Evening Post esldhWahed " ! Pennsylvania institution for the deaf and dumb opened " ; Mercantile Library Association organized, 17 Nov., and con- i st: tut ion adopted 1 Dec. " i First lodge of Odd Fellows in the state (Pennsylvania No. 1) j organized in Philadelphia 26 Dec. " i American edition of " Rees' Cyclopaedia," in 47 vols., com- '> pleted 1822 ! Franklin Institute organized 5 Feb. 1824 ! Reception tendered gen. Lafayette 28 Sept " i American Sunday-school Union founded in Philadelphia " f Historical Society of Pennsylvania organized 2 Dec. " j Musical Fund hall, Locust st. west of PMghlh St., opened, 24 Dec. " i Jefferson Medical college incorporated 7 Apr. 1826 i United States hotel, Chestnut St., between Fourth and Fifth j sts, north side, opened " I Store for the sale of American hardware, the first in the U. S., i opened by Amos Goodyear & Sons 1827 ' Penn Treaty monument erected on Beach St., Kensington " ! Corner-stone of the Philadelphia arcade, Chestnut and Car- i penter sts., laid 3 May, 1826; building completed Sept. " i [Torn down, 1863.] i Pennsylvania Horticultural Society founded; 78 members, i 21 Dec. " j [Incorporated 24 Mch. 1831; Horticultural hall, adjoining I Academy of Music, opened, 29 May, 1867 ; destroyed by fire, ; 31 Jan. 1881, and rebuilt.] Arch-street theatre, on Arch st., west of Sixth st. opened, 1 Oct. 1828 ! [Theatre rebuilt, 1863. J I House of Refuge erected on Ridge road and Fairmount ave. ; corner-stone laid, 21 June, 1827 ; formally opened.. . .29 Nov. " ' Name of Centre square changed to Penn square 19 May, 1829 1 Philadelphia Inquirer first issued as the Pennsylvania In- i 9uirer 29 June, " I A series of riots between whites and blacks begin 22 Nov. " j William Cramp establishes his ship yard at Kensington 1830 I Christopher C. Conwell issues the Cent, the first one-cent daily j paper issued in the U. S " Oodey's Lady's Book established July, " StephenGirardd. at his home on Water St., above Market, 26 Dec. " Corner-stone of the Philadelphia Exchange laid 22 Feb. 1832 Corner stone of Philadelphia county prison laid at Moyamen- L.S'Dg 2 Apr. " r birard National bank incorporated Apr. " J Cholera epidemic ; 2314 cases reported, 935 deaths, 5 July-4 Oct. " ' Railroad to Germantown opened, 6 June, 1832, and locotnotive engine first used 23 Nov. " PHI Corner-stone of an intended monument to Washington laid in Washington square 22 Feb. 1838 First triennial parade of the Fire Department 27 Mch. " John Randolph of Roanoke, V'a., d. at the City hotel... .24 May, " Philadelphia club organized " First omnibus line, navy-yard to Kensington " Pennsylvania institution for the instruction of the blind opened, " Riot between whites and blacks; colored people's church de- stroyed 12-13 Aug. " Board of Trade organized 15 Oct. " Merchants' Exchange organized, 19 May, 1831, and building occupied 1834 Epiphany church, Fifteenth and Chestnut sts., consecrated, 1 Oct. " Streets first lighted with gas 8 Feb. 1836 Public Ledger established 25 Mch. " Laurel Hill Cemetery company incorporated 9 Feb. 1837 Last public execution in Philadelphia takes place at present intersection of Seventeenth and Green sts. ; James Morau, convicted 27 Apr. for murder on the high seas, 22 Nov. 1836, of capt. Smith of the schooner William Wirt; hung 19 May, " Pennsylvania hall, cor. Sixth and Haines St., dedicated as an Abolitionist hall on 14 May, is burned by a mob 17 May, 1838 High-school on Juniper st., east of Penn square, opened 21 Oct. " [Building sold to Pennsylvania Railroad company in 1853.] Fire breaks out on Chestnut st. wharf, and burns about 40 build- ings; 2 firemen killed and 7 injured by falling walls. . .4 Oct. 1839 City purchases the gas works 1841 John Morin Scott, first mayor elected by the people 12 Oct. '* Riots between native Americans and Irish suppressed by the military Apr.-May, 1844 Telegraphic communication between Philadelphia and Fort Lee, opposite New York, completed 20 Jan. 1846 Philadelphia and Pittsburg connected by telegraph 26 Dec. " Philadelphia Evening Bulletin established 12 Apr. 1847 North American and United States Gazette consolidated, 1 July, " Evening Item established " Girard college corner-stone laid 4 July, 1833; transferred to the directors, 13 Nov. 1847, and opened 1 Jan. 1848 St. Mark's church, Locust St., near Sixteenth, corner-stone laid 25 Apr. 1848; consecrated 21 May, 1849 Cholera epidemic; whole number of deaths in city and county, 1012; epidemic at its height 13 July (32 deaths), 30 May-HSopt. " Race riot; whites burn the California House, cor. Sixth and St. Mary's sts., the proprietor being a mulatto and his wife a white woman 9 Oct. ♦• Woman's Medical college of Pennsylvania; oldest regular col- lege for female physicians incorporated 11 Mch. 1860 Act to establish the marshal's police i)assed 3 May, '* [Repealed, 1856.] Fire breaks out on North Water st. below Vino ; 367 buildings de- stroyed; an explosion kills 28 and injures 58 persons, 9 July, " Freshet on the Schuylkill; water at Fairmount dam about 11 feet above ordinary level; portions of the city flooded, in- cluding the gas-works, and city left in darkness 3 Sept. " Recei)tion to Louis Kossuth 24 Dec. 1851 Girard House opened 1852 Manufacture of galvanized iron begun in Philadelphia '• Lafayette hotel opened (enlarged, 1883) Oct. 1853 Consolidation act extending the city so as to include Philadel- phia county, passed 2 Feb. 1854 Young Men's Christian Association instituted June, " High-school, Broad and Green sts., dedicated 28 June, " Lino of passenger cars drawn by horses, from Willow st. along Front, etc., to Cohocksink depot, about 1)4 miles, established by the North Pennsylvania Railway company 3 Jan. 1855 WagnerFree Institute ofScienceopened by gov. Pollock, 21 May, " Fairmount Park improvement begun by purchase of the Lemon Hill estate, 24 July, 1844, and Lemon Hill park dedicated, 18 Sept. " [Sedgely acquired, 1856; Lansdown, 1866.] Masonic hall, on Chestnut st. above Seventh, dedicated 27 Sept, " [The winter of 1855-56 was very severe; the Delaware froze from bank to bank as far down as the " Horseshoe channel." On 15 Mch. 1856, the Philadelphia and Camden ferry-boat New Jersey caught in a mass of ice, and taking fire burned; over 30 out of 100 passengers lost their lives.] Police and fire alarm telegraph goes into operation 19 Apr. 1856 Ofllce of chief of police created by act 13 May, " Collision of a Sunday-school excursion-train from Kensington, carrying 600 children and young people, with a passenger- train at Camp Hill; over 50 killed and 100 injured.. 17 July, " Corner-stone of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane laid, 1 Oct. " United States agricultural exhibition opened 7 Oct. " Streets first swept by revolving machine-brooms " Opera house or American Academv of Music, corner stone laid 26 July, 1855; opened with a ball, 26 Jan. 1857, and with the first operatic performance, " II Trovatore " 25 Feb. 1857 The Press established 1 Aug. " Bank of Pennsylvania closes its doors 25 Sept; " Cathedral of Sts. Peter and Paul, corner-stone laid 16 Sept. 1846; dedicated 13 Dec. " Fifth and Sixth sts. railroad, first car run 8 Jan., and opened to the public 20 Jan. 1858 First steam fire engine, the '• Miles Greenwood," from Cincin- nati, exhibited 12 Feb. 1855, and first engine purchased by the city, arrives 20 Jan. " Church of the Holy Trinity built " St. Clement's church, Twentieth and Cherry sts., erected. .. 1858-59 Sunday School Times established - 1859 PHI 628 PHI Continental hotel opened to the public (Artksias wklls), 13 Feb. 18fi0 Japanese embassy, guests of the city, arrive 9 June, " First artillery regiment, Pennsylvania volunteers, col. Francis E. Patterson, leaves the city for the South 8 May, 1861 First regiment National Guards, Penn. vols, and Philadelphia IJght (luards regiment and First regiment Pennsylvania vol- unteers leave for the South 14 May, " Cooper shop volunteer refreshment saloon, which catered to more than (500,000 soldiers passing the city during the war, oi)enod on Otsego St., near Washington ave May, " St. Paul's Catholic church, built 1843 et seq. , burned. .26 Nov. " Christ church hospital, begun 1856, entirely completed. 14 Dec. " Union League club organized 15 Nov. 1862 New Chestnut-st. theatre opened; Edwin Forrest as " Virgin- lus " and McCuilough as " Icilius " 26 Jan. 1863 First National bank, the first organized under the National Banking act, incorporated 10 Jan. 1863, and opened. 11 July, " Evening Telegraph first issued 4 Jan. 1864 Philadelphia Sanitary fair opens 7 June, " Philadelphia and Erie railroad formally opened 4 Oct. " Fire in Ninth st. and Washington ave., 50 buildings burned; fire begins in a coal-oil esUiblishment 8 Feb. 1865 New Municipal hospital opened 27 Apr. " Coldest day on record; thermometer at Merchants' Exchange 18° below zero 7 Jan. 1866 Great fire in North Third St.; loss, $800,000; begins in Rob- erts's hardware store 26 Feb. " Ewtning Star first issued 2 Apr. " Public Ledger building opened 20 June, " Chestnut St. bridge, begun 19 Sept. 1861, opened 23 June, " Reception of flags returned to the state, held on Independence square 4 July, " New court-house, begun 2 Nov. 1866, opened 1867 Americus club organized 30 Apr. " Explosion at Geasy & Ward's saw-mill, Samson st. ; 22 killed, 7 injured 6 June, " American (formerly Continental) theatre, ou Walnut St., burned ; 10 lives lost, by falling walls 19 June, " LippincoWs Magazine established 1868 Monument to Washington and Lafayette, Monument cemetery, dedicated 29 May, 1869 Washington monument in front of the state-house dedicated, 5 July, " Mercantile Library company remove to the Franklin Market house (erected 1860), Tenth St., above Chestnut 15 July, " Record first issued as the Public Record 14 May, 1870 St. James's church erected " Chamber of Commerce dedicated 1 Mch. 1869; burned 7 Dec. 1869; rebuilt and opened 27 Dec. " Volunteer fire department abolished 1870, and paid department goes into operation 15 Mch. 1871 Fire destroys a planing-raill in Marshall st. and about 40 other buildings 5 June, " Lincoln monument in Fairmount park unveiled 22 Sept. " Public building of Philadelphia commenced " [When completed its estimated cost will be over $10,000,- 000; it will cover over 4 acres; its tower will be 537^ ft. high, surmounted by a bronze statue of William Penn 36 fl. high; to be completed 1895.] Small-pox epidemic ; 4464 deaths 1871-72 Corner-stone of the new building for the Pennsylvania Acad- emy of Fine Arts, southwest corner Broad and Cherry sts., laid 7 Dec. 1872 Banking houses of Jay Cooke & Co. and E. W. Clarke & Co. close their doors 18 Sept. 1873 New Masonic temple. Broad and Filbert sts., dedicated, 25 Sept. " Produce Exchange organized 25 Apr. 1874 Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, main building completed and dedicated ...4 June, " Little Charley Ross, son of Christian K. Ross, abducted from his home 1 July, " New bridge over the Schuylkill at Girard ave. opened. .4 July, " Corner-stone of the new public buildings on Penn square laid, 4 July, " Centennial celebration of the formation of the first city troop, 15-17 Nov. " The Times, daily, established 13 Mch. 1875 Penn club organized 18 Mch. " The Call, daily, established " Religious revival ; Moody and Sankey, evangelists, hold their first service in the old freight depot, southwest corner Thir- teenth and Market sts 21 Nov. " Market-st. bridge destroyed by fire, 20 Nov. 1875; rebuilt in 21 days by the Pennsylvania Railway company " Academy of Natural Sciences building, corner-stone laid 30 Oct. 1872; occupied 11 Jan., and opened to the public 2 May, 1876 Centennial exhibition at Fairmount park opens 10 May, " Normal schooi, northeast corner Seventeenth and Spring Gar- den sts., dedicated 30 Oct. " Ex-pres. Grant sails from Philadelphia for his trip around the world 15 May, 1877 Aldine hotel opened " Jefferson Medical College hospital formally opened 17 Sept. " First telephone exchange established 1878 Oil-refinery fire caused by lightning, which destroys several re- fineries and 5 vessels loading at the docks, and burns for 2 days, begins 11 June, 1879 News established " First electric lighting, the store and warerooras of John Wana- maker, at Thirteenth and Market sts Dec. " Committee of 100 organized Dec. 1880 Randolph cotton and woollen mills, Randolph st., burned; 9 employees killed, 13 seriously injured 12 Oct. Chestnut st. lighted by 47 electric lights; first electric street lights in the city 3 Dec. Two hundredth anniversary of the settlement of Philadelphia celebrated 22-27 Oct. Enterprise cotton and woollen mills, Mainst., burned; 2 killed, 16 injured 12 Dec' William Penn's cottage (the Letitia house), built in Market st., between Front and Second sts., about 1683, the first brick house in Philadelphia, rebuilt in Fairmount park Ladies^ Home Journal established Nineteen out of 26 buildings in the block bounded by Knox, Brown, Kessler, and Parrish sts.. destroyed by fire; loss' $1,500,000 28 Feb. New post-office building opened for business Mch. Fire destroys 9 large business houses: loss, $3,000,000.19 Feb. John McCuilough d. at his home, aged 48 8 Nov. Temple theatre burned; 2 firemen killed; loss, $400,000.27 Dec. Reform charter or the " Bullett act, " for the better government of cities, passed 1 June, 1H86, takes effect 1 Apr. Constitutional centennial celebration 15-17 Sept. First electric street railroad opened Nov. George W. Childs, philanthropist and proprietor of the l\i.blic Ledger, d 3 Feb. 1881 MAYORS. Edward Shippen 1701 Anthony Morris 1703 Griffith Jones 1704 Joseph Wilcox 1705 Nathan Stanbury 1706 Thomas Masters 1707 Richard Hill 1709 William Carter 1710 Samuel Preston 1711 Jonathan Dickinson 1712 George Roche 1713 Richard Hill 1714 Jonathan Dickinson 1717 William Fishbourne 1719 James Logan 1722 Clement Plumsted 1723 Isaac Norris 1724 William Hudson 1725 Charles Read 1726 Thomas Lawrence 1728 Thomas Griffltts 1729 Samuel Hasell 1731 Thomas Griffltts 1733 Thomas Lawrence 1734 William Allen 1735 Clement Plumsted 1736 Thomas Griffltts 1737 Anthony Morris 1738 Edward Roberts 1739 Samuel Hasell 1740 Clement Plumsted 1741 William Till 1742 Benjamin Shoemaker 1743 Edward Shippen 1744 James Hamilton 1745 William Attwood 1746 Charles Willing 1748 Thomas Lawrence 1749 William Plumsted 1750 Robert Strettell 1751 Benjamin Shoemaker 1752 Thomas I^awrence 1753 Charles Willing 1754 William Plumsted 1754 Attwood Shute 1756 Thomas Lawrence 1758 John Stamper 1759 Benjamin Shoemaker 1760 Jacob Duche 1761 Henry Harrison 1762 Thomas William 1763 Thomas Lawrence John Lawrence Isaac Jones Samuel Shoemaker John Gibson William Fisher Samuel Rhoads Samuel Powel (Office vacant, 1776-89. Samuel Powel Samuel Miles John Barclay Matthew Clarkson Hilary Baker Robert Wharton John Inskeep Matthew Lawlor. John Inskeep Robert "Wharton John Baker Robert Wharton Michael Keppele John Baker John Geyer Robert Wharton James Nelson Barker Robert Wharton Joseph Watson George Mifflin Dallas Benjamin W. Richards William Milnor Benjamin W. Richards John Swift Isaac Roach John Swift John Morin Scott Peter McCall John Swift Joel Jones Charles Gilpin Robert Taylor Conrad Richard Vaux Alexander Henry Morton McMichael Daniel Miller Fox William Slrumburg Stokley Samuel George King William Burns Smith Edwin H. Filler 1888 Edwin S. Stuart 1«91 Charles F. Warwick 1895 ill Asia Minor. Sevkn Philadelphia, a city CHURCHES. Philip'haugh, near Selkirk, S. Scotland, where the marquess of Montrose and the roj'alists were defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch Covenanters, 13 Sept. 1645. Philip'pi, a city of Macedonia, so named by Philip II. of Macedon. Here Octavius Caesar and Marc Antony, in 2 battles, defeated the republican forces of Cassius and Brutus, who both committed suicide, Oct. 42 B.C. Paul preached here, 48 a.d., and wrote an epistle to the converts, 64. Pllilip'pic§, originally the orations of Demosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, 352-341 b.c. The name was given also to the orations of Cicero against Marc Antony, be- cause of the vigor of invective in them (one of which, called divine by Juvenal, cost Cicero his life), 44-43 B.C., and has since been often used to describe any oratorical attack upon persons in power. PHI 629 PHI Phirippine isles, in the Malay archipelago, discov- ered by Magellan, in Mch. 1521, who here lost his life in a skirmish. They were taken possession of in 1565 by a fleet from Mexico, which first stopped at the island of Zeba, and subdued it. In 1570 a settlement was effected at the mouth of the Manilla river, and Manilla became the capital of the Spanish possessions in the Philippines. These islands num- ber over 400 and embrace an extent of 16° of lat. and 9° of Ion., with an area of 114,326 sq. miles, and a pop. of 7,000,000. Earthquake, Manilla, Foreman's " Philippine Islands" pub. 1891. pllilip'pium, a metal of the yttrium series, found in Samarskite earth (in Russia, North Carolina, etc.) by Marc Delafontaine by means of the spectroscope ; announced Oct. 1878. Also said to have been found by Lawrence Smith, and named mosandrium, July, 1878. Pllilis'tines, a people of Palestine, conquered Israel, 1156 B.C., and ruled it 40 years. They were defeated by Sam- uel, 1116, at Mizpah ; and by Saul and Jonathan, 1087, at Mich- mash. They again invaded Israel, about 1063, when David slew their champion, Goliath. They defeated Saul and Jona- than at Mt. Gilboa, 1055, where both were slain. After David became king he thoroughly subdued them, 1040. In common with Syria, their country was subjugated by the Romans, un- der Pompey, about 63.— In Germany, about 1830, Heine and the liberal party applied the term " Philistines " to the oppo- nents of progress, or conservative party. In England the term has been applied to opponents of " culture " and refinement, and especially by Matthew Arnold and others to the dull advocates of traditional views and institutions. philol'Ogy, the science of language, much studied dur- ing the present century. John Horne-Tooke's " Diversions of Purley " pub 1786 Philological Society of London established 18 May, 1842 Lorenz Diefenbach's " Lexicon Comparativum " 1846-51 Tblrty-secoud congress of German philologists meet at Wiesba- den, prof. Ciirtius president 26-29 Sept. 1877 Dictionary, Grammarians, Language. pllilOS'optiy (love of wisdom), the knowledge of the reason of things (distinguished from history, the knowledge of facts, and from mathematics, the knowledge of the quantity of things) ; the hypothesis or system upon which natural ef- fects are explained.— />ocA;^. Pythagoras first adopted the name of philosopher (such men having been previously called sages) about 528 b.c. ANCIENT GREEK AND MODERN PHILOSOPHERS AND PHILOSOPHY. The early Greeks had no predecessors from whom to learn. — Lewes, " History of Philosophy " Name Teachings. Thales of Miletus (father of Greek speculation) Anaximander of Miletus Anaxlraenes of Miletus \ Pythagoras of Samos (representative of the second) epoch of Ionian philosophy) ) 1 Xenophanes of Colophon (founder of the Eleatic) t school of philosophy, so called from Elea in Sicily). ] Heraclitus of Ephesus. Empedocles of Agrigentum. t jAnaxagoras of Clazomenae iDemocritus of Abdera iProtagoras of Abdera (pupil of Democritus). [Socrates b. d. B.C. 636.. 546 610.. 547 (?)556.. — (?)580..500(?) 556.. 456 (?)500fl. — (?)500.. — (?)490.. — 404 fl. — (?)480..411(?) 469.. 399 [Plato (the most celebrated of philosophers, ancient) ' or modern) i 428.. 347 ristotle of Stagira, hence termed the Stagirite. 384.. 322 He made the first attempt to establish a physical beginning, teaching that the principle of all things was water. Said to have been the founder of physics, geometry, and astronomy. That infinity is the first principle in all things; that all things are produced from infinity and terminate in it. That the principle of all things is air, diffused through all nature and perpetually active. Numbers the principle or first of things; pantheistic; taught me- tempsychosis. He formed the first true conception of the solar system, and taught vaguely the orbital revolution of the earth, and its daily revolution on its axis, afterwards systematized by Copernicus. Geometry; demonstrated the square of the hy- pothenuse, etc. Taught that if there ever had been a time when nothing existed, nothing must ever exist. That whatever is always has been, that nature is one and without limit, that God is one incorporeal eternal being of the same nature with the universe, comprehend- ing all thingswithin himself, pervades all things intelligently, but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind. The principle which is eternal, ever-living unity and pervades and is in all phenomena he called fire or heat. The rational prin- ciple which governs the whole moral and physical world is also the law of the individual. Love the primal force that binds like to like, and its contrary that tends to separation. No real destruction of anything, but only change of combinations. Rejected the evidence of the senses; pure intellect alone can arrive at truth. Believed in metemp- sychosis. Conjectured the right explanation of the moon's light and of solar and lunar eclipses. Expanded the atomic theory of Leucippus. From the infinity of atoms have resulted all the worlds with all the properties be- longing to them. Abdera, Atoms. Sophist and skeptic. Belief in one supreme being, and the divine authority of moral law. Known chiefly through the writings of Plato. " To Socrates we are indebted for the moral entities, the absolute good and beau- tiful; the god of reason; final causes, and providence; in fact,, the sum total of metaphysics." — Andre Lefevre, " Philosophy, Historical and Critical." True source of knowledge the reason. We come to consciousness through innate ideas developed by contact with the outer world through the senses. Separated between empirical knowledge and reason. Divided philosophy into logic, metaphysics, and morals. Philosophy indebted to him qtioad formam. The first to attempt the construction of philosophic language; to develop an abstract idea of knowledge and science; to state logically the properties of matter, form, substance, accident, cause and effect, reality and appearance; to describe the divinity as a being es- sentially good, and his moral attributes. He taught that matter is an eternal and infinite principle; that God is the supreme intelligence, incorporeal, without beginning, end, or change; the immortality of the soul, etc. Academies. Pupil of Plato and preceptor of Alexander the Great. He was the most voluminous of ancient philosophic writers, and many of his works are preserved. Rejected the doctrine of ideas, made all knowledge the fruit of experience gathered from externals. Makes logic the instrument by which all general knowledge is obtained. Enlarged the limits of philosophy, to include all sciences except history. He taught that nature is a machine, active through deity or a first cause. The history of his school, "the Peripatetic" (Lyceum) may be divided into 4 periods: 1st, from the death of Aristotle, 322 b.c, to Cicero, of gradual decline; 2d, from Cicero to 600 a.d., almost unknown; 3d, from 600 to 1000 A.D., revived but corrupted; 4th, from the 11th cen- tury until set aside by Bacon and Descartes. PHI 630 PHI ANCIENT GREEK AND MODERN PHILOSOPHERS AND PHILOSOPHY.— (ConWutted.) Time. Tench in((8. Epicurus of Samoa. Pyrrho of Elea. . . . . Zeno (founder of the Stoic school of philosophy) , Arcesilaus (founder of the Middle Academy) Carneades (founder of the New Academy). . . Philo of Alexandria Ammonius Saccas Plotinus (Neo-Platouist) Porphyry of Tyre (Neo-PIatonist) Proclus (Neo-Platonist) b. d. B.C. 341.. 270 (?)340..270(?) 362.. 264 316.. (?) 215.. 130 A.D. 20 fl. —..245 205.. 70 233.. 304 411.. 85 John Scotus Erigena (precursor of modern philoso phy). Literature , William of Champeaux (realism). Roscelin. Jean (nominalism). Abelard (conceptualism). Averroes (Arabian). A follower of Democritus in his atomic theory. Taught that there was no over-ruling providence, that if there was a god or gods they had no power or care over man. That happiness or pleas- ure should be the chief end of man. His memory and his teachings have been much reproached, because his system has often been a pretext for nstiued sensuality. ( Taughtthatallhumau knowledge is involved in uncertainty,so that it ( is impossibleever toarri ve at certainty. He is known as the sceptic 'The universe, though one, contains 2 principles distinct from ele- ments, one passive, the other active. The passive is pure matter; the active is reason or God. Providence only another name for ne- cessity or fate,and while teaching a resurrected life, it wasa life for getfulofany former life. Wisdom consists in distinguishing good ) from evil. Good is that which produces happiness according to man'siiature,andvirtue,which isseated in themind,isalonesufB- cient for happiness; external things contribute nothing toward.s hyppiness,therefore are not in themselves good. The sum of man's [ duty is to subdue his joy and sorrow, hope and fear, and even pity. I Conceived himself to be a follower and a teacher of the Platonic ) doctrine. ( Maintained that all the knowledge the human mind is capable of \ attaining is not science, but opinion. (Attempts the union of Platonic philosophy with the Jewish { scripture. Founder of Neo-Platonism. This world a shadowy copy of a truly real world. The instinctive certainty that there is a supreme good beyond empirical e.xpe- rieuce, and yet not an intellectual good, and the conviction of the utter vanity of all earthly things, were produced and sus- tained by Neo-Platonism. God without limit, form, or definition. He brought the Neo-Platonic philosophy to that form in which it was transferred to Christianity and Mahometanism in the middle ages. — Encyc. Brit,, 9th ed. 44 years after the death of Proclus the school of Athens was closed by Justinian (529 a.d.). MEDIEVAL SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. God alone has true being, all -containing and incomprehensible. He is above goodness, wisdom, and truth. No finite predicate can be applied to him. His mode of being cannot be determined by any category. The world a revelation of God; we recognize his being in all things, his wisdom in their orderly arrangement, his life in their constant activity. God is a trinity in substance, form, and spirit, or what we see in individuality. This trinity is most perfectly reflected in man because he is the highest of created things, but as God is incarnate in all things, this trinity is not expressed in man alone, but in all things there is a Irine. Things are only real as they are good ; being, without well being, is naught. Ideas manifest themselves in their effects, i.e., the 877 \ individual created thing. God manifests himself in the world, and is not without the world. As causes are eternal and time- less, so creation is eternal and timeless. The Mosaic account merely expresses a mode, is altogether allegorical, and needs interpretation. Paradise and the Fall have no local or temporal being. As God is true being, i. e., good, sin can have no substan- tive existence — cannot really be; sin results from the will repre- senting something as good which is not so; punished by finding its pursuits turn out vanity and emptiness. Hell has no local ex- istence, but is a state of unreality, insanity, a result that admits of redemption, as the object of destruction is not the will, but its disease or misdirection. The ultimate goal of the soul is to ar- rive toa full knowledgeofGod,in which beiugandknowingareone. ' He held that the essence of all individuals of a genus is the uni- versal, and that is an existence independent of the individual, i. e., a self-subsistent nature, distinct from the mind conceiving it and the individuals conforming to it; both antecedent and su- perior to these individuals. He maintained that general ideas are not endowed with reality, that the universal or genus exists only in name and has no existence apart from the individual. 'Along with Aristotle and the nominalists generally, he ascribed full reality only to the particular concretes, while in opposition he declared the universal to be no mere word, but to consist (or bet- ter) to be produced in the fact of predication born as a conception , of the mind. For this he has been classed as a conceptualist. ' Maintained that the eternity of the world finds its true expression in the eternity of God. The ceaseless movement of growth and change which matter ever undergoes in an ascending series is a continual search after a finality or end, which in time and move- ment cannot be reached. This movement is only its aspect to the senses. In the eye of reason the full fruition of this desired finality is already and always attained. This end, invisible to the senses, is that which the world of nature is forever seeking, but as this end is infinite and eternal— God— nature, in this as- cending, never-ending change or series, develops eternal life. 1070.. 1121 1106 (?) 1079.. 1142 1126.. 1198 Bacon, Roger. Bacon, Francis (inductive or rational). b. 1214 MODERN. d. jl.d. 1561.. 1626 His fame rests on scientific and mechanical discoveries. Into metaphysics, Bacon can hardly be said to have entered, but a long line of thinkers have drawn inspiration from the practical or positive spirit of his system. Experience and observation are the only safeguards against prejudice and error. The rules laid down by Bacon were averse to hypothesis, and still progress is chiefiy made in scientific discovery by the use of hypothesis. The inductive formation of axioms by a gradual ascending scale is a route which no science has everYollowed, and by which no science could ever make progress. The work upon which his I. philosophic reputation rests is the "Novum Organum." Jl PHI 631 PHI ANCIENT GREEK AND MODERN PHILOSOPHERS AND PHILOSOPHY.— (Conrtnued.) Teachings, Descartes, Ren€ (Cartesian). 1596.. 1650 Hobbes, Thomas (common-sense). Spinoza (the philosopher of intuitions). 1632.. 1677 Malebranche, Nicolas. 1638.. 1715 Leibnitz, Gottfried W. (elective). 1646.. 1716 Locke, John (perceptive). 1632.. 1704 Berkeley, George, bishop of Cloyne (imnaaterialism). 1685.. 1753 Swedenborg, Emmanuel. 1688.. 1772 HiUcheson, Francis. 1694.. 1747 According to Descartes, God is the unity of thought and being ; man a mean between God and nothing, between being and not- being; connected on the one hand with the infinite and on the other with the finite. Man has in him an idea of the infinite or God, superior to his own consciousness, or how could he doubt or desire, how could he be conscious of anything as a want, how could he know he was not altogether perfect, if he had not within him the idea or consciousness of a being more per- fect than himself, by comparison with whom he recognizes the defects of his own existence? The existence of self he makes dependent on thought: cogito, ergo sum. In science, to account for the movement and origin of the planets and all physical phenomena, he conceived the hypothesis of vor- tices. Follower of Baconian rationalism. Nothing exists except bodies and their accidents. Philosophy dwells within us, all its ele- ments being supplied by sensation, memory, and experience, put in order by reflection. Ratiocination and philosophizing are the same, operating on signs and terms representing ideas, images— the residuums of sensation. Without definition there can be no satisfactory demonstration. Perfect being is substance. Nothing exists except infinite sub- stance accompanied by infinite attributes which constitute it. Each in its own degree manifests the supreme reality, which is God. He is the unity of diversity; he is the infi- nite expansion and the divided expansion. Body and soul are two modes of the substance, one the attribute of expan- sion, the other of thought. The human soul is the idea of the body. Thought is represented by its object. Free will is an illusion; would disappear if it were possible to trace back the line of causes. Evidence is the criterion of truth. Believe whnt seems so evi- dently true that to withhold our assent occasions the reproaches . of reason. The incarnation, the union of creator and creature, is the necessary condition of creation. Reason is supreme and infallible; it is wisdom, the word, Christ! Faith is the mirror of revelation, God's expression to us of his being. God is in- finite and eternal goodness. Evil is the necessary result of the laws established for the general welfare. Divides the universe into matter and spirit. The understanding com- prises 3 faculties: sensibility, imagination, and reason, which alone thinks, knows, and acquires truth. Will is the natural divine impulse. The ultimate reason of all motion or action is the force originally communicated to the universe, a force everywhere present, but diversely restrained and limited in difi'erent bodies; this force is inherent in all substance, natural and spiritual. Every spirit is a world in itself, self-sufficient, embracing the infinite, express- ing the universe, as lasting and absolute as the universe itself, which it represents from its point of view and by its own virtue. The ultimate elements of the universe are individual centres of force, or monads. The eternal existence of God is only another way of expressing the principle of causality and sufficient reason in its universality as suggested by our conviction that our own personal existence had a beginning. Each person knows that he now exists and is con- vinced that he once had a beginning; with not less intuitive cer- tainty he knows that nothing cannot produce any real thing. The rational conclusion is that there must be eternally a most powerful and most knowing being, in which, as the origin of all, must be contained all perfection, and out of which can come only what it has in itself, so that as the adequate cause it must involve mind. Have no knowledge of the real existence of anything other than our own individual existence, that of uni- versal reason, and of particular objects of sense, and they only while they are present to our senses. Locke deals with the un- derstanding and not with the affections. Spirit which is immaterial alone exists, and the representation of sensible things is but a mode of its activity. The objects of knowledge are ideas and nothing more. We are forced by the laws of our nature to invest objects with the forms in which we perceive them. Makes the Scriptures the foundation of his philosophy, and asserts that no philosophy worthy of the name can rest on any other foundation. Claims that nature reveals spirit or the reality of things by correspondence and not directly; that no one, how- ever intelligent or wise, can without divine assistance interpret spiritual things by natural. He therefore claimed to have had the spiritual faculties of his mind vivified or opened by the Lord to the true nature and science of correspondence revealing the reality of things. Makes nature the ultimate of divine order, that is, the boundary of things understood by form; has no being or existence in itself aside from the substance (spirit) it seeks to reveal. It expresses in itself that sphere of utter des- titution and want which belongs to creatureship, being "with- out form and void " of life and everything in itself. Charac- terizes consciousness as composite and not simple, made up of object and subject, the former element dominating the latter, although the latter renders the former known to itself or alive in consciousness. He makes the objective element the sphere of nature, and the subjective the sphere of the mind or spirit. These are united in consciousness or a valid creation. A mis- apprehension of his system, with a determination to reduce it to a form of ecclesiasticism, has hindered a favorable reception of his philosophic views, so that with one or two exceptions no men of scientific reputation have given his wTitiugs the notice thev deserve. Devoted his efforts to the exposition of the philosophy of morals. PHI 632 PHI ANCIENT GREEK AND MODERN PHILOSOPHERS AND PHILOSOPHY.— (ConKnued.) N«m«. Time. Teachings. Hume, David (skepticism). Reid, Thomas (common sense). Condillac, Etienne de, B. 1711.. 1776 1710.. 1795 1715.. 1780 Kant, Immanuel (transcendental). 1724.. 1804 Fichte, Jobaiin Gottlieb (subjective idealism). 1762.. 1814 Schelling, W. J. Friedrich von (objective idealism) 1775.. 1854 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (absolute idealism). Schopenhauer, Arthur , 1770.. 1831 1788.. 1860 Hume's philosophy leads to scepticism. All ideas proceed from sensation. Tlio outward world merely the unknown object of onr sensations, and cause is the relation between facLs constantly succeeding each otlier, while nothing but an inveterate illusion lurlts under the terms efflcient and final causes. He says, '' Do you follow the instinct and propensities of nature in assenting to the veracity of the senses ? But these lead you to believe that the very perception or sensible image is in the external object. Do you disclaim this principle in order to embrace a more ra- tional opinion that the j)erceptions are only representations of sometiiing external ? You here depart from your natural pro- pensities and more obvious sentiments, and yet are not able to satisfy your reason, which can never find any convincing argu- ment from experience to prove that the perceptions are con- nected with external objects." Opposed to Hume and the idealism of Berkeley— a protest against ( scepticism. Believed in the reality of the outward world. Opposes the innate idea of Descartes, the mental faculties of Male- branche, and the monadology of Leibnitz. He maintained that the mind is not a congeries of faculties, but is one and indivisi- ble, and appears in all its activity in the simplest state of con- sciousness. His definition of personality is, a collection of sen- sations plus the power to say me. He divides philosophical systems into 3 classes: (1) Abstract systems, resting only on ab- stract principles; (2) hypotheses, or systems grounded on mere suppositions ; (3) one true system, that of Locke, which is evolved from facts of experience — the true method of philosophy. His "Critique of Pure Reason " brought out to oppose the scep- ticism of Hume. By pure reason is understood reason inde- pendent of experience. This " critique " subjects the pure spec- ulative reason to a critical scrutiny. His philosoi)l]y termed transcendental owing to his recognition of a noumeval world or a world of things-in-themselves; these are unknowable for man. They are related neither to space nor time; all co-existence and succession are only in phenomenal objects and consequently only in the perceiving subject. The forms of thought are the 12 categories or original conceptions of the understanding on which all the forms ofourjudgments are conditioned. They are: Unity, plurality, totality; reality, negation, limitation; substantiality, causality, reciprocal action; possibility, existence, necessity. The categories have to do only with phenomenal objects within our consciousness. Things-in-themselves have none of these, and therefore do not come within the sphere of consciousness. Substance is nothing but the synthesis of accident. It is a mental synthesis. The basis of idealism is consciousness. God is to be believed in, not4nferred— we cannot attribute to him intelligence or personality. He is infinite, therefore beyond the reach of sci- ence, which can only embrace the finite— but not beyond faith, which has nothing to do with science. The knowledge and love of God is the end of life; for in God alone have we a permanent, enduring object of desire. The infinite God is the all ; the world of independent objects is the result of reflection or self-conscious- ness, by which the infinite unity is broken up. God is thus over and above the distinction of subject and object ; our knowledge is butareflexorpicture of the infinite essence. Beingisnotthought. The ego important; the tree and the image of the tree are but onething. /aloneexist; thetree isbutamodificationof mymind. Makes the ego absolute and infinite, tbe all, corresponding to the substanceof Spinoza. This absolute manifests itself in two forms, the ego and the non-ego, as nature and mind or spirit; nature being spirit visible and spirit invisible nature. Subject and ob- ject are identical in a third which is absolute. This absolute is neither real nor ideal, neither nature nor mind, but both. This absolute is God. He is all in all, the eternal sourceof all existence. He realizes himself under one form as in objectivity, and under another as subjectivity. He becomes conscious himself in man through reason. Knowledge and being are identical. To know the infinite we must be in the infinite, i. e., lose ourselves in the 9 universal. The tree and the ego are equally real or ideal, but they ^ are nothing else in their union but manifestation of the absolute. Being and non-being the same. Being absolute, that is, uncondi- tioned, apart from any individual tiling, is the same as nothing; existence does not exclude non-existence; everything is contra- dictory in itself; contradiction forms its essence; existence is therefore identical with negation. Light without color or shade is unapproachable. Must be united with darkness to be known. The same with being and non being, subject and object, force and weakness, etc. The only tiling existing is the idea, the relative; the ego and the object the terms of the relation, and these terms owe their being to such relation. God is overactive. Creation without beginning or end, or infinite. Space, time, and the categories of Kant have purely a subjective origin, and are only valid for phenomena, which are merely subjective representations in consciousness. The absolutely real cannot be a transcendental object, for no object is without a corresponding subject, and all objects are representations in the subject and hence phenomena. The will includes. not only conscious desire, but unconscious instinct as well, and all forces which manifest themselves in inorganic nature. Consciousness first becomes manifest in life in the objectification of the will. Views pessimistic; this world not the best, but the worst of all possible worlds. To will without motive, to suffer and struggle incessantly, and then to die, and so on forever, until all life disappears from the earth. Happiness, if any, comes through the destruction of the will or desires — Nirvana. " For not to desire or admire, if a man could learn it, were more Than to walk all day like the sultan of old in a garden of spice." —Tennyioti's " Maud." • PHI PHO ANCIENT GREEK AND MODERN PHILOSOPHERS AND FRILOSOPRY.— (Continued.) Cousin, Victor (eclectic). Corate, Auguste (positivism). Hamilton, sir Willfam (conditional) . Speuper, Herbert (evolution) Hartman, Eduard von (philosophy of the unconscious). Time. 1792.. 186T 1798.. 1857 1788.. 1856 1820.. Teachings. All science referred to ideas, which must contain the explanation of all things. There are 3 fundamental ideas: The infinite, the finite, and the relation they sustain to each other. These 3 ideas are met with everywhere and in everything, a trinity in- separable. A God without a world as incomprehensible as a world without a God. Creation a necessity. History the de- velopment of ideas; a nation, a century, a great man, each the manifestation of an idea. His work on " The True, the Beauti- ful, and the Good," pub. 1853. Philosophy without method or precision. The beginning and the end of things are unknowable for us. It is only what lies between that can come within the sphere of our knowledge. Repudiates all metaphysical hypotheses, neither atheist nor theist, rejects Pantheism. History and science the 2 ideas or terms of positivism. 6 fundamental sciences: Mathe- matics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology. History justifies this order. His great work, "Coursde Philoso- phic Positive," pub. 1839. " Philosophy of the Unconditioned " pub. 1829. Treats consciousness under 3 chief aspects: (1) As it is in itself ; (2) as realized under actual conditions, (3) as a source of truth. (1) Consciousness in itself is immediate or intuitive knowledge; this involves the existence of both subject and object; it is the affirmation by the subject implicitly of its own existence, ex- plicitly of that of the object; (2) as realized under actual condi- tions includes all particular forms of knowledge, and yet its de- velopment into a whole is the effect of the agencies which make up its contents; (3) as a source of truth consciousness is em- bodied in the conditioned, and common-sense; the conditioned being the only possible object of knowledge and of thought. Quality realized under the twofold aspect of substance and phe- nomenon; quantity under time, space, and degree; knowledge essentially relative; self cannot be known except with and through not-self ; natural realism a corollary of the general principle of the relativity of knowledge; perception and sen- sation differently related to the ego as space to thought and sense, the reason supreme; freedom and necessity alike incon- ceivable; pleasure the reflex in consciousness of the sponta- neous and unimpeded exerci.se of power or energy; pain the consciousness of overstrained or repressed exertion. After Kant and Hamilton recognizes an unknowable power. Knowable likenesses and differences among the manifestations of that power, resulting in subject and object, space, time, matter, and motion. Force persistent, never disappears — it is only transformed. The law of evolution applies equally to all orders of phenomena, astronomic, geologic, biologic, psychologic, sociologic, etc. The genesis of religion he traces to ancestor worship. The notion of another life from shadows, reflections, echoes, etc , as doubles or the other self ' Presents the will of Schopenhauer and the absolute idea of Hegel as necessary to a true philosophy of the world, both being at- tributes of the workings of the unconscious. The unconscious is will, wisdom, activity, creation continuous, and foreseeing intelligence. Without thought it is the essence of thought, the reality of consciousness, and so above consciousuess. It ex- plains everything that lies within the range of creation, i.e., [ nature. " Philosophy of the Unconscious " pub. 18C9. Pllipp§'S expedition. Capt. Phipps (afterwards lord Mulgrave) sailed from England in com no and of the Sea- horse and Carcase to make discoveries as near as possible to the North Pole. In Aug. 1773, he was for 9 days environed ; with ice in the Frozen ocean, north of Spitzbergen, 80° 48' N. ' lat. All progress or retreat seemed impossible ; but a brisk wind in 2 or 3 days accomplished their deliverance. They 1 returned to England without having made any discoveries, '20 Sept. 1773. Horatio Nelson was coxswain to the second in ; command. Northeast and northwest passages. plllogii'ton, a term employed by Stahl to designate the matter or principle of fire , the " inflammabkprinciple " of bish- lopWatson,near the closeof thel7thcentury Thechemicalthe- lOry based upon it, refuted by Lavoisier, 1790, has been thought jto have some resemblance to recent theories of atomic matter. I Phocis, a state in N. Greece. The Phocians seized ! Delphi 357 b.c., and commenced the second Sacred war. They were opposed by Thebes and other states, and were ut- terly subdued by Philip II. of Macedou in 346. I PllCEni'cia, on the sea-coast of Syria. The natives iwere the most eminent navigators and traders of antiquity, 'their cities or allied states being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, iByblos, and Ptoleraais, or Acre. From the 19th to the 13th century before Christ they established colonies on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean— Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus (now Palermo)— and are said to have viate'dthe Brit- ish isles. Phoenicia was.conquered by Cyrus, 537 if c. ; by Alex- iinder,332; by the Romans, 47; and, after partaking of the fort- unes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman empire, 1516 a.d. plioe'nix, a fabulous bird of Egypt and Arabia, said to live 600 years, when from its ashes a young phcenix arose. An account given of it by Herodotus. Phoenix Park murder §. Ireland, 1882-83. phonau'tograph. Acoustics. plloneid'o§edpe, an instrument for observing the color-figures of liquid films under the action of sonorous vibra- tions, being a visible demonstration of the vibratory and molec- ular motion of a telephone plate , invented by Sedley Taylor, 1877 ; manufactured by S.C. Tisley & Co., London, 1878. pllO'nog'rapll, a machine proposed to be attached to pianofortes and other keyed instruments, so that the playing of any music upon them will automatically print the notes of it on blank paper. It was patented by Mr. Fenby, 13 June, 1863. The motive-power is electro-magnetism. Machines with a similar object v^ejK projected by Creed in 1747, J. F. Unger in 1774, and by Carreyre in 1827. A new phonograph by Thomas Alva Edison, electrician, of New Jersey, was announced '. Oec. 1877 [Linear indentations are made by a pin pressed by the voice in speaking or singing in a sheet of tin -foil, fixed on a revolving cylinder, and from these casts may be taken. When these are placed upon another cylinder revolving be- fore a telephone, the sounds may be reproduced.] Improved by Shelford Bidwell (Telephone) 1879 Prof Graham Bell's graphophone, a modification of the phono- , graph, announced ."SSt Nov. 188'/ Emile Berliner of Washington announces his gramophone, a modification ofjjcott's phonautograph Nov. " Improved instrument by Mr Edison for postal communication ; announced 21 Nov. 1887; successful experiment 12 May, 1888 Edison greatly improves the phonograph. Considered perfect PHO 634 PHO in tho record, reproduction, and preservation of sounds of all kinds (wax used instead of tinfoil) Nov. 1888 Edison adapts his phonograph to a water-motor as well as to electricity Sept. 1890 ptaOIIOg'rapliy (from Gr. Calotype or talbotype 3 " " 1841 Collodion 10 seconds' " 1851 Collodion emulsion (dry plate). .15 " " 18(54: Gelatine emulsion , 1 second " 1878 Joseph Nic^phore Ni^pce of Chalons (1765-1833), the inventor of photolithography, discovers the bitumen process in pho- tography about 1813, and produces the first permanent pho- tograph by aid of the camera about 1816 Niepce forms a partnership with Louis Jacques Mand€ Da- guerre, who began investigations in photography about 1824. 182^ Henry Fox-Talbot (1800-77) obtains a "photogenic drawing " of his residence, Lacock Abbey, on prepared paper exposed in the camera-obscura about an hour 1835 On condition that he publish his process in France without patenting, the French government settles on Daguerre a life pension of 6000 francs per annum, and on his partner, Isidore Niepce, 4000 francs per annum (1838). Daguerre takes out a patent in England 1830 Hyposulphite of soda, discovered by Chaussier in 1799, and its solvent power on haloid salts of silver, demonstrated by sir John Herschel as early as 1819, is suggested by him and adopted for fixing daguerrotypes " Herschel suggests the use of glass plates in photography " First attempt at portraiture by photography made by John W. Draper, professor of chemistry in the University of New York, by dusting the sitter's face with flour; successful por- traits made independently by S. F. B. Morse in Oct " First photograph of the moon is presented to the Lyceum of Natural History in New York by prof Draper Mch. 1840 Talbot discovers that sensitive paper brushed with a mixture of gallic acid and nitrate of silver and exposed wet in the camera, produces a picture in 2 or 3 minutes, from which copies can be taken by transmitted light on sensitive paper (Sept. 1840). His discovery (disputed by rev. J. B. Reade) he . calls the calotype process and patents Feb. 1%0A Sir John Herschel invents "blue prints," and first applies the 3 term " negative " to photography 1840-42 First issue of "The Pencil of Nature," a book illustrated by calotype prints by Fox-Talbot, appears 1844 Albumen process on glass published by Niepce de St. Victor. . . 1848 Colored photographs, evanescent however, produced by Robert Hunt of England, in 1843, and by Edmond Becquerel of France, " Humphrey's Journal of Photography and the Allied Arts and Sciences, the first of its kind in the U. S., begins publication, 1850 Collodion process in photography, suggested by Gustave Le Gray in 1849, and by Robert J. Bingham in 1850, is devel- oped by Frederick Scott Archer of England, and described in the London Chemist Mch. 1851 Instantaneous views made by Mr. Cady and Alexander Beckers in New York '' Talbot produces instantaneous pictures by a flash-light from Leyden-jars lasting the .0001 part of a second " First public exhibition of photography, held under the auspices of the Society of Arts, in the Adelphi, London 22 Dec. 1852 Photographic Society of London, since 1876 styled the Photo- graphic Society of Great Britain, established 30 Jan. 1853 Process of "vignetting," or shading of portrait background.?, described by Latimer Clark Dec. " Albumen paper introduced by Talbot about 1854 Collodion -albumen dry plates, the first practical dry-plate proc- ess, published by dr. J. M. Taupenot, French scientist 1»55 Cartes-de-visite "portraits taken by M. Ferrier at Nice 185^ Photographic composition, or combination printing, introduced in 1855, and Oscar G. Rejlander of Wolverhampton sends to the Manchester exhibition a large photograph, called "The Two Ways of Life," which he printed from 30 negatives. .. . Toning process, introduced by the French scientist Fizeau in 1841, is perfected by Maxwell-Lyte lo^S Prof. 0. N. Rood of Troy, N. Y., describes his process of micro- photography in American Journal of Science (No. 82) 18"^ Mr. Thompson of Weymouth photographs the bottom of the ^^ PHO 635 PIA Ammonia first used in developing pictures by Anthony and Broda in the U. S 1862 Magnesium light employed for photography by Mr. Brothers of Manchester 1864 "Magic photographs," on process known to Herschel in 1840, produced upon blank paper by a blotting-pad saturated with hyposulphite of soda, obtain widespread popularity — about 1866 Fogging of collodion plates prevented by use of aqua regia, recommended by Carey Lea of Philadelphia Apr. 1870 Photographs of the first page of the Times, Ik inches long by 1 inch wide, sent from Bordeaux to Paris by balloons. . .Jan. 1871 Spectra of the stars, showing the fixed lines, photographed for the first time by dr. Draper, with telescopic apparatus con- structed by himself 1872 W. Willis, jr., inventor of the platinotype process, takes out a patent in England June, 1873 "Albumen -beer dry-plate process," devised by capt. Abney, and used by expeditions to study the transit of Venus 1874 " Beechey dry plates " described by rev. canon Beechey of England Oct. 1875 Ferrous oxalate used as a developer by Carey Lea in America and Willis in England 1877 H. Van der Weyde, an American artist, succeeds in making electric light very effectual in photography 1876-78 Use of gelatine emulsion with bromide of silver, imperfectly known as early as 1850 by Gustave Le Gray, displaces the collodion process 1878 Dr. Draper photographs the nebulae in Orion 1880-81 Bust of Daguerre (1787-1851), the contribution of photographers of all civilized nations, unveiled at Cormeilles, near Paris... 1883 Roller slide, invented by A. J. Melhuish in England in 1854, and M. Leon Warnerker, a Hungarian engineer, in 1871, practically applied in photography by Eastman, Walker & Co., of Rochester, N. Y 1885 Gelatino-bromide paper for negatives introduced in U. S. and England by Eastman Co " Complete photographic map of the heavens, begun by the In- ternational Photographic Congress of Astronomers of the World organized in Paris; charts of the whole heavens ex- pected in 10 years 1887 W. E. Woodbury's " Encyclopaedia of Photography " pub 1890 M. Marey's chromo-photograph for animal motions applied by M. G. Demeny to the movement of the lips in speech, the re- sult being readable by deaf-mutes Aug. 1891 F. E. Ives, at the Royal Institution, London, 10, 17 May, 1892, ex- hibited his patented method of photographing colors. Photoheliograph, an apparatus for registering the position of the Bun's spots by means of clockwork and photography; erected at the suggestion of sir John Herschel at Kew observatory about 1857. It was used by Warren de la Rue to photograph the disc of the sun during the eclipse oT 18 July, 1860. Photogalvanography, the art of producing engravings by the action of light and electricity. The earliest specimens were produced by Nic^phore Niepce, and presented by him in 1827 to the great botanist, Robert Brown. Great advances have since been made in this art by Nidpce de St. Victor (who published a treatise on it in 1856), Vitry, W. R. Grove, H. Fox-Talbot, etc. In 1852 Paul Pretsch patented a process which he called "Photogalvanography. " Photoglyphy and Photogravure (a process by which light etches a picture on a plate that may be printed from) was patented by Mr. Fox-Talbot in 1858, and is described and exeuiplifled in the Photographic News, 9 and 16 Sept. 18.59. Photozincography (a process by which photographs are transferred to zinc plates which may be printed from) was devised by sir Henry James, chief of the ordnance survey, and made known in 1860. By it maps, charts, and engravings may be printed at small cost. Photo -sculpture. M. Vill6me's employment of photographs in the formation of sculpture was announced in 1863. j pllOtom'eter (light-measurer); one was constructed by dr. W. Ritchie in 1825. Many improvements have been I made recently in connection with photograph^^ I Stellar photometry, the measurement of the light of the stars, much ! studied by Herschel, Argelander, Pritchard, and others. W. J. Dibdin describes his application of terrestrial photometry to stel- lar light, in his "Guide to the Measurement of Light," pub. 1889. pho'tophone. In this apparatus, constructed by Iprof. Graham Bell and Sumner Tainter of Washington, in i 1880, a thin plane mirror is thrown into vibration by the [voice; a beam of light is reflected from this mirror and re- ■j ceived at a distance by a cell of the metal selenium ; when, :by arrangement, this is connected with a telephone, the i sounds are reproduced. ■ pllo'tO§pliere. Sun. plireiiol'og-y, the study of the form, texture, dimen- sions, and distribution of parts of the brain as the organ of i mental powers and moral qualities. Dr. Gall, the propounder, jwas a German physician, born Mch. 1758, and his first observa- Itions were among his school-fellows. Observing that in these lan " ox-eye," a full, protuberant eye-ball, was always associated with fiuency in language, and that an eye sunk below the cheek-bone was found oiily in tho.se slow and unready of speech, he inferred that the part of the brain just behind the eye is the organ of language. Afterwards he studied the heads of criminals and others, and eventually reduced his ideas to a system, describing the brain as composed of some 40 or more distinct organs, some estimate of the comparative and even of the actual power of which he believed could be formed from an examination of the skull. His first lecture was given at Vienna in 1796 ; but in 1802 the Austrian government prohib- ited his teaching. In 1800 he was joined by dr. Spurzheim ; and in 1810-12 they published at Paris their work on the "Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System, and of the Brain in particular." Gall died in 1828. The researches of Gall and Spurzheim led to increased study of the brain. Combe's " Phrenology," first pub. in 1819, is the popular Eng- lish work on this subject. Phrenological societies were formed early in London and Edinburgh. Introduced into the United States by dr. Charles Caldwell of North Carolina, about 1825. Among the most active of its teachers were 0. S. Fowler and S. R. Wells. They established the Phrenological Journal, 1863. The system of Gall was opposed by lord Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Re- view in 1826, and more recently by dr. W. B. Carpenter. Prof. Ferrier reported the results of researches tending to prove localization of certain faculties in the brain to the British Association, Sept. 1873. Phryg'ia, now Karama'llia, a province in Asia Minor, became part of the Persian empire in 537 b.c., and par- took of its changes. It became a Roman province in 47 B.C., and a Turkish one 1392 a.d. Phryg'ian cap,*the red cap of Liberty, worn by the leaders of the French Revolution, 1792; in shape, the same as that of the ancient Phrygians. In Roman history a badge denoting emancipation from slavery, worn by emancipated slaves, and probably selected bj'^ the French leaders for this reason, as denoting manumission from the thraldom of tyrants. physician§. Medical science. pliy8ic§ and ptiysici§tS. Acoustics, Astronomy, Chemistry, Electricity, Optics, Philosophy, etc. pliysiog^'nomy, a science which affirms that the dis- positions of mankind may be discovered from the features of the face. The origin of the term is referred to Aristotle ; and Cicero was attached to the science. It became a fashionable study from the beginning of the 16th century; and in the last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system. Lavater's researches arose from observing the singu- lar countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at which he and Zimmerman were standing; his " Fragment " on this subject appeared in 1776. pliy§iology is that part of physics which treats of the inner constitution of animals and plants, and the several func- tions and operations of all their organs and tissues. The works of Miiller, Milne-Edwards, Huxley, Foster, and Carpenter are much celebrated ; and Todd's " Cyclopaedia of Physiology " (1836-1859) is a library in itself. Medical science. pianoforte {pe-m'o-Jor'-le'). The nucleus of the in- strument was a little box over which were stretched strings; such was the citole, the dulcimer, and the psaltery. The clavi- therium had keys; the clavichord (about 1500) had dampers; successive improvements were the virginals (on which queen Elizabeth played), the spinet (about 1700), and the harpsichord (with 2 rows of keys), said to have been used in the 15th cen- tury, for which Bach and Handel composed in the 17th century. A collection of harpsichords (one dated 1555) is in the South Kensington museum. The invention of the piano is attrib- uted to Cristofalli (or Cristofori), an Italian, J. C. Schroter, a German, and Marius, a Frenchman, early in the 18th century. The strings are struck by small hammers, and not by quills as in harpsichords. Schroter is said to have presented a model of his invention to the court of Saxony in 1717, and G. Silber- man manufactured pianofortes Avith considerable success in 1772. Pianofortes were made in London by M. Zumpie, a Ger- man, 1766, and have been since greatly improved by Clementi, Broadwood, Collord, Kirkman, Erard, Pleyel, Chickering & Sons of Boston, Mass., Steinway & Co. of New York, and others. Upright pianos, first made in England, were suggested by Isaac Hawkins in 1800. and Thomas Loud in 1802. William Southwell patented "cabinet pianos " in 1807; superseded, from about 1840, by the cottage, piccolo, and other pianos. A keyed instrument at Modena was named "piano e forte," 1598. A "stone pianoforte," formed of a series of flints and other stones of various sizes, collected in France, and arranged by M. Baudre, was played on by him at the Royal Institution on 16 Mch. 1866. i PIC « A double piauoforto (with 2 keyboards reversed), giving remarkable effects (patented by M. M. Mengeot), played on at Covent Garden theatre, 21 Oct. 1878. See Grove's " Dictionary of Music," article Pianoforte. PIc'ardy, a province of N. France, was conquered by the English in 1346, and by the duke of Burgundy in 1417, to whom it was ceded by the treaty of Arras, 21 Sept. 1435, and annexed to France by Louis XL, 1463. Pic'cadilly, a fine street in W. London. The name, of uncertain origin, was Pickadilla and Pigudello, about 1660, when a house of entertainment existed near the Haymarket, termed Pickadilly hall, after which buildings were gradually extended westwards. pic'COlo, a small flute an octave higher than the or- dinary flute, introduced by Robert Wornum in 1829. Piceil'tllies, a Sabine tribe, subdued by the Romans, and their capital, Asculura, taken, 268 b.c. They began the Social war in 90, and were conquered in 89 b.c. picquet (^p?-fca), a game with cards, invented, it is said, by Joquerain for tlie amusement of Charles VL of France, then in feeble health, 1390. — MezSray. PIctS (from picti, painted), Scythians, who landed in Scotland just about the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Hebrides, or Western Isles (Ebudes). They after- wards lived as 2 distinct nations — the Scots in the highlands and isles, and the Picts in that part now called the lowlands. Between 838 and 842, the Scots under Kenneth IL totally sub- dued the Picts, and seized all their kingdom. Their incursions in England led to the Saxon invasion. Hadrian's wall. Piedmont (Lat. Pedemontiuvi, foot of the mountain), a region in N. Italy, formerly the seat of government of the kingdom of Sardinia. Savoy. Pierce, Franklin, administration of. United States, 1853-57. Pietl§t§, a Lutheran sect, instituted in Leipsic by Philip James Spener, a professor of theologj^ about 1689, with the view of reforming the popular religion. He established " colleges of Pietists," with preachers resembling those of the Society of Friends and the Methodists in Britain, about 1760. A body re- sembling the Pietists, named Chasidim, arose among the Jews in the Ukraine, and spread through Poland and European Turkey. piezam'eter (Gr. 7rt£^a>, I compress), an apparatus for measuring the compressibility of liquids, invented by (Ersted (d. 1851); improved by Despretz and Saigey. pig^eon§ were employed as carriers by the ancients. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded by means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. The pigeons of Aleppo served as couriers at Alexandretta and Bagdad. 32 pigeons liberated in London at 7 o'clock in the morning of 22 Nov. 1819 ; at noon one of them arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived ; the remainder on the following day. — Phil- lips. At a pigeon race, 25 July, 1872, from Spalding to Lon- don, the time allowed was 90 seconds a mile. Tournament flying was inaugurated in the United States in 1886. Com- petition open throughout the entire year. In 1889 the best rec- ord stood 1476 yards per minute ; same year best long distance 625 miles in 11 hrs. 25 min., average 1349 yards per minute; 1891, 100 miles, average 1374 yards per minute ; same year 325 miles, average 1733 yards per minute. Post-office, 18'?0. pike, a weapon of war. Before the introduction of the BAYONET, infantry— that is, heavy-armed footmen — were from the earliest times armed with the pike or spear, consisting of a stout pole, 10 to 14 feet long, tipped with a flat-pointed iron head, sometimes with cutting sides, from 6 to 18 inches long. The Macedonian pike was 24 feet long. Phalanx, As a defence against cavalry the pike was of great value, till guns and gunpowder superseded it. Pilgriinag^e of Orace, name given to an in- surrection commencing in Lincolnshire, Engl., in Sept. 1536, caused by the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII. ; such suppression being very unpopular among the people. The Lincolnshire movement was easily suppressed ; but it was soon revived in Yorkshire, Durham, and Lancaster, where, un- der the leadership of one Aske, and several other men, the force was raised to 40,000, with banners on which were de- | '6 PIR picted a crucifix, a chalice, and the five wounds of Christ. Their object was the restoration of the monasteries and sup- pression of heresy. They took Hull, York, and Pomfret castle. The duke of Norfolk proceeded against them with a force of about 5000 men. Numerous negotiations followed, while no general engagement ensued, owing to severe storms, until after several months the insurrection came to an end on promise of general pardon, etc. A number of executions of gentle- men, knights, and nobility followed. pilgrinia|J[e§ began with the pilgrimage of the em- press Helena to Jerusalem, 326. They became very frequent at the close of the 10th century. Robert II. of France made several pilgrimages; among others one to Rome about the year 1016, perhaps in 1020, when he refused the imperial dig- nity and the kingdom of Italy. The pilgrimage to Canterbury is described by Chaucer in his " Canterbury Tales" about 1383. The pilgrimage of Mahometans to Mecca, the birthplace of the prophet, is commanded in the Koran. Pilgrimages to shrines of the Virgin Mary in France revived in 1873, and since, in consequence of miracles alleged to have taken place at La Salette in 1846, and at Lourdes, 11 Feb. 1858 ; those of La Salette discredited by pope Leo X., 1879. Sacked heart. For children's pilgrimages. Crusades. American pilgrims received by the pope 9 June, 1874 English Roman Catholic pilgrimage to shrine of St. Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury, at Pontigny Sept. " English pilgrimage to Lourdes directed by the '-Catholic Union of Great Britain;" start proposed; given up Aug. 1880 Boulogne. Pilgrim fatlier§, first settlers of New England. Massachusetts, 1620. ** Pilgrim's Progress from this World to that which is to Come," written by John Bunyan, in Bedford jail, where he was imprisoned 12 years, 1660-72. The first part pub. in 1678. . A Hebrew version appeared in 1851. Bedford. M^ pillar saints. Monachism. ^| pll'lory, a scaffold for persons to stand on, to render them publicly infamous. This punishment was inflicted in England on persons convicted of forgery, perjury, libelling, etc. In some cases the head was put through a hole, the hands through 2 others, the nose slit, the face branded with one or more letters, and one or both ears were cut off. There is a statute of the pillory, 41 Hen. III. 1256. Many persons died in the pillorj' by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and putrid offal. It was abol- ished as a punishment except for perjury, 1815, and totally abolished in 1837. The last who suffered at the Old Bailey was Peter James Bossy, for perjury, 24 June, 1830. _ pinellbecl4,analloyof25percent.ofzincand75copper, used for watch-cases, etc., named after Christopher Pinchbeck, a toy-seller in Cockburn street, London, who died Mch. 1873. pine. Flowers and Plants. pine-tree flag, a flag with a pine-tree in a white centre, used by New England at the commencement of the Revolution. Pinkie, near Edinburgh. Here the English totally de- feated the Scots, 10 Sept. 1547. pins have been found in British barrows {Fosbroke), and are mentioned in a statute of England of 1483. Brass pins were brought from France in 1540, and first used in England la by Catherine Howard, wife of Henry VIII. Pins were made |l in England in 1543. — Stowe. They were first manufactured fl by machinery in England in 1824, under a patent procured there by Lemuel Wellman Wright, an American. Among the earlier inventors of machinery for pin-making in the United States was John J. Howe, 1836, and Samuel Slocum, 1838; the latter also invented a pin-sticking machine, 1840. Great im- provements have since been made. The annual production of pins in the U. S. has a value of over $1,000,000. piracy, properly the business of cruising on the high seas for plunder, forcible robbery at sea. It was practised from the earliest days of navigation, and the Romans in the time of Julius Caesar made great national exertions to suppress the pirates. By the laws of all civilized nations, piracy is punishable by death. Pompey destroyed the Cilician pirates, 67 B.c. Buccaneers; Barataria bay; Kidd, the pirate; Rhode Island, 1728, The slave trade was made piracy by PIR 637 PIT the statute law of Great Britain and the United States.— The publication of a copyrighted book without license from the owner is often improperly termed piracy. Piraeus, the port of Athens, was united to the city by 2 long walls, one erected by Themistocles and the other by Pericles, 456 B.C., which were destroyed by Lysander, 404 b.c. These walls, about 4J miles long and 60 feet high, were of stone, and wide enough at the top to allow 2 wagons to pass each other. It was fortified by Conon, 393 B.C. The Piraeus was able to contain 400 Greek vessels. It was occupied by the French during the Russian war in 1854. Pisa {pee' so), an ancient city in Tuscany, was founded about 6 centuries before Christ, and was favored by the early Roman emperors as a flourishing republic. The citizens took an active part in the Italian wars of the middle ages, but became subject to Florence, after a long siege, 1405-6. In 1494 Pisa became independent under the protection of Charles VIII. of France, but was retaken by the Florentines in 1509. The uni- versity was founded in 1343, and revived by the Medici in 1472 and 1542. The rival popes, Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII., were deposed at a council held at Pisa in 1409, and Alex- ander V. elected in their place. The Campanile or leaning tower was built about 1154, to contain bells, and stands in a square close to the cathedral. It is built entirely of white marble, and is a cylinder of 8 stories, each adorned with a round of columns. It inclines so far that a plummet dropped from the top, which is 188 feet in height, falls 16 feet from the base. Some have imagined that the inclination was de- signed by the architect; but it is certainly due to a gradual subsidence of the foundation during its construction. The efforts of the builders to counteract this by making the colon- nade higher in upper stories on the side that was depressed are easily seen. From this tower Galileo made his observa- tion on gravitation (about 1635). pistols, the smallest fire-arms, said to have been in- vented at Pistoia in Italy ; were first used by the cavalry of England about 1544. Of late years they have been made with a revolving cylindrical breech, in which are formed sev- eral chambers for receiving cartridges, and bringing them in Buccession into a line with the barrel ready for firing. The earliest model of this kind of arm is to be found in the mu- seum of the United Service Institution, and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I. An 8-chambered matchlock re- volver of the 16th century is placed in the Royal Artillery museum, Woolwich. The manufacture of pistols by machin- ery was first introduced into England from the United States, in the year 1853, by col. Colt, who invented the Colt revolv- ing pistol, 1851. This system induced the British govern- ment to establish the Enfield armory, in 1855. Fire-arms. Pitcairn's island, in the Pacific ocean, said to have been discovered by Pitcairn in 1768, seen by Cook in 1773, and since colonized by 10 mutineers from the ship Bounty, capt. Bligh, in 1789. Bounty mutiny. The mutineers remained unknown to England until discovered ac- . cidentally in 1814. A ship nearing the island was hailed in the English language by a swarthy youth, when it appeared that the mutineers, soon after settling there, had married some black wom- . en from a neighboring island, and had become a well-conducted community under the care of Adams, the principal mutineer. He died in 1829, when Nobbs, an Englishman, who arrived a few years before, became chief In Aug. 1852 adm. Moresby spent a few days on the island. By his means Nobbs was sent to Eng- land and obtained ordination. As their numbers increased, the isl- and proved incapable of their support, its area being but 3 sq. miles. The English government removedsomeof them, with their property, in the ship Morayshire, on 3 May, 1856,aud landed them,after a bois- terous passage, on Norfolk island, prepared previously for their re- ception, 8 June. The government stocked Norfolk island with 2000 sheep, 450 head of cattle, and 20 horses, and gave them stores to last 12 months; their numbers were 96 males and 102 females. Pitcairn's island, visited by British ship Petrel, was found to be prosperous, Dec. 1875; 86 inhabitants, 2 Mch. 1878: 93, 15 Aug. 1879; in 1890, 126. Pittsburg, known as " The Smoky City " or " The Iron City " from its extensive iron industries and manufact- ures, covers an area of 29| square miles, lying between the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers at their confluence with the Ohio in western Pennsylvania. It takes its name from fort Pitt, erected at that point in 1759. Washington visited fort Pitt in Oct. 1770, and says of the town, distant about 300 yards from the fort : " The houses, which are built of logs and ranged in streets, are on the Monongahela, and I suppose may be about twenty in number and inhabited by Indian traders." A census of the borough, published in the Pittsburg Gazette, 9 Jan. 1796, gives the population as 1395 ; in 1800 Pittsburg contained 1565 inhabitants, and by decades since the popula- tion has been, 1810, 4768; 1820, 7248; 1830, 12,568; 1840, 21,115; 1850,46,601, 1860,49,221; 1870,86,076; 1880,156,389: 1890, 238,617. Lat. 40° 33' N. ; Ion. 80° W. Leaden plate deposited at forks of the Ohio by capt. Louis Clorou, a French officer despatched by governor-general of New France to take possession of the country, bore date, 3 Aug. 1749 Washington, standing on the site of Pittsburg, pronounces it " extremely well situated for a fort, as it has absolute com- mand of both rivers " 24 Nov. 1753 Stockade erected by capt. Trent, who arrives 17 Feb. 1754 Unfinished stockade, commanded by ensign Ward with 40 men is surrendered to the French under capt. Conlrecouer, who brings 60batteaux, 300 canoes, 18 pieces of cannon, and 1000 men, 17 Apr., and begins erection of fort Duquesne Apr. " Fort Duquesne burned and evacuated by the French, 24 Nov., is occupied by British under gen. Forbes (Pennsylvania), 25 Nov. 1758 Fort Pitt erected on site of fort Duquesne by gen. Stanwix, Sept. 1759, completed in spring 1760 Redoubt, between Penn st. and Duquesne way, erected by col. Bouquet (Pennsylvania) 1764 Col. John Campbell lays out 4 squares of village lots near the fort, between Water and Second and Ferry and Market sts. . " First shingle-roofed house, a 2-story, double hewn log, erected on corner Water and Ferry sts. by col. George Morgan, about " Survey of the "manor of Pittsburg " completed and returned, embracing 5766 acres.. . .». 19 May, 1769 Fort Pitt abandoned by British under orders of gen. Gage, Oct. 1772 Fort Pitt occupied by Virginia troops under capt. John Neville, 11 Sept. 1775 First sale of lots made by John Penn, jr., to Isaac Craig and Stephen Bayard, comprising about 3 acres of ground between fort Pitt and the Alleghany river Jan. 1784 Laying out of the town completed by Thomas Vickroy, June, 1784, and approved by attorney of the proprietors. . .30 Sept. " First number of the Pittsburg Gazette, issued by John Scull and Joseph Hall 29 July, 1786 Post ordered by the government between Philadelphia and Pittsburg Sept. " Mayflower, the first boat with New England emigrants bound for the mouth of the Muskingum, passes Pittsburg. . .3 Apr. J788 Alleghany laid out 1789 Small blast furnace (abandoned after 3 years), known as An- schutz's, is erected at what is now Shady Point, 3 miles from the Union depot, on the Pennsylvania railroad 1792 Meeting of "sundry inhabitants of the western counties of Pennsylvania " to consider legal means against the law tax- ing spirits, at Pittsburg (Whiskey insurrection) 21 Aug. " Pittsburg incorporated as a borough 22 Apr. 1794 Line of keel boats established between Cincinnati and Pittsburg, " Whiskey insurgents assemble at Braddocks for the purpose of attacking Pittsburg; they march into the place, are treated to refreshments, and most of them march out again... July, " Army of 1500 men under gen, Lee arrive at Pittsburg to pro- tect the place and suppress the insurgents Nov. " Manufacture of glass, begun in 1795, is extended by gen. James O'Hara and maj. Isaac Craig, who establish a glass house with 8 pots, with capacity of 3 boxes at a blowing 1796 President Adams, first of 2 armed galleys, and first sea-going vessel built on the Ohio, launched at Pittsburg 19 May, 1798 First paper-mill built " Schooner Amity, 120 tons, and ship Pittsburg, 250 tons, sea- going vessels, built by a company at the head of which was Louis Anastasius Tarascon, launched at Pittsburg 1801 Branch of the Bank of Pennsylvania established on east side of Second St., near Ferry st Jan. 1804 First iron foundery in Pittsburg erected by Joseph McClurg. . . " First stage line from Pittsburg to Chambersburg opened. May, 1805- Steam flouring-mill erected at corner Water st. and Redoubt alley by Oliver and Owen Evans 1809 First steamboat built in Pittsburg, the Neiv Orleans, about 400 tous, 138 feet keel, launched (snagged and lost near Baton Rouge, La., in 1814) Mch. 1811 Rolling-mill erected by Christopher Cowan on corner Penn st. and Cecil's alley 1812 Steel furnace erected by Taper and McKowan 1813 United States arsenal built 1814 Bank of Pittsburg incorporated and organized 22 Nov. ' ' Pittsburg incorporated as a city under the style of the "mayor, aldermen, and citizens of Pittsburg " by act 18 Mch. 1816 Bridge over the Monongahela and over the Alleghany at St. Clair St. built 1819 Water-works established, taking supply from the Alleghany river about 1 mile from its mouth 1824 Second rolling-mill in the city, the first to puddle and to roll bar iron, was the Union mill erected in 1819 on the Monon- gahela, and accidentally blown up and dismantled in 1829 P'irst boat on Pennsylvania canal arrives at Pittsburg. .10 Nov. " Great freshet on the Ohio Feb. 1832 Manufacture of blister steel begun by G. and H. Shoenberger about 1833 First'boat built of iron that navigated the western waters was the Valley Forge, 180 feet long ; the frame of angle iron, beams of T iron, and outside of 3^ inch Juniata boiler-plate; launched at Pittsburg during summer of 1839 PIT (J38 Chronicle Telegraph established 1841 Daily Post established 1842 Improvement of Mouougahela river by locks and dams, begun 1843, and opened to National road at Urownsville.. .13 Nov. 1844 Fire destroys ".)82 buildings, covering 5(5 acres, along the Mo- nongahelu river front nearly a mile; loss $3,479,950. .10 Apr. 1846 Alleghany ceiuotery established " Iron war-vessel George M. Bibb built and launched; dimen- aions 210 ft. keel. 21 ft. beam, 17 ft. depth of hold " Daily Dispatch established 1846 Mercy hospital chartered 1848 Board of Health created by act of Assembly approved. .8 Apr. 1851 Pennsylvania and Ohio railroad opened to New Brighton, 28 miles July, " Library association founded '• Western Pennsylvania hospital organized, 9 Mch. 1847; char- tered IS Mch. 1848, and hospital building opened Jan. 1853 Crucible cast-steel, of the best quality, made as a regular prod- uct by Hussey, Wells & Co 1859 Clinton blast furnace of Graff, Bennett & Co. blown in Oct. '• Order ffom secretary of war, John B. Floyd, to ship to New Orleans 150 pieces of cannon lying at the Alleghany arsenal; the people determine to resist, but the order is counter- manded within 3 days 26 Dec. 1860 Turner Rifles leave for Harrisburg 17 Apr. 1861 12th and 13th regiments leave for Harrisburg 24 Apr. " Pittsburg fortified by earthworks, and prepared for a siege, 14 June et seq. 1863 Sanitary fair opens; receipts $361,516.17 1 June, 1864 Commercial Gazette established " Homoeopathic hospital chartered 1866 City's area increased to include the land between the 2 rivers firom 7 miles above their junction 1867 Alleghany County I.aw library founded " Pittsburg Leader established 1870 Eleven boroughs on the South side, with a population of 35,723, consolidated with Pittsburg by act of assembly 29 Mch., ap- proved by the governor 2 Apr. 1872 Town of Wilkins incorporated with Pittsburg 1874 Strike declared by the conductors and brakemen on the Penn- sylvania railroad at Pittsburg 19 July, 1877 Strikers attack the 6th division of the Pennsylvania state guards who tried to clear the Twenty-third st. crossing; the beginning of the riot of (Strikes) 21-22 July, " Daily Times established 1879 County court-house destroyed by fire May, 1882 Holy Ghost college opened 1878 ; chartered " Daily Press established 1883 Exposition society's buildings burned with all the exhibits; loss $1,000,000 3 Oct. " Natural gas as fuel introduced in the city 1884 St. Peter's church burned 12 Nov. 1886 First cable street-railroad opened — Fifth ave. line 12 Sept. 1888 Centennial of Alleghany county celebrated and new county court-house dedicated 24 Sept. " MAYORS. PLA Name. Term of office. Remarks. Ebenezer Denny 1816-17 1817 25 John M. Snowdeu 1825-27 Magnus M. Murray 1828-29 Matthew B. Lowry 1830 ' In 1834 the mayor was first Magnus M. Murray 1831 elected by the people. Samuel Pettigrew 1832-35 -{ Prior to this appointed Jonas R. McClintock. .. . 1836-38 by city councils; and he William Little 1839 1840 William W. Irwin James Thompson 1841 Alexander Hay 1842-44 1845 William J. Howard William Kerr . . . . 1846 1847-48 Gabriel Adams 1849 1850 John B. Guthrie. 1851-52 Robert M. Riddle 1853 Ferdinand E. Volz 1854-55 William Bingham 1856 Henry A. Weaver George Wilson 1857-59 1860-61 1862-63 ( Jan. , 1858, the mayor was ( elected for 2 years. B C Sawyer 1864-65 W. C. McCarthy 1866 67 James Blackmore Jared M. Brush 1868 1869-71 1872-74 ( The mayor was elected for \ 3 years under act of 1868. James Blackmore William C. McCarthy. . . . 1875-77 Robert Liddell 1878-80 Robert W. Lyon: 1881-83 Andrew Fulton 1884-86 William McCallum 1887-89 H. L Gourley 1890-92 Bernard McKenna 1893-96 Pittsbnrg Landings, or iShiloh, Battle of. Shortly after the capture of fort Donelson, gen. Grant moved his army to Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee river, about 8 miles above Savannah, and 20 miles from Corinth, Miss. This position was occupied during the latter part of Mch.l8G2. The army, numbering about 40,000 men, was in 6 divisions, viz., Sherman's, nurlbut's,W. H. L. Wallace's, McClernand's, Pren- tis's, and Lew. Wallace's ; the latter, however, being at Crump's Landing, some 6 or 7 miles below. The confederates also con- centrated at Corinth, with Albert Sidney Johnston in chief command, and Beauregard as second, with 4 corps commanders, Polk, Bragg, Hardee, and Breckinridge ; in numbers the army fully equalled the federals. On 1 Apr. 1862, both were ex- pecting reinforcements. Grant expected Buell with about 40,000 men, and Johnston expected Van Dorn with 30,000. Johnston, however, concluding to attack Grant before joined by Buell, moved his army out from Corinth on the morning of the 3d, but, owing to the heavy rains of the 4th, he could not attack until early dawn of Sunday the 6th, when, by per- sistent and continuous fighting, he succeeded in forcing the federals back during the day from the vicinity of Shiloh church nearly to the river, over 3 miles. At the clo.se of the day's fighting Nelson's division of Buell's command arrived in part (Ammen's brigade) on the battlefield, and helped re- pulse the last charge of the victorious confederates. The day's fighting was favorable to them, although Johnston fell about 2 P.M. while leading a charge. The battle of the 7th was opened at early light by Buell on the left, who had rein- forced Grant during the night to the extent of 20,000 men. He was further strengthened by the addition of Lew\ Wal- lace's division, whose absence from the field the preceding day was owing to a misunderstanding of orders; this brought the J'edecal forces up to about their original numbers. But while the confederates were thus outnumbered, their success of the previous day had so emboldened them that the battle of the 7th was quite as severe as that of the 6th ; in fact, it was not until nearly noon that the Federal successes warranted them any assurance of victory. As early as 2 p.m. Beauregard, now in command, ordered a retreat, having already sent back his trains towards Corinth, and by 4 o'clock had enveloped his retiring columns with his rearguards, and the second day's battle ended without pursuit by the federals. The losses in this battle, the most severe that had as yet occurred, were : Confederates, killed, 1728; woiuided, 8012; prisoners, 959; total, 10,699. Federals, killed, 1735; wounded, 7882 ; prison- ers, 3956 ; total, 13,573. Cokinth. piturine, a new narcotic, said to have been discovered in 1882 in Australia. It resembles a mixture of opium and tobacco. It is extracted from the dried leaves of the Duboisia pituri. Placen'tia, now Piaceii'za, a city of N. Italy, founded by the Romans about 220 b.c. It suffered in all the convulsions attending the fall of the empire and the wars of the middle ages. In 1254 it fell under the rule of the family of the Scotti. In 1302 Alberto Scottowas overcome, and Placentia was united to Milan, then ruled by the Visconti. On their extinc- tion in 1447, Placentia revolted, but was taken by Sforza, duke of Milan, and treated very cruelly. In 1513 it was given to pope Leo X. In 1545, Paul III. gave it with Parma as a duchy to his son Peter Louis Farnese. The French and Spaniards were defeated by the Austrians and Sardinians near Placentia, 16 June, 1746. ' Parma. Placiria, Chili. The site of the decisive victory of the Congressists over pres. Balmaceda,,28 Aug. 1891. plague (Gr. TrXrjyri, a blow), a malignant fever of the most aggravated kind. The plagues of Egypt (1491 b.c,) are described in Exod. ix., etc. The first recorded plague general in all parts of the world occurred 767 b.c. — Petavius. At Car- thage a plague was so terrible that people sacrificed their chil- dren to appease the gods, 534 B.c.—Baromu3. At Rome a desolating plague prevailed, 453 b.c. The devastating plague at Athens, which spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, 430 B.C., is admirably described by Thucydides. Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, destroyed 2000 per- sons every day, 187 b.c— Pliny. Cattle. In Italy a most awful plague; 10,000 persons perished daily, 80 a.d. Again ravaged the Roman empire, 167, 169, 189. Another in the Roman empire. For some time 500 persons died daily at Rome, many towns depopulated, 250-65. It has been as- sumed that this plague was the small-pox or the bubo-plague. In Britain, a plague swept away such multitudes that the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead, 446. Long-continued dreadful one began in Europe in 558, extending all over Asia and Africa. PLA 639 At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its inhabitants perished, and in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece, 746-49. In London, 962. At Chichester, in England, an epidemic disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772. — Will. Malmes. In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished, 954. In London, great mortality, 1094; in Ireland, 1095. Again in Loudon; it extended to cattle, fowl, and other domestic animals, 1111. — Holinshed. In Ireland; after Christmas this year, Henry II. was forced to quit the country, 1172. Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number perished, 1204. *' Black Death" in Italy and throughout Europe, 1347-50. Britain and Ireland suffered grievously. In London alone 200 persons were buried daily in the Charter-house yards, 1348-49. (That at Florence described by Boccaccio.) This was probably the worst epidemic ever visited on man; it is estimated that in Asia 23,- 000,000 perished by it, and 25,000,000 in Europe, In London and Paris a dreadful mortality prevailed in 136i-62, 1367, 1369, and in Ireland in 1370. Great pestilence in Ireland, called the Fourth, destroyed a great number of the people, 1383. 30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pestilence in London, 1407. Again in Ireland, superinduced by a famine; great numbers died, 1466; and Dublin was wasted by a plague, 1470. An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471; and throughout England; de- stroyed more people than the continual wars for the 15 preceding years, 1478. — liapin ; Salmon. Sudor Anglicus, or sweating sickness, very fatal in London, J485. — Delaune. Plague in London so dreadful that Henry VII. and his court re- moved to Calais, 1499-1500.— Stotw. Sweating sickness (mortal in 3 hours) in London, 1506, and in 1517. In most of the capital towns in England half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 Henry YlU.—Stow. Limerick was visited by a plague; many thousands perished, 1522. Sweating sickness again in England, 1528; and in North Germany in 1529; and for the fifth time in England in 155L 50,578 persons perished of the plague in London alone, 1603-4. It was also fatal in Ireland. 200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantinople in 1611. In London, great mortality, 35,417 persons perished, 1625. In Italy, 1630: in Florence, 12,000 died; in xVIantua, 25,000; in Bo- logna, 30,000; in Milan, 180,000. In Milan the barber Mord and the health commissioner Piazza, convicted of rubbing "plague salve" upon house walls, after all kinds of tortures had their hands cut off, were broken on the wheel, and then burned.— Baas, "Hist, of Medicine." In France a general mortality; at Lyons, 60,000 persons died, 1632. Plague brought from Sardinia to Naples (by a transport with soldiers on board) carried off 400,000 of the inhabitants in 6 months, 1656. ■Great plague of London began Dec. 1664, which carried off 68,596 persons; some say 100,000. Fires were kept up night and day to purify the air for 3 days; and it was thought the infection was not totally destroyed till the great conflagration of Sept. 1666. [Graphically described by De Foe in his partly imaginative "History of the Plague. "] ■60,000 persons perished of the plague at Marseilles and neighbor- hood, brought in ship from the Levant, 1720. Awful plague in Syria, 1760. — Abbe Mariti. In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 80,000 of the inhab- itants of Bassora, 1773. In Egypt, about 800,000 oersons died of plague, 1792. In Barbary, 3000 died daily, and at Fez 247,000 perished, 1799 ; in the east, 1800, 1840, 1873 ; many deaths in Bagdad, etc., Apr.-May, 1876. In Spain and at Gibraltar immense numbers were carried off by a pestilent disease in 1804 and 1805. Again at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever much resembling the plague caused great mortality, 1828. Asiatic cholera made its first appearance in England at Sunderland, 26 Oct. 1831; in Scotland, at Haddington, 23 Dec. same year; in Ireland, at Belfast, 14 Mch. 1832, and in the U. S. the same year. Cholera again visited England, etc., 1848 and 1849. Gholera raged at Smyrna and Constantinople, and appeared in Paris, Marseilles, Naples, July-Dec. 1865. Great cattle-plague in England, resembling typhus, near London, be- gins June, 1865. New disease appeared in Dublin; many persons died a few hours after the seizure, Mch. et seq. 1866. Plague in Astrakhan, Jan. -Apr. 1879. Cholera, Yellow-fever, etc. The statistics here given are not exaggerated, but rather under- estimated. The plagues and pestilences both of antiquity, me- diaeval, and later times arose from various causes: (1) Ignorance of the laws of health; (2) restless migrations of the people; (3) insecurity of property, giving rise to idleness and imperfect cul- tivation of the land, and the consequent failure of crops; (4) total lack of commercial facilities to supply the wants of any destitute ■community— the first post-road in Europe being opened in 1497; <5) uncleanliness; (6) improper food; (7) want of proper and suf- ficient clothing; (8) dense crowding in the very circumscribed areas of the walled towns; (9) their total lack of drainage, un- paved and filthy streets poisoning the water of the wells, etc. ; (10) gross and barbarous immorality; (11) constant wars and dis- j putes, with religious fanaticism, tended to keep up an over-tension of the mind, giving rise to manias, etc. ; (12) want of sympathy ' for the sick and diseased. [ planeta'riuilli, an astronomical machine representing the motion and orbits of the planets. David Rittenhouse, the eminent mechanic and mathematician of Philadelphia, Pa., PLA constructed a planetarium in 1768 which has elicited the high- est praise. It was superior to anything that had been pre- viously constructed, and was purchased by the college of New- Jersey, at Princeton, where it remains. Upon it is this in- scription : " Invented hy David Rittenhouse, a.d. 1768 ; repaired and extended by Henry Voight, 1806; both of Philadelphia." It is said that when Cornwallis took possession of Princeton, after Washington left it on the morning of 3 Jan. 1777, he in- tended to carry off this planetarium and send it as a trophy to England ; but the Americans kept him too busy to allow him to plunder. Orrery. planets, celestial bodies which revolve about the sua in a fixed orbit with a moderated degree of eccentricity. We now know 9 primary planets, termed major — Mercury, Ve- nus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Nep- tune, and Vulcan (doubtful), and 384 (1893) secondary or minor planets, termed asteroids, situated between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The first 4 were discovered as follows, viz. : Ceres, discovered by Piazzi (visible to the naked eye). . .1 Jan. 1801 Pallas, discovered at Bremen by Olbers 28 Mch. 1802 Juno, discovered by Harding 1 Sept. 1804 Vesta, by Olbers 29 Mch. 1807 The fifth, Astrcea, by K. C. Hencke, 8 Dec. 1845, since which time many others have been discovered. So far as known, Pallas, with a diameter of 600 miles, is the largest of them. planim'eter, a machine for measuring the area of any figure by the passage of ^ tracer round about its perimeter. Amsler's planimcter (in use for several years) was described at the British Association meeting at Brighton, Aug. 1872. planing'-machillC, a machine for trimming up and facing wood, and iron also. One for wood was constructed by Bramah, about 1802, and one for iron by Joseph Clement, 1825. Plailtag''enet, House of, to which belonged 14 Eng- lish kings, from Henry II., 1154, to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth, 1485. Fulke Martel, earl of Anjou, hav- ing contrived the death of his nephew, the earl of Brittany, in order to succeed to the earldom, his confessor sent him, in atonement for the murder, to Jerusalem, attended by only 2 servants, one of whom was to lead him by a halter to the Holy Sepulchre, the other to strip and whip him there, like a com- mon malefactor. Broom, in French genet, in Latin genista, being the only tofigh, pliant shrub in Palestine, the noble criminal was smartly scourged with it, and from this instru- ment of his chastisement he was called Planta-genista, or Plantagenet. Other accounts are given. — Skinner and Meze- ray. England, Kino. plantations, charters granted to. Rhode Island, 1643-63. Plas'sey, formerly a village of Bengal, India, the site of a battle fought between the British nnder Clive and the Hin- dus under Surajah Dowlah, 23 June, 1757. The nabob, al- though at the head of about 68,000 men, was vanquished by 1000 British and about 2000 sepoys. The victory laid the foundation of the British empire of India. The village and fortifications have been destroyed by the river Hoogly. India. plaster of Paris, Gypsum, sulphate of lime, used for moulds, statuary, etc., first found at Montmartre, near Paris, whence its name. The method of taking likenesses by its use was first discovered by Andrea del Verrochio, about 1466. Platse'a, a ruined city of Boeotia, N. Greece, site of the battle between Mardonius, commander of the army of Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commander of the Lacedaemonians and Athenians, 22 Sept. 479 b.o. ; the same day as the battle of Mycale. Of 300,000 Persians, scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. "There had the Persian thousands stood, There had the glad earth drunk their blood. On old Platsea's day." —HallecJc, "Marco Bozzaris." The Grecian army, about 110,000, lost but few men. The Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were henceforth deliv- ered from the fear of Persian invasions. Plataea, as an ally of Athens, was destroyed by the Thebans, 372, and rebuilt by Philip II. after his victory at Chaeronea, 338. plat'inuin, the heaviest of all the metals except irid- ium. The name originated with the Spaniards on account of its silvery color ; plata signifying silver. It was found in the auriferous sand of the river Pinto, in South America, PLA 640 and was unknown in Europe until 1741, when don Antonio Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru. — Greig. In its ore have been found the metals pal- ladium, rhodium, osmium, iridium, and ruthenium. Elk- MENTS. In 1859, M. U. Ste.-Claire Deville made known a new method of obtaining platinum from its ore, in great abundance and purity; and at the international exhibition of 1862 was shown a mass worth 3840/., weighing 266^ lbs., of a metal hitherto considered infusible, obtained by his process, employ- ing the oxy-hydrogen flame. Dodd's process for coating iron with platinum to prevent rust, shown at Johnson & Matthey's, London, 11 Jan. 1879. PlatOll'ie pliilO§ophy, the most popular of all systems. Plato's dialogues have been termed "Philosophy backed by example." He was a disciple of Socrates, 409 b.c., and died 347. The leading feature of his mind was compre- hensiveness. Philosophy. Platonic year, the period of time which the equi- noxes take to finish their revolution, at the end of which the stars and constellations have the same place with regard to the equinoxes that they had at first. Tycho Brahe says that this year or period requires 25,816 common years to complete it; Ricciolus computes it at 25,920; and Cassini at 24,800; at the end of which time some imagined that there would be a total and natural renovation of the whole creation. Equinox. Platt§burg^. United States, 1814. play§. Drama, Shakespeare, Theatres. pleading^S. Clothaire held a kind of movable parlia- ment called jo/aaVa, whence came the word pleas, 616 a.d. — Henault. In the early courts of judicature in England, plead- ings were made in the Saxon language in 786 ; and in Nor- man-French from the period of the Conquest in 1066 until 1362. Pleadings were ordered to be in English by 36 Ed- ward III. 1362, and Cromwell extended the rule to all legal proceedings, 1650. In English law the proceedings are the mutual statements of the plaintiff's cause of action and the defendant's ground of defence. Pleasant Orove and Pleasant Hill, Battles of. Red River campaign. plebe'ian§, plebes, the citizens of Rome, as distin- guished from the patricians. Rome, 494-366 b.c. plebi§ci'tum, a term given to a law passed by the comiiia tributa, an assembly of the Roman people in their tribes, first established in 491 b.c. The term has been re- cently revived in France and Italy, and applied to universal suffrage. Ple'iades, a notable group of stars in the constellation Taurii, commonly known as the " 7 stars," although but 6 are visible to the naked eye, viz. : Alcyon of the third magnitude ; Electra and Atlas of the fourth, and Merope, Maia, and Tay- gete of the fifth. The name is possibly derived from the Gr. Trkelv, to navigate (mentioned in Job xxxviii. 31). Accord- ing to recent calculation the sun is moving towards a point in the constellation Hercules, and possibly the movement is or- bital, the centre of which is the Pleiades. "Many a night I saw the Pleiads, rising thro' the mellow shade, Glitter like a swarm of fire-flies, tangled in a silver braid." — yennyson, " Locksley Hall." plethys'niograpll, an apparatus for detecting the state of the mind by observing the relations of the circulation of the blood from the heart to the brain ; invented bv M. Mos- sol of Turin, 1882. Plevna, Bulgaria. Russo-Turkish wars, 1877. plots. Conspiracies, Rebellions. plough. "Thou shalt not plough with an ox and an «ss together" (Deut. xxii. 10 ; 1451 b.c.). The Roman plough is minutely described by Virgil, about 31 b.c. Engines to plough grounds, whether inland or upland, were patented by David Ramsay and Thomas Wildgoose, Engl., in 1618. Agri- culture in the United States, Steam-ploughs. plum. Flowers and Plants. Formerly damsons, apricots, and peaches went by this name, as raisins do to this day. plural number. We. POL plus (+) and minus ( — ). Prof. De Morgan attributes these signs to either Christopher Rudolf, who published a book on algebra about 1522, or Michael Stiielius, about 1544. Plymouth. Massachusetts, 1620, etc. Plymouth Brethren. A sect calling themselves simplj' " Brethren," and also known as Darbyites, from one of their founders, John W. Darby. They originated in Dub- lin, Plymouth, and Bristol, Engl., about 1829. They receive into communion all who confess Christ, and acknowledge the Holy Ghost as his vicar. They recognize no order of minis- ters. In 1838 Darby removed to Switzerland, from whence the society spread into France and Italy. It also has a con- siderable following in the United States. Their strength can- not be satisfactorily estimated, since they have no formal or- ganization. pneumatics {nu-mat'iks), the science which treats of the mechanical properties of air and gases. Air, Atmospiirr. IC RAILWAYS. Poeahon'tas. Virginia, 1607, '12, '13, '16. podesta (from potestas, power), an Italian governor, afterwards a judge; one with supreme authority was appoint- ed aC Milan by the emperor Frederick I., when he took the city in 1158. poet-laureate. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office. Warton, in his "History of English Poetry," states that in the reign of Henry TIL there was a Versificator Regis, to whom an annual stipend was first paid of 100s. Chaucer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title of poet-laure- ate; and in the twelfth year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. In the reign of Edward IV., John Kay was laureate; Andrew Ber- nard was laureate, temp. Henry VII. ; and John Skelton, temp. Henry VIII. James I., in 1615, granted to his laureate a yearly pension of 100 marks; and in 1630 this stipend was augmented by letters-patent of Charles I. to 1001. per annum, with an additional grant of 1 tierce of Canary Spanish wine to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. It is believed that on Southey's appointment the tierce of Canary wine was commuted for 211. Laurence Eusden commenced a series of Birthday and New-year's Odes, which continued till the death of Pye, in 1813. On the death of Warton, its abolition was recommended by Gibbon, whose elegant compliment on the occasion still more forcibly ap- plied on Wordsworth's death, in 1850: "This is the best time for not filling up the office, when the prince is a man of virtue, and the poet just departed was a man of genius." poets-laureate. Edmund Spenser, d. 1599. Samuel Daniel, d. 1619. Ben Jonson (b. 1574), d. 1637. Sir William Davenant, 1637; d. 1668. John Dryden, 1670; deposed at the revolution, 1688. Thomas Shadwell, 1688 ; d. 1692. NahumTate, 1692; d. 1715. Nicholas Rowe, d. 1718. Rev. Laurence Eusden, 1718; d. 1730. CoUey Gibber, 1730; d. 1757. William Whitehead (on the refusal of Gray), 1757; d. 1785. Rev. dr. Thomas Warton (on the refusal of Mason), 1785; d. 1790. Henry James Pye, 1790; d. 1813. Dr. Robert Sou they (on the refusal of Scott), 1813; d. 21 Mch. 1843.J William Wordsworth, 1843 ; d. 23 Apr. 1850. Alfred Tennyson (b. 1809), installed 1850; d. 6 Oct. 1892. The office is now vacant, 1895. poetry. Technically, composition in verse ; but " po try is the blossom and the fragrance of all human knowledg human thoughts, human passions, emotions, and language.' Coleridge. The song of Moses on the deliverance of the Israe^ ites, and their passage through the Red sea, 1491 b.c. (Exc XV.), is the most ancient poetry extant. Orpheus of Thrace is deemed the inventor of poetry (at least in the western par of the world) about 1397 B.C. Ballads, Comedy, Epic poems Hymns, Literature, Odes, Satire, Sonnets, Tragedy, and Verse. Poictiers (pwa-te-a'), a town of W. France, near which was fought the battle between Edward the Blackl Prince, and John, king of France, in which the English arms| triumphed, 19 Sept. 1356. The standard of France was over-j thrown, many of her nobility slain, and her king was takei prisoner, and brought to London. Prisoners, Tours,| VouGLi^. Point Pleasant, Battle of. Virginia, 1774. Poland, N. E. Europe, part of ancient Sarmatia. It POL 641 POL said to have become a duchy under Lechus or Lesko I., 550 ; and a kingdom under Boleslas, about 992; the natives be- long to the great Slavonic family. The word Pole is not older than the 10th century. This kingdom in its best days embraced a territory of about 284,000 sq. miles, and extended 713 miles north and south and 693 east and west. Its de- struction as a separate nationality and the absorption of its territory by Austria, Prussia, and Russia, commencing in 1772 (when it embraced an area of about 282,000 sq. miles, with a population of not far from 12,000,000) and finished in 1795, could not have been accomplished without the aid of Poland herself, and while sympathy is aroused at the needless de- struction of a nation, still it was due.(l) to the inveterate jealousy and feuds of the Polish nobility among themselves-, "(2) the absence of a middle or national class, which the nobles made impossible ; (3) the intolerance of the Jesuitical Romish party ; (4) total incapacity of its later rulers ; (5) no natural frontier boundaries. Its history as a nation ceased 1795 with Stanislas II. Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the ducal dignity about 842 [Piastus is said to have lived to the age of 120, reigning so prosperously that succeeding native sovereigns were called Piasts.] Introduction of Christianity about 992 Boleslas II. murders St. Stanislas, the bishop of Cracow, with his own hands, 1079; his kingdom laid under an interdict by the pope, and his subjects absolved of their allegiance 1080 He flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is refused it by order of Greg- ory VII., and at length kills himself or dies in a monastery.. 1081 Tartar invasion 1241 Premislas assassinated 1296 Louis of Hungary elected king 1370 Ladislas VI. defeated and slain by the Turks 1444 War against the Teutonic knights 1410, 1447 Wallachian invaders carry off 100,000 Poles, and sell them to the Turks as slaves 1498 Wallachians defeated 1531 Splendid reign of Sigismund II 1548 Lithuania incorporated with Poland 1569 Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, on whom he bestows the Ukraine 1575 Poland conquered by the Swedes 1655 Recovered its independence 1660 Abdication of John Casimir 1668 Victories of John Sobieski over the Turks at Vienna 1683 Many Protestants killed after an aflfray at Thorn 1724 Stanislas abolishes torture 1770 Awful pestilence destroys 250,000 persons " Civil war so weakened the kingdom that it fell an easy prey to Russia, Austria, and Prussia 1772 First partition convention, secret between Russia and Prussia, 17 Feb. " , Public partition treaty between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, 5 j Aug. ; acted on 18 Sept. " I [In this partition Russia obtains 42,000 sq. miles; Prussia, I 13,500; and Austria, 27,000.] i Kosciusko joins American army (and serves throughout the ; Revolution) 1776 ; New constitution granted by the king 3 May, 1791 : Russians, etc. , on various pretexts enter Poland 1792 j Second partition treaty signed between Russia and Prussia 1793 [At this time Russia takes 96,000 sq. miles and Prussia I 22,000.] Insurrection under Kosciusko Mch. 1794 After many successes he is defeated by the Russians at Macie- ; jovice and taken prisoner 10 Oct. " Praga sacked and Warsaw taken by Suwarrow Nov. ' ' 1 Courland is annexed to Russia 1795 ; Stanislas resigns his crown at Grodno ; third and final par- ; tition of the kingdom 25 Nov. " '; [Russia takes 43,000 sq. miles: Prussia, 21,000; and Aus- ; tria, 18,000.] I Kosciusko set at liberty by emperor Paul 25 Dec. 1796 jHe arrives in London 30 May, 1797 fPoles enter the French army and greatly help France to gain i her victories 1797 et seq. Stiinislas dies at St. Petersburg 12 Feb. 1798 Napoleon I. enters Warsaw; his army wintered in Poland. . .1806-7 Poles neglected by the treaty of Tilsit 7 July, 1807 General diet at Warsaw June, 1812 Central provinces (the duchy at Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813) made the kingdom of Poland under Alexander of Rus- sia 30 Apr. 1815 New constitution granted, Cracow a free republic 27 Nov. " Kosciusko dies in Switzerland, aged 81 16 Oct. 1817 Polish diet opened Sept. 1820 A revolution at Warsaw; the army declare in favor of the peo- ^.Ple 29 Nov. 1830 >iet declares the throne vacant 25 Jan. 1831 Battle of Grochow, near Praga; the Russians lose 7000 men; the Poles, who keep the field, 2000 19, 20 Feb. " •Jattle of Wawz 31 Mch. " ■nsurrection in Wilna and Volhynia 3 Apr. " Russians defeated at Zelicho, 6 Apr. ; Seidlece, 10 Apr. ; at Os- trolenka 26 May, " 21 Russian general Diebitsch d 10 June, 1831 Battle of Wilna; Poles defeated 19 June, " Grand-duke Constautine d 27 June, " Battle of Minsk 14 July, " Warsaw taken by Russians 8 Sept. " Insurrection suppressed 5 Oct. " Ukase by the emperor Nicholas, the kingdom of Poland hence- forth an integral part of the Russian empire 26 Feb. 1832 Attempted revolution in Austrian Poland 22-27 Feb. 1846 Courts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia revoke the treaty of 1815, which constituted Cracow a free republic, and it is de- clared Austrian territory 16 Nov. " [This annexation was protested against by England, France, Sweden, and Turkey.] Kingdom of Poland declared a Russian province May, 1847 [From this time up to 1868 several attempts were made by the Poles to achieve their independence without success.] Poland designated the "Vistula province" in a ukase Jan. 1868 Its separate internal government abolished, and complete union with the empire effected 29 Feb. " Distinct financial departments of Poland abolished Apr. " Polish language interdicted in public places July, " Polish language prohibited in courts of law and public offices in Russian Poland June, 1876 About 35,000 Poles expelled from Prussia Oct. -Nov. 1885 Movement for denationalizing Poland Feb. 1886 Centenary of the Polish constitution of 1791 celebrated in Aus- trian Poland 3 May, 1891 Emperor William of Germany appoints a Polish archbishop of Posen, 1891, and otherwise "favors the Poles 1892 Cracow, Russia, Warsaw. dukes and kings of poland. 842. Piastus, duke. 861. Ziemovitus, his son. 892. Lesko or Leskus IV, 913. Ziemomishis, son of Lesko. 964. Miecislas I. becomes Christian. 992. Boleslas I., surnamed the Lion-hearted; obtained the title of king from the emperor Otho III. Miecislas IL 1034. Richense or Richsa, his consort, regent; driven from the gov- ernment. 1037. [Anarchy.] 1041. Casimir I., her son, surnamed the Pacific; he had retired to a monastery, but was invited to the throne. 1058. Boleslas XL, styled the Intrepid. 1081. Ladislas I., called the Careless. ' • 1102. Boleslas III., surnamed Wry-mouth. 1138. Ladislas, son of the preceding. 1146. Boleslas IV., the Curled. 1173. Miecislas III., the Old; deposed. 1177. Casimir IL, surnamed the Just. 1194. Lesko v., the White; abdicated. 1200. Miecislas III. ; restored. 1202. Ladislas III. ; retired. 1206. Lesko V. ; restored ; assassinated ; succeeded by his son, an infant. 1227. Boleslas V., surnamed the Chaste. 1279. Lesko VI., surnamed the Black, 1289. [Horrid anarchy.] 1295. Premislas, styled king of Poland, governs wisely ; assassinated. 1296. Ladislas I. (IV.), the Short; deposed. 1300. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, abandons Poland. 1304. Ladislas IV., the Short. 1333. Casimir III., the Great; encourages the arts and amends the law; killed by a fall from his horse. 1370. Louis, king of Hungary. 1382. Maria; and 1384 Hedwige (daughters of Louis), and her con- sort, .Jagello, duke of Lithuania, by the style of Ladislas V. 1399. Ladislas II. (V), alone; annexed Lithuania. 1434. Ladislas III. (VI,), son ; succeeded as king of Hungary, 1440. 1445. [Interregnum.] " Casimir IV. 1492. John (Albert) I., son. 1501. Alexander, prince of Livonia, his brother. 1506. Sigismund I., brother; obtained the surname of the Great. 1548. Sigismund IL, Augustus, son (last of the Jagellon dynasty); a splendid reign; added Livonia to his kingdom; d. 1572. Interregnum. ELECTED MONARCHS. 1573. Henry de Valois, dukeof Anjou, brother to the king of France; he afterwards succeeded to the French throne. 1575. Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania; established the Cos- sacks as a militia. 1586. [Interregnum.] 1587. Sigismund III., son of the king of Sweden, to the exclusion of Maximilian of Austria, elected by the nobles. 1632. Ladislas IV. (VII.), Vasa, son of Sigismund III. ; succeeded by his brother. 1648. John II. , or Casimir V. ; abdicated 1668, and retired to France, where he died a monk in 1672. 1668. [Interregnum.] 1669. Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski ; in this reign the Cossacks join the Turks and ravage Poland. 1674. John III., Sobieski; the last independent king; illustrious for victories over the Cossacks, Turks, and Tartars. 1697. [Interregnum.] " Frederick Augustus I., son of John George, elector of Saxony, and elector in 1694; deprived of his crown. POL 642 POL 17M. Stanislas I. (liOzinskij; forced to retire from his Icingdom iu 1709. 1709. Frederick Augustus I. again. 1733. Frederick Augustus II., sou of the preceding sovereign. 1763. [Interregnum.] 1764. Stanislas II. Augustus Poniatowski, resigned his sovereignty, 23 Nov. 1795; d. at Petersburg, a state prisoner, 12 Feb. 1798. polltr clock, an optical apparatus invented by prof. Wheatstone (about 1849), whereby the hour of the day is found by means of the polarization of light. polar regioiii. Northkast and Northwkst PASSAGES, South vo\m. polariza'ti<»ii of llg^ht. Onics. pole-star, or polar §lar, Pola'ris, a star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the constellation "Ursa Minor," or "Little Bear." 2 other stars in this con- stellation are known as the " Guardians of the Pole." 2 stars {Duhhe and Merak) in the constellation "Ursa Major," or " Great Bear," are called pointers to the pole-star. The discov- ery of the pole-star is ascribed by the Chinese to their emperor Hong-ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned and flourished 1970 b.c. — Univ. Hist. Equinox, Stars. police. The police system, being almost entirely mu- nicipal in its character, has gradually developed with the growth of cities. In London, Engl., a night-watch was ap- pointed in 1253 to proclaim the hour with a bell before the introduction of clocks. The old watch system was discon- tinued, and a new police on duty day and night commenced 29 Sept. 1829. In 1881 the maintenance of police in London cost $5,200,000 ; Paris, $1,160,000 ; Vienna, $1,900,000. In the United States there were 24 cities in 1890 whose annual ex- penditure for their police department exceeded $100,000, viz. : City. New York, N. Y. . . Philadelphia, Pa... Chicago, 111 Brooklyn, N. Y... Boston, Mass Baltimore, Md St Louis, Mo Cincinnati, O Washington, D. C. . San Francisco, Cal. Detroit, Mich Buffalo, N. Y Cleveland, O Pittsburg, Pa New Orleans. La. . . Providence, R. I. . . Newark, N. J Louisville, Ky Minneapolis, Minn. Milwaukee, Wis. . . Savannah, Ga Columbus, New Haven, Conn. Atlanta, Ga 0. police. Annual cost. 3421 $4,391,766 1717 1,000,000 1625 979,894 1157 859,184 916 963,355 782 677,914 613 475,408 433 330,000 408 399,060 406 545,500 368 222,509 342 297,994 319 250,000 308 339,899 266 170,000 218 274,000 214 170,000 213 180,000 199 151,337 196 122,488 125 100,000 114 120,072 112 102,481 106 108,918 political economy, the science of improving the condition of mankind, and promoting civilization, wealth, and happiness. It began with Adam Smith's "Wealth of Na- tions," 1776. The principal writers on this subject have been Malthus, Lauderdale, Ricardo, Mill, McCulloch, and Fawcett, English; Say and Sismondi, French; with Carey, Perry, Walker, Sumner, Thompson, Americans. A professorship of political economy was established at Oxford by Henry Drum- mond, M.P., 1825 ; and at Cambridge, first by G. Pryme, in 1828, but regularly established by the university in 1863, Henry Fawcett (blind) being the first professor. Archbishop Whately endowed a professorship at Trinity college, Dublin, Isaac Butt first professor 1832 R. H. Inglis Palgrave's " Dictionary of Political Economy," pub. 1891 Imaginary systems: Plato's "Republic;" Sir Thomas More's "Uto- pia," 1548 ; Sir Philip Sidney's "Arcadia," 1590; James Harring- ton's " Oceana," 1656; E. Bellamy's "Looking Backward," 1888; Wm. Morris's "News from Nowhere," 1891. political partie§ in the United States. Before the Revolution the 2 political parties in America were the Whigs and Tories. The latter favored royalty, and the former, including Sons of Liberty, Liberty Men, and Patriots, advo- cated independence. At the close of the Revolution the Whig party divided into Particularists, favoring state sovereignty and advocating confederation ; and Strong Government, favor- ing a constitution. In 1787 the Particularists became Ant Federalists and the Strong Government party Federalist Since this, the historj' of the various political parties in tl U. S. has been as follows : PRINCIPAL PARTIES. Federal, 1787-1816.— Formed from the Strong Government or Coi stitutional party. Elected 2 presidents: Washington, 2 term and Adams, 1 term. Advocated a tarifl'; internal revenue; fundii the public debt; a U. S. bank; a militia; assumption of state del by the government; favored England as against France; oppos< a war with England and a protective tariff. Washington, iol Adams, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were among its princlp supporters. ^ Demoa-atic- Republican, 1793-1828.— Formed from the Antl-Feder (1787-93), the Republican or Jeffersonian party (1791-93), and Den ocrats or sympathizers with the French revolutionists (1791-93 Elected 3 presidents: Jefferson, 2 terms; Madison, 2 terms; Moi roe, 2 terms. Favored state-rights; enlarged freedom; France i against England; war with England; internal improvement; pu chase of Louisiana; purchase of Florida; Missouri compromii 1820; Monroe doctrine; Free-trade in 1800 and a protective tart in 1828. Jefferson its founder and leader. Democratic, 1828.— The Democratic- Republican party divided into parts in the presidential camjjaign of 1824 and never reappear< again in a national contest. The Democratic (and Whig) pai was constructed out of its ruins. Has elected 6 presidents: Jacl son, 2 terms; Van Buren, Polk, Pierce, Buchanan, 1 term; Clev land, 2 terms. Favored internal improvements; state bank removal of deposits; sub-treasury; state rights; free-trade; tar for revenue only; annexation of Texas; Mexican war; compr mise of 1850; Monroe doctrine; Dred Scott decision; Fugitiv slave law ; acquisition of Cuba ; frugal public expense. posed agitation of the slavery question in any form or place; ercion of the seceded states; the amelioration of the condition the freed negroes; Freedman's bureau; Chinese immigratioi strong government; opposes in general the policy of the othi party in power. This party has had but one leader, Jackson. Wliig, 1834-54.— Formed from a union of the National Republics and disrupted Democratic-Republicans. Elected 2 presiden Harrison and Taylor. Favored non-extension of slavery; slavei agitation, i.e., right of petition and free circulation of auti-slavei documents; a U. S. bank; protective tariff; vigorous internal i provements; compromise of 1850. Opposed the Seminole w! annexation of Texas; Mexican war; state -rights; Democrat policy towards slavery. Principal leaders of this party, Webster and Clay United States, 1834-54. Republican, 1854.— Formed from other parties, principally from the Whig party, on the issues of the slavery question. Has elected 5 presidents: Lincoln, 2 terms; Grant, 2 terms; Hayes, Garfield, and Harrison, 1 term. Favored the suppression of slavery; sup- pression of the rebellion; all constitutional means to accomplish it, financial and otherwise; emancipation of slaves; prohibition of slavery throughout the U. S. ; full citizenship to the emanci- pated slaves; Monroe doctrine; full payment of the national debt; protective tariff; free ballot; generous pension legislation; de- cided increase of the navy and coast defence. Opposed the gen- eral policy of the Democrats. This party, while showing many able men, has never had a leader. It has maintained its national position through the principles it has advocated. Remark: Both the Democratic and Republican, as the chief parties, re(-ognize and assume to legislate on all questions of national importance, viz. r Civil-service reform; woman's suffrage; free ballot; justice to the laboring classes; private interests as against monopolies; the general finances of the country; temperance, etc. MINOR PARTIES. Anti-Federalist. — A continuation of the Particularists. See Demo- cratic-Republican above. Peace party, 1812-15. — Composed of Democratic-Republicans and Federalists, mostly in New England. Opposed the war of 1812. Hartford convention. Clintonians, 1812. — An offshoot of the Democratic-Republican party who opposed long terms of office, caucus nominations, a Virginia president, and an official regency. United with the Federalists. Nominated De Witt Clinton of New York for president. United States, Feb. 1813. PeopWs party, 1824. — An offshoot of the Democratic-Republicans in New York, who favored the choosing of electors by the people in- stead of state legislatures. Supported William H. Crawford for president. United States, 9 Nov. 1824-Feb. 1825. Coalition, 1825. — So called from the union of the supporters of Clay with those of John Q. Adams in the House, thus giving the presi- dency to Adams. United States, Nov. 1824 and Feb. 1825. Anti-Masonic, 1827-34.— Consisted of those who believed the mem- bers of the Masonic fraternity held their civil obligations subordi- nate to their fraternal, hence unworthy to hold office. Morgan; United States, 1830-31, Feb. 1833. National-Republican, 1828-34.— The broad construction wing of the Democratic-Republican party. For internal improvements, pro- tection, and a U. S. bank; for dividing proceeds of land sales among states. Opposed to the spoils system. United to form the Whig party, 1834. Supported John Q. Adams, 1828, and Henry Clay, 1832. United States. Nullification, 1%^1-m.— A South Carolina party organized by Cal- houn. South Carolina; United States, 1832. Liberty party, 1840-48.— Founded at a national convention of abO' 1 POL 643 POL litionists at Albany, N. Y., deriving additional strength from Whigs and Democrats. For the immediate abolition of slavery and equal rights. Against the fugitive-slave clause of the consti- tution. Nominated James G. Birney for president, 1839, and again in 1843. Withdrew their candidates and joined the Free-soil party in 1848. Free-soil parly, 1848-54.— Formed from the Liberty party, Demo- crats, and Whigs. Chief cause of its appearance, opposition to slavery. Merged into the Rej)ublican party. Nominated Martin Van Buren for president, 1848, and John P. Hale, 1852. United States. American, 1852-60.— Generally known as the " Know - Nothing p;irty." Formed from members of other parties dissatisfied with tlie influx and power of the foreign element. Favored more stringent naturalization laws; reserved rights of states. Opposed foreign immigration; suffrage and office-holding by foreign-born citizens; efforts to reject the Bible from the public schools, etc. Nouiinated Millard Fillmore for president in 1856. Merged into tlie Constitutional Union party in 1860. Know-nothings; United States, 1856. Douglas Democrats, I860.— Northern Democrats, supporters of Stephen A. Douglas in the disruption of the Democratic party in 1860. United States, 1860. Breckinridge Democrats, I860.— Southern Democrats, supporters of Breckinridge in 1860. United States, 1860. Constitutional Union party, I860.— Democrats, for the Union, the Constitution, and the enforcement of law; supporters of Bell and Everett United States, 1860. f Liberal Republicans, 1872.— Formed by dissatisfied Republicans, formerly mostly War Democrats. Favored greater leniency towards the confederates. Nominated Horace Greeley for presi- dent, 1872. United States. *^ Straight-out'' Democrats, 1872.— The "Tap-root" Democrats, displeased by the nomination of Greeley by the Regular Demo- crats, nominated Charles O'Conor for president; declined, but re- ceived about 30,000 popular votes. Temperance, 1872.— A national combination of local temperance or- ganizations, became Pro/a6i6 Rochester, N. Y St. Paul, Minn Kansas City, Mo Providence, R. I Denver, Col 1880 1890 27 28 Indianapolis, Ind Alleghany, Pa 105,436 105,287 population in general. ESTIMATED POPULATION OF THE WORLD. (IN MILLIONS.) Year. Author. World. Europe. America. Asia. Africa.! Australia. 1810 Gotha . 682 847 1009 1391 1483 180 214 245 301 347 21 40 50 85 112 380 481 620 798 822 99 109 90 203 197 2 18W Balbi 3 1845 1874 1886 Michelot Behm-Wagner. Levasseur 4 4 5 [Estimates vary widely; that of Wagner and Supan in the " Be- vOlkerung der Erde," for 1891, is 1,479,000,000— less than that of Levasseur in 1886.] TOTAL AND URBAN POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES FOR EACH DECADE SINCE 1790; WITH PER CENT. OF INCREASE, BALANCE OF SEXES, POPULATION TO EACH SQUARE MILE, AND THE CENTRE OF POPULATION. 1790 1800 1810 1820 Total population. Per cent, of in- crease. 1840 1850 23! 1860 31, 1870 38, 1880 50, 1890 '62, 929,214 308,483 239,881 633,822 866,020 069,453 191,876 443,321 558,371 155,783 622,250 35.11 36.40 33.06 33.55 32.67 35.86 35.58 22.63 30.08 24.85 "4^75 6.41 3.62 4.82 6.25 8.29 7.78 10.39 10.70 13.92 20.78 Sexes per 1000 population. 509 512 510 509 511 511 507 510 511 Urban population. 491 488 490 492 492 491 489 489 493 490 489 131,472 210,873 356,920 475,135 864,509 1,453,994 2,897,586 5,072,256 8,071,875 11,318,547 18,235,670 3.35 3.97 4.93 4.93 6.72 8.52 12.49 16.13 20.93 22.57 29.12 Centre of population. N. lat. 39° 16.5' 39° 16.1' 39° 1L5' 39° 5.7' 38° 57.9' 39° 2' 38" 59' 39° 0.4' 39° 12' 39° 4.r 39° 11.9' W. Ion. 76° 1L2 76° 56.5' 77° 37.2' 780 33' 79° 16.9' 80° 18' 81° 19' 820 48.8' 83° 35.7' 84039.7' 850 32.9' Location described. 23 miles E. of Baltimore, Md. 18 " W. of Baltimore, Md. 40 " N. W. by W. of Washington, D. C. 16 " N. of Woodstock, Va. 19 " W.S.W. of Moorefleld, W. Va. 16 " S. Of Clarksburg, W. Va. 23 " S.E. of Parkersburg, W. Va. 20 " S. ofChillicothe, 0. 48 " E. by N. of Cincinnati, 0. 8 " W. by S. of Cincinnati, 0. 20 " E. of Columbus, Ind. Westward movement. The population of the U. S. has increased largely bj' immi- fgration. The total number of immigrants from 1654 to 1701 was 134,000; from 1702 to 1800, 492,000; from 1801 to 1820, 178,000; from 1821 to 1890, about 15,426,000, making a grand total of 16,230,000. Im.migration. PKOPOHTION OF FOREIGN TO AMERICAN POPULATION IN THE U. S. IN EACH 1000 PERSONS BETWEEN 15 AND 60 YEARS. Nativity. 1830. 1840. I860. 1860. 1870. 1880. American 960. 40 928 72 866 134 821 179 807 193 817 (•'oreign 183 POPULATION OF ROMAN EMPIRE 14 B.C., ESTIMATED BY BODIE. Italy 6,000,000 Spain 6,000,000 Greece 3,000,000 Gaul 3,400,000 Other countries 4,600,000 Europe 23,000,000 Asia 19,500,000 Africa ..11,500,000 Total 54,000,000 POR POPULATION ANI> AREA OF ANCIENT CITIES (Dr. Beloch). 660 POR City. AlUeus Thebes Tyre Palermo — Alexandria . Rome DaU. PopuUtlon. Are.,acr«i. P^';"i^',^°» 360B.C. 335 B c. 332 B.C. 264 B.C. 60 B.C. 14 A. u. 150,000 50,000 40,000 27,000 600,000 900,000 146 600 186 115 100 210 230 218 306 DENSITY OF POPULATION IN NOTED CITIES (1881). City. PopulaUon. Acres. Population jwr Bcre. London 3,893,000 2,240,000 1.192,000 724,000 273,000 75,000 14,500 4,500 2,800 800 62 Paris 154 Berlin 264 Vienna .... 258 Rome 341 CITIES OF THE WOKLD HAVING A POPULATION OF 500,000 London 1891. Paris 1886. New York 1892. Canton.. . .(estimated). Berlin 1890. Tokio 1890. Vienna.... 1890. Chicago 1890. Philadelphia.... 1890. St. Petersburg... 1890. Constantinople. . .1885. AND .4,231,431 .2,344,550 .1,801,739 .1,600,000 .1,579,244 .1,389,684 .1,364,548 .1,099,850 .1,046,964 . 956,226 . 873,565 MORE. Calcutta 1891. Brooklyn 1890, Bombay 1891, Moscow 1885. Glasgow 1891. Buenos Ayres 1891. Naples 1890. Liverpool 1891. Buda-Pesth 1890. Manchester 1891. Pekin (estimated). .840,130 ,806,343 .804,470 .753,469 .565,714 .546,986 .530,872 .517,951 .506,384 .505,343 .500,000 GROWTH IN POPULATION OF EUROPEAN POWERS IN 310 YKAttS.—Mulhall. Country. 1580. 1680. 1780. 1880. 1890. France Austria Italy 14,300,000 16,500,000 10,400,000 8,150,000 4,600,000 18,800,000 14,000,000 11,500,000 9,200,000 5,532,000 25,100,000 37,400,000 20,200,000 37,830,000 12,800,000 28,910,000 9,960,000 16,290,000 9,561,000 35,004,000 38,800,000 40,100,000 30,300,000 17,600,000 38,200,000 Spain England. Prussia, in- 1 cludingl Germany 1,000,000 1,400,000 5,460,000 45,260,000 48,600,000 since 1871. Russia (Eu- ropean). . . 4,300,000 12,600,000 26,800,000 84,440,000 92,000,000 RATIO OF FORKIGNERS TO 1000 POPULATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. United States 133 Switzerland 74 Denmark 32 France 29 Belgium 26 Servia 21 Norway 20 Greece 19 Holland 17 Austria.. 16 Hungary 15 Germany 6 Great Britain 4 Sweden 4 Spain 3 Italy 2 INHABITANTS PER SQ. MILE IN THE FOLLOWING COUNTRIES IN 1820 AND 1890.— Mulhall. Country. 1820. 1890. Country. 1820. 1890. Austria 99 287 71 172 124 40 195 138 166 530 133 320 233 88 350 260 Norway 8 92 20 15 127 148 3 54 16 Belgium Portugal 136 Denmark Russia 42 28 Switzerland Engl. (United Kingd.) United States Europe 190 184 20 90 Holland Italy porcelain. Pottery. porpliyr4»g[en'itUS, "bom in the purple," a term applied to entiperors of the East born while their fathers were reigning. "Round about a throne where sitting (Porphyrogene) In state his glory well befitting. The ruler of the realm was seen." —Poe, "The Haunted Palace." Port €rib§OIl. Vicksburg campaign. Port Hudson, a post-village of Louisiana, on the Mississippi river, at the terminus of the Clinton and Port Hud- son railroad, 25 miles above Baton Kouge. This post, which began to be fortified by the confederates, Aug. 1862, lay within the limits of the department of the Gulf, of which raaj.-gen. N. P. Banks took command, 14 Dec. 1862. In Mch, 1863, Banks made a strong demonstration against it as a diversion in favor of adra. Farragut, who then ran the Port Hudson batteries. After a victorious campaign in Louisiana, in which gen. Rich- ard Taylor was driven to Shrevcport, leaving Alexandria an easy prey to Porter's fleet (6 May), Banks again moved against Port Hudson, then commanded by gen. Gardiner. On 25 ]\Iay Port Hudson was invested by Banks's army, 12,000 strong. An unsuccessful assault was made on the 27th, which involved a national loss of over 2000 men. A second assault (14 June) was also repulsed, but resulted in a nearer apjiroach to the Confederate lines. On the surrender of Vicksburg, Port Hud- son was also surrendered, 9 July, with over 6000 prisoners and 61 guns. Port Republic, Battle of. Peninsular campaign, Virginia. Port Royal, capital of the French colony Acadia, Nova Scotia. After having been taken and restored several times, it was finally acquired by the British in 1710, and named Annapolis. French in America. Port Royal expedition. This expedition (29 Oct.-7 Nov. 1861) was under the joint command of gen. Thomas West Sherman and com. Dupont. Tlie fleet con- sisted of 50 vessels. Fort Walker, on Hilton Head, S. C, and on the opposite side of Broad river fort Beauregard, were re- duced, 7 Nov. 43 guns were captured, and possession was taken of Hilton Head, which became, subsequently, an important centre of naval operations. Porte, or Sublime Porte, official name of the court of the sultan of Turkey. Mostasem, the last of the Ab- basside caliphs (1243-58), fixed in the threshold of the princi- pal entrance to his palace at Bagdad a piece of the black stone adored at Mecca, and thus this entrance became the " porte " by eminence, and the title of his court. The sul- tans, successors of the caliphs, assumed the title. — Bouillet. PorteoUS mob. Capt. Porteous, at Edinburgh, on 15 Apr. 1736, commanded the guard at the execution of Wilson, a smuggler, who had saved the life of a fellow-criminal by springing upon the soldiers around them, and by main force keeping them back while his companion fled. This excited great commiseration, and the spectators pelted the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, Porteous ordered his men to fire upon the mob, and 17 persons were killed or wounded. He was found guilty of murder, 22 June, 1736; but the queetl granted him a reprieve (the king being then in Hanover). The people, at night, broke open the prison, took out Por- teous, and hanged him on a dyer's signpost in the Grass- market, 7 Sept. 1736. None of the rioters were ever detected. Porter, maj.-gen. Fitz-John, Case of. Fitz-John Porter, in command of the 5th corps of the army of the Potomac, was with his corps temporarily attached to the army of Virginia. For conduct on the battle-field of Groveton (Pope's Vir- ginia campaign), maj.-gen. Pope formally preferred charges against him, and he was deprived of his command. At tlie request of maj.-gen. McClellan he was restored, and served throughout the Maryland campaign. In Nov. 1862, he was ordered to Washington for trial by court-martial, court con- sisting of maj.-gen. David Hunter, president, maj.-gen. Hitch- cock, brig.-gens. R. King, Prentiss, Ricketts, Casey, Garfield, Buford, Slough, and col. J. Holt, judge-ad.-gen., and after a trial of 45 days he was, on 21 Jan. 1863, found guilty and sentenced to be cashiered and to be forever disqualified from holding any office of trust or profit under the government. This sentence was approved by the president. In 1870 he appealed to the president for a reversal of this sentence. On 12 Apr. 1878, a military board, consisting of maj.-gens. Schofield, Terr}', and (Jetty, was appointed for a rehearing of the case. This board made a report, 19 Mch. 1879, exonerating Porter eiTtirely. They were unable to find anything in his conduct subject to criticism, much less deserving of censure or con- demnation, and recommended that the findings and sentence of the court-martial be set aside, and that Porter be restored to the powers of which the sentence deprived him. Pres. Arthur, on 4 May, 1882, remitted so much of the sentence of the court-martial remaining unexecuted as ' ' forever disquali- fied the said Porter from holding any office of trust or profit mider the government." A bill for the relief of Porter came up in tlie Senate, 28 Dec. 1882, and passed, 33 to 27, but the POR 651 POR consideration of the measure was strongly objected to in the House, 17 Jan. 1883. On 18 Jan. 1884, gen. Henry W. Slocum of New York brought a bill before the House for the relief of Porter, which passed by a vote of 184 to 77, 1 Feb., and in the Senate with some changes, 36 to 25, 13 Mch. The House and the Senate agreed, 18 June, and on 2 July it was returned with the president's veto. On 21 Dec. 1885, Wheeler of Ala- bama brought before the House another bill, which passed the House, 171 to 113, 19 Feb. 1886, and the Senate, 80 to 17, 25 June, and was approved by the president 1 July. This bill was as follows : " The president to nominate and by and with the consent of the Senate appoint Fitz-John Porter, late maj.- gen. of the U. S. volunteers and brevet brig.-gen. and col. in U. S. army, to same grade and rank held by him at the time of his dismissal from the army, promulgated 27 Jan. 1863, and at the discretion of the president to be placed on the retired list ; provided he receive no pay, compensation, or allowance whatsoever prior to his appointment under this act." Portland cement, so named from its resemblance to Portland stone, made from chalk and fine mud, now used extensively in the United States, is first mentioned in a patent granted to Joseph Aspden, a bricklayer of Leeds, Engl., 1824. His son made the true cement at Northfleet. Its value as a building material was established by John Grant's tests, 1859 -1871. Portland cement concrete was used by E. A. Bernay in 1867. Portland isle (off Dorset), the English Gibraltar. Fortified before 1142. Portland castle was built by Henry Vni. about 1536. Off this peninsula a naval engagement commenced between English and Dutch, 18 Feb. 1653, which continued for 3 days. The English destroyed 11 Dutch men- of-war and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp was admiral of the Dutch and Blake of the English. Here is found the noted freestone used for building the finest edifices. The Portland lights were erected 1716 and 1789. The pier, with nearly half a mile square of land, was washed into the sea in Feb. i792. Prince Albert laid the first stone of the Portland breakwater, 25 July, 1849, and the last stone was laid by the prince of Wales, 10 Aug. 1872. James Rendel, the first chief- engineer, was succeeded, on his death in 1856, by (aft. sir) John Coode. The breakwater and other harbor works cost 1,033,600?., exclusive of convict labor. Portland or Barberi'ni vase. This beautiful specimen of Greek art (composed of a glass- like substance, with figures and devices raised on it on white enamel ; height 10 inches ; diameter in the broadest part, 7 ; with a handle on each side) was discovered about the middle of the 16th cen- tury in a marble sarcophagus in a sepulchre at Monte del Grano, about 2^ miles from Rome, supposed to have been that of the Roman emperor Alexander Severus (222-235) and his mother Mammjea, and the vase was probably the cinerary urn of one of the two. It was placed in the palace of the Barberini familj' at Rome, where it remained till 1770, when it was purchased by sir William Hamilton, from whose possession it passed to that of the duchess of Portland, 1787; at the sale of her effects, it is said to have been bought by the then duke of Portland, who, in 1810, deposited it (on loan) in the British museum. On 7 Feb. 1845, this vase was maliciously broken in many pieces with a stone ; it has been skilfully repaired, and is now shown to the public in a special room. Josiah Wedgwood made a mould of it, and took a number of casts. Porto BellO, a town on the north side of the isthmus of Darien, not far from Aspinwall, in the department of Pana- ma, of the republic of Colombia. Harbor discovered by Co- lumbus, 2 Nov. 1502. Settled by the Spaniards, 1584. ' Was taken by Morgan, the buccaneer, in 1668; by the British under adm. Vernon, from the Spaniards, 21 Nov. 1739, and the forti- fications destroyed. Before the abolition of trade by the gal- leons, in 1748, it was the great mart for the gold and silver of Peru and Chili. Porto l^OVO, a maritime town of S. India. Here sir Eyre Coote, with about 9500 men and 55 light field-pieces, skilfully defeated Hyder Ali, ruler of the Carnatic, with 80,000 men and some heavy cannon, 1 July, 1781. Hyder lost about 10,000, the British 587 killed and wounded. Porto Rico, a West India island belonging to Spain ; discovered by Columbus in 1493. Attacks on it by Drake and Hawkins repulsed, 1595. Revolt suppressed, 1823. Slavery abolished, 23 Mch. 1873. Area, 3550 sq. miles ; pop. 806,708. portreeve (derived from Saxon words signifying the governor of a port or harbor). The chief magistrate of Lon- don was originally so styled ; but Richard I. appointed 2 bail- iffs, and afterwards London had mayors. — Camden. Mayor OF London. Portsmouth, Hampshire, the most considerable haven for men-of-war, and most strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses were estab- lished in the reign of Henry VIII. Pop. in 1851, 72,096 ; in 1861, 94,799 ; in 1871, 112,954. French under D'Annebaut attempted to destroy Portsmouth, but were defeated by viscount Lisle, in the then finest war- ship in the world, the Great Harry 1545 Here George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, was assassinated by Felton 23 Aug. 1628 Adm. Byng (Byng) on a very dubious sentence was shot at Portsmouth , 14 Mch. 1757 Royal George sunk 29 Aug. 1782 PortUg^al, ancient Lusita'nia. The present name is derived from Porto Callo, the original appellation of Oporto. After a 9 years' struggle under Viriathes, a brave, able leader, the Lusitanians submitted to the Roman arms about 137 b.c. Portugal underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall of the Roman empire. There are in Portugal 2 universities — that of Coimbra, founded in 1308, and the smaller one of Evora, founded in 1533. Lisbon has also its royal academy, and the small town of Thomar has an academy of sciences ; but, in general, literature is at a low ebb in Portugal. The poet Camoens, called the Virgil of his country', and author of the " LiisiAD " (1569), translated into English by Mickle, was a native of Lisbon. Area, 34,038 sq. miles. Pop. of the king- dom and colonies, 31 Dec. 1863, 8,037,194 ; 1872, kingdom on the continent, with Madeira and Azores, 4,390,589; colonies, 3,258,140; 1881, 4,708,178; colonies, 12,650,540, mostly in Africa. The constitution granted in 1826 was revised in 1852. Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here 472 Conquered by the Moors 713 Kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen chiefs, and Alfonso III. establishes bishops 900 Moors, conquered by Alfonso VI., the Valiant, of Castile, as- sisted by many other princes and volunteers; Henry of Besanfon (a relative of the duke of Burgundy and king of France), very eminent; Alfonso be.stowed upon him Theresa, his natural daughter, and Portugal as her marriage portion, which he was to hold of him as count 1095 Alfonso Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish kings, and proclaimed king (OuKiQUE) 25 July, 1139 Assisted by a fleet of crusaders on their way to the Holy Land, he takes Lisbon from the Moors 25 Oct. 1147 Part of Algarve taken from the Moors by Sancho 1 1189 Reign of Dionysius 1, or Denis, father of his country, who builds 44 cities or towns in Portugal 1279 University of Coimbra founded 1308 Military orders of Christ and St. James instituted 1279 and 1325 Inez de Castro murdered 1355 John I., surnamed the Great, carries his arms into Africa 1415 Maritime discoveries 1419-30 Madeira and the Canaries seized 1420 Code of laws digested 1425 Lisbon made the capital about 1433 Passage to the East Indies by the cape of Good Hope discovered by Vasco de Gama 20 Nov. 1497 Discovery of the Brazils ; 1499 Brazil discovered by Cabral Apr. 1500 Camoens, author of the " Lusiad," b about 1520 Inquisition established. 1526 University of Evora founded 1451 or 1533 African expedition; king Sebastian defeated and slain in the battle of Alcazar 4 Aug. 1578 ! Kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain 1580 j Dutch seize the Portuguese settlements in India 1602-20 j Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place John, duke of Bra- ganza, on the throne Dec. 1640 ■ Portuguese defeat the Spaniards at Villa Viciosa 1665 Great earthquake destroys Lisbon 1 Nov. 1755 Joseph I. narrowly escapes death by assassins. . . v 1758 [Some of the first families were tortured to death; their very names being forbidden to be mentioned ; the innocence of many was soon after made manifest; the Jesuits were also expelled.] Joseph, having no son, obtains a dispensation from the pope to enable his daughter and brother to intermarry, which took place 6 June, 1760 Spaniards and French invade Portugal, which is saved by the English 1762 and 1763 John, prince of Brazil, marries his aunt, Maria Francesca 1777 Regency of John (afterwards king), owing to the lunacy of queen Maria 1792 POR 652 War with Spain, 3 Mch. ; peace 6 June, 1801 Treaty between France and Spain for tlio partition of Portugal, Oct.; French invasion; Junot arrives at Lisbon, 27 Nov.; the court sail for Brazil 29 Nov. 1807 Rise of the Portuguese; several times defeated, June and July; arrival of Wellington at Oporto, July; he defeats Junot at Vimeira, 21 Aug. ; convention of Cinira confirmed. . .30 Aug. 1808 Oporto taken by Soult 29 Mch. 1809 Almeida taken by Massena 27 Aug. 1810 Massena defeated at Busaco 27 Sept. " Wellington secures the lines of Torres Vedraa Oct. " Massena defeated at Fuentes de Onoro; retreats. 5 May, 1811 British Parliament grants the sutferers by war in Portugal 100,000/ " Portugal cedes Guiana to France 1814 Union of Portugal and Brazil 1815 Revolution begins in Oporto 29 Aug. 1820 Constitutional Junta established 1 Oct. " Return of the court 4 July, 1821 Independence of Brazil; the prince regent made emperor (Brazil) 12 Oct. 1822 King modifies the constitution 5 June, 1823 Disturbances at Lisbon ; Miguel departs 1-9 May, 1824 Treaty with Brazil 29 Aug. 1825 Death of John VI 10 Mch. 1826 Dom Pedro grants a constitutional charter, and confirms the regency 26 Apr. " He relinquishes the throne in favor of his daughter, donna Maria da Gloria 2 May, " Marquess of Chaves's insurrection at Lisbon in favor of dom Miguel, brother of dom Pedro 6 Oct. " Dom Miguel and donna Maria betrothed 29 Oct " Portugal solicits the assistance of Great Britain, 3 Dec. ; the first British auxiliary troops start for Portugal 17 Dec. " Dom Miguel made regent; takes the oath at Lisbon 22 Feb. 1828 British armament quits Portugal 28 Apr. " Dom Miguel assumes the title of king 4 July, " He dissolves the 3 estates 12 July, " His troops take Madeira 24 Aug. " Duke of Palmella appointed regent Mch. 1830 Dom Pedro arrives in England 16 June, 1831 His expedition sails from Belle isle, 9 Feb. ; at Terceira pro- claims himself regent, 2 Apr. ; takes Oporto 8 July, 1832 Miguelites attack Oporto and are defeated 19 Sept. " Adm. Napier takes dom Miguel's squadron off cape St. Vincent, 5 July, 1833 Lisbon evacuated by the duke of Cadaval ; queen proclaimed, 24 July; enter Lisbon 22 Sept " After various confiicts dom Miguel capitulates to the Pedroites, and Santarem surrenders, 26 May ; dom Miguel embarks at Evora for Genoa 31 May, 1834 Dom Pedro d 24 Sept " Queen marries Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg 9 Apr. 1836 Action at Evora; queen's troops defeat insurgents 31 Oct 1846 British squadron under adra. Parker arrives in the Tagus, at the queen's request 31 Oct " London conference; England, France, a»id Spain determine to assist the queen to terminate the civil war 21 .May, 1847 Spaniards enter Oporto, and the Junto capitulates 26 June, " An American squadron in the Tagus to enforce claims against the Portuguese.. 22 June, 1850 Revision of the charter by the Cortes sanctioned by the queen; the prince royal takes the oath to the constitution, 18 July, 1852 Death of the queen, Maria II 15 Nov. 1853 Slaves on royal domains freed 30 Dec. 1854 Inauguration of the king 16 Sept 1855 First Portuguese railway (Lisbon to Santarem) opened. .26 Oct 1856 French emigrant ship for negroes, Cliarleset- Georges, seized, 29 Nov. 1857 France sends ultimatum, 13 Oct ; and ships of war to the Tagus; vessel restored (Charles et-Georges) 25 Oct 1858 Pedro V. dies; his brother, the duke of Oporto, succeeds, 11 Nov. 1861 Law of succession altered in favor of the king's sisters . .3 Jan. 1862 Free-trade measures introduced 1 June, 1864 U. S. vessels Niagara and Sacramento in the Tagus fired on, suspected of sailing after the confederate vessel Stonewall, 27 Mch. ; difficulty with the U. S. arranged 7 Apr. 1865 Constitutional privileges granted to the colonies May, " Gen. Prim enters Portugal, 20 Jan. ; ordered to depart, 17 Feb. 1866 French republic recognized Sept 1870 Celebration in honor of Camoens and Vasco de Gama at Lis- bon June, 1880 Circular aflBrming Portuguese rights over the Congo issued, Oct. 1883 Death of king Luis T 19 Oct 1889 King Carlos inaugurated 28 Dec. " British government demands the immediate recall of the Por- tuguese forces from British sphere in Africa 5 Jan. 1890 British government insisting, the Junta of Portugal accedes to all the British demands under protest 11-12 Jan. " Maj. Serpa Pinto, African explorer, arrives at Lisbon. ..20 Apr. " Anglo- Portuguese agreement respecting Africa settled in London 20 Aug. " 250th anniversary of the restored monarchy 1 Dec. " [For the disputes with the South African company respect- ing the Manica company, Zambesi, Sept-Dec. 1890.] New Anglo-Portuguese convention signed (afterwards ratified), 11 June, 1891 1095. 1112. 1128. 1139. 1185. 1212. 1223. 1248. 1279. 1325. 1357. 1385. 1433. 1438. 1481. 1495. 1521. 1557. 1578. 1580. POS SOVEREIGNS OF PORTUGAL. I. UOUSK OF BURGUNDY. Henry, count or earl of Portugal. Alfonso, his sou, and Theresa. Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. Alfonso I. declared king, having obtained a signal victory over a prodigious army of Moors on the plains of Ourique. Sancho 1., son of Alfonso. Alfonso II., surnamed Crassus, or the Fat Sancho II., or the Idle; deposed. Alfonso III. Denis, or Dionysius, the father of his country. Alfonso IV., the Brave. Peter the Severe. Ferdinand I., son. II. HOUSE OF AVIS. John I., the Bastard and the Great; natural brother; married Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, Edward, or Duarte. Alfonso v., the African. John II., the Great and the Perfect Emmanuel the Fortunate; cousin. John III., son; admitted the Inquisition. Sebastian; drowned after the great battle of Alcazarquivir, in Africa, 4 Aug. 1578. Henry, the cardinal, son of Emmanuel; great-uncle. Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Emmanuel; depcsed by Philip II. of Spain, who united Portugal to his other domin- III. INTERVAL OF SUBMISSION TO SPAIN. 1580. Philip II. 1598. Philip III. \ kings of Spain. 162L Philip IV. IV. HOUSE OF BRAGANZA. 1640. John IV., duke of Braganza; dispossessed the Spaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was proclaimed king, 1 Dec. 1656. Alfonso VI. ; deposed in 1667, and his brother Peter made regent 1683. Peter II., brother. 1706. John v., son. 1750. Joseph Emmanuel, son. The daughter and successor of this prince married his brother, by dispensation from the pope, and they ascended the throne as Maria I. and Peter III. jointly. Maria I. alone; this princess afterwards fell into a state of melancholy and derangement; d. 1816. 1792. Regency— John, son (afterwards king); declared regent 1791. 1816. John VI., previously regent He had withdrawn in 1807, owing to the French invasion of Portugal, to his Brazilian dominions; but the discontent of his subjects obliged him to return in 1821; d. 1826. 1826. Peter IV. (dom Pedro), son; making his election of the empire of Brazil, abdicated the throne of Portugal in favor of " Maria II. (da Gloria), daughter; 7 years of age. 1828. Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV., usurped the crown, which he retained, amid civil contentions, until 1833. 1833. Maria II. restored; declared in Sept. 1834 to be of age; d. 15 Nov. 1853. V. HOUSE OF BRAGANZA-COBURG. 1853. Peter V. (dom Pedro), son; b. 16 Sept 1837; d. 11 Nov. 1861. 1861. Luis I., brother; b. 31 Oct 1838; married Maria Pia, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy (b. 16 Oct 1847), 6 Oct 1862; d. 19 Oct 1889. 1889. Carlos I., b. 28 Sept 1863; married Marie Amalie, daughter comte de Paris, 22 May, 1886. Heir : Luis Felippe, b. 21 Mch. 1887. Posen, a Polish province, annexed to Prussia 1772 and 1793 ; made part of the duchy of Warsaw, 1807 ; restored to Prussia, 1815. An insurrection here quelled. May, 1848. positive philosophy, set forth by Auguste Comte, an eminent mathematician, born about 1795 ; died at Paris, 1852. M. P. Emile Littre, the great French philologist, ar- denth' embraced the system, and published "De la Philosophic Positive," in 1845. Comte's "Cours de Philosophie Positive," pub. 1830-42; Systfime de Politique Positive, ou Traits de Sociologie, instituant la Reli- gion de I'Humanite (I'amour pour principe, I'ordre pour base, et le progr6s pour but)," 1851-54. It professes to base itself wholly on positive facts or observed phe- nomena, and rejects all metaphysical conceptions, which it con- siders negatives, having nothing real or true in them; and dis- penses with the science of mind. It sets aside theology and met- aphysics as two merely preliminary stages in life, abandons all search after causes and essences of things, and restricts itself to the observation and classification of phenomena and the discovery of their laws. Comte asserted that Europe had now arrived at the third stage of its progress. The Society of Positivists in London professes to promote the perfection of man by means of educa- tion in its widest sense, aiming at the attaining of universal broth- erhood independently of all professed religious sects. Positivism does not recognize the supernatural or the future state. "The Church of Humanity " is a modified form of positivism, described by Richard Congreve (Pall Mall Gazette, 17 Jan. 1884). POS 653 POS Po§taI International convention. Pos- TAL SEKVICE, 1863-91. postal service. Among the ancients, news was con- veyed by runners (2 Sam. xviii. 19-33) or by mounted posts (Esther viii. 10). The first mention of carrier pigeons was by Ovid, who, in his " Metamorphoses," tells us that Tau- rosthenes, by a pigeon stained with purple, gave notice of his being victor at the Olympic games, on the very same day, to his father at iEgina. The first letter-post in Europe was established in the Hanse towns in the early part of the 13th century. Post-paid envelopes were in use in France in the time of Louis XIV. According to Pelisson, they originated in 1663 with M. de Velayer, who established, under royal au- thority, a private penny-post in Paris, and placed boxes to re- ceive letters enclosed in these envelopes at the corners of the principal streets. b.c. First recorded riding post established in Persia by Cyrus 599 Postal service introduced among the Romans by Augustus 31 A.D. Postal service established by the emperor Charlemagne 807 Louis XI. establishes post houses in France, the first of the kind in Europe (Henault) 1470 In England in the reign of Edward IV., riders on post-horses bore by 20-mile stages news of the war with the Scots 1481 Regular line of posts established in the Tyrol, connecting Ger- many and Italy, by Roger, count of Thurn-und-Taxis 1516 In Peru the Spanish invaders establish a system of posts by run- ners on the great highway from Quito to Cuzco 1527 Carrier pigeons employed at the siege of Leyden 1675 Postage-stamps adopted at Zurich, Switzerland (first on the continent) 1843 Postal treaty between U. S. and Great Britain Dec. 1848 Postal convention between U. S. and France 2 Mch. 1857 First International Postal congress convenes at Paris, John A. Kasson representing the U. S 11 May, 1863 Pneumatic tube system introduced in Berlin, 1865; in Paris.. 1866 Pigeon post between London and Tours during the siege of Paris (48 day mails and 1186 night mails sent), 18 Nov. 1870 to 28 Jan. 1871 General Postal union concluded at Berne, international let- ter postage reduced generally to 5 cents per half-ounce, 9 Oct. 1874 Convention for a Universal Postal Union signed at Paris by James N. Tyner and Joseph H. Blackfan for the U. S., 1 June, 1878 Fourth Postal congress meets at Lisbon and adopts a conven- tion, 4 Feb. 1885; rate, 5 cents per half-ounce, if prepaid; postal-cards 2 cents. Convention takes effect 1 Apr. 1886 International Postal congress held at Vienna 20 May, 1891 COMPARATIVE TABLE OF POST - OFFICE BUSINESS (Pieces mailed). Country. v.„. Letters. Postal-cards. Newspapers. Misc. printed. Merchandise. Total. ]8-i8 1888 188(5 1886 1,769,800,000 1,512,200,000 591,451,811 720,497,240 372,200,000 188,800,000 35,923,379 245,282,540 1,063,100,000 152,300,000 92,957,793 523,873,340 389,5b6*O00 713,962,439 210,108,220 372,900,000 36,732,000 28,953.858 116,305,050 3,578,000,000 2,279,532,000 1,463,249,280 1,816,066,390 France Germany j postal system in England. Thomas Randolph re- ■: ceived the title of chief-postmaster of England in 1581. Pre- ! vious to this the postal service was in charge of sir Brian ! Tuke, designated Magister Nunciorum Cursorum sive Posta- i rum, who was succeeded by sir William Paget and John Mason, i jointly in 1545, and they by Thomas Randolph under same j title in 1567. The office of postmaster-general of England for I foreign parts was created by letters patent of James I., who j appr)iuted Matthew de Quester in 1619. The first regular I system of internal post was established by proclamation of ! Charles I. in 1635, commanding his postmaster of England for ; foreign parts " to settle a running post or two, to run night j and day between Edinburgh and London, to go thither and i come back again in 6 days." ) Franking privilege, characterized by sir Heneage Finch as " a real poor-mendicant proviso," is granted to knights, etc., chosen to represent the commons in Parliament 1660 Penny-post tirst established in London and its suburbs by Robert Murray, who assigned his interest in the undertaking to Mr. Dockwra 2 years later 1681 Penny-post annexed to the revenue of the crown 1690 i General post established throughout the British colonies 1710 j Cross posts established by Ralph Allen, deputy-postmaster of t Bath, whom Fielding has immortalized as Mr. AUworthy, in "Tom Jones," and of whom Pope writes: " Let humble Allen, with an awkward shame, Do good by stealth and blush to find it fame " 1720 First mail-coaches started by John Palmer, theatre manager of Bath, leaving London 8 a.m., arriving at Bristol 11 p.m., 24 Aug. 1784 [These coaches were attended by an armed guard to pre- vent robbery of the mail, then very common.] i Money order system in England founded by 3 post-ofHce officials ! as a private speculation (incorporated into the general system i in 1838); established 1792 ! Mails sent in steamers first by British post-office 1821 I First contract made by postmaster general of England with the ; Mona Isle Steam company to run mail-steamers twice a week I between Liverpool and Douglas 1833 • First travelling post-carriage used on the Grand Junction rail- ! way between Liverpool and Birmingham 1 July, 1837 ■ Rowland Hill's plan of penny postage adopted 1839 ; Stamped i)ostage covers come into use 6 May, 1840 Sir James Graham exercises his power of opening letters under warrant; contents of letters of the Italian patriot Mazzini ; disclosed to the Austrian government 1844 '.Stamp perforating machine invented by Henry Archer and i purchased by the British government for iOOOl 1852 ; Street letter-boxes erected in London Mch. 1855 ' Post office savings-banks established by Parliament 1861 I Pneumatic-tube system, originating with Dennis Papin in 1667, j jnu into use in post-office business in London 1863 I Half-penny stamped postal-cards issued 1 Oct. 1870 iSystem of telegraph money-orders inaugurated 2 Sept. 1889 1 Number of street letter-boxes in London 21,857 1891 jNumber of post-offices in the United Kingdom 40,643 " I postal system- in the United States. The first or- iganized system of post-offices in the U. S. was established by the English Parliament in 1710, when a general letter-office was opened in London, another in New York, and others in each colony. Postage on a single letter from London to New York was Is., and thence for 60 miles or less, 4d additional. From 75 post-offices and 1875 miles of mail routes in 1790, the number has increased to 64,329 post-offices and 439,027 miles of mail route on 30 June, 1891. 1639 1657 1672 Post-office established in Boston at the house of Richard Fair- banks for "all letters which are brought from beyond the seas, or are to be sent thither " Act passed by Virginia assembly for the immediate transmis- sion of official letters from plantation to plantation on pen- ally of 1 hogshead of tobacco for each default 13 Mch. Government of New York establishes a monthly mail to Boston, Colonial court establishes a post-office in Boston, appointing John Hey ward postmaster 1676 Office of deputy postmaster-general for America created by au- thority of Great Britain 1692 Public post established from the Potomac, through Annapolis to Philadelphia, 8 times a year, postmaster's salary 501 1695 Col. J. Hamilton of New Jersey devises a post-office scheme for British America in 1700, for which he obtains a patent and the profits accruing. He afterwards sold it to the crown, and a general system is established in America 1710 Mail route established, carrying letters from Boston, Mass., to Williamsburg, Va., in 4 weeks 1717 Benjamin Franklin appointed deputy-postmaster in America.. 1737 Benjamin Franklin and col. William Hunter appointed post- master-generals in America; Franklin on a tour of inspec- tion visits every post-office except Charleston 1753 Mails carried between Philadelphia and New York by stage. . , 1756 Franklin summarily dismissed from office by the king, 30 Jan. 1774 Independent post-office established in New York, and John Holt appointed postmaster; operations begin 11 May, 1775 Post-office department created, with headquarters at Philadel- phia, and Benjamin Franklin elected postmaster-general for 1 year by Continental Congress 26 July, " Richard Bache succeeds Franklin as postmaster-general, 7 Nov. 1776 Inspector of dead letters appointed under resolution of Conti- nental Congress 17 Oct. 1777 Ebenezer Hazard appointed postmaster-general 28 Jan. 1782 Rate of postage fixed by Continental Congress as follows: Single letters, under 60 miles 7.4 cts. 60 to 100 miles 11.1 cts. 100 to 200 miles 14.8 cts. And 3.4 cts. additional for each 100 miles 18 Oct. " Temporary establishment of post offices by act of Congress, 22 Sept. 1789 Revenue for one year of the 10 principal post offices in the U. S. : Philadelphia, Pa.. $7087.06 New York, NY... 3788.04 Baltimore, Md. . . . 3034.64 Boston, Mass 2883.67 Richmond, Va 2777.07 Petersburg, Va.. $1472.18 Alexandria, Va.. 1234.00 Fredericksburg, Va 1059.08 Norfolk, Va 1016.00 Charleston, S. C. 810.00. ,1790-91 Laws of 18 Oct. 1782 and 23 Oct. 1786, which gave authority to commander-in-chief of the army, the president of Congress, governors of states, and secretary of foreign affairs, to open or authorize the opening of letters in the mails, are repealed. Act to organize the post-office system ; franking privilege ex- tended to members of Congress, etc 20 Feb. Letter-carriers are to be employed at such post-offices as the postmaster-general may direct, for delivery of letters, who 1792 POS 654 POT may collect on each letter 2 cents, unless persons lodge in the post-offlce a request that their letters he not delivered (repealed 1872), act of Congress 8 May, 1794 AH letters to George Washington to be received and conveyed by post during his life free of charge 3 Mch. 1797 Privilege of franking given John Adams " 1801 Mail between Petersburg, Va., and Louisville,Ga., to go in mail- coaches instead of on horseback, by act of 3 Mch. 1802 A general post ofBco established at Washington 30 Apr. 1810 Postage rates of 1799 increased 50 per cent, by act of. . .23 Dec. 1814 Act of 23 Dec. 1814 repealed and old rates restored 1 Feb. 1816 Franking privilege granted to Charles Carroll of Carrollton, only surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, by resoltition of Congress 23 May, 1828 Postmaster general made a cabinet oflBcer (Cablnkt council, U.VITKD Statks) 1829 Mails Qrst transported by railroad 1834 Franking privilege extended to Dolly P. Madison during life, 2 July, 1836 Postmaster-general authorized to contract for carrying mails on navigable canals, and to establish an "express mail " for slips from newspapers or letters at triple the ordinary rates of postage 2 July, " Every railroad declared to be a post- route by Congress. .7 July, 1838 Envelopes first used for letters 1839 Franking privilege granted to the widow of president Wm. H. Harrison 9 Sept. 1841 Issue of postage-stamps first authorized 3 Mch. 1847 Post oflQces established at Astoria, 1847; at San Diego, Monte- rey, and San Francisco, with postage rate from any place on the Atlantic coast, 40 cents 14 Aug. 1848 Letter postage reduced to 3 cents per half-ounce for distance under 3000 miles, postage prepaid 3 Mch. 1851 Stamped envelopes provided for by act of Congress 31 Aug. 1852 System of registered letters introduced 3 Mch. 1855 Compulsory prepayment of postage on all transient printed matter required by act of. 2 Jan. 1857 Iron boxes placed in the city of Boston for prepaid letters, to be collected by postmen ; beginning 2 Aug. 1858 First overland mail from St. Louis to San Francisco Sept. " Letters not called for to be returned to the address of writer on the envelope, by act of 6 Apr. I860 Merchandise first admitted to the mails, and postmaster-gen- eral authorized to furnish stamped letter sheets (combining sheet and envelope), by act of 27 Feb. 1861 Delivery of letters and newspapers by carriers throughout a circuit of 9 miles from the city hall in New York city, daily or semi daily, authorized by act of 27 Feb. " Pillar-boxes or other receiving boxes authorized 3 Mch. 1863 Trial trip of the first railroad post-oflQce from Chicago to Clin- ton, on system of col. George B. Armstrong 28 Aug. 1864 Money-order system established by act of 17 May; goes into operation, ..'. 1 Nov. " Franking privilege extended to Mary Lincoln, wife of Abraham Lincoln, during life, by act of 10 Feb. 1866 Letters and circulars concerning lotteries or gift concerts to be excluded from the mails by act of. 27 July, " Uniforms, as prescribed by the postmaster-general, to be worn by letter-carriers, by act of 27 July, 1868 Free delivery by letter carriers, in cities of 50,000 population and upward, established by act of. 8 June, 1872 Franking privilege after 1 Julv, 1873, abolished by act of Con- gress '. 31 Jan. 1873 [Exceptions: (1) Public documents printed by Congress, Congressional Record sent by member of Congress, secretary of state, or clerk of House; (2) seeds sent from the Depart- ment of Agriculture by member of Congress, or through the secretary; (3) letters and packages relating exclusively to the business of the government, sent by officers of the same; (4) matter sent to the librarian of,Congress under provisions of the Copyright law; (5) matter pertaining to the Smith- sonian institution.] One-cent postal-cards provided for by act of 8 June, 1872; first sold May, " Postal-notes limited to $4.99 authorized by act of 3 Mch. 1883 Postage on first-class mail matter reduced from 3 to 2 cents per half ounce, by act of 3 Mch. " Special delivery system authorized, and postage on first-class mail-matter reduced to 2 cents per ounce, by act of . .3 Mch. 1885 First issue of stamped letter-sheet envelopes Aug. 1886 Free-delivery system extended to places of 10,000 population, by act of. 3 Jan. 1887 RATES OF LETTER POSTAGE AS ESTABLISHED BY CONGRESS. ACTS OF Miles of transit for a single sheet at rate named. 20 Feb. 1792. 2 Mch. 1799. 9 Apr. 1816. 3 Mch. 1846. 25 cents. over 450 over 500 over 400 22 '? 350-450 20 " 250-^0 300-500 18X" . . . 150-400 17 " 200-250 150-300 15 " 150-200 12>tf "^ I 96-i50 80-150 12 " 100-150 10 " 60-100 40-90 30-80 over 300 8 " 30-60 under 40 6 '» under 30 under 30 5 " under 300 RATES OF LETTER POSTAGE AS ESTABLISHED BY ACTS ol CONGHESS.— ( Continued. ) | Rate. Miles of transit per lalf-ounce at rate imiiied. ■ 8 Mch. 1861. 8 Mch. 1866. 3 Mch. 1863. 3 Mch. 1883.^ 10 cents. over 3000 unpaid. over 3000 6 " over 3000 prepaid. .... 5 " under 3000 unpaid. .... 3 " under 3000 prepaid. under300o| Everywhere in U.S. .... 2 " .... { Everywhei in U. S. Two cents per ounce to any point in the U. S 3 Mch. ISSl GROWTH OF POSTAL SYSTEM (1790-1893). 1 Year. Number ofpost- offlces. Miles of mail- routes. Revenue. Expenditure*. 1790 75 1,875 137,935 $32,140 1800 903 20,817 280,804 213,994 1810 2,300 36,406 552,366 495.969 1820 4,500 72,492 1,111,927 1,160,926 1830 8,450 115,176 1,850,583 1,932,708 1840 J^'f?^ 155,739 4,543,522 4.718,236 1850 ^!'til 178,672 5,499,985 5,212,963 1860 28,498 240,594 8,518,067 19,170,610 18V0 28,492 231,232 19,772,221 23,998,838 1880 42,989 343,888 33,315,479 36,542,804 1890 62,401 427,990 60,882,097 65,930,717 1893 68,403 453,833 75,896,933 81,074,104 pota§'§illlIl, a remarkable metal, discovered by Huna phry Davy, who first succeeded in separating it from its oxid potash, by means of a powerful voltaic battery, in the labon tory of the Koyal institution, London, about 19 Oct. 1807 ; ani also the metals sodium from soda, and calcium from lime, etc The alkalies and earths had been previously regarded as sim- ple substances. Potassium ignites on contact with moisture. potR'tO (^Solanum tuberosuni), native of Chili and Peru, generally considered to have been taken to England from America by sir John Hawkins, 1565. Others ascribe its in- troduction to sir Francis Drake in 1586 ; its general introduc- tion, 1592. Its first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter Raleigh, who had large estates in that country', about Youghal, in the county of Cork. Although it now constitutes so large a portion of the food of man, it was scarcely known prior to the 17th century, and was not greatly cultivated until the middle of the 18th, its culture not becoming general even in England, until after 1765. Agriculture. potato, Sweet. Flowers and Plants. | Potawat'omies. Indians. I Potidae'a, a town in Macedonia, a tributary of Athens,;] against which it revolted, 432 b.c., but submitted in 429. It was taken from the Athenians, after 3 years' siege, by Philip II. of Macedon in 358 b.c. PotO'mac. Army, Peninsular campaign. Poto'Si, a city of Bolivia, Peru. Silver mines here were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545 ; they are situated in the Cerro de Potosi, a conical mountain 18 miles in circumference. Potsdam, a city near Berlin, the Versailles of Prussia. It was made an arsenal in 1721. Here is situated the palace of Sans-souci (built 1660-73), embellished by Frederick II., and occupied by Napoleon I. in Oct. 1806; and the new palace, the residence of late emperor Frederick William and his wife, the princess royal of England. pottery and porcelain. The potter's art is co- eval with civilization. Bricks, burned thoroughly, were used in building the tower of Babel (Gen. xi.3). Bricks with true glaze were used in Babylon 2122 b.c. The manufacture of earthenware (the ceramic art) existed among the Jews as an honorable occupation (I Chron. iv. 23) ; and the power of the potter over the clay, as a symbol of the power of God, is de- scribed by Jeremiah 605 b.c. (Jer. xviii.). Earthenware was made by the ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, Romans, and prehistoric inhabitants of America. Tiles and vessels of lead-glazed ware were made in England as early as the 14th century. b. c. College or guild of potters instituted by Numa "^15 Chinese authorities date the invention of porcelain or translu- cent pottery W^ A.v. Samiau ware, a fine, glossy, red enamel, made by the Romans. 150 a POT 665 PRA Moorish tiles introduced into Italy at the conquest of Majorca by the Pisans 1115 James I. of Arragon grants a special charter to the Saracens of Xativa, now San Felipe, Svtain, for making pottery, which mentions vases, domestic pottery, and wall tiles 1239 Delft ware manufactured in Holland 1310 " What land is this ? Yon pretty town Is Delft, with all its wares displayed ; The pride, the market-place, the crowu And centre of the Potter's trade." — Longfelluw, " K^ramos." Oldest-known Chinese work treating of the ceramic art, enti- tled " Feoii-liang Hien-tchi," issued 1325 [This work passed through 21 editions. It begins in the Wou-te period of the Thang dynasty, about 621 a.d., when the government first directed its attention to the industry.] Lucca della Robbia, said to have first used stanniferous enamel in Florence, It;ily, on majolica ware, introduced into that country after the conquest of Majorca by the Pisans in 1115 (?) 1425 " A nobler title to renown Is thine, O pleasant Tuscan town, Seated beside the Arno's stream ; P"or Lucca della Robbia there Created forms so wondrous fair, They made thy sovereignty supreme." — LongfeUoro, " Keramos." Famous porcelain tower at Nankin, 330 feet h gh, designed by the emperor Yung-lo to commemorate his mother, and de- stroyed by Tae-piug rebels in Mch. 1853, was completed 1431 "And yonder by Nankin, behold! The Tower of Porcelain, strange and old. Uplifting to the astonished skies 1 Its ninefold painted balconies." — Longfellow," 'K.irVtniM" Antuonio, an alchemist, succeeds in making and firing translu- cent porcelain, at San Simone, near Venice 1470 ( Oriental porcelain first introduced into Europe by Portuguese. 1518 i Faience d'Orion, made of fine pipe-clay, decorated with inlaid I work by lady Hel5ne de Hangest-Genlis, and fired by her pri- j vate potter; she died at her chateau near Thouars, France.. 1537 I Bernard Palissy discovers hard enamel at Saintes, France 1550 j " Who is it in the suburbs here, (This Potter, working with such cheer, This madman, as the people say, Who breaks his tables and his'chain To feed his furnace fires? . . . O Palissy ! within thy breast Burned the hot fever of unrest; Thine was the prophet's vision. . ." ; — Longfellow, " K^raraos." i Manufacture of true porcelain carried on at Florence under the i patronage of grand duke Francis I. (Dr. Forest) 1580-90 Finely crackled ware of Satsuma, Japan, first produced. about 1592 " The leaves that rustle, the reeds that make A whisper by each stream and lake, The saffron dawn, the sunset red. Are painted on these lovely jars." — Longfellow, " Keramos." Thomas Roos and Abraham Cullyn receive a patent for the making of stone pots and jugs of Cologne ware in England. . 1626 i Decorated wares made at Rouen, France 1640 tArt of glazing pottery with salt accidentally discovered at i Stanley farm, near Bagnall, Engl., by a servant of J. Yale, about 1680 John Philip Elersand his brother David establish the first pot- tery of importance in art history in England, at Bradwell, about 1690 [Porcelain manufactured at St. Cloud, France, by the Chican- ; neau family 1693 |John Frederic BOttcher makes a red stone-ware, which he calls j red porcelain, from clay found near Meissen, on the Elbe, 12 I miles from Dresden, about 1705. Encouraged by Augustus I II. he experiments and produces hard -paste porcelain by using kaolin found in the mining district of the Erzgebirgo, I about 1710. First sale of Dresden or Meissen porcelain at ' the Leipsic fair 1715 'English fine earthenware made with pounded flint, sand, and \ pipe-clay, and colored with oxide of manganese and copper, I called agate ware 1725 iFirst soft-paste porcelain factory in England established at 1 Stratford le Bow about 1730 jAmerican clay used at Bow potteries 1744 Hard-paste porcelain factory established at St. Petersburg by 1^ empress Elizabeth " Chelsea works (England) founded about. 1745 ;\Vorcester Porcelain company organized in England by dr. Wall 1 and others (becomes Royal Porcelain works in 1788) 1751 lOiscovery of kaolin in Cornwall, Engl., by Wm. Cookworthy. . 1755 ilohn Sadler invents printing on pottery and porcelain in Eng- ^ Jand 1756 jorcelaiu vyorks, started at Vincennes, France, in 1745, and re- I moved to Sevres in 1753. are purchased by Louis XV., who, 1 by decree,prohibits gilding or making other than white por- • celain painted in blue, in Chinese patterns, elsewhere " j^ream ware changed in name to •' queen's ware " when Josiah I Wedgwood manufactures a complete table service by order I of queen Charlotte of England 1762 iaolin discovered in France by Guettard 17(i5 ^hina works erected at Philadelphia, Pa 1769 irst hard -paste porcelain produced at the Royal factory at Sevres : , __ u •ebble wares invented by Josiah Wedgwood, 1763' and jasper ware I774 e welled porcelain first produced in France 1777 Service of 744 pieces, costing nearly $200,000, executed at Sevres for empress Catherine II. of Russia 1778 [160 pieces were stolen, and sold in England; they were mostly restored to emperor Nicholas about 1852. 1 plate sold at baron Thibou'ssale, Feb. 1875, for 2400 francs.] Thomas Turner of England introduces the willow pattern 1780 King Louis XV^ presents to the comtesse du Nord a toilet- table and mirror in porcelain, which cost 75,000 livres 1782 Enoch Wood, called the "father of pottery," begins business at Burslem, Engl 1734 Hamilton's returns of exports of the U. S. from Aug. 1789 to Sept. 1790 gives for earthen and glass ware $1990 1790 Pottery established at Norwich, Conn 17% Alexander Brongniart becomes director of the Sfevres factory. 1800 Ceramic museum founded at Sevres by Brongniart 1805 Portland vase placed in the British museum ....'. 1810 Exports of coarse earthenware from the U. S. exceeded im' ports in n Hard-paste porcelain made in Jersey City, N. J., 1816; business continued by American Pottery company, organized 1829 Tile factory of the Mintons at Stoke upon-Trent, Engl, founded, 1840 Parian or Carrara ware introduced into England 1845 Factory established at Bennington, Vt., by Lyman & Fenton, where bisque or Parian wares and soft-paste porcelain deco- rated were produced 1847 Manufacture of English majolica begun by messrs. Minton 1850 Imperial Mosaic works, established at Rome in 1846, transferred to St. Petersburg, Russia 1856 Principle of compressing paste in moulds of large objects by means of air pressure, first used at Sevres 1861 " K€ramos," a poem of the ceramic art, written by Longfellow, 1878 Potter's wheel has greatly superseded moulding as producing more original work t 1888 pound (from Lat. pondus). The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some suppose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or U. As. Id. The pound ster- ling was in Saxon times, about 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part; consequently the latter was 3 times as large as it is at present. — Peachum. — The English avoirdupois pound weight came from the French, and contains 16 ounces; it is in proportion to the troy weight as 17 to 14. Coin, Standard. Pow]iatail§. Indians, Virginia. prsemuili'rc, Law of. This law (which obtained its name from the first 2 words prcemoneriy or prcemuniri facias, "cause to be forewarned," which is applied to any offence in the way of contempt of the sovereign or his govern- ment), derived its origin from the aggressive power of the pope in England. The offence introduced a foreign power into the land, and created an imperium in imperio. The first statute of praemunire was enacted 35 Edward I. 1306. — Coke, The pope bestowed most of the bishoprics, abbeys, etc., before they were void, upon favorites, on pretence of providing the church with better-qualified successors before the vacancies occurred. To stop these encroachments, PZdward III. enacted a statute in 1353. The statute commonly referred to as the statute of praemunire is 16 Richard II. 1392. Several similar enactments followed. The assertion that Parliament is inde- pendent of the sovereign was declared a prcemunire, 1661. praetorian guar€l§, a body of soldiers instituted by the emperor Augustus (13 b.c.); their numbers enlarged by Tiberius, until under Vitellius they numbered 16,000. Their term of service was at first 12 years, afterwards increased to 16. They received double pay, the private ranking with the centurion of the legionary, and at retirement received 20,000 sesterces (about $800). At first supporters of. the imperial tyrants, they eventually became their masters, actually putting up the diadem for sale (as in Mch. 193 a.d., when it was bought by Didius Julianus). They were greatly reduced by Servius, and finally disbanded by Constantine in 312. prsetor§, Roman magistrates. In 365 b.c. one praetor was appointed ; a second appointed in 252 b.c. The preetor urbaniis administered justice to the citizens, and the prator pei'egrinus acted in causes relating to foreigners. In 227 b.c. 2 more praetors were created to assist the consul in the govern- ment of Sicily and Sardinia, lately conquered ; and 2 more when Spain was made a Roman province, 197 b.c. Sulla, the dictator, added 2, and Julius Caesar increased the number to 10, which afterwards became 16. After this their number fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12; till, in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers were reduced to 3. prag°niat'ic §anction, an ordinance relating to PRA 666 PRE church and state affairs. The ordinances of the kings of France are thus calletl ; in one the rights of the Galilean church were asserted against the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops by Charles VII. in 1438. The pragmatic sanction for settling the empire of Germany in the house of Austria, 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published the prag- matic sanction, whereby, in default of male issue, his daughters should succeed in preference to the daughters of his brother Joseph I., 19 Apr. 1713; and he settled his dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa, in conformity thereto, 1723. She succeeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise to a war in which most of the powers of Europe were engaged, and which lasted till 1748. Austrian succession. Prag^ue (jora^), the capital of Bohemia. The old city was founded about 759 ; the new city rebuilt in 1348 by the emperor Charles IV., who made it his capital and erected a university. Prague has suffered much by war. Victory of the Hussites under Ziska 14 July, 1420 Frederick, the king, totally defeated by the Austrians, near Prague 8 Nov. 16'20 Prague taken by the Swedes in IMS, and by the French in 1741 ; they left it 1742 Taken by the king of Prussia; obliged to abandon it 1744 Great battle of Prague (the Austrians defeated by prince Henry of Prussia, and their whole camp taken; their commander, gen. Brauu, mortally wounded, and the Prussian marshal Schwerin killed) 6 May, 1757 Prairie Orove, Battle of. Arkansas, 1862. Prai§e - Ood Bareboiie's parliament. Barebone's parliament. prayer, First, in Congress. United States, 1774. prayer§. *' Then began men to call upon the name of the Lord " (Gen. iv. 26), 3875 b.c. The mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boniface II. 532. Prayers for the dead, first introduced into the Christian church about 190, are now advocated by ministers of the English church, 1872. Prayers addressed to the Virgin Mary and to saints are said to have been introduced by pope Gregory, 593. Liturgies. Pre-Adamitei, a sect which arose about the mid- dle of the 16th century, holding for its principal tenet that there must have been men before Adam. preb'endary, a clergyman attached to a cathedral or collegiate church, who receives an income termed prebenda for officiating at stated times. The office slightly differs from that uf a canon. prece'dence was established in very early ages, and was among the laws of Justinian. In England the order of precedence was regulated chiefly by 2 statutes, 31 Hen. VIII. 1539, and 1 Geo. I. 1714. predeitination (Lat. prmdesHno, to determine be- forehand, to foreordain), commonly applied to the doctrine that all events are ordained beforehand from all eternity by the Supreme Being ; a belief regarded by Calvinists as a neces- sary logical inference from his omniscience and omnipotence. (Eph. i.). It is defined in the 17th article of the Church of England (Eph. i. and Kom. ix.). It was maintained by St. Augustin, and opposed by Pelagius, in the early part of the 5th century. In later times it has been maintained by the Augustinians, Jansenists, and Calvinists) ; and opposed by the Dominicans, Jesuits, Arminians, especially the Methodists. prelli§torie areilseoi'Og^y began in Sweden, and was first systematized by Mr. Nillson. Daniel Wilson's " Ar- chaeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland," pub. 1851. An international congress for treating prehistorical subjects met at Neufchatel in 1866, and at Paris in 1867. At the third meeting at Norwich, Aug. 1858, it assumed the name of " International Congress for Prehistoric Archteology,'' and published its transactions in 1869. A meeting was held at Stockholm 7-14 Aug. 1874. Antiquaries, Barrows, Man. Sir John Lubbock divides prehistoric archaeology into* greatepochs: 1. The Drift or Palaeolithic or old stone age; 2. The Neolithic or polished stone age; 3. The Bronze age; 4. The Iron age, when bronze was superseded. — (1880.) Pre-Raphaelite §ehool, a name given about 1850 to J. E. Millai.s, Wra. Holman Hunt, D. G. Kossetti, and other artists, who opposed the routine conventionality of aca- demic teaching, and resolved to study nature as it appeared to them, and not as it appeared in the antique. For a short time they published "The Germ, or Art and Poetry," begin- ning in 1850. Their works have been much criticised, but their influence has been beneficial. Their princi|)les are de- fended in substance by the great art-critic, John Ruskin. prerogr'ative royal. In England the sovereign is the supreme magistrate, the head of the established church, of the army and navy, and the fountain of office, honor, and priv- ilege ; but is subject to the laws, unless exempted by name. The royal prerogatives were greatly exceeded by several des- potic sovereigns, such as Elizabeth, James I., and Charles I., as it was a maxim that the sovereign could do no wrong. Eliz- abeth used the phrase, " We, of our royal prerogative, which we will not have argued or brought in question " (1591). James I. told his parliament " that as it was blasphemy to question what the Almighty could do of his power, so it was sedition to inquire what a king could do by virtue of his pre- rogative." These extreme doctrines were nullified by the revolution of 1688, and the exercise of the prerogative is now virtually subject to Parliament. Lords. Pres'burg, the ancient capital of Hungary, where the diets were held and the kings crowned. On 26 Doc. 1805, a treaty was signed here between France and Austria, by which the ancient states of Venice were ceded to Italy; the princi- pality of Eichstadt, part of the bishopric of Passau, the city of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were transferred to the elector of Bava- ria and the duke of Wurtemberg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon. The indepen- dence of the Helvetic republic was also stipulated. A new iron and stone railway and passenger bridge over the Danube wa.s inaugurated by the emperor, 30 Dec. 1890. Pop. 1890, 52,444. Presbyte'rian§ are so called from their maintaining that the government of the church appointed in the New Tes- tament was by presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling elders, equal in power, office, and in order. " The el- ders (Gr. TrpiajivTkpovi:) I exhort, who am also an elder {avu- 7rpt(T(ivTepog) " (1 Pet. v. 1). Presbyterianism was accepted by Parliament in place of episcopacj' in England in 1648, but set aside at the Kestoration in 1660. It became the estab- lished form of church government in Scotland in 1696, tenets were embodied in the formulary of faith said to ha been composed by John Knox in 1560, which was approv by Parliament and ratified, 1567 ; and finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate, 1696, and afterwards secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. The first Presbyterian meeting-house in England was established at Wandswort Surrey, 20 Nov. 1572. A Pan-Presbyterian congress held in London. Representa- tives of about 50 bodies, British. American, and foreign, form an "Alliance of Presbyterian cliurches". . .19-22 July, 1875 Presbyterian church of England reconstituted at Liverpool (in union with the United Presbyterian church of Scotland), 13 .lune, 1876 General council of the "Alliance of Reformed churches through- out the world, holding the Presbyterian system," has its first meeting at Edinburgh 8 July, 1877 Second meeting of Presbyterian Alliance at Philadelphia, Pa., 23 Sept. 1880 Third meeting of Presbyterian Alliance at Belfast, Ireland, 24 June, 1884 Fourth meeting of Presbyterian Alliance at London, Engl., 3 July, 1888 Fifth meeting of Presbyterian Alliance at Toronto, Out 1892 C.^MEKONIANS, ChUKCH OF SCOTLAND, CoNGREGATIONAUSTS, GLASITKS. Pre§byteriail§ in the United States. The earliest Presbyterian emigrants were French. Huguenots led by Ri- bault, who came to the Carolinas in 1562. A Puritan Pres- byterian church was established on Long Island about 1641, and in New York city, 164.3. Dutch Presbyterianism was planted in New Amsterdam in 1628. In 1790 the strength of the Presbyterian church in the U. S. was represented by 4 synods, 16 presbyteries, 431 churches, 177 ministers, and 18,000 communicants. In 1890 there were 30 synods, 213 presbyteries, 6894 churches, 6158 ministers, and 775,903 communicants. Or, if all the different bodies are estimated, as the Cumberland Presbyterians, United Presbyterians, etc., they number 12,462 churches and 1,278,815 members; value of church property, $94,876,233. I »o- •I ^edP m u PRE 667 PRE Francis Makemie, licentiate of the Presbytery of Laggan in 1681, establishes the first organized Presbyterian church in America, at Snow Hill, Maryland 1684 Church under Presbyterian government established at Ja- maica, L. I., John Hubbard, pastor, but suppressed by gov. Cornbury the same year 1702 Makemie visits England and returns to Maryland with John Hampton and George Macuish, sent out by the London union of Presbyterian and Independent ministers 1703-4 First presbytery in the U. S., probably formed at a meeting held at Freehold, N. J., of 7 ministers : Francis Makemie, John Hampton, George Macnish, Samuel Davis, John Wilson, Jedediah Andrews, and Nathaniel Taylor 1705 or 1706 Synod organized consisting of 19 ministers 19 Apr. 1717 Celebrated "Adopting act" of the synod, accepting for the Presbyterian church in U. S. the Confession of Faith and Larger and Shorter Catechism of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster 1729 Synod divided on questions of church polity, into the Old Side, and New Brunswick party or New Side 1741 Morris's reading house erected in Hanover county, Va., about 1743 New Brunswick party and New York presbytery meet at Eliz- abethtowu, N. J., and form the synod of New York Sept. 1745 College of New Jersey, chartered and opened at Elizabeth town, N. J. , 1746, is removed to Newark after the death of pres. Jona- than Dickinson (7 Oct. 1747), and Aaron Burr appointed presi- dent undera new charter, 1748. College removed to Princeton, 1755 Reunion of Old and New Side synods at Philadelphia, the "Synod of New York and Philadelphia," with 94 ministers and 14 elders, Gilbert Tennent moderator 29 May, 1768 Rev. James Waddel (blind), whose eloquence is described by William Wirt in the BrUish Spy, is licensed by the old presbytery of Hanover, Va Apr. 1761 Plan of missionary collections in all of the churches of each presbytery adopted by synod 1767 Provision made for circulation by committees appointed in Philadelphia and New York, of Bibles and religious books in the frontier settlements 1773 Presbytery of 4 seceding ministers, Presbyterian in form, but Congregational in fact, known as the Associated Presbytery of Morris county, is formed at Hanover, Va 3 May, 1780 Washington college in Rockbridge, Va., opened in 1774 as Au- gusta academy, is incorporated as Liberty hull 1782 Synod recommends the final abolition of slavery 1787 Constitution for the Presbyterian church in the U. S. ratified and adopted by synod 16 May, 1788 First general assembly of the church meets at Philadelphia. . . 1789 Robert Marshall and Carey H. Allen, the first missionaries sent out under the general assembly, enter Kentucky 1790 Associated presbytery of Westchester county, N. Y., organized, Jan. 1792 Northern associated presbytery in state of New York organ- ized at New Canaan 12 Nov. 1793 First theological department in connection with a college in America, added to Liberty hall under the patronage of the synod of Virginia ' Jan. 1794 Convention of Correspondence, to meet annually, organized by A.ssociated presbyteries at Poiighkeepsie 10 Apr. " General assembly meets at Carlisle 1792 and 1795 Union college at Schenectady founded - " New York missionary society formed 1 Nov. 1796 General assembly meets at Winchester, Va 1799 Great revival in Kentucky, Tennessee, New York, and New England 1799-1800 Rev. James Hall, licensed by the presbytery of Orange in 1776, begins mission work at Natchez, Miss " "A Plan of Union " between Presbyterians and Congregation- alists is proposed to the general assembly by the general as- sociation of Connecticut, and adopted 1801 A permanent missionary fund of $12,359. 92>^, the interest only to be used, is established by the assembly " Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian church in America, or Covenanters, organized at Philadelphia 24 May, 1809 Schism, originating in licensing laymen asexhorters during the revival of 1801; Cumberland presbytery withdraws and or- i ganizes the Cumberland Presbyterian church 1811 Standing committee of missions appointed 1802, and title changed to Board of Missions in 1816 United Foreign Missionary Society organized to succeed the I New York Missionary Society 28 July, 1817 ! Elias Cornelius and Sylvester Larned, missionaries, organize a i church in New Orleans. Corner stone laid 8 Jan. 1819 ; Board of Education established " : United Domestic Missionary Society of New York established, 1822 j United Foreign Missionary Society amalgamates with the I American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. .. . 1826 American and Presbyterian education societies united 1827 I Steps taken in 1819 providing an authorized psalmody for the jl church results in the publication adopted 1830 t Western Foreign Missionary Society of the U. S. organized by the synod of Pittsburg 1831 •Western Memorial," signed by 18 ministers and 99 elders, charging "a widely spread principle of evil operating in the J Presbyterian church, to the general change of its form of I government and the character of its creed," is refused a rec- I ord in the assembly of 1834, by vote of 56 to 42. The me- I morialists meet and dr.aw up a paper styled "The Acts and i Testimony," re-echoing the statements of the memorial 1834 j "Acts and Testimony convention " at Pittsburg, 41 presbyteries and 13 minorities of presbyteries represented, draw up a list of grievancee for the assembly May, 1835 General assembly meets at Pittsburg, Pa 1835 Presbytery and synod of Cincinnati, try and acquit dr. Lyman Beecher, charged by dr. Wilson of Cincinnati with teaching Pelagian and Arminian doctrines 9 June et seq. " Assembly acquit dr. Albert Barnes, charged with teaching "dangerous errors or heresies" in his Notes on Romans, and suspended by the synod of Philadelphia 1836 "Plan of union " of 1801 abrogated by vote 143 to 110 in the general assembly at Philadelphia, as unnatural and uncon- stitutional 22 May, 1837 Assembly resolve " that, by the operation of the abrogation of the plan of union of 1801, the synod of the Western Reserve is and is hereby declared to be no longer a part of the Pres- byterian church of America," by 132 to 105 30 May, " Assembly direct that the so-called American Home Missionary Society and American Education Society cease to operate with any Presbyterian church, 124 to 86, 2 June, 1837, and exscind the synods of Utica, Genesee, and Geneva, by 115 to 88, 3 June, " Presbytery of Philadeli)hia, of which Albert Barnes was a mem- ber, is dissolved by vote of general assembly 7 June, " Board of Foreign Missions established by assembly June, " Convention of exscinded synods at Auburn, N. Y., proiwse to retain their organization 17 Aug. " In accordance with the exscinding act of 1837, the general as- sembly organizes at the Seventh Presbyterian church, Phila- delphia, 17 May, 1838. Representatives from the exscinded synods being refused recognition, John P. Cleaveland, of the presbytery of Detroit, moves to organize, which is rapidly done, and dr. S. Fisher chosen moderator. This organization adjourns to the First Presbyterian church (Mr. Barnes's), where it rescinds the obnoxious acts of the assembly of 1837, 1838 Assembly at the First Presbyterian church (New School assem- bly) is declared the true general assembly of the Presbyterian church in the U. S., by the Supreme court 4 Mch. 1839 Board of Church Erection established 1844 First Presbyterian church on the whole Pacific coast organized at Astoria 19 Sept. 1846 Standing Committee on Publication appointed 1852 Permanent Committee on Ministerial Education established... 1854 Board of Ministerial Relief established 1855 United Presbyterian church formed by union of Associate Presbyterian and Associate Reformed Presbyterian church. . 1858 Southern general assembly formed with title "The Presbyte- rian Church in the United States" 1861 Reunion of the Old and New Schools at Pittsburg, Pa., 12 Nov. 1869 Presbyterian hospital, Philadelphia, chartered Apr. 1871 Presbyterian hospital opened in New York city 10 Oct. 1872 Presbyterian eye, ear, and throat hospital at Baltimore, Md., opened 1 Dec. 1877 Board of Aid for colleges established 1883 Centenary of the general assembly celebrated by the northern and southern assemblies, at Philadelphia 24 May, 1888 Committee on the revision of the Westminster Confession meets at Alleghany, Pa 7 Sept. 1890 Trial of dr. Briggs 1892 PRESBYTEKIAN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES IN THE U. S. Estab. Chart, United Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Xenia, Xenia, 1877—1794 Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church, Prince- ton, N. J 1822—1812 Auburn Theological Seminary. Auburn, N. Y 1820—1821 Union Theological Seminary, Hampden Sidney, Va 1867 — 1824 Theological Seminary of the United Presbyterian Church, Alleghany, Pa 1830—1825 Western Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church, Alleghany, Pa 1844—1827 Theological Seminary of the General Assembly of the Presbvterian Church, Columbia, S. C 1828 Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, 1829—1831 Union Theological Seminary, New York 1839—1836 Associate Reformed Theological Seminary, Due West,S. C. , 1839 German Presbyterian Theological School of the North- west, Dubuque, la 1852 Danville Theological Seminary, Danville, Ky 1854—1853 Theological School of Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn 1842— " Theological Seminary of the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Alleghany, Pa 1858 McCormick Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church, Chicago, 111 1859—1859 Theological Department of Biddle University, Charlotte, N. C 1877-1868 German Theological School of Newark, Bloomfield, N. J. 1869 San Francisco Theological Seminary, San Francisco, Cal. 1871 Institute for training colored ministers, Tuscaloosa, Ala. 1876 President and Elldymion. Naval battles. President and Little Beit. United States, 1811. President of tlie United States. To be eligible, must be 35 years old ; a natural-born citizen of the U. S., and a resident for 14 years. Elected by electors chosen by the different states, for' a term of 4 years. Powers : To approve and negative bills; to grant reprieves and pardons for ofFences against the U. S., except in case of impeachment; to make treaties, and to nominate ambassadors and other pub- PRE He ministers, consuls, judges of the supreme court, etc., and by and with the consent of the Senate appoint such officers ; to till vacancies that may occur during the recess of the Senate by granting commissions, but which shall expire at the end of the next session ; to convene Congress, one or both houses; to adjourn Congress to such a time as he may think proper, in case it cannot agree upon an adjournment. The president is 658 PRE also commander-in-chief of the array and navy, and of the militia of the several states when called into the service of the U. S. Duties : To give information to Congress from time to time regarding the state of the Union, and to recommend to its consideration such measures as he shall judge neces- sary and expedient ; to receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; to see that the laws are faithfully executed, etc. PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES AND THEIR WIVES, BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, DEATHS, Em Niune. Born. Married. Died. Buried. F«mi 1. George Washington., Mrs. Martha CusUs. . . 2. John Adama Abigail Smith 3. Thomas Jefferson. . . Mrs. Martha Skelton 4. James Madison Mrs. Dorothy Todd.. 6. James Monroe Eliza Kortv.Tight 6. John Q. Adams Louisa C. Johuson 7. Andrew Jackson Mrs. Rachel Robards.. 8. Martin Van Buren... Hannah Goes 9. William H. Harrison. . Anna Symmes 10. John Tyler Letitia Christian Julia Gardiner 11. James K. Polk Sarah Childress 12. Zachary Taylor Margaret Smith 13. Millard Fillmore Abigail Power Mrs. Caroline Mcintosh 14. Franklin Pierce Jane M. Appleton. . . 15. James Buchanan. . . 16. Abraham Lincoln. . Mary Todd 17. Andrew Job n.son.. . Eliza McCardle 18. Ulysses S. Grant Julia Dent 19. Rutherford B. Hayes. Lucy Ware Webb 20. James A. Garfield Lucretia Randoipb. . . 21. Cbester A. Arthur Ellen L. Herndon 22. Grover Cleveland Frances Folsom 23. Benjamin Harrison. . . Caroline L. Scott..... 22 Feb. 1732, nr. Fredericksburg, Va. - May, 1732, Kent county, Va 30 Oct. 1735, Braintree, Mass 22 Nov. 1744, Weymouth, Mass 13 Apr. 1743, Shad well, Va 19 Oct 1748, Cliarles City co., Va.. . 16 Mch. 1751, Port Conway, Va. . . . 20 May, 1772, North Carolina 28 Apr. 1758, Westmoreland CO., Va. 17—, New York city 11 July, 1767, Quincy, Mass ) 11 Feb. 1775, London, Engl J 15 Mch. 1767, Mecklenburg co.,N. C. i 1767 ( 5 Dec. 1782, Kinderhook, N. Y. . . . \ 8 Mch. 1783, " "....; 9 Feb. 1773, Berkeley, Va ) 25 July, 1775, Morristown, N. J J 29 Mch. 1790, Charles City co., Va... 12 Nov. 1790, Cedar Grove, Va 1820, East Hampton, N. Y. . 2 Nov. 1795, Mecklenburg, N. C. . . 4 Sept. 1803, Murfreesboro, Tenn.. 24 Nov. 1784, Orange county, Va. . . 1790, Calvert county, Md 7 Jan. 1800, Summer Hill, N. Y. . . 13 Mch. 1798, Stillwater, N. Y 21 Oct. 1813 23 Nov. 1804, Hillsborough, N. H. . . 12 Mch. 1806, Hampton, N. H J 23 Apr. 1791, Stony Batter, Pa 12 Feb. 1809, La Hue county, Ky. . . \ 12 Dec. 1818, 1,exington, Ky f 29 Dec. 1808, Raleigh, N. C I 4 Oct. 1810, Leesburg, Tenn | 27 Apr. 1822, Point Pleasant, 26 Jan. 1826, St. Louis, Mo 4 Oct. 1822, Delaware, 28 Aug. 1831, Chillicothe, 19 Nov. 1831, Orange township, 0. 19 Apr. 1832, Hiram. 5 Oct. 1830, Fairfield, Vt 30 Aug. 1837, Culpeper C. H., Va. . 18 Mch. 1837, Caldwell, N. J %lSxi\y, 1864, Buffalo, N. Y. 20 Aug. 1833, Mprth Bend, 1 Oct. 1832, afford. 17 Jan. 1759. 25 Oct. 1764. IJan. 1772. — Oct. 1794. 23 Feb. 1786. 26 July, 1797. -Jan. 1791. — Feb. 1807. 22 Nov. 1795, 29 Mch. 1813. 26 June, 1844. IJan. 1824. , 1810. 5 Feb. 1826. 18 Feb. 1858. 19 Nov. 1834. Unmarried. .. 4 Nov. 1842. 17 May, 1827. 22 Aug. 1848. 30 Dec. 1852. 11 Nov. 1858. 29 Oct. 1859. 2 June, 1886. 20 Oct. 1853. 14 Dec. 28 May, 4 July, 28 Oct. 4 July, 5 Sept. 28 June, 12 July, 1799t 1802( 1826\ 1818/ 1826) 1782 j" 1830 i 1849 r Mt. Vernon, Va. Quincy,- Mass. .. Monticello, Va. . 4 July, 1831 23 Sept. 23 Feb. 15 May, 8 June, 22 Dec. 24 July, 5 Feb. 4 Apr. 25 Feb. 17 Jan. 10 Sept. 10 July, 15 June, 14 Aug. 9 July, 18 Aug. 9 Mch. 30 Mch. 11 Aug. 8 Oct. 2 Dec. 1 June, 15 Apr. 16 July, 31 July, 15 Jan. 1848) 1852/ 1845) 1828 f 1862 ) 1819 j 1841) 1864/ 1862) 1842 ( 1889) 1849) 1891/ 1850) 18()2| 1874 1853 1881 1869) 1863/ 1868 1865) 1883) 1875) 1876] 23 July, 1885 17 Jan.' 1893) 25 June, 1889/ 19 Sept. 1881 ) 18 Nov." '18861 12 Jan. 1880 ( I 25 Oct. 1892 j Montpelicr, Vt (FirstN.Y. ;trans-~| { ferred 1858 to ' ( Richmond, Va; ( Oak Hill, Va J Quincy, Mass Hermitage, Tenn Kinderhook, N.Y... North Bend, Richmond, Va Cedar Grove, Va.. Richmond, Va Nashville, Tenn. . . Near Louisville, Ky. Buffalo, N. Y I Concord, N. H Wheatland, Pa. Springfield, 111 Greenville, Tenn /Riverside, New) \ York citj-^ V None. 3 boys, 2 girls. 6 girls. None. 2 girls. 3 boys, 1 girl. 3 boys. 4 boys. 6 boys, 4 girls. 3 boys, 4 girls. 4 boys, 2 girls. None. 1 boy, 3 girls. 1 bo J', 1 girl. None. 3 bovs. 4 boys. 3 boys, 2 girls, 3 boys, 1 girl 4 Fremont, ().. Cleveland, 0., Albany, N. Y Indianapolis, Ind. 7 boys, 1 girl. 4 boys, 1 girl. 1 boy, 1 girl. 2 girls. 1 boy, 1 girl. presidents, Administrations of. United States. presidents. Continental Congress. United States. press. Liberty of the. The imprimatur (" let it be print- ed ") was much used on the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The liberty of the press was se- verely restrained, and the number of master-printers in London and Westminster limited by the star-chamber, 13 Charles I. 1 July, 1637. »' Disorders in printing " were repressed by Parliament in 1643 and 1649, and by Charles II 1662 Censorship of the press (by a license established in 1655 and 1693) abandoned 1695 Zenger of the New York Weekly Journal arrested (New York), 1734 The toast, "The liberty of the press: it is like the air we breathe — if we have it not, we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, London, at a Whig dinner 1795 Presses licensed, and the printer's name required on the first and last pages of a book in Great Britain July, 1799 Affair of the Federal Republican at Baltimore, Md. (Mary- land, United States) 1812 Case of the Observer (Alton riot, United States) 1837 Bill greatly freeing the press in France introduced into the Chamber 24 Jan. 1881 pressings to death. Mutk, Torture. Prester John. The first mention of this traditionary oriental ruler occurs in the chronicles of Otho or Otto, bishop of Treisingen, 1 145 ; also mentioned by Marco Polo. " The his- tory of Prester John is that of a phantom taking many forms." — Encyc. Brit., 9 ed., subject " Prester John." Abyssinia. Preston, a city of Lancashire, Engl. Near here Crom- well totally defeated the roj'alists under sir Marmaduke LangI dale, 17 Aug. 1648. Preston was taken in 1715 by the Scotch ini surgents under Forster, who proclaimed king James VIL Thej were defeated on 12, 13 Nov. by gens. Willes and Carpenter. Prestonpans, near Edinburgh, the sceneof abat tie I tween thej'oung Pretender, prince Charles Stuart, and hisScotcli adherents, and the royal army under sir John Cope, 21 Sept. 1745»| The latter was defeated with the loss of 600 men, and fled. Pretenders. A name given to the son and grand sons of James IL of England. Old Pretender, James Francis Edward Stuart, chevalier de St. George, b. 10 June, 1088, was acknowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England 1701 Proclaimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar and Castle- town, in Scotland 3 Sept. 1715 Landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France, to en- courage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other ad- herents had prompted 25 Dec. " This rebellion having been suppressed, the Pretender escaped to Montrose (thence to Gravelines) 4 Feb. 1716 Died at Rome 30 Dec. 1765 Young Pretender, Charles Edward, b 1720 Landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king. . .25 July, 1745 Gained the battle of Prestonpans, 21 Sept. 1745; and of Fal- kirk 17 Jan. 1746 Defeated at Culloden. and sought safety by flight 16 Apr. " He wandered among the wilds of Scotland for nearly 6 months; and as 30,000/. was offered for him, was constantly pursued, often hemmed round by his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and escaped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix in Sept. He d 31 Jan. 1788 [North Carolina, 1747 and 1771.] d PRI 659 PRI His natural daughter assumed the title of the duchess of Al- bany ; d 1789 His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of England, b. Mch. 1725; d. at Rome Aug. 1807 His alleged grandson, Charles Edward Stuart, comte d'Albanie, d 24 Dec. 1880 France, Sovereigns, Louis XVII.; Impostors; Bonaparte family; Bourbon. prices. Bread, Corn, Provisions. Pricle'§ purge. On 6 Dec. 1648, col. Pride, with 2 regiments, surrounded the House of Parliament, and seizing in the passage 41 menabers of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 other mem- bers were excluded, and none admitted but the most furious of the Independents. The privileged members were named the Rump Parliament, which was dismissed by Cromwell, 20 Apr. 1653. Prie'lie, one of the 12 cities of the Ionian league in Asia Minor. The temple of Minerva Polias, founded here by Alexander the Great, and the work of Pythios, was excavated by R. P. PuUan, for the Dilettanti Society, in 1868-69. priest (from Gr. irpia^vTEpoc, elder), in the English church the minister who presides over the public worship. In Gen. xiv. 18, Melchizedek, king of Salem, is termed " priest of the most high God" (1913 b.c. ; see Hebrews vii.). The Greek lepgyg, like the Jewish priest, had a sacrificial charac- ter, which idea of the priesthood is still maintained by the Romanists and those who favor their views. Among the Jews, the priests assumed their office at the age of 30 years. The dignity of high or chief priest was fixed in Aaron's fam- ily, 1491 B.C. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil gov- ernment and the crown were superadded to the high-priest- hood; it was the peculiar privilege of the high-priest that he could be prosecuted in no court but that of the great Sanhe- drim. The heathens had their arch-flamen, or high-priest, resembling the Christian archbishop. For "Priest in Abso- lution," Holy rood. priin'er (Lat. primus, first), a book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and formerly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers or portions of the Scripture. Primers were printed 1535, 1539. Henry VIII. issued a prayer- book called a " primer" in 1546. The 3 were published by dr. Burton in 1834 ; also an elementary work for teaching children, as the " New England Primer." Education. primogeil'lture, Right of, a usage brought down from the earliest times. The first-born, in the patriarchal ages, had a superiority over his brethren, and in the absence of his father was priest to the family. In some parts of Eng- land, by the ancient customs of gavel-kind and borough- English, primogeniture was superseded. It came in with the feudal law, 3 Will. 1. 1068. The rights of primogeniture abol- ished in France, L790. Prince Ed^^ard island, a province of Canada, in the gulf of St. Lawrence, North America, was discovered by Cabot in 1597 ; was finally taken from the French by the British in 1758; united with Cape Breton as a colony in 1763, but separated in 1768. Area, 2000 sq. miles; pop. 1891, 109,088. Princeton, N. J., Battle of. On 2 Jan. 1777, Washing- ton, with a force of about 5000 men, half of them militia, was encamped at Trenton, N. J. Cornwallis, in command of the British troops at Princeton, leaving 3 regiments at that place, moved to attack the Americans. The British encamped for the night, 2 Jan., a short distance from the American camp. Washington, fully realizing the extreme peril of either fight- ing or retreating, conceived the bold movement of passing to the rear of the enemj'^ during the night and attacking the force at Princeton, thus saving his army, and at the same time inflicting a severe blow on his adversary. This was suc- cessfully accomplished, and early on the morning of 3 Jan. Washington surprised and defeated the British at Princeton before Cornwallis was fully aware that the Americans had ' moved. The British loss was 450 in all, while the American's was about 100, but among them gen. Mercer. The Americans i then went into winter quarters at Morristown. . Trenton. j printing. The art of impressing letters, characters, or I figures on any fitting material. Block-printing was invented by the Chinese about 593 a.d. ; movable types made in the 10th century. The invention of copper types is attributed to the Coreans in the beginning of the 15th century. The honor of first printing with single types in Europe has been appro- priated by Mentz, Strasburg, Haarlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, Basle, and Augsburg. The earliest dated wood-cut known is the St. Christopher of 1423, preserved in the library of lord Spencer at Althorp (now— 1894 — in possession of Mrs. Rylands of Manchester). " When we consider that printing of a rudi- mentary kind had existed for so many centuries, and that dur- ing the whole of the early part of the 15th century examples with words or even whole lines of inscription were produced, we can only wonder that the discovery of printing from mov- able types should have been so late. It has been said inven- tions will always be made when the need for them has arisen, and this is the real reason, perhaps, why the discovery of print- ing was delayed. We may say, therefore, that the intellectual activity of the 15th century not only called printing into ex- istence, but furnished it with the noblest models. The scribes of Italy, at this epoch, had revived the Caroline minuscules, as used in the 11th and 12th centuries, and it was this beautiful hand which has given us the 'Roman' type in which our books are still printed." — E. G. Duff, " Early Printed Books." Lourens .Janszoon Coster of Haarlem "printed with blocks a book of images and letters, ' Speculum Humanae Salvationis,' and compounded an ink more viscous and tenacious than common ink " {Adrian Junius; Books) about 1438 ["On no subject connected with printing has more been written and to less purpose than on the Haarlem invention of printing by Lourens Janszoon Coster. During the 15th century much had been said about the invention, accrediting it always to Germany; and it was not till 1499 that a ref- erence was made to an earlier Dutch discovery.""— /?m_^, "Early Printed Books," London, 1893.] John Faust establishes a printing-office at Mentz (Mayence), and prints the "Tractatus Petri Hispani" 1442 Earliest specimen of printing from movable type known to ex- ist was the famous indulgence of Nicholas V. to such as should contribute money to aid the king of Cyprus against the Turks, printed at Mainz 1454 [Of the "Biblia Pauperum " there are 3 dated editions known, one of 1470, and 2 of 1471} John Guttenberg of Mentz (Mayence) invents cut metal type, used in printing the earliest edition of the Latin (Mazarine) Bible (42 lines to the page) (Books) 1455 First book with a printed date, "Psalmorum Codex," printed by SchOffer 1457 "Duriindi Rationale," the first work printed with cast metal types, is issued by Faust & SchOflf'er at Mentz 1459 First Latin Bible with a date completed at Mentz by Faust & SchOffer 1462 Sack of Mentz by Adolphus of Nassau in Oct. 1462, leads to the dispersion of the printers in that city, and a consequent wide-spread knowledge of the art of printing " Roman type first used at Strasburg, Germany, by John Men- telin about 1461-64 Greek type first seen in "Cicero de Officiis," printed at Mentz by Faust & SchOffer 1465 First printing at Cologne by Ulric Zee 1465-66 Roman characters first used at Rome instead of the semi- Gothic. Here first appeared the long f introduced by Sweyn- heym & Pannartz, printers 1467 First printing at Augsburg by Gunther Zainer; first dated book,"Meditationes Viti Domini nostri Jesu Christi "..Mch. 1468 First printing-press set up in Paris l)y 3 Germans, Martin Crantz, Ulrich Gering, and Michael Friburger. First book they issued was "Gasparini Pergamensis Epistolarum Opus," 1470 [Among the books printed by them during the next 3 years were, "Florus and Sallust," "Terence," Virgil's " Ec- logues and Georgics," "Juvenal and Persius," Cicero's "Tus- culan Disputations," and " Valerius Maximus."] First printing in Nuremberg " First book printed in the English language was a translation of " Le Recueil des Histoires de Troyes," translated by Will- iam Caxton at Cologne, and probably printed by him there. . 1471 Music printed from wooden blocks by Hans Froschauer of Augsburg 1473 Caxton erects his press in the almonry at Westminster, where he prints the "Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosopers;" the first book printed in England, "Game and Playe of the Chesse," 1474 [Second edition, without date or place, is the first book printed in English with woodcuts.] Salomon Jarchi's "Commentary on the Pentateuch," printed in Hebrew type at Reggio, Italy 1475 ".'Esop's Fables," printed by Caxton, is supposed to be the first book with its leaves numbered 1484 Theobaldus Manntius (Aldus) moves to Venice in 1488, and begins the printing of the celebrated Aldine editions there.. . 1494 Earliest specimen of music type appears in Hegden's " Poly- chronicon," printed by Wynkyn de Worde, at Westminster. . 1495 Total number of places where printing was practised in Ger- many was at least 50 as early as 1500 Aldus of Venice introduces italic types, which he first used in the " Virgil "of 1501 PRI 660 PRI Printing introduced into Scotland by Andrew Myllar in tho Sotilhgiito at Kdinburgh 1508 "Manual do Adultos,'' printed by Juan (Jromberger, in Mexico, 1540 " Liturgy," the llrst book printed in Ireland, is issued from the press of Humphrey Powell 1550 "DoclrinaChrisliana," printed at liiuia, Peru, by Anton ioRicardo, 15.S1 First patent "ranted for printing 15<.)1 Kunic type tVrst used at Stockholm in a Uunic and Swedish •' Alpliabetarium " lOU William Jausen Blaeuw of Amsterdam invents the so-called "Nine Muses" printing press 1(520 First printing press in the U. S. set up in tho house of Henry l>un8ter, president of Harvard college at Cambridge, and the Freeman's Oath and an almanac printed by Stei)hen Daye. . 1G39 First Bible printed in America, Kliot's Indian translation, is- sued from the Cambridge press (Biblk) 1663 Government of Massachusetts appoints licensers of the press (1662), and passes laws that " no printing should bo allowed in any town within the jurisdiction, except in Cambridge" 1664 Calico printing, introduced from India into Europe, was com- menced in London, Kngl 1676 Sir John Harrmgton's translation of "Orlando Furioso," the first Knglish work with copper plates used, printed 1690 Fii-st printing in New York was gov. Fletcher's proclamation, from the press of William Bradford, and dated 25 Aug. 1693 William ('a.slou establishes a type foundry in Loudon, Engl 1716 Stereotyi)e printing practised by William Ged, a goldsmith of Edinburgh, who made i>laster-of-Paris moulds about 1730 Christopher Sower, or Sauer, prints at Gerniantown, Pa., the first German almanac printed in America, 1738, and an edition of the Bible, the second Bible printed in North America 1743 Abel Buell of Killingworth, Conn., presents a memorial to the General Assembly, setting forth his discoveries in the art of type-founding, printed with type of his own casting Oct. 1769 First regular type-foundry in America established in German- town, Pa., by Christopher Sower, jr 1772 Benjamin Mecom, nephew of dr. Franklin, makes au unsuc- cessful attempt to stereotype portions of the New Testament, 1775 Present mode of stereotyping invented by Mr. Tilloch. . .about 1779 Logotypes, or words and syllables cast in one piece, invented in England 1783 First successful effort to introduce printing in raised charac- ters for the blind made by abb6 Valentin Hauy, at Paris 1784 Machine printing first suggested by William Nicholson, edi- tor of the Philosophical Journal of England 1790 First i)rinting in the U. S. west of the Mississippi river by Jacob Hunkle at St. Louis 1808 Patent granted in England to Frederick KOnig for a power printing press 29 Mch. 1810 First work by a power-press was sheet "H" of the Annual Register for 1810, at the rate of 800 impressions per hour, Apr. 1811 Stereotyping introduced into the U. S. from England by David Bruce, 1812. The " Larger Catechism of the Westminster As- sembly " printed by J. Watt & Co. of New York, claims on its title p:ige to be the first work stereotyped in America.. June, 1813 Composition roller, an invention claimed by several persons, comes into use about " KOnig constructs the first successful power-machine (capacity 1800 sheets per hour on one side), from which was i)rinted the London Times of 28 Nov. 1814 George Clymer of Philadelphia invents the Columbian press, 1817, which he introduces in London, Engl 1818 William Church of England patents a type setting machine.. . . 1822 Bed and platen press invented by Isaac Adams of Boston 1830 Fred. Rosenberg in the U. S. patents a type setting machine. . . 1840 Anastatic printing from zinc plates invented by Baldernius of Berlin about 1841 Early specimens of printing from electrotype plates are the London Journal for Apr. 1840, and Mapes's Magazine in the U. S. ; plates for the latter were produced by Joseph A. Ad- ams, a wood engraver " R. M. Hoe of New York invents the " type-revolving printing- machine," or lightning press, first used by the Public Ledger of Philadelphia 1846 Hoe rotary press introduced into Paris, France 1848 Papier mach 6 stereotyping first used in Paris for books " Bullock's web-perfecting press, which prints on both sides from a continuous roll or web of paper, self-feeding, patented by William Bullock of Pittsburg, Pa 14 Apr. 1863 The linotype, a type-casting machine, operated by a lettered key-board, the invention of Ottmar Mergenthaler of Balti- more, Md., and covered by numerous patents, is perfected. . 1888 [This machine sets up the type matrices, justifies each line, makes metal casts for printing, and distributes the ma- trices at the rate of from 3600 to 6000 ems per hoar.] Printing was introduced into the 13 original states of the U.S. by the following nanoed persons at the tinoe and place noted: Massachusetts Cambridge Stephen Daye 1639 Virginia. Williamsburg John Buckner 1680-82 Pennsylvania near Philadelphia.. William Bradford 1685 New York New York city William Bradford 1693 Connecticut New London Thomas Short 1709 Maryland Annapolis William Parks 1726 South Carolina Charleston Eleazer Phillips 1730 Rhode Island Newport James Franklin 1732 New Jersey ..... Woodbridge James Parker 1751 North Carolina New-Berne James Davis 1749 New Hampshire Portsmouth Daniel Fowle 1756 Delaware Wilmington James Adams 1761 Georgia Savannah James Johnston 1762 printings In eolor§ was first done with blocks tl imitate the initial vari-colored letters of MSS., as in Coster'j "Speculum Humanjc Salvationis" of 1438, and the Ment "Psalter" of Faust, 1455. Stenochromy, or printing in 8ev< eral colors at one impression, and chromo-lithography, printing from a number of separate stones, one for each color, are the processes of color-printing in general use. The latter ha reached high perfection. Prang, in the famous chrome "Family Scene in Pompeii," used 43 separate stones. "Hints on Color-printing," illustrated by printed imitations of chiaroscuro and of colored drawings, giving details of the process, written and published by William Savage 1819- Parisian named Lacroix exhibits at the Paris industrial fair specimens of female heads printed in tints of difierenl colors, by a process which he calls lithochromy 182 George Baxter issues a "Pictorial Album," using as many as 20 diflerent blocks for a single picture 18 Storch and Kramer of Berlin successfully reproduce oil paint- ings by chromo lithography 1840 Adams poly-chromatic press, producing a number of colors at 1 impression by separate inking fountains, invented ig Chromo-lithography introduced into Philadelphia, where are produced chromos of Washington and Lafayette 1849 G. C. Leighton begins color-printing by machinery 1861 Large colored prints of the Illustrated London News first is- sued Dec. If Rubber stamps. Hand-stamps, made of vulcanized india-rubber, by John Leighton, F.S. A., about 1862, and patented 18645 Bible and Books for early records. priories, religious houses next in dignity below abbeys, and at first were dependent on them, are mentioned in 722 in England. Abbeys. Alien priories were seized by the king (Edward I.) in 1285, and in succeeding reigns on the breaking out of war with France; but were usually restored on the con- clusion of peace. These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3 Hen. V. l41-i.—Ei/mer'is Fcedera. PriscillianiitS, disciples of Priscillian, a Spanish bishop who was accused of teaching gnosticism and mani- chaeism, 372. When condemned he appealed from the pope to the emperor, but was beheaded at Treves, 385. prisoners, Kulers of nations as noted : Harold, afterwards II. of England, wrecked on the coast of France, 1063(?); imprisoned by count Guy of I'onthieu. who at the request of William, duke of Normandy, afterwards William I. of England, gave Harold to him. Harold, to gain his liberty, swore ou holy relics to support William's claim to the crown. Hastings. Richard I. of England, returning from the crusade incognito, taken prisoner by Leopold V.,duke of Austria, 1192, and .sold to Henry VI. of Germany. England paid 300,000^. for his release, 1194. David II. of Scotland captured at the battle of Durham. 1346, and detained a prisoner for 11 years by Edward HI. of England. John II. king of France, taken prisoner by the Black Prince at the battle of Poictiers, 1356; gained his liberty, 1360; his son, left as hostiige, having fled, John returned voluntarily to captivity, and died in London, 1364. James I. of Scotland, captured on his way to France, when 11 years old, by Henry IV. of England, 1405, and remained a captive until 1424, when liberated by Henry V., the Scots paying 40,000/. as the cost of his maintenance while a prisoner. Francis I. of France, prisoner to Charles V. of Spain, cnptured at the battle of Pavia, 1525, only regains his liberty by ceding to Charles Burgundy and Milan, 21 Feb. 1626. Mary, queen of Scots, passing voluntarily into England, 1.568, im- prisoned 19 years, and executed by order of Elizabeth, H P'eb. 1587. Napoleon I. of France, surrendering to the English, 1815, impris- oned by them on the island of St. Helena, where he d. 1821. prisoners of war, among the ancient nations, when spared, were usually enslaved. About the 13th century, civ- ilized nations began to exchange their prisoners. Spanish, French, and American prisoners of war in England were 12,000 in number 30 Sept. 1779 Number exchanged by cartel with France, from the commence- ment of the then war. was 44,000 June, 1781 English prisoners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England 27,000 Sept. 1798 English in France amounted to 10,300, and the French, etc., in England to 47,600 1811 Great numbers made by the Germans in the war 1870-71 AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. No official record of the number of prisoners captured or exchanged during the civil war has at this writing (1894) been compiled. Complete figures are promised in series 2 of the official records of the war department, now being published. Early in 1864 the secretary of war reported the number of captures during the war as follows: 1 lieutenant-general, 5 major-generals, 25 brigadier- generals, 186 colonels, 146 lieutenant-colonels, 244 majors, 2497 captains, 5811 lieutenants, 16,563 non-commissioned officers, 121,156 privates, and 5800 citizens, a total of 152,434. There had been exchanged up to that time 121,937 confederates, against 110,866 Union soldiers returned. On 14 June, 1862, a conference was held on the banks of the Chickahominy, between col. Thomas PRI M. Key and gen. Howell Cobb, regarding the exchange of prisoners of war. A cartel was signed by maj.-gen. John A. Dix, U. S. A., and maj.-gen. D. H. Hill, C. S. A., at Haxall's Landing, on the James river, Va., 22 July, and announced in public order 25 Sept. The value of prisoners was to be rank for rank, or 60 privates for a commanding general-in-chief, 40 for a major-general, 20 for a brigadier-general, 15 for a colonel, 10 for a lieutenant-colonel, etc. An act of the Confederate Congress, 1 May, 1863, to punish by death or otherwise, commanders of negro troops captured in bat- tle, stopped exchanges except by agreement between generals in the field. The matter was placed in charge of lieut. -gen. Grant, 15 Oct. 1864, and negotiations renewed for exchange of all prison- ers. Between 1 Jan. and 20 Oct. 1865, there were in the custody of the U. S. 98,802 prisoners of war; of these 1955 enlisted in the service of the U. S., 63,442 were released after cessation of hostili- ties, and 33,127 were exchanged; besides these, 174,223 prisoners surrendered in the Confederate armies, and were released on parole. pri§OIl§ and penitCIltiarie§. Prison reform in England began with the efforts of John Howard (1726-90), who was appointed sheriff of Bedford in 1773, and made a personal investigation of English prisons. Between 1775 and 1783 Howard travelled on the Continent, finding the prisons there on the whole superior to those of England. At Augs- ; burg he found instruments of torture and dungeons for people convicted of witchcraft. In Russia he saw the different in- ; struments of death and torture: the axe and block, a machine f for breaking arms and legs, a knife for slitting noses, the cat, t knout, etc. Of the prison at Venice, the best he could say i was, " Mercifully there were no irons, happily there was no i fever." Holland was in advance in reform, and Howard writes, " I know not which to admire most : the neatness and ■ cleanliness appearing in the prisons, the industry and regu- i lar conduct of the prisoners, or the humanity and attention of I the magistrates and governors." Howard died at Kherson, ' southern Russia, on his way to Constantinople. Of English ! prisons at this period, Joseph Kingsmill, chaplain of the Pen- •■ tonville prison, says : " The state of prisons in England when ! the illustrious Howard began his work of inspection was in : the highest degree disgraceful to the nation. A committal ! to prison was, in fact, equivalent in many cases to a sentence I of death by some frightful disease; and in all, to the utmost • extremes of hunger and cold. One of these diseases, gener- ated by the want of proper ventilation, warmth, cleanliness, and ; food, became known as the jail-fever. It swept away hundreds jevery year, and sent out others on their liberation miserably {enfeebled. The keeper cared for none of these things; his ; highest duty was to keep his prisoners safe, and his highest aspiration the fees squeezed out of their miserable relatives." lEnglish Parliament enacts laws abolishing prison fees, and for I improving the sanitary condition of jails 1774 (Prison built at Horsham', on Howard's plan, by duke of Rich- : mond 1776 iFirst of John Howard's works on prisons, ''The State of 1 Prisons in England and Wales," pub 1777 iGloucester jail, England, on the solitary plan, completed 1792 ;Elizabeth Fry begins her mission to the female prisoners in 1 Newgate about 1813 IPrison Discipline Society of England, for the amelioration of jails, the classification and employment of prisoners, and the I prevention of crime, instituted 1815 IRoyal Prison Society of France organized 1819 iPenitentiary at Millbank, on plan of Jeremy Bentham in his ' "Panopticon; or, the Inspection House," completed 1821 jricket-of-leave legalized by statute in England 1834 Separate system of imprisonment first tried in the prisons of Ghent 1835 Juvenile prison at Parkhurst, in the isle of Wight, opened 1838 jCellular prison at Pentonville, England, opened 1842 iPirst prison congress, proposed by DucpiStiaux, inspector gen- ' eral of prisons in Belgium, meets at Frankfort-on-the Main, 1845 International prison congress at Brussels 1846 *^ew system of imprisonment in England, under which con- victs pass through the prisons of Pentonville, Millbank, and Portsmouth before being conditionally released, is adopted. . 1847 [rish convict, or Crofton system, attributed to Alexander Mac- ; onochie in 1840, introduced by sir Walter Crofton into Ire- land 1854 nternatioual prison congress at Frankfort-on-the-Main 1857 Joward Association in England instituted 1866 'arole system adopted in the German empire 1871 ^irst International prison congress meets in London. . .3 July, 1872 ''arole system adopted in Japan " ,'ontrol of jails in England vested in a body of prison com- ; missioners appointed by the home secretary, by act of. 1877 nternatioual prison congress meets at Stockholm 1878 I'risoners' aid societies; Prison Charities act passed by British ; Parliament 1882 'arole system adopted in France 1885 nternatioual prison congress meets at Rome " Centenary of the death of John Howard celebrated 20 Jan. 1890 661 PRI International prison congress at St. Petersburg, 19 June et seq. 1890 Receiving house for discharged prisoners was opened by gen. Booth at 30 Argyle square, London 1891 prisons and penitentiaries in the United States. The tirst prison-reform association in the world, called the "Philadelphia Society for Assisting Distressed Prisoners," was formed in Philadelphia, Pa., 2 Feb. 1776, but owing to the Revolution dissolved the following year; was reorganized 8 May, 1787, and is still in existence. The next oldest existing prison association is that of New York state, founded in 1846. It was through the efforts of its secretary, rev. dr. E. C. Wines, inspired by count Sollohub of Russia, that the international prison congress now existing was organized ; the first meeting held at Middle Temple, London, 3 July, 1872. Congress recommends to the several states to make it the duty of keepers of jails to receive prisoners committed un- der authority of the U. S 23 Sept. 1789 Law passed by legislature of Pennsylvania to try the system of solitary confinement of prisoners at hard labor 1790 Society for the improvement of prison discipline and for the reformation of juvenile offenders, organized in Boston 1815 Construction of Auburn (N. Y.) prison begun, 1816, and the congregate system established there by capt. Elam Lynde. . . 1824 House of Refuge on BlackwelPs island, the first institution for juvenile delinquents in the U. S., opened 1825 Eastern penitentiary in Philadelphia, on the solitary-confine- ment plan, which was taken as a model for the English prison at Pentonville, and of prisons in Paris, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Sweden, Norwav, Denmark, etc., authorized by legislature of 1821, and opened 25 Oct. 1829 First boys' reformatory in the U. S., upon the family or cot- tage system, established at Lancaster, 1858 Hospital for insane criminals, the first in the U. S., established at Auburn, N. Y '« Act of Congress passed directing marshals to be appointed and prisons to be established for American prisoners, 1 in Japan, 4 in China, 1 in Turkey, and 1 in Siam 22 June, 1860 Contract system of leasing prisoners in southern prisons to private parties, begins with the Mississippi penitentiary, 21 Feb. 1867 National Prison Association organized at Cincinnati, 0., Ruth- erford B. Hayes presiding 12 Oct. 1870 Territorial penitentiaries i)laced under control of the U. S. marshal, and U. S. attorney-general authorized to prescribe rules for their government by act of Congress 10 Jan. 1871 U. S. military prison established at fort Leavenworth, Kan., by act of Congress 21 May, 1874 U. S. jail located at Fort Smith, Ark., by act of. 16 Mch. 1886 Contract labor in prisons of New York state abolished July, 1888 Congress authorizes 3 U. S. prisons: 1 north and 1 south of 39° N. lat. and east of the Rocky mountains, the other west of the Rocky mountains 3 Mch. 1891 Year. 1850 U. S. PKISON STATISTICS. No. of prisonerB. Ratio to population. 737 1 out of 3422 1860 19,086 ; 1 " " 1647 1870 32,901 1 " " 1171 1880 68,609 1 " " 855 1890 79,621 1 " " 786.5 [" It is estimated by the best authorities that not over one third of the criminals are in prison at any one time." — Boies, Prisons and Paupers, p. 87.] privateer, an armed ship of private owners, licensed (letter of marque) by a government at war, to seize and plunder the ships of the enemy. The practice, said to have been adopted by Edward I. against the Portuguese in 1295, was general dur- ing the war between Spain and the Netherlands in the 17th century, and during the last Anglo-French war. During the war of 1812-15 between the United States and Great Britain the American privateers did great damage to British com- merce, having taken, burned, and destroyed about 1780 British merchantmen of all classes, while the British captured about 500 of the American merchantmen. The American privateers numbered 250, 46 of which were letters of marque. Priva- teering was abolished by the great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, 30 Mch. 1856. The U. S. government refused to agree unless the right of blockade was also given up. The British government declined this, asserting " that the system of com- mercial blockade was essential to its naval supremacy." On 17 Apr. 1861, Jefferson Davis, president of the Southern Con- federacy, announced his intention of issuing letters of marque, and on the 19th pres. Lincoln proclaimed that all southern privateers should be treated as pirates. This decree was not carried out. All the great powers forbade privateering during the American civil war. Among the principal Confederate privateers were the following: The Savannah ran the block- ade at Charleston, S. C, 2 June, 1861, captured 4 June; the Sumter ran the blockade at New Orleans, La., July, 1861, sold PRI 662 PRO Apr. 1862 ; the Jeff. Davis escaped from Charleston, July, 1861, wrecked in Aiij^. ; the Nashville escaped from Charleston, Oct. 1861, destroyed by the Montauk, 1 Mch. 1863; the FloHda, built at Birkenhead, near Liverpool, received her armament at sea, entered Mobile harbor, Aug. 1862, escaped from that port, Jan. 1863, captured by the Wachusett, Oct. 1864, and after- wards sunk by collision in Hampton Koads; the Alabama^ built at Liverpool, escaped 29 July, 1862, destroyed by the Kearsarye, 19 June, 1864. It is estimated that during the war 30 vessels of all description were employed by the confederates. Alabama claims. By the treaty of Washington privateer- ing was prohibited. privy COUIieil of England. A council was instituted by Alfred, 895. The number of the council was about 12 when it discharged the functions of state, now confined to the mem- bers of the cabinet ; but it had become unwieldy in number before 1679, when it was remodelled upon sir William Temple's plan, and reduced to 30 members, Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, being president. The number is now unlimited. privy §cal, the lord, the 5th great officer of the British empire, has the custody of the privy seal, which he must not put to any grant without good warrant under the sovereign's signet. This seal is used by the sovereign to all charters, grants, and pardons signed before they come to the great seal. prize-flglltillgr* Boxing. prize-money, arising from captures made from the enemy, was decreed by the English government to be divided into 8 equal parts, and distributed by order of ranks, 17 Apr. 1703. The distribution of army prize-money is regulated by an act passed in 1832. Naval prize-money is now regulated by royal proclamation ; the last, 19 May, 1866. In the United States Congress decreed in 1812 that in the distribution of prize-money arising from the captures by national vessels, one half should go to the government, and the other half, divided into 20 equal parts, should be distributed by order of rank. probability, Theory of (termed by Butler, " the guide of life ;" by Laplace, " good sense reduced to calculation "), was originated by Pascal, and taken up by Fermat, in their corre- spondence in 1654. Its object is " the determination of the number of ways in which an event may ha|)pen or fail, in order that we may jiklge whether the chances of its happening or failing are greater." — Jevons. It has been treated upon by the most eminent mathematicians— viz. , the Bernouillis, De Moivre, D'Alembert, Ealer, Lagrange, Laplace, and Quetelet. Isaac Todhunter's copious " History of Probability," pub. 1865. proeoi1§lll,a Roman consul, whose tenure of office was extended beyond his legal term. Q. Publilius was the first pro- consul appointed during the Parthenope war, 327 b.c. The name was afterwards given to the governors of provinces. I*rocru§te§, a famous mythical robber of Attica, killed by Theseus. His method of bringing all travellers captured to the length of his bed, by cutting off their limbs if too long, or stretching them if too short, originated the word procrustean, for reducing by violence to strict conformity to a law, measure, or model ; producing uniformity by deforming force. proctor (from procurator), an office in English ecclesi- astical courts, corresponding to that of an attorney or solicitor in courts of common-law. It was abolished by the Judicature act, 1873. The persons chosen to represent the clergy in con- vocation are termed proctors. The university proctors enforce discipline. profiles. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who, having but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 ^.c.—Ashe. " Until the end of the 3d century I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of a head in a very majestic manner." — Addison. Old Man OF THK Mountain. prog^ressionist theory supposes that species of animals and plants were not originally created, but were grad- ually developed from one simple form. Evolution, Speciks. Prohibition party. Political parties. pronuneiamen'to (in Spain or South America), a proclamation or formal announcement of policy, usually by a revolutionary leader. France, Spain. Propaganda fide, Congregatio de (congregation for the propagation of the faith of the Roman Catholic church), was constituted at Rome by Gregory XV. in 1622 ; the college in 1627. J prophets. Jews. proprietaries, prose writers. Protectionists. Pennsylvania, 1746, '55, '68, '79. , LlTEKATUKE. ; Political parties; Tariff j United States, 1790, and throughout. ,, protectorates in England. That of the earl of Pembroke, 19 Oct. 1216, ended by his death, 1218. Of Hum* phrey, duke of Gloucester, began 31 Aug. 1422 ; he was seized 11 Feb. 1447, and found dead a few days after. Of Richard^ duke of (iloucester, began May, 1483, and ended by his as- suming the royal dignitj', 26 June, the same year. Of Som- erset, began 28 Jan. 1547, and ended by his resignation in 1549, Of Oliver Cromwell, began 16 Dec. 1653, and ended by hi| death, 3 Sept. 1658. Of Richard Cromwell, began 3 Sept. 1658, and ended by his resignation, 25 May, 1659. England. pro'teine (from Gr. irpuJTsiov, principal), a chemicii terra introduced by Mulder about 1844 for the basis of albil* men, fibrine, and caseine. Protestant Episcopal church. Church. Protestants. The emperor Charles V. called a diei at Spires in 1529 to request aid from the German princel against the Turks, and to devise means for allaying the relig- ious disputes which then raged owing to Luther's opijosition to the Roman Catholic clergy. Against a decree of this diet, to support the doctrines of the church of Rome, 6 Lutheran princes, with the deputies of 13 imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, 19 Apr. 1529. Hence the term Protestants was given to the followers of Luther; it afterwards included Cal- vinists, and other sects separated from the see of Rome. The 6 protesting princes were: John,elector of Saxony; George, mar- grave of Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, the dukes of Lunen- burg; the landgrave of Hesse; and the prince of Anhalt. These were joined by the citizens of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Con- stance, Heilbron, and 7 other cities. Calvinists, Church of England, Germany, Huguenots, Lutherans, etc. Protestants persecuted in Scotland and Germany 1546 Edward VL established Protestantism in England 1518 Mary re-establishes Romanism, and persecutes the Protestants: above 300 put to death 1553-58 Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop of Worcester, were burned at Oxford, 16 Oct. 1555; and Cranmer, arch- bishop of Canterbury 21 Mch. 1556 [During 3 years of Mary's reign, 277 persons were brought to the stake; besides those punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who suffered death by fire were 5 bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers, 55 women, and 4 children. The principal agents of the queen were the bish- ops Gardiner and Bonner.] Elizabeth restores Protestantism 1558 Protestant settlements formed in Ulster, N. Ireland 1608-11 Protestant union of princes in Germany, 4 May, 1608; met last, May, 1621 Thirty yeaks' war between Romanists and Protestants in Germany 1618-48 Protestants persecuted at Thorn, in Poland 1724 Protestant Association (Gordon's "No Popery" riots) 1780 Pan-Protestant conference held at Worms (about 1000 dele- gates) 31 May, 1869 Meeting of a general synod of the Reformed church of France (M. Guizot present) to propose return to early doctrine and discipline, held at Paris 7 June, 1872 pro'toplasin, the material of the minute ultimate par- ticles of all animal and vegetable tissues, termed "the physi- cal basis of life "by Huxley (1868). The protamoeba, the lowest form of life, is a structureless mass of protoplasm ; the amoeba, a similar mass, contains a nucleus. Protoplasm is composed of carbonic acid, water, and ammonia. Provence {pro-voms'} (the Roman Provincia), a prov- ince of S.E. France, now included mostly in the departments of Alpes Maritimes, Bouches-du-Rhone, and the Var, was made a kingdom by the emperor Lothaire for his son Charles. It after- wards became part of the kingdom of Aries as a feudal fief, and was reunited to the German empire in 1032 by Conrad IL On the fall of the Hohenstaufens it was acquired by Charles of An- jou, who married the heiress of the count in 1245, and became king of Naples in 1268 ; and was held by his successors till its an- I PRO G63 PRU nexation to France by Charles VIII. in 1487. In this region in tlie 1 1 th centurj' Provencal literature first made its appearance. It look a poetic form and gave rise to the Troubadour poetry and music which lasted until the 14th century. Troubadour. proverbs. The book of Proverbs by Solomon is dated about 1000 B.C. The latter part was collected by order of Hezekiah about 700 b.c. Ray's collection of English proverbs appeared in 1672, and Bohn's general collection in 1857. Al- fred Henderson's " Latin Proverbs," 1869. provincial a§§eilll>lie§, congresses and conven- tions. New York, Pennsylvania, etc., 1760-89. provisional army. The course of the French gov- ernment (Directory) towards the government of the United States became so aggressive and insolent during the years 1797-98 that the U. S. decided to take measures for defence and retaliation. To this end, therefore, an addition to the army of 10,000 men was ordered by Congress in 1798, and officers commissioned, with Washington as lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief. Although commissions were issued to the officers, the men were never called out and no money disbursed. This provisional army was held in readiness until the summer of 1800, when it was disbanded. See list of gen- eral officers under army. Navy; United States, 1798. provisions, prices of, in England, remarkable state- ments concerning them. The high value of money and the non-existence of produce and stock exchanges at the time must be borne in mind. Sale of Food and Drugs act passed 11 Aug. 1875. Wheat for food for 100 men for 1 day worth only Is., and a sheep for id., Henry I. about 1130. The price of wine raised to 6(1. per quart for red and Sd. for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John, 1200. — Burton's Annals. When wheat was at 6s. per quarter the farthing loaf was to be equal in weight to 24 ounces (made of the whole grain) and to 16 the white. \Vhen wheat was Is. 6d. per quarter, the farthing white loaf was to weigh 64 ounces and the whole grain (the same as standard now) 96, by the first assize, 1202. — Mat. Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. — Dufresnoy. Wheat Is. per quarter, 14 Edw. I. \2m.—Stow. Price of provisions fixed by the common council of London as fol- lows: 2 pullets, 3 halfpence; a partridge, or 2 woodcocks, 3 half- pence; a fat lamb, 6d. from Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year 4(i., 29 Edw. I. 1299.— Sftow. Price of provisions fixed by Parliament: at the rate of 2^. 8s. of our money for a fat ox; if fed with corn, %l. 12s. ; a shorn sheep, 5s. ; 2 dozen of eggs, 3d. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by the common council above recited, 7 Edw. II. 1313. — Rot. Pari. Wine, the best sold for 20s. per tun, 10 Rich. II. 1387. Wheat at Is. Id. the bushel in 1390, was deemed so high that it is called a dearth of corn by the historians of that era. Be 'f and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and veal 3 far- tiiings, by act of Parliament, 24 Hen. VIII. 1533. —Anderson. Document from a " Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner and Supper, and the Charge thereof, for Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were in their custody : 1 Oct. 1554. DINNER. Bread and ale 2d. Oysters Id. Butter ; 2d. I^yng A piece of fresh salmon. Wine Cheese and pears.* 8d. lOd. 3d. 2d. The 3 dinners 2s. 6d. Milk sold 3 pints ale-measure for 1 halfpenny, 2 Eliz. IZQO.—Stow' s Chronicle. provisions, prices of, in the United States. Tarifp^, Wages. Prussia, a kingdom of central Europe. The country A\ as anciently possessed bj^ the Veneti, about 320 b.c. They were conquered by the Borussi, who inhabited the Riphaean mountains; and from these the country was called Borussia. .Some historians deriv^e the name from Po, signifying near, and [Russia, The Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers |of the Teutonic knights, and latterly with the Poles. Hohen- zoLLERN. The constitution, established 31 Jan. 1850, was imodified 30 Apr. 1851 ; 21 May, 5 June, 1852 ; 7 and 24 May, ,1853; 10 June, 1854; 30 May, 1855 ; 15 May, 1857; 17 May, jl867 ; 27 Mch. 1872 ; 5 Apr. 1873 ; 18 June, 1875 ; 19 Feb. |1879; and 27 May, 1888. Area, 1713, 43,400 sq. miles, pop. 'rl,73l,000 ; 1797, 118,000 sq. miles, pop. 8,700,000 ; 1816, 106,- 1^20 sq. miles, pop. 10,349,031 ; 1867, 134,463 sq. miles, pop. ?3,971,,337 ; 1890, 134,463 sq. miles, pop. 29,955,281. St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach Christianity, and is slain about 997 Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death by dreadful ravages. . . 1018 Berlin built by a colony from the Netherlands, in the reign of Albert the Bear 1163 Teutonic knights returning from the holy wars, undertake the conquest and conversion of Prussia 1225 Thorn founded by them 1231 KOnigsberg, lately built, made the capital 1286 [Largely repeopled by German colonists, 12th-13th century.] Frederick IV. of Nuremberg (the founder of the reigning fam- ily) obtains by purchase from Sigismund, emperor of Ger- many, the margraviate of Brandenburg 1415 Casimir IV. of Poland assists the natives against the oppres- sion of the Teutonic knights 1446 Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master of the Teutonic order, seizes its territories, renounces the Roman Catholic religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is acknowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held as a fief of Poland 1525 University of Konigsberg founded by duke Albert 1544 John Sigismund created elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia 16O8 Principality of Halberstadt and the bishopric of Minden trans- ferred to the house of Brandenburg 1648 Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an independent state, under Frederick William, surnamed the Great Elector 1657 Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia, to commemorate the part he had taken in restoring peace to Europe 1660 Frederick III , in an assembly of the states, crowns his own head and his consort's; is proclaimed king of Prussia as Frederick I., and institutes Order of the Black_Eagle . 18 Jan. 1701 Gueldres taken from the Dutch 1702 Frederick I. seizes NeufcH&tel or Neunburg, and purchases Tecklenburg 1707 Principality of Meurs added to Prussia 1712 Frederick IL the Great, king, who made the Prussian mon- archy rank among the first powers of Europe 1740 Breslau ceded to Prussia 1741 Silesia, Glatz, etc. , ceded 1742 Seven Years' war (Battlks) 1756-63 Frederick II. victor at Prague, 6 May; defeated at Kolin, 18 June; victor at Rossbach .' 5 Nov. 1757 Gen. Lacy, with an Austrian and Russian army, marches to Berlin ; city is laid under contribution, etc. ; magazines destroyed, Oct. 1760 Peace of Hubertsburg ends Seven Years' war; part of Silesia gained by Prussia 15 Feb. 1763 Shares in the first partition of Poland 1772 Frederick the Great d 17 Aug. T TSfi-- Frederick William II. invades France 1792 Joins the coalition against France 1793 Shares in the second and third jiartition of Poland 1793-95 Prussians seize Hanover 1801 and 1806 Prussia joins the allies of England against France 6 Oct. " Fatal battles of Jena and Auerstadt 14 Oct. " [Nearly all the monarchy subdued by France.] Berlin decree promulgated 20 Nov. " Peace of Tilsit 9 July, 1807 Formation of the Tugendbund, a patriotic society (promoted by Von Stein) " Convention of Berlin 5 Nov. 1808 Schaunhorst secretly restores the army by the system of re- serves, forming a nation of soldiers 1809-13 People rise to expel the French from Germany at the king's appeal, and form the " landwehr " or militia 17 Mch. 1813 Treaty of Paris 11 Apr. 1814 Congress of Carlsbad 1 Aug. 1819 Blucher d. in Siles a, aged 77 12 Sept. " [From this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and undis- turbed policy until 1848.] Government disputes with Roman Catholic clergy begin, through ultramontanism of the Radziwill family since 1830.. 1840 Serious attempt made on the life of the king by an assassin named Tesch, who fired 2 shots at him 26 July, 1844 Insurrection in Berlin 18 Mch. 1848 Berlin declared in a state of siege 12 Nov. " Constituent assembly dissolved; the king issues a new consti- tution 5 Dec. " German National Assembly elect the king of Prussia "heredi- tary emperor of the Germans " 28 Mch. 1849 King declines the imperial crown 29 Apr. " Kingdom put under martial law 10 May, " Bavaria declares for an imperial constitution with the king of Prussia at its head 8 Sept. " Austria protests against the alliance of Prussia with the minor states of Germany 12 Nov. " New constitution, 31 Jan. ; the king takes the oath required by it 6 Feb. 1850 Hanover withdraws from the Prussian alliance 25 Feb. " Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wiirtemberg to maintain the German union 27 Feb. " Wurtemberg denounces the insidious ambition of the king of Prussia, and announces a league with Bavaria, and Saxony, under the sanction of Austria 15 Mch. " Hesse- Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian league, 30 June, " Convention of Olmutz for the pacification of Germany, 29 Nov. " 150th anniversary of the Prussian monarchy celebrated, 18 Jan. 1851 King revives the council of state as it existed before the revo- lution of 1848 12 Jan. 1852 Agrees to a protocol for preservation of the integrity of Tur- key, which is signed at Vienna .7 Apr. 1854 PRU Declares neutrality in the war C Sept. and Oct. E.xcluded from the conferences at Vienna Feb. Disputes with Switzerland (Nki'fch.\tkl) . . .Nov. 1856, to May, Mental illness of the king; the prince of Prussia appointed re- gent. '-^3 Oct. Prince of Prussia permanent regent 7 Oct. Italian war— Prussia declares its neutrality, but arms to pro- tect Germany May and June, Kegent announces that "the Prussian army will be in future the Prussian nation in arms " 12 Jan. Regent and several German sovereigns meet the emperor of the French at Badbn 15-17 June, Death of Frederick William IV. Accession of William I., 2 Jan. Attempted assassination of the king by Becker,a Leipsic student, 14 July ; who is sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment, 23 Sept. King and queen crowned at KOnigsberg; he declares that he will reign by the "grace of God" 18 Oct. Bill for making the ministry responsible passed 6 Mch. Chamber of Representatives opposes the government as to length of military service, 6 Mch. ; and resolves to discuss items of the budget; ministry resigns; king will not accept the resignation, but dissolves the chambers 11 Mch. Mmistry (liberal) resigns, and a reactionary Ciibinet formed un- der Van der Heydt 18 Mch. -12 Apr. Elections go against the government; only one minister elect- ed ^fay. Van der Heydt resigns; succeeded as premier by the count Bismarck-SchOnhausen, 23 Sept. ; who informs the chamber that the budget is deferred till 1863; the chamber protests against this as unconstitutional 30 Sept. Chamber of Peers passes the budget without the amendments of the Chamber of RepresentJitives; which (by 237 against 2) resolves that the act is unconstitutional 11 Oct. King closes the session (65th) saying, "The budget for the year 1862, as decreed by the Chamber of Representatives, having been rejected by the Chamber of Peers as insufficient, the government is under the necessity of controlling the public afl'airs outside the constitution " 13 Oct. Agitation in favor of the constitution proceeding; passive re- sistance adopted; several liberal papers suppressed Nov. Chambers reassemble; unconciliatory address from the king, U Jan. ; bold reply of the deputies; adopted 23 Jan. They recommend neutrality in the Polish insurrection, 28 Feb. Violent dissension between the deputies and the ministry, May, Chamber of Deputies address the king on their relation with the ministry and the state of the country, 22 May; the king replies that his ministers possess his confidence, and ad- journs the session 27 May, King resolves to govern without a parliament Press severely restricted, 1 June; the crown-prince in a speech disavows participation in the recent acts of the ministry, 5 June; and censures them in a letter to the king, 6 July; reconciled to the king 8 Sept. Motion in favor of the rights of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, carried 2 Dec. ; but the chamber refuses to assent or to defray the expenses of war Dec. Chambers dissolved Jan. [For the events of the war, Denmark.] Peace with Denmark signed 30 Oct. Opening of the chambers, 14 Jan. ; revival of the constitution- al agitation for control over the army budget 16 Jan. Deputies having rejected the budget, the bills for reorganizing the army and increasing the fleet, and meeting the expense of the war with Denmark, the chamber is prorogued; the government will rule without it 17 June, King at Carlsbad issues a despotic decree appropriating and dis- posing of the revenue 5 July. Political dinner of the Liberal deputies prohibited at Cologne, and forcibly prevented at Overlahnstein, in Nassau. .24 July, Convention at Gastein signed 14 Aug. King takes possession of Lauenburg, purchased from Austria with his own money 15 Sept. Decree asserting Prussian jurisdiction over Holstein. . .11 Mch. Prussian circular asking German states whether they will sup- port Austria or Prussia (they profess neutrality) 24 Mch. Prussia prepares for war 27 Mch. French government professes neutrality Apr. Austria demands the demobilization of the Prussian army, 7 Apr. ; Bismarck proposes a German parliament 9 Apr. Great meeting at Berlin in favor of peace 15 Apr. Blind's attempt to assassinate Bismarck fails 7 May, Recriminatory correspondence between Mendsdorfl" (Austrian) and Bismarck, calling for disarmament April-May, Alliance with Italy May, Prussians enter Holstein ; Austrians retire 7 June, Meeting of the Federal diet at Frankfort; the demobilization of the Prussian army proposed by Austria; voted for by Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and others; Prussia declares the Germanic confederation to be dissolved, 14 June, Prince Alexander of Hesse appointed to command the Federal army June, Prussians declare war against Hanover and Saxony. . .15 June, Justificatory manifestoes issued by Austria and Prussia,17 June, Prussia declares war; royal manifesto to the people. .18 June, Prussians occupy Hanover and Hesse-Cassel, Saxony and Nas- sau 16-20 June, Austrian northern army enters Silesia, 18 June; joined by the Saxons about 19 June, Nearly all the northern states join Prussia about 23 June, Prince Frederick Charles and the first army, and the army of the Elbe, enter Bohemia, 23 June; victorious in severe en- 664 PRU 1854 1855 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1866 gagementsat Liebenau,TQrnau,andPodoll, 26 June; Huhner- wasser, 27 June; MQnchengratz, 28 Juno; Gitschin, 29 June, 186( Crown-prince and the second army (of Silesia) enter Bohemia, 22 June; repulsed at Trautenau, 27 June; victorious at Soor and Trautenau, 28 Juno; KOniginhof. 29 June, Left column of the crown-prince's army defeat the Austrians at Nachod, 27 Juno; Skalicz, 28 June; Scliweinschadel.29 June, Fruitless victory of the Hanoverians at Langensalza, 27 June; they capitulate to the Prussians 29 June, Communications opened between the 2 armies 30 June, Command assumed by the king 1 July, Battle of KOniggratz, or Sadowa; total defeat of the Austrians under Benedek 3 July, Benedek superseded by the archduke Albrecht 8 July, Campaign of the army under Vogel von Falkenstein against the army of the confederation, under princes Charles of Bavaria and Alexander of Hesse; Prussian victories at Wiesenthal and Dermbach, 4 July; Hammelburg and Kissingen 10 July, Advance of the united armies under the king; cavalry skirmish at Saar; Austrians retire 10 July, Prince Frederick Charles enters Brunn, capital of Moravia, 12 July, Campaign on the Main : Prussian victories at Laufach, 13 July, and Aschullenburg 14 July, Members of German diet retire from Frankfort on the- Main to Augsburg 13 July, Austrians defeated at Tobitschau 15 July, Frankfort occupied by Falkenstein 16 July, Fight at Blumenau stopped by news of an armistice. ..22 July, Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg 26 July, Prussians occupy Wiesbaden, 18 July; victorious at Tauberbi- schofsheim, Hochhausen,Werbach, 24 July; Neubrunn, Helm- stadt, Germersheim, 25 July; W^urzburg, 28 July; armistice granted * 30 July, Army reviewed by the king 15 miles from Vienna, 31 July; be- gin their return home 1 Aug. Franconia occupied by the Prussian reserve under grand-duke ot Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 23 July-1 Aug. ; armistice. .1-3 Aug. Diet at Augsburg recognized the dissolution of the Germanic confederation 4 Aug. Bohemia and Moravia cleared by 18 Aug. Treaty of peace signed at Prague 23 Aug. Meeting of special committee of the Chamber of Deputies; cost of the war stated, $88,000,000 29 Aug. Peace with Wurtemberg concluded, 13 Aug. ; with Baden, 17 Aug. ; with Bavaria, 22 Aug. ; with Hesse- Darmstadt (ceding Hesse-Cassel, Hesse Homburg, etc.) 3 Sept. Formation of the North German confederation (Germany). Aug. Entry of the army into Berlin ; enthusiastic reception. .20 Sept. Decree for the annexation of Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfort 20 Sept. Possession taken of Hanover, 6 Oct. ; of Hesse, Nassau, and Pf^nkfort 8 Oct. Treaty of peace with Saxony 21 Oct. Electoral law for new German parliament promulgated at Ber- lin. . . . s 23 Oct. Schleswig and Holstein incorporated with Prussia by decree; promulgated 24 Jan. 1867 North German parliament meet at Berlin, 24 Feb. ; adopt a federal constitution; closed 17 Apr. " Prussian chambers opened by the king , 29 Ai)r. " They accept the North German constitution (sacrificing Prus- sian civil rights to German unity) 8 May, " Luxemburg question settled by a conference at London (Lux- emburg) 7-11 May, ■ Prussian chambers approve North German constitution; closed by the king 24 June, ' Treaty with the U. S. respecting naturalization of aliens signed at Berlin 22 Feb. 1868 Much of the king of Hanover's property sequestrated, on ac- count of his maintaining a Hanoverian legion, etc Mch. " All property of king of Hanover sequestrated 15 Feb. 1869 Prince Leopold of HoheuzoUern Sigmaringen consents to be- come candidate for the throne of Spain about 5 July, 1870 In consequence of opposition by Francej'tie, with the king's consent, relinquishes the candidature 12 July, " French government requiring guarantees from the king against the future, the king repulses and declines to receive the French minister, Benedetti, 13 July; and issues a circular to his representatives at foreign courts 15 July, " Emperor of the French declares for war " North German parliament meet, and vote to support Prussia, 19 July, " Proclamation of the king, granting "amnesty for political of- fences," and "accepting the battle for the defence of the fatherland," 31 July; and to the army, undertaking the com- mand of the whole army 3 Aug. *' [For the events of the war, Franco-Pkussian war.] Order of the " Iron Cross " (distributed in the war of 1813) re- vived; given to the crown-prince for his victory at Wissem- bourg on 4 Aug. " Prussian bishops protest against infallibility of the pope, end of Aug. *' Berlin, etc., rejoice at the surrender of Napoleon 3 Sept. " Munich, Stuttgart, and other southern cities demand union with North Germany 6 Sept. ' King proclaimed emperor of Germany at Versailles 18 Jan. 1871 Emperor arriyes at Berlin 17 Mch. "^ Bismarck created a prince 22 Mch, Triumphal entry of the German army into Berlin; inaugura- tion of the statue of Frederick William III 16 June, PRU Bishop of Erm eland excommunicates dr. Wollner for denying the pope's infallibility, 5 July; similar acts disapproved by the government -Tuly, 1871 Law for expulsion of the Jesuits pub 5 July, 1872 Government disputes with the Roman Catholic clergy support- ing papal infallibility; the bishop of Ermeland's salary or- dered to be suspended from 1 Oct. ' ' Subiection of the church to the state affirmed by the legis- lature 12 Mch. 1873 Laws introduced by M. Falk, minister of public worship, estab- lishing a royal tribunal of ecclesiastical affairs, in opposition to the authority of the pope, 9 Jan. ; passed 11 May, " Emperor recognizes the " Old Catholic " bishop Reinkens, about Aug. " Letter from the pope to the emperor complaining of the eccle- siastical prosecutions, and asserting his authority over all baptized persons, 7 Aug. ; the emperor replies, justifying them, and asserting that there is no mediator between God and man but Jesus Christ 3 Sept. " Archbishop Ledochowski of Poseu fined for threatening to ex- communicate a professor; and archbishop Melchers fined for instituting priests without government permission Oct. " Pope (by letter) encourages archbishop Ledochowski to resist, 3 Nov. " New oath of implicit obedience to the state proposed for the clergy; the Civil Marriage bill passed Dec. " Arrest of count Harry Arnim and confinement in Berlin for re- taining documents sent him us ambassador, i Oct. ; for ill- ness released on bail, 28 Oct. ; again arrested 12 Nov. 1874 Arnim's trial, 9 Dec. ; convicted of making away with ecclesio- political documents; acquitted of other charges; sentence, 3 months' imprisonment 19 Dec. " Civil marriage adopted by the parliament 25 Jan. 1875 Encyclical of the pope to the bishops encouraging firmness; the Roman Catholic deputies of parliament protest 5 Feb. " Count Arnim's new trial, 15 June; sentence confirmed. .20 Oct. " Letter from count Arnim rebutting accusations in the Times of 19 Nov. " jHe is to be prosecuted for treason in a pamphlet entitled " Pro Nihilo," published at Zurich Nov. " i Berlin conference on Eastern question (emperor of Russia, ' prince Gortschakoff, and count Andrassy; Berlin), 11-12 May, 1877 'Count Arnim publishes " Quid faciamus nos ?" Jan. 1879 iMarriage of princess Louise Margaret of Prussia to the duke of i Connaught 13 Mch. " [Discussion on the social movement against the Jews through J jealouisy ; no vote 20-22 Nov. 1880 lAnti-Semitic league very active; much opposed by the prince I imperial and others Jan. 1881 IDeath of count Arnim at Nice 19 May, " For continuation, Germany. MARGRAVES, ELECTORS, DUKES, AND KINGS. MARGRAVES OR ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG. 1134. Albert I., the Bear, first elector of Brandenburg. 1170. Otho I. ■mi. Otho II. 1206. Albert II. !r221. John I. and Otho III. '1266. John II. 1282. Otho IV. 1309. Waldemar. 1319. Henry I., the Young. 1320. [Interregnum.] '1323. Louis I. of Bavaria. 1352. Louis II., the Roman. 1365. Otho v., the Sluggard. 11373. Wenceslas of Luxemburg. 1378. Sigismund of Luxemburg. jl388. Jossus, the Bearded. iL411. Sigismund again emperor. ,1415. Frederick I. of Nuremberg (of the house of Hohenzollern). tl440. Frederick II., surnamed Ironside. ,1470. Albert III., surnamed the German Achilles. L476. John III., his son, as margrave; styled the Cicero of Germany. I486. John III. , as elector. ;.499. Joachim I., son of John. ..535. Joachim II., poisoned by a Jew. |.571. John George. .598. Joachim Frederick. j.608. John Sigismund. 1 DUKES OF PRUSSIA. |618. John Sigismund. .619. George William. 640. Frederick William, his son, the " Great Elector." 688. Frederick IIL, son of the preceding; crowned king, 18 Jan. 1701. KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 701. Frederick I. ; king; b. 1657; d. 27 Feb. 1713. 713. Frederick William L, son of Frederick I; b. 1688; d. 31 May, 1740. TiO. Frederick II. (or Frederick III. ; styled the Great), son; made Prussia a military power; b. 24 Jan. 1712; d. 17 Aug. 1786. '"^6. Frederick William II., nephew of the preceding; b. 1744; d. K) Nov. 1797. '7'.»7. Frederick William III. (he had to contend against the might of Napoleon, and, after extraordinary vicissitudes, he aided England in his overthrow); b. 3 Aug. 1770; d. 7 June, 1840. '40. Frederick William IV., son; b. 15 Oct. 1795; d. 2 Jan. 186L 665 puL 1861. William I., brother (b. 22 Mch. 1797); proclaimed emperor of Germany at Versailles, 18 Jan. 1871; married princess Au- gusta of Saxe- Weimar, 11 June, 1829; golden wedding kept, 11 June. 1879; d. 9 Mch. 1888; queen d. 7 Jan. 1890. 1888. Frederick III. (William), son ; b. 18 Oct. 1831 (married Victoria, princess-royal of England, 25 Jan. 1858) ; d. 15 June, 1888. " William II., son; b. 27 Jan. 1859; married princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig Holstein, 27 Feb. 1881. Heir: William; b. 6 May, 1882. Germany. prus§ie acid (sym. HCN or HCy) (hydrocyanic acid), accidentally discovered by Diesbach, a German chemist, in 1709, and first obtained in a separate state by Scheele about 1782. It is colorless, smells like peach flowers, freezes at 5° Fahrenheit, is very volatile, and turns vegetable blues into red. Simple water distilled from the leaves of the lauro- cerasus first ascertained to be a most deadly poison by dr. Madden of Dublin. Blue, Cyanogen. p§alins of David were collected by Solomon, 1000 B.C.; others added, 580 and 515 b.c. The church of England Old Version in metre by Sternhold and Hopkins was published in 1562; the New Version by Tate and Brady in 1698. The version of Francis Rous, provost of Eton, first pub. 1641, was or- dered to be used by Parliament in 1646. It is the basis of the Scotch version which appeared in 1650. The marquess of Lome published a version in 1877. Many otber versions published. pseu'doscope (from Gr. -^tv^oQ, false), a name given by prof. Wheatstone (1852) to the stereoscope, when em- ployed to produce "conversions of relief," i. e., the reverse of the stereoscope; a terrestrial globe appears like a hollow hemisphere. Psychical Research, Society for. Spiritualism. psychol'Ogy, the science of the soul and its phenom- ena, studied by Aristotle, Plato, Descartes, Leibnitz, Locke, Hume, James Mill, J. S. Mill, Spencer, sir William Hamilton, Alexander Bain, and others. Society for Psychological Research founded 1882 International Congress of Experimental Psychology, Paris, 1889 ; London 1 Aug. 1892 Prof William James's " Principles of Psychology " '( psych roni'eter (from Gr. ■<1^vxp6q, cold), an appara- tus for measuring the amount of elastic vapor in the atmos- phere ; invented by Gay-Lussac (d. 1850), and modified by Regnault (about 1848). An electric psych rometer was de- scribed by Edmond Becquerel, 4 Feb. 1867. Ptolema'ic system. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelu- sium, in Egypt (about 140 a.d.), supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and stars moved around it once in 24 hours. The system (long the official doctrine of the church of Rome) was universally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 b.c.) was revived by Copernicus, 1530 a.d., and demonstrated by Kepler (1619) and Newton (1687). Astronomy, Copernican system. public land. Land, Revenue. public-land strip. Neutral ground. • Public Safety, Committee of, was established at Paris during the French revolution on 6 Apr. 1793, with ab- solute power, in consequence of the coalition against France. The severe government of this committee is termed the " Reign of Terror," which ended with the execution of Robes- pierre and his associates, 28 July, 1794. A similar commit- tee was established at Paris by communists, Mch.-May, 1871. pub'licans, farmers of the state revenues of Rome. Soon after the battle of Cannae they were so wealthy as to be able to advance large sums to the government, payable at the end of the war. No magistrate was permitted to be a publican. publishers. Books, Magazines, Newspapers. pugilism. Boxing. Pulaski's banner. Count Casimir Pulaski, a Pole, came to the United States in 1777, and fought under Wash- ington at the battle of Brandywine, and soon after was ap- pointed brigadier-general in the Continental army. In 1778 he organized an independent legion in Maryland, and when about to take the field in the south the " Moravian nuns," or single women at Bethlehem, Pa., sent him a banner wrought by them, which he received with grateful acknowledgments, and which he bore until he fell at Savannah in 1779. This event is commemorated in Longfellow's " Hymn of the Mora- \ PUL vian Nuns." This banner is now in possession of the Mary- land Historical Society. Makyland, 1778. Pulaski, Fort. Fort Pulaski. pulley, a wheel with a broad or grooved rim for carry- ing a rope or other line or belt for the purpose of transmitting power, said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, about 400 B.C., or by Archimedes, 287-212. A single fixed pulley gives no increase of power, but in a single movable pulley the power is doubled, but what is gained in power is lost in time; in a continued combination the power is equal to the number of pulleys, less one, doubled. Pullman cars. Railways. PultOlV'a, a country and city of Russia, where Charles XII. of Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, 8 July, 1709. He tied to Bender, in Turkey. PultUSk, a town of Poland, where a battle was fought between the Saxons, under their king Augustus, and the Swedes, under Clmrles XII., in which the former were sig- nally defeated, 1 May, 1703. Here also the French, under Napoleon, fought the Russian and Prussian armies ; both sides claimed the victorj', but it inclined in favor of the French, 26 Dec. 1806. pump, an apparatus for lifting a fluid. Ctesibius of Alexandria is said to have invented pumps (with other hy- draulic instruments), about 224 b.c., although the invention is ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 b.c. Pumps were in gen- eral use in England, 1425 a.d. An inscription on the pump in front of the late Royal Exchange, London, stated that the well was sunk in 1282. The air-pump was invented by Otto Gue- ricke in 1654, and improved by Bojde in 1657. Air, Wells. Pumpkinvine Creek, Battle of. Atlanta CAMPAIGN. Punell, the puppet-show, borrowed from the Italian Polichinello, is descended from a character well known in the theatres of ancient Rome.— Fosbroke.— The satirical weekly publication, Punch, or the London Charivari, was established by Henry Mayhew, Mark Lemon, Douglas Jerrold, Gilbert a' Beckett, and others ; first pub. 17 July, 1841. Mark Lemon, the first editor, died 23 May, 1870 ; 2d,'Shirley Brooks, died 23 Feb. 1874 ; 3d, Tom Taylor, died July, 1880 ; 4th, Francis Cow- ley Buruand. Caricatures, " Charivari." punetuation. The ancients do not appear to have had any system. The period (.) is the most ancient ; the colon (:) was introduced about 1485 ; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521 ; and the semicolon (;) about 1570. In sir Philip Sidney's " Arcadia " (1587) they all appear, as well as the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and parentheses ( ). Punic (Lat. Punicus, from Puni or Pcani, Carthaginian) lirar§. Carthage ; Rome, 264 b.c. punishment (Gr. ttoiv/?— strictly, quit-money or fine for blood spilled), any penalty inflicted on a person for a crime or offence committed. " Cruel and unusual punishments shall not be inflicted," Art. VIII., Amendments to the United States Constitution. Beheading, Blinding, Boiling to death, Burning alive, Burying alive, Drowning, Flog- ging, Roasting, Starving, Torture. Punjab, a province forming N.W. Hindostan, was t-rav- ersed by Alexander the Great, 327 b.c. ; by Tamerlane, 1398 A.D. ; by Mahmoud of Ghizni, about 1000. It was an inde- pendent state under Runjeet Sing, 1791-1839. English wars with the Sikhs began here, 14 Dec. 1845, and were closed on 29 Mch. 1849, when the Punjab was annexed. India. The Punjab has since greatly flourished, and on 1 Jan. 1859, was made a distinct presidency (to include the Sutlej states and the Delhi territorv). Area, 150,315 sq. miles; pop. 1891, 25,063,690. puppets (Ital. puppi ; Fr. marionnettes), of which the eyes, arms, etc., were moved by strings, were used by the ancients, and are mentioned by Xenophon, Horace, and others. Skilful theatrical performances with puppets have been sev- eral times given in London (at the Adelaide gallery, 1852). A performance with puppets as large as life began at St. James's hall, July, 1872. Ch. Magnin published a " Histoire des Marionnettes," 1852. 666 PYR Pur&'na (Sanskrit = old, ancient; from p«ra, old, past), the last great division of Hindu sacred literature. 18 princi- pal Puranas are mentioned, but none are dated, and do not ap- pear older than the 9th century a.d. The most celebrated are the Vishnft and the Bhagavat Puranas. They are full of legends relating to holy places and ceremonials, with mi- nute fragments of history. Modern Hinduism is largely founded on these compositions. There are other Puranas of less importance. purchase system of commissions in the British army. The payment of a present or gratuity for a commission was prohibited by William III., 1693 ; but in 1702 purchase was legally recognized. In 1711 the sale of com- missions was forbidden without the royal permission ; in 1719-20 regulations were issued ; and a fixed scale of prices was adopted in consequence of a commission in 1765. Large over-regulation payments continued to be made. Commissions of inquiry were held frequently since 1858;. and in 1871 the system was abolished, with compensation, bj* royal warrant, 20 July, 1871, the bill for the purpose having been rejected by the House of Lords. purgatives of the mild species (aperients), particularly cassia, manna, and senna, are ascribed to Actuarius, a Greek physician of Constantinople, 1245. pur'gatory, the supposed middle place between heaven and hell, where, it is believed by the Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the fire of purification before it enters the king- dom of God. The doctrine was known about 250 a.d. ; was introduced into the Roman church in the 5th century, and made a religious dogma by Gregory I., 590-604. It was first set forth by a council at Florence, 1439 ; enforced by the coun- cil of Trent, Dec. 1563. Hades, Indulgences. purification, after childbirth, was ordained by the Jewish law, 1490 B.C. (Lev. xii.). The feast of the purifica- tion was instituted 542, in honor of the Virgin Mary's going to the temple (Luke ii.). Pope Sergius I. ordered the pro- cession with wax tapers, whence Candlemas-day. Pu'ritans, the name first given, it is said, about 15( to persons who aimed at greater purity of doctrine, holin of living, and stricter discipline than others. They withdrew from the established church, professing to follow the word God alone, and maintaining that the church retained man; human inventions and popish superstitions. Cathari, Co; GREGATIONALISTS, NON-CONFORMISTS, PRESBYTERIANS. purple, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, discovered Tyre. It is said to have been found by a dog's having b; chance eaten a shell-fish, called murex, or purpura ; upon turning, his master, Hercules Tyrius, observed his lips ting( and made use of the discovery. Purple was anciently used the princes and great men for their garments. It was restrict to the emperor by Justinian I. 532, and Porphyrogenitui attached to the names of some emperors, signifies " born the purple." purveyance, an ancient prerogative of the soverei of England of purchasing provisions, etc., without the consei of the owners, led to much oppression. It was regulated b; Magna Charta, 1215, and other statutes, and was only surrei dered by Charles II., in 1660, for a compensation. Puseyism, a name attached to the views of certai clergymen and lay members of the church of England, w' proposed to restore practices in the church of England whid they believed to be required bj'^ her liturgy and rubrics, bi which were considered by their opponents to be of a Roraisl tendency. The term was derived from the name of the pro fessor of Hebrew at Oxford, Dr. Pusey. The heads of house of the university of Oxford passed resolutions, 15 Mch. 1841 censuring dr. Pusey's attempts to renew practices which now obsolete ; and his celebrated sermon was condemned bj the same body, 30 May, 1843. Dr. Pusey died 16 Sept. 1882, aged 82 years. Ritualism, Tractarians. Pyd'na, a city of Macedon, where Perseus, the last kin| of Macedon, was defeated and made prisoner by the RomanSj commanded by ^milius Paulus, 22 June, 168 b.c. PhalAnX pyr'amidS of Eg^ypt. The 3 principal are situate^ on a rock, at the foot of some high mountains which bound PYR 667 QUA the Nile. The first building commenced, it is supposed, about 1600 B.C. The greatest is said to have been erected by Cheops, 1082 B.C., but earlier dates are assigned. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpendicular height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of the base is 746 feet. It occupies about 12 acres of ground, and is constructed of stupendous blocks of stone. There are many other smaller pyramids to the south of these. They have been visited and described by Belzoni, 1815; Vyse, 1836; C. Piazzi Smyth, and others. Some 11 pyramids at Sakkara have been explored by M. Maspero, 1880 et seq. The Battles of the Pyramids, when B()naparte defeated the Mamelukes and thus subdued Lower Egypt, took place 13 and 21 July, 1798. C. Piazzi Smyth's "Life and Work at the Great Pyramid," with full description of the facts, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1867. — " Our Inheritances in the Great Pyramids," C. Piazzi Smyth, London, 1880. Egypt. Pyrei*ee§ (ph-'-e-mz), a lofty mountain-chain, forming the boundary between France and Spain. After the battle of Vittoria (fought 21 June, 1813), Napoleon sent Soult to super- sede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro; Soult retreated into France with a loss of more than 20,000 men, having been defeated by Wellington in a series of engagements from 25 July to 2 Aug. ; one at the Pyrenees on 28 July. A railway through the Pyrenees (from Bilbao to Mi- randa) was opened 21 Aug. 1862. The Peace of the Pyrenees was concluded between France and Spain, by cardinal Mazarin for the French king, and don Louis de Haro on the part of Spain, in the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. By this ; treaty Spain yielded Roussillon, Artois, and her right to Alsace ; I and France ceded her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, etc., and ! engaged not to assist Portugal, 7 Nov. 1659. I pyrol'der, a mechanical and chemical apparatus for i extinguishing fires, especially in ships, invented by dr. Paton ; I tried at Greenhithe, and reported successful, 1 June, 1875. i pyrom'eter (" fire-measurer "), an apparatus employed I to ascertain the temperature of furnaces, etc., where thermom- eters cannot be employed; Muschenbroek's pyrometer (a me- tallic bar) was described by him in 1731. Improvements were imade by Ellicott and others. Wedgwood employed clay cyl- jinders, 1782-86. In 1830 prof. Daniell received the Rumford I medal for an excellent pyrometer made in 1821. Mr. Erics- j son's pyrometer appeared in the great exhibition of 1851. — [Eng. Cyc. C. W. Siemens employed electric resistance in his tpyrometers, exhibited in 1871. py'roplione (Gr. -Kvp, fire ; (povi}, voice), a musical in- strument, invented by Frederic Kastner of Paris. It consists of glass tubes of various lengths ; the tones being produced by what are termed " singing flames." It is based upon the "chemical harmonicon." Keys are attached for playing, as in the piano. The invention was reported to the French Acad- emy of Sciences, 17 Mch. 1873 ; exhibited at Vienna, same year ; and at the Society of Arts, London, 17 Feb. 1875. pyrox'yiill, the chemical name of gun-cotton. pyrrllic dance (Gr. iryppixv), a warlike dance said to have been introduced by Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, to grace his father's funeral. Probably described by Homer in his de- scription of the shield of Achilles : " And the illustrious Vulcan also wrought A dance— a maze like that which Daedalus, In the broad realm of Gnossus once contrived For fair-haired Ariadne." . . . —BryanVs "Trans. Homer," bk. xviii. line 731, etc. " You have the Pyrrhic dance as yet Where is the Pyrrhic phalanx gone ?" — Byron's " Don Juan," canto iii. stanza Ixxxvi. song. pyrrho'llism. Sceptics, Philosophy. PythagO'reail plliloiopliy. Philosophy. Pytll'iail g[aine§ (so named from Gr. rTt-Qw, that part of Phocis in which Delphi jay), one of the 4 great national fes- tivals of ancient Greece, celebrated every 5th j-ear in honor of Apollo, near the temple of Delphi; asserted to have been in- stituted by himself, in commemoration of his victory over the serpent, Python. Also said to have been established by Aga- memnon, or Diomedes, or Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the coun- cil of the Amphictyons, 1263 b.c. They lasted till 394 a.d. pyx, the casket in which Catholic priests keep the conse- crated wafer. In the ancient chapel of the pyx, at Westmin- ster abbey, are deposited the standard pieces of gold and sil- ver, under the joint custody of the lords of the treasury and the comptroller-general. The "trial of the pyx" signifies the verification by a jury of goldsmiths of the coins deposited in the pyx or chest by the master of the mint ; this took place on 17 July, 1861, at the exchequer ofiice. Old Palace yard, Lon- don, in the presence of 12 privy-councillors, 12 goldsmiths, and others, and on 15 Feb. 1870. This trial is said to have been ordered in the reign of Henry II. 1154—89; king James was present at one in 1611. The first annual trial of the pyx, ap- pointed by the Coinage act of 1870, took place 18 July, 1871. a I ^, the 17th letter of our alphabet, from the Egyptian, .Phoenician, and Greek ; lost for a time to the Greek, where it iis often represented by k, it reappeared in the Latin alphabet. [The latter is absent from the Anglo-Saxon, the same being (expressed by cw, as cwen, queen, and cwic for quick, etc. It made its full appearance about 1160; at first used onl}'- in Latin and French words, as quarter and quarrel. By the jlose of the 13th century it was adopted in English words. |[n English it is always followed by u. ' Quadragei'ima iSunday, first Sunday in Lent uid 40th day before Good Friday. Lent, Quinquagesima. ; quadrant, a mathematical instrument for measuring iltitudes, in the form of a quarter of a circle, whose arch is livided into degrees and minutes. The solar quadrant was ntroduced about 290 b.c. The Arabian astronomers under ;he caliphs, in 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, ind a sextant 59 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for neasuring angles was produced about 1600; Hadley's quad- ant about 1731. Navigation. quadrature of tlie circle. Circle. quadrilat'eral or quadran'gle, terms applied ,0 4 strong fortresses in N. Italy, long held by the Austrians, lut surrendered to the Italians Oct. 1866 : Peschiera, on an ^land in the Mincio; Mantua, on the Mincio; Verona and iCgnago, Ijpth on the Adige. Fortifications. Turkish quadrilateral was Shumla, Varna, Rustchuk, and Silistria, lost to the sultan by the treaty of Berlin, which established the autonomy of Bulgaria. quadrille (kwa-drW), a dance (originally quadrille de contre danse, introduced into French ballets about 1745), in its present form became popular in France about 1804, It was in- troduced into England about 1808 {Miss Berry), and promoted by the duke of Devonshire and others in 1813. — Raikcs. quadrivium. Arts. quadruple alliance. That between Great Brit- ain, France, and Austria (signed at London, 22 July, 1718); was so called after Holland joined it, 8 Feb. 1719. It guaran- teed the succession to the thrones of Great Britain and France, settled the partition of the Spanish possessions, and led to war. quadruple treaty, concluded in London, 22 Apr. 1834, between Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, guar- anteed her throne to Isabella II., the young queen of Spain. quadruplex telegraphy. Electricity. quee;§tor, in ancient Rome, was the public treasurer; appointed about 484 b.c. It was the first office thrown open to the common people, and gave a seat in the senate. At first there were 2 quaestors, afterwards 8. 2 were added in 409 B.C. Sulla raised tlie number to 20 ; Julius Caesar to 40. 2 were called peregrini, 2 (for the city) urbani. Quaker Hill, Battle of. At Quaker Hill, near the i QUA < north end of Rhode Island, on 29 Aug. 1778, the Americans under geu. Sullivan, invading the island, drove back the Brit- ish (then occupying it) under gen. Pigot; but Sullivan thought it prudent to withdraw. The Americans lost in the expedi- tion about 200 men ; the British about 220. Quakers or Society of Friends, originally called Seekers (of the truth), and afterwards Friends (3 John 14). Justice Bennet, of Derby, called them Quakers in 1650, because George Fox admonished people to quake at the word of the Lord. This sect was founded in England about 1646 by George Fox (then aged 22), who was joined by George Keith, William Penn, and Robert Barclay, of Ury, and others. Fox rejected all religious ordinances, explained away the commands relative to baptism, etc.; discarded the ordinary names of days and months, and used thee and thou for you, as more consonant with truth. He published a book of instructions for teachers and professors, visited America in 1672, and died in London, 13 Jan. 1691. The first meeting-house in London was in White Hart Court, Gracechurch street. Pennsylvania. It was asserted in Parliament that 2000 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate; and 164 Friends offered, by name, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal num- ber in danger (from conflnement) of death 1659 Fifty Qve (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America by an order of council 1664 [For treatment of Quakers by the early colonists, Massa- chusetts, New Yokk, etc., 1656-65.] First meeting of Quakers in Ireland, in Dublin, in 1658; first meeting-house opened in Eustace street 1692 Quakers permitted by law to affirm in England in courts where oaths are required from others (.Affirmation) 1696 John Archdale, a Quaker, elected M.P. for Chipping Wycombe; refused to take the oaths, and his election was declared void, 1699 At Philadelphia the society in the U. S. separated into 2 bodies, the Liberal or Hicksite, named from their leader, Elias Hicks, and the Orthodox 1827 Joseph Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to Parliament on his aflQr- mation 15 Feb. 1833 Yearly meeting recommends that mixed marriages be per- mitted, and that many peculiarities in speech and costume be no longer insisted on 2 Nov. 1858 Act authorizing Quaker marriages when one party is a Quaker, May, 1860 In the U. S. they numbered 995 meetings, with a membership of 107,208, including the 4 branches. Orthodox, Hicksites,Wil- burites, and Primitive 1890 ee',one of the provinces of the dominion of Can- ada. Area, 227,500 sq. miles ; pop. 1891, 1,488,586.— City ol, pop. 1890, 70,000. For history of city and province, Canada, French in America, New York. queen (Sax. cwen ; Ger. Konigin). The first woman with sovereign authority was Semiramis, queen of Assyria, 2017 b.c. An act of England of 1554 declares " that the regall power of this realme is in the queues majestic [Marj'] as fully and absolutely as ever it was in any of her moste noble progeni- tours kinges of this realme." The Hungarians called a queen- regnant king. Hungary, Sauc law. Queen Anne's farthing's. The popular stories of the value of this coin in England are fabulous, though thosi; of a few dates have been purchased at high prices. The cur- rent farthing with the broad brim, in fine preservation, is wortli 1/. The common patterns of 1713 and 1714 are worth 1/. Th(! 2 patterns with Britannia under a canopy, and Peace on a car R R R, are worth 21. 2s. each. The pattern with Peace in car is more valuable and rare, and worth bl. — Pinkerton 1826). Queen Anne's war, 1702-13. In this war, known in Europe as the war of the "Spanish Succession," the New England colonies suffered from frequent inroads of French and Indians from Canada, while the New York colony was protected by the barrier of the Five Nations, then at peace with the English. Maine, Massachusetts, New Hamp- SHIRE, New York. queen Caroline's trial, etc. Caroline Amelia Elizabeth, second daughter of Charles "William Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, b. 17 May, 1768; married to George, prince of Wales 8 Apr. 1795 Their daughter, princess Charlotte, b 7 Jan. 1796 " Delicate investigation" 22 May, 1806 Charges against her again disproved 1813 Princess embarks for the continent Aug. 1814 Becomes queen, 20 Jan. ; arrives in England 6 June, 1820 A secret committee of lords appointed to examine papers on charges of incontinence 8 June, " Bill of pains and penalties introduced by lord Liverpool, 5 July, " Queen removes to Brandenburg House 3 Aug. " Receives an address from the married ladies of the metropolis (many others afterwards) , 16 Aug. " Her trial commences 19 Aug. " Last debate on the bill of pains and penalties, report approved by 108 against 99; the majority of 9 being the ministers themselves. Lord Liverpool moves that the bill be recon- sidered that day 6 months 10 Nov. '* Great public exultation; illuminations for 3 nights in London, 10, 11, 12 Nov. " Queen goes to St. Paul's in state 29 Nov. " She protests against her exclusion from the coronation, 19 July ; taken ill at Drury-lane theatre, 30 July ; dies at Ham- mersmith 7 Aug. 1821 Her remains en route to Brunswick; alarming riot, affray with guards; 2 persons killed. 14 Aug. " queen of England, title of: Her majesty Vic- toria, by the grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland queen, defender of the faith, empress of India (in India, Kaisar-i-Hind). Queen's eolleg^e, now Rutgers. queens of Eng^land. England. Queensland, Moreton Bay, a British colony, com- prising all northeastern Australia ; was separated from New South Wales as a distinct colony, in 1859, when Brisbane, the first settlement and capital, founded by Oxley, 1823, was made a bishopric. Chinese immigrants are virtually excluded. Area estimated at 668,497 sq. miles ; pop. 1891, 393,718 ; pop. Brisbane, 50,000. QueenstOirn, a seaport town of Ireland, formerly " Cove of Cork," received its present name on the visit of queen Victoria in 1849. It is a calling station for American mail steamers. QUE 6 Queeiif^towii or Queenston Heig^hts, fiat- tie of. Gen. Van Rensselaer, with about 3500 regulars and 2500 militia, stationed along the Niagara frontier from Buffalo to fort Niagara, attempted to invade Canada by crossing the river at Lewiston, opposite Queenston. Without waiting to concentrate his forces, he pushed a few hundred men across the river early on 13 Oct. 1812. The British were at first driven from the heights with the loss of their commander, maj.-gen. sir Isaac Brock, but being reinforced they again ad- vanced. Van Rensselaer meanwhile hastened to the American side to forward troops, but the militia refused to cross, being ' required to serve only in the state. The Americans who had crossed were compelled to surrender; loss, 190 killed and I wounded, and 900 prisoners. The British loss was 130 in all. i Among the captured Americans was col. Winfleld Scott, while ' capt. Wool, afterwards gen. Wool, was among the wounded. On these heights a monument was erected to mark the spot of Brock's fall and burial. In 1840 it was maliciously de- stroyed by one Lett ; since, another has been built, 186 feet high surmounted by a dome of 9 feet. I QuCIltin (hen-tan'), St., a village of N. France. The J duke of Savoy, with the army of Philip II. of Spain, assisted i by the English, defeated the French under the constable De ! Montmorency, at St.Quentin, 10 Aug. 1557. In fulfilment of a (vow made before the victory, the king built the monastery, j palace, etc., the Escurial, considered by the Spaniards the ^eighth wonder of the world. The French army of the north, under Faidherbe, was defeated here by the Germans after 7 hours' fighting, on 19 Jan. 1871; total loss about 15,000; I German loss about 3100. I Queretaro (hay-ray' -ta-rd), capital of Queretaro, 'Mexico, was besieged and, through the treacherj- of Lopez, ;forced to surrender to the Liberal general Escobedo, 15 May, (1867. The emperor Maximilian and his generals Miramon iand Mejia were taken prisoners, and, after trial, were shot, |19 June following. quern or handmill for grinding grain is of Roman, ior, as some say, of Irish invention ; so-called Roman querns (have been found in Yorkshire. j Quesnoy (hay-nwa'), a town of N. France, was taken by the Austrians, 11 Sept. 1793, but was recovered by the French, 'l6 Aug. 1794. It surrendered to prince Frederick of the Neth- :erlands, 29 June, 1815, after the battle of Waterloo. Here .cannon were first used (called bombards). — Henault. i Quiberoil ( heeb-ron' ) bay, W. France. A British force landed here, Sept. 1746, but was repulsed. In the bay ladm. Hawke routed the French adm. Conflans, preventing the iinvasion of Great Britain, 20 Nov. 1759. Quiberon was taken by some French regiments in the pay of England, 3 July, 1795 ; but on 21 July, through treachery, French republicans, junder Hoche, retook it by surprise, and many emigrants were 3xecuted. About 900 troops, and nearly 1500 royalist inhab- 'itants who had joined the regiments in the pay of Great Brit- ain, escaped by the ships. I 4llick§ilTer, a metal, also called mercury, which has 1 bright metallic lustre, and retains the liquid state at ordi- lary temperatures. Its use in refining silver was discovered 1540. There are mines of it in various countries ; the most Tamous are at Almaden, in Spain, and at Idria, in lUyria ; the atter, discovered by accident in 1497, for several years yielded 1200 tons a year. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797 ; ind at New Almaden and other places in California. Quick- silver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburg, in 1759. It tvas congealed in England by a chemical process, without mow or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. Corrosive sublimate, I deadly poison, is a combination of mercury and chlorine. Ualomel. Qui'eti§t§, followers of Miguel Molinos, a Spaniard 1627-96), whose work, the " Spiritual Guide," pub. 1675, was he foundation of the sect in France. He held that religion '.onsisted in an internal silent meditation on the merits of phrist and the mercies of God. Madame de la Mothe-Guyon, ;iQuietist, was imprisoned in the Bastile for visions and proph- ecies, but released through the interest of Fenelon, archbishop >f Cambraj', between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, 9 QUO arose a controversy, 1697. Quietism was finally condemned by pope Innocent XII. in 1699. qilill§ are said to have been first used for pens in 653, some say not before 635. quince, the Fytus cydonia, taken to England from Austria, before 1573. The Japan quince, or Pyriis japonica, taken there from Japan, 1796. quindecem'viri, 15 men chosen to keep the Sibyl- line books. The number, originally 2 (duumviri) about 520 B.C,, was increased to 10 in 365 b.c., and afterwards (probably by Sulla) to 16, about 82 b.c. Julius Caesar added 1 ; but the precedent was not followed. quinine {he-men' or qui -nine) orquinia,an alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pelletier and Caventou. Its manufacture was begun at Philadelphia by John Farr in 1820. There never were more than 4 manufact- urers of it in the United States, and after the removal of the duty in 1879 the business ceased to be remunerative. Its price has been decreasing ever since 1823, when it sold for $20 an ounce, while it is now quoted at 50c. It is a prob- able constituent of all genuine chinchona barks, especially of the yellow bark. Chinchona. Artificial quinine was prepared (synthetically) by W. L. Scott, Oct. 1865. Fluores- cence. Quinquagesima Sunday. The observation is said to have been appointed by Gregory the Great (pope, 590- 604). The first Sunday in Lent having been termed Quadra- gesima, and the 3 weeks preceding having been appropriated to the gradual introduction of the Lent fast, the 3 Sundays of these weeks were called bj' names significant of their posi- tion in the calendar; and, reckoning by decades (lOths), the Sunday preceding Quadragesima received its present name, Quinquagesima, the second Sexagesima, and the third Septua- gesima. Quintirians, heretics in the 2d century, the disciples of Montanus, who took their name from Quintilia, a lady de- ceived by his pretended sanctity, whom thej' regarded as a prophetess. They made the eucharist of bread and cheese, and allowed women to be priests and bishops. — Pardon. Quiri'nus, a Sabine god, afterwards identified with Romulus. L. Papirius Cursor, general in the Roman army, first erected a sundial in the temple of Quirinus, from which time the days began to be divided into hours, 293 B.c. — A spin. The sundial was sometimes called the Quirinus, from the orig- inal place in which it was set up. — Ashe. Quiri'tes, a name given to the Sabines who united with the Romans, and extended in time indifferently to all citizens of Rome. Rome, 747 b.c. Quito (kee'-to), capital of Ecuador, South America, situ- ated on a plateau about 10,000 feet above the sea-level, cele- brated as the scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by French and Spanish mathematicians, 1736-42. 40,000 persons perished by an earthquake in the city of Quito, 4 Feb. 1797. Since then less violent shocks occurred; by one, on 22 Mch. 1859, about 5000 persons were killed. Pop. 1894 about 80,000. Earthquake, Ecuador. Quo Warran'tO act, passed in England in 1289. By it a writ may be directed to any person to inquire by what authority he assumes to hold any office or franchise. Charles II. directed a writ against the corporation of London in 1683, and the court of King's Bench declared their charter forfeited. The decision was reversed in 1690. On the acces- sion of James II. he planned to procure a surrender of the patents of the New England colonies and to form northern America into 12 provinces with a governor-general over all. Writs of quo warranto were issued July, 1686, requiring the several colonies to appear by representatives before the coun- cil to show by what right they exercised certain powers and privileges. Notwithstanding petitions and remonstrances the charters were annulled, and sir Edmund Andros appointed gov- ernor-general. Connecticut, 1687. quoits, a game said to have originated with the Greeks, and to have been first played at the Olympic games, by the Idaei Dactyli, 60 years after the deluge of Deucalion, 1453 b.c. QUO Perseus, the grandson of Acrisius by Danae, having inadver- tently slain his grandfather, when throwing a quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to which he was heir, for that of Tiryn- thu8,and founded the kingdom of Mycense, about 1313 b.c. "And there a town within a while ho built Men called Mycense." — iVilliam Morris, "The Doom of King Acrisius." quotations. Athenaeus's " Deipnosophistae " or " Ban- quet of the Learned" (compiled about 228), and Burton's 670 RAO "Anatomy of Melancholy " (1621), contain masses of extracts. Henry Ainsworth's (d. 1622) "Communion of Saints" is a mosaic of Scripture quotations. Macdonncl's " Dictionary of Quotations," 1796; Moore's 18S1 Riley's "Dictionary of Latin Quotations," with a Selectioi; of Greek, published by H. Bohn 18£6 Collections of English quotations are now numerous: Adams's " Cyclopaedia of Poetical Quotations " 18f 3 Friswell's "Familiar Words," 2d ed 18(G Bartlett's "Familiar Quotations" 18(o R R, the 18th letter of our alphabet, from the Egyptian, Phoenician, and the P of the Greeks, being the 17th letter of that alphabet. When beginning a Greek word it was sound- ed as rho (aspirated). It was callefl by the ancients the "dog letter," from some fancied resemblance in its pronuncia- tion to the snarling of a dog. It is the last letter that most children learn to pronounce, using w instead— as vewy for very, and Wobert for Robert, etc. The Chinese invariably use 1 in the place of r, which they cannot pronounce. Ra, one of the primary Egyptian divinities, worshipped as the sun; second only to Osiris in importance. Usually represented as a hawk-headed man. rabies. Hydrophobia. races of mankind. Ethnology. racingC was one of the ancient sports of Greece. Chak- lOTS. Horse-races were early known in England, being men- tioned in the days of Henry II. (1154-89). James I. pur- chased the first Arab sire ever imported into England, a small bay, known as the " Markham " Arabian. During his reign Croydon in the south and Garterly in the north were cele- brated courses. Near York there were races and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. In the end of Charles I.'s reign races were performed at Hyde park. Charles II. patronized them, and, instead of bells, gave a silver cup valued at 100 guineas. William III. founded a riding academy. Racing established at Newmarket by Charles II 1667 [Barley Arabian, imported from the East during the reign of Queen Anne.] Races at Ascot, begun by the duke of Cumberland, uncle to George III. , mentioned 1727 First racing calendar said to have been pub " Races begun at Epsom, Surrey, about 1711, by Mr. Parkhurst, and held annually since. 1730 Flying Childers, bred in 1715 by the duke of Devonshire, and who ran 4 miles under saddle in 6 minutes 48 seconds, at Newmarket, d. aged 26 years 1741 Jockey club founded 1750 •'Tattersall's," the great exchange, which existed nearly 100 years, established by Richard Tattersall, near Hyde Park corner, for the sale of horses 1766 St. Leger stakes founded, and races established on Doncaster Town Moor in 1776, and so named in honor of lieut.-gen. Anthony St. Leger of Park Hill, 1778; first won by lord Rock- ingham's Sampson 1776 [Distance now, 1 mile, 6 furlongs, 132 yards. Usually run on second Wednesday in Sept.] The Oaks (named from Lambert's oaks, parish of Woodman- sterne, near Epsom), a race run on Friday of the Epsom meeting, begun by the 12th earl of Derby, and first won by his BHdget 1779 One mile Derby race at Epsom, first run and won by sir Charles Banbury's Diomed 4 May, 1780 Derby race increased to ix miles, weight 115 lbs. for colts and 112 for fillies 1784 Eclipse, race-horse never beaten, d. aged 25 years Feb. 1789 Races begun by the duke of Richmond in his park at Good- wood 1802 New horse-market at Brompton opened 10 Apr. 1865 John Scott, eminent trainer, d. aged 77 Oct. 1871 Present course first used for Derby races, and weight increased to 126 lbs. for colts and 121 for fillies 1872 Lieut. Lubowitz, Hungarian, riding from Vienna reaches Paris on his horse Caradoc in 15 days, winning a wager 9 Nov. 1874 Metropolitan Race-course act, to check gate-meetings (races held in fields by publicans and others) passed 3 July, 1879 C. H. Anderson rode 1304 miles in 90 hours, 15 hours daily, changing mustangs at will, at Bay District Track, San Fran- cisco, Cal 15-21 May, 1880 Count Stahrenberg, Austrian officer, rode 1 horse from Vi- enna to Berlin, Ger., 400 miles, 71 hours. 34 minutes, 2-5 Oct. 1892 BEST DEKBY RECORDS SINCE 1850. DeRBY-DAY. Time. m. t. Horse. 2 50.. Lord Zetland's Voltigeur 1850 2 45..WrAnson's Blink Bonny 1857 X 43.. Col. Towneley's Kettledrum 1861 2 43. .Mr. Abingtou's Merry Hampton 1887 2 43. . Duke of Portland's Ayrshire 1888 THE OAKS, BEST RECORD SINCE 1850. lime. ' m. 3. Winning horse. 2 56 . .Mr. Hobson's Rhedycina 1850 2 52 ..Lord Stanley's Iris 1851 2 50 ..W. r Anson's Blink Bonny 1857 2 44 ..J. Saxon's Brown Duchess 1861 2 43.4. .Lord Cadogan's Lonely 1885 2 42.8. .Lord Calthorpe's Seabreeze 188-( 2 40.8..Dukeof Portland's Memoir 1890 THE ST. LEGER, BEST RECORD SINCE 1850. Time, m. s. Winning horse. 3 24. . Lord Zetland's Voltigeur 1850 3 20. .A. Nichol's Newminster 1851 3 14.. W. I' Anson's Caller On 1861 3 10. . Mr. Launde's Apology 1874 Trotting, the favorite form of horse-racing in the United States, belongs to the present century, the first recorded pub- lic trotting race taking place in 1818 at Boston, when Boston Blue trotted a mile within 3 minutes. No regular turf regis- ter was kept until 1829. Selima, mare sired by Godolphin Arabian, imported into Mary- land by col. Tasker 1750 Fearnaught, foaled in 1755, imported into Virginia from Eng- land by col. John Baylor 1764 Wildair and Lath, imported into the colonies by col. Delancy of Kingsbridge, N. Y 1764-65 A 4-mile running race for purse of 100 guineas at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1767; Selim ran the first heat in 8 min. 2 sec. ; re- corded in the Maryland Gazette 22 Oct. 1767 Messenger, foaled in 1780, imported from England by Mr. Ben- ger of Philadelphia 1788 [It is conceded that this horse was the most valuable one ever brought to the U. S. In him the blood of the best Arabs and Barbs mingled with the best race stock in England. His direct sire was Mambrino, 2d Engineer, 3d Sampson, 4th Blaze, 5th Flying Childers, 6th Barley Ara- bian. ] Justin Morgan, progenitor of the Morgans, foaled at Spring- field, Mass 1793 Biomed, winner of the first Derby race in England, is im- ported 1799 First racing club to hold regular meetings at the Newmarket course in Suffolk county, N. Y., organized 1804 Buroc, sired by Biomed, and bred by Wade Mosby of Powha- tan county, Va., foaled 4 June, 1806 Grand Bashaw, progenitor of the Clay and Bashaw families, imported from Tripoli 1820 Trotting-horse Bellfounder, imported from England by James Boott of Boston, arrives 11 July, 1822 New York Trotting club organized in 1825, and first races held at the club's course 16 May, 1826 Hunting Park association, for encouragement of the breeding of trotters, organized at Philadelphia 8 Feb. 1828 First sporting paper in America, the American Turf Register, begins publication 1 Sept. 1829 Pilot, the Canadian pacer, bought by D. Heinshon of Louis- ville, Ky about 1832 Stallion St. Lawrence, bred near Montreal, is bought by Joseph Hall of Rochester, N. Y 1848 Lady Suffolk, purchased from a farmer in Suflblk, L. I., for $90 in 1836, trots a mile under saddle in 2.26 on the Cambridge course 14 June, 1849 Flora Temple, foaled near Utica in 1845, and sold at 4 years old for $13, trots her first race on the old Red House track. . 1850 Flora Temple sold to Mr McDonald of Baltimore for $8000 (d. near Philadelphia, Pa., 21 Dec. 1877) 1858 Robert Bonner drives Lady Palmer and Flatbush Maid 2 miles in 5 min. 1^ sec, on Fashion course, L. 1 29 May, 1862 Jl RAC 671 RAI Young Pocahontas sold to Mr. Bonner for $25,000. 1866 Hiram W. Woodruff, trainer, andauthor of "The Trotting Horse of America," d. at Jamaica Plains, L. 1 15 Mch. 1867 Dexter sold to Robert Bonner for $33,000 (d. 1888) " Hambletonian (Rysdyk's), sired by Abdallah, foaled 1849, Orange Co., N. Y., d 1876 Rarus purchased by Robert Bonner for $36,000 1879 Maud S. purchased from William H. Vanderbilt by Robert Bon- ner for $40,000 1885 Kite shaped track at Stockton, Cal., opened 1891 Pneumatic tire sulkies come into use 1892 BEST 1 MILE TROTTING RECORD TO 1850. Time. Horse. Place. How trotted. I Year. ' 3- r. .. Boston Blue Boston, Mass... In harness. i 1818 2 40 .. Albany Pony . . . Long Island To saddle.. 1824 2 31)4.. Edwin Forrest.. Long Island " ; 1834 2 28 .. Dutchman Beacon course.. •' 1839 2 27 .. Highland Maid.. Long Island In harness. 1847 2 26 .. Lady Suffolk.... Cambridge To saddle.. 1 1849 BEST TROTTING RECORDS SINCE 1850. 1 MILE IN HARNESS. 2 25)4 2 193^ 2 17M 2 163^ 2 14 2 133^ 2 »X 2 8M 2 4 2 3X 2 25)4 2 223^ 2 21 2 18 2 153i 2 241^ ^24 2 16X U 15 2 14"^ 3 16 3 11 [3 .. •2 :m< |8 8y, 8 2M )1 2'dX '■) 15 ,3 25 Lady Mac Flora Temple Dexter Occident fioldsmithMaid. . Rarus MaudS Sunol Nancv Hanks Alix..' Place. New Orleans, La Kalamazoo, Mich Buffalo, N. Y Sacramento, Cal Mystic park, Boston Buffalo, N. Y Cleveland, Stockton, Cal. (kite track), Terre Haute, Ind , Galesburg, 111 , Tacony Rockingham . . , General Butler. , Dexter Great Eastern . , Flora Temple. ., Dexter Alfred S , Allerton Greenlander 19 Nov. 1850 15 Oct. 1859 14 Aug. 1867 17 Sept. 1873 2 Sept. 1874 3 Aug. 1878 30 July, 1885 20 Oct. 1891 28 Sept. 1892 19 Sept. 1894 MILE TO SADDLE. . Philadelphia, Pa 2 June, 1853 . Fashion course, L. 1 31 Oct. 1862 . Fashion course, L. 1 24 June, 1863 . Buffalo, N. Y 18 Aug. 1866 . Fleetwood park, N. Y 22 Sept. 1877 MILE TO WAGON. . I Union course, L. I. . , Fashion course, L. I. • Philadelphia, Pa ■ Independence, la , Terre Haute, Ind 2 Sept. 1856 7 June, 1867 4 Sept. 1890 25 Sept. 1891 10 Nov. 1893 MILES IN HARNESS. . San Francisco, Cal. . Detroit, Mich . San Francisco, Cal. . Oakland. Cal Fillmore Morrissey Lady Mac Bishop Hero.. 10 MILES IN HARNESS. Prince [Union course, L. I. John Stewart 'Riverside, Boston. . Controller San Francisco, Cal. Pascal New York city 18 Apr. 1863 26 Aug. 1868 2 Apr. 1874 14 Oct. 1893 11 Nov. 1853 30 June, 1868 23 Nov. 1878 2 Nov. 1893 '20 MILES IN HARNESS. )tain McGowan: Riverside, Boston [18 Oct. 1865 MISCELLANEOUS TROTTING RECORD. 50 MILKS IN HARNESS. I^e. Horse. Place. Date. Iln.. 8. 000 57 Black Joke... July, 1835 38 34|Fanny Jenks 53 Conqueror ICentreville, L. I, 100 MILES IN HARNESS. Albany, N. Y. I 5 May, 1845 12 Nov. 1863 H DOUBLE HARNESS, 1 MILE. Poime. Team. Place. Date. 1 32 (Jessie Wales and) 1 Ben Franklin... ) (Jessie Wales and) i Honest Allen.... 1 Kirkwood and Idol.. I George Wilkes and ) \ Honest Allen.... ( ( Joe Clark and Mol- ) 1 lie Morris ) MaudS. and Aldine.. (Belle Hamlin and) \ Justina ) (Belle Hamlin and) ( Globe 1 20 Sept. 1867 30 Sept. 1869 31 May, 1870 4 July, 1871 3 Sept. 1874 15 June, 1883 24 Oct. 1890 4 July, 1892 1 29% I ^^ II ^^ 1 ^^>^ 1 ^^^ 1 ^^ 1 12 " Brooklyn Boston Boston New York Independence,Ia. Kirkwood, Del... 8>^ WITH RUNNING MATE, 1 MILE. Ayres P. and Tele- ) I b-j-i,^^-.^ r> i phone } Kirkwood, Del. 4 July, 1893 BEST PACING RECORD. One mile in harness : Direct at Nashville, Tenn. ; time. 2 : 05>^ 8 Nov. 1892 Mascot at Terre Haute, Ind. ; tirrie, 2 : 04 29 Sept. " Hal Pointer at Chicago (pneumatic sulky); time, 2:05^, 17 Aug. " Flying Jib at Chicago, III, fastest consecutive heats on record; time, 2:04, 2:05%, 2: 06%, 2:08>^, 2:08^^, 15 Sept. 1893 Robert J. at Terre Haute, Ind. ; time, 2: 01>^ 14 Sept. 1894 Three miles in harness : James K. Polk at Centreville, L. I. ; time, 7 : 44 13 Sept. 1847 Joe Jefferson at Knoxville, la. ; time, 7 : 333^ 6 Nov. 1891 One mile to wagon : Roy Wilkes at Independence, la. ; time, 2 : 13 30 Oct. " Three miles to wagon : Longfellow at Sacramento, Cal. ; time, 7 : 53 7 Sept. 1869 Five miles to wagon: Lady St. Clair at San Francisco, Cal. ; time, 12:54%, 11 Dec. 1874 One mile to saddle : Johnston at Cleveland, 0. ; time, 2 : 13 3 Aug. 1888 Three miles to saddle : Oneida Chief at Hoboken, N. J. ; time, 7 : 44 15 Aug. 1843 One mile in double harness : Daisy D. and Silver Tail at East Saginaw, Mich. ; time, 2 : 18>^, 15 July, 1887 With running mate: Westmont at Chicago, 111. ; time, 2 : 01% 10 July, 1884 rack. Torture. radiom'eter (terrned a Ught-miir), an instrument constructed by William Crookes, F.R.S., 1873-76. 2 little disk-arms, mounted on a pivot placed in an exhausted glass bulb, revolve when placed in bright light. The mo- tion has been variously explained as due to the impact of rays of light, or to heat-absorption, but is now ascribed to residual molecules of air, set in vibration by the irregularly warmed bulb. Raditadt, a village of Salzburg, Austria. Here the French under gen. Moreau defeated the Austrians, 5 July, 1796. Raid of Ruthven. Ruthven. raids. Morgan's raid; United States, 1862-64. railways. The length of the world's railways in 1835 was 1600 miles; in 1845 it had increased to 10,000 miles; in 1855 to 41,000; in 1865 to 90,000; in 1875 to 185,000, and in 1890 there were over 354,000 miles. railn^ays, English and foreign. Of Tram-roads, laid in and about Newcastle, Engl., by Mr. Beaumont as early as 1602, Roger North wrote in 1676 as follows: " The manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the river exactly straight and parallel; and bulky carts are made with 4 rollers fitting those rails, whereb}- the carriage is so easy that 1 horse will draw down 4 or 5 chaldron of coals, and is an immense benefit to the coal merchants." An iron railway built near Sheffield, by John Curr (destroyed by the colliers) 1776 First iron railway sanctioned by Parliament was the Surrey, from the Thames at Wandsworth to Croydon, operated by horses 1801 William Hedley of Wylam colliery makes the first travel- ling engine or locomotive; substituted for horses in a coll- iery 1813 First locomotive, by George Stephenson, travels 6 miles per hour Stockton and Darlington railway, built by Edward Pease and George Stephenson, first opened for passengers, 27 Sept. Daily passenger coach, called the "Experiment," carrying 6 passengers, put on Stockton and Darlington railway, 10 Oct. Liverpool and Manchester railway (4 ft. 8>^ in. gauge) begun, Oct. Stephenson's locomotive, the "Rocket," weighing 4 tons 5 cwt., attains a speed of 293^ miles per hour at the Rain- hill trial, and secures the prize of 500/. offered by the di- rectors of the Liverpool and Manchester railway company, 6 Oct. Liverpool and Manchester railway opened (accident occurs, see below) 15 Sept. First railroad in Russia, from St. Petersburg to Charsko Seio, opened Railway mania and panic year; 272 railway acts pass in Eng- 1814 1825 land. George Stephenson d 12 Aug. Panama railroad opened 28 Jan. System of interlocking switches, begun in England in 1846, perfected 1837 1846 1848 1855 RAI 672 RAI FJrtt r»Uw»y In Egypt, fh>m Alexandria to Cairo, opened 1856 Fim »l»«I rmll« made al the Ebwy-Vale Iron company's works In South Wale« 1857 UBdergrouud railway In London opened 1862 Welah railway train, about to surt, is seised for debt, 27 Nov. 1866 ttO men strike on I/>ndon and Brighton railway. . .25-27 Mch. 1867 Strike of 500 men on Northeastern railway, 11 Apr. ; overcome by the company 26 Apr. " Looomotivefi for mountain climbing, by a central mil, first tried on High I'cuk railway, Sept. 1803. A climbing locomo- tive asccDilod mount Ceuis in 1865; Mount Cen is railway opened for traffla 15 June, 1868 Midland railway station opened 1 Oct. " Mr. Fairlie builds a locomotive called " Little Wonder," to run on a horse tram-way of 2-foot gauge, in Wales, since called the Festiniog railway; first of modern narrow-gauge rail- ways. 1869 Railway association of directors and ghareholdors to watch li^isUtion esUblished in Kngland July, 1870 RIgl Mountain railway (up to 4000 feet above sea-level) opened, 23 May, 1871 0«orge Hudson of England, since 1844 styled "the railway king," d. aged 71 14 Dec. " First railway in Japan opened 12 June, 1872 Thomas Brassey of England, who built 6600 miles of rail- way, d " One-rail railway built at Paris by M. Larmenjat Aug. " First railway in Persia begun at Resht 11 Sept. 1873 Pullman palace cars introduced into England on Midland rail- way 21 Mch. 1874 Railway Travellers' Protection Society organized in England, duke of Mauchester president 23 July, " Trial of continuous railway brakes on Midland railway, Engl. ; Westingliouse automatic brake considered the best, June, 1875 Jnbilee of Stockton and Darlington railway celebrated, and statue of Joseph Pease unveiled at Darlington 27 Sept. " Communication between passenger carriages on English trains by bell-cords first comes into general use about 1877 First railway in China, constructed by Europeans, from Shanghai to Oussoon (11 miles), at first opposed, opened 30 June, 1876. Operation stopped and plant taken to For- mosa. 1877-78 Unsuccessful strike of goods-guards on Midland railway of England 3-20 Jan. 1879 First electric railway, constructed by Siemens and Halse of Berlin, at the exhibition in that city " Electric railway at Berlin opened to the public 16 May, 1881 Centenary of Gieorge Stephenson's birth celebrated throughout England .9 June, " International railway congress for unification of rolling-stock opens at Berne 16 Oct. 1882 Strike on Caledonian railway at Glasgow, etc., compromised, 15-21 Jan. 1883 First railroad train ftorn Buenos Ayres crosses the Andes in Chili 15 Feb. 1884 M. Lartigue's balance railway (single rail) reported successful in Normandy, June, 1884; and experimental line built in London Sept. 1886 Zone railway system, or Regional passenger tarifl", introduced in Hungary, 1 Aug. 1889, and in Austria. 1 June, 1890 Brienzer Rothhornbahn, Alpine railway, ascending 5606 feet, the highest in Europe, is opened 1891 Czarowitz drives the first spike for the great Siberian railway at Vladivostok on the Japan sea 24 May, " [Total length to the Ural mountains over 5000 miles.] railliray§, United States. First tram-road viras built from the granite quarries at Quiiicy, Mass., to the Neponset river in 1826. The following year a gravity road for the transportation of coal was constructed at Mauch Chunk, Pa. The first road built expressly for transporting freight and passengers was the Baltinaore and Ohio, commenced in 1828, and for a time run as a horse-railroad. INCREASE IN RAILROAD MILEAGE. I 1831.. 1832.. 1833.. 1834. 1836.. 1837.. 1838.. 1839.. 1840.. Toul mileage. 23 95 72 229 134 380 151 633 253 1098 465 1273 175 1497 224 1913 416 2.302 389 2818 516 1850. 1870. 1880. 1890. Total Mileage. 9,021 30,626 52,922 93,296 166,817 171,804 [The U. S. has more than 6 times the mileage of any other country.] Averafce yearly ■ increase. 620 2160 2229 4037 7352 Experimental trip of the first locomotive used in the U. S., "The Stourbridge Lion," built in England, and run by Horatio Allen on the Honesdale and Carbondale rail- road, built by the Delaware and Hudson canal company in 1827. It was found too heavy for the tracks (weight 6 tons), 9 Aug 1829 First 14 miles of Baltimore and Ohio railroad opened. .24 May, 1830 Peter Cooper of New York builds a locomotive, and on a trial trip on the Baltimore and Ohio beats a horse-car, 28 Aug. 183 Locomotive called "The Best Friend," built at the West Point foundry (weight 4^ tons) for the South Carolina railroad, which was opened 2 Nov. Swivelling truck for locomotives first suggested by Ho- ratio Allen for the South Carolina railroad in 1831, and put in practical use on the Mohawk and Hudson rail- road 183 South Carolina railroad from Charleston to Hamburg, oppo- site Augusta, Ga., 135 miles, then the longest continuous line in the world, completed 183 Bogie cars, or cars with trucks and aisles through the centre first put in general use on Baltimore and Ohio railroad, about 183 Cars with " monitors, " or raised roofs with ventilators, used on Philadelphia and Germantown railroad 183 Car fitted with berths, and in use until 1848, is put on the Cumberland Valley railroad of Pennsylvania between Har- risburg and Chambersburg Fish-plates for joining rails (now universal) first tried at New castle, Del 184 First state railroad commission established in New Hamp shire 184 Continuous railroad connects Boston and New York 1 Jan. 184 Hodge hand-brakes introduced Stevens's brake introduced 18fi The Cleveland and Toledo railroad completes a continuous line of 1000 miles between Boston and Chicago 188 Chicago and Rock Island railroad, connecting Chicago with the Mississippi river, completed Feb. 185 Wagner's sleepers introduced, 4 in operation 188 Railway system reaches the Missouri river by completion of the Hannibal and St. Joseph railroad 18^ Cars with seats that could be turned into beds used in 1845; sleeping-cars with 3 tiers of bunks used on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad in 1850; patent granted George W. Pull- man for sleeping-cars " Miller car-coupler and buffer patented 1863 Railroad built up mount Washington, N. H 1866-69 Wagner's Palace-car company incorporated 1867 [Pullman sleepers mostly used west and southwest; Wag- ner's, east and south.] M Pullman sleeper, the " Pioneer," built at a cost of $18,000, put 9 on the Chicago and Alton railroad in 1865, and Pullman Car ^ company organized " First hotel-car, the "President," put on the Great Western railway of Canada " First dining-car, the " Delmonico," begins running on the Chi- cago and Alton railroad 1868 Dr. Thomas Durant and gov. Leland Stanford drive the last spikes connecting the Union and Central Pacific railroads at Promontory Point, Utah, completing line across the con- tinent (Pacific railroads) 10 May, 1869 First narrow-gauge locomotive built in the U. S., shipped from the works of M. Baird & Co., Philadelphia, to the Denver and Rio Grande railroad (3 ft. gauge) 13 July, 1871 First narrow-gauge railroad in the U. S., the Denver and Rio Grande, opened to Pueblo, 118 miles June, 1872 Westinghouse air-brakes first applied to passenger trains (1868), and triple valve attachment introduced " Trial trip on the Metropolitan (first called Gilbert) elevated railroad in New York city 30 Apr. System of competitive examinations, prizes awarded to super- visors and foremen for best kept division, devised and put in operation on the Pennsylvania railroad by Frank Thom- son, general manager Locomotives with speed of 70 miles per hour built in the U. S 1882 Northern Pacific railroad completed (last spike driven at In- dependence Gulch, Montana) 8 Sept. 1883 Unsuccessful railroad strike on the Missouri Pacific railroad and connections 6 Mch. -3 May, 1886 First vestibuled train on the Pennsylvania railroad June, " Special newspaper train on New York Central runs from Syracuse to Buffalo, 148.77 miles, at average .speed of 65.6 miles per hour; 10 miles run at 75 miles per hour. 18 Aug. " Train on the Canada Southern railroad runs from St. Clair junction to Windsor, Ont., 107 miles, in 97 minutes, including 2 or 3 stops. Average speed about 69 miles per hour, 16 Nov. " Brake trials at Burlington before Master Car-builders' Associa- tion 1886-87 Westinghouse, by modifying his triple valve and train-pipe, succeeds in applying the brakes throughout a 50-car train in 2 seconds. Exhibition trip (3000 miles) made with special train throughout the country Oct. -Nov. 1887 Train on the New York Central runs from New York to East Buffalo, 436.5 miles, in 7 h. 19 m. 30 sec. includ- ing 3 stops, or 7 h. 5 m. 15 sec. in motion, averaging 61.56 miles per hour, the fastest time for so long a distance, 14 Sept. 1891 Last spike in construction of the Great Northern's extension to the Pacific, the 5th transcontinental line, driven, in the Cascade mountains 6 Jan. 1893 Fastest time on record made by the Empire State express on New York Central, locomotive 999, engineer Charles Hogan, being 1 mile in 32 sec. from Crittenden, west, or at the rate of 112.5 miles an hour 11 May, "^ 1878 1879 f: RAI 673 RAI PRINCIPAL RAILROAD SYSTEMS, TERRITORY, AND NUMBER OF MILES IN EACH ROAD IN UNITED STATES AND CANADA. General location of main line and branches. Number of miles of main line and branches. Atchison, Topeka, and Santa F€ Atlantic Coast Line Baltimore and Ohio. Boston and Albany Boston and Maine Burlington, Cedar Rapids, and Northern Canadian Pacific Central of Georgia Central of New Jersey Central of Vermont Chesapeake and Ohio Chicago and Alton Chicago and Northwestern (including the Northwestern line) Chicago, Burlington, and Quiucy (" Burling ton Route," including the Burlington and Missouri River in Nebraska Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Chicago Great Western ; Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. Loufs) ("Big Four " route) ) Delaware and Hudson Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Denver and Rio Grande Duluth, South Shore, and Atlantic East Tennessee, Virginia, and Georgia Evansville Route Florida Central and Peninsular Grand Rapids and Indiana Grand Trunk of Canada , . . . dreat Northern _ Illinois Central " Intercolonial of Canada International and Great Northern Kansas City, Fort Scott, and Memphis. Luke Shore and Michigan Southern Lake Erie and Western. Lehigh Valley Long Island Louisville and Nashville Maine Central Michigan Central Missouri, Kansas, and Texas Missouri Pacific Mobile and Ohio Nashville, Chattanooga, and St. Louis ("The ) Lookout Mountain Route") ) New York and New England New York Central and Hudson River New York, Chicago, and St. Louis ("Nickel) Plate " line) / New York, Lake Erie, and Western New York, New Haven, and Hartford Norfolk and Western Northern Pacific Pennsylvania Philadelphia and Reading Plant System (including several railroads, the ) principal being Savannah, Florida, and J Western) ) Queen and Cresent System Richmond and Dansville Rome, Watertown, and Ogden Seaboard Air Line Southern Pacific St. Louis Southwestern (" Cotton- Belt " route) Terre Haute and Indianapolis Texas and Pacific Tnion Pacific (the Overland route) Wabash Western New York and Pennsylvania! ....... Wisconsin Central Yhzoo and Mississippi Valley (Illinois com-V plete system) ( ( Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Indian) i Territory, Texas, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, California .' ) Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina j New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia, Vir- 1 ( ginia. West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois j New York and Massachusetts Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, Quebec [owa, Minnesota, South Dakota I New Brunswick, Maine, V^ermont, Quebec, Ontario, Michigan, Manitoba, ) ( Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, B. C. (steamer to China, Japan, Australia j Georgia and Alabama New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, New York, Quebec Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio Illinois and Missouri I Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dako-> ( ta, Nebraska, Wyoming / (Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming,) 1 South Dal«ota / J Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa. Missouri, North Dakota,) \ South Dakota j Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri (Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Minnesota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas. Okla- ) \ homa, Indian Territory, Colorado j Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont .* New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania Colorado and New Mexico Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Louisiana. Indiana and Illinois South Carolina, Georgia, Florida Michigan and Indiana Maine, New Hampshire, Quebec, Ontario, Michigan Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Washington Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, South Dakota, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana. . . Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec Texas Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan Ohio, Indiana, Illinois New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania Long Island, N. Y j Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Tennessee, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mis) I sissippi I Mainej New Hampshire, Vermont, Quebec New York, Ontario, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois Missouri, Kansas, Indian Territory, Texas Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Arkansas, Louisiana, Indian Territory. Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Illinois Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York New York and Pennsylvania New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut. New York Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, Ohio (Minnesota, North Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, Manitoba 1 \ (steamer from Tacoma, Wash., to China and Japan) ) (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, District of Co- 1 \ lumbia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan ) New Jersey and Pennsylvania South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi New York Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Nevada, Oregon, Utah. . . Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas Indiana, Illinois, Michigan Louisiana and Texas /Kansas, Nebraska, Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, Idaho,) \ Montana, Oregon, Washington j Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa New York and Pennsylvania Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee 9346 1280 2097 388 1239 1134 7008 1384 1365 843 7952 5604 6076 904 3572 2290 757 946 1687 594 2943 876 920 585 3510 4413 3808 1114 825 1179 1608 725 1039 367 3164 804 1662 2023 5415 688 1016 566 t2627 523 2063 1630 1477 4495 7916 891 1492 1272 2446 685 926 6586 1226 675 1490 8034 2124 655 765 MEMORABLE RAILROAD ACCIDENTS IN THE U CANADA. "' In proportion to the whole number carried, the accidents to passengers in ' the good old days of stage-coaches ' were, as compared to the present tinoe (1879), about as 60 to 1. In Massachusetts, between 1871 and 1879, 303,000,000 passenger journeys of 13 miles each were made. The average distance 22 t With West Shore, etc, AND travelled by all before death happened to any one was about 80,000,000 miles." — Charles Francis Adams, Jr. Express train from New York runs into an open draw at Nor- walk, Conn.; 46 killed, 30 injured 6 May, 1863 Collision between passenger and gravel train on the Great Western railway of Canada, between Chatham and Detroit; 47 killed, 80 injured 25 Oct. 1854 Bridge over Gasconade on Pacific railroad of Missouri gives way under an excursion train; 22 killed, 50 injured.. 1 Nov. 185^ RAI ^ »l CamubtU •Ution, about U miles nrom Pbiladel- Dhla: excurtlon timin carrying over 1000 Sunday-school chil- Srao; ft cart burned; 66 killed, over 100 itvjured. ... 17 July, DwAiM engine breaks through a bridge over the Des Jardines wynai on Ureat Western rallwny of Canada; out of 90 iwssen- gw« 60 are killed .....17Mch. Two cars derailed and hurled down a 30 fool embankment at Port Jervis, N. Y. ; 6 killed, 60 ii\Jured 17 June, Emigrant train on Grand Trunk of Canada runs into an open draw at Richelieu river, near Beloeil; over 8U killed and hundreds Injured 'iUJune, Collision on Erie railroad, ao miles west of I'ort Jervis; train of 18 cars oarryingSfiO Confederate soldiers; 60 killed, 120 in- jured 15 July, Rear-end collision at Bristol, 30 miles from Philadelphia; 60 killed or iivjured 7 Mch. Rear-end collision on Housatonic railroad of Connecticut; 11 kiUed, 17 iniand 16 Aug. Train derailed and cars hurled from bridge at Angola, N. Y. ; wreck takes flr«; 41 killed 18 Dec. Spreading of rails; cars thrown down an embankment at Carr's Rock, near Port Jervis, N. Y. ; wreck takes Are; 26 killed, 62 iiOured 1* Apr. Collision on Missouri Pacific, near Eureka, Mo. ; 25 killed, 41 iivJured 12 May, Pacific express runs into a disabled oil train on bridge at New Hamburg, near Poughkeepeie, N. Y. ; cars take fire; 21 killed 6 Feb. Expresslrain runsintoaccommodationat Revereon Eastern rail- road, between Boston and Lynn ; 29 killed, 57 injured. 26 Aug. Train derailed on Grand Trunk of Canada, near Belleville; about 30 killed; many burned and scalded 22 June, Trestle bridge gives way under passenger train near Prospect, N. Y. ; cars lake flre ; 19 killed 24 Dec. Bridge over ravine at AshUbula, 0., breaks as Pacific express is crossing during a violent snow-storm ; over 80 killed, more than half of them burned, and over 60 injured, night 29 Dec. Bridge over Farmingtou river, near TariflVille, Conn., breaks under an excursion train; 13 killed, 33 injured 15 Jan. Train derailed on Old Colony railroad, near Wollston, Mass. ; 19 killed, 60 injured 8 Oct. Collision on Hudson River railroad, near Spuyten Duyvil, N. Y; 9 killed J3 Jan. Wreck on Southern Pacific railroad, near Tehichipa, Gal. ; 15 killed 19 Jan. Cincinnati Southern railroad, near Mason's Station, 0. ; 53 in- jured, a number fatally 30 Mch. Northern Pacific railroad in Montana; 18 Chinamen killed, 26 June, Near Grayville, 111. ; 9 killed 4 Sept. Collision on Grand Trunk, near Toronto, Ont. ; 25 killed, 2 Jan. Train thrown into White River, near Indianapolis, Ind. ; 6 kiUed 31 Jan. Collision near Connellsville, Pa.; 14 killed 14 May, Wreck near Hackensack, N. J. ; 9 killed 18 Oct. Collision near Austell, Ga. ; 11 killed 15 Dec. Train derailed near Deerfield, Mass. ; 12 killed , 7 Apr. DerailmentnearSanteeswamp.S.C. ; 7 killed, 13 injured, 7 June, Runaway train near Saluda, N. C. ; 5 killed, 8 injured. .25 Aug. Collision on Nickel Plate railroad at Silver Creek, N. Y. ; 13 killed, 20 iiyured (7 fatally) 14 Sept. Twenty-two persons burned to death in railway wreck near Rio, Wis 28 Oct. Collision near Republic, 0. ; wreck takes fire; 13 killed. .4 Jan. Train derailed near White River junction, Vt. ; cars take flre; 30 killed, 37 injured 5 Feb. Bridge breaks under train near Boston, Mass. ; 24 killed, 115 injured 14 Mch. Collision at St. Thomas, Ont., between excursion train and oil car; wreck takes fire; 13 killed, over 100 injured.. ..15 July, Collision near Hopedale. 111. ; 9 killed, 15 injured 27 July, Excursion train breaks through a burning bridge near Chats- worth, IlL ; 80 killed, about 200 injured 10 Aug. Collision near Kout, Ind.; 10 killed 10 Oct. Collision near Greenwood, Ky. ; wreck burns; 6 killed, 21 in- jured 31 Dec. Wreck from broken wheel, near Haverhill, Mass. ; 9 killed, 13 injured 10 Jan. Train derailed and bridge breaks near Blackshear, Ga. ; 27 killed, 35 injured 17 Mch. Derailment and broken bridge near Orange Court-house, Va. ; 9 killed, 22 injured 12 July, Collision, excursion train near Mud Run, Pa. ; 63 killed, 23 in- jured 10 Oct. Collision near Tamanend switch. Pa. ; 10 killed,23 injured, 16 Oct. Collision near Tallmadge, 0. ; wreck takes fire; 8 killed, 6 in- jured. 14 Jan. Train derailed near St. George, Ont. ; 10 killed, 30 injured, 27 Feb. Collision near Latrobe, Pa.; wreck takes flre; 12 killed. 6 in- jured 26 June, Derailment 22 miles south of Knoxville, Tenn. ; first train over the road; 5 killed, 26 injured 23 Aug. Collision near Auburn Park, III.; drunken engineer; 6 killed, 10 injured 24 Sept. Train bresiks on down grade; rear end collides with forward section, near Bay View, N. Y. ; 6 killed, 17 injured. . .6 Mch. Train runs into open draw -bridge near Oakland, Cal. ; 13 drowned 30 May, Collision near Warrenton, Mo. ; 8 killed, 11 injured 9 June, Train derailed near King's M ills, 0.; 9 killed, 32 injured, 11 July, Derailment near Quincy, Mass. ; 20 killed, 31 iiyured.. .19 Aug. 674 RAI 1866 1867 1864 1867 1868 1870 1871 1872 1876 1878 1882 1883 1884 1885 1887 1890 189* Collision near Florence, Col. ; 5 killed, 33 injured 7 Sept Collision near Sloan's Valley, Ky. ; 7 killed, 10 injured. .22 Oct. Explosion on construction train near Tarrytown, N. Y. ; 13 killed, 22 injured 19 May, Train wrecked near Aspen junction. Col. ; 9 killed, 6 injured, 5 July. Excursion train wrecked near Middletown, 0. ; 7 killed, many injured 25 July, Train wrecked near Louisville, Ky. ; 13 killed, 18 injured, 31 July, Collision near Zelinpole, Pa. ; 8 killed, 5 injured 24 Sept. Train wrecked near Toledo, O. ; 9 killed, 20 injured 28 Nov. " " " Hastings, N. Y. ; 15 killed, 7 injured, 24 Dec. " » " Milwaukee, Wis.,; 7 killed 1 Mch. " *' " Revere, Mo. ; 7 killed 6 May, " " " Cloves, 0. ; 7 killed 15 May, " «' " Cotton Belt railroad; 7 killed 21 May, " " " Lonesome Hollow, Ky. ; 7 killed.. 14 Juno, " " «' Harrisburg, Pa. ; 12 killed 25 Juno, " " " Cochocton, O. ; 6 killed 16 Aug. Collision of trains near Eckenrode Mills, Pa. ; 14 killed, 7 Sept. Train wrecked near West Cambridge, Mass. ; 6 killed, 11 Sept. " " " West Manchester, Pa. ; 7 killed 24 Oct. ♦' " " Phillipsburg, Mo. ; 6 killed 25 Oct. " " " Grand Island, Neb. ; 7 killed 1 Nov. " " " Nelson, Minn. ; 8 killed 18 Dec. Trains collide near Alton, 111. ; 9 killed, 12 fatally injured, 21 Jan. " " " Somerset, Pa. ; 5 killed 25 Apr. Train wrecked near Lafayette, Ind. ; 10 killed 7 May, " " " Parkville,L.L; 8killed, 29 injured, 20 June, " " " Patterson, N. J. ; 5 killed 24 June, " " " Newburg, N. Y. ; 5 killed 13 July, " " " Melton, Va. ; 7 killed 16 Aug. " " " " Berlin, L. L ; 16 killed, 50 badly injured, 26 Aug. " Train on the Boston and Albany railroad goes through a bridge near Chester, Mass. ; 15 killed and 15 injured 31 Aug. " Train wrecked near Colehour, 111. ; 11 killed 7 Sept. " " " " Manteno, 111. ; 8 killed 19 Sept. " Trains collide near Wabash, Ind. ; 11 killed 22 Sept. •' Michigan Central excursion train, 2d section runs into 1st sec- tfon at Jackson, Mich. ; 13 killed and 40 injured 13 Oct. " Trains collide near Battle Creek, Mich. ; 26 killed, many fatally hurt 20 Oct. " NUMBER OF PEKSONS KILLED IN TRAIN ACCIDENTS ON TJIK DIFFERENT RAILROADS IN THE U. S. FOR THE YEARS. 1891, '92, '93. 1893 Year. Passengers. Trespassers. Employees. Total. 1891 177 121 178 63 61 89 550 490 424 790 1892 672 1893 . - 691 Total 476 213 1464 2153 Average for the past 14 years (1880 to 1893 inclusive) is 573.4. MEMORABLE RAILROAD ACCIDENTS, ENGLISH AND FOREIGN.. In 1846, in England, was passed the Campbell act, to compel railway companies to make compensatiou for inj'uries by culpa- ble accidents (9and 10 Vict. c. 93). The statistics of railway ac- cidents in Great Britain for one year (1889) show — Killed : pa.s- sengers, 183; employes, 435; trespassers, 351; various,170; total,. 1139, Injured: passengers, 1829; employes, 2769; trespassers,, 122; various, 53; total, 4773; total killed and injured, 6912. W. Huskisson, M. P., killed at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester railway 15 Sept. 1830 Derailment of engine at Sonninghill cuLnear Reading; 8 killed, 24 Dec. 1841 Railway train takes fire at Versailles,France; passengers locked in. Over 50 lives lost, including adm. d'Urville; over 40 injured 8 May, 1842 Collision on Great Southern and Western near Strafian, Ireland ; 13 killed 5 Oct. 1853 Collision near Moret in Seine-et-Marne, France, 16 killed, 23 Oct. 1855 Collision at Kirby, between Liverpool and Blackpool; 200 in- jured, none killed 27 June, 1857 Collision at Lewisham, near London; 11 killed 28 June, " Wreck near Mons, Belgium ; 21 killed June, 1858 Collision of excursion train about 10 miles from Birmingham, near Round Oak station 23 Aug. " Collision, excursion train at Helmshore, near Manchester; 11 killed 4 Sept. 1860 Collision of mail and cattle train on Northwestern railway at Atherstone; 11 killed 16 Nov. " Collision in Clayton tunnel, on London and Brighton railway; 23 killed, 176 injured 25 Aug. 1861 Wreck at Kentish Town, near London; 16 killed, 320 injured, | 2 Sept. " j Collision near Winchburgh, on Edinburgh and Glasgow railway ; i 15 killed, 100 injured 13 Oct. 1862 ! Train derailed near Rednall on branch of Great Western rail- { way; 13 killed, about 40 injured 7 June, 1865 , Derailment near Staplehurst, on Southeastern railway; 10 killed, ; about 50 injured 9 June, " { Collision between Irish mail train and freight, Abergele, N.Wales. \ Barrels of petroleum ignite; 33 burned to death 20 Aug. 1868 j Derailment on Great Indian Peninsular railway, near Khan- j dalla, Bombay; about 18 killed 26 Jan. 1869i 1870 1871 1873 1874 RAI 675 Collision between excursion train and derailed freight near Newark, on the Great Northern railway; 19 killed. .21 June, Collision near Barnsley; 14 killed 12 Dec. Railway accident near St. Nazaire, France; explosion of gun- powder; 60 killed 25 Feb. Train derailed near Festh, Hungary ; 21 killed May, Train derailed at Wigan, 17 miles from Manchester; 13 killed, including sir John Anson 23 Aug. Collision between London express and a mineral train near Manuel and Bo'ness Junction, between Edinburgh and Glas- gow ; 16 killed 27 Jan. Two passenger trains, through the carelessness of telegraph operators, collide at Thorpe, near Norwich; 26 killed, 50 in- jured 10 Sept. " Broken wheel throws train over an embankment at Shipton, near Oxford; 34 killed, about 70 injured 24 Dec. " Train hurled from embankment near Odessa, Russia ; about 68 killed 8 Jan. 1876 Double collision, Scotch express with coal train, and Leeds ex- press from London, near Huntingdon on Great Northern rail- way; 14 killed 21 Jan. " Collis'ion of excursion trains about 4 miles from Bath, on branch of Great Western; 14 killed 7 Aug. " Cnllision near Fontypridd Junction, Rhondda branch of Taflf Valley line, Wales; 13 killed, about 40 injured 19 Oct. 1878 Tay bridge, Dundee, with passenger train on it, blown into the river; all perish, about 74 passengers 28 Dec. 1879 Train falls into the San Antonio river through a bridge near Cuartla, on Morelos railway, Mexico; about 200 lives lost, night of 24 June, 1881 Express train on Great Western railway runs into freight at Slough; 12 killed 24 Dec. " Eight cars derailed between Tcherny and Bastigeur, Russia; about 178 killed • 13 July, 1882 Excursion train derailed at Hugstetten, between Freiburg and Colmar, Baden; 70 killed, 150 injured 7 Sept. " Railway accident at Steglitz, near Berlin; 40 killed 2 Sept. 1883 Crank axle of locomotive breaks, throwing express train over an embankment at Bullhouse bridge, near Penistone; 24 killed 16 July, 1884 Bridge near Sydney, New South Wales, gives way under a pas- senger train; 40 lives lost 30 Jan. 1885 Collision at Doncaster, Engl. ; 28 killed, 70 injured 16 Sept. 1887 Collision on Moscow and Kursk railway, in Russia; 11 killed, 15 May, 1888 Collision neac^Tampico, Mexico; 18 killed, 41 injured. .4 June, " Railway bridge breaks near Groenandael, Belgium; 14 killed, 3 Feb. 1889 Excursion train wrecked near Armagh, Ireland; 76 killed, 12 June, " Collision near Ciulnita, Bulgaria; 15 killed 9 July, " Train derailed near Stuttgart, Germany; 10 killed, 50 injured, 2 Oct. " Collision on Great Western railway near Norton Fitzwarren; 10 killed, 8 injured 11 Nov. 1890 Railway accident near Basel, Switzerland; 100 killed, 150 in- jured 14 June, 1891 Collision of express trains at St. Maud6, near Paris; 50 killed, over 100 injured 25 July, Train wrecked near Berne, Switzerland; 14 killed, many in- jured 17 Aug. TraincoUision near Burgos, Spain; 14 killed, 24 injured, 24 Sept. Train wrecked near Moirans, France ; 15 kil]ed,50 injured,26 Oct. Trains collide near Lahore, India; 30 killed, many injured, 7 Nov. Trains collide near Thirsk, Scotland; 10 killed 2 Nov. Train wrecked on the TalTvale line, Wales ; 12 killed, 60 in- jured 12 Aug. Trains collide near Milan, Italy; 13 killed, 22 injured. .28 Nov. GROWTH OF RAILROADS IN THE WORLD. RAN Country. Opened. Great Britain 1825 United States 1827 France 1828 Germany 1835 Belgium I 1835 1837 1838 1839 1839 1844 1846 1847 1848 1851 1851 1854 1856 1857 Austria (proper;... Russia in Europe . . Italy Holland Switzerland Hungary , Denmark Spain Chili : Brazil Norway Sweden , Argentine Republic Turkey in Europe. Peru Portugal Greece .1869 Uruguay i 1869 Mexico : 1868 Roumania j Japan I 1874 Miles of road completed. 1857 2818 6621 9021 1714 3637 554 817 310 265 110 15 137 20 1 1860. 10,433 30,626 5,700 6.979 1.074 1,813 988 1,117 208 653 1,004 69 1,190 120 134 42 375 "41 47 42 1870. 15,537 52,922 11.142 11,729 1,799 3,790 7,098 3,825 874 885 2,157 470 3,400 452 504 692 1,089 637 392 247 444 6 61 215 152 17,933 93,296 16,275 20,693 2, 7,083 14,026 5, 1,143 1,596 4,421 975 4,550 1,100 2,174 970 3,654 1,536 727 1,179 710 7 268 655 859 75 19,943 160,544 2i,899 24,845 2,776 9,345 17,534 7,830 1,632 1,869 6,751 1,217 5.951 1,801 5,546 970 4,899 4,506 1,024 1,836 1,188 416 399 5,012 1,537 542 rain. The exact manner in which rain fornos is un- known. Blanford advanced the general law that " however vapor-laden may be any current of air, however saturated, it does not bring rainfall so long as it preserves a horizontal movement." "Either increased elevation or eddies from in- crease of friction, or the convection around borders of a baro- metric depression causes formation of clouds and rain." — Greely. Places having a great annual fall of rain are : Cher- apoonjee, Hindostan, 592 in.; Matouba, Guadeloupe, 292 in. ; Maranhao, Brazil, 280 in. ; Uttray Mullay, Hindostan, 267 in.; and Mahabalishwar, Hindostan, 254 in. Lima (Peru), Thebes (Egypt), Tatta (north Africa) are said to be rainless; other places having a small annual rainfall are: Cairo, Egypt, 1.31 in. ; Karachi, India, 1.5 in. ; Camp Mohave, Arizona, 1.85 in.; Mammoth Tank, San Diego co., Cal., 1.88 in. ; BLshop Creek, Inyo co., Cal., 2.02 in. ; and Yuma, Ariz., 2.81 in. From observations made by Charles Pierce, resi- dent of Portsmouth, N. H., 1793, and of Philadelphia, Pa., from 1813, the smallest rainfall in any one year in Philadelphia from 1797 to 1846, was 23.25 in. in 1819, and the greatest, 55.5 in. in 1841. Records at Central Park observatory. New York city, show a rainfall in 1889 of 55 in., the largest record- ed in 2ryears. In New England, from 11 to 13 Feb. 1886, 5 in. of rain fell over nearly 5000 sq. miles of territory, and one of the most remarkable rainfalls recorded in the U. S. oc- curred at Alexandria, La., 15-16 June, 1886, when 21.4 in. fell in 24 hours. Numerous authenticated instances of red rain, or " showers of blood," have been collected by M. Grellois, be- ginning with one which occurred in and around Paris, referred to by (Gregory of Tours, 582 a.d. Some of the most celebrated instances are: in France and Germany, 1181 ; at Genoa, 1744; at Naples, 14 Mch. 1813; at Beauvais, 1 May, 1863; near Rome, 13 Feb. 1870, etc. Yellow rains, owing to pollen of pine- trees floating in the air, have been observed in the U. S. ; a noticeable instance occurred at Lynchburg, Va., 21 Mch. 1879. The absolute range of barometric readings in the U. S. varies from 1.014 in. at San Diego, Cal., and 1.176 in. at Key West, Fla., to 2.201 in. at New York, and 2.523 in. at Eastport, Me. Storms, Cloudbursts and Rainfalls. rainbow (mentioned Gen. ix. 13-16), a luminous bow or arch formed by the prismatic dispersion of rays of sunlight passing through falling rain-drops. It exhibits the 7 prismatic colors in the order of the spectrum. Its theory was (ieveloped by Kepler in 1611, and by Rene Descartes in 1629. Spectrum, Raleigh's seUiement§ on the Atlantic COa§t. Virginia, 1585. Ramadan, the Mahometan month of fasting, in 1865, 28 Jan. to 27 Feb. ; and from 27 Dec. 1867 to 30 Jan. 1868 in- clusive. It is followed by the festival of Bairam. Mahom- etan YEAR. Ranibouillet {ram-hoo-eeyea'), a royal chateau, about 25 miles from Paris. Here Francis I. died, 31 Mch. 1547 ; and here Charles X. abdicated, 2 Aug. 1830. After belonging to the count of Thoulouse and the due de Penthievre, it was bought by Louis XVI. 1778. Rambouillet decree, United States, 1810. ramie, a Javanese name now adopted in the United States for the Chinese grass, a plant of the order Urticacem or nettle. The fibre can be manufactured into a fabric resem- bling silk. The climate of the southern U. S. is favorable to its cultivation. Ramillies {ram'-e-leez), a village of Belgium, the site of one of the battles and victories in the war of the Spanish succession, gained by the duke of Marlborough over the French, commanded by the elector of Bavaria and marshal de Villeroy, on Whitsunday, 23 May, 1706. The French were seized with a panic and routed : about 4000 of the allies were slain. This accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, etc. Ramona. Indian education ; New Mexico, 1885. RanSfOOn', maritime capital of the Burmese empire, on the Irrawaddy, built by Alompra, 1753, was taken by a British force under sir A. Campbell on 1 1 May, 1824. In Dec. 1826, it was ceded to the Burmese on condition of payment of a sum of money, the reception of a British resident at Ava, and freedom of commerce. Oppression of the British mer- chants led to the second Burmese war, 1852. Rangoon was RAN taken bv storm by gen. Godwin, 14 Apr., and annexed to the British 'dominions in Dec. An English bishopric founded, 1877. Pop. 1890, 182,000. Bukmah. RaiiHome'ii artificial stone, invented by Fred, Ransome, 1848, is made by dissolving Hint (silica) in heated caustic alkali, adding fine sand. The mixture is pressed into moulds and heatetl to retlneas. rape was punished with death by Jews, Romans, and (ioths; bv mutilation and loss of eyes in William I.'s reign. This was'mitigateil by the statute of Westminster 1,3 Edw.I. 1274. Made felony by stat. Westminster 2, 12 Edw. III. 1338 ; and without benefit of clergy, 18 Eliz. 1576. Rape made pun- ishable bv trans|>ortation in 1841 ; by penal servitude for life, or a less periml, 1861. In the United States the punishment diflfers according to the laws of the several states ; but in most of them the sentence may be for 10 to 20 years of imprison- ment at hanl labor. Rapilia, a port of Palestine. Here Antiochus III. of Syria was defeated by Ptolemy Philopator, king of Egypt, 2i7 B.C. Rappahannoeii, a river in Virginia, about halfway between Washington and Richmond, along the line of which, or near it, were fought some of the great battles of the civil war. as Chancellors ville, Fredericksburg, and the Wilderness; while several severe minor engagements, namely, Kelly's Ford, Beverly Ford, Rappahannock Station, etc., might well entitle it to the name of " Bloody River." United States, 1863. raspberry. Flowers and Plants. Rateliffe Ilig^il-lV-ay (now St. George's street), East London. Mr. Marr, a shopkeeper here, with his wife, child, and boy, were murdered in a few minutes, 7 Dec. 1811. In the same neighborhood, on 11 Dec, Mr. and Mrs. Williamson, their child and servant, were also murdered. A man named Williams, arrested on suspicion, committed suicide, 15 Dec. (graphically depicted by De Quincey in " Three Memorable Murders." England, 1886. ra'tioiialism, the doctrine which rejects divine reve- lation and admits no way to truth but experience and reason. The leading writers are Reimarus of Hamburg (d. 1768), Paulusof Heidelberg (1761-1851), Eichhorn, Reinhard, Strauss, Frederick Henry Jacobi, and Schleiermacher. W. Lecky's " History of Rationalism in Europe " appeared July, 1865 ; and dr. J. Hurst's, Apr. 1867. Philosophy. Ratisbon or Regensburg, in Bavaria, was made a free imperial city about 1200. Several diets have been held here. A peace was concluded here between France and the emperor of Germany ending the war for the Mantuan succes- sion, 13 Oct. 1630. In a diet held here', the German princes seceded from the Germanic empire, to accept the protection of the emperor Napoleon, 1 Aug. 1806. Ratisbon was made an archbishopric in 1806; secularized in 1810; ceded to Ba- varia in 1815 ; became again an archbishopric in 1817. RaueOUX {ro-coo''), a village of Belgium. Here the French army under marshal Saxe totally defeated the allies under prince Charles of Lorraine, 11 Oct. 1746. Ravailiac's (ra-vdl-ydc'') murder of Henry rv. of France, 14 May, 1610. The execution of the assassin on 27 May was accompanied by horrible tortures. Torture. Raven'na, on the Adriatic, a city of the Papal States, founded by Greek colonists, fell under Roman power about 234 B.C. It was favored and embellished by the emperors, and Honorius made it capital of the Western Empire about 404 A.D. In 568 it became capital of an exarchate. It was subdued by the Lombards in 752, and their king, Astolphus, in 754 surrendered it to Pepin, king of France, who gave it to pope Stephen, founding the temporal power of the Holy See. On 11 Apr. 1512, a battle was fought between French, under Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.), and Spanish and papal armies. De Foix perished in the mo- ment of victory, and his death closed the good-fortune of the French in Italv. Ravenna became part of the kingdom of Italy in 1860. " Raymond, Miss., Battle of. Vicksbukg campaign. readers, a new order of ministrants in the church of 676 REB England, received the assent of the archbishops and bishops in July, 1866. They were not to be ordained or addressed as reverend. Readings (rid'ing), a borough of Berkshire, Engl. Here Alfred defeated the Danes, 871. The abbey was founded in 1121 by Henry I. The last abbot was hanged in 1539 for denving the king's supremacv. The palace prison was erected 1850. Real Presenee. Transubstantiation. Realists* Nominalists, Philosophy. Reams'S Station, Affair at. Grant's campaign in Virginia. reaping^-maehines. The gathering of grain with a sickle is as old as history. Cradles, or scythes with a gath- •ering frame of 4 or 5 wooden fingers above the blade and par- allel to it are still in use, and as late as 1848, at a trial of reaping-machines held at the state fair at Buffalo, N. Y., the decision was in favor of cradles. A heading-machine, which caught the heads of grain by sharp teeth set on the edge of a re- ceiving box pushed against the grain by an ox in harness, was used in Gaul as early as 60 a.d. This principle of pushing was followed out in modern reapers up to 1820; in only one case, a machine invented in 1806, were the horses attached in front. Reaper with rows of combs or ripples on a cylinder, which tore off the heads and discharged them into a box, was in- vented by Pitt in England 1786 First reaper patented was by Boyce of England, and had a vertical shaft with 6 rotating scythes 1799 Gladstone of England patents a side-cutting reaper with re- volving knife, finger gathering bar, and front draft 1806 Bailey's American mowing machine, the first patented in the U. S., made with a horizontal rotary circular blade 1822 Ogle of England invents a reaper with front draft, side cut, grain platform, and gathering reel " Reaper invented by rev. Patrick Bell, and tried near Forfar, Scotland, had a reel and travelIing-ai)ron to deliver the cut grain at the side, and was pushed by horses 1828 Obed Hussey, then of Cincinnati, 0., patents a mower and reaper with front draft, side cut, triangular sectional knife. and guards 1833 Cyrus H. McCormick of Virginia patents his reaping-machine, 1834 Public trial of Hussey's reaper before the Maryland Agricult- ural Society 12 July, 1837 [During the season this machine cut 180 acres of oats ou a farm in Maryland. J First reaping-machine with a platform to receive the gavels and carry the binder invented by Mr. Lamb, in the U. S 1840 Header invented by Jonathan Haines of Illinois 1849 W. H. Seymour of New York invents a self-raking attachment for reapers 1851 Watson's automatic binder patented " At trial of American reapers on farm of Mr. Mechi, 45 miles from London, the McCormick reaper receives a prize medal. July, " Trial of reaping-machines held at Buffalo, N. Y. 1848; trial of 9 competing reaping-machines at Geneva, N. Y 1852 American reapers receive the prize at trial made on the farm of M. Dailley, postmaster-general of France, at La Trappe... 1855 Owen Dorsey of Maryland invents a combined reel and rake for reapers 1856 Automatic self-binding harvesters come into use in the U. S. .. 1871 McCormick's self-binding harvester takes gold medal at Royal Agricultural Society's competition at Bristol, Engl 6 Aug. 1878 reason was decreed to be worshipped as a goddess by the French republicans, 10 Nov. 1793, and was personified by an actress, madame Maillard. — Thomas Paine's " Age of Rea- son" was published in 1794-95; Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason " (" Kritik der reinen Vernunft "), 1781. Lrr- ERATUEE, Philosophy. Rebecca, Lady (Pocahontas). Virginia, 1613. retoecfe, the English name of a 3-stringed musical in- strument of Arabian or Persian invention. This instrument gradually assumed the form of the viol, of which it was the origin. <' when the merry bells ring round And the jocund rebecks sound." — Jft«o», "L' Allegro." rebellions or insurrections in Britisli history. Details of many are given in separate articles. Conspiracies. Against William the Conqueror, in favor of Edgar Atheling, aided by the Scots and Danes, 1069. Odo of Bayeux and others, against William XL, in favor of his brotli- er Robert, 1Q88 ; suppressed, 1090. In favor of the empress Maude, 1139; ended, 1153. Of prince Richard against his father Henry II., 1189. Of the barons, Apr. 1215. Compromised by the grant of Magna Charta, 15 June following. REC 677 Of the Barons, 1261-67. Of lords spiritual and temporal against Edward II. on account of his favorites, the Gavestons, 1312. Again, on account of the Spen- cers, 1321. Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vulgarly called Wat Tyler; occa- sioned by the brutal rudeness of a poll-tax collector to his daugh- ter. He killed the collector in his rage, and raised a party to op- pose the tax, 1381. Tylkk. In Ireland, when Roger, earl of March, the viceroy and heir pre- sumptive to the crown, was slain, 1398. Of Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused Richard II. to be deposed, 1399. Against king Henry IV. by a number of confederated lords, 1402-3. Against Henry V. by earl of Cambridge and other lords, 1415. Of Jack Cade, against Henry VI., 1450. Cade's Insurrection. In favor of the house of York, 1452, ending in imprisonment of Henry VI. and seating Edward IV^ of York on the throne, 1461. Under Warwick and Clarence, 1470, ending in expulsion of Edward IV. and restoration of Henry VI. the same year. Under Edward IV., 1471, ending with death of Henry VI. Earl of Richmond, against Richard III., 1485, which ended with the death of Richard. Under Lambert Simnel, 1486, who pretended to be Richard III.'s nephew, Edward Plantagenet, earl of Warwick; his army was de- feated, leaders slain, and he was discovered to be a baker's son; he was pardoned, and employed by the king as a menial. Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492; defeated; executed 1499. Under Thomas Flammock and Michael Joseph, in Cornwall, against taxes levied to pay the Scottish war expenses. They marched towards London, and lord Audley took the command at Wells. They were defeated at Blackheath, 22 June, and the 3 leaders were executed, 28 June, 1497. "Pilgrimage of Grace," against Henry VIII., 1536-37. Of the English in the west, to restore the ancient liturgy, etc., 1549; suppressed same year. In Norfolk, headed by Ket the tanner, but soon suppressed, Aug. 1549. For lady Jane Grey, against queen Mary. Lady Jane was pro- claimed queen on the death of Edward VL, 10 July, 1553; but re- signed the crown to Mary after a few days, and beheaded for high- treason, in the Tower, 12 Feb. 1554, aged 17. Sir Thomas Wyatt, son of the poet, and others, against queen Mary's marriage with Philip of Spain, etc. ; fails; he is beheaded, 11 Apr. 1554. Of the Roman Catholic earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland against queen Elizabeth, Nov. and Dec. 1567. The former fled to Scotland, but was given up by the regent Morton and executed. Irish under the earl of Tyrone, 1599; suppressed 1601. Earl of Essex, against queen Elizabeth, 1600 ; he d. 1601. Of the Irish under Roger More, sir Phelim O'Neil, etc., against the English in Ireland, 1641-45. "Great Rebellion," 1641-60. Rebellion of the Scots Covenanters, 1666; soon put down. Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685; executed 15 July. Of Scots for the Old Pretender, 1715; quelled 1716. Of the Scots under the Young Pretender, 1745; suppressed in 1746; lords Lovat, Balmerino, and Kilmarnock beheaded. Of the Americans on account of taxation, 1774. This rebellion lost to England her chief North American colonies, which became the United States, 1782. In Ireland, the "Great Rebellion," great numbers taking arms, be- gan 24 May, 1798; suppressed next year. Again in Ireland, under Robert Emmett, a gifted enthusiast, 23 July, 1803, when lord Kilwarden was killed, with several others, by the insurgents. Canadian insurrection, Dec. 1837 to Nov. 1838. Canada. Of Chartists at Newport, Engl., 4 Nov. 1839. Smith O'Brien's rebellion; ended by defeat and dispersion of his followers, by sub-inspector Trant and about 60 police constables, on Boulagh common, Ballingary, county Tipperary, 29 July, 1848. Ireland. Sepoy mutiny in India, 1857-58. Of Fenians in Ireland, 1865-67. For the United States, Dorr's, Shays's, and Whiskey re- bellion, and for the Southern states, United States, 1860- 1866. Rech'at>ite§, Independent Order of, a temperance so- ciety introduced into the United States in 1842 from England, where it had existed since 1835. The order takes its name from the Rechabites of Scripture (Jer. xxxv.), and at one time had over 100,000 members. 50th anniversary of the order held at Washington, D. C, 2 Aug. 1892. recitative, a species of singing differing little from ordinary speaking, and used for narratives in operas, is said to have been first employed at Rome by Emilio del Cavaliere, who disputed the claim of Rinuccini to the introduction of the opera, 1600. Operas. Recon§tructioil period embraced the adminis- trations of Johnson and Grant. United States, 1865-77. recor€l§, Public, in England, first regularly preserved m 1100 by order of Henry I. The repositories of ancient materials most interesting to historians were the Chapter- house of Westminster Abbey, the Tower of London, the Rolls RED Chapel, and the Queen's Remembrancer's offices of the ex- chequer. The early records of Scotland, going from London, were lost by shipwreck in 1298. In Ireland, the council- chamber and most of the records were burned, 1711. Public Records act, 2 Vict. c. 94 (10 Aug. 1838). F. Thomas's valua- ble " Handbook to the Public Records " was pub. in 1853 ; Mr. Ewald's "Our Public Records" in 1873. Recovery, fort. Defence of. Gen. Wayne succeeded St. Clair in command of the troops in the Northwest, and on the site of the latter's defeat (Ohio, 1791) he erected a fort, and called it Recovery. In June, 1794, the garrison, under maj. William M'Mahon, were attacked by many Indians. M'Mahon and 22 others were killed, and 30 were wounded. The Indians were repulsed. On 20 Aug. the Indians were defeated by Wayne at the Maumee rapids. recu'§ailt§, persons in England who refuse to attend church, 1 Eliz. c. 2, 1559 ; dissenters relieved from this act, 1689 ; it was repealed, 1844. Red Bank, the site of fort Mercer, on the New Jersey shore of the Delaware river. Fort Mercer. red crag", deposits of fossil remains on the coast of Es- sex and Suffolk, England, so called by Edward Charlesworth about 1835 ; used in the manufacture of fertilizer. Red Cross. Tlie Red Cross is "a confederation of societies in different countries for the amelioration of the con- dition of wounded soldiers in the armies, in campaigns on land or sea." It carries on its work under the sign of a red cross on a white ground used as a flag, always with the na- tional flag or as an arm badge. By article 7 of the Geneva convention this sign protects its wearers as neutral. The society originated with Henri Dunant (Swiss) after the battle of Solferino, 1859, ably seconded by dr. Louis Appia and Gus- tave Moynier of Geneva. The latter, president of the " So- ciety of Public Utility of Switzerland," called a meeting " to consider the formation of permanent societies for the relief of wounded soldiers," which was held 9 Feb. 1863, and resulted in an international meeting 26 Oct. following, and a treaty between 12 European governments, assuring neutralitj' and protection to all working under the Red Cross. This treaty is known as the Geneva Convention, and was concluded at Ge- neva, 22 Aug. 1864. It was adopted by Great Britain, 18 Feb. 1865; Prussia, 22 June, 1865 ; Turkey, 5 Julj^ 1865 ; and Russia, 22 May, 1867. The United States Senate acceded to it, 16 Mch. 1882, and it was proclaimed by pres. Arthur, 26 July, 1882. The treaty is now generally adopted by civilized governments of the world. The American (National) Asso- ciation of the Red Cross was organized at Washington, D.C., 21 May, 1881, and was incorporated for 20 years, 1 July, 1881. Miss Clara Barton was elected first president. Associate socie- ties in the various states have done noble work in aiding suf- ferers by calamity from forest fires, floods, fevers, etc. Red River campaig^n of 1S64. After the capture of Port Hudson, gen. Halleck urged upon Banks (6 Aug.) the necessity, for diplomatic reasons, of occupying Tex- as. There was some difference, Halleck preferring an ad- vance upon Shreveport, and Banks a descent upon the coast and thence into the interior. An expedition against Sabine Pass started from New Orleans 5 Sept. 1863, but failed. Bra- zos Santiago, at the mouth of the Rio Grande, was occupied 2 Nov. During that month nearly the entire Texan coast was occupied by Banks's forces. He was about to attack Galveston, when Halleck recalled him to the original plan for an advance up the Red river to Shreveport, La. On 25 Mch. 1864, his army was concentrated at Alexandria ; it advanced to Natchitoches (2, 3 Apr.) and to Pleasant Hill (7 Apr.). On 8 Apr. was fought the battle of Sabine Cross-roads, in which Banks's advance was forced to retire by Kirby Smith and Dick Taylor with about 20,000 men. Banks fell back 3 miles to Pleasant Grove, where the confederates were checked by Emory's division of the 19th corps until nightfall, when the retreat was continued 15 miles to a strong position at Pleasant Hill. Here the federals, about 15,000 men, were joined by A. J. Smith's corps, 10,000 strong. The confederates attacked about 4 P.M. on the 9th, in full force, but were repulsed. On the 10th Banks continued his retreat to Grand Ecore unas- sailed. The fleet under adm. Porter, which had followed the RED 678 REF army with difficulty from Alexandria to Grand Ecore, found it still mor« difficult to return, the river constantly falling. Most of the rtcet reached Alexandria, but here coulil not pass the rapids until lieut.-col. Joseph Bailey, of the 4th Wisconsin infantry, succeeded in damming the river, a brilliant feat of engineering. The rapids were over a mile long and from 700 to 1000 ft. wiile, with a current 10 miles an hour. The work began 30 Apr., and by 12 May the entire fleet had passed aafely through the chute to the waters below the rapids. Over 3000 men were engaged day and night on the work. The expedition from first to last was mismanaged; and even if, with Porter's co-operating fleet, it had reachetl Shreveport, that position could not have been maintained, and the fleet would have been captured or destroyed. Gen. Steele, who marched a co-operative column from Little Rock against Kirby Smith, encountered great difficulties in his movement ; and before he could be of any assistance Banks had already re- treated. The Federal losses during the whole expedition were between 5000 and 6000 men, of whotn 4000 were lost during the battles of 8 and 9 Apr. Red River §eUleineilt§. a name given to part of the Hudson Bay settlements, now Manitoba. Re !?-„„..„„„ xt„k u nile Offenders J" Kearney, Neb Massachusetts Reformatory Concord. Mass 1884 Pennsylvania Reformatory Huntington, Penn 1885 Burnham Industrial Farm Canaan Four Corners. N. Y. 1887 Dakota Reform School Plankinton, S. Dak. 1889 Reformed church in America. The Reformed Protestant Dutch church arose in the Netherlands early in the 16th century. "The Belgic Confession," published in 1561 by Guido de Bres, was adopted by the first synod at Wesel, on the Rhine, in 1568. The Reformed church in America was organized on Manhattan island by rev. Jonas Michaelius, with about 50 members, in 1628. Michaelius succeeded by rev. Everardus Bogardus, and a small church erected in Broad street. New York city 1633 Second church erected within the walls of Fort Amsterdam. . . 1642 English language introduced in the church service 1763 Rutger's college, near New Brunswick, N. J., established 1770 Reformed Dutch church in America adopts a constitution em- bracing the church orders of the synod of Dort 1794 REF 6^^ Christian ItUHlig^neer, organ of the Reformed Dutch church, established in Xew York city 1828 Beformed churchestablished in the western states, and strength- ened by colonists from the Netherlands about 1835 Hope college, Holland, Mich., established 1865 Word '• Dutch " dropp)ed from the corporate name at general svnod held at Geneva, X. Y 20 Nov. 1867 Present strength of Reformed church of America- 570 churches, 582 ministers, 94,323 members June, 1891 Reformed Clllireb in the United States, formerly known as the German Reformed church, was formed princi- pally of peasants of the Palatinate, driven from their homes, and sent to Aiqerica by charity of queen Anne, 1689- 1697. They settled mostly in Pennsylvania and New York, and the first coetus, or ministerial conference, of the church was held at Philadelphia in 1746. First synod at Lancaster, Pa 1793 Classes or presbyteries introduced. 1820 first theological seminary opened at Carlisle, Pa. 1«26 Marshall college founded at Mercersburg. Pa 1835 Rev. dr. Philip Schaff of Berlin installed professor of church history and biblical literature in Marshall college 1844 Marehali college united with Franklin college at Lancaster, Pa. 1853 Word • • German " " erased from church title 1869 Theological seminary at Mercersburg removed to Lancaster, Pa. 1871 Society numbered 8 synods, 55 classes, 835 ministers, 1554 con- gregations, 20O,5O«:> members in 1890 Reformed Epi§copal church, founded in the United States in 1873 ; introduced into England 18/ /. Dr Cummins, assistant bishop of Kentucky, after revising the I'raver-book, consecrated Oridge, Gregg, Cheney, and others, usbi-shops. 1873 Dr. Gregg and others ordained presbyters and formed churches here, .July, 1877 ; said to have 10.000 members .April, 1878 Another bishop consecrated by dr. aregg at Southend. . .5 Nov. " ■•• Book of Common Prayer " modified, issued by dr. Gr^g early in ,' 1879 regalia. Crowx. Wiegency, Albany (first so called by Tburlow Weed), a strong political Democratic combination, which largely con- trolled not only the nominating conventions and other ma- chinery of that party in the state of New York from 1820 to 1850, but was almost as potential in national politics as welL Among its members were Martin Van Buren, William L. Marcy, Samuel L, Talcott, John A. Dix, A. C. Flagg, Silas Wright, and others, with the Albany Argus to enforce its views. Reg^ency bill§ of the* English government. One ■was passed 1751. One was proposed to Parliament in con- aequence of the mental illness of George IIL, and debated 10 Dec. 1788. It was relinquished on his recovery, 26 Feb. 1789. The return of the malady led to the prince of Wales (after- wards George IV.) being sworn in before the privy conncil as regent of the kingdom, 5 Feb. 1811. The Regency bill pro- viding for the administration of the government, shoidd the crown descend to the princess Victoria while under 18 years of age, passed 1 Will IV. 23 Dec. 1830. A Regency bill appoint- ing prince Albert regent in the event of the demise of the queen, should her next lineal successor be imder age, passed 4 Aug. l&W. reg'icides (Lat. rex, a king, and caedere, to kill, the killing or murder of a king), those who put a king to death. In English historj', 150 commissioners appointed to try king Charles I., of whom 70 acted, and 59 signed the death-warrant, Jan, 1649. Of these 29 were tried, and 13 executed : Harri- son, 13 Oct. ; Carew, 15 Oct. ; Cook and Peters, 16 Oct, , ^ jtt. Scroop, Clement, and Jones, 17 Oct, ; Axtell and Hac- -. 19 Oct. 1660. Barkstead, Corbet, and Okey arrested at Hague, Holland, and executed 19 Apr. 1662.' 3 of them, 3"e, Whalley, and Dixwell, came to the New England colo- s, and were successfully concealed from arrest, Massa- '•SKTTS, 1660-75. Others were imprisoned. More than 20 .0 were dead were tried, and 3 of them, Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, were exhumed and hung at Tyburn. OTHEB REGICIDES. " 'nes L of Scotland, by nobles 20 Feb. 1437 ®sIIL '• " llJane, 1488 ryllL of France, by Oement. 1 Aug., d 2 Aug. 1589 -^rjy IV. '• by Ravaillac 14 May, 1610 i l^is XVL " by eonventioiL 21 Jan. 1793 IGusjavus in. of Sweden, by Ankarstrom, 16 Mch. ; d. . .29 Mch. 1792 i'aul of Rossia, by nobles 24 Mch. 1801 exanderlLofBnasia, by nihilists 14 Mch. 1881 REI reg1nieilt§ of infantry-, bodies of foot - soldiers com- manded by a colonel, now usually divided into 10 companies, were formed in France about 1588. Infantry. The follow- ing are the approximate dates of the establishment of several British r^ments: CAVALRY. Oxford Blues are erroneonsly ascribed to the reign of Henry \1II. ; named for their colonel, the earl of Oxford, in 1661 Three Hindu regiments (19th, 20th, and 21st) added. Aug. " Dragoon Guards, the Royal Irish, and the Scots Greys were formed by James II...'. about 1684-86 Several regiments of Light Dragoons were armed with lances and termed "Lancers" Sept. 1816 ixfaxtby. Ist Royal or Royal Scots r^ment, 1633; tbe(dd title resumed, Dec. 1871 Coldstream Guards, established by Monk in 1660 3d Bofls, represent London train-bands, and have special privi- leges. " 2dQueen"8 RoyaL 1661 4th King's Own 1685 5th Northumberland Fusiliers " 26th Cameronian 1689 lOOthCanadian 1858 lOlst to 109th (Hindu) added Auk- 1861 Highland regiments are the42d, 7l8t, 72d, 78th, 79th, 92d. and 93d. For the United States, Arjct. regium donum (" royal gift "), an allowance from the sovereign for the maintenance of the Presbyterian ministers in Ireland, commenced by Charles II. in 1672, and revived by William III. in 1690, was commuted by the Irish Church act passed June, 1871. The allowance to certain Protestant dis- senting ministers in Ireland was given up by them in 1857, in deference to the wishes of English dissenters. Regulators. North Carolina, 1768-71. Rei ell en bach (ri'ken-bdk), a town in Prussian Si- lesia. Here Duroc, Napoleon's chief of staff, was killed during the conflicts between the French and the allies, 22 May, 1813. Bautzen. Here was signed a subsidy treaty between Russia, Prussia, and England, whereby the last engaged to provide means for carrj-ing on the war against Napoleon I. on cer- Uin conditions, 14-15 June, 1813. Aostria joined the alliance soon after. Reicll§ratll (rUa'rat\ the representative council of the empire of Austria, several times changed ; reconstituted by decree 5 Mch., met on 31 May, 1860. In May, 1861, the upper house consisted of 17 spiritual, 55 hereditary, and 39 peers. The lower house consbted of 136 elected deputies. No representa- tives came from Hungary, Transylvania, Venetia, the Banat, Slavonia, Croatia, and Istria. The Reichsrath was abolished by a rescript, 21 Sept. 1865, with the view of restoring auton- omy to Hungary and other provinces. It again met 20 May, 1867. Now constituted (1894) of 2 houses, upper and lower. The upper house consists of members of the royal family over 19 years of age, of the nobility, of church dignitaries (arch- bishops and bishops), of distinguished scientists nominated by the emperor; in all, 113 members. Lower house, elected by the peopIefor6year8,numbers353 members. The emperor nom- inates president and vice-president of the upper house ; the low- er house elects its own oflicers. Bills to become laws must pass both houses, and receive the sanction of the head of the state. Reichstag {rik'stag), diet or parliament of the Ger- man empire, is composed of 397 deputies elected by luiiversal suffrage for the term of 5 years. rcigU of terror. Maximilien Robespierre headed the populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, 17 July, 1791. He was trium- phant in 1793, and numbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administration. Biliaud Va- rennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tribune, 27 July, 1794. The next day Robespierre suffered death, with many of his companions. French revolution. Thb has been termed the Red Terror. The reaction after the restora- tion of the Bourbons, 1815, disgraced by many atrocious acts of wanton cruelty, has been termed the White Terror. The Jesuits were conspicuous in the destruction of their enemies. reigning; families of Europe. Nations separately. reigns of SOTCreigns. The average duration, ac- cording to Newton, is 19 years ; according to Hales, 22| years; REL 680 REP that of the sovereigns of England, 23J years, and that of the popes 7^ years. Tradition ascribes to St. Peter a reign as pope of 26 years, and Pius IX. was the first pope who reached and aorpassed " the years of Peter" (1846-78). England, Franck, «tc. religion (Lat. rf/i^'o, conscientious obligation) compre- hends the entire range of beliefs connected with supernatural beings, and the duties growing out of them. The Jewish relig- ion is set forth in the Old Testament, the Christian religion in the New. The population of the globe is claimed, in 1890, as : (1) Non-Christian : ^ ^^^ ^^ Buddhists 400,000.000 Brahmins 260,000.000 Mahomelana l*^^'^'^ je^ 8,000,000 Fetish wor8hipi>er8 160,000,000 Various 62,000,000 1,060,000,000 (2) Christian : Roman Catholics 175,000,000 Protestants 110,000,000 Greek Church 90,000,000 Various 25,000,000 400,000,000 Total 1,450,000,000 [For the various religions, see under separate articles, sects, etc.] relig^ion of humanity. Positive philoso- phy. Secularism. rell^iou§ denoiiiination§. Sects. Renai§8aiice {re-nd-sam'), the revival of the classic style of art in the 16th and 16th centuries, under the Medici and others. Painting, Sculpture. Rend§'burgp, a town of Holstein, was taken by the imperialists in 1627; by Swedes in 1643; and by Prussians and confederate troops in 1848. The first diet of Schleswig and Holstein met here, 3 Apr. 1848. It was reoccupied by the Danes in 1852, and taken by Prussians after a conflict, 21 July, 1864. Ren'nC!*, capital of Brittany, N.W. France. Here was established, by Henry II., in 1553, the parliament so celebrated for its independence, especially in its struggle with the coiirr, 1788-89. On 20 May, 1788, it declared infamous every one who should take part in the cour pleniere then proposed, l)iit afterwards suppressed. Ren§§elacr manor. New York, 1630, 1844; Anti-rentism. rent, a definite compensation for the possession and use of property, reserved by a lease payable at stated times. Rents in England are said to have been first made payable in money, instead of in kind, about 1135. "Rent is said to be due at the first moment of the day appointed for payment, and in arrears at the first moment of the day following."- — Encyc. Brit. 9th ed. xiv. p. 275. reporting^. The publication of the English debates in Parliament is forbidden as a breach of privilege, but was virtu- ally conceded, after a severe struggle, in 1771. Inaccurate re- ports of parliamentary debates were inserted in the Gentleman's Magazine and other periodicals in the middle of the last century. Miller, printer of the London Evening Mail, was arrested in the city of London, by order of the House of Commons, for publish- ing the debates, but was discharged by the lord mayor, who for doing this was sent to the Tower until the end of the session. No opposition was made to the publication of debates the next session, 1772. By the verdict for the defendant in the case of Wason V. the Times (for libel), reports of parliamentary debates were decided to be privileged, Nov. 1868. The unfettered lib- erty of reporting is essential to freedom and good government. Reprc§entatives, House of, United States. Mem- bers elected for 2 years. For speakers, see each Congress un- der United States. RATIO OF REPRESENTATION UNDER EACH CENSUS, NUMBER OF STATES, YEARS, AND ORDER OF ADMISSION, IN WHICa CONGRESS FIRST REPRESENTED, NUMBER OF MEMBERS FROM EACH STATE UNDER THE DIFFERENT APPOR- TIONMENTS, AND TOTAL IN CONGRESS. Yeiir of admission. Del... Penn. N. J.. Ga.... Conn. Mass. Md. . . S. C. N. H. Va... N. Y. N. C. R. I.. Vt.... Ky... Tenn. Ohio.. La.... Ind,. Miss.. 111..., Me Mo Ark Mich.... Fla....i. Tex. la Wis Cal Minn.... Ore Kan West Va. Nev Neb Col N. Dak. . S. Dak. . . Mon Wash.... Idaho.... Wyo 1787 1787 1787 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1796 1803 1812 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 In which CongresE first repre- sented. 1st 1837 26 " 1845 27 29th 1845 28 " 1846 29 «' 1848 30 30th 1850 31 3l8t 1858 32 35th 1859 33 «' 1861 34 37th 1863 35 38th 1864 36 " 1867 37 40th 1876 38 44th 1889 39 51st 1889 40 " 1889 41 " 1889 42 " 1890 43 52d 1890 44 " 2d 4th 8th 12th 14th 15th 16lh 17th 24th Ratio of representation, and number of members from each state under each 1789. : 30,000 Total representatives. 105 141 181 ;: ! :: 213 I 240 i 223 ' 237 1873. 1883. 1893. 1 : 131,425 1:151,911 1:173,901 293 I 325 REP 681 REV Republican§. Political parties ; Popular vote ; United States, 1856, etc. republics. Athens; France, 1792, 1848, 1870; ■Genoa; Kome; Spain, 1873 ; United States; Venice. re'quiem, a solemn mass, sung on 2 Nov., All-Souls' Day, so called from the introit " Requiem ^ternam," etc. Pales- trina's requiem was printed at Rome, 1591 ; Vittoria's at Ma- drid, 1605. Mozart's last work was a requiem, 1791. Re§a'ca, Ga., Battle of. Atlanta campaign. Re§a'ca de la Palma, Battle of, between the U. S. troops under gen. Taylor and the Mexicans under gen. Arista, occurred 9 May, 1846, the day after the conflict at Palo Alto. It was shorter, but more sanguinary than that. The U. S. forces lost, in killed and wounded, 110 men. The Mexican loss was estimated at 1000, and 100 prisoners; among them gen. La Vega. Mexican war. reservations, Indian, United States (area being rap- idly diminished). Area. Sq. miles. Acres. , . 10,317 772 1,710 3,552 40,411 2 159 42 3,523 16,549 214 1,490 15,629 137 102 9,158 20,770 3,242 18,221 6*267 6,321 800 3,660 6,603,191 494,045 1.094,400 2,273,421 25,863,372 1,258 102,026 Michigan 27,319 Minnesota 2,254,781 Montana 10,591,360 136,947 Nevada 954,135 Kpw Mpvip.n . 10,002,525 87,677 New York 65,211 5,861,120 13.292,668 2,075,240 11,661,360 Texas Utah 3,972,480 4,045,284 512 129 Washington Wisconsin Wyoming 2,342,400 Total 162,988 12,757 104,314,349 Reduced by extinguishment of Indian title by purchase by the U. S., 1891, in Oklahoma, Idaho, North Dakota, South Dakota Montana 8,164,766 Total, 1892 150,231 241,800 96,149,583 154,741,349 Total 1880 Reduction of total area of Indian reser-) rations in 12 years j 91,569 58,591,766 [For location of Indian tribes, population, etc., Indians.] resolutions of Kentucky and Virginia of 1798. These resolutions of the legislatures expressed dissatisfaction with the passage of the Alien and Sedition laws, declaring them unconstitutional, while setting forth the state-rights theory. The Kentucky resolutions asserted the right of any state to nullify any act of Congress deemed unconstitutional. The Virginia resolution was drawn by Madison, the Kentucky res- olution by Jefferson, with the understanding that his name was not to be divulged. res'onator, a small apparatus, placed in the mouth to increase tha volume of the voice in singing, invented by signor Alberto Bach, who exhibited it at the Royal Academy of Mu- sic, 29 June, 1880. restoration, The, of king Charles II. to the crown of England, after an interregnum of 11 years and 4 months, between 30 Jan, 1649, when Charles I. was beheaded, and 29 May, 1660, when Charles II. entered London amid acclama- tions. The annual form of prayer, with thanksgiving, then appointed, was abolished by 22 Vict. c. 2, 25 Mch. 1849. France, 1814-15. retreat of the French from Moscow (1812), the most disastrous known to history. Beresina, France, Moscow, Russia. retreat of the ten thousand Greeks, who had joined the 3'ounger Cyrus in revolt against his brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon. The Greeks were victors, but Cyrus was defeated and slain at the battle of Cunaxa, 401 b.c. Artaxerxes hav- ing enticed the Greek leaders into his power and killed them, Xenophon was called to command. Under continual alarms from sudden attacks, Ije led them across rapid rivers, through deserts, over mountains, to the sea. The march of 1155 para- sangs or leagues (3465 miles) was performed in 215 days. This retreat has been immortalized by Xenophon's account, the " Anabasis Cyri " (Expedition of Cyrus). Revelation. Apocalypse. revenue, in this connection, the annual income of a state derived from taxation, customs, and other sources, to be appropriated to governmental expenditures. In England, the revenue collected for the civil list and the other charges of government, ordinary and extraordinary, was 1,200,000^. per annum in 1660, the flrst after the restoration of Charles II. In 1690 it was 6,000,000/., every branch of the revenue being anticipated; this was the origin of the funds and the national debt, 2 William and Mary.— Salmon. The revenue laws were amended in 1861, and frequently since. total public yearly revenue of ENGLAND UP TO THE UNION FOR THE REIGNS SHOWN, AND OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN FOR THE YEARS GIVEN. George IV., 1825 £62,871,300 William IV., 1835. . . . 50,494,732 Victoria, 1845 53,060,354 " 1855 63,364,605 " 1865 70,313,437 William I £400,000 Henry VI 64,976 Elizabeth 500,000 Charles 1 900,000 Commonwealth 1,517,247 William III 4,000,000 Anne at the Union 6,000,000 George III., 1788 15,572,971 George III., 1800 38,000,000 George IV., 1820, United Kingdom . . . .65,599,570 revenue of the United States. The principal sources of revenue in the U. S. are, customs, internal revenue, sale of public lands, and miscellaneous receipts ; premiums on bonds sold were also counted as revenue from 1864 to 1873. Ex- penditures, Income-tax, Tariff and Tax. 1875 74,921,873 1882 85,100,000 1887 89,869,000 1891 87,610,000 RECEIPTS FROM EACH SOURCE IN EACH OF THE YEARS NAMED, ALSO GROWTH OF REVENUE FROM 1789. Internal revenue. Sale of public lands. Miscellaneous. Others. Direct tax, inter- est, dividends. Total revenue. 1789. , 1800. 1810. 1820. , 1830. 1840. , 1850, 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890. $4,390,473 9,080,933 8,583,309 15,005,612 21,922,391 13,499,502 39,668,686 53,187,512 194,538,374 186,522,065 229,668,585 $809,397 7,431 106,261 12,161 1,682 184,899,756 124,009,375 142,606,706 $444 696,549 1,635,872 2,329,356 3,411,819 l,-859,894 1,778,558 3,350,482 1,016,507 6,358,273 $40,000 10,550 10,008 15,295,644 110 $10,478 152,712 84,477 61,338 73,228 2,567,112 2,064,308 1,088,530 12,942,118 21,978,525 24,447,420 $805,264 12,449 1,031,587 506,981 229,103 31 $4,409,951 10,848,749 9,384,214 17,840,670 24,844,117 19.480,115 43;592,889 56,064,008 411,255,478 333,526,611 403,080,983 REVENUE RECEIPTS FROM 1789 TO 1891 INCLUSIVE. I 6,751,088,381 | 4,111,760,798 | 280,505,641 | 204,259,221 [ 679,565,471 38,337,350 I 12,065,416,863 Revere's, Paul, ride. Massachusetts, Apr. 1775. reverend, an honorary appellation given to the clergy since the middle of the 17th century. 22* In Tamworth parish register the minister is first styled "rev- erend " in 1657, occasionally afterwards; regularly after 1727. It first appears in the registry of All-Hallows, Barking 1732 Prefix on a family tombstone was refused to Mr. Keet, a Wes- REV 682 RHO leyan preacher, by the bishop of Lincoln, but permitted by the archbishop of Canterbury. ......................... . . • 1874 On trial Waller G. F. I'hillimore, the chancellor of Lincoln, dflolded against Mr. Keet, who gave notice of appeal, 3 June Sir R PSiUlraor« gave a similar decision in the Court of Archflfl. ^^ July, 1875 On appeal to the pf'^T council, it was decided that there is no law or usage restricting the epithet to ministers of the Church of England; it is merely complimentary 21 Jan. 1876 rCVlC'WS, periodicals established for the purpose of criti- cally oxanoining new publications, or topics of science, art, etc. The Jotinuililes Sgavam, published on 5 Jan. 1665, by Denis de Salo,underthenaraeofHedouville,wastheparentof critical jour- nals. It was imitated throughout Europe, was translated into various languages, and is still published. The Bibliotheque A n- glaise carae out 1716-27. Critics, Magazines and Rkviews. revivals of religion, a sudden increase of spiritual ac- tivity in the Protestant church of English-speaking people. In Scotland. 1625, '30, '42; Wesley and Whitefield, 1738-42; Massachusetts, 1734 ; the " Great Awakening " throughout the American colonies, 1740; and again in 1797-1808, principally in New England ; and a third throughout the United States, 1857-58 ; a fourth, national revival under the leadership of Moody and Sankey, 1875-76. Revolution, American. Connecticut; Massachu- setts; New York, etc.; United States, 1775-82. Revolution, American, Last survivors of: Lemuel Cook, b. Plymouth, Litchfield county, Conn., 1764; d. Clar- endon, Orleans county, N. Y., 1866. William Hutchiugs, b. York, Me., 1764; d. York, Me., 1866. Samuel Downing, b. 1766; d. Saratoga county, N. Y., 1867. John Gray, b. 1764; d. Noble county, 0., 1869. Daniel F. Bakeman, b. 1760; d. Cattaraugus county, N. Y., 1869. revolutionary calendar. Calendar, French revolution. revolutionary tribunal, established at Paris, Aug. 1792. By 27 July, 1794, when Robespierre was deposed, it had put to death 2774 persons, including queen Marie Antoinette, the princess Eliza- beth, and a large number of nobility and gentry, male and female. The oldest victim was counsellor Dupin, aged 97; the youngest, Charles Dubost, aged 14. From 27 July to 15 Dec. 1794, only Robespierre and his accomplices (about 100) suffered by it. revolution§, armed, concentrated, and successful re- sistance against existing government, producing a radical change in governmental conditions. Assyrian empire destroyed, and that of the Medes and Per- b.c. sians founded by Cyrus the Great 536 Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Persian of Darius Codomanus by Alexander the Great 331 Roman empire established on the ruins of the republic by Julius Caesar 47 A.D. Empire of the western Franks begun under Charlemagne 800 In Portugal 1640 In England 1649 and 1688 In Russia 1730 and 1762 In North America (Revolution, American) 1775 In Venice 1797 In Sweden 1772 and 1809 In Holland, 1795 ; counter-revolution 1813 In Poland 1704, 1795, and 1830 In the Netherlands " In Brunswick <* In Brazil 1831, 1889 In Hungary 1848 In Rome 1798 and 1848 In France 1789, 1830, 1848, 1851, 1870, and 1871 In Italy 1859 and 1860 In Danubian principalities 1866 In Papal States, suppressed Oct. 1867 In Spain Sept. 1868 and Dec. 1874 [See each country.] revolver§. Pistols. " Revue des Deux mondes," a French liter- ary and historical periodical published on the 1st and 15th of each month, first appeared in 1831. Its contributors are the most eminent writers in France. Reynard the Fox, "Reineke Fuchs," a satirical epic in Low German, in which beasts are actors and speak- ers, was first printed as " Reineke Vos," at Lubeck, in 1498, and professes to be written by Hinreck van Alkmer. It lias been frequently translated. Goethe's version in High (or liter- ary) German hexameters appeared in 1794. Jacob Grimm has shown that the subject-matter of this " Thier-sage " or " beast- fable" is ancient, many incidents being found in Pilpay and other Oriental writers. The early French had a " Roman de Renart," and " Renart le Nouvel." A poem entitled " Der Reinaert," in Flemish, was known in the 11th century ; Caxton's translation in English prose was printed 1481 ; a poetic English transla- tion of Goethe's version, by T. J. Arnold, in 1855. Rlltc'tia or Rse'tia, an ancient Alpine country, com- prising the modern Grisons, Tyrol, and part of Lombardy, in- habited by a wild, rapacious people. After a long struggle it was conquered by Drusus and Tiberius, 15 b.c. Rliea. Mythology. Rlie'gium, now Reggio, S. Italy, a Greek colony, flour- ished in the 6th century b.c. It was held by the Campanian legion, 281-271, afterwards punished for rebellion. Reggio was taken by Garibaldi, Aug. 1860. Rlieini§ (reemz), or Reiin§ (rans), a city of N. France. The principal church here, built before 406, rebuilt in the 12th century, is very beautiful. The corpse of St. Reray, the arch- bishop, is behind the high-altar, in a magnificent shrine. The kings of France were crowned at Rheims — probably because Clovis, founder of the French monarchy, when converted from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral in 496. Several ec- clesiastical councils have been held here. The city was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the Napoleonic war, 1814. University founded by cardinal Lorraine, 1647, suppressed about 1790. rhetoric (Gr. prjropixr), from psio, to flow, to speak, fluently; hence pijTOjp, a speaker, orator, etc.). The art of constructing and applying discourse. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 200 b.c» Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by Photius Gallus, about 87 B.C. He taught Cicero, who said, " We are first to consider what is to be said ; secondly, how ; thirdly, in what words; and lastly, how it is to be ornamented." A regiua professor of rhetoric was appointed in Edinburgh, 20 Apr» 1762, dr. Blair being first professor. Rhine (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin), a river, about 760 miles long, rising in Switzerland, receiving the Mo- selle, Marne, Neckar, and other rivers, branching into many arms in Holland, and falling into the German ocean. On its banks are Constance, Basel, Strasburg, Spires, Mannheim, Cologne, Dlisseldorf, Utrecht, and Leyden. The banks of the Rhine have been the cause of many wars, and it has been crossed by French armies more than 20 times in a century. In the beginning of the French revolution, Custine invaded Ger- many by crossing it in 1792 ; and at the close of the war in 1815 France retained the left bank, but lost it by the Franco- Prussian WAR, 1870-71. A navigation treaty with other powers was signed by France, 17 Oct. 1868. A central com- mittee for navigation consists of members for Alsace, Lorraine, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse, Holland, and Prussia. Becker's German song, "They shall not have it, the free^German Rhine," and Alfred de Mussel's reply, in French, had it, your German Rhine," appeared in 1841 burger, author of -'The Watch on the Rhine," popular during the war, 1870-71. rhine- Stone, an imitation stone made of paste, in- vented at Strasburg in 1680, extensively used in the latter part of the 18th century. Rhode Island, one of the 13 original states of the Union, and the smallest of the United States, is bounded on the north and east by Massa- chusetts, on the west by Con- necticut, and on the south by the Atlantic ocean. Block isl- and, about 9 miles from the mainland, is a portion of the state's territory. Area, 1250 sq. miles ; pop. 1890, 846,506. Capitals, Providence and New- port. Roger Williams, banished from Plymouth colony, with 5 companions settles at a spot which he calls Providence June, 1636 Aquedneck island settled by 18 proprietors at Portsmouth, now New Town, first called Pocasset 1<537 We have Max Schnecken- d. 1851. All were RHO t» Canonicus and his nephew Miiintinorno, sachems of the Narra- gansetts, deed to Roger Williams all lands between the Paw- tucket and Pawtuxet rivers 24 Mch. 1638 Roger Williams and gov. Wiuthrop make a joint purchase of Prudence island 10 Nov. " First general training or militia muster in Rhode Island held at Portsmouth 12 Nov. " First Baptist church in America founded in Providence 1639 John Clarke and several proprietors of Aquedneck remove to the southern part of tlie island and found Newport " First Baptist church in Newport founded " Aquedneck purchased from the Indians by " William Codding- ton and his friends " 22 Nov. " Form of government, 12 articles of agreement, framed and adopted by the inhabitants of Providence 27 July, 1640 Rev. Robert Lenthel called by vote to open a public school in Newport " General Assembly asserts Rhode Island to be a democracy, saving only the right of the king, and grants freedom of re- ligious opinions Mch. 1641 Four land-holders, 3 of them original proprietors, at Pawtuxet dissatisfied with the opposition of one Samuel Gorton and his partisans to the government, offer themselves and their lands to Massachusetts, and are received by the general court, 8 Sept. 1642 Samuel Gorton and his companions remove to Shaworaet, where they had purchased lands from the Indians, and com- mence the settlement of Warwick {Massachusetts, 1643-48), 12 Jan. 1643 Roger Williams is sent to England as agent for Providence, Aquedneck, and Warwick, to secure a charter from the king, " Patent granted by Robert, carl of Warwick, governor-in-chief and lord-high admiral, and commissioners, to planters of the towns of Providence, Portsmouth, and Newport, for incorpo- ration of Providence plantations in Narragansett bay, 14 Mch. " General court changes the name of Aquedneck to the " Isles of Rhodes " or Rhode Island 13 Mch. 1644 Grant to John Smith to establish a gristmill above Mill bridge in Providence, the first in Rhode Island 1646 Committees from Providence, Portsmouth, Newport, and War- wick at Portsmouth, adopt the charter of 1643, choose John Coggeshall president of the colony, and give a tax of lOOZ. to Roger Williams for obtaining the charter 19-21 May, 1647 Canonicus, sachem of the Narragansetts, d 4 June, " William Coddington receives from the council of state in Eng- land a commission, signed by John Bradshaw, to govern Rhode Island and Connecticut during his life, with a council of 6, to be named by the people and approved by himself. Authority procured 3 Apr. 1651, and asserted Aug. 1651 Roger Williams sent as agent of Providence to obtain a confir- mation of their charter, and dr. John Clarke, agent of Ports- mouth and Newport, to obtain a repeal of Coddington's com- mission, sail for England Oct. " Island towns submit to Coddington, but the mainland towns, in legislative session, elect John Smith president, and ap- point other officers. They enact that no man, negro or white, shall be held to service more than 10 years after coming into the colony May, 1652 General Assembly in Providence passes a libel law, also an alien law; no foreigner to be received as a freeman or to trade with Indians but by consent of assembly Oct. " William Dyer, secretary of the province, and husband of Mary Dyer (afterwards executed in Boston as a Quaker), arrives from England with news of the repeal of Coddington's power, 18 Feb. 1653 Assembly of island towns, Portsmouth and Newport, restore code of 1647, and elect John Sandford as president, 17-18 May, " Providence and Warwick with Portsmouth and Newport in one general assembly re-establish code of 1647, forbid sale of liquors to Indians, and prohibit French and Dutch trade with them 31 Aug. 1654 Pawtuxet men withdraw allegiance to Massachusetts, given in 1642, and transfer it to Rhode Island 26 May, 1G58 Block island is granted for public services to gov. Endicott and 3 others, 19 Oct. 1658, who sell it to Simon Ray and 8 associ- ates in 1660 ; they begin a settlement 1661 Settlement of Misquamicut, now Westerly, begun " Charter of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations obtained from Charles II. by John Clarke, agent for the colony, 8 July, 1663 [This charter continued in force till 1843—180 years.] John Clarke presented with 1001. and payment of his expenses attendant upon the procuring of the charter 24 Nov. " Boundary dispute between Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Connecticut settled by a royal commission 1664 Westerly incorporated as a town May, 1669 Seventh-Day Baptist church established at Newport 1671 George Fox, Quaker, preaches in Newport, 1672, and Roger Williams, 73 years old, holds a controversy with 3 disci- ples of Fox at the Quaker meeting house at Newport, 9-12 Aug. 1672 Block island incorporated by the General Assembly, and at the request of the inhabitants named New Shoreham 6 Nov. " King Philip's war opens by an Indian massacre at Swanzey, Mass 24 June, 1675 Troops repulsed by king Philip, intrenched in a swamp at Po- casset, and he withtlraws into Massachusetts 18 July, " First event of King Philip's war in Rhode Island is the massa- cre of 15 persons at Bull's garrisoned house in South Kings- i RHO ton about 15 Dec. 1675. Troops under gov. AVinslow attack the fort of the Narragansetts in a swamp in South Kingston, and after about 3 hours' fighting enter in the rear and fire the fort and wigwams (Massachusetts) 19 Dec. 1675 Warwick destroyed by Indians, except one stone house, 16 Mch. 1676 Canonchet, chief of the Narragansetts, captured, refuses to ran- som his life by making peace, is turned over for execution to friendly Indians, who send his head "as a token of love and loyalty " to the commissioners at Hartford 4 Apr. " Massacre in a cedar swamp near Warwick of 171 Indians by a party of English who did not lose a man 3 July, " King Philip shot through the heart by an Indian while at- tempting to escape from a swamp near mount Hope, 12 Aug. " Gov. Benedict Arnold d. 20 June, 1678, and is succeeded by William Coddington 28 Aug. 1678 Gov. Coddington d. 1 Nov. 1678, and is succeeded by deputy- gov. John Cranston 15 Nov. " Maj. Peleg Sandford succeeds Cranston as governor, who d., 12 Mch. 1680 Custom-house established at Newport to enforce the navigation acts published by the beat of drums 1 Apr. 1681 Assembly first meets at Providence under new charter, 26 Oct. " Roger Williams set. 84th and is buried in Portsmouth 1683 Royal government established in Narragansett, with a court of records, civil and military officers, and Connecticut and Rhode Island excluded from jurisdiction June, 1686 The " Atherton claim" to land purchased near AVarwick from the Indians by Humphrey Atherton. John Winthrop, and others in 1659, is thrown out by gov. Andros; but other lands are granted the company by the royal council 1687 Gov. sir Edmund Andros, stopping at Newport for the charter of Rhode Island, is foiled by gov. Clarke, who sends the char- ter to his brother to be hidden. Andros destroys the seal of the colony and departs Nov. " Learning of the accession of William and Mary, Rhode Island resumes the charter government 1 May, 1689 Sir Edmund Andros, who had fled to Rhode Island from Boston, is captured by maj. Sandford at Newport, sent back, and is again imprisoned 3 Aug. " Seven French privateers capture Nantucket, Martha's Vine- yard, and Block island, but part of the fleet entering the har- bor of Newport by night, fails in its surprise 14 July, 1690 Capt. Thomas Paine, from Newport, attacks 5 French privateers near Block island, who withdraw after several hours' fighting, 21 July, •' Admiralty act passed, conferring power of admiralty court on the general council of Rhode Island 7 Jan. 1695 Law dividing the legislature into an upper house, the council, and a lower of delegates from the people May, 1696 Yearly meeting of Friends established at Newport 170O Boundary with Connecticut established from the head of the Pawcatuck to the southwest corner of the Warwick purchase, and thence due north to Massachusetts 12 May, 170J Two sloops manned by 120 men, captain John Wanton, capt- ure a French privateer with its prize, a sloop loaded with provisions captured the day before near Block island.. .June, 1706' Colony of Rhode Island first issues paper money (5000/.) to de- fray the expenses of war 16 Aug. 1710 Latin school in Newport opened by Mr. Galloway 1711 First Quarantine act, against small-pox " First edition of the laws of Rhode Island printed in Boston 1719 Thirty-six pirates, captured by capt. Solgard of British ship Greyhound, off the southeast coast of Long Island, are brought to Newport, tried, and 26 sentenced and hung on Gravelly Point, opposite the town 12 July, 1723 First almshouse in Rhode Island erected at Newport *' Property qualification for suffrage established, requiring a free- hold of value of 1001. or an annual income of 2i 18 Feb. 1724 Mainland towns empowered by Assembly to build a house of correction for vagrants and "to keep mad persons in," 15 June, 1725 Boundary-line with Connecticut run by a joint commission, and final agreement signed at Westerly 27 Sept. 1728 George Berkely, dean of Derry, afterwards bishop of Cloyne, arrives in Rhode Island and purchases a farm in Middletown near New York 23 Jan. 1730 [After ix years he returned to England, giving his farm and a collection of books to Yale college.— Hildreth's "Hist. U. S.,"vol. ii. p. 349.] Assembly passes an act for the relief of poor sailors; 6d. a month to be deducted for the purpose from the wages of every Rhode Island seaman May, " Rhode Island Gazette published by James Franklin, brother of Benjamin, for 7 months at Newport; first in the state; first issue 27 Sept. 1732 A private company petitions the legislature to sanction a lot- tery; it suppresses by statute under a penalty of 500/., andlO/. for any one who takes a ticket 23 Jan. 1733 Sloop Pelican, the first regularly equipped whaling vessel from Rhode Island, arrives at Newport with 114 bbls. of oil and 200 lbs. of whalebone June, " Assembly meets at Greenwich for the first time 18 Feb. 1734 Newport artillery incorporated by act of Assembly 1 Feb. 1742 Gen. Nathaniel Greene born at Potowamet in township of War- wick 22 May, " Legislature resolves to raise 150 men and to fit out the colony ship Tartar for the siege of Louisburg May, 1745 Two large privateers, with 400 men, sail from Newport into a RHO DorthaMtSQOwstorm, wre lost, aud nearly 200 women in New- |)orl are raaUe widows ..••.- 2* »ec. RagMni boundary of Rhode Island, disputed by Massachusetts and settied by a royal commission in 1741, is conflrmed by royal decree received 11 Nov. Company of the Redwood Library, formed in 1736 at Newport, receives a charter nx)ra the colony Aug. l»roviileuce Library Association chartered by the General As scmbly 26 Feb. yttciMtrt il'-rcurjf first published by James Franklin Masonic society in Newport incorporated as "The Master Ward- ens and Society of Free and Accepted Masons " 11 Juno, A lottery for raising $'2400 is granted to erect a Masonic hall, and the first public celebration of the order ever held in Rhode Island takes place this year rrt>i)crty quuliflcation for right of suffrage modified to $134 l^eeholU or $7. ftO annual rent yVoriJcMtY OazftU and Country Journal published in Provi- dence by William Goddard ; first issue 20 Oct. Jewish synagogue, erected in Newport the year previous, is dedicated Brown university, chartered in 1764 as the college of Rhode Island, is opened at Warren Maidstow, a British vessel, impresses seamen in Newport har- bor; 600 sailors and boys seize one of her boats, drag it to the Commons, and burn it 4 June, Augustus Johnston. Martin Howard, jr., and dr. Moffat, who had advocated the Stamp act, are hung and burned in efflgy at Xew|K)rt 27 Aug. Samuel Ward of Rhode Island, alone of royal governors, refuses the oath to sustain the Stamp act taking efiect 1 Nov. Societv "The Daughters of Liberty" organized by 18 young ladies at dr. Kphraim Bowen's house in Providence. . .4 Mch. British armed sloop Liberty, fitted out to enforce the revenue laws in Newport harbor, making an unprovoked assault on a Connecticut brig which had been seized and brought into Newport, the people of Newport dismantle and scuttle the Liberty and set her adrift 17 July, College of Rhode Island (Brown university) removed to Provi- dence British schooner Gaspee, of 8 guns, capt. William Duddington, stationed at Newport, destroyed by a body of armed men (Gaspkk, Affair of ) night of 9 June, County jail built at Newport Rev. Samuel Hopkins and rev. Ezra Stiles of Newport issue a circular inviting subscriptions to colonize free negroes on the western shores of Africa. This was the inception of the American Colonization Society Aug. People of Newport in town-meeting resolve that any one aiding or abetting the unloading, receiving, or vending of tea sent by the East India company or others while subject to duty in America, is an enemy to his country 12 Jan. General Assembly at Newport elects Stephen Hopkins and Samuel Ward delegates to Continental Congress 15 June, Act of 22 May, 1744, creating the " Artillery Company of the County of Providence," amended by changing the name to "The Cadet Company of the County of Providence," June, Three hundred pounds of tea publicly burned in Market square at Providence, with copies of ministerial documents and other obnoxious papers 2 Mch. Gov. Joseph Wanton suspended from office, to which he had just been elected for the 7th time, for upholding the action of the British government 3 May, Adm. Wallace, commanding British fleet in Rhode Island, bom- bards Bristol, plunders the people, and burns gov. Bradford's house and 17 others, together with 2 churches 7 Oct. Charles Dudley, the king's collector of customs for Rhode Island, flees for refuge on board a ship of war 15 Nov. British troops, 250, lauded at Providence, are driven to their ships by troops from Warren and Bristol 13 Dec. A false alarm brings troops under gens. Greene, Sullivan, and Washington to Providence, Washington returning to New York 7 Apr. Last Colonial Assembly of Rhode Island at Providence, 1 May, 1776; abjures allegiance to the British crown, substituting the words "The governor and company of the English colo- ny of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations," in place of the name and authority of the king May, Declaration of Independence celebrated in Rhode Island, which the Assembly names "The State of Rhode Island and Provi- dence Plantations " July, William Ellery and Stephen Hopkins, representing Rhode Island, sign the Declaration of Independence Eight thousand British troops land and take possession of Rhode Island 28 Nov. Gen John Sullivan, appointed by Washington to succeed gen. Joseph Spencer in command in Rhode Island, arrives at Providence 17 Apr. Col. William Barton of Providence, with 40 men, guided by a negro, Quako Honeyman, captures gen. Richard Prescott at his quarters, about 5 miles from Newport, and brings him to the American camp, on the night of 10 July, [Prescott is afterwards (May, 1778) exchanged for gen. Charles Lee, captured by the British in New Jersey, Dec. 1776.] Articles of Confederation adopted by Rhode Island 9 Feb. British commander at Newport sends out 500 men, who de- stroy some 70 flat-bottoraed boats and property on the Kicke- muit river, and burn the church and a number of houses at Warren 25 May, 684 RHO 1746 1747 1764 1768 1759 1763 1765 1769 1771 1772 1773 1775 1776 1777 1778 William Rllery, Henry Marchant, aud John Collins sign the Ar- tides of Confederation 9 July, 1778 French fleet of 11 sail of line ships, under count d'Estaing, appearing off Brenton's reef, 6 British war vessels attempt to leave the harbor. Thoy are pursued, and are run ashore and set on fire l)y their crews 5 Aug. " While the French fleet, dispersed by storms, refits at Boston, occurs the battle of Rhode Island. The British forces from Quaker hill attack the Americans on Butts hill; the Amer- icans lose 211 men, the British somewhat more 29 Aug. " Americans under gen. Sullivan retreat from Rhode Island to Tiverton, 30 Aug. 1778, and the British fleet with the army of sir Henry Clinton arrives at Newport 31 Aug. " Maj. Silas Talbot, with the sloop Hawk, captures the Pigot, a British galley which blockaded the eastern passage. . .28 Oct. " General Assembly grants 5001. for distressed inhabitants of Newport, besides contributions from adjoining states Jan. 1779 British embark for New York 11-25 Oct. " French army lands at Newport (United States) 10 July, 1780 Public reception given to gen. Washington in Newport, 6 Mch. 1781 General Assembly authorizes manumission of slaves, makes free negroes or mulattoes born in the state after 1 Mch. 1784, and repeals slavery act of 1774 23 Feb. 1784 Marine Society instituted in 1754 under the name of "The Fel- lowship Club," is chartered by act of legislature June, 1785 Stephen Hopkins dies near Providence 13 July, " First spinning jenny in theU. S. made and put in operation by Daniel Jackson of Providence 1786 Act passed for emitting 100,000/. in bills of credit, and making the same a legal tender at par '« Newport, incorporated as a city, 1 June, 1784, resumes its old form of town government 27 Mch. 1787 African slave-trade forbidden, with penalties of 1001. for each person imported from Africa, and 1000/. for the vessel, 29 Oct. *' Motion made in the General Assembly for the appointment of delegates to the general convention of the colonies at Phila- delphia is lost by a majority of 23 votes " Providence Association of Mechanics and Manufacturers incor- porated Mch. 1789 Congress subjects to duty all goods from Rhode Island not of her own production May, *' Assembly addresses the president and Congress of the 11 states, assigning reasons for opposing the Constitution, setting forth its attachment to its democratic charter, and the fear that it would be limited by the new Federal system Sept. " Act passed repealing the Legal Tender act of 1786, and promising to redeem the paper at the rate of 15 to 1 12 Oct. " After long and bitter opposition the convention assembled at Newport, first in the state-house and adjourned to the Second Baptist church, adopts the Federal Constitution and Bill of Rights by 34 to 32, 5 p.m. Saturday 29 May, 1790 Providence bank, the oldest in the state, goes into operation. . 1791 First known copyright granted under the U. S. law is made to rev. William Patten of Newport for a book entitled "Chris- tianity the True Theology " 9 May, 1795 Marine corps of artillery chartered at Providence 1801 College of Rhode Island changed to Brown university in honor of Nicholas Brown 1804 British occupy Block island 1813 Com. Oliver H. Perry leaves Newport with a detachment of sea- men from the gunboats in the harbor, to take command of the American squadron on lake Erie " Friends' school at Portsmouth established in 1784, but discon- tinued after 4 years, is revived and established at Providence, 1814 Pres. James Monroe visits Rhode Island, arriving at Provi- dence 30 June, 1817 Newport asylum for the poor on Coaster's Harbor island com- pleted and occupied 1822 Rhode Island Historical Society incorporated " Reception given gen. Lafayette at Providence 23 Aug. 1824 Com. Perry died, aged 34, of yellow-fever on the U. S. schooner Nonesuch in the harbor of Port Spain, island of Trinidad; buried with military honors at Newport 4 Dec. 1826 General Assembly o'f Rhode Island passes an act establishing public schools throughout the state Jan. 1828 Dexter asylum for the poor erected at Providence with funds devised by Ebenezer Knight Dexter, who d. 10 Aug. 1824; asylum opened " Race riot in Providence begins between sailors and negroes, military aid is called in and the Riot act read 21-24 Sept. 1831 City of Providence incorporated 22 Nov. 1832 Company incorporated to construct a railroad from Providence to Stonington in 1832, and railroad building commenced 1835 State prison at Providence completed 1838 Fort Adams in Newport harbor, begun in 1824, is completed. . . 1839 Convention of delegates elected by friends of extension of suf- frage, without regard to the law regulating the right of vot- ing, at Providence, 4 Oct. 1841, forms a "people's constitu- tion, "and declares it adopted by a vote of the people, 27-29 Dec. 1841 Thomas W. Dorr elected governor under the people's constitu- tion 18 Apr. 1842 Dorr government attempts to organize, 3 May, 1842, but is resisted by legal state government (Dorr's rebellion), 3 May, " Constitution to supersede the charter of 1663 is framed by a convention which meets at Newport, 12 Sept. 1842, adjourns to East Greenwich, and completes its labors 5 Nov. ; consti- tution ratified by vote of the people, 7032 to 59. . .21-23 Nov. " RHO ^ Franklin lyceum, formed in 1831, is incorporated at Providence, 1843 Dorr sentenced to imprisonment for life 25 June, 1844 Butler hospital for the insane on the Seekonk river in Provi- dence opened 1847 Sockanosset school for boys at Howard (a reform school) is opened 1 Nov. 1850 T. W. Dorr, released from prison under an act of general am- nesty in 1847, is restored to civil and political rights 1851 Rhode Island adopts the Maine liquor law 7 May, 1852 Newport incorporated as a city 20 May, 1853 Statue of Franklin, the first public statue in Rhode Island, is unveiled at Providence 19 Nov. 1858 Legislature repeals the Personal Liberty bill Jan. 1861 On news of the fall of fort Sumter, the governor tenders the U. S. government 1000 infantry and a battalion of artillery. He convenes the legislature in extra session, 17 Apr., and the Rhode Island Marine Artillery pass through New York on their way to Washington 20 Apr. " Legislature ratifies the XIII. th Amendment to the Constitu- tion 1865 Legislature ratifies the XlV.th Amendment 7 Feb. 1867 Board of State Charities and Correction established 1869 State farm, 421 acres in town of Cranston, afterwards site of State house of correction. State work-house, State asylum for incurable insane, and State alms-house, is purchased ^. " Rhode Island Woman Suffrage Association holds a convention at Providence Oct. State Teachers' Institute held at East Greenwich, which ex- presses the need of State Normal schools 22-23 Oct. " XV. th Amendment to the Constitution of the U. S. is ratified, 18 Jan. 1870 Cove lands ceded to the towns by the colony, 28 May, 1707, are conveyed to the city of Providence by the state on payment of $200,000 " Legislature, by 56 to 2, abolishes imprisonment for debt " Marble statue of Roger Williams, executed for the state by Franklin Simmons in Italy, is received and presented to the Federal government to be placed in the capitol Mch. 1871 Free public library, art gallery, and museum for the city of Providence chartered under the combined auspices of the Providence Franklin Society, the Association of Mechanics and Manufacturers, the Franklin Lyceum, and the Rhode Island Horticultural Society and Society for the Encourage- ment of Domestic Industry " Rhode Island State Normal school at Providence opened.6 Sept. " Prohibition party in the state adopt the Republican candidate for governor, Henry Howard 1873 State convention of the Prohibition party at the state-house in Providence nominates "a distinct, separate, teetotal pro- hibition ticket for state officers, " with Henry Howard for gov- ernor, 26 Feb. 1874. The Republican party adopt Howard by acclamation, 11 Mch. The Democratic convention at Provi- dence, 23 Mch., adjourns without platform or ticket, 23 Mch. 1874 Stringent prohibition law is passed, and a constabulary act pro- viding for the appointment by the governor of a state con- stable with 7 deputies for enforcing it May, " Vote for governor at election 7 Apr. 1875 : Rowland Hazard, of the National Union Republican and Prohibition parties, 8724; Henry Lippitt, Republican, 8368; Charles B. Cutler, Democrat, 5166. There being no choice, the legislature elects Lippitt by 70, to 36 for Hazard 25 May, 1875 Constabulary act repealed, and an act " to regulate and restrain the sale of intoxicating liquors " passed in its place " Corliss engine of 1400 horse-power, and weighing 700 tons, de- signed to furnish power in Machinery hall, by George H. Corliss of Providence, is set in motion at the opening of the Centennial exhibition in Philadelphia by pres. U. S. Grant and dom Pedro II., emperor of Brazil 10 May, 1876 There being no choice for governor at the April election, Henry Lippitt, Republican, is chosen by the legislature 30 May, " First Board of Harbor Commissioners appointed by the gov- ernor 14 June, " State school for the deaf at Providence opened 2 Apr. 1877 Prisoners removed from the old state prison to the new build- ing at Cranston 1878 State Board of Health established " Legislature elects Alfred H. Littlefield, Republican, governor, there being no choice at the election in April 25 May, 1880 Act passed abolishing the tribal authority and relation of the Narragansett Indians " Congress awards the first-class gold medal to Mrs. Ida Lewis Wilson, keeper of Lime Rock lighthouse, who, since 1859, had saved 13 lives at the risk of her own 1881 Ambrose E. Burnside, b. Liberty, Ind., 1824, gov. of Rhode Island, 1866-69, and U. S. senator at the time of his death (Fredericksburg) 3 Sept. " Colored voters of Rhode Island, in convention at Newport, re- solve hereafter to act independently of the Republican party, 18 Oct. 1882 State home and school for neglected and dependent children opened at Providence Apr.»1885 Amendment to the state constitution prohibiting the manu- facture and sale of intoxicating liquors as a beverage, goes into effect 1 July, 1886 Compulsory Education act passed requiring at least 12 weeks of school attendance, 6 of them consecutive, by all children between 7 and 15 yfears of age 1887 Arbor day established as a legal holiday " City of Woonsocket incorporated 1888 Bourn amendment to the state constitution, abolishing prop- erty qualification for electors, proclaimed by governor. . Nov. " > RHO State agricultural school established by act of legislature. , . . Vote at April election for governor: John W, Davis, Democrat, 21,289; H.W. Ladd, Republican, 16,870; James H. Chace, Law Enforcement party, 3597 ; H. H. Richardson, Prohibition, 1346. There being no choice, the legislature chose H. W. Ladd, 28 May, Prohibitory amendment rescinded at a special election, 20 June, 1889, and a high-license law passed l Aug'. Australian ballot-reform law passed First state convention of the Union Reform party held, and Arnold B. Chace nominated for governor 25'Feb. Australian ballot system introduced at state election 2 Apr. John W. Davis elected governor by the legislature, there being no choice by the people May Celebration of the centennial of the introduction of cotton spinning into America begins at Providence 29 Sept Monument to Samuel Smith CoUyer dedicated at Pawtucket at close of Cotton Centennial celebration 4 Oct. Vote for governor: Davis, Democrat, 22,249; Ladd, Republican 20,995; Larry, Prohibition, 1829; Burton, National, 384.1 Apr.' Soldiers' home at Bristol dedicated 21 May, Herbert W. Ladd, Republican, elected governor by the legislat- ure 26 May, Ex-gov. Henry Lippitt dies at Newport, aged 73 5 June, D. Russell Brown reelected governor Apr! GOVERNORS. PORTSMOUTH. Wm. Coddington 7 Mch. 1638 Wm. Hutchinson. .. 30 Apr. 1639 Wm. Coddington... 12 Mch. 1640 1890 NEWPORT. William Coddington, 28 Apr. 1639-47 PRESIDENTS UNDER THE PATENT. PROVIDENCE, WARWICK, PORTSMOUTH, AND NEWPORT. John Coggeshall May, 1647 I John Smith May, 1649 Wm. Coddington May, 1648 | Nicholas Easton May, 1650 PORTSMOUTH AND NEWPORT. John Sandford, sr May, 1653 PROVIDENCE AND WARWICK. Samuel Gorton Oct. 1651 John Smith May, 1652 I Gregory Dexter May, 1653 | 4 TOWNS UNITED. Nicholas Easton May, 1654 I William Brenton May, Roger Williams Sept. " | Benedict Arnold May, 1662 Benedict Arnold May, 1657 GOVERNORS UNDER Benedict Arnold William Brenton Benedict Arnold Nicholas Easton William Coddington. . . Walter Clarke Benedict Arnold Wm. Coddington... 28 John Cranston Peleg Sandford 16 Wm. Coddington, jr. . . Henry Bull Walter Clarke Henry Bull 27 John Easton Caleb Carr Walter Clarke Samuel Cranston Joseph Jenckes William Wanton John Wanton Richard Ward 15 William Greene Gideon Wanton William G reene Nov. May, Aug. Nov. Mch. May, Feb. May, .Jan. May, July, May, 1663 1666 1669 1672 1674 1676 1677 1678 1680 1683 1685 1686 1690 1695 1727 1732 1734 1740 1743 1745 1746 ROYAL CHARTER. Gideon Wanton William Greene Stephen Hopkins William Greene Stephen Hopkins. ..14 Samuel Ward Stephen Hopkins Samuel Ward Stephen Hopkins Josias Lyndon Joseph Wanton Nicholas Cooke William Greene • John Collins Arthur Fenner James Fenner William Jones Nehemiah R. Knight.. William C. Gibbs James Fenner Lemuel H. Arnold John Brown Francis. . William Sprague Samuel Ward King . . . May, Mch. May, Nov. May, GOVERNORS UNDER THE STATE CONSTITUTION, James Fenner Charles Jackson Byron Diman Elisha Harris Henry B. Anthony Philip Allen William Warner Hoppin Elisha Dyer Thomas G. Turner William Sprague William C. Cozzens 3 Mch. James Y. Smith Ambrose E. Burnside Seth Padelford Henry Howard Henry Lippitt Charles C. Van Zandt (Republican) 29 May, Alfred H. Littlefield (Republican) 25 May, Augustus 0. Bourn (Republican) 29 May, George P. Wetmore (Republican) May, John W. Davis (Democrat) " Royal C. Taft (Republican) " H. W. Ladd (Republican) " John W. Davis (Democrat) " H. W. Ladd (Republican) " D. Russell Brown (Republican ; re-elected 1S93-94) " 1747 1748 1755 1757 1758 1762 1763 1765 1767 1768 1769 1775 1778 1786 1790 1807 1811 1817 1821 1824 1831 1843 1845 1846 1847 1849 1851 1854 1857 1859 1860 1863 1866 1869 1873 1875 1877 1890 1891 roNi RHO W8 RIO UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF RHODE ISLAND. Nmim. No.orCoiiicren. Dkt«. Remarks. Theodore Foster iBt to 8tb l8t " 3d 3d " 6th 6th " 7th 7th " 9th 8th 8th to 11th 9th " 10th 10th " 12th 11th 11th to 12th 12th " 17th 12th " 16th 16th " 16th 16th " 27th 17th " 20th 20th " 26th 26th " 27th 27th " 28th 27th " 30th 28th 29th to 33d 30th •' 33d 32d " 35th 33d " 36th 35th " 37th 36th " 48th 37th 38th to 44th 44th " 47 th 47th " 48th " 49th " 51st 5l8t " 54th 1 54th " 1789 to 1803 1789 " 1793 1793 " 1797 1797 " 1801 1801 " 1806 1803 " 1804 1804 " 1809 1805 " 1807 1807 " 1811 1809 1810 to 1811 1811 " 1821 1811 " 1817 1817 " 1820 1820 " 1841 1821 "1825 1825 " 1839 1839 " 1842 1842 " 1844 1841 " 1847 1844 " 1845 1845 " 1851 1847 " 1853 1851 " 1857 1853 " 1859 1357 " 1862 1859 " 1884 1862 " 1863 1863 " 1875 1875 " 1881 1881 " 1884 " 1885 1885 " 1889 1889 " 1895 1895 " Elected president pro tern. 6 July, 1797. Resigned. Elected in i)liico of Bradford. Resigned. Elected in place of Greene. Died. Elected in place of Potter. Elected governor. Elected in place of Fenuer. Died 4 June, 1809. Resigned. Died 25 Dec. 1820. Elected in place of Burrell. Resigned. Elected in place of D'WoU. Died 29 Jan. 1842. Elected in place of Dixon. Resigned. Elected in place of Sprague. Resigned. (Elected president pro tern. 23 Mch. 1869; 10 Mch. 1871. \ Sept. 1884. Elected in place of Simmons. Died 3 Sept. 1881. Elected in place of Burnside. Term expires 1899. Appointed in place of Anthony. Resigned. Klected in place of Chace. Term expires 1901. ■1M w '■-, Jeremiah B Howell Jannes Burrell jr Nehemiah R Knight ^ James I)' Wolf Asher Bobbins Nathan F. Dixon , \ Albert C. Greene John H. Clark Philip Allen Henry B Anthony Died 2 Samuel G. Arnold William Sprague Ambrose E Burnside Nelson W. Aldrich William P SheflQeld Nathan F. Dixon George P. Wetmore RllOde§, an island on the coast of Asia Minor, is said to have been peopled from Crete, as early as 916 B.C. The Rhodians were great navigators, and institutors of a maritime code afterwards adopted by the Romans. The city was built about 432, and flourished 300-200 b.c. Colossus of Rhodes. Rhodes, long an ally of the Romans, was taken by the emperor Vespasian, 71 a.d. It was held by Knights Hospitallers from 1309 to 1522, when it was conquered by Turks, who still re- tain it. The knights retired to Malta. Rhodes sufifered by an earthquake on 22 Apr. 1863. rho'dium, a rare metal, discovered in platinum ore by dr. WoUaston in 1804, has been used for points of metallic pens. rhu'barb. This plant was first cultivated for its stalks as food by Mr. Myall, of Deptford, Engl., about 1820, and soon after came into general use. Flowers and Plants. RiartO. Bridges. RibboiliMin, the principles of a secret society in Ireland, organized about 1820, to retaliate on landlords who injured ten- ants. To the ribbonmen are attributed many agrarian murders, 1858-71-79. An act was passed to repress them, 16 June, 1871. rice, the Oryza saliva of botanists, in husk termed paddy ; largely grown in intertropical regions, occupying the same place as wheat in warmer parts of Europe. It was brought to South Carolina from the island of Madagascar in 1695, and its cultivation greatly increased. Rich Mountain, West Virginia, Battle of. Here gen. Rosecrans defeated the confederates, 11 July, 1861, capt- uring 600 men. The strategic operations of which this battle was the culmination deprived the confederates of all hope of holding or drawing strength from West Virginia. Richmond, a town of Surrey, anciently iShcen (i. e., in Saxon, resplendent). Here stood a palace in which Edward I. and II. resided, and Edward III. died, 1377. Here also died Anne, queen of Richard II., 1394. The palace was repaired by HenryV., who founded 3 religious houses near it. In 1497 it was burned, but Henry VII. rebuilt it, and called the village Rich- mond, from his title, earl of Richmond (Yorkshire) before he ob- tained the crown ; and here he died in 1509. Queen Elizabeth was prisoner in this palace for a short time during Mary's reign. When she became queen it was one of her favorite places of residence; and here she died, 24 Mch. 1603. It was afterwards the residence of Henry, prince of Wales. The beautiful park and gardens were enclosed by Charles I. The observatory wasbuillby sir W.Chambers in 1769. In Richmond, Thomson "sang the Seasons and their change;" and died 27 Aug. 1748. Richmond, Va. Virginia, 1679, 1742, '79, 1811, 1861, '65, '76. Pop. 1890, 81,388. Richmond, Ky., Battle of. Here Kirby Smith de- feated the federals under gen. Manson, 30 Aug. 1862. Federal loss about 5000 ; confederate, about the same. Bragg's Ken- tucky campaign. rifle§. Fire-arms. rights. Bill of. To the petition of rights, preferred 17 Mch. 1627-28, Charles I. answered, " I will that right be done according to the laws and customs of the realm." Both houses addre.ssed the king for a fuller answer to the petition of rights, whereupon he gave them an answer less evasive, " Soit droit fait comme il est c?mVe," 7 June, 1628. The peti- tion thus became a statute, 13 Car. I. c. 1. An important declaration was made by the lords and commons of England to the prince and princess of Orange on 13 Feb. 1689, in an act " declaring the rights and liberties of the subject, and set- tling the succession of the crown." Bill of rights. Rig Veda. Vedas. Rimnik, a town near Martinesti, Wallachia. Here the Austrians and Russians, under prince Coburg and gen. Suwarrow, crushed the Turks, 22 Sept. 1789. Ring der IVibelungen (ne-hel-oong'en). NiBKL- UNGENOT. rings anciently held an engraved seal or signet, to seal writings, and they are so used to this day. In Gen. xli. 42 it is said that Pharaoh gave Joseph his ring. A ring is now put upon a woman's third finger at marriage ; but the Jews used them at the espousal before marriage. Rio Janeiro (ree-o' ja-nee'r6), a city and seaport of Brazil, South America, on a bay of the same name, one of the finest harbors in the world, discovered by De Sousa, 1 Jan. 1531. Made the capital of Brazil 1807. Pop. 1892, 800,000. Disturbance between 2 rival factions in the government of Brazil; one party headed by adm. Custodio de Mello and later by adm. de Gama, the other by pres. Peixoto, represent- ing the regular government, begins active warfare in Rio Gpnde do Sul June-July, 1893 Adm. de Mello, with a fleet, in the harbor of Rio Janeiro. . Aug. " Foreign admirals decide to prevent bombardment of city, 8 Sept. " Bombardment of forts in the harbor and bay of Rio Janeiro commences 14 Sept. " [This is kept up at intervals during the occupancy of the harbor, 14 Sept. 1893-14 Mch. 1894.] Com. Oscar F. Stanton, comm.anding the South Atlantic squad- ron, arrives in the harbor of Rio Janeiro and salutes both tlie flag of the Brazilian government and that of the rebels; recalled by the U. S. government Oct " [Rearadm. Benham succeeds.] RIO 687 U S. cruiser San Francisco, with rear-adm. Benham, arrives in the harbor 12 Jau. 1894 Rebel fleet attempt to prevent the unloading the cargo of an American merchantman; U. S. war-ship Detroit js ordered byadm. Beuham to support the merchantman; rebels desist; cargo unloaded ' 30 Jan. " Rebellion fails; officers of insurgent fleet escape from the harbor 14 Mch. " U. S. cruiser San Francisco, with rear-adm. Benham, sail from Rio Janeiro for Blueflelds, Nicaraugua 18 Mch. " riot§ in the United States. BOSTO-V MASSACRE 1770 " Doctor's mob," New York 1788 At Baltimore, Md. (United States) 1812-61 Alton, 111 1837 Philadki>phia 1844 Astor Place riots in New York, growing out of rivalry between the actors Forrest and Macready (Nkw York City). .10 May, 1849 Draft riot in New York; mob in possession of the city (New York) 13-17 July, 1863 Orange riot in New York between Catholic and Protestant Irish ; 60 persons killed (Orangemen) 12 July, 1871 Anarchists in Chicago, 111. (Illinois) 4 May, 1886 For railroad riots or strikes, Strikes. Most important of the many riots in England were : Gordon's " No-popery " riots ...10 May-9 June, 1780 * ' Field of Peterloo ' ' at Manchester 16 Aug. 1819 Ritliali§t$, a name given in 1866 to a party in the church of England, largely resembling the Puseyites, and seeking to give a more imposing character to public worship, by colored vestments, lighted candles, incense, etc., professing to go back to the practices of the church in the time of Ed- ward VI. An exhibition of these things was held during the oliurch congress at York in Oct. 1866, but was not officially connected with it. The practices of Ritualists (said by Mr. Disraeli to be symbolical of doctrines they were bound to re- nounce) were censured in Episcopal charges in Dec. 1866 ; in 2 reports of the Ritualistic commission, 19 Aug. 1867 and Apr. 1868, and by the judicial committee of the privy council on appeal, 23 Dec, 1868. At a convocation of the American Episcopal church at Philadelphia, 27, 28 Oct. 1868, a warm discussion on Rituali.sm was held, and renewed at the convo- cation 10 Oct. 1874, and the Ritualists were beaten by the Evangelical party, a stringent canon on ceremonies being passed 27 Oct. The Public Worship Regulation act was passed 7 Aug. 1874, for the repression of Ritualism in England. River and Harbor bill§. The first bill for harbor improvements in the United States was passed 3 Mch. 1823. Polk in 1846 and Pierce in 1854 vetoed such bills. In 1870 a $2,000,000 appropriation was made, the largest amount up to that time. In 1882 pres. Arthur vetoed a $19,000,000 appropriation bill which was ultimately passed over his veto. River Rai§il1, Mich., is remarkable in history as the place of a massacre on 23 Jan. 1813. Gen. Winchester, with about 800 Americans, was encamped on that river, and at dawn, on 22 Jan., gen. Proctor, with 1500 British and Indians, fell upon them. After a severe action Winchester surrendered, under promise of protection from the Indians. But Proctor marched off, leaving no guard for the Americans. His Indians re- turned, and killed and scalped a large number of them. The American loss was over 300 killed (mostly after the fight), and the rest were made prisoners. The British lost 24 killed and 158 wounded. Michigan, 1818. Rivoli (ree'vo-lee), a village near Verona, N. Italy. Near here the Austrians defeated the French, 17 Nov. 1796; and were defeated by Bonaparte, 14, 15 Jan. 1797. Massena was made duke of Rivoli for his share in the actions. roads. The ancient Egyptians raust have had substan- tial paved roads. Highways mentioned in Judges v. 6. The Persians, Greeks, and Carthaginians were excellent road- makers, but to the Romans belongs the honor of being the greatest and best road - builders of ancient times. At the zenith of her greatness there centred at Rome 29 superior roads, some of them extending into Spain, Gaul, Illyria, and Thrace. Thence road-making passed into Asia Minor, Pontus, ^the East, Egypt, Africa, and Britain. The empire was di- vided into 11 districts and 113 provinces, united by 372 great "3ads. According to the survey of Antoninus Pius, 138- 161 A.D., their entire distance covered 52,964 Roman miles. The principal Roman roads in Italy were (1) Via Appia, the Lppian way, called Regina Viarum, the first of Roman roads ROB in time and celebrity. It was commenced by Appius Claudius Caecus, 312 b.c., and extended to Capua, 120 miles from Rome; completed to Brundisium, 320 miles, 30 b.c. Its centre, 16 feet wide, was intended for infantry; its side tracks, 8 feet each, for horsemen and carriages ; in all from 32 to 36 feet in width. (2) Via Numicia traversed the northefn part of Samnium, communicated with the Appian way, and united with the Via Aquilia in Lucania. (3) Via Flaminia, constructed by C. Flaminius when censor, 533 A.u.c. (221 b.c), extended from Rome to Arminium. (4) Via Aurelia, extending along the coast of Etruria. (5) Via Cassia, extending to Modena. (6) Via Emilia Lepida, built by M. ^milius Lepidus when consul, 187 B.C., a continuation of the Via Flaminia through Cisalpine Gaul. (7) Via Latina, from Rome to Brundisium. The smaller roads were Via Praenestina, Via Tiburtina to Tivioli, Via Ostiensis to Ostia, Via Laurentina, Via Salaria, etc. Roman roads in England. The empire of Peru at the time of the Spanish conquest was traversed by excellent roads. The Moguls in India built several extended and ex- cellent roads. Highways first made public in Britain by the Romans. Greatly improved by Edward I. Tolls granted on one in London, 1346. Parishes made answerable for their condition in 1553. During the reign of Charles II. turnpike roads established in various parts of England. Toll-gates erected in 1663. Roads were commenced through the high- lands of Scotland by gen. Wade in 1726 ; afterwards continued by Mr. Telford, who also built an excellent road from (Jlasgow to Carlisle, and from Holyhead to Shrewsbury. Simplon road built, 1801-7. Road-making in the United States has never received the attention it deserves either by the local, state, or U. S. government, and probably no nation with the intelligence, wealth, etc., of the U. S. has so poor public roads. CuMBEKLAND ROAD commenced 1806. Macadamizing. Roanoke island, N. C, discovered by sir Walter Raleigh, 1584, and settled by him, 1585, without success. Other settlers also failed. Virginia. During the civil war Roanoke island was early occupied by the confederates under gen. Wise with 2500 men. On the north shore were 3 forts-^ Barton, Huger, and Blanchard. A federal expedition against the island left Hampton Roads, 11 Jan. 1862 — a fleet of 20 ves- sels, 50 guns, under flag-officer L. M. Goldsborough, and nearly 15,000 men under gen. A. E. Burnside. The forts were bom- barded 7 Feb., and under cover of this bombardment the troops were landed. On the 8th, after a short conflict, Wise's com- mand surrendered. The Federal loss amounted to 260. On the Confederate side a son of gen. Wise was killed. roasting to death. An early instance is that of Bocchoris, king of Egypt, by order of Sabacon of Ethiopia, 737 B.C. — Leriglet. Sir John Oldcastle, lord Cobham, was thus put to death in 1418, and Michael Servetus for heresy, at Geneva, 27 Oct. 1553. Burning, Martyrs. robbers and highwaymen were punished with death by Edmund I.'s laws, which directed that the eldest robber should be hanged. Remarkable robbers in England ■were Robin Hood, 1189, and Claud Du Val, " executed at Tyburn," says an historian, quaintly, " to the great grief of the women," Jan. 1670. In Ireland, MacCabe was hanged at Naas, 19 Aug. 1691. Galloping Hogan, the rapparee, flour- ished at this period. Jack Sheppard hanged at Tyburn, 16 Nov. 1724, and Dick Turpin at York, 10 Apr. 1749. Freney, the highwayman, surrendered himself, 10 May, 1749. Bar- rington was transported, 22 Sept. 1790. Trials. Robin Oood-fellOIV, the brownie of Scotland, the kobold of Germany, Puck, etc. "Either I mistake your shape and making quite, Or else you are that shrewd and knavish sprite, Call'd Robin Good-fellow; . . . Those that Hobgoblin call you, and sweet Puck, You do their work." etc. — Shakespeare, "Midsummer-Night's Dream," act ii. so. i. Robin Hood, captain of a band of about 100 robbers, in Sherwood forest, Nottinghamshire, robbing the rich and protecting the poor ; traditionally said to have been the earl of Huntingdon, disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession (1189). Robin Hood, Little John, Will Scarlet, Friar Tuck, and Maid Marian were the famous char- acters of the band in the ballads of that day. The band is ROB ' Mid to have contiimeii its depreilations till 1247, when Robin tlml—Sfoir. ** R4»billMOll Crusoe," by Daniel De Foe; the first part ap|M;areil in 1719. Juan Feknandkz. Three old ladies, Man* Ann, Jane Amelia, and Sarah Frances De Foe, lineally dcaci'ndcti fnira De Foe, pensioned by queen Victoria, May, 1877. *^ RobillMOIl, SmtIss Family," by Johann Ru- dolph \Vys«, pub. 1818. Roohcfort {rosh-Jor'), W. France, a seaport on the Charente, made by Louis XIV. in 1666. In Aix- roads or liasipie-roads, near Rochefort, capt. lord Cochrane attacked the French fleet and destroyed 4 ships, 11, 12 April, 1809. Near Rochefort, Napoleon surrendered himself to capt. Mait- land of the Bellerophon, 15 July, 1815. Rochclle (ro^hel'), W. France, a seaport on the At- lantic, long English, but surrendered to the French leader, Du Guesclin, in 1372. As a stronghold of Calvinists, it was vainly besieged by the duke of Anjou in 1573 ; and taken after a siege of 13 months by cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The duke of Buck- ingham was sent with fleet and army to relieve it ; but the citizens declined to admit him. He attacked the Isle of Rhe, near Rochelle, and failed, 22 July, 1627. He was repulsed 8 Nov. following. rockets, an invention of sir William Congreve about 1803, are of 2 kinds — signal or sky rockets and tear rockets. The case of the former is generally made of paper with a stick attacbei>e"8 tcmponil i>ower June, Ca.ho.x«atio.n of 27 Jai>ancso martyrs. 8 June, Pope issues an allocution against the Italians. June, Garibaldi calls for volunteers, taking as his watchword " Rome or death!" 19 July, Railway between Rome and Naples completed; its opening opposed by papal government Nov. Earl Kusself's otTcr to the pope of a residence at Malta, 26 Oct. ; deciiued 11 Nov. Encyclical letter of the pope, publishing a "syllabus," cen- suring 80 errors in religion, philosophy, and politics (causes much dissatisfaction, forbidden to be read in churches in France and other countries) 8 Dec. Jews persecuted at Rome Dec. Pope's allocution against secret societies (Freemasons, Feni- ans, etc) 26 Sept. Merode, jvipal minister of war, dismissed 20 Oct. Part of the French troops leave the papal dominions Nov. Pope invites all Catholic bishops to Rome to celebrate the 18th centenary of the martyrdom of I'eter and Paul 8 Dec. Pope's blessing given to French troops, 6 Dec, who all quit Rome 2-12 Dec Law prohibiting Protestant worship in Rome, except at embas- sies, enforced 31 Dec. Five hundred and ninety-nine bishops and thousands of priests present at the pope's allocution, 26 June; and canonization of 25 martyrs 29 June, Attempt at insurrection in Rome suppressed, 22 Oct. ; siege proclaimed; Garibaldi within 20 miles of Rome, 24 Oct.; talces Monte Rotondo 26 Oct. French brigades enter Rome 30 Oct. Italian troops cross the fi-ontier, 30 Oct ; occupy several posts, 1 Nov. Garibaldians defeated by papal and French troops at Mentana, 3 Nov. Italian troops retire from Papal States Nov. Pope's short allocution (thanliing and blessing the French government) 19 Dec. New cardinals made; Lucien Bonaparte one 13 Mch. Pope, in an allocution, censures the Austrian new civil-mar- riage law 22 June, Encyciicjil letter of the pope, summoning an oecumenical council at Rome on 8 Dec 1869, and inviting ministers of the Greek and other churches 13 Sept. Patriarch of the Greek church declined to attend, .about 3 Oct, Pope asserts in a letter to archbishop Manning that no dis- puted points can be discussed at the council 4 Sept. Council XXI. opened (Councils of the Church) 8 Dec. British and American bishops protest against discussing the dogma of papal infallibility in the council, 11 Apr. ; the dis- cussion t)egins 14 May, Count Arnim, for North German confederation, protests against the dogma May, Papal infallibility approved by the council and promulgated (533 for, 2 against; many retire); the council adjourns to 11 Nov 18 July, Rome evacuated by French because of war; 8 mortars and 15,000 shells said to be ceded to the pope, 8 Aug. ; the troops sent ft"om Civita Vecchia 21 Aug. Pope refuses terms olTered by king of Italy (sovereignty of Leonine city and retention of his income) 11 Sept. Gen. Cadorna crosses Tiber at Casale; sends flags of truce to gen. Kanzler, commanding the Zouaves, who refuses to sur- render; baron Arnim in vain negotiates 17 Sept. Italians occupy Civita Vecchia without resistance, about 15 Sept. Letter from pope to gen. Kanzler directing merely formal de- fence at Rome, to avoid bloodshed 19 Sept. Afler brief resistance from foreign papal troops, stopped by the pope, Italian troops under Cadorna make a breach and enter Rome amid acclamations 20 Sept. [Reported Italian loss, about 22 killed, 117 wounded; papal troops, 55 killed and wounded.] Papal troops surrender arms; about 8600 foreigners march out with honors of war 22 Sept. About 10,000 persons meet in the Coliseum; choose 44 men for a provisional government (giunta) 22 Sept. Protest of pope 26 Sept. Castle of St. Angelo occupied by Italian troops at pope's re- quest 28 Sept. Circular letter from pope to cardinals complaining of invasion loss of liberty, and interference with private mail. . .29 Sept.' Giunta of 14 (duke Gaetani chief) selected from the 44 names chosen ; approved by Cadorna 30 Sept. Gen. Masi in command of Rome and the provinces; S.P.Q.R. appears on proclamations 30 Sept. Plebiscite: only 167,548 vote; 133,681 for union with the kingdom of Italy, 1507 against 2 Oct. Pope said to have accepted 50,000 crowns (his monthly civil list) from Italian government 4 Oct. Result of the plebiscite sent to the king, 8 Oct. ; Rome and provinces incorporated with kingdom by royal decree, 9 Oct. Gen. La Marmora enters Rome as viceroy; guarantees pope his sovereign powers as head of the church 11 Oct. Roman provinces united into one by decree 19 Oct. Pope issues encyclical letter adjourning the council 20 Oct. Bill introduced into the Italian parliament for transfer of gov- 1861 1862 1864 1866 1866 (( 1867 1869 « ROM ernment to Rome in about G months, preserving spiritual and temporal sovereignty of the pope about 12 Dec 1870 Law guaranteeing pope personal liberty and honors, a revenue of 3,225,000 livres, etc, 13 May; rejected by pope in allo- cution 15 May, 1871 Pope celebrates a jubilee on 25th anniversary of his election, 16 June, Italian government removes to Rome 2, 3 July, King opens parliament, saying, "The work to which we have consecrated our life is completed" 27 Nov. Commission appointed to dredge the Tiber for antiquities, Dec American Protestant church dedicated to St. Paul ; founded, 25 Jan. 18731 First Anglican church within the walls opened 25 Oct. 1874 Reinterment on the Janiculuui of remains of .Angelo Bru- netti (termed Ciceruacchio) and other unarmed Italian pa- triots (shot by Austrians, 10 Aug. 1849) 12 Oct. 1879 2634th anniversary of the foundation of Rome kept 21 Apr. 1880 Sale of part of Castellan! collection, 21 days, about $240,000 real- ized Apr. Italy, Popes. B.C. KINGS OF ROME. 735. Romulus; murdered by the senators. [Tatius, king of the Sabines, had removed to Rome in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus 6 years.] 716. [Interregnum.] 716. Numa Pompilius. son-in-law of Tatius the Sabine, elected; died at the age of 82. 673. Tullus Hostilius; murdered by his successor, who set his pal- ace on fire; his family burned. 640. Ancus Martins, grandson of Numa. 616. Tarquinius Prisons, son of Demaratus, a Corinthian emigrant, chosen king. 578. ServiusTullius, a manumitted slave; married the king's daugh- ter, and succeeded by united suffrages of army and people. 634. Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tarquinius Priscus; assassi- nates his father-in-law, and usurps the throne. 610. [Rape of Lucretia, by Sextus, son of Tarquin, and consequent insurrection, causing abolition of royalty and establishment of consulate.] RKPUBLIC. 510-82. First period. From the expulsion of Tarquin to the dicta- torship of Sulla, 82-27. Second period. From Sulla to Augustus. 48. Caius Julius Caesar perpetual dictator; assassinated, 15 Mch. 44 B.C. 31. Octavianus Csesar. EMPERORS. 27. Augustus Imperator; d. 19 Aug. 14 a.d. A.D. 14. Tiberius (Claudius Nero). 37. Caius Caligula; murdered by a tribune. 41. Claudius I. (Tiberius Drusus); poisoned by his wife, Agrippina, to make way for 54. Claudius Nero; deposed; kills himself, 68. 68. Servius Sulpicius Galba; slain by the praetorians. 69. M. Salvius Otho; stabbed himself " Aulus Vitellius; deposed by Vespasian, and put to death. " Titus Flavins Vespasian. 79. Titus (Vespasian), his son. 81. Titus Flavins Domitian, brother of Titus; last of the twelve Caesars; assassinated. C^sars, the twelvk. 96. Cocceius Nerva. 98. Trajan (M. Ulpius Crinitus). 117. Adrian, or Hadrian (Publius yElius). 138. Antoninus Titus, surnamed Pius. 161. Marcus Aurelius (a philosopher) and Lucius Verus, his son-in- law; the latter died in 169. 180. Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of Marcus Aurelius; poisoned by his favorite mistress, Martia. 193. Publius Helvius Pertinax; killed by praetorian band. [4 emperors start up: Didianus Julianus, at Rome; Pescennius Niger, in Syria; Lucius Septimius Severus, in Pannonia; and Clodius Albinus, in Britain.] " Lucius Septimius Severus; died at York, in Britain, in 211; succeeded by his sons, 211. M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta. Caracalla murders Geta, 212; is slain by his successor, 217. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards; beheaded in a mu- tiny. 218. Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth; put to death for enormities. 222. Alexander Severus; assassinated by soldiers corrupted by Maximinus, 235. Caius Julius Verus Maximinus; assassinated in his tent before the walls of Aquileia. 237. M. Antonius Gordianus and his son; the latter falling in battle with partisans of Maximinus, the father strangled himself in despair, at Carthage, in his 80th year. 238. Balbinus and Pupienus; put to death. " Gordian III., grandson of the elder Gordian, in his 16th year assassinated by guards, instigated by 244. Philip the Arabian; assassinated by his soldiers; his son Philip murdered at the same time, in his motiier's arms. 249. Metius Decius; he perished with 2 sons and their army, in battle with Goths. 251. Gallus Hostilius, and his son Volusianus; both slain by soldiers. 253. .(Emilianus; put to death after reign of 4 months. " Valerianus, and his son Gallienus; the first was taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and flayed alive. RON < 260. Gallienus alone. [About this time 30 pretenders to imperial power arose in dii- ferent parts of the empire; of these Cyriades was the first, but he was slain.] 268. Claudius II. (Gallienus having been assassinated by the officers of the guard) succeeds; dies of the plague. 270. Quintillus, his brother, elected at Rome by the senate and troops; Aurelian by the army in Illyricum. Quintillus, de- spairing of success, his rival marching against him, opened his veins and bled to death. " Aurelianus; assassinated by soldiers on march against Persia, in Jan. 275. 275. [Interregnum of about 9 months.] " Tacitus; elected 25 Oct. ; died at Tarsus, inCilicia, 13 Apr. 276. 276. Florianus, his brother; not recognized by senate. " M. Aurelius Probus; assassinated by troops at Sirmium. 282. M. Aurelius Carus; killed at Ctesiphon by lightning; succeeded by his sons, 283. Carinus and Numerianus; both assassinated. 284. Diocletian; who took as his colleague 286. Maximianus Hercules; the two resign in favor of 305. Constantius 1. Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus; the first died at York, in Britain, in 306, and the troops saluted as emperor his son, 306. Constantine, afterwards styled the Great; while at Rome, the prajtoriau band proclaimed " Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. Besides these were " Maximianus Hercules, who endeavored to recover his abdi- cated power; " Flavins Valerius Severus, murdered by the last-named pre- tender; and 307. Flavius Valerianus Licinius, the orother-in-law of Constantine. [Of these, Maximianus Hercules was strangled in Gaul in 310; Galerius Maximianus died wretchedly in 311; Maxentius was drowned in the Tiber in 312; and Licinius was put to death by order of Constantine in 324.] Constantine the Great alone ; died on Whitsunday, 22 May, 337. f Constantine II. Constaus. Constantius II. 323. , ., ., Sons of Constantine; divided the empire; the first was slain in 340, the second mur- dered in 350, when the third became sole emperor. 360. Julian the Apostate, who abjured Christianity, though edu- cated for the priesthood; mortally wounded in battle with Persians, 363. 363. Jovian; reigned 8 months; found dead in his bed, supposed from fumes of charcoal. 364. Valentinian and Valens. 375. Valens with Gratian and Valentinian II. 379. Theodosius I., etc. 392. Theodosius alone. 395. The Roman empire divided. Eastern empire, Italy, Popes, Western empire. Ronee§val'le§ (Sp. pron. ronce'val), a frontier village of Spain, in the Pyrenees, where, it is said, Charlemagne's pala- i din, Roland o Orlando, was surprised, defeated, and slain by the ! (iascons, 778. "O for a blast of that dread horn On Fontarabian echoes borne. That to king Charles did come, When Roland brave and Olivier And every paladin and peer On Roncesvalles died. "— Sfco«, "Marmlon." I roof. The largest in the world was said to cover a rid- I ing-school at Moscow, erected in 1791, 235 ft. in span. That : of the London station of the Midland railway, Euston road, 1 London, N. W., is 240 ft. wide, 690 ft. long, 125 ft. high, and I covers about 165,000 sq. ft. World's Fair. I Rorke'S Drift, boundary of British territory of Na- ! tal, in South Africa and Zululand. Behind extemporized , trenches, a handful of British soldiers here successfully re- 1 sisted a large Zulu army, and probably saved the colony, 22 I Jan. 1879. Zululand. j Rosainond'§ Ro\wer. Rosamond was daughter i of lord Walter Clifford of Hertfordshire, mistress of Henry ' 11., and mother of William Longsword. The story of Henry's j keeping her in a labyrinth at Woodstock, where his queen, ! Eleanor, it is said, discovered her apartments by the clew of ! a silk thread and poisoned her, is probabl}' a mere invention of romance, as she retired to the convent of Godestow, near Oxford, where she died, and from whence Hugh, bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes removed, 1191. ro§ary. Beads. A brief of pope Pius IX. 30 Sept. 1852 asserted that 40 repetitions on a rosary of 40 beads of " Sweet heart of Mary, be my salvation !" will obtain many days of indulgence for souls in purgatory (23,- 300 days calculated). ' Ro'sa§, Bay of, N.E. Spain, where a naval action was fought by the boats of the Tiffre, Cumberland, Volontaire, l^pollo, Topaze, Philomel, Scout, and Tuscan, led by lieut. John Tailour of the Tigre, which ended in the capture or de- struction of 11 armed vessels, 1 Nov. 1809. Lord Collingwood '** ROS had organized the expedition commanded by capt. Hallowell for this purpose. Rosas was gallantly defended by lord Coch- rane, 27 Nov. ; but surrendered, 4 Dec. 1809. Ro§'bacll or Rosbec'qu, a village of Flanders (Belgium). Here Charles VI. of France subdued the Flemings, who had revolted against their count, 27 Nov. 1382. Ro§Cius {rosh'i-us) Infant, Wm. Henrj' West Betty, born 13 Sept. 1791. So called after an illustrious Roman actor in the time of Cicero. After acting at Belfast, 16 Aug. 1803, and at other places, with much applause, he ap- peared at Covent Garden, 1 Dec. 1803, as Selim, in "Bar- barossa," and is said to have gained in his first season 11,2101. After several years' retirement, he reappeared, but soon left the stage, not being successful. He retired on the fortune he had amassed, and died Aug. 1874. His portrait may be seen at the Garrick club, London. ro§e. The rose, a symbol of silence, gave rise to the phrase sub rosd, " under the rose," as Italian writers say, be- cause the pope gave consecrated roses, which were placed over the confessionals at Rome, to denote secrecy, 1526. The pope sent a golden rose to the queen of Spain, which was giv- en to her with much solemnity, 8 Feb. 1868. A " national rose society " opened its first annual show, St. James's hall, London, 4 July, 1877. Flowers and plants. Rose§, Wars of the, between the Lancastrians (who chose the red rose as their emblem) and the Yorkists (who chose the white rose), 1455-85. It is asserted that in the Wars of the Roses 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, and 100,000 gentry and common people perished. The union of the houses was effected by the marriage of Henry VII. to the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 1486. Richard II., who succeeded his grandfather Edward III. in 1377, was deposed and succeeded in 1399 by his cousin Hen- ry IV. (son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward III.), in prejudice to the right of Roger Mor- timer (grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence, Edward's third son), declared presumptive heir to the throne in 1385 Roger's grandson, Richard, duke of York, first openly claimed the crown in 1449 Attempts at compromise failed; war began in 1455 Lancastrians defeated at St. Alban's ; protector Somerset slain ; truce made ; Richard declared successor to Henry VI.. 23 May, " War renewed; Lancastrians defeated at Bloreheath.. . .23 Sept. 1469 Yorkists eventually dispersed; the duke was attainted. He defeated his opponents at Northampton, took Henry pris- oner, and was declared heir to the crown ; but was killed in an ambuscade near Wakefield 31 Dec. 1460 His son (Edward) continued the struggle ; was installed as king 4 Mch. 1461 Defeated Lancastrians at Towton 29 Mch. " Was deposed by Warwick, who restored Henry VI Sept. 1470 Edward defeated Lancastrians at Barnet, 14 Apr. ; finally at Tewkesbury 4 May. 1471 Richard III. overthrown and killed at Bosworth 22 Aug! 1485 Rosetta (ro-zet'ta), a town of Lower Egypt, taken by the French in 1798 ; and by the British and Turks,' 19 Apr. 1801. The Turks repulsed the British here, 22 Apr. 1807. Near Ro- setta was fought the battle of the Nile, 1 Aug. 1798. Nile. Mehemet Ali rendered great service to his country by construct- ing a canal between Rosetta and Alexandria. — The Rosetta stone, discovered by the French in 1799,- was brought from Rosetta in a French vessel, from whence it was taken by Wm." R. Hamilton, who deposited it in the British museum. In 1841, Mr. Letronne published the text and a translation of the Greek inscription. It is a piece of black basalt, about 3 ft. long and 2^ ft. wide, with an inscription in 3 languages— viz., hieroglyphics, modified hieroglyphics (enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemy Epiphanes (about 196 B.C.). It has been studied by dr. T. Young and Champollion. Rosicru'cian§, a sect of mystical philosophers who appeared in Germany, alleged to have been founded bj' a German noble. Christian Rosenkreuz, 1388. They pretend- ed to be able to transmute metals, prolong life, and to know what was passing in distant places. Thej' died out in the 18th century and their secret with them. The " Confessio Roseae Crucis," 1615, is attributed to Valentine Andreas. It is also affirmed that the ancient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldae- ans. Magi of Persia, and Gymnosophists of the Indies taught the same doctrine. This society hag given rise to much con- troversy, some asserting that it never existed. It was also known as the B7~others of the Rosy Cross, it being supposed that the term RosicrucianwsLS derived from crux, cross, and 7-osa, rose. ROS ^ ROftM'bach, a village of Prussia. Here a battle was fought between the Prmwians, under Frederick the Great, and the coiubineil French and Austrians, and the latter were de- feated, 5 Nov. 1767. Rotliscllild ((»erno. pronounced i^th'sheeld, but in Eng- land called ros'child) flitlllll)'. Meyer Amschel, or Anselm, a Jew, was burn at No. 148 Judenga.sse (Jew lane), Frankfort- on-the-Main, in 1743. In 1772 he began business as a money- lender and dealer in old coins, in the same house, over which he placed the sign of the red shield (in German, Roth Schild). He had dealings with the landgrave of Hesse, who intrusted him with his treasure (said to have been 250,000/.) in 1806, when the French held his country. With this capital Anselm traded and made a large fortune,' and restored the 250,000/. to the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sons continued the business as money-lenders. His son Nathan began at Manches- ter in 1798, removed to London in 1803, and died immensely rich, 28 Julv, 1836. The baron, James, head of the family, died at Paris, 15 Nov. 18G8. Rot'terdam, the second city in Holland. Its impor- tance dates from the 13th century. The commerce of Ant- werp was transferred to it in 1509. In 1572 Rotterdam was taken by the Spaniards by stratagem, and cruelly treated. It suffered much from French revolutionary wars, and from in- undations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus was born here in 1467. The mu.seum and picture-gallery were de- stroyed at the fire of the Schieland palace, 16 Feb. 1864. Rouen {roo-an'), N. France, an archbishopric, 260, be- came the capital of Normandy in the 10th century. It was held by the English kings till 1204 ; and was retaken by Henry v., 19 Jan. 1419. Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, was burned here, 30 May, 1431. It was taken by Charles VII. of France in 1449; and by the duke of Guise from the Huguenots, Oct. 1562 and 1591. Rouen, after slight resistance, 4, 5 Dec. 1870, surrendered to gen. von Goben, 6 Dec. It was ordered to pay a contribution of 17,000,000 francs. Rouma'llia, the name assumed by the Danubian PRINCIPALITIES on 23 Dec. 1861, when their union was pro- claimed at Bucharest and Jassy. Area, 48,307 sq. miles ; pop. 1887, 5,500,000. The language is a Latin dialect introduced by the Roman colonists, who settled in Dacia in the time of Trajan. M. Catargi, president of council of ministers, assassinated while leaving Chamber of Deputies 20 June, 1862 United chambers of the 2 principalities meet at Bucharest, 5 Feb. " CJoup d'6tat of prince Couza against aristocrats ; plebiscite for a new constitution, 2 May ; adopted 28 May, 1864 Law passed enabling peasants to hold land Aug. ' ' Revolt at Bucharest suppressed, 15 Aug. ; amnesty 11 Sept. 1865 Revolution at Bucharest; forced abdication of prince Couza; provisional government established 22 Feb. 1866 Oflered crown declined by count of Flanders, Feb. ; prince Charles of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen elected hospodar by plebiscite, 20 Apr. ; welcomed at Bucharest, 22 May ; swears to the constitution 12 July, " Recognized hereditary hospodar by sultan; received at Con- stantinople 24 Oct. " Roumania unsettled; "nationality " projects Nov. 1867 Legislature repudiates just claims of German shareholders in Roumanian railways ; prince assents reluctantly ; Bismarck appeals to the Porte, which declines to interfere. . . July-Aug. 1871 Peace between prince and chambers Nov. " Austria, Germany, and Russia assert the right to conclude sep- arate treaties with Roumania; sultan objects Oct. 1874 Convention with Russia, giving permission to cross Roumania, signed 16 Apr. ; Russians enter Moldavia 24 Apr. 1877 Senate declares independence and war with Turkey. . .21 May, " Roumanians actively engaged before Plevna (Russo- Turkish WARS) " Roumania declared independent by treaties of San Stefano (3 Mch.) and of Berlin (exchanging part of Bessarabia acquired in 1856 for the Dobrudscha) 13 July, 1878 Independence recognized by England, France, and Germany, 20 Feb. 1880 Prince and princess crowned king and queen 23 May, 1881 Constitution modified 1884 PRINCES AND KING OF ROUMANIA. 1869. Alexander Couza; abdicated 1866. 1866. Charles I. (of Hohenzollern -Sigmaringen); b. 20 Apr. 1839; elected 20 Apr. 1866; married Elizabeth, daughter of prince Hermann von Wied, 15 Nov. 1869; nominated king, 26 Mch. 1881 ; crowned with the queen, 23 May, 1881. Roome'lia or Roma'nia, Turkey, part of Thrace. The Roumelian railway opened 17 June, 1873. By treaty of Berlin, the province of Eastern Roumelia consti- 4 ROY tuted. partly autonomous, with a Christian governor, nomi- nated by sultan 13 July, 1878 SirH. D. Wolfl appointed H.M.'s European commissioner for organization of the province 10 Aug. Russian prince Dondoukoff Khorsakoff rules here. . . July-Nov. Scheme for government of province approved by sultan and allied commissioners Nov. Russian evacuation begins 5 May, 1 Aleko Pach^ (prince Alexander Vogorides, a Bulgarian) in- stalled as governor at Philippopolis 30 May, Great prosperity reported 1 M. Crestovitch appointed gov. -gen by the Porte May, 1884 Roiindliead§. In the civil war which began in 1642, the adherents of Charles I. were called Cavaliers and the friends of the parliament Roundheads. The terra, it is said, arose from the practice of putting a round bowl or dish on the hea^^H and cutting the hair to the edge of the bowl. Cavaliers. round table, according to romance, a circular table around which were wont to sit king Arthur of Britain and his knights, hence called " knights of the round table." It was fitted to seat 13, in memory of the 13 disciples; but 12 seats were occupied, that of Judas being vacant. The most famous of the knights were : Sirs Bedivere, Bors, Gaheris, Galahad, Gareth, Gawain, Geraint, Kay, Launcelot, Launfal, Meliadus, Modred, Pelleas, Percivale, and Tristram. Most of these a often mentioned in Tennyson's " Idylls of the King." ro\¥illg. Boat-races. Ro^Vley {rou'ly\ Thomas, a priest of Bristol, Engl., during the time of Edward III., a creation of Chatterton's, to whom he ascribed the authorship of the poems which he had written himself, and which he endeavored to pass off as pro- ductions of Rowley in the 13th centur3\ The MSS. were said to have been found in the church of St. Mary Redcliffe at Bristol. These poems have variety and merit, and, though crude as for- geries of an earlier age, their brilliancy and numbers deceived many scholars at that day. Literature, Forgeries of. Royal Academy. A society of artists met in St. Peter's court, St. Martin's lane, London, about 1739, which Hogarth formed into the Society of Incorporated Artists, who held their first exhibition at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, 21 Apr. 1760. From this sprang the Royal Academy, in conse- quence of a dispute between the directors and the fellows. On 10 Dec. 1768, the institution of the present Royal Academy was completed under patronage of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was appointed first presi- dent. — Leigh. The first exhibition of academicians (at Pall Mall) was on 26 Apr. 1769, when 136 works appeared. In 1771 the king granted them apartments in old Somerset House, and afterwards, in 1780, in new Somerset House, where they remained till 1838, when they removed to the National gallery. From the honorary members, professors of ancient lit- erature and ancient history are appointed. Among tliem have been Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith, Scott,Macaulay,and Hallara. Turner, the painter, gave 20,000^. to the academy at his death, 1851. A commission of inquiry into the affairs of the academj'-, appointed in 1862, recommended changes in July, 1863, which were carried into effect. The hundredth anniversary of its foundation was celebrated 10 Dec. 1868. The Royal Academy held its first exhibition in the new building, 3 May, 1869. An annual exhibition of pictures by the old masters, with some British, began 3 Jan. 1870. The money received has been used to endow a professorship of chemistry, a laboratory, etc. In 1874 the exhibition included many of Landseer's pictures. PRESIDENTS. 1768. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 1792. Benjamin West. 1805. James Wyatt. 1806. Benjamin West. 1820. Sir Thomas Lawrence. 1830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 1850. Sir Charles Eastlake, d. 23 Dec. 1865. 1866 Sir Edwin Landseer elected; declines, 24 Jan. " Sir Francis Grant, 1 Feb. ; d. 5 Oct. 1878. 1878. Sir Frederick Leighton, 13 Nov. Royal exchange {Cambium Regis), London. The foundation of the original edifice was laid by sir Thomas Gresham, 7 June, 1566, on the site of the ancient Tun prison. Queen Elizabeth opened it on 23 Jan. 1571, and her herald named it the Royal exchange.— J^M/ree. It was destroyed by the great fire, Sept. 1666. Charles II. laid the foundation- stone of the next edifice, 23 Oct. 1667, which was completed ROY 695 RUL by Mr. Hawkesmore, a pupil of sir Christopher Wren, in about 3 years ; it was repaired and beautified in 1769. This also was burned, 10 Jan. 1838. New Royal exchange, erected under the direction of Mr. Tite, opened by queen Victoria 28 Oct. 1844. Royal exchange, Dublin, commenced 1769; opened 1779. Royal George. Wrecks, 1782. Royal In§titlltion of Great Britain, the earliest of the kind in London, was founded 9 Mch. 1799, by count Rumford, sir Joseph Banks, earls Spencer and Morton, and other noblemen, and gentlemen. It was favored by George III., and incorporated 13 Jan. 1800, by royal charter, as " The Royal Institution of Great Britain, for the diffusing knowl- edge and facilitating the general introduction of useful me- chanical inventions and improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and experiments, the applica- tion of science to the common purposes of life." It was en- larged and extended by act of Parliament in 1810; the origi- nal plan, as drawn up by count Rumford in 1799, having been modified. The members are elected by ballot, and pay 10 guineas on admission and 5 guineas annually, or a composi- tion of 60 guineas. Members, July, 1881, 1054. " The Royal Institution, Its Founder, and Its First Professors," by dr. Bence Jones, hon. secretary, pub. 1871. House (in Albemarlfe street, Piccadilly) was purchased in June, 1799, and the present front was added by subscription in 1838. The lect- ure theatre was erected in 1803, under the superintendence of T. Webster. Laboratory established in 1800; was rebuilt, with the modern im- provements, 1872. Library was commenced in 1803, by munificent subscriptions of proprietors of the institution. In 1881 it comprised about 42,000 volumes. Classified catalogues (by W. Harris) were pub- lished in 1809 and 1821; new ones (by B. Vincent) in 1857 and 1881. JlfMsewm contains original philosophical apparatus of Young, Caven- dish, Davy, and Faraday. First lecture was delivered 4 Mch. 1801, by dr. Garnett, the first pro- fessor of natural philosophy and chemistry. Succeeded in 1802 by dr. Thomas Young, celebrated for researches in optics, showing the interference of light and proving the undula- tory theory. His "Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Me- chanical Arts," first published in 1807, are still a text-book of physical science. His antiquarian works (hieroglyphic inscrip- tions, etc.) are also esteemed. In Feb. 1801, Mr. (afterwards sir Humphry) Davy was engaged as assistant lecturer and director of the laboratory, and on 31 May, 1802, was appointed professor of chemistry. His lectures were successful, and his discoveries in chemistry and electricity have honored the institution. He discovered tlie alkaloids potassium and sodium in 1807; the nature of chlorine in 1810, and invented the safety-lamp in 1815. William Thomas Brande succeeded sir Humphry as professor of chemistry in 1813, and resigned in 1852, continuing to be honorary professor till his death (Feb. 18G(;). From 1816 to 1850 he delivered, in the laboratory of this institution, chemical lectures to students. In 1813 Michael Faraday (b. 22 Sept. 1791), on the recommendation of sir H. Davy, was engaged as assistant in the laboratory, and in 1825 as director; in 1827 he became a permanent lecturer. In 1820 he commenced researches in electricity and magnetism which form an era in science. In 1823-24 he discovered the condensabil- ity of chlorine and other gases; in 1831 he obtained electricity from the magnet; in 1845 he exhibited the twofold magnetism of matter, comprehending all known substances, the magnetism of gases, flame, etc. ; in 1850 he published researches on atmospheric magnetism ; d. 25 Aug. 1867. Jolin Tyndall, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy, first elected in July, 1853, eminent for researches on magnetism, heat, glaciers, etc. ; d. 4 Dec. 1893. Edward Frankland, F.R.S., professor of chemistry, 1863-68, eminent for his discoveries in organic chemistry. ■Fund for the Promotion of Experimental Researches" was found- ed, 6 July, 1863, by sir Henry Holland, prof Faraday, sir R. I. Murchison, dr. Bence Jones, and others. The first officers were sir Joseph Banks, president, till the charter was granted, afterwards theearlof Winchelsea; Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard, treasurer; rev. dr. Samuel Glasse, secretary. Algernon, duke of Northumberland, K.G., elected president, 1842; succeeded by sir Henry Holland in 1865 (d. 27 Oct. 1873); by Al- gernon George, duke of Northumberland, 1873. W. Pole, esq., treasurer, elected 1849; succeeded by Wm. Spottiswoode, esq., in 1865; by George Busk, esq., 1873. Rev. John Barlow, secretary, elected 1842; succeeded by Henry Bence Jones, M.D., 1860; by Wm. Spottiswoode, 1873; by Warren de la Rue, 1879. Librarians: Wm. Harris, 1803-23 ; S. Weller Singer, 1826-35 ; Wm. Mason,1835- 1848; Benjamin Vincent, 1849. Royal Society, London. In 1645 several learned men met in London to discuss philosophical questions and re- ' port experiments; the-'* Novum Organum " of Bacon, pub. in 1620, having stimulated such pursuits. Some of them (drs. Wilkins, Wallis, etc.), about 1648-49, removed to Oxford, and with dr. (afterwards bishop) Seth Ward, the hon. Robert Boyle, dr. (afterwards sir) W. Petty, and several doctors of divinity and physic, often met in the apartments of dr. Wil- kins, in Wadham college, Oxford. They formed what has been called the Philosophical Society of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690. The members were, about 1658, called to various parts of the kingdom by professional duties ; and the majority coming to London, constantly attended lectures at Gresham college, and met occasionally till the death of Oliver Cromwell, 3 Sept. 1658. Socikties. Society was organized in 1660, and constituted by Charles 11. a body politic and corporate, as "The President. Council, and Fellowship of the Royal Society of London, for Improving Natural Knowl- edge," 22 Apr. 1662, Evelyn records the first anniversary meeting, St. Andrew's day, 30 Nov. 1663. Philosophical Transactions begin 6 Mch. 1664-65. In 1668 Newton invented his reflecting telescope (now owned by the society), and on 28 Apr. 1686, presented the society in MS. his "Principia," which the council ordered printed. This was done under the superintendence and at the expense of Halley the astronomer, then clerk to the society. Society met for some years at Gresham college, and afterwards at Arundel house (1666), where it came into possession of a valuable library, presented by Mr. Howard, grandson of its collector, the earl of Arundel. After various changes the fellows returned to Gresham college, where they remained till their removal to Crane court, in a house purchased by themselves. 8 Nov. 1710. Bakerian lecture was established by Henry Baker, 1774. First Copley medal was a\j-arded to Stephen Gray in 1731 ; the royal medal to John Dalton, 1826; the Rumford medal (instituted in 1797) to count Rumford himself in 1800. Society removed to apartments granted in Somerset house, 1780; to apartments in Burlington hou.se, Piccadilly, 1857. Parliament votes annually lOOOZ. to the Royal Society for scientific purposes. Regulations by which 15 fellows are annually elected, who pay 101. on admission, and U. annually, or a composition of 60^., Mch. 1847. In consequence, the number of fellows was reduced from 839 in 1847, to 626 in 1866 ; to 567 in 1875 ; to 552 in 1877. Entrance fee abolished, and the annual payment reduced to 31., Nov. 1878. 1660. Sir Robert Moray. 1663. Lord Brouncker. 1677. Sir Joseph Williamson. 1680. Sir Christopher Wren. 1682. Sir John Hoskyns. 1683. Sir Cyril Wyche. 1684. Samuel Pepys. 1686. John, e&vl of Carbery. 1689. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, 1690. Sir Robert Southwell. 1695. Charles Montague (after wards earl of Halifax). 1698. John, lord Somers. 1703. Sir Isaac Newton. 1727. Sir Hans Sloane. 1741. Martin Folkes. 1752. George,earl of Macclesfield, 1764. James, earl of Morton. 1768. James Burrow. " James West. PRESIDENTS. 1772. 1778. 1820. 1827. 1830. 1838. 1848. 1854. 1858. 1861. 1871. 1873. 1878. 1883. 1885. 1890. James Burrow. Sir John Pringle. Sir Joseph Banks. Dr. W. H. Wollaston. Sir Humphry Davy. Davies Gilbert. Duke of Sussex. Marquess of Northampton Earl of Rosse. Lord Wrottesley. Sir Benjamin C. Brodie. Maj.-gen. sir Edward Sa- bine. Sir G. B. Airy. Dr. (afterwards sir) Joseph Dalton Hooker. William Spottiswoode. T. H. Huxley. Sir Geo. G. Stokes. Sir Wm. Thomson. Ru'bicon, a small river flowing into the Adriatic sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy proper. Roman generals were forbidden to pass this river at the head of an army. Julius Caesar did so, Jan. 49 b.c., beginning the civil war. mbidi 11111, an alkaline metal, discovered by Bunsen by spectrum analysis, made known in 1861. ru'brici, directions in church offices, often printed in red. New ones for the English service agreed to by convoca- tion, 4 July, 1879. ruffles became fashionable about 1520; and went out about 1790. Rugby sellOOl, Warwickshire, was founded in 1567 by Lawrence SheriflF, a London tradesman ; its arrangements were affected by the Public Schools act, 1868. Dr. Thomas Arnold, the historian, took charge as head-master in Aug. 1828, and under him the school prospered. He died 12 June, 1842. New Rugby. "Tom Brown's School Days at Rugby," by Thomas Hughes, pub. 1857. " Rule, Britannia." Nearly all the words are by James Thomson ; the music, ascribed to dr. Arne, is said by Schoelcher (in his life of Handel) to have been taken from an air in Handel's " Occasional Oratorio," composed 1746. rule of the road. Seas. ruler. The emperor, king, governor, or sovereign of a country. RUL S. £,« ^^Jc ft g-'S -S g g. § « " a > P -i a S O) 9 A s a, Cu a,.S: d 4> -s I- 00 « s |l«8!iii l^ii ^ "S .2 .5 a >> RUL .; ° S «J 5.sa 3.U 4) i M M 00 " oa's « . o ■^ • • C * £ ^ u £ (l, bi u^ (^ u* b< ...... o 2 £ g. in 3 O 03 51l ',<^<\ ■^2 00 CO 3 3 55 A o8 5'^^2 •-5 act, si's t^flO flO I a S ^-g a : « -a ^ .s « eS cS 5 r> a S ifii illl . ■-: a OQ . QO.t^ la lo m CD ■"■ CO 00 "— ' •"• ■* ta i» t- GO lo u5 lO lo >a seas d c3 OS cS o « 50 00 5 e8 W) ^ "> & > X! 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O c8 ciJ O < i< ^ -C 2 1^ lO Ui 1-4 •)< I I III s irl f^ ^ ^i I? sill 11*111 ■5 S^ "2 T "^ 5 — -^ ^ J5 a. u, u u ■ = D t- t- 1- 1- 1- 1- -^ bb bb'-' . S, oQ s 9 3 a ^ S s? . .25 - 3 a "n 8 xj a '-S S ii^: o ,2.2 1u' a.2 a ill Etc '-' il iiiii . Alexander. 5. Sigismund I. i. Sigismund II. {. Henry. ). Stephen. r. Sigismund III. irf «o CO c > O O rH B ■ 0)— ii •5 = ^ wa lCO S -do; - jK<;^Sc) iii .3 2^5 ?» ?i m a» i_^ £S << 0»M SSS O > 5 o o - ■g §b a fi ? . ® . . o o ^»o"a -no a. a, c<2a<25 C5 o ^' t- 00 00 oc: (N lo 10 00 £5 03 <: §?2 00 >«5' c> ?j ~ «d od 05 .8, la la 10 >a II -soat: 111 £ .22 >> i !£ I t^ I— i ■* MH )— I r; S I CO CO CO CO I O C^ •* ffl K^ M . .2 .2 _ .2 .2 o'9"-22 g.Se-2 O v^ CJ t-^ oi o to e« (N (N (M .W SSi;<;-."»30 t-^ 00 3J r-H eo 50 P-; W«3 O 3 1- O oweo t- t-M QO 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 T-Hr-I ,-1 1-1 u^-a S>-'^^2 H- — — s8 5!»; go aSaB -g-Siss^ <■ b- -s hjos— -ca "^ ^'-;:::a3 ^j3 — fl 5 3«'2--a ■ga-a -Sss^oa 3. Achmi 7. Musta 8. Osmai 2. Musta gain. 3. Amuri 0. Ibrahi 8. Mahoi 7. Solyni 1. Achm 5. Musta I22I 222221 ^ «S fl ^ j3 'S Selim I. Solyma Selim I Amurat Mahom< S in5 § n. helebi. etl. h II. etll., tantino ,11. Solyma Musa-C Mahom Aniural Mahom ik Cons 1453. Bajazet '^'oeot-aros for war with energy, strongly supported by the colonies and Indian princes May, " British government sUtement; new agreement with Russia; arbitration respecting fight on 30 Mch. accepted i May; Denmark accepts work of arbitration May, " Agreement on dellmiution settled by earl Granville and earl of Kimborley, with MM. de Staal and Lessar; approval re- ported 30 May, " Tchesmi, ironclad, launched by the czar at Sobastopol (other Teasels constructing) 18 May, 1886 Russia violates treatv of Berlin by declaring Batoum not to be a nree port July, ' Russian interference in Bitloaria Sept-Dec. " Plot against the czar; students with dynamite and other ex- plosives detected, 13 Mch. ; 200 arrested Mch. 1887 Three plotters executed, 31 Mch. ; 7 political otfonders sentenced to death, the rest to various terms of imprisonment, 1 May; more arrests about 18 May ; 5 executed 16 May, " Prince Nicholas, the czarowitz. made chief ataman (hetman) of all the Cossacks at Novo-Tcherkask 18 May, " Baron Hirschs present of 2,000,000/. for primary Jewish schools in Russia accepted by the czar; to be paid into the bank of England; trustees, barons Rothschild and Henry de Worms, announced Nov. ; said to be premature Dec. " Stringent restrictions on studies of universities; insubordina- tion among students, and severe punishment; universities of Moscow, St Petersburg, Odessa, and many other academi- cal institutions closed; nearly all undergraduates in rebel- lion Nov.-Dec. '' Highest courts of law reject the claim of prince Hohenlohe to inherit the Wittgenstein estates in Lithuania, as a foreigner (in accordance with the ukase, 14 Mch. 1887) Mch. 1888 Central Asian (or Transcaspian) railway opened; promoted by gen. Anhenkoff May, " Ninth centenary of the introduction of Christianity celebrated at Kieflf. 27 July, ' ' Grand council disapproves administrative changes proposed by count Tolstoi substituting centralization for local self-gov- ernment, which the czar had approved (1888) ; the Zemtvo, established about 1864, being virtually abolished Feb. 1889 Death of count Tolstoi, minister of the interior 7 May, " Czarowitz, aged 21, appointed to military and political office, 18 May, " Marriage of the grand-duke Paul and the princess Alexandra of Greece 17 June, " Count Tolstoi's administrative changes eCTected, with increased Russiflcation of the German provinces and Finland Feb. 1890 Man chosen to assassinate the czar, by lot, commits suicide, leaving a letter incriminating associates 31 Mch. '• Czar threatened by a letter from Maria Tshebrikova, a popular writer on education, for continuing to suppress liberty, 5 Mch. ; she is arrested and transported to the Caucasus, Apr. " Revival of severe edicts against the Jews July, " Great protest against persecution of Jews; headed by count Leon Tolstoi; publication forbidden by government Nov. " Decree for the revision of all foreign titles of nobility . .15 Dec. " New law for the legitimatizing of bastards promulgated. . . Apr. 1891 Rescript from the czar placing the Siberian railway under the direction of the czarowitz (Railroads) 24 May, " Count Tolstoi's administrative changes relative to the peasant- ry effected at St Petersburg and other provinces July, " Czarowitz returns to Moscow after a tour 16 Aug. " [He visited Vienna, 6 Nov. ; at Athens, 12 Nov. ; at Cairo, 23 Nov.; at Bombay, 23 Dec. 1890; received by the viceroy at Calcutta, 26-28 Jan. 1891 ; at Madras, 6 Feb. ; Ceylon, 13 Feb. ; Bangkok, Siam, 26 Mch. ; travels in China, Japan, Apr., May; at Otsu, in Japan, he is wounded by a fanatical officer in a theatre, 11 May; traverses Siberia, June, July, 1891.] Disputes with Great Britain respecting the Pamir ridge . . Aug. " Great distress through famine in certain districts of the Volga and other places about 2 Sept et seq. " Ivan Alexandrovitch Gontcharoflf, popular novelist, aged 80, d., 27 Sept " In order to relieve famine, the czar forbids all state balls and festivities; great economy adopted by all classes Oct " Famine very severe in the central and eastern provinces. .Oct " Decree issued prohibiting the exportation of wheat and all its products 22 Nov. " Czarowitz president of a committee to deal with the famine by private charity, the ministry, the holy synod, and others, 5 Dec. ; public relief works established Dec. " Grand-duke Constantino (brother of Alexander II.), learned, able, and liberal, sometime viceroy of Poland, removed on suspicion of favoring the Poles, 1886; dies, aged 64. . .24 Jan. 1892 Count Tolstoi (novelist) relieves distressed people. . .early Mch. " Russian Jewish emigrants excluded from Germany 25 Mch. " Large supplies of American wheat, flour, and provisions, trans- mitted for the relief of the famine by the citizens of Phila- delphia, in the Indiana; from Minnesota, in the Missouri, arrive at Libau, Courland, Mch., Apr.; transmitted to the distressed districts 4 Apr. " About 125,370,500 rubles expchded in relief of the sufferers by famine, Dec. 1891-May, 1892 ; reported 13 June, " RUS Removal of the restrictions on the exportation oi grair'., except rye, 21 June ; of rye .'23 Aug. 1892 Cholera severe during Aug. and Sept " Ukase issued expelling the Jews from the Asiatic provinces, 19 May, 1893 M. Jablochkoff, inventor of the electric candle, dies at SaratofI, 6 Apr. 1894 Czar Alexander III. dies at Livadia in the Crimea 1 Nov. " Nicholas II. proclaimed Cziir 2 Nov. " SOVEUEIGNS OF RUSSIA. DUKKS OF KIKF. 850 ? Ruric. 879. Oleg. 913. IgorL 945. Olga, widow- regent 955. Swiatoslaw I., the Victorious. 973. Jaropalk I. 980. Vladimir, orWladimir, the Great 1015. Swiatopalk. 1018. Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf, I. 1054. Isiaslaw I. 1073. Swiatoslaw II. 1078. WsewolodL 1093. Swiatopalk IL 1113. Vladimir IL 1125. Mitislaw. 1132. Jaropalk II. 1138. ( Wiatschelaw. 1139. \ Wsewolod II. 1146. ( Isiaslaw II. and Igor II. 1153. \Rostislaw. 1149. Jurie, or George, I. ; the city of Moscow was built by this duke. GRAND-DUKES OF WLADIMIR. 1157. (Andrew I. until 1175; first grand-duke. 1175. \ Michael I. 1177. Wsewolod IIL 1213. /Jurie, or George, II. 1217-18. (Constantine. 1238. Jaraslaw II.; succeeded by his son. 1245. Alexander-Nevski, or Newski, the Saint 1263. Jaraslaw III. 1270. Vasali, or Basil, I. 1275. Dmitri, or Demetrius, I. 1281. Andrew II. 1294. Daniel-Alexandrovitz. 1303. Jurie, or George, III. , deposed. 1305. Michael in. 1320. Vasali, or Basil, II. 1325. Jurie, or George, III. ; restored. 1327. Alexander II. [The dates are doubtful, owing to the difficulty that occurs at every step in early Russian annals.] GRAND-DUKES OF MOSCOW. 1328. Ivan, or John, I. 1340. Simeon the Proud. 1353. Ivan, or John, II. 13.59. Demetrius IT., prince of SusdaL 1362. Demetrius III. Donskoi. 1389. Vasali, or Basil, III. Temnoi. 1425. Vasali, or Basil, IV. CZARS OF MUSCOVY. 1462. Ivan (Basilovitz), or John, III. , took'the title of czar, 1482. 1505. Vasali, or Basil, V. obtained the title of emperor from Maxi railian I. 1533. Ivan IV. the Terrible; a tyrant 1584. Feodor, or Theodor, I. ; and his son, Demetrius, murdered by his successor, 1598. Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne. 1605. Feodor II. , murdered. 1606. Demetrius the Impostor, a young Polish monk; pretended to be the murdered prince Demetrius; put to death. " Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. 1610. Ladislaus of Poland; retired 1613. 1613. Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, descended from the czar Ivan Basilovitz. 1645. Alexis, son; styled the father of his country. 1676. Feodor, or Theodor, II. ifiS9 i^^'<^^ V- and loo^. -^pg^gp i^ brothers of the preceding. EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES. 1689. Peter I. the Great, alone; took the title of emperor 22 Oct 1721; founded St. Petersburg. 1725. Catherine I., his widow; at first the wife of a Swedish dra goon, said to have been killed on the day of marriage. 1727. Peter II., son of Alexis Petrovitz, and grandson of Peter the Great; deposed. 1730. Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the czar Ivan. 1740. Ivan VI., an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the Great; im- mured in a dungeon for 18 years; murdered in 1764. 1741. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned during Ivan's captivity. 1762. Peter III., son of Anne and of Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp; deposed, and died soon after; supposed to have been murdered. " Catherine IL, his consort; a great sovereign; extended the Russian territories on all sides; d. 17 Nov. 1796. I RUS 703 RUS 1796. Paul, her son ; murdered 24 Mch. 1801. 1810. Alexande. I., son; b. 28 Dec. 1777; d. 1 Dec. 1825. 1825. Nicholas I., brother; b. 25 June, 1796; d. 2 Mch. 1855. 1855. Alexander II., son ; b. 29 Apr. 1818 ; married 28 Apr. 1841, Mary, princess of Hesse (d. 3 June, 1880); said to have mar- ried (morganatic) princess Dolgourouki, 19 (31) July; mar- riage announced, Oct. 1880; assassinated at St. Petersburg, 2 p.m., 13 Mch. 1881. 1881. Alexander III., b. 10 Mch. 1845; d. 1 Nov. 1894; married Mary (formerly Dagmar), princess of Denmark, 9 Nov. 1866. 1894. Nicholas 11., son; b. 18 May, 1868; married princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt, 26 Nov. 1894. Ru§§o- Turkish (Crimean) war— 1S53-56. In 1844, czar Nicholas in England conversed with the duke of Wellington and lord Aberdeen (whom he had known many years) respecting dissolution of the Turkish empire ; and on return embodied his views in a memorandum drawn up by count Nesselrode, which was transmitted to London, but kept secret till Mch. 1854. In Jan. and Feb. of that year the czar had several conversations on the subject with the British envoy at St. Petersburg, sir G. H. Seymour, in one of which (14 Jan.) he compared Turkey to a "sick man " in a state of decrepitude, on the point of death, and made proposals to the British government for the disposal of his property. He stated frankly that he would not permit the British to establish them- selves at Constantinople; but said, in another conversation, he would not object to their possessing Egypt. The purport of these conversations was conveyed in despatches to lord John Russell, who replied that the British government declined to make any provision for the contingency of the fall of Turkey. The czar made similar proposals to the French government, with the same result. The Russian and French governments having each taken a side in the dispute between the Greek and Latin churches as to the exclusive possession of the Holy PLACES in Palestine, the Porte advised a mixed commission, which decided in favor of the Greeks ; and a firman was pro- mulgated accordingly, 9 Mch. 1853. To this decision the French acceded, although dissatisfied. Russians make further claims, and prince Mcnschikoff (who arrived at Constantinople 28 Feb. 1853), by various notes (be- tween 22 Mch. and 18 May) demands that the sultan sign a convention granting the czar such a protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey as the sultan considered inimi- cal to his own authority 22 Mch. -18 May, 1853 Demand rejected; Menschikoft' quits Constantinople. ..21 May, " Sultan issues a hattischerif confirming rights and privileges of Greek Christians, and appeals to his allies 6 June, " English and French fleets anchor in Besika bay 13 June, " Russians, under gen. Luders, cross the Pruth and enter Mol- davia 2 July, " Circular of count Nesselrode in justification, 2 July; lord Clar- endon's reply 16 July, " Representatives of England, France, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna; agree to a note, 31 July; accepted by czar, 10 Aug. ; sultan requires modifications, 19 Aug. ; which the czar rejects 7 Sept. " Two English and 2 French ships enter Dardanelles 14 Sept. " Sultan (with consent of a great national council) declares war against Russia 5 Oct. " Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires on a Russian flotilla (the first act of war) 23 Oct. " Turks cross the Danube at Widdin and occupy Kalafat, 28 Oct. -3 Nov. " Russia declares war against Turkey 1 Nov. " English and French fleets enter Bosporus 2 Nov. " Russians defeated at OUenitza 4 Nov. " Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, Atskur, and Achaltzik, 14, 18, 26 Nov. " Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope 30 Nov. " Collective note from the 4 powers, demanding on what terms the Porte will negotiate for peace 5 Dec. " Contests at Kalafat 31 Dec. 1853 to 9 Jan. 1854 At the request of Porte (5 Dec), allied fleets enter the Black sea 4 Jan. " Russians defeated at Citate 6 Jan. '* Reply of Porte to note of 5 Dec. proposes 4 points as bases of negotiation — viz. : 1. Prompt evacuation of the principali- ties. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance of relig- ious privileges to communities of all confessions. 4. A de- finitive settlement of the convention respecting Holy Places (dated 31 Dec), approved by the 4 powers 13 Jan. " Vienna conferences close 16 Jan. " Kalafat Invested by the Russians 28-31 Jan. " Proposal in a letter from the emperor of the French to the czar (29 Jan.) declined 9 Feb. " Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed by the Russians under Schilders 15 Feb. " Ultimatum of England and France sent to St. Petersburg, 27 Feb. " Czar "did not judge it Citable to give an answer " 19 Mch. " Baltic fleet sails, under sir C. Napier. 11 Mch. " Treaty between England, France, and Turkey 12 Mch. " Russians under Gortschakofl" pass the Danube and occupy the Dobrudscha; conflicts; the Turks retire 23, 24 'Mch. 18.54 France and England declare war against Russia 27, 28 Mch. •■ Rupture between Turkey and Greece 28 Mch. Gen. Canrobert and French troops arrive at Gallipoli, soon after followed by the English 31 Mch. "• English vessel Furious, with a flag of truce, fired on at Odessa, 8 Apr. "■ Austria, England, France, and Prussia sign a protocol at Vienna guaranteeing the integrity of Turkey and civil and religious rights of her Christian subjects 10 Apr. "• Russians defeated at Kostelli by Mustapha Pacha " " Offensive and defensive alliance between England and France, 10 Apr. " Treaty between A ustria and Prussia 20 Apr. ' ' Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet 22 Apr. "• Russiaus, under gen. Schilders, assault Kalafat; repulsed; the blockade raised 19-21 Apr. '♦• Steamer Tiger run aground near Odessa; captured by the Rus- sians 12 May, "^ Russians defeated at Turtiikai 13 May, '* Siege of Silistria begun 17 May, '*■ Allied armies disembark at Varna 29 May, "■ Russians defeated by theTurks at Karakai 30 May, "■ Mouths of the Danube blockaded by allied fleets 1 June, "■ Russians repulsed at Silistria; Paskiewitsch and many officers wounded 5 June, "■ Turks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia) 16 June, '* Severe conflict before Silistria; the siege raised 18-26 June, "■ Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed 26, 27 June, '^ Russians defeated at Giurgevo 7 July, "• French troops (10,000) embark at Boulogne for the Baltic, 15 July, "^ Turks defeated at Bayazid in Armenia, 29, 30 July; and near Kars .* 5 Aug. '«■ Surrender of Bomarsund 16 Aug. •'- [In July and August the allies suffered severely from cholera.] Russians defeated by Schamyl in Georgia about 28 Aug. "■ They evacuate the principalities Aug. -20 Sept. "^ By virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14) the Austrians, un- der count Coronini, enter Bucharest 6 Sept. "• Allies sail from Varna, 3 Sept., and land at Old Fort, near Eupa- toria 14 Sept. "^ Skirmish at the Bulganac- 19 Sept. " Battle of the Alma 20 Sept. "■ Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopol 23 Sept. "■ Allies occupy Balaklava 26 Sept. "■ Death of marshal St. Aruaud 29 Sept. "^ Gen. Canrobert his successor 24 Nov. "• Siege of Sebastopol begins; grand attack unsuccessful. .17 Oct. "■ Battle of Balaklava ; charge of the light cavalry, with severe loss 25 Oct. '*■ Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by gens. Evans and Bosquet, 26 Oct. '* Russian attack at Inkerman ; defeated 5 Nov. "■ Miss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari 6 Nov. " Great tempest in the Black sea, loss of the Prince and store vessels 14-16 Nov. " Treaty of alliance between England, France, Austria, and Prus- sia; a commission to meet at Vienna; signed 2 Dec. '• Russian sortie 20 Dec. " Omar Pacha arrives in the Crimea (followed by the Turkish army from Varna) 5 Jan. 1855 Sardinia joins England and France 26 Jan. " Great sufferings in the camp from cold and sickness. Jan.-Feb. " Russians defeated by the Turks at Eupatoria 17 Feb. " Death of emperor Nicholas; accession of Alexander II. (no change of policy) 2 Mch. ' ' Sortie from the Malakhoff tower 22 Mch. " Capture of Russian rifle-pits 19 Apr. " Arrival of Sardinian contingent 8 May. "■ Resignation of gen. Canrobert, succeeded by gen. Pelissier, 16 May, '^ Desperate night combats 22-24 May,- "^ Expedition into sea of Azof (under sir E. Lyons and sir G. Brown) ; destruction of Kertch and large amount of stores, 24 May-3 June, " Taganrog bombarded 3 June, "^ Massacre of an English boat's crew with flag of truce at Hango, 5 June, " Russians evacuate Anapa " '* White Works and Mamelon Vert taken 6, 7 June, " Unsuccessful attack on Malakhoflf tower and Redan. . . 18 June, '* Death of lord Raglan ; succeeded by gen. Simpson 28 June, '* Russians invest Kars in Armenia, defended by gen. Williams, 15 July, '^ Bombardment of Sweaborg 9 Aug. " Defeat of the Russians at the Tchernaya 16 Aug. "■ Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff taken ; Russian sortie repulsed 18 Aug. '* French take the Malakhoff by assault; English assault the Redan without success; Russians retire from Sebastopol to the North Forts, and the allies enter the city; Russians de- stroy or sink the remainder of their fleet 8 Sept. et seq. " Tanan and Fanagoria captured 24 Sept. " Russians assaulting Kars are defeated 29 Sept. " Kinburn taken 17 Oct. " Russians blow upOczakoff 18 Oct. " Defeat of the Russians, and passage of the Ingour by the Turks, under Omar Pacha 6 Nov. " Czar visits his army near Sebastopol 10 Nov. '* Sir Wm. Codrington relieves gen. Simpson 14 Nov. '' RUS 704 RUS Exploalon of lOO.OOO lbs. of powder In tho French siege-train at lukerroan; grwii loss of life 15 Nov. 1866 Sweden Joins tUo allies by a treaty '21 Nov. " CaullulHtion of Kara to gen. Mouravlefl". altera gallant defence by gen. Williams 2« Nov. " Kiitwian utUick on the French \K>stB at Baldar repulsed. .8 Dec. " Fru|K»(«U3 of jwace from Austria, with the consent of the allies, scul to St. Petersburg 12 Dec. " Centre dock at Sebasto[)ol blown up by the English 2 Jan. 1866 Council of war at Paris. 11 Jan. " Prut04-«)1 signed accepting Austrian propositions as basis of ne- gotiation 1 Feb. " Destruction of Sebastopol docks " " Ke|)ort of sir John M'Nolll and col. Tulloch on state of the army before Selnislopol, pub 5 Feb. " Peace conferences o|)en at Paris ; an armistice till 31 Mcb. agreed on 25 Feb. " Susiwnsion of hostilities 29 Feb. " Treaty of peace concluded at Paris. 30 Mch. " IToclamation of peace In Crimea, 2 Apr. ; In London. . .29 Apr. " Crimea evacuated 9 July, " The Knglish lost: killed in action and died of wounds, about 3500; died of cholera, 4244; of other diseases, nearly 16,000; total loss, nearly 24,000 (including 270 officers); 2873 were disabled. The war added to the national debt 41,041,000^. The French lost about 63,600 men ; the Russians about half a million. The array suffered greatly by sickness. Rus§0-Tlirki§ll War, 1877. For the insur- rections, Servian war, and the negotiations, Turkey. Czar addresses the army near Kischeneff, saying that " he has done everything in his power to avoid war, and patience is exhausted";" Russian embassy quits Constantinople. .23 Apr. 1877 War declared; czar's manifesto says that be is compelled, by the haughty obstinacy of the Porte, to proceed to decisive acts; a jusliflcatory circular to foreign powers sent out by prince Gortschakoff; Russians enter Turkish dominions in Koumania and Armenia 24 Apr. " Sultan's circular protests against the war, and refers to his re- forms and the treaty of Paris 25 Apr. " [Russian general-in-chief in Bulgaria, grand-duke Nicholas; in Armenia, grandduke Michael. Turkish generals: Abdul- Kerim in Europe; Mukhtar Pacha in Asia Minor.] Russians defeated at Tchuruk Sou, near Batoum 26 Apr. " Russians, under grand-duke Michael and Loris Melikoff, advance into Armenia, defeat Turks, and occupy Bayazid (deserted), 29, 30 Apr. " Earl of Derby replies to Russian circular ; he refers to the treaty of 1856 as broken ; does not consider that the war will benefit Christians, and asserts that Russia has separated her- self from European concert; the British government gives neither concurrence nor approval to the war 1 May, " Turks stop the passage of the Danube, and blockade the Black sea 3 May, *' Kalafat occupied by Roumanians " " Russians defeated in attacking Batoum 4 May, " Turkish monitor Lufli - Djelil, with 300 men, blown up near Ibraila, or Braila, on the Danube (said to be by Russian shells) 11 May, ' ' Sukhum Khaleh, Russian fortress in the Caucasus, captured by- Turks 14 May, " Ardahan, near Kars, Armenia, stormed by Melikoff 17 May, " Insurrection in Caucasus supported by the sultan, 18 May et seq. " Explosion of Turkish monitor I>ar-J/aata'rian§. Traces exist of Sabbatarii, or Sab- bathaires, among the sects of the 16th century on the European continent. Upon the publication of the " Book of Sports " in 1618, a violent controversy arose among English divines on 2 points : first, whether the 4th commandment is in force among Christians; and, secondly, whether, and on what ground, the first day of the week ought to be distinguished and observed as " the Sabbath." In 1628, Theophilus Brabourne, a clergy- man, published the first defence of the 7th day, or Saturday, as the Christian Sabbath. He and others were persecuted for this doctrine ; but after the Restoration 3 or 4 congregations in London kept Saturday as their holy day, and 7 or 8 in the country parts of England. In 1851 there were 3 Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist congregations in England ; but in America (especially in the New England states) they are more numerous. Joseph Davis suffered imprisonment in 1670. He and his son bequeathed property to maintain the sect ; and litigation respecting its disposal was settled by vice-chancel- lor Stuart in conformity with their intentions in June, 1870. Very few Sabbatarians then remained. Sabbatll, the 7th day of the week ; a sacred day of I rest ordained by God, Gen. ii. ; Exod. xx. 8 ; Isa. Iviii. 13. i Jews observe the 7th day in commemoration of the creation [ of the world, and of their redemption from the bondage of the SAB Egyptians; Christians observe the first day of the week in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead and the rcdempiion of men. Sunday. $^ablMltll-Mellool§. Sunday-schools. S^bbat'U'nl year, a Jewish institution, 1491 B.C., Kxod. xxiii. Dtirinjc every 7th year the very ground had rest, and was not tilled ; and every 4yth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, etc., that were be- fore sold or mortgaged, returned to their original families, etc. SabC'Ism, worship of sun, moon, and stars; so called firom the Sabeans, a people of Arabia Felix, now Yemen. {■iaberilailisill, from Sabelllus (of Ftolemais, Egypt), who flourisheil in the 3d century, and who taught that there was but one person in the Godhead, whose 3 names were the Trinity. This doctrine was condemned at a council at Rome, 260. Sabine CrOiS-roads, La., Battle of. Red River CAMPAIGN. Sabine Pa§§, Texas. Here a small body of confed- erates repulsed a naval force and prevented a further advance of a land force under maj.-gen. Franklin, Sept. 8, 1863. Sabine§, an indigenous tribe of Italy, northeast of Rome, fn>m whom, according to tradition, the Romans, under Romulus, tooktheirdaughter3byforce,havinginvitedtheratopublicsports or shows for the purpose. When the Sabines sought revenge, the women mediated for their husbands, the Romans, and secured a lasting peace, 750 B.C. After many conflicts the Sabines became a part of the Roman people, about 266 b.c. One of the ecclesias- tical provinces is still called Terra Sabina; chief town, Magliano. §aecliarlni'eter, an instrument for determining the amount of sugar in solution. Soleil, an optician of Paris, in 1847 made use of rotary polarized light for this purpose in a saccharimeter, since improved by Dubosc. Saekett'§ Harbor, British repulsed. New York, 1812 and 1813. sac'rament (from sacrammtum, an oath, obligation ; also mystery). The Christian sacraments are baptism and the Lord's supper. The council of Trent, in 1547, following the schoolmen, recognized 7 sacraments: baptism, the Lord's sup- per, contirmation, penance, holy orders, matrimony, and ex- treme unction. The name was given to tlie Lord's supper by the Latin fathers. The wine was laid aside, and com- munion by the laity under one form alone, that of bread, took its rise in the West, under pope Urban II., 1096.— ilf.cfe Marca. Communion in one kind was authoritatively sanctioned by the council of Constance in 1414.— Z>r. Flook. Henry VII. of Ger- many was poisoned by a priest in the consecrated wafer, 24 Aug. 1313. The sacramental wine was poisoned by the grave-digger of the church at Zurich, by which sacrilegious deed a number of persons lost their lives, 4 Sept. 1776. In 1614 members of both houses of Parliament were ordered to take the sacrament, as a guard against the introduction of Roman Catholics. In 1673 the Test ace was passed: repealed in 1828. Tkansubstantiation. Sacramento Pas§, Battle of. Mkxican war, 1847. Sacra Via (holy street), a celebrated street of Rome, fabled scene of a treaty of peace and alliance between Romulus and Tatius. It led from the amphitheatre to the capitol, and was the principal street for triumphal processions. Sacred Baud. Thebes. §acred boolc§ of the Ea§t. The publication of translations of the sacred books of the religion of the Brah- mins, Buddhists, and Mahometans, and of the followers of Khung-fu-tze and Lao-tze, edited by prof. Max MuUer, began in 1879. 8 volumes have been published, 1881. Sacred Heart of Je§U§, a form of devotion said to have been instituted in England in the 17th century, and much promoted by Marguerite Marie Alacoque, an enthusiastic French nun, who asserted that Christ had appeared to her, and taken out her heart, placed it in his own, glowing in flame, and then returned it. She died in 1690. Her book, ''Devotion au Coeur de J^sus," published in 1698, much advocated by father Joseph Gallifet about 1726; and introduced into France by request 1765 A pilgrimage from England, blessed by the pope and headed by the duke of Norfolk, to the shrine of Marguerite at Paray- le-Monial .1-6 Sept. 1873 706 SAG H. C. diocese of Salford dedicated to the Sacred Heart, 4 Sept. 1873; and a church at Montmartrc, near Paris, founded for llie same purpose ^ 16 June, 1876 Pope dodicatod the uuiversal church to "the Sacred Heart," 15 Juue, Macrecl standard, The, of green silk, unfolded by the Mahometans in time of imminent danger. This stand- ard went to the Osmanlis in 1517, when Selim I. conquered Egypt; displayed in 1597 in the war with Hungary. It was confliled to the care of 300 emirs ; again displayed in 1828 by the sultan of Turkey, at war with Russia. sacred U^ar§. (l) Declared by the Amphictyona^ against Cirrha, near Delphi, for robbery and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 b.c. Cirrlia was razed to the ground, 586. (2) Between the Phocians and Delphians for the posses- sion of the temple at Delphi, 448, 447. (3) The Phocians, on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, seized tlie temple, 357. They were conquered by Piiilip of Macedon, and theijj cities depopulated, 346. Crusades. §ac'riflce, an offering to God or to any supposed deity' or divinity as an atonement for sin, or to procure favor or express thankfulness. Sacrifice was offered to God by Abel, 3875 B.C. Sacrifices to the gods were introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of Argos, 1773 b.c. Human sacrifices seem to have originated with the Chaldaeans, from whom the custom passed to many other Eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God were to cease with the sacrifice of Christ, 33 A.u. (Heb. x. 12-14). Pagan sacrifices were forbidden by the emperor Constantius II. 341. sac'rilegce, the crime of violating or profaning sacred things. In 1835, the punishment (formerly death) in Great] Britain was made transportation for life. By 23 and 24 Vict.: c. 96, s. 50 (1861), breaking into a place of worship and stealing ' therefrom was made punishable with penal servitude for life. Sacripor'tUi, a place in Latium, Italy. Here Sulla defeated the younger Marius and Papirus Carbo with great slaughter, 82 b.c, and became dictator, 81. Sac§ and Foxe§. Indians. saddles. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither sad- dles nor stirrups. Saddles were in use in the 3d century, and are mentioned as made of leather in 304, and were known in England about 600. Stirrups were not known before the 5th century, and not in general use before the 1 2th. Side-saddles for ladies were introduced by Anne, queen of Richard II., in 1388. — Stmv. have been founded c, who, misin- re was neither soul was mortal, body. The Sad- the Pharisees; ^ Humphrj' I founded re mesh- s. The fa' Sad'dUCees, a Jewish sect, sa by Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, ab terpreting his master's doctrine, taugh" heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit; th and that there was no resurrection of ducees rejected the oral law, maintainel see Matt. xxii. 23 ; Acts xxiii. 8. Sado^Ava. KoniggrXtz. safety-lamp. That invented in 18' Davy, to prevent accidents in coal and othe on the principle that flame, in passing throu es, loses heat, and will not ignite inflamraab' ther of all safety-lamps was dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1817. The " Geordy," constructed by George Stephenson, the engineer, in 1815, is said to be the safest. A miner's electric light, by MM. Dumas and Benoit, was exhibited in Paris on 8 Sept. 1862. On 14 Aug. 1867, safety-lamps were rigidly tested by several mining engi- neers, and serious doubts thrown upon their complete efficacy. Col. Shakespeare's safety-lamp (light extinguished by open- ing) exhibited at Royal institution, London, etc.. May, 1879. saffron (Fr. saffran ; It. saffrano), the flower of crocus, was first taken to England in the reign of Edward HI. by a pil- grim, about 1339 ; probably from Arabia, as the word is from the Arabic suphar. — ^filler. It was cultivated in England in 1582. sagas (Icel. saga, a tale; Anglo-Sax. saffu, a saying), poetical compositions by scalds or Scandinavian bards, com- posed or collected from the 11th to the 16th centuries. Sub- jects : mythological and historical traditions of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland. The most remarkable are SAG 707 those of Lodbrok, Hervara, Vilkina, Volsunga, Blomsturvalla, ynglinga, Olaf Tryggva-Sonar, Jomsvikingia, and of Kny- thinga (which contains the legend.'ry history of Iceland), the Heims-kringla, and New Edda of Snorri Sturlusou. Eddas, LiTEKATLiRE, Scandinavian. Nibelungenot. sag'C (Fr. sauge ; Lat. salvia), a wholesome herb, com- fortable to the brain and nerves. — Mortimer. A species of this garden plant grew early in England, and some varieties were imported. The Mexican sage, Salvia inexicana, was brought from Mexico, 1724. The blue African sage. Salvia africana, and the golden African sage. Salvia aurea, were taken to England from the Cape of Good Hope in 1731. Flowers and Plants. j^agun'tum or Zacyn'tliu§, now IWurvie- dro {moor-ve-a'dro), a fortified town of Valentia, E. Spain, renowned for the dreadful siege it sustained, 219 b.c., against the Carthaginians under Hannibal. The citizens, allies of Rome and under her protection, after performing incredible acts of valor for 8 months, chose, rather than surrender, to burn themselves, with their houses, and the conqueror became mas- ter of a pile of ashes, 218 b.c. §alia'ra, the immense region in Africa lying between the Nile valley and the Atlantic ocean and from the inner slope of the Barbary plateau south on an average of 1200 miles. Area, 2,500,000 sq. miles. The term Sahara is modi- fied from the Arabic Sara or Zaharah, meaning desert. The interior of this desert consists in great part of table -lands called hammada, with here and there a few green habitable spots termed "oases." Hot winds, blowing outward, occur during the year ■ in Egypt from April until June, called Khamsin ; in Algeria and South Italy, July, the Sirocco ; in Morocco, the Shume; and along the Atlantic and Guinea coast, the Harmattan. This region, with its thinly scattered inhabitants, has, since 1890, come within the influence of France and somewhat under her protection. A project for making an inland sea here was entertained in 1883, and the construction of a railway from Algeria south was proposed Oct. 1890. A large natural reservoir of water was discovered at El Golea in the desert in 1891. Africa. sailing', a vessel moving on the water by the use of sails, as well as the art of navigating it. William of Orange (about 1570) was a yachtsman; and a small sail-boat was maintained on the Thames by Charles II. Sailing as a sport was greatly stimulated in the United States by the winning of the "Royal Yacht Squadron Cup" by the America in a race round the Isle The America v England after durijag the civ Savannah river , U. S. Naval acad 1867. The sail most popular Hudson River world, ow Cornwall Royal YaclT Hoboken , at Cowes regatta, open to all comers. by George Steers in 1851; sold in tor}', and used as a blockade-runner She was sunk by a U. S. cruiser in and used as a practice-boat for the and purchased bj' gen. B. F. Butler in ice-boats is a modern sport in the U. S., Hudson river and in Canada. " The is the largest ice-yacht association in the 50 boats. stablished at Falmouth, Eng 1720 1, at Cowes, Eng., organized 1815 club, the first in America, organized 1840 Royal London Yacht club, established as Arundel Yacht club in 1838, assumes its present name 1849 America''s cup, won in 1851, presented by the owners to the New York yacht club as a perpetual international challenge cup 8 July, 1857 Ice-boats, fitted up with long blades of iron, like skates, and sails, " tacking and beating to windward as if they were in the water," are mentioned as in use on Boston harbor, then frozen over, at the time the Atlantic mail-steamer Britonma was released by cutting a channel 7 miles long and 100 feet wide througli ice over 2 feet thick Feb. 1844 Ice-yacht Dreadnought sails 1 mile in 1 min. 10 sec. at Red Bank, N. J 26 Jan. 1884 Ice-yacht race for championship of America, sailed at Orange lake over a 20-mile coarse, and won bv the Scud, of the Shrewsbury Ice Yacht club '. .16 Jan. 1891 WINNERS OF TRANSATLANTIC YACHT RACES. Henrietta. J. G. Bennett, owner, in race with the Fleetwing and Vesta, crosses the ocean in 13 days, 21 h. 55 min., sailing 3106 miles (the quickest voyage ever made in a sailing-vessel), Dec. 1866 Cambria, James Ashbury, owner, in race with the Dauntless, crosses the ocean in 23 days, 5 h. 17 min., sailing 2881 miles, 1870 Coronet, R. T. Bush, owner, in race with the Dauntless, crosses the ocean in 14 days, 23 h. 30 min., sailing 2949 miles 1887 SAI RACES FOR AMERICA'S CUP. Winners (all American). Losers. Waters. Date. America, .. . Aurora, England English .... American . . 22 Aug. 1851 8 Aug. 1870 16 Oct 1871 Magic Cambria, " Columbia. . . Livonia, " Sappho 21 Oct " Madeline.... Mischief. . . . Puritan Mayflower.. . Volunteer. , . Countess of ) r,„„„j Dufferin, ) Canada Atalanta, Canada Genesta, England Galatea, " Thistle, Scotland 11 Aug. 1876 9 Nov. 1881 14 Sept. 1885 7 Sept. 1886 27 Sept. 1887 30 Sept. " 13 Oct. 1893 Vigilant Valkyrie, England ^ailor'§ Creek, Va., Aflfair at. Grant's campaign IN Virginia. §aillt, a person sanctified ; one eminent for piety. For many names with this prefix, see the names themselves throughout the book. St. Clair's defeat. Ohio, 1791. St. LiOUiS, known as the "Mound City," covers 61.35 sq. miles (1890) on the west bank of the Mississippi river, about 15 miles below the mouth of the Missouri. Lat. 38° 38' N. ; Ion. 90° 21' W. When St. Louis came into the posses- sion of the United States, 10 Mch. 1804, there were only 2 American families in frhe place, and 925 inhabitants in alL There were about 150 houses and 3 streets : La Rue Princi- pale (Main St.), La Rue de L'Eglise (Second st.), and La Rue des Granges (Third st.) ; the whole encircled by fortifications. The population by the U. S. census shows as follows: 1810, 1400; 1820, 4598; 1830, 6694; 1840, 16,469; 1860, 77,860; 1860, 160,773 ; 1870, 310,864 ; 1880, 350,518 ; 1890, 451,770. Pierre Ligueste Laclede establishes the chief post of the Louisi- ana Fur company, and names it St. Louis 15 Feb. 1764 St. Ange de Bellerive, French commandant at fort De Chartres, arrives, and is invested with civil and military power. . .Oct. 1765 Spanish troops under capt. Rios take possession in the name of the king of Spain, 11 Aug. 1768,but exercise no civil functions, and retire 17 July, 1769 Pontiac, visiting St. Louis as a friend of St. Ange, is murdered at afeast, nearCahokia, and buried near "Walnut and Fourth sts., " Don Pedro Piernas, Spanish, made lieutenant governor and mili- tary commandant of upper Louisiana, with headquarters at St. Louis, takes possession 20 May, 1770 Log church erected by Piernas on west side of Second, between Market and Walnut sts., and dedicated 24 June, " St. Ange dies, and is buried near Pontiac's grave Sept. 1774 Francis Cruzat succeeds Piernas as governor May, 1775 Cruzat succeeded by don Ferdinando Leyba 1778 Laclede dies; buried near the mouth of the Arkansas, 20 June, " Wall of brush and clay 5 ft. high built around the town, and a small fort called La Tour built on Fourth St., near Wal- nut 1779 About 1500 savages, led by British regulars from fort Michili- mackinac, surprise a number of people outside the stockade, and kill 15 or 20; the town successfully defended 26 May, Leyba commits suicide, and is succeeded by Cruzat Great flood; the year called " L'Anne des Grandes Eaux," June, Cruzat succeeded by Manuel Perez as commander of the post. , Perez succeeded by Zenon Trudeau Trudeau succeeded by Charles Dehault Delassusde Delusi^re. . Delassus, at St. Louis, transfers Louisiana to Amos Stoddard, representing France, 9 Mch., and Stoddard transfers it to the U. S 10 Mch. First session of Court of Common Pleas held in the old fort (cor. Fourth and Walnut sts.); Supreme court organized and postmaster appointed First English school established Aaron Burr visits St. Louis July, First newspaper printed west of the Mississippi, the Missouri Gazette, issued by Joseph Charless at St. Louis 12 July, Young man hung for murder; the first execution of a white man in the territory of Louisiana 16 Sept. St. Louis incorporated as a town 9 Nov. First market built on Centre square, between Market and Wal- nut sts., Main st., and the river (the town contained 12 stores, 2 schools, and a printing-office) Jan. First Territorial General Assembly meets at the house of Joseph Robidoux, between Walnut and Elm sts 7 Dec. First brick house built Bank of St. Louis chartered 21 Aug. General Pike, the first steamboat to ascend from the Ohio, lands near the foot of Market st 2 Aug. Bank of Missouri chartered Duel in which Thomas H. Benton kills Charles Lucas. .27 Sept. First paving wnth stone on edge done by Wm. Deckers on Mar- ket, between Main and Water sts Log church torn down and a brick cathedral erected Baptist society begins a church at cor. Market and Third sts. . Harriet, capt. Armitage, the first steamboat, arrives from New Orleans in 27 days 2 June, 1780 1785 1788 1793 1798 1804 1811 1812 1814 1816 1819 SAI 708 SAL Wutem jnipfM*^,a8teaml>oat constructed for Long's expedition to the mouth of Yellowstone river, leaves St. Louis, 21 June, 1819 First legislature umlor the Constitution meets in the Missouri hotel, ror. Main and Morgan sts 19 Sept. 1820 First brick iMved sidewalk laid on Second st. 1821 First Methodist church erortod " First directory pub " First lire engine purchased 1822 St lAiuis incorporated as a city ; area, 386 acres •' Main St, graded and paved 1823 Flr«tl*re8byterian church built at cor.FourthandSt.Charlesst8., 1824 First Kpiscopal church erected at cor. Third and Chestnut sts. 1825 Gen. lAfayeite visits St. Louis, arriving 29 Apr. " Old brick court house built 1827 Old market building erected " Branch of the U. S. mint esUblished at St. Louis. 1829 First water-works built, 1830, and water supplied 1832 Central Fire company, a volunteer organization, founded " Cholera appears, destroying about i per cent, of the population within a month 25 Sept. " St I.«uis university opened, 1829; chartered Dec. " First school board elected under the new charter 1833 First daily paper, the Herald, pub. by Treadway & Albright. . . 1834 New city charter 26 Feb. 1835 UnQnished brick cathedral and other buildings, including about 60 residences, destroyed by Are Apr. " Daily Republic esUiblished " Old St Ix)ui8 theatre, on cor. Third and Olive sts., afterwards occupied by the custom-house, erected at a cost of $60,000 . . 1836 First daily mail to and ft-om the East Sept. " Daniel Webster visits St Louis, and a " barbecue " is tendered him, in a grove west of Ninth st, near where Imcas market afterwards stood. 1837 New city charter. 11 Feb. 1839 Area of the city increased to 2630 acres by act 15 Feb. 1841 Historic mansion, occupied by Laclede and col. Auguste Chou- teau, pulled down, and grounds divided into city lots; after- wards the site of Barnum's hotel Oct " First steamboat built entirely in St Louis launched Apr. 1842 Post despatch established " Health department, harbor - master, street- commissioner, and inspectors created 1843 Lafayette park, 29.94 acres, acquired by the city 1844 First omnibuses run from Market st to Upper ferry, the arse- nal, and the Camp spring " River flood began about 8 June, and drove 400 or 500 persons from their homes, rising 7 ft 7 in. above the city directrix, 24 June, " First public school building erected and opened 1846 St Louis Mercantile library founded " Pork-packing business established " Gascompany incorporated 1841; city first lighted with gas,4 Nov. 1847 City hospital opened " First line oftelegraph from the East reaches E. St Louis, 20 Dec. " Shot- tower completed and shot manufactured by Kennett, Simonds & Co 1848 Fire breaks out on the steamboat White Cloud, near the foot of Cherry st ; 23 steamboats, 3 barges? 1 canal-boat burned, and spreading to the city, 400 buildings destroyed ; loss estimated at $2,750,000 night of 17 May, 1849 Over 4000 deaths by cholera occur between 30 Apr. and 16 Aug., the mortality reaching 160 per day July, " Bellefontaine cemetery incorporated 1849; dedicated. .15 May, 1850 First underground sewer built " Ground broken for the Pacific railway at St Louis by hon. Luther M. Kennett, mayor, on south bank of Chouteau's pond, west of Fifteenth st. 4 July, " Missouri school for the blind opened 1851 Boiler of steamer Glencoe explodes at the landing, foot of Chest- nut st ; steamer burns; many lives lost 3 Apr. 1852 Globe-Democrat established " "Marble building," cor. Fourth and Olive sts., then the finest in St Louis, built 1853 First division of the Pacific railroad opened to Franklin, 38 miles July, " Mercantile Library hall, cor. Fifth and Locust sts., erected " College of Christian Brothers, opened 1851 ; chartered 1865 Excursion train, on the opening of the Pacific railroad to Jef- ferson City, breaks a temporary bridge over the Gasco- nade river: 22 killed, 50 injured ; many from St Louis, 1 Nov. " Library of the Academy of Science founded 1856 Merchants' Exchange building on Main, between Market and Walnut sts. , erected 1856-57 St Louis Normal school opened 1857 Paid fire department established " First overland mail for California leaves St Louis 16 Sept 1858 First overland mail from California, 24 days, 18^ hours from San Francisco, arrives at St Louis 9 Oct " Fire-alarm telegraph put in operation *' St Louis and Iron Mountain railroad opened to Pilot Knob, 85 miles " Washington university chartered, 1853; opened ", 1859 Three street-railway lines opened in the city " Metropolitan police force established by act of legislature 1861 Camp Jackson, at Lindell's grove, in the western suburbs of the city, organized 3 May, 1861, and captured 10 May, " Martial law proclaimed, and citizens forbidden to leave the limits without a pass, by provost-marshal gen. J. McKins- try 30 Aug. " Court-house, on block bounded by Chestnut, Market, Fourth, and Fifth sts., begun 1839, finished (cost about $1,200,000) July, 1862 Missouri Historical Society established 1865 St Louis public library founded 18 Lindell hotel, opened 19 Oct 1863, burned 31 Mch. 18671 New water- works, begun IHiiS, completed 1872, come under con- trol of Water-works commissioners May, Legislative act passed, incorporating Carondelet with St Louis, Foundation of eastern pier of Eads's Mississippi river bridge laid 27 Oct Monument to Thomas H. Benton in Lafayette square, raised at instance of the state government and at public expense, un- veiled 27 May, Tower Grove park, 276.76 acres, donated to the city St Louis made a port of entry under act of 1870] New city charter, obtained in 1867, bringing Carondelet into St Louis, goes into eff'ect Apr. 1871 J Headquarters of the U. S. army established at St. Louis 1874J Eads's tubular steel bridge across the Mississippi completed and opened (Bridges) 4 July, New constitution divides city from county of St Louis, and ex- tends city to include nearly 40,000 acres, bordering on the river 17 miles 1875^ Carondelet park (180 acres). Forest park (1371.94 acres), and O'Fallon park (158.32 acres) acquired by the city Court of Appeals decides the new separate charter for St Louis (1875) adopted 5 Mch. 18771 Burning of the Southern hotel; 11 lives lost 11 Apr. St Louis day-school for the deaf opened 187Sj St Louis Manual Training school established 1879J Daily Chronicle established Evening Star Sayings established Maria Consilia Institute for the Deaf opened Planters' House burned; 4 lives lost 3 Apr. 1886J Railroad strike; sheriflf's officers at East St Louis fire into a crowd of supposed strikers, killing 6 persons, including 1 woman 9 Apr. Merchants' bridge across the Mississippi, commenced 24 June, 1889 (2420 ft long; cost $6,000,000), completed 3 May, 18901 Street-railway mail car, the first in the world, begins collecting, sorting, and distributing mail in transit here 11 Dec. 1892i CHAIRMEN OF BOARD OF TRUSTEES. Auguste Chouteau 1810 Charles Gratiot 1811 Clement B. Penrose 1814 Elijah Beebe 1815 William Carr Lane 1823 Daniel D. Page 1829 John W. Johnson 1834 John F. Darby 1835 William Carr Lane 1838 John F. Darby 1840 John D. Daggett 1841 George Maguire 1842 John M. Wimer 1843 Bernard Pratte 1844 Peter G. Camden 1846 Byran Mullanphy 1847 John M. Krum 1848 James G. Barry 1849 Luther M. Kennett 1850 John How 1853 Thomas F. Riddick 18181 Peter Ferguson 1818 Pierre Chouteau, sen 182 Thomas McKnight 1822' Washington King 1855 John How 1856 John M. Wimer 1857 Oliver D. Filley 1858 Daniel G. Taylor 1861 Chauncey I. Filley 1863 James S. Thomas 1864 Nathan Cole 1869 Joseph Brown 1871 Arthur B. Barret 1875 Henry Ovestoltz 1876 William L. Ewing 1881 D. R. Francis 1885 E. A. Noonan 1889 C. P. Walbridge 1893 St. Philip, Fort. Fort St. Philip. Sakya muni. Buddhism. SUlads are stated to have been used in the middle ages. Lettuces are said to have been introduced into England from the Low Countries, 1520-47. Salamail'ca, a city of W. Spain, taken from the Sara- cens 861. The university was founded 1240, and the cathedral built 1513. Here a council, mostly of ecclesiastics, called (1487) to confer with Columbus, examine his design, and hear his ar- guments for reaching the Indias by sailing west, decided that the project was vain and impracticable. Near here the British and allies, commanded by lord Wellington, totally defeated the French army under marshal Marmont, 22 Jul}', 1812. The loss of the victors was most severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing to nearly 6000 men. Marmont left in the victors' hands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stands of colors, and 2 eagles. This victory was followed by the capture of Madrid. Sal'ainii, an island near Atbens. In a great sea-fight here, 20 Oct. 480 b.c., Themistocles and Eurybiades, the Greek commanders, with only 366 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, king of Persia, which consisted of 2000 sail. Near Salamis, in Cyprus, the Greeks defeated the Persian fleet, 449 b.c. ; and Demetrius Poliorcetes defeated the fleet of Ptolemy and hi& allies, 306 b.c. §alary (Lat. salarium; from sal, salt, originally salt- money — money given the Roman soldiers for salt, which was part of their pay), stipulated amount paid to a person for ser- vices or for the duties of an office. Fixed salaries belong al- SAL most exclusively to the more enlightened nations and those of stable governments; in earlier times, or among the less civ- ilized nations, the emoluments of a public office depend on the caprice of rulers. SUMMARY OF SALARIES PAID TO THE PRINCIPAL GOVERN- MENT OFFICIALS IN THE UNITED STATES. UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. Per annum. I Per annum^ President $50,000 1 Vice-president f»000 Slate Department. .$8000 I Chief clerk $2500 . 3500 I Chief of the bureaus 2100 709 SAL CONGRESS. Per annam. , Per annum. Members of the Senate $5000 1 Speaker of the House $8000 " . . 5000 I GOVERNORS OP THE STATES. Secretary of state — Assistant secretaries. Treasury Department. 5000 Comptroller of currency. . . .$5000 Solicitor of treasury 4500 Superintendent life-sav-) ^qqq ing service / Chiefof bureau of engraving 4500 Chief of light-house board. . 5000 Supervising architect 4500 Commissioner of internal) qqqq revenue j Sup't of immigration 4000 Secretary of treasury $8000 Assistant secretaries 4500 First and second comp- trollers Six auditors 3600 Director of the mint 4500 Treasurer of the U. S 6000 Superintendent coast sur- 1 gQQQ vev ) Register 4000 War Department. Secretary of war $8000 Chief clerk $2700 Assistant secretaries 4500 i [As the different branches of the department are under U. S. army officers ranking as brigadier-generals, see Army for salaries. ] ^^^y Department Secretary of navy $8000 i Chiefs of the different Assistant secretaries 4500 1 branches $5000 Post-office Department. Postmaster-general $8000 I Assistant postmaster - gen- I erals $*000 Department of Interior. Commissioner of railroads. .$4500 " Indian) ^q^q affairs ) Commissionerof education.. " " land office. Chief architect of U. S.) capitol ) 3000 5000 4500 Secretary of interior $8000 First assistant secretary... 4500 Assistant secretaries 4000 Commissioner of pensions. . 5000 " " patents... 5000 Superintendent of census. . . 6000 Director of geological survey. 6000 Department of Agriculture. Secretary of agriculture. . . . $8000 1 Chief of weather bureau $4500 Assistant secretaries 4500 I Department of Justice. Attorney- general $8000 I Assistant attorney-generals. $5000 Sohcitor-general 7000 1 Judiciary. Courts of the United States. Miscellaneous. Commissioner of civil service Government printer 4500 Librarian of Congress 4000 fer Commissioners of inter-) j-tkoo state commerce ) * Commissioner of labor 5000 " " fish and) -nnn fisheries } ^^^1 TOITED STATES AMBASSADORS, ENVOYS EXTRAORDINARY, ETC. , TO THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS. Per annum. France, ambassador-extraordinary and plenipotentiary Great Britain, " " Germany, " '' - • •• • U17,500 Italy, " " " .., " ' Russia, envoy extraordinary and minister-plenipotentiary Mexico, " " " Austria-Hun-) ^ ti u gary i Brazil, " " " China, " " " Japan, " " " Spain, " " " Argentine Re-) (I u u public J Chili, " "' « Colombia, " " " Costa Rica, '' " " Guatemala, " " " Honduras, " " '* Nicaragua, " " " Peru, " " " Salvador, " ♦' " Turkey, " " " Belgium, " " " Denmark, " " " Hawaii, " '• " Netherlands, " " " Paraguay and ) u ^^ u ^ 7,500 Uruguay. . . ) " Sweden and)^ Norway ) Venezuela, " i 12,000 10,000 New York ) New Jersey [ $10,000 Pennsylvania. ) Massachusetts | Ohio \ California \ Illinois ) Colorado ] Indiana Kentucky Minnesota Missouri Montana Nevada Virginia Wisconsin Maryland .'. 4,500 Connecticut Louisiana Michigan Mississippi 8,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 Texas. Washington. Arkansas . Florida. South Carolina. Alabama. Georgia. Idaho . Iowa Kansas North Carolina. North Dakota. . Rhode Island . . West Virginia .'. 2,700 Nebraska ) South Dakota. .. Wyoming Delaware Maine New Hampshire. Oregon | Vermont ) $4,000 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 TERRITORIES. Alaska $3000 Oklahoma ) *„ roo Arizona 3500 Utah f *'''^"" New Mexico 2600 I MEMBERS OF THE STATE LEGISLATURES. Alabama $4 per diem. Arkansas 6 " California 8 " Colorado 6 " Connecticut 300 per annum. Delaware 3 per diem. Florida 6 " Georgia 4 '* Idaho 5 " Illinois 5 " Indiana 6 " Iowa 500 per annum. Kansas 3 per diem. Kentucky 5 " Louisiana 4 " Maine 150 per annum. Maryland 5 per diem. Massachusetts.. 750 per annum. Michigan.. Minnesota. Missouri. 3 per diem 5 " 300 per annum. 5 per diem. Montana $6 per diem. Nebraska 5 " Nevada 8 " New Hampshire 200 per annum. New .Jersey 500 " New York 1500 " North Carolina. 4 per diem. North Dakota. . 5 " Ohio 600 per annum. Oregon 3 per diem. Pennsylvania. . 1500 per annum. Rhode Island. . . South Carolina. South Dakota . . 1 per diem. 5 5 4 5 3 50 per annum. 5 per diem. 4 " Texas Vermont Virginia Washington — West Virginia. . Wisconsin 500 per annum. Wyoming 5 per diem. SALARIES OF THE PRINCIPAL OFFICES OF GREAT BRITAIN, IRELAND, AND COLONIES. (No office under a salary of £2000 given.) Lord high chancellor £10,000 7,000 and fees usually about 5,000 6,000 $50,000 35,000 25,000 30,000 15,000 25,000 Attorney-general Solicitor-general s ^ ^ u 3000. First lord of the treasury and lord of the privy) g qqq seal f ' Lord president of the privy council " " Home secretary " " Foreign secretary " " Colonial secretary " " War secretary " " Chancellor of the exchequer. " " First lord of the admiralty 4,500. . . . 22,500 Postmaster-general 2.500. . . . 12,500 President of the Board of Trade 2,000.... 10,000 President of the Local Government Board " " Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. " " President of the Council of Education " " First commissioner of public works " " Chiefcharity commissioner of England and Wales. " " President Board of Agriculture " " Surveyor-general of prisons " " Law. Lord high chancellor, see above. Lords of appeal in ordinary (4), each 6,000 30,000 Supreme Court of Judicature (Court of Appeal). Master of the rolls 6,000.... 30,000 Lords justices (5), each 5,000 25,000 High Court of Justice (Chancery division). Justices (.5), each 5,000.... 25,000 Queen^s Bench. Lord chief-justice of England • 8,000. . . . 40,000 Justices (14), each 5,000.... 25,000 Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty. Justices (2), each 5,000.... 25,000 Court of Arches. One judge 5,000. . . . 25,000 SAL 710 SAL Par knnnm. £20,000... 1100,000 40,000 20,000 26,000 IRKLAND. L»rd-li«atenai)t Lord- chancel lor 8,000 Lortl vlcechancollor 4,000 Chief-Justice, Queen's Bench 6,000 Attorney general " Chlefeecroury and keeper privy seal 4,425 — 22, 125 Master of the rolls 4,000.... 20,000 Undersecretary 2,500.... 12,500 Other Judges of the High Court of Justice 3,500 — 17,600 LONDON. Ix)rd mayor £10,000.... $50,000 Recorder 3,500.... 17,500 Town-clerk " " Judge of the city 3,200.... 16,000 Chamberlain 2,500 12,600 Sergeant 2,250. . . . 11,250 Remembrancer 2,000.... 10,000 Solicitor " OOTXRKORS OP BRITISH CX)L0NIHS. Gov. general of India. . . .£25,000, and £12,000 additional. . .$185,000 " Canada. £10,000.... 50,000 Governorof Victoria, Australia " " • Cape of Good Hope 9,000. . . . 45,000 " •• Ceylon 8,000.... 40,000 " New South Wales, Australia 7,000. . . . 35,000 •« " Hong-Kong, China 6,500.... 32,500 ♦' *' Jamaica 6,000.... 30,000 *♦ "Gibraltar 5,000 25,000 " "Malta " " •« «' British Guiana " " " "Trinidad " " " " New Zealand " " " " Queensland, Australia " " " " South Australia " " '* "Tasmania '. " " " " Cyprus 4,000. . . . 20,000 " " Natal, S. Africa " " " " Barbadoes 3,600 18,000 " "Bermuda 3,000.... 15,000 " " Leeward Islands " '• " " Western Australia " " '» " Newfoundland 2,500. . . . 12,500 " " Windward Isles " " " "Honduras 2,400. *' " Bahamas 2,000. BRITISH AMBASSADORS, ENVOYS, ETC., TO THE POLLOWING Austria-Hungary ambassador £8000. Brazil m inister 4500 . Chili " 2000. China " 5500. Denmark " 3000. Egypt consul-general, etc 6000. France ambassador 9000. Germany " 7500. Gold Coast minister 3500 . Greece " " Italy ambassador 7000. Japan minister 4000. Mexico " 3750. Netherlands " 4000. Persia " 5000. Peru " 2300. Portugal " 3750. Russia ambassador 7800 . Spain " 5500. Sweden minister 3400. Turkey ambassador 8000. ^^'^.^ SUtes {consul-general; N.y::::: 'S. SALARIES OF THE PRESIDENTS, ETC., OF THE PRINCIPAL REPUBLICS. ' President $36,000 ... 12,000 ... 10,000 NATIONS : . . .$40,000 ... 22,500 ... 10,000 ... 27,500 ... 15,000 ... 30,000 ... 45,000 ... 37,500 ... 17,500 ... 35,000 ... 20,000 ... 18,750 ... 20,000 ... 25,000 ... 11,500 ... 18,750 ... 39,000 ... 27,500 ... 17,000 ... 40,000 ... 30,000 ... 18,300 Argentine Republic. Bolivia. Vice-president 18,000 Cabinet members each 12,000 Senate and House ... " 8,400 President 24,000 Ist vice-president 6,000 2d " " 5,000 ^^ , .Cabinet each 5,000 Chili President is OOO ( " 600,000 fr.) France ] and allowed an addi- J 240,000 ( tional 600,000 fr ) Hayti President 24,000 „ . ( " 30'.000 Mexico JCabinet each 8,000 ( Senate and House " 3,000 (■President 3,000 Switzerland < Vice-president and mem- ( bers of the council, each 2,400 Salem. Massachusetts, 1626, '29, '31, '34, '71, '92. Saler'no, anciently iSaler'nuin, S. Italy, an ancient Roman colony. Its university, with a celebrated school of med- icine, reputed to be the oldest in Europe, was founded by Robert Guiscard the Norman, who seized Salerno in 1077 Salerno suffered much in the wars of the middle at;os. Sallque (sa-leet) or Italic law, by which femal( were excluded ^rom inheriting the crown of France, is said U have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, and ratified in council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the Frencl monarchy, in 511. — Henault. This law, introduced into Spaii by the Bourbons, 1700, was formally abolished by decree, 21 Mch. 1830 ; and on the death of Ferdinand VII. his daughtei succeeded as Isabella II., 29 Sept. 1833. Bourbons, Spain By this law also Hanover was separated from England, whei queen Victoria ascended the English throne, 1837. Sali§bury (sawlz'ber-e), a city of Wilts, Engl., founde( in the beginning of the 13th century, on the removal of th< cathedral hither from Old Sarum. National councils or parlia- ments were repeatedly held at Salisbury, particularly in 12961 by Edward I. ; in 1328, by Edward III. ; and in 1384. Ilenrj Stafford, duke of Buckingham, was executed here, by order of Richard III., in 1483. On Salisbury plain is Stonehengh) This plain was estimated at 500,000 acres. On it were man cross-roads, and few houses to take directions from, so Thorn as, earl of Pembroke, planted a tree at each mile-stone fron Salisbury to Shaftesbury as a traveller's guide. The cathe dral was begun, 28 Apr. 1220, and completed in 1258. It i one of England's finest ecclesiastical edifices. Its spire, th loftiest in the kingdom (404 ft.), was considered in danger ii Apr, 1864, and subscriptions were begun for its immediate re pair. The choir was reopened, after restoration by sir G. G Scott, 1 Nov. 1876. Salleilti'ni, allies of the Saranites, the only Italian tribe^ not subject to Rome, were overcome in war in 267 and 266 b.c. and Brundisium, their port, taken. §alinoil fislieries. A salmon - fishery congress opened at South Kensington, Engl., 7 June, 1867. Salmon eggs sent to New Zealand, Jan. 1878. Salmon were very abundant in all the New England rivers at the time of the first settlement of the country, but the many dams built upon some of these rivers — notably the Merrimac — have excluded the fish. A large supply for American markets comes now from the Kennebec river in Maine, and from Canadian streams. Considerable attention has been given to the re- stocking of American streams with salmon by the United States Fish Commission. In Nov. 1871, the Russian method of artificial propagation was tried in the Penobscot region with success. Tlie hatching of eggs and stocking rivers with salmon has since been steadily prosecuted with good results. The lower Columbia river, Oregon, is one of the most im- portant salmon fisheries in the world, over 600,000 cases be- ing put lip annually. To keep up the supply the U. S. gov- ernment hatchery puts 5,000,000 young salmon in the river every year. salt (chloride of sodium, a compound of the gas chlorine and the metal sodium) is procured from salt-rocks, from salt- springs, and from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wie- liczka, near Cracow in Galicia, have been worked 600 years. The salt-works in Cheshire, called the Wiches (Naiitwich, Northwich, and Middlewich), were important during the Sax- on heptarchy. The salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. Salt-duties were first exacted in England in 1702 ; they were renewed in 1732 ; reduced in 1823, and in that year were ordered to cease in 1825. During the French war the duty reached to BOl. per ton. For the salt-tax in France, Gabelle. The government salt monopoly in India was abolished in May, 1863, by sir C. Trevelyan. Since 1810, 23 states of the United States have produced salt for market. Virginia salt- works were in operation before 1620. Salt was made in South Carolina in 1689, and acts to encourage the manufacture were passed in 1725. The Onondaga salt-springs, in New York, were worked by the Indians. First discovered in central New York by father Le Moyne, 1654. Salt was first made near Syracuse by white men in 1788. The state of New York owns the salines, and, until 1846, charged a royalty of 6 cents a bushel for salt made from the water. In that year the roy- ' alty was reduced to 1 cent a bushel. Rock salt first discov- j ered in New York state, 4 miles from Warsaw,* Wyoming county, 1878. New York. Salt was first made in Ohio in SAL 1798; in Michigan about 1859. Since 1797 salt has been largel}' employed in the manufacture of chloride of sodium or bleaching powder (by obtaining its chlorine) and soap (by obtaining its soda). For these purposes the chemical works of Cheshire, Lancashire, and other places are operated. Alka- lies. I^altaire. Alpaca. Salt Lake. Grkat Salt Lake. Salt Lake City. Utah. saltpetre (from sal petrae, salt of the rocks), or ni- tre, is a compound of nitric acid and potash (nitrogen, oxy- gen, and potassium), properly called nitrate of potash. It is the explosive ingredient in gunpowder, many detonating powders, and lucifer- matches. Boyle, in the 17th century, demonstrated that saltpetre is composed of aquafortis (nitric acid) and potash ; the discoveries of Lavoisier (1777) and Davy (1807) showed its real composition. Its manufacture in England began about 1625. During the French Revolu- tion the manufacture was greatly increased by the researches of Berthollet. §alute at §ea. It is a received maxim at sea that he who returns the salute always fires fewer guns than he re- ceives, even between ships of princes of equal dignity ; but the Swedes and Danes return the compliment without regard to the number of guns fired to them. The English claim the right to be saluted first in all places, as sovereigns of the seas; the Venetians claimed this honor within their gulf, etc. The English admiralty issued a code of rules for salutes, Dec. 1876. Flag, Naval salute. Sal'vador, San, one of the Bahamas and the first point of land discovered in the West Indies or America by Colum- bus. It was previously called Guanahani, or Cat's isle ; but Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for deliverance) named it San Salvador, 11 Oct. 1492. The capital, San Salvador, was destroyed by an earthquake, 16 Apr. 1854, and is now abandoned. Sal'vador, San, a republic of Central America, inde- pendent since 1853, with a constitution proclaimed 24 Jan. 1859. Gen. Barrios, elected president 1 Feb. 1860, was com- pelled to flee in Oct. 1863, when Francis Duenas became pro- visional president; his formal election took place Apr. 1865. The ex-president, Gerard Barrios, was surrendered by Nica- ragua, tried, and shot, Aug. 1876. A re-attempted revolution failed, 1872. The capital, San Salvador, founded 1528, was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 19 Mch. 1873; about 50 persons perished; suffered again severely, 1879. Area, 7225 sq. miles; pop, 1891, about 777,900. Salvation army, a quasi-military organization for mission work, using, as special means, a uniform, out-door pro- cessions, with banners and music, and religious talks in the streets, public halls, theatres, etc. The army is an outgrowth of the East London Christian Revival Society, or, as afterwards called, the " Christian Mission," established in London by rev. Wra. Booth in 1865. Its aims are : 1st, to go to the people with the message of salvation ; 2d, to attract the people ; 3d, to save the people; 4th, to employ the people in salvation work. Their motto is " Blood and Fire." The army is now established in 32 countries, with about 10,780 officers, and holds about 13,000,000 religious meetings every year. It pub- lishes 33 weekly newspapers and 15 monthly magazines, with a total annual circulation of 43,826,000 copies. They support 40 Rescue-homes for fallen women and 58 " slum-posts." William Booth holds his first open-air meeting at the Mile End Waste, London, from which his hearers "procession " to a large tent near Baker's Row, Whitechapel 5 July, 1865 Work of the Christian Mission first introduced temporarily in the United States, at Cleveland, O., by a London cabinet- maker 1872 First 2 hallelujah lasses (women evangelists) leave King's Cross, Engl., for Felling-on-Tyne 30 Mch. 1878 First "war congress" held, and "Salvation army" formally organized, with 50 stations under 88 evangelists Aug. " War Cry, a weekly newspaper, first issued 1879 Salvation Army corps established in Philadelphia by the fam- ily of Mr. Shirley, from Coventry, Engl " Meeting held in Castle Garden, New York, and at "Harry Hill's," by commissioner Roilton and 7 hallelujah lasses sent over from England (the first uniformed corps sent out), ■ spring, 1880 rirst American headquarters opened in Philadelphia " 711 SAM Expedition to Australia under capt. Sutherland, commonly called Glory Tom 1881 Miss Booth, eldest daughter of gen. William Booth, with Miss Soper and 2 others, land in France Mch. " First Training-home for Women opened at Gore road. Hack- ney, Engl Nov. " Devonshire House Training-home for Salvation lads, opened. . . 1882 Salvation army established in Gothenburg, Sweden, by Miss Ouchterlonej " Three officers despatched to Toronto to commence an attack on Canada July, " Col. Tucker leaves England for India, with his wife and a few- English officers 23 Aug. " Maj. Simmonds, his wife and lieut. Teager, sail from the Thames to establish the army in Cape Colony, Africa 30 Jan. 1883 Miss Booth and other army leaders, expelled from Geneva, Switzerland, set out for Neufchatel .12 Feb. " Miss Booth and other leaders arrested while holding a meeting in the Jura forest, 5 miles from Neufchatel, but released under bail, 9 Sept. 1883. They are tried at Bondy and acquitted, 29 Sept., but forced by the people to leave the canton 11 Oct. " Battle between the Salvation army and the "Skeleton army," organized to oppose their work, at Gravesend, Engl. . . 15 Oct. " First Rescue-home in England begun under the direction of Bramwell Booth 1884 Lyons, France, invaded 1885 Death of Mrs. Catharine Booth, wife of gen. Booth, at Clacton- on-Sea 4 Oct. 1890 Gen. Booth publishes his book, "In Darkest England, and the Way Out" Oct. " Mrs. David Bell bequeaths about $300,000 to gen. Booth in sup- port of his work May, 1892 Continental congress of Salvation army of the U. S. begins its session in New York city 21 Nov. " Through a syndicate the Salvation army purchase 200,000 acres in Chiapa, South Mexico, for settlement under direction of the army 22 Feb. 1894 Salz'bacll, a town of Baden. Here the French general Turenne was killed, at the opening of a battle, 27 July, 1676. Samaj (sa-ml') or SomaJ. Buaumo Somaj. Samareand', a city of Tartary, was conquered by the Mahometans, 707; by Genghis Khan, 1220; and by Timur, or Tamerlane, who ruled here in great splendor. Samarcand was occupied by the Russians under Kanfmann,26 May, 1868, after a conflict on the previous day. The garrison resisted a fierce siege till relieved by Kaufmann, 13-20 June, 1868. Samar'itan§. Samaria was built by Omri, 925 B.C.; and became the capital of the kingdom of Israel. On the breaking-up of that kingdom (721 b.c.), the conqueror Shal- raaneser placed natives of other countries at Samaria. The descendants of these mixed races were abominable to the Jews, and especially so because of the rival temple built on Mount Gerizim by Sanballat the Samaritan, 332 B.C., which was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, 130 b.c. (see John iv. and viii. 48, and Luke x. 33). The Samaritan Pentateuch (of uncertain origin) was published in his Polyglot by Morinus, 1632. Sani'nite§, a warlike people of S. Italy, who strenuous- 1}' resisted the Roman power, and were only sulyugated after 3 sanguinary wars, from 343 to 292 b.c. Their brave leader, Caius Pontius, who spared the Romans at Caudium, 320. hav- ing been taken prisoner, was basely put to death, 292. They did not acquire citizenship till 88 b.c. Caudine Forks. Samo'an or ]Vavig'ator'§ isles (nine inhabited), near the Fiji islands; christianized by rev. John Williams, 1830. King Malietoa succeeded, 8 Nov. 1880. The isles have a political constitution. At a Samoan conference at Ber- lin, 1889, between Great Britain, Germany, and the United States, an act was signed 14 June, guaranteeing the neutrality of the islands, in which the 3 nations have equal rights of res- idence, trade, and protection. The independence of the Sa- moan government was also recognized, with Malietoa as king. Area, 1701 sq. miles ; pop. about 36,000. Apia, in the island of Upola, is the capital. King Malietoa deposed by the Germans and replaced by Tama- tese 8 Sept. 1887 Mataafa"s insurrection and victory over Tamatese. . .Oct. -Nov. 1888 Germans interfere in favor of Tamatese,. and are beaten; 16 killed 18 Dec. ' ' Conflicting interests arise between the German, British, and United States governments Jan. 1889 Germans oppose Mataafa " " Bismarck yields to the claims of the U. S Feb. " Three U. S. war- vessels, Nipsic, Vandalia, and Trenton, and 3 German, driven ashore at Apia, on the island of l^ola, and destroyed, in a great storm 15-16 Mch. " [50 lives were lost from the U. S. ships and 96 from the SAM Oerinaa. Tho BritiBh war-ship CaUiope escaped by steam- ing out of tho harbor. For his skill and seamanship in ac- complishing this iho captain of tho Calliopt was thanked by the British ttilmiralty J Owing to disturlmnoo nud war Mataafk is exiled to Kakaofo and order rosloroil Aug. 1894 Sninoii, an island on the west coast of Asia Minor. Col- onized by lonians about 1043 b.c. The city was founded about 986. Polycrates, ruler of Samoa (532-522 b.o.), was one of the most able, fortunate, and treacherous of the Greek ty- rantii, and possessed a powerful fleet. He patronized Pythag- oras (born here) and Anacreon. Samos was taken by the Athenian*, 440; and, with Greece, became subject to Home, 146. It was taken by the Venetians, 1125 a.d., who liere raatle velvet (^samet), and became subject to the Turks about 1459. It i« now a principality under the sovereignty of Tur- kev, guaranteed by France, Great Britain, and Russia from 1832. Area, 180 sq". miles; pop. 1890,44,661. Sainosct. Massachusetts, 1621. . SailOllluricS. The privilege of refuge for offenders was granted in ancient Greece and Rome, but especially among the Jews. These places were generally (particularly in Greece and Rome) some temple, sacred grove, or place sacred to some deity. Under Constantine the Great, all Christian churches were sanctuaries, and later in France and Spain it was favored, but in Germany the custom was never very effective. It is said to have been granted by Lucius, king of the Britons, to churches and their precincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burian's, in Cornwall, was privileged bj'^ Athel- stan, 935; Westminster, by Edward the Confessor ; St. Mar- tin's-le-Grand, 1529. Being much abused, the privilege of sanctuary was limited by the pope in 1503 (at the request of Henry VII.), and much more in 1540. In London, persons were .secure from arrest in certain localities: these werfe the Minories, Salisbury court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's rents, Mitre court, Baldwin'.s gardens, the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's place, Montague close, and the Mint. This security was legally abol- iahtd 1696, but lasted in some degree till the reign of George II!^1727). Asylums, CiTiKS OF Rkfugk. §and-filto§t. Gen. B. C. Ti'ighman*bf Philadelphia, invented a method of cutting stone or harc^metal by a jet of quartz sand impelled by compressed air or steam. A hole of IJ inches diameter and 1^ inches deep was bored through a block of corundum, nearly as hard as diamond, in 25 minutes. The invention was Siibmitted to the Franklin Institute, Phil- adelphia, 15 Feb. 1871. It is now employed in the arts for decorating and etching glass, etc. Sandema^nians. Glasitks. Sander's Creek, Battle of. Camden. Sander's fort. Fort Sanders. Sandusky. Expedition against the Indians there. Ohio, 1782. Sandwich islands. Hawaii. Sandy Creek, near Sackett's harbor, lake Ontario, Battle at. Here a British force of 160 men attacked 120 Americans with a few Indian allies, 30 May, 1814. 70 of the British were killed, the rest captured. San Francisco, commercial metropolis of California. On 17 June, 1776, two friars, Francisco Palou and Benito Cam- bon, left Monterey with 7 civilians and 17 dragoons and their families, reaching 27 June the place where they established the Spanish mission of San Francisco, 8 Oct. 1776. ' The settlement by Americans dates from 1836, when Jacob P. Leese, an Amer- ican residing in Los Angeles, obtained from gov. Chico a grant of land in Verba Buena, and built a small frame house on pres- ent south side of Clay street west of Dupont, celebrating its completion by raising the American flag, 4 July, 1 836. In 1840 there were 4 Americans, 4 Englishmen, and 6 other Europeans in Verba Buena. In Jan. 1847 the name was changed to San Francisco. In Aug. 1847 the population was 459, and increased to 36.154 in 1852, owing to the discoverv of gold. In 1860 it was 56,802; 1870, 149,473; 1880,233,959; 1890,298,997. It is the 8th city in the U. S. in population. In 1890 the city covered 41| sq. miles ; lat. 37° 36' N., Ion. 122° 26' W. Wiiliam A. Richardson, an Englishman who settled in Califor- 712 SAN 1848 nia in 1822, moves to Yorba Buona and, in a tent on what is %,jlow Dupont street, begins dealing in hides and tallow 1835 Jacob P. Leese arrives at the mission Juno, 1836 First house at Verba Buena completed by Mr. Leese 4 July, " First child born in Verba Buena, a daughter to Mr. and Mrs. Leese Apr. 1838 First survey made by Jean Vioget i839 Messrs. Spear and Hinckley, Americans, build a sawmill in Verba Buena i84i Capt. Montgomery, of the war -sloop Portsmouth, hoists the American flag on what is now Portsmouth square 8 July, 1846 Ship Brooklyn, from New York, with 200 Mormon immigrants, arrives at Verba Buena July, <« California Star first issued as a weekly 9 Jan. 1847 Name Verba Buena changed to San Francisco by decree of tho alcalde Jan. " Private school opened by a Mr. Marston on Dupont St., between Broadway and I'aciflc Apr. "' City hotel, the first in San Francisco, a story-and-a-half adobe building on southwest cor. Clay and Kearny sts., opened " New survey of the town made by Jasper O'Farrell Committee appointed to establish a public school 24 Sept. •' Public Institute built on Portsmouth square, and school opened by Thomas Douglas 3 Apr. First steamer of the Pacific Mail company, the California, ar- rives 28 Feb. 1849 Oregon brings John W. Geary, first postmaster at San Fran- cisco, and the first U. S. mail to the Pacific coast 31 Mch. " St. Francis hotel opened; a 3 story wooden structure on south- west cor. Clay and Dupont sts " First Presbyterian church in San Francisco organized by Al- bert Williams; services in a tent on Dupont st 20 May, « First Baptist church organized by 0. C. Wheeler 24 June, " First Congregational church organized; rev. T. D. Hunt, pastor, July, « First steamboat to make regular trips between San Francisco and Sacramento, the McKim, arrives 3 Oct. " Upon the discovery of gold the population of California in- creases 6 to 8 fold; at one time there are 400 ships in the harbor deserted by their crews '« First great fire occurs 21 Dec. " Daily Alta California first issued 22 Jan. 1850 Jenny Lind theatre opened " San Francisco incorporated as a city, and JohnW. Geary elect- ed first mayor l May, " Second great fire, burning over 3 blocks, 4 May, and third, which burns everything between Clay, California, and Kearny sts. and the water front 14 June, '• Society of California pioneers organized Aug. " Steamboat Sagamore explodes ; 80 persons killed and wounded, Oct. " San Francisco Protestant orphan asylum organized 31 Jan. 1861 P'oiirth, called the great fire, burns 16 blocks, more than 1500 houses, the burned district being % mile long, X in'le wide, 4 May, " Vigilance committee organized June, " Fifth large fire, entailing a loss of $2,000,000, begins on Pacific St. near Powell, burning 8 blocks 22 June, " James Stuart, professional murderer and robber, hung by the Vigilance committee on Market Street wharf 11 July, '• Samuel Whittaker and Robert McKenzie hung by Vigilance committee oh Battery st., between Pine and California, 24 Aug. « City divided into 7 school districts, and free schools under the school law provided for in each district 25 Sept. " Chamber of Commerce organized 1 May, 1850; incorporated 3 Nov. " Jenny Lind theatre bought for a city-hall and court house for 1200,000 1852 Verba Buena cemetery opened " Pacific club organized " Streets first lighted with 90 oil-lamps " First Unitarian church on Stockton st., between Clay and Sac- ramento; and First Congregational church and St. Mary's cathedral, on opposite sides of Dupont and California sts., completed 1853 Evening Post established " Mercantile library founded " First telegraph line to Marysville opened 24 Oct. " Streets lighted with gas Feb. 1854 U. S. Branch Mint opened 3 Apr. " Failure of Henry Meigs for $800,000; after forging city war- rants, promisfsory notes, and shares in a lumber company to the amount of $200,000, he flees to Chili 6 Oct ' Montgomery and "Washington sts. partly paved with cobble-.^ stones Lone Mountain cemetery opened Failure of Adams & Co. 's bank 23 Feb. li [A financial crisis followed, with 197 failures during the year, with liabilities of over $8,300,000.] Mechanics' Institute library founded " Evening Bulletin first issued 8 Oct. " Vigilance committee organizes 15 May, 1856 James King of William, editor of the Bulletin, shot by James P. Casey, whom King had accused of election frauds, 14 May, d 20 May, Casey and Charles Cora, the latter murderer of U. S. marshal Richardson, hung by the Vigilance committee 22 May, " Morning Call founded ' Dec. " First savings bank opened 1857 San Francisco Water- works company organized " i SAN 713 .first Industrial Fair of the Mechanics' Institute held on site of the Lick house 1857 .Spring Valley Water- works company organized June, 1858 First overland mail from St. Louis arrives Sept. " :St. Ignatius college opened, 1855 ; chartered 1859 Industrial school opened " Bancroft Pacific library founded " Diiel between David S. Terry and David C. Broderick in San Mateo county, 10 miles from San Francisco, 13 Sept. 1859; Broderick dies from a pistol-shot in the left lung. . .18 Sept. " First pony-express arrives, 9 days en route from St. Joseph, Mo., 1 A.M. 14 Apr. 1860 :Steam- railroad constructed on Market and Valencia sts. to the Mission and Hayes valley July, " ;San Francisco connected with New York by telegraph, 23 Oct. " Famous oration on the rights of freedom, etc., by Edward D. Baker at the American theatre 29 Oct. " Examiner established 1862 -Cars of the Omnibus street railroad begin running " Kuss, Lick, and Occidental hotels opened " •San Francisco Stock and Exchange Board organized. .12 Sept. " Railroad to San Jose opened 1863 Union club established 1864 Long bridge across Mission cove, on line of Fourth and Ken- tucky sts., completed " Daily Examiner established 1865 Chronicle first issued as an advertising sheet for the theatre.. " •■San Francisco Law library founded " Mountain View cemetery established " Electric fire-alarm telegraph introduced " Severe earthquake 8 Oct. " Kearny street widened on the west side, from Market st. to Broadway, at a cost of |579,000 1866 Paid Fire department established, and hand-engines replaced by steam " Volunteer Fire department abolished Dec. " Bank of California and Merchants' Exchange completed 1867 Horse cars substituted for steam on Market st " Alms-house completed " 'Trinity church completed " ^Severest earthquake yet recorded 8 a.m. 21 Oct. 1868 Grand hotel completed 1869 ■St. Patrick's church completed 1870 Improvement of Golden Gate park commenced " Blossom Rock, % of a mile from North Point, blown up .23 May, " Evening Post established 1871 "Corner-stone of city-hall laid Feb. 1872 ■Clay St. cable railway, the pioneer cable road of the world, put in operation Sept. 1873 IJew U. S. mint on Fifth st. opened 1874 Work begun on Palace hotel, 1874; building completed 1875 Montgomery avenue opened " Pacific Stock Exchange holds its first meeting 7 June, " Bank of California fails, and pres. Ralston dies the same day; verdict, congestion of the lungs and brain, caused by a bath in the bay at North Beach 26 Aug. " Ifew Pacific Stock Exchange on LeidesdorfT st. opened, 15 May, 1876 Normal department of Girls' High-school established " Centennial celebration of the establishment of the mission at San Francisco 8 Oct. " Baldwin hotel completed 1877 Anti-Chinese riot breaks out; subdued by the Vigilance com- mittee of 1856, reorganized 23 July, " ■Building of San Francisco Stock and Exchange Board on Pine 8t. completed and occupied " Pupont St. widened " Hall of Records in new city-hall opened <' Telephone introduced " •San Francisco free public library founded 1879 A large number of poor people settled on a tract called the Mussel Slough district (Sand-lots); this district came into possession of the Southern Pacific railroad 1867-77. The set- tlers refusing to vacate, the dispute was carried to the U. S. court. The decision of the court being against the settlers, efforts were made to dispossess them, which led to a conflict in which several were killed 1880 Dennis Kearney, a leader of the Labor or Sand-lot party, ar- rested and found guilty of misdemeanor and sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment and a fine of $1000, 16 Mch. ; decision and sentence reversed by State Supreme court 27 May, " Severe gale; extensive damage 19 Jan. 1886 tJelebration of Arbor day inaugurated ; school children set out 40,000 young trees, supplied by Adolph Sutro, 27 Nov. " fanic in the Stock Exchange, and failure of 14 leading stock brokers 2 Dec. " Monument to Francis Scott Key unveiled in Golden Gate park, 4 July, 1888 ■Cogswell Polytechnic college opened • " Metropolitan electric railroad opened ; first in the city May, 1892 Train carrying $20,000,000 in gold leaves the city for New York, 5 Aug. " Midwinter Exposition opened 27 Jan. 1894 •Col. Jonathan D. Stevenson, a pioneer of '49, d 14 Feb. " SAN MAYORS. John W. Geary . 1850 Charles J. Brenham 1851 Stephen R. Harris 1852 Charles J. Brenham " C. K. Garrison 1853 23* S. B. Webb 1854 James Van Ness 1855 E. W. Burr 1856 Henry F. Techemacher 1860 H. P. Coon 1864 Frank McCoppiu 1868 Thomas H. Selby 1870 William Alvord 1872 James Otis 1874 George Hewston 1875 Andrew J. Bryant 1876 Isaac S. Kalloch 1880 Maurice C. Blake (11 months), 1882 Washington Bartlett 188:^ E. B. Pond 1887 George H. Sanderson 1891 L. R. Ellert 1893 Adolph Sutro 1895 California, 1847. San Oabriel, Battle of. San'liedriltl. An ancient Jewish council of the high- est jurisdiction, of 70, or, as some say, 73 members, usually considered to be that established by Moses (Numb. xi. 16), 1490 B.C. It was yet in existence at the time of Jesus Christ (John xviii. 31). A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon I., 23 July, 1806. The Jewish depu- ties met 18 Sept., and the Sanhedrim 9 Mch. 1807. Sanitary €ommi§don of the United States. On 15 Apr. 1861, a woman of Bridgeport, Conn., organized a society to relieve and comfort volunteers. On the same day Miss Almena Bates, of Charlestown, Mass., established another. The city of Lowell followed, and other cities rapidly. This was the origin of the commission. On 9 June the secretary of war appointed Henry W. Bellows, prof. A. D. Bache, of the coast survey, Jeffries Wyman, M.D., W. H. Van Buren, M.D., R. C. Wood, surg.-gen. U.S.A., gen. G. W. CuUum, and Alex. Shiras, U.S.A., a commission of inquiry and ad- vice in respect to the. sanitary interests of the U. S. forces. Board organized 13 June and named "U. S. Sanitary Commission." The object of the commission was to supple- ment government deficiencies. An appeal was made to the people with gratifying results. This commission followed the army throughout the war with supplies for alleviating the sufferings of the soldiers. It is estimated that in money and supplies no less than $25,000,000 was contributed during the war. The archives of the commission, containing a full record of its work, were deposited in the Astor Library in 1878 as a gift. The principal branches of the U. S. sanitary commission were : New England Woman's Auxiliary Association, organized 1861 Soldiers' Aid Society of Northern Ohio, organized 20 Apr. " Woman's Central Association of Relief, New York, organized, 29 Apr. " General Aid Society of Buffalo, N. Y., organized Dec. " Cincinnati Branch, organized " Woman's Relief Association of City of Brooklyn, organized . . . 1862 Northwestern Branch, Chicago '. " Philadelphia Branch, organized 1863 Pittsburg Branch ' < Pioneer Sanitary Fair opened at Chicago 27 Oct. " European Branch, organized at Paris 30 Nov. " Auxiliary Society, organized in London by Americans. .5 Mch. 1864 Auxiliary Relief Corps in the U. S., organized May, " sanitary science. Strict cleanliness is enjoined in the Mosaic law, 1490 b.c. In London, Engl., a law was passed to keep the streets clean in 1297, and the casting of filth from houses into the streets was made punishable in 1309. In America a quarantine law was passed by the colony of Massa- chusetts Bay for yellow-fever in 1648. Similar laws were passed in South Carolina, 1698; Pennsylvania, 1699; Rhode Island, 1711; New Hampshire, 1714; and New York, 1755. Great attention has been paid to the public health in France since 1802. Tardieu published his " Dictionnaire de Hygiene," 1852-54. To dr. Southwood Smith is ascribed the first agita- tion on the subject of public health in England about 1832, his " Philosophy of Health " having excited much attention. Venice establishes its first lazaretto (1423) and creates a perma- nent health-magistracy 1485 First English quarantine law passed 1664 Quarantine act passed by Congress of United States 1799 Board of Health established in London 20 June, 1831 Public vaccination begun in London 1840 City Sewers' act, with provision for the sanitary interests of London, passed 1848 International Sanitary conference held at Paris 1850 Smoke Nuisance Abatement act passed in England 1853 Crimean Sanitary Commission, drs. Sutherland, Milroy, and Mr. Rawiinson, established by British government Apr. 1855 After the British Sanitary Commission was formed in the Cri- mea, sickness in the army was reduced to less than 3^, and mortality to less than 1/57 of the former rate. 1855-56 First Quarantine and Sanitarv convention in the U. S., held at Philadelphia .' 13 May, 1857 Efficacy of steam as a purifier and preventive of contagion first suggested at the meeting of the Quarantine and Sanitary convention at Boston, Mass 14-16 June, 1860 Sa.mtary Commission, U. S. , established 13 June, 1861 Medical act passed by Congress of U. S., appointing a special corps of 8 sanitary inspectors 16 Apr. 1862 SAN 714 SAR SaniUry Police company, not to exceed 10 persons, appointed for tbe District of Columbia by act of Congress 16 July, 1862 International Sanitary conrorenco convenes at Geneva.. .26 Oct. 1863 Metropolitan Hoiilth Board ostublishod in New York 1866 New Sanitary act f«>r KnRlana passed Aug. " American I'liblic Hoaltli .\88om the army, navy, marine hospital, and department of justice, authorized by act of Congress.. 3 Mch. 1879 Sanitary Assurance Association of England, formed by sir Joseph Favrer, drs. Andrew Clark, CorQeld, Tyndall, and others, constituted U Dec. 1880 International Sanitary conference assembles at Washington on invitation of the government of U. S. to the maritime pow- ers of the world 5 Jan. 1881 London Sanitary Protection Association founded by sir William W. Gull, prof Huxley, and others. " International Sanitary exhibition held at Royal Albert Hall, Kensington. Enjgl 16 July-13 Aug. " International Sanitary congress at Geneva 1882 Nation.ll Health Society's exhibition opened in England, 2 June, 1883 International Health exhibition held in England.. 8 May-30 Oct. 1884 Fifth International Sanitary conference at The Hague, 21 Aug. " International Sanitary conference at Rome (28 states repre- sented) 20 May-13 June, 1885 National quarantine stations established in the U. S., at Chan- deleurisland. Gulf of Mexico; near Key West, coast of Georgia; at entrance to Chesapeake bay; mouth of Delaware bay; San Diego, Cal. ; San Francisco, and Port Townsend, Wash. 1 Aug. 1888 State Boards of Health have been established in the U. S. as follows : Massachusetts, 1869 ; California, Virginia, District of Columbia, 1871; Minnesota, 1872; Louisiana, Michigan, 1873; Alabama, Georgia, Maryland, 1875; Colorado, New Jer- sey, Wisconsin, 1876; Illinois, Mississippi, Tennessee, 1877; Connecticut, Kentucky, Rhode Island, South Carolina, 1878; Delaware, North Carolina, 1879; Iowa, New York, 1880; Ar- kansas, Indiana, New Hampshire, West Virginia, 1881; Tex- as, 1882; Missouri, 1883; Kansas, Maine, Pennsylvania, 1885; Ohio, 1886; Vermont " Congress of Hygiene met at Paris 4 Aug. 1889 san'itas ("health"), a new antiseptic and disinfectant, invented by C. T. Kingzett, about 1875. Having discovered that the salubrity of the air surrounding certain trees, such as the Eucalyptus globulus and pines, is due to volatile oils producing peroxide of hydrogen and camphoric acid, he de- vised a method for procuring these re-agents by the decomposi- tion of common turpentine, and in 1877 they were manufactured and sold as "sanitas." San Jacin'tO, Tex., Battle of. Texas, 1836. San Juan island. Juan. San Mari'no, a republic in Italy, is one of the oldest states in Europe. Its origin is ascribed to St. Marinus, a hermit who resided here in the 6th century. Its indepen- dence was lost for a short time to Caesar Borgia, 1503, and to the pope, 1739 ; was confirmed by pope Pius VII. in 1817 ; in 1872 it concluded a treaty of protective friendship with the kingdom of Italy. Area, 32 sq. miles ; pop. 1891, about 8000. San Salvador'. Salvador. San'§crft, the language of the Brahmins of India, at least as ancient as the time of Solomon, has been much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who published a translation of the poem "Sakuntala" in 1783, discovered that a complete literature had been preserved in India, compri.sing sacred books (the Vedas), history and philosophy, lyric and dramatic po- etry. Texts and translations of many works have been pub- lished by the aid of the East India company, the Oriental Translation fund, and private liberality. The professorship of Sanscrit at Oxford was founded by col. Boden. The first professor, H. H. Wilson, appointed in 1832, translated part of the " Rig- Veda Sanhita," the sacred hymns of the Brahmins, several poems, etc. Prof Monier Williams (elected i860) pub- lished an English and Sanscrit dictionary, 1861, and a Sanscrit grammar. Prof. Max MuUer published his " History of San- scrit Literature " in 1859, has edited the original text of the Vedas, and the more important works of Indian literature, un- der the title, " The Sacred Books of the East," of which about 40 8vo volumes have appeared (1894). Prof. William D. Whitney, of Johns Hopkins university, issued a very valuable Sanscrit grammar. The Sanscrit belongs to the Indo-Euro- pean or Aryan group of languages, which includes also the 1 Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Slavonian, Celtic, and Scan- dinavian languages. San§-eulottC§ (snn(/-cu-lot'),aterm of reproach applied to the leaders of the French republicans about 1790, on ac- count of their negligence in dress, and afterwards assumed by them with pride. The complementary days of their new cal- endar were named by the Mountain \mxty' Sam-culotticks. San Sterano. Stefano. Santa Cruz de Teneriffe', the capital city and chief commercial port of the Canaries. Here adm. Blake, with daring bravery, entirely destroyed 16 Spanish ships, secured with great nautical skill, and protected by the castle and forts- on the shore, 20 Apr. l%bl .—Clarendon. In an unsuccessful attack made upon Santa Cruz by Nelson, several officers and 141 men were killed, and the admiral lost his right arm, 24- July, 1797. Virgin isles. Santa F^. New Mexico, 1606, etc. Santa lHarie. America, 1492. Santiago (san-tee-ah^ff 6), the capital of Chili, South America, founded by Valdiiia in 1541, has suffered macb; by earthquakes, especially in 1822 and 1829. Pop. 1885, 237,000. About 7 o'clock in the evening of 8 Dec. 1863, the feast of the Im- maculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, and the last day of a se- ries of religious celebrations in the " month of Mary," the church of the Campania, when brilliantly illuminated, was burned down, the fire beginning amid the combustible ornaments, and more than 2000 persons, principally women, perished; the means of egress being utterly insufficient. On 20 Dec. the government ordered the church to be razed lo the ground, and much public indignation was excited against the fa- natical priesthood. Santiag[o de Compostel'ia, a town of N. w. Spain, was sacked by the Moors, 995, and held by them till it was taken by Ferdinand III., 1235, The order of San- tiago, or St. James, was founded about 1170 to protect pilgrims' to the shrine of St. James, said to be buried in the cathedraU The town was taken by the French, 1809, and held till 1814. Sapphic {safih) verse, invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mitylene. She was celebrated for her poetry, beauty, and a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth of her native country, on whose account it is said she threw herself into the sea from mount Leucas, and was drowned, about 590 b.c. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine honors, and called her the 10th muse. Some consider the storj' fabulous. sapphire (saf'lr), a precious stone, azure in color, and transparent; in hardness it exceeds the ruby, and is next to the diamond. One was placed in the Jewish high-priest's breast- plate, 1491. Aaron's breastplate. Thamas Kouli Khan is said to have possessed a sapphire valued at 300,000/., 1733^ They are found in Burmah, British India, Ceylon, AustraHa, North Carolina, and Montana. Artificial sapphires were made in 1857 by M. Gaudin. Equal parts of alum and sulphate of potash were heated in a crucible. Sar'acens (Arab. SharhUn, the eastern people, from Sharq, the East), a term applied to the first followers of Ma- homet, who within forty years after his death (632) had sub- dued a part of Asia and Africa. They conquered Spain in 711 et seq., but were defeated at Tours, France, by Charles Martel,. 732; and (under Abderahman) established the caliphate of Cordova in 766, which gave way to the Moors in 1237. The empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258. SaragOS'sa, a city of N.E. Spain, anciently Csesarea Augusta, founded 27 B.C., was taken bv the Goths, 470 ; by the Arabs, 712; by Alfonso of Spain, 1118. Here Philip V. was defeated by the archduke Charles, 20 Aug. 1710. On 17 Dec. 1778, 400 of the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa, after successfully resisting the French in 1808, was taken by them after a most heroic defence by gen. Palafox, 20 Feb. 1809. The inhabitants, of both sexes, resisted until worn out by fighting, famine, and pestilence. SaratO'ga, Battle of. Bemis's Heights ; New York; United States, 1777. Sardin'ia, an island in the Mediterranean, successively SAR 715 SAT possessed by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians (about 500 B.C.). Romans (238), Vandals (456 A.D.), Saracens (720-40), Genoese (1022), Pisans (1165), Aragonese (1352), and Span- iards. From settlers belonging to these various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, acquired Sardinia in 1720, with the title of king. Savoy. " Area, 9399 sq. miles. Pop. of Sardinia, 1875, 654,- 432; 1890, estimated, 726,522. The king of Sardinia was rec- ognized as king of Italy by his parliament in Feb. 1861. Italy. Conquered by English naval forces, under sir John Leake and gen Stanhope 1708 Ceded to the emperor Charles VI 1714 Kecovered by the Spaniards 22 Aug. 1717 Ceded to the duke of Savoy with the title of king, as an equiv- alent for Sicily 1720 Victor Amadeus abdicates in favor of his son 1730 Attempting to recover his throne, he is taken, and dies In prison 1732 Court kept at Turin, till Piedmont is overrun by the French. . 1792 Charles Emmanuel yields the throne to his brother, the duke of Aosta 4 June, 1802 Piedmont annexed to Italy 26 May, 1805 King resides in Sardinia 1798-1814 Piedmont restored to its king, Genoa added Dec. " King Charles Albert promulgates a new code 1837 Cavour establishes the newspaper II Risorgimento ("the Re- vival ") 1847 King grants a constitution, and openly espouses Italian regen- eration against Austria 23 Mch. 1848 Defeats the Austrians at Goito; and takes Peschiera. . .30 May, " Incorporation of Lombardy with Sardinia, 28 June, and Venice, 4 July, " Sardinian army defeated by Radetzky 26 July, " Sardinians at Milan capitulate to Radetzky 5 Aug. " Defeat of the Sardinians by Austrians at Novara 23 Mch. 1849 Charles Albert abdicates in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, 23 Mch. " Death of Charles Albert at Oporto 28 July, " Treaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia 6 Aug. " Adoption of the Siccardi law, which abolishes ecclesiastical jurisdictions 9 Apr. 1850 Cavour minister of foreign affairs 1851 Act to suppress convents and support clergy by the state, 2 Mch. 1855 Convention with England and France; 15,000 troops to be sup- plied against Russia 10 Apr. " Ten thousand troops under gen. La Marmora arrive in the Crimea 8 May, " Distinguished in the battle of the Tchernaya 16 Aug. " King visits London, etc 30 Nov. et seq. " Important note on Italy from Cavour to England 16 Apr. 1856 Rupture with Austria; subsequent war. Austria, 1857 et seq. Cavour declares in favor of free-trade June, 1857 Prince Jerome Napoleon marries princess Clotilde (Italy), 30 Jan. 1859 Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca, 11 July; Cavour resigns, 13 July; Rattazzi administration formed 19 July, " Emperor Napoleon's letter to Victor Emmanuel advocating an Italian confederation: the latter declares it impracticable, and maintains his engagements with the Italians 20 Oct. " Treaty of peace signed at Zurich Nov. " Garibaldi retires to private life 17 Nov. " Count Cavour returns to office 16 Jan. 1860 Sardinian government refers the annexation of Tuscany, etc. , to the vote of the people 29 Feb. " Annexation of Savoy and Nice proposed by France; Sardinia refers it to the people 25 Feb. " Annexation to Sardinia voted almost unanimously by Emilia, 14 Mch ; by Tuscany, 16 Mch. ; accepted by Victor Emman- uel 18-20 Mch. ' ' Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France, signed 24 Mch. " Prussia protests against Italian annexations 27 Mch. " New Sardinian parliament opens 2 Apr. " Annexation to France almost unanimously voted for by Nice, 15 Apr. ; by Savoy 22 Apr. " Government disapproves Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily, 18 May, " Chambers ratify cession of Savoy and Nice 29 May, " Sardinian trooi)s enter papal territories (Italy, Romk), 11 Sept. " Victor Emmanuel enters the kingdom of Naples 15 Oct. " Naples and Sicily vote for annexation to Sardinia 21 Oct. " Railway from Sassari to the sea opened 9 Apr. 1872 [For the disputes and war with Austria, and the events of 1859-61, 186G, Austria, France, Naples, Rome, Sicily. For later history, Italy,] KINGS OF SARDINIA. (SaVOY.) 1720. Victor Amadeus I. king (as duke II.); resigned, in 1730, in favor of his son ; d. 1732. 1730. Charles Emmanuel I. (III. of Savoy), son. 1773. Victor Amadeus II., son. 1796. Charles Emmanuel II. , son ; resigned his crown in favor of his brother. 1802. Victor Emmanuel I., brother; 4 June. 1805. [Sardinia merged into Italy; Napoleon crowned king, 26 May, 1805.] 1814. Victor Emmanuel restored; resigned in Mch. 1821; and d. 1824. 1821. Charles Felix. 1831. Charles Albert; abdicated in favor of his son, 23 Mch. 1849, Died at Oporto, 28 July, 1849. 1849. Victor Emmanuel II., son; born 14 Mch. 1820; d. 9 Jan. 1878. Italy. iSardis. Seven churches. ^Rrma'tia, the ancient name for the country in Asia and Europe between the Caspian sea and the Vistula, includ- ing Russia and Poland. The Sarmatae, or Sauroraatae, trou- bled the early Roman empire by incursions. After subduing the Scythians, they were subjugated by the Goths, in the 3d and 4th centuries. They joined the Huns and other barbari- ans in invading Western Europe in the 5th century, ^aruin, Old, Wiltshire, an ancient British town, the ori- gin of Salisbury. Although completely decayed, it returned 2 members to Parliament till 1832. Sas§ail'ides, descendants of Artaxerxes, or Ardishir, whose father, Babek, was the son of Sassan. He revolted against Artabanus, the king of Parthia ; defeated him on the plain of Hormuz, 226; and re-established the Persian mon- archy. This dynasty was expelled by,the Mahometans, 652. Persia. iSatan, the spirit of evil, the prince of devils. According to Swedenborg pertaining more to the understanding than the will. Mentioned in the Old Testament 1 Chron. xxi. 1 ; Job i. 6, ii. 1-2 ; Ps. cix. 6 ; ^nd more frequently in the New Testa- ment. Graphically described in Milton's " Paradise Lost," of which he is the central figure : book i. lines 285-300 ; book ii. lines 1-5, 706-710 ; book vi. lines 245-255. Satellites. Jupiter, Mars, Moon, Neptune, Plan- ets, Saturn. satire. About a century after the introduction of com- edy, satire made its appearance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius, called the inventor of it, 116 b.c. — Livi/. The Satires of Horace (35 b.c.), Juvenal (about 100 a.d.), and Persius (about 60 A.D.) are the most celebrated in ancient times, and tho.se of Churchill (1761) and Pope (1729) in modern times. Butler's " Hudibras," satirizing the Presbyterians, first ap- peared in 1663. "Satire Menippee," a celebrated satirical pamphlet, partly in verse and partly in prose, attacking the policy of the court of Spain and the league, written in the style of the biting satires of the cynic philosopher Menippus. The first part, " Catholicon d'Espagne," by Leroy, appeared in 1593 ; the second, " Abrege des Etats de la Ligue," by Gillot, Pithou, Rapin, and Passerat, appeared in 1594. — Bouillet. §at'rapies, divisions of the Persian empire, formed by Darius Hystaspis about 516 b.c. Saturday, the last or 7th day of the week ; the Jew- ish Sabbath ; Sabbath. It was so called from an idol wor- shipped on this day by the Saxons ; and, according to Ver- stegan, was named by them Saterne's day. — Pardon. It is more probably from Saturn, dies Saturni. Sat'liril, a planet, taking its name from the father of the gods in the Roman mythology, about 900 millions of miles distant from the sun, with mean diameter about 70,230 miles ; difference between its polar and equatorial diameters is 7000 miles. Its time of rotation on its axis is 10 hrs. 29 min. 17 sec. Its revolution around the sun 24,630 of its days or 10,760 of ours, or 29 years 167 days. Its volume as compared with our globe is as 744 to 1, but its mass only as 90 to 1, its density being something less than water. The sun's light and heat at this planet are but -^^ as intense as at the earth. It is ac- companied by 8 satellites, discovered in the following order : Name. Discoverer. Date. Titan Huyghens 1655 Japetus Cassini 1671 Rhea 1672 u 1684 u Enceladus Herschel 1787 Mimas 1789 Bond 1848 Of these satellites Mimas is nearest to Saturn, being 79,000 miles away, while Japetus, the most distant, about 2,150,000 miles. The largest of these satellites is Titan, whose diameter is over 4000 miles. Compared with our moon the moons of Saturn give but very little light ; all full together they would SAT 716 SAX give but ^ part of the light of our full raoon.— /?. A . Proctor. The ring wan observed by lialileo about 1610 ; its annular form determined by Huyghens about 1655; and discovered to be twofold by messrs. Ball, 13 Ocu 1665 ; an inner ring was de- tected in 1850 by Bonil in the United Sutes (15 Nov.) and by Dawes in England (29 Nov.). The exterior diameter of the outer ring is 166,920 miles, and its inner diameter 147,670 miles ; ita breadth nearly 10,000 miles. The dimensions of the middle ring 144,800, 109,100, and 1 7,600 miles. The dark ring's breadth is nearly 8700 miles, making the entire breadth of the ring sys- tem over 86,000 miles. Its thickness is probably about 100 miles. The rings are now known not to be continuous, but to consist of innumerable small aggregations of more or less solid matter ; so that the rings as a whole are constantly changing shape. Their equilibrium seems to be far less stable than that of any other bodies of the solar system, except comets. Astronomy. Saturn (called by the Greeks KpovoQ), a son of Uranus and Terra, and the father of Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto. Mythology, Saturiiaiia, festivals in honor of Saturn, father of the gods, were instituted long before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and equality which prevailed in his golden reign. Some, however, suppose that the Satur- nalia were first observed at Rome in the reign of TuUus Hos- tilius (673-740 B.C.), after a victory obtained over the Sabines ; while others suppose that Janus first instituted them in grati- tude to Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. Others assert that they were first celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthumius, when he dedi- cated a temple to Saturn, 497 b.c. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were encouraged, and dis- tinctions ceased. — Lenglet. Savagre'§ Station, Va., Battle of. Here gen. Sumner, with the divisions of gens. Sedgwick, Richardson, Heintzel- man, and Smith, repulsed an attack of the confederates under gen. Magruder, 29 June, 1862. Peninsular campaign. Savan'nah, Ga. Georgia. §aYinjg;§ -banks. The first was instituted at Berne, in Switzerland, in 1787, by the name of caisse de domestiques, intended for servants only ; another in Basel in 1792, open to all depositors. The rev. Joseph Smith of Wendover began a benevolent institution in 1799 ; and in 1803-4 a " charitable bank " was instituted at Tottenham by miss Priscilla Wake- field. The rev. Henry Duncan established a parish bank at Ruthwell in 1810. One was opened at Edinburgh in 1814. The benefit clubs among artisans having accumulated money for their progressive purposes, a plan was adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement ; hence were formed savings-banks to receive small sums, returnable with interest on demand, Rt.-hon. George Rose developed the sys- tem, and brought it under parliamentary control, 1816. §aving8-bank§ in the United States. The first sav- ings-bank established in the U.S. was the Philadelphia Saving- fund Society, organized 1816. It still exists in a prosperous condition. The second was established at Boston in 1816, and the third at New York in 1819. The system now extends to all parts of the country. For statistics. Banks, table 6. Savo'na, a manufacturing town of N. Italy, long held by the Genoese ; was captured by the king of Sardinia in 1746 ; by the French in 1809, and annexed ; restored to Sardinia at the peace. Pope Pius VII. was kept here by Napoleon I., 1809-12. Soap is said to have been invented here, and hence its French name, savon. Savoy', the ancient Sapaudia or Sabaudia, formerly a province in N. Italy, east of Piedmont. It became a Roman province about 118 b.c. The Alemanni seized it in 395 a.d., and the Franks in 490. It shared the revolutions of Switzer- land till about 1048, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Humbert, with the title of count. Count Thomas ac- quired Piedmont in the 13th century. Amadeus, count of Savoy, having entered his dominions, solicited Sigismund to erect them into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, 19 Feb. 1416. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily from Spain by a treaty in 1713, but afterwards ex- changed it with the emperor for the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 1720. The French subdued Savoy in 1792 and made it a department of France under the name of Mont Blanc, in 1800. It was restored to the king of Sardinia in 1814; but with Nice annexed to France in 1860, in accordance with a vote by universal suffrage, 23 Apr. 1860. dukes of savoy. 1391. Count Amadeus VIII. is made duko in 1416; he was named pope, as Felix V. He abdicated as duke of Savoy, 1439- re- nounced the tiara, 1449 ; d. 1451. ' 1439. Louis. 14R5. Amadeus IX. 1472. Philibert I. 1482. Charles I. 1489. Charles II. 1496. Philip II. 1497. Philibert II. 1504. Charles III. 1553. Emmanuel Philibert. 1580. Charles Emmanuel I. 1630. Victor Amadeus I. 1637. Francis Hyacinthe. 1638. Charles Emmanuel II. 1675. Victor Amadeus II. became king of Sicily, 1713; exchanged for Sardinia in 1720. saiir. Invented by Daedalus.— P^^■?^y. Invented by Talus. —Apollodorus. Talus, it is said, used the jawbone of a snake to cut through a piece of wood, and then formed an instru- ment of iron like it. In use in Egypt long before it was in Greece. Saw-mills driven by water at Augsburg 1322, and, according to a 13th-century MS., saw-mills had then been erected at Paris. Saw-mills erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau in 1427. Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador from Mary of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw -mill there, 1555. The at- tempts to introduce saw-mills in England were violently op- posed, and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 had to be abandoned. Saw-mills were erected near London about 1770. The excellent saw machinery in Woolwich dockyard is based upon the invention of the elder Brunei, 1806-13. Powis and James's band-saw was patented in 1858. iSaxe-Coburg-Oo'tlia, a duchy of Central Ger- many, capitals Coburg and Gotha. The reigning family is de- scended from John Ernest (son of Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxony), who died in 1729. Pop. 1875, 182,599 ; 1890, 206,513. dukes. 1826, Ernest I., duke of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg ; b. 2 Jan. 1784; mar- ried Louisa, heiress of Augustus, duke of Saxe-Gotha, and became by convention duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotba, 12 Nov. 1826; d. 29 Jan. 1844. [His brother Leopold married the princess Charlotte of England, 2 May, 1816; became king of the Belgians, 12 July, 1831 ; and Ferdinand, the son of his brother Ferdinand, mar- ried Maria da Gloria, queen of Portugal, 9 Apr. 1836.] 1844. Ernest II. , son of Ernest I. and brother of Albert, prince-con- sort of Great Britain; b. 21 June, 1818; married Alexau- drina, duchess of Baden, 3 May, 1842; no issue. He entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 1866; d. 23 Aug. 1893. 1893 Prince Alfred of England, duke of Edinburgh; b. 6 Aug. 1844 (in whose favor the prince of Wales resigned his rights, 19 Apr. 1863). Saxe-mei'ning^en, a duchy in central Germany. The dukes are descended from Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxony. The first duke, Bernard (1680), died in 1706. Bernard (duke, 24 Dec. 1803) abdicated in favor of his son, George II., 20 Sept. 1866, who professed his adhesion to the Prussian policy ; he was born 2 Apr. 1826. Pop. Dec. 1875, 194,494 ; 1890, 223,832. ISaxe-lVei'mar-Ei'senach, a grand-duchy of Central Germany. The grand-dukes are descended from John Frederic, the Protestant elector of Saxony, who was deposed by the emperor Charles V. in 1548. Saxony. The houses of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Gotha, Hilberghausen, and Saxe- Meiningen also sprang from him. They are all termed the senior or Ernestine branch of the old family. Saxe- Weimar became a grand-duchy in 1815. The dukes have greatly favored literature, and their capital, Weimar, has been called the Athens of Germany. Goethe resided here from 1775. Pop. of the duchy, 1875, 292,933 ; 1890, 326,091. sax-liorn, a musical instrument of the trumpet kind, invented by Adolphe Sax, a Frenchman, about 1840. Sax'ony, a kingdom in N. Germany. The Saxons were a fierce, warlike race ; frequently attacked France, and con- SCA 7i7 quered Britain. They were completely subdued by Charle- magne, who instituted many fiefs and bishoprics in their coun- try. Witikind, their great leader, who claimed descent from Woden, professed Christianity about 785. From him descend- ed the first and the present ruling family (the houses of Sup- plinburg, Guelf, and Ascania intervened from 1106 to 1421) ; thus the royal house of Saxony counts among the oldest reign- ing families in Europe. Saxony became a duchy 880, an elec- torate 1180, and a kingdom 1806. It was the seat of war, 1813, the king being on the side of Napoleon. In the conflict of 1866 the king took the side of Austria, and his army fought in the battle of Koniggratz, 3 July. The Prussians entered Saxony 18 June. Peace between Prussia and Saxony was signed 21 Oct. (subjecting the Saxon army to Prussia), and the king returned to Dresden 3 Nov. Area, 5787 sq. miles ; pop. 1890, 3,500,513. ELECTORS. 1423. Frederic I., first elector of the house of Misnia. U28. Frederic II. [His sons Ernest and Albert divide the states.] SCO U64. Ernest. 1464. Albert. 1486. Frederic III. 1500. George. 1525. John. 1539. Henry. 1541. Maurice. 1532. John Frederic; deposed by the emperor Charles V. ; succeed- ed by 1548. Maurice (of the Albertine line). 1553. Augustus. 1586. Christian I. 1591. Christian II. 1611. John George I. 1656. John George 11. 1680. John George III. 1691. John George IV. 1694. Frederic Augustus I., king of Poland, 1697. 1733. Frederic Augustus II., king of Poland. 1763. Frederic Augustus III. , becomes king 1806. KINGS. 1806. Frederic Augustus I. ; increased his territories by alliance with France, 1806-9 ; suffered by peace of 1814. 1827. Anthony Clement. 1836. Frederic Augustus II., nephew (regent, 1830); d. 9 Aug. 1854. 1854. John, brother; b. 12 Dec. 1801; celebrated his golden wedding (50 years), 10 Nov. 1872; d. 29 Oct. 1873. 1873. Albert; b. 23 Apr. 1828; married, 18 June, 1853, Caroline of Heir : George, his brother ; b. 8 Aug. 1832. §can'dalU]Il mag^na'tum, a special statute in England relating to any wrong done to high personages, such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other great public functionaries, by the circulation, orally or in writing, of scandalous statements, false news, or defaming mes- sages, by which any debate or discord between them and the commons, or any scandal to their persons, might arise. — Cham- bers. This law was first enacted 2 Rich. II. 1378. Scandina'via, ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Denmark, whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Normand}'- (about 900), and event- ually England (1066). They were also called Sea-kings, or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is thought, visited the northern regions of America, about the 9th century. A " National Scandinavian Society " has been formed at Stockholm. Literature. §Carlet, or kermes dye, was known in the East in the earliest ages ; cochineal dye, 1518. Kepler, a Fleming, estab- lished the first dye-house for scarlet in England, at Bow, 1643. The art of dyeing red was improved by Brewer, 1667. — Beck- mann. Sceptic§, the sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, about 334 b.c. He gave 10 reasons for continual suspense of judgment; he doubted ever3'thing, never drew conclusions, and, when he had carefully examined a subject, and investi- gated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting. He advo- cated apathy and unchangeable repose. Similar doctrines were held by Bayle (d. 1706). Philosophy. §ceptre, a more aneient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the earlier ages the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves; afterwards carved and made shorter. Tar- quin the elder was the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, abouf468 b.c. The French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, 481 a.d. — Le Gendre. Scliaff'liauseil, N. Switzerland, a fishing village in the 8th century, became an imperial city in the 13th ; was subjected to Austria, 1330 ; independent, 1415; became a Swis& canton, 1501. Sclielial'lioil, a mountain in Perthshire, Scotland^ where dr. Neville Maskelyne, the astronomer-royal, made obser- vations with a plumb-line, 24 Oct. 1774, from which Hutton cal- culated that the density of the earth is five times that of water. Scheldt tolls were imposed by the treaty of Munster (or Westphalia), 1648. The tolls were abolished for a com- pensation, 1867. The House of Commons voted 175,000?. fer the British portion on 9 Mch. 1864. The Scheldt was declared free on 3 Aug. with much rejoicing at Antwerp and Brussels. Sclienec'tady, Indian massacre at. New York, 1690» Scllipka pas§e§, on the Balkans, Turkey. Through these the Russian general Gourko entered Roumelia, 1877» After his retreat, they were fortified, and desperately, but on the whole unsuccessfully, assailed by the Turks under Sulei- man Pacha, with great slaughter on both sides, 20-27 Aug. He took and lost fort St. Nicholas, 17 Sept. 1877. The Rus- sians re-entered Roumelia, Jan. 1878. SClli§Ill (sism). Heresy, Popes. Scllles'wig". Denmark, Gastein, Holstein. School board. Education. schoolmen oi" scholastic philosophy be- gan in the schools founded by Charlemagne, 800-14 ; and pre- vailed in Europe from the 9th to the 15th century. Doctors, Philosophy. schools. Education, Medical science, Painting, Philosophy. schooner Pearl. In 1848 capt. Drayton and his mate Sayles attempted to carry away to freedom, from the vicinity of Washington, D. C, 77 fugitive slaves concealed in this schooner ; as the schooner neared the mouth of the Poto- mac river, she was overtaken and obliged to return. These fugitive slaves, men, women, and children, were immediately sold to the cotton planters of the Gulf states ; while Drayton and Sayles, with difficulty saved from death by mob-violence, were brought to trial in Washington. The aggregate bail re- quired amounted to $228,000. They were convicted and in prison until 1852, when, through the influence and efforts of Charles Sumner, pres. Fillmore granted them an unconditional pardon; but, notwithstanding this, they were immediately hur- ried out of the city and sent to the north to save them from violence and re-arrest. SchweiZ, a Swiss canton, which with Uri and Unter- walden renounced subjection to Austria, 7 Nov. 1307. The name Switzerland, for all the country, dates from about 1440. scientific surveying expedition. Deep sea soundings. Expeditions. Scilly isles, the Cassiterides or Tin islands, southwest of Land's End, Engl., consist of 140 islets and many rocks. They held commerce with the Phoenicians, and are mentioned by Strabo. They were conquered by Athelstan, 936, and given to the monks. They were granted bj' Elizabeth to the Godol- phin family, who fortified them ; the works were strengthened in 1649 by the royalists, from whom Blake wrested them, 1651. Augustus Smith, the owner, termed king of these isles, after a long paternal rule, died in Aug. 1872. Area, 5770 acres ; pop,, 1880, 2090. A British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel was wrecked here, returning from an expedition against Toulon; he mistook the rocks for land. His ship, the Association, in which were persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, capt. Hancock, and the Romney and Firebrand, were also lost; the rest of the fleet escaped, 22 Oct. 1707. Sir Cloudesley's body was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument stands to his memory. Scinde. Sinde. Scio massacre, il Apr. 1822. Chios. Scone, near Perth, was of early historical importance. It received the title of the " Royal city of Scone " as early as 906 or 909 a.d. The Scotch coronation chair was brought from Scone to Westminster Abbey by Edward I. in 1296. Here Charles II. was crowned, 1 JanT 1651. "He is already nam'd; and gone to Scone, to be invested." — Shakespeare, Macbeth, act ii. sc. iv. SCO 718 SCO ScotI, prehistoric invaders of Ireland, from whom the ^^Zr^^r'.TJ':\o\^er^^^^ 1567 island took the name Scotia and retained it exclusively from the 4th to the 11th century. The Scoti were probably a branch »>f the Teutons or Scandinavians. The famous Mile- sians were Scoti. It was not until invaded by Henry II. that the island was known as Ireland.— //rew?*/^*-. Sco'tiMtii, those who adopted the doctrines of John Duns Scotus (d. 8 Nov. 1308) respecting the birth of the Virgin Mary, etc, strongly opposed by the Thomists, disciples of St. Thomas Aquinas, who dietl 7 Mch. 1274. Scotland, the N. division of the island of Great Britain; separateil from England on the southeast by the Tweed, south- west by the Solway Firth, and south partly by the Cheviot hills. At the death of queen Elizabeth, 24 Mch. 1603, James VI. of Scotland, as the most immediate heir, was called to the throne of England, and proclaimed king of Great Britain, 24 Oct. 1604. Each country had a separate parliament till 1707, when the kingdoms were united. Area, 30,417 sq. miles in 33 counties, including its islands, 186 in number. Pop. 1891, 4,033,103. Albany, Caledonia, England. Camelon, capital of the Plots, taken by Kenneth II. and every living creature put to the sword or destroyed 843 Norwegians occupy Caithness, 9th century. Scotland ravaged by Athelstau 933 Feudal system established by Malcolm II 1004 Invaded by Canute 1031 Divided into baronies. 1032 Danes driven out of Scotland 1040 Duncan I. is murdered by his kinsman Macbeth, by whom the crown is seized " Malcolm III., aided by Edward the Confessor, defeats Macbeth at Dunsinane, 1054; Macduff kills Macbeth 1056 or 1057 Saxon- English language introduced into Scotland by fugitives from the Normans in England 1080 Siege of Alnwick ; Malcolm 111. killed 1093 Reign of David I., a legislator. 1124-53 Scotland invaded by Hacho, king of Norway, with 160 ships and 20,000 men; invaders are defeated by Alexander III., who now recovers the Western isles 1263 Margaret of Norway, heiress to the throne, d 7 Oct. 1290 John Baliol and Robert Bruce claim the throne, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as umpire, decides in favor of John Nov. 1292 John Baliol, king of Scotland, appears in his own defence in Westminster hall against the earl of Fife 1293 Edward, wishing to annex Scotland to England, dethrones John, ravages the country, destroys the muniments of Scottish history, and seizes the proi>hetic stone (Coronation) 1296 William Wallace defeats the English at Cambus Kenneth, and expels them, 1297; is defeated at Falkirk, 22 July, 1298; taken by the English, and executed at Smithfleld 23 Aug. 1305 Robert Bruce crowned, 1306; he defeats the English, 1307; and takes Inverness, 1313; defeats the English at Bannockburn, 24 June, 1314 Edward Baliol gains the throne for a little time by victories at Dupplin, 11 Aug. 1332 ; and at Halidon hill 19 July, 1333 David II. taken prisoner by the English at the battle of Durham (and detained in captivity 11 years) 1346 Battle of Chevy Chase, between Hotspur Percy and earl Doug- las (Otterbcrn) 10 Aug. 1388 Murder of duke of Rothesay, heir of Robert III., by starvation, 3 Apr. 1401 Scots defeated at Homildon Hill 14 Sept. 1402 James I. captured by the English near Flamborough head on his passage to France 30 Mch. 1406 St. Andrews university founded by bishop William TurnbuU. . . 1451 University of Aberdeen founded 1494 James IV. invades England, slain at Flodden Field, and his army cut to pieces 9 Sept. 1513 James V. banishes the Douglases 1528 He establishes the court of session 1532 Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is revived 1540 Mary, queen of Scots, b. 7 Dec. ; succeeds her father, James V., who d 14 Dec. " Regent, cardinal Beaton, persecutes the reformers, 1539, 1546; he is assassinated at St. Andrews 29 May, 1546 Scots defeated at Pinkie 10 Sept. 1547 Mary marries the dauphin of France Apr. 1558 Parliament abolishes the jurisdiction of the pope in Scotland, 24 Aug. 1560 Francis II. dies, leaving Mary a widow Dec. " Reformation in Scotland, by John Knox and others, during the minority of Mary between 1550 and " Mary, after an absence of 13 years, arrives at I^eith from France 21 Aug. 1561 Upon an inquisition, which was officially taken, by order of queen Elizabeth, only 58 Scotsmen were found in London (Slow) • 1562 Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord Darnley. .29 July, 1565 David Rizzio, her confidential secretary, murdered by Darnley in her presence 9 Mch. 1566 Lord Darnley blown up by gunp«wder in his house (Mary ac- cused of conniving at his death) 10 Feb. 1567 James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, carries off the queen, who marries him 15 May, " Resigns ray appointed regent 22 July, - Mary escapes, and collects a large army ; is defeated by regent Murray at I^ngside, 13 May; enters England 16 May, 1568 Regent Murray murdered 23 Jan. 1570 Earl of Lennox appointed regent 12 July, " Earl of Lennox murdered, 4 Sept. ; earl of Mar regent Sept. 1571 Death of the reformer John Knox 24 Nov. 1572 [His funeral in Edinburgh is attended by most of the no- bility, and by tlie regent Morton, who exclaims, "There lies he who never feared the face of man !"] University of Edinburgh founded 1582 Raid of RuTHVEN " Mary takes refuge in England, 16 May, 1568; is, after a long captivity, beheaded at Fotheringay castle 8 Feb. 1587 j Cowrie's conspiracy fails 5 Aug. 1600 Crowns of Scotland and England united in James VI. . .24 Mch. 1603 : James proclaimed " king of Great Britain, France, and Ire- land " 24 Oct. 1604 . Charles I. attempts in vain to introduce the English liturgy; tumult at Edinburgh 23 July, 1637 Solemn league and covenant subscribed (Covenanters), 1 Mch. 1638 A Scotch army enters England 1640 Charles joins the Scotch army, 1646; betrayed into the hands of the English parliament 30 Jan. 1647 Marquis of Montrose defeated at Philiphaugh, 13 Sept. 1645; executed at Edinburgh 21 May, 1650 Charles II. crowned at Scone, 1 Jan. ; defeated at Worcester, 22 Aug. 1651 Scotland united to the English Commonwealth by Oliver Cromwell Sept. " Charles II. revives episcopacy in Scotland 1661 Argyll beheaded 27 May, " Scottish hospital, London, incorporated 1666 Covenanters defeated on the Pentland hills 1666 Archbishop Sharpe murdered near St. Andrews by John Balfour of Burley and others 3 May, 1679 Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at Drumclog, 1 June; are routed at Bothwell bridge 22 June, " Richard Cameron's declaration for religious liberty... .22 June, 1G80 Karl of Argyll beheaded 30 June. 1685 Resolution of a convention in favor of William III. ; re-estab- lishment of presbytery 14 Mch. 1689 Insurrection of Claverhouse ; killed at Killiecrankie. . .27 July, " Massacre of the Macdonalds at Glencoe 13 Feb. 1692 Legislative union of Scotland with England 1 May, 1707 Insurrection under the earl of Mar in favor of the son of James IL (Pretender) 1715 Rebels defeated at Preston, 12 Nov. ; and at Dumblane (or Sheriffmuir) 13 Nov. " Capt. Porteocs killed by a mob in Edinburgh 7 Sept. 1736 Prince Charles Edward proclaimed at Perth, 4 Sept.; at Edin- burgh, 16 Sept. ; with the Highlanders defeats sir John Cope at Prestonpans, 21 Sept. ; takes Carlisle, 15 Nov. ; arrives at Manchester, 28 Nov. ; at Derby, 4 Dec. ; retreats to Glasgow, 25 Dec. 1745 Defeats gen. Hawley at Falkirk, 17 Jan. ; is totally defeated at Culloden 16 Apr. 1746 Highland dress prohibited by parliament 12 Aug. " Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed for high-treason on Tower hill 18 Aug. " Simon Eraser, lord Lovat, aged 80, executed 9 Apr. 1747 Heritable jurisdictions abolished by parliament " Thomson, the poet, d 27 Aug. 1748 Old Pretender, "Chevalier de St. George," d. at Rome, 30 Dec. 1765 Prince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the Young Pretender, d. at Rome 31 Jan. 1788 Death of Robert Burns 21 July, 1796 Scott's " Lay of the Last Minstrel" pub 1806 Cardinal Henry, duke of York (last of the Stuarts), d. . .31 Aug. 1807 Royal Caledonian asylum, London, founded 1813 Scott's " Waverley " pub. (Literature) 1814 Establishment of a jury court under a lord chief commissioner, 1815 Visit of George IV. to Scotland Aug 1822 Sir Walter Scott d ". .21 Sept. 1832 Seven ministers of the presbytery of Strathbogie are deposed by the General Assembly of the church of Scotland for obey- ing the civil in preference to the ecclesiastical law. (Their deposition was formally protested against by the minority of ministers and elders, headed by dr. Cook) 28 May, 1841 General Assembly condemn patronage as a grievance to the cause of true religion that ought to be abolished 23 May, 1842 Secession of the non-intrusion ministers of the church of Scot- land (about 400) at the General Assembly 18 May, 1843 Death of Francis (lord) Jeffrey, principally known as one of the founders of and contributors to the Edinburgh Review, and its editor for 26 years 26 Jan. 1850 National association for vindication of Scottish rights formed, Nov. 1853 Salmon Fisheries act passed July> 1864 Scotch Reform bill introduced into the commons, 17 Feb.; passed 13 July, 1868 Scotch Reform act passed " " liand Registers and Titles to Land act passed July, Robert Chambers, author and publisher, d., aged 69. . .17 Mch. 1871 Scott centenary celebrated in Edinburgh, etc. (Scott b. 15 Aug. 1771) 9 Aug. " Return of owners of land and heritages, 1872-73 (a kind of Domesday book), published by government Apr. 1874 SCO 719 Patronage in the established church (see 1842) abolished by act passed 7 Aug. 1874 Scottish Church Disestablishment Association; first annual meeting 8 Mch. 1875 Romanist hierarchy revived by the pope; archbishop of Glas- gow, bishopric of Dunkeld, etc., 2 Mch. ; the Scotch Protes- tant bishops protest against this 13 Apr. 1878 Movement for home rule begun 4 Apr. 1882 Secretary of Scotland act passed 14 Aug. 1885 Local government bill for Scotland passed 26 Aug. 1889 " bishop Heber u 11 Washington Figures of Raving and Melancholy Madness " "Faith and Hope Statue (colossal) of George III Bust of Nelson Bust of Bacchus Statue of Pitt ) " " sir John Moore J " " Robert Burns , Archangel Michael and Satan. Statue of Hampden " " father Mathew " " John Stuart Mill. " " Burke and of Goldsmith " - " Stonewall Jackson Figure of Prince Consort Decorations in Wood-carving Mars and Cupid Psyche borne by Zephyrs , Statue of queen Victoria , Officers' monument \ Medallion of Goldsmith J Tomb of bishop Thomas ) Monument of lord Cornwallis ) " " lord Rodney | Monument of duke of Wellington Monument of Fox " " gens. Pakenham and Glbbs , Statue of duke of Wellington WyclifTe preaching (bas-relief) David with head of Goliath, Guardian Angel, Resig nation. Monument to gen. Wolfe Statue of Macaulay " " lord Bacon Busts of Darwin, Tennyson, Cobden, Gladstone, ) Dickens, Carlyle, Kingsley ) Death of Boadicea, etc. Equestrian statue of Wellington Statue of George III Monument to lord Nelson Present location. FRENCH. f Monument of due de Rohan. ( Marble Crucifix f Nativity I Bust of Colbert 1 Christ on the Cross 1^ Statues of Pluto, Ceres, Neptune, and Amphitrite. r Lion , J Malediction of Alsace 1 Statue of Lafayette. 1 Liberty Enlightening the World f Combat of the Centaurs. Lion Jaguar devouring a Hare Lion and Boa Tiger fighting a Crocodile. [Collection of sculptures (114 pieces). \ Marble group ( Statues of the Apostles { Cupid and Psyche ) ( Girl with a Stag f I Shepherd of Polybus carrying away (Edipus ( Statue of Napoleon Bas relief of St. George and the Dragon {Marble group Crowning of Napoleon ( Bust of Richelieu \ Fame and Mercury I Allegorical group— The Triumph of the Republic ( Etats-G^n6raux I Statue of Jefferson \ " " Gutenberg ( Groups of Children i \ Statue of St. Andrew ] I Saint Sylvie, Bas-relief of Notre Dame, Hercules, \ Minerva, etc. ( Rape of Proserpine \ Monument of Richelieu ( Fountain of the Innocents ] Statue of Diana » ( Four Evangelists \ Russia. Stowe, Engl. Westminster abbey. Trafalgar square, London. Westminster abbey. Cavendish square, London. London. Lichfield chapel. Westminster abbey. St. Paul's, London. State house, Boston, Mass South Kensington museum, London. Chapel, Chatsworth. Register's office, Edinburgh. Guildhall, Loudon. University gallery, Oxford. Glasgow, Scotland. Edinburgh. Parliament house. Cork. Glasgow, Scotland. Richmond, Va. Albert memorial, London. Chatsworth, Engl. Collection of duke Devonshire. " " sir George Beamont. Buckingham palace. Westminster abbey. St. Paul's, London. St. Paul's, London. Westminster abbey. St. Paul's, London. Hyde park, London. Church, Lutterworth. Westminster abbey. Cambridge, Engl. Oxford, Engl. Westminster abbey. Green park arch, London. Pall Mall. Liverpool. Louvre, Paris. Church of the Sorbonne, Paris. Church of Val de Grace. Louvre, Paris. St. Roche, Paris. Bel fort. Paris. New York harbor. Colonnade Juillet, Paris. Luxembourg gallery, Paris. Tuileries. Corcoran gallery, Washington, D. C. Colonne VendOme. Chapelle Expiatoire, Paris. St. Sulpice, Paris. Louvre, Paris. Old museum, Berlin. Louvre, Paris. Chapelle Expiatoire, Paris. Arc de I'fitoile. Louvre, Paris. Garden of Tuileries. Paris. Hall of Statuary, Washington, D. C. Strasburg, Germany St. Peter's, Rome. Gardens, Versailles. Church of the Sorbonne, Paris. Paris. Louvre, Paris. sou 723 SOU RENAISSANCE AND MODERN SCULPTORS.— (Con^mMed!.) FRENCH. Name. Guillain, Simon Guillaume, Jean Baptiste Houdon, Jean Antoine. .. Juste, Jean Lemaire, Philippe H Le Mot, Franf ois F , . Figalle, Jean Baptiste Pilon, Germain Pradier, Jacques Puget, Pierre Rodin, Auguste Roubiliac, Louis F Rude, Franf ois Begas, Rheinhold Dannecker, John Henry.. Drake, Friedrich Kraflft, Adam Kiss, Augustus Flourished. Ranch, Christian D. Rietschel, Ernst. Schadow, John Gottfried. Schievelbein, Herman. . . Schwanthaler, Ludwig M. Stoss, Veit Tieck, Christian F Vischer, Peter 1581-1658 1822- 1741-1828 -1534 1798-1880 1773-1827 1714-85 1520-90 1790-1852 1622-94 1840- 1695-1762 1784-1855 1831- 1758-1841 1805- 1430-1507 1802-65 1777-1857 1804-61 1764-1850 1817-67 Best works. Present location. 1438-1533 1776-1851 1460-1529 Algardi, Alessandro 1598-1654 Amadeo, Giovanni A Ammanati, Bartolommeo. Bandinelli, Baccio Bernini, Giovanni L. Bologna, Jean de. 1400-74 1511-89 1487-1559 1598-1680 Bronze statue of Louis XIII Theseus. f Statue of Voltaire " "Washington ) Bust of Lafayette j " " Washington Monument of Louis XIIL and Anne of Bretagne i Last Judgment \ Sculptures Bas-reliefs ( Monument of marshal Saxe I Statue of Voltaire ( Venus Monument of Henry II. and Catherine de' Medici . . . ^Niobe group .) I Psyche ( ( Marriage of the Virgin ( Milo of Crotona I Perseus liberating Andromeda ( Alexander and Diogenes i Statue of Dante \ Decorates the entrance of the Palace of Arts, etc. . . ( Statue of sir Isaac Newton } Monument to Handel ( Mrs. Nightingale I Statue of Joan of Arc ( " " marshal Ney GERMAN, FLEMISH, AND DUTCH. ( Monument to Schiller I Rape of the Sabines. (Statue of Christ Bust of Schiller Bacchus Venus ( Equestrian statue of William of Prussia J Allegorical figure of Prussian Provinces 1 Statue of Melancthon [ Dying Warrior ( Seven Stages I Entombment Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great Model of equestrian statue of Frederick the Great . . Statue of Frederick William III Statue of queen Louise Monument of Frederick the Great Statue of Albert Durer " " Bliicher Victories [ Moses f Statues of Goethe and Schiller Madonna and the Dead Christ I Statue of Lessing •{ Luther monument Quadriga I Reliefs [ Morning, Noon, Evening, and Night Statue of Frederick the Great " " Bliicher " " Luther Pegasus and the Horse Destruction of Pompeii Statue of Bavaria " " Mozart " " Jean Paul Friedrich Richter " " Goethe " " Christ and Evangelists Shield of Hercules Pediment group High altar Monument of Casimlr the Great Panel of roses Sculptures Tomb of S. Sebald Monument of bishop Ernst Statue of Apollo ITALIAN. 1524-1608 f Flight of Attila ( God of Sleep ( Monument of Colleoni ( Sculptures , Statues of the Four Seasons. . I Hercules and Cacus ( Adam and Eve {Apollo and Daphne Tomb of Urban VIII " " Alexander VII , Rape of Proserpine f Flying Mercury Equestrian statue of Cosmo I. Rape of the Sabines Crucifixion Bronze doors Louvre, Paris. Theatre Frangais, Paris. State house, Richmond, Va. Collection of Hamilton Fish, N. Y. city. Abbey church, St. Denis. Pediment of the Madeleine, Paris. Gallery of the Luxembourg, Paris. Fapade of Louvre, Paris. Strasburg, Germany. Institute of France, Paris. Sans Souci, Potsdam. Abbey church, St. Denis. Luxembourg gallery, Paris. Madeleine, Paris. Louvre, Paris. Paris. Trinity college, Cambridge, Engl. Westminster abbey. Garden of the Luxembourg, Paris. Berlin, Germany, St. Petersburg. Russia. Museum, Stuttgart, Germany. New Palace, Stuttgart, Germany. Cologne, Germany. Palace, Berlin, Germany. Wittenberg, Germany. Aix-la-Chapelle, Germany. Nuremberg, Germany. Cemetery, Nuremberg, Germany. Breslau, Germany. I Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, ( Philadelphia, Pa. Potsdam, Germany. Sans Souci, Potsdam, Germany. Unter den Linden, Berlin, Germany. Nuremberg, Germany. Berlin, Germany. Walhalla, Ratisbon, Germany. Potsdam, Germany. Weimar, " Potsdam, " Brunswick, " Worms, " Portal of the Palace, Brunswick. Hall of University, Leipsic. Dresden, private collection. Stettin, Germany. Rostock, " Wittenberg, Germany. Old museum, Berlin. New museum, " Hall of Fame, Munich. Salzburg, Austria. Baireuth, Germany. Frankfort-on-the-Main. > Munich, Germany. Frankfort-on-the-Main. Walhalla, Ratisbon, Germany. St. Mary's, Cracow, Austria. Cracow, Austria. Nuremberg, Germany. Theatre, Berlin, Germany. Nuremberg, Germany. Magdeburg, " Nuremberg, " St. Peter's, Rome. Villa Borghese, Rome. Chapel, Bergamo. Certosa, Pavia. Florence, Italy. Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, Italy. Villa Borghese, Rome. St. Peter's, Rome. Villa Ludovisi, Rome. UflBzi gallery, Florence. Florence. Loggia de' Lanzi. Cathedral, Pisa. sou 724 SCU RENAISSANCE AND MODERN SCVLVTOBS. -(Continued.) ITALIAN. Baonarotti, Michael Aogelo. Canova, AntoDio . DonateUo (Donato di Betto Bardi) Fieeole, Mino da Ghiberti, Lorenzo Leopardo, Alessandro Lombard!, Alfonso Majano, Benedetto da. Pisano, Niccola. Pisano, Giovanni Porta, Fra Guglielmo della. . Robbia, Laca della Rossellino, Antonio Rossellino, Bernardo Sansovino, Andrea Sansovino, Jacopo Tatti Vela, Vincenzo Verrocchio, Andrea del. . . . Martos, Ivan Petrovitch Alvarez, Don Jos6 Berrugnete, Alonzo Cano, Alonzo Hernandez, Gregorio . . . Montanes, Juan M Roidan, Pedro Flour! th*d. 1475-1S64 1767-1822 1386-1468 1400-86 1381-1455 1450-1510 1488-1537 1444-98 1207-78 1240-1320 1512-77 1400-81 1427-90 1409-70 1460-1529 1477-1570 1822-91 1432-88 B«tt worki. Head of Faun Battle of Hercules and Centaurs Kneeling Cupid Statue of David " " Christ Tombs of the Medici Madonna and Child Captives Madonna of Bruges Tomb of the archduchess Christina of Austria. Daedalus and Icarus Theseus conquering the Minotaur Perseus Venus Victrix Hebe Psyche ^ Statue of Napoleon " " Washington Venus at the Bath Cupid and Psyche Monument of Alfleri Busts of eminent Italians Head Relief in marble, Dancing Children Bronze David " Judith Equestrian statue of Francesco Gattamalota. . . Sculptures Monument of pope Paul II Marble pulpit Ciborium Bronze doors Statue of John the Baptist " " St. Matthew " " St. Stephen Statue of Colleoni Pedestals of the Pillars of S. Marco ( Altar in Zeno chapel I Reliefs ( Hercules and Hydra ( Tomb of Filippo Strozzi I Marble pulpit Fountain ! Statue of Madonna.. Marble pulpit (Monument of pope Paul III ( Statues of Peace and Plenty (Reliefs Bronze door of sacristy Altar in terra-cotta Works of Luca and his school S Monument of Mary of Aragon Reliefs upon Pulpit Reliefs r Monument of Leonardi Bruni \ " " Beato Villani , ( Bust of St. John ( Baptism of Christ ] Virgin Child and St. Anna ( Statues and reliefs , (Bronze reliefs Bronze gates of the sacristy Four Evangelists Statue of St. John Sparticus and The Dying Napoleon. ( Bronze David {Equestrian statue of Colleoni, St. Thomas, and ( Christ , Present location. UfBzi gallery, Florence. Casa Buonarotti, Florence. South Kensington museum, London. Academy of Fine Arts, Florence. Rome. Florence. Louvre, Paris. Cathedral, Bruges. Church of the Augustines, Vienna. Pisani palace, Venice. Vienna. Vatican, Rome. Borghese gallery, Rome. Museum, Berlin. Royal palace, Munich. Apsley house, London. State house, Raleigh, N. C. Pitti palace, Florence. Villa Carlotta, Como. S. Croce, Florence. Palace Conservator!, Rome. Corcoran gallery, Washington, D. C, UfHzi gallery, Florence. Loggia de' Lanzi. Padua, Italy. Badia, Florence. St. Peter's, Rome, Cathedral, Prato. Baptistery, Volterra. " Florence. San Michele, " San Marco, Venice. Cathedral, Cesena. Palazzo Publico, Bologna- Florence. Baptistery, Pisa. Cathedral, Siena. Perugia, Italy. Cathedral, Florence. " Pistoja. " Pisa. St. Peter's, Rome. Farnese palace, Rome. Campanile, Florence. Cathedral, " S. Apostili, " Museum Bargello, Florence. Monte Oliveto, Naples. UflSzi gallery, Florence. S. Croce, Florence. S. M. Novella, Florence. UflQzi gallery, " Baptistery, " S. Agostino, " Casa Santa, Loreto. S. Marco, Venice. Font S. M. die Frari, Venice. Museum Bargello, Florence. Venice, and San Michele, Florence. RUSSIAN. ! Statues of Minin and Pozharski I Moscow, Russia. Monument of prince Potemkin Cherson, " emperor Alexander | Taganrog, 1768-1827 1480-1561 1601-67 1566-1636 -1650 1624-1700 SPANISH. Statue of Ganymede (Reliefs (Monument of cardinal Tavera. Bas-relief, Baptism of Christ,. {Conception Sculptures The Entombment of Christ Academy of San Fernando, Madrid. Cathedral, Toledo. Hospital of San Juan. Museum of Valladolid. Cathedral, Seville. Museum, " Seville, Spain. §ca'tage or es'CUag^e. The service of the shield services. The first tax levied in England to pay an army, (scutum) in England is either uncertain or certain. Escuage uncertain is where the tenant by his tenure is bound to follow his lord ; and is called castleward, where the tenant is bound to defend a castle. Escuage certain is wh^re the tenant is set at a certain sum of money to be paid in lieu of such uncertain 5 Hen. II. 1169.— Cowel. Scu'tari, a city of Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constanti- nople, of which it is a suburb. It was anciently called Chry- sopolis, golden city, in consequence, it is said, of the Persians having established a treasury here when they attempted the II SCY 725 conquest of Greece. Near here Constantine finally defeated Licinius, 323. Scytll'ia, a countrj' situate in the most northern parts of Europe and Asia. The boundaries were unknown to the ancients. The Scythians made several irruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially 624 b.c., when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for 28 years, and at different periods extended their conquests in Europe, pen- etrating as far as Egypt. Tartary. §ea. Lieut. Maury, U. S. N., first published his " Physical Geography of the Sea " in 1854, and other important works since ; he died Feb. 1878. Deep-sea soundings. seals or sig^netS. Engraved gems were used as such by the Egyptians, Jews, Assyrians, and Greeks ; see Exod. xxviii. 14. Ahab's seal was used by Jezebel, 899 B.c. (1 Kings xxi. 8). The Romans in the time of the Tarquins (about 600 B.C.) had gemmed rings. They sealed rooms, granaries, bags of money, etc. The German emperor, Frederick I. (1152 a.d.) had seals of gold, silver, and tin. Impressions of the seals of Saxon kings are extant ; and the English great seal is attrib- uted to Edward the Confessor (1041-66). " A seal with armo- rial bearings before the 11th century is certainly false." — Fosbroke. The most ancient English seal with arms on it is said to be that of Richard I. or John. • White or colored wax was used. The present sealing-wax, containing shellac, did not come into general use in Germany and England until about 1556. Red wafers for seals came into use about 1624, but were not used for public seals till the 18th century. Great seal. seas, Sovereignty of the. The claim of England to rule the British seas is of very ancient date. Arthur is said to have assumed it, and Alfred afterwards supported this right. It was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken by the English government in consequence, 8 Caro I. 1633. The Dutch, after the death of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and other ad- mirals. Russia and other powers of the north armed to avoid search, 1780 ; again, 1800. Armed neutrality, Flag. The international rule of the road at sea was settled in 1862 ; yet near Great Britain alone there have been 13,000 collisions in six years. Wm. Stirling Lacon proposes to reduce the rules from 749 words to 144, for simplicity and security. His form had been 9 times before Parliament, 1873. Sebastian, St., a town of N. Spain, was taken by the French, under the duke of Berwick, in 1719. It was be- sieged by the allied army under Wellington. After a heavy bombardment, by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it was stormed by gen. Graham (afterwards lord Lyne- doch), and taken 31Aug. 1813. On 5 May, 1836, the fortified works were carried by the English under gen. Evans. The British naval squadron, off St. Sebastian, under lord John Hay, aided the victors in this contest. An assault was made on the lines of gen. De Lacy Evans, at St. Sebastian, by the Carlists, 1 Oct. 1836. The Carlists were repulsed. The loss of the Anglo-Spanish force was 376 men and 37 officers, killed and wounded. Leagues. Sebas'topol or SeTas'topol, a town and once a naval arsenal, at southwest point of the Crimea, formerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings were commenced in 1784, by Catherine II., after conquering the country. The town is in the shape of an amphitheatre, on the rise of a large hill flattened on its summit, according to a plan laid down be- fore 1794, which has been since adhered to. The fortifications and harbor were constructed by an English engineer, col. Upton, and his sons, since 1830. The population in 1834 was 15,000. This place underwent 11 months' siege by the Eng- lish and French in 1854 and 1855. Immediately after the bat- tle of the Alma, 20 Sept. 1854, the allied army marched to Se- bastopol, occupied the plateau between it and Balaklava, and the attack and bombardment commenced 17 Oct. 1854, with- out success. After many sanguinary encounters by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on 8 Sept. 1855, upon the Malakhoff tower and the Redans, the most important fortifications to the south of the town. The French succeeded in capturing and retaining the Mala- khoff, but the attacks of the English on the great Redan and of the French upon the little Redan were repulsed after a des- SEC perate struggle. The French lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 4500 wounded, and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 killed (29 being com- missioned and 42 non-commissioned officers), 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. In the night the Russians abandoned the southern and principal part of the town and fortifications, after destroying as much as possible, and crossed to the northern forts. They also sank or burned the remainder of their fleet. The allies found abundant stores when they entered the place, 9 Sept. The works were utterly destroyed in Apr. 1856, and the town was restored to the Russians in July. Russo-Turkish wars. secession ordinances of the Confeder- ate States. Confederate States; United States. 1861. secret societies. Assassins, Fenians, Ribbon- ism, ROSICRUCIANS, VehMIC TRIBUNAL, etC. secretaries of state. The earliest authentic rec- ord of a secretary of state is in the reign of Henry III., when John Maunsell is described as " Secretarius Noster" 1253. Rymer. Towards the close of Henry VIII.'s reign, 2 secreta- ries were appointed ; and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third as secretary for Scotch affairs ; this appointment was afterwards laid aside; but in the reign of George IIL the number was again increased to 3, 1 for the American depart- ment. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of Parliament ; and secretaries were appointed for home, foreign, and colonial affairs. When there were but 2 secretaries, 1 held the porte- feuille of the northern department, comprising the Low Coun- tries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Russia, etc. ; the other, of the southern department, including France, Switzer- land, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Turkey ; the affairs of Ireland belonging to the elder secretary ; both secretaries then equally directed the home affairs. — Beatson. The British government now has 5 secretaries— home, foreign, colonial, war, and (in 1858) India, all in the cabinet. Administration. For the United States, Cabinet; United States throughout. sects in religion are the various bodies separated from each other by doctrinal belief. They may be classified as Christian, Jewish, Mahometan, and Heathen. More or less extended summaries of the various sects in the list here given may be found under their respective titles. EARLY christian (Ist to 7th Century a.d.). Jacobites. Abelians. Acacians. Adamites. .(Erians. Agnoitae. ApoUonarists. Aquarians. Arians. Armenians. Audiani. Cataphrygiaus. Cathari. Cyrenaic sect. Docetse. Donatists. Ebionites. Encratites (Aquarians), Eutychians. Greek church. Manicheans. Marcionites. Maronites. Messalians. Millenarians. Monothelites. Montanists. Nazarenes. Nestorians. Novatians. Origenists. Paulianists. Pelagians. Priscillianists. Sabellians. Simonians. Water Drinkers (Aquarians). Zanzaleens. Abrahamites. Adamites. Albigenses. Apostolici. Berengarians. Bohemian Brethren Calixtins. MEDIEVAL CHRISTIAN. Lollards. Mystics. Paulicians. Scotists. Waldenses.. Wickliffltes. MODERN CHRISTIAN (Reformation and subsequent). Adventists. Anabaptists. Arminians. Baptists. Broad church. Burghers. Calvinists. Cameronians. Camisards. Campbellites. Christian Connection. Christian Endeavor Society. Congregationalists. Cumberland Presbyterian (Pres- byterian). Disciples of Christ Dutch Reformed (Reformed Church in America). Episcopalians (Church). Evangelical Association. Free-will Baptists. Friends (Quakers). German Reformed (Reformed Church in the United States). Glasites. Gospellers. Greek. Illuminati. Independents. Irvingites. SEC LatberuiB (17 lynods and bodlee). MeanonltM (I'i divtsions, gener- ally coniinunistio). Methodist Episcopal. Millerites. Uohaists. Moravians. Mormons or Latter-day Saints, re- orpinized. Mugglrtouiana Nonjurors. Old Ciithulica Plymouth Brethren. Pietists. Pre Adamites. Presbyterians. Puseyites. (Orthodox. Hicksites. Wilburitea Primitive. Quietists. Reformed Church in America. *' " in the United Sutes. Reformed Episcopal. Ritualists. Roman Cathouos (Church). Sabbutarians. Siindemauians (Glabitbs). Se^mratists (Conorkoational- 1ST8). Seventh-day Baptists (Sabbata- ria.nb). Shakers. Sociiiians. Soulbcotter& Spirilualista Supnilapsarians. Swedenborgians. Tuiikers. Ubiquitarians. Unitarians. United Brethem. United Presbyterians. Universalists. Wesley an Methodists. Whiteflelditea Zoarites. Zwinglians. Karaites. Nasarenes. JKWISH. Phariseea Sadducees. MAHOMETAN. Fatamists (Ali). Sbiites. Sonnites. Wahabees or Wababites. Ali. Alraobades. Almoravides. Babi-ists. Carmathians. For heathen religions and sects, Brahmo Somaj. Brahmins, Buddh- ists, GcBBRKS, Jains, Magi or Fire -worshippers, Parsees, and Tgzidbks or Devil- worshippers. For the various schools of thought, Atheism, Deism, Humani- tarians, HCTCHINSONIANS, MATERIALISM, PANTHEISM, PHILOSOPHY, Positivism, Rationalism, and Secularism. For doctrines and church parties, Antinomians, Anti Trinitarians, Dissenters, Latitudinarians, Nonconformists, Puritans, Solifid- lANS, Trinitarians, and Ultramontists. §ecillar g;aine§ (ludi sceculares), very ancient Ro- man games, celebrated on important occasions. Horace wrote his " Carmen Saeculare " for their celebration in the reign of the emperor Augustus (17). They took place again in the reign of Claudius (47), of Domitian (88), and, for the last time, in that of Philip (248), when it was claimed that 2000 years had elapsed since the foundation of the city. secularism, a name given to the principles advocated by G. J. and Austin Hol3'oake, about 1846, and since by Mr. Bradlaugh. Its central idea is free, not lawless, thought, and it considers scepticism to be scrutiny. It advocates liberty of action without injury to others. It is not against Christi- anity, but independent of it. Its standard is utilitarian ; it is the religion of the present life only ; teaching men to seek morality in nature, and happiness in duty. Austin Holyoake and other secularists repudiated atheism ; Mr. Bradlaugh and others profess it. Sedan', an ancient fortified city in the valley of the Meuse, N.E. of France, the seat of a principality long held by the dukes of Bouillon. On 6 July, 1641, a victory was gained at La Marfee, near Sedan, by the count of Soissons and the troops of Bouillon and other French princes, over the royal army supporting Richelieu; but the count was slain on 23 June, 1642. The duke was arrested in the midst of his army, and was made to cede Sedan to the crown. The Protestant university was abolished after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685. Around this place a series of desperate conflicts on 29, 30, and 31 Aug., between the French army of the north, under marshal MacMahon (about 150,000 men), and the greater part of the 3 German armies under the king and crown -prince of Prussia, and the crown -prince of Saxony (about 250,000 men), was brought to a close on 1 Sept. 1870. The battle began with attacks on the French right and left about 5 A.M., and was very severe at 2 p.m. At 4 p.m. the Germans re- mained masters of the field, and the crown-prince of Prussia an- nounced a complete victory, the chief part of the French army retreating into Sedan. The emperor Napoleon was present dur- ing the battle. The Germans contracted their circle close round Sedan; their artillery held all the heights, from which they could destroy the town and the army. At first gen. De Wimpflfen (called to the command when MacMahon was wounded) rejected the terms offered by the victor, and the emperor had a fruitless in- terview with count Bismarck to endeavor to mitigate them. On 726 SEL 2 Sept. the emperor wrote in autograph to the king of Prussia, "Mon frfere, n'ayant pu mourir & la tete de mes troupes, je de- pose mon 6p6i} au pied de voire majesty.— Napoleon." A capit- ulation of Sedan and the whole army therein was signed by gen erals Von .Mollko and De Wimpflcn at the chateau of Bellevue, near Frenois, at 11.30 a.m., 2 Sept. About 25,000 French prison- ers were taken in the battle, and 83,000 surrendered, together with 70 mitrailleuses, 400 field-pieces, and 150 fortress guns. The French emperor and his suite arrived at WilhelmshOhe, a castle near Cassel appointed for his residence (formerly inhabited by his un- cle Jerome, when king of Westphalia), on the evening of 5 Sept, In a letter dated 12 May, 1872, the emperor Nai)oleon took upon himself the whole responsibility of the surrender of Sedan. Sedan' ehairs (so called from Sedan) were first seen in England in 1581. One used in the reign of James I., by the duke of Buckingham, excited indignation, the people de- claring that he was employing fellow -creatures to do the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into London in 1634, when sir Francis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of them for 14 years. They came into general use in 1649. iSedg^emoor, a wild country of Somersetshire, Engl.^ where the duke of Monmouth (natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Waters), who had risen in rebellion on the accession of James II., was completely defeated by the royal army, 6 July, 1685. The duke, in the disguise of a peasant, at the bot- tom of a ditch, overcome with hunger and fatigue, was made a prisoner. He was tried and beheaded on 15 July following. Bloody Assizes. sedition. Sedition acts were passed in England in the reign of George III. The proclamation against seditious writ- ings was published May, 1792. The celebrated Sedition bill passed Dec. 1795. Seditious societies were suppressed by act, June, 1797. The Seditious Meetings and Assemblies bill passed 31 Mch. 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman Catholic and Repeal agitation, acts or proclamations against sedition and seditious meetings were published from time to time until 1848. Alien and Sedition laws. Seekers. Quakers. Seg^edin {seg-ed-in') or Szeg^edin, a town of Hun- gary. Here was concluded a treaty between Ladislaus IV. and Amurath IL, 12 July, 1444. It was treacherously annulled at the instigation of cardinal Julian, who with Ladislaus per- ished in the fatal battle of Varna, 10 Nov. 1444. Varna. seisinom'eter (from auafioQ, Greek for earthquake), an apparatus for measuring earthquake shocks, in violence, duration, and amplitude of movement. One is described by Robert Mallet in his work on earthquakes, pub. 1858. selection, natural. Species. selectmen, the eairliest oflScers of the townships formed by the first colonists of New England, 1635. Massachu- setts, 1635. sele'nium, a grayish - white elementary substance (chemically resembling sulphur), discovered in the stone rio- lite by Berzelius in 1817. The variation in its resistance to the electric current when sub- jected to light was observed by Willoughby Smith in 1873, and utilized in the Photophonb. Dr. C. William Siemens constructed a "selenium eye." Seleu'cia, Syria, made the capital of the Syrian mon- archy by its builder, Seleucus Nicator, 312 b.c. On the fall of the Seleucidae, it became a republic, 65 b.c. It was taken by Trajan, 116 a.d.; several times given up and retaken; subjugated by the Saracens, and united with Ctesiphon, 636. Seleu'cidse, Era of the, dates from the reign of Se- leucus Nicator. It was used in Syria for many years, and frequently by the Jews until the 16th century, and by some Arabians. Opinions vary as to its commencement. To re- duce it to our era (supposing it to begin 1 Sept. 312 b.c.), sub- tract 31 1 years 4 months. self-denying^ ordinance, that no member of Parliament should hold any civil or military office or com- mand conferred by either or both of the houses, or by author- ity derived from them, was passed after much discussion, 3 Apr. 1645, by the influence of Cromwell, who thus removed the earl of Essex and other Presbyterians out of his way. A somewhat similar ordinance was adopted by the parliament at Melbourne in Australia, in 1858. The name was given to I SEL 727 SEP an arrangement made respecting British naval promotions and retirements in 1870. §ellO.'§i£l, a town of Laconia. Here the Spartans, un- der Cleomenes, were defeated by Antigonus Doson and the Achaeans, 221 b.c. Seinina'ra, a town of Naples, Near here Gonsalvo de Cordova, the great captain, was defeated by the French, in 1495; but defeated them, 21 Apr. 1503. JSemi'nole war. Florida, 1833-42; United States. Semit'iC, a sub-division of the Caucasian race, so called as indicating descendants of Shem, a son of Noah. Alphabet, Ethnology, Language. jSempacll (sem'pak), a town of Switzerland. Here the Swiss gained a great victory over Leopold, duke of Austria, 9 July, 1386, The duke was slain, and the liberty of their country established. The day is still commemorated. §emper ea'dem (" always the same "), one of the mottoes of queen Elizabeth, was adopted by queen Anne, 13 Dec. 1702. Many suspected this motto to denote her Jaco- bitism, and it ceased to be used after her reign. §enate (Lat. senatus). In the ancient republics the gov- ernment was divided between the senatus (from senis, old ; in Gr. yepovffia, from ykpotv, old), an assembly of the elders, and the popular assembly (comitia, Lat. ; eKKXrtma, Gr.), the king being merely the executive. The Roman senate, said to have had originally 100 members, was increased to 300 by Tarquinius Priscus ; to about 600 by Sulla, about 81 b.c. ; and to 900 by Julius Caesar. It was reformed and reduced to 600 by Augustus ; and gradually lost its power and dignity under the emperors. The mere form existed in the reign of Justinian. A second senate, formed at Constantinople by Constantine, retained its office till the 9th century. S.P.Q.R. on the Roman standard stood for " Senatus Populusque Ro- manus," " the senate and people of Rome." A senatus con- sultum was a law enacted by the senate. The French senate was created by the constitution of the year 8 of the Republic, promulgated 24 Dec. 1799, to watch over the administration of the laws. The number of senators was raised graduall}- from 60 to 137. The senate was replaced by the chamber of peers in 1814 ; re-established by Napoleon IIL, 14 Jan. 1852 ; and abolished, 5 Sept. 1870. The senate as now constituted by act of 22 Feb. 1875, consists of 300 members, 225 elected by the de- partments for 9 years, one third retiring every 3 years ; 75 for life, elected by the National Assembly. By the Senate bill of 1884 it was enacted that vacancies arising among life-senators should be filled by nine-year senators. ISenate of the United l^tate^. The constitu- tion of the U. S. provides that Congress shall consist of a senate and a house of representatives. In the Senate, representation is by states, without regard to population, each state having 2 senators (chosen by their state legislatures for 6 years), one third retiring every 2 years. The executive of any state has the power to make a temporary appointment of a senator if a vacancy should occur in that state during the recess of its leg- islature. Senators must be at least 30 years of age, and be for 9 years citizens of the U. S. The vice-president of the U. S. is president of the Senate, without a vote on questions unless equally divided. Besides its legislative capacity the Senate ratifies or rejects all treaties made by the president with foreign powers, a two-thirds majority of senators present is required for ratification. The consent of the Senate is necessary to all appointments made by the president, and its members constitute a high court of impeachment. The Senate also elects the vice- president of the U. S. in case the electors fail to do so. For list of members consult each state record ; United States, 1868. Seil'eca§. Indians, Long House. Seneffe {se-nef), a village of Belgium, Near here was fought a severe but indecisive battle between the Dutch, un- der the prince of Orange (afterwards William IIL of Eng- land), and the French, led by the great Cond6, 11 Aug. 1674, , Sen'egal, French colonies on the river of that name m Senegambia, W. Africa, settled about 1626 ; several times taken by the British, but recovered by the French, to whom they were finally restored in 1814. Native tribes revolted, 1885 ; continued war of the French with the natives, 1890- 1892, Area of Senegal proper about 54,000 sq. miles, with a pop, of 1,100.000, 1891. Chief town, St. Louis ; pop. 20,000, §eil'esclial (from Goth, sins, old, and shalks, a servant, a high-steward). In the reign of Philip I. of France, 1059, the office was esteemed the highest place of trust in the royal household. teniae. Hastings. Sen'one§, a people of Gallia, defeated by Camillus, 867 B.C. They defeated Metellus, the consul at Arretium, 284, but were almost exterminated by Dolabella, 283. They in- vaded Greece in 279 ; were defeated by Antigonus Gonatas, 278 ; and sued for peace. Gauls. Sen'ova, near Schipka, in the Balkans. Here Sulei- man Pacha and the Turks were defeated by the Russian gen- eral Skobeleff, 9 Jan. 1878. This victory virtually closed the war, and opened the road to Adrianople. About 26,000 Turks and 283 officers were made prisoners, with 40 Krupp guns. About 8000 Turks and 2000 Russians were killed or wounded. iSenti'nuin, central Italy. The site of a great victory of the Romans over the Samnites and Gauls, whose general^ Gellius Egnatius, was slain, 295 B,c. ISeparatlits. Congregationalists. iSepliardiin', thp name given to the descendants of the highly civilized Jews of Spain and Portugal, who fled from the persecutions of the Inquisition, 1492-1505. The Jews interpret Sepharad, in Obadiah 20, as Spain. §epoys (a corruption of sipdhi, Hindostanee for a sol- dier), the term applied to the native troops in India. Under able generals, they greatly aided in establishing British rule in India. India, 1857; Mutinies. September, the 7th Roman month, reckoned ' from Mch. (from Septimus, seventh). It became the 9th month when January and February were added to the year by Numa, 713 B.C. The Roman senate would have given this month the name of Tiberius, but the emperor opposed it ; the em- peror Domitian gave it his own name, Germanicus ; the sen- ate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus ; Com- modus gave it his surname, Herculeus; and the emperor Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. "Sept. 4 government," France, Sept. 1870. Septembriz'ers. In the French revolution, a dreadful massacre took place in Paris, 2-5 Sept. 1792. The prisons, especially the Abbaye, were broken open, and the prisoners butchered, among them an ex-bishop, and nearly 100 non-juring priests. Some accounts put the number of persons slain at 1200, others at 4000. The agents in this slaughter were named Septembrizers. septennial parliaments (English). Edward I. held but one parliament every 2 years. In 4 Edward III. it was enacted "that a parliament should be holden everj' year once." This continued to be law till the act of 16 Charles I., 1641, requiring a parliament once in three years at least; repealed in 1664. The Triennial act was re-enacted in 1694. Triennial parliaments thence continued till 2 Geo. I., 1716, when, in consequence of the allegation that " a popish faction were designing to renew the rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an invasion from abroad," it was enacted that "the then parliament should continue for 7 years." This Septennial act, entitled " An Act for Enlarging the Continu- ance of Parliaments" (1715 in the statutes, 4to, given as 1 Geo. I. Stat. 2, c. 38), was passed 7 May, 1716. Parliaments. Several unsuccessful motions have been made for its repeal ; one in May, 1837. Septuag^es'ima Sunday, 13 Feb. 1881; 5 Feb. 1882. Septuagesima is the season between Epiphany and Lent. Quadragesima Sunday and Week. Sept'uagint Version of the Old Testament, made from Hebrew into Greek by order and during the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt (283-247 B.C.). King Ptolemy to Eleazer, the high-priest ..." I have determined to procure an interpretation of your law and to have it trans- lated out of Hebrew into Greek, and to be deposited in my library. Thou wilt therefore do well to choose out and send SER to me men of a good character who are now elders in age and 6 in number from every tribe to make accurate interpretations of them." . . . — Eleazer, the high-priest, to king Ptolemy . . . •♦ We have also chosen 6 elders out of every tribe, whom we have sent, and the law with them." . . . "The labor of in- terpretation came to its conclusion in 72 days." — Josephus, " Antiquity of the Jews," bk. xii. chap. ii. Whiston's transla- tion. This request of king Ptolemy was accompanied by an immense treasure as a present. Scr'apis, a celebrated Egyptian deity, introduced into Greek worship, and temples were erected by the Romans to Jupiter-Serapis. A. temple erected to him at Pozzuoli, near Naples, Italy, had its roof supported by 46 columns 42 ft. high and 6 ft. in diameter; 3 of these columns are now standing, and bear evidence of having been at some time submerged to half their height (12 ft.) in mud, and 9 ft. above this in water. The submerging and rising of this temple were thoroughly investi- gated by Lyell, being a subject of great geological interest. sera§'kier, the Turkish minister of war. serr§. Russia, 1861, 1863 ; Slavery, serfdom. §erifeailt§-at-law,in the English courts, are plead- ers from among whom the judges are ordinarily chosen, and who are called sergeants of the coif. The judges call them brothers. Coif. Their exclusive rights of addressing court of Common Pleas suspended, 1834 ; restored, 1840; abolished, 1846. By the Supreme Court of Judicature act, judges on their appointment need not be made sergeants, 1873. Inns OF Court. Sering^apatam', S. India, the capital of Hyder Ali, sovereign of Mysore. The battle of Seringapatara, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tip- poo Sahib, was fought 15 May, 1791. The redoubts were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, 6 Feb. 1792. After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed to cede one half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 rupees (about 3,300,000^.) to England, and to give up to lord Cornwallis his 2 eldest sons as hostages. In a new war, the Madras army, under gen. Harris, arrived before Se- ringapatara, 5 Apr. 1799; it was joined by the Bombay army, 14 Apr. ; and the place was stormed and carried by maj.-gen. Baird, 4 May, same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. serpent, an ancient wind instrument, parent of the cornet family. A "contra serpent" in the London exhibi- tion, 1851, made by Jordan of Liverpool. The " serpen tcleid " was produced by Beacham in JuUien's orchestra about 1840. Serpent mound. An embankment in the form of a serpent many rods in length, in Adams county, Ohio, attrib- uted to the mound-builders. This mound, with the surround- ing land, belongs to Harvard university. Ser'via, an hereditary principality south of Hungary, nominally subject to Turkey until 1878. The Servians are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about 640. The emperor Manuel subjugated them in 1150; but they re- covered their independence in 1180, and were ruled by princes, generally named Stephen, till their country was finally sub- dued by the sultan Mahomet II., in 1459. Area, 18,855 sq. mUes; pop. in 1854, 985,000 ; 1873,1,338,505; 1876,1,366,923; 1891, 2,162,759. An empire founded by king Duschaw, 1340; Lazar, emperor, defeated, 15 June, 1389, by the Turks under Amurath I. in the plains of Cossova. Servia subdued by Mahomet II I459 Ceded to Austria. 1718 Regained by Turkey 1739 Servians aid Austria by free companies 1788-90 Again rebel, and capture Belgrade 1806 Kara George chosen leader, 1801 ; aided by the Russians, es- tablishes a government 1807-11 Turks break a treaty, and Kara George flees 1814 Their governor, Milosch, rebels Mch. 1815 Kara George, returning, is executed 1816 Alexander Milosch 1. (Obrenovitch) recognized as hereditary prince by the sultan 15 Aug. 1829 Milosch, becoming despotic, made to abdicate, and a new con- stitution established 13 June, 1839 His son and successor, Milan, dies, his brother Michael retires; Alexander, son of Kara George, chosen prince 14 Sept. 1842 Alexander, becoming unpopular, made to abdicate by the na- tional party; Alexander Milosch re-elected 23 Dec. 1858 728 SES Plot against Milosch frustrated, 11 July; the Servian assem- bly meets 13 July, 1860 Milosch dies; succeeded by his son, Michael Obrenovitch (b. 4 Sept. 1825) 26 Sept. " Movement for iudopendenco against Turkey Mch. 1861 Servians and the Turkish garrison at Belgrade quarrel, leading to bloodshed; the city bombarded, 15 June; submits, 17 June ; the Turkish pacha dismissed 19 June, 1862 Representatives of the great powers meet at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte agrees to liberal concessions to the Ser- vians, which their prince accepts 7 Oct. " Servians demand withdrawal of Turkish garrisons from Bel- grade and other fortresses 5 Oct. 1866 Which are evacuated, Mch. ; prince Michael, at Constantino- ple, thanks the sultan 30 Mch. 1867 Prince Michael assassinated in Belgrade 10 June, 1868 Milan IV'., grand-nephew of prince Michael, chosen successor, 22 June; 14 murderers executed 28 July, " Constitution afflrmiug the hereditary rights of the Obrenovitch fam ily 1869 Prince Karageorgevitch accused of complicity with murder; imprisoned at Pesth, Jan. ; acquitted May, 1871 Regents surrender the government to prince Milan at Bel- grade 22 Aug. 1872 Insurrection in Herzegovina; new ministry, hostile to Turkey, formed, about 31 Aug. ; resign ; announced, 4 Oct. ; peace ministry formed 9 Oct. 1875 Marriage of the prince to Natalie Keschko, daughter of col. Keschko of the Russian Imperial guard 17 Oct. " Ristics, premier, opposed to Turkey July, 1876 Turkey for the war declared 1 July, " Milan proclaimed king by Tchernayeff and the army at Deli- grad; not approved 16 Sept. " Peace with Turkey ratified 4 Mch. 1877 [Servian losses in the war, about 8000 killed, 20,000 wounded.] Servians again declare war and enter Turkey (Rcsso-Turkish WARS) 14, 15 Dec. " Sultan deposes prince Milan 22 Dec. " Servia declared independent, with new frontiers, by treaty of San Stefano, 3 Mch., and of Berlin 13 July, 1878 Execution of Markovitch and other rioters end of May, " Proclamation of peace and national independence at Belgrade, 22 Aug. " Ministry remodelled by Ristics about 15 Oct. " Resignation of Ristics (virtual dictator) announced 25 Oct. 1880 Milan proclaimed king by the assembly 6 Mch. 1882 Declares war against Bulgaria 13 Nov. 1885 Success followed by disaster and retreat 14-24 Nov. " Peace signed 3 Mch. ; ratified by the sultan 13 Mch. 1886 Milan divorced from Natalie 24 Oct. 1888 [He favors Austria, she Russia.] Queen protests against the divorce, 20 Aug. and 30 Oct. ; the divorce decreed by the metropolitan Theodosius, abp. of Belgrade (authority questioned) Oct. " Royal commission recommends universal sufi'rage; all electors eligible to the skuptschina; independence of the church ; all religions free and protected ; liberty of the press, etc., 24 Oct. *' Elections annulled by the king 26 Oct. " New elections give majority to the radicals 16 Dec. " Skuptschina opened 30 Dec. " New constitution passed (494-73) 2 Jan. 1889 Milan abdicates, proclaiming his son Alexander (b. 14 Aug. 1876) king, under a regency until his majority (18 years). . . .6 Mch. " Elections; great radical majority 1 Oct. " Queen Natalie agitates to annul her isolation from her son; her petition to the parliament dismissed 8 Dec. et seq. 1890 King Milan agrees to live out of Servia till his son's majority, on receipt of a sum of money and a pension 14 Apr. 1891 Queen, requested by the government to leave the country, re- fuses; attempted expulsion met by riots and resistance; the queen forcibly conveyed to Semlin in Hungary 19 May, " King Milan resigns all his military and political rights. . .Nov. " King Alexander arrests his regents and ministers and assumes the government 14 Apr. 1893 Ex-king Milan returns to Servia 21 Jan. 1894 HEREDITARY PRINCES. 1829. Milosch (Obrenovitch) I., recognized by Turkey, 15 Aug. 1833; abdicates, 13 June, 1839. 1839. Michael II., son; d. 1840. 1840. Michael III., brother; abdicates, 1842. 1842. Alexander (Karageorgevitch), son of Kara George; chosen, 14 Sept. ; deposed, 23 Dec. 1858. 1858. Milosch (Obrenovitch) re-elected, 23 Dec. ; d. 1860. 1860. Michael III., son; succeeds, 26 Sept.; assassinated, 10 June, 1868. 1868. Milan (Obrenovitch) IV., grand-nephew; again proclaimed, 2 July, 1868; marries Natalie Keschko (b. 1859), 17 Oct. 1875 ; abdicates, 6 Mch. 1889. 1889. Alexander I., son; b. 14 Aug. 1876. servile war§, insurrections of slaves against their masters. 2 were quelled in Sicily, after much slaughter, 132, 99 B.C. Spartacus. session courts in England were appointed to be held quarterly in 1413, and the times for holding them reg- ulated in 1831. Court of Session, Quarter Sessions. The kirk session in Scotland consists of the minister and eld- SES 729 SEX ers of each parish. They superintend religious worship and I -discipline, dispense money collected for the poor, etc. ; Se§tO§, on the Thracian Chersonesus. Near Sestos was I the western end of Xerxes' bridge across the Hellespont, 480 i B.C. Sestos was retaken from the Persians by the Athenians, 478, and held by them till 404, giving them the command of i the trade of the Euxine. Hellespont. Settlement, Act of, for the succession to the British I throne, excluding Roman Catholics, was passed in 1689. This name is also given to the statute by which the crown, after ' the demise of William HI. and queen Anne, without issue, ; was limited to Sophia, electress of Hanover, granddaughter of ; James I., and her heirs, being Protestants, 1702. The Irish i Act of Settlement, passed in 1662, was repealed in 1689. Han- ! OVER. §ettleineilt8 in America. America, French in I America, and each state of the United States separately. seven brotliers : Januarius, Felix, Philip, Silvanus, Alexander, Vitalis, and Martial, martyrs at Rome, under An- I toninus ; their feast is kept 10 July. 1 seven champions of Christendom: St. i Oeorge, the patron saint of England, St. Denis of France, St. } James of Spain, St. Anthony of Italy, St. Andrew of Scot- I land, St. Patrick of Ireland, and St. David of Wales. ! seven churches of Asia, to the angels (minis- j ters) of which the apostle John was commanded to write the i epistles contained in the second and third chapters of his Rev- ! elation — viz., Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, I Philadelphia, and Laodicea, 96. I 1. Eph'ksus. Paul founded the chnrch here, 57. In 59, he was in j great danger from a tumult created by Demetrius; to the elders j of this church he delivered his warning address, 60 (Acts xix. xx. ). j Ephesus was iu a ruinous state even in the time of Justinian j (527), and still remains so. I 2. Smyrna. An ancient Greek city, claiming to be the birthplace of Homer; was destroyed by the Lydians; about 627 b.c. rebuilt by Antigonus and Lysimachus. Its first bishop, Polycarp, was I martyred here about 169. It has been frequently captured. It was sacked by Tamerlane in 1402 ; and finally taken by the Turks, 1424. It is now the chief city of Asia Minor, and the seat of the i Levant trade. Earthquake (above 2000 perish), 12 May, 1875. Pop. 1885, 186,510. 8. Per'gamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same name, founded ! by Philetserus, whom Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals, had made governor, 283 b.c. He was succeeded by Eumenes I., 263; Attalus (who took the title of king), 241; Eumenes II. (who collected a great library), 197. Libraries. Attalus II., 159; At- talus III., 138. He bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, 133. It revolted, was subdued, and made the Roman province, Asia. Pergamos is still an important place, called Bergamo. Parch- ment is said to have been invented here. 4. Thyati'ra. Now a mean town of 2000 houses, called Akhissar, "White Castle." I 6. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the kingdom of Croesus (560 B.C.); taken by Cyrus, 548; burned by the Greeks, 499; it flourished under the Roman empire; was taken by the Turks, and destroyed by Tamerlane about 1462; it is now a miserable village named Sart. 6. Philadel'phia was built by Attalus (III.) Philadelphus, king of Pergamos (159-138 b.c); was taken by Bajazet I., 1390 a. d. It is now called Allah Shehr, "The City of God," and is a miserable town of 3000 houses. 7. Laodice'a. In Phrygia, near Lydia; has suffered much from earthquakes. It is now a deserted place, called Eskehissar, " The Old Castle." Seven Days' battles around Richmond, Va. A i series of severe conflicts between the confederates under j Lee, and the Federal army under McClellan, lasting from 25 i June to 1 July, 1862. Peninsular campaign, United ; States. Seven Pines or Fair Oaks, Va., Battle of. Pen- insular CAMPAIGN. seven sag^es. Greece, 590 B.C. seven sleepers. According to an early legend, 7 ; youths, in 251, commanded to worship a statue set up in Eph- ' esus by the emperor Decius, refused, and fled to a cavern in i the mountain, where they were enclosed, and slept, accord- : ing to Durandus, for 300 years. Other writers give shorter periods, and various accounts of the awakening. A festival I in their honor is kept in the Roman Catholic church on 27 i July. Seven "Weeks' war. Prussia, 1866. seven vronders. Wonders. Seven Years' war, the conflict maintained by Frederick II. of Prussia against Austria, Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763. He gained part of Silesia. Battles, Prussia. Seventh-Day Baptists. Sabbatarians. Sev'llle, S.W. Spain, the Hispalis of the Phoenicians and the Julia of the Romans, was the capital until Philip II. Anally established his court at Madrid, 1563. It opened its gates to the Saracens in 712, and was taken from them by the Christians in 1247, after an obstinate siege. The peace of Seville between England, France, and Spain, and also a de- fensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed 9 Nov. 1729. In the Peninsular war Seville surrendered to the French, 1 Feb. 1810; and was taken by assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, 27 Aug. 1812. It was besieged but not taken by Espartero, July, 1843. Pop. 1887, 143,182. Sevres (sdvr). Pottery. sewers and sewage. Sir A. H. Layard's explora- tions in Nineveh disclose an elaborate system of drainage in connection with the older palace of Nirarod, consisting of a square brick sewer, with pipe drains leading from almost every chamber of the palace. Excavations of ancient Jerusalem show a complex and perlect system of reservoirs and drains. Agrigentum was provided with sewers, marvels of workman- ship, named from Phaex, the city architect, who built them in the 5th century b.c. The Cloaca Maxima at Rome still exists; probably referred to by Strabo as one of the sewers " along which a bay cart might be driven," and an elaborate system of sewers connected with the Colosseum has been dis- covered. Modern sewers are constructed on the separate or the combined system, in the latter case being large enough to carry off the surface or storm water. The utilization of dis- infected sewage as manure is now much advocated, and in many places in the United States and England sewage is disposed of by sub-surface irrigation, and systems for dry- ing or cremating much waste matter, which would other- wise find its way into the sewers, are in operation in many cities. First legislative enactment providing for drainage of London. . 1225 Hugues Aubriot covered an open sewer in Paris during the reign of Charles VI., originating the Paris sewer system, ' 1380-1422 Sewer commissions appointed in England in the reign of Henry VI 1428-30 ! Act for commissioners of sewers in all parts of England 1532 j Sewer in Paris, now called the grand egoul de ceinture, walled and covered 1740 Covered sewers of Paris extended by Napoleon 1805-6 Earthenware pipes for refuse drainage tried in London under royal commissioners 1842 Act passed requiring the London house sewers to empty into public sewers 1847 Enlargement of sewer system of London, discharging into the Thames, completed. .^ 1855 Present system of Parisian sewers on plan of M. Belgrand, dates from 1857 New sewer system for London, consisting of three intercepting sewers on each side of the Thames, running parallel with it, and discharging into gigantic reservoirs below Barking creek and Erith marshes, completed 4 Apr. 186^ Commission on the contamination of the Thames by London sewage advise a change, combining chemical precipitation with filtration through earth Dec. 1884 William "Webster's method of decomposing London sewage by electricity, set up at Crossness, reported successful on in- spection Mch. 1889 H. Wollheim's process, the "amines, "or ammonia compounds, reported successful at Wimbledon sewage farm 18 Sept. " sewlng'-machlne. it is said that Thomas Saint patented one for boots and shoes in 1790. Similar inventions are ascribed to Duncan (1804), Adams and Dodge (American, 1818), Thimonnier (French, 1830) ; Walter Hunt of New York invented one that made a lock-stitch, 1834, but did not apply for a patent until 1854, when his invention was essentially covered by a patent obtained by Elias Howe of Cambridge, Mass., 8 years before (Sept. 1846), the first really practical sew- ing-machine ; since then many improvements have been made by American inventors. Sexages'lma Sunday. Quadragesima Sunday, Week. SEX 780 SHA •extant, an instrument used like a quadrant, containing W degf«ea> or the sixth part of a circle, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 1550. Arabian astronomers are said to have hail a sextant of 69 feet 9 inches radius, about 995. Seychelles (aa-shel') Isles, Indian ocean, settled by the French about 1768 ; captured by the British, 1794 ; ceded to them, 1815. Pop. 1890, 16,162. Shakers, an English sect, now chiefly found in the U. S., arose in the time of Charles I., and derived its name from volunury convulsions. It soon disappeared, but was revived by Jameis Wardley in 1747, and more successfully by Ann Lee (or Standless), expelled Quakers, about 1757. The sect emi- grated to America, May, 1772, and settled near Albany, N. Y., 1774. Nkw Yokk, 1774-80. They have several communi- ties in the United States; they hold all goods in common, live uprightly, and are noted for frugality, industry, integrity, and thrift. They denounce marriage as sinful, regard celibacy as holy, oppose war, disown baptism and the Lord's supper, and use a sort of dancing as part of worship.— Marsden. They are also called Bible Christians and Girlingites, from Mrs. Girling, a leader among them. Shakespeare and his plays. William Shake- speare was bom at Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, 23 Apr. 1564, and died on his birthday, 1616. In 1582 he mar- ried Anne Hathaway : issue, Susanna, baptized 26 May, 1583 ; Hamnet and Judith, twins, baptized 2 Feb. 1585. Hamnet died 11 Aug. 1596. Susanna married dr. John Hall, 5 June, 1607, and Judith married Thomas Quiney, vintner, Feb. 1616. Lineage of Shakespeare expired with Elizabeth Hall, grand- daughter, who died 1670. The first collected edition of his works is dated 1623 (fac-simile pub. 1862-65); the second, 1632. (In 1849, J. P. Collier, editor of Shakespeare, purchased a copy of this folio, on which were written in pencil correc- tions, supposed to have been made soon after the time of pub- lication. At first he thought little of these marks ; but in 1853 he was induced to publish "Notes and Emendations," derived from this volume. Much controversy ensued as to the authenticity of these corrections ; and in 1859 it was gen- erally agreed that they were of modern date, and of little value, messrs. Knight, Halliwell, and Dyce supporting this es- timate.) The third in 1664 ; the fourth, 1685 ; all in folio. Rowe's editions appeared in 1709, 1714; Pope's, 1725-28; The- obald's, 1733-40; Hanmer's, 1740; Warburton's, 1747; John- son's, 1775; Capell's, 1768; Malone's, 1790; Boy dell's, with numerous plates, was published in 9 vols, fol., 1802. Since then many others, notably, Alexander Dyce's, Knight's, Staun- ton's, White's, Irving's, Furness's Variorum edition, 1890, Wright's, Rolfe's, Hudson's, Appleton Morgan's Bankside edi- tion, 1888-94, etc. Ayscough's " Index to Shakespeare " was published in 1790; Twiss's Index, in 1805; Mary Cowden- Clarke's Concordance, 1847. " Shakespeareana Genealogica," compiled by Geo. Russell French, 1869. " Shakespeare's Com- mentaries," prof. G. G. Gervinus, Heidelberg, Ger., 1875. Mrs. Horace H. Furness, " Concordance to Shakespeare's Poems," 1875. Alex. Schmidt's " Shakespeare Lexicon," Berlin, 1876. Halliwell-Phillipps's" Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare," 1883. Charles Cowden-Clarke's " Key to Shakespeare," 1879. John Bartlett's " Shakespeare Concordance," pub. in Boston, Mass., 1881 ; new edition, 4to, including " Concordance to Poems," New York and London, 1894. Appleton Morgan's " Shakespeare in Fact and Criticism," 1888. F. J. Fumivall's " Introduction to the Leopold Shakespeare," 1889. Mr. Bartlett has also issued a " Shakespeare Phrase-Book." Prof. Wendell's " Shake- speare—a Study," 1894. Shakespeare's plays abrangko chronologically as produced and printed, according to rev. henry P. STOKES. Plays. Written. Titus Andronicus dr. 1590 1 King Heury VI cir. 1592 2 King Henry VI cir. 1592 3 King Henry VI cir. 1592 Two Gentlemen of Verona cir. 1591 Comedy of Errors. 1591 Romeo and Juliet 1591 Ix)ve's Labor's Lost 1591-92 King Richard III 1593-94 Taming of the Shrew before 1594 King Richard II 1594. Published. ... 1600 . .. 1623 ... 1594 ... 1595 . .. 1623 '..'. 1597 . .. 1598 1594 1597 SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS. — {Continued.) Pl»y». Writt«n. King John 1593-94 Midsummer-Night's Dream 1595 Merchant of Venice 1597-98 1 King Henry IV 1597 2 Ki ng Hen ry I V 1598-99 Troilus and Cressida cir. 1599, cir. 1602. Merry Wives of Windsor 1598-99 As You Like It 1599 M 11(^1 Ado About Nothing 1599-1600 160( Hamlet 1599-lGOO 160; PubUtkad. ... 162;; .... im .. mi .1601-'. 162; 160(> 162;; 162i 160^ 162£ King Henry V 1599. . . . Julius Caesar 1599-1600. . . Twelfth Night; or, What You Will. . . 1601 Measure for Measure 1603-4 All's Well that Ends Well cir. 1592, cii Othello 1604. . . . King Lear 1605. . . . Macbeth 1606 Timon of Athens 1607 Pericles 1607-8 Antony and Cleopatra 1608 Coriolanus 1610 •' Cymbeline 1610 " Tempest 1610-11 «' Winter's Tale 1610-11 " King Henry VIII (1611?) 1613 " POEMS. Venus and Adonis 1593 Lucrece 1594 Passionate Pilgrim 1599 Sonnets 1609 "An essay (The Harness essay, 1877) on the 'Chronological Order of Shakespeare's Plays,' by the rev. Henry P. Stokes, pub. Ix)n- don, 1878, is one of the best that has yet appeared, "—//a toweW- Phillipps. PLAYS THAT APPEARED IN THE FIRST EDITION OF 1623. COMEDIES (order of publication). 1. Tempest. 9. Merchant of Venice. 2. Two Gentlemen of Verona. 10. As You Like It. 3. Merry Wives of Windsor. 11. Taming of the Shrew. 4. Measure for Measure. 12. All's Well that Ends Well. 5. Comedy of Errors. 13. Twelfth Night; or, What You 6. Much Ado About Nothing. Will. 7. Love's Labor's Lost. 14. Winter's Tale. 8. Midsummer-Night's Dream. HISTORIES. 15. King John. 20. King Henry VI., Part I. 16. " Richard II. 21. .. .. u u n. 17. " Henry IV., Part I. 22. " " " " III. 18. " " " " II. 23. " Richard III. 19. " " V. 24. " Henry VIII. TRAGI :dies. 25. Troilus and Cressida. 31. Macbeth. 26. Coriolanus. 32. Hamlet. 27. Titus Andronicus. 33. King Lear. 28. Romeo and Juliet. 34. Othello. 29. Timon of Athens. 35. Antony and Cleopatra. 30. Julius Caesar. 36. Cymbeline. | Pericles was not added to Shakespeare's collected works until K in the 3d folio edition. Shakespeare- Bacon controversy. T obscurity resting upon the early life of Shakespeare and the wonderful intelligence and culture shown b}' his works, in con- trast with his education and social relations as far as known, have puzzled all students. The first attempt to refer plays to another author was by miss Delia Bacon (b. Ti madge, O., 1811, d. 1859). She asserted that lord Bacon was the author, and devoted much time and labor to prove it. Wra. H. Smith (English) disputes with miss Bacon the origin of the Baconian theory. Nathaniel Holmes, in his " Authopjl ship of Shakespeare," follows the same line of thought. Mt^| Henry Pott attempted to show, in a work pub. 1883, the iden tity of expression in the " Promus " of Bacon with the plays of Shakespeare. In 1888 appeared Ignatius Donnelly's work, "The Great Cryptogram," published simultaneously in Chicago, New York, and London, a volume of nearly 1000 pages, an attempt to prove that Bacon's authorship is avowed under cipher in the text of the plays in the folio of 1 623. No Shab spearian scholar has accepted the Baconian theory. I^hakespeare forgeries. Literature, For( ies of. Shakespeare fund, established in Oct. 1861, to purchase Shakespeare's garden, birthplace estate, and to erect and endow a public library and museum at Stratford-upon< Avon. The catalogue of the library and museum was puiw Feb. 1868. I wn, I :^| I ;, an i er^fl SHA 731 SHE IShake§peare gallery. Boydell. Sliakespeare'§ Olobe theatre, London. Theatkes. Shakespeare'§ house. In 1847, a number of persons of distinction interested themselves for the preserva- tion of the house in which Shakespeare was born, then actu- ally for sale. They held a meeting at the Thatched-house tavern, London, 26 Aug. in that year, and promoted a sub- scription set on foot by the Shakespearian club at Stratford- upon-Avon ; and a committee was appointed to carry out their object. Li the end, Shakespeare's house was sold at the auc- tion mart in London, where it was " knocked down " to the United Committee of London and Stratford for 3000/., 16 Sept. 1847. In 1856, a learned Oriental scholar, John Shakespeare (no relation of the poet), gave 2500/. to purchase the adjoin- ing house, that it might be pulled down in order to insure the poet's house from the risk of fire. An act to incorporate the trustees and guardians of Shakespeare's birthplace was passed 26 Mch. 1891. Shakespeare society issued 20 volumes, 1841-63. Shakespeare society, New, issues works, 1874 et seq. Shakespeare Society of New York pub. the " Bankside " edi- tion 1888-94 J. 0. Hallivvell-Phillipps, Shakespearian scholar, d 4 Jan. 1889 His "Shakespearian Rarities" (portraits, personal relics, books, etc.) oflfered for sale Jan. 1890 shamrock. It is said that the shamrock used by the Irish as a national emblem was adopted by Patrick M'Alpine, since called St. Patrick, as a simile of the Trinity, about 432. Shang^-Ha'i, incorrectly Shailg^hac, a seaport city and foreign settlement of China, captured by the British, 19 June, 1842; by the Tae-Ping rebels, 7 Sept. i853; retaken by the imperialists, 1855. The rebels were defeated near Shang- Hai by the English and French, allies of the emperor, 1 Mch. 1862. China. ShaiVlS, of Oriental origin, were introduced into Paris after the return of Napoleon Bonaparte from Egypt, 1801. The manufacture was introduced by Barrow and Watson in 1784, at Norwich. It began at Paisley and Edinburgh about 1805.— Ure. Shaw^inut. Massachusetts, 1630. Shawnees. Indians. Shays's retoelliOll. At the end of the Revolution, the United States were burdened with a heavy foreign and do- mestic debt. They were impoverished by the long war, and could not meet the arrears of pay due the soldiers of the Rev- olution. On the recommendation of Congress, each state en- deavored to raise its quota by a direct tax. Much excitement followed in some states, and in 1787 some people of Massachu- setts openly rebelled. Daniel Shays, who had been a captain in the Continental army, marched at the head of a thousand men, took possession of Worcester, and prevented a session of the Supreme court. He repeated his performance at Spring- field ; and the insurrection became so formidable that the gov- ernor was compelled to call out several thousand militia under gen. Lincoln to suppress it. This was speedily accomplished. Though some of the insurgents were sentenced to death, none were executed. A free pardon was finally given to all. Mas- sachusetts, 1787. sheep. Abel was a keeper of sheep (Gen. iv. 2). The patriarch Job had 14,000 sheep, and Solomon at the dedication of the temple, about 1000 b.c., offered a sacrifice of 120,000 sheep. America has no indigenous domestic sheep, the first in the English colonies having been brought by colonists to Jamestown, Va., 1607-10, and to all the colonies when settled, although few sheep were raised until after 1800. In 1810 the estimated number of sheep in the U. S. was 7,000,000. Of the English domestic breeds the Leicesters, Cotswolds, Southdowns, Shropshires, Dorsets, and Cheviots are the most noted. ^D Columella introduces the Tarentine breed, noted for fine fleece (probable progenitor^ of the Merino), into Spain from Ital}-. . . 41 Edward IV. of England sends a present of Cotswold rams to Henry of Castile (14(54) and to John of Aragon 1468 Merinos from Spain introduced into Sweden by Mr. Alstroe- mer 1723 Two hundred Merinos, bought in Spain by the Elector of Sax- ony, shipped from Cadiz May, 1766 Empress Maria Theresa of Hungary imports several hundred Merinos from Spai n 1776 French government buys 376 Merino ewes and lambs in Spain, and sends them to Rambouillet, near Paris 1786 Frederick II. of Prussia imports 300 Merinos from Spain " A few Spanish Merinos imported into England by George III. and placed on his farm at Kew 1787 Otter sheep, with a long body and short, crooked legs, origi- nated in Massachusetts from a malformed twin ram. Efforts were made to preserve this sporadic variety on account of its inability to run and jump, and thus escape from an enclosure. In the eastern states it promised to become a distinct species, but it has disappeared. Imagining that the ewe had been frightened by an otter (then occasionally seen in the vicinity), people called it the Otter sheep 1791 First authentic introduction of Merino sheep into the U. S. was a ram, sole survivor of 2 pair imported from the celebrated Rambouillet flock by Mr. Delessert, a French banker, and placed on his farm near Kingston, N. Y 1801 Flock of about 200 Merinos, imported from Spain by gen. David Humphreys of Connecticut " Chancellor Livingston of New York, minister to France, sends from the Rambouillet flock 4 Merinos to New York 1802 Four of the best flocks of Merinos in Spain confiscated by the Junta, and sold at Badajos to buyers from the U. S. and England chiefly, after the second invasion of the French, Dec. 1808 Hon. William Jarvis ships to the U. S. 1400 Paulars, 1700 Aqueirres, 200 Escurials, 100 Negrettis, and about 200 Montar- cos, which he purchases from the Junta of Spain, 1808 1809-10 Merino society organized in England; sir John Banks at the head and 54 vice-presidents 1811 First large importation of Saxon Merinos into the U. S., made by G. & T. Searle of Boston ; 1824 Twenty ewes and 2 rams, selected from the celebrated Ram- bouillet flock, imported into the U. S. by D. C. Collins of Hartford, Conn 1840 I.eicesters introduced into the U. S about 1825 Merinos introduced into Texas 1852 NUMBER AND VAT>UE OF SHEEP IN THE UNITED STATES. Year. Number. Value. 1850 21,728,220 22,471,275 40.853,000 40,765,900 44,336,072 44,938,365 47,273,553 I860 1870 $93 364 433 1880 . . . 90 230 537 1890 100,659,761 116,121,290 125,999,264 1892 1893 Prior to 1880 more sheep were raised east of the Missis- sippi river than west, but in 1890 the number west compared to the number east was as 3 to 2. According to the U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture there were about 467,500,000 sheep in the world in 1888, Of these there were : In France 22,688,230 " Germany 19,189,715 " Spain 16,939,288 " Great Britain and ) no -^i tko Ireland ] 2y,4Ui,/DU Scattered 47,500,000 In United States 43,544,755 " South America 99,928,607 " Australasia 86,245,520 " Russia in Europe. . 46,724,736 " British India 30,453,724 '• South Africa 23,746,179 Wool. Sheffield, a town on the river Sheaf, West Riding, Yorkshire, Engl., renowned for cutlery, plated goods, etc. Sheffield thwytles are mentioned by Chaucer, in the time of Edward III. Sheffield in the time of the Conqueror was obtained by Roger de Buisli, and has since been held by the Lovetots, Nevils, Talbots, and Howards. Pop. 1891, 324,243. Sheffield Scientific §chool. Yale college. shell§. Bombs. Shenando'ah valley, Operations in. Grant's CAMPAIGN IN Virginia. 81ieridan'§ Begum speech. This speech, made by Richard Brinsley Sheridan during the impeachment trial of Warren Hastings, 1788, and said by Macaulay to have produced an impression such as has never been equalled, was on the charge of the " spoliation of the Begums." The excite- ment of the house was so great at its close that no other speaker could obtain a hearing, and the debate was adjourned. It is said of Sheridan that he wrote the best comedy, " The School for Scandal," made the best speech— as above— and composed the best convivial song, " Here's to the Maiden of Bashful Fifteen," in the English language. Sheridan's raids. Grant's campaign in Vir- ginia, 1864. SHE 782 glierilT, or ahirtf-reve^ governor of a shire or county. Lon- don had its sheriffs prior to William I.'s reign, but some say that sheriffs were first nominated for every county in England by William in 1079. According to other historians, Henry Comhill and Richard Reynere were the first sheriffs of London, 1 Rich. L, 1189. The nomination of sheriffs, according to the present mode, took place in 146L — Stow. Anciently sheriffs were hereditary in Scotland, and in some English counties, as Westmoreland. The sheriffs of Dublin (first called bail- iffs) were appointed in 1308, and obtained the name of sheriff by an incorjjoration of Edward VL, 1548. 36 sheriffs were fined, and U excused, in one year, rather than serve the office for London, 1734. Bailiffs. The high - sheriffs of the counties of England and Wales, except Middlesex and Lancaster, are nominated on the morrow of St. Martin, Nov. 12. Slicriflf^iiuir. Dumblane. I by the government, surrendered on 26 Apr. ISIictlaiKl isles. SHI United States. Johnston's army was Orkneys. Slicrinaii'§ g^reat march. This designates the bold and important movement of Sherman's army from At- lanta to Savannah, and thence through the Carolinas to Golds- borough, 16 Nov. 1864 to 22 Mch. 1865. When Hood, after the loss of Atlanta, moved against Sherman's communications, the latter followed him with nearly his entire army, to protect the railroad until it should have served his purpose. After the Confederate reverse at Allatoona Pass, Hood evaded a battle, and Sherman gave up the chase, left the department of the Mississippi virtually in Thomas's hands (Franklin, Battle of), and, on 16 Nov., having destroyed Atlanta and made a wreck of the railroad back to Dalton, marched east- ward for the Atlantic coast with the 14th, 15th, 17th, and 20th corps, numbering 60,000 infantry and artillery, and about 6000 cavalry. Gen. O. O. Howard commanded the right wing, comprising the 15th corps, gen. P. J. Osterhaus, and the 17th, gen. Frank P. Blair ; the left, under gen. H. W. Slocum, formed by the 14th corps, gen. Jeff. C. Davis, and the 20th, gen. A. S. Williams, and the cavalry under gen. Judson Kilpatrick. He destroyed the railroad as he moved, threatened both Macon and Augusta, thus forcing the confederates to divide their forces, then passed both, and moved down the peninsula be- tween the Ogeechee and Savannah rivers. About the middle of Dec, Sherman stood before Savannah, then held by the Con- federate general Hardee, almost completely invested the city, and captured fort M'AUister (13 Dec), thus gaining access to Dahlgren's fleet. Hardee evacuated Savannah 20 Dec, and the next day Sherman's armj' entered that city. Over 200 guns were captured with Savannah, and 35,000 bales of cotton were seized as a legitimate prize of war. Sherman transferred the forts and city to gen. Foster (18 Jan. 1865), and began his march through the Carolinas. He threatened at once Augusta and Charleston, and passed both. On 12 Feb., Charleston, evac- uated by Hardee, was occupied by the national forces. While Sherman was approaching Goldsborough, Hardee's forces, with the remnants of Hood's old array and detachments from other sources, were gathered together in North Carolina and placed under gen. Johnston. A portion of this force, under Hardee, contested Sherman's approach to Goldsborough (16 Mch.) at Av- erysborough, and was defeated. Johnston's entire army was en- countered at Bentonville (18 Mch.), but Slocum held his ground until the right wing came to his support, and Johnston retreated on the 22d. Terry and Schofield in the meantime joined Sher- man. After Lee's surrender (9 Apr.), Johnston and Sherman entered into negotiations for surrender, which were disproved TONNAPxE OF SAIL AND STEAM VESSELS OF THE MERCHANT MARINE OF THE COASTWISE TRADE AND IN FISHERIES. sllib'bolctll, the word by which the followers of Jeph- thah tested their opponents the Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 b.c. (Judg. xii.). The term is now applied to any |)arty watchword or dogma. Slli'ites, the Mahometan sect predominating in Persia. Mahometanism. ihillillgr. The value of the ancient Saxon coin of this name was fivepence, but it was reduced to fourpence about a century before the Conquest. After the Contjuest the French solidus of 12 pence, in use among the Nor- mans, was called shilling. The true English shilling was first coined, some say, in small numbers, by Henry VII., 1504 — Ruding. A peculiar shilling, value 9 pence,' but to be current at 12, was struck in Ireland, 1560 ; and a large but very base coinage in England for the service of Ire- land, 1598. Milled shillings were coined 13 Chas. H. 1662. Coins. Pittsburg Landing. ^hi'loh, Battle of. Sllip-t>uildillg. The first ship (probably a galley) was brought from Egypt to Greece by Danaus, 1485 b.c Blai7\ The first double-decked ship was built by the Tyri- ans, 786 ^.c.—Lenglet. The Romans built their first fleet of boats by copying a Carthaginian vessel wrecked on their coast 260 B.C. The first double-decked one built in Eng- land was of 1000 tons' burden, by order of Henry VIL; was called the Great Harry, and cost 14,000/.— /S/ow.' Port- holes and other improvements were invented by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. First vessel built in New York harbor 1614 First in Massachusetts, at Plymouth (small) 1624 First vessel on lake Erie '. 1679 First ship down the Ohio to the ocean isoi A prehistoric ship, cut out of solid oak, 48 ft. long, 4 ft. 4 in. wide, and 2 ft. deep, was found while excavating in Lincoln- shire, Engl Apr. 1885 France, a sailing-ship, built on the Clyde by messrs. Henderson, 5 masts, 360 ft. long, 48 ft. wide, bowsprit 50 ft. long, tonnage over 6000 tons Sept. 1890 Carrack, Navy, Shipping, States mentioned. Steam navigation, etc. §hip-inoney was first levied in England about 1007, to form a navy to oppose the Danes. This impost, levied by Charles I. in 1634-36, was much opposed, and led to the revo- lution. He assessed London in 7 ships of 4000 tons, and 1560 men ; Yorkshire in 2 ships of 600 tons, or 12,000/. ; Bristol in 1 ship of 100 tons ; Lancashire in 1 ship of 400 tons. Among others, John Hampden refused to pay the tax ; he was tried] in the exchequer in 1636. The judges declared the tax legal,! 12 June, 1637. Ship-money was one of the grievances com-l plained of in 1641. The 5 judges who had sustained it were] imprisoned. Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with] prince Rupert, at Chalgrove, 18 June, and died 24 June, 1643. "Ship of Fools" or"]Varren§cliiff." An allegorical satire in verse, by Sebastian Brandt of Strasburg; pub. 1494 ; very popular at the time. Literature. shipping', American. The following tables show the j various statistics regarding the vessels and tonnage of Ameri- can shipping for the several years named : U. S. EMPLOYED IN FOREIGN AND Year. Foreign trade. Coastwise. Whale fisheries. Other fisheries. Sail. Steam. Total. Per cent, of increase or decrease. 1789 tons. 123,893 346,254 667,107 981,019 600,003 762,838 1.439,694 2,379,396 1,448,846 1,314,402 928,062 tons. 68,607 103,775 272,492 405,347 617,805 1,176,694 1,797,825 2,644,867 2,638,247 2,637,686 3.409,435 tons. 3,466 3,589 40,503 136,927 146,017 166,841 67,954 38,408 18,633 tons. 9,062 28,348 29,427 34.828 78,255 104,305 151,918 162,764 91,460 77,538 68,367 tons. 201,562 478,377 972,492 1,424,783 1,311,687 1,978,425 3,009.507 4,485,931 3,171,412 2,856,476 2,565,409 tons. 24' 879 202,339 525,947 867,937 1,075,095 1,211,558 1,859,088 tons. 201,562 478,377 972.492 1,424,783 1,336,566 2,180,764 3,535,454 5,353,868 4,246,507 4,068,034 4,424,497 1790 . . . 1800 137.33 1810 . 1823 3.52 5.51 1840 .89 1850 4.02 1860 6.64 1870 4.06 1880 2.41 1890 — 2.42 2.71 SHI 733 SHR In 1861 the foreign trade tonnage reached its maximum of 2,643,628 tons, including the whale fisheries. In 1858, 78 per cent, of the exports and imports was carried in American ships; in 1891, less than 13 per cent. CLASS, NUMBER, AND TONNAGE OF VESSELS BUILT IN THE U. S. FROM 1820 FOR THE YEARS GIVEN. Year. 1 n |i 1 Tons. 1 Tons. II Total tons. 1820 22 60 301 152 535 47,784 22 3,610 557 51,394 1830 25 56 403 116 600 51,491 48 7,068 648 58,560 1840 97 109 378 224 808 106,518 87 14,685 895 121,203 1850 247 117 554 307 1225 227,997 197 51,258 1422 279,255 1860 no 36 372 289 807 145,427 275 69,370 1082 214,797 1870 73 27 519 709 1328 206.332 290 70,620 1618 276,953 1880 23 2 286 243 554 78,556 348 78,853 902 157,409 1890 10 • 347 284 641 135,077 410 159,045 1051 294,122 NUMBER AND TONNAGE OF VESSELS BUILT IN THE DIFFER- ENT DISTRICTS AND YEARS GIVEN. 1857... 1867... 1877... 1890.. . New England coast. Tons. 183,625 135,189 90,992 78,577 Entire seaboard. No. 1008 998 708 756 Tons. 285,453 230,810 132,996 169,091 Mississippi and tributaries. No. Tons. 41,854 35,106 34,693 16,506 No. Tons. 182 51,498 296 1 39,679 89 8,903 191108,526 1434 1519 1029 1051 378,805 305,595 176,592 294,123 Largest number of ships and barks built in any year since 1789 (1855), 381; brigs (1815), 224; schooners (1816), 781; canal-boats and barges (1873), 1221; steam - vessels (1864), 620. NUMBER OF VESSELS IN THE U. S. MERCHANT MARINE, 1891. Engaged in foreign trade. Number. Tons. Steamers 263 1,246 '7 236 070 Sail-vessels 749,968 Canal-boats Barges i , 2,680 Total 1,516 5,945 12,407 1,146 1,331 988,718 1,776,269 1,339,530 121,000 373,077 Engaged in home trade. Canal-boats Barges Total 20,829 3,609,876 Total foreign and home. . . . 22,345 4,598,594 shipping', British. Shipping was first registered in the river Thames in 1786; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of the 18th century, the shipping of England was but 500,000 tons— less than that of London now. In 1830, the number of ships in the British empire was 22,785. NUMBER OF REGISTERED SAILING AND STEAM VESSELS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM ENGAGED IN HOME AND FOREIGN TRADE FOR THE YEARS GIVEN. Vessels. Sail... Steam. 1871. Sail... Steam. Total. (Sail... { Steam. Total. /Sail... 1 Steam. (Sail... (Steam. Total. Number. 19,288 20,285 19,650 2,557 22,207 17,101 3,218 20,319 12,292 5,202 17,494 11,570 5,855 17,425 Tons. ,918,511 441,184 4,343,558 1,290,003 4,138,149 1,977,489 6,115,638 3,054,059 4,297,829 7,351,888 2,893,372 5,021,764 7,915,136 In 1889 the total tonnage of the British merchant marine was 9,472,060, of which 7,641,157 tons were of the United Kingdom ; for the same year the U. S. had 4,307,475 tons. NUMBER OF VESSELS BUILT FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM'S MERCHANT MARINE FOR THE YEARS HERE GIVEN. Vessels. Number. Tons (Sail 269 465 75,696 407,445 * (Steam... (Sail Total 734 277 582 483,141 117,481 554,024 ■ (Steam... (Sail Total 859 277 581 671,506 123,224 528,789 • (Steam... Total 858 652,013 shipivrecks. Wrecks. Sllirt§ are said to have been first generally worn in the west of Europe early in the 8th century.— Dm Fresnoy, Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England nntil about 1253, when coarse linen (fine coming at this period from abroad) was first manufactured in England by Flemish arti- sans. — Stow. shoddy, woollen goods, manufactured from old woollen rags, or refuse, to which new wool is added, is stated to have been first manufactured about 1813, at Batley, near Dewsbury, Yorkshire. Manufactured and sold extensively in the United States, 1863-73. shoes among the Jews were made of leather, linen, rush, or wood. Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by Jewish women (Isa. iii. 18). Pythagoras would have his dis- ciples wear shoes of the bark of trees, probably to avoid the use of the skins of animals, as they refrained from taking life. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on shoes ; and Caligula enriched his with precious stones. In England, about 1462, the people wore the beaks or points of their shoes so long as to encumber them in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen fastened theirs with chains of silver or silver gilt, others with laces. This was prohibited, on the forfeiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 7 Edw. IV. 1467. Dress. Shoes, as at present worn, were introduced about 1633. The buckle Avas not used till 1668.— Stow ; Mortimer. Pieter Camper, an eminent Dutch surgeon, published a treatise on the best form of the shoe, 1782. The buckle-makers petitioned against the use of shoe- strings in 1791. shooting-Stars. Meteorites. short-hand. Stenography. "short- lived" administration — that of William Pulteney, earl of Bath, lord Carlisle, lord Winchel- sea, and lord Granville— existed from 10 Feb. to 12 Feb. 1746. Shoshones (sho-sho'nes) or ISnake Indians. shot. In early times various missiles were shot from cannon. Bolts are mentioned in 1413 ; and in 1418 Henry V. ordered his clerk of ordnance to get 7000 stone shot made at the quarries at Maidstone. Since then chain, grape, and canister shot have been invented, as well as shells ; all are de- scribed in Scoffern's " Projectile Weapons of War, and Explo- sive Compounds," 1868. Bombs, Cannon. Shrewsbury, a town of Shropshire, Engl., arose after the ruin of the Roman town Uriconium (Wroxeter), and be- came one of the chief cities of the kingdom, having a mint till the reign of Henry III. Here Richard II. held a parliament in 1397. — On 23 July, 1403, was fought a sanguinary battle at Hately field, near Shrewsbury, between the army of Henry IV. and that of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland, who had conspired to de- throne Henry. Henry was seen in the thickest of the fight, with his son, afterwards Henry V. The death of Hotspur by an unknown hand gave the victory to the king. — Hume. Prince Henry. Why, Percy I killed myself, and saw thee dead. Falstaff. Didst thou?— Lord, lord, how this world is given to lying! I grant you, I was down, and out of breath; and so was he: but we rose both in an instant, and fought a long hour by Shrews- bury clock. —Shakespeare, "Henry IV. " pt. i. act v. sc. iv. Shrop'shire (corrupted from Salop-shire), Battle of, in which the Britons were subjugated, and Caractacus, king of SHR the Silures, became, through the treachery of the queen of the Brigautes, a prisouer to the Romans, 60. Shrove Tuesday, the day before Ash- Wednesday, the first day of the Lent fast, Carnivau $tiaill% a kingdom in India, bordering on the Bnrmese empire. Siam was rediscovered by the Portuguese in 1511, and a trade established, in which the Dutch joined about 1604. A British ship arrived about 1613. In 1683 a Cephalonian Greek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreign n)inister of Siam, and opened a communication with France; Louis XIV. gent an embassy in 1686 to convert the king, without effect. After several attempts, sir John Bowring succeeded in obtain- ing a treaty of friendship and commerce between England and Siam, which was signed 30 Apr. 1866, and ratified 5 Apr. 1866. 2 ambassadors from Siam arrived in England in Oct. 1867, and had an audience with queen Victoria; they brought with them magnificent presents, which they delivered crawling, on 16 Nov. They visited Paris in June, 1861. By a treaty with France, the French protectorate over Cambodia was recognized ; signed 16 July, ratifieti 24 Oct. 1867. The king, Khoulalon- korn, born 2l'SepU 1863, has reigned from 1 Oct. 1868; the king was entertained at Calcutta, 7-12 Jan. 1872; a political constitution was decreed, 8 May, 1874. Queen Victoria re- ceived the order of the White Elephant from the Siamese minister at Windsor, 2 July, 1880. Area, 250,000 sq. miles. Population of Siam (1891) about 9,000,000. King Khoulalonkorn (b. 21 Sept. 1853) ; succeeded his father, Mongkout 1 Oct. 1868 Changes and political reforms were begun by the king, 16 Nov. 1873 On 9 Oct. 1874, he invited astronomers to Bangkok to view the ecJiiwe of 5 Apr. 1875 Telegmphic communication with France opened 14 Jnly, 1883 Gradual abolition of slavery nearly completed 1886 Bangkok- Pankam railroad commenced 16 July, 1891 Prince Damrong, half-brother of the king, on a mission, travels through Europe 1891-92 French troops occupy Rhone island in the Mekong river; Sia- mese withdraw without resistance 9 Apr. 1893 French begin active hostilities; gun-boats fire on the Pakim forts, Bangkok (Franck, 1893) " Siaine§e tV^ins. 2 persons born about 1811, with all the faculties of distinct individuals, though united by a short cartilaginous band at the pit of the stomach. They were named Chang and Eng, and were discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an American, Robert Hunter, who took them to New York, where they were exhibited. Capt. Coffin brought 734 SIC instantly murdered. The populace ran through tho city, crying out, "Let tho French die!" and, without distinction of rank, age, or sex, slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to tho num- ber of about 8000. Even the churches proved no sanctuary, and tho massacre became general throughout the island. I SIc'lly (anciently Trinacria, three-cornered), the largest island in the Mediterranean, on which mount ^Etna is situated. The early inhabitants were the Sicani, who probably came from Italy about 1294 b.c. Afterwards the Siculi, according to Niebuhr, of Pelasgian origin, dwelling in Latium about the Tiber, crossed to the island, and from them it received its name. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here (736-682), and it was made a Roman province 212 b.c In the production of wheat the Romans considered the island one of their best granaries. It is supposed that Sicily was separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the strait of Messina was thus formed. Its government has frequently been united with and separated from that of Naples. It now forms part of the kingdom of Italy. Area, 11,289 sq. miles. Pop. in 1856, 2,231,020; 1871, 2,565,323; 1875, 2,698,- 672; 1881,2,927,901; 1890, estimated 3,286,472. ^ (,. Syracuse founded (Eusebius) about 732 " Gela founded (Thucydides) 680 or 713 Agrigkntum founded 582 Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to death (Brazkn Bull). . . 549 Law of Petalism instituted 460 Athenian expedition fails 413 War with Carthage 409 Uionysius becomes master of Syracuse, makes peace with the Carthaginians, and reigns 406-367 Dionysius II. sells Plato for a slave, who is ransomed by his friends 360 Pionysius expelled by Timoleon 343~ Who governs well ; and dies 337 ^ Agathocles usurps power at Syracuse, 317; defeated at Himera by Carthaginians, 310 ; poisoned 289 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, invades Sicily; expels most of the Carthaginians; returns to Italy 278-277 Hiero II. defeated by the Romans 265 Becomes their ally 264 Romans enter Sicily (Punic wars) •' Agrigentum taken by the Romans 262 Palermo besieged by the Romans 254 Archimedes flourishes about 236 Hiero II. dies, over 90 years of age 216 Romans take Syracuse, and make Sicily a province; Archi- medes slain 212 Carthaginians lose half their possessions, 241; the remain- der " Servile wars; much slaughter 135, 134, 132 Tyrannical government of Verres (for which he was accused by Cicero) 73-71 them to England. After several years in Britain, they went I ^'^'iLl'fJn .^Y.S„"/ ^'^"P^*"^' ^«" ^^ ^^® ^reat Pompey, 42 to America, where they settled on a farm, and married two j sisters. In 1865 they were in North Carolina in declining health. Their exhibition in London began again, 8 Feb. 1869. They died in America, within 2 hours of each other, 16, 17 Jan. 1874. Sibe'ria, a country of N. Asia. In 1580 the conquest was begun by the Cossacks under Jerraak Timofejew. In 1710 Peter the Great began to send prisoners thither. An insurrec- tion broke out among the Poles in Siberia in June, 1866, and was soon suppressed. Area, 4,833,496 sq. miles. Pop. 4,484,- 549. Russia. sib'yii (Lat. sibyllce), women believed to be inspired. Plato speaks of 1, others of 2, Pliny of 3, ^lian of 4, and Varro of 10, as follows : The Persian, Libyan, Delphian, Cuncean, Eryth- r(Ban, Samian, Cyma, Hellesponiine, Phrygian, Tiburtine. An Erjnhraean sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. 9 books containing the Roman destinies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon the sibyl threw 3 into the fire, and asked the same price for the other 6, which being denied, she burned 3 more, and again demanded the same sum for the rest; when Tarquin, conferring with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were created to consult them on all occasions, 531 b.c. Quindk- CEMVIKS. Sieiriail Ve§per8, the term given to the massacre of the French (who had conquered Sicily, 1266) which began at Palermo, 30 Mch. 1282. On Easter Monday conspirators assembled at Palermo, and while the French were engaged in festivities a Sicilian bride passed with her train. One Drochet, a Frenchman, used her rudely, under pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian stabbed him with his own sword; and, a tumult ensuing, 200 French were defeated ; expelled 36 Invaded by the Vandals, 440 a.d. ; by the Goths, 493; taken for a.d. the Greek emperors by Belisarius 535 Conquered l)y the Saracens 832-78 Greeks and Arabs driven out by a Norman prince, Roger I., son of Tancred, 1058; who takes the title of count of Sicily 1061-90 Roger II., son of the above-named, unites Sicily with Naples, and is crowned king of the Two Sicilies 1131 Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of France, con- quers Naples and Sicily, deposes the Norman princes, and makes himself king 1266 French massacred (Sicilian Vkspers) 1282 Sicily seized by a fleet sent by the king of Aragon; Naples re- mains to the house of Anjou " Alphonso, king of Aragon, takes possession of Naples 1435 Kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the Spanish monarchy under Ferdinand the Catholic 1501 Victor, duke of Savoy, by the treaty of Utrecht made king of Sicily 1713 Which he gives up to the emperor Charles VI., and becomes king of Sardinia 1720 Charles, son of the king of Spain, becomes king of the Two Sicilies 1735 Throne of Spain becoming vacant, Charles, who is heir, vacates the throne of the Two Sicilies in favor of his third son Ferdi- nand, agreeably to treaty 1769 Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, which destroys 40,- 000 persons 1783 French conquer Naples; Ferdinand IV. retires to Sicily 1806 Political disturbances 1810 New constitution granted, under British auspices 1812 French expelled; kingdom of Two Sicilies re-established; Ferdinand returns to Naples; abolishes the constitution 1815 Revolution at Palermo suppressed 1820 Great towns in Sicily rise and demand the constitution; a provisional government proclaimed 12 Jan. 1848 King nominates his brother, the count of Aquila, viceroy, 17 Jan. ; promises a new constitution 29 Jan. " Sicilian parliament decrees the exclusion of the Bourbon fam- ily, 13 Apr. ; and invites the duke of Genoa to the throne, 11 July, " SIC 735 Messina bombarded, taken by the Neapolitans 7 Sept. 1848 Catania taken by assault, 6 Apr. ; Syracuse surrenders, 23 Apr. ; and Palermo 15 May, 1849 Insurrections suppressed at Palermo, Messina, and Catania, 4 Apr. et seq. ; the rebels retire into the interior, 21 Apr. et seq. 1860 Garibaldi and 2200 men embark at Genoa, 5 May ; land at Mar- sala, 11 May; he abandons his ships, and assumes dictator- ship in the name of the king of Sardinia 14 May, " He defeats the royal troops at Calatafimi, 15 May; storms Pa- lermo, 27 May; which is bombarded by the royal fleet, 28 May; armistice 31 May, " A provisional government formed at Palermo, 3 June; which is evacuated by the Neapolitans 6 June, " Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at Melazzo 20, 21 July, " Convention signed, the Neapolitans to evacuate Sicily (retain- ing the citadel of Messina) 30 July, " New Sicilian constitution proclaimed 3 Aug. " Garibaldi embarks for Calabria (Naples) 19 Aug. " Prof Saffi (late of Oxford), a short time dictator Sept. " Sicilians by universal suffrage vote for annexation to Sardinia (432,054 against 667) 21 Oct. " Victor Emmanuel visits Sicily 1 Dec. " Citadel of Messina blockaded, 28 Feb. ; surrenders to gen. Cial- diui 13 Mch. 1861 King Victor Emmanuel warmly received at Messina May, 1862 Italy, Naples. " §ick man," an epithet applied to Turkey, by the czar Nicholas, 14 Jan. 1854. Russo-Turkish wars. Sic'yOll, an ancient Grecian kingdom in the Peloponne- sus, founded, it is said, about 2080 B.C. Its people took part in the wars in Greece, usually supporting Sparta. In 252 it became a republic and joined the Achaean league formed by Aratus. It was the country of the sculptors Polycletes (436) and Lysippus (328 b.c.). iide'real time. The time in which the earth rotates on its axis, the sidereal day, is the interval between 2 con- secutive passages of a star across the meridian. This day is divided into 24 equal parts, called sidereal hours, the hour into 60 sidereal minutes, etc. This time is practically invari- able. The interval of time from the moment the sun leaves a fixed star until it returns to it constitutes a sidereal year, and measured by solar time is 365 days 6 hrs. 9 min. 9.6 sec, being longer than the solar j'ear. The solar year is the inter- val between 2 successive passages of the sun through the same Equinox ; if the equinoxes were fixed points the solar and sidereal year would be identical, but the equinoxes recede from east to west 50.27" annually; thus the sun reaches the *quinox sooner every year by 50.27" of arc, or by 20 rain. 22.9 sec. of time, and the mean solar year is 20 min. 22.9 sec. shorter than the sidereal year, or 365 days 5 hrs. 48 rain. 46.7 sec. §ic1er'OStat (from sidus, Lat. for a star), an apparatus •constructed by M. Leon Foucault, shortly before his death, 11 Feb. 1868, for observing the light of stars just as that of the sun is studied in the camera-obscura. It consists of a mirror moved by clockwork, and a fixed objective glass for concen- trating the rays into a focus. ISi'clOIl or Zi'dou, Syria, a city of Phoenicia, to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by Cyrus about 537 b.c., and surrendered to Alexander, 332 b c. Phcenicia. The town was taken from the pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of his allies, assisted by some ships of the British squadron, under commodore Charles Napier, 27 Sept. 1840. Syria. Siedlce (_sed 'ce), a village of Poland, where a battle ■was fought 10 Apr. 1831, between the Poles and Russians. The Poles obtained the victory after a bloody conflict, taking 4000 prisoners and several pieces of cannon ; but this success was soon followed by fatal reverses. iieig^e. Azotus or Ashdod, which was besieged by the Egyptian monarch Psammetichus the Powerful, held out 19 years.— f/sAer. For 29 years.— flerodotus. This was the longest siege of antiquity. The siege of Troy, the most celebrated, lasted 10 years, 1184 b.c. But the siege of Jeru- salem by Titus, 70 a.d. (surrendered 8 Sept.), was the most dreadful ever recorded. Following are the principal sieges since the 12th century ; for details of most, see separate arti- cles. Acre, 1192, 1799, 1832, 1840. I used by French engineer named Algesiras, 1341. Renau), 1816. Algiers, 1081 (bomb vessels first Alkmaer. 1573. SIE Almeida, 27 Aug. 1810. Amiens, 1597. Ancona, 1174, 1799, 1860. Antwerp, 1576, 1583, 1585, 1746, 1832. Arras, 1640. Atlanta, U. S.,1864. Azof, 1736. Badajoz, 11 Mch. 1811; 6 Apr. 1812. Bagdad, 1258. Barcelona, 1697, 1714. Basing House, Hampshire, Engl, one of the most gallant de- fences made by the royalists during the civil war; Crom- well carried it by assault 14 Oct. 1645, after repeated trials by others and a desultory siege of 2 years. "The Plundering of Basing House " is one ol Landseer's most popular paint ings. Belgrade, 1439, 1456, 1521, 1688, 1717, 1739, 1789. Belle-Isle, 1761. Bergen-op-Zoom, 1622, 1747, 1814. Berwick, 1333, 1481. Bethune, 1710. Bilbao, by Carlists, 1874. Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. Bologna, 1512, 1796, 1799. Bommel (the invention of the covered way), 1794. * Bonn, 1672, 1689, 1703. Boston, U. S., 1775. Bouchain, 1711. Boulogne, 1544. Breda, 1625. Brescia, 1238, 1512, 1849. Breslau, 1807. Brisac, 1638, 1704. Brussels, 1695, 1746. Bomarsund, 1854. Buda, 1541, 1686. Burgos, 1812, 1813. Cadiz, 1812. Calais, 1347 (British historians affirm that cannon were used at Cressy, 1346, and here in 1347. First used here in 1388. —Rymer's Feed.), 1558, 1596. Calvi, 1794. Candia (the largest cannon then known in Europe used here by the Turks), 1667. Cartliagena, 1706-7, 1740, 1873-74. Cawnpore, 1857. Chalus, 1199. Charleroi, 1693. Charleston, U. S., 1864-65. Chartres, 1568. Cherbourg, 1758. Ciiidad Rodrigo, 1810, 1812. Colchester, 1648. Comorn, 1849. Compiegne (Joan ot Arc), 1430. Condd, 1676, 1793, 1794. Coni, 1691, 1744. Constantinople, 1453. Copenhagen, 1658, 1801, 1807. Corfu, 1716. ' Courtray. 1646. Cracow, 1702. Cremona, 1702. Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813, 1814. Delhi, 18.57. Douay, 1710. Dresden, 1756, 1813. Drogheda, 1649. Dublin, 1500. Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. Flushing, 15 Aug. 1809. Frederickshald ( Charles XII. killed), 1718. Gaeta, 1435, 1734, 1860-61. Genoa, 1747, 1800. Gcrona, 1809. Ghent, 1708. Gibraltar, 1734, 1779, 1782-83. Glatz, 1742, 1807. GOttingen, 1760. Graves, 1674. Grenada, 1491, 1492. Groningen, 1594. Haerlem, 1572, 1573. Harfieur, 1415. Heidelberg, 1688. Herat, 1838. Humaita, 1868. Ismail, 1790. , Kars, 1855. Kehl, 1733, 1796. Landau, 1702 et seq., 1792. Landrecy, 1712, 1794. Laon, 988, 991. Leipsic, 1757 etseq., 1813. Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1810. Leyden, 1574. Liege, 1408, 1688, 1702. Lille, 1708, 1792. Limerick, 1651, 169L Londonderry, 1689. Lucknow, 1857. Louisburg, 1758. Luxemburg, 1795. Lyons, 1793. Maestricht, 1579, 1673 (Vauban first came into notice), 1676, 1748. Magdala, 1868. Magdeburg, 1631, 1806. Malaga, 1487. Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. Mantua, 1797, 1799. Marseilles, 1524. Menin, 1706. Mentz, 1689, 1793. Messina, 1282, 1719, 1848, 1861. Metz, 1552-53, 1870. Mons, 1691, 1709, 1792. Montargis, 1426. Montauban, 1621. Montevideo, .Tan. 1807. Motlie (the French, taught by a Mr. MuUer, first practised the art of throwing shells), 1634. Namur, 1692, 1746, 1794. Naples, 1435, 150^, 1557, 1792, 1799, 1806. Nice, 1706 Nienport, 1600. Olivenza, 1801, 1811. Olmutz, 1758. Orleans, 1428, 1563. Ostend, 1601, 1798. Oudenarde, 1706. Padua, 1509. Pampeluna, 1813. Paris, 1420, 1594, 1870, 1871. Parma, 1248. Pavia, 1524, 1655. Perpignan, 1542, 1642. Phalsbourg, 1814, 1815, 1870. Philipsburg, 1644, 1676, 1688 (first experiment of firing artillery d ricochet, 1734, 1799). Plevna, 1877. Pondicherry, 1748, 1793. Prague, 1741-44. Qucsnoy, 1793-94. Rheims, 1359. Rhodes, 1521. Richmond, U.S., 1864-65. Riga, 1700, 1710. Rochelle, 1573, 1627. Rome, 1527, 1798, 1849. Romorantin (artillery first used in sieges — Voltaire), 1356. Rouen, 1419, 1449, 159L Roxburgh, 1460. St. Sebastian, 1813. Saragossa, 1710, 1808, 1809 (the 2 last dreadful). Sebastoi)ol, 1854-5. Schweidnitz (first experiment to reduce a fortress by springing globes of compression), 1757- 1762. Scio (Greece), 1822. Seriugapatam, 1799. Seville, 1247-48. Silistria, 1854. Smolensko, 1632, 1812. Stralsund (the method of throw- ing red-hot balls first practised with certainty), 1715. Strasburg, 1870. Tarragona, 1811. Temeswar, 1716. Thionville, 1792. Thorn, 1703. Tortosa, 1811. Toulon, 1707, 1793. Toulouse, 1217. Tournay, 1340, 1513, 1583, 1667, 1709 (this was the best defence ever drawn from counter- mines), 1792. Treves, 1635, 1673, 1675. Tunis, 1270, 1535. SIE 786 SIL Turin, 1640. 1706. Valencia, 1705, 1707, 1712. Valeucieunes, 1677, 1798, 17M. VauDe«, 1342. Venloo, 1702. Verdun, 17i)2. Vicksburg, V. 8., 1863. Vienna, 1529, 1683. Wakefield, 1460. Warsaw, 1831. Xativa, 1246. Xeres. 1262. Yorklowu, 1781. Yprfcs, 1648. Zurich, 1544. Zutphen, 1686. SlenB (se-a'na) (fornoerly Sena Julia, Italy), in the middle ages a powerful republic rivalling Florence and Pisa, weakened through intestine quarrels, was subjugated by the emperor Charles V., and given to his son in 1655, who ceded it to Cosmo of Tuscany, 1657. It was incorporated with France, 1808-14. Sierra Leone (ae-er'ra le^'ne), a colonial settlement of W. Africa, discovered in 14C0. In 1786, London swarmed with free negroes in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whites, mostly women of bad character and in ill-health, were sent out to Sierra Leone at the charge of government to form a settlement, 9 Dec. 1786. In 1807 the settlement was given up to the crown. It extends from the Scarcies river on the north to Liberia on the south, 180 miles. By agreement with the French government, 10 Aug. 1889, a commission was appointed for the delimitation of the British and French pos- sessions in W. Africa, Oct. 1890. Commissioners met Dec. 1891. Area, 15,000 sq. miles ; pop. 180,009. §lgpnalS are alluded to by Polybius. Elizabeth had in- structions drawn up for the admiral and general of the expe- dition to Cadiz, to be announced to the fleet in a certain lati- tude ; this is said to have been the first set of signals given to commanders of the English fleet. A system for the navy was invented by the duke of York, afterwards James II., 1665. — Guthrie. A regular code of day and night signals was ar- ranged by adms. Howe and Kempenfelt of the British navy, about 1790; and in 1812 capt. Rodgers, of the United States navy, arranged an admirable signal system. A code of sig- nals was adopted by the U. S. navy department in 1857. An- other board in 1859 tested and approved a system of night- signals invented by B. F. Coston of the U. S. navy; and in Oct. 1861 they were adopted in the U. S. army. A new system was invented by gen. Albert J. Myer, which was used in both branches of the service by night and day during the civil war. In 1870 the signal-service of the army was partly formed into a meteorological bureau to study the scientific law and to notice the advance of storms. In 1891 this branch of the ser- vice was transferred from the war department to the depart- ment of agriculture, and the Weather Bureau was organized. For fog signals, etc.. Acoustics. iig^nboards were used by the Greeks and Romans. A " History of Signboards," by Jacob Larwood and John Hot- ten, was pub. in 1866. §ig;ner§ of the Declaration of Independence and Con- stitution. Constitution, Declaration. Sikhs (^seks), a people of N. India, invaded the Mogul empire, 1703-8. India, 1849; Punjab. Sil'ehester, county Hants, Engl. Here are the re- mains of the Roman town Calleva (built on the site of the British Caer Segeint or Segont) ; including walls of excellent masonry, a basilica and forum, private dwellings, etc. Many discoveries have been made during excavations carried on under the patronage of the duke of Wellington, since 1863. Coins of Claudius I. and later emperors have been found. A systematic investigation of these remains was begun by the Society of Antiquaries, London, 23 June, 1890. Many vases, tools, etc., discovered 1890 Remains of a presumed Romano-British church, probable date 4th century, uncovered June, 1892 Sile'§ia, formerly a province of Poland, was invaded by John of Bohemia, 1325, and ceded to him, 1355. It was taken by the king of Hungary, 1478, and added to the Austrian do- minion, 1526. It was conquered and lost several times during the Seven Years' war by Frederick of Prussia, but a part was retained by him at the peace in 1763. In 1587 the duke of Leignitz made an agreement with the elector of Brandenburg that if either died without issue the survivor should have both realms. The duke died without issue, but Leopold I. claimed the dukedom as a forfeited fief. At the death of Charles VI. the elector of Brandenburg, then Frederick II. (the Great)^ claimed Silesia as his right, based upon the above agreement; and as Maria Theresa of Austria refused to give it up, the Silesian wars followed, 1741-63. §iriCOn or silicium {se-lish'e-um) (from silex, flint), a non-metallic element, next to oxygen the most abundant substance in the earth, as it enters into many earths, metallic ^ oxides, and a great number of minerals. The mode of pro- i curing pure silicon was discovered by Berzelius in 1823. — "^ Gmelin. Ransomk's stone, Water-glass. ' ^ili§'tria, a strong military town in Bulgaria, European Turkey. It was taken by the Russians, 30 June, 1829, and held some years by them as a pledge for the payment of a ! large sum by the Porte; but was eventually restored. In 1864 it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, under prince Paskiewitch, and many assaults were made. Russo-TuRKisn wars, 1854. §illi. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 324 B.C. Known at Rome in Tiberius's time, when the sen- ate prohibited the use of plate of massive gold, and forbade men to debase themselves bj' wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of silk, 220 a.d. Silk was- at first of the same value with gold, weight for weight, and was thought to grow like cotton on trees. Silk-worms were, brought from India to Europe in the 6th century. Charle- magne sent Oifa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, 780. The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1146, when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun and wove the silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south of France, a little before the reign of Francis I. about 1610 ; and Henry IV. propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throughout the kingdom about 1600. In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at Kenilworth castle, 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1634. Cultivated in England in 1604; and broad silk woven from raw silk in 1620. Brought to perfection by the French refugees in Lon- don at Spitalfields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, mer- chant of London, modelled from the original mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. He obtained a pat- ent in 1718, and died 3 Jan. 1739. 6 new species of silk-worm were rearing in France, 1861. In 1858, M. Guerin-Meneville introduced into France a Chinese worm termed the Cynthia bombyx, which feeds on the Ailanthvs glandulosa, a hardy tree- of the oak kind. The cynthia yields a silk-like substance termed Ailantine. It was brought to Turin by Fantoni in 1866. silk in the United States. James I. of England, seeking to introduce silk culture into the American colonies, forwarded eggs to Virginia, and offered bounties on silk cultivation, but the superior profit of tobacco culture brought the experiment to naught. Silk culture was introduced in Louisiana in 1718, and government encouragement was given to the industry in Georgia. Artisans were sent to Georgia to carry on silk in- dustries in 1732. The first export of raw silk (8 pounds) was made in 1734. In 1749 the production at Ebenezer, on the Savannah river, amounted to 1000 lbs. A public filature or reel for drawing off silk from cocoons was set up in Savannah in 1751. From 1751 to 1754 the exports amounted to $8880, and for the next eighteen years there was an annual export averaging 646 lbs. In 1760, 16,000 lbs. of cocoons were de- livered at the filature. The production rapidly declined under British taxation, and was destroyed entirely by the- Revolutionary war. The history of silk culture in South Caro- lina was almost identical with that in Georgia. In Connecti- cut 200 lbs. of raw silk were made in 1789. In 1790, 60 fami- lies in New Haven and 30 in Norfolk were engaged in the business. In 1839 the product of Mansfield, Conn., was about 5 tons. A filature was established in Philadelphia in 1770. With a climate every way adapted to the production of silk, California bids fair to become a great silk - producing state. Thousands of mulberry-trees have been imported to afford food for the silk-worms. In 1876, one cocoonery in San Jose had 1,000,000 silk-worms. There are now over 200 silk-fac- tories in the U. S., and the cultivation of native silk seems; SIL to be reviving. The Women's Silk-culture Association held an exhibition in Philadelphia, 1881-82. For early cult- ure, Conn kcticut, 1747 ; Georgia, 1735; South Carolina, 1755. §ilot'vaar, a new explosive, invented by a Russian engineer, M. Rouckteshell, in 1886 ; said to be 10 times more powerful than gunpowder. Sil'lirei, a British tribe, occupying the counties of Mon- mouth and Hereford, was subdued by the Roman general Os- torius Scapula, 50. Shropshire. From this tribe is derived the geological term " Silurian strata," among the lowest of the palaeozoic, or primary series, from their occurrence in the above-mentioned counties. Murchison's "Siluria" was pub. 1849. silver exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver-mines of South America are by far the richest, especially those of Peru and Bolivia, there having been mined over $650,000,000 from the mines of Porosi, Bolivia, since their discovery. In 1749, one mass of silver weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a mine in NorXvay a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal museum at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1680/. In England silver plate and ves- sels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumbrian bishop, 709. — Tyrrell. According to the estimate of Mulhall, Mexico has produced more silver since 1523 than any other country within the last 500 years, amounting to over $3,050,000,000; next in order is Peru, with nearly $3,000,000,000 ; followed by the United States, with $1,000,000,000 from 1849. The amount of silver produced in the U. S. in 1890 was $70,465,000, the largest output in the world, followed by Mexico with $50,000,- 000. The states depositing the most silver at the U. S. mints up to 1891 were, 1st, Nevada, amount $100,279,775; 2d, Colo- rado, $24,467,565; 3(1, Utah territory, $19,576,538; 4th, Mon- tana, $16,556,225; 5th, Arizona territory, $13,857,358, etc., down to New Hampshire with $1.74. The ratio of the value of silver to that of gold varies, viz.: 1000 B.C., 12 to 1; 500 B.C., 13 to 1 ; commencement Christian era, 9 to 1 ; 500 A.D., 18 to 1 ; 1100, 8 to 1 ; 1400, 11 to 1 ; 1554, 6 to 1 ; 1561, 2 to 1 ; 1600, 10 to 1 ; 1727, 13 to 1 ; 1800, 15.5 to 1. This ratio was maintained until 1872, when it began to rise. The following shows the range of silver quotations in London, the chief market of the world, and the dollar value and the ratio of silver to gold for the years given : RATIO OF SILVER TO GOLD. Average price per oz.. Ratio of sil- ver to gold. 1845 49 59Xd.=fl.30+ &\d. — 1.33+ 59d. = 1.28 52+d..-= 1.15+ 51+d.= 1.12+ 50+d.=i 1.11 45+d.= 1.00+ 42+d= 0.94 42+d.:= 0.93+ ¥J-\-d.= 1.04+ 45+d.= 0.98+ 39+d.=. 0.87+ 36+d.= 0.80+ 15.8+ 15.4+ 16 17 1850 72 1874 .... 1876 17.88 1879 18.40 1883 18.64 1886 '. 20.78 1888 21.99 1889 22 09 1890 19 76 1891 20 92 1892 23 72 1893 25 77 [During Feb. 1894, the price of silver in the London market fell as low as 29j^d., about 65 cts., or 3^ part of the price of gold, the lowest price on record up to that time.] Bland Silver bill. Coin and coinage, Gold. Silver €rray§, a term applied to the Whigs of New York who supported the administration of president Fillmore, and regarded the slavery question settled by the compromise of 1850. A convention of the administration was held at Syracuse, 27 Sept. 1850, to secure a vindication of the presi- dent's polic}'-, etc. The convention resulted in an emphatic majority against the administration ; whereupon the chair- man, Mr. Granger, and several other administration men, left the convention ; as they were elderly men, they, with their following, were immediately dubbed " Silver Grays." Simail'ca§, a town of Castile, Spain. Near it Ramirez II. of Leon and Ferdinand of Castile gained a great victory over Abderahman, the Moorish king of Cordova, 6 Aug. 938. * Sim'nel eon§piraey. Rebellions, 1486. 24 737 SKA iSimo'llians, a sect named from the founder, Simon Magus, the first heretic, about 41. A sect of social reformers called "St. Simonians" sprang up in France in 1819, and at- tracted considerable attention ; the doctrines were advocated in England, particularly by dr. Prati, who lectured upon them in London, 24 Jan. 1834. Sr. Simon died in 1825, and his follower, Pere Enfantin, died 1 Sept. 1864. si'moiiy (trading in church offices) derives its name from Simon desiring to purchase the gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts viii. 18, 19). Slni'plOll, a mountain road leading from Switzerland intoTtal}^, constructed by Napoleon in 1801-7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, passes by galleries through solid rock, and has 8 principal bridges. The number of workmen em- ployed varied from 30,000 to 40,000. Sinai {si'na-l), Mount, north of the Red sea, be- tween Suez and Akabah gulfs. Here, as is supposed, the 10 commandments were promulgated, 1491 b.c. (Exod. xx.). After much investigation and discussion by many persons, dr. Beke, in Feb. 1874, confidently identified Sinai with a peak in 28° 30' N. lat. 34° E. Ion. Sinde, a province of N.W. India, was traversed by the Greeks under Alexander, about 326 b.c. ; conquered by the Persian Mahometans in the 8th century a.d. ; tributary to the Ghaznevide dynasty in the 11th century; conquered by Nadir Shah, 1739; reverted to the empire of Delhi after his death, 1747 ; after various changes of rulers, Sinde was conquered by the English, and annexed, Mch. 1843. Napier announced its conquest to his government by the single Latin word peccavi, i. e. " I have sinned." singing^. Hymns, Music. Sino'pe, an important Greek colony on the Euxine, after resisting several attacks was conquered by Mithridates IV., king of Pontus, and made his capital. It was the birthplace of Diogenes, the cynic philosopher. On 30 Nov. 1853, a Turk- ish fleet of 7 frigates, 3 corvettes, and 2 smaller vessels was attacked by a Russian fleet of 6 sail of the line, 2 sailing- vessels, and 3 steamers, under adm. Nachimoff, and totally destroyed, except 1 vessel, which conveyed the tidings to Constantinople. 4000 lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osraan Pacha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of his wounds. In consequence of this act (considered treach- erous) the Anglo-French fleet entered the Black sea, 3 Jan. 1854. 8i0UX (soo). Indians. §irene (si-reen), an instrument for determining the ve- locity of aerial vibrations corresponding to the different pitch- es of musical sounds, was invented by baron Cagniard de la Tour of Paris in 1819. The principle was shown in an appa- ratus exhibited by Robert Hooke before the Royal Society of England, 27 Julj^, 1681. Acoustics. §isterllOOCl§ in the English church were begun by Lvdia Priscilla Sellon about 1846, in Devonshire; she died Nov. 1876. Sisters of Charity, an order for the service of the sick poor, was founded by Vincent de Paul, in 1634. Their establishment in London began in 1854. Siva (see'va), known in Hindu mythology as the Aven- ger or Destroyer. Brahmins. Six ]Vations. New York, 1712. sRating^ (on bones, etc.) is said to have been practised in prehistoric times by northern nations. Mentioned by the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus. .about 1134 William Fitz-Stephens speaks of it in London about 1180 Figures of skates in Olaiis Magnus's history printed 1555 Blade-skates, probably from Holland, about 1660, were seen in St. James's park by Evelyn and Pepys 1 nee. 1662 An Edinburgh club established 1744 Robert Jones's "Art of Skating " pub 1772 London Skating club, 1830; Oxford club , 1838 Roller skates invented by .James L. Plimjiton of New York — 1869 National Skating Association organized in England 1879 Frank Delmont skates 1 mile on roller-skates in 2 min. 50.4 sec. at Olympia, Engl 27 Aug. 1890 J. F. Donoghue, of Newburg, N. Y., wins the l>s^-mile interna- tional race at Lingay Fen, nenr Cambridge, Engl., in 4 min. 46 sec. (1890), and the International races at Amsterdam. 6-7 Jan. 1891 SKE 788 BEST SKATING RECORDS. SLA i .6 iiiilo. .5 *' 1 1 amiloa 2 " 5 " 3 ♦' 4 ♦• . 5 •* 6 " 10 " 10 «' 16 " ao •' 95 ♦• 60 " 100 " 06.4 ia.6 46.6 49 43.8 01 46.4 66.2 16.4 11 36.4 3a7 26 69.4 3a2 Skater. J. F. Donoghue, straightaway with strong wind J. S. Johnson J. F. Donoghuo, straightaway with strong wind J. S. Joimsou Harald Hagen J. S. Jolmson Harald Hagen P. Oestlund J. F. Donoghuo Harald Hagen J. F. Donoghue A. D. Norseng Harald Hagen A. Paulson J. F. Donoghue Place. Newburg, N. Y Minneapolis, Minn Newburg, N. Y Minneapolis, Minu Hainar, Norway (*hristiania. Norway Minneapolis, Minn Hamar, Norway Orange I-ake, N. Y Hamar, Norway Newburg, N. Y Hamar, Norway Christiania Fiord, Norway Brooklyn, N. Y Cove Pond, near Stamford, Conn 27 Jan. 185 25 Feb. m 1 " m 21 Jan. 181 2 " 185 28 Feb. 2<) " 189 3 Jan. 189 26 Feb. 189 8 Mch 189 27 Dec. 189 7 Feb. 189 21 Feb. 189 2 " m 26 Jan. m " Sketch Book," Irving's. The first number was deposited for copyright 15 May, 1819. It contained 93 pages, and consisted of the " Prospectus," "The Author's Account of Himself," "The Voyage," "Roscoe," "The Wife," and "Rip Van Winkle." Skiiiner§. Nkutral ground. Skrae'lillg^§ (signifying dwarfs), a name given to the natives (Esquimaux) found on the New En_glaiid coast by the Northmen at the time of their supposed discovery. Amekica. §lavery and slave-trade. The traffic in men intro- duced from Chaldaja into Egypt and Arabia, and spread over the East, In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. The Lacedaemonian youths, trained in the practice of deceiving and butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their proficiency; and once, for amusement only, murdered, it is said',- 3000 in one night. Hklots. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold the whole people for slaves, 335 b.c. There were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 b.c. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their houses, till by their services or labor they had discharged the sum they owed. C. PoUio threw such slaves as gave him offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 b.c. Caecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves, 12 b.c. The first Janissaries were Christian slaves, 1329. The slave-trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 1481. The commerce in man has brutalized a tract 15 degrees on each side of the equator, and forty degrees wide, or of 4,000,000 sq miles; and men and women have been bred for sale to the Christian nations during the la.st 250 years, and war carried on to make prisonei's fi>r the Christian market. The Abbe Raynal com- puted (1777) that, at the time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans. The slave-trade is now approaching extinction. In 1768 the slaves taken from Africa amounted to 104,100. In 1786 the annual number was about 100,000. In 1807 it was shown by documents, produced by the English gov- ernment, that since 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans had been torn from their country, and had either perished on the passage or been sold in the West Indies. Slave-trade abolished by Austria in 1782; by the French con- vention in 1794 Allies at Vienna declare against it Feb. 1815 Napoleon, in the Hundred Days, abolishes the trade 29 Mch. " Treaty for its repression with Spain, 1817; with the Nether- lands, May, 1818; with Brazil Nov. 1826 French government gives permission to M. Regis to convey free negroes from Africa to Guadeloupe and Martinique, French colonies June, 18.57 Abuses being disclosed, the license is revoked Jan. 18.59 It is said that about 40,000 slaves were landed at Cuba in I860 Serfdom abolished by Frederick I. of Prussia in 1702; by Christian VII. of Denmark in 1766; by Joseph II., emperor - of Germany, in his hereditary states, in 1781; by Nicholas I. of Russia, in the imperial domains, in 1842; and by his suc- cessor, Alexander II., throughout his empire 3 Mch. 1861 Slavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies 1 July, 1863 Spanish government denounces the slave-trade as piracy, Nov. 1865 By decree of 1867, all children thereafter born in Brazil were free, and all slaves to be free in 20 years. In Nov. slaves of I the state became free when made soldiers. Slavery to be abolished gradually by law of 27 Sept. 187^ ' Species of slave trade having risen in the South seas, the natives being enticed on board certain British vessels and shipped to Queensland, Australia, and the Fiji isles; the sub- ject was brought before Parliament 1871-1 Ship Cai-l (owner, dr. James P. Murray; master, Joseph Arm- strong) leaves Melbourne for South Sea isles; anchors off Malokolo, Solomon's, and Bougainville isles, and kidnaps many natives as laborers for the Fiji isles; while about 20 miles from land, the prisoners rise and attempt to set fire to the ship; are fired on; about 50 killed and 20 wounded are cast into the sea. At Melbourne, Murray gives evidence, and Armstrong is committed for trial, 16 Aug.; the master and mate sentenced to death Nov. 1872 Sir Bartle Frere goes to Zanzibar on a mission to suppress the East African slave trade (Zaxzibae) 1872-73 Slavery abolished in Porto Rico 23 Mch. 1873 Act of Parliament, for consolidating with amendments the acts for carrying into effect treaties for suppression of the slave- trade (36 and 37 Vict. c. 88), passed 5 Aug. " Sir Samuel Baker heads an expedition to put down slave-trad- ing on the Nile (Egypt), Jan. 1870; reported to be partially successful, 30 June, 1873. He published "Ismailia," a his- tory of the expedition, 1874. He estimates that at least 50,000 are annually captured and sold as slaves Nov. 1874 Several African kings and chiefs, at Cape Coast Castle, agree to give up slave-trade, at an interview with gov. Strahan.3 Nov. " Slave-trade on the Gold Coast abolished by proclamation of gov. Strahan 17 Dec. ' ' Immediate suppression of slavery in the colonies of St. Thomas, etc., by Portugal, announced Feb. 1876 Convention with Egypt forbidding the traffic, 4 Aug. 1877; col. Gordon's efforts in the Soudan reported successful 1879 Slavery to be abolished in Egypt end of July, 1881 Gradual emancipation in Cuba; bill passes in Spanish senate, 24 Dec. 1879; by deputies, 21 Jan. ; promulgated, 18 Feb. 1880; slavery totally abolished 1886 Abolition of slavery in Brazil 18G7-88 Abolished in Zanzibar Oct. 1889-90 Anti-slavery conference at Brussels meets, 18 Nov. 1889; dele- gates from 17 states; conferences: 19 Nov.-Dec. 1889, Jan.- May, 1890; general act for regulating the immediate sup- pression of the slave trade agreed to and ratified by all, 2 Apr. 1892 slavery and slave-trade in England. Laws re- specting the sale of slaves were made by Alfred. The Eng- lish peasantry were commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times; children were sold in Bristol market like cat- tle for exportation. Many were sent to Ireland and to Scot- land. Under the Normans, the vas.sals (termed viliein.s, of and pertaining to the vill) were devisable as chattels during the feudal times. Severe statutes were passed in the reign of Richard II., 1377 and 1385; the rebellion of Wat Tyler arose partly out of the evils of serfdom 1381 By law of Edward VI., a runaway, or any one who lived idly "for 3 days, to be brought before 2 justices, branded V on the breast, and sold as a slave for 2 years. The master must give him bread, water or small drink, and refuse meat, and cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise; and if he absented himself 14 days, he was to be branded on the forehead or cheek with an S, and be his master's slave for- ever; second desertion was made felony. It was lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A child might be put apprentice, and, on running away, became a slave to his master 1547 Queen Elizabeth orders her bondsmen in the western counties to be made free at easy rates 1574 [Serfdom finally extinguished in 1660, when tenures in capile, knights' service, etc., were abolished.] Slave-trade begun by sir John Hawkins; his first expedition, with the object of procuring negroes on the coast of Africa, SLA 739 SLA and coDvejMug thein for sale at the West Indies, takes place ( \ssiENTO, Guinea) Oct. 1562 Slave named Somerset, brought to England, is, because of his ill state, turned adrift by his master. By the charity of Gran- ville Sharp lie is restored to health, when his master again claims him, but lord Mansfield, of the Court of King's Bench, decides that slavery cannot exist in (Jreat Britain. . .22 June, 1772 Thomas Clark.son, of Wadesmill, Hertford, devotes his life to the abolition of the slave-trade June, 1785 England employs 130 ships, and carries off 42,000 slaves 1786 "Society for the Suppression of the Slave-trade," founded by Clarkson, Wilberforce, and Dillwyn 1787 Slave-trade question is debated in Parliament " Debate for its abolition; 2 days Apr. 1791 Mr. Wilberforce's motion lost by a majority of 88 to 83. .3 Apr. 1798 Question introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers 31 Mch. 1806 Trade abolished by Parliament 25 Mch. 1807 Act to abolish slavery throughout the British colonies, to pro- mote industry among the manumitted slaves, and for com- pensation to owners, by the grant of 20,000,000/ 28 Aug. 1833 Slavery terminates in the British possessions; 770,280 slaves become free 1 Aug. 1834 Slavery abolished in the East Indies 1 Aug. 18:^8 Thomas Clarkson d. aged 85 Sept. 1846 In 1853, John Anderson, a runaway slave, kills Septimus Digges, a planter of Missouri, who attempts to arrest him, and es- capes to Canada. The American government claims him as a murderer. The Canadian judges deciding that the law requires his surrender, Edwin James, Q. C. (15 Jan.), obtains a writ of habeas corpus from the Court of Queen's Bench. Anderson is discharged on technical grounds 16 Feb. 1861 Circular from the Admiralty concerning the surrender of fugi- tive slaves on British ships to their owners, dated 31 July; censured by the public, Sept., Oct. ; withdrawn Nov. 1875 Revised circular issued near end of Dec. 1875; meets with much adverse criticism Jan. 1876 Government commission appointed (the duke of Somerset, chief-justice Cockburn, sir Henry S. Maine, and others), Feb. ; report unfavorable to the circulars; pub 13 June, " New admiralty instructions: fugitive slaves to be received and not given up; action left to captain's discretion; breach of international faith and comity to be avoided; issues, 10 Aug. " An obelisk, as a memorial toThomas Clarkson, erected by Arthur Giles Puller, at Wadesmill ; inaugurated 9 Oct. 1879 slavery in the United States. Before the War of Inde- pendence all the states contained slaves. In 1783, the state- ment in the Massachusetts Bill of Bights, "All men are born free and equal," was declared in the Supreme court at Boston to bar slaveholding in that state. Slaver}^ was begun within the domain of the U. S. in 1619, when 20 negroes were sold by a Dutch trading vessel to settlers of Virginia. It was rec- ognized by law in Virginia in 1620; in Massachusetts, 1641; in Connecticut and Rhode Island, about 1650 ; in New York, 1656; in Maryland, 1663; in New Jersey, 1665; in the Caro- linas from the time of their settlement ; and in Georgia, 1749. There were also a few slaves in Pennsylvania as early as 1690, but mostly in Philadelphia. Severe laws against slaves in South Carolina 1712 Decisions in Maryland and elsewhere that conversion and bap- tism do not confer freedom 1715 Importation of slaves into Virginia (1000 annually) 1724 Georgia prohibits slavery 1735 Strong public opinion in Georgia in favor of slavery, supported by Whitefield and Habersham 1737-49 Slavery legalized in Georgia 1749 Laws of great severity against slaves enacted in South Carolina, 1750 Authority for dismemberment of slaves general throughout the South " Little effort made to convert slaves anywhere before or after. . " Slave code quite severe in Massachusetts " Slave population in Connecticut greater than in Massachusetts, and in Rhode Island than in either " Very few slaves in Pennsylvania before or after " Controversy in Massachusetts on slavery 1766-73 Virginia prohibits the introduction of slaves 1778 Virginia repeals the old colonial statute forbidding the emanci- pation of slaves except for meritorious service 1782 After this, for a period of 23 years, private emancipations were nu- merous, and, but for subsequent re-enactments, the colored* free population would have exceeded the slave. In the reorganization of the army (Revolution), 1778, except for loral defence, no troops were asked of South Carolina and Georgia in consideration of their larger slave population. — HildreWs "'Hist. U. S.," vol. iii. p. 244. About the time of the Revolution, societies of prominent men were formed for the purpose of ameliorating the condition -of the slaves. Pennsylvania was the first state to organize such a society, 1787, with Franklin as president. New York followed, with John Jay as its first president, and Alexander Hamilton as its second. Immediately after, Rhode Island ; Maryland in 1789, with such members as Samuel Chase and Luther Martin ; Delaware, with James A. Bayard and C. A. Rodney; Connecticut, 1790 ; Virginia, 1791 ; New Jersey, 1792. The most that was accomplished by this agitation was the suppression of the slave-trade from 1808. Pennsylvania abol- ished slavery by gradual emancipation, 1780 ; Massachusetts by a Bill of Rights prefixed to the constitution, 1780 ; New Hampshire by her constitution, 1784; Connecticut and Rhode Island, 1784 ; Vermont by her constitution ; New York by gradual abolition, 1799; further legislation in 1817 decreed total abolition after 4 July, 1827, when about 10,000 slaves were liberated ; New Jersey, gradual abolition, 1804. SLAVK POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES ACCOKDING TO THK CENSUS OF 1790. South. , Delaware 8,887 Maryland 103,036 Virginia 293,427 North Carolina 100,572 South Carolina 107,094 Georgia 29,264 Kentucky 11,830 3,417 North. New Hampshire 158 17 Rhode Island 952 Connecticut 2 759 Massachusetts New York . . . none . ... 21,324 New Jersey ... 11,423 ... 3,737 Total . .. 40,370 Total 657,527 In 1810, 1,191,364; in 1820, 2,009,031; in 1850, 3,204,313; in 1860, 4,002,996. In 1870, 4,889,193 free colored persons; in 1880, 6,577,- 151; in 1890, 7,638,360. Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordinance "for the government of the territory to the N.W. of the Ohio," which contained an "Mna/feraWe" article, forbidding sla- very or involuntary sei;vitude in the said territory. .13 July, 1787 Debate in Congress on the power of that body over slavery.. . . 1790 Slavery opposed by the Presbyterian and Methodist churches. " Right of petition to Congress on the subject of slavery debated, 1792 Slave laws introduced into Kentucky " Quakers present a memorial to Congress praying for the aboli- tion of slavery 1794 Slavery legalized in Tennessee 1796 Georgia forbids the emancipation of slaves 1798 Free colored men petition Congress for protection against be- ing enslaved 1800. Louisiana purchased, thus increasing the slave territory 1803 Memorial to Congress of the people of Indiana to suspend the ordinance prohibiting slavery north of the Ohio river 1804 ["Had this decision rested with them, both Indiana and Illinois would have come into the Union as slave states."— Hildreth, vol. v. p. 49T.] Great debate in Congress on the abolition of the slave-trade. . . 1806 [Enormous increase in the growth of cotton in the southern states, owing to the invention of the cotton-gin in 1792, which greatly increases the demand for slave labor.] A National Colonization Society organized at Washington 23 Dec. 1816, to encourage and aid emigration to Africa. Its indirect object was to rid the south of its free colored popula- tion. Henry Clay, John Randolph, Bushrod Washington, and other slave-holders took a leading part in its formation. The only result was the establishment of Liberia. Clay, Charles Carroll, Madison, King of Alabama, W. H. Harrison, dr. W. E. Channing, Benj. Lundy, Birney, Gerrit Smith, and the Tappan brothers were all interested members of this organization. Following are some of the principal events occurring in the United States relating to slavery : • Missouri Compromise (United States) '. . .1817-21 An ti -slavery societies organize in New York city and Phila- delphia 1833 Prudence Crandall's school for colored children (girls) broken up (Connecticut) " Incendiary literature (regarding slavery) noticed in Jackson's message (United States, Aug. and Dec. ) 1835 Murder of rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy (Alton riots) 1836 Amistad Case, the 1839 Creole case, the (United States) 1841 Samuel Hoar in Charleston, S. C. (Massaohcsetts, United States) 1844-45 Schooner Pearl 1848 Fugitive Slave law and other compromise measures pass (United States) 1850 Slave-trade suppressed in the District of Columbia " Negro Sims seized at Boston under the Fugitive Slave law (Massachusetts) 1851 Negro Shadrach seized at Boston under the Fugitive Slave law (Massachusetts) " "Uncle Tom's Cabin" pub 1852 Repeal of the Missouri Compromise by Kansas and Nebraska bill (United States) 1854 Republican party formed (Political parties) " Seizure of the negro Burns at Boston (Massachusetts. United States) " Kansas war (Kansas) 1854 et seq. Drku Scott decision 1857 Seizure of the negro Littlejohn at Oberlin, 0., under the Fugi- tive Slave law (Ohio) 1859 John Brown's insurrection " Al)raham Lincoln, Republican, elected president 4 Nov. 1860 SLA 740 SOA S«c<«ton of S«Mith Carolina (SorxH Carolina, Coxfkdkratk Q^ _^_ Uhitko Statkj*) I'ec. IHOO gtaveryabolished In ll»e DisiVWl of Columbia 16 Apr 186'2 Pr««ldeiU Lincoln proclaims Iho abolition of Blavory in all ™ 08 in rebellion. 1 Jan. 1863 • • • .'22 Sept. '• Slavery practically abolished by the Bubraissiou of the south- em armies ^P""- ^°"" Total alwlitioii of slavery in the United States officially an- no.imed • ••!» ^>ec. " CoxSTiTiTioN OF THK U.viTKD Statks, Amendments of. PRINCIPAL ANTI-SLAVEKY PUBLICATIONS. Genius of Un versjil) | Mt IMeasant 0.,182n ggj^amin Lundv. Emancipation ) J H«»" """'"<'• -^l*'' 1»^* J „ . Journal of the Times , . BoMuinglon, Vt. . .1828 Lloyd Garrison. The Liberator Boston, Mass., 1831-65 " " ^ ^, (SL Louis, Mo., 1832) (Rev. Elijah P. Lovo- The Observer. | ^n^n, m 1836 1 [ joy. The Kmancipator New York. N. Y. , 1833 R. J. Williams. The A frii-AU Observer.. Philadelphia, Pa., 1835 Enoch Lewis. The Philanthropist .... Cincinnati, 1836 Jauios G. Birnoy. National Inquirer Philadelphia, Pa., " Benjamin Lundy. Pennsylvania Freeman. " 1838-40 John G. Whiltrer The Abolitionist Boston, Mass 1839 Elizur Wright, jr. Slavo'llia or Sclavo'llia, a province of Austria, de- rives its name from the Slavs, a Sarmatian people who re- placed the Avars in Pannonia early in the 9th century. In 864. Cvril and Methodius, (Jreek missionaries, preached here, and adapted the Greek alphabet to the Slavonian language, the letters of which have since been a little altered. The country, after having been held at times by the Greeks, Turk.s, and Hungarians, and the cause of sanguinary conflicts, was ceded finally to Hungary in 1699, at the peace of Cariowitz. Deputies from the Slavonian provinces of Austria were enter- tained at Moscow and St. Petersburg, May, 1867. The Croa- tian-Slavonian diet at Agram was dissolved. May, 1867. It protested against incorporation with Hungary. The Slavonian family of languages includes Russian, Polish, Servian, Bohe- mian, Bulgarian, Wendic, Slovak, and Polabic. Estimated number of Slavs in Europe in 1875, 90,365,633; Russians and Ruthenians, 66,129,590 ; Serbo-Croats, 5,940,539 ; Bulgarians, 5,123,952j Slovenes, 1,260,000; Slovaks, 2,223,830 ; Czechs, 4,815,154; Poles, 9,492, 1 62. slings, an instrument of great antiquity for throwing stones, consisting of a piece of leather to hold the stone, with a string attached to each end, when by whirling rapidly and letting one string loose the stone is thrown with great veloc- ity. In Judg. XX. 16 is mentioned the skill of the Benjamite slingers (about 1406 b.c.), and with a sling David slew Go- liath, 1063 B.C. (1 Sam. xvii.). The natives of the Balearic isles (Majorca, Minorca, and Ivi^a), celebrated slingers, served as mercenaries in the Carthaginian and Roman armies. Slings are said to have been used by the Huguenots at the siege of Sancerre, in 1672, to economize their powder. Sloane, Sir Hans. Collection, books, etc. British Museum. SluyiS, a town of Holland, near which Edward III. gained a signal naval victory over the French. The English had the wind of the enemy, and the sun at their backs, and began this sanguinary action. 230 French ships were taken ; thousands of Frenchmen were killed, with 2 of their admirals ; the loss of the English was inconsiderable ; 24 June, 1340. Smalcald (Hesse), Treaty of, entered into between the elector of Brandenburg and the other princes of Germany in favor of Protestantism, 31 Dec. 1530. The emperor, appre- hensive that the kings of France and England would join this league, signed the treaty of Passau, 31 July, 1532, allowing liberty of conscience. Protestants. §inall-pox, vaHola (diminutive of varus, a pimple), a highly contagious disease, supposed to have been introduced into Europe from the East by the Saracens. Rhazes, an Ara- bian, described it accurately about 900. From Europe it was carried to America, soon after its discover}', and faged there with great severity, destroying the Indians by thousands. In 1694, queen Mary of England died of small-pox, as did in 1711 Joseph I., emperor of Germany, and the dauphin of France, and in 1712 his son, in 1730 the emperor of Russia, in 1741 the queen of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. of France. It Is stabBtl that in the middle of the last century 2,000,000 perished by it in Russia. In London, in 1723, 1 out of l4 deaths was caused by small-pox, and in France, in 1754, the rate was 1 in 10. For attempts to alleviate this scourge, Inoculation, introduced into England in 1722, and Vacci- nation, announce*! by dr. Jenner in 1798. Sinall-pox raged in parts of London, and thousands died, 1870-71. The Anri- vaccination Society has been active, and many parents have been fined in England for opposing the vaccination of their children, 1870-76. In Sept. and Oct. 1862, a great many sheep died of small-pox in tlie west of England, till success- ful preventive measures were resorted to. Massachusetts, 1721. SlllCCtyill'llUllf>i, a name made up of the initials of certain nonconformist writers who composed a treatise in com- mon against episcopacy in the 17th century— Stephen Mar- shall, Edmund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, William Spurston. They were answered by bishop Hall in his '• Divine Right of Episcopacy," 1640. j^niitllfleld, "We§t, in the heart of London, was once a favorite walk of the London citizens, out.side the city walls. Sir W. Wallace was executed here, 23 Aug. 1305. On 15 June, 1381, Wat Tyler was met by Richard II. at this place, ami was stabbed by Walworth the mayor. Many tournaments were also held here. In the reign of Mary (1553-58) many persons were burned at the stake, the first being rev. John Rogers, 4 Feb. 1555. Bartholomew Leggatt, an Arian, was burned here, 18 Mch. 1612, Bartholomew fair was held here till 1853. This place is mentioned as the site of a cattle-market as far back as 1150. It was used for this purpose the last time, 11 June, 1855. SlIlittl§Oniail Institution, '' for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men," a handsome build- ing at Washington, D. C, was founded in 1846 by means of a legacy, total amount of original bequest being $541,379, be- queathed for the purpose to the U. S. government by James jj Smithson, illegitimate son of sir Hugh Smithson, who became duke of Northumberland in 1766. James Smithson died iu Italy, 1829. It publishes and freely distributes scientific me- moirs and reports. The library was burned on 25 Jan. 1865. Prof. Joseph Henry, the first secretary, died 13 May, 1878; suc- ceeded by prof. S. F. Baird. Present secretary, prof. S. P. Langley. The total permanent Smithsonian fund is now about $900,000. It is governed by a board of regents, con- sisting of the vioe-president and chief-justice of the U. S., 3 senators, 3 members of the House, 4 citizens from different states, and 2 citizens of Washington. Smolen'sRo, a town of Russia, The French in san- guinary engagements here were 3 times repulsed, but ulti- mately succeeded in entering Smolensko, and found the city, which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins, 16, 17 Aug. 1812. Barclay de Tolly, the Russian commander-in- chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander be- cause he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded to the command. JSmyrna. Seven churches. sneezing. The custom of saying " God bless you " to the sneezer originated, according to Strada, among the an- cients, who^ fearing danger from it, after sneezing made a short prayer to the gods, as " Jupiter, help me." The custom is mentioned by Homer, the Jewish rabbis, and others. Poly- dore Virgil says it took its rise at the time of the plague, 558, when the infected fell dead, sneezing, though seemingly in good health. , „ , ' ° "Shall not Love to me, As in a Latin song I learnt at school, * Sneeze out a full God-bless-you right and left?"' — Tennyson, "Edwin Morris or the Lake." §nuff^taking[ took its rise in England from the capt- ures made of vast quantities of snufF by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702, and the practice soon became general. soap is a salt, a compound of a fatty acid with an alkali, soda or potash. The Hebrew boriih, translated soap, is merely a general term for cleansing substances (Job ix. 30 ; Jer. ii, 22). Pliny declares soap an invention of the Gauls, though he pre- fers the German to the Gallic soap. Nausicaa and her at- tendants, Homer tells us, washed clothes by treading them with their feet in pits of water. — Odyssey, book vi. The Ko- 1 SOB 741 mans used fuller's earth. Savon, the French word for soap, is ascribed to its having been manufactured at Savona, near Genoa. The manufacture of soap in London began in 1524, before which it was supplied by Bristol at one pennj' per pound. Sobraoil', a town of N. W. India. The British army, 35,000 strong, under sir Hugh (afterwards viscount) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej, 10 Feb. 1846. The en- emy was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their bat- teries taken ; and in attempting the passage of the river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weight of the crowds upon it broke it down, and thousands of Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British loss was 2338 men. §OCial ivar§. Athens, Marsi. iOCialiSIIl is defined as "a plan for the reorganization of society on the basis of social or state ownership of all in- struments of production, and the determination by state enact- ment of the price to be paid for labor and the products of labor." "Socialism is the genus, of which communism is a species ; every communist is a socialist, but all socialists are not communists." The Disciples of Christ at Jerusalem were at lirst communists (Acts ii. 44), 33 a.d. The Taborites or Hussites in Bohemia, Anabaptists in German}', Levellers in England, and Tunkers in the United States, were early exam- ples of communists. The most advanced schools of socialism of to-day are German. , Sir Thomas More publishes his " Utopia " 1.516 A worl< on socialism, " Civitas Solis," by Campanella, appears, 1623 Shakkrs form their first complete community at Mt Lebanon, NY 1787 Franfois Noel Baboeuf, leader of the French communistic in- surrection of 1796, at Paris, is guillotined 24 May, 1797 Harmonists settle in Pennsylvania 1804 Charles Fourier, French (1772-1837), publishes his work, "The Theory of the Four Movements and the General Destinies " . 1808 ZoAKiTKS settle in Ohio 1817 Robert Owen advocates a socialistic community before the English House of Commons' co'.nmittee on the poor-law " Count Claude Henry de Saint Simon, founder of French social- ism and author of " Nouveau Christianisme," and other socialistic works, b. 1760, d 1825 Constitution for the "New Harmony Community of Equality," signed 12 Jan. 1826 Unsuccessful trial of Fourierism made on an estate near Ver- sailles; only one during the lifetime of Fourier 1832 Louis Blanc, French (1813-82), publishes his "Organization of Labor " in the Revue du Progres 1840 Pierre Joseph Proudhon publishes his work, "What is Prop- erty?" affirming, "Property is theft" and "Property-hold- ers are thieves" " Albert Brisbane publishes his " Social Destiny of Man " " soc Karl Rodbertus, German (1805-75), publishes his book, "Our Economi-c Condition " Christian Metz establishes a community at Ebenezer, N. Y. (AMANA INSPIRATIONISTS) A column in the New York Tribune purchased, for expounding the principles of the Advocates of Association, and edited by Albert Brisbane, the apostle of Fourierism Brisbane establishes in New York an independent paper called the Phalanx, organ of Fourierism 5 Oct. Convention of Associationists at Clinton hall, N. Y 4 Apr. " Brook farm," originally the West Roxbury community, es- tablished in 1842, adopts the principles of Fourierism The Phalanx succeeded by the Harbinger, and published at Brook Farm , 14 June, Erick Janson forms a Swedish colony of Pietists and Separat- ists at Bishop Hill, 111. (incorporated 1853) Decline of Fourierism in the U. S. marked by the Greeley-Kay- mond controversy 20 Nov. 1846-20 May, Oxeida community established Christian socialism, under Charles Kingsley, Frederick D. Maurice, Thomas Hughes, etc., arises in England about Ferdinand Lassalle begins agitation in behalf of the laboring classes, founding the German Social Democratic party Universal German Laborers' union, under the leadership of Lassalle, formed at Leipsic 23 May, Delegates of all nations in St. Martin's ball, London, form the International Workingmen's association 28 Sept. Band of disciples of Lassalle organized in New York Universal congress, for advancement and complete emanci- pation of the working classes, at Geneva, Switzerland, 3 Sept. Karl Marx, German (1818-83), publishes his work, " Das Kapi- tal," called the Bible of tljp Social Democrats Broctou community founded by rev. Thomas Lake Harris at Brocton, N. Y Oct. Catholic socialism in Germany organized International congress at the Hague (6 delegates from America) results in the formation of a new international association on anarchistic principles under leadership of Michael Bakou- nine, and removal of seat of general council of the old asso- ciation, which soon after ceased to exist, to New York. Congress held 2-7 Sept. "Union for Social Politics" formed by German professorial socialists at Eisenach Oct. Universal Socialistic congress opens at Ghent 9 Sept. Workingmen's party in the U. S. reorganized as "The Social- istic Labor party " Jan. Henry George publishes his work entitled " Progress kaliks fSod'om and Oomor'rall, 2 cities of Palestine, with their inhabitants, supposed to have been destroyed by fire from heaven 1898 b.c. (Gen. xix.). So'dior, said to be derived from Sodor-eys, or South isles (the iEbrides or Hebrides), in distinction from Orkneys, the North isles. The southern or western isles were made an episcopal diocese by Magnus, king of Norway, 1098, and joined to the Isle of Man about 1113. Man. Soffar'ldes dyiia§ty reigned in Persia, 872-902. Softa§, Mahometan students devoted to the Koran onlv. Turkey, May, 1876. Soi§80ns {swaft-snn'). France, capital of the Gallic Sues- siones, was subdued by .lulius Caesar, 57 b.c. It was held by Syagrius, after his father Jigidius, till his defeat by Ciovis, 486 A.i>. Several councils have been held at Soissons (744, 1082, 1122). Its academy was established in 1674. During the Franco-Prussian war, Soissons, after 3 weeks' investment and 4 days' bombardment, surrendered to the Germans under the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, 16 Oct. 1870. 99 officers, 4633 men, 128 guns, etc., were said to be taken. The Germans thus obtained a second line of railway from Chalons to Paris. I^OkO'tO, Empire of, is the largest and most populous in the whole of the Soudan. It is attached by treaty to the Royal Niger company (British), chartered 10 Julv, 1886. Area, 219,500 sq. miles; pop. 15,000,000. §olar system, nearly as now accepted, is said to have been taught by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 B.C. He placed the sun in the centre and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits roimd it— a doctrine superseded by the Ptol- emaic SYSTKM. The system of Pythagoras, revived by Co- pernicus (1543), is called the Copemican system. Its truth was demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton in' 1687. Planets, Sun. solar time. Sidereal time. Year. soldiers. Army, Militia. soldiers' homes. Homes have been established, both national and state, for all disabled soldiers and sailors of the United States who served in the civil or Mexican war. The first institution of this character established by the U. S. government was founded by act of Congress, 3 Mch. 1851, for the aged and invalid soldiers of the regular army. This home 742 SOL is situated a short distance from the city of Washington. Ho sides this, there are national and state homes for disabled vol unteer soldiers. The first branch of the former was estab- lished at Tagus, Me., 10 Nov. 1866. branches of the national home. Branche*. Location. Eastern Togus, Me. Central Dayton, 0. Soutliern Hampton, Va. Western Leavenworth, Kan. Marion Marion, Ind. Northwestern Milwaukee, Wis. Pacitlc Santa Monica, Cal. STATE HOMES, State. Location. California Yountville. .. Colorado Monte Vista.. Connecticut Noroton , Illinois Qiiincy . Incorporatsc 1882 18K9 18G3 1885 1884 Iowa Marshal] town Kansas Dodge City Massachusetts Chelsea 1877 Michigan Grand Hapids 1885 Minnesota Minnehaha 1887 Nebraska Grand Island 1888 New Hampshire Tilton 1889 New Jersey.. Kearney 1866 New York Bath 1876 Ohio Sandusky 1886 Pennsylvania... Erie 1886 Rhode Island Bristol 1891 South Dakota Hot Springs 1889 Vermont Bennington 1887 Washington Orting 1890 Wisconsiii Waupaca 1887 There are 5 homes for disabled confederate sokliers in the south : Richmond, Va., New Orleans, La., Austin, Tex., Pikes- ville, Md., and Nashville, Tenn. Sole'bay or ^outiiivold bay, Suffolk, Engl,, where a fierce naval battle was fought between the fleets of England and France on one side, and the Dutch on the other; the former commanded by the duke of York, afterwards James II., 28 May, 1672. The English lost 4 ships, and the Dutch 3 ; but the enemy fled, and were pursued to their coasts, sol-fa system. Music Solf erf no, a village in Lombardy, the site of the chief struggle of the great battle of 24 Jinie, 1859, between the al- lied French and Sardinian army, commanded by their respec- tive sovereigns, and the Austrians under gen. Hess, the em- peror being present. The Austrians, after defeat at Magenta, j gradually retreated across the Mincio, took up a position in the celebrated quadrilateral, and were expected there to awaitl the attack. But the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and off prince Napoleon and the Tuscans on the other, induced them to recross the Mincio and take the offensive on 23 June. The conflict began early on the 24th, and lasted fifteen hours. Af first the Au.strians had the advantage; but the successful at- tack of the French on Cavriana and Solferino changed the fortune of the day, and the Austrians, after desperate encoun- ters, were compelled to retreat. The French attribute the victory to the skill and bravery of their emperor and the gen- erals MacMahon and Neil; the Austrians, to the destruction of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their adversaries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful contest of 15 hours at San Martino, it is said against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 officers and 19,311 soldiers; of the allies, 8 gen- erals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killed and wounded. This battle closed the war, preliminaries of peace being signed at Villafranca, 12 July. On 24 June, 1870, on the site of the battle, 3 ossuaries, containing the bones of thousands of the slain, were solemnly consecrated in the presence of represent- atives of Austria, France, and Italy. Solfld'ians (from solus, only, and Jides, faith), a name given to the Antinomians. Solomon islands. A group of islands to the east of Papua or New Guinea, discovered by Alvaro Mendana de Neyra, 1568, and so named by him in anticipation of their riches. Aggregate area, about 9000 sq. miles; pop. 80,000. Germany established a protectorate over these islands in 1884. Solomon's temple. Temple. Solway moss, a swamp or bog-lands in Cumberland, A SOM 743 SOR Engl., bordering on Scotland, 7 square nniles in extent. On 13 Nov. 1771, it swelled, owing to heavy rains. Upwards of 400 acres rose to such a height above the level of the ground that at last it rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweeping along with it houses, trees, and covering 600 acres at Netherby, and destroying about 30 hamlets. It is now partially drained. Near Solway Moss the Scots were defeat- ed by the P]nglish, 26 Nov. 1542. SomaJ. BitAHMO SoMAj, Deism, Sombre'ro, an islet of the British West Indies. On this desert isle Robert Jefferj^, a British man-of-war's man, was put ashore by his commander, capt. W. Lake, for having tapped a barrel of beer when the ship was on short allowance. After sustaining life for eight days on a few limpets and rain-water, he was saved by an American vessel, 13 Dec. 1807, and re- turned to England. Sir Francis Burdett advocated his cause in Parliament, and he received 600/. as a compensation from capt. Lake, who was tried by a court-martial, and dismissed the service, 10 Feb. 1810. Soiner§et, Case of. Slavkky in England. Soiliers's isles. Bermudas. Vomers, U. S. brig-of-war, IMutiny on. This brig of 266 tons' burden, and fitted to carry 14 guns, but carry- ing 10, with a crew of officers, men, and boys of 120, under command of Alexander Slidell McKenzie, cruising along the coast of Africa, left Liberia on 11 Nov. 1842, for the U. S. via St. Thomas. On 25 Nov. McKenzie received information through lieut. Gansevoort of a conspiracy on board to seize the brig and convert her into a pirate, etc. The leaders in this movement were reported to be midshipman Philip Spen- cer, son of John C. Spencer, then secretary of war, and Samuel Cromwell, the boatswain's mate, and a seaman, Elisha Small. Spencer was arrested on 27 Nov., and the other 2 on the 28th, and put in irons. These 3 were convicted by a court on board, and sentenced to be hung at the yard-arm, which was done on 1 Dec, 525 miles from St. Thomas. The Somers ar- rived at New York 14 Dec, with several of the boys in con- finement. A naval court of inquiry, convened on 28 Dec, consisting of commodores Charles Stewart, Jacob Jones, Alex- ander J. Dallas, and Ogden Hoffman, judge advocate, sat until Jan. 19, 1843, and decided that com. McKenzie had simply performed his duty, etc. This court and verdict did not sat- isfy public opinion, and for a further vindication McKenzie called for a regular court-martial, which was held at the Brook- lyn navy-yard, and by a vote of 9 to 3 also acquitted him. An attempt was now made to bring the case before the Circuit court of the U. S., but judge Betts, although no overt act had been committed, and the hanging had been done on mere sus- picion, dismissed the case for want 0|f jurisdiction. This case at the time created great excitement, many approving the course of McKenzie, and many considering him guilty of a great crime. McKenzie died at Tarry town, N. Y., 13 Sei)t. 1848. The brig Somers was lost in the harbor of Vera Cruz while blockading it, 8 Dec. 1846. Medals. Somnatll g'ates, the gates of an ancient Hindu tem- ple at Guzerat, destroyed by Mahmoud of Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished to preserve the idol, but Mahmoud broke it, and found it filled with diamonds, etc. He carried the gates to (ihuznee. When that city was taken by gen. Nott, 6 Sept. 1842, lord Ellenborough ordered the gates restored, after an exile of 800 years, and issued a proclamation much cen- sured at the time. The gates are of sandal-wood, and are described and figured in the " Archseologia " of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. xxx. SOna'ta (Ital., Engl, "sound-piece"), the highest form of instrumental music, consisting of 3 or 4 movements intend- ing to express diverse feelings. It was developed from the suite, varied dance music (Tartini, 1824, and others). The form fixed by Corelli (1653-1713) was adopted and modified by Scar- latti, the Bach.s, Handel, Mozart, Haydn, and culminated in the masterpieces of Beethoven (1770-1827). Fine sonatas have been composed by Dus.sek,M. Clementi, Weber, Schubert, Men- delssohn, Schumann, Wm. Sterndale Bennett, Chopin, Liszt, and Rubinstein. songs of the Civil War, Popular. The most familiar only are mentioned. A few of them, as the " Battle Flag of the Republic," " Battle Hymn of the Republic," " The Blue and the Gray," and "Maryland, my Maryland," have a place in standard literature ; others, which will be recognized by all who remember the years 1861-65, though with less literary merit, became favorites as expressions of patriotic sentiment. Battle Cry of Freedom.— 6reo. F. Root. " Yes, we'll rally round the flag, boys." Battle Flag of the Republic— O. W. Holmes. "Flag of the heroes who left us their glory." Battle Hymn of the Republic— J^uKa Ward Howe. '• xVIine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord." The Blue and the Gray. — Francis M. Finch. " By the flow of the inland river." Brave Boys are They.— Henry C. Work. " Brave boys are they, gone at their country's call." Dixie (Southern). — Albert Pike. "Southrons hear your country call you." Dixie (Northern).— r. M. Cooley. " Away down South where grows the cotton." John Brown's body — "John Brown's body lies a-mould'ring in the grave. " Just before the Battle, Mother. — Geo. F. Root. "Just before the battle, mother, I am thinking most of you." Marching through Georgia,.— Henry C. Work. "Bring the good old bugle, boys; we'll sing another song." Maryland, my Maryland (fSouthern).— Jos. R. Randall. "The despot's heel is on thy shore, Maryland." wrap the flag around me, boys. — R. Stewart Taylor. Tramp, Tramp, Tramp.— Ceo. F. Root. "In the prison cell I sit." When Johnny comes Marching Home. — Louis Lambert. When this Cruel War is Over.— Charles C. Sawyer. "Dearest love, do you remember." sonnet, a poem of 14 lines, with rhymes, formally ar- ranged according to precise rules, was invented, it is said, by Guido d'Arezzo about 1024. Many celebrated sonnets are by Petrarch (about 1327), Shakespeare (1609), Milton (about 1650), and Wordsworth (1820). Literature. Sonn'ites or Sunn'ites, the orthodox Mahometans, who now possess the Turkish empire. Mahometanism. ISopllia, St., principal mosque in Constantinople. The first church was dedicated to St. Sophia (holy wisdom) by Constantius II., 360; this having been destroyed, the second, the present edifice, was founded by Justinian, 531, and dedi- cated 537. Since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, it has been used as an imperial mosque. Height 182 feet, length 269 feet, and breadth 243 feet. 6 of its pillars are of green jasper, from the temple of Diana at Ephesus, and of porphyry, from the temple of the Sun at Rome. 4 minarets were added by Selim IL, who reigned in 1566. The interior of the dome is ornamented with mosaics. Sophists, rhetoricians and teachers of youth in Athens, censured by Socrates, and instrumental in causing his judicial murder, 399 b.c. The controversy against them M'as carried on by Plato and his disciples. Philosophy. Sortoonne (sor-bon'), a society of ecclesiastics at Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252. The members lived in common, and devoted themselves to study and gratuitous teaching. They soon attained a European reputation as a faculty of theology, their judgment being frequently appealed to, from the 14th to the 17th century. The influence of the Sorbonne was declining when the society was broken up in 1789. The buildings are now devoted to education. Academy. sorcerers and magicians. A law was enacted against their seductions, 33 Hen. VIII. 1541 ; and another stat- ute, equally severe, was pa.ssed, 5 Eliz. 1563. The pretension to sorcery was made capital, I James I. 1603. Witchcraft. SOrgllum, Chinese sugar-cane, introduced into France in 1851, and into the United States about 1854. In 1857 there were also imported from Natal, South Africa, several varieties of sorghum, known also as African millet and imphee. In its general appearance, sorghum resembles maize or Indian corn or more nearly broom corn, which belongs to the same genus, and flourishes in the same soils, doing best in the south and southwestern states. For securing and manufacturing its juice into syrup it is treated like sugar-cane. Sugar. SOR 744 SOU MOrtes BIbllcaP, intr«)ducerl Koyal reinovf to iIjo western bank of the Ash- ley river an I found Old I'linloion SelllenuMU at Charleston inri.M>-Ml bv a Pmall colony from Barbadoes under sir Jolm V.miii:.iis, wIm. had a large grant of land from the proprieiois Wiih tins .■.lU.ny came the ttrst slaves in South Carolina Freemen of Carolina meet at Charleston and elect representa- tives for the civil government of the colony Fundamental constitutions framed by John Ix)cke, and amend- ed by (he earl of Shaftesbury in 1669, are put into opera- tion "in South Carolina By invitation a colony of Dutch from New York settle on the 'southwest side of the Ashley river Settlers remove from Old Charleston to Oyster Point, at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers, and found Charleston Baptists from Maine, under Mr. Screven, settle on Cooper river, Scotch settlement on Port Royal is broken up and dispersed by Spaniards from St. Augustine Gov. James Colleton, in endeavors to exact arrears of quit rents, proclaims martial law. The Assembly meet and ban- ish him; thereupon Seth Sothel, claiming to be a proprietor, usurps the government Sothel is compelled to relinquish the government on charge of malfeasjince, and Philip Ludwell is appointed governor. . . Fundamental constitutions abrogated by the lords proprietors, Apr. Act making all alien inhabitants freemen on petitioning the governor and swearing allegiance to the king, with liberty of conscience to all Christians except Papists Small colony of Congregationalists from Dorchester, Mass., with their pastor rev. Joseph Lord, settle near the head of Ashley river about 22 miles from Charleston Combined naval and land expedition from Carolina, under gov. Moore and col. Daniel, besiege St. Augustine. 2 Spanish vessels appearing in the harbor, gov. Moore raises the siege afterburning the town Sept. First issue of paper money in America made by Carolina to meet 6000/. , expenses of the expedition against Florida, Sept. Carolina troops, under gov. Moore, make an expedition against the Indian towns of northern Florida Jan. Combined expedition of French, under mons. l,e Feboure, and the Spanish, made upon Charleston, proves fruitless Aug. South Carolina troops attack and defeat the Tuscaroras on the Neuse, with a loss to the Indians of more than 300 killed and 100 captured 28 Jan. An incipient civil war breaks out in Carolina in 1710, between col. Broughton. one of 3 deputies of the lords proprietors, and Robert Gibbes, the proclaimed governor. The contro- versy being referred to the proprietors, they appoint Charles Craven governor Fort Nahucke, Greene county, N. C, garrisoned by 800 Tusca- rora Indians, captured by col. James Moore of South Caro- lina 20 Mch. Tamussee Indians, incited by the Spaniards, massacre 90 col- onists at Pocotaligo 15 Apr. Gov. Craven defeats the Indians on the Salkehatchie. In this war 400 South Carolinians are massacred King in council so advising, proprietors repeal the duty of 10 per cent, on all goods of British manufacture, and also the act regulating elections and that enabling the Assembly to nominate a public receiver Governor and council impeach the administration of chief- justice Trolt, and present the case to the proprietors. The proprietors uphold Trott, and order the governor to publish at once the repeal of the late popular acts of the legislature, and to convene a new council and a new assembly Steed Bonnett and Richard Worley, pirates, and 40 followers, captured, convicted, and hung Gov. Johnson, by letter of Alexander Skene, George Logan, and William Blakeway, asked to accept the government from the people under the king 28 Nov. Gov. Johnson declining the office of governor, the People's Association proclaim James Moore governor, and elect 12 councillors, choose Richard Allein chief-justice, and appoint col. John Barnwell agent for the province Lords of the regency appoint Francis Nicholson provisional governor, having decided that the proprietors had forfeited their charter Gov. Nicholson arrives, summons a new assembly, which elects the late popular governor, James Moore, speaker of the house. Lords proprietors surrender the charter and government to the king, except lord Granville's one eighth Sir Alexander Cumming, sent out by Great Britain, makes a treaty with the Cherokees at Nequassee, who proclaim alle- giance to the king 3 Apr. On assuming the government, the crown divides Carolina, and appoints Robert Johnson governor of South Carolina. 30 Apr. First newspaper in South Carolina published at Charleston, Thomas Whitmarsh, editor 8 Jan. Forty thousand acres of land on the Savannah is given to 746 SOU 1663 1665 1670 1671 1674 1680 1683 1690 1693 1703 1706 1712 1715 1718 1720 1 John Peter Pury and his colony ot some 370 Swiss; Purys bury is settled 1732-3S Williamslxirj,' lownshii) foriuod by Irish settlers 1734 Boundary liiii' ixtwcon North and South Carolina partly estab- lished." 1738 Negro insiincct 1(111 at Siono suppressed, and its leader, Cato and principals liuug 1740 Ship-building begun: 5 ship-yards established; 4 in tlio viciii ity of Charleston, and 1 at Beaufort Fire consumes nearly one half of Charleston IH Nuv. Col. Clark, with emigrants from Virginia and Pennsylvania, settles on the Pacolet and on the foiks of the Tyger river, 1750-55 Cotton in small quantities exported 1754 Mrs. Pinckuey, who 10 years previously cultivated ihe lirst indigo, manufactures near Charleston silk for 3 dress patterns ; one she presents to the princess-dowager of Wales, one to lord Chesterfield, and one to her daughter 1755 Gov. Glen erects fort Prince George on the Savannah about 300 miles from Charleston Patrick Calhoun and 4 families settle in Abbeville district 1756 Treaty of peace concluded with the Cherokees at fort Prince George 17 Dec. 1759 Two ships reach Charleston with several hundred poor Ger- man emigrants from England, deserted there by their leader Stumpel Apr. 1764 Two hundred and twelve French settlers, in charge of rev. Mr. Gilbert, arrive at Charleston in Apr., and are assigned lands, which they settle under the name of New Bordeaux Oct. " Christopher Gadsden, Thomas Lynch, and John Rulledge ap- pointed delegates to the second Colonial Congress (Unitkd States) 7 Oct. 1765 Stamped paper stored in fort Johnson on James island, by or- der of gov. Bull. 150 volunteers compel the captain of the ship which brought the paper to reload it and sail immedi- ately for Europe Oct. " An association of regulators formed in the inland settlements to suppress horse- stealing, etc., leads to a Circuit Court law establishing courts of justice at Ninety-Six (now Cambridge), Orangeburg, and Camden *. 1769 Cargoes of tea sent to South Carolina are stored, aud consignees constrained from exposing it for sale 1773 Christopher Gadsden, Thomas Lynch, Henry Middleton, Ed- ward Rutlodge, and John Rutledge appointed deputies to the first Continental Congress at Philadelphia 6 July, 1774 Henry Middleton chosen president of the Continental Con- gress 22 Oct. " First Provincial Congress of 184 members, including the 49 members of the Constitutional Assembly, meet and approve proceedings of Continental Congress 11 Jan. 1775 Letters from England to public oflicials in America intercepted at Charleston furnish abundant evidence of the determina- tion of England to coerce America by force 19 Apr. " On receiving news of the battle of Lexington, the arms are removed from the arsenal at Charleston and distributed among the enlisted men Apr. " Ship Betsey, from London, surprised by a Carolina privateer, and 111 barrels of powder captured Aug. " Fort Johnson garrisoned by capt. Heyward and 35 of the Charleston artillery Sept. Gov. Campbell, last royal governor, dissolves the Assembly and retires to the sloop-of-war Tamar 15 Sept. Hostilities in South Carolina begun by the British vessels Ta- mar and Cherokee making a night attack on the schooner Defence, capt. Tufts, while blocking Hog Island channel by sinking hulks. Shots are exchanged, but at sunrise the British vessels retire 12 Nov. Col. Moultrie, authorized by the Council of Safety, takes pos- session of Haddrell's Point, and with artillery drives the British vessels from Charleston harbor Dec. Constitution framed by the Provincial Congress of South Car- olina adopted, 26 Mch. 1776, and courts of justice under its sanction opened 23 Apr. 1776 British fleet under sir Peter Parker unsuccessfully attacks fort Moultrie, Sullivan's island (Fort Moultrib) 28 June, " Thomas Heyward, jr., James Lynch, jr., Arthur Middleton, and Edward Rutledge sign the Declaration of Independence " Col. Williamson with 2000 men marches against the Cherokees, 13 Sept., and lays waste all their settlements east of the Ap- palachian mountains Sept. " Cherokee Indians by treaty cede to South Carolina all their land eastward of the Unaka mountains 20 May, 1777 Henry Laurens of South Carolina chosen president of the Con- tinental "Congress 1 Nov. " Constitution passed by the General Assembly as an act, 19 Mch. 1778, goes into effect Nov. 1778 State Supreme court declares the constitutions of 1776 and 1778 . acts of General Assembly, which it could repeal or amend.. . . 1779 Maj.-gen. Benjamin Lincoln takes command of all the forces to the southward; establishes his first post at Purysburg on ^^ the Savannah river President Lowndes lays a general embargo, and prohibits the ^^ sailing of vessels from any port of the state British under maj. Gardiner driven from Port Royal island by gen. Moultrie 3 Feb. || Americans repulsed at Stono ferry 20 June, British fleet from New York against Charleston lands forces under sir Heny Clinton 30 miles from the city 11 Feb. 1780 Royal fleet commanded by adm. Arbuthnot anchors near fort ^^ Johnson on James island 9 Apr. ^^ Gov. Rutledge retires from Charleston northward 12 Apr. M sou American cavalry surprised by British under cols. Tarleton aud Webster, and routed at Monk's Corner 14 Apr. Fort Moultrie, weakened reinforcing Charleston, surrenders to capt. Hudson of the British navy 6 May, Charleston capitulates 12 May, British forces under col. Tarleton surprise the Americans un- der col. Buford, at Waxhaw on the North Carolina border; the Americans lose 117 killed and 200 taken i)risoners, while the British lose but 5 men killed and 12 wounded. . .29 May, Sir Henry Clinton and adm. Arbuthnot, as peace commission- ers, by proclamation offer the inhabitants, with a few excep- tions, |)ardon and reinstatement in their rights 1 June, All paroles to prisoners not taken by capitulation and not in confinement at the surrender of Charleston are declared null and void after 20 June, and holders required actively to aid military operations or be treated as rebels 3 June, Aff'air at Rocky Mount 30 July, Battle of Hanging Rock 6 Aug. Battle of Camden; Americans under gen. Gates attack the British under Cornwallis and are repulsed 16 Aug. Americans under col. Williams defeat the British at Musgrove's Mills on the Eunoree 18 Aug. Sixty distinguished citizens of South Carolina are seized by the British and transported to St. Augustine as prisoners, 27 Aug. Battle of King's Mountain .7 Oct. Col. Thomas Sumter extends nis campaign into South Carolina; he captures a British supply train, 15 Aug. ; is surprised by Tarleton and defeated at Fishing creek, 18 Aug. ; defeats maj. James Wemyss in a night attack on Broad river, 8 Nov., and defeats col. Tarleton at Blackstock Hill 20 Nov. Battle of CowPENS, near Broad river; Americans under Morgan defeat the British under Tarleton; Andrew Jackson, then a boy of 14 years, takes part in the engagement 17 Jan. Francis Marion, appointed brigadier-general by gov. Rutledge in July, 1780, after numerous successful sorties on the Brit- ish and Tories from camp on Snow island during the winter of 1780-81; joins gen. Greene on his return to the state, Apr. Battle of Hobkirk's Hill; Americans under gen. Greene retreat before an attack of the British under lord Francis Rawdon (Hobkirk's Hill) 25 Apr. British evacuate fort Ninety-Six 21 June, Indecisive battle between gen. Greene and col. Stuart at Eutaw Springs, each claiming a victory (Eutaw Springs) 8 Sept. Gov. Rutledge issues a proclamation offering pardon to the Tories in South Carolina 27 Sept. General Assembly convenes at Jacksonborough on the Edisto river, Jan., elects John Mathews governor, and passes laws for confiscating the estates of Tories Feb. British evacuate Charleston 14 Dec. Charleston (hitherto Charlestown) incorporated South Carolina relinquishes to Georgia her claim to a tract of land lying between the Altamaha and St. Mary's rivers South Carolina cedes to the U. S. government her claim to a strip of land 12 miles wide west of a line from the head of the Tugaloo river to the North Carolina border 9 Aug. Constitution of the U. S. ratified by the state 23 May, Convention at Columbia completes state constitution. . .3 June, Orphan house asylum established at Charleston Medical Society of South Carolina, formed 1789, incorporated.. Sautee canal, connecting Charleston harbor with the Santee, 22 miles long, begun 17W2, completed Severe hurricane at Charleston Sept. College of the University of South Carolina, chartered 1801, opened at Columbia Owing to the peculiar distribution of the slave population, which gave the upper counties the power to tax, while the lower counties held most of the property taxed, a compromise is made in the constitution, making the members of the lower House 124 ; 62 from each section Madison appoints Paul Hamilton secretary of the navy.. 7 Mch. Legislature creates a Free-school fund ; its use to be confined to the poor if not enough for all State bank of South Carolina incorporated Literary and Philosophical Society of South Carolina incorpo- rated ; Decatur, capt. Diron, a privateer from Charleston, captures the British ship Dominicia of 15 guns and crew of 80 men, and shortly after the London Trader with a valuable cargo. .Aug. Cherokees cede territory lying within the chartered limits of South Carolina, by treaty at Washington, 22 Mch. 1816; rati- fied by the legislature of South Carolina 19 Dec. Monroe appoints John C. Calhoun secretary of war 8 Oct. Territory ceded by the Cherokees in 1816, annexed to the elec- tion district of Pendleton College of Charleston, commenced in Charleston in 1785, reor- ganized and opened 1 Jan. Legislature denounces the U. S. tariff as encroaching on state rights 12 Dec. South Carolina gold mines yield $3500 in State lunatic asylum at Columbia opened Public meeting on states rights held at Columbia 20 Sept. Gov. Hamilton recommends to legislature a nullification act. . . Legislature calls a convention at Columbia, 19 Nov. 1832, to consider the protective tariff 25 Oct. President instructs the collector at Charleston to seize and hold J every vessel entering that port until the duties be paid, and 1 " to retain and defend the custody of said vessels against any I forcible attempt. ' ' Gen: Scott and a naval force are also sent , to the state 6 Nov State convention meets, 19 Nov. 1832, and passes an ordinance of nullification, declaring (1) the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 747 SOU 1781 1782 1784 1787 1788 1790 1792 1794 1802 1804 1805 1808 1811 1812 1813 1816 1817 1820 1824 1827 1828 1830 1832 to be null, void, and no law, nor binding upon the state, its officers, or citizens ; (2) prohibiting the payment of duties under either act within the state after 1 Feb. 1833 ; (3) mak- ing any appeal to the Supreme court of the U. S. as to the validity of the ordinance a contempt of the Stale court from which the appeal was taken, punishable at the discretion of the latter; (4) ordering every ofDce -holder and juror to be sworn to support the ordinance; (5) giving warning that if the federal government should attempt to enforce the tariff by use of army or navy, or by closing the ports of the state, or should in any way harass or obstruct the state's foreign commerce. South Carolina would no longer consider herself a member of the Union 24 Nov. President Andrew Jackson proclaims nullification to be "in- compatible with the existence of the Union, and destructive of the great-object for which it was formed" 11 Dec. Calhoun resigns the oflSce of vice-president 28 Dec. Gov. Hayne issues a proclamation in answer to that of the president's, in which he warns the people not to be seduced from their primary allegiance to the state 31 Dec. .V bill to enforce the tariff', nicknamed the "Bloody bill " and '•Force bill," becomes a law of the U. S 2 Mch. Henry Clay introduces a compromise tariff-bill, 12 Feb. 1833, which is signed by the president and becomes a law, 2 Mch. A state convention passes 2 ordinances: 1st, repealing the Nullification act of 24 Nov. 1832; 2d, an ordinance to nullify the act of Congress, 2 Mch. 1833, commonly called the " En- forcing bill " 18 Mch. Van Buren appoints Joel R. Poinsett secretary of war . .7 Mch. During this and the 2 previous years, 2265 volunteers fur- nished for the Florida war Death of gov. Noble; Benjamin K. Hennegan, lieutenant-gov- ernor, succeeds him in office 7 Apr. Hugh S. Legar6 attorney general of U. S 13 Sept. Tyler appoints Calhoun secretary of war 6 Mch. South Carolina Institution for the Education of the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind at Cedar Springs opened Calhoun dies at Washington 31 Mch. Furman university at Greenville, chartered 1850, opened Convention of Southern Rights' associations of the state re- solve that "with or without co-operation they are for dis- solution of the Union" 8 May, State convention declares the riglit of the state to secede Greenville female college at Greenville, chartered 1854, opened, Gov. Adams in his annual message recommends the revival of the slave-trade 24 Nov. Columbia female college at Columbia, chartered 1854, opened. . U. S. steamship Niagara sails from Charleston for Liberia with Africans cai)tured from the Echo, a slave-ship sailing under American colors, 21 Aug. , and brought to Charleston, where the 300 or more slaves are placed in charge of the U. S. marshal (United States) 20 Sept. Grand jury at Columbia returns " no bill " on all 3 indictments against the crew of the slaver Echo 30 Nov. Grand jury at Charleston refuses to indict capt. Corrie of the Wanderer, a slave-ship seized in New York harbor. .16 May, Resolution offered in the House, that " South Carolina is ready to enter, with other slave holding states, into the formation of a Southern confederacy " 30 Nov. Due West female college at Due West, chartered 1859, opened.. Democratic National convention meets at Charleston, and ad- journs to Baltimore after delegates from southern states had withdrawn (United States) 23 Apr. Seceding Southern delegates to the Democratic convention organize a Southern convention, electing senator Bayard of Delaware president, but adjourn to meet at Richmond without making any nominations (United States). . .1 May, A convention called by the legislature, 7 Nov., assembles at Columbia, 17 Dec, but adjourns to Charleston, 18 Dec, where they pass an ordinance of secession and declare South Caro- lina an independent commonwealth 20 Dec. Maj. Anderson evacuates fort Moultrie and retires to fort Sum- ter, on night of 26 Dec Fort Pinckney, in Charleston harbor, seized by state troops. 27 Dec. State troops seize the arsenal at Charleston, lower the Federal flag after a salute of 32 guns, and run up the Palmetto flag with a salute of 1 gun for South Carolina 31 Dec. Fort Johnson, in Charleston harbor, occupied by state troops, 2 Jan. Star of the West, with a small force of troops and supplies for fort Sumter, being fired upon by batteries on Morris island and fort Moultrie, retires 9 Jan. Charles G. Memminger appointed Confederate secretary of the treasury 21 Feb. State convention called by the legislature, 17 Dec 1860, revises the state constitution, which goes into effect without being submitted to the people for ratification 8 Apr. Gov. Pickens's demand for the surrender of fort Sumter being refused by maj. Anderson, 11 Jan., and also by the secretary of war, 6 Feb., the civil war is opened by a shell fired from the howitzer battery on James island at 4.30 a.m. Friday (United States) 12 Apr. Fort Sumter evacuated by maj. Anderson (Fort Sumter), 14 Apr. U. S. steam frigate Niagara begins the blockade of Charleston harbor, 11 May ; captures the English ship General Parkhill, 13 May, Gov. Pickens proclaims that all persons remitting money to pay debts due in the North are guilty of treason 6 June, James M. Mason of Virginia, and John Slidell of Louisiana, leave Charleston on the Confederate steamer Theodora for Europe 1832 1833 1838 1840 1841 1844 1849 1850 1851 1862 1855 1856 1857 1858 1860 1861 sou via Havana lo represent tho Confederate government at the courts of Ureal BriUilu ami Frujoo (Trknt affair). . .12 Oct. Twenty five veiwels of the great Soulhorn exiwdilion anchor off Fort Royal * Nov. Federals ca|>turo forts Walker and Beauregard, Port Royal,? Nov. Coafedenito privateer Isalxl runs the blockade at Charleston, avoiding 11 L'. S. vessels. 27 Dec. Gen. David Hunter declares free the slaves In Georgia, Honda, and South Carolina (Unitbo Statss) 9 May, Battle of SeceBsionvllle (James island), in which col. T. G. I^mar defeats the federals under gen. Henry W. Benbam.. .10 June, Gen. P. G. T. Heaurogard assutnos command of the department of South Carolina and Georgia. 24 Sept Gen. J. .M Brnnnnn defeats the confederates under gen. Walker in the battle of I'ocoUligo 22 Oct. Com. Samuel K. Dupont's squadron is repulsed in the battle of Charleston harbor 7 Apr. Col. Montgomery, with U. S. troops, makes a raid from Beaufort up tho Combahee river, securing 800 slaves and a quantity or provisions and horses June, Federals victorious in the battles of Morris Island, 10 July; Fort Waonkr, 11 July; James Island 16 July, Fort Wagner bombarded by gen. Q. A. Gillmore 18 July, Charleston bombarded by the "Swamp Angkl," which bursts, 24 Aug. Fort Wagner bombarded by Gillmore 5 Sept. George A. Trenholm appointed Confederate secretary of the treasury Confederates defeat gen. Johu P. Hatch at Honey Hill. .30 Nov. Confederates repulsed in battles of Pocotaligo, 14 Jan. ; Salk- hiiU-hie, 3 Feb. ; Willstou SUtion, 8 Feb. ; Orangeburg, 12 Feb. ; Congaree Creek 15 Feb. Columbia surrendered to gen. Sherman 17 Feb. Charleston, burned and evacuated by gen. Hardee the day pre- vious, is occupied by Federal troops 18 Feb. Gen. O. O. Howard defeats the confederates at Cherau . .3 Mch. Benjamin F. Perry appointed provisional governor of South Carolina by pres. Johnson 30 June, A convention called by gov. Perry assembles in Baptist church at Columbia, 13 Sept., repeals the ordinance of secession, 19 Sept, and completes an amended constitution, which takes effect without being submitted to the people 27 Sept Legislature ratifies the amendment of the Constitution of the U. S. abolishing slavery 13 Nov. Legislature rejects the XIV. th Amendment of the Constitution of the U. S Dec. Gen. D. E. Sickles assigned by the president of the U. S. to the command of Second Military district, embracing North and South Carolina, with headquarters at Columbia 11 Mch. Gen. Sickles superseded by gen. E. R. S. Can by 26 Aug. A constitution, framed by a convention called under the Re- construction acts of Congress, which assembles at Charleston, 14 Jan., and completes its labors, 17 Mch., ratified by the people, 70,558 to 27,288 14-16 Apr. South Carolina readmitted into the Union 25 June, State penitentiary at Columbia opened J. K. Jillson elected the first state superintendent of public instruction in South Carolina legislature ratifies the XV. th Amendment of the Constitution of the U. S 16 Mch. State Labor convention held at Columbia Nov. Union Reform party organized and holds its first state conven- tion at Charleston 16 June, Free Common-school system established Tax-payers' convention held at the state capitol in Columbia "to devise means for the redemption of the state from her financial embarrassments " May, Owing to murder and outrage in the upper country, by the Ku-klux, pres. Grant, by proclamation, 12 Oct, suspends the habeas corpus in the counties of Spartansburg, York, Union, Chester, I^aurens, Newberry, Fairfield, Lancaster, and Ches- terfield, and commands secret organizations to disband within 5 days. Many troops are stationed in the state and about 600 arrests made Act establishing the validity of bonds of the state, issued be- tween 26 Aug. 18G8 and 26 Mch. 1869 Claflin university and South Carolina Agricultural college and Mechanical institute, organized at Orangeburg in 1869, is re- opened and chartered Walhalla female college at Walhalla, chartered and opened Tax-payers' convention at Columbia by resolution asking for amendments, simplifying and abridging the tax laws, 17 Feb. Gov. Moses is indicted personally for official acts; indictment is quashed on the ground that he should have been im- peached 8 June, Convention of Independent Republicans at Charleston nomi- nates candidates for governor, etc., who are supported by the Conservative party 2 Oct. SUte Normal school opened at Columbia. Orphan House asylum removed from Charleston to Columbia, Alleged blocking of a highway at Hamburg, 4 July, by a colored militia company; armed citizens attack them; 5 negroes killed and others wouuded 9 July, Gov. Chamberlain, by proclamation, orders all organizations, except the militia of the state, to disband within 3 days, 7 Oct ; a similar proclamation by pres. Grant 17 Oct While the result of the state election is pending in the Supreme court, the State Board of Canvassers, holding that their pow- ers were limited by statute to 10 days, on the last day issue certificates to the Republican presidential electors and state oflacers, refusing certificates to members of the legislature 748 SOU 1861 1862 1865 1867 1869 1870 1871 1872 1875 1876 fh)m Edgefield and liaurens counties for irregularities in elec- tions 22 Nov. On the assehibling of the legislature, 64 Democratic members, including those from Edgefield and lAurens counties, with- draw to Carolina ball and organize separately with William H. Wallace as speaker 28 Nov. Senate and Ropul)Iican house canvass the votes for governor and lieutenant governor, and declare D. H. Chamberlain elected governor, 5 Dec. ; sworn into office 7 Dec. Speaker Wallace, having a certificate from the secretary of state of the votes cast for governor and lieutenant governor, proceeds to canvass the votes and declares Wade Hamptoa and William D. Simpson, Democrats, elected; oath of office is administered by trial-judge Mackay 12 Dec. Both governors, being invited to Washington, hold a private conference with pres. Hayes, which results in a proclamation by gov. Chamberlain withdrawing his claim 11 Apr. F. L. Cardoza, stale treasurer under gov. Chamberlain, is ar- rested for fraud upon the state government, 21 July, and sentenced to 2 years in the county j>iil and $4000 fine, 8 Nov. Legislature by joint resolution provides that "all the unfunded debts and liabilities of the state, including the bills of the bank of tho state, and so much of the funded debt as is known as the Little Bonanza, be settled at the rate of 50 per cent," Mch. Wade Hampton, elected U. S. senator, resigns as governor, and is succeeded by W. D. Simpson, who is installed 26 Feb. Department of agriculture established Act to settle state debt in accordance with decision of state Su- preme court; James C. Colt named a special commissioner. . Gov. Simpson, resigning his office to take the chief-justiceship, is succeeded by lieut-gov. T. B. Jeter 1 Sept Centennial anniversary of the battle of Cowpens, 17 Jan. 1781, commemorated at Spartansburg by the unveiling of a statue of gen. Daniel H. Morgan 11 May, Exodus of 5000 colored people from Edgefield county, bound for Arkansas and Beaufort county 24-31 Dec. State Military academy at Charleston reopened 1 Oct Constitution amended, forbidding counties to contract a debt greater than 8 per cent of the taxable valuation Earthquake destroys $5,000,000 worth of property; first shock felt at Charleston, 9 :51 p.m. (Earthquakes) 31 Aug. Winthrop training school for teachers at Columbia, opened. . . Act passed providing a pension of $5 per month for disabled Confederate soldiers and the widows of those killed in the Confederate service Legislature accepts a devise of 814 acres in Ocanee county by Thomas G. Clemson, on condition that the state erect and maintain an agricultural and mechanical college First colored state fair ever held in the state opens at Colum- bia 1 Jan. Act passed creating a Board of Phosphate commissioners Department of Agriculture and office of Commissioner of Agri- culture abolished, and powers bestowed on trustees of the Clemson Agricultural college at session 25 Nov.-24 Dec. Col. Samuel B. Pickens dies at Charleston 17 Sept Nathaniel Duncan Ingraham, formerly of the U. S. navy (Kosz- ta affair), afterwards in the Confederate service, dies at Charleston 16 Oct Maj. George Washington Earle of Darlington, noted mathemati- cian and civil engineer, d 5 May, Evans liquor law goes into effect, by which the state assumes control of the sale of intoxicants 1 July, First state dispensary in Charleston opened; 1st day's sales, 22 1876 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1884 1886 1887 1891 $50. Aug. Three counties in rebellion against state authority on account of the state dispensary law; militia called out, 31 Mch.-l Apr. Gov. Tillman assumes control of the police and marshals in all cities and incorporated towns 3 Apr. Supreme court of the state decides that prohibition is in force in the state 8 May, Gov. Tillman issues a proclamation to open 1 Aug. the state liquor dispensaries 23 July, PROPRIETARY GOVERNORS. William Sayle appointed 26 July, Joseph West " 28 Aug. Sir John Yeamans " 26 Dec. Joseph West " 13 Aug. Joseph Morton " 26 Sept Joseph West " 6 Sept Richard Kirk Robert Quarry Joseph Morton James Colleton Seth Sothel Philip Ludwell Thomas Smith Joseph Blake John Archdale Joseph Blake James Moore Sir Nathaniel Johnson Edward Tynte Robert Gibbes Charles Craven Robert Daniel Robert Johnson James Moore. lOVO \ i 1671 1674 1682 1684 1685 1686 1690 1692 1693 1694 1695 1696 1700 1703 1709 1710 1712 1716 1717 1719 TEMPORARY REPUBLIC. Arthur Middleton 1719 sou ROYAL GOVERNORS. 749 SOU William Bull 1760 Thomas Boone 1762 William Bull 1763 Charles Montague 1766 William Bull 1769 William Campbell 1775 Francis Nicholson 1721 Arthur Middleton 1725 Robert Johnson 1730 Thomas Broughton 1735 William Bull 1737 James Glen 1743 William H. Littleton 1756 GOVERNORS UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. John Rutledge 1775 Rawlin Lowndes 1778 John Rutledge 1779 John Matthews 1782 Benjamin Guerard 1783 William Moultrie 1785 Thomas Pinckney 1787 Arnoldus Vanderhorst 1792 William Moultrie 1794 Charles Pinckney 1796 Edward Rutledge 1798 John Drayton acting 1800 James B. Richardson 1802 Paul Hamilton 1804 Charles Pinckney 1806 John Drayton 1808 Henrv Middleton 1810 Joseph Alston 1812 David R. Williams 1814 Andrew J. Pickens 1816 John Geddes 1818 Thomas Bennet 1820 John L. Wilson 1822 Richard J. Manning 1824 John Taylor Stephen D. Miller James Hamilton Robert Y. Hayne George McDuffle Pierce M. Butler Patrick Noble , B. K. Hennegan acting J. P. Richardson James H. Hammond William Aiken David Johnson W. B. Seabrook John H. Means John L. Manning James H. Adams R. F. W. Alston William H. Gist Francis W. Pickens M. L. Bonham A. G. Magrath inaugurated 19 Dec. Benjamin F. Perry, provisional, appointed 30 June, James L. Orr inaugurated 29 Nov. Robert K. Scott " 9 July, F. J. Moses, jr Daniel H. Chamberlain Wade Hampton William D. Simpson assumes office 26 Feb. T.B.Jeter " '• 1 Sept. Johnson Hagood inaugurated 30 Nov. Hugh S. Thompson John P. Richardson > Benjamin R. Tillman ^inaugurated 4 Dec. John Gary I'lvans 1 Dec. 1826 1828 1830 1832 1834 1840 1842 1844 1846 1848 1850 1852 1854 1856 1858 1860 1862 1864 1873 1875 1877 1879 1882 1886 1890 1894 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA. Name. No. of Congress. Date. Remarks. Pierce Butler Ralph Izard John Hunter Jacob Read Charles Pinckney Thomas Sumter John Ewing Calhoun. Pierce Butler 1st to 4th 1st " 4th 4th 4th 5th 7th 6th 7th 7th nth John Gailard. 7th 8th 8th to 20th 1789 to 1796 1789 " 1795 1796 " 1798 1795 " 1801 1798 " 1801 1801 " 1810 1801 " 1802 1803 " 1804 1805 " 1826 John Taylor William Smith Robert Y. Hayne William Harper. William Smith John C. Calhoun Stephen D. Miller , William C. Preston George McDuffle , Daniel E. Huger Andrew P. Butler , John C. Calhoun , Franklin H. Elmore. . . . Robert W. Barnwell R. Barnwell Rhett William F. DeSaussure. Josiah J. Evans Arthur P. Hayne James Chestnut nth 14th 14th 18th 1810 1817 1816 1823 18th " 22d 19th 20th to 22d 22d " 28th 22d 23d to 27th 27th 28th 29th to 35th 29th " 31st 31st 31st 31st to 32d 32d 33d to 35th 35th 35th to 36th 1823 " 1832 1826 1826 to 1831 1833 " 1843 1831 " 1833 1833 " 1842 1843 " 1846 1843 " 1845 1846 " 1857 1845 " 1850 1850 1851 to 1852 1852 1853 to 1858 1858 1859 to 1860 James H. Hammond 35th to 36th 1857 " 1860 37th, 38th, 39th Resigned. Elected president pro tern. 31 May, 1794. Elected in place of Butler. Resigned. Elected president pro tern. 22 Nov. 1797. Resigned. Elected in place of Pinckney. Resigned. Died in office. Elected in place of Calhoun. Resigned. Elected in place of Butler. Elected presidentpro^em. 28 Feb. and 17 Apr. 1810 ; 18 Apr. and 25 Nov. 1814 ; 2 Dec. 1816 ; 1 Dec. 1817 ; 20 Dec. 1820 ; 1 Feb. 1822 ; 21 May, 1824 ; 9 Mch. 1825. Died 26 Feb. 1826. Elected in place of Sumter. Resigned. Elected in place of Taylor. Great speech in the Senate on the Foote resolution, 25 Jan. 1830. Resigned. Elected governor. Appointed ^'J'o ened 1880 Yankton college, chartered in 1881, opened at Yankton 1882 Tin, delected as a black amd accompanying gold from the Black Hills by prof I'earce of Argo, is pniitically discovered by maj. Andrew J. Simmons of Kapid City 1883 Seat of government for Dakota territory removed from Yank- ton to Bismarck 11 Sept. " A convention called by some 400 delegates who met at Huron, 19 June, convenes at Sioux Falls, 4 Sept., and frames a con- stitution for the slate of DakoU to comprise the southern half of the territory 19 Sept. " University of South Dakota at Vermilion opened " Pierre university at East I'ierre chartered and opened '| Sioux Falls university opened " Yankton Insane hospital established ' Normal schools esUblished at Spearflsh and Madison " Dakota i>enitentiarv established at Sioux Falls " U. S. Senate passes a bill for the admission as a state of the southern half of Dakota territory; that portion north of the 46th parallel to be called the Territory of Lin- coln 1884 Agricultural college at Brookings opened " Dakota University at Mitchell opened Sept. 1885 Constitutional convention called by the legislature at Sioux Falls frames a constitution for South Dakota 25 Sept. " Legislature of Dakota territory passes a Local Option law 1887 School of Mines at Rapid City, esUblished by act of legislature in 1885, is opened " A majority vote for the division of Dakota territory into 2 states. North and South Dakota, at an election held Nov. " Act admitting South Dakota signed, a constitutional conven- tion to meet at Sioux Falls, 4 July, 1889 22 Feb. 1889 Election held by proclamation of territorial governor, A. C. Mel- lette, 15 Apr. 1889, for delegates to a constitutional conven- tion to meet 4 July, and the Sioux Falls constitution of 1885 favored by 37,710 votes to 3414 14 May, " Sioux Falls constitution amended and adopted by a conven- tion at Sioux Falls, 4 July, which adjourns 5 Aug. " Charles A. Foster of Ohio, William Warner of Missouri, and gen. George A. Cook, a committee appointed by the presi- dent, arrive at the Sioux reservation early in June, and se- cure the consent of three fourths of the Indians to open for settlement 26,751,105 acres of their land in the northwestern part of South Dakota Aug. " Arthur C. Mellette, Republican, elected governor of South Da- kota, the Sioux Falls constitution adopted by 70,131 to 3267; the article prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxi- cating liquors adopted by 40,234 to 34,510, and Pierre chosen as the temporary capital 1 Oct. " First state legislature convenes at Pierre 15 Oct. " South Dakota admitted into the Union with the northern boundary the 7th standard parallel 2 Nov. " Dakota Reform school in Plankinton opened " Proclamation by pres. Harrison opening up the S'oux reserva- tion, 9,000.000 acres, and a rush of immigrants who had as- sembled on the east bank of the M issouri 10 Feb. 1890 Large amount of seed grain supplied to the famine stricken farmers, chiefly in the central portion of the state, by appropriation by the legislature and from outside the state " Legislature creates a State Board of Charities and Correction, a Board of Regents of Fducation, a State Board of Equaliza- tion, a Board of Pardons, a Bureau of Labor Statistics, the oflQce of state engineer of irrigation, a State Meteorological Bureau, a state inspector of mines, and a State Board of Pharmaceutical Examinera " Pierre selected as the permanent capital of the state " Farmers' Alliance and Knights of Labor parties meet in state convention at Huron, report in favor of woman suflfrage, pro- hibition, and tariff for revenue only, and unite under the name of the Independent party 6 June, " Dakota Soldiers' Home, established at Hot Springs, Fall River county, in 1889, is opened 27 Nov. " Battle with Big Foot's Indian band on Wounded Knee creek; some 250 Indians killed, including 44 squaws and 18 papooses. 1a)SS to U. S. troops, 32 killed, 39 wounded, 29 Dec. " Gen. Miles, after the Indians at Pine Ridge agency sur- render, 15 Jan., declares the Indian outbreak at an end, 19 Jan. 1891 James H. Kyle elected U. S. senator 16 Feb. " Australian ballot law enacted at session of 6 Jan. -7 Mch. " Dr. Chas. 0. Merica chosen to succeed Howard B. Grose, presi- dent of state university at Vermilion, resigns Sept. " Sisseton Indian reservation opened to settlers 15 Apr. 1892 Catholic Sioux congress opens at Cheyenne agency ; 6000 Sioux Indians present 3 July, " SOU GOVERNORS — TKRUITORIAU William Jayne appointed Newton Edmunds " Andrew J. Faulk " John A. Burbank " John A. Pennington " William A. Howard. " N. G. Ordway " Gilbert A. Pierce " Louis K. Church " Arthur C. Mellette " 1861 1863 1866 1888 1874 1878 1880 1K84 GOVE RNORS — ST ATE. Arthur C. Mellette elected , Charles H. Sheldon " ... 1889 .1893-97 U. S. SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF SOUTH DAKOTA. Name. No. of CougresB. Date. Remarks. Gideon C. Moody Richard F. Pettigrew. . James H. Kyle 51st to 52d 51st " — 52d " — 1889 to 1891 1889 " 1891 " Term expires, 1901' Term expires, 1897 I^OUtll mountain, Maryland, Battles of, foui?ht 14 Sept. 1862, 3 days before the battle of Antietam. South mountain is a prolongation of a range of the Blue Ridge north' of the Potonoac from Harper's Ferry. Turner's gap affords a passage from Frederick City to Williamsport ; Crampton's gap, 6 miles south, gives a similar opening towards Harper's Ferry. Lee, after crossing the Potomac, divided his forces, sending " Stonewall " Jackson to capture Harper's Ferry. To relieve Harper's Ferry, McClellan ordered gen. Franklin through Crampton's gap. The remainder of the army was to move by Turner's gap upon Lee's main column. The Con- federate gen. D. H, Hill succeeded in reaching Turner's gap, as did M'Laws Crampton's gap, before the federals. The' battles of the 14th were fought to wrest these positions from the confederates. As gen. Lee's object in occupying and holding these gaps was to delay the Federal advance until the surrender of Harper's Ferry and the concentration of his forces, they were held tenaciously. D. H. Hill, reinforced by Long-, street's corps and other troops until the confederates numbered at least 25,000, succeeded in holding Turner's gap until night, when he retired. Gen. Franklin forced Crampton's gap late in the afternoon, but not soon enough to relieve Harper's Ferry, Lee succeeded in capturing Harper's Ferry, and in uniting his forces for the battle of Antietam. Maryland campaign. SoutllCOtters, Joanna Southcott, a fanatic, born in 1760, came from Exeter to London, where her followers at one period amounted to many thousands, the low and ignorant being her principal dupes. In 1792 she announced herself as the woman spoken of in Rev. chap. xii. ; and a disease fa- vored the delusion that she would be the mother of the prom- ised Shiloh. She died 27 Dec. 1814, and was buried at Mary- lebone. In 1851 there existed in England 4 congregations, professing to expect her return. Her successor, Mrs. Peacock,! died Mch. 1875, aged 103 (V). l^OUttiern continent. The southern ocean waa first traversed by Magellan in 1520; and explored by Walliaj and Carteret in 1766, and by Cook in 1773 and 1774."^ Of th^ southern continent little is known but that it is icebound and contains active volcanoes. It was discovered bv capt. John Biscoe, on 27 Feb. 1831, in lat. 65° 57' S., Ion. 47° 20' E., ex- tending east and west 200 miles— this he named Enderby land^ after the gentleman who had equipped the voyage. CaptJ Biscoe also discovered Graham's land on 15 Feb. 1832, situ- ated in lat. 67° 1' S., Ion. 71° 48' W. The messrs. Enderby equipped 3 other expeditions in search of the southern conti- nent, the last (in connection with others) in 1838, when capt, Balleny had command, who, on 9 Feb. 1839, discovered the Balleny islands, lat. 67° S., Ion. 165° E., and in Mch. 1839, Sabrina land, lat. 65° 10' S., Ion. 118° 30' E. In 1838 the United States fitted out an expedition to explore this region under command of lieut. Charles Wilkes of the navy, which returned in 1842. United States, 1838, '42. This, and a French expedition under adm. d'Urville in 1840, greatly added to our knowledge of a southern continent, which was still further increased by an expedition which sailed from Eng- land in 1839, under the command of capt. sir James Clark Ross, who discovered Victoria land in 1841- and subsequently penetrated as far south as 78° 11'. sou 751 SPA Sdllth-§ea bubble commenced with the establish- ment of the South-sea company in London in 1710, for the purpose (if carrying on a monopoly of trade with the Spanish coasts of South America, which was at first unwisely and af- terwards dishonestly managed. It failed in 1720, ruining thousands of families; and the directors' estates, to the value of 2,014,000/., were seized in 1721 and sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 100,000/.; but he compounded the fraud for 10,000/., and returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the kingdom had become speculators in the legion of projects for money-making, the artifices of the directors having raised the shares, originally 100/., to the price of 1000/. A parliamentary inquiry took place in Nov. 1720, and Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, and several members of Parliament were expelled the house in 1721. Law's bubble. Soulhwark bridg-e, one of the London bridges over the Thames, was designed by John Kennie, and built by a company, 1815-19, at an expense of $4,000,000. It con- sists of 3 great cast-iron arches, resting on massive stone piers and abutments; the distance between the abutments is 708 feet ; the centre arch is 240 feet span, the 2 others 210 feet each; and the total weight of iron 5308 tons. The bridge was freed from toll on 8 Nov. 1864, the company receiving a compensation from the city. An act for the payment of divi- dends to share-holders was passed in 1872. 80Utliwe§tern territory. North Carolina, 1784-90 ; South Carolina, 1787 ; Tennkssee, 1790. §OVereigII, an ancient and modern British gold coin. In 1489 22^ pieces, in value 20s. each, " to be called the sover- eign," were ordered to be coined out of a pound of gold. — Ruding. In 1542 sovereigns were coined in value 20s., which afterwards, in 1550 and 1552 (4 and 6 Edw. VI.), passed for 24s. and 30s. " Sovereigns" of the new coinage were directed to pass for 20s., 1 July, and half-sovereigns for 10s., 10 Oct. 1817. Coin, Gold. By the Coinage act, 1870, the weight of the sovereign is fixed at 123.27447 grains troy ; specific gravity, 17.57 (916.67, gold being 1000); half-sovereigns, 61.63723 grains. The dragon sovereigns were reissued in 1871. iSpaill (the ancient Iberia and Ilispania), a kingdom in southern Europe. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal, 5th son of Japhet. The Phoeni- cians and Carthaginians (360 b.c.) successively planted colo- nies on the coasts ; and the Romans conquered the whole country, 206 b.c. The present constitution, drawn up by the government and laid before a Cortes, elected for its ratifica- tion, 27 Mch. 1876, was proclaimed 30 June, 1876. Under this Spain was made a constitutional monarchy, the executive resting in the king, and the power to make laws " in the Cortes with the king." The Cortes is composed of a senate and congress equal in authority. The senators are in 3 classes : (1) senators by their own right; (2) 100 life-senators nomi- nated by the crown, these 2 classes not to exceed 180; (3) 180 senators elected by the corporations of the state ; half of these are elected every 5 years, and all of them whenever the mon- arch dissolves this part of the Cortes. The congress is formed by deputies, one to every 50,000 of the population. B\' the law of 26 June, 1890, all male Spaniards, 25 years old, who enjoy full civil rights and have been citizens of a municipality for at least 2 years, are voters. The island of Cuba, from 8 Aug. 1878, sends deputies to the Cortes, one to every 40,000 free inhabitants, paying in taxes 125 pesetas annually. Area of continental Spain, 191,100 sq. miles. Pop. 1789, 10^,061,480; estimated, 1820, 11,000,000; 1846,12,168,774; 1860,15,658,531; 1887 (latest census), 17,550,246. There are about 440,000 Basques in the north, differing in race and language from the rest of Spain, some 60,000 Morescoes in the south, and 50,000 gypsies. Madrid, the capital and largest city, had a popula- tion of 472,228 in 1887. Revenue, 1891-92, about $161,111,000. Carthaginians, enriched by the mines of Siiain (480 b.c. etseq.), b.c. form settlements 360 New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by Hasdrubul 242 HamiK'ur extends their dominions in Spain 238-233 At his death, Hannibal, his son, takes the command. 221; pre- pares for war, 220 ; takes Sagunlum, 219 ; crosses the Alps, and enters Italy 218 Romans carry the war into Spain; 2 Scipios defeated and slain by Hasdrubal 212 Pub. Cornelius Scipio Afiicanus takes New Carthage, 210 ; drives the Carthaginians out of Spain, 207 ; and annexes it. 205 Celtiberian and Numantine war. 153-133 Viriathus, general of the Celtiberians and Lusitanians, subdues all west Spain, 145; makes peace with the consul Fabius Servilianus, 142 ; assassinated by order of the Romans 140 Insurrection of Sertoriiis, 78; subdued by Pompey,and assassi- nated 72 Julius Caesar quells an insurrection in Spain 67 Fouipey governs Spain 60-50 Revolt through the rapacity of Crassus 48-47 Era of Spain; conquest by Augustus begun 1 Jan. 38 A.D. Vandals, Alani, and Suevi wrest Spain from the Romans 409 Adolphus founds the kingdom of the Visigoths..., 414 Vandals pass over to Africa 427 Theodoric I. vanquishes the Suevi 452 Assassinated by his brother Kuric, who becomes master of all Spain 466 Recared I. expels the Franks 587 He abjures Arianism, and rules ably till 601 Wamba's wise administration, he prepares a fleet for defence against the Saracens 672-77 Saracens invited into Spain against king Roderic by count Julien, 709 Gabel al Tarik lands at Calpe 30 Apr. 711 Roderic's defeat and death at Xeres " Establishment of the Saracens at Cordova " Victorious progress of Musa and Tarik 712-13 Emirs rule at Cordova; I'elayo, of Gothic blood, rules in As- turias and Leon 718 Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles Martel 732 or 733 Abderahman the first king at Cordova 755 Invasion of Charlemagne 777-78 Sancho Inigo, count of Navarre, etc 873 Sancho of Navarre becomes king of Castile 1026 Kingdom of Aragon commenced under Ramirez 1 1035 Leon and Asturias united to Castile 1037 I'ortugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of Besanfon (Por- tugal) 1095 Saracens, beset on all sides by Christians, call in Moors from Africa, who seize their dominions, and subdue the Saracens, 1091 et seq. Exploits of the Cid Rodrigo; d .about 1099 Dynasty of the Almoravides at Cordova 1094-1144 Moors defeated in several battles by Alfonso of Leon 1144 Dynasty of the Almohades at Cordova 1144-1225 Cordova, Toledo, Seville, etc., taken by Ferdinand of Castile and Leon 1233-48 Kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, last refuge from the power of the Christians 1238 Crown of Navarre passes to king of France 1274 Two hundred thousand Moors arrive to assist the king of Granada , 1327 They are defeated at Tarifa by Alfonso XL of Castile with great slaughter 1340 Reign of Pedro the Cruel 1350 His alliance with Edward the Black Prince 1363 Defeated at Montiel and treacherously slain 1369 Ferdinand II. of Aragon marries Isabella of Castile, 18 Oct. 1469; and nearly the whole Christian dominions of Spain are united in one monarchy 1479 Establishment of the Inquisition 1480-84 Persecution of the Jews 1492-98 Granada taken after a 2 years' siege; and the power of the Moors is finally extirpated by Ferdinand 1492 Jews expelled " Contract with Columbus to explore the western ocean, 17 Apr, " Columbus sails on his first voyage from Palos (America), 3 Aug. " Mahometans persecuted and expelled 1499-1502 Death of queen Isabella 26 Nov. 1504 Death of Columbus 20 May, 1506 Ferdinand conquers great part of Navarre 1512 Accession of the house of Austria to the throne of Spain; Charles V. of Germany, L of Spain 1516 Able administration of Ximenes; ungratefully used, 1516; his death 1517 Charles elected emperor of Germany 1519 Insurrection in Castile 1520-21 Philip of Spain marries Mary of England. 25 July, 1554 Charles abdicates and retires from the world 1556 War with France; victory at St. Quentin 10 Aug. 1557 Charles dies, aged 58 years 21 Sept. 1558 Philip II. commences his bloody persecution of the Protestants, 1561 Escurial begun 1563 Revolt of the Moriscoes, 1567 ; suppressed 1570 Naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks 7 Oct. 1571 Revolt of William prince of Orange (Holland) 1572 Portugal united to Spain by conquest 1580 The Netherlands declare their independence '' Spanish Armada destroyed ( Armad.x) 1588 Philip III. banishes the Moors (900,000) 1.598-1610 Ministry of the duke of Lerma lo98-1618 Ministry of Olivarez 1621-43 Philip IV. loses Portugal 1640 Death of Charles II., last of the house of Austria; accession of Philip V. of the house of Bourbou 1700 War of the Succession 1702-13 Gibraltar taken by the English 1704 Siege of Barcelona 1"13 Cardinal Alberoni re-establishes the authority of the king, re- forms many abuses, and raises Spain to the rank of a first l)ower, 1715-20; ordered to quit Spain 1720 Charles, son of Philip V. , conquers Naples 1735 762 1808 SPA Cbari«0 in., Iclog of th« Two Sicilies, succeeds U> the crown ot Ui,^iq 1759 wSwilhEngUmV 17Gi-(a audTTjT Battle of Cape St. Vincent .U Feb. 1797 SpanlBh treasure shiiw, valued at $3,000,000, seized by the 'pogiish • '^^^- 1^^ Battle ofTKAFAUJAR 21 Oct. 1805 Sway of (Jodoy, Prince of Peace 1806 Kronch enter "S|>aiu ; a Sjwinish army sent to the Baltic 1807 Prince of Astiirias conspires against his father. . : 25 July, " Treaty of Fontainebleau. . .* 27 Oct. French Uke Madrid Mch. I*rince of Pejice dismissed 18 Mch. Abdi&ition of Charles IV. in favor of Ferdinand, 19 Mch. ; and at Bavoune, on Ferdinand's refusal, in favor of his '"friend andailv," Naiwleon 1 May, " Revolution ; French massacred at Madrid 2 May, " Province of .Astiirias rises en masxe 3 May, " Napoletin asseml)le8 the notables at Hayoune 25 May, " Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of Spain, 12 July; re- tires 29 July, " Battle of Vimiera; French defeated 21 Aug. " Supreme Junta installed Sept. " Madrid taken by the French, and Joseph restored 2 Dec. " Napoleon enters Madrid 4 I>ec. " Hoval family of Sp;iin imprisoned in the palace of Chamb^ry, In Savoy 5 Dec. " French defeated at Corunna. 16 Jan.; take F'errol, 27 Jan.; Saragossa, 21 Feb. ; Oporto, 29 Feb. ; Cordova and Seville, Nov.; Gerona. 12 Dec. 1809 Ney takes Ciudad Rodrigo 10 July, 1810 Spanish Cortes meets 24 Sept. " Wellington defeats Massena at Fuentes de Onoro 5 May, 1811 Soult defeated at Albuera 16 May, " Constitution of the Cortes (democratic) 8 May, 1812 Wellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; storms Badajos, 6 Apr. ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca 22 July, " He occupies Madrid, and defeats the French at Vittoria, 21 June; defeats Soult in the Pyrenees, 28 July; takes St. Se- bastian, 31 Aug ; and enters France 8 Oct. 1813 Ferdinand VII. restored (constitution set aside) 14 May, 1814 Slave-trade abolished for a compensation 1817 Insurrection at Valencia repressed 1819 Spanish revolution begun by Riego Ian. 1820 Ferdinand swears to the constitution of the Cortes 8 Mch. " French enter Spain. 7 Apr. ; and invest Cadiz 25 June, 1823 Battle of the Trocadero 31 Aug. " French evacuate Cadiz 21 Sept. 1828 Salique law abolished, 29 Mch.; Carlist and Christina parties formed 1830 Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor to the king, 29 Apr. 1833 Death of Ferdinand VII. ; his queen assumes power until Isa- bella II., her infant daughter, attains majority 29 Sept. " Constitution termed " Estatuto Real" granted by advice of Martinez de la Rosa " Queen Christina marries Ferdinand Munos (afterwards duke of Riauzar^s) 28 Dec. " Quadruple treaty establishes the right of Isabella to the throne, 22 Apr. 1834 Don Carlos appears in Spain 10 July, " Peers vote his exclusion 30 Aug. " Mendizabal, prime-minister; Mina and Espartero command the royalists; the rebel leader, Zumalacarregui, killed near Bilbao June, 1835 Sir De Lacy Evans and others raise a British legion for the queen of Spain ". " They defeat the Carlists at St. Sebastian 1 Oct. 1836 Espartero gains the battle of Bilbao 25 Dec. " Gen. Evans takes Irun 17 May, 1837 Constituent Cortes proclaimed " Dissolution of the monasteries " Carlists under Maroto desert don Carlos and make peace with Espartero, at Vergara 31 Aug. 1839 Don Carlos seeks refuge in France 13 Sept. " Surrender of Morello 28 May, 1840 Queen -regent appoints a ministry, nominated by Espartero, 5 Oct.; she abdicates and leaves Spain; visits France and Sicily; returns to France 12 Oct. " Espartero, duke of Vittoria, e.xpels the papal nuncio. . .29 Dec. " Si>anish Cortes declares Espartero regent during the queen's m nority 12 Apr. Queen Christina's protest 19 July, Insurrection in favor of Christina commenced at Pampeluna by gen. O'Donnell and Concha 2 Oct. " Don Diego I.,eon attacks tlie palace at Madrid; his followers repulsed, and numbers slain by the queen's guards, 7 Oct. ; he is shot at Madrid 15 Oct. " Zurbauo captures Bilbao 21 Oct. " Rodil. constitutional general, enters Vittoria " " Monies de Oca shot »' " Gen. O'Donnell takes refuge in French territory " " Espartero suspends queen Christina's pension 26 Oct. " Fueros of the Basque provinces abolished 29 Oct. " Borio and Gobernado, implicated in the Christina plot, put to death at Madrid 9 Nov. " Espartero enters Madrid 23 Nov. " General pardon of persons not yet tried concerned in the events of October '. 13 Dec. " Effective army fixed at 130,000 men 28 June, 1842 Insurrection at Barcelona; national guard joins the populace. SPA 1841 13 Nov.; street battle between national guard and troops; the latter lose 500 killed and wounded, and retreat to the citadel 15 Nov. 1842 Barcelona blockaded, 26 Nov, ; Espartero arrives before it, 29 Nov. ; its bombardment and surrender 3, 4 Dec. " Disturbances at Malaga 25 May, 1843 Revolutionary junta re-established at Barcelona 11 June, " [Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and other towns "pro- nounce" against the regent Espartero ] Arrival of gen. Narvaez at Madrid, which surrenders. .15 July, " Espartero bombards Seville 21 July, <« Siege is raised 27 July, " [Revolution is successful, and Espartero flees to Cadiz and embarks on British ship Malabar.] New government dei)rives Espartero of his titles and rank, 16 Aug. ; he arrives in London 23 Aug. '* Reaction suppressed at Madrid Aug. " Isabella II., 13 years old, is declared by the Cortes of age; Nar- vaez (friend of the queen mother), lieutenant general, 8 Nov. " Queen mother returns to Spain ...23 Mch. Zurbano's insurrection, 12 Nov. 1844; he is shot 21 Jan. Don Carlos relinquishes his right to the crown in favor of his son 18 May, Reactionary constitution Narvaez and his ministry resign, 12 Feb. ; return to power, 17 Mch. ; again resign 28 Mch. Escape of don Carlos from France 14 Sept. Queen married to her cousin, Francisco d'Assisi, duke of Cadiz, and the infanta Louisa to the due de Montpensier 10 Oct. [The Spanish marriages disturb the friendly relations of the French and English governments ] Espartero restored 3 Sept. Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, British envoy, ordered to quit S|)ain in 43 hours 17 May, Diplomatic relations with England restored 18 Apr. American expedition under Lopez against Cuba (United States) 1 8.50, Madrid- Aranjuez railway opened 9 Feb. Law respecting the public debt (Spain since excludcfl from European money-markets) 1 Aug. Death of Godoy, prince of peace 4 Oct. Queen pardons the prisoners taken in the attempt upon Cuba, 11 Dec. Movement headed by Espartero; Barcelona and Madrid pro- nounce against the government; barricades in Madrid, 1-17 July, Triumph of the insurrection; resignation of the ministry; the queen sends for Espartero 19 July, Espartero forms an administration 31 July, Queen mother impeached; she quits Spain 28 Aug. New constitution of the Cortes 13 Jan. Cortes votes that power proceeds from the people; it permits liberty of belief, but not of worship Feb. Don Carlos d 10 Mch. Birth of the prince-royal 28 Nov. Joint French and Spanish expedition against Cochin China announced 1 Dec. War with Morocco Nov.-Dec. O'Donnell commands the army in Africa; indecisive conflicts reported; battle at Castillejoe;; a Spanish "Balaklava" charge .' 1 Jan. Moors defeated near Tetuan, which surrenders 4 F"eb. An ineffectual truce 16-23 Feb. Moors defeated at Guad el-ras 23 Mch. Treaty of peace signed; 400,000,000 reals to be paid by Moors, and Tetuan to be held till paid 26 Mch. Gen Ortega, governor of the Balearic isles, lands near Tortosa, in Valencia, with 3000 men, and proclaims the comte de Montemolin king, as Charles VI. ; his troops resist, and he is compelled to flee, with the comte and others, 3 Apr. ; Ortega shot 19 Apr. Comte de Montemolin and his brother Ferdinand arrested at Tortosa, 21 Apr. ; renounce their claim to the throne, 23 Apr. Napoleon III.'s proposal to admit Spain as a first-class power is opposed by England, and given up Aug, Annexation of St. Domingo to Spain ratified; slavery not to be re-established 19 May, Intervention in Mexico 8 Dec. Jos6 Alhama and Manuel Matamoras, Protestant propagan- dists, sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment 14 Oct. Don Juan de Bourbon renounces the throne. . , 8 Jan. Insurrection in St. Domingo; war ensues (Domingo) — 1 Sept. Rupture with Peru Apr. Gen. Prim exiled for conspiracy 13 Aug. " Peace with Peru, which has to pay a heavy indemnity, 27 Jan. 1865 Queen orders sale of crown lands, giving three fourths to the nation 20 Feb. " Decree relinquishing St. Domingo 5 May, " Suppression of a conspiracy at Valencia to reunite Spain and Portugal 10 June, " Kingdom of Italy recognized by Spain 26 June, " Dispute with Chili ; M. Tavira's settlement (20 May) disavowed by the government 25 July, " Adm. Pareja, at Valparaiso, insults the Chilian government, 18 Sept. ; which declares war, 25 Sept. ; Pareja declares a blockade Oct. " Chilian capt. Williams captures the Spanish vessel Covadonga (Pareja commits suicide) 26 Nov. " Queen Victoria, British sloop, seized by a guardacosta, 15 Jan. 1866 Adm. Mendez bombards Valparaiso, "destroying property, 31 Mch. ; repulsed at Callao with loss 2 May, 1844 1845 1846 1848 1850 1851 18M 1866 1857 1860 1861 1864 SPA 753 Queen declares Pacific campaign ended 15 June, British screw steamer Tornado, com. E. Collier, seized by Spaniards (charged with aiding Chili), and carried to Cadiz, 21, 22 Aug. Public instruction placed under the clergy Oct. Reform of the municipal institutions decreed on account of revolutionary proceedings Oct. Crew of Tornado detained as prisoners, 31 Oct. ; the case re- ferred to law Nov. Queen dismisses the Cortes (and imprisons many eminent deputies for petitioning against it) 30 Dec. Decision in Tornado case— the ship a prize and the crew pris- oners of war, 18 Dec. 1866; lord Stanley protests against the proceedings 8 Feb. 1867 Decree making secret publication of journals and pamphlets penal 16 Feb. " Tornado prisoners released Feb. " Sloop Queen Victoria declared by Spain wrongfully seized; reparation to be made 21 Apr. " Law abolishing normal schools and subjecting education to the priests 2 June, 1868 Insurrection begins in the fleet, 18 Sept. ; joined by the garri- son and city of Cadiz, 19 Sept. ; by nearly all Spain, 19-30 Sept. " Prim arrives at Cadiz, 17 Sept. ; announces a provisional gov- ernment 19 Sept. " Ministers resign, 19, 20 Sept. ; Jos6 Concha becomes president of the council, 22 Sept. ; Bravo Murillo and his colleagues flee to Bayonne 23 Sept. " [Royalist leaders: Jos^ Concha, marques de Havana, Man- uel Concha, marques de Duero, at Madrid; the marques de Pezuela at Barcelona; Eusebio de Calonge in the north; Pa- via y Lacy, marques de Novaliches, in Andalusia.] Novaliches.'the royalist general, defeated at Alcolea, by Serra- no, 27 Sept. ; surrenders 28 Sept. *' Queen flies to Bayonne and Pau, and protests 29, 30 Sept. " Deposition of the queen declared at Madrid. 29 Sept. " National guard organized 30 Sept. " Don Juan, son of don Carlos, renounces his hereditary rights in favor of his son, Carlos 3 Oct. " Serrano enters Madrid, 3 Oct. ; Serrano, Prim, and Olozaga constitute a provisional government 5 Oct. " Education law of 2 June annulled; Jesuits and other religious orders suppressed; laws expelling Jews abrogated; freedom of worship decreed about 12, 13 Oct. " Local juntas dissolved by manifesto of the provisional gov- ernment 20 Oct. " Provisional government recognized by the U. S., 13 Oct.; by England, France, and Prussia, 25 Oct. ; by Austria, Sweden, and Belgium about 31 Oct. " Manifesto of the government for universal suffrage, and free press and education 26 Oct. " Prim created marshal about 6 Nov. " Queen arrives at Paris 6 Nov. " Joint electoral committee at Madrid declare in favor of a lim- ited monarchy 14 Nov. " Peaceful elections for constituent Cortes 19, 20 Dec. " Election of members for the Cortes 17 Jan. 1869 Spanish envoy at Rome not received 23 Jan. " Cortes meets, 11 Feb. ; Rivero elected president 13 Feb. " Provisional government resigns; Serrano reappointed head of the government with same ministry 25, 26 Feb. " Spanish Protestant religious service at Madrid 28 Mch. " Cortes votes for a monarchy (214 to 71) 21 May, " New constitution promulgated 6 June, " Marshal Serrano elected regent by the Cortes, 15 June; sworn, 18 June, " New ministry under Prim about 18 June, " U. S. overtures respecting Cuba indignantly rejected, about 18 Sept. " Candidature of the duke of Genoa discussed Sept. -Oct. " Republican speech of Castelar in the Cortes about 18 Dec. " Resignation of Prim and ministry on the Italian government opposing the nomination of the duke of Genoa as king of Spain 4 Jan. 1870 Prim resumes office with Topete and Rivero. 10 Jan. " Majority in the assembly for Prim against the combined unionists and liberals 3 Apr. " Duo de Montpensier, after great provocation, kills don Enrique de Bourbon, brother of the ex-king, in a duel, 12 Mch. ; tried, condemned, and fined 12 Apr. " Crown declined by Espartero May, " Bill for gradual abolition of slavery in the colonies presented to the Cortes 28 May, " Rojo Arias carries a resolution requiring an absolute majority in the Cortes for any proposed sovereign (179 out of 356); this excludes all present candidates June, " babella II. abdicates in favor of her son, Alfonso 25 June, " Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen nominated king, accepted by the regent and ministry, 6 July; this justified by the government in a circular, 7* July; on opposition ot France he resigns 12 July, " Neutrality in Franco- Prussian war announced 27 July, " Renewed agitation for a republic about 9 Aug. " Amnesty for political offences since 29 Sept. 1868, published, 10 Aug. " French republic warmly recognized Sept. " Aroadeus, duke of Aosta (b. 30 May, 1845) accepts the candi- _ dature for the crown 20 Oct. " Elected by the Cortes by 191 votes (63 for a republic ; 27 for the due de Montpensier) 16 Nov. " SPA 1871 1872 Proclaimed king 17 Nov. 1870 Ex-queen, on behalf of her son Alfonso, protests against the election 21 Nov. " Duke accepts the crown from a deputation of the Cortes at Florence, and says that his honesty should rise above the struggle of parties, and that he has no other object than the peace and prosperity of the nation 4 Dec. " Stormy session in the Cortes on arrangements for the new king, 19 Dec. ; Rivero, president, resigns 25 Dec. " Prim fired at and wounded in his carriage by 6 men, who es- cape; indignation at Madrid, 27 Dec; Topete rejoins the ministry; vote of confidence 28 Dec. " Prim dies in the evening (aged 56); the king received by Topete at Cartagena 30 Dec. " Funeral of Prim , 31 Dec. King enters Madrid, and takes the oath 2 Jan. New ministry under Serrano 5 Jan. New Cortes opened ; king's speech applauded 3 Apr. Del Castillo and other Alfonsists recognize the king Apr. Olozaga elected president of the Cortes 4 Apr. Tornado difHculty settled (Aug.-Nov. 1866); compensation to be paid by the Spanish government May, King visits the provinces; warmly received, 1 Sept. et seq. ; welcomed by Espartero at Logroiio 80 Sept. Espartero, duke of Vittoria, made prince of Vergara Jan. New Cortes opened; king says, "I will never impose myself on the Spanish people, but neither will I allow myself to be accused of deserting the post which I occupy by their will," 24 Apr. " Navarre, etc., in state of siege 25 Apr. " Marshal Serrano enters Navarre; don Carlos, calling himself Carlos VII., crosses the frontier near Vera, and takes the command, Rada retiring, 2 May; totally defeated at Oro- quieta ' 4 May, " Letter of the due de Montpensier advocating the rights of prince Alfonso, 17 Apr., published June, " Attempted assassination of king and queen by about 15 men; 1 assassin killed, 2 taken ; after midnight of 18, 19 July, " Don Carlos calls on Catalonia, Aragon, and V^alencia to rise, promising their ancient liberties 16 July, " King's popular visit to the provinces, travelling nearly 2000 miles 26 July-24 Aug. " Cortes opened by the king with a fine speech 15 Sept. " Bill for abolition of slavery in Porto Rico, for compensation, « brought into congress 24 Dec. " King Amadeus abdicates in a message, saying that he sees Spain in a continual struggle, the era of peace more distant; he sought remedies within the law, and did not find them ; his efforts were sterile; the 2 chambers combine as the sov- ereign Cortes of Spain, and vote for a republic (126-32), 11 Feb. 1873 Reported success of Carlists; agitation for the due de Mont- pensier among Orleanists in France 12 Feb. " Irruption of Carlists; they hold part of Catalonia; demonstra- tions in favor of a federal republic 22, 23 Feb. " Circular to European powers from Castelar, foreign minister, 27 Feb. " Permanent committee of the Cortes appointed 22 Mch. " Slavery in Porto Rico abolished 23 Mch. " Carlists beaten in several encounters; don Alfonso de Bourbon re-enters France 23 Apr. " Old " monarchical volunteers " occupy the bull ring at Madrid; are disarmed and dispersed by government troops; the "permanent committee" dissolved by the government, which assumes supreme power 26 Apr. " Elections for the Cortes commence; monarchists abstain from voting 10 May, " Mr. Bradlaugh, the J]nglish republican, entertained at Madrid, 24 May, " Intransigentes, or Irreconcilables (extreme republicans) very- powerful June, " New Cortes opened ; a speech by Figueras , 1 June, " Carlists besiege Irun... 7 June, " Federal republic voted by the Cortes (210-2), and proclaimed, 8 June; Pi y Margall, president of a new ministry, rejected; Figueras and his ministry resume office 9 June, " Ministerial crisis renewed, 10 June; Pi j' Margall becomes min- ister; Figueras quits Spain 11 June, " Carlists defeat Castanon near Murieta 26 June, " Intransigentes withdraw from the Cortes 1 July, " Defeat and death of Calvinety by Carlists; insurrection at Alcoy, promoted by Internationalists; mayor and others killed; announced 11 July, " Don Carlos (as CarlosVII.) enters Spain, "to save the country," 13 July, " Desperate fighting at Igualada, Catalonia 17, 18 July, " [Four prevailing parties: (1) Government, highly democrat- ic ; (2) Intransigentes or Irreconcilables, extremely democrat- ic; (3) International or Communists; (4) Legitimists, Carlists.] Murcia and Valencia proclaim themselves federal cantons, 18 July, " Pi y Margall compelled to resign; Salmeron forms a ministry opposed to the Intransigentes ; 18 July, " Igualada taken by Carlists under don Alfonso 19 July, " Don Carlos enters Biscay 31 July, " Carlists hold chief of N. Spain Aug. " Insurgents repulsed in attack on Almeria, beaten in fights at Seville, 28-30 July; gen. Pavia warmly received . . . .31 July, " Troops attack Valencia, 26 July; it surrenders 8 Aug. " New constitution printed, 27 July; discussed Aug. " [118 articles; includes separation of church and state; free SPA rvllRious worship; nobility abolished; IS states in and near iwniusula; -i in iho Antilles; Cortes (senate and congress) to have legislative |>ower; one deputy to 60,000 iuliabitants; Corto8 lo bo renewed in 2 years; members to be paid ; execu- tive, president and ministry; president cloctod for 4 years.] Kombardiiioul of Malaga slopiHHl by the British and German »etween republicans under Moriones, and Carlists under Olio; advanUige with Carlists 6 Oct. Battle of Escombrera bay; Intransigentes' ships attempt to break blockade of Cartagena; repulsed by adin. I^obo, 11 Oct. Lobo declines to fight, and retires, pursued by the Intransi- gentes. 13 Oct. ; justifies himself at Madrid 2'2 Oct. Death of Rios Rosas, statesman 3 Nov. Murillo captured; condemned to bo sold by the British Court of Admiralty Nov. Pronunciaraento: Meeting of the Cortes; speech of Castelar; • vote of confidence lost by 20; he resigns; Salmeron attempts to form a ministry, 2, 3 Jan.; Pavia, capt.-gen. of Madrid, forcibly dissolves the Cortes 3 Jan. Marshal Serrano president of a new ministry, including Topete; national guard of Madrid disarming 4 Jan. New government issue a moderate manifesto 9, 10 Jan. Cartagena captured by Lopez Dominguez 12 Jan. Numancia, iron clad, with Intransigentes leaders and convicts, escapes; they land at Mers el Kebir, near Oran, on the Afri- can coast ; are returned by the French 12 Jan. Bloclv'ade of the coast of Spain announced 31 Jan. Carlists besiege Bilbao; Moriones defeated at Somorrostro, 25 Feb. Marshal Serrano resigns presidency of the ministry, and be- comes chief of the executive, succeeded by Zabala; Serrano proceeds to Bilbao 28 Feb. et seq. Serrano assumes command about 8 Mch. Blockade of the coast (31 Jan. ) raised 2 Mch. Three days' conflict at Somorrostro, near Bilbao; Carlists de- feated, but retain their positions (about 2000 killed and wounded on both sides) 25-27 Mch. Armistice for 3 days 28 Mch. 6cn. Manuel da Concha joins Serrano at San tander, about 8 Apr. Great national effort to relieve Bilbao; union of parties; hos- tilities resumed 20 Apr. After several days' coiiHict, Carlists retreat; marshal Concha enters Bilbao, which is much injured by long bombardment, 2 May, A battle at Prats de Llusane's, indecisive 6 May, Carlists repulsed in attack at Ramales about 20 May, Carlists defeated at Gondesa about 6 June, Republicans repulsed before Estella 25-27 June, Concha killed (succeeded by Zabala) 27 June, Carlists hold Navarre, Guipuscoa, Biscay, and Alara July, Carlists capture Cuenca (about 80 miles from Madrid). .13 July, Don Carlos's manifesto, promising constitutional government, IG July, All Spain placed under martial law; levy of 125,000 men, about 18 July, Government appeals to France respecting French assistance to Carlists; justificatory reply 3 Aug. British Mediterranean squadron, under adm. Drummond. sails from Malta for Barcelona 4 Aug. Don Carlos appeals to the chief powers not to intervene; justi- fies Dorregaray's severities, and the execution of Schmidt, 6 Aug. Moriones's alleged defeat of Mendiri and Carlists at Oteiza, 12 Aug. Serrano's government recognized by Great Britain, Germany, France, and other powers (not by Russia) about 14 Aug. Letter of sympathy and encouragement from the Comte de Chambord to don Carlos Aug. Puycerda vigorously besieged by Carlists Aug. -Sept. Carlists fire on German gun-boats Nautilus and Albatross, near San Sebastian; Germans fire shells into the town, about 5 Sept. Carli.sts defeated by Lopez Pinto near Mora, about 9 Sept. ; by Moriones at Barasoam, near Tafalla about 25 Sept. 754 SPA 1873 1874 Note to French government, complaining of neglect respecting the Carlists on the frontiers early in on. I874 Prince Alfonso in a manifesto replies to address, declaring himself " a true Spaniard, Catholic, and liberal " 1 Dec. »» Army at Murviedro pronounces for Alfonso; he is proclaimed king by gen. Martinez Campos, 29 Dec. ; recognized by the other armies and the navy, 30 Dec; proclaimed by gen. Primo da Rivera at Madrid; Antonio Canovas del Castillo, head of a royal ministry 31 Dec. " Pres. Serrano withdraws to France 1 Jan. 1875 Proclamation of Carlos against Alfonso 6 Jan. " Alfonso XII. recognized throughout Spain; well received at Barcelona, 9 Jan. ; enters Madrid 14 Jan. " Order of knighthood reestablished; payments to clergy to be renewed Jan. " Alfonso reviews 30,000 troops near Tafalla, 22 Jan. ; issues proclamation to northern provinces, promising amnesty and respect to local rights 22 Jan. " Serrano returns to Madrid Feb. Carlists retreat from Pampeluna; entered by the king, 6 Feb. ; he exchanges decorations with Espartero at Logrono, 9 Feb. Resignation of gens. Moriones, Loma, and Blanco; Concha sent for from Cuba Feb. Serrano received by the king 8 Mch. Cabrera, an old Carlist general (see 1840), publishes an address, declaring for Alfonso XII 11 Mch. Papal nuncio received by the king 3 May, Vigorous action of government troops; Carlists expelled from Castile; sympathizers suppressed July, Carlists defeated at Quesada and others 31 July, Citadel at Urgel surrendered by Carlists to Campos 26 Aug. Resignation of " conciliation ministry," 11 Sept. ; liberal cabi- net headed by gen. Jovellar 12 Sept. " Circular of papal nuncio against toleration about 13 Sept. " Don Carlos declares his mission " to quell the revolution, and that it will die " Sept. *' Bombardment of San Sebastian, 28 Sept. -2 Oct. ; resumed, 11 Oct. <« Government declare the civil war at an end, and purpose sum- moning the Cortes to assist the king in reorganizing the country early in Oct. « Don Carlos i)roposes to the king a truce, and offers help if war occurs with the U. S. (no answer) 9 Nov. •' New constitutional party under Sagasta formed Nov. " Cortes elected; 364 ministerialists out of 406 Jan. 1876 Cortes opened by the king 15 Feb. " Carlists defeated at Estella, Vera, and Tolosa by Quesada and Moriones Feb. " King assumes command; Estella surrenders to Primo da Rivera; severe loss 18 Feb. " Reported letter from the pope recommending Carlos to retire from the contest 22 Feb. " Don Carlos, with gen. Lizarraga and 5 battalions, surrender to the governor of Bayonne at St. Jean Pied de Port, 27 Feb. ; he, with some officers, lands at Folkestone and proceeds to London 4 Mch. Triumphal entry of Alfonso XII. into Madrid 20 Mch. Draft of new constitution submitted to the Cortes 28 Mch. Pope opposes moderate religious toleration in article 11 of the constitution Apr. Jews (expelled in 1492) petition for readmission " Long debate in Cortes; confidence in ministry voted (211 to 26); constitution passed ; adjourn about 21 July, Queen Isabella received by king at San tander; declares "her share in public affairs is at an end " 31 July, " Public worship of Protestants repressed by authority Sept. " Amnesty to Carlists and others surrendering Apr. 1877 Meeting of the new Cortes 25 Apr. " Cortes suddenly closed 11 July, " New tariff passed; customs duties raised in respect to Great Britain, France, and U. S 17 July, " Ex-queen, after visiting her son, disapproves of proposed mar- riage, and associates with don Carlos in Paris, who is pri- vately forbidden to remain, and goes to England; she is for- bidden to return to Spain; her pension stopped, .end of Deo. " King married to his cousin Mercedes, daughter of the due de Montpensier 23 Jan. 1878 End of the insurrection in Cuba announced 21 Feb. " Death of queen Mercedes, deeply lamented 26 June, " Death of queen-dowager Christina 21 Aug. " King fired at (not injured) by Juan Oliva Moncasi, a member of the International society, aged 23 25 Oct. " Moncasi executed 4 Jan. 1879 Espartero, duque de Vittoria, d 8 Jan. " Cortes dissolved, 16 Mch. ; to meet 1 June, " King married to archduchess Maria Christina of Austria, 29 Nov. " Attempted assassination of king and queen by Francisco Otero y Gonzalez by shooting 30 Dec. " Law gradually abolishing slavery in Cuba promulgated, 18 Feb. 1880 Manifesto from 279 senators and deputies claiming liberty of religion, the press, etc., and education, universal suffrage, etc 6 Apr. " Otero executed 14 Apr. " Permission said to be given to about 60,000 Russian Jews to come to Spain lune, 1881 Don Carlos expelled from France for expressing sympathy with legitimists (goes to London) 17 July, " Consolidation of the national debt (60, 000,000^.) proposed, Sept. ; law published 10 Dec. " King invested with the order of the Garter 7 Oct I SPA 755 Kings of Spain and Portugal open a new railway between Madrid and Lisbon 8 Oct. 1881 "Dynastic JvCft," a new party formed by marshal Serrano and others, constituted (dividing the liberals) 27 Oct. 1882 Gen. Maceo and 5 Cuban insurgent leaders surrendered at Gibraltar to Spaniards (they had escaped from Cadiz, 20 Aug.); petition queen Victoria to ask their release; application made for inquiry; gen. Baynes, colonial secretary at Gibral- tar, and Mr. Blair, chief inspector of police, dismissed for exceeding authority; announced 4 Dec. " "Dynastic Left" in Cortes pronounce in favor of advanced liberalism 15 Dec. " King visits Vienna, 10 Sept. ; Berlin, Homberg, and Brussels, 27 Sept. 1883 King honorably received, by pres. Gr^vy; hissed and reviled by the Paris mob (having been made a colonel of Uhlans by emperor William); behaved with dignity. 2y, 30 Sept., 1 Oct. " Last section of the great Asturian railway opened by the king, 15 Aug. 1884 Much suffering by Earthquakes 25-31 Dec. " Protocol restoring Great Britain to position of most "favored nation " in regard to commerce (lost since 1845); wine duties modified; signed at Madrid, 21 Dec. 1884; gazetted... .6 Feb. " King d 25 Nov. " Alfonso XllL, son, b 17 May, 1886 Don Carlos protests against the recognition of Alfonso XIII., 20 May, " Attempted revolution at Madrid.... 19 Sept. " Ministers of Germany, Austria, Italy, and I<:ngland. to the court of Spain, raised to the rank of ambassadors by their respec- tive governments, thus placing Spain among the flrst-class powers 1887 Openingof the Cortes; infant king enthroned 1 Dec. " Trial by jury introduced by the senate 27 Feb. 1888 Trial by jury first put in force at Madrid 29 May, 1889 Duke of Aosta, formerly king of Spain as Amadeo I., d. at Turin, aged 45 18 Jan. 1890 Inundations throughout the central and southern parts of Spain ; over 100,000 persons rendered homeless Sept. 1891 Anarchist disturbances; several executed Mch.-Apr. 1892 Widespread rioting excited by the Octrois duties 17 July, " Celebration in honor of the discovery of America by Columbus formally begun in Cadiz 31 July, " War in Morocco begun Oct. 1893 Cargo of dynamite explodes in the harbor of Santander, killing about lOOn people and wrecks part of the town 4 Nov. " Explosion of dynamite bomb thrown by anarchists in a thea- tre at Barcelona kills 30 and injures 80 persons 7 Nov. " Second explosion of dynamite from the submerged hulk of the steamer blown up in the harbor of Santander Nov. 1893, and 30 persons killed 22 Mch. 1894 Six anarchists guilty of complicity in an attempt to assassinate capt.-gen. Campos executed at Barcelona 21 May, 1894 SOVEREIGNS OF SPAIN. GOTHIC SOVEREIGNS. 411. Ataulfo; murdered by his soldiers. 415. Sigerico; reigned a few days only. " Valia, or Wallia. 420. Theodoric I. ; killed in a battle which he had gained against Attila. 451. Thorismund, orTorrismund; assassinated. 452. Theodoric II. ; assassinated by 466. Euric, the first monarch of all Spain. 483. Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 506. Gesalric, his bastard son. 511. Amalric, or Amalaric; le War of the Succession," terminated by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713; resigned. 1724. Louis I., son; reigned only a few months. " Philip V. again. 1746. Ferdinand VI., the Wise, son; liberal and beneficent. 1759. Charles III., brother, king of the Two Sicilies, which he gave to his third son, Ferdinand. 1788. Charles IV., son; the influence of Godoy, Prince of Peace, reached to almost royal authority in this reign; Charles ab- dicated in favor of his son in 1808, and d. in 1819. 1808. Ferdinand VIL, whom Napoleon also forced to abdicate. HOUSE OF BONAPARTE. 1808. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon; forced to abdicate. HOUSE OF BOURBON RESTORED. 1813. Ferdinand VII. restored; married Maria Christina of Naples, IJ Pec. 1829; d. 29 Dec. 1833; succeeded by 1833. Isabella IL, daughter (b. 10 Oct. 1830); declared of nge, 8 Nov. 1813 ; married her cousin, don Francis d'Assissi, 10 Oct. 1846; deposed, 30 Sept. 1868; separated from her husband, Mch. 1870; and abdicated, 25 June, 1870, in favor of her son, Alfonso, prince of Asturias (b. 28 Nov. 1857). HOUSE OF SAVOY. 1870. Amadeo L (duke of Aosta, son of Victor Emmanuel IL, king of Italy); b. 30 May, 1845 ; married Maria Victoria of Pozzo della Cisterna, 30 May, 1867 ; accepted the crown offered him by the Cortes, 4 Dec. 1870; abdicated, 11 Feb. 1873; d. at Turin, aged 45, 18 Jan. 1890. RErUBLIC. 1873. Executive of the Cortes. " Estanislao Figiieras. *' Nicolas Salmeron. 1874. Pi y Margall. " Emilio Castelar. HOUSE OF BOURBON. 1874- Alfonso XII., son of Isabella II. (b. 28 Nov. 1857); proclaimed 30 Dec. 1874; married, 1st, his cousin Mercedes, daughter of the due de Montpensier (b. 24 June, 1860), 23 Jan. 1878; she d. 26 June, 1878; 2d, archduchess Maria Christina of Austria (b. 21 July, 1858), 29 Nov. 1879; d. 25 Nov. 1885. 1886. Alfonso XIII. ; b. 17 May, 1886. CARLIST LEGITIMATE PRETENDERS. (See above 1833 et seq.) Carlos v., brother of Ferdinand VII. ; b. 29 Mch. 1788; d. 10 Mch. 1855. Carlos VI., his son (conde de Montemolin); d. 14 Jan. 1861. Carlos VII. (son of don Juan, brother of Carlos VI., who renounced his right, 8 Jan. 1863); b. 30 Mch. 1848; see above* 1873-76. Spala'tro or Spala'tO, a seaport city of Dalmatia, the ancient Spalatum, and Salona. At his palace here, Dio- 756 SPA I cletian spent his last 9 years, and died July, 313. R. Adam published the "Antiquities of Diocletian's Palace," 1764. Spanish era or Era of the Caesars, is reck, oned froDQ 1 Jan. 38 B.C., the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustns. It was much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France; but by a synod held in 1180 was abol- ished in all churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Aragon abolished it in his dominions in 1350 ; John of Castile in 1383. It was used in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calendar ; and to turn the time into our era, subtract 38 from the year (if before the Christian era, 39). (Spanish Fury, the. Antwerp. Spanish grandees, the higher nobilit}', at one time almost equal to kings of Castile and Aragon, and often defy- ing these, were restrained in 1474 on the union of the crowns by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, who expelled many from the royal fortresses and domains. Charles V. reduced the grandees to 16 families (Medina- Sidonia, Albuquerque, etc.), dividing them into 3 classes. Spanish lang^uag^e {lengua Castellana), derived from a dialect of Latin mingled with Arabic, which was the legal language till the 14th century. Spanish did not become general till the 16th century. Literature. Spanish main, the waters along the coast of South America, formerly so called because frequented by the Spanish vessels and somewhat under the jurisdiction of Spain. Spanish Succession, War of the. When Charles II. of Spain died in 1700, leaving no heir, 4 European powers, France, Germany, Bavaria, and Savoy, with nearly equal rights, claimed succession. The last two retiring left the dis- pute to France and Germany ; war ensued (1702-13), and Eng- land joined Germany. The French claimant, grandson of Louis XIV., was finally acknowledged as Philip V. of Spain. House of Bourbon. This war, although distinguished by the achievements of the duke of Marlborough, earl of Peterborough, and prince Eugene, was without advantage to England. Sparta, the capital of Laconia or Lacedaemon, the most considerable republic of the Peloponnesus, and the rival of Athens. Though without walls, it resisted its enemies by the valor, of its citizens for 8 centuries. Lelex is supposed to have been first king. Lacedaemon, 4th king, and his wife Sparta, were the legendary founders of the city named for them. The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers, and cultivated n ther the arts or sciences, and paid but little attention to coi merce or agriculture, all cultivation of the land being formed by slaves. The early history is mythical. Sparta founded (Pausanias) 1 Princes of Greece demand Helen in marriage ; she makes choice of Menelaus of Mycenae 121 Helen, daughter of Zeus and of Leda, the wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta, stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, but re- covered bj' her brothers Castor and Pollux 1 Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, carries off Helen 1 Trojan war (Troy) 11! After a war of 10 years, and a disastrous voyage of nearly 8, Menelaus and Helen return to Sparta 117| Kingdom seized by the Heraclid^ llf Establishment of 2 kings, Eurysthenes and Procles, by their father Aristodemus 11 Rule of Lycurgus, who establislies the senate, and enacts a code of laws (Eusebius). (Mythical) 884- Charilaus declares war against Polymnestor, king of Arcadia. . 848 Alcamenes, known by his apophthegms, makes war on the Messenians 813 Nicander succeeds his father, Charilaus; war with the Argives, 800 Theopompus introduces the Ephori about 757 War against the Messenians ; Amphia taken 743 Parthenise, sons of virgins, without the marriage rite : . 733 Battle of Ithome ; Messenians beaten Ithome taken; the Messenians become vassals to Sparta, and the war of 19 years ends Parthenise, becoming a class, conspire with Helots to take Sparta 707 Conspiracy discovered, the Partheuiae sent to colonize Taren- tum 706 Messenians revolt, and league with Elis, Argos, and Arcadia, against the Lacedaemonians. (This war lasted 14 years) 685 Carnian festivals instituted 675 Messenians settle in Sicily 669 War with the Argives, and celebrated battle between 300 select heroes of each nation 547 War with Athens 505 Spartans resist the king of Persia 4^91 SPA States of Greece unite against the Persians Leonidas. with 300 Spartans, withstands the Persians at the de- file of THERMOPYL^ Pausanias, king, defeats the Persians at Platsea He is put to death for treason; the Greeks choose an Athenian general Earthquake at Sparta destroys 30,000 persons ; rebellion of the Helots Sparta joins Macedon against Athens Plataea taken by the Spartans Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and lay waste the country, Agis (king 427) defeats Argives and Mantina?ans Lacedaemonian fleet, under Mindarus, defeated at Cyzicum, and Mindarus slain Spartans, defeated by land and at sea, sue for peace, which is denied by the Athenians Reign of Pausanias Athenians defeated at jEgospotami by I-ysander Athens taken by him ; end of Peloponnesian war.^. [Sparta at the height of its power.] Agesilaus (king 398) enters Lydia, Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians league against the Spartans; Corinthian war begins Lysander killed at Haliartus Agesilaus defeats the allies at Coronea Lacedsemonian fleet, under Peisander, defeated by Conon, Athe- nian commander, near Cnidos Peace of Antalcidas Thebans drive the Spartans from Cadmea Spartans lose dominion of the seas; their fleet destroyed by Timotheus Spartans defeated at Leuctra Epaminondas, heading 50,000 Thebans, appears before Sparta.. Battle of Mantinea; the Thebans victors 27 June, Philip of Macedon overcomes Sparta Pyrrhus defeated before Sparta Agis IV. endeavors to revive the laws of Lycurgus Leonidas II. vacates the throne, and flies Recalled ; becomes sole sovereign ; Agis killed Reign of Cleomenes III., the son of Leonidas He re-establishes most of the laws of Lycurgus Antigonus defeats Cleomenes, and enters Sparta Cleomenes retires to Egypt Spartans murder the Ephori Machanidas, king, abolishes the Ephori He is defeated and slain by Philopoemen, praetor of the Achae- an league Cruel government of Nabis Romans besiege Sparta; Nabis sues for peace jEtolians seize Sparta; Nabis assassinated Laws of Lycurgus abolished Sparta, under protection of Rome, again the leading state Taken by Alaric Taken by Mahomet II Burned by Sigismund Malatesta Rebuilt at Misitra; Sparta is now part 757 SPE ■ Greece. 378 376 371 369 362 344 294 244 243 241 236 225 222 221 210 207 197 192 188 147 A.D. 396 1460 1463 1894 ^partacus'§ im^urrection (or Servile war). Spartacus was a noble Thracian, who served in an auxiliary- corps of the Roman arnay. Having deserted and been appre- hended, he was reduced to slavery and made a gladiator. With some companions he made his escape; collected a body of slaves and gladiators, 73 B.C. ; ravaged southern Italy ; and defeated 4 consular armies sent against him. Knowing the impossibility of successfully resisting the republic alone, he endeavored to conduct his forces into Gaul, there to invite Sertorius from Spain to join him ; had this plan succeeded it would have endangered the republic, but his undisciplined followers compelled him to relinquish it and move towards Rome, when he was met by Crassus, his forces defeated, and himself slain, 71 b.c. " {^paimodic §chool" of poetrj-, a name sarcas- tically given to Alex. Smith, Sydney Dobell (d. Aug. 1874), Gerald Massey, and others (precursors of Morris, Algernon Swinburne, and Rossetti, sarcastically termed the "fleshly school"), ridiculed by prof. Aytoun in his "Firrailian," pub. 1854. §peakers of the IIou§e of Commons. Peter cte Montford, afterwards killed at the battle of Evesham, was the first speaker, 45 Hen. HI. 1260; sir Thos. Hungerford is said to have been the first named " speaker," 1372 ; but sir Peter de la Mare is supposed to have been the first regular speaker, 50 Edw. HI. 1376. speakers of the House of Representa- tives of the United States. " Speaker's Commentary." This edition of the Bible, with a re.vised text and a commentary by bishops and other theologians, edited by F. C, Cook, was planned, it is said, by John Evelyn Denison, speaker of the House of Com- mons, to refute the interpretations of dr. Colenso, and was an- nounced in Nov. 1863. The publication began in 1871. speaking'-trumpet, a conical flaring mouth-tube employed in intensifying the sound of the voice, used in giv- ing commands to persons at a distance, etc. One is said to have been used by Alexander, 335 b.c. One was constructed from Kircher's description by Saland, 1652 ; philosophically explained and brought into notice by Morland, 1670. spear, one of the most ancient weapons of war or hunt- ing, consisting at first of a pointed wooden, then stone, after- wards bronze, and lastly iron or steel blade on a long shaft, similar to the Pike. special or extra sessions of Congress. United States. species. Much controversy among naturalists arose in consequence of the publication, in 1859, of Charles Darwin's " Origin of Species," containing proof that all the various species of animals were not created at one time, but have been gradually developed by what he terms "natural selection" and the struggle for life in which the strong overcome the weak. " This preservation of favorable individual differences and variations, and the destruction of those which are injuri- ous, I have called natural selection or the survival of the fit- test." — Darwin. The idea of evolution wa8j)ut forth by Lamarck in his "Philosophie Zoologique," 1809. Similar views appear in " Vestiges of Crea- tion," 1844. Mr. Darwin says that he infers " from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on the earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed by the Creator. " (Development, Evolution.) Prof. G. J. Romanes's elaborate work, " Darwin and After Dar- win," was pub. 1892. Literature. specific gravities. Elements, Weights. spectacles, an optical instrument used to assist or to correct defects of vision, unknown to the ancients, are gener- ally supposed to have been invented by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about 1285. According to dr. Plott they were invented by Roger Bacon, about 1280. Manni attributes them to Salvino, who died 1317. On his tomb at Florence is the inscription, " Qui giace Salvino degli Armati, inventore degli occhiali : Dio gli perdoni le peccata " (" Here lies Salvino degli Armati, inventor of spectacles : may God pardon his sins"). " Spectator," a periodical. The first number appeared in London on 1 Mch. 1711 ; the last was No. 635, 20 Dec. 1714. The papers by Addison have one of the letters C. L. I. O. at the end. Most of the other papers are by sir Richard Steele ; a few by Hughes, Budgell, Eusden, Miss Shephard, and others. The Spectator newspaper (philosophical, whig), begun 5 July, 1828. spec'troscope, an instrument for the forming and examining of spectra. Its invention grew out of sir Isaac Newton's discovery of the solar spectrum, followed up by Wollaston's experiments, 1802, and by Fraunhofer, 1814-15. The instrument was greatly improved by profs. Kirchhoff and Bunsen in 1859 as a means of chemical analysis. Spectrum. spec'trum, the image of the sun or any luminous body formed on a wall or screen, by a beam of light received through a small hole or slit, and refracted by a prism. The colors thus produced were regarded by Newton as 7: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. The phenom- ena were first explained by Newton, whose " Optics" was pub- lished in 1704. By many physicists, only 3 primary colors are recognized: by Maj'er (1775), red, yellow, and blue; by dr. Thomas Young (1801), red, green, and violet; by prof. Clerk Maxwell (I860), red, green, and blue. As the color of a flame varies according to the substance burned in it, so the spectrum varies. This fact was applied to chemical analysis by profs. Bunsen and Kirchhoff (1860), who have discovered 2 new metals, and ascertained the presence of many sub- stances in the atmosphere of the sun and stars, and even in the nebulae, by comparing their spectra with those artificially produced by burning iron, sodium, and other substances. For invisible ra3^s, Calorkscence, Fluorescence. Fraunhofer's lines. In 1802 dr. Wollaston observed several dark lines in the solar spectrum ; in 1815 Joseph Fraunhofer constructed a map of 590 lines or dark bands. Brewster and others have in- creased the number to more than 2000. SPE FMC Talbot observed tHe orange line of strontium In the spectTumln 18'ifi- sir David Brewster other linos, lrt:»»-42-4J. In I8bi-unded in 1882, under the presidency of prof. H. Sidg- wick of Cambridge university, for the purpose of investigat- ing that large group of debatable phenomena known as mes- meric, hypnotic, psychic, and spiritualistic. Reports of a large number of varied and careful experiments in induced tele- pathic communication are published in their " Proceedings;" branches of this society have been established elsewhere, notably in the U. S. In this connection also an intern^^jtonal congress of experimental psychology has been formed: 1st meeting, held in Paris,1889 ; 2d, at University college, Lon- don, 1893 ; the next, the 3d, to be held at Munich in 1896 In a report of this congress, 1893, it was stated that in a census of hallucinations undertaken by 410 members of the congress, 17,000 answers were obtained from Great Britain, France, America, Germany, etc., to the question, " Have you ever, while in good health and believing yourself to be awake, seen the figure of a person or animated object, or heard a voice which was not in your view referable to any external physical cause?" The answers in the negative numbered 15,311, and those in the affirmative 1689; out of these latter, after careful investi- gation, the committee classed 348 as actual apparitions of living persons, 155 of dead people, 273 as unrecognized. A remarkable class of cases was that of collective apparitions, SPI 759 STA the same hallucination being experienced by 2 or more per- sons at the same time and place. Some hold that all psychic phenomena, normal and abnormal, whether manifested as mesmerism, hypnotism, somnambulism, trance, spiritism, de- monology or witchcraft, genius or insanity, are in a way re- lated, and are to be classed under some general law of nature yet to be discovered, which will withdraw them from the do- main of the supernatural. Spitz'bergfeil, an archipelago in the Arctic ocean, discovered in 1553 by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it part of the western continent. In 1595 Barentz and Cornelius, 2 Dutchmen, pretending to be original discoverers, visited and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from its many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains. Phipps. SI>OIltaiieou§ COmbUitiOll of the human body, declared by chemists impossible, although many cases are re- ported. The case of the countess of Gorlitz, 1847, disproved by confession of her murderer, Mch. 1850. §poiltaiieoU§ g^eiieratioil. The origin of in- fusorial animalcules developed during putrefaction, etc., has been warmly debated b\' naturalists. Spallanzani (about 1760), and especially M. Pasteur and others of later times, assert that germs endowed with organic life exist in the atmosphere. Needham (about 1747), and especially M. Pouchet and his friends in our day, assert that these germs are spontaneously formed of organic molecules. Pouchet's " Heterogenie" ap- peared in 1859 ; Bastian's " Beginnings of Life," 1872. The researches of prof. Tyndall, supporting Pasteur, and opposing Bastian, were published 1876-78. " Spontaneous generation " (also termed generatio cequivoca and epigenesis) has been fur- ther disproved b]||jthe microscopic investigations of the rev. W. H. Dallinger, 1875-78. He found germs to stand much greater heat than perfect organisms. sporting^ newspapers. Newspapers. sports and g'ames. The fullest development of ancient sports and games obtained among the Greeks, usually as a part of religious observances. (Olympian games, also Pythian, Isthmian, and Nkmean.) The Bacchanalia were introduced into Greece from Egypt. Chariot races, gladiato- rial combats', naval battles, etc., were held in the Circus Max- imus at Rome (Ciucus) and at the Coliseum. In England, the first " Book of Sports," under the title, " The King's Maj- estie's Declaration to His Subjects Concerning Lawful Sports," to be used on Sundays after evening prayers, was published by king James I., 24 May, 1618, and led to long and bitter controversy among English divines (Sabbatakians). The book was ordered burned by the hangman, and the sports were suppressed by Parliament. PRINCIPAL SPOUTS AND GAMES OF AMERICA AND ENGLAND. (For history, etc., of each, see under their various titles.) Angling. Archery. Backgammon. Bagatelle. Base-ball. Bicycling. Billiards. Bowling. Boxing. Cards. Checkers (Draughts). Chess. Cricket. Croquet. Curling. Dice. Dominos. Draughts. Falconry. Ffincing. Foot-ball. Fox-hunting (Hunting). Golf. Hawking. Hunting. Ice yachting (Sailing). Lacrosse. Lawn-tennis. Pedestrianism. Polo. Prize-fighting (Boxing). Quoits. Horse-racing. Rowing. Sailing. Skating. Stag hunting (Hunting). Swimming. Tennis. Trap-shooting. "Whist. Yachting (Sailing). Spottsylvania, Va., Battle of. Grant's campaign m Virginia. I^prillgfiel d, N. J., burned by the British troops. New Jbrsky, 1780. spurs. Anciently knights were distinguished by wear- ing gilt spurs (eques au7-atus) from esquires with silver ones. 2 sorts of spurs seem to have been in use at the time of the Conquest, one called a pryck, with a single point, the other a number of larger points. Spurs nearly of the present kind came into use about 1400. ^purs, Battle of. Henry VIII. of England, the emperor Maximilian, and the Swiss, in 1513, made an offensive alli- ance against France. Henry VIII. landed at Calais in the month of July, and soon formed an army of 30,000 men. He was joined by the emperor with a good corps of horse and some foot, as a mercenary to the king of England, who al- lowed him a hundred ducats a day for his table ! They in- vested Terotienne with an army of 50,000 men ; and the due de Longueville, marching to its relief, was signally defeated on 16 Aug., at Guinegate. This battle was called' the battle of Spurs, because the French used their spurs more than their swords. The English king laid siege to Tournay, which sub- mitted in a few <\&ys.—Henault. Courtrai. squatter sovereignty. Popular sovereigntv. Squire's L^etters. Literature, Forgeries of. SS, A S3'mbol of unknown antiquity worn on the collars of the superior judges and lord mayors in England; formerly by persons attached to the royal household and others. It was assumed bj- certain classes, never bestowed, and had no connection with heraldry. — Stormonth. Some writers consider the symbol to be in honor of St. Simplicius, a martyr; oth- ers, an adaptation of the widely spread and mysterious sym- bol of the entwined or gontorted serpent, having the head and tail hanging downwards. On legal documents, SS. or ss. (silicet) means, to wit, namely. Sta'bat Ifla'ter, a Latin hymn, by Jacopone, 14th century, sung during Passion week in Catholic churches. Kos- sini's music to this hymn (1842) is often performed. Stade dues. At a castle near the town of Stade, in Hanover, certain dues on goods were charged by the Hano- verian government. The British government settled these dues in 1844. They were resisted by the Americans in 1855, and were abolished in June, 1861. Great Britain paid 160,- 000^. as her share of the compensation (3,000,000/.). Stadt 'holder. Holland. Stage-coaches, so called from the stages or inns at which the coaches stopped to refresh and change horses. — Bailey. The custom of running stage-coaches in England was introduced from the Continent, but in what year the first stage run is not known, probablj-^ in the latter part of the 16th or early in the 17th century. Introduced into Scotland in 1610 by Henry Anderson, running between Edinburgh and Leith. In 1659 the Coventrj' coach is referred to, and in 1661 the Oxford stage-coach. By the middle of the 18th century the stage-coach was in extensive use. In 1767 the London and Manchester stage-coach made the trip, 187 miles, in 3 days regularly, afterwards reduced to 19 hours, and the London and Edinburgh stage-coach ultimately made the dis- tance between these cities, 400 miles, in 40 hours, including all stops, etc., the roads being excellent, the coaches and ser- vice admirable, and the number of horses equal to the number of miles, namely 400, and the relays frequent. The first mail- coach was set up at Bristol, by John Palmer, 2 Aug. 1784. In the U. S. the first stage was run between New York city and Boston, 1732, probably not regularly and not long continued. In 1756 there was 1 stage-coach running between New York citj'^ and Philadelphia, distance 90 miles, time 3 days. In 1765 a second stage-coach was put on. In 179^* he line was increased to 4 coaches, and in 1811 there were 4 coaches each way daily. The 1st line, named the " Expedition," from Philadelphia to Paulus Hook— time, 12 hours ; fare, #8.00. 2d, "The Diligence" — time, 26 hours; fare, fo.oO. 3(1, "Accommodation," left Phila- delphia at 10 a.m., stopping overnight at Brunswick, N. J., ar- riving at Paulus Hook 12 m. next day ; fare, $4.50. 4th, " Mail Coach," left Philadelphia 1 p.m., travelled all night, arrived at Paulus Hook at 6 a.m. At this time the coaches were poorly constructed for 8 to 10 passengers, each passenger allowed 14 pounds of luggage free — 150 pounds the extent. In later years the stage-coach was improved, but was never agreeable, as the roads were always bad, except in the finest weather. Stag'irite. Aristotle, under Philosophy. Staked Plains or Llano £staca'do, exten- sive table-lands in western Texas and eastern New Mexico, STA 760 STA whoee surface, gently undulating, is destitute of wood and water; vegetation v"er>' scanty. The name is derived from the abundant growth of the Yucca aUr/oUa, or " Spanish daggers," tite naked stenoa of which, growing to the height of 10 feet, resemble stakes. StuHvart. Political parties. Stilllirord-Bridirc, York, Engl. In 1066, Tostig, brother of Harold II., rebelled against his brother and joined the invading army of Harold llardrada, king of Norway. They defeated the northern earls, Edwin and Morcar, and took York, but were defeated at Stamford - Bridge by Har- old, 25 Sept., and were both slain. The loss by this battle no doubt led to Harold's defeat at Hastings, 14 Oct. follow- ing. Stamp act of 1765. State records, United Staths. 8tninp-dlltie§ in England. By 22 and 23 Charles IT. (1670-71), duties were imposed on certain legal documents. In 1694 a duty was imposed upon paper, vellum, and parch- ment. The stamp-duty on newspapers began 1711, and every year added to the list of articles paying stamp-duty. Stamp act, which led to the Revolution, passed 22 Mch. 1765; repealed iu 1766 Stamp-duties in Ireland commenced 1774 Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782 Stamp-duties produced in England 3,126,535^ 1800 [Many alterations made in 1853 and 1857. In June, 1855, tlie stamp duty on newspapers was abolished; the stamp on them being henceforth for postal purposes.] In July and Aug. 1854, 19,115,000 newspaper stamps were is- sued ; in the same months only 6,870,000 in 1855 Drafts on bankers to be stamped 1858 Additional stamp-duties were enacted in 1860 (on leases, bills of exchange, dock warrants, extracts from registers of births, etc.); on leases, licenses to house agents, etc.) 1861 Stamp-duties reduced in 1864-65 All fees payable in the superior courts of law, after 31 Dec. 1865, are to be collected by stamps, by an act passed in June, 1865; also in Public Record office 1868 144,623,014 inland revenue penny stamps sold, besides other stamps 1869 By the Stamp acts, 10 Aug. 1870, newspaper stamps were abol- ished after. lOct. 1870 New stamp-duties imposed; came into effect 1 Jan. 1871 One -penny receipt and postage stamps used for each other after. 1 June, 1881 Stamp-duties imposed on foreign or colonial share certificates, bonds, etc., by custom act 1888 AMOUNT OF STAMP - DUTIES RECEIVED KINGDOM. 1840 £6,726,817 1845 7,710,683 1850 6,558,332 1855 6,805,605 1860 8,040,091 1865 9,542,645 1870 9,288,553 IN THE UNITED 1876 £11,002,000 1881 11,933,114 1882 12,348,175 1883 11,691,025 1885 11,886,185 1889 12,270,000 1891 13,460,000 §tandarcl for gold and silver in England fixed by law, 1300. Standard gold is 22 parts out of 24 of pure gold, the other 2 parts, or carats, being silver or copper. The standard of silver is 11 oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloyed with 18 dwts. of copper, or 37 parts out of 40 pure silver, and 3 parts copper. In 1300 these 12 oz. of silver were coined into 20 shillings ; in 1412 the}' were coined into 30 shillings; and in 1527 into 45 shillings. In 1545, Henry VIII. coined 6 oz. of silver and 6 oz. of alloy into 48 shillings; and the next year he coined 4 oz. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into the same sura. Elizabeth, in 1560, restored the old standard in 60 shillings, and in 1601 in 62 shillings. It is now 66 shillings. The standard pro- portion of silver to gold at the royal mint is 15^ to 1. The standard of plate and silver manufactures was affirmed, 6 Geo. 1. 1719 et seq. Coin, Gold, Goldsmiths, Silver. Standard, Battle of the. Northallerton. Standard measures. In the reign of Edgar, a law was made in England to prevent frauds arising from the di- versity of measures, and to establish a legal standard measure in every part of his dominions. The standard vessels made by order of the king were deposited in the city of Winchester, and hence originated the term " Winchester measure " of the time of Henry VII. (1487). The bushel so made is still preserved in the museum of that cit}'. Henry I. also, to prevent frauds in the measurement of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the length of his arm to be deposited at Winchester, with the | standard measures of king Edgar. The Guildhall contains the standard measures of succeeding sovereigns. -—Ciunden. The standard weights and measures were settled by Parlia- ment in 1824. The pound troy was to be 5760 grains, and the pound avoirdupois 7000 grains. The " Standard yard of 1760,"' in the custody of the clerk of the House of Commons, was declared to be the imperial standard yard and the unit of measures of extension. This standard, supposed to have been burned at the fire of the parliament-house, 1834 (since discovered, Jul}', 1891, in the Journal office), a new commis- sion was appointed to reconstruct it; and researches Cor this purpose, in conformity with the act, which directed the com- parison of the standard with a pendulum vibrating seconds of time in the latitude of London, were begun by Francis Baily (d. in 1844), continued by the rev. R. Sheepshanks till his death in 1855, and completed by G. B. Airy, astronomer royal. In 1855 was passed "An Act for Legalizing and Preserving Lost Standards of Weights and Measures." The parliament- ary copies of the standard pound and yard are deposited at the Royal observatory, Greenwich. The Standard Weights and Measures act was passed Aug. 1866. The Standard Com- mission published reports, 1866 et seq. Standard time. Chiefly for the convenience of railroads in the United States a standard of time was estab- lished by mutual agreement in 1883, on principles first sug- gested by Charles F. Dowd, of Saratoga Springs, New York, by which trains are run and local time regulated. The U. S., beginning at its extreme eastern limit and extending to the Pacific coast, is divided into 4 time-sections : eastern, central, mountain, and Pacific. The eastern section, the time of which is that of the 75th meridian, lies between the Atlantic ocean and an irregular line drawn from Detroit, Mich., to Charleston, S. C. The central, the time of which is that tff the 90th merid- ian, includes all between the last-named line and an irregular line from Bismarck, N. Dak., to the mouth of the Rio Grande. The mountain, the time of which is that of the 105th merid- ian, includes all between the last-named line and the western boundary of Montana, Idaho, Utah, and Arizona. The Pacific, the time of which is that of the 120th meridian, includes all between the last-named line and the Pacific coast. The dif- ference in time between adjoining sections is 1 hour. Thus, when it is 12 o'clock noon in New York city (eastern time), it is 11 o'clock A.M. (central time) at Chicago, and 10 o'clock A.M. at Denver (mountain time), and at San Francisco, 9 o'clock A.M. (Pacific time). The true local time of any place is slower or faster than the standard time as the place is east or west of the time meridian ; thus, the true local time at Boston, Mass., is 16 minutes faster than eastern standard time, while at Buffalo, N. Y., it is 16 minutes slower, the 75th time meridian being half-way between Boston and Buf- falo. Local time and standard time agree at Denver, Col., as Denver is on the 105th meridian, that of the mountain section. standards, a flag or ensign round which men rally or unite for a common purpose; also an emblem of nationality. The practice of an army using standards dates from the ear- liest times. The emblem of the cross on standards and shields is diie to the asserted miraculous appearance of a cross to Con- stantine, previous to his battle with Maxentius; Eusebius says that he received this statement from the emperor himself, 312. The standard was named laharum. For the celebrated French standard, Auriflamme. The British imperial standard was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bedford tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the kingdoms, 1 Jan. 1801. Banners, Flags, Sacred standard. starch is a sediment falling when wheat is steeped in water; it is soft and friable, easily broken into powder, and is used to stiffen and clear linen, with blue ; its powder is used on the hair. The art of starching linen was brought into England by Mrs. Dinghein, a Flemish woman, 1 Mary, 1553. — Stow. Patents for obtaining starch from other substances have been taken out : from potatoes by Samuel Newton and others, in 1707 ; from the horse-chestnut by William Murray, in 1796; from rice by Thomas Wickham, in 1823; from va- rious matters by Orlando Jones, in 1839-40. Star-chamber, Court of. So called from its roof STA beiiis garnished with stars.— Cole. This court of justice was called Star-chamber, not from the stars on its roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Richard I. No star was allowed to be valid except found in those repositories, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by PZdward I. The court was insti- tuted or revived, 3 Hen. VII. 1486, for trials by a committee of the privy council, which was in violation of Magna Charta, as it dealt with civil and criminal causes unfettered by the rules of law. In Charles I.'s reign it punished several bold innovators, who gloried in their sufferings, and contributed to render government odious and contemptible. It was abolished in 1640. There were in this court from 26 to 42 judges, the lord chancellor having the casting vote. ^tar of India, a new order of knighthood for India, instituted by letters-patent 23 Feb., gazetted 25 June, 1861, and enlarged in 1866. Motto, " Heaven's light our guide." It comprised the sovereign, the grandmaster, 25 knights (Euro- peans and natives), and extra or honorary knights, such as the prince-consort, the prince of Wales, etc. Queen Victoria invested several knights on 1 Nov. 1861. The prince of Wales held a grand chapter at Calcutta, 1 Jan. 1876. Star-rOUte§, routes on which contracts for carrying the United States mail are made upon bids which do not specify the mode of conveyance, but simply offer to carry the mails regularly, safely, and expeditiously. Such bids are re- garded by the post-office department as inferior to those which specifv railroad, steamboat, or four-horse-coach conveyance; but as superior to those which specify only horseback carriers. In 1881 second assistant postmaster-general Thomas J.Brady, ex-senator Stephen W. Dorsey of Arkansas, and others, were accused of conspiracy to defraud the U. S. government in the management of these routes. They were brought to trial 1 June, 1882; 1st trial closed 11 Sept., jury not agreeing; 2d trial began 4 Dec. 1882, closed 11 June, 1883. V^erdict, not guilty as indicted. United SrArKS. §tar§, the fixed. Each of those luminous points which the unassisted sight reveals to us by thousands in the vault of heaven, which the telescope shows by millions in the depths of space, shines with its own light, and may be a source of light and heat to a planetary system similar to ours. They were classed in constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 b.c. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that tlie sun and the stars are motionless, and that the earth moves round them, about 344 B.C. (this is mentioned by Cicero, and perhaps gave the first hhit of this system to Copernicus). Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention several of the constellations. The Royal library at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 B.C., in which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberra- tion of the stars was discovered by dr. Bradley, 1727. Maps of the stars were published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1839, and a set of celestial maps, is- sued under the superintendence of the Royal Prussian acad- emy, was completed in 1859. The stars are classed according to apparent magnitude, those visible to the naked eye forming the 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th magnitude. The following is a list of 20 of the most brilliant stars which are commonly regarded as of first magnitude in the order of brightness : 761 STE ESTIMATED DISTANCE OF SOME OF THE FIXED STARS FROM THE EARTH. [Arranged in the order of nearness, the parallax, etc.; the distance in multiples of the sun's distance, 91,400,000 miles, and estimating the movement of light at 186,000 miles per second.] Name. Constellation. 11. Aldebaran Taurus. 12. Beta(/3) Centaurus. 13. Alpha (u) Crux. U. Antares Scorpion. 15. Altair Aquila. 16. Spica Virgo. 17. Fomalhaut Piscis Aust. 18. Beta (/3) Crux. 19. Pollux Gemini. 20. Regulus Leo. Argelander gives the number of stars of the Name. Constellation. 1. Sirius Canis Major. 2. Canopus Argo. • 3. Alpha (a) Centaurus. 4. Arcturus BoOtes. 5. Rigel Orion. 6. Capella Auriga. 7. Vega I-yra. 8. Procyou Canis Minor, 9. Eb'telgeuse Orion. 10. Achernar Eridiinus. 1st magnitude as. 2d 3d 4th " 5th " , 20 , 65 . 190 , 425 .1100 6th magnitude as 3,200 7th " 13,000 8th " 40,000 9th " 192,000 star. a Centaurus.. 61 Cygnus Sirius Vega 2 Ursa Major. . Arcturus Polaris Capella Canopus Ptolemy names 48 .constellations : 21 northern, 12 zodiacal, 15 southern. " Chambers's Astronomy," 1890, enumerates 85. Some as high as 109. Constellations. Parallax in Sun's dis- seconds. tance=^l. 0.75 0.50 0.38 0.20 0.13 0.13 0.07 0.04 0.03 275,000 412,000 543,000 1,031,000 1,586.000 1,586,000 2,947,000 5,157,000 6,875,000 Light to reach the earth. Time. 4. 34 years. 6.51 " 8.57 " 16.27 " 25.04 " 25.04 " 46.50 " 81.37 " 108.50 " Estimat^'d by Gill, 1883-84. 0. Struve, 1853. Gill. C. A. F. Peters. Elkin. A number of new stars have appeared and disappeared at differ- ent times. A list of about 200, which vary greatly in brightness, has been published in George F. Chambers's " Hand-book on As- tronomy," 1890. New stars noted in 1848, 1866, 1876, the last in 1885, 31 Aug., in the great nebulae of Andromeda of the 6th mag- nitude. " Star-I§paiig;led Banner, The." This song was written by Francis Scott Key under the following circum- stances: He had gone in the cartel-ship Mindm, under a flag of truce, to solicit the release of some friends who had been seized by adm. Cochrane during the attack on the city of Washington. Key found the British fleet about to attack Baltimore, and while Cochrane agreed to release the prisoners, lie refused to let him or Ris friends return at once. The car- tel-ship Minden was anchored in sight of fort McHenry, and from her deck Key saw, during the night of 13 Sept. 1814, the bombardment of that fortress. It was during the excitement of this attack, and while pacing the deck of the Minden with intense anxiety between midnight and dawn, that Key com- posed the song. It was first written on the back of a letter, and after his return to Baltimore copied out in full. ^tate§-g^eneral of France. An ancient assem bly of France, first met, it is said, in 1302 to consider the exactions of the pope. Previous to the Revolution, it had not met since 1614. The states consisted of 3 orders— the clergy, nobility, and commons. They were convened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, 5 May, 1789 (308 ecclesiastics, 285 nobles, and 621 deputies, or tiers etai., third estate). A contest arose whether the 3 orders should make 3 distinct houses, or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming the title of the National Assem- bly, declaretl that they were competent to proceed to business without the concurrence of the 2 other orders, if they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to concede the point, and they all met in one hall. National Assembly. j^tates of the Chureh. Italy, Naples, Rome. Stationer§. Books and papers were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the dealers were called stationers. The com- pany of stationers of London is of great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented, yet it was not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1557. Their old dwelling was in Pa- ternoster row. Stati§'tiC§, the science of the state, political knowledge, is said to have been founded by sir William Petty, who died in 1687. The term is said to have been invented by prof. Achenwall of Gottingen in 1749. The first statistical society in England was formed at Manchester in 1833 ; the Statistical Society of London, which publishes a quarterly journal, was established 15 Mch. 1834, for the purpose of procuring, arrang- ing, and publishing " facts calculated to illustrate the condi- tion and prospect of society." Statistics of the United States are found in the census reports, first published in 1790 and every 10 years thereafter. These reports become more and more comprehensive at each census, giving statistics now of nearly every subject pertaining to state, political, or scientific facts. Mulhall's " Dictionary of Statistics," pub. 1891. §tatues. Sculpture. §teani-en^ine. "The best-known mechanical ar- rangement for converting heat into work."— ^ . /?%, 1878. The power of steanri to impart motion was known to Hero of Alexandria, who, in his " Pneumatics," describes various meth- ods of applying it. He exhibited an ^Eolipile to Ptolemy STE 762 STE PhiUadphus and his court in the Serapeum of Alexander, iso Ic. This philosopher's toy may be regarded as a fore- ;, pubSes a work describing a method of producmg of wausr by pressure of steam generated in a tight 1629 s by •lin- cast of the modern steam-engine. Solomon de Cans, an eminent French mathematician and en- gineer, a jet Giovannr Brami' an " ItAiia'n ' mathematician, P"l''i'';bes an account of a niethod .of transmitting power ^X » ^^t^^ furnished with vanes and revolved by a jet of impmg.ng ManS of "woreester" deVcVii.es'^fifjiis "'' ^enVuVy of Inveii- tions" (original in the British mu^«m)< exp^'^imcnts m bursting plugged cannon by steam, and JM^ ^„w bv steain inanding engine," for forcing water into a^J^^""- "j ^^^^ generated in tight vessels "•'•'•0 vV 'in his Dr. Denys Pap n of Blois introduces the safety-var;;'^ ^^^^ steam bone digester \'' Capt. Savery patents an engine to raise water from mir-^ alternate condensiition and force of steam in air-tight cy ,^ jggg ders flirnished with valves 25 JU17J, Thomas Newcoinen, a blacksmith of Dartmouth, Engl., patents*.^, an engine with a walking beam, for pumping water from , mines. It was operated by a boy who alternately admitted ' steam and a jet of cold water into a cylinder fitted with a piston 1705 Boy named Humphrey Potter attaches a cord from the beam to the handles of the steam and cold-water stopcocks in the Newcomen engine, and makes it self-acting about 1715 Henry Beighton of Newcastle upon-Tyne constructs a self act- ing engine on the Newcomen plan; the first wi4.h a steel- yard safety-valve 1718 Jacob Leupold, a Saxon, constructs the first high - pressure steam-engine 1720 James Watt of England obtains a patent for a rotary steam- engine 1769 Steam-carriage for common roads built by Cugnot in France. . '* Watt invents the separate condenser and air-pump (1765), and in partnership with Matthew Boulton sets up the first en- gine of this kind at Kinneil, Scotland 1774 Jonathan Hornblower of Penryn secures a patent for an en- gine with 2 cylinders 1781 Watt invents a double acting engine 1782 Engine built with a fly-wheel above the piston, and no beam, by Phineas Crowther of Newcastle-upon-Tyne 1800 Oliver Evans introduces the high-pressure engine in America. . " Patent for a portable engine secured by rev. Edward Cart- wright of England 1801 Trevithick and Vivian of England patent a high pressure en- gine 1802 First practical steamboat by Symington •' Oliver Evans of Philadelphia, Pa., builds a high-pressure en- gine 1803 Hornblower's compound-engine improved by Woolf 1804 First railway locomotive built by Trevethicic " Woolfs pumping-eugine general in Cornwall mines 1814 •Theory of the steam engine expounded by Carnot 1824 "The Rocket," first practical locomotive, by Stephenson 1829 Rankine's " Manual of the Steam-engine," improves the scien- tific theory of the subject 1859 First triple expansion marine-engine, by Kirk 1874 Webb's compound locomotive-engine introduced 1881 (iifeam-hainnier, invented by James Nasmyth in 1838, and patented by him 18 June, 1842. Its main feature is the direct manner by which the elastic power of steam is employed to lift up and let fall the mass of iron constituting the hammer, which is attached direct to the end of a piston- rod passing through the bottom of an inverted steam cylinder placed immediately over the anvil. In 1842, Mr. Nasmyth applied his steam-hammer to driving piles, which has facilitated the execution of great public works. Owing to its vast range of power, forged iron- work can now, by its means, be executed on a scale, and for a variety of purposes, with an ease and perfection not previously possible. Parts of gigantic marine steam engines, anchors, and Armstrong guns, as well as the most minute details of machinery, as in Enfield rifies, are executed by the steam hammer. A steam hammer, said then the largest known, completed at Wool- wich; the falling portion weighs 40 tons, and when used with top steam (51 tons) has the force of 91 tons, Apr. 1874. One at Schneider's works, Creuzot, France; weight between 75 and 80 tons, Dec. 1877. Mr. Nasmyth, aged 81, d. 7 May, 1890. Hi.s autobiography, edited by dr. S. Smiles, was pub. in 1883. iteam Iiavig^atton. The value of steam in navi- gation was demonstrated by Denys Papin in a model steam- boat on the Fulda, near Cassel, in 1707. This was soon de- stroyed by a mob of boatmen. Jonathan Hulls of London, Engl., set forth the idea in a patent obtained in 1736. Ber- nouilli experimented with a steamboat, using artificial fins, and Genevois with one using the duck's-foot propeller, in 1757. In 1775, M, Perier navigated the Seine with a small steam- boat, and in 1783, Claude, corate de Jouffroy, constructed an engine which propelled a boat on the Saone. Navy. iiivonl.s a sleainboat hor- 1788 17',)6 1802 1809 James Rumscv of Sheppardstown, \a., propelled by a steam engine expelling water through izontal trunk opening in the stern (1782). He experiments • publi(;ly in the presence of gen. Washington, on the Potomac rjver Sept. 1/84 John Fitch of Philadelphia, Pa., launches a steamboat worked by vertical paddles, 6 on each side, on the Delaware Pa^r^ckMilleV of bal'swinton,' Scotland, constructs a pleasure boat with paddle-wheels (1787), to which William Symington applies a steam engine •,•••• ■,•, ,' John Fitch sails a steamboat 18 ft. long on the Collect pond, New York city, where the "Tombs" now stands First practical steamboat, the tug Charlotte Dundas, built by William Symington, and tried on the Forth and Clyde canal, Robert Fulton," iii connection with Chancellor Livingston. U. S. ambassador in Paris, builds a steam paddle boat, 60 ft. long, which is tried on the Seine • • • -f Aug. 18Ud John Stevens of Hoboken. N. J., builds a steamboat with twin-screw propellers and an engine supplied by a Hue- Fulton'VkeamboatVthe'c/ermont.'ieb'tons runs from New York to Albany in 32 hours, thus securing the exclusive use of the Hudson for steam navigation under grant of legislat- ure made in 1798 • • ^ug. 1807 ■ rhoenix a single screw propeller built by John Stevens makes -'^'^- first sea voyage of a steam-vessel from New \ork to ^^^^ Phiiai^*^.pl,oai on" the'j^t." Lawrence "river, the Accommodation, First stear L Montreal to Quebec ;• ••,•■■■■ runs from ^urnt on the western rivers, a stern- wheeler, is First steambo., . VI ut Pittsburg IHll built by Fultol** ^^er steamboat built in Europe, by Henry Comet, first passei?^ *';iyde 1)4 miles per hour 18 Jan. 1812 Bell, runs on the CreNew York and Jersey City • • • • Steam ferry between . ^j ije Thames, brought by Mr. Dodd from First steam-vessel on t.. ' , • • ^^^^ Glasgow ^ h^at lakes, the Ontario, built at Sack- First steamboat on the grean 1°1° ett's Harbor, N. Y ftboat for lake Erie, launched at Walk-in-the- Water, a steam\f ffalo, N. Y.) 28 May, 1818 Black Rock (now part of Bu. ^ a steamboat of 350 tons, built Savannah, capt. Stevens Rogers,^st-t,iantic from Savannah to Liv- in New York city, crosses the A.thehich she uses her paddles. erpool in 26 days, during 18 of w> \f a ship on fire, and pur- Oflf cape Clear she is mistaken fo ''"=^he sails from Savannab, sued by the British cutter Kite, t^"' 24 May, 1819 Ga. (Nkw York) nd the A aron Manby, is First sea -going steam-vessel of iron,*h \.^'^^^ constructed at the Horsley iron-works,Oj,'he Enterprise, capt. First steam voyage to India made by t Z*^' days, leaving Fal- Johnson, from London to Calcutta in 113*^^8 1^ ■*"S- ^°^ mouth ty (^e' York (Navy, Fulton the First accidentally blown up at Ne^.^ „•••••* Jui«) Vi^y. 1814) ;> '^'.Juebec. 1831 Steamboat Royal William crosses the ocean from V^ ''S' hmXi by John Randolph, first iron vessel in American wateie C at Liver- John Laird of Birkenhead, and shipped in piecese pi y " y '{ ' pool, built in the Savannah river as a tugboat .^„^^ "' *'"® iB^ days, I _ ■• reaching New York under steam a few hours before the > ^' Great Western 23 Apr. Thomas Petit Smith's propeller first tried in England on a large scale in the Archimedes of 237 tons 183^ Unicorn, first steam-vessel from Europe to enter Boston har- bor, arrives 2 June, 184 First of the Cunard line, the Britannia, side-wheeler, crosses to Boston in 14 days 8 hours, leaving Liverpool 4 July, Pacific Steam Navigation company established Screw steamer Princeton built for the U. S. navy 1843 Screw steamer Great Britain, first large ship with iron hull, designed by I. K. Brunei (3443 tons, 322 ft. long, 51 ft. broad), launched 19 July, 1843, sails from Bristol 23 Jan. 1845 Pacific Mail Steamship company organized 1847 Collins line of American steamships formed and subsidized by the U. S. government 1849 [It consisted of the Arctic, Baltic, AHontic. and Pacific, and existed 8 years. The barber-shops on shipljoard were a new feature.] Inman line founded by William Inman, and the first vessel, an iron screw steamer, City of Glasgow, put in comm s- sion 1850 Emigrants first carried in steamships of the Inman line " Allan line organized 1863 First trip around the world by a merchant steamer, the Eng lish screw steamship Argo 1854 Hamburg- American and Anchor lines established 1856 ■Great Western broken u)) for firewood at Vauxhall 1857 North German Lloyd line established " Great Ea.'^tbk.n launelied 3 Nov. 1857-31 Jan. 1858 Iron-clad steam.ships introduced (Navy) 1860 French line established 1862 Far East, with 2 screw-propellers, launched at Millwall, 31 Oct. 1863 Guion line established 1864 1834 STE 763 Trial trip of the Nautilus, with a hydraulic propeller (Ruth- ven's patent, 1849) worked by steam and no paddles or screw 24 Mch. 1866 White Star line begins with the Oceanic, with saloons and state- rooms amidships instead of in the stern 1870 Netherlamds line established, 1872; Red Star line 1873 Stearashiip Faraday, 5000 tons, 360 ft. long, 52 ft. wide, and 36 ft. deep, launched at Newcastle (Electricity) 17 Feb. 1874 First export of live cattle by steamer, 373 head, shipped from U. S. to England in the steamship European July, " Dead-meat trade between U. S. and England by refrigeration commences on White Star liners Celtic and Britannic " Bessemer saloon - steamer launched at Hull, 24 Sept. 1874, makes first voyage to Gravesend 5 Mch. 1875 Thingvalla line established 1879 Anthracite, a steamer 84 ft. long planned by Loftus I'erkins of England, with very high-pressure engines, crosses the At- lantic, 3316 miles in 22*^ days, consuming only 25 tons of coal 1880 Ounard steamer Etruria arrives at quarantine, port of New STE York, 1 hour before the McKinley bill goes into effect, and capt. Haines reaches the custom-house barely a minute be- fore midnight, saving thousands of dollars in increased du- ties midnight, 4 Oct. 1890 "Whaleback" Charles W. Wetmore steams from the head of lake Superior to Liverpool 1891 Campania, twin-screw Cunard liner, with a gross tonnage of 12,500 tons, 620 ft. long, 65 ft. 3 in. broad, and 43 ft. deep, launched on the Clyde 8 Sept. 1892 STEAM VESSELS OF THE WORLD (liloyd's register, 1890-91), Country. Number. Gross tonnage. Value of vessels. Value of trade carried. Great Britain 6403 741 526 416 212 236 8,235,854 928,911 809,598 517,394 300,625 106,155 $550,000,000 63,500,000 48,500,000 42,000,000 22,000,000 12,500,000 $3,476,500,000 1,624,000,000 1 471 000 000 France United States Italy .* 1,462,500,000 415,000,000 60,000,000 Russia STATISTICAL TABLE OF SOME NOTED ATLANTIC STEAMERS. Name of vessel. Built. Horse-power. Tonnage Quickest passage. Paddle- wheel. Sirius British Queen Liverpool Great Western Screw. Pacific City of Richmond. City of Berlin Germanic Britannic Arizona Servia Alaska City of Rome America , Oregon Umbria Etruria City of New York. Majestic Teutonic City of Paris Campania Lucania Inman. White Star. Guion. Cunard. Guion. Anchor. National. Guion. Cunard. Inman. White Star. Inman. Cunard. 1839 1838 1849 1873 1874 1874 1879 1881 1884 1888 1889 1888 1893 Nominal. 270 500 404 450 700 •1,000 Indicated. 5,400 6.300 10,300 10,000 11,890 7,354 13,300 14,320 18,400 17,000 20,100 30,000 700 2,016 1,150 1,340 2,860 4,780 5,526 5,008 5,004 5,164 7,392 6,932 8,144 5,528 7,375 8,128 8,120 10,500 9,861 9,686 10,500 12,500 days hrs. min. 18 11 15 13 18 10 11 18 5 10 10 15 9 19 25 7 18 50 7 14 12 Apr. 1838 May, 1851 11 37 10 53 3 30 23 50 18 37 18 25 14 18 9 51 3 4 1 44 21 19 18 8 16 30 14 24 9 29 7 48 Apr. 1877 Aug. 1877 1882 June, 1884 Aug. 1884 Nov. 1888 Sept. 1889 Oct. 1890 Aug. 1891 Aug. 1891 Oct. 1892 Aug. 1894 Oct. 1894 LIST OF ATLANTIC STEAMSHIPS WHICH LEFT PORT AND WERE NEVER HEARD FROM. Name of vessel. Nationality. Persons on board. Date of leaving port. President , British and American S. N. company British A me r can British German British 136 240 150 80 177 38 52 44 50 43 48 33 45 43 41 27 27 25 29 27 56 72 43 11 Mch 1841 Pacific... 23 Sept. 1856 26 Feb 1857 Tempest Anchor line United Kingdom . . . 17 Apr. 1868 28 Jan 1870 City of Boston . . Inman line Scanderia Anglo- Egyptian line ... 8 Oct 1872 Ismail ia Anchor line 27 Sept. 1873 Jan. 1877 28 Sept. 1878 Colombo Wilson line 11 Jan. 1879 18 Feb. 1879 19 Mch. 1879 8 Jan. 1881 13 Nov. 1881 3 Jan. 1883 24 Dec. 1884 20 Jan. 1885 20 Jan. 1885 24 Jan. 1885 15 Feb. 1885 31 Dec. 1889 26 Nov. 1890 Feb. 1893 Surbiton Straits of Dover Coniston Fernwood Preston Clandon Humber Erin National line Thanemore Johnston line Naronic White Star line §teani-plou^llS were patented by G. Callaway and R. A. Purkes, 1849 ; H. Cowing, 1850, and others. John' Fow- ler's of 1854 is much approved. Mtearine (from Gr. aAap, suet), that part of oils and fats which is solid at common temperature. The nature of fats was Hrst made known by Chevreul, in 1823, who showed that they are compounds of peculiar acids, with a base termed gly- cerine; of these compounds the chief are stearine, margarine, and elaine. Candles. Steel, a compound of iron and carbon, exists in nature, and has been fabricated from the earliest times. It was cer- tainly used by the I-^gyptians, Assyrians, and Greeks. It now largely replaces cast iron in shipbuilding, etc. Reaumur discovered the direct process of making steel by im- mersing malleable iron in a bath of cast iron 1722 Manufactory for cast steel is said to have been set up by Ben- jamin Huntsman at Handsworth near Sheffield 1740 Manufacture of shear steel began in Sheffield about 1800 [German steel was made at Newcastle previously by Mr. Crawley. Mushat (1800), Lucas (1804), and Heath (1839) in- vented improvements in this manufacture. Engraving.] Reipe patented Iws "puddled steel " 1850 [H. Bessemer made steel by passing cold air through liquid iron, 1856. By this method 20 tons of crude iron have been converted into cast steel in 23 minutes. For this invention he had received by royalties 1,057,748?. up to 1879; also many foreign honors; knighted, June, 1879.] Subject investigated by M. Caron, 1861-65; attention excited by cutlery made from a metallic sand, from Taranaki or New Plymouth, in New Zealand i860 Tungsten steel was made in Germany, 1859; and M. Fr6my STE '<>* made steel by bringiug red hot iroD in contact with carbon- ate of ainmouia 1801 Mr. Krupp exhibited an ingot of steel weighing 4500 lbs. in 1851, and one weighing 20 tons in 18G2 A steel bridge, in connection with the exhibition, constructed at Paris by M. Joret 18()() Bessemer steel first manufactured in the U. S. in Wyandotte county, Mich., 1865. This first ingot was rolled into a rail at the North Chicago rolling-mill, 18G5. The first rails made to order of Bessemer steel in the U. S. at the Cambria iron works. Johnstown, Pa 18fi7 John Heaton published his process 18G7-8 Dr. Siemens's "regenerative gas furnaces" made excellent steel, cheap, in large masses. : 1876 et seq. Cutlers' Company, London, opened; exhibition 1 May, 1879 Messrs. Bolchow, Vaughan & Co., of Middlesborough, by Thomas and Gilchrist's process, convert Cleveland iron ore into Bessemer steel, by lining the furnace with radial bricks of magnesian limestone, and adding cold basis material to remove phosphorus " Process reported successful Oct. 1880 Number of steel works in the U. S. 73, and the number of tons made 1,145,711 " J. S. Jeans published "Steel: its History, Manufacture, Prop- erties, and Uses " Feb. " The Garfidd, a steel sailing-ship, 2220 tons, 292 ft. long, 24 ft. 9 in. deep, 41 ft. wide, launched at Belfast 7 Jan. 1882 Clapp- Griffith process introduced into the U. S. from Great Britain 1884 B. H. Thwaite of Liverpool, and A. Stewart of Bradford, an- nounce an improved "rapid " process for making steel, Oct. 1887 Roberts - Bessemer process introduced into the U. S. from France 1888 Steel production of Great Britain, 3,669,960 tons; of the U. S. 3,385,732 tons; of Germany and Luxemburg, 2,046,147 tons; of the world, 10,746,126 tons in 1889 NUMBER OF STEEL WORKS AND THE NUMBER OF TONS MAN- UFACTURED IN THE PRINCIPAL STATES OF THE U. S. FOR 1S90. STE 1 State. No. of Works. Tons. Pennsylvania 79 14 18 2 8 6 8 1 1 2 1 18 158 2,768,268 868,250 446,808 183 225 Illinois Ohio West Virginia New York 113,499 30,252 17 999 Massachusetts New Jersey Colorado 17,952 6 904 California M ichigan 6,600 3,700 4,479 All other states Total Steel pens. "Iron pens" are mentioned by Chamber- layne in 1685. Steel pens, made long before, began to come into use about 1820, when the first gross of three-slit pens were sold in England, wholesale, for 71. is. In 1830 the price was 8.*., and in 1832, 6^. A better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross. Birmingham, in 1858, produced about 1,000,000,000 pens per annum. Women and children are principally employed in the manufacture. Perry, Mitchell, and Gillott are eminent makers. Joseph Gillott, originally a mechanic, made a large fortune by steel-pen making. He died 5 Jan. 1872, aged 72. Steelyard, an ancient weighing instrument, the same that is translated balance in the Pentateuch. The statera Romana, or Roman steelyard, similar to the one now in com- mon use, is mentioned in 315 b.c. Stef'ano, San, a small village on the sea of Marmora, southwest of Constantinople ; here the grand-duke Nicholas established his headquarters, 24 Feb. ; and here was signed a treaty of peace with Turkey, 3 Mch. 1878, modified by the treaty of Berlin, signed 13 July following. The Russians quitted San Stefano, 22 Sept. 1878. The treaty made Montenegro, Servia, and Roumania independent- Hiilgaria a tributary principality; required a heavy indemnity from Turkey for Russia, who was to gain a port on the Black sea and Kars; to exchange the Dobriidscha for Bessarabia; to obtain rights for Christians; to open the Bosporus and Dardanelles in peace and war, etc. Stenoell'roiny. Printing in colors. Stenog'raphy (from Or. aHvog, narrow), the art of short-hand, practised from antiquity, and improved by the poet Ennius, by Tyro, Cicero's freedman, and Seneca. The A rs Scribendi Charactei-is, written about 1412, is the oldest system extant. Dr. Timothy Bright's " Characterie, or the Art of Short, Swift, and Secret Writing," published in 1588, is the first English work on short-hand. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590; and John Willi* published his "Stenographic" in 1002. There are many modern systems: John Byrom's (1707), T. (iurney's (1710), " Brachygraphy," based on Mason's (1750), "A Short-hand Dictionary" (1777), Taylor's (1786), Mayor's (1789), Pitman's (phonographic), 1837, A. M. Bell's" Stenophonography" (1852\ Munson's "Complete Phonography" (1866), J. D. Everett's (1877), Pockncll's "Legible Short-hand" (1881), J. M. Sloan's (1882). Phonography. Sig. A. Michela's stenographic ma- chine for graphic representation of phonetic sounds (about 200 words per minute), like a harmonium with a key board, ex- hibited at the Turin exhibition of 1884 ; adopted by the Italian senate. International Short-hand congress, London, 1887 (482 systems noticed); Paris, 1889; Munich, 1890; Berlin, 1891. Stephenson, Fort, Defence of. Fort Stephenson. Stereocll'roniy, a mode of painting in which water- glass (an alkaline solution of flint, silex) connects the color with the substratum. Its invention is ascribed to Von Fuchs, who died at Munich on 5 Mch. 1856. Fine specimens by Kaulbach and Echter exist in the museum at Berlin and at Munich. Stereom'eter, an instrument to measure the liquid contents of vessels by gauging, invented about J350.— /Iwcfer- son. M. Say's stereometer, for determining the specific grav- ity of liquids, porous bodies, and powders as well as solids, was described in 1797. Ster'eoSCOpe (from Gr. onpioQ, solid, and GKoir^iv, to see), an optical instrument for giving relief to pictures, by uniting one seen by each eye in a single image. The first stereoscope by reflection was constructed and exhibited by prof. Charles Wheatstone in 1838, who had announced its prin- ciple in 1833. Since 1854 stereoscopes have been greatly im- proved. Ster'eotype, a cast from a page of movable printing- types, so named by the Parisian printer, Didot, 1798. It is said that stereotyping was known in 1711. It was practised by William Ged of Edinburgh, about 1730. In the library of the Royal institution is an edition of Sallust, with this im- print ; " Edinburgi, (iulielmus Ged, auri faber Edinensis, non typis mobilibus, ut vulgo fieri solet, sed tabellis sen lamiiiis fusis, excudebat, 1744." (Printed at Edinburgh by William Ged, goldsmith of Edinburgh, not with movable types, as is commonly done, but with cast tablets or plates.) A Mr. James attempted to introduce Ged's process in London, but failed, about 1735. — Nichols. Stereotype printing was in use in Holland in the last century ; and a quarto Bible and a Dutch folio Bible were printed there. — Phillips. It was re- vived in London by Wilson in 1804. It was introduced into the United States by David Bruce of New York in 1812. First work cast in the U. S. was the New Testament in bour- geois in 1814. Since 1850 the durability of stereotypes has been greatly increased by electroplating them with copper (ir silver. Printing. Sterling' (money). Ducange says (1733), " Esterlinguf!, sterlingus, are English words relating to money, and hence familiar to other nations, and applied to the weight, qualit}', and kind of money." " Denarius Angliae, quo vocatur ster- lingus," Stat. Edw. I. (The penny of England, which is called sterling.) Camden derives the word from easterling or ester- ling, observing that the money brought from Germany, in the reign of Richard I., was the most esteemed on account of its purity, being called in old deeds " nummi easterling.'^ Others derive the word from the Easterlings, the first moneyers in England. Stetll'OSeope (Gr. arnOot., breast, and (tkotthv, to ex- amine), an instrument for listening to the action of internal organs of the body. In 1816 Laennec of Paris (1781-1826), by rolling a quire of paper into a cylinder, and applying the o|)en end to the patient's chest and the other to his own ear, per- ceived the action of the heart in a much more distinct manner than by the immediate application of the ear, 'j'bis led to his inventing the stethoscope or "breast-explorer," the prin- ciple of which, now termed "auscultation," was known by* Hippocrates, 357 b.c, and by Robert Hooke, 1681. Steward of England, Lord High, Tlie first grand STI 't)o officer of the crown This office was established prior to the reign of Edward the Confessor, and was formerly annexed to the lordship of Hinckley, Leicestershire, belonging to the family of Montfort, earls of Leicester, who were, in right thereof, lord high stewards of England ; but Simon de Mont- fort, the last earl of this family, having raised a rebellion against his sovereign, Henry IIL, was attainted, and his estate forfeited to the king, who abolished the office, 1265. It is now revived only pro hdc vice, at a coronation or the trial of a peer. The first afterwards appointed was Thomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for the trial of a peer was Edward, earl of Devonj on the arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1400. The last was lord Denman, at the trial of the earl of Cardigan, 16 Feb. 1841. The duke of Hamilton was lord high steward at the coronations of William IV., 1831, and Victoria, 1838. Stick'leitadt, a town of Norway. Here Olaf II., aided by the Swedes, was defeated in his endeavors to recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Denmark, and slain 29 July, 1030. He was afterwards sainted, on account of his zeal for Christianity. §tirlillg', a burgh of S. Scotland. The strong castle was taken by Edward I. of England, 1304. Here James 11. stabbed the earl of Douglas, 13 Feb. 1452, and James VI, was crowned, 24 July, 1567. Stirling surrendered to Monk, 14 Aug. 1651. The statue of king Robert Bruce unveiled, 24 Nov. 1877. "Ye towers! within whose circuit dread A Douglas by his sovereign bled." —Scott, " Lady of the Lake." §tirlill^, Lord, William Alexander, general in the American army during the Revolution, and known by cour- tesy in American history as lord Stirling, was a son of James Alexander, heir presumptive to the Scottish title " earl of Stirling,'' which he forfeited by following in 1715 the Pre- tender, after whose fall he took refuge in America in 1716, antl married. His son, William Alexander, born in New York, 1726, was active in the French and Indian war of 1755, went to England, and instituted legal proceedings to obtain his earldom ; though not successful, his right was generally conceded, and he was addressed as earl of Stirling. Return- ing to America in 1761, he married a daughter of Philip Liv- ingston, member of the Provincial council of New Jersey for several years. That state made him colonel of its first regi- ment of militia, and in Mch. 1776 Congress commissioned him brigadier-general. He was conspicuous in the battle of Long Island in Aug., and in Feb. 1777 was made major-gen- eral. He exposed Conway to gen. Washington. He served throughout the war, at different times having in his command every brigade of the army except those of South Carolina and Georgia. He died at Albany, 15 Jan. 1783. §tirriip§ were unknown to the ancients. Gracchus fitted the highways with stones to enable the horsemen to mount. Warriors had projections on their spears for the same purpose. Stirrups were used in the 6th century, but were not common even in the 12th. StOCkbridg^e Indian§, formerly occupying that part of Massachusetts about the Berkshire Hills. A remnant of them now in Wisconsin. Indians. Stock £xcliailg^e, the New York, grew out of an informal organization by the stock- brokers. May 17, 1792, and was formally instituted in 1817. Its sessions were held in va- rious rented rooms till 1827, when it occupied part of the first "Merchants' Exchange," then completed. This was burned, 16 Dec. 1835. It then removed to Jauncey court (now 43 Wall street); in 1842 to the new Merchants' Exchange, now the Custom-house ; in 1854 to the Old Corn Exchange Bank build- ing; in 1856 to Lord's court in William street, and in 1865 to its own fine building in Broad, near Wall street. Exchange. StOCk'llotni, capital of Sweden (built on kolmen, or islands), was fortified by Berger Jarl aliout 1254. Here the Swedish nobility were massacred by Christian II., in 1520. Sweden. Pop. 1890, 246,154. Stocking's of silk are said to have been first worn by Henry H. of France, 1547. In 1560, queen Elizabeth was pre- sented with a pair of knit black silk stockings by her silk- woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones any STO more. — TTmoell. He adds, "Henry VIII. wore ordinary cloth hose, except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings; for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with a pair of Spanish silk stock- ings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and the present was then much taken notice of. — Idem. Others relate that William Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stockings from Man- tua, made a pair like them, the first made in England, which he presented to the earl of Pembroke, 1564. — Stow. The art of weaving stockings in Si frame was invented in England by the rev. Mr. Lee of Cambridge in 1589, 25 years after he had learned to knit them with wires or needles. Cotton stockings were first made in 1 730. Stocks, properly the obligations of a government for its funded debt — government securities distinct from shares; but now commonly used to designate the property of a corporation, and the right to ownership in such property, represented by certificates distributed to the owners. The public funding system originated in Venice, about 1173, and was introduced I into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have had its rise in 1690. j " Bulls " are persons who buy stock and cause the market to rise ; I " Bears," those who sell and cause it to fall. j Three per cent, annuities created 1726 I " " consols (i. e., consolidated annuities) created.. 1731 " per cents, reduced..* 1746 " per cent, annuities, payable at South Sea house 1751 " and a half per cent, annuities created 1758 Long annuities 1761 Four per cent, consols 1762 Foundation of the Stock Exchange in Capel (!0urt, London, was laid 18 May, 1801 Five per cent, annuities 1797 and 1802 " " reduced to 4 1822 Old 4 per cents, reduced to 3>^ 1824 Act to prevent stock jobbing, Mch. 1734 ; repealed I860 Further reductions made in 1825, 1830, 1834, 1841, and 1844; the maximum being now 3 percent. Three per cents, convertible into 2%, and 1}4 per cent, bv act of 2 Sept. 1884 Stoics, disciples of Zeno. Philosophy. Stoke, East, near Newark, Nottinghamshire, Engl. Near here, on 16 June, 1487, the adherents of Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, earl of Warwick, and claimed the crown, were defeated by Henry VII. John de la Pole, the earl of Lincoln, and most of the leaders, were slain. Simnel was afterwards employed in the king's household. Stone, Charles P., U.S.A., Case of. The battle of Ball's Bluff, Va., was fought 21 Oct. 1861. The movement bring- ing on the battle was made under supervision of gen. Stone, and resulted in the defeat of the federals. An investigation followed, and on 5 Jan. 1862, gen. Stone was examined by the "Committee on the Conduct of the War," wlio, at the time, seemed to be satisfied with his explanations. On suggestion of gen. McClellan, he again appeared before the same commit- tee on 31 Jan., and defended himself against a charge of dis- loyalty. On 9 Feb. 1862, he was arrested by brig.-gen. Sykes on order of the secretary of war, addressed 28 Jan. to gen. McClellan. Gen. Stone asked of gen. McClellan charges and specifications, 9 Feb., but received no answer. He was kept in solitary confinement at fort Lafayette for 49 days, while no notice was taken of his repeated applications for a speedy trial, for a copy of charges, for change of localitv, and for access to the records of his office, etc.; and was then trans- ferred to fort Hamilton, where he had opportunity for air and exercise. The cause of his arrest was still unexplained and his applications for service disregarded ; but after 189 days of confinement he was released. His wife was not permitted to visit him during his confinement. Meanwhile, his case at- tracted attention in Congress. On 1 1 Apr. 1862, Mr. McDougall of California offered a resolution in the Senate, asking a trial for gen. Stone. On 22 Apr., on motion of Mr. Wilson, the resolution was amended and passed, "That the president of the United States be requested to communicate to the Senate any information touching the arrest and imprisonment of brig.-gen. Stone not deemed incompatible with the public interest." To this the president answered, in substance, 2 May, 1862, that the arrest was made by his authority and upon evidence which required such proceedings to be had against him, whether guilty or innocent, for the public safe- STO ty. The president deemed it incompatible with the public interest and perhaps unjust to gen. Stone to make a more particular statement of tlie evidence, lie had not been tried because the state of military operations at the time of his ar- rest and since would not warrant the withdrawal of officers to constitute a court-martial and witnesses from the army with- out serious injury to the service; that gen. Stone would be allowed a trial without unnecessary delay, and every facility would be afforded by the War department for his defence, (ien. Stone was not released, however, until 16 Aug. 1862, when by act of 17 July, 1862, it was illegal to hold him longer without trial. After his release he reported by telegram for orders ; but, hearing nothing, he wrote on 25 Sept. to gen. L. Thomas, adjt.-gen. U. S. A., stating the case, and asking that charges be furnished him, or that he be placed on duty. (ien. llalleck answered, 30 Sept. 1862, that he was no longer under arrest, but that he could give him no orders, as he had not been assigned to him for duty ; that he had no official informa- tion of the cause of his arrest, but understood it was made by the order of the president. No charges or specifications were on file against him as far as he (Halleck) could ascertain; that the matter was to be immediately investigated, and copies of charges when preferred would be furnished by the judge-ad- vocate general. On 1 Dec. 1862, gen. Stone, hearing nothing further, wrote gen. McClellan that, as he could learn, the au- thority for his immediate arrest was from him, and respect- fully requested that he be furnished with a copy of the charges. Gen. McClellan replied 5 Dec, stating that the order was given by the secretary of war; that the secretary said it was made at the solicitation of the Congressional Committee on the Con- duct of the War, and based on testimony taken by them. That he (McClellan) had submitted to the secretary of war the writ- ten statement of a refugee from Leesburg. This information agreed to a certain extent with the evidence taken by the committee; he had further stated to the secretary that the charges were too indefinite for any case to be framed ; that he had on several occasions called attention to the propriety of giving gen. Stone a prompt trial, but the reply had been, there was no time to attend to it, or that the Congressional court was still engaged in collecting evidence. Gen. Stone then asked gen. McClellan to furnish him with the name of the ref- ugee, but to this request no answer was ever received. This is the substance of all the information gen. Stone was ever able to collect after persistent efforts. At last the government restored him to duty, making no acknowledgment of injustice done him. Gen. Stone continued to suffer under many annoy- ances until, towards the close of the war, he offered his resigna- tion, which was promptly accepted. In view of the high character and military reputation (see gen. Grant's " Personal Memoirs") of gen. Stone, it is now universally believed that his treatment was unjust and that he was the victim of preju- dice or mistake. Stoneheilge, on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, Engl., is said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin, by Aure- lius Ambrosius, in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered 766 STO by Hengist the Saxon about 450. — Geoffrey of Man Erected as a sepulchral monument of Ambrosiu.s, 500. — Poly (lore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which th< Druids officiated. — Dr. Stukeley. The Britons are said to hav« held annual meetings at Abury and Stonehenge, at whicli laws were made and justice administered. The cursus neai Stonehenge was discovered by dr. Stukelej', 6 Aug. 1723. Th< origin and object of these remains are still very obscure. Se( W. M. Flinders Petrie's "Stonehenge: Plans, Description, Theories," 1880. Stone river. Mukkkeksborough, Battle of. " l^tOIiewall " JaekiOIl (Thomas J. Jackson, b; 1824; d. 1863), a Confederate general, so called from the ob- stinate resistance made by the troops under his command at the battle of Bull Kun. Chanckllohsvillk. StOllington, Defence of. This borough, on Long Island sound, in the eastern part of Connecticut, was assailed by the British, under com. Hardy, on 9 Aug. 1814. A can- nonade and bombardment ensued for 2 or 3 days. Less than 20 men, with 3 cannon, successfully defended the place and prevented the British landing from boats. The Americans had 6 men wounded ; the British, 21 killed and 59 wounded Stono Ferry, Battle of. The British army menacing Charleston, S. C, were attacked by gen. Lincoln at Stono Ferry, 10 miles below the cit}', on Stono river, or inlet, 20 June, 1779. The Americans were repulsed, with a loss of 146 killed and wounded. 3 days after the British evacuated" the place, retiring to Savannah, Ga. Here, in a skirmish with a British foraging party from Charleston, Sept. 1782, capt. Wil mot, commanding the Americans, was killed. His was the last blood shed of the Revolution. Stony creek, or Burlingrton Heiglits, ati the west end of lake Ontario, in Upper Canada, was the scene of a night assault upon 1300 American troops under gen. Chandler, on 6 June, 1813, by a British force of about 800 men, under gen. Vincent. The Americans>lost 17 men killed, 38 wounded, and 5 officers and 93 men made prisoners. Among the latter were gens. Chandler and Winder. The British losa was 178. After repulsing the attack the Americans retreated to fort George on the Niagara river. , Stony Point, Capture of. Forts. Storni§. A storm is " a decided or violent disturbance of the atmosphere, which undergoes translation from place to place." It maj' or may not be accompanied b}' rain, hail, or snow. The historical interest of storms depends largely upon their destructiveness to life and property. They are com- monly designated as typhoons, cyclones, tornudoes, hurricanes, and blizzards. More or less destructive tornadoes are frequent in parts of the United States, and thousands of ])ersons have been killed and injured by them. On one day (9 Feb. 1884) there occurred in the territorv extending from Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Illinois, eastward to the Atlantic, more than 60 tornadoes, which destroyed over 10,000 build- ings, killed 800 persons, and wounded over 2500. SOME DISASTROUS TORNADOES WHICH HAVE OCCURRED IN THE UNITED STATES. Place. Persons Buildings destroyed. Killed. Injured. 1794 1804 1821 1832 1840 317 100 1842 500 1854 25 67 1855 4 1874 10 30 100 1875 134 187G 11 Many 1877 8 1878 30 " 13 70 100 " 34 28 160 1879 16 50 u "9 ■36 1880 100 600 200 " 10 20 " 6 20 25 ■" 22 72 55 Northford. Conn Hancock, Ga Sunapee, N. H Warner, N. H Kingston, Miss Adams county, Miss Ix)uisville, Ky Jefferson and Cook counties, III Montevallo, Ala Near Erie, Pa Siline county, Kan i'ensaukee. Wis Iowa county, Wis Ray county, Mo New Haven county. Conn Walterborough, S. C Kansas (several tornadoes) Ooodhue county, Minn Barry, Stone, Webster, and Christian counties, Mo White county, Ark Taylorville, HI Noxubee county, Miss June, Apr. Sept. May, May, June, Aug. May, Nov. July, June, July, May, June, Aug. Apr. May, July, Apr. Apr. Apr. Progress rapid. Intense darkness. Very destructive. Great loss of property. Loss, $1,260,000. Very destructive. Town nearly destroyed. \ Loss, $500,000. Loss, $30,000. Loss, $300,000. Loss, t2,000,000. Great loss of life. Loss, $1,000,000. Loss, $100,000. STO 767 STO SOME DISASTROUS TORNADOES WHICH HAVE OCCURRED IN THE UNITED STATES.— (Continued.) Place. Fannin county, Tex Pottawatomie county, la De Soto county, Miss Osage county, Kan New Ulm, Minn Henry and Saline counties, Mo (irinnell, la • Emmetsburg, la Kemper, Copiah, Simpson, Newton, and Lauderdale, Miss. Racine, Wis Dodge and Olmstead counties, Minn Izard, Sharp, and Clay counties, Ark Illinois, Kentucky, Mississippi, Georgia, Tennessee, Virginia North and South Carolina Richmond and Harnett counties, N. C Miner, Lake, and Minnehaha counties, Dak Rock, Hennepin, Ramsey, and Washington counties, Minn St. Croix, Polk, Chippewa, and Price counties. Wis Camden county, N. J Fayette county, Dallas, Perry, and Bibbs counties, Ala Benton and Stearns counties, Minn Green and Huron counties, 0., 20 killed and 100 houses de- stroyed at Xenia Prescott county, Kan Mt. Vernon, 111 Still Pond, Md., and vicinity of Delaware Reading and Pittsburg, Pa In Missouri, Ohio, and Kentucky. Louisville, Ky South Lawrence, Mass. 26 July, 26 June, 6 July, 16 July, 27 May, 16 June, 4 July, 17 Nov. 28 Aug. 2 Oct. 17 May, 4 June, Southern Minnesota and central Iowa 22 Sept. Mt. Carmel, Pa In Louisiana and Mississippi. . West Superior, Wis Wilmington, Kan In Minnesota , Carey, , Red Bud, 111 Savannah, Ga., Charleston, S. Gulf coast of Louisiana Kuukel, Williams county, 0. . Tacoma, Wash C, and southern coast. ■28 May, 1880 10 June, " 12 Apr. 1881 12 June, " 15 July, " 18 Apr. 1882 17 June, " 24 June, " 22 Apr. 1883 18 May, " 21 Aug. " 21 Nov. " 9 Feb. 1884 19 Feb. 28 July, 9 Sept. 3 Aug. 8 Sept. 6 Nov. 14 Apr. 12 May, 21 Apr. 15 Feb. 22 Aug. 9 Jan. 10 Jan. 27 Mch. 1885 1886 1887 1891 u 1892 1893 1894 Persons Buildings destroyed. Killed. Icijured. 40 83 49 20 35 10 27 5 22 50 6 53 247 8 150 51 100 300 260 100 51 200 100 16 100 52 26 80 400 5 162 60 800 2500 10,000 18 125 55 15 18 100 6 75 305 6 100 500 6 100 300 13 50 ... 74 136 138 57 85 20 237 330 39 125 11 ... • ... 33 18 ... 76 200 900 9 40 7 10 50 ... 25 100 50 *56 46 1000 2000 7 30 50 30 75 ... Loss, $1.50,000. I>oss, $300,000. Loss, $150,000. Loss, $1,000,000, Loss, $300,000. Loss, $175,000. Loss, $700,000. Loss, $300,000. Unparalleled series of torna- does, there being over 60 of them scattered over the ter- ritory after 10 a.m. on that day. Loss, $4,000,000. Loss, $500,000. Loss, $385,000. Loss, $1,300,000. Loss, $1,000,000. Town nearly destroyed. r Suspension bridge for pedes- J trians and carriages wreck- ( ed at Niagara Falls. Cut a path 1000 feet wide through the city. Loss, $2,150,000. Cut a path 200 feet wide through town. Most disas- trous ever recorded in the New England states. Many killed. [ Many injured and much prop- [ erty destroyed. Great destruction of property. Village quite destroyed. Great damage to property. [Many wounded; great de- I struction of i)roperty. Cyclones or hurricanes, known as typhoons in the China sea, form a special class of storms, always accompanied by heavy rain. They follow parabolic paths, first to westward and then north and northeast in the southern hemisphere, but in the contrary direction in the northern. Some of the most disastrous of the past 30 years are as follows: At Calcutta, India, followed by a storm wave over the delta of the Ganges; 45,000 lives lost and about 100 ships 5 Oct. 1864 Guadaloupe devastated 6 Sept. 1865 In the Bahamas, at Nassau, New Providence, 60 to 70 lives lost, 600 buildings destroyed, many ships wrecked 1-2 Oct. 1866 In islands of Antigua and St. Kitts 21 Aug. 1871 Near Madras, Hiudostan 1 May, 1872 "Nova Scotia cyclone " on Atlantic coast, U. S. ; 1223 vessels destroyed; loss of life over 600; of property, $3,500,000, 14-17 Aug. 1873 At Macao, Hong-Kong, etc 22 Sept. 1874 Indianola, Tex., nearly destroyed; 126 lives lost; property de- stroyed, $1,000,000 15 Sept. 1875 At Backergunge, accompanied by a storm wave, covering the eastern edjje of the delta of the Ganges with water from 10 to 50 ft. deep. Over 100,000 i)eople perish 31 Oct. 1876 At Buen Ayre and Curapoa, many lives lost, damage over $2,000,000 23 Sept. 1877 In Havana, Wilmington, N. C, eastern Pennsylvania, and New England ; very destructive 21-24 Oct. 1878 Along the Atlantic coast from Cape Lookout, N. C., to Eastport, Me. Over 100 large and 200 small vessels shipwrecked, and great damage done to inland property 16-20 Aug. 1879 Nearly the whole of Jamaica devastated; over 12 lives lost and hundreds of buildings destroyed 17-18 Aug. 1880 At Charleston, S. C. and along the coast, 400 lives lost and hundreds of buildings; value of property dcstroyed,$L500, 000, . , 23-28 Aug. 1881 In Haifong, etc., China ; about 300,000 lives lost 8 Oct. " In England, great destruction of life and property, including about 130 wrecks 14-19 Oct. " All vessels wrecked, and nearly every house destroyed at Man- zandla; damage estimated, $500,000 27 Oct. " In Kansas, 12 killed 7 Apr. 1882 At McAllister, Ind. Ter. ; 120 lives lost 10 May, 1882 At Galveston, Tex 6 Sept. " Hurricane crosses Cuba, killing 40 persons and thousands of cattle; passes along the Atlantic coast, wrecking 70 vessels oft" Labrador; 100 lives lost 8-14 Oct. " At Manilla, Philippine islands; 60,000 families made homeless and 100 sailors drowned 20 Oct. and 8 Nov. " Oronogo, Mo., demolished 13 May, 1883 At Springfield, Mo 5 Nov. " In Kentucky, 12 persons killed 24 Mch. 1884 In Upper Austria and Hungary 7 Aug. " In New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio 28 Sept. " In Catania, Sicily, about 27 killed; damage, $1,000,000. .7 Oct. " At Charleston, S.C, 21 lives lost ; damage to property, $2,000,000, 23-24 Aug. 1885 At Kansas City, Mo 11 May, 1886 In Madrid, Spain, 32 killed, 620 injured 12 May, " Newbury, Ind., destroyed 15 Aug. " In gulf of Mexico and 200 miles inland; 38 lives lost; Indian- ola, Tex., completely destroyed; loss, $5,000,000. . .19-20 Aug. " Great Britain; many lives lost 14-15 Oct. " Off coast of Australia, 550 pearl-flshers said to have perished, 22 Apr. 1887 On coast of Madagascar; 11 vessels wrecked, 20 lives lost, 2 Mch. 1888 In Cuba; estimated loss of life, 1000 13 Sept. " At Muscat, Arabia; several hundred lives lost 9 July, 1890 Near St. Paul, Minn. ; over 100 lives lost 13 July, '• At Slomni, Russia; 19 killed 22 July, " Near Wilkesbarre, Pa., 200 houses wrecked, 15 lives lost, 19 Aug. " On lake Ilman, Russia; many lumber vessels lost with their crews 31 May, 1891 At Martinique; all shipping in port wrecked, 340 lives lost; d.image, $10,000.000 18 Aug. " At Conneaut, 0.; 30 buildings destroyed 27 Oct. " Hurricane on and around the island of xMauritius, 1200 lives lost, 18 May, 1892 Cyclone sweeps the province of Ravigo, northern Italy; great loss of life and property 19 July, " Hurricane occurs at Tonnatay, Madagascar, causing great loss of life; 10 vessels foundered in the harbor 6 Mch. 1893 STO 768 g-pO Severest wind storm ou record on lake Erie, many vessels and lives lost 17 May, 1893 Hurricane on the coast or Georgia and South Carolina, the Sea islands dovasUited and many lives lost 28 Aug. " Cyclone rages along the coast of Florida, Georgia, and South Carolinii 12 Oct. " Great storm on the northwest coast of Europe. 237 lives lost and many vessels off the coast of England and 1U5 fishermen off Jutland 20 Nov. " Terrific gale on lake Michigan, 60 wrecks along the shore from Michigan City and Two Rivers, 25 lives lost, 20 schooners destroyed on the water front at Chicago, and 15 schooners and several steamers outside 16 May, 1894 Uail-sfonns, like tornadoes, follow a path very narrow as compared with the distance traversed, often in parallel bands, between which rain, but no hail, falls. Some noteworthy hail- storms of which we have a record are as follows : Near Chartres, France, hail fell on the marching army of Ed- ward III. ; horses and men suffered much from large hail- stones 1339 Hail-storm passes from Touraine, France, to Belgium in 2 bands; one 5 miles wide and 500 long, the other 10 miles wide and 420 miles long. Property valued at $5,000,000 destroyed, 13 July, 1788 At Naina Tal, India, hailstones fell measuring from 9 to 13 inches in circumference, and weighing a pound 11 May, 1855 Hail storm follows a i)ath 45 to 60 miles wide, from Bordeaux, France, to Belgium. In St. Queutin the fallen hail did not disappear for 4 days 9 May, 1865 Hailstones as large as oranges fell in the Yellowstone valley, 30 July, 1877 Great hail storms in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, Ohio, and Dakota. At Yankton the hail was 9 to 12 inches deep 5 June, 1879 Hailstones 7 inches in circumference fell at Lanesborough, Mass 16 July, " Hailstones 6 to 10 inches in circumference fell in Wisconsin. 26 July, " Near Whitehall, 111., hailstones fell of the size of goose eggs, and drifts from 8 to 12 inches deep were found the day after the storm 2 June, 1881 In Iowa, hailstones as large as a man's fist fell, and drifts were formed 2 to 3 ft. deep 12 June, " At laredo, Te.x., hailstones weighing one pound fell 8 June, 1882 At Dubuque, la., hailstones fell of great size, the largest weigh- ing 28 oz 16 June, " In Iac and Audubon counties, la., hailstones 13 inches in cir- cumference were noted, and the hail drifted over the fence tops 7-8 Aug 1883 Hail totally destroyed the crops in Walsh and Grand Fork counties. Dak 26 June, 1886 In Dakota and Minnesota hail destroyed 250,000 acres of wheat. At Grafton, Minn., hailstones fell as large as hens' eggs, 24 July, " At Fort Yates, Dak., hailstones fell 3^ inches in diameter, and having cylindrical protuberances on them 10 Aug. " At Moradabad, India, over 230 natives were killed by a hail- storm; drifts 1 to 2 feet in depth formed,and hailstones were of enormous size 30 Apr. 1888 Cloud-bursts or Water-spouts. — 2 water-spouts fell on the Glatz mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbach and many other villages; many persons per- ished, 13 July, 1827. A water-spout at Glanfles'k, near Killar- ney, in Ireland, fell on a farm of John Macarthy, destroying farm-houses and other buildings; 17 persons perished, 4 Aug. 1831. The length of one seen near Calcutta, 27 Sept. 1855, was estimated to be 1000 feet. It lasted 10 minutes, and was absorbed upwards. One seen on 2-4 Sept. 1856, burst into heavy rain. The town of Miskolcz, Hungary, destroyed by a water-spout ; great loss of life and property, 30 Aug. 1878. A water-spout destroyed the town of Paso de Cuarenta, Mexico, and 170 lives were lost, 8 May, 1885. Upwards of 100 per- sons were drowned by a cloud-burst on the Yang-tze river, China, 4 Feb. 1890. CIX)UO-BUKSrS KECOKDED IN THE UNirEI) SI'ATK.S. Place. Near Pittsburg, Pa Fort Sully, Dak Near Hayes City, Kan. Chalk creek, Utah Colorado desert. Col. . . Red Bluff, Cal Beaver creek (90 miles) south of Dead wood). Dak. j Seven Star Springs, Mo Near Wickenburg, Ariz Central City, Col An Indian settlement, Cal. . Humboldt county, Nev Near Jefferson, Mont Near Pike's Peak, Col Date. (25-26 July, 1 [ 1874 j 17 Aug. 1876 26 " 31 " " 12 Sept. 1877 16 Nov. " 12 June, 1879 11 June, 1881 6 Aug. " 8 " " 2 July, 1882 10 June, 1884 22 " " 26 July, 1885 N"tes. 134 drowned; loss, $500,000. (400 ft. of railroad ( track destroyed. 11 drowned. 5 " Destroyed. 3 drowned. 2 HKAVIB8T RAINFALLS RKCOKDKU IN THE UNITED STATES. Place. Concord, Franklin county. Pa. Newton, Delaware county. Pa. Fort McPherson, Neb Galveston, Tex Biscayne, Fla Indianapolis, hid Sandusky, O Paterson, N. J Embarrass, Wis Huron, Dak Wasliington, D. C Collinsville, 111 Tridelphia, W. Va Washington, D. C Rainfall in incliei. 16 5.50 1.50 3.95 4.10 2.40 2.25 1.50 2.30 1.30 0.96 1.70 6.09 2.34 Time. 3 hours. 40 niin.. 5 " . 14 " . 30 " . 25 " . 15 '• . 8 " . 15 " . 10 •' . 6 " . 12 " . 55 " . 37 " . Date. 5 Aug. M 27 May, 4 June, 28 Mch. 12 July, 11 July, 13 July, 28 May, 26 July, 1871 1874 1876 1879 23 May, 19 July, 27 June, 1888 il Snow-storms and Blizzards. — Snow is not unknown, though rare, in the southern portion of the United States. A heavy snow-fall was reported at New Orleans in 1852. At Punta Rassa, Fla., about 100 miles from Key West, snow fell for a few moments, 1 Dec. 1876. 5 inches, the most ever known, fell at Montgomery, Ala., 29-3 1 Dec. 1880. On 1 2-15 Jan. 1882, very heavy snow fell on the desert westward of Tucson, Ariz., which extended into Mexico and Lower California. At Leadville, Col., snow fell, 30 Aug. 1882 ; and slight falls of snow occurred ^ in Great Britain as far south as the Isle of Wight on the night I of 11 July, 1888. Nearly | inch of snow Ml from a dear sJa/ | at Bloomington, 111., 15 Mch. 1885. The deposits of red snow in Greenland were discovered by capt. John Ross, British navy, in. 1818, and snow the color of gold-dust fell in Peckeloh, Ger many, 27 Feb. 1877. — A violent wind from the north, when the air is filled with drifting snow, is known as a blizzard in the U. S., the pu?'ga in the Yenisei valley, and the bura on the steppes of central Asia. The blizzard is mentioned by Henry Ellis, who wintered on Hudson Bay in 1746, and spoke of the northwest winds of York Factory being filled with fine parti- cles of snow. The term blizzard was first used by the U. S, Signal Service in Dec, 1876. Noteworthy snow-storms and blizzards recorded since 1875 are as follows : Severe snow-storm in Scotland, several lives lost 1-3 Jan. 1876 Snow storm in S. England 12 Mch. " Blizzard in England and France; loss of life in England and Wales over 100; many of the streets of Paris were completely blocked with snow 18-19 Jan. 1881 Heavy snow-storms, with great loss of life by avalanches, etc., in Piedmont, near Mont Cenis, Italy 16-28 Jan. 1886 Blizzard in Montana, Dakota. Minnesota, Kansas, and Texas; loss of life about 100 '. 11 Jan. 1888 Blizzard in eastern U. S ; about 70 lives lost 11-14 Mch. " Blizzards in northwestern U. S., 29 Jan. -2 Feb., and 7-8 Feb. 1891 Blizzard in Great Britain; 70 deaths from cold, shipwreck, etc., 9-10 Mch. " Miscellaneous. — The loss to shipping and life by gales and storms has been immense (Wrecks), and an enumeration of even the severest gales may not be here undertaken. A few liistoric storms are, however, to be added to the number men- tioned above. In London a storm destroyed 1500 houses 944 Five hundred houses and many churches blown down in Lon- don 5 Oct. 1091 Storm on east coast of England; 200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of their crews li Gi-eat storm, one of the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- land. The loss in London was estimated at 2,000,000^, The number of persons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown out to sea and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. 12 men of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. Multitudes of cattle were also lost; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned 26-27 Nov. 1703 Snow-storm in Sweden, in which, it is said, 7000 Swedes, marching to attack Droutheim, perished upon the moun- tains 1719 Thirty thousand persons perish and a great number of vessels are wrecked by a storm in India 11 Oct. 1737 Hurricane in West Indies; 4000 houses destroyed and 1000 of the inhabitants 25 Oct. 1768 Seven thousand persons killed by a storm at Surat in India, 22 Apr. 1782 One hundred and thirtv-one villages and farms laid waste in France : ' 1786 Hurricane at Madras May, 1811 Storm at Gibraltar; over 100 vessels destroyed 18 Feb. 1828 Hurricane on west coast of England and Ireland 6-7 Jan. 1839 1091 . r STO Minol's Ledge light-house in Boston harbor destroyed by storm, 19 Apr. 1851 Great storm in the Black sea, causing much loss of life, ship- Ding and stores sent by England for the allied armies in the Crimea 13-16 Nov. 1854 Part of Crystal palace, London, and the steeple of Chichester cathedral blown down 20-21 Feb. 1861 One hundred and forlv-three vessels wrecked in storm on Brit- ish coast .* 28 May, '' Tay bridgk blown into the river 28 Dec. lo79 Gale in gulf of Mexico ; 247 lives lost 12 Oct. 1886 Storthing, the Norwegian parliament, said to have been first held at Bergen by Haco V. in 1223, now composed of 114 members, one fourth in the upper house (Lagthing) and three fourths in the lower house (Odelsthing). StOVei. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet do. They lighted fires also in large tubes in rooms with open roofs. Apartments were warmed by portable braziers. Stoves on this old principle, improved, continue in use in many houses and public estab- lishments in England, and generally on the Continent. Dr. Franklin and count Itumford pointed out the waste of fuel in open fires; and dr. Neil Arnott patented his " improvemenCs in the production and agency of heat," 14' Nov. 1821. Chim- neys. Dr. C. William Siemens described his smokeless stove in Nature for n Nov. 1880. Straight-out DeiI10Crat§, Political parties. Strait§ Settlements, including Malacca, Penang or Prince of Wales island, and Singapore, secured to Great Britain in 1824, were made a separate dependency in 1853 under the governor-general of India. They were separated from India as an independent settlement by act passed 10 Aug. 1866, which took effect Apr. 1867. The Cocos islands were placed under the Straits Settlements, 1 Feb. 1886,and Christmas island, 8 Jan. 1889. Singapore, the capital, is on the island of Singa- pore, which is about 27 miles long by 14 wide, with an area of 206 sq. miles. The native states of Perak, Selangor, Sungei- Ujong, Negri Sembilan, Johor, and Pahang on the peninsula are also subject to some extent to the British rule. The area 3f these states on the peninsula is over 32,000 sq. miles. • Stral§unc1, Pomerania, a strongly fortified Hanse town, built about 1230. It resisted a fierce siege by Wallenstein in il628; was taken by Frederick William of Brandenburg in 1678 , [restored to the Swedes, 1679; recaptured by the Prussians and •their allies, Dec. 1715. It surrendered to the French under jBrune, 20 Aug. 1807 ; was awarded to Prussia, 1815. I Strand, London. Houses were first built upon the ;3tra!ul about 1353, when it was the court end of the town, or I he communication between the 2 cities of London and West- jitiiiister, being then open to the Thames and to the fields. r69 STR !>itranger§ in House of Commons. Parliament, Mav, 1875. Stras'burg, the Roman Argentoratum, the capital of Alsace, on the west bank of the 111, near the left bank of the iihlne. Here Julian defended the Alemanni, 357, who capt- ired it, 455. It was annexed to Germany, 870. Louis XIV. ieized it 28 Sept. 1681, and retained it by the treaty of Rys- vick, 1697. The citadel and fortifications which he constructed lave been augmented so that Strasburg is one of the strongest ,)laces in Europe. It was confirmed to France by the peace [)f Ryswick in 1697, but captured by the Germans, 28 Sept. 870, and retained at the peace. May, 1871. The cathedral, in epitome of Gothic art, was founded by Clovis, and recon- ; tructed by Pepin and Charlemagne. After destruction by ightning, 1007, it was principally rebuilt by Erwin de Stein- )ach and his son in the 14th century. The lofty tower (468 eet high) was completed in 1439. The celebrated astronom- cal clock, after a long stoppage, was repaired by M. Schwilgue, nd inaugurated 1 Jan. 1843. iltempted insurrection by prince Louis Napoleon (afterwards emperor), aided by 2 officers and some privates 30 Oct. 1836 ' [They are arrested, and the prince shipped to America by : the government] trasburg invested by Germans, principally from Baden, during the Franco-Prussian war 10 Aug. 1870 /en. von Werder assuming command of the siege, bombard- ' ment began 14 Aug. ; a vigorous sally repulsed 16 Aug. " ' en.Uhrich,the commander,after heroic resistance,a breach be- I ing made and an assault impending, surrendered, 2 a. m. ; at 8 j] •*.«. 17,150 men and 400 officers laid down their arms, 27 Sept. " 25 German loss was said to be 906 men, of whom 43 were officers, 28 Sept. 1870 Germans entered Strasburg on the anniversary of its surprise by the French in 1681 30 Sept. " Uhrich received the grand cross of the Legion of Honor. .Oct. '• Library was destroyed and the cathedral injured. Stratford-upon-Avon, a town of Warwickshire, Engl. Shakespeare and his plays. Stratheluyd, a kingdom formed by the Britons, who retired northward after the Saxon conquest, about 560. It extended from the Clyde to Cumberland. The Britons in it submitted to Edward the Elder in 924. Strathmore e§tates. Miss Bowes of Durham, then the richest heiress in Europe, whose fortune was 1,040,000/., with vast additions on her mother's death, and immense es- tates on the demise of her uncle, married the earl of Strath- more, 25 Feb. 1766. Having, after the earl's death, married Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly carried off by him and other armed men, 10 Nov. 1786. She Avas brought to the King's Bench by habeas co?-pus and released, and he committed to prison, 23 Nov. The lady recovered her estates, which she had assigned to her husband under terror, in May, 1788. Stratton Hill, Battle of, in Cornwall, Engl., 16 May, 1643 ; the royal army, under sir Ralph Hopton, defeated the forces of the parliament under earl of Stamford. Strawberry. Fl(?wers and Plants. Streight's rai«1. Col. A. D. Streight, 51st Indiana, with a force of 1700 men, mounted, was permitted by gen. Rosecrans to attempt the destruction of railroads and other property in northern Alabama and Georgia. The raid com- menced about 12 Apr. and closed 3 May, 1863, by the capture of his entire command near Rome, Ga. This raid accompli.shed nothing, unless it was to illustrate the futility of attempting to accomplish much with little. Col. Streight afterwards ac- quired some prominence by tunnelling out of Libby prison and escaping. Stre'litZ, the imperial guard of Russia, established by Ivan IV. about 1568. I3ecoming seditious, it was suppressed by Peter the Great; great numbers were killed, many by the czar's own hand, 1698-1704. strike, the abandonment of work by a body of working- men, usually with a view of extorting terms from employers. Industrial arbitration originated in France in 1806, when Na- poleon, at the request of the workingmen of Lyons, caused the creation by law of boards of arbitration and conciliation, which still exist under the title of " Conseils des Prud'hommes." The first voluntary tribunal of trade disputes in England was the Board of Arbitration and Conciliation in the glove and hosiery trade, which held its first meeting at Nottingham, Engl.,' 3 Dec. 1860. The first Board of Arbitration in the United States was organized by messrs. Straiten & Storms, cigar manufacturers of New York city, in 1879. The Wallace act of Pennsylvania, in 1883, was the first legislation in tliis country providing for voluntary arbitration in industrial dis- putes between employers and employed. The first recorded strike in the U. S.. is that of the journeymen bakers of New York in 1741. The journeymen boot-makers of Philadelphia are mentioned as striking for increased wages in 1796, 1798, and 1799. The whole number of strikes and lockouts recorded in the U. S. prior to 1881 is 1491, of which 316 were successful, 583 failed, and 154 were compromised. Of 438 the results are unknown. Since 1881 the yearly record has been as follows : Year. 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 strikes. Number involved, i 471 129,521 454 154,671 478 149,763 443 147,054 645 242,705 Year, 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890.. Strikfo Number btrikes. involved. ...1411 499,489 ... 872 345,073 ... 679 211,016 ... 643 177,298 ... 798 201,682 Strike of sailors in New York for increased wages; unsuccess- ful Nov. 1803 Unsuccessful strike of the Shoemaking guild in Philadelphia, lasting 6-7 weeks 1805 Strike of 200 cordwaincrs in New York Nov. 1809 Printers strike in Albany, protesting against the employment of non-union men 1821 Strike of laborers on Chesapeake and Ohio canal. 1829 Strike and riot of laborers on Providence railroad Apr. 1834 Mill strike at Paterson, N. J. ; 26 weeks' idleness and loss of $24,000 in wages 1835 STR 770 STR Sirikeof wenvcrsat Moyamensinganil Kensington, Philadelphia, Pa . on wages (amicably ailjiisted after 5 months), begins, Aug 1842 ' • Mechanics' bell," which hangs in a tower at the foot of Fourth 8t , East river, N. Y., was llrst erected in New York in 1831. It was recast and raised ou a skeleton tower in Webb's ship- I yard (1844), to celebrate the first victorious strike in Amer- ica for a 10 hour diiy, won by the journeymen ship-curpen- ters of Philadelphia 19 Mch. 1844 National congress of trade organizations held at Baltimore, Md. ; 100 delegates represent about 60 trades unions. .20 Aug. 18G6 IMPORTANT STRIKES IN THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1845. ClM«oftr«d«. Journeymen tailors. . . Iron workers Weavers Shoemakers Ship carpenters, etc. . Coal miners General labor strike. . Coal miners Coal miners Cotton mill operatives. General railroad strike ( (Pbnnsylv.wia) ) Spinners Ir«)n workers Cotton handlers Weavers and spinners. Coal miners Cotton mill hands Rolling-mill hands Iron workers (general), Bricklayers Telegraphers (general) Glass blowers , Spinners , Miners.. Painters Miners. Miners. Carpet weavers Miners Miners.. . Iron workers Rollingmill hands Miners lAsters and bottomers.. Glove makers Stove moulders Mis.souri Pacific rail | road system ( Third Avenue Street- i car line ) Cigar makers Lumber shovcrs Street-car lines Moat packers Meat packers Coal handlers Reading railroad em- 1 pioyees } Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railroad em-! pioyees ) New York Central rail- 1 road (general) j Miners in coke district . Miners Carnegie steel works. . . Switclimen (Erie rail- ) road) i Miners, coal Trainmen, Lehigh Val- ( ley railroad j Great Northern andi Montana Central ! railroad ) Mine workers; general ( throughout the U. S. I Employees of llu Pullman Car Manu- facturing company.. American Railway union orders railroad strike to support the boycott against the Pullman Car Co Number in- volved. 1,200 1*366 7,000 10,000 15,000 M«ny thoa-\ Miids ; ex-( tensive ancli wl(le-spr«>d) 14,000 317 10,000 5,253 2,174 4,981 5,000 30,000 3,200 67,000 1,204 4,755 3.000 6,000 6,926 2,289 2,115 4,000 7,272 15,600 3,000 4,500 5,755 7.374 1,750 9,000 1,300 20,000 12,000 12,000 9,260 10,635 34,000 30,000 15,000 3.000 10,000 28,000 2,000 150,000 to . 200,000 ) 2,000 Where begun. Philadelphia, Pa. Pittsburg, Pa Fall River, Mass Lynn, Mass Greenpoint, L. I Scranton, Pa New York city Tuscarawas valley, Mahoning valley, Fall River, Mass Martinsburg, Md Fall River, Mass Covington andNewport,Ky New Orleans, La Lawrence. Mass Western Pennsylvania Cohoes, N. Y Cleveland, Pittsburg, Pa Chicago, 111 Pittsburg. Pa Western Pennsylvania Fall River, Mass Brazil, Ind New York city Western Pennsylvania Hocking Valley, Philadelphia. Pa Western Pennsylvania Cleveland, Western Pennsylvania Brockton, Mass Gloversville, N. Y Troy, N. Y New York city Chicago, 111 New York city Chicago, III New York city Pennsylvania Illinois Albany, N. Y Connellsville, Pa Indiana Homestead, Pa Bu(ralo,N. Y Nanticoke, Pa Chicago, 111 Western railroads 4mos. 2-8 " 6 " 6 wks. 6 " 4mos. 3 " 9 " 9 wks. 3mos. 16 wks. 21 •" 2 " 23 " 20 " 19 " 95 days 4mos. 68 days 30 " 23 wks. 16 " 14 " 3 " 22 " 22 wks. 54 days 29 " 16. " 88 " 4mos. 6 wks. 9 " 17 " 2mos. 60 days 1 day 2 wks. 1 day 11 days 10 " 2mos. 6 " 2 mos. 5 " 10 days 3 mos. 18 days 16 " 2 mos. 4 " Yes No Partly Yes Partly No Yes Yes No Partly No Yes No Partly No Partly No Y'es No Partly Object of strike. For increase in wages Against reduced wages For increase in wages For 8-hour day Against reduced wages For 8-hour day ( Against 15 cents reduction) ( per ton mined i {Against 15 cents reduction )^ per ton mined j Against reduced wages For increase in wages , For new scale of prices For increase in wages , Against reduced wages ( For adoption of Associa- ) I tion rules ] For new scale of prices Increase of wages For 155? advance in wages., Against reduced wages For iD«rease in wages (Against 20 cents reduc-) \ tion per ton mined ) Against reduced wages 11 (I u For increase of wages Against reduced wages For increase in wages Against fixed rates For increase in wages Ordered by Martin Jones. . (Against hours of labor and) ( discharge of men j For fewer hours For fewer hours, more pay . , In sympathy with strikers. , Against 10-hour day Against increase of hours . , For advance in wages , Adjustment of wages (Against dismissal of) \ Knights of Labor | For wage scale For wage scale General grievance Settled by arbitration Against reduction of wages. Sympathetic. Loss in wages. $140,000 200,000 900,000 746,700 Manyinill-j ' property j 100,000 300,000 50,000 800,000 500,000 541,250 376,250 3,300,000 560,000 526,000 412,9.50 300,000 324,000 727,480 473,500 312,000 344,300 323,600 442.733 410;000 549,780 430,000 648,900 400,000 1,400,000 50,000 27,000 270,000 25,000 175,000 169,680 2,650,000 3,620,000 875,000 2,000,000 A.nerican Railway Union, a powerful labor organization of railroad employees under the presidency of Eugene V. Debs, orders a symi)athetic strike in favor of the Pull- man Car company strikers on the western railroads, 26 June, Rapidly spreads 28 June, U S. government interferes on account of the mails. .30 June, Injunction against strikers from the U. S. courts 2 July, Federal troops ordered to Chicago 3 July, 1894 Gov. Altgeld sends protesting telegrams to pres. Cleveland for sending the U. S. troops 4-5 July, 1894 Fierce rioting in Chicago during the strike; several million dollars' worth of railroad property destroyed .5-8 July, " Debs, with Howard and other leaders, indicted and arrested for conspiracy, released on $10,000 bail 10 July, " James R. Sovereign, president of the Knights of Labor, issues a call for the knights to strike — no general response, 10 July, " STR Executive of the American Federation of Labor decides not to order a strike 13 July, 1894 [Strike greatly weakened by this decision.] Debs arrested, charged with violating the Federal injunction, 17 July, " Federal troops withdrawn from Chicago 19 July, " Pres. Cleveland appoints Carroll D. Wright, commissioner of labor, John I). Kernan, and Nicholas E. Worthington a committee to investigate the Pullman strike 25 July, " Strike declared od' by the strike committee of the American Railway Union *> Aug. " 771 SUE State troops ordered home by gov. Altgeld 7 Aug. 1894. Committee of investigation begin their work in Chicago,15 Aug. " Trial of Debs and other officers of the American Railway Union began in the U. S. courts, Chicago 5 Sept. " U. S. justice Harlan delivers his decision on strikes, Chicago, 1 Oct. " Attorney-general Olney decides that the boycott of the Reading railroad again.st labor unions is unlawful 9 Nov. " Committee of investigation report, exonerating the American Railway Union, and condemning the Pullman Company and the General Managers Association Nov. 12 " IMPORTANT ENGLISH AND FOREIGN STRIKES. Class of trade. Cotton spinners Spinners Spinners Builders Potters Amalgamated Society of j Operative Engineers. . j Spinners (lock out) Colliers (lock out) Building trade (lock-out). Engineers Cotton hands Colliers Agricultural union Building operatives Colliers Miners (lock-out) Shipwrights Masons Cotton-mill hands Nailers , Cotton-mill hands Coal miners Ship-builders Miners Coal miners.. Dock laborers. Factory hands. Railroad Shipping trade Miners Coal miners 30,000 10,000 30,000 30,000 3,300 15,000 17,000 3,200 25,000 9,000 35,000 18,000 10*666 70,000 50,000 10,000 1,700 300,000 25,000 10,000 70,000 8,000 30,000 a Aug. - 25,000 30 Aug. t 80,000. 40,000 50,000 80,000 36,000 Where begun. Lancashire, Engl Manchester, Engl Ash ton and Staleysbridge. Manchester, Engl Staffordshire, Engl England ^ Preston West Yorkshire London Newcastle Oldham South Wales Alderton, Suffolk, Engl. liondon South Wales Clyde I/ondon Lancashire Staffordshire Oldham Durham Tyne S. Yorkshire and Midland. Westphalia, Germany Barcelona, Spain. Cardiff, Wales Australia and New Zealand Pas-de-Calais, France England and Wales , 4 6 10 6 4 " 11 wks. 9mos. 2 T 20 1 12 18 " 12 " 11 " 5mos. wks. mos. ?< I wks. wk. wks. wks. mos. wks. mos. mos. wk. idays 1 mo. No Partly No Yes Yes Partly Partly Object of strilte. For advance in wages Against new machinery. , For advance in wages Against contract building For advance in wages Against overtime For 10$g increase in wages. Against reduced wages For 9-hour day No No Partly Against reduced wages i More pay, less time Against reduced wages No Partly Against reduced wages — For advance in wages ( For increased pay and 8- 1 \ hour day .* j (For increased ]'ay and; ( other grievances i ( For reduction of time of ( I labor j (For reduction of time of | { labor ) {Against 25^ reduction in | wages ( $1,250,000 1,250,000 360,000 250,000 2,100,000 500,000 966,000 175,000 1,080,000 666,000 3,850,000 280,500 13,500,000 1,2.50,000 200,000 126,600 Date of beginning. Nov 10 Jan. 15 Oct. 1810 1829 1833 1834 1852 18.53 1858 Aug. 1859 May, 1871 Mch. 1872 1 June, " 1 Jan. 1873 2 Jan. 1875 May, 1877 31 July, " 18 Apr. 1878 25 Nov. " 5 Apr. 1879 3 May, 1889 15 Aug. 1890 7 Aug. 29 Aug. 15 Nov. 28 July, 1891 itroil'tiuin. The native carbonate of strontia was discovered at Strontian, in Argyleshire, in 1787. Sir Hum- phry Davy first obtained from it the metal strontium in 1808. itrycll'llia, a poisonous vegetable alkaloid, discovered in 1818 by Pelletier and Caventou in the seeds of the strych- nos ignatia and nux-vomica, and also in the upas poison. Half a grain blown into the throat of a rabbit occasions death in 4 minutes; it produces lockjaw. Much attention was given to stryclinia in 1856, during the trial of William Palm- er, who was executed for the murder of Cook, 14 June, 1856. Stuart, properly SteAVart, House of. England, Pretenders, Scotland. Stucco "work, a plaster of pulverized marble and gypsum applied to walls and ceilings for decorative purposes. It was known to the ancients, and was much prized by them, particularly bj' the Romans, who excelled in it. — Lenglet. It was revived by D'Udine, about 1550; and in Italy, France, and England in the 18th centur3\ Stuhm, a town of W. Prussia. Here Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden defeated the Poles, 1628. Stun'distS, a Puritan sect in south Russia, said to be descendants of Russian soldiers converted from the Greek church by German missionaries; some were cruelly perse- cuted by the bigoted peasantrj'- of Vossnessensk in Kherson in 1879 ; 13 of the ringleaders were tried for the crime, 8 Nov. 1879. Sturm und I>rang ("storm and pressure") period or movement in German literature, a. chaotic or volcanic pe- riod, without form or order, 1760-1800. Stuttgart, capital of Wiirtemberg, first mentioned in 1229, was made his residence bv count Eberhard, 1320; en- larged by Ulric, 1436; and made capital of the state, 1482. It has been greatly adorned during the last and present centu- ries. International rifie-meeting here, 1 Aug. 1875. Pop. 1890, 139,659. style (Gr. aTi^eiv, to pierce, to stick, thence arvXoQ, a sharp -pointed iron), manner of writing, of doing, etc.; a mode of reckoning time. The style was altered by Augus- tus Caesar's ordering leap-j'ear to be once in 4 years, and the month Sextilis to be called Augustus, 8 b.c. August, New STYLE. Styli'tes, Monachism. Styr'ia, a province of Austria, part of the ancient Nori- cum and Pannonia, was held successively by the Romans, Ostrogoths, and Avars. It was conquered by Charlemagne, and divided among his followers, styled counts, among whom the count of Styria, about 876, was the most powerful. The count became margrave about 1030; and Ottocar VI., in 1180, was made duke. At his death, 1192, Styria was an- nexed to the duchy of Austria. In 1246 it was acquired by Bela IV. of Hungary; in 1253 by Ottocar II. of Bohemia, after whose defeat and death at INIarchfeld, in 1278, it revert- ed to Rudolph of Hapsburg, and was annexed to his possessions. submarine lamp, one invented by Siebe and Gor- man, has been in use since 1850, especially at Cherbourg; Heinke and Davis's lamp was exhibited, 1871. submarine telegraph. Electuicity. Succession, Wars of. Austrian Succession, Span- ish Succession. Suevi (swe'vi), a warlike German tribe, which, with the Alani and the Visigoths, entered Spain about 408 ; were overcome and absorbed bv the latter, about 584. N, SUE Suez canal. The caliph, Omar about 640 opposed cutting the isthmus. A plan for a canal between the head of the Red sea and the bay of relusium was brought forward by M. Ferdinand de Le8se|)s in 1862. He undertook to cut a canal through 90 miles of sand (actual length, 87 miles ; 66 miles canal and 21 miles lakes); to run out moles into the Mediterranean ; to deejMjn the shallow waters ; to create ports to receive the ships from India and Australia, and to adapt the canal to irrigation. The consent of the Egyptian, Turkish, Russian, French, and Austrian governments was gradually ob- tained, but not that of the British. A company was formed for the purpose, and the work commenced in 1858 by Daniel Lange (knighted 1870). The cost was estimated at 8,000,000/. Engineer, M. L. Monteit. M. Delacour, a French engineer, after viewing works, "em- ploying 26,000 men in the desert," expected that they would be completed in 4 or 5 years 7 Nov. 1862 Waters of the Mediterranean admitted into a narrow channel coiumuuicating with lake Timsah Hec. " New town Timsah named Ismaila 4 Mch. 1863 Works visited by the sultan and by Mr. Hawkshaw *' Company compelled by the Egyptian government to give up compulsory labor; litigation ensued Aug. " M. de Lesseps reports that a vessel with 30 persons had been tugged from sea to sen Feb. 1865 Delegates from British chambers of commerce visit the works, and report that success is only an affair of time and monev 17 Apr. " Flood-g.ites of smaller Suez canal opened, the fresh water of the Nile admitted ; a coal-vessel passes from the Mediter- ranean to the Red sea 15 Aug. " Primo, 80 tons' burden, passes from the Mediterranean to the Red sea 17 Feb. 1867 A loan raised in France " French and English vessels enter the canal Nov. 1868 John Fowler, the engineer, reports the canal suitable for steamers and mail traffic, but not for vessels requiring tugs, 5 Feb. 1869 Mediterranean admitted to salt lakes 18 Mch. " Visited by the prince and princess of Wales 23 Mch. " Canal opened in presence of the emperor of Austria, empress of the French, viceroy of Egypt, etc 17 Nov. " M. de Lesseps entertained in London 4 July, 1870 Traffic in 1870-71 doubled 1872-73 Charges for vessels increased 50 per cent. ; British appeal for a national conference Apr. 1873 International conference on Suez dues meet at Constantinople; 21 sittings; report dated 18 Dec. Proposals of the sultan ac- cepted by European powers Dec. " M. de Lesseps protests; lords of admiralty informed (by D. A. I.Ange) that canal will be closed unless old dues are paid, 22 Apr. ; he yields 26 Apr. 1874 Col. Stokes, after survey, reports to earl of Derby the canal generally in a satisfactory state 20 Apr. " British government authorize messrs. Rothschild to buy for 4,080,000^. the khedive's shares (176,602 shares of 101.. out of 400,000) in the canal (at 5 per cent, till 1 July, 1894, after which dividends will be paid) Nov. 1875 M. de Lesseps in a circular says he regards "as a fort- unate circumstance the powerful union between English and French capitalists for the purely industrial and neces- sarily peaceful working of the universal maritime canal," 29 Nov. " Subject discussed in the commons, 14 Feb. ; money (4,080,000^.) voted, 21 Feb. ; act passes 15 Aug. 1876 eutrality of canal claimed by Great Britain May, June, 1877 Its freedom secured by settlement of Egypt 1882-83 Receipts about 5,000,000 francs, 1870; 60,523,815 francs 1882" Second canal determined on by British ship-owners; syndicate appointed 10 May, 1883 Arrangements made by government for construction and ad- vancement of capital, virtually under control of De Lessepss company, announced 11 July; dissatisfaction and opposition in England, 12 July; proposed convention withdrawn, 23 July, " Sir Stafford Northcote's resolution against De Lesseps's monop- oly negatived (284-185) 31 July, " De Lesseps visits London ; agrees with steamship owners to enlarge present canal or create a new one, giving addi- tional powers to the company, and to reduce dues, etc. , 30 Nov. >' Agreement approved by the British government, 25 Feb. ; the shareholders at Paris protest against it, but ratify it (2608- 556) 29 May, ' ' Widening of the present canal decided on, after investigation by commission, Dec. 1884; plans adopted by the commission, 9 Feb. 1885 International commission sits at Paris; English and French schemes discu.ssed Apr.-May, " Parts of these schemes incorporated in treaty May,' " Arrangements with Egypt completed for widening the canal, 27 Dec. 1886 Convention at Paris for England and France, neutralizing the canal under a joint commission 24 Oct. 1887 Adhesion of the other powers announced, July; ratified by the sultan, 25 Oct. ; by the powers 29 Oct. and 22 Dec. 1888 (72 SUG TRAFFIC THROUGH THE CANAL. Year. No.ofthipa. OrosR tonnage. Gross recei|iis. 1870 486 765 1,082 1,173 1,264 1,494 1,457 1,663 1,593 1.477 435,911 761,467 1,439,169 2,085,073 2,423,672 2,940,709 3,072,107 3,418,950 3,291,535 3,236,942 £255,488 464 091 1871 1872 758,659 1873 971 882 1874 1,029,492 1,204,387 , 1,229,157 1,337,617 1,272,435 1,214,443 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 Total, 10 years 12,454 23,105,535 9,737,651 1880 2.026 2,727 3,198 3,307 3,284 3,624 3,100 3,137 3,444 3,425 4,344,519 5,794,401 7,122,125 8,051,307 8,319,967 8,985,411 8,183,313 8,430,043 9,437,957 9,605,745 • 1.672,836 2,187,047 2,536,343 2,645,506 2,480,000 2,601,998 2 241 096 ■ 1881 1882 . 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 2,314,494 2 680 000 1888 1889 2,735,678 Total, 10 years 31,272 78,274,788 24,094,997 1890 3,389 9,749,129 2 679 340 The statutes of the Suez Canal company provide that all net earn- ings in excess of 5 per cent, interest on the shares shall be divided as follows : 1. 15 per cent, to the Egyptian government. 2. 10 " " to the founders' shares. 3. 2 " " for the employees of the company. 4. 71 " " as dividend on 394,677 shares. 5. 2 " " to the managing directors. The net profits in 1890 were over 1,525,335^. Of the 3389 ships passed through the canal in 1890, 2522 belonged to Great Britain. SUg'ar (Saccharum officinarum) is supposed to have been known to the ancient Jews. Found in India by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 325 b.c. — Strabo. An Oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a com- mon beverage. — Lucan. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen, 2d century. Brought into Europe from Asia, G26 A.D.; in large quantities, 1150. Attempted to be cultivated in Italy; not succeeding, the Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510. It was long considered a neutral sub- stance, without congeners, but has of late j'ears become the head of a numerous family — viz. : cane-sugar {sucrose, from the sugar-cane; boiled with dilute acids it becomes ,9/M cose) ; fruit-sugar (from many recent fruits) ; grape-sugar ((jlucose, from dried fruits and altered starch); sugar of milk {melitosef from eucalyptus, by Berthelot in 1856) ; sorbin (from the ber- ries of the mountain ash, b}' Pelouze); inosite (from muscular tissue, Scherer) ; dulcose (by Laurent); mannite (from manna, obtained from \\\q fraxinus ornus, a kind of asli); quercite (from acorns) ; to these have been added tnycose., by M. Mit- scherlich, and melezetose and trehalose, by M. Berthelot. Sugar-refining was made known to Europeans by a Venetian, 1503; and was first practised in England iiboiit 1659, The "^ invaluable vacuum-pan was invented by Charles E. Howard, 1812. Dr. Scoffern's processes were patented in 1848-50. Sugar-cane transported from Trij)oli and Syria to Sicily nnd Madeira about 1138 It is not known when sugar was introduced into England, but doubtless before Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the "His- tory of Whalley, " p. 109, quotes a mention 1497 A manuscript letter of sir Edward Wotton, dated Calais, noti- fies lord Cobliam that he had taken up for him 25 sugar- loaves at 6 shillings a loaf, "whiche is eighle pence a pounde " 6 Mch. 1546 Sugar first taxed (by James II. ) 1686 The consumption of sugar per capita in the principal nations of Europe is, England, 78 pounds; Denmark, 41: Switzer- land, 33; France, 28-f-; Holland, 28; Germany, 24; Norway and Sweden, 22-f-; Belgium, 21; Portugal, 14; others less. Average, 22. SPGAR IN THE UNITED STATES. Sugarcane first grown in part of territory now constituting the U.S 1751 First American sugar-mill built near New Orleans 176S Sugar first manufactured from sorghum 1882 A bounty was granted by Congress from 1 July, 1891, to 1 July, 1905, of 2 cents a pound on sugar not less than 90° by the polariscope from cane, beets, sorghum, and maple produced in the U. S., and testing less than 90° and not less than 80°, 1% cents 1 Oct. 1890 [All bounties paid to sugar producers in the U. S. ceased from the date of the passage of the Tariff act, 27 Aug. 1894.] The following table shows the production in pounds of the different SUI kinds of sugar in the U. S. for 1891, on which $7,342,077 bounty was paid : Cane sugar. Pounds. Louisiana 354,901,053 Texas 8,989,567 Florida 929,248 Mississippi 9,543 364,829,411 Beet sugar. California 8,175,438 Nebraska 2,734,500 Utah 1,094,900 12,004,838 Sorghum sugar. Kansas 1,136,086 Maple sugar 144,882 378,115,217 Sugar on which bounty was not paid, mostly maple 34,778,013 Total 412,893,230 Sugar imported into the U. 8. for the year ending 30 June, 1893, was 3,766,445,347 pounds, and the total amount consumed was 4,024,646,975 pounds, being 62+ pounds per capita. Very little sugar exported from the U. S. ; average less than 20,000,000 pounds yearly. Sugar duties, 1890, prior to the reduction of the duty, $53,992,107; 1892, after reduction, $76,795. Total production of beet sugar of the world in 1891 was 7,987,913,- 896 pounds; of cane sugar, 4,529,248,334 pounds. In 1887 there was produced in the U. S. 400.000 pounds of beet sugar; 1888, 3,600,000; 1889, 6,000,000; 1890, 8,000,000; 1891, 12 000 000; 1892, 27,000,000, of which California produced 21,- 800,000; Nebraska, 3,800,000; Utah, 1,400,000 pounds. In 1893, 43,000,000 pounds produced from 200,000 tons of beet roots, av- eraging the producer $4.50 per ton. Of the total amount of sugar made in the world, 1893, about 7,000,000 tons, 60 per cent, was manufactured from beets. The average yearly production of maple sugar in the U. S. is about 32,000,000 pounds, although some years there is produced over 50,000,000 pounds. According to the U. S. census for 1890 there were 23,533 producers of maple sugar making 500 pounds and over, 10,099 of them in the state of Vermont. §l]ici-erved by Fabricius, Harriot, and Galileo 1610 Dr. Halley, by observing a sun-spot, proved its motion round its own axis July and Aug. 1676 Parallax of the sun, dr. Halley 1702 A spot 3 times the size of the earth passed the sun's ceutre, 21 Apr. 1766 Dr. Wilson observed the motion of a spot 1769 He proves sun-spots to be depressed 1774 Herschel measured 2 spots, whose length together exceeded 60,000 miles 19 Apr. 1779 Scbwabe discovered a cycle of changes (from maximum to mini- mum and minimum to maximum) in the number of spots in 11 years ; coiiflrmed by Wolf and others 1826-51 [According to dr. R. Wolf of Zurich, for many years a standard auiliority on "sun-spots," the monthly average of sun-spots observed by him from 1879 is as follows : 1879, 6; 1880, 31.6; 1881, 54.1; 1882, 59.3; 1883, 62.8; 1884, 63.3; 1885, 50.3; lh86, 26.7; \%6l, 13.1; 1888, 6.7; 1889, 6.1; 1890, 7.11; 1891, 3V.6.] Red flames, or protuberances, during an eclipse of the sun, ob- served bycapt. Staunyan, 1706; by Halley, 1715; by F. Baily (hence termed " Baily 's beads ") 1842 Warren De la Rue took 2 photographs at the time of total obscuration 18 July, 1850 James Nasmyth discovers the lenticular-shaped objects on the sun (termed by him "willow- leaves," by Stone "rice- grains") 28 Aug. " Mouchot constructed a solar boiler for distillation, etc Oct. " "Solar physics" especially studied by Warren De la Rue, Bal- four Stewart, etc 1865-66 Red flames, or prominences, determined by M. Janssen to be due to the accumulated hydrogen of the photosphere, at the solar eclipse (Eclipsk) 18 Aug. 1868 Mr. Ericsson proposed condensation of the sun's rays and their employment as a motive power Oct. " [Observations in the eclipse of 22 Dec. 1870 and 12 Dec. 1871 suggested an unkqown substance (represented in the spectrum by line 1474) in the sun.] Apparatus for cooking by the condensed solar rays in the Paris exhibition 1878 Solar eclipse well observed in the U. S. ; the corona much brighter than in 1871 29, 30 July, " M. Mouchot at Algiers, by a mirror, collected solar rays, and boiled water, drove an engine, etc Mch. 1880 Intensely red sunsets and after-glow and very red sunrises seen in all parts of the globe Oct. , Nov. and Dec. 1883 Attributed by some to the volcanic dust projected by the erup- tion of Krakatoa, Java Aug. " Other causes such as cosmic dust suggested. Similar sunsets in the autumns of 1884-85 Sun-spots observed from the Royal observatory, Greenwich, with an estimated area of 3,360,000,000 sq. miles on the sun's surface Feb. 1892 774 SUN I I Sunday was the day on which, ancienth', divine ado*. ration was paid to the sun. Among Christians, it is commonly called Dies Dominica, or Lord's day, on account of our Sav» iour's appearance on that day, after his resurrection. Thf first civil law that was issued for the observance of this day combined it with that of the seventh-day Sabbath and othei festivals (Eusebius, " Life of Constantine"); and it was foU lowed by several imperial edicts in favor of this daj'^, which are extant in the body of Roman law, the earliest being that of Constantine the Great, dated 7 Mch. 321. Sabbath, Sabi BATARiANS; Spokts AND Gambs, Week. For Sunday let^ ter, Dominical letter. Council of Orleans prohibited farm laboV on Sunday 63^ Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy in England, from Saturday at 3 in the afternoon to Monday at break of day, 4lh canon, Edgar ^' Act of parliament, levying 1 shilling on every person absent •, from church on Sundays, 3 James 1 IfiQf James I. authorizes certain sports after divine service on Sun- ■£ days (Sports) 1^ Act restraining amusements, 1 Charles 1 169 Act restraining the performance of servile works, and the sale of goods except milk at certain hours and meat in public- houses, and works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture of 5 shillings, 29 Charles II 167(1 Massachusetts prohibits travel, play, or work, from the even- ing preceding Sunday, or any part of that day or evening following 16M Suilday-SCllOOlS. The modern revival of Sunday- schools is generally dated from the establishment at Glouces- ter, Engl., in July, 1780, of a school for the instruction of chil. dren in reading and the elementary truths of religion, held on Sunday, and conducted by paid teachers. This Sunday- school was instituted by Robert Raikes, editor and proprietor of the Gloucester Journal, and through the columns of his weekly paper his effort was made widely known. There are now in the world over 200,000 Sunday-schools, with 2,500,000 teachers, and 18,000,000 scholars. Of these there are in the United States about 110,000 schools, with 1,200,000 teachers^ and 9,000,000 scholars. Schools for Bible study were organ- ized in Upper Egypt, Armenia, and elsewhere, earlj^ in the 4th century. A canon attributed to the 6th general council of Constantinople, 680 a.d., promotes the setting up of charity schools in all country churches. St. Carlo Borromeo left at his death, in 1584, Sunday-schools to the number of 743, which he had established in his cathedral at Milan, and in parish churches near and far. A canon of the Church of England, in 1603, required the teaching of the catechism, etc., to children and ignorant persons by the parson, vicar, or cu- rate every Sunday afternoon. Rev. Joseph Alleine established a Sunday-school at Bath, Engl., in 1665-68. They existed at Roxbury, Mass., 1674, Norwich, Conn., 1676, and Plymouth, Mass., 1680. One was conducted at Newtown, L. I., by rev. Morgan Jones in 1683, and in England by bishop Framptou in 1693. Between 1740 and 1780 the following well-authenticated Sunday-schools were established : Place. Conductor. Established Ephrata, Pa Ludwig HOcker 1740 Bethlehem, Conn Rev. dr. Joseph Bellamy " , Philadelphia, Pa Mrs. Greening 174? Norham, Scotland Rev. Mr. Morrison 1760 Brechin, Scotland Rev. David Blair 1768 Columbia, Conn Rev. Eleazer Wheelock 1764 Bedalc, England Miss Harrison 176$ High Wycombe, Engl Miss Hannah Ball 1760 Doagh, Ireland William Gait 1770 Bright, Ireland Rev. dr. Kennedy 1774 Little Lever, England .James Heys 1776 Mansfield, England Rev. David Simpson 1778 Asbury, England Rev. Thomas Stock about " Dursley, England William King " " Voluntary Sunday school teaching begun in Bolton, Engl 1786 Society for Promoting Sunday schools throughout the iJritish Dominion, organized 7 Sept. " Sunday-school organized at the house of Thomas Crenshaw, Hanover county, V^a. , under direction of bishop Asbury 1786 First-day or Sunday-school Society, for instructing poor chil- dren on Sunday, organized at Philadelphia 11 Jan. 1791 London Sunday-school Union, to promote Sunday-schools hav- ing unpaid teachers, organized 13 July, 1803 Sunday-school in imitation of the Raikes schools in England started in New York city by Mr. and Mrs. Divie Bethune... " American Sunday-school Union organized. 1824 National convention of Sunday-schools in New York city 1832 World's Sunday-school convention in London, Engl 18()2 International lesson plan inaugurated 1873 Foreign Sunday-school Association, organized by Albert Wood- rufl of Brooklyn about 1863, incorporated 1878 SUP '''"^ Supralapsa'rians, a name given to the Gomar- ists or extreme Calvinists, the opposers of the Arminian party at the Synod of Dort, 1618. Their dogma is but a form of fatalism. §lipreill'acy over the church was claimed by pope Gelasius I. as bishop of Rome, 494. On 15 Jan. 1635, Henry VIII., by virtue of the act 26 Hen. VIII. c. 1, formally assumed the style of "on earth supreme head of the church of Eng- land," which has been retained by all succeeding sovereigns. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and the ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) and many others were beheaded for deny- ing the king's supremacy in 1535; and in 1578, John Nelson, a priest, and Thomas Sherwood, a young layman, were exe- cuted at Tyburn for the same offence. The "act of Suprem- acy," repealed by 1 and 2 Phil, and Mary, c. 8 (1554), was re- enacted 1 Eliz. c. 1 (1559). Supreme court of Judicature of England was constituted by the Judicature act, 36 and 37 Vict. c. 66, passed 5 Aug. 1873, to come into operation 1 Nov. 1874. In 1874 this was deferred to 1 Nov. 1875. Existing courts were to be united into one Supreme court, divided into the High court of Justice and the Court of Appeal. The High court to consist of the lord-chancellor, the 2 lord chief-justices, the vice-chancellors, and the other judges (hereafter the court to consist of 21 judges). Five divisions: 1. Chancery; 2. Queen's Bench; 3. Common Pleas; 4. Exchequer; and 5. Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty; subject to alteration. Court of Appeal to consist of 5 esc q^cio judges (viz., lord-chancellor, 2 lord chief-justices, lord chief baron, master of the rolls), and such others as may be appointed {§§ 20, 21, 22). Appeals to the House of Lords cr the judicial committee of the privy council to be discont.unia. Supreme court of Judicature (comprising the High court of Justice, Chancery division, Queen's Bench, Coninion Pleas, and Exchequer subdivisions, Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty division) began 2 Nov. 1875 By the Appellate Jurisdiction act (1876), the House of Lords remains the court of ultimate appeal; to consist of the lord- chancellor. 2 lords of appeal (to be created peers for life, with 6000^. salary), and peers who are lawyers. Act to come into operation 1 Nov. 1876 At a meeting of the judges, it was resolved to recommend the abolition of the Exchequer and Common Pleas, and their consolidation into one. termed the "Queen's Bench divi- sion," under the lord chief-justice of England, 30 Nov.; order in council 16 Dec. 1880 Carried into effect; old d visions at an end; Judicature act carried out for the first time 7 Mch. 1881 Supreme court of the United States. Courts of THK Unitkd States, Justices. surgery (from surgeon =:chirurgeon; Gr. X"|0, the hand, and tpyov, work, operation). The art and practice of curing or alleviating injuries and diseases of the body by manual operations. It stands first among all the professions of sci- ence ; its practice is not founded upon theory, but upon posi- tive knowledge; its success upon the highest intelligence, great dexterity, and coolness under the most trying circum- stances. Until the 13th century the bath-keepers and barbers were almost the only medical faculty and the sole surgeons in Germany. In France the surgeons appear at an earlier pe- riod, as a graded and distinct class, and divided into guilds of inferior and superior surgeons. An association of surgeons, influential in the development of modern surgery, was organ- ized in France by Jean Pitard (1228-1315), which was called the " College de Saint Come." The title of " surgeon " was first recognized by law in England in 1299. These " chirur- geons" or "surgeons" were educated in some institution of learning, and permitted to wear long robes and a peculiar style of hat, which distinguished them from the " barber- surgeons" of earlier date. Field surgeons accompanied the English armies at the beginning of the 15th centur3\ The practice of surgery was forbidden to barbers in France as early as 1425. The barber-surgeons in England were incorporated under the title of " Masters or Governors of the Mystery or Commonalty of Barbers of London," by charter dated 24 Feb. 1461. In 1540 an act was passed, providing " that no person using an\' shaving or barbery in London shall occupy anj' sur- gery, letting of blood or other matter, except only drawing of teeth," and surgeons were by this act prohibited from prac- tising shaving. An act for making the surgeons and barbers of London 2 distinct and separate corporations was passed in 1745, and the same year a charter was given to the College SUR of Surgeons. A new charter was secured in 1800, again in 1843 (when it was styled " Royal College of Surgeons of Eng- land "), in 1852, and 1859. By the aid of anaisthetics. Lister's antiseptic dressings, and Esmarch's bandage, modern surgeons are able to operate in many cases without pain, without sup- puration, and without bleeding. Among surgeons, ancient and modern, who have attained eminence are the following : ANCIENT. Asclepiades of Prusa in Bithynia, 128-56 b.c— Practised tracheoto- my in angina. Archigenes of Apamea, 48-117 a. d.— Described amputation with pre- liminary 1 gation of the main vessels and cauterization of small ones. Leonidcs of Alexandria, fl. about 200 a.d. Antyllus, fl. in 3d century.— First to describe extraction of small cataracts. Philargius. 300-75.— Removed stone by incision from above into the neck of the bladder. Paul of iEgina, about 625-90.— Obstetrician. ITALIAN. I-eonardo Bertapaglia, d. 1460.— Operated for cancer, etc. Alexander Benedetti, d. 1525.— First to mention artificial restora- tion of the nose. Bartolomeo Maggi, 1516-52.— Most important army surgeon of the day. Giacomo Berengario, d. 1550. Cesare Magati, 1579-1647. T Gfuseppe Francesco Borri, 1625-95.— A skilful oculist Antonio Scarpa, 1752-1832. Bartolomeo Signovini, 179J-1844, Padua.— Performed in 1832 the first total extirpation of the lower jaw. Luigi Porta, 1800-75. — Professor in Pavia. Aloisio Vanzetti, b. 1809.— Digital compression of arteries in treat- ment of aneurism. F. Rizzoli, 1809-80. SPANISH. Francesco de An-e, 1493-1573. Bartolomaeus Hidalgo de Aguerro, 1531-97. Andreas Alcazar, fl. about 1575. Antonio de Gimbernat, fl. about 1790.— Anatomist and herniologist. DUTCH. Andreas Vesalius, 1514-64. Cornells van Solingeu, 1641-87. Joh. Jac. Rau, 1668-1719.— Li thotomist. Pieter Camper, 1722-89. Edward San di fort, 1742-1814. Christian Bernard Tilanus, 1790-1883. , Frans C. Bonders, 1818-89.— Ophthalmologist. J. Mczger, b. 1839. GERMAN. Felix Wuertz. 1518-75. Horian Matthis, fl. about 1602.— First to perform gastrotomy. Joh. Leberecht Schmucker, 1712-86.— Surgeon general under Fred- erick II. Joh. Ulrich Bilguer, 1720-96.— Performed first resection of wrist (1762). Carl Caspar von Siebold, 1736-1807.— First in Germany to perform symphyseotomy in 1778. August Gottlieb Richter, 1742-1812.— "The greatest German sur- geon of the 18th century."—./. H. Baas. Georg Jos. Beer, 1763-1821.— Oculist; first drew forth the iris and cut it oft" externally. Vincenz von Kern, 1769-1829. Conrad Johann Martin Laugenbeck, 1776--1851.— Founder of German surgical or topographical anatomy; introduced iridokleisis. Phil. Franz von Walther, 1782-1849.— Founder of surgical clinics at Landshut and Bonn universities. Cajetan von Textor, 1782-1860.— Inaugurator of conservative sur- gery (resection) in Germany. Carl Ferdinand von Graefe, 1787-1840. — Cultivated plastic surgery. Joseph, Baron von Wattmann, 1789-1847. — Operative surgery. Johann Friedrich Dieft'eubach, 1794-1847. — Operative surgery. Georg Friedrich Louis Stromeyer, 1804-76. — Military surgeon; cre- ator of operative orthopaedia. Franz Schuh, 1805-65. — Introduced the microscope in surgery. V. von Bruns, 1812-83. Friedrich Esmarch, b. 1823.— Artificial anaemia. R. F. Wilms, 1824-80. 0. Weber, 1827-80. —Professor in Heidelberg. John Nepomuk von Nussbaum, b. 1829. W. KOnig, b. 1832. C. Hueter, 1837-80. FRENCH. Guyde Chauliac, about 1300.— Successfully removed part of a man's brain. Jean Tagault, d. 1545.— Professor at Padua and Paris. Ambroise Pare, 1509-90.— Introduced ligation of arteries in amputa- tion (1552) and staphyloplasty. Pierre Franco, fl. about 1560— Invented supra-pubic lithotomy. Jacques Baulot, 1651-1714.— Litliotomist. Jean Louis Petit. 1674-1750.— Noted for his screw - tourniquet and amputation k deux temps. Franpois Gigot de la Peyronie, 1678-1747.-1- Wounds of the intestines. Henri Franpois le Dran, 1685-1770.— First disarticulat on of the thigh. Jacques Daviel, 1696-1762.— Introduces extraction of lens of the eye (1750). Antoine Maitre-.Tean, fl. about 1707.— Oculist. Claude Nicolas lo Cat. 1700-68. Fraufois Chopart, 1743-95 — Foot amputation. SUR 776 SUS Pierre Joeeph Oesault, 1744-95 — Established the first surgical clinic in the Hotel DIeu, Paris. Alexis Boyer, 1757-1833. Jean Domiuiquo Ijirroy, 1766-1842. — Invented ambulances volantes. Jacques Malhuriu Dolpoch, 1777-1832.— Cultivator of orthopsedic sur- gery and pionovr or autoplastic surgery iti Fruuco. Guillaumo Dupuytren, 1777-1835.— "The Napoleon of surgery" ; first to malce sulxMiianeous division of muscles and perform resection of the fkcial bouos. Philibert Jos. Roux. 1780-1854. Jacques Lisfhinc, 1790-1847.— First subcutaneous tenotomy of the tendo Achillia Joseph Franfoia Malgaigne, 1806-65.— Noted as a writer on surgery. Augusto Noiaton, 1807-74.— Invented a probe. J. E. l'<5trequin, 1808-76.— Galvano-puucture in aneurisms. Jules Nicolas Domarquay, 1814-75. Jules Rochard, b. 1819. Paul Broca, 1824-80. — Named the so-called " Broca's convolution " in the brain. Jules Pean, b. 1830. — Extirpation of spleen; resection of stomach. J. li. Reverdin, b. 1842.— Skin graaiug on ulcerated surfaces. ENGLISH. Jbliu Ardern, about 1325-1400. —Treated fistula. Thomas Gale, 1607-86.— Army surgeon. John Woodall, fl. about 1613.— Surgeon- general of the East India company. Richard Wiseman, fl. 1603-25.— "The Pride of England." John Greeuneld, fl. about 1677.— Lithotomist. R. Lowdhaui, fl. about 1679.— Said to have been the first among the moderns to practise the flap-method in amputation. William Cheselden, 1688-1752.— Oculist and lithotomist. Alexander Monro, 1697-1767. Samuel Sharp, 1700-78. William Hunter, 1718-83.— Obstetrics. • John Hunter, 1728-93.— First to describe phlebitis. Charles White, fl. about 1768.— Performed first resection of the hu- merus. Sir William Blizard, 1743-1835.— First to tie the superior thyroid ar- tery for relief of goitre. John Bell, 1763-1820. Sir Aslley I'aston Cooper, 1768-1841.— First to tie the abdominal aorta (1817) ; first paracentesis of the membrana tympani (1801). Sir Charles Bell, 1774-1842. John Lezars, 1783-1860.— Extirpation of ovary and operation for chronic hydrocephalus. Sir Beiyamin Collins Brodie, 1783-1862. Sir William Lawrence, 1783-1867. George James Guthrie, 1785-1856.— Military surgeon. Joseph Henry Green, 1791-1863. Frederick Tyrrell, 1797-1843.— Ophthalmic surgeon. Sir Thomas Watson, 1792-1882. Sir Charles Locock, 1799-1875.— Physician— Accoucheur to queen Victoria; attended at each of her accouchements. William Coulson, 1802-77. — Specialist in lithotripsy and lithotomy. Sir William Fergusson, 1808-77.— "System of Practical Surgerv," 1842. John Hutchinson, 1811-61. Thomas Blizard Curling, b. 1811. Jolin Erich Erichsen.— Published "Science and Art of Surgery." Sir James Paget, b. 1814. Sir Henry Thompson, b. 1820.— Lithotomist; performed lithotomy upon the ex-emperor Napoleon III., 1873. Sir Joseph Lister, b. 1827.— Inventor of antiseptic surgery. Sir William MacCormac, b. 1836. AMERICAN. Thomas Bond, 1712-84.— First professor of clinical medicine in U. S. John Jones, 1729-91.— Published the first native surgical work which appeared in the U. S.: "Plain, Precise, Practical Remarks on the Treatment of Wounds and Fractures "; medical attendant to Wash- ington and Franklin; lithotomist. Benjamin Church, 1734-76. William Shippin, jr., 1736-1808. Richard Bayley, 1745-1801.— Lithotomist and oculist. Joiiu Warren, 1753-1815.— Founder of medical department of Har- vard college. Nathan Smith, 1762-1829. Wright Post, 1766-1828. Philip Syng Physick, 1768-1837.— Called by Gross "the father of American surgery." Ephraim McDowell, 1772-1830.— "Father of Ovariotomy." John Collins Warren, 1778-1856.— Administered ether for surgical anaesthesia (1846). Reuben Dimond Mussey, 1780-1866 — Removed entire scapula and clavicle (1837). Amos Twitchell, 1781-1850.— Tied the primitive carotid artery. John Syng Dorsey, 1783-1818.— First American to tie the external iliac artery. William Gibson, 1784-1868. — First to tie the common iliac artery. Valentine Mott, 1785-1865.— First to tie the arteria innominata. Benjamin W. Dudley, 1785-1870.— Lithotomist. Alexander Hodgdon Stevens, 1789-1869. — Eminent clinical teacher. J. Kearney Rodgers, 1793-1857. — Tied the left subclavian artery be- tween the scaleni (1846). George McClellan, 1796-1847.— Founder of Jefferson Medical college. Willard Parker, 1800-84. — "A bold and independent surgeon and popular teacher." John Rea Barton, d. 1871.— Lithotomist. Dixi Crosby, 1801-73.— Removed the entire arm Joseph Pencoast, 1805-82. Samuel D. Gross, 1805-84. John Watson, 1807-62.— First in America to perform cesophneoloinv (1844). . f 6 J- Gurdon Buck, 1807-77. — Introduced extension by strips of adhe.sive plaster and weight and pulley (1851). Thomas Dent Mutter, 1811-59. J. Marion Sims, 18i;i-83. — Gynaecologist. Frank Hastings Hamilton, 1813-86.— Practised skin-grafting (1847) Henry H. Smith, 1815 -90.— Fractures. James RushmoreWood, 1816-82 Removed entire lower jaw {imq- previously performed by Horace A. Ackley, Cleveland, 0. See Italian surgeons above. John Murray Carnochan, 1817-87.— legation of femoral artery (1851); exsection of superior maxillary nerve beyond the ganglion of Meckel (1856). David Hayes Agnew, 1818-92.— Attended president Garfield. Henry J. Bigelow.— Performed first excision of hip-joint in U. S (1852). Lewis A. Sayre, b. 1820.— Orthopedic surgery. Cornelius Rea Agnew, 1830-88.— Ophthalmologist. Henry Berton Sands,1830-88. Hunter McGuire, b. 1835.— Tied the abdominal aorta (1868). Samuel W. Gross, 1837-89. J. H. Knapp, b. Germany, 1832.— Founder of the Ophthalmic and Aural institute. New York city, 1869. Nicholas Senn. — Professor of surgery. Rush Medical college, Chicago. Inventor of method of rectal insuflaation of hydrogen gas in diag- nosis of gastro-intestinal injuries. John Ashurst, jr., professor of clinical surgery, University of Penn- sylvania. William Detmold.— College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York city. Introducer of sub cutaneous tenotomy into the U. S. Medical science. Su'riliam, a colony of Dutch Guiana, South America, discovered by Columbus, 1498. The factories established by the English in 1640 were occupied by -the Portuguese, 1(543; by the Dutch, 1654 ^ taken by the British, 1799, but restored to the Dutch at the peace of Amics, 1802; again occupied by the English from 1804 to 1«1S, when it was returned at tlie peace of Paris, 1815. Area, 46,060 sq. miles; pop. 1889, 55,968. SUrnHlIie (Fr. sumom, from swr, upon, and nom— hat. nomen — a name), the family name or name of the gens, to which is added or given the baptismal or Christian name, as William, John, etc., corresponding to the praenoraen of the Latin. Names were introduced into England by the Nor- mans, and were adopted by the nobility about 1100. The old Normans used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used O, for grandson, O'Neal, O'Donnell. The Scottish Highlanders used Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. The northern nations added the word son to the father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common surnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, etc., were taken by Bra- bantes and other Flemintis, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI., 1435. M. A. Lower's "Dictionary of English '' Surnames" was pub. 1860. iurplice, an outer robe worn by an officiating priest or clergyman in the Episcopal or Roman Catholic church, first worn by the Jewish priests, and said to have been first used in churches in the 4th century, and encouraged by pope Adrian, 786. " Every minister saying public prayers shall wear a ■ comely surplice with sleeves," canon 58. The garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edw. VL 1547; again 1 Eliz. 1558; and 13 and 14 Chas. II. 1662. Ritualism. iSu'sa or ^tlll'fitliail, capital of Susiana, a province of Persia, was taken by Alexander the Great, 331 b.c. »iU§pens3on bridg^e§. Bridges. SUiquehan'lia settlers. The charter of James I., in 1620, to the Plymouth companj'-, covered the territory ex- tending from the Atlantic to the Pacific and lying between 40° and 46° N. lat. Connecticut purchased a part of this ter- ritory of the Plymouth company in 1631, with the boundary the same on the west and 41° lat. on the south. This sale was confirmed by Charles II. in 1662. The grant of Charles II. to Penn extended to 42° north. Thus the Connecticut grant overlapped that of Pennsylvania 1 degree. In 1753 the Sus- quehanna company was formed in Connecticut to explore and settle lands in this territory. In 1754 they purchased of the Six Nations a tract including the Wyoming valley. Con- necticut, 1754. Pennsylvania, while disputing this sale, made no effort to prevent a settlement. In Aug. 1762, 105 settlers came from Connecticut into the Wyoming valley, but, owing to the lateness of the season, soon returned. Coming back early in May, 1763, they settled, but were obliged to re- SUT 777 SWE turn to Connecticut after a loss of 20 by an attack of the Ind- ians in Oct. of the same year. The next attempt of Con- necticut to form a settlement was in Jan. 1769, when 40 settlers arrived in Wyoming. Pennsylvania now determined to de- fend her territory, and arrested these settlers in Oct. What might be termed a civil war (the Pennymite and Yankee war) followed for the next 6 years, with varied success and with the loss of a number of lives. The Connecticut settlers, however, reinforced from time to time, persisted, and organized art inde- pendent government by town meetings, as in Connecticut. In 1774 they united 7 towns into one, Westmoreland, and attached it to Litchfield county. Conn. This desultory strife contin- ued with loss of life and much suffering until the struggle was suspended by the war of the Revolution. These were the settlers that were killed and scattered in the fearful Wyoming massacre by the Tories and Indians in 1778. In 1779 and 1780 they again returned and occupied the valley. In the mean- while the titles of the Penns had passed to the state, and al- though the struggle was kept up after the Revolution, negotia- tions were more direct. Pennsylvania finally confirmed the title of the Connecticut settlers on their payment of a nominal sum for their land, and compensated the Pennsylvania claim- ants with other lands and with money. iUltee', the self-burning of widows. This custom began in India from one of the wives of " Brahma, the Son of God," sacrificing herself at his death, that she might attend him in heaven. 17 widows have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone 700 have thus perished in a year. The English government, after long discouraging suttees, formally abolished them, Dec. 1829; but they have since occasionally taken place. The wife of the son of the rajah of Beygoon thus perished, June, 1864, and several wives of sir Jung Bahadoor, minister of Nepaul, 1 Mch. 1877. Sut- tees still occur; one voluntary at Poona, Nov. 1890. ISvra'bia, a province in S. Germany, was conquered by Clovis, and incorporated into the kingdom of the Franks, 496. After various changes of rulers, it was made a duchy by the emperor Conrad I., in 912, for Erchanger; according to some, in 916, for Burckhardt. The duchy became hereditary in the house of Hohenstaufen in 1080. Duke Frederick III. became emperor of Germ amy as Frederick I. (usually styled Barba- rossa, " red beard "), in 1152. Conradin, his descendant, was defeated at the battle of Tagliacozzo, in 1268, and beheaded shortly after. The breaking-up of the duchy gave rise to many of the small German states ; part of Swabia is included in Wurtemberg and Switzerland. Swabia was made a circle of the empire in 1387 and 1500. A league composed of Swa- bian cities and provinces, about 1254, was the germ of the great Swabian league, formed for the preservation of the peace of Germany, under the auspices of the emperor Frederick, in 1488. Sll^ailip-ang°el, name given by the Federal soldiers to a 200-pound Parrott gun, mounted with great difficulty in a redoubt built in a morass between Morris and James islands, near Charleston, S. C, 1863, by gen. Gillmore, for the purpose of bombarding that city. It threw 150-lb. shells into the city, a distance of 5 miles. The gun burst at the 36th discharge. ^wamp fight, The Great. Massachusetts, 1675. Swanzey, Mass., Indian attack on. Massachusetts, 1675. Swaz'iland, S. Africa, a tract of about 8000 sq. miles, nearly surrounded by the Transvaal territory. Pop. 1889, about 60,000 natives and 600 whites. Swe'atoorg, a strong fortress in Finland, the Gibraltar of the north, 3J miles south of Helsingfors ; it is situated on 7 rocky islands; the fortifications were commenced by the Swedes in 1748, and completed after Finland was united to Russia in 1809. On 6 Aug. 1855, the English and French fleet anchored off Sweaborg, and bombarded it by mortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the Uth, causing the destruction of nearly all the principal buildings, including the dock-yard and arsenal. Few casualties and no loss of life ensued in the allied squadron, but this success was not followed up. swearing on- the (iospels, first used about 528, and in- troduced injudicial proceedings about 600. — Rapin. §Mreating-Siclines§. Plague. 25* Sive'den, a country of N. Europe. The ancient inhab- itants were Finns, now the people of Finland, who retired thither on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been masters of Sweden. Scandinavia. The inter- nal state of this kingdom was little known previous to the 11th century. By the union of Calmar, in 1397, Sweden became a province of Denmark, and was not wholly rescued from this subjection till 1521, when Gustavus Vasa recovered the king- dom from the Danish yoke. He became king in 1523, and his descendants ruled till 1809. Norway ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, 14 Jan. 1814. The government of Sweden is a limited monarchy. The diet consists of 4 orders, the nobles, the clergy, the burghers, and the peasants, and meets every 3 years. The king is, as in Great Britain, the head of the executive. There are 2 universities, Upsal and Lund; and Sweden can boast among its great men Linnasus, Celsius, Scheele, Bergman, Berzelius,Thorwaldsen, Andersen, and Swe- denborg. Area, 170,979 sq. miles ; pop. 1880, 4,518,901 ; 1890, 4,784,675. Odin said to have arrived in the north and to have died 70 His son Slciold reigns 40 Skioldungs reign till Olaf the infant is baptized, and introduces a.d. Christianity among his people about 1000 Waldemar 1. of Denmark subdues Rugen, and destroys the pa- gan temples 1168 Stockholm founded 1260 Magnus Ladulaes establishes a regular government 1279 Crown, hitherto hereditarj^, is made elective; Steenchel Mag- nus, surnamed Smaek, or the foolish, king of Norway, is elected 1319 Waldemar lays Gothland waste -. 1361 Albert of Mecklenburg reigns 1363 Treaty or union of Calmar, by which Sweden is united to Denmark and Norway, under Margaret 1397 University of Upsal founded 1476 Christian II. of Denmark, " the Nero of the North," massacres the Swedish nobility 1520 Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by the valor of Gus- tavus Vasa 1521 Gustavus Vasa raised to the throne 1523 He introduces Lutheranism and religious liberty 1527 Makes the crown hereditary 1544 Gustavus Adolphus heads the Protestant cause in Germany.. . 1628 He takes Magdeburg and Munich, 1630 ; slain at Lutzen, 16 Nov. 1632 Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark 1648 Abdication of Christina 16 June, 1654 Charles X. overruns Poland 1655 Arts and sciences begin to flourish 1660 University of Lund founded 1666 Charles XII., "the Madman of the North," begins his reign; makes himself absolute; abolishes the senate, 1699; defeats the Russians at Narva 30 Nov. 1700 Battle of Pultowa; Charles defeated by czar of Russia, 8 July, 1709 He escapes to Bender, where, after 3 years' protection, he is made a prisoner by tlie Turks 1713 He is restored, and after numerous battles is killed at the siege of Frederickshald 11 Dec. 1718 Queen Ulrica abolishes despotism 1719 Bremen and Verden ceded to Hanover Nov. " Royal Academy founded by Linnaeus 1741 Conspiracy of counts of Brahe and Home, who are beheaded. . 1756 Hats and Caps (French and Russian parties), 1738-67, put down by Gustavus III 1770 Despotism re-established 1772 Order of the Sword instituted " Assassination of Gustavus III. by count AnkerstrOm at a ball, 16 Mch. ; he expires 29 Mch. 1792 Regicide scourged with whips of iron thongs 3 successive days; his right hand cut off, then his head, and his body impaled 18 May, " Gustavus IV. dethroned; governuient assumed by his uncle, duke of Sudermania (Charles XIIL ) 13 Mch. 1809 Representative constitution established 7 June, " Sweden cedes Finland to Russia 17 Sept. " Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo (one of Bonaparte's mar- shals), chosen crown-prince of Sweden 21 Aug. 1810 Gustavus IV. arrives in London 12 Nov. " Swedish Pomerania seized by Napoleon 9 Jan. 1812 Alliance with England 12 July, " Sweden joins the grand alliance against Napoleon 13 Mch. 1813 Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, 14 Jan. ; car- ried into effect Nov. 1814 Bernadotte king, as Charles John XIV 5 Feb. 1818 Canals and roads constructed 1822 Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and Sweden, 19 May, 1826 Death of Charles John ; his son Oscar I. king 8 Mch. 1844 Alliance with England and France 21 Nov. 1855 Banishment decreed against Catholic converts from Lutheran- ism Oct. 1857 Demonstration in favor of Italy 17 Dec. 1859 Increased religious toleration May, 1860 Demonstration in favor of Poland Apr. 1863 Inauguration of free-trade 1 Jan. 1864 Sweden protests against the occupation of Schleswig by the allies , 22 Jan. " SWE 778 SWI Foundation of n ''National Scandinavian Society" at Stock- holm to obUtiii by legal means a conftHlenition of tho 3 king- doms for military and Toreigu afl'airs, reserving independent interior administration Dec. 1864 New constitution passed by the chambers 4-8 Dec. " Severe famiiio in N. Sweden Oct -Dec. 1867 Princess Louisa married to Frederick, crown prince of Sweden, 2s.luly, 1869 Neutrality in Fninco- Prussian war proclaimed 4 Aug. 1870 Queen d....T 13 Mch. 1871 Death of king Charles XV 18 Sept. 1872 Diet opened by king Oscar II 20 Jan. 1873 King and queen crowned 12 May, "' Crown-prince made viceroy of Norway 19 Mch. 1884 Prince Oscar marries miss Muuck at Bournemouth, Engl., 15 Mch. 1888 Norway agitates for autonomy in foreign affairs; opposed by Sweden Feb. 1892 KINGS OF SWKDKN (previously kings of Upsal). 1001. Olaf Schotkonuug, or Olif Schoetkouuug, the Infant, is styled kin}i, 1015. 1026. Edmund Colbrenner. 1051. Edmund Slemme. 1056. Stenkill. 1066. Hiilslan. 1090. Ingo I, the Good. 1112. Philip. 1118. Ingo II. 1129. Swerker, or Suercher I. 1155. St. Erie IX. 1161. Charles VII. ; made prisoner by his successor. 1167. Canute, son of Eric 1. 111>9. Swerker, or Suercher II. ; killed in battle. 1210. EricX. 1216. John I. 1222. Eric XL, the Stammerer. 1250. Birger Jarl, regent. " Waldemar I 1275. Magnus I., Ladulaes. 1290. Birger 11. 1319. Maguus II., Smaek; dethroned. 1350. Eric XII. 1359. Maguus restored ; deposed 1363. 1363. Albert of Mecklenburg; his tyranny causes a revolt of his subjects, who invite Margaret of Denmark to the throne. 1389. Margaret, queen of Sweden and Norway, now also of Den- mark, and Eric XIIL 1397. [Union of Calmar, by which the 3 kingdoms are united under one sovereign.] 1412. Eric XIIL governs alone; deposed. 1440. Christopher IIL 1448. Charles VIIL Canuteson, king of Sweden only. 1471. [Interregnum.] Sten Sture, protector. 1483. John IL (I. of Denmark). 1502. [Interregnum.] 1503. Swante Sture, protector. 1512. Sten Sture, protector. 1520. Christiem, or Christian IL, of Denmark, styled the "Nero of the North"; deposed for his cruelties. 1523. Gustavus I., Vasa; by whose valor the Swedes are delivered from the Danish yoke. 1560. Eric XIV., son; dethroned and slain by 1569. John IIL, brother. 1592. Sigismund IIL, king of Poland, son; disputes for the succes- sion continued the whole of this reign. 1604. Charles IX., brother of John IIL 1611. Gustavus XL, Adolphus the Great, son; falls at the battle of Lutzen, 16 Nov. 1632. 1632. [Interregnum.] 1633. Christina, daughter of Gustavus. Resigns the crown to her cousin, 16 June, 1654; d. at Rome in 1689. 1654. Charles X., Gustavus, son of John Casimir, count palatine of the Rhine. 1660. Charles XL, son; the arts and sciences flourish in this reign. 1697. Charles XII., son; styled the "Alexander," and the "Mad- man of the North"; killed at Frederickshald, 11 Dec. 1718. 1718. Ulrica Eleanora, sister, and her consort, Frederick I. , landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. Ulrica relinquishes the crown, and in 1741. Frederick reigns alone. 1751. Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, descended from the family of Vasa. 1771. Gustavus IIL, Adolphus, son; assassinated by count Anker- strOm at a masked ball, 16 Mch. ; d. 29 Mch. 1792. 1792. Gustavus IV., Adolphus, son; dethroned, and the government assumed by his uncle, the duke of Sudermania. 1809. Charles XIIL duke of Sudermania. [Treaty of Kiel (1814). by which Norway falls under the sovereignty of Sweden.] 1818. Charles (John) XIV., Bernadotte, the French prince of Ponte Corvo; d. 8 Mch. 1844. 1844. Oscar L, son; b. 4 July, 1799; d. 8 July, 1859. 1859. Charles XV., son; b. 3 May, 1826; d. 18 Sept. 1872; a poet; brave and impulsive; much beloved. 1872. Oscar II. , brother; b. 21 Jan. 1829; marries princess Sophia of Nassau, 6 June, 1857. Heir: Gustavus, son, b. 16 June, 1858; married to Victoria of Baden, 20 Sept. 1881. Sive'denborgr. Philosophy. Siwedenbor'gians, or New Jerusalena Church, are those who adopt the theological teachings of Emanuel Sweden- borg (b. at Stockholm, 29 Jan. 1688 ; d. in London, 29 Mch. 1772). His disciples first meet as an organized body in London in 1788. They believe that the sole deity is centred in Jesus Christ, in whom is a trinity of essentials; that salvation is effected by faith and i works coMibined; that, as man's soul is a spiritual body, he will never resume the material body; that the Last Judgment was eflfected in tho spiritual world during Swedenborg's lifetime; and that the Lord's Second Coming has taken place through the rev- elation of a new system of truth from the inner sense of Scripture. Swedenborg Society instituted, 1810. ' Missionary and Tract Society of the Now Church, 1821. This church, according to the U. S. census returns for 1890, num- bers 154 organizations with 7095 members. . §iviinilling^. Leander is said to have swum nightly I across the Hellespont from Abydos to Sestos, about 1 mile, to 1 meet Hero ; and lord Byron and lieut. Ekenhead did the same, 3 May, 1810. " Across the Hellespont's wide weary space, Wherein he nightly struggled with the tide." — Hood, " Hero and Leander," stanza cxxiii. Side -stroke in swimming said to have been introduced by George Pewters about 1850 Over-hand stroke first used by Harry Gardner at Manchester, Engl 1862 Capt. Matthew Webb swims from Blackwall to Gravesend, 20 miles, in 4 hrs. 53 min., 3 July; and from Dover to Calais, 35 miles, in 21 hrs. 45 min 24-25 Aug. 1875 Agnes Beckwith, aged 14, swims from London bridge to Green- wich, 5 miles, in 1 h. 8 min 1 Sept. " Emily Parker, aged 15, swims from London bridge to Black- wall, 7 miles, in 1 h. 35 min 4 Sept. " Paul Boyton swims the strait of Gibraltar from Caripa to Tangier in 5 hrs. 5 min 20 Mch. 1878 Capt. Matthew Webb swims from Gravesend to Woolwich and back to Rosherville, 40 miles, in 9 hrs. 57 min., Thames,Engl., 12 .July, " Miss Beckwith swims 20 miles in the Thames in 6 hrs. 25 min., 17 July, " Capt. Webb swims from Sandy Hook to Manhattan beach. Coney Island 13 Aug. 1879 Miss lieckwith swims 30 continuous hours 7-8 May, 1880 Capt. Webb drowned in attempting to swim through the whirl- pool at Niagara falls 24 July, 1883 J. J. Collier swims 1 mile in Hollingworth lake, Engl., in 28 min. 19»^ sec 23 Aug. 1884 William J. Kendall, wearing a cork jacket, swims through the Whirlpool rapids, Niagara falls 22 Aug. 1886 Miss Edith Johnson swims from Bath to Antwerp, 16 miles, in 5 hrs. 25 min., without resting 29 Aug, " Eugene Mercedier swims across the East river from the Navy- yard, Brooklyn, to Old Slip, New York, with arms and legs bound and carrying a 2 lb. dumb bell in each hand. .22 June, 1890 Davis Dalton (Hahn) alleged to have swum on his back across the English channel from Boulogne to Folkestone, accom- panied by a life-boat 17-18 Aug. " J. Nuttall swims 1000 yards in 13 min. 54)^ sec. — best on rec- ord—at Lambeth's baths, London 16 Oct. " For Paul Boyton, Lifk-boat. S Wi§§ guard§, bodies of hired Swiss troops formerly employed in many European countries as bodj'-guards to the rulers. In France formed in 1616 as the Royal Swiss guards; massacred while defending the Tuileries, 10 Aug. 1792. Be- fore the attack they numbered about 800 (not all, however, at the Tuileries at the time), under an able commander, Mandat; but he was murdered on the steps of the Hotel de Ville, where he had been called, just before the attack, to receive his orders, thus leaving them without a leader and without orders. How many were killed in the attack was never known. Many were killed afterwards in prison in the September massacres. Reorganized Sept. 1815; defeated during the insurrection, 28 July, 1830; dismissed by Charles X., Aug. 1830. Switllill'§ Day, St., 15 July. St. Swithin lived in the 9th century, and, having been the preceptor to king Ethel- wuir, was made bishop of Winchester in 852, and died 2 July, 862. The tradition states that it rained 40 days in conse- quence of the proposed removal of his remains from the church- yard to the cathedral. Switzerland, the ancient Helvetia, a federal republic of S. Europe, was conquered by the Romans, 15 B.C., and was successively subject to the Burgundians, Germans, and Franks. The canton of Schweitz was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habitation in Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius, and fled into Helvetia about 100 b.c. This canton has given name to the whole confederacy. The Swiss confederation was founded, 1 Jan. 1308, by the 3 cantons of Uri, Schwyz or Schweitz, and SWI 779 SWO Unterwald. In 1353 it numbered 8 cantons, and in 1513, 13 cantons. This old confederation of 13 cantons was increased by the adherence of several subject territories, and existed till 1798, when it was replaced by the Helvetic republic, which lasted 4 years. In 1803 Napoleon I. organized a new confed- eration, composed of 19 cantons. This confederation was mod- ified in 1815, when the number of cantons was increased to 22. The position of Switzerland in the history of the world is unique. It is the oldest republic on record, and has existed as such surrounded by forms of government entirely different. It has maintained its position not by extent of territory, pop- ulation, or military power, but by the jealousy of the nations surrounding it. The present constitution came into force on 29 Mav, 1874. Area, 15,976 sq. miles; pop. 1860, 2,507,170; 1870, 2,669,147 ; 1880, 2,831,787 ; 1890, 2,933,612. The pres- ent national council is elected every 3d year, at the rate of 1 member for every 2000 persons. LIST OF CANTONS AND NUMBER OF KEPRESENTATIVES TO THE " NATIONALRATH " FROM EACH. Cantons. Representatives. Neufchatel 5 Geneva 5 Cantons. Representatives Berue 27 Zurich 17 Waadt (Pays de Vaud) 12 Aargau 10 St. Gall 11 Lucerne 7 Tlcino 6 Fribourg 6 Basel 7 Grisons 5 Wallis (Valais) 5 Thurgau 5 Helvetians invading Gaul severely defeated by Julius Caesar Solothurn 4 Appenzell * Glarus 2 Schaffhausen 2 Schweitz or Schwyz 3 Un terwalden 2 Uri 1 Zug 1 Total. ,147 B.C. 58 A.D. 612 1032 1179 1191 Helvetians converted to Christianity by Irish missionaries Helvetia ravaged by the Huns Becomes subject to Germany Fribourg built by Berthold IV Berne built • • Men of Uri, Unterwalden, and Schwyz make a solemn league and covenant forever against the Austrians; this is regarded as the foundation of the Swiss confederation 1 Aug. 1291 Tyranny of Gessler, heroism of William Tell, and revolt (dem- onstrated to be mythical), dated 1306 Confederation against Austria; declaration of Swiss indepen- dence confirmed by the leaders, Werner Stauffacher (of Schweitz), Walter Furst (Uri), and Arnold von Melchthal (Un- terwalden), determined to free their country 4 Nov. 1307 A malignant fever carries off, in the canton of Basel, 1100 per- sons • 13U Form of government made perpetual 1315 Leopold of Austria defeated at Morgarten, 15 Nov " Lucerne joins the confederacy 1335 Canton of Zurich joins and becomes head of the league 1350 Berne, Glarus, and Zug join 1351 Eight cantons form a perpetual league 1352 Leopold II. of Austria defeated and slain at Sempach (the Swiss led by Arnold von Winckelried, who loses his life in a desperate assault on the Austrian spearmen) 9 July, 1386 Austrians defeated at Nafels, 9 Apr. 1388; make peace 1389 Grisons league (Caddee) 1400 Second league of the Grisons 1424 Third league of the Grisons 1436 Battle of St. Jacobs on the B rs, near Basel (1600 Swiss resist 30,000 French, and are all killed, the enemy losing 10,000), ' 26 Aug. 1444 Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at Granson, 5 Mch. ; and at Morat 22 June, 1476 And aid the duke of Lorraine at Nancy, where Charles is slain 5 Jan. 1477 Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, under Louis XI. 1480 Fribourg and Solothurn join confederation 1481 Maximilian I., emperor, acknowledges Swiss independence 1499 Schaffhausen and Basel join the union 1501 Appenzell joins the confederation (the 13th) 1513 Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French at Novara. ..6 June, " Defeated bv them at Mariguano 13. 14 Sept. 1515 Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France and other pow- ers 1516 Reformation begins at Basel; the bishop compelled to retire. . 1519 Eeformation adopted by some cantons; battle of Cappel, Zwin- gli killed and reformers defeated 12 Oct 1531 Grisons leagues join the Swiss confederacy as allies 1544 Appenzell joins the other cantons 1597 Charles Emanuel of Savoy enters Geneva by surprise, scaling the walls, but in the end is defeated 1602 [An annual festival commemorates this escape.] Independence of Switzerland recognized by the treaty of West- phalia 1648 Peace of Aargau, end of religious war Aug. 1712 [From this period until the French revolution the cantons enjoyed tranquillity, disturbed only by the changes arising out of their various constitutions.] I Alliance with France 25 May, 1777 Strife in Geneva between the aristocratic and democratic par- ties ; France interferes 1781 One thousand fugitive Genevese seek an asylum in Ireland (Geneva) 1782 Swiss GUARDS ordered to quit France 1792 Helvetic confederation dissolved; its subjugation by France.. 1798 Helvetic republic formed " Switzerland the seat of war 1799-1802 Number of cantons increased to 19, by the addition of Aargau, Graubvinden (Grisons), St. Gall, Thurgau, Tessin, and Waadt (Vaud) ; the federal government restored, and a landamman appointed by France 1803 Uri, Schweitz, and Unterwalden separate from the republic. . . " Switzerland joins France with 6000 men 24 Aug. 1811 Allies enter Switzerland in the spring of 1814 Number of cantons increased to 22, by the addition of Geneva, Neufchatel, Wallis (Valais), and the independence of Switzer- land secured by the treaty of Vienna 1816 A colossal lion carved out of the solid rock at Lucerne after a model by Thorwaldsen, in honor of the Swiss guard who fell in defence of the Tuileries, Paris, 10 Aug. 1792; dedicated. . . 1821 Revision of the constitution of the cantons 1830 Law to make education independent of the clergy 1839 It leads to dissensions between Catholics and Protestants. ...1840-44 Dispute about the convents of Aargau, 1844; to put education into the hands of the Jesuits, etc. ; opposition of the Protes- tant cantons 1846 Lucerne, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Fribourg, Zug, and Valais (Roman Catholic cantons) form a separate league (Sonder- bund) to support education by the Jesuits, etc " Insurrection at Geneva against Jesuit teaching; a temporary provisional government established 7 Oct. " Diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and dissolves it, 20 July; 7 cantons protest, 22 JulV; diet orders the expulsion of the Jesuits, 3 Sept. ; communal assemblies held to resist it, 26 Sept., 3, 10 Oct. ; appeal to arms 21 Oct. 1847 Diet prepares to repress the Sonderbund, 4 Nov. ; Fribourg sur- renders, 14 Nov. ; civil war; Sonderbund defeated by gen. H. Dufour, near Lucerne, 23 Nov. ; end of the Sonderbund; it submits to expulsion of Jesuits, and secularization of monas- t i c property 29 Nov. '* New federal constitution 12 Sept. 1848 Dispute about Neufchatel 1857 Declaration of neutrality in the Italian war 14 Mch. 1869 Mutiny and punishment of Swiss mercenary troops at Naples; confederation forbids foreign enlistment July and Aug. '< Swiss government protests against annexation of Savoy to France 15 Mch. I860 One hundred and fifty Swiss attempt to enter Savoy; stopped by Genevese government 30 Mch. " M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtains a prize at the national shooting- match at Wimbledon July, " Government forbids the Swiss to enlist in foreign service with- out permission 30 July, " French troops occupy Valine des Dappes, 28 Oct. ; Swiss an- nounce the violation of their territory 5 Nov. 1861 Treaty of France settles question of the Valine des Dappes by mutual cessions; no military works to be constructed on territory ceded; signed 8 Dec. 1862 Revision of the constitution ; deliberations begin 23 Oct. 1865 Nearly all the revised articles of the federal constitution re- jected by the vote of the Swiss burgesses 14 Jan. 1866 International peace and liberty congress at Geneva, 9-12 Sept. 1867 ; at Berne 22-26 Sept. 1868 Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war proclaimed July, " New constitution adopted by Zurich 18 Apr. 1869 French army under Clinchant (84,000) crosses the frontiers and is disarmed 1 J'eb. 1871 Extraordinary session of the federal assembly to revise the constitution 6 Nov. " Plebiscite, a new constitution, reorganizing the army, and pro- moting uniform education, etc., rejected by a majority of 4967 out of 509,921 12 May, 1872 M. Favre engaged to construct a tunnel through St. Gothard in 8 years, for 2,000,000^ 8 Aug. " Revised federal constitution voted (321,870 for, 177,800 against), 19 Apr. 1874 Swiss national Catholic church constituted about June, " Nineteen Catholic priests deprived for refusal to take constitu- tional oath 5 Sept. " International postal congress at Berne, 15 Sept. ; protocol signed 9 Oct. " Civil. marriage law and registration adopted by universal suf- frage (212,854-204,700) 23 May, 1876 President of the national council for 3 years, J. Philippin, elected 6 June. 1877 Death of James Fazy, eminent statesman 6 Nov. 1878 National voting for St. Gothard railway and tunnel (161,000 majority)..... 19 Jan. 1879 Opening of St. Gothard's railway from Milan to Lucerne, 20-21 May, 1882 Invasion of the Salvation army 1883-84 Great powers protest against the asylum given to political criminals by the republic June, 1889 Six hundredth anniversary of the founding of the Swiss con- federation celebrated in the province of Schwytz. . .1-2 Aug. 1891 SVirord§. The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broadsword and scimitar are of modern adoption. Damascus steel swords were most prized ; the next the sword SYB 780 SYR of Ferrara ateeh Toledo sword-blades have been famed since the 15th century. " The trenchant blade, Toledo trusty, Fur want of fighting was grown rusty." —Butler, "Hudibras." The Scotch Highlanders, from the artificer Andrea di Ferrara, called their swords A tidrew Ferraras. The large sword shown at Dumbarton castle as Wallace's is asserted to be one of Ed- ward IV.'s. The broadsword was forbidden to be worn in Edin- burgh in 1724. The 2 most famous swords of romance were the sword "Excalibur," wrought for king Arthur "by the lonely maiden of the lake," and " Durandal," borne by Orlando or Roland, famed knight of the court of Charlemagne. Syb'aris, a Greek colony in S. Italy, founded about 720 B.C. ; destroyed by the Crotonians about 610 b.c. The people were greatly addicted to luxury, hence the term Sybarite. Sydney, capital of New South Wales ; founded by gov. Philip on a cove on Port Jackson, 26 Jan. 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally intended for Botany Bay. It was named after lord Sydney, secretary for the colonies. Pop. 1891, including suburbs, 386,400. Legislative council first held 13 July, 1829 Lit with gas ; the first place so lit in Australia May, 1841 University founded 1852 Duke of Edinburgh at Port Jackson narrowly escapes assassi- nation; O'Farrell, a Fenian, who shot him in the back on 12 Mch., is convicted on 31 Mch., and executed 21 Apr. 1868 J. B. Watson, termed the Australian "Quartz Reef king," dies at Sydney ; said to have left 30,000,000^., the result of gold- digging, railroad and other speculations 12 July, 1889 Syllabu§ of Errors in modem times, 80 para- graphs divided into 10 chapters, issued by pope Pius IX., with an encyclical letter, 8 Dec. 1864. It condemned heresy, mod- ern philosophj', and liberalism in politics ; was forbidden to be read in French churches, and was generally opposed, but was adopted by the council at Rome, 1870. Syinine§'§ theory. The theory or fancy that the earth is hollow and inhabited within was held with persist- ence by John Cleves Symmes (1779-1829), who claimed to be- lieve that the earth was open at the poles for the admission of light and air, and contained within it other concentric hol- low globes, all inhabited in like manner. His belief in this theory was so strong, notwithstanding the general ridicule bestowed upon " Symraes's hole " — as it was popularly called — that he both wrote and lectured on the subject, and a petition was finally presented to Congress (1823), asking that an expe- dition be fitted out to investigate. Ohio, United States. §yill'phoilies, short pieces of instrumental music be- tween songs in operas, early in the 17th century. These were gradually developed by the great masters, such as Lulli, into independent pieces ; the symphonies of Corelli, Handel, Mo- zart, Haydn, and Beethoven are eminent examples. symptlO'llion, an improved form of the musical-box, performing many more tunes, invented by Ellis Parr, 1887. syn'agOg^ue (literally an assembly), a congregation of the Jews, and the place where such assembly is held for re- ligious purposes. When these meetings were first held is un- certain; some refer them to the times after the Babylonian captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. A magnificent synagogue was consecrated at Berlin, 5 Sept. 1866. Jews. §yn'les, the Two, of the law in stone alleged to have been received by Moses from God on mount Sinai, 1491 b.c. Decemviri. Ta'toor, a city in Bohemia, was founded by Ziska in 1420, and became a chief seat of the Hussites. — A small mountain in Palestine, the headquarters of Barak prior to his victory over Sisera (Judges iv. 14), and he supposed scene of the " Transfiguration." Tadnior. Palmyra. Tae-PillgS. China, 1851. taf Tety, an early manufacture ot silk, more prized for- merly than now, w^oven very smooth and glossy. It was worn by English queens, and was first made in England by John Tyce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Eliz. 1598.— -S'tow. Tag^liaeozzo {tal-ya-cot'so), a town in the Abruzzi mountains, S. Italy, where, on 23 Aug. 1268, Charles of Anjou, usurping king of Naples, defeated and captured the rightful monarch, young Conradin (last of the Hohenstaufens, and grandson of emperor Frederick II.), who had been invited into Italy by the Ghibelline or imperial party ; their opponents, the Guelfs, or papal party, supporting Charles. Conradin was beheaded 29 Oct. following. Tag^liamentO {tal-ya-men'to), a river in Lombardy, N. Italy, near which the Austrians, under the archduke Charles, were defeated by Bonaparte, 16 Mch. 1797. Taheritei^, a dynasty of Persia, 813-72. Tahiti (ta-hee'tee), the French abbreviated name for Otaheite. TaillebOUrg[ (fai-ye-boorg'), a village of W. France. Near here Henry III. of England was defeated and nearly captured by Louis IX. of France, 20 July, 1242. Talave'ra de la Reyna, a city of central Spain, was taken from the Mahometans by Ordono, king of Leon, 913. Here, 27, 28 July, 1809, the united British and Spanish armies under sir Arthur Wellesley met the French under marshals Vic- tor and Sebastiani. After a conflict on the 27th, both armies re- mained on the field till the French at break of day renewed the attack, and were repulsed by the allies with great slaughter. At noon Victor charged the whole allied line, was repulsed at all points, and retreated with a heavy loss. As Soult, Ney, and Mortier were in the rear, the allies retired after the victory. Tallade'ga, Battle at, near the Coosa river, in Ala- bama, between more than 2000 Americans, under gen. Jack- son, and 1000 Creek Indians, on 9 Nov. 1813. The Indians left 290 dead on the field, and perhaps as many were wound- ed. The Americans lost 15 killed and 86 wounded. Tallusahat'cliee, Battle at, near the Coosa river, Alabama, between the Creek Indians and 900 mounted men, under gen. Coffee, on 3 Nov. 1813. The Indians lost 200 killed and 84 prisoners. The Americans lost 5 killed and 41 wounded. Tal'mud (from lamad, to teach), the compendium of ancient Jewish oral or unwritten law, as distinguished from the Pentateuch, or written law ; its origin is coeval with the return from the Babylonian captivity, 536 b.c. Its compila- tion in Hebrew was begun by the Scribes, and by their suc- cessors the work was carried on till 220 b,c. It is composed in prose and poetry, and contains 2 elements, legal and legen- dary. The morality resembles that of the New Testament, and the philosophy is. rather Platonic than Aristotelian. TheMishna, comprising the work of the rabbis, termed Thanalm, was compiled by Jehuda Hanassi, in the middle of the 2d century a.d., and forms the Jerusalem Talmud, written at Tiberias, in Palestine, about 230. The Babylonian Talmud containsalso the Gemera or Ghe- mara, the work of the rabbis termed Amoraim, and criticisms and comments on the Mishna. The part named Halacha is dogmatic, le- gal, and doctrinal; the>l5'a6a is illustrative,narrative, and legendary. After being almost universally condemned, and the MSS. often burned, the defence of the Talmud was undertaken by the Ger- TAM 782 TAR ...^ Reuchlin, in the Ifith century, and between 1520 and 163Sthe " Talmud Babjionicum," in 12 vols, fol, and the "Talmud Hlerosolytanura, " in 1 vol. fol. , were printed at Venice. A discourse on the Talmud was given at the Royal Institution, 15 May, 1868, by Emanuel Deutach. See hisarticle in the Quarterly Review, Oct. 1867. A beginning of the first English translation of the Jerusalem Tal- mud (vol. 1.) by dr. Moiso Schwab appeared in 1885. TBIIIIIlBliy Society. This society was formed in 1789, chiefly through the efforts of William Mooney, an up- holsterer in New York city, its first grand sachem, to oppose the Federalists. It has ever since been an important political body, largely controlling for many years the local government, and in state and national politics professing to adhere to the Democratic party. The name Tammany is said by tradition to have been taken from an aged, wise, and friendly Delaware chief, chosen for his virtues as the patron saint of the new re- public. The first meeting was held 12 May, 1789. Act of incorporation passed 1805. The grand sachem and the 13 sa- chems represent the president of the U. S. and the 13 original governors. Although nominally a charitable and social or- ganization, it is practically a combination to control the reve- nues and government of New York city, and has long been as- sociated with every form of municipal jobbery and corruption. In Nov. 1894, for the first time in more than 20 years, it lost its control of the city by the triumphant election of a reform ticket. Tan'Bf^ra, a ruined city of Boeotia, Greece. Here the Spartans defeated the Athenians 457 b.c., but were defeated by them in 456 and 426, when Agis II. headed the Spartans and Nicias the Athenians. Tangier (tan-jeer'), a seaport town of Morocco, N. W. Af- rica, besieged by prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who was beaten and taken prisoner, 1437. It was conquered by Alfonso V. of Portugal, 1471, and given as a dower to princess Catherine, on her marriage with Charles II. of England, 1662; who in 1683 caused the works to be blown up and abandoned. It rapidly declined after coming into the possession of the Moors. Pop. 14,000. tan'iitry, in Ireland, the equal division of lands, after the decease of the owner, among his sons, legitimate or illegitimate. If one of the sons died, his son did not inherit, but a new divi- sion was made by the tanist or chief. Abolished 1604. — Davies. Tanjore', a province of British India. About 1678, Vencajee, a Mahratta chief, brother of the great Sevajee, made himself rajah. In 1749 a British expedition endeavored to restore a deposed rajah without success; the reigning prince bought them off by cession of territories. Much interven- tion followed. In 1799 the East India company obtained pos- aession of the country, engaging to support the rajah with nominal authority. The last is said to have died in 1855. Tan'nenberg, E. Prussia. Here Ladislaus V. Jagel- lon of Poland defeated the Teutonic knights with great slaughter, the grandmaster being slain, 15 July, 1410. The order never recovered. tanning leather with the bark of trees has been prac- tised from the earliest ages in all countries, even in Africa; but the East until recently has produced the best leather. The manufacture of Morocco leather was introduced into Al- sace, France, from the Mediterranean coast of Africa in 1749. The tanning of alligator skins was begun in New Orleans, La., about 1860. Great improvements have been recently made in tanning by chemical discoveries. tan'tai nm, a rare metal, discovered in an American min- eral by Hatchett, in 1801, and named by him columbium ; and in a Swedish mineral by Ekeberg,who gave it its present name. WoUaston pointed out the identity of the 2 metals in 1809 ; and Berzelius prepared pure metallic tantalum in 1824. In 1846 Rose discovered that tantalum was really a mixture of 3 metals, which he named tantalum, niobium, and pelopium. — Gmelin. Xa'oi§ni, one of the 3 religions of China. The name is derived from the Tao, or "Way," a treatise written by Ll Urh, a contemporary of Confucius, in the 6th century b.c. The " Way " is the quiet, passionless discharge of all duties, " Heaven " not being a ruler, but a pattern. Taoism was modified by the introduction of Buddhism. tap'e§try, an art of weaving borrowed from the Sara- cens, and hence its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestry hangings belongs (the date is not mentioned) to the Netherlands. — Guicciardini. Manufactured in France under Henry IV. by artists invited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William Sheldon ; and the first manufactory was established at Mortlake by sir Francis Crane, 17 James 1. 1619. — Salmon, f Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much improved in f^ France. Gobklin tapestry. Tapestry is mentioned by the ! ancient poets, and also in Scripture; so that the Saracens' manu- i?) facture is a revival of the art. Tapestry said to have been * wrought by Matilda, queen of England. Bayeux tapestry. Tapestry manufactory established at Windsor, Kngl., by Mr. Henry, ) supported by the royal family and others; exhibition opened inl the town-hall, 6 Dec. 1878. .| Xappan, a village of New York, 24 miles north of New! York city, and IJ west of the Hudson river. Here, on 2 Oct. " 1780,maj.JohnAndr6wa3hangedasaBritishspy. New York, tar, a very thick and viscous substance, black and strongly adhesive, obtained in a fluid form by distilling coal or wood. The ; wood tar is of varied use in the arts, entering into excellent var- nishes, cements, etc., and being the best substance known to smear on ropes, canvas, etc., to make them waterproof. The chemist Becher first proposed to make tar from pit-coal — the earlof Dun- donald's patent, 1781. Mineral tar was discovered at Colebrook- dale, Shropshire, 1779; and in Scotland, Oct. 1792. Tar- water was first recommended for its medicinal virtues by dr. Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, about 1744. From benzole, discovered in cofd- , tar, many brilliant dyes are now produced. Aniline. Xa'ra, a hill in Meath, Ireland, where the early kings of Ireland were inaugurated. "The harp that once through Tara's halls The soul of music shed.'"— Moore. Near here, on 26 May, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 strong, defeated the insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 killed. On 15 Aug. 1843, Daniel O'Connell held a monster meeting here (250,000 persons said to have been assembled). Taren'tum, now Taran'tO, a fortified city and seaport of S. Italy, was founded by the Greek Phalantus, 708 B.C. The people of Tarentum, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, supported a war undertaken 281 b.c. by the Romans to avenge insults by the Tarentines to their ships; it was ter- minated after 10 years; 300,000 prisoners were taken, and Ta- rentum became subject to Rome. Except the citadel, Taren- tum was captured by the Carthaginians, 212, but recovered by Fabius, 209 b.c. Tarentum has suffered in the revolutions of southern Italy till only ruins remain. targ^Uins or explanations are ancient Chaldee par- aphrases of the Old Testament. The most remarkable are those of Onkelos, Jonathan-ben- Uzziel, and Joseph the Blind. The Targum of Onkelos is referred by some to the 1st century a.d. Tari'fa, a seaport town of S. Spain, the ancient Joza and Julia Traducta, where Muza landed when invading Spain, 712, It was taken from the Moors by Sancho IV. of Castile, 1291 or 1292 ; and was relieved, when besieged by them, after a great victory over the kings of Morocco and Granada, by Alfonso XL of Castile and Alfonso IV. of Portugal, 28 or 30 Oct. 1340. The conflict is called the battle of Salado, having been fought on the banks of that river. Tarifa was taken by the French in 1823. tarifT. The tariff is a tax levied upon exports or (es- pecially) imports. A duty was early collected by Moslem rulers at the Spanish port Tarifa, whence the modern name, on goods passing through the strait of Gibraltar. The word as used in the United States was adopted from the P^ng- lish tariffs, which before the reign of queen Elizabeth were prohibitory, and since used as a source of revenue. In the U. S. the tariff is for revenue and protection ; there are no prohibitory duties except on chiccory, shoddy, doctored wines,, and a few articles of like character. Before the adoption of the U. S. Constitution most of the American colonies had sys- tems of taxation on imports. The first acts of the Dutch West India company with reference to the colony of New Nether- lands provided for export and import duties, and specific rates were levied on furs and codfish by act of 7 June, 1629. lo 1661 the council of Virginia laid an import tax on rum and sugar, and forbade unloading them except at appointed ports. The governmentof Massachusetts enacted a general import tax, Nov. 1668. Under the confederation, the Continental Congress made numerous unsuccessful attempts to induce the states to join in an import tax for the common treasury, only succeeding ' TAR 783 TAR in securing, in 1786, an agreement from New York, granting to the U. S. certain imposts, provided the other states did the same. A measure for taxing imports, "for the support of the govern- ment, for the discharge of debts of the U. S., and the encourage- ment and protection of manufactures," was introduced in the House of Representatives of the first Congress, by James Madi- son, 8 Apr. 1789. From this dates tariff legislation in the U. S. Congress passes first Tariff act, to contmue in force until June, 1796, combining specific duties on some articles and ad va- lorem on others, equivalent to an 8)^ per cent. ad valorem rate, with drawback, except 1 per cent, of duties, on all articles exported within 12 months, except distilled spirits other than brandy and geneva; signed by Washington 4 July, 1789 Act of Congress passed to regulate the collection of duties. Each collection district to lie within a state. Providing for collectors, deputy-collectors, naval ofllcers, surveyors, weigh- ers, measurers, gangers, and inspectors. Ad valorem duties to be estimated by adding 20 per cent, to the actual cost thereof if imported from the cape of Good Hope or any place beyond, and 10 per cent, if from any other country. Duties to be paid in cash if under $50; if over, might be secured by bond to run from 4 to 12 months, with 10 per cent, dis- count for prompt payment 31 July, " Act laying duties on importations extended to North Carolina, 8 Feb., and to Rhode Island 14 June, 1790 Act of 4 July, 1789, repealed, and new law enacted raising du- ties to equal an 11 per cent, ad valorem rate 10 Aug. " Tariff rate raised to equal 13i^ per cent., by act of. 2 May, 1792 Additional duties levied on imports, particularly tobacco, snuff, and refined sugar, by acts of. 5, 7 June, 1794 Tariff on brown sugar, molasses, and tea increased 3 Mch. 1797 Duty on salt increased from 12 to 20 cents by act of 8 July, " First elaborate act of Congress for taking possession of arriv- ing merchandise, and levying and collecting duties. ..2 Mch. 1799 Additional duties imposed on wines, sugar, molasses, and such articles as have paid 10 per cent 13 May, 1800 Two and one-half per cent, ad valorem imposed on all impor- tations in American vessels, and 10 per cent, in foreign ves- sels, in addition to existing rates, for a fund to protect com- merce and seamen against the Barbary powers, commonly called the "Mediterranean fund " 27 Mch. 1804 All tariff duties increased 100 per cent., and 10 per cent, ad- ditional on goods imported in foreign ships 1 July, 1812 Double war duties continued until 30 June, 1816, and after that day an additional duty of 42 per cent, until a new tariff shall be formed 5 Feb. 1816 Niles^ Weekly Register advocates a protective tariff. " A. J. Dallas, secretary of the treasury, reports to Congress on the subject of a general tariff of increased duties 13 Feb. " Mr. Lowndes of South Carolina reports a bill from the Com- mittee of Ways and Mea«s to regulate duties on imports and tonnage 12 Mch. " Tariff bill opposed by Mr. Webster and most of the eastern states, and by John Randolph, and supported by messrs. Clay, Calhoun, and Lowndes. Among other provisions was one for the gradual reduction of the tax on cotton and wool- len goods. Act passes the House by a vote of 88 to 54, and the Senate by 25 to 7, and becomes a law 27 Apr. " Act passed deferring the time of reduction of tariff on woollens and cottons until 1826, and raising the duty on bar iron from $9 to $15 per ton 20 Apr. 1818 Resolutions introduced in Congress for the abolition of draw- backs, and bills to shorten long credits on importations, to tax auction sales of imports, and to collect duties in cash debated, but fail to become laws 1819-22 Auction system, by which foreigners shipped goods to the U. S., undervaluing them in the invoice, for which the auc- tioneer gave bonds and immediately sold for what they would bring, is remedied by deterrent legislation, which began in 1818 and concluded in act of 1 Mch. 1823 Tariff bill with average rate of 37 per cent, duties, after a de- bate of 10 weeks, passes the House by vote of 107 to 102. The Senate adds amendments which the House rejects. The difference is settled by a committee of conference, and bill passes Senate by 25 to 22 ; approved 22 May, 1824 National convention, called by the Pennsylvania Society for the Promotion of Manufactures and Mechanic Arts at Har- risburg, adopts resolutions in favor of more protection on iron, steel, glass, wool, woollens, and hemp 30 July, 1827 Tariff bill, based on recommendation of Harrisburg convention, introduced in Congress 31 Jan. 1828 New tariff, with a 41-per-cent. rate, favored by Daniel Webster, is debated from 4 Mch. to 15 May; passed by House, 109-91 ; Senate, 26-21, and approved 19 May, " [This became known as the "Tariff of Abominations." South Carolina protested against it as unconstitutional, op- pressive, and unjust. North Carolina also protested, and Alabama and Georgia denied the power of Congress to lay duties for protection.] Condy Raguet begins the publication of the Free-Trade Advo- cate, afterwards known as the Banner of the Constitution 1829 Duties on coffee, cocoa, and tea reduced by act of 20 May; on molasses and salt by acts of 29 May, 1830 Secretary of the treasury Ingham, in his report, advocates "home" valuation in place of "foreign," the current value of goods in the U. S. to be the dutiable value 15 Dec. " National Free-trade convention meets at Philadelphia, 30 Sept. 1831 National Protection convention meets in New York 26 Oct. " George McDuflBe, representative from South Carolina, from Committee on Ways and Means, reports a bill proposing ad valorem duties for revenue only 8 Feb. John Quincy Adams reports a bill repealing the act of 1828, and reducing duties on coarse woollens, iron, etc 23 May, Tariff bill retaining the protective features of the tariff of 1828, but reducing or abolishing many taxes, is reported. It reduced the tax on iron, increased that on woollens, made some raw wools free, and left cotton unchnnged. Duties of less than $200 to be paid in cash without discount, law to take effect 3 Mch. 1833 ; approved 14 July, Representatives from South Carolina publish an address on the subject of the tariff, urging resistance 15 July, Convention meets in Columbia, S. C, 19 Nov., and calls on the legislature to declare the tariff acts of 1824 and 1828 null and void in that state, and to prohibit the collection of duties there after 1 Feb. 1833 ; law passed 24 Nov. Secretary of the treasury, in his report, recommends a reduc- tion of duties to the requirements of revenue 5 Dec. President proclaims intention to enforce the laws 11 Dec. Mr. Verplanck, from the Committee on Ways and Means, re- ports a bill providing for the reduction of duties in the course of 2 years to about one half 8 Jan. "Compromise Tariff bill" introduced by Mr. Clay 12 Feb. House strikes out Mr. Verplanck's bill and substitutes Mr. Clay's, which declares its object to be "to prevent the de- struction of the political system, and to arrest civil war and restore peace and tranquillity to the nation." It provides for a gradual reduction in duties, and for "home valuation," all duties to be paid in cash. Passed by vote of 118 to 84 in the House, and 29 to 16 in the Senate, and approved. .2 Mch. "Force bill" or " Bloody bill," to enforce the collection of du- ties, passed by Congress 2 Mch. Nullification acts repealed by South Carolina 18 Mch. Home league formed to agitate for high duties Several tariff bills, drafted and discussed, fail to become laws during 1841. A general tariff act, with average rate of duty about 33 per cent, and dropping the principle of "home val- uation," is passed 11 Sept. Tariff law passed containing the much-controverted and liti- gated "similitude section" (sec. 20), imposing duties on non-enumerated articles which may be similar in material, quality, texture, or use to any enumerated article. ..30 Aug. Tariff' bill passes the House by a vote of 114 to 95, and the Senate by the casting vote of the vice-president Geo. M. Dallas. Average rate of duty 25>^ per cent 30 July, Warehouse system established by act of Congress 6 Aug. Robert J. Walker introduces the system of private bonded warehouses, which is confirmed by act of Congress, 28 Mch. Free trade policy declared in the platform of the Democratic party at Cincinnati 6 June, Tariff act passed lowering the average duty to about 20 per cent 3 Mch. Republican convention at Chicago adopts a i)rotective-tariff platform 17 May, Tariff bill, raising the tariff of 1857 about one third, introduced in the House by Mr. Morrill, passed and approved, 2 Mch. 1861 ; goes into effect l Apr. Amended tariff act raising duties passed 5 Aug. Act passed increasing tariff on tea, coffee, and sugar. . .24 Dec. Act passed raising tariff duties temporarily 14 July, Act passed "to prevent and punish frauds upon the revenue," etc., which provides that all invoices of goods be made in triplicate, one to be given the person producing them, a second filed in the office of the consular officer nearest the place of shipment, and the third transmitted to the collector at the port of entry 3 Mch. Joint resolution raising all duties 50 per cent, for 60 days, af- terwards extended to 90 days 29 Apr. General revision of tariff, increasing duties passed 30 June, Bill passed increasing tariff rates, 3 Mch. 1865, and amended, 28 July, Transportation in bond of goods destined for Canada or Mex- ico, through the U. S., provided for by act of 28 July, Convention of woollen manufacturers at Syracuse ask in- creased duties. They form an alliance with wool-growers, and arrange a tariff which becomes a law by act of . . .2 Mch. Duty on copper and copper ore increased by act of 24 Feb. First law distinctly authorizing the appointment of special agents of the treasury in the custom service, passed, 12 May, Following a general debate on an act to reduce internal taxes, etc., a new tariff, retaining most of the protective features, becomes a law 14 July, Duties removed from tea and coffee after 1 July, 1872, by act of 1841 1842 1846 1854 1856 1857 1860 1861 1862 1864 1866 1867 1869 1870 1 May, 1872 General act passed reducing duties on imports and internal taxes 6 June, All provision moieties to informers repealed, and the proceeds of all fines, penalties, and forfeitures to be paid into the treasury, by act of 22 June, Tariff law amended by act of Congress 8 Feb. Salts and sulphate of quinine put on the free-list 1 Julj^, Act creating a Tariff commission of 9 civilians appointed by the president, to visit different sections of the country in the interest of tariff revision and report 15 May, Tariff commission, consisting of John L. Hayes, pres., Henry W. Oliver, jr., Austin M. Garland, Jacob Ambler, Robert P. Porter, John W. H. Underwood, Duncan F. Kenner, Alexan- der R. Boetler, and William H. McMahon, organizes at the Ebbitt house, Washington, D. C 6 July, Report of Tariff commission submitted to Congress and referred to Wavs and Means committee 4 Dec. 1874 1875 1879 1882 TAR 784 TAS Aot pMsed repealing section 2501 of the Revised Statutes (levy- ing an addilioual duty of 10 per cent, on goods fVom places west of tho cj»i>e of Good Hope), 4 Miiy, and amended. 23 Dec. 1882 Senate reports a tariff bill wliidi is called up for consideration, 10 Jan. ; House bill reported by Ways iind Means committee, 16 Jan. ; both bills discussed and amended for several weeks; a conference committee meets. 28 Fob. ; after some resigna- tions and reapiwintments of members, reports, 2 Mch., ac- cepted in the Senate. 12.30 a.m., 3 Mcb., by 32 to 31 votes, and in tho House at 5.30 p.m., 3 Mch., by 152 to lift votes, and signed by the president before acljournment, which was after midnight 3 Mch. 1888 A bill "to reduce import duties and war-tariff taxes," intro- duced by Mr. Morrison, is reported in tho House, 11 Mcb.,'and defeated by vote of 159 to 156 15 Apr. 1884 A bill to reduce tariff taxes, introduced by Mr. Morrison, is lost by vote of the Heuso, 167 to UO 17 June, 1886 Mills bill, a measure "to reduce taxation and simplify the laws in relation to the collection of revenue," introduced in the House by Roger Q. Mills of Texas, chairman of the Ways and Means committee 2 Apr. 1888 Mills bill is Uiken up for discussion, 17 Apr., and debated until 19 July, and passes tho House by vote of 149 to 14. . .21 July, " [Referred in the Senate to the Finance committee, by whom a substitute was prepared, and failed to become a law.] A bill " to equalize duties upon imports and to reduce the rev- enue of the governjneut," introduced by Wm. McKinley, Jr., of Ohio 16 Apr. 1890 1894 McKinley Customs Administration act approved 10 June, 1890 McKinley Tariff bill passes tho House, 21 May; referred to Senate committee on Finance, 23 May; reported to the Sen- ate with amendments, 18 Juno; passes Senate with amend- ments, 10 Sept. ; reported by Conference committee to House, 2() Sept. ; approved by the president, 1 Oct., and takes effect 6 Oct. " Tariff (Wilson) bill made public 27 Nov. 1898 Submitted to the full committee of Ways and Means, 19 Dec. " Debate on tho bill begins in the House 8 Jan. Internal revenue bill containing the income-tax reported to tho House 24 Jan. Tariff bill with income-tax attached passes the House, 204 to 140 1 Fob. Revised tariff bill reported to the Senate fVom the Finance committee 20 Feb. Debate in the Senate on the tariff bill began by senator Voor- hees 2 Apr. Senate passes tariff bill, 39 yeas (37 Democrats, 2 Populists), 34 nays (31 Republicans, 2 Populists, 1 Democrat, D. B. Hill), 3 July, Tariff bill received in the House with 633 Senate amendments, rates increased 5 juiy, House disagreeing, a conference committee is appointed; the Senate compels the House to adopt its amendments. .13 Aug. Bill sent to the president 17 Aug. Becomes a law without his signature 27 Aug. YEARS OF TARIFF CHANGES, WITH AVERAGE RATE PER CENT. OF DUTIES FROM 1813. TMtn of tariff Average rate per cent, of duty on duti- able Imports, thowini; the general av- erage for several years together from 1813. 1789 (first imposed 1790 1792 1794 1797 1804 1812 1816) 1824 f 1828X 1832 r 1833 i 1841/ 1846 1857 1861 1862) 1864} 1866 1869 1870 1875) 1883 J 1890 1894 i Twine and pack-thread, $2 per cwt. ; cordage, untarred, 90c. per cwt., tarred, 75c. Pickled fish, 75c. per bl. Hemp, 60c. per cwt. Boots, 50c. per pair. Unwrought steel, 50c. per cwt. Beer, ale, porter, and cider, in bottles, 20c. per doz. Green teas, 12c. per lb.; Hyson, 20c. ; Black tea. 10c. Jamaica rum, and all wines except Madeira, 10c. per gal. Malt, 10c. per bu. Salt, 6c. per bu. Manufactured tobacco, 6c. per lb. Cheese, 4c. per lb. Cotton, 3c. per lb. Loaf sugar, 3c. per lb. ; other sugar, except brown, 2XC. ; brown sugar, Ic. Coffee 2^0. per lb. Coal, 2c. per bu. Glass, china, stone and earthenware, gunpowder, paints, shoe and knee buckles, gold and silver lace and leaf' 10 per cent, ad valorem. Blank-books, paper, cabinet wares, leather ready-made, cloth- ing, hats, gloves, millinery, combs, brushes, gold, silver, and plated ware, jewelry, but- tons, saddles, slit and rolled iron and castings, anchors, tin and pewter ware, .07^ per cent, ad valorem. All other articles, including manufactured wool, cotton, and linen, .05 per cent, ad valorem. 1813-24 inclusive, 34 per cent. 1825-32 1842-46 1847-57 40 30.4 24.2 1858-61 19.2 1862-64 35 1865-70 ' 46.4 1871-90 ' 43.2 1891-93 48.2 1894 37 Nullification acts in South Carolina owing to this tariff. ■ Compromise tariff bill of Henry Clay. Tariff bill of Robert T. Walker. (Comparatively free-trade— condition of the country at its lowest, financially and other- ( way — during these years. Tariff bill of Justin S. Morrill of Vermont. Tariff bill of William McKinley of Ohio. Tariff bill of William L. ""' and others in the Senate Wilson of W. Virginia, reconstructed by Gorman of Maryland, Tarpeian (tar-peyan) rOCK, Rome, owed its name to the tradition that Tarpeia, daughter of the keeper of the Roman citadel, was here crushed to death by the shields cast on her by the Sabines, whom she treacherously admitted, having bargained for the gift of what they wore on their left arms, meaning their bracelets, about 750 b.c. From its sum- mit state criminals were afterwards thrown, notably Marcus Manlius Capitolinus, 381 b.c. TarragO'na, a seaport city of N.E. Spain, occupied as a naval station by the British before the capture of Gibral- tar in 1704. It was stormed and sacked bj' French under Su- chet, 29 Jan. 1811, and the inhabitants put to the sword. tartan or Highland plaid, the dress of Scottish Highlanders, said to have been derived from the ancient Gauls, or Celtae, the Galli non Braccati. tartaric acid is said to have been the first discovery of the chemist Scheele, who procured it in a separate state by boiling tar with lime, and in decomposing the tartrate of lime by sulphuric acid, about 1770. In 1859, baron Liebig formed tartaric acid from other sources. Tar'tary, a vast country of Asia and Europe. The Ta- tars, or Tartars, or Mongols, or Moguls, were known in antiq- uity as Scythians. During the decline of the Roman empire these tribes began to seek more fertile regions ; and the first who reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Genghis Khan. His em- pire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all central Asia (1206-27), became most formidable. It was during the reign of his son Ogdai that the Tartar invasion of eastern Europe occurred under Batu, capturing Pesth on Christmas, 1240, and, crossing the Danube on the ice, took Gran by assault, and de- feated the Poles in a disastrous battle near Liegnitz, 12 Apr. 1241, then without delay moved southeastward into Moravia as far as the vicinity of Troppau, Silesia, when Batu was recalled by the death of the khan. The empire was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul dynasty in India, which began with Baber in 1525, and formed the most splendid court in Asia till the close of the 18th century. Golden Horde. The Kalmucks, a branch of the Tartars, expelled from China, settled on the banks of the Volga in 1672, but returned in 1771, and thou- sands perished on the journey. De Quincey gives a vivid de- scription of this "exodus" in the "Flight of a Tartar Tribe." Xa§ma'nla, an island south of Australia and separated from it by Bass's strait, formerly called Van Diemen's Land, TAU 786 TAY after the governor of the Dutch East Indies. Name changed to Tasmania in 1853, in honor of Abel Jansen Tasman, who discovered it 24 Nov. 1642. Area, 26,2 15 sq. miles ; pop. 1891, 146,667, mostly descendants of the English settlers, the abo- rigines being extinct; the last, a woman, dying in 1876. Visited by Furneaux, 1773 ; capt. Cook 1777 Proved to be an island by Flinders, who explores Bass's strait. 1799 Taken possession of for the English government by lieut. Bower, 1803 First settlement with convicts at Hobart Town 1804 Transportation of convicts abolished 1853 Taunton, a borough of Somerset, Engl., was taken by Perkin Warbeck, Sept. 1497 ; and here he was surrendered to Henry VII. 5 Oct. following. The duke of Monmouth was pro- claimed king at Taunton, 20 June, 1685; and it was the scene of the " bloody assize " held by Jeffreys upon the rebels in August. taverns may be traced to the 13th century. " In the raigne of king Edward the Third, only 3 taverns were allowed in London : one in Chepe, one in Walbrok, and the other in Lombard street." — Spelman. The Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakespeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of FalstafTs merriment. — Shakespeare, " Henry IV." The White Hart, Bishopsgate, established in 1480, was rebuilt in 1829. At Fraunce's tavern. New York, gen. Washington bade farewell to the officers of the Continental army 4 Dec. 1783 taxe§ were levied by Solon, the first Athenian legislator, 540 B.C. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, about $270. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, levied a land-tax by assessment, which was deemed so odious that his subjects styled him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 B.C. — UEon. Taxes in specie were first introduced into Eng- land by William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily. On 1 May, 1695, in England, a tax was imposed on bachelors and wid- owers, births, marriages, and burials, and continued until 1 Aug. 1706. The governmental revenue in the United Kingdom for 1890-91, derived from direct and indirect taxes, was as follows : Source. Imperial. England. Scotland. Ireland. United Kingdom. Customs Excise Stamps Land-tax... Income-tax. House duty. .... £190,000 .... 150,000 £15,221,672 17,921,724 11,525,584 995,392 11,256,925 1,476,899 £1,963,584 3,643,836 1,162,944 34,608 1,281,275 93,101 £2,294,744 3,222,440 581,472 561,800 £19,480,000 24,788,000 13,460,000 1,030,000 13,250,000 1,570,000 Totals. . . . £340,000 £58,898,196 £8,179,348 £6,660,456 £73,578,000 In the United States taxes for the support of the federal government are mainly indirect taxes, such as customs and excise. The Constitution gives Congress "power to collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and pro- vide for the common defence and general welfare of the U. S.," subject to restrictions, no capitation or other direct tax to be laid unless in proportion to the census. The first direct tax ($2,000,000) was levied upon the 16 states,^ro rata, in 1798, and there have been occasional repetitions since, noticeabl}"- in 1861, when a tax of $20,000,000 was levied, which has since been refunded. According to rulings of the Supreme court, Congress has no power to levy duties on exports, and the re- striction upon direct taxation does not apply to an income tax. The systems and rates of state, county, and municipal taxation are numerous and constantly changing, but the taxes are direct, and are levied upon the assessed value of real estate and personal property. According to the single-tax theory, recently advocated by Henry George and others, taxation should be solely on land-value, exclusive of improvements. The development of the present system of federal taxatiui is shown below. Revenue, Tariff. Duties laid upon spirits distilled within the U. S. from foreign and home material, 3 Mch. 1791, followed by an act further regulating these duties and imposing a tax on stills. . .8 May, 1792 Execution of the above laws leads to the Whiskey insurrection in Pennsylvania 1794 Duties imposed on licenses for selling wines and foreign dis- tilled spirituous liquors by retail; 8 cents per pound on all snuflf manufactured for sale within the U. S. ; 2 cents per pound on sugar refined within the U. S. ; and specific duties as follows: On every coach, $10 yearly; chariot, $8; phaeton, $6; wagons used ip agriculture or transportation of goods, exempt by act 5 June, " (Duties laid on property sold at auction 9 June, " Taxes on snuflf repealed and duty laid on snuflT-raills 3 Mch. 1795 Duties on carriages increased by act 28 May, 1796 Duties laid on stamped vellum, parchment, and paper by act, 6 July, 1797 Direct tax of $2,000,000 laid, proportioned among the states, 14 July, 1798 Act to establish a general stamp-office at seat of government, 23 Apr. 1800 Duty on snuff-mills repealed 24 Apr. " Repeal of act taxing stills and domestic distilled spirits, refined sugar, licenses to retailers, sales at auction, carriages, stamped vellum, parchment, and paper after 30 June 6 Apr. 1802 Act passed imposing duties of 1 per cent, on sales at auction of merchandise, and 25 per cent, on ships and vessels, on licenses to distillers of spirituous liquors; and on sugar re- fined within the U. S 24 July, 1813 Act passed imposing duties on licenses to retailers of wines', spirituous liquors, and foreign merchandise, and on notes of banks, etc., bonds and obligations discounted by banks, and on certain bills of exchange 2 Aug. " Direct tax of $3,000,000 imposed on states by counties. . " " Duties laid on carriages and harness, except those exclusively employed in husbandry 15 Dec. 1814 Fifty per cent, added upon licenses to retailers of wines, etc., and 100 per cent, on sales by auction 23 Dec. " Direct tax of $6,000,000 laid upon the U. S. annually 9 Jan. 1815 Internal-revenue tax of $1 per ton Imposed on pig-iron; 1 cent per pound on nails ; also tax on candles, paper, hats, umbrel- las, playing-cards, boots, tobacco, leather, etc., and an annual duty on household furniture, and gold and silver watches, by act of 18 Jan. " Internal-revenue tax on gold and silver and plated ware, jewel- ry, and paste-work manufactured within the U. S 27 Feb. " Direct tax of $19,998.40 laid on the District of Columbia annu- ally, by act ., 27 Feb. " Acts of 18 Jan. and 27 Feb, 1815 repealed 22 Feb. 1816 Act of 9 Jan. 1815, and 27 Feb. repealed, and direct tax of $3,000,000 laid on the states, and direct tax of $9,999.20 laid on the District of Columbia 5 Mch. " Duties on household furniture and watches kept for use re- moved by act of 9 Apr. ♦' Acts of 24 July, 1813, and 2 Aug., 15 and 23 Dec. 1814, repealed, 23 Dec. 1817 Act passed allowing states to tax public lands of the U. S. after they are sold by the U. S 26 Jan. 1847 Direct tax of $20,000,000 laid annually, and apportioned to the states by act of Congress (one tax to be levied previous to 1 Apr. 1865) 5 Aug. 1861 Act passed to provide internal revenue to support the govern- ment and to pay interest on the public debt, imposing taxes on spirits, ale, beer, and porter, licenses, manufactured arti- cles and products, auction sales, yachts, billiard-tables, slaugh- tered cattle, sheep, and hogs, railroads, steamboats, ferry- boats, railroad bonds, banks, insurance companies, etc., sala- ries of officers in service of the U. S., advertisements, incomes, legacies, business papers of all kinds, like bank-checks, con- veyances, mortgages, etc. (Tobacco) 1 July, 1862 Act to increase internal revenue passed 7 Mch. 1864 Act of 5 Aug. 1861, repealed 30 June, " Act passed to reduce internal taxation 13 July, 1866 U. S. Supreme court declares unconstitutional a capitation tax of $1 imposed by the state of Nevada on every person leaving the state by railroad train or other public conveyance 1868 Internal-revenue taxes reduced by acts of 14 July, 1870, and 6 June 1872 All special taxes imposed by law, accruing after 30 Apr. 1873, including taxes on stills, to be paid by stamps denoting the amount of tax, by act of 24 Dec. " Congress taxes real estate in the District of Columbia, 20 June, 1874 Internal-revenue tax on tobacco, snuflf, and cigars, increased, and former tax of 70 cents per gallon on distilled spirits raised to 90 cents, by act of 3 Mch. 1875 Internal-revenue tax on tobacco reduced by act of 1 Mch. 1879 Henry George's " Progress and Poverty," advocating the "Sin- gle-tax " theory, published " Act passed reducing internal-revenue taxes, and repealing tax on banks, checks, etc., matches, and medicinal preparations, 3 Mch. 1883 Special tax laid on manufacturers and dealers in oleomargarine, and a stamp tax of 2 cents per pound laid on the manufact- ured article 2 Aug. 1886 "Taxation in American States and Cities," by Richard T. Ely, pub 1888 Special internal-revenue tax on dealers in tobacco repealed, and tax on tobacco and snuflf reduced by act 1 Oct. 1890 Act passed to refund to the several states and territories the amount of direct tax paid under act of 5 Aug. 1861. . .2 Mch. 1891 Income-tax appended to the Wilson tariflf bill and passed with it, becoming a law 27 Aug. 1894 [From 1 Jan. 1895 until 1 Jan. 1900 a tax of 2 per cent, levied on all incomes over and above $4000. Also by the same a<;t a tax of 2 cents on every pack of playing cards; a tax of $1.10 on each proof gal. of distilled spirits, or wine gal. when below proof.] Income tax in the United States. Tay bridg'e, at Dundee, above 2 miles across the Tay •, act passed 1870 ; work begun, June, 1871 ; Mr. De Bergue, first contractor, died ; succeeded by messrs. Hopkins, Gilke & Co., of Middlesborough. Engineer, sir Thomas Bouch. It was much injured by a gale, 4 Feb. 1877; completed, 30 Aug.; tried^ TAY 786 TEL 26 Sept. 1877 ; opened, 31 May, 1878. Length, 10,612 feet ; it consiata of 86 spans, some above 90 feet above water-level; cost said to be 360,000/. Above 20 lives lost during its construction. BridRe partly dosiroyecl by a gale while a N. British mail-train wn.>< missing over ii; a gap of about 3000 feet made; between 7R and IK) i)orsons jwrislied; about 7.15 p.m. Sunday. . .28 Dec. 1879 Forty six bcMli««.s recovered up to 27 Apr. 1880 Plan's for a now bridge approved Jan. 1882 (»iwned for public traffic 20 June, 18«7 Taylor, Zachary, administration of. United States, 1849-60. Tchad, or Chad, Lake, central Africa. 150 miles long by 130 wide. Area varies from 10,000 to 50,000 sq. miles. It contains many small islands, well inhabited ; ordinarily no out- let except at high water. Tchcrna'ya, a river in the Crimea. On 16 Aug. 1855, the lines of the allied army at this place were attacked by 50,000 Russians under prince (Jortschakoif, who were re- pulsed with the loss of 3329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 pris- oners. The brunt of the attack was borne by 2 French regi- ments under gen. D'Herbillon. The loss of the allies was about 1200; 200 of these were from the Sardinian contingent, which liehaved with great gallantry under gen. La Marmora. The Russian general Read and the Sardinian general Montevecchio were killetl. The object of the attack was the relief of Sebas- topol, then closely besieged by the English and French. tea, an evergreen shrub of the order Camellia, at ma- turity from 3 to 4 feet in height, bearing white flowers and elliptical or lanceolate leaves, 2 species of which produce the teas of commerce. Thea bohea furnishing the various black teas, viz. : Pekoe, Caper, Oolong, Souchong, and Congou; and Thea viridis the green teas : Gunpowder, Hyson, Young Hyson, Imperial, etc. This shrub is a native of China and Japan, and while a decoction of its leaves has been a favorite beverage in those countries for centuries, it was wholly un- known to the more western nations until about the beginning of the 17th century ; it is said to have been introduced by the Dutch about 1610. It is mentioned as having been used in England as a great rarity prior to 1657, and but little known for some time after. ["I sent for a cup of tea (a China drink), of which I had never drunk before." — " Pepys' Diary," 26 Sept. 1661.] At this time it was selling at 6/. and even 10/. the pound. A duty of 8d. was charged upon every gallon of tea made for sale (12 Ch. II. c. 13) 1660 East India company first import it 1669 [Brought into England in 1666, by lord (tesory and lord Ar- lington, from Holland; and, being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, and generally sold for 60s. per pound, till the East India company took up the trade. — Anderson. ] Green tea began to be used 1715 Price of black tea per pound, 13s. to 20.9. ; of green, 12s. to 30s., 1728 Great Britain's tea trade monopolized by the East India com- pany until 1834 [Under the monopoly system the duty was about 200 per cent, ad valorem.] About 120,000,000 lbs. of tea consumed in Great Britain 1890 Duty imposed on tea in America by Great Britain in 1767; this tax occasioned the destruction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, Dec. 1773, and ultimately led to the Rev- olutionary war. Efforts have been made to introduce its cul- tivation in the highlands of the South Atlantic states; but while the climate and .soil are considered adapted to its growth, the trouble and expense of preparing it for market in competi- tion with China teas renders its cultivation as a remunerative industry impossible. Amount of tea consumed in the United States in 1870, about 47,000,000 lbs., or 1.2 lbs. per capita, and in 1893, 90,000,000 lbs., or about 1.45 lbs. per capita. Duty removed from tea from 1 July, i872 "tearle§§ victory" was won by Archidamus IIL, king of Sparta, over the Arcadians and Argives, without losing a man, 367 b.c. Te Deum, a song of praise used by the Romish and English churches, beginning " Te Deum laudamus^^ — "We praise thee, O God " — supposed to be the composition of Au- gustin and Ambrose, about 390. tCetO'taler, a term applied to an abstainer from all fermented liquors, originated with Richard Turner, an artisan of Preston, Engl., who, contending for the principle at a temper- ance meeding, about Sept. 1833, asserted " that nothing but te-te- total will do." The word was immediately adopted. He died 27 Oct. 1846. These facts are taken from the Staunch Teetotaler, edited by Joseph Livesey, of Preston (an originator of the movement in Aug. 1832), Jan. 1867. Enchatites, Good Templars, Tempkkanck, United Kin«pom. Teg'yra, a village of Boeotia. Here Pelopidas defeated the Spartans, 375 b.c. tereg^raph§ (from the Gr. TifXe, afar, and ypc'itpw, I write), ^schylus, in his Agamemnon (500 b.c.), describos the communication of intelligence by burning torches as sig- nals. Polybius, the Greek historian (who died about 122 B.c.), calls the different instruments used by the ancients for com- municating information, joymoB, because the signals were al- ways made by tire. In 1663, a plan was suggested by the marquess of Worcester, and a telegraph was suggested by dr. Hooke, 1684. M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about this period. James II., while duke of York, originated a set of navy signals, which were systematized by Kempenfeldt in 1780 ; and a dictionary was compiled by sir Home Popham. M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French in 1792, and 2 were erected over the admiralty office, London, 1796. The semaphore was erected there, 1816. The naval signals by telegraph enabled 400 previously concerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, by varying the combinations of 2 revolving crosses. Signals; for electric telegraph, Electricity. The electric telegraph in the United States is almost entirely in the hands of the Western Union Telegraph company. growth of the electric telegraph 1867. IN THE L . s. since Year. Miles of line. Miles of wire. Offices. Messages. Receipts. ProfiU. 1867.. 1871.. 1881.. 1891.. 46,270 56,032 110, 3i0 187,981 85,291 121,151 327,171 715,591 2,565 4,606 10,737 20,098 5,879,282 10,646,077 32,500,000 59,148,343 $6,568,925 7,637,448 14,393,543 23,034,326 $2,624,919 2,532,661 5,908,279 6.605.584 The average toll per message in 1868 was 104.7; in 1891 it was 32.5. The average post per message to the company in 1868 was 63.4; in 1891 it was 23.2. Tel-el-Ke'bir , a fortified seaport town of Egypt. Here, 13 Sept. 1882, sir Garnet Wolseley defeated Arabi Pacha. Brit- ish force numbered 11,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry, 40 guns. The Egyptians were intrenched with about twice the force. British loss, 52 killed, 380 wounded ; Egyptian, total loss, 1500. telem'eter, an instrument for determining the dis- - tance between a gun and the object fired at. Lieut, von Eh- renberg and maj. Montaudon at Baden constructed a telemeter the size of a watch, by which the distance is determined and shown on a dial by the action of sound, 1878-85. — Tel'elopom'- eter, another apparatus for ascertaining the distance from point to point, invented by dr. Luigi Cerebotani, was announced in Sept. 1885; 2 telescopes are employed. telep'athy, "the supersensory transference of thoughts and feelings from one mind to another;" the principal subject of "Phantasm of the Living," edited by Edmund Gurney, Frederic Myers, and Frank Podmore, and issued by the Soci- ety for Psychical Research (Spiritualism), about 30 Oct. 1886. tel'ephone (from Gr. TfjXe, afar, and (pojvT], voice, sound), a name now given to apparatus for transmitting artic- ulate and musical sounds by means of wire, vibrating rods, threads, or magneto-electricity. Electricity, Microphone, i Phonograph. f Robert Hook conveyed sounds to a distance by distended wire, 1667 Wheatstone conveyed sounds of a musical-box from a cellar to upper rooms by a deal rod (termed " Enchanted Lyre ") 1821 C. G. Page produced gnlvanic musical tones by magnetizing and demagnetizing an iron bar. 1837 Philip Reis exhibits at Frankfort, Germany, an electrical instru- ment which transmits the pitch of a sound 25 Apr. 1861 Alexander Graham Bell begins his investigation of electrical transmission and reproduction of articulate speech July, 1874 Bell constructs an electrical telephone, with a diaphragm of gold beater's skin, which transmits speech July, 1875 Thomas A. Edison, furnished by William Orton, president of the Western Union Telegraph company, with a description of Reis's telephone, begins experiments with a view to pro- ducing an articulating telephone July, " Toy, called the "lovers' telegraph," being a string telephone, extensively sold in the U. S " TEL 787 TEM Elisha Gray files his caveat for an invention " to transmit the tones of the liuman voice through a telegraphic circuit," etc., U Feb. 1876 Prof. Bell publicly explains his method before the American Academy of Arts and Sciences of Boston 10 May, " Bell's telephone exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition at Phil- adelphia, Pa June, " Iron diaphragm first used by Bell 30 June, " Edison's carbon, loud-speaking telephone invented Jan. 1877 Prof Bell exhibits at the Essex Institute, Salem, Mass., his telephone, using a powerful horse-shoe magnet, by which a short speech, shouted into a similar telephone in Boston, 16 miles distant, is distinctly audible to an audience of 600 per- sons in Salem 12 Feb. " First known telephone Jine connects the office of Charles Will- iams, electrician, in Boston, and his house in Somerville, Apr. " First telephone exchange established in Boston, Mass " One form of microphone invented by Edison 1 Apr. " Experiments begun in Brown university by prof. Eli W. Blake, prof. John Pierce, and others, result in the construction by dr. William F. Channing of the first portable telephone, Apr. " Handle telephone, now generally in use, made by dr. Channing and Edson S. Jones, at Providence. R. I May, " Glass-plate telephone invented by Henry W. Vaughan, state assayer. Providence, li. I lune, " Bell telephone exhibited before the British association at Plym- outh, Kngl., by W. H. Preece 23 Aug. " Singing on the stage and music of the orchestra of the Grand Opera, Paris, transmitted to the Palais de 1' Industrie, at the electrical exhibition, Paris 1881 Pulsion telephone, carrying speech by an ordinary wire with- out electricity, invented by Lemuel Mellett 1888 Telephonic communication from London to Marseilles and Brus- sels completed 19 Ai)r. 1891 Bell telephone patent expires 7 Mch. 1893 American Bell Telephone company, practically controlling the tele- phone business in the U. S., reports for 1891, 240,412 miles of wire in use. This company, with its subsidiary companies, represents $80,000,000 of capital;" and the Long Distance Telephone company about $5,000,000. tel'epllOtOg'raphy, a process for transmitting to a distance images of objects by the agency of electricity and selenium, was invented by Shelford Bidwell early in 1881. tererad'iphoilC, an arrangement of apparatus in which M. Mercadier has adapted prof. Graham Bell's photo- phone to telegraphy ; announced Jan. 1882. tel'e§COpe§. Their principle was described by Roger Bacon about 1250, and Leonard Digges (who d. about 1573) is said to have arranged glasses magnifying very distant ob- jects. The 4 principal kinds of reflecting telescopes are : 1. Gregorian, devised by James Gregory of Aberdeen 1663 2. Newtonian, invented by sir Isaac Newton 1669 3. Cassegrainian, invented by Cassegrain 1672 4. Herschelian, invented by sir William Herschel 1790 Telescopes constructed by John Lipperhey and Zacharias Jan- sen, spectacle-makers of Middleburg, and James Melius of Alkmaer about 1608 Galileo (from a description of the above) constructed telescopes (May, 1609), gradually increasing in power, till he discovered Jupiter's satellites, etc Jan. 1610 Telescope explained by Kepler 1611 Huyghens greatly improves the telescope; discovers the ring and satellites of Saturn, etc 1655-56 Telescopes improved by Gregory about 1663 Reflecting telescope invented by Newton 1668 Achromatic or refracting telescope, made by Chester More Hall, Harlow, Essex, Engl 1723 Obtains an image free from color 1729 E\iler succeeds in 1747 John Dollond invents the " achromatic combination," for which he receives the Copley medal from the Royal Society 1758 Sir William Herschel (originally an organist at Bath) greatly im- proves telescopes, and discovers the planet Uranus, 21 Mch. 1781, and a volcanic mountain in the moon, 1783 ; he completes his 40-ft. -focal-length telescope and 48-in. mirror, 1789, and he discovers 2 other volcanic mountains; he lays before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 nebulae and clusters of stars, 1802 Telescope made in London for the observatory of JIadrid cost 11,000/! " Telescopes improved by Guinand and Fraunhofer. 1805-14 Great telescope taken down, and one of 20-ft. focal length erected 1 - by sir John Herschel, who afterwards used it at the cape of L» Good Hope 1822 '* ^ Earl of Rosse erected afeParsonstewa^jn Ireland, a telescope (at a cost exceeding 20,000/. ) 6 ft. in diameter and 54 ft. in length ; it is moved with ease 1828-45 M. Lassell constructs a telescope, 48-in. mirror, by which he discovers the satellite of Neptune, 1846, and the 8 satellites of Saturn 1848 One of gigantic size, 85 ft. in length (very imperfect), completed at Wandsworth by the rev. John Craig 1852 Magnificent equatorial telescopes set up at the national observa- tories at Greenwich and Paris 1860 M. Foucault exhibits at Paris a reflecting telescope, the mirror 313^ in. in diameter; the focal length 17% ft 1862 Mr. NewalPs telescope (with object-glass 25 in. diameter; tube nearly 30 ft. ) set up at Gateshead by Cooke of York 1870 I One at U. S. Observatory, Washington; object-glass 26 in. diam- eter, 33 ft. length. A. Ainslie Common's reflecting telescope: speculum 37>^ in. di- ameter; length, 20 ft. ; said to be the most powerful in exist- ence; Ealing, Middlesex; completed Sept. 1879 Large refracting telescope, made by Howard Grubb at Dublin for Vienna; approved by the commissioners 16 Mch. 1881 Largest reflecting telescope in the U. S. is at Harvard univer- sity, 28-in. mirror. Largest refracting telescope in the world, 40-in. lenses, made by Alvin G. Clark, Cambridge, Mass., for the university of Chicago, to be completed during. 1895 For other important refracting telescopes. Observatory. Tell, William, legendary Swiss hero, flourished about 1307. The popular stories respecting him were demonstrated to be mythical by prof. Kopp of Lucerne, 1872. Tell-Amarna tablet§, consisting of 320 tablets or portions of tablets covered with cuneiform writing, discov- I ered by a peasant woman at Tell-Amarna, or the mound of j Amarna, an important site 150 miles south of Cairo, Egypt, on I the east bank of the Nile, 1887. The British museum obtained [ 48 tablets, mostly in good condition ; the Berlin museum 160, mostly fragments ; the rest are at the museum of Cairo. Their average size is 8f by 4| inches. The largest contains 98 lines, the smallest 10 lines. Probably inscribed 1500 to 1450 b.c. A general record of letters written by the rulers of Egypt to rulers at Babylon, Palestine, Syria, etc., and replies — general ' gossip of governmental news. I tellu'riuin, a fare metal, in its natural state associated : with small quantities of iron and gold, was discovered by Miiller of Reichenstein in 1782, and named by Klaproth. terodyiiamie transmitter, invented by m. Him, is an arrangement of water-wheels, endless wires, and pulleys for conveying and using the power of waterfalls at a distance, and has been much used since 1850. The apparatus was shown at Paris in 1862. tel'plierag^e, an application of electrical motion, in- vented by profs. Jenkin, Ayrton, and Perry for conveying heavy goods ; shown at Milhvall, Engl,, 1884. Teilie§war {tem-esh-var^), Hungary, capital of the Banat, often besieged by the Turks. On 10 Aug. 1849, Hay- nau totally defeated the Hungarians besieging this town, and ! virtually ended the war. [ te monograph, an instrument designed to plot to any accurate scale a section of the ground over which it travels. I It works by frictional motion governed by 2 pendulous I weights. Livented by A. M. Rymer-Jones in 1879. I temperance reform. Maurice, the landgrave ' of Hesse, founded an Order of Temperance, 25 Dec. 1600 ; a total abstinence society existed at Skibbereen, Ireland, in 1817; the Sober Society was formed at AUentown, N. J., in 1805, and this was followed by temperance societies organ- ized, one at Moreau, Saratoga county, N. Y., 30 Apr. 1808, another at Greenfield, N. Y., in 1809, and another at Hector, N. Y., 3 Apr. 1818. The Massachusetts Society for the Sup- pression of Intemperance was instituted at Boston, 5 Feb. 1813, but temperance reform as an organized movement be- gan 13 Feb. 1826, when the American Society for the Pro- motion of Temperance was organized at the Park Street church, Boston, Mass. Drs, Justin Edwards, Woods, Jenks, and Wayland, and messrs. John Tappau and S. V. S. Wilder were prominent in it. First Women's Temperance society organized in Ohio, close of 1828 New York State and Connecticut State Temperance societies organized 1829 Temperance society formed at New Ross, county Wexford, Ire- land 14 Aug. " Young People's Temperance Society, with a pledge of total abstinence, organized at Hector, N. Y .' 22 Aug. '< First society in Scotland, the Mayhill Female Temperance So- ciety, organized by Miss Graham and Miss Allen . . 1 Oct. " Glasgow and West of Scotland Temperance Society organized, 12 Nov. " First temperance society in England organized at Bradford, the Bradford Society for Promoting Temperance 2 Feb. 1830 London Temperance Society, organized about July, 1830, be- comes the British and Foreign Temperance Society, 27 July, 1831 Paisley Youths' Total Abstinence Society organized 14 Jan. 1832 Tradeston Total Abstinence Society organized at Glasgow, 15 Jan. " First temperance society in India organized at Fort William, Calcutta 29 Aug. " Congressional Temperance Society organized at Washington, D. C 26 Feb. 1833 1 TEM flnt National Temperance convention meets at Philadelphia; 440 delegates fh>m 12 sUtes. 24-27 May, Word " Tketotalkr " originates with Richard Turner, a work- man at Preston, Kngl., enters the English dictionary. . .about Independent Order of Rkchabitks founded at Salford, Engl, 25 Aug. Father Malhew, Capuchin friar of Cork, Ireland, " the Apos tie of TemiHsrance," signs the pledge and begins his great work in Ireland 10 Apr. First great medical declaration in favor of total abstinence signed by 79 members of the London medical faculty, 11 May, Order of Sons of Temperance organized in New York. .'2i) Sept. John B. iJough signs the pledge at Worcester, Mass 31 Oct. Father Mathew visits England in the cause of temperance, ar- riving at London 28 July, First National Temperance convention in Germany held at Hamburg 6-9 Aug. First World's Temperance convention in London 4-8 Aug. First "Baud of Hope" organized at Leeds Oct. George Cruikshauk in the cause of temperance issues a series of 8 engravings under the title, "The Bottle," 1847, and a second series of 8 entitled " Drunkards' Children " Father Mathew visits the U. S. ; arriving in New York on the Ashburton, he is welcomed at the Irving house as the guest of the city 2 July, British and Foreign Temperance Society dissolved Maine Liquor law passed 2 June, Order of Good Tbmplars formed in New York state Father Mathew sails from Philadelphia on the Pacific for Ire- land after an extended tour throughout the U. S 8 Nov. Rev. dr. Justin Edwards d 23 July, John B. Gough makes a 2 years' tour of England, delivering his first address in Exeter hall, London 2 Aug. World's Temperance convention in Metropolitan hall, N.Y., 6-10 Sept. Father Mathew d. at Queenstown, Ireland 8 Dec. Spirit rations in the navy of the U. S. abolished after. . .1 Sept. Statue of Father Mathew unveiled in Cork, Ireland 10 Oct. National Temperance Society and publication house, with headquarters at New York, organized National Prohibition party organized at Chicago, 111., 1-2 Sept. Inaugunil meeting of the Church of England Temperance So- ciety at Lambeth palace 18 Feb. Blue-ribbon movement begun by Francis Murphy of Maine. . . . Woman's temperance crusade begins in Hillsborough, 0., Dec. National Women's Christian Temperance Union organized, 18-20 Nov. British Women's Temperance Association organized at Newcas- tle on-Tyne 21 Apr. Women's International Temperance congress in Philadelphia, Pa. 12 June, International Temperance congress in Philadelphia, Pa., 13-14 June, Temperance Society of the Blue Cross organized in Geneva, Switzerland 21 Sept. 788 TEM 1842 1843 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1856 1862 1864 1869 1873 1874 1876 1877 Department of Scientific Temperance in Public schools created in connection with the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 1880 John B. Gough d. in Philadelphia, aged 69 17 Feb. 1886 Law for compulsory temperance education in public schools passed by Congress for District of Columbia and the territo- ries (and by nearly every state legislature since) 17 May, " temperature, heat or cold as related to sensation; the degree of heat or cold indicated by the thermometer. The temperature of any locality is the result of, 1st, the sun's rays; 2d, its latitude : 3d, the surface of the earth ; 4th, ocean- ic currents ; 5th, winds and their direction. The mean tem- perature of any locality for a year furnishes no adequate idea of its climate ; the mean temperature may be 55° and not vary 6°, or it may be 55° and vary many degrees. But the average temperature of a place for any month may be regard- ed as a partial expression of its climate for that time ; thus, the average temperature at El Paso, Texas, for January is the same as at Victoria, Vancouver's island. The temperature of space or "absolute zero" is placed at —493° Fahr., while the lowest recorded temperature of the atmosphere is —90° at Werchojansk, Siberia. The extreme range of temperature in the northern hemisphere is about 217.8°; maximum, 127.4° at Onargle, Algeria, 17 July, 1879; minimum —90.4° at Wer- chojansk, Siberia, 15 Jan. 1885. Extreme range in one place, at Yakutsk, Siberia, 181.4°, and at Poplar Prairie, Montana, U. S., 172.7°. Lowest mean temperatures in the U. S. are at St. Vincent, Minn. ; 10 years, annual 34°, for January 4.8° Fahr. Highest mean temperature, Rio Grande City, Tex., 7 years : annual, 73.1°; for June, 93.9° Fahr. At Point Barrow, Alaska, the temperature of the earth at a depth of 37 ft. was found to be 12°; estimating an increase of 1° in 50 ft., the earth would still be frozen at a depth of 1000 ft. ; at Irkutsk, Siberia, the earth was found frozen at a depth of 382 ft. The annual tem- perature at the surface of the sea ranges from 75° Fahr., just north of the equator along the Gold Coast, Africa, to 28° in the great frozen sea north of Grinnell's Land. The mean equato- rial temperature of land and water is about 81.5°, of the land alone about 83°; the hottest being in tropical Africa, 85.1°. Of sudden and great changes in temperature in the U. S., the following notable instances are given. Fall of 49.7° in 8 hours at fort Maginnis, Mont., 6 Jan. 1886; fall of 63.3° in 16 hours at Abilene, Tex., 27 Dec, 1886. Rise of 55.1° in 8 hours at Campo, San Diego county, Cal. ; rise of 65° in 24 liours at Florence, Ariz., 22 June, 1881. HIGHEST AND LOWEST TEMPERATURE, WITH TIME OF OBSERVATION AT SIGNAL STATIONS IN EACH STATE IN THE UNITED STATES. Fahr. 106. 90 1190 104.5° 111.50 105.2° 100° 98° 104.3° 104° 116° 103° 101° 109° 104.4° 108° 104.6° 107° 97° 101.8° 101.50 101° 103.2° 101° 106.4° 110.8° 107° 104° 93.30 101° 115° 100° 107° 105° 103.5° Montgomery, Ala Fort McDowell, Ariz. Fort Smith, Ark Red Bluff, Cal Las Animas, Col New Haven, Conn Delaware Breakwater, Del. Washington, D. C Jacksonville, Fla Augusta, Ga Lapwai, Ida Cairo, 111 Indianapolis, Ind Fort Gibson, I. T Des Moines, la , Dodge City, Kan Louisville, Ky , Shreveport, La Portland, Me , Baltimore, Md Boston, Mass , Detroit, Mich St. Vincent, Minn Vicksburg, Miss St. Louis, Mo Fort Benton, Mont. . . North Platte, Neb Winnemucca, Nev Manchester, N. H Sandv Hook, N. J Fort Bayard, N. M..., New York city, N. Y. Kitty Hawk, N. C Bismarck, N. Dak Cincinnati, July, June, (July, (Aug. July, Sept. Aug. Sept. July, (Aug. July, Aug. July, Aug. iJuly, [Aug. July, Sept. July, Aug. June, July, 1881 1887 1884 1886 1887 1885 1881 1885 1881 1879 1878 1881 (( 1879 1886 1876 1881 1875 1881 1876 1887 1881 1887 1886 1881 1886 1877 Sept. July, Sept. July, Aug. July, 1881 1882 1881 1887 1876 1881 Lowest tern. Fahr. 5° —18° —70 -25.5° — 2d° —14° 1° —14° 15° _20 —38° -23° —25° —20° -31.5° —29° —19.5° —1.50 —21° -6° —13° —33.4° —53.5° 30 —21.50 -63° —34.6° —28° —11° -10° —18° —23° —5° -44° —28° Montgomery, Ala. Prescott, Ariz . .". . Fort Smith, Ark. Fort Bidwell, Cal Denver, Col New Haven, Conn Delaware Breakwater, Del. Washington, D. C Pensacola, Fla Atlanta, Ga Eagle Rock, Id Chicago, 111 Indianapolis, Ind.. Fort Reno, I. T.... Dubuque, la Leavenworth, Kan. Louisville, Ky Shreveport, La Jan. 1886 Dec. 1879 " 1876 " 1873 Dec. 1880 Jan. 1881 Eastport, Me Baltimore, Md Boston, Mass Mackinaw City, Mich. St. Vincent, Minn Vicksburg, Miss St. Louis, Mo Poplar Prairie, Mont . North Platte, Neb Winnemucca, Nev Manchester, N. H Barnegat, N. J Fort Stanton, N. M . . . Oswego, N. Y Cliarlotte, N. C Bismark, N. Dak Sandusky, Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Feb. Jan. Feb. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Feb. 1872 1884 1873 1884 1886 1884 1881 1882 1881 1888 1886 1884 1885 1888 1886 1875 1887 1887 1884 TEM 789 TEN HIGHEST AND LOWEST TEMPERATURE, ETC.— (Continued.) ! Highest I tem. Fahr. 110° 103° 92° 104° 111° 104° 113° 104° 97° 103° 104° 97° 101° 101° Umatilla, Ore Pittsburg, Pa Narragausett Pier, R. I Charlotte, S. C Pierne, S. D Nashville, Tenn El Paso, Tex Fort Thornburg, Utah. Burlington, Vt Cape Henry, Va Walla Walla, Wash.... Morgantown, W. Va. . . La Crosse, Wis Cheyenne, Wyo Aug. 1882 July, 1881 " 1885 " 1875 June, 1876 Aug. 1874 June, 1883 July, 1884 Aug. 1876 " 1881 July, 1886 " 1874 " 1881 Lowest tem. Fahr. —39° —16° —9° 11° —4.3° —16° —14.2° —20° —25° —5° -30.5° -10° —42° —57° Fort Klamath, Ore ... , Erie, Pa Narragansett Pier, R. I Charlotte, S. C Huron, S. Dak Knoxville, Tenn Fort Elliott, Tex Salt Lake City, Utah.. Burlington, Vt Lynchburg, Va Spokane Falls, Wash. . Morgantown, W. Va. . . La Crosse, Wis Fort Wasakie, Wyo. . . Jan. 1888 Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Feb. Jan. Feb. 1884 1878 1885 1884 1882 1880 1883 DATE OF THE EARLIEST, LATEST, AND AVERAGE AUTUMNAL KILLING FROST IN DIFFERENT LOCATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. Washington, Ark... Sacramento, Cal Middletown, Conn. . Forsyth, Ga Peoria, 111 Monticello, la Lawrence, Kan Gardiner, Me Amherst, Mass Holly Springs, Miss. 44' N. 33' " 30' " 59' " 41' " 45' " Killing frost. 30 Sept. 17 Oct. 10 Sept. 17 Oct. 1 Oct. 25 Aug. 29 Sept. 4 Sept. 10 Aug. 10 Oct. Latest. 16 Nov. 31 Dec. 22 Oct. 25 Nov. 17 Nov. 13 Oct. 18 Nov. 22 Oct. 8 Oct. 30 Nov. Average. 28 Oct. 19 Nov. 2 Oct. 8 Nov. 27 Oct. 17 Sept. 20 Oct. lOct. 20 Sept. 30 Oct. Place. Oregon, Mo DeSoto, Neb Cooperstown, N. Y Portsmouth, Ohio. Brandon, Ore Bethany, Pa New Ulm, Tex Lunenburg, Vt Wytheville, Va Manitowoc, Wis. . . Killing frost. 17 Sept. 24 Sept. 3 Sept. 11 Sept. 9 Sept. 30 Aug. 12 Nov. 5 Aug. 26 Aug. 18 Sept. Latest. 3 Nov. 31 Oct. 22 Oct. 14 Nov. 18 Nov. 21 Oct. 15 Dec. 16 Nov. 14 Oct. 13 Nov. Average. 9 Oct. 10 Oct. 27 Sept. 11 Oct. 9 Oct. 23 Sept. 25 Nov. 20 Sept. 19 Sept. 16 Oct. LATITUDE AND MEAN TEMPERATURE OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF EUROPE. Cities. Latitude. Mean tem. Remarks. St Petersburg Russia 59° 55' 59° 21' 55° 57' 55° 40' 52° 31' 52° 22' 51° 31' 48° 50' 48° 12' 41° 54' 41° 40° 26' 31° 12' 38.7° 42.3° 47° 40° 48° 49.8° 50.8° 51.3° 51° 60° 57.4° 58° 69° Latitude nearly that of the mouth of Churchill river, Hudson's bay. Stockholm Sweden Edinburgh Scotland Latitude about that of fort York, central Hudson's bay. Moscow Russia . . Berlin Germany . . . Latitude of the Saskatchewan district Canada Amsterdam Holland . . . Latitude of fort Moose, southern extremity of Hudson's bay. Rome, Italy Latitude about that of Providence, R. I. Constantinople, Turkey " " New York city. Madrid Spain " " Philadelphia. Alexandria Egypt " " Baton Rouge. Teinplar§. The military order of "Soldiers of the Temple" was founded about 1118 by a Burgundian knight, Hugh de Paynes or Paganis (d. 1136), and 8 other knights at Jerusalem for the purpose of protecting pilgrims by guarding the public roads leading there. Baldwin II., then king of Jerusalem, granted them quarters and otherwise protected them. The order was confirmed by pope Honorius II., 1128. The Templars were numerous in several countries, and came to England before 1185. Their wealth having excited the cupidity of Philip IV. of France, the order was suppressed on charges of infidelity, gross immorality, and other crimes, by the council of Vienne, mostly through his eflfbrts, and part of its revenues was bestowed upon other orders about 1312. The order suffered persecution throughout Europe, 1308-10, espe- cially in France, where many were burned alive or hanged ; 68 knights being burned at Paris, 1310. Pope Clement V. abolished the order, Apr. 1312. The grandmaster Molay was burned alive at Paris, 18 Mch. 1314. Their property in England was given to the Hospitallers, and the head of the order in England died in the Tower. As confessions were ex- torted under cruel torture, it is probable that most of the charges were false. Temple, London, the dwelling of the Knights Tem- plars, 1185, at the suppression of the order was purchased by the professors of the common law and converted into inns, 1311, afterwards called the Inner and Middle Temple. Essex house, also a part of the house of the Templars, was called the Outer Temple, because it was situated without Temple bar. Temple hall was built 1572 St. Mary's or the Temple church, situated in the Inner Temple, a Gothic stone building, erected by the Templars in 1240, is remarkable for its circular vestibule, and for tombs of cru- saders. It was recased with stone by Mr. Smirke 1828 New Middle Temple library opened by prince of Wales.. 31 Oct. 1861 Temple bar erected outside the gates; ordered to be rebuilt, 27 June, 1669; erected by sir C. Wren; completed Mch. 1672-73; cost 13911. 10s. ; room above contained books of Child & Co. for 200 years; reported dangerous, Mch.; began to sink, 30 July ; shored up 1868 [Its removal voted by the common council, 27 Sept. 1876; began 2 Jan. 1878; last stones removed 13 June, 1879 (set up in Epping forest).] New Inner Temple hall opened by princess Louise 14 May, 1870 Memorial to mark the site (including statues of the queen and prince of Wales) ; cost about 11,550^. ; inaugurated by prince Leopold 8 Nov. 1880 temple (Gr.r£jLi£j/oc,Lat. templum),an enclosure or build- ing set apart for religious rites; an edifice dedicated to the service of a deity or deities, and connected with a system of worship. The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to their gods. — Herodotus. The Greeks greatly excelled in this style of edifice. Most of the heathen temples were de- stroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantine the Great and Theodosius, 331-392. 1st temple at Jerusalem built by Solomon, 10 12-1004 b.c. ; described by Josephus, bk. viii. chap, iii., Whiston's transl. ; pillaged by Shishak, king of Egypt, 971 ; repaired by Joash, 856 ; destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Assyria, 586. 2d temple built by Zerubbabel, 536-30; much inferior to Solomon's ; pillaged by Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria, 170; taken by Pompey, and its most holy place seen by him, 63. 3d temple built by Herod, the most mag- nificent of the 3, covering 19 acres, 18 b.c. ; destroyed by Titus, 70 A.D. Fergusson's " Temples of the Jews," pub. London, 1878. Architecture, Delphi, Diana, Parthe- non, Pantheon. Xen'edos, an island in the .^gean sea, off the coast of ancient Troas, whither the Greeks retired, as Virgil narrates, to surprise the Trojans {^En. ii. 21, 254); now belonging to Turkey. Teneriffe, Canary islands. TEN 790 TEN Tennessee, one of the southern United States, lies between the Alleghany mounuins on the east and the Mississippi river on the west. It is bounded on the north by Kentucky and Vir- ginia, east by North Caro- lina, south by Georgia, Ala- bama, and Mississippi, and west by Arkansas and Mis- souri. It lies between 35° and 36° 35' N. lat., and 81° 37 ' and 90° 15' W. Ion. Area, 42,050 sq. miles, in 96 counties; pop. 1890, 1,767,518. Capi- tal, Nashville. Louis JoUet and P^re Jacques Marquette descend the Missis- sippi river to lat. 33° 1673 Robert Cavalier de La Salle builds fort I'rud'homme on the 4tb Cluckasaw bluff of the Mississippi river 1682 M. Charleville. a French trader, builds a trading-house near the present site of Nashville on the west side of the Cum- berland river 1714 French erect fort Assumption on the Mississippi at the 4th Chickasaw bluff " Bienville makes a treaty of peace with the Chickasaw Indians at fort Assumption June, 1739 Party of Virginians, dr. Thomas Walker and others, discover the Cumberland mountains, Cumberland gap, and Cumber- laud river. 1748 Fori lioudon founded near confluence of the Tellico and Little Tennessee rivers, about 30 miles from the present Knox- ville 1756 Col. Bird builds Long Island fort on the Holston river, near its north fork, where the American army winters 1768 Cherokees capture fort Loudon. The garrison, after the sur- render, start out for fort Prince George; after proceeding about 15 miles they are massacred by the Indians 7 Aug. 1760 Capt. James Smith and others explore the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers from above Nashville down to the Ohio 1766 By treaty at fort Stanwix (Utica, N. Y.) the Six Nations cede the country north and east of the Tennessee 5 Nov. 1768 Capt William Bean settles on Boone creek, near Watauga 1769 Company formed to hunt and explore middle Tennessee, with camp at Price's Meadows, Wayne county " Written association formed for the government of the Watauga settlers, and 5 commissioners appointed as a governing court, 1772 Col. Richard Henderson, Nathaniel Hart, and Daniel Boone purchase from the Indians a tract of country between the Kentucky and Cumberland rivers, which they call Transyl- vania 17 Mch. 1775 Watauga purcliased from the Indians, and deed of conveyance to Charles Robertson executed 19 Mch. " WaUiuga settlers march against the advancing Cherokees, and disperse them in a battle near Long Island fort 20 July, 1776 Cherokees under old Abraham attack the fort at Watauga, but are repulsed 21 July, " Forces under col. William Christian march against and de- stroy the Cherokee towns in E. Tennessee " Washington county, including all of Tennessee, created by a law of North Carolina Nov. 1777 Richard Hogan, Spencer, Holliday, and others come from Ken- tucky and begin a plantation near Bledsoe's Lick 1778 Capt. James Robertson and others from Watauga cross the Cumberland mountains, pitch their tents near French Lick, and plant a field of corn where Nashville now stands 1779 Eleven Chickamanga Indian towns destroyed by troops under Isasic Shelby, who left Big creek, near the site of Rogersville, 10 Apr. «' Jonesi)orough laid off and established as the seat of justice for Washington county " Colony under John Donelson, in open boats, leaving fort Pat- rick Henry on the Holston, descend the Tennessee and as- cend the Cumberland to French Lick, where they found Nashborough 24 Apr. 1780 Form of government for the Cumberland settlements drawn up and articles signed at Nashborough 13 May, " Battle of Boyd's creek, a confluent of the French Broad. Troops under col. John Sevier, returning from the battle of King's mountain, join in expedition against the Cherokees and disperse them on their way to massacre the Watauga settlers Oct. " Indian atrocities and massacres of settlers in middle Tennes see, throughout this and the following year, begin by an at- tack on the house of maj. Lucas at Freeland's station, on the Cumberland, near Stone river 15 Jan. 1781 Battle of the Bluffs, where Nashville now stands; an unsuc- cessful attack of the Cherokees on the fort 2 Apr. " Pre-emption right allowed to settlers on the Cumberland by legislature of North Carolina, 640 acres to each family or head of family Apr. 1782 Court of Oyer and Terminer held at Jonesborough for Washing- ton and Sullivan counties 15 Aug. " Treaty at Nashborough, by which the Chickasaws cede to North Carolina a tract extending nearly 40 miles south from Cumberland river 1783 First Methodist preacher comes to the Holston circuit, which incliules E. Tennessee 1788 Commissioners lay off on Duck river a grant of 2500 acres of land presented by North Carolina to gen. Nathaniel Greene. . " Nashville established by the legislature to succeed Nashbor- ough. 1784 General Assembly of North Carolina cedes to the U. S. terri- tory west of the Alleghany mountains on condition that Congress accepts it within 2 years 2 June, " Believing themselves no longer a part of North Carolina, set- tlers in Washington, Sullivan, and Greene counties meet in convention at Jonesborough, choose John Sevier i)resident, and form a constitution for the state of Fkankland. .14 Dec. " Gov. Caswell of North Carolina pronounces the revolt of Frank- land usurpation 14 Apr. 1786 Constitution for Frankland, or the state of Franklin, accepted by a convention of the people, which meets at Greeneville, and chooses John Sevier as governor 14 Nov. " Capt. James White and James Connor settle on the site of Knoxville 1786 At a conference upon the legality of the state of Frankland it is agreed that the inhabitants are "at full liberty and dis- cretion to pay their public taxes to either the state of North Carolina or the state of Frankland " 20 Mch. 1787 Legislature of Frankland meets for the last time at Greene- ville, and government reverts to North Carolina Sept. " First literary institution in Tennessee incorporated, the Mar- tin academy, at Salem, afterwards (1795) Washington college, 1788 Deed, ratified in General Assembly of North Carolina Dec. 1789, conveying to the U. S. territory west of the Alleghany mountains, is presented in Congress by Samuel Johnston and Benjamin Hawkins, 25 Feb., and accepted by act ap- proved 2 Apr. 1790 William Blount appointed governor of the territory southwest of the Ohio river — the Southwestern territory 7 Aug. " First issue of the Knoxville Gazelle published at Rogersville by George Roulstone 5 Nov. 1791 Knoxville, chosen as the seat of government, is laid out. .Feb. 1792 Attack of over 700 Indians on Buchanan's Station, 4 miles south of Nashville, repulsed by a garrison of 15 30 Sept. " General Assembly meets at Knoxville 5 Aug. 1794 University of Tennessee at Knoxville, chartered 10 Sept. 1794 as Blount college, is opened 1795 State constitution, adopted without popular vote by a conven- tion which sits at Knoxville 11 Jan. -6 Feb. 1796 John Sevier inaugurated first governor of state 30 Mch. " Tennessee admitted into the union by act approved 1 June, " William Blount of Tennessee expelled from the U. S. Senate on charge of instigating the Creeks and Cherokees to assist the British in conquering Spanish Louisiana July, 1797 Treaty with the Cherokees extinguishing claims to land in Tennessee granted to individuals by North Carolina Sept. 1798 Great revival of religion, begun in Kentucky in 1800, spreads through Tennessee 1801 Nashville chosen as seat of government by legislature 1802 Gen. Wilkinson builds fort Pickering at Memphis 1H03 Public reception given to Aaron Burr at Nashville 28 May, 1805 Congress grants 1000 acres in one tract for academies in Ten- nessee, one in each county; 1000 acres more for 2 colleges, Blount in the east and Cumberland in the west 1806 Nashville bank, the first in Tennessee, chartered 1807 Cumberland Presbyterian church organized at the house of Mr. McAdow in Dickson county 4 Feb. 1810 Pair of mummies exhumed fn a cave in Warren county (de- scribed in the Medical Repository) 2 Sept. " John Sevier dies near Fort Decatur, Ala 24 Sept. 1815 Gens. Andrew Jackson and Isaac shelby obtain by treaty from the Chickasaws a cession of their lands north of 35° lat. and east of the Mississippi river, known as the Jackson purchase, 19 Oct. 1818 First conveyance of town lots in Memphis made May, 1819 Madison county organized and Jackson settled 1820 Capital permanently fixed at Nashville 1826 University of Nashville, founded in 1785, incorporated as Cum- berland college in 1806, reorganized in 1824, and name changed, 1827 Two mummies found in a cave in western Tennessee (American Journal of Science, vol. xxii. ) 1828 Andrew Jackson elected president of the U. S 11 Nov. " John H. Eaton appointed secretary of war 9 Mch. 1829 Act for a state system of internal improvements 2 Jan. 1830 Joel Parrish, cashier of the state bank, proves a defaulter for $200,000, and the bank wound up soon after 3 Jan. " Memphis railroad chartered Dec. 1831 State penitentiary at Nashville opened 1832 Andrew Jackson re-elected president of the U. S 13 Nov. " Conviction of John A. Murrell of Madison county, the " great western land pirate" and leader of the "Mystic Clan," a band of outlaws, horse thieves, and negro runners, who was brought to justice by Virgil A. Stewart (Trials) 1834 Constitution framed by a convention which meets at Nashville, 19 May, and completes its labors 30 Aug. 1834; ratified by a popular vote of 42,666 to 17,691 5-6 Mch. 1835 R. H. McEwen elected to the newly created office of superin- tendent of public schools 1836 During this and the previous year the state furnished 1651 vol- unteers for the Florida war 1837 Felix Grundy appointed attorney-general 5 July, 1838 National Whig convention meets at Nashville 17 Aug. 1840 State hospital for the insane opened near Nashville " John Bell appointed secretary of war 5 Mch. 1841 Cumberland university at Lebanon chartered and opened 1842 TEN 791 National Whig convention held at Nashville 21 Aug. 1844 Memphis Couference female institute at Jackson, chartered 1843, opened " State school for the Blind at Nashville opened " James K. Polk elected president of the U. S 12 Nov. " Cave Johnson appointed postinaster-general 6 Mch. 1845 Act for self-taxation of districts for common schools " Tennessee School for Deaf and Dumb at Knoxville opened " Andrew Jackson dies at the Hermitage, aged 78 8 June, " Jas. K. Polk dies at Nashville, aged 54 15 June, 1849 Memphis incori)orated as a city Dec. " Southern conventfon meets at Nashville 3 June, 1850 Convention meets at Nashville, 11 Nov. 1850, and adjourns after recommending a congress of slave-holding states by a vote of 6 states, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Virginia, opposed to Tennessee, 19 Nov. '< James Campbell appointed postmaster-general 5 Mch. 1853 Southern convention meets at Memphis 6 June, " State Agricultural Bureau established 1854 State capitol, commenced in 1845, completed 1855 Aaron V. Brown appointed postmaster-general 6 Mch. 1857 Memphis and Charleston railroad completed, joining the At- lantic ocean with the Mississippi river 27 Mch. " Southern commercial convention at Knoxville, by vote of 64 to 27, recommends abrogation of the 8th article of the Ash- burton treaty, which requires the U. S. to keei) a naval force on the coast "of Africa .10 Aug. " Constitutional Union convention at Baltimore, Md., nominates John Bell of Tennessee for president 9 May, 1860 Call for a state convention at Nashville, to consider secession, is defeated by a vote of the people 9 Feb. 1861 Gov. Isham G. Harris replies to pres. Lincoln's call for troops, "Tennessee will not furnish a single man for coercion, but 50,000 if necessary for the defence of our rights, or those of our Southern brothers " 18 Apr. ' ' Gov. Harris orders the seizure of $75,000 worth of Tennessee bonds and $5000 in cash belonging to the U. S. government, in possession of the collector at Nashville 29 Apr. " Majority vote of the state favors a declaration of independence for Tennessee and the acceptance of the provisional govern- ment of the Confederate states 8 June, " Eastern Tennessee Union convention at Greeneville declares its opposition to the Confederate government 21 June, " Gov. Harris proclaims Tennessee out of the Union 24 June, " Confederate commissary and ordnance stores at Nashville de stroy ed by fire 22 Dec Com. Foote defeats gen. Lloyd Tilghman and captures fort Henry 6 Feb. Bombardment of Fort Donklson begins 13 Feb. ; fort surren dered to gen. Grant by gen. Buckner with 13,829 prisoners, 16 Feb. Seat of government removed to Memphis 20 Feb, Confederates evacuate Nashville, and the federals under Nel son enter 23 Feb. Andrew Johnson, commissioned brigadier-general of volun teers and appointed military governor of Tennessee 5 Mch., arrives at Nashville 12 Mch Gov. Johnson suspends the mayor and other officials in Nash ville for refusing the oath of allegiance to the U. S 5 Apr, Two days' battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh 6-7 Apr. Union meetings held at Nashville 12 May, and at Murfrees- borough 24 May, " Memphis surrendered to com. Davis 6 June, " Battle of MuRFRKKSBOROuGH 31 Dec. 1862-4 Jan. 1863 Battle of Spring Hill; confederates under geu. Earl Van Dorn victorious 5 Mch. " Van Dorn repulsed by federals under gen. Gordon Granger at Franklin 10 Apr. " Federal raid under col. Abel D. Streight starts from Nashville (Streight's raid) 11 Apr. " Kingston and Knoxville, evacuated by confederates under gen. Simon B. Buckner, occupied by Federal troops under gen. A. E. Burnside 1 Sept. " Chattanooga abandoned by confederates under gen. Braxton Bragg, 8 Sept. ; Cumberland gap surrendered to federals, 9 Sept. " Confederates under gen. James Longstreet defeat federals at Philadelphia, E. Tenn 20 Oct. " Gen. Grant arrives at NashvUie 21 Oct,, and at Chattanooga, 23 Oct. " Gen. W. E. Jones, confederate, defeats col. Garrard at Rogers- ville 6 Nov. " Longstreet besieges Knoxville and is repulsed (Fort Sanders), 17 Nov. " Grant defeats Bragg in battle of Chattanooga (Chattanooga CAMPAIGN) 23-25 Nov. " Longstreet repulses federals under gen. J. M. Shackelford at Bean's Station. E. Tennessee 14 Dec. " Fort Pillow captured by confederates under gen. N. B. For- rest, and garrison of colored troops annihilated 12 Apr. 1864 Federals under gen. A. C. Gillem surprise the Confederate gen. John H. Morgan at the house of a Mrs. Williams in Greene- ville, E. Tenn. In attempting to escape he is killed... 4 Sept. " Federals under Schofleld repulse confederates under Hood at Franklin 30 Nov. " Federals retire from Franklin and occupy Nashville, 1 Dec. ; Hood advances and partially invests Nashville 3-14 Dec. " Thomas defeats Hood at Nashville 15-16 Dec. " Constitutional amendment abolishing slavery framed by a convention which sits at Nashville 9 Jan. to 26 Jan. 1865, ratified by a vote of the people 21,104 to 40 22 Feb. 1866 TEN Legislature ratifies the XIIT.th Amendment to the Constitution of the U. S 5 Apr. 1865 Pres. Lincoln dies, Andrew Johnson president 15 Apr. '• Law disfranchising all citizens who have voluntarily borne arms for or aided the Confederate government 1866 Law making negroes and Indians competent witnesses " Race riot in Memphis; 24 negroes killed 1-3 May, " XlV.th Amendment to Constitution of the U. S. ratified by the legislature 19 July, " Tennessee readmitted into the Union by act approved, 24 July, " All distinction of race or color in qualifications for electors abolished Feb. 1867 Fisk university at Nashville, opened 1866, chartered " Petition for removal of disabilities signed by nearly 4000 citi- zens, including leading men of the state, is presented to the legislature, but not granted I868 Act to suppress the Ku-klux-klan entitled "An Act to Pre- serve the Public Peace," punishes membership by a fine of not less than $500 or imprisonment for 5 years " University of the South at Suwanee, chartered in 1858, opened, " Gov. Brownlow calls out the state militia to suppress the Ku- klux-klan, and proclaims martial law in 9 counties. .20 Feb. 1869 Southern Commercial convention held at Memphis; 1100 del- egates from 22 states 18 May, ' ' Constitution, framed by a convention which sat at Nashville 10 Jan. to 22 Feb., ratified by a popular vote of 98.128 to 33, 872 26 Mch. 1870 Colored Methodist Episcopal church of America organized at Jackson by bishop Paine 16 Dec. " Reunion and Reform association meets at Nashville 13 Oct. 1871 Le Moyne Normal institute at Memphis opened " Office of Chief Commissioner of Immigration for the state cre- ated by act of legislature " Agricultural Bureau organized under act of legislature, 14 Dec. " Convention at Jackson to promote the formation of a new state, out of western Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi, 29 July, 1873 Convention of colored people in Nashville, seeking their full rights as citizens of the U. S., politically and socially, 28 Apr. 1874 Sixteen negroes, 22 Aug. , charged with shooting at 2 white men, are taken from Trenton jail and shot dead by disguised men, 26 Aug. " E. Tennessee hospital for the insane located at Knoxville " Andrew Johnson, ex-president of the U. S., dies near Jones- borough 31 July, 1875 Peabody Normal college at Nashville opened " Vanderbilt university at Nashville, chartered 1873, opened " Southwestern Baptist university at Jackson, chartered 1874, opened " David McKendree Key appointed postmaster-general .. 12 Mch. 1877 Yellow-fever in Memphis (Yellow-fever) 1878-79 Bill passed, 28 Mch. 1879, to settle the state debt at the rate of 50 cents on the dollar, with 4 percent, interest, is rejected by vote of the people, 30,920 to 19,669 7 Aug. 1879 New Rugby founded 1880 Centennial anniversary of the settlement of Nashville celebrated 17-24 May, and equestrian statue of gen. Jackson unveiled on the capitol grounds 20 May, " Horace Maynard appointed postmaster-general 2 June, " Normal academy at Morristown opened 1881 Act of 5 Apr. 1881, to settle the state debt by issue of new com- promise bonds bearing 3 per cent, interest, and coupons re- ceivable in payment for taxes and debts due the state, is de- clared unconstitutional Feb. 1882 Quadrennial General conference of the Methodist church, South, meets at Nashville 3 May, " Law of 1882 for settlement of state debt repealed, and a new law passed for funding at a discount of 24 per cent, on 6 per cent. bonds, and others in proportion 1883 West Tennessee hospital for the insane, located at Bolivar, Har- deman county 1886 Tennessee Industrial school for boys at Nashville opened for the reception of pupils 1887 Ward's seminary for young ladies at Nashville, opened 1885, chartered " Prohibitory constitutional amendment lost by a vote of 117,504 in favor, to 145,197 against Aug. " General Assembly at its session adopts the Australian ballot sys- tem, creates a State Board of Medical Examiners, and con- veys to the Ladies' Hermitage association the homestead of Andrew Jackson and 25 acres of land 7 Jan. -8 Apr. 1889 National Teachers' Association meets at Nashville 15 June, " Remains of John Sevier removed from Alabama, and interred at Knoxville " National League of Republican clubs meets at Nashville. 4 Mch. 1890 Special session of the legislature held at Nashville by proclama- tion (11 Feb.) of the governor 24 Feb.-18 Mch. " First Monday in September (Labor day) made a legal holiday by the legislature at session ending 30 Mch. 1891 Miners at Briceville attack the state militia, and secure the withdrawal of convict miners from the mines of the Tennes- see Coal and Knoxville Iron companies 20 July, " Miners refer the convict mining system to the legislature, 24 July, " Sarah Childress Polk, widow of pres. Polk, b. 1803, d. at Nash- ville 14 Aug. " Legislature meets in extra session to consider the convict-labor system 31 Aug. '• Legislature resolves that it is powerless to abolish the convict- lease system, but will not renew the lease 4-6 Sept. " TEN 792 TEU Miners of BrJceville set free 160 convicts, and 140 more at an- other prison 31 Oct. 1891 Over 200 convicts set free in E. Tennessee by miners. . .2 Nov. " Ex-gov Albert S. Marks dies suddenly at Nashville 4 Nov. *' National Real EsUte Association formally organized in Nash- ville 18 Feb. 1892 Mining troubles in Coal Creek valley settled; convicts to be replaced by white ft-ee miners. 19 Feb. " Steel cantilever bridge over the Mississippi at Memphis opened, 12 May, " Confederate Soldiers' Home at the Hermitage formally opened, 12 May, " Miners burn the convict stockade at Tracy City, 13 Aug., and make an attack on the stockade at Oliver Springs 16 Aug. " Miners capture the stockade at Oliver Springs, and send the guards and convicts to Knoxville 17 Aug. " Minersdefeatedandroutedbymilitiaundergen. Carnes, 19 Aug. " Convention of National Farmers' Alliance opens in Memphis, 15 Nov. " TERRITORIAL GOVERNOR. William Blount, appointed governor of the territory southwest of theOhio 7 Aug. 1790 STATE GOVERNORS. John Sevier assumes office 30 Mch. 1796 Archibald Roane '• Sept. 1801 John Sevier «' " 1803 STATE William Blount GOVERNORS.— (Conrtnued. ) . . . .assumes office RArtt IftOO Joseph McMinn " lUIR William Carroll ,, ' ' 1 ftOI Samuel Houston u " 1ft07 William Carroll t( u James K. Polk tt t( i( Neil S. Brown (t William Trousdale (( William B. Campbell.. " " 1851 11 *■ ■ ■ 12 Mch. 1861 Apr. 1865 . Oct 1869 " 1871 Jan. 1875 " 1879 W. G. Brownlow DeWitt C. Senter J, John C. Brown t( James D. Porter, jr « Alberts. Marks tl Alvin Hawkins (( William B. Bate (( Robert L. Taylor l( " 1887 " 1891 ' ' 1893 John P. Buchanan It Peter Turney it * * ' H. Clay Evans u " 1895 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF TENNESSEE. No. of Congress. William Blount.., William Cocke Joseph Anderson. . Andrew Jackson., Daniel Smith Joseph Anderson. . Daniel Smith Jenkin Whiteside George W. Campbell. . . Jesse Wharton John Williams . . . . George W. Campbell. . . John Henry Eaton Andrew Jackson Hugh Lawson White. . Felix Grundy Ephraim H. Foster Alexander Anderson. . . Felix Grundy Alfred 0. P. Nicholson. Ephraim H. Foster Spencer Jamagin Hopkins L. Turney John Bell James C. Jones Andrew Johnson 4th to 5th 4lh " 9th 5th 6th to 14th 9th " 11th 11th " 12th 12th " 13th 13th " 14th 14th " 18th 14th " 15th 15th " 2l8t 18th " 19th 1796 to 1797 1796 " 1805 1797 " 1798 1798 1799 to 1815 1805 " 1809 1809 " 1811 1811 " 1814 1814 " 1815 1815 " 1823 1815 " 1818 1818 " 1829 1823 " 1825 19th 26th 25th Alfredo. P. Nicholson. 21st 25th " 26th 26th " 27th 26th 26th to 28th 28th " 29th 28th " 30th 29th " 32d 30th " 36th 32d " 35th 35th " 38th 36th 1825 1829 1838 1840 1839 1841 1843 1843 1845 1847 1851 1857 1840 1838 1839 1841 1840 1843 1845 1847 1851 1859 1857 1862 Joseph S. Fowler David T. Patterson William G. Brownlow , Henry Cooper Andrew Johnson David McKendree Key James E. Bailey , Ishain G. Harris Howell E. Jackson Washington C. Whitthorne . William B. Bate 39th to 42d 39th " 41st 41st " 44th 42d " 45th 44th 44th to 47th 45th " 47th " 49th 49th '' 50th 50th X 1859 " 1861 Congress, 1863 1866 to 1871 1866 " 1869 1869 " 1875 1871 " 1877 1875 1875 to 1877 1877 " 1881 1877 " 1881 " 1886 Seated 5 Dec. Expelled for "high misdemeanor," 8 July, 1797. Elected in place of Blount. Resigned 1798. Appointed in place of Jackson. f Elected in place of Jackson ; elected president pro tern. 15 Jan. , 28 ( Feb., and 2 Mch. 1805. Resigned 1809. Elected in place of Smith. Resigned 1811. Elected in place of Whiteside. Resigned 1814. Appointed in place of Campbell Resigned 1818. Appointed in place of Campbell. Resigned 1829. Resigned 1825. ; Elected in place of Jackson ; elected president _pro tern. 3 Dec. 1832 [ and 2 Dec. 1833. Resigned 1840. ■ Elected in place of Eaton. Resigned 1838. Appointed in place of Grundy. Elected in place of White. Died in office. Appointed in place of Grundy. Nominated by the Union party for president of the U. S., 1860. r Appointed military governor of Tennessee by pres. Lincoln, 1862. < Elected vice-president U. S., 1864; succeeded to the presidency ( on death of Lincoln, 1865. Expelled, 3 July, 1861. to 1865, vacant. Served special session, 4-24 Mch. 1875; d. 31 July, 1875. Appointed /)ro tern, in place of Johnson. Elected in place of Johnson. Term expires 1901. Resigned 1886. Appointed in place of Jackson. Term expires 1899. tennis was played in France in a regular court, but with the bare hands, as illustrated in the "Book of Hours," 1496. It was played in England with a racket in 1505. In 1657 there were 114 tennis courts in Paris ; in 1890 there were but 2. First book giving an account of tennis published at Venice by Antonio Scaino da .Salo 1555 Edmond Barre, greatest professional tennis player on record, dies at Paris 20 Jan. 1873 George Lambert, English champion, defeated at Hampton Court, in a 3 days' match, by Thomas Pettitt of Boston, Mass 1885 Tenure-Of-Offlce act. United States, Dec. 1866 ; Mch. 1867. ter'bium, a rare metal, sometimes found with yttrium. Terra del Fue'g^O ("land of fire"), an island south of South America, separated from the mainland by the strait of Magellan, who discovered it, 1520, and named it from the numerous fires seen on it at night. Te§t act, directing all oflicers, civil and military, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of the Church of England, and to take the oaths against tran- substantiation, etc. ; enacted b}' the British Parliament, 29 Mch. 167.9. The Test and Corporation acts were repealed, 9 May, 1828. University tests. Testri, a village of N. France. Pepin d'Heristal, invited by malcontents, here defeated and captured Thierry III., king of Austrasia, and established himself as duke, 687. Xettentiall, Staffordshire. It was probably at this place, then named Teotenheal, that the Danes were defeated by the Saxon king, Edward the Elder, 6 Aug. 910. Xet'uan, a walled seaport town of Morocco, was entered by the Spaniards, 6 Feb. 1860, after a decisive victorj' on 4 Feb. The general, O'Donnell, was made a grandee of the first class. TeutOberg forest (the Teutobergiensh saltus. — Tacitus), probably situate between Detmold and Paderbom, Germany, where Hermann, or Arminius, and the Germans de- feated the Romans under Varus with very great slaughter, 9 a.d.. Varus and many of his officers preferred suicide to captivity. TEU 793 This defeat was regarded at Rome as a national calamity, and Augustus, in agony, cried, " Varus, give me back my le- gions !" Teu'tonei, a people of Germany, who with the Cimbri made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces 2 Roman armies, 113 and 105 i$.€. They were at last defeated by the consul Marius at Aix, and a great number made prisoners, 102 b.c. (Cimbri, with whom authors commonly join the Teutones). The appellation came to be applied to the German nation in general. XeutOll'ic order, military knights established in the Holy Land about 1191, through the humanity of the Ger- mans (Teutones) to the sick and wounded of the Christian army in the Holy Land, under Guy of Lusignan, before Acre. The order was confirmed by a bull of pope Ccelestine III. On their return to Germany, the knights were invited to subdue and Christianize the country now called Prussia and its neigh- borhood, and did so gradually. Their territories were invaded, and their army was defeated, with great slaughter, near Tan- nenberg, in E. Prussia, by Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, 15 July, 1410, when the grandmaster and many of the knights were slain. A large part of their possessions was incorporated into Poland in 1466, and into Brandenburg about 1521. In 1525 the grandmaster was made a prince of the empire, and the order much weakened. Its remaining possessions were seized by Napoleon I. in 1809. Prussia, etc. XewRes'bury, a borough of (Gloucestershire, Engl., where Edward IV. crushed the Lancastrians, 4 May, 1471. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., was taken prisoner and her son killed. "Clarence is come — false, fleeting, perjur'd Clarence, That stabb'd me in the field by Tewksbury." — "Richard III.," act i. sc. iv. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, where king Henry expired soon after; being, as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475 by the French king, Louis XL, for 50,000 crowns. Rosks. Abbey, founded by Robert Fitz-Hamon, cousin of William I., com plated and consecrated 1123; grandly altered, 14th century; a monastery destroyed by Henry VIII. ; the abbey spared; restored by G. G. Scott, 1877-79. Texa§, one of the southern states of the U. S., is bounded on the north by Oklahoma and the Indian territory, east by Ar- kansas and Louisiana, south by the gulf of Mexico andMexico, and west by Mexico and New Mexico. It lies between 25° 51' and 36° 30' N. lat., and 93° 27' and 106° 40' W. Ion. Area, 265,780 sq. miles ; pop. 1890, 2,235,523. Capital, Austin. Robert Cavalier de La Salle, sailing from France with 4 ships, 24 July, 1684, fails to discover the mouth of the Mississippi and lands near the entrance to Mat- agorda bay 18 Feb. 1685 La Salle builds fort St. Louis on the Lavaca July, " La Salle murdered by 2 followers near the Neches river, 30 Mch. 1687 Capt. De Leon, sent from Mexico against French settlers at fort St. Louis, on the Lavaca river, finds it deserted, 22 Apr. 1689 Spanish mission of San Francisco at fort St. Louis estab- lished 1690 Don Domingo Teran de los Rios aiipointed governor of Coahuila and Texas 1691 San Antouio founded 1693 H. St. Denis sent out by Lamothe Cadillac, governor of Louis- iana, to open commercial relation with Mexico, reaches the mission of St. John the Baptist, on the Rio Grande, where he is arrested by the governor of Coahuila and imprisoned, Aug. 1714 Spanish mission established near the site of Nacogdoches 1715 Spanish mission established at La Bahia, now Goliad 1721 Bienville, under orders from the company of the Indies, sends a colony by sea to Matagorda bay 10 Aug. " Settlement of San Antonio de Bexar increased by 13 families from the Canary islands sent by the Spanish government; they found " La Purissima Concepcion de Acuna " . . .5 Mch. 1731 Don Manuel de Sandoval appointed governor of Texas 1734 "Walls of the church of the Alamo erected at San Antonio de Bexar May, 1744 TEX Indians attack the mission of San Saba and massacre all 1758 France cedes Louisiana to Spain 3 Nov. 1762 Louisiana re-ceded to France by secret treaty 1 Oct. 1800 Philip Nolan, an American, obtains a passport from the baron de Carondelet, governor of Louisiana, to buy horses in Texas, 17 July, 1797. In the belief that he was commissioned by . gen. Wilkinson to reconnoitre and raise an insurrection, «/ Mexicans under lieut. M. Muzquiz overtake him on the banks of the Blanco; Nolan is killed and his followers capt- ured 21 Mch. 1801 Texas mcluded in cession of Louisiana by France to the U. S., ratified at Washington 21 Oct. 1803 Spanish commander, gen. Herrera, enters into an agreement with gen. Wilkinson, establishing the territory between the Sabine and Arroyo Honda rivers as neutral ground, 22 Oct. 1806 Lieut. -col. Zebulon Pike arrives at San Antonio on his re- turn from Chihuahua, whither he was taken by Spanish authorities to answer for building a fort on Spanish soil on the Rio del Norte, which he mistook for the Red river, July, 1807 Expedition under lieut. Augustus W. M^gee, who conceived a plan of revolutionizing Texas, takes possession of Nacog- doches, July, 1812, which the Mexicans evacuate; reaches Goliad and takes possession, 1 Nov. ; gov. Salcedo and gen. Herrera commence an investment of the town, 7 Nov. ; en- gages in battles with the Americans. 20 Nov. 1812, 24 Jan., and 10 Feb. 1813; raise the siege.....' 16 Feb. 1813 Magee dying of consumption, about 1 Feb. 1813, col. Kemper takes command, pursues the retreating Mexicans to San An- tonio, which is surrendered to Kemper 6 Mch. *' Salcedo', Herrera. and 10 officers are delivered to a com- pany of Mexicans under Juan Delgado and massacred, 7 Mch. " Battle of the Medina; Americans at San Antonio under don J^ose Alvarez Toledo fall into ambush formed by Spaniards under gen. Arredondo 18 Aug. " Galveston island occupied for Mexico by don Jos6 Manuel Herrera, minister of the Mexican patriots to the U. S. ; a government is organized and don Luis Aury chosen governor of Texas and Galveston island 12 Sept. 1816 Jean Lafitte with a band of buccaneers occupies Galveston island during Aury's absence and calls his settlement Cam- peachy Apr. 1817 Sabine river agreed upon as boundary between U. S. and Span- ish possessions 22 Feb. 1819 A company of volunteers under dr. James Long, raised at Natchez to invade Texas, occupy Nacogdoches, establish a provisional government, and issue a declaration proclaiming Texas to be a free and independent republic June, " First printing-office in Texas established at Nacogdoches by Mr. Bigelow " Lafitte is taken into the service of the Republican party of Mexico and appointed governor of Galveston. " Lafitte is compelled to evacuate Galveston island by lieut. Kearney of the U. S. brig Enterprise 1821 Stephen F. Austin leaves Natchitoches, 10 June, and founds the colony for which his father, Moses Austin, recently de- ceased, received a grant from Mexico, on the Brazos river, July, « He founds San Felipe de Austin as colonial town 1823 By decree of the Constituent Mexican congress, Coahuila and Texas are united in one state 7 May, 1824 Constitution of the united Mexican states proclaimed. . .4 Oct. " Don Jos6 Antonio Saucedo appointed chief of the department of Texas, to reside at Bexar 1 Feb. 1825 Henry Clay, U. S. sec. of state, instructs the U. S. minister to en- deavor to procure from Mexico the re-transfer of Texas, 26 Mch. " Hayden Edwards, having procured a grant for a colony, locates at Nacogdoches Oct. " Edwards's grant annulled and the American settlers, known as " I'redonians," evacuate Nacogdoches and cross the Sabine, before Mexicans under Ahumada 31 Jan. 1827 Constitution for the state of Coahuila and Texas framed by a state congress at Satillo, proclaimed 11 Mch. " Battle of Nacogdoches; Texans under col. Hayden Edwards de- feat the Mexicans under col. Piedras 2 Aug. " Treaty of limits concluded between the U. S. and united Mexi- can states 12 Jan. 1828 First Sabbath-school in Texas established at San Felipe 1829 Name of La Bahia changed to Goliad by state congress. .4 Feb. " Vice-pres. Bustamente, succeeding Guerrero, deposed, by de- cree prohibits further immigration from the U.S 6 Apr. 1830 Colonization laws rejiealed as to natives of the U. S 28 Apr. 1832 Fort of Veliisco at the mouth of the Brazos taken by Texans under John Austin 26 June, " Nacogdoches retaken by Texans 2 Aug. " First step towards independence, the framing of a state consti- tution, never recognized by the Mexican government and never put in operation, by a convention which met at San Felipe, 1 Apr., and adjourned 13 Apr. 1833 Law passed forming Texas into 1 judicial circuit and 3 districts — Bexar, Brazos, and Nacogdoches 17 Apr. 1834 Legislature of Coahuila and Texas, in session at Monclova, dis- perses on approach of army under gen. Martin P. de Cos, brother-in-law to gen. Santa Ana 21 Apr. 1835 Committee of safety organized at Bastrop on the Colorado, 17 May, « Lone-star flag made at Harrisburg and presented to the com- pany of capt. Andrew Robinson " TEX Garrison of Anabuac cai)tured by Texans under col. William B. TravlB Juue Cotumaudant at Bcxnr having furnished the corporation of (Jonxales willi a bniss 6 jwunder against the Indians in 1831, the Mexioana call it a lojui, the Texans a gift; the Toxans win its i>os8i'ssion in a flght 2 Oct. Capture of Goliad from Mexicans under lieut.-col. Sandoval, by (tairiol forces under capt. George Collingsworth 9 Oct. S F. Austin apiK>tnled com. in-chief of the patriot forces, 10 Oct Permanent council of one from each of the committees of safety, at San Feli|M», chooses R. R. Royall president Oct. Battle of Coucepcion, about 1^ miles from San Antonio; Tex- ans under gen. Austin and Mexicans under gen. Cos, the lat- ter retreating 28 Oct. First permanent newspaper in Texas, the Telegraph, estab- lisheil at San Felipe Oct. As.senibly known as the General Consultation of Texas meets at San Felij>e de Austin, establishes a provisional government with Heury Smith as governor, and sends Branch T. Archer, S. F. Austin, and William H. Wharton to the U. S. and solicit aid in the struggle for independence Nov. De«laration of independence of Texas, and a provisional con- stitution fhimed by a convention which meets at San Felipe, 17 Oct; constitution signed 13 Nov. One thousand four hundred Mexicans under gen. Cos surrender to the Texans who attack San Antonio do Bexar 10 Dec. Colonists besiege the .Mexican garrison of the Alamo at San Antonio, and, aaer a week's flghling, capture the fort, 16 Dec. Declaration of independence made and signed by 91 Texans at Goliad 20 Dec. Gen. SanU Ana with 6000 troops leaves Mondova for Texas to drive out revolutionists and persons of foreign birth, 4 Feb. Town of Bexar taken by Mexicans, and the Texans retire to the Alamo 21 Feb. Declaration of independence adopted by a convention at Wash- ington on the Brazos river. 2 Mch. Alamo invested 11 days by Santa Ana; the garrison, under col. Travis, Bowie, and David Crockett, are overpowered and massacred, the bodies thrown into heaps and burned, 6 Mch. Mexicans defeated in the first flght at the Mission del Refugio by Texans under capt King 9 Mch. Second flght of the Mission del Refugio; col. Ward attacks and drives back the Mexicans 10 Mch. Constitution adopted for the republic of Texas by a convention which met at Washington, 1 Mch 17 Mch. Col. J. W. Fannin and 415 men, captured at Coleto by the Mex- icans under gen. Urrea, are taken to Goliad, and 330 shot by Santa Ana Sunday, 27 Mch. Col. Ward retreats from Refugio 11 Mch. ; he surrenders his forces at Victoria, 24 Mch., and is massacred 28 Mch. San Felipe de Austin burned by the Texans 31 Mch. New Washington burned by the Mexicans 20 Apr. Battle of San Jacinto; 750 Texans under gen. Houston de- feat 1600 Mexicans under Santa Ana, and capture him, 21 Apr. Mexicans retreat beyond the frontier of Texas 24 Apr. Congress meets at Washington, Mch. ; at Harrisburg, Mch. ; at (ialveston, 16 Apr. ; and at Velasco May, Public and secret treaties with Santa Ana signed at Velasco, 14 May, Gen. Sam Houston inaugurated as president of Texas at Co- lumbia 22 Oct Congress of U. S. acknowledges independence of Texas — Mch. Congress meets at Houston May, Convention to flx the boundary-line between the U. S. and Texas concluded at Washington, 25 Apr. 1838, and ratiflca- tions exchanged 12 Oct and proclaimed 13 Oct Act of Congress approved for carrying into effect the conven- tion of 13 Oct. 1838 11 Jan. By act of Texas Congress, 10 Dec. 1836, the permanent flag of the republic bears 3 horizontal stripes of equal width, the upper one white, the middle one blue with a 5-pointed white star in the centre, and the lower one red 25 Jan. Congress passes flrst educational act, appropriating certain lands for a general system of education 26 Jan. France acknowledges the independence of Texas Congress meets at Austin, selected as the capital by a commit- tee appointed Jan. 1838, to locate a seat of government, Nov. England, Holland, and Belgium acknowledge the independence of Texas .• Expedition under gen. Hugh Mcl-eod leaves Austin, 18 June, 1841, for Santa F^. When near San M guel. his force is met by Mexican troops under Damacio Salazar, captured, and marched under guard to the city of Mexico 17 Oct Twelve hundred Mexicans under gen. Adrian Woll capture San Antonio, 11 Sept 1842, but are forced to retreat by Texan troops 18 Sept Congress meets at Washington Nov. Battle at Mier on the Alcantra; Texans, under col. Fisher, sur- render to gen. Ampudia 26 Dec. Joint resolution for the annexation of Texas to theU. S. passes the House of Representatives by 120 to 98, 25 Feb. 1845; the Senate by 27 to 25, and is approved 1 Mch. Baylor female college at Belton chartered and opened Charles A. Wickliffe sent on a secret mission to Texas in the interest of annexation, by pres. Polk 794 1 TEX 1835 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 Joint resolution of Congress of U. S. is approved by Texan Congress 23 June, Ordinance of Texan Congress for annexation accepted by con- vention of people assembled at Austin 4 July, Convention at Austin frames a constitution which is ratified by the people, 4174 to 312 13 Oct Texas admitted into the Union l)y act approved 29 Dec. First Plate legislature convenes at Austin 16 Feb. J. 1'. Henderson inaugurated first governor of the state, 19 Feb. Fort Brow.v at Brownsville established 28 Mch. Battles of Palo Alto, 8 May, and Rksaca de la Palma, 9 May, Act of Congress sets apart one tenth of the general revenues of the state for educational purposes 13 May, Baylor university at Waco chartered 184.5, and opened Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo concluded 2 Feb. ; ratifica- tion exchanged at Queretaro, 30 May, and proclaimed, 4 July, Austin city chosen as the seat of government for 20 years by vote of the peoi)le State penitentiary at Huntsville opened Texas formally ac<;epts the boundary designated by the boundary bill for New Mexico, approved 9 Sept 1850, by which Texas is to receive $10,000,000 from the U. S., 25 Nov. Chappell Hill female college chartered and opened Aranama college at Goliad organized Waco female college at Waco chartered and opened St Mary's university at Galveston, opened 1854, chartered Texas Institution for the Blind at Austin opened Texas Deaf and Dumb asylum at Austin opened First overland mail from San Diego, Cal., arrives at San An- tonio 6 Sept Enthusiastic union meeting held at Austin 23 Dec. State Lunatic asylum at Austin opened Brig. -gen. David R. Twiggs surrenders to the state of Texas the U. S. ordnance depot at San Antonio and contents, valued at $1,200,500 18 Feb. State People's convention meets at Austin, 21 Jan. ; passes an ordinance of secession by vote of 166 to 7, 1 Feb. ; ratified by popular vote, 34,794 to 11,235 23 Feb. Fort Brow^n, at Brownsville, evacuated and occupied by Texan troops 5 Mch. Gov. Sam Houston, opposing secession, and favoring sepa- rate state action, deposed; lieut-gov. Clark inaugurated, 20 Mch. Constitution of the Confederate states ratified by legislature, 68 to 2 23 Mch. Col. Earl Van Dorn captures 450 U. S. troops at Saluria, 25 Apr. Gov. Clark pro(;laiins it treasonable to pay debts to citizens of states at war with the Confederate states 18 June, Galveston surrendered to com. Renshaw 8 Oct Gen. N. J. T. Dana occupies Brazos, Santiago, and Brownsville with 6000 soldiers from New Orleans Nov. Confederates under gen. J. B. Magruder defeat Renshaw and capture Galveston 1 Jan. Confederate privateer Alabama destroys the Hatteras in an engagement off" Galveston 11 Jan. Samuel Houston, b. Virginia; d. at Huntersville, aged 70, 25 July, Battle of Aransas Pass; gen. Ransom captures the Confeder- ate works 18 Nov. Battle of fort Esperanza, Matagorda bay; gen. C. C. Washburn defeats the confederates 30 Nov. Last fight of the war; federals under col. Barret defeated in western Texas by confederates under gen. Slaughter, 13 May, Gen. Kirby Smith surrenders last Confederate army. . .26 May, Gen. A. J. Hamilton, appointed provisional governor by pres. Johnson, arrives at Galveston 21 July, Constitution, framed by a convention which met at Austin, 10 Feb. and adjourned 2 Apr., is ratified by the people, 34,794 to 11,2.35 June, Gov. J. W. Throckmorton enters upon his duties 13 Aug. Gen. P. H. Sheridan appointed commander of the 5th military district, comprising Louisiana and Texas 19 Mch. Gov. Throckmorton removed, E. M. Pease appointed. . .30 July, Gen. Sheridan relieved and gen. Hancock substituted as com- mander of the 5th military district 17 Aug. Gen. J. Reynolds appointed to command of 5th military dis- trict 28 July, Constitution, framed by a convention called under the Recon- struction acts by gen. Hancock, which sat at Austin, 1 June to Dec. 1868, is submitted to Congress, 30 Mch., and ratified by people, 72,395 to 4924 30 Nov. -3 Dec. Legislature ratifies the XlV.th and XV.th amendments to the Constitution of the U. S 18 Feb. Congress readmits Texas into the Union 30 Mch. Trinity university at Tehuacana, opened 1869, chartered Public school system inaugurated Sept A special election for state officers; Richard Coke, Democrat, elected governor by 85,549 votes to 42,663 for gov. Davis, Republican 2 Dec. Supreme court decides that the law authorizing the election of 2 Dec. 1873, is unconstitutional 5 Jan. New legislature organizes; not recognized by gov. Davis; old legislature meets in the basement of the capitol 13 Jan. Old legislature adjourns 7 June, Southwestern university atGeorgetown,opened 1873, chartered. 1846 1846 1848 18.50 1852 1856 1857 1860 1861 1862 1865 1867 1870 1871 1873 1874 1876 ^ M TEX Constitution, framed bj' a convention which sat at Austin, 6 Sept. to 24 Nov. 1875, ratified by the people 17 Feb. State Agricultural and Mechanical college of Texas at College Station, chartered 1871, opened Armed baud of Mexican outlaws enter Rio Grande City, break open the jail, release 2 notorious criminals, Esproneda and Garza, and escape with them to Mexico 12 Aug. Mob of Mexicans and Texan citizens of Mexican birth attack state troops at Sau Elizario and 6 persons are killed, 13 Dec. Prairie View State Normal school at Hempstead opened, 6 Oct. Sam Houston State Normal school at Huntsville opened Tiilotson Collegiate and Normal Institute at Austin opened State Capitol destroyed by fire 9 Nov. State penitentiary at Rusk, established by law in 1875, in oper- ation University of Texas at Austin, chartered 1881, opened Corner-stone of new capitol laid 2 Mch. State orphan asylum established at Corsicana by law Institution for. the deaf and dumb and blind colored youth at Austin opened New state capitol dedicated 16 May, State reformatory near Gatesville opened 1 Jan. Act passed designating 22 Feb. as Arbor day Convention of delegates from 15 states and territories assembles at Topeka, Kan., to devise means for securing a deep harbor on thecoast of Texas 1 Oct. Insane asylum at Sau Antonio establjshed by law John T. Dickinson appointed secretary of the National World's Columbian commission 27 June, Congress appropriates $500,000 to improve Galveston harbor, and authorizes the secretary of war to contract for the com- pletion of the work; estimated to cost $6,200.000 Sept. U. S. senator John H. Reagan resigns, to take elfect 10 June, 24 Apr. 795 THA 1879 1881 1882 1883 1885 1887 1888 1890 Five constitutional amendments ratified at special election, 11 Aug. 1891 Experiments in rain - making by explosives conducted near Midland by R. G. Dyrenforth and his statf 18-26 Aug. " Medical branch of the University of Texas opened at Galveston, 1 Oct. " Horace Chilton appointed, qualifies as U. S. senator 7 Dec. " Southwest Texas lunatic asylum at Floriue, 5 miles from San Antonio, opened Dec. " A small force of U. S. cavalry and infantry attack and break up the camp of Catarino Garza, Mexican revolutionist, at Retampal Springs 22 Dec. " Roger Q. Mills chosen U. S. senator by the legislature, 22 Mch. ; qualifies 30 Mch. 1892 A band of revolutionists under Garza cross the border, burn a Mexican barrack, and return to Texas 12 Dec. " Town of Cisco destroyed by a tornado; 30 killed 29 Apr. 1893 PRESIDKNTS OF REPUBLIC. Sam Houston inaugurated M. B. Lamar. Sam Houston Dr. Anson Jones , .22 Oct. 1836 .10 Dec. 1838 .13 Dec. 1841 ..9 Dec. 1841 GOVERNORS OF THE STATE. J. P. Henderson assumes office 19 Feb. 1846 George T. Wood 21 Dec. 1847 P. Hansboro Bell Dec. 1849 E. M. Pease " 1853 H. K. Runnels " 1857 Sam Houston " 1859 Edward Clark 20 Mch. 1861 F.R.Lubbock Qec. " P. Murrah " 1863 A. J. Hamilton ... .21 July, 1865 J.W. Throckmorton, 13 Aug. 1866 E. M. Pease 30 July, 1867 E. J. Davis Jan. 1870 Richard Coke " 1874 R. B. Hubbard " 1877 Oran M. Roberts " 1879 John Ireland " 1883 Lawrence S. Ross " 1887 J. S. Hogg " 1891 David B. Culberson. , 1895 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF TEXAS. Name. No. of Congress. Date. Remarks. Sam uel Houston 29th to 36th 29th " 35th 35th 35th to 36th 36th " 37th 36th "37 th 1846 to 1859 1846 " 1857 1858 1858 to 1859 1859 " 1861 1860 " 1861 Seated 30 Mch. 1846. Thomas J Rusk (Seated, 26 Mch. 1846. President pro tem. 14 Mch. 1857. Died, \ 29 July, 1857. Elected in place of Rusk. Died. 1858. Appointed pro tem. in place of Henderson. Expelled, 10 July, 1861. Elected in place of Henderson. Expelled, 11 July, 1861. J. Pincknev Henderson . ... Matthias Ward Louis T. Wigfall J. W. Flanagan Morgan C. Hamilton. Samuel Bell Maxey.. Richard Coke John H. Reagan Hurace Chilton Roger Q. Mills Horace Chilton 41st to 44th 41st " 45th 44th " 50th 45th " 54th 50th " 52d 52d 52d to 54th " 37th, 38th, 39th, and 40th Congresses vacant. 1870 to 1875 1870 " 1877 1875 " 1888 1877 " 1895 1888 " 1891 1891 " 1892 1892 " Seated, 31 Mch. 1870 Resigned. 10 June, 1891. Appointed jo?-o tem. in place of Reagan. Elected in place of Reagan. Term expires 1899. Xex'el, an island, town, and river at the naouth of the Zuy- der Zee, Holland. Its vicinitj' has been the scene of memorable naval engagements. An engagement between the English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and the Dutch under Van Tromp and De Kuyter, in which the latter were worsted and adm.Van Tromp was killed, 31 Juh', 1653. Again, at the mouth of the Texel a sharp indecisive action took place between the allied English and French fleets under prince Rupert and comte D'Estrees, and the Dutch fleet under De Ruyter, 11 Aug. 1673, The Dutch fleet was vanquished by adm. Duncan on 11 Oct. 1797. Camperuown. The Dutch fleet of 12 ships of war and 13 Indiaraen surrendered to the British adm. Mitchell, who, entering the Texel, possessed himself of them without fir- ing a shot, 30 Aug. 1799. tliariiuin, a metal, occurring in the sulphuric -acid manufacture, discovered by William Crookes by spectrum an- alysis, Mch. 1861. XliCll]ie§, Loudon, the Roman Tamesis or Tamesa, Sax- on Temese, Temesa, rises in 4 springs, at Ullen farm, near Coates, Gloucestershire. The head of the river in Wiltshire is about 170 miles from London bridge, and its whole course from source to mouth about 220 miles. Bridges, London, Lon- don BRIDGE. Conservation of the Thames given to the mayors of London. . . 1489 Tliames made navigable to Oxford 1624 Parliament gave the conservation of the Thames to the corpo- ration of London; 12 conservators to be appointed — 3 by the government 1857 Contamination of the Thames by London sewage, in the sum- mer of 1858, occasioned an act empowering the Metropolitan Board of Works to undertake new drainage 1858 Thames Navigation acts, appointing 5 more conservators, etc., and prohibiting pollution by sewage, etc., passed Aug. 1866 Powers of the act extended up to Staines 1867 New by-laws to protect the fish in the Upper Thames passed by the conservators 14 June, 1869 Highest tide known for many years; river overflowed from Gravesend to its tidal limit; great damage and distress in Blackfriars and Lambeth; Woolwich arsenal flooded and suf- fered; river said to have risen above 29 feet 15 Nov. 1875 Thames tunnel. Tunnels. Tower subway, an iron tube under the Thames, constructed by messrs Barlow, begun 16 Feb. 1869, and privately opened, Apr. 1870, is said to have cost only 16,000/. Thames embankment, recommended by sir Christopher Wren, 1666, and by William Patersou, founder of the bank of Eng- land, about 1694. The corporation embanked a mile in 1767. It was further recommended by Gwynne, 1767; by sir Fred- erick Eden, 1798; by sir Frederick Trench, 1824; by James Walker; by the duke of Newcastle, 1844; and by John Mar- tin the painter, 1856. In 1860, the Metropolitan Board of Works recommended that the north bank of the Thames be embanked, whereby the bed of the river would be improved; a low-level sewer could be easily constructed beneath a broad roadway; docks to be constructed within the embank- ment wall; to be paid for by the city duties on coal, and by government. The principle was approved by Parliament, and a committee appointed, which first sat 30 Apr. 1861 First stone of the northern (Victoria) embankment laid by Mr. Thwaites near Whitehall stairs, 20 July, 1864; the footway opened to the public, 30 July, 1868; the roadway opened by the prince of Wales 13 July, 1870 Proposal to build public offices upon the reclaimed land nega- tived by the House of Commons • • • .July, " Other embankments since constructed on the south side. Thaine§, Battle of, in Upper Canada, between 2500 American.s, under gen. Harrison, and 800 British regulars and 1200 Indians, under gen. Proctor, occurred on 5 Oct. 1813. The Indians were led by the celebrated Tecumseh or Tecumthe. The Americans were victorious, losing in killed and wounded only 29 ; the British lost in killed and wounded, including Ind- ians (Tecumseh was slain), 57; and 560 men made prisoners, with 5000 small-arms and 6 pieces of cannon. tliailC, a Saxon title of nobility, of which there were 2 orders, king's thanes or attendants at court and lords of man- THA ' ore, aboUshetl in England at the Conquest, upon the introduc- tion of the feudal system ; and in Scotland by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. TliailCt, Kent, Engl., was the first permanent settlement of the Saxons, about 449. The Danes held a part of it, 853- 866, and ravaged it 980, 988 et seq. ThankHgivillfT day, in the United Sutes, orig- inated in 1621. MASsACHusK-rrs. At first the practice of observing a day of thanksgiving in the autumn of every year was confined to New England ; but it has now become national, the president appointing by proclamation the last Thursday in Nov. as a day for national thanksgiving. The first national English thanksgivings were ofifered at St. Paul's cathedral for the defeat of the Spanish Armada, 8 Sept. and 24 Nov. 1588. Tliap§U§, a city of N. Africa. Near here Julius C«8ar totally defeated the army of the party which supported the policy of Pompey, Feb. 46 b.c. The suicide of Cato followed soon after. that ell-roof, a roof made of straw or rushes, unusual in the United States, common in Europe; mentioned by Herod- otus. If made of good material and well laid, a thatch-roof will last 100 years; some in Holland are 200 years old. theatre, a building appropriated to dramatic perform- ances. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 b.o., is said to have been the first erected. Marcellus's theatre at Rome was begun by Caesar, and dedicated by Augustus, 12 b.c. Theatres were erected in most cities of Italy. Many of the in- habitants of Pompeii were assembled at a theatre on the night of 24 Aug. 79, when an eruption of Vesuvius covered the city. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar Sienna, 1533 A.n. Dkama, Plays, etc. theatre§ in England. The first royal license for a the- atre was in 1574, permitting master Burbage and 4 others, servants of the earl of Leicester, to act at the Globe, Bank- siile. The first play-bill was issued on the opening of the Drury Lane theatre, 8 Apr. 1663, of a comedy called " The Humourous Lievtenant;" after naming the characters, it con- cludes thus : " the play will begin at 3 o'clock exactly." The prices of admission in the reign of Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d. ; lord's rooms. Is. The theatres were closed by Parliament from 1642 to 1660. Sliakespeare's Globe theatre, London, near Bankside, built in horseshoe form, and partly covered with tliatcb, erected 1594; burned during a performance of "Henry VIII.," the spectators escaping unhurt 29 June, 1613 Lincoln's Inn theatre (the Duke's theatre) opened 25 Apr. 1662 [Female parts, hitherto performed by boys, were from this time taken by women. Actrkssks.] Drury I^ne theatre, London, opened 8 Apr. 1663 Drury Lane theatre burned, Jan. 1672; rebuilt by sir C. Wren and reopened 26 Mch. 1674 Italian Opera house, or Queen's theatre, opened 1705 Haymarket theatre built, 1702, and opened by French come- dians 29 Dec. 1720 Covent Garden theatre opened 7 Dec. 1732 Beef-steak Society founded 1735 Sadler's Wells theatre, London, opened 1765 Covent Garden Theatrical Fund, established 1760, incorporated, 1774 Drury Lane Theatrical Fund, founded by David Garrick, 1766; incorporated 1775 Surrey theatre, London, originally the Circus, opened. . .4 Nov. 1783 Attempted assassination of king George III. at Drury Lane theatre by one Hatfield (Hatfield's attempt) 11 May, 1800 Appearance of William Henry West Betty (" Infant Roscius " ) at Covent Garden theatre 1 Dec. 1804 Olympic theatre, I^ondon, built by Mr. Astley, opened, 18 Sept. 1806 Adelphi theatre, formerly the Sans Pareil, opened 27 Nov. " English Opera-house, built by dr. Arnold, 1794-95, opened as the Lyceum theatre 1809 Covent Garden theatre burned, 20 Sept. 1808; rebuilt, and on the reopening, 18 Sept. 1809, the higher scale of prices occa- sions "0. P." (old price) riots until former prices are re- stored 16 Dec. " Horses first introduced at Covent Garden in " Bluebeard," 18 Feb. 1811 Coburg, now Victoria, theatre, London, opened 1818 Strand theatre, London, first opened 1831 St. James's theatre, London, first opened, under the manage- ment of Mr. Braham 14 Dec. 1835 Princess's theatre, Oxford St., London, opened by J. Maddox, 26 Dec. 1842 General Theatrical Fund, established 1839, incorporated 1853 Several London theatres first opened on Sunday evenings for religious worship Jan. 1860 " Colleen Bawn " presented at the Adelphi theatre, London, 10 Sept. " 1862 1872 1878 1878 5 THE Macfarren's " Robin Hood " brought out at Queen's theatre, 11 Oct. First appearance of Mr. Sothern at Haymarket theatre, Lon- don, as lord Dundreary in "Our American Cousins," 11 Nov. Astley's amphitheatre, opened 1773. twice burned, and opened as Theatre Royal, Westminster, by Boucicault 26 Dec. Covent Garden leased by Dion Houcicault 29 Aug. '•Our Boys," by H.J. Byron (over 1350 representations) first played at the Vaudeville theatre, London 16 Jan. Lyceum theatre, London, leased by Henry Irving Sept. Op<5ra Comique, London, opened, 29 Oct. 1870, and "The Pi- rates of Penzance" first produced there 3 Apr. 1880 Number of theatres in London, 55 Dec. 1891 theatres in the United States. The first recorded the- atrical performance in North America was by amateurs, at Quebec, in 1694. The first in English was in the island of Jamaica in 1745. The first English play in New England was "The Orphans," given by amateurs at the Coifee-house in State St., Boston, in 1749; but a law of 1750 forbade/such per- formances, fining spectators and actors 5^. each, etc. The first theatre in the Colonies opened at Wllliam.sburg, Va., with " The j Merchant of Venice," by an English company under Lewis Hallam, sr., 5 Sept. 1752. First brick theatre in U. S. erected at Annapolis, Md., and opened with " The Beaux' Stratagem " 1753 First theatre in New York city opened in Nassau st. ; play, "The Conscious Lovers" 17 Sept. " Warehouse fitted as a temporary theatre in an'alley above Pine St., Philadelphia, Pa.; first play, "The Fair Penitent," Apr. 1754 First performance by professional actors in New England at a temporary theatre in Newport, R. I.; "The Provoked Hus- band," given, in spite of prohibition by a town meeting, 7 Sept. 1761 New theatre built in Chapel St., New York city, wrecked during a riot caused by the Stamp act Mch. 1765 John Street theatre, New York city, opened with "The Strata- gem " 7 Dec. 1767 First theatre in Albany, N. Y., opened with "Venice l^re- served " 3 July, 1769 First theatre built in Charleston, S. C, by Mr. Douglas. . Sept. 1773 "The American Company," under Lewis Hallam, jr., leave for the West Indies, the Continental Congress advising that all public amusements be suspended 24 Oct. 1774 "Contrast," a comedy in 5 acts containing the first Yankee part for the stage, the first play written by an American (Royal Tyler, chief justice of Vermont) and acted by pro- fessionals, at John Street theatre, New York, by the old American company 16 Apr. 1786 First theatre in Baltimore, Md., opened by Hallam and Henry, 16 Aug. " "The Father of an Only Child," the first accepted play of Will- iam Dunlap, the earliest American professional dramatist, produced 7 Sept. 1789 "New Exhibition Room" in Broad alley, near Hawley St., Boston, a theatre, opened 16 Aug. 1792 First theatrical riot in Boston, players giving " Douglas " and "The Poor Soldier," as " Moral Lectures," being arrested. . " Massachusetts repeals the law against the theatre 1793 First regular theatre in Boston opens in Federal St., with " Gustavus Vasa " and " Modern Antiquities " (burned 1798), 4 Feb. 1794 First theatre in Hartford, Conn., opened by Hodgkinson, with part of the old American company 1796 First theatre in Providence, R. I., opened by part of same com- pany " "Starring " begun in the U. S. by T. A. Cooper 1800 "United States Theatre," first in Washington, 1). C, opened by Wignell " First theatre in New Orleans built by a company of French comedians 1809 Theatre in Richmond, Va., destroyed by fire during the per- formance; 70 killed (Virginia) 26 Dec. 1811 First regular theatre in Cincinnati opened 1815 First Park theatre, New York city, opened, 1798; burned 1820; second Park theatre opened 1821 First American theatre in New Orleans, built by James H. Cald- well, opened with "The Dramatist" 1823 First theatre in St. Louis, built by James H. Caldwell, opened with "The Honeymoon " 30 June, 1827 First brick theatre in Pittsburg, Pa., opened with the "Busy Day" 2 Sept. 1832 First theatre in Columbus, 0., built 1833 Eagle street theatre, Buffalo, N. Y., opened 21 July, 1835 Finst theatre in Detroit opened by W. Dinneford " Christy's Minstrels" organized by E. P. Christy at Bufl^alo, "1 N. Y. 1842. Astor place opera-house opened 22 Nov. 184? [The scene of the Macready riot, evening of 10 May, 1849, when Macready attempted to play Macbeth. New York CITY.] First theatre in Cleveland, O. , built by J. S. Potter li First theatre in San Francisco, opened by W. Starke If Assassination of pres. Lincoln, at Ford's theatre, Washington, D. C, by J. Wilkes Booth (Booth's conspiracy) 14 Apr. If Conway's Brooklyn theatre, Brooklyn, N. Y., burned; 295 lives lost 5 Dec. 187 THE 797 THE CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF ENGLISH AND FOREIGN ACTORS, WITH DATE OF NAMED. THEIR FIRST APPEARANCE AT PLACE Name. Nation. Born. Died. First appearance. Date. First appearance in U. S. Date. EngL Irish 1693-1766 1699-1797 1711-1785 1716-1779 1719-1760 " -1777 1720- " 1721-1788 1729-1773 1727-1788 1737-1815 1740-1808 1747-1785 1755-1831 1756-1812 " -1828 1757-1823 1758-1832 1759-1829 1762-1816 1763-1826 1764-1851 1767-1805 1774-1831 1775-1854 1776-1835 " -1846 " -1849 1777-1856 1787-1833 1791-1872 " -1874 1793-1869 " -1873 1794-1864 1795-1857 1796-1852 " -1869 1797-1856 1798-1882 1802-1864 " -1879 1803-1878 1804-1800 1805-1880 1810- " 1811- " -1893 " -1868 1819-1866 1820-1858 1821- 1824- " -1879 1829- 1830- " -1881 1838- 1844- 1848- Drury Lane theatre, London. . Lincoln's Inn Fields, " Drury Lane theatre, " j Ipswich, 1741; Drury Lane) 1 theatre, London j Dublin and London 4 Feb. 1715 4 Dec. 1730 about " May, 1742 about 1737 Oct. 1746 6 Feb. 1744 1743 28 Nov. 1749 Nov. 1744 21 Aug. 1755 11 June,* 1777 29 Dec. 1775 31 Oct. 1800 19 Oct. 1787 8 Jan. 1776 2 Dec. 1790 9 June,1777 17 Oct. 1785 21 Nov. 1787 11 Oct. 1796 14 Apr" 1791 1792 15 May, 1803 14 June, 1805 1792 1798 1813 or '14 1803 IDec. 1804 1813 16 Dec. 1816 1806 1808 Oct. 1813 1817 19 Feb. 1820 1814 or '15 1820 1821 7 Dec. 1835 1831 23 Sept. 1826 July, 1830 10 Dec. 1817 10 Oct. 1829 lOct. 1827 May, 1833 10 May, 1840 22 May, 1855 7 Feb. 1852 27 Oct. 1860 1853 Dec. 1844 1843 Oct. 1851 11 Nov. 1861 29 Sept. 1856 June, 1879 1861 28 Apr. 1856 Williamsburg, Va Engl. Irish Engl. Irish Engl. Irish Engl. (1 French Engl. Welsh Engl. Irish Engl. !! u Scotch Engl. it Irish Engl. Irish Swiss Italian Irish Engl. Italian Margaret Wofflngtou Drury Lane theatre, London. . Haymarket theatre, ■' Smock Alley theatre, Dublin. . Covent Garden theatre, London Haymarket theatre, London.. Thomas Sheridan Henry Mossop George Anne Bellamy Frances B.irton Abington. 5 Sept. 1752 John Henderson Haymarket theatre, London . . Drury Lane theatre, " Covent Garden theatre, " Wolverhampton, Engl Covent Garden theatre, London Liverpool, 1773 ; London Drury Lane theatre, London. . The'atre-Franfais, Paris Drury Lane tlieatre, London. . Park theatre. New York Greenwich St. theatre, New York Park theatre. New York Southwark theatre, Philadelphia Park theatre. New York HoUiday St. theatre, Baltimore.. Chestnut St. theatre, Philadelphia Anfhony St. theatre, New York.. Park theatre. New York " " " ."!!!!! Sarah Kemble Siddons. . Geo. Frederick Cooke 21 Nov. 1810 4 June, 1797 John Philip Kemble Joseph Shepherd Munden Elizabeth Farren Dora Jordan Franfois Joseph Talma. . . William Dowton John Hodgkinson Robert William Elliston 2 June, 1836 Sept. 1792 Bath " Charles Kemble ... Sheffield " 17 Sept. 1832 2 Sept. 1822 Charles Mathews Haymarket theatre, London. . Thomas Apthorpe Cooper Charles Mayne Young. . . . 9 Dec 1796 Liverpool Drury Lane theatre, London. . 29 Nov 1820 Eliza O'Neill Wm. Henry West Betty » ("Infant Roscius").. j Robert Keeley Covent Garden theatre, London Richmond theatre, London.. . . Covent Garden theatre, London Drury Lane theatre, London. . 19 Sept. 1836 2 Oct. 1826 7 Sept. 1818 31 Dec 1810 William Charles Macready James W. Wal lack Mary Ann Dyke Duff..... Junius Brutus Booth Covent Garden theatre, London Drury Lane theatre, London. . Bath Engl Richmond, Va 13 July, 1821 11 Sept. 1827 1838 Jane Marchant Fisher) Vernon j Eliza Lucy Bartolozzi | Old Bowery theatre, New York. . Benjamin Webster Susannah Paton Wood Park theatre. New York Arch St. theatre, Philadelphia.'.! Park theatre. New York Broadway theatre, New York. . . Metropolitan theatre. New York. French theatre. New York Broadway theatre, New York. . . Niblo's Garden, New York Richmond theatre, New York. . . Haymarket theatre, London.. 9 Sept. 1833 July, 1840 1838 3 Sept. 1834 12 Dec. 1836 Charles Mathews, jr William E. Burton Ellen Tree Kean Olympic theatre, London Pavilion theatre, " Drury Lane theatre, Loudon. . Tottenham St. theatre, " Drury Lane theatre, " Covent (Jarden theatre, " Drury Lane theatre, " Theatre Royal, Dublin Her Majesty's theatre, London Italian Opera House, Paris Haymarket theatre, London. . Princess theatre, London Oct. 1842 Clara Fisher Maeder Frances Anne Kemble. . . Charles John Kean G. V. Brooke 11 Sept. 1827 18 Sept. 1832 1 Sept. 1830 15 Dec 1851 Elizabeth Rachael Felix. . Adelaide Rlstori del) Grillo ) 3 Sept. 1855 20 Sept. 1866 Barry Sullivan .... 22 Nov 1H58 Charles Albert Fechter. . . 10 Jan. 1870 Jean Margaret Daven- ) 1 r<„„, port Landers j ! ^"S'" 1838 Milan Olympic theatre, London Haymarket theatre, London. . Sunderland theatre Gaiety theatre, London 1874 Laura Keene Francesca Janauschek. . . E. A. Sothern (Douglas) Stewart) f Henry Irving (John) Engl. Germ. Engl. French Wallack's theatre. New York.. . . National theatre, Boston 20 Sept. 1852 Sept. " 1883 Sarah Bernhardt. ...... 1881 Helen Modjeska Polish California theatre, San Francisco Aug. 1877 Oct 1883 Ellen Alice Terry Kelly Fnci Princess theatre, London CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF NOTED AMERICAN ACTORS, WITH DATE OF THEIR FIRST APPEARANCE AT PLACE NAMED. Name. I Born. Died. First appearance. Date. First appearance in England John Howard Payne. Henry Placide James H. Hackett .. Solomon F. Smith... Edwin Forrest James E. Murdoch. . . William Warren Charlotte Cushman.. McKean Buchanan. . . F. S. Chanfran John E. Owens Joseph Jefferson William J. Florence} (Bernard Conlin). . j Edwin T. Booth John T. Raymond) (John O'Brien) j John E. McCulIoch.. . Lawrence P. Barrett ) (Larry Brannigan) j 1792-1852 1799-1870 1800-1871 1801-1869 1806-1872 1811-1893 1812-1888 1814-1876 1823-1872 1824-1884 " -1886 1829- 1831-1891 1833-1893 1836- 1837-1885 1838-1891 Park St. theatre, New York Park theatre. New York Vincennes, Ind (Star) Chestnut St. theatre, Philadelphia Arch St. theatre, Philadelphia Philadelphia Tremont theatre, Boston St. Charles theatre. New Orleans Mitchell's Olympic theatre. New York National theatre, Philadelphia ((Star) Chanfrau's National theatre,) \ New York ) Richmond theatre. New York Museum, Boston Rochester. N. Y Arch St. theatre, Philadelphia. Detroit 26 Feb. 1809 2 Sept. 1823 1 Mch. 1826 1819 5 July, 1826 13 Oct. 1829 1832 8 Apr. 1835 ""lS48 about 1840 1 Sept 1849 6 Dea " 10 Sept. " 27 June, 1853 15 Aug. 1857 1853 London Haymarket theatre, London. . Covent Garden theatre, London Drury Lane theatre, London. Haymarket theatre, " Strand theatre, " Princess theatre, " Standard theatre, " 4 June, 1813 1838 Apr. 1827 17 Oct. 1836 22 Sept. 1856 1845 Feb. 1845 5 Mch. 1859 Adelphi theatre, London Drury Lane theatre, London. London Haymarket theatre, London . <• THE 798 THE Among other prominent actors, most of them now on the stage, may be mentioned : Where born. Birth. Neil Burgess Boston, Mass 184G Lolta Crabiree New York oily 1847 Kate J. Baloman Crowe BalUmore, Md 1H42 Fannv l>aveiip«)rl I^ndon, KngI 1850 Mrs. \V. H. Keudal (Grimston).. Lincolnshire, Engl.. 1849 Lily lAUglrv St. Helen's, Island of Jersey . , 1850 Richard Maiisflehl Heligoland, Ger. 1857 Koborl B. Manlell Ayrshire 1854 Margaret Malher Detroit. Mich 1861 Frank Mavo Massacliusetts 1839 Maggie Miuhell New York 1H32 Clara .Morris Cleveland, 1846 Marv Anderson Navarro Sacramento, Cal 1859 Mile. Kh4a Brussels 1855 Ada Rehan Limerick, Irel 1«60 Sol. Smith Russell Brunswick, Mo 1848 Julia .Marlowe England 1S66 James ONeil Ireland 1848 Thebail leiH^iOIl, according to tradition, composed of Chri.stians who siiijmitted to martyrdom rather than attack their brethren during the persecution of the emperor Maxi- rain, or sacrifice to the gods, about 286 a.d. Their leader, Maurice, was canonized. Thebes or Luxor, a city of Egypt, called also Heca- tompylos on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. In the time of its splendor (1600- 800 B.C.) it is said to have extended about 33 miles. Thebes was ruined by Canibyses, king of Ter-sia, 525 b.c., and by the foundation of Alexandria, 332 b.c. ; it rebelled and was taken by Ptolemy Lathyrus, 86 b.c., and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. Mkmnonium. After centuries of neglect it has been much visited since the explorations of Belzoni, 1817. Tliel>e§, N. Greece, the capital of the country succes- sively called Aonia, Messapia, Ogygia, Hyantis, and Boeotia, was called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, its founder, 1493 b.c. It became a republic about 1120 b,c., and flourished under Epam- inondas 378-362 B.c. The " sacred band " formed by him, 377 ac, was revived in 1877, Thebes's 7 gates are mentioned by Homer. Be air, and therefore useful in a thin coating to prevent iron, etc., from rusting. It has been known from earliest ages. The Accadians called it anaku 5000 years ago ; it was used by the Egyptians when the first pyramids were built ; it is mentioned in the Bible, 1452 b.c. (Num. xxxi. 22). Homer often speaks of it (KaaoiTipoQ) in describing arms and chariots; the Phoenicians traded in tin more than 1 100 years B.C. ; and Herodotus mentions the tin islands. It is found in few and widely scattered places ; chiefly in the provinces of Perak and Penang in Malacca, in Cornwall, Engl., in New South Wales, Saxony, Bohemia, and in smaller quan- tities in Mexico and Bolivia, and recently in California, South Dakota, Idaho, and West Virginia. The world's annual pro- duction is about 40,000 tons. Copper vessels were tinned by the Romans. The art of tinning plate-iron was invented in Bohemia, whence it was carried into Saxony and other parts of Germany in 1620, and introduced into England in 1675. Existence of tin ore in New South Wales made known by rev. W. B. Clarke, colonial geologist 1845 Rush of emigration to the tin mines of New South Wales 1871 Tin, previously known to exist as black sand in the gold ore from the Black Hills, S. Dakota, is discovered there in com- mercial quantities by maj. Andrew J. Simmons of Rapid City, S. Dak 1883 Tin discovered in West Virginia 17 Sept. 1884 Sixty Welsh tin-plate works shut down, throwing 25,000 hands out of employment 27 June, 1891 Tinchebray (tinsh-bray'), a town of N. W. France, where a battle was fought between Henr}' I. of England, and his brother Robert, duke of Normandy. England and Nor- mandy were reunited under Henry, at the decease of William Rufus, who had already obtained Normandy by mortgage from his brother Robert, at his setting out for Palestine. Robert, on his return, recovered Normandy by agreement with Henry ; but after a quarrel Robert was defeated in the battle of Tinche- bray, 28 Sept. 1 106, and Normandy was annexed to the crown of England. — Hinault. Tip'peeaiioe', Battle of. in the spring of 1811, Tecumseh or Tecumthe, a Shawnee chief, attempted to unite the Western and Southern Indians in war against the United States. To meet this movement, gen. Harrison, governor of the Indiana territory, marched towards Tippecanoe, the head- quarters of the chief (near Lafayette, Ind.), with about 650 men. There, on 7 Nov., he defeated over 600 Indians, under Tecumseh's brother, " The Prophet." Harrison lost 62 killed and 126 wounded; the Indians lost 150 killed. Tip'permuir, near Perth, Scotland. Here the mar- quess of Montrose defeated the Covenanters under lord Elcho, 1 Sept. 1644. titanium, a rare metal, discovered by Gregor in mena- kite, a Cornish mineral, in 1791, and in 1794 by Klaproth, and since found in many iron ores. Spectrum analysis has proved it to exist in the sun's atmosphere, and it occurs in some me- teorites. tithes or tenths, a tenth part of anything, a tax of one tenth of the produce or its value, were commanded to be given to the tribe of Levi, 1490 b.c. (Lev. xxvii. 30). Abra- ham, returning from his victory over the kings (Gen. xiv.), gave tithes of the spoil to Melchisedek, king of Salem, priest of the most high God (1913 b.c.). For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were given purely as alms, and were voluntary — WicHiffe. " I will not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any di\ane right, though such a right certainly commenced, and I believe as certainly cea.sed, with the Jewish theocracy."— MaCibtone. They were established in France by Charlemagne about 800, and abolished 1789. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran councils, 1215. — RainaUda. The payment of tithes appears to have been claimed by Augustin, the first archbishop of Canterbury, and to have been allowed bv Ethelbert, king of Kent, under the term " God's fee," about 600. First written authority for them in England is a constitutional de- cree made in a synod eiyoining tithes, 7H6. Offa, king of Mercia, gave the church tithes of all his kingdom, to expiate his murder of Ethelbert. king of the East Angles, 794. Tithes first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, Mi.— Henry. In England, in 1545, tithes were fixed at 2s. M. in the pound on rent; many later acts regulate them. Tithe Commutation act, passed 13 Aug. 1836, was amended in 1837, 1840, 1846, 18()0, and 1878. A rector takes all tithes; a vicar a small part or none. Several acts relating to tithes in Ireland, in 1832-47, alter and im- prove the system. Tithe redemption trust appointed, 1846. An act for the recovery of tithe rent charged in England and Wales passed, 26 Mch. 1891. The liability for the payment of tithes is transferred from the tenant to the land-owner. tithing^. The number or company of 10 men with their families in a society, all of them bound to the king of Eng- land for the peaceable and good behavior of each ; of these companies there was one chief person, who, from his office, was called (toothingman) tithingman ; but now he is nothing but a constable, formerly called the headborough. — Cowel. titles royal. Henry IV. had the title of "Grace" and "My liege," 1399. Henry VL, "Excellent grace," 1422. Edward IV., "Most high and mighty prince," 1461. Henry VII., " Highness," 1485 ; Henry VIII. the same title, and some- times " Grace," 1509 et seq. Francis I. of France addressed Henry as " Tour majesty " at their interview in 1520. Fikld OF THE Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled " Dread sovereign." James I. coupled to "majesty" the present "sacred," or "most excellent." " Majesty " was the style of the emperors of Germany ; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, about 1463. tohaceo {Nkotiana tabacum), an American plant, of the nightshade family, whose leaves have strong narcotic effects, due to the alkaloid nicotine. It received its name from the Indian tabaco, the tube or pipe in which the natives smoked the plant, transferred by the Spaniards to the herb itself; others say the name is derived from Tabacco, a prov- ince of Yucatan, New Spain, or from the island of Tobago, one of the Caribbees; others from Tobasco, in the gulf of Florida. It is said to have been first observed at St. Domingo, in Cuba, 1492; and to have been used freely by the Spaniards in Yu- catan in 1520. Tobacco was either first brought to Europe by Hermandez de Toledo or Francesco Fernandes, a physician sent by Philip II. of Spain to investigate the products of Mexico in 1559; into England in 1565 by sir John Hawkins, or by sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake in 1586 ; to France by Jean Nicot (whence nicotine). The Pied Bull inn, at Islington, is said to have been the first house in England where tobacco was smoked. The first settlers of Virginia cul- tivated tobacco, which soon became the chief agricultural staple, and within 10 years the standard currency, at a value of about 66 cents a pound. For 7 years, ending 1621, the an- nual exportation to England was 143,000 lbs. James I. tried to suppress its use, and wrote " A Counter-blast against To- bacco." In May, 1621, Parliament forbade its importation into England, except from Virginia and the Bermudas. To- bacco is now raised not only in America but in Europe and India, although Kentucky raises more than any other state or country. The production in Java and Sumatra is rapidly increasing. The world's production is about 1,300,000,000 lbs. ; that of the United States about 540,000,000 lbs. The great tobacco-producing states are : 1. Kentucky 285,000,000 lbs. 2. Virginia 65,000,000 " S.Tennessee 46,000.000 " j 4. Ohio 36,000,000 " .^ 5. North Carolina 26.000,000 " 'i 6. Pennsylvania 25,000,000 " Other states raise from 1,000,000 to 16,000,000 lbs. each. Crop of 1891 valued at about $44,000,000. Tax paid the U. S. from 1862 to 1891, $840,000,000. i TOB ' Toba'go, an island oif the British West Indies, discov- ered by Columbus in 1498 ; settled by the Dutch, 1642. It has since changed hands several times, between England, France, and Holland, but now belongs to England as part of the government of Trinidad. Area, 114 sq. miles ; pop. 20,727. Tobol§k, capital of W. Siberia, on the river Irtish. Settled by 500 Cossacks in 1587 ; pop. about 22,000. Toliope'ka, Battle of. Alabama, 1814. Tokay', a town of upper Hungary, which gives its name to the sweet, heavy white wine of the district. This ■wine was first made here by dressers brought from Italy by Bela IV., king 1235-70. The best of the wine is sent to sov- ereigns, and 50 bottles were presented to queen Victoria at her jubilee, 1887. Xoki'o, since 1869 the name of the former Jeddo or Yeddo, capital of Japan, on the island of Niphon. Pop. 1890, 1,389,684. Torbiac, now Zulpicll, a town of Prussia, near the Rhine, where Clovis totally defeated the AUemanni, 496. Tole'do, the ancient Toletum, central Spain, made cap- ital of the Visigothic kingdom by Athanagild, 554 ; taken by the Saracens, 712. Toledo was taken after the war begun, 1081, by Alfonso I. of Castile, 25 May, 1085. In 1088 the archbishop was made primate of Spain. The university was founded in 1499. Toledo sword-blades have been famed since the 15th century. Swords. — The county seat of Lucas county, Ohio, with its surrounding territory, claimed by Michigan until the boundary was settled in 1836. Ohio, 1802-36; Michigan, 1835-36. Toleration act, passed in 1689 to relieve Protestant dissenters from the church of England. Their liberties were, however, greatly endangered in the latter days of queen Anne, who died on the dav that the Schism bill was to become a law, 1 Aug. 1714. The toleration granted was somewhat limited. It exempted per sons who took the new oath of allegiance and supremacy, and abjured popery, from penalties for absence from church and hold- ing unlawful conventicles; and it allowed the Quakers to sub- stitute an affirmation for an oath, but did not relax the Test act. The party spirit of the times checked the king's liberal disposi- tion. tolls were first paid by vessels passing the Stade,on the Elbe, 1109. They were first demanded by the Danes for pass- ing the Sound, 1341. Sound i)ur:s, Stade dues. Toll-bars in England originated 1267, in the grant of a penny for every wagon that passed through a certain manor; and the first reg- ular toll was collected a few years after for mending the road in London between St. Giles's and Temple Bar. Gathered for repairing the highways of Holborn-inn lane and Martin's lane (now Aldersgate street), 1346. Toll-gates or turnpikes were set up in 1663. In 1827, 27 turnpikes near London were re- moved by Parliament; 81 turnpikes and toll-bars ceased on the north of London on 1 July, 1864; 61 on the south side ceased on 31 Oct. 1865 ; and many on the Essex and Middle- sex roads ceased on 31 Oct. 1866; the remainder on the north of London ceased 1 July, 1872. The tolls on the commercial roads, London, E., were abolished 5 Aug. 1871. The tolls on Waterloo and other metropolitan bridges abolished, 1878-79. Wales, 1843. Tolo'§a. On the plain named Las Navas de Tolosa, near the Sierra Morena, S. Spain, Alfonso, king of Castile, aided by the kings of Aragon and Navarre, gained a great victory over the Moors, 16 July, 1212, sometimes termed the battle of Muradal. Toltecs, a people inhabiting Mexico and Central Amer- ica prior to the Aztecs. America. toma'tO {Lycopersicum esculentum), native of tropical S. America. In the United States it was a curiosity, and commonly called love-apple until about 1830, a translation of the French name pomme d'amour. But this is a corrup- tion of the old Italian name, poma dei Mori, " Moor's apple," the tomato having come to Italy from Morocco. It is now a staple vegetable, and a universal article of food. Tonga isles, Pacific, south of the equator; governed by a king. Treaties of friendship with Great Britain, Ger- ^^ TOR many, and the United States. Area of the group, 374 sq. miles ; pop. 1889, 20,000. t<»nic sol-fa system. Music. tonom'eter, a delicate apparatus (consisting of 62 tuning-forks) for measuring and comparing the pitch of tones, by marking the number of vibrations. It was invented by H. Scheibler of Crefeld, and described in his " Tonmesser," 1834; but was little used till M. Koenig improved it, and ex- hibited it at the International Exhibition of 1862 in London. Tonquin {ton-keen'), S.E. Asia, a province of Anam, subject to China, now under the protectorate of France. Area, 34,740 sq. miles; pop. about 9,000,000. Lin-Yang-Fu declares war against French aggressors. . .8 May 1883 Black Flags kill the French commander and 32 others at Hanoi " [The "Black Flags" originated with Li-Hung-Chang, an able leader of Canton rebels, who about 1863 with followers took refuge in Tonquin, where he was welcomed by the emperor of Anam, but grew strong enough to establish an independent government. They strenuously opposed the French.] Black Flags defeated 7 ^^a a Armistice granted; treaty signed recognizing the French gov- ernment; ceding province of Bin Huam 25 Aug. « Adm. Courbet begins actual occupation of Tonquin 3 Nov! " French take forts on the Red river, opposite Sontay. . .16 Dec. " Sontay captured; the Black Flags retire; French loss, 77 killed, 231 wounded 16-17 Dec. «' Arrival of Chinese trocms to defend Hainan against the French f. 20Jan. 1884 French capture Bacninh 12 Mch. " Treaty signed by capt. Fournier and Li-Hung-Chang; French protectorate of Tonquin and Anam recognized. The Chinese government repudiates the treaty 1 July " [Fighting throughout the remainder of the year.] ' Preliminaries of peace signed at Peking; Tonquin to be vacated by the Chinese, etc 5 Apr. 1885 Chief of the Black Flags rewarded for his services by the Chi- nese government Apr. " Establishment of the civil native guard for the supj)ression of piracy Sept. 1888 Continued fighting with pirates 1889-92 French companies formed to work coal mines at Hongay and Kebao i89i E.xpenditure of France for Anam and Tonquin was 10,450,666 francs in 1892 ; of which 450,000 francs were for the Tonquin submarine telegraph cable. tonsure, the clerical crown, shorn or shaven, it is said, in imitation of St. Peter, or of Christ's crown of thorns. It was regarded in the 4th century as proper only to penitents, and not made essential to priests till near the beginning of the 6th century. tontines, life-annuities with benefit of survivorship, so called from Lorenzo Tonti, a Neapolitan banker, who origi- nated the plan in 1653 ; he died in the Bastile after 7 years imprisonment. A Mr. Jennings of London was an original sub- scriber for a 100^. share in a tontine company, and, being the last survivor of the shareholders, his share produced him 3000?. per annum. He died, aged 103 years, 19 June, 1798, worth 2,115,244?. By the termination of a tontine begun by M. Lafarges in 1791, to diminish the national debt, the French government received 1,218,000 francs, Dec. 1888. Henri de Tonti, companion of La Salle, was a son of Lorenzo ; Henry died at fort St. Louis (now St. Louis) in 1704. In recent j'ears the name tontine has been given to a form of life-insur- ance, in which all profits from overpayments of premiums, lapses, etc., are accumulated until the end of a fixed period, and then divided among the survivors. to'paz, the second stone in the breastplate of the Jewish high-priest. Aaron's breastplate. Found in Cornwall, Engl., Scotland, Saxon}', Siberia, Brazil, Mexico, and the Unit- ed States. The finest are from Brazil, of a deep yellow, and sometimes resembling the diamond in lustre ; and those from Siberia of a bluish color. The yellow Brazilian stones when heated assume a rose color. ToplitZ, a town of Bohemia. Here were signed, in 1813, 2 treaties — one between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 9 Sept. ; and one between Great Britain and Austria, 3 Oct. top'oplione, an instrument invented "by A. M. Mayer to determine the direction from which sound proceeds ; as the sound of a bell, whistle, or fog-horn at sea in thick weather. TorbanehlU mineral. Mr. Gillespie of Tor- banehill granted a lease of all the coal in the estate to messrs. TOR 804 TOU Roflsell. In working it the lessees extracted a combustible mineral of value as a source of coal gas, and sold it as gas-coal. The lesst)r insisted that the mineral was not coal, but bitumi- nous schist, and disputed the right of the lessees to work it. At the trial in 1863 there was a great array of scientific men and practical gas engineers, and the evidence was most coiiHicting. The judge set aside the scientific evidence, and the jury pro- nounced it coal. The authorities in Prussia have since pro- nouwoeil it not to be cuaL—Perctf. Tordesll'las, a town near Valladolid, Spain. Here was signed, 7 June, 1494, a treaty modifying the boundaries by which pope Alexander VI., in May, 1493, had divided the new world between Spain and Portugal. TorgaU (tor'gow), a town of Saxony, N. Germany, the site of a signal victory of Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia over the Austrians ; the Austrian general, count Daun, being wounded, 3 Nov. 1760. He had, in 1757, defeated the Prus- sian king at Kolin. Torgau was taken by the allies in 1814, and given to Prussia 1815. TorICi, a terra given to a political party in England about 1G78. VViiio. Dr. Johnson defines a Tory as one who adheres to the ancient constitution of the state and the apos- tolical hierarchy of the church of England. The Tories long maintained the doctrines of "divine hereditary indefeasible right, lineal succession, passive obedience, prerogative," etc. — Bolingbroke. Conservatives. During the American Revo- lution, Americans who adhered to the crown were called Tories. tornadoes. Storms. Toronto, capital of the province of Ontario, Canada. Settled as York, 1794; name changed to Toronto, 1834. Uni- versitv, with its hall, librarv, and museum, burned, 14 Feb. 1890.' Pop. 1886, 118,403; 1891,181,220. tOrpe'dO-§liells, a name given to explosives placed under water for the destruction of vessels, an invention as- cribed to David Bushnell, an American, in 1777. His attempt to destroy the British ship Cerberus failed. The action of Fulton's torpedoes was successful in Britain, 1805 ; but their use was declined by the government. Torpedo-shells ignited by electricity were successfully employed in the United States during the civil war, 1861-65. On 4 Oct. 1865, messrs. M'Kay & Beardslee tried them at Chatham, Engl., before the duke of Somerset and others. An old vessel, the Terpsichore, was speedily sunk. The preliminary arrangements were compli- cated. Magneto-electricity was employed. Torpedoes made by prof. F. Abel of Woolwich were tried in May, 1866. A torpedo invented by Mr. Wightman and an Austrian tried and reported successful at Sheerness; an old hulk was sunk, 8 Oct. 1870. Torpedoes to be ignited from a distance by an electric battery are now made in the U. S. and at Woolwich, Engl. A Turkish monitor was blown up by a torpedo in the Danube (Russo-Turkish war, 1877), 26 May, 1877. New English torpedo-boat Peacemaker invented bv J. H. L. Tuck : Aug. 1886 Powerful Brennan torpedo with the " Watkin position finder " successfully tried at Cliff End fort 5 .July, 1890 Controllable torpedo of Scott Sims & Edison tried at Ports- mouth and reported successful 3-15 Feb. 1892 Navy, U. S. Tor'res strait, dividing Australia from Papua or New- Guinea, was discovered by Torres, a Spaniard, in June, 1606. Tor're§ Ve'dras, a city of Portugal. Near here Wellington, retreating from the French, took up a strong po- sition, called the Lines of Torres Vedras, 10 Oct. 1810. Torricellian experiment, by Evangelista Tor- ricelli (1608^7). In 1643 he discovered that the weight of the air at the surface of the earth is equal to that of a column of mercury 30 in. in height; on this principle the barom- eter is constructed. Torto'la. Virgin isles. torture of slaves to obtain testimony was permitted by the Greeks, but not of citizens. By the Romans " torture to compel confession was only applied to slaves." — Mommsen. " The application of torture to witnesses and suspected per- sons pervaded nearly all the criminal jurisprudence of Europe until the last century."— Groi'e, " Hist. Greece," vol. vii. p. 39, note. It is the boast of the common-law of England that it never recognized torture as legal. "The rack itself, though not admitted in ordinary execution of justice, was frequently used upon any suspicion, by authority of a warrant from a secretary of the privy council." — Hume. Torture was applied to heretics, etc., by the Romish church as early as 1228, and continued until 1816, when it was suppressed by a papal bull, which provided that prosecutions should be public and the accuser should confront the accused. Torture was abolished in England, 1640; Scotland, 1690; Portugal, 1776; France, 1789 ; Sweden, 1786, and generally throughout Europe before 1800. Gen. Picton was convicted of allowing Louisa Calde- ron, in Trinidad, to be tortured under an old law of the island, at his trials, 21 Feb. 1806, and 11 June, 1808. The following are noted cases of torture under the sanction of a government : Three of the soldiers who killed Cyrus the Younger at Cunaxa, Mithridates, a Persian, and 2 others. The slow method by which Mithridates was killed was termed the torture of the boat. He was 17 days dying.— P/wtarc/i, " Artaxerxes." Knights TfiMPLARS, the church acquiescing 1308-U Balthazar Gerard, for the assassination of William, prince of Orange 1534 Franpois Ravaillac, for assassination of Henry IV. of France.. . 1610 Certain citizens of Milan, on suspicion of propagating the Plague by ointments applied to the doors and walls of Robert Francis Damiens, for the attempted assassination of Louis XV. of France 1757 Count Ankerstrom, for the assassination of Gustavus III. of Sweden 1792 Assassins of count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece (Bukying AUVK) 1831 Instances of torture for heresy by the Romish church are very nu- merous. Ingenuity was strained to devise methods of torture- for the Inquisition. Some methods are described in Poe's tale of "The Pit and the Pendulum." tO'tem, among savage tribes, especially the North Amer- ican Indians, the token or s^^mbol of a family or clan, usually an animal or some natural object selected for reverence and superstitious regard. It serves for a sort of surname of the family. Its importance lies in the notion that individuals trace their lineage from it. The turtle, the bear, and the wolf ap- pear to be favored and honored totems among many tribes. The obligations growing out of a common totem are scrupu- lously regarded. Intermarriage among those having it was criminal. All such, of whatever clan or tribe, friendly or hos- tile, have the rights of hospitality, of succor in distress, and of friendship as blood-relations. The totem is never changed. " linear : ' The Hurons' totem is a moose ... the Delawares are the children of the tortoise. ... My race is the grandfather of na- tions.' Tamsemund ; 'Who art thou?' Uncas : 'A son of the great Unamis (turtle).' ''—Cooper, "Last of the Mohicans." Tot'nes, a town of Devon, England; thought to be the Romaai AdBurium Amnem. It was held by Judhael de Tot- neis, who built the castle about 1085. The parliamentary borough was disfranchised for gross corruption and bribery by the Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867. Toul, the Roman Tulli Leucorum, a fortified town on the Moselle, N.E. France; one of the most ancient in the empire. The city and diocese acquired great privileges from Charles the Simple, 925, when it was united with the German empire. i It was reunited with France, 1552. The fortifications, begun in 1238, were rebuilt and enlarged in 1700, according to the plans of Vauban. After a vigorous resistance to the Germans, commencing 14 Aug. 1870, Toul surrendered with its garrison of 3000 men, 23 Sept., when the town was burning in 23 places. The Germans thus acquired an uninterrupted railway com- munication to Paris. Toulon', the ancient Telo Martins, S. France, an im- portant military port. It was taken by the constable of Bourbon, 1524, and by the emperor Charles V. in 1536. In 1707 it was bombarded by the allies, both by land and sea. Most of the town was reduced to ruins, and several ships burned; but the allies were obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered 27 Aug. 1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took possession both of the town and shipping, in the name of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitution of 1789. A conflict took place be- tween the English and French forces, when the latter were repulsed, 15 Nov. 1793. Toulon was retaken by Bonaparte, 19 Dec, when such inhabitants as were thought to favor the British were cruelly handled. A naval battle oflF this port TOU 805 TOW was fought 11 Feb. 1744, between the English under Mathews and Lestock, against the fleets of France and Spain. The victory was lost by a misunderstanding between the English admirals. Mathews was dismissed for misconduct. Pop. 1891, 77,747. Touloil§e (too-looz'), the ancient Tolosa, S. France, founded about 615 b.c. ; was the capital of the Visigothic kings in 419 A.D. ; and was taken by Clovis in 508. The dukes of Aquitaine reigned here, 631-761. A university was estab- lished here, 1229, and a parliament, 1302. The Inquisition was established here to extirpate heretics, 1229. The trouba- dours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their origin about 850, and consisted of a fraternity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry. Troubadouks. The allied British and Spanish .army entered this city on 12 Apr., immediately after the bat- tle of Toulouse, fought between the British Peninsular army under lord Wellington, and the French led by marshal Soult, 10 Apr. 1814. The French were forced to retreat, after 12 hours' fighting. Neither of the commanders knew that Napo- leon had abdicated the throne of France. Pop. 1891, 149,791. TouloUie, a county of S.E. France, was created out of the kingdom of Aquitaine by Charlemagne, in 778. It enjoyed great prosperity till the dreadful war of the Albigenses, when the count Raymond VI. was expelled, and Simon de Montfort became count. At his death, in 1218, Raymond VII. obtained his inheritance. His daughter Jane and her husband Al- phonse (brother of Louis IX. of France) dying without issue, the county of Toulouse was united to the French monarchy in 1271. A large part of Toulouse destroyed by an inunda- tion of the Garonne (St. Cyprian like a sepulchre), 24-26 June, 1875. Touraine (too.ran''), the garden of France, was con- quered by the Visigoths about 480. It was ceded to GeofFroy, ■count of Anjou, 1044, and thus became the property of the Plantagenet kings of England. It was seized by Philip Au- gustus in 1203, and was made a duchy by John, 1360. It was tinally united to the crown on the death of the duke of Anjou, 1584. tOUr'liameiltM or jou§tS were martial sports of the ancient cavaliers. Tournament is derived from the French word tourner, " to turn round." Tournaments were frequent about 890; and were regulated by the emperor Henry I., about 919. Tournaments were introduced into England early in the 12th century; prohibited by Henry IL, but revived by Ricliard I., his son. Solemn tournaments were held by Edward HI., 25 Sept. 1329, in London; and 19 Jan. 1344, at Windsor; and by Richard II. near the end of the 14th cen- tury; and also by Henry VIII., in May, 1513. The Lateran •council protested against their continuance in 1136. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the comte de Montgomerie, had his eye struck out; an accident which caused the king's death in a few days, 29 June, 1559. Tournaments were then abol- ished in France. A magnificent feast and tournament, under the auspices of Archibald, earl of Eglintoun, took place at Eg- lintoun castle, 29 Aug. 1839, and the following week ; many of the visitors (among whom was Louis Napoleon Bonaparte) appeared as ancient knights, lady Seymour being the "Queen of Beauty." Among the festivities at the marriage of prince Humbert, at Turin, was a tournament, 24 Apr. 1868. Tourna- ments held at the Agricultural hall, London, N. (for benefit of soldiers' widows, etc.), 21 June et seq. 1880, and 25 June et seq. 1881. Tournay', a city of S. Belgium, was very flourishing till ravaged by barbarians in the 5th century. It has sustained many sieges. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to garrison it, as one of the barrier towns. It was tak- en by the French under gen. La Bourdonnaye, 8 Nov. 1792. Several battles were fought near Tournay in May, 1793, and May, 1794. tourniquet {toor-nee-lcay' ; from tourner, to turn), an in- strument for stopping the flow of blood in a limb, by tightening the bandage in amputations, is said to have been invented by Morelli at the siege of Besan^on, 1674. J. L. Petit, in France, invented the screw tourniquet in 1718. Greatly improved by Savigney of London, 1800, and by others since. Tours (toor), an ancient city, central France, near which Charles Martel gained a great victory over the Saracens, and saved Europe, 10 Oct. 732, and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. This conflict is also called the battle of Poictiers. When Paris was invested by the Ger- mans, M. Cremieux and several of the members of the French government of defence went to Tours, together with the rep- resentatives of foreign powers, 18 Sept. 1870. On 9 Oct. these were joined by Gambetta, minister of the interior, afterwards of war (who escaped from Paris by a balloon, 7 Oct.). In con- sequence of the defeat of the army of the Loire near Orleans, the government removed to Bordeaux, 11 Dec. Tower of London. The tradition that Julius Caesar founded a citadel here (about 54 b.c.) is very doubtful. "Ye towers of Julius, London's lasting shame, With many a foul and midnight murder fed." — Gray. A royal palace, on the present site of the White tower, which appears to have been first marked out by William the Con- queror, 1076, was commenced in 1078, and completed by Will- iam Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls and a ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions, and king Edward HI. built the church. In 1638 the old White tower was re- built ; and under king Charles II. it was thoroughly repaired, 1680-85, and many additions built. Here are the armory, jewel-office, and various other divisions and buildings of pe- culiar interest : notably, the Bloody tower, Wakefield tower. Bell tower, aixl Beauchamp tower. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF IMPORTANT IMPRISONMENTS IN THE TOWER. Name. Disposal. Date. VPhose reign. Remarks. David, king of Scotland Released Released Murdered Beheaded Murdered Beheaded Released Beheaded 1357 1423 1471 1478 1483 1499 1509 1513 1585 1536 1540 1542 1547 u 1549 Edward III. Henry V. Edward IV. Richard IIL Henry VII. Henry VIII. Edward VI. After 11 years in the Tower. Prisoners ■John, king of France ■James, son of Robert III. of ) Scotland | Henry VI Afterwards James I. of Scotland; 18 years a captive. ( Supposed to have been killed by the duke of Gloucester, after- \ wards Richard III. Drowned in a butt of Malmsey. Arrfist.Pfi in tVip Tnwpr nnrl hpTipadpH at nnr« ■George, duke of Clarence, broth- | er of the king f Lord Hastings Edward V. and duke of York. . , . Perkin Warbeck Children; buried in the Tower. For personating the duke of York. His life had been spent in the Tower. Edward Plantagenet, earl of ( Warwick \ Dudley and Empson Ministers of the king. The king carried out the wishes of Henry VII. For refusing to acknowledge the king's supremacy. Earl of Suffolk Fisher, bishop of Rochester Anne Boleyn Wife of Henry VIII. Minister of Henry VIII. Wife of Henry VIII. Thomas Cromwell Lady Catharine Howard Earl of Surrey Duke of Norfolk (Escaped execution, the king dying the night the warrant was < issued 1547 The lieutenant of the Tower held the warrant and Sir Thomas Seymour ( he was liberated by queen Mary, 6 years afterwards. (Treason. His brother, Edward Seymour, duke of Somerset, being I lord protector of England during the minority of Edward VI., ( signed the warrant for his execution. TOW 8D6 TRA CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OP IMPORTANT IMPRISONMENTS IN THE TOWEK -(Continued.) N«»«. DUpo«a. Data. WhoM reign. Remarks. Edward Seymour, duke ofSom- ) ereet i Beheaded Released Beheaded Released Beheaded Murdered Beheaded Released Beheaded (Murdered or ; committed 1 suicide. Beheaded Died 1552 1563 1564 1661 il572l 1572 1601 1613 1618 1621 1641 1645 1662 1683 1683 1683 1686 1689 Edward VI. Mary Elizabeth James I. <( Charles I. Charles II. (( James IL William III. (Brother of sir Thomas) convicted of treason. For placing lady Jane Grey on the throne. Husband of lady Jane Grey. Daughter of the earl of Suffolk. For making lady Jane Grey queen. Attempted insurrection. For a short time after the Wyatt insurrection, flmprisoned for marrying without the consent of Elizabeth \ earl was released alter the death of his wife, 1570. Treason with Spain. For treason. Treason. Attempted insurrection. Poisoned by the earl and countess of Somerset After many years' imprisonment. For bribery. Impeached by Parliament. Treason. Implicated in the Rye House plot u u u u ii u (Natural son of Charles II. and Lucy Waters; b. Rotterdam, ) For treason. Skdgmoor. (Arrested and placed in the Tower to save him from the \ Dec. 1688. Duke of Norlhumberlaud Karl of Suffolk Princess Elizabeth Earl of Hertford and his wife. . . . Tjtrtv Oiitherine Orev. ..... . .. ; the Duke of Norfolk Duke of Northumberland Robert Devereux, earl of E8se.x.. Sir Thomas Overbury Sir Waller Raleigh Sir Francis Bacon ....... .... Thomas Wentworth, earl of Staf-) ford ; Lord Russell Algernon Sidney Arthur earl of Essex nnbn r»f Hfrtnmnnth 1649. George Jeffreys, chief justice mob, f tower, a structure lofty in proportion to its base, gen- erally round or square. That of Babkl, the first on record, built in the plains of Shinar (Gen. xi.), 2257 b.c. The Tower of the Winds at Athens, built 550 b.c. ; the Tower of Pharos, 280 B.C. The 7-ound totoers in Ireland were the only structures of stone found on the arrival of the English, 1169, except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by Danes. They are tall hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing towards the top; pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, and covered with conical roofs. 56 still remain, from 50 to 130 feet high. An old tower at Newport, R. I., has long been a subject of contro- versy as to by whom and when erected. Lossing introduces this subject in his "Field Book of the Revolution," vol. i. p. 633-34, with illustration. Scribner-'s Monthly, vol. xvii., 1879, and the American Historical Magazine, vol. iii., 1879, have articles re- lating to this tower. "Some there are who say, Thou wert an ancient windmill." —Mrs. L. H. Sigoumey, " The Newport Tower." Martello, Pisa. Town ley inartole§,8culptures which Charles Town- ley collected at Rome between 1765-72. He died in 1805, when his collection (350 piece-s) was purchased for the British museum. Towton, a township of Yorkshire, Engl., where a san- guinary battle was fought, 29 Mch. 1461, between the houses of York(EdwardIV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.); fatal to the latter, who lost more than 37,000 men. Edward gave no quarter, and a merciless slaughter ensued. Henry and his queen, Margaret, fled to Scotland ; and Edward IV. was settled on the throne. Toxoph'ilites (from to^ov, a bow, and ^iXog, a lover), a society established by sir Aston Lever in 1781. In 1834 they took grounds in the inner circle of Regent's park, and built the archery lodge. They possess a curious piece of plate, given by Catherine, queen of Charles II., to be shot for by the Fins- bury archers, whom the Toxophilites represent. tract §oeietie§. The Society for Promoting Chris- tian Knowledge was founded in 1698 ; the Religious Tract So- ciety, London, in 1799; and other similar societies since. The first undenominational tract society in the United States was formed in Boston, 1803, and one at Andover, Mass., 1814, which removed to Boston, 1823, under the name of the " American Tract Society." In 1825 another was formed in New York, and soon after a union of all was effected. traetarianiilll, a set of opinions on church matters propounded in the " Tracts for the Times," of which 90 num- bers were published, 1833-41. The principal writers were the revs. dr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newman, J. Keble, J. Froude, and I. Williams— all of the University of Oxford. Pusevism. The tracts (specially No. 90) were condemned by the authorities at Oxford, 15 Mch. 1841. traetioil-eng^ine§, locomotive engines for drawing heav)'- load.s, were used on common roads in London in I860, but afterwards restricted. In Aug. 1862 one of Bray's traction- engines conveyed through the city a mass of iron which would require 29 horses. Railways. Trade and Plantation§, Board of. Cromwell seems to have given the first notions of a board of trade ; in 1655 he appointed his son Richard, with many lords of his council, judges, and gentlemen, and about 20 merchants of London, York, Newcastle, Yarmouth, Dover, etc., to meet and consider by what means the trade and navigation of the re- public might be best promoted. — Thomas's " Notes of the Rolls." Charles IL, on his restoration, established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole commerce of the nation, 1660; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and plantations, which was remodelled by William 111. This board was abolished in 1782; and a new council for the affairs of trade on its present plan was appointed, 2 Sept. 1786. trade dollar. Coin and Coinage, U. S. trade§' unions, England. By 6 Geo. IV. c. 129 (1825), the combination laws were repealed, and other pro- visions made. As trades' unions formed for maintaining wages, etc., are not recognized by law, a commission (including lord Elcho, Thomas Hughes, and others, with sir Wm. Erie as chairman) was appointed to inquire into their constitution, 14 Feb. 1867, and an act to facilitate its proceedings was passed 5 Apr. following. It reported during the year, disclosing the existence of murderous practices, with much intimidation. Manchester, Sheffield. An act to protect union funds from embezzlement was passed in 1869. A trade-union act passed 29 June, 1871 ; amended by act passed 30 June, 1876. To counteract the influence of trades' unioiis, the National Federation of Employers was formed, Dec. 1873. Labok, American Federation of; Workingmen. Trafalgar', Cape, S. Spain, off which a great naval victory was gained by the British, under Nelson, over the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by adm. Villeneuve and 2 Spanish admirals, 21 Oct. 1805. The ene- my's force was 18 French and 15 Spanish vessels, all of the line; that of the British, 27 ships. After a protracted fight, Villeneuve and the other admirals were taken, and 19 of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. Nelson was killed, and adm. Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and his last signal was, " England expects every man to do his duty." Nelson's victories. Trafalgar §quare, London, begun 1829; completed 1845. Grand hotel opened by lord mayor, 29 May, 1880. tragedy. Drama, Shakespeare. TRA 807 TRA Trajan's eolumn (in Rome), erected 114, by the Roman senate and people, to commemorate his victories ov^ the Dacians, and executed by ApoUodorus. It was built in the square called the Forum Trajanum; it is of the Tuscan order, and from its base, exclusive of the statue and pedestal, is 127| feet high. tram-roads, a road with a track for wheels, now gen- erally made of iron, but formerly of wooden rails or stone. As Benjamin Outram, father of sir James, the Indian general, in 1800, made improvements in this system of railways for com- mon vehicles in the north of England, the name is sometimes ascribed to him, but it is said to have existed in Derbyshire as early as 1602. The iron tram-road from Croydon to Wands- worth was completed on 24 July, 1801. Street railways. transceilden'talisni, the philosophy which finds all reality, not in the observation of external and objective fact, but in the mind and its processes. The word was first applied to the teachings of Kant, but more specially and ac- curately afterwards to those of Schelling and his followers ; and in America to the school of Emerson. Philosophy. transfig^ura'tion, the change of Christ's appearance on mount Tabor, in the presence of Peter, James, and John, 32 A.I). (Matt. xvii.). The feast of the Transfiguration, kept on 6 Aug., was instituted by pope Calixtus II. in 1455. transfusion of blood. Blood. transit. Mercury, Sun, Venus. translation to heaven. The supposed translation of Enoch to heaven at the age of 365 years, 3017 b.c. The prophet Elijah was, as some assert, translated to heaven in a chariot of fire, 896 b.c. The possibility of translation to the abode of eternal life has been maintained by some enthusiasts. The Irish House of Commons expelled Mr. Asgill for writing a book asserting the possibility of translation to the other world without death, 170.3. Transpa'dane republic, comprising Lombardy and part of the Venetian territories, was established by Bona- parte after his victory at Lodi, 10 Ma}', 1796. With the Cis- padane republic it merged into the Cisalpine republic, Oct. 1797. transporta'tion. British judges were given the power of sentencing offenders to transportation " into any of his majesty's dominions in North America," by 18 Charles II. c. 3 (1666), and by 4 Geo. I. c. 11 (1718). Transportation ceased in 1775, but was revived in 1786. The reception of convicts was successfully resisted by the Cape of Good Hope (in 1849) and the Australian colonies (1864). Transportation, even to W. Australia, where labor is wanted, ceased after a few years, through the fierce opposition of the eastern colonies. In consequence of the difficulty then experienced in transporting felons, 16 and 17 Vict. c. 99 was passed, substituting penal ser- vitude, empowering the crown to grant pardon to offenders under certain conditions, and licenses to others to be at large, such licenses to be revoked if necessary ; and many have been. Such a license is termed " Ticket-of- leave." The system was assailed in Oct. and Nov. 1862, on account of crimes traced to ticket-of-leavers. Crime. JohD Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to transpor- tation for stealing a few quires of paper (Phillips) 1 Nov. 1771 Rev. dr. Halloran, tutor to earl of Chesterfield, transported for forging a frank (IM. postage) 9 Se^^ 1818 First transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May, 1787; where gov. Phillip arrived with about 800 on 20 Jan. 1788; con- victs were afterwards sent to Tasmania, Norfolk Island, etc. Returning from transportation was punishable with death until 5 Will. IV. 0. 67, Aug. 1834, afterwards by transportation for life. A shipment of convicts to W. Australia (which had already received 10,000) in 1867. transubStan'tiation, the doctrine of the "real presence." That the bread and wine in the Eucharist are changed into the verj'^ flesh and blood of Christ by the conse- cration, was asserted in the days of (Jregory III. (731) and by Amalarius and Radbertus (about 830), but denied by Raba- nus Maurus, Johannes Scotus Erigena, Berengariup, Wickliffe, and others. In the Lateran council, held at Rome by Iimo- cent III., the word " transubstantiation " was used to express this doctrine, decreed to be incontrovertible ; all who denied it were condemned as heretics. This was confirmed by the council of Trent, 18 Jan, 1562. John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and other martyrs of the Reformation, suffered for denying this dogma, which is renounced by the church of England (28th article), and by all Protestant dissenters. The declara- tion against transubstantiation, invocation of the saints, and the sacrifice of the mass, on taking any civil office, was abol- ished in Great Britain by an act passed 25 July, 1867. Sac- rament. Luther maintained the doctrine o{ consubstantiation—v\z., that, after consecration, the body and blood of Christ are substantially present in the bread and wine. He was opposed by Bucer, Carlstadt, Zwingle, and others (termed sacramentarians), who asserted that the Lord's supper is only a commemorative rite. Transvaal or South African Republic, founded by the Dutch farmers (Boers) about 1848. After sev- eral years' severe conflict with the natives, its independence was declared, 17 Jan. 1858. The executive is vested in a president, elected for 5 years. Area, 113,642 sq. miles. Pop. 1890, whites, 119,128; natives estimated at 560,000. Capital, Pretoria. War with the KafBrs begun ; Cetywayo, king; Secocffini (Sicka- kuni), an eminent chief July, 1876 Boers assisted by the Amazwasies, a warlike tribe, who check Kaffirs Sept. ' ' Sir T. Shepstone well received; a desire expressed for feder- ation, Feb. ; opposition to it Mch. 1877 Anarchy in the Transvaal; annexation (for protection) to the British dominions proclaimed by sirT. Shepstone, 12 Apr.; he is sworn in as administrator 30 May, " Great opposition to British rule; appeased after much discus- sion ^ 12 Apr. 1879 Sir G. Wolseley appointed governor of Natal, etc May, " Transvaal declared a crown colony Dec. ' ' Boers meet and claim independence; Bok, Kruger, and Preto- rius arrested for signing a document issued by the Boer com- mittee Dec. 1879, and Jan. 1880 Boers seize Heidelburg, 16 Dec. ; establish the South African- Republic, Paul Kruger, president 17 Dec. " A party of Boers stop at Bronker's Spruit about 250 British troops of the 94th regiment, who resist; some killed or wounded; others disarmed and dismissed 20 Dec. " Potchefstrom seized by Boers, who retire when the place is shelled; col. Bellairs besieged in it 27 Dec. et seq. " South African Republic proclaimed by a triumvirate — Kruger, Joubert, and Pretorius 30 Dec. " Troops sent from Britain, etc Dec. 1880, and Jan. 1881 Sir George P. Colley (appointed governor of Natal, 1880) takes command in the war Jan. " Gen. Colley's attack on Laing's Nek, a pass, repulsed with heavy loss 28 Jan. " Severe conflict on the Ingogo river; the British 12 hours under Are; repulsed with heavy loss 8 Feb. " Sir Evelyn Wood brings reinforcements to gen. Colley.. 17 Feb. " Orange Free State proclaims neutrality and mediation, about 22 Feb. " Gen. Colley marches in the night to Majuha Hill; defeated and killed after a desperate conflict 27 Feb. " Gen. sir F. Roberts sent to Africa 28 Feb. " Armistice proposed by the Boers; accepted for C-14 Mch.; armistice extended, 14 Mch. ; Boers agree to British terms, 21,22 Mch.; peace proclaimed; the Boers disperse; gen. Roberts recalled 24 Mch. " Potchefstrom surrenders with honors of war, 21 Mch. ; given uji as occupied by mistake Apr. " Vote of censure on the government in commons negatived (314-205) 25, 26 July, " Commissioners to carry out treaty of peace appointed, 5 Apr. ; agree to convention ceding virtually all the territory to "The Transvaal State " on 8 Aug., subject to suzerainty of queen Victoria and a British resident; with debt of about 420, 867^., etc.; independence of the Swazies guaranteed; signed by royal commissioners and Martin W, Pretorius and Peter J. Joubert (Stephen J. P. Kruger not present), 3 Aug. ; effected 8 Aug. " Meeting of the Volksraad, 21 Sept. ; treaty confirmed.. .25 Oct. " War with the natives '. 1882-83 Paul Kruger president 1883-88 Definite proposals submitted to the government, 22 Dec. ; amended boundary - lines accepted, 2 Feb.; convention signed, the republic to be styled the "South African Repub- lic," under British suzerainty 27 Feb. 1883 Convention adopted by the Transvaal assembly 8 Aug " Johannesburg founded by gold miners 1887 Transylva'nia, an Austrian province, was part of the ancient Dacia, so named by the Romans, meaning the country beyond the forest. In 1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of the emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of the Turks. His successors ruled with much difficulty till Jan. 1699, when the emperor Leopold I., by the treaty of Car- lowitz, finally incorporated Trans3'lvania into the Austrian dominions. The Transylvanian deputies did not take their seat in the Austrian parliament till 20 Oct. 1863. A decree for the convocation of the Transylvanian diet was issued 12 Sept. 1865. The inhabitants are about 1,100,000 ignorant TRA Roumanians, 1,500,000 Saxon colonists, and 550,000 Magyars, the last being the ruling class. The union of Transylvania with Hungary in 18-48, which has caused much discontent, was ratified by the Transylvanian diet, 25 Dec. 186G. TrappijitS, monks ol the order of Cistercians, The first al)l)ey of La Trappe in Normandy was founded, in 1140, by Rotrou, comte de I'erche. The present order of Trappists owes its origin to the learned Jean le Bouthillier de la Ranee (editor of Anacreon when aged 14), who renounced the world and soKl all his property, giving the proceeds to the abbey of La Trappe, to which he retired in 1662, to live there in great austerity. After several efforts he succeeded in reforming the monks, and in establishing new rules of silence, prayer, readhig, and manual labor, and forbidding study, wine, fish, etc. Ranee was born in 1620, and died in 1700. The Trap- pists' new building was consecrated in Aug. 1833. trap-sllOOtillg^. Shooting at a stuffed parrot on a pole, known as popinjay shooting, was practised by the ancient Greeks; sometimes a living bird was attached to the pole by a cord. Pigeon-shooting, patronized by lord Huntingfield and other noblemen, became fashionable sport in England about 1856. Trap-ball shooting was developed in the United States by Ira Payne and capt. A. H. Bogardus to supplant pigeon- shooting, prohibited by law in many states as cruel. 990 glass balls broken out of 1000 shot at, by A. H. Bogardus (U yds.), at Bradford, Pa 20 Nov. 1879 6500 glass balls broken out of 5854, at 15 yds., by A. H. Bogar- dus in New York city 20 Dec. " 99 pigeons killed out of 100 single, 30 yds. rise; A. H. Bogardus, at Coney Island 2 July, 1880 100 single pigeons killed in succession, 30 yds. rise, by Al. Ban- die, at Cincinnati, 25 Dec. 1888 60,000 wooden balls hit, out of 60,670 shot at, by W. F. Carver, at Minneapolis, Minn '. 24-30 Dec. " 100 single pigeons shot in succession at 28 yds. rise, by A. L. Fulford, at Marion, N, J 17 Nov. 1891 tread-mill, an invention of the Chinese to raise water for irrigating fields. The complicated tread-mill in the pris- ons of Great Britain is the invention of Mr. (afterwards sir William) Cubitt, of Ipswich. It was erected at Brixton jail, 1817, and soon afterwards in other large prisons. treason. High-treason. treason, petty, in English law (a term abolished in 1828, defined by the statute of 25 Edw. III. 1352), was a wife's murder of her husband, a servant's murder of his master, and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior. treason-felony, Engl. By the Crown and Govern- ment Security act, 11 Vict. c. 12 (1848), certain treasons here- tofore punishable with death were mitigated to felonies, and subjected to transportation or imprisonment. The Fenians in Ireland were tried under this act. treasurer of Eing^land, Lord high, the third great officer of the crown, a lord by virtue of his office, having the custody of the king's treasure, governing the upper court of exchequer, and formerly sitting judicially among the bar- ons. The first lord high treasurer in England was Odo, earl of Kent, in the reign of William I. This great trust is now confided to a commission of 5 persons, called "lords commis- sioners for executing the office of lord high treasurer," and of these the chancellor of the exchequer is usually one, the first lord being usually the premier. A third lord of the treasury (Mr. Stansfeld) was appointed, Dec. 1868, succeeded by W. H. Gladstone, Dec. 1869. First of this rank in Ireland was John de St. John, Henry III. 1217; the last, William, duke of Devonshire, 1766; vice-treasurers were apponted till 1789; then commissioners till 1816, when the reve- nues of Great Britain and Ireland were united. First lord high treasurer of Scotland was sir Walter Ogilvie, ap- pointed by James I. in 1420; the last, in 1641, John, earl of Tra- quair; afterwards commissioners were appointed. treasury, United States, Secretaries of. Unit- ed Statks, Administrations of. treaties, compacts or agreements, especially between 2 nations or governments. The first formal written treaty made by England with another nation was at Kingston, be- tween Henry III. and the dauphin of France (then in Eng- land), 11 Sept. 1217. The first commercial treaty was with Guy, earl of Flanders, 1274; the second with Portugal and Spain, 1308. — A nderson. 808 TRE MOST IMPORTANT OK FOREIGN TREATIES. Where concluded. Adrianople Aix-la-Chapelle. Augsburg. Belgrade... Berlin. Bretigny... Bucharest., Cambray , Cam po Form io. Carlowitz Dresden Frankfort-on-Main. Hubertsburg Kutschouc Kai-) nardji j London Luneville . Nimeguen Nystadt... Oliva Paris. Passarowit?., Prague. Presburg. Pyrenees. Ryswick , San Stefano. Tien Tsin.... Tilsit. . . . Troyes. . Utrecht . Vienna. . Westphalia. Zurich Treaty. Peace: Russia and Turkey Peace : Franco and Spain Peace: Terminating the war i of the ArsTRiAN succks- > SIGN ) (Peace: Great Britain, Hoi-) ( land, France, and Spain. . j I Peace of Religion: Catholici ( and Protestant | Peace: Turkey and Austria. . , {Settling the Eastern ques- tion : Germany, Russia, Turkey, Great Britain, Austria, France, and Italy Peace: England and France. . Peace : Russia and Turkey " Paix des Dames ": Francis ) I. of France and Charles [ V. of Germany ) Cession by Austria to France.. ( Peace : Turkey with Ger-l I many, Russia, Poland, and y ( Venice j j Peace : Hungary, Prussia, I ( and Saxony ) Peace: France and Germany. /Peace: Saxony, Prussia, and » ( Bavaria ] (Independence of Crimea, j 1 etc. : Russia and Turkey. ] j On behalf of Greece: Great) ( Britain, Russia,and France ) (Settlement of Belgian ques- j \ tion (5 great powers) | (Settling the relations be- 1 ( tween Turkey and Egypt, j ( Peace : French Republic and ( ( Germany j (Peace: France and United) ( Provinces ) Cession by Sweden to Russia.. ( Peace :Sweden, Poland, Bran-) ( denburg, and Prussia j j Cession of Canada to Great) I Britain by France and [ ( Florida by Spain ) ] Peace : Cession by France to ) ( Sweden j ( Peace : France and allied ) \ powers ) {Confiding care of Napoleon ) (prisoner of war) to Eng- | land : Signed by Great V Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia j (Peace: Russia,Turkey, Eng-( ( land, France, and Sardinia) Commercial and land ces- sions between Germany, Venice, and the Turks. . . Between Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Ger- many, granting religious freedom Peace: Ferdinand II. and) Saxony ] Peace: Austria and Prussia. . Peace: France and Austria.. Peace : France and Spain Peace : England, France, ) Spain, Holland, and Ger- [ many ) Peace : Russia and Turkey . . . Peace: France and China Peace: France and Russia... f Stipulating marriage of Hen- ] ry V. with Catharine, etc. : England, France, and Bur- gundy Terminating the war of the Spanish succession Peace: Charles VI. of Ger- many and Louis XV. of France Peace: France and Austria. . . f Confirming treaty of Chau- 1 mont, 1 Mcb. 1814: Great ! Britain, Austria, Russia, [ and Prussia J (Peace: Austria and Prussiaf I with Denmark j Peace : Austria and Italy (Ending the Thirty Years' | \ war. f Peace: Austria, France, and \ Sardinia 14 Sept. 2 May, 7 Oct. 15 Sept. 18 Sept. 1829 1668 1748 1566 1739 13 July, 1878 8 May, 28 May, 5 Aug. 17 Oct. 26 Jan. 25 Dec. 10 May, 15 Feb. July, 6 July, 15 Nov. 15 July, 9 Feb. 10 Aug. 30 Aug. 3 May, 1812 1529 1797 1699 1745 1871 1763 1774 1827 1831 ^ 1840 1801 1678 1721 } 10 Feb. 1763 6 Jan. 1810 11 Apr. 1814 2 Aug. 1815 30 Mch. 1856 21 July, 1718 12 Aug. 1552 30 May, 1G35 23 Aug. 1866 26 Dec. 1805 7 Nov. 1659 Sept. -Oct. 1667 3 Mch. 1878 26 June, 1858 9 June, 1885 7 July, 1807 21 May, 1420 11 Apr. 1713 18 Nov. 1738 14 Oct. 1809 23 Mch. 1815 30 Oct. 1864 3 Oct. 1866 24 Oct. 1648 10 Nov. 1859 TRE Other important treaties are mentioned under the following articles : 809 TRE PRINCIPAL TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS, KTC. — (Continued.) Abo. Conflans. Akerman. Constantinople Allahabad. Fontainebleau. Antalcidas. Fuessen. Antwerp. Gastein. Armed neutral- Grand alliance. ity. Hague, The Arras. Holy alliance. Barrier. Japan (1858). Basel. Kiel. Berlin. Leagues. Chaumont. Melhuen, Milan. Munster. Paris. Partition treaties. Peterswald. Pilnitz. Quadruple treaty. Rastadt. Ratisbon. Reichenbach. St. Ildefonzo. St. Petersburg. Smalcald. Stockholm. Suncion. Tolentino. TOplitz. Transvaal. Triple alliance. Ulm. Valenpay. Versailles. Vossem. Warsaw. principal treaties and conventions of the united states with other powers (exclusive of postal conventions). Note.— Treaties indicated by T. Conventions by C. Foreign power and object of treaty. Where concluded. Date. Algiers : Algiers San Jose Washington ... Washington . . . Vienna Berlin. 5 Sept. 1795 T. " " " 6 July, 1815 24 Dec. 1816 T. " " " 1 Argentine Confederation : 1 T. Free navigation of Parana) and Uruguay j 10 July, 1853 T. Friendship, commerce, navi- 1 gation ... . , 1 27 July, " Austria : T. Commerce, navigation T. Commerce and navigation 26 Aug. 1829 8 May, 1848 3 July, 1856 11 July, 1870 20 Sept. " 25 Nov. 1871 Austro- Hungary : C. Rights of consuls C. Trade-marks Baden : C Extradition 30 .Tan 1857 T Naturalization Carlsruhe Berlin 19 July, 1868 21 Jan. 1845 Bavaria : C. Abolishing droit d'aubaine) and taxes on emigration. . . j London Munich Brussels Washington ... Brussels Washington . . . La Paz . . . . 12 Sept. 1853 26 May, 1868 10 Nov. 1845 17 July, 1858 20 May, 1863 20 July, " 16 Nov. 1868 T. Citizenship of emigrants K Belgium : Iv T. Commerce and navigation .... ■K-" C. Peace, amity, commerce, etc.. Jm C. Completing treaty of 1858 ^ T. To extinguish Scheldt dues i C. Naturalization 20 Dec. " C. Extradition 19 Mch. 1874 T. Commerce and navigation 8 Mch. 1875 9 Mch. 1880 C. Trade-marks 7 Apr. 1884 13 May, 1858 23 June, 1850 12 Dec. 1828 Bolivia : T. Peace, friendship, commerce,) navigation J Borneo : C. Peace, friendship, good un- ) i derstanding ( 1 Brazil : "( T. Peace and amity Rio de Janeiro. Washington ... Washington . . . Santiago Wang Hiya Tien-Tsin Shang- Hai Washington . . . Peking Bogota Yin-Chuen .... Washington ... San Jose Washington . . . Copenhagen. . . . C. Satisfying U. S. claims 27 Jan. 1849 24 Sept. 1878 21 Aug. 1854 5 Dec. 1825 16 May, 1832 10 Nov. 1858 Brunswick and Luxemburg : Central America : C. Peace, amity, navigation, etc. . Chili: C. Peace, commerce, and navi- ) gation J C. Arbitration of Macedonian^ claims • • • f China : ' T. Peace, amity, and commerce. .. T. " 3 July, 1844 18 June, 1858 8 Nov " C. Additions to treaty of 18 June, ) 1858 j T. Immigration 28 July, 1868 17 Nov 1880 T. Commercial and judicial Colombia : C. Peace, amity, commerce,) navigation ) C. Extradition 3 Oct. 1824 7 May, 1888 22 May, 1882 10 July, 1851 2 July, 1860 26 Apr. 1826 28 Mch. 1830 Corea : T. Peace, amity, commerce,) navigation j Costa Rica : T. Friendship, commerce, navi- ) gation ) Denmark : C. Friendship, commerce, navi- ) gation 1 C. To indemnify the U. S Foreign power and object of treaty. Denmark (continued) : C. Discontinuance of Sounddues C. Naturalization Dominican Republic : C. Amity, commerce, naviga- tion, extradition Ecuador : T. Friendship, commerce, navi- gation C. Mutual adjustment of claims C. Naturalization T. Extradition Egypt : C. Concerning commerce and customs France : T. Alliance T. Amity and commerce C. Payment of loan C. Power of consuls C. Navigation and commerce . . C. Claims for indemnity C. Extradition C. Consular C. Trade marks C. Claims French Republic : C. Terminating difficulties T. Regarding treaty of 27 Oct. 1795 Guatemala : C. Peace, amity, commerce, ) navigation \ German Empire : C. Consuls and trade marks Great Britain : C. Armistice T. Peace T. Amity, commerce, navigation . . C. Regarding treaty of 1794 T. Peace and amity C. Regulating commerce C. Naval force on great lakes, U.S. C. Fisheries, northern boundary, l etc ) T. Indemnification C. Award C. Boundary T. Boundary,slave trade, extra- ) dition j T. Oregon boundary, etc C. Nicaragua ship canal C. Settlement of claims T. Fisheries, etc T. Suppression of slave trade T. Hudson's bay and Puget's) sound claims J C. Naturalization C. Slave-trade T. Fisheries, Alabama claims, etc. C. Trade-marks C. Supplementing extradition \ treaty of 9 Aug. 1842 ) Greece : T. Commerce and navigation Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck : C. Friendship, commerce, and) navigation ) C. Extending jurisdiction of) consuls ) Hanover : T. Commerce and navigation T. » " " C. Extradition T. Stado or Brunshausen dues) abolished j Hawaiian islands : T. Friendship, commerce., navi-l gation ; ) C. Commercial reciprocity Hayti : T. Amity, commerce, naviga-) tion, etc ) Hesse- Cassel : C. Droit d'aubaine and tax on) emigration abolished ) Hesse- Darmstadt : T. Naturalization Italy : C. Consular C. Extradition T. Commerce and navigation C. Consular priv " C. Consular rights. Japan : T. Peace, amity, commerce, etc. T. Commercial"; ports opened. . . T. Peace, amity, and commerce. Where concluded. Washington ... Copenhagen — Santo Domingo. Quito Guyaquil . . . Washington Quito Cairo Paris Versailles .. Washington Paris Washington Guatemala. Berlin . . . . Versailles. Paris London. .. Ghent London Washington London St. Petersburg. London Washington London Washington London Washington London Washington London , Washington ... Berlin. .. Hanover. London . . Washington . . . Porte au-Prince Berlin. Darmstadt Washington ... Florence Washington ., Kanagawa.. Simoda Yedo Date. 11 Apr. 1857 20 July, 1872 8 Feb. 1867 13 June, 1839 25 Nov. 1862 6 May, 1872 28 June, " 16 Nov. 1884 16 July, 14 Nov. 24 June, 4 July, 9 Nov. 23 Feb. 16 Apr. 15 Jan. 30 Sept. 30 Apr. 1782 1788 1822 1831 1843 1853 1800 1803 Mch. 1849 11 Dec. 1871 20 Jan. 1783 3 Sept. " 19 Nov. 1794 8 Jan. 1802 24 Dec. 1814 3 July, 1815 Apr. 1817 20 Oct. 1818 12 July, 1822 13 Nov. 1826 29 Sept. 1827 9 Aug. 1842 15 June, 1846 17 Apr. 1850 8 Feb, 1853 5 June, 1854 7 Apr. 1862 1 July, 1863 13 May, 1870 3 June, " 8 May, 1871 24 Oct. 1878 12 July, 1889 (10-22 Dec. I 1837 20 Dec. 1827 30 Apr. 1852 20 May, 1840 10 June, 1846 18 Jan. 1855 6 Nov. 1861 20 Dec. 1849 30 Jan. 1875 3 Nov. 1864 26 Mch. 1844 1 Aug. 1868 8 Feb. " 23 Mch. " 26 Feb. 1871 8 May, 1878 24 Feb. 1881 31 Mch. 1854 17 June, 1857 29 July, 1858 26* TRE PRINCIPAL TRKATIKS AND CONVKNTIONS, KTC— (Continued.) 810 TRE PKINCIPAL TUEATIKS AND CONVKNTIONS, ETC. — (Contintied.) Kuraifu powor and ob}wt of treaty. Jupun (continued) : C. Reducing import duties C. ludemnitioa (U. S., (Jreat Britain, Fnince, and Hol- land sign) C. Regarding oxi>euse of ship- 1 wrecks ) T E-KtradiUon ' Loo-Choo: C. Permitting unobstructed trade Liberia : T. Commerce and navigation — Luxemburg : T. E.xtradition ; Madagascar : T. Commerce Mexico : T. E.xtradition C. Aiyustment of claims C. Citizenship of emigrants C. Mutual right to pursue Ind- ) ians across the boundary. . ) C. Commercial C. International boundary Mexican Republic : C. Adjustment of claims T. Peace, friendship, limits T. Boundary, etc Morocco : T. Peace and friendship T. Peace C. To maintain lighthouse at! cape Spartel. (Signed by U. S., Austria, Belgium, I Spain, France,Great Britain, | Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden) J C. Protection (signed by 13) powers) J Muscat : T. Amity and commerce. , Nassau : C. Abolishing droit d'aubaine Netherlands : T. Amity and commerce T. Commerce and navigation C. Commercial C. Consular C. " C. Extradition C. " New Granada : T. Peace, amity, navigation, 1 commerce ) C. Consular powers C. Claims Nicaragua : T. Friendship, commerce, navi- ) gation ) C. Extradition Orange Free State : C. Friendship, commerce, ex-) tradition j Ottoman Empire : T. Commerce and navigation C. Extradition Ottoman Porte : T. Friendship Paraguay : C. Friendship, commerce, navi- ) gation j Persia : T Friendship and commerce Peru : C. Peru to pay cUiims of $300,000. T. Friendship, commerce, navi- ) gation ( C. Rights of neutrals at sea . . C. Claims C. " C. Adjustment of claims T. Friendship, commerce, navi-) gation ./ T. Extradition T. Friendship, commerce, navi- ) gation ) Peru- Bolivia Confederation : C. Peace, friendship, commerce, ) navigation J Portugal : T. Commerce and navigation C. Portugal to pay $91,727) claims, etc f Prussia : T. Amity and commerce Wliere concluded. Yedo Yokohama Tokio Napa . . . London . Berlin . . Antananarivo . Mexico Washington Washington (Guadalupe ( Hildago) Mexico Tangier. Madrid Muscat Berlin The Hague.. Washington The Hague.. Washington Bogota Washington . . Managua Bloemfontein... Constantinople , Constantinople. Lima ., Lima Lisbon Washington 28 Jan. 1864 22 Oct. " 17 May, 1880 29 Apr. 1886 11 July, 1854 21 Oct 1862 29 Oct. 1883 14 Feb. 1867 11 Dec. 1861 4 July, 1868 10 July, " 29 July, 1882 1883- 1884 20 Jan. 12 Nov. 11 Apr. 2 Feb. 30 Dec. 1839 1848 1853 .Jan. 17€7 16 Sept. 1836 31 May, 1865 3 July, 1880 21 Sept. 1833 27 May, 1846 8 Oct. 1782 19 Jan. 1839 26 Aug. 1852 22 Jan. 1855 23 May, 1878 22 May, 1880 2 June, 1887 12 Dec. 1846 4 May, 1850 10 Sept. 1857 21 June, 1867 25 June, 1870 22 Dec. 1871 25 Feb. 11 Aug. 1862 1874 7 May, 1830 4 Feb. 1859 13 Dec. 1856 17 Mch. 1841 26 July, 1851 22 July, 1856 20 Dec. 1862 12 Jan. 1863 4 Dec. 1868 6 Sept. 1870 12 Sept. " 31 Aug. 1887 30 Nov. 1836 26 Aug. 1840 26 Feb. 1851 f July-Sept. 1785 Foreign power and object of treaty. Where concluded. Date. Prussia (continued) : Berlin 11 Julv, 1799 T. Commerce and navigation T. Regulating citizenship of ) emigrants ) Prussia and German Confederation: C Extradition .. Washington ... 1 May, 1828 22 Feb. 1868 Washington . . . Bucharest St. Petersburg.. Washington . . . 16 June. 1852 Roumania : C. Consular ) 5-17 June, Russia : C. Navigation, fishery, boundary. T, Navigation and commerce ( 1881 1 5-17 Apr. 1 1824 6-18 Dec. \ 1832 22 July, 1854 30 Mch. 1867 27 Jan. 1868 21 Apr. 1893 2 Jan. 1850 T. Cession of Russian possessions. Addition to treaty of 1832 San Salvador : T. Amity, navigation, commerce. C. Extradition San Salvador. . . Washington . . . 23 May, 1870 6 Dec. " 17 Jan. 1878 26 Nov. 1838 T. Amity, commerce, consular ) privileges | Samoan islands : T. Friendship and commerce Sardinia : T. Commerce and navigation Saxony : C. Abolition of droit d'aubaine. . . Berlin 14 May, 1845 20 Mch. 1833 Siam,: Bankok Washington ... 1 San Lorenzo | ( el Real ) Madrid Washington . . . Madrid Paris T. Friendship, commerce, etc Regulating liquor traffic in Siam. Spain : T. Friendship, limits, navigation. C Indemnification 29 May, 1856 14 May, 1884 27 Oct. 1795 11 Aug. 1802 22 Feb. 1819 17 Feb. 1834 T. Amity, settlement, limits C. Extradition 5 Jan. 1877 Sweden : 3 Apr. 1783 4 Sept. 1816 4 July, 1827 T. Friendship and commerce Sweden and Norway : T. Navigation, commerce, con- ) Stockholm Stockholm Washington . . . Stockholm Washington . . . Berne Houston Washington ... fU. S. steamer ) 1 Mohican] Tripoli C. Extradition 21 Mch. 1860 C. Naturalization 26 May, 1869 18 May, 1847 25 Nov. 1850 11 Apr. 1838 25 Apr. " 2 Oct. 1886 4 Nov. 1796 Swiss Confederation : C. Abolishing droit d'aubaine) and taxes on emigration. . . j C. Friendship, commerce, etc Texas : Tonga : T. Amity, commerce, navigation. Tripoli : T. Peace and amity 4 June, 1805 26 Mch. 1799 Tunis : Two Sicilies : C. Regarding depredation of » Murat j Naples 14 Oct. 1832 T. Commerce and navigation C. Rights of neutrals at sea C. Peace, friendship, commerce, ) etc 1 United Mexican States : T. Limits 1 Dec 1845 u 13 Jan 1855 u 1 Oct. " Mexico Caracas Valencia Caracas Berlin 12 Jan. 1828 T. Amity, commerce, navigation. Venezuela : T. Peace, friendship, navigation, ) commerce J 5 Apr. 1831 20 Jan. 1836 C. Satisfying Aves island claims. . T. Amity, commerce, naviga- ) tion extradition ) 14 Jan. 1859 27 Aug. 1860 C Referring claims 25 Apr. 1866 10 Apr. 1844 27 July, 1868 3 July, 1886 Wilrtemberg : C. Abolishing droit d'aubaine) and taxes on emigration . . . ) Stuttgart Zanzibar Zanzibar : C. EnlargingtreatywithMuscat, ) 1833 ) GENERAL CONVENTIONS. C. With Belgium, Brazil, Dominican Republic, France, Great Britain, Guatemala, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Por- tugal, Salvador, Scrvia, Spain, Sweden, Swiss Confedera- tion, and Tunis; convention for the protection of industrial property, signed at Paris 20 Mch. 1883 C. With Belgium, Brazil, Italy, Portugal, Servia, Spain, and Switzerland,. for exchange of official documents and liter- ary publications; signed at Brussels 15 Mch. 1886 C. With Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, general act I TRE 811 TRI for ueutrality of Samoan islands, signed at Berlin, U June, 1889 C. With foreign powers for an international union to publish customs tariffs; signed at Brussels 5 July, 1890 Trebia, now Trebtoia, a river in N. Italy, near the mouth of which Hannibal defeated the Roman consul Sem- pronius, 218 B.C., his second battle and victor j'^ after crossing tiie Alps; here also Siiwarrow defeated the French marshal Macdonald and compelled him to retreat, 17-19 June, 1799. Trcto'izoild, formerly Trape'ZUS, a port of Asia Minor in the Black sea, was colonized by the Greeks, and be- came subject to the kings of Pontus. It was the first Greek col- ony reached by the "Ten Th6usand Greeks" on their retreat after the battle of Cunaxa. It enjoyed self-government under the Roman empire, and when the Latins took Constantinople, ill 1204, it became the seat of an empire which endured till 1401, when it was conquered by the Turks under Mahomet II. tree§. Arbou day-, Flowers and Plants. For Charter Oak, Connecticut, 1687 and 1856; and Penn's " Treaty Elms," Pennsylvanlv, 1682. Trent, the ancient T?-identum, a city of the Tyrol, Aus- tria. The council held here is reckoned in the Roman Catholic church as the 18th general council. Its decisions have been implicitly received as the standard of faith, morals, and dis- cipline in that church. It first sat 13 Dec. 1545, and con- tinued (with interruptions) under popes Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV. to 4 Dec. 1563; its last sitting, the 2oth. A jubilee in relation to this council was celebrated in June, 1863. At this council was decreed, with anathemas, the canon of Scripture (including the Apocrypha), and the church its sole interpreter; the traditions to be equal with Scripture; the seven sacraments (baptism, confirmation, the Lords supper, penance, extreme unc- tion, orders, and matrimony), transulistantiation, purgatory, in- dulgences, celibacy of the clergy, auricular confession, etc. Trent affair. On 7 Nov. 1861, James M. Mason of Virginia, Confederate envoy to Great Britain, and John Slidell of Louisiana, accredited to France, embarked at Ha- vana in the British mail steamer T7'e?it for England. The U. S. steamship San Jacinto, capt. Wilkes, was v/atching for the Trent in the Bahama channel, 240 miles from Havana, €apt. Wilkes having decided, on his own responsibilitj-, to seize the 2 Confederate envoys. The Sati Jacinto met the Trent on the forenoon of 8 Nov., signalled her to stop in vain, and then fired a shot across her bow. Her captain unwillingly allowed Mason and Slidell, with their secretaries, to be taken on board the Sa7i Jacinto. Capt. Wilkes reached Boston on 19 Nov., and the 2 ministers were confined in fort Warren. This seizure was received with favor in the U. S., but Great Britain demanded from the government at Washington a formal apology and the immediate release of the prisoners. Lord John Russell instructing the minister, lord Lyons, at Washington, 30 Nov. 1861, that unless a satisfactory answer were given within 7 days he might, at his discretion, with- draw the legation and return to England. This despatch was received on 18 Dec. ; on the 19th lord Lyons called on Mr. Seward, and in a personal interview an amicable adjust- ment was made possible by the moderation of both diplomats. On 26 Dec. Mr. Seward transmitted to lord Lyons the reply of the U. S., in which the illegality of the seizure was recognized, while the satisfaction of the U. S. government was expressed in the fact that a principle for which it had long contended was thus accepted by the British government. Mason and Sli- dell were at once released, and sailed for England 1 Jan. 1862. Trenton, Battle of. At the close of Nov. 1776, the British occupied New Jersej'', and only the Delaware river shut off Cornwallis from Philadelphia. Washington had crossed the Delaware 2 Dec, securing every boat, so that the British were unable to follow. The British army, in fancied security, held an extended line. A detachment of Hessians, 1500 strong, under col. Rahl, with a force of 500 cavalry, were at Trenton, while count Donop, with another force of 2000 men, was at Bordentown. Washington determined to surprise col. Rahl. On the evening of 25 Dec. 1776, with 2400 men and 20 pieces of artillery, he recrossed the Delaware a few miles above Trenton. Owing to the darkness and the floating ice in the river it was 4 o'clock on the morning of the 26th before the entire force had crossed, and although the Americans did not reach Trenton until after daylight, the enemy were sur- prised. A severe engagement ensued. The British cavalry and some infantry escaped, but about 1000 men with 6 pieces of artillery were captured. Among the fatally wounded was col. Rahl, the commander. Washington recrossed the river to his camp before midnight of the 26th. Pkincetox. Trevc§ (trav) or Trier, the Roman Treviri, in Rhen- ish Prussia, was a prosperous city of the Gauls, 12 b.c. The emperor Gallienus held his court here, 255 a.d. The church of St. Simeon dates from the 4th century. Treves was made an electorate in the 14th centurj^, and became subject to the archbishop in 1585. Councils held here, 385-1423. The arch- bishopric is said to have been founded before the 7th century, and to be the oldest in Germany. After various changes, Treves was acquired by Prussia, June, 1835. In 1844, much excitement was occasioned by miracles said to have been wrought by a " holy coat." " Tria Juneta in Uno " (" three joined in one "), motto of the knights of the military order of the Bath, Engl., signifying " faith, hope, and charity." Bath. trial (Gr. Tsipoj, Lat. iej-o, to wear out, to distress, to af- flict). Examination bj' tests or experiments. — The formal examination before a judge and generally before a jury, by means of witnesses, in a court of law, as to whether certain al- leged facts or charges are true or not, as below. Regulations for conducting trials were made by Lothaire and Edric, kings of Kent, about 673 to 68p. Alfred the Great is said to have begun trials by jury; but there is good evidence of such before his time.— Trial at bar signifies by the whole court or a plurality of judges. This plan was adopted at Bristol after the riots of 1832 ; also at O'Connell's trial, 1844 ; and arranged for the trial of the claimant of theTichborne estates for perjury, in Apr. 1873. famous ENGLISH TRIALS. GuNPOWDER-PLOT conspirators, Digby, R. Winter, Grant, and Bates, 30 Jan. ; T. Winter, Rookwood, Keys, and Fawkes, 31 Jan.; Henry Garnelt, Jesuit, at London 3 May, 160G Earl and countess of Somerset and others for the murder of sir Thomas Overbury 1613 John Felton; for murder of duke of Buckingham; hanged at Tyburn 28 Nov. 1628 King Charles L , 20 Jan. ; beheaded 30 Jan. 1649 f Edward Coleman convicted, 27 Nov. ; William Ireland and other priests 17 Dec. 1678 Robert Green and others, 10 Feb. ; Thomas Whitebreadandother Jesuits, 13 June; Rich- ard Langhorne, counsellor 14 June, 1679 Sir George Wakeman, queen's physician, ac- quitted 13 July, " [ Viscount Stafford convicted 30 Nov. -7 Dec. 1681 Rye-house plot: convicted; William (lord) Russell, 13 July; Algernon Sidney 21 Nov. 1683 Charnock, King, and Keys, 18 Mch. ; sir John Friend and sir William Perkins ("assassination plot") 3 Apr. 1696 Capt. William Kidd and 3 others; piracy 23 May, 1701 James, earl of Derwentwater, and William, earl of Kenraure; rebellion ; Tower hill 24 Feb. 1716 John Price, the hangman; murder, Bunhill row 21 May, 1718 Jack Sheppard, highwayman ; Tyburn 16 Nov. 1724 Richard Turpin, highwayman; York 7 or 10 Apr. 1739 Jenny Diver, for felony ; executed 18 Mch. 1740 William Duell, executed for murder at Tyburn, came to life when about to be dissected at Surgeons' hall 24 Nov. " Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino, for high-treason. . .28 July, 1746 Mary Hamilton, for marrying with her own sex, 14 wives, 7 Oct. " Lord Lovatt, 80 years of age, for high-treason ; beheaded, 9 Mch. 1747 Freuey, the celebrated Irish robber, who surrendered himself, 9 July, 1749 Amy Hutchinson, burned at Ely, for the murder of her hus- band 5 Nov. 1750 Miss Blandy, for the murder of her father; hanged 3 Mch. 1752 AnnWilliam.s, for murder of her husband; burned alive, 11 Apr. 1753 Richard William Vaughan, first forger of Bank of England notes 11 May, 1758 Eugene Aram; murder; York 6 Aug. 1759 Earl Ferrers; murder of his steward; Tyburn 5 May, 1760 John Perrott; fraudulent bankrupt; Smithfleld 11 Nov. 1761 Ann Bedingfleld, for murder of husband; burned alive. .6 Apr. 1763 Elizabeth Browurigg; murder of her apprentice; Tyburn, 14 Sept. 1767 Great cause between the families of Hamilton and Douglas, 27 Feb. 1769 Great Valencia cause in Irish house of peers 18 Mch. 1772 Cause of Somerset, the slave (Slavery) 22 June, " Elizabeth Herring, for the murder of her husband; hanged and burned at Tyburn 13 Sept. 1773 Daniel and Robert Perreau, wine-merchants; forgery; Tyburn, 17 Jan. 1776 Rev. dr. Dodd, found guilty of forging a bond in the name of lord Chesterfield, for 4200^. High influence was exerted to save him; but before the council, the minister of the day Oates's plot TRI said to George III., "If your majesty pardon dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the I'erreaus" 27 June, Lord George Gordon, aoquiued ui high -treason 5 Feb. Warren Hajslings; a trial which lasted 7 years and 3 months (Ha!«tino8'8 trial); commenced 13 Feb. Christian Murphy (or Bowman), a woman ; strangled and burned for coining 18 Mch. Thomiis Paine, iwlitical writer and deist, for libels in the " R ghts of .Man ;" conviclod 18 Dec. Messrs. Hartly, Home Tooke, Thelwall, and Joyce, for high- tr»>ason; acquitted 29 Oct. Parker, mutineer at the Nore, called adm. Parker (Mutiny), 27 June, Sir Harry Brown Hayes, for carrying off Miss Pike of Cork, 13 Apr. Halflcld, for shooting at George III. (Hatfield's attkmpt), 26 June, Mutineers at Bantry bay; hanged 8 Jan. Gov. Wall, for cruelty and murder 20 years before (tried under 3;) Hen. VIII. c. 23) 20 Jan. Col. Dcspard and associates, for high treason; hanged on the top of Horsemongcr laue jail (Dkspard's conspieacv), 7 Feb. Robert Aslett, cashier at bank of Kngland, for embezzlement and fniuds; loss to the bank, 320,000^. ; acquitted, the bills being invalid 18 July, John Hatfield (a rank impostor, who married by deceit the cele- brated " Beauty of Buttermero"); forgery; Carlisle.. 3 Sept. Robert Emmett, at Dublin, for high-treason; executed ne.st day 19 Sept. William Cooper, the Hackney monster, for offences against females 17 Apr. Warrington gang, for unnatural offences; executed 23 Aug. Gen. Picton, for torture of Louisa Cakleron, to extort confes- sion, at Trinidad (under 42 Geo. III. c. 85) in King's Bench; guilty (new trial, same verdict, 11 June, 1808) 24 Feb. lion. capt. lAke, for landing Robert Jefiery, a British seaman, at Sombrero; dismissed the service 10 Feb. Lord Louth, in Dublin; sentenced to imprisonment and fine, for oppressive conduct as a magistrate 19 June, Berkeley cause, house of peers, concluded 28 June, Bellingham, for murder of Mr. Perceval, prime minister, 15 May, Hugh Fitzpatrick, for publishing Scully's "History of the Penal Iaws " 6 Feb. Eliza Fenning; poisoning; Old Bailey 26 July, [Believed to be innocent; she denied her guilt on the scaffold, and thousands accompanied her funeral. In the Annual Register for 1857, p. 143, it is stated, on the author- ity of Mr. Gurney, that she confessed the crime to James Upton, a Baptist minister, before her execution.] Vaughan, a police officer, Mackay, and Browne, for conspiracy to instigate felonies to obtain the reward; convicted, 21 Aug. Hone, bookseller, for parodies; 3 trials before lord Ellenbor- ough; extemporaneous and successful defence 18-20 Dec. Appeal of murder case; Ash ford, brother of Mary Ash ford, against Abraham Thornton, accused of her murder (Appeals) and acquitted 16 Apr. Rev. dr. O'Hallorun, for forging a frank (Transportation), 9 Sept. Robert Johnston, at Edinburgh; his dreadful execution, 30 Dec. Carlile, for publishing Paine's "Age of Reason," etc 15 Oct. Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, for con.spiracy to murder the king's ministers; commenced (Cato street conspiracy) 17 Apr. Queen Caroline; house of lords, for adultery, commenced 16 Aug.; ended (Queen Caroline's trial) 10 Nov. David Haggart. an extraordinary robber, and a man of event- ful life, at Edinburgh, for the murder of a turnkey... 9 June, Josiah Cadman ; forgery ; hanged 21 Nov. " Earl of Portsmouth's case" commenced 18 Mch. Henry Fauntleroy, banker of London, for forgery; hanged, 30 Oct. Edward Lowe; coining (the last coiner drawn on a sledge to the scaffold); Old Bailey 22 Nov. Capt. Charles Montgomery, ordered for execution for forgery, took an ounce and a half of prussic acid to escape the gal- lows, and was found dead in his cell 4 July, Burke, at Edinburgh, for the Burking murders; Hare, his ac- complice, became informer (Burking) 24 Dec. Thomas Maynard, the last executed for forgery 31 Dec. Clune, etc., at Ennis, for cutting out the tongues of the Doyles, 4 Mch. Mr. Comyn, for burning his house in county Clare; hanged, 6 Mch. Rev. Robert Taylor (called " the Devil's chaplain "), for reviling the Redeemer; convicted 6 July, John Any Bird Bell, 14 years of age, for the murder of Rich- ard Taylor, aged 13; hanged at Maidstone 1 Aug Bishop and Williams, for murder of the Italian boy (Burking). 3 Dec. Elizabeth Cooke, for murder of Mrs. Walsh, by "burking, "6 Jan. Rev. Edward Irving, by the Scots church for heresy; expelled (Irvingites) 13 Mch. Hon. G. C. Norton v. lord Melbourne, in Common Pleas, for crim. con. with hon. Mrs. Norton; acquitted 22 June, Edward Oxford attempts the life of queen Victoria; adjudged insane, and confined in Bethlehem 9, 10 July, Allen Bogle v. Lawson, publisher of the Times, for libel in stating the plaintiff to be connected with bank forgers throughout Europe in schemes to defraud messrs. Glyn & Company, bankers of London, by fictitious letters of credit; 812 TRI 1777 1781 1788 1789 1792 1794 1797 1800 1802 1805 1806 1810 1811 1812 1813 1815 1816 1817 1818 u 1819 1820 1821 1823 1824 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1836 1840 damages, one farthing. This exposure, so honorable to the Times, leads to the Times testimonial 16 Aug. Beaumont Smith, for large forgery of exchequer bills; pleads guilty ; sentenced to transportation for life 4 Dec. John Francis, attempt to assassinate queen Victoria. .17 June, Samuel Sidney Smith, forgery; transported for life 29 Nov. Rev. W. Bailey, LL.D., forgery; transported for life 1 Feb. Mary Furley, for murder of her child in despair 16 Apr. William Henry Barber, Joshua Fletcher, Georgiana Dorey, William Saunders, and Susannah, his wife, all convicted of forging a will, 15 Apr. ; sentenced 22 Apr. [In 1848 Mr. Barber returned to England with a free par- don, his innocence acknowledged by his prosecutors; he was readmitted to practice as an attorney; and on 3 Aug. 1859, by recommendation of a select conimttee of the House of Commons, the sum of 5000i. was voted him "as a national acknowledgment of the wrong he had suffered from an er- roneous prosecution."] Spanish pirates, for murder of 10 Englishmen at sea. .26 July, Rev. dr. Wetherall, for crim. con. with Mrs. Cooke, his daugh- ter 16 Aug. Mitchell, the Irish confederate; transported for 14 years (Ire- land) 26 May, William Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and confederates; sentence, death; afterwards commuted to transportation (pardoned in 1856) 9 Oct. Gorham v. the bishop of Exeter; ecclesiastical case; judg- ment in the court of arches against plaintiff. 2 Aug. [The bishop refused to institute Mr. Gorham into the living of Bramptou-Speke, in Devonshire, alleging want of ortho- doxy in denying baptismal regeneration; the court held the charge of false doctrine proved. Sir. Gorham appealed to the judicial committee of the privy council, which pronounced its opinion (8 Mch. 1850) that "the doctrine held by Mr. Gorham was not contrary or repugnant to the declared doc- trine of the church of England, and that Mr. Gorham ought not, by reason of the doctrine held by him, to have been refused admission to the vicarage of Brampton- Speke." On appeal to 3 courts of law, each court refused to interfere, and Mr. Gorham was instituted into his vicarage, 7 Aug. 1850.] Sloanes, man and wife, for starving their servant, Jane Wil- bred " 5 Feb. Sarah Chesham, for poisoning her husband; she had poisoned several of her children and others; hanged 6 Mch. Doyle V. Wright, for personal custody of miss Augusta Talbot, a Roman Catholic ward of chancery, before the lord chan- cellor ; protracted case 22 Mch. Pierce Somerset Butler v. viscount Mountgarret; gaining a peerage, defendant being proved illegitimate Aug. Courts-martial on sir E. Belcher, capt. McClure, etc., for aban- doning their ships in the Arctic regions; acquitted Oct. William Palmer, for murder of J. P. Cook by poison. 14-27 May, [He was executed at Stafford on 14 June, in the presence of 50,000 persons. If he had been acquitted, he would have been tried for the murder of his wife and brother.] Leopold Redpath, for forgeries (to 150,000^.) upon Great North- ern Railway company; transported for life 16 Jan. Jem Saward, a barrister (called the Penman), William Ander- son, and others, convicted of extensive forgery of bankers' checks 5 Mch. Patience Swynfen v. F. H. Swynfen; a will affirmed.. 27 July, [Plaintiff was Patience Swynfen, widow of Henry John Swynfen, son of the testator, Samuel Swynfen. Her husband died 15 June, 1854, and his father on 16 July following, hav- ing made a will 19 days before his death, devising the Swyn- fen estate (worth about 60,000^.) to his son's wife, but leaving a large personal estate undisposed of The defendant, F. H. Swynfen, son of the testator's eldest half-brother, claimed the estate as heir-at law on the ground of the testator's in- sanity. The issue was brought to trial in Mch. 1856; but proceedings were stayed by agreement of Mrs. Swynfen's counsel, sir F. Thesiger, with the opposite counsel, sir Alex- ander Cockburn, without her consent, and in defiance of her instructions.. After various proceedings, the court of chan- cery ordered a new trial. She gained her cause, mainly through the energy of her counsel, Charles R. Kennedy, to whom she had promised to pay 20,000^, but she married a Mr. Broun, and repudiated Mr. Kennedy's claim. The latter obtained a verdict in his favor on 29 Mch. 1862, which wa.s, on appeal, finally reversed in Feb. 1864. Mrs. Swynfen wns nonsuited in an action brought against her counsel (afterwards lord Chelmsford and lord chancellor), in July, 1859, and June, I860.] Thellusson will case decided 9 June, Thomas Smethurst, surgeon, for poisoning Isabella Bankes, whom he had married during his wife's life; convicted, 15-19 Aug. [He was reprieved on the ground of insufficient evidence; but was convicted of bigamy, 16 Nov. 1859. On 11 Nov. 1H62, he proved Miss Bankes's will, and obtained her property.] Eugenia Plummer, 11 years, convicted of perjury against rev. Mr. Hatch 14 May, Thomas Hopley, schoolmaster, convicted of manslaughter of Reginald Canceller, by flogging 23 July, Miss Shedden v. Patrick (the plaintiff ably pleads her own cause, but fails to prove the legitimacy of her father), 9 Nov. et seq. Thelwall r. hon. mnj. Yelverton' The plaintiff sues for ex- penses incurred by defendant's wife; the major denies the validity of the marriage, having since married the widow of prof Edward Forbes, the eminent naturalist. The court in Dublin supports the first marriage 21 P"eb. to 4 Mch. 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1F49 1851 1854 18£6 1857 1858 1861 ^ TRI 813 [Miss Longworth endeavored to establish her marriage. On appeal, the Scotch court annulled the marriage, July, 1862, and this judgment was affirmed by the House of Lords, 28 July, 1864, and again finally, 30 July, 1867. An attempt to set aside the judgment of the House of Lords rejected by the court of session, 29 Oct. 1868.] Brook V. Brook. Marriage. The House of Lords on appeal decides against the validity of such a marriage, even in a foreign country 18 Mch. 1861 Beamish v. Beamish; the lords on appeal decide that a clergy- man cannot celebrate marriage for himself 22 Apr. " Emperor of Austria v. Day; verdict for plaintiff. The de- fendant printed 100,000,000 florin notes on the bank of Hungary, for Louis Kossuth. The notes are ordered to be destroyed within 1 month, 6 May; judgment affirmed, 12 June, '• Cardross case: John MacMillan, a free-church minister, is expelled for drunkenness and misconduct, May, 1858. The Glasgow synod and the general assembly of the free church affirm the sentence. On appeal, the court of session sets aside the decree (which involved temporalities), asserting that the assembly had only spiritual authority July, " Martin Doyle, barbarous attempted murder (last execution for this crime) 27 Aug. " Inquiry into sanity of William Frederick Wyndham (on be- half of his relatives), to annul an injudicious marriage; trial lasts 34 days; 140 witnesses examined; verdict, sane mind 16 Dec. 1861, and 30 Jan. 1862 [Each i)arty to pay its own costs, Mch. 1862.] Capt. Robertson, by court-martial; convicted of submitting to ungenllemanly conduct from his brother officers; 30 days' inquiry ; ended 24 Mch. " [The court severely criticised, and sentence annulled.] Queen on appeal of earl of Cardigan v. col. Calthorpe, for libel, charging the earl with deserting his men at Balaklava, 25 Oct. 1855; verdict for defendant (who, however, admits his error) 9, 10 June, 1863 Attorney-general v. Sillim and others, for building the Alex- andra for the confederates, against the Enlistment act; ver- dict for defendants 25 June, " [Decision affirmed on appeal to lords, 6 Apr. 1864.] Franz Muller, for the murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway car- riage, 9 July ; convicted 27-29 Oct. 1864 Queen v. William Rumble, for infringement of Foreign Enlist- ment act, in equipping the Rappahannock for the Confeder- ate government; acquitted 4 Feb. 1865 Bishop Colenso's appeal to privy council; decision of bishop of Capetown, deposing him, is annulled 21 Mch. " Trials of Fenians for treason-felony; Thomas Clarke Luby, sentenced to 20 years' penal servitude, 28 Nov.-l Dec; O'Leary and others convicted; O'Donovan Rossa (previous- ly convicted) sentenced to imprisonment for life, 13 Dec. ; others convicted at Cork (Trials, U. S., 30 June, 1885). . Dec. " Ryves & Ryves v. the attorney -general; an endeavor to prove the marriage of king George III. with Hannah Wilmot, and that of his brother Henry, duke of Cumberland, with Olive Wilmot; the jury decides against the claim, and that Olive Serres, the alleged mother of Mrs. Ryves, was not the legiti- mate daughter of the duke of Cumberland, and that the 82 documents brought in evidence were forged (Mrs. Ryves d. 7 Dec. 1871) 13 June, 1866 Banda and Kirwee prize case (Indian mutiny) ; court of ad- miralty awards 700,000^., to be divided among the soldiers of gens. Whitelocke, Rose, Roberts, and others 30 June, " Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others, trustees of colonial bishopric fund (for withholding his stipend); verdict for • plaintiff, with costs 6 Nov. " George Druitt, M. Lawrence, and John Anderson, leaders of the operative tailors' association, convicted of a misdemeanor (organizing the system of "picketing," or watching men on strike; and intimidating non-unionists; which began 24 Apr. 18«7) 21 Aug. 1867 Thirteen tailors convicted of "picketing" 22 Aug. " Rigby Wason v. Walter (for publication of an alleged libel in the Times — viz., a correct report of a debate in the House of Lords, etc.); verdict for defendant, settling that such a re- port is privileged 18-20 Dec. " [Reaffirmed, 25 Nov. 1868. Mr. Wason d. July, 1875.] Jfartin ?!. Mackonochie (for ritualistic practices); before dean of arches, 4 Dec. 1867 ; closed 18 Jan. 1868 I'lamank v. Simpson; similar case; begun 5 Feb.; verdict against elevation of sacrament, use of incense, and mixture of water with wine in the communion 28 Mch. " Trial of Fenians for Clerkenwell outrage, begun 20 Apr. ; all acquitted except Michael Barrett 20-27 Apr. " Barrett's the last public execution in England 26 May, " Lyou V. Home (the spiritual medium). The plaintiff, a widow, seeks to recover 60,000?. stock, given to Home at the alleged command of her husband's spirit, between Oct. 1866 and Feb. 1867; instituted 15 June, 1867; trial, 21 Apr. to 1 May, 1868; judgment for plaintiff, by the vice-chancellor, sirG. M. Giffard, 22 May, " [The judge said of spiritualism, "the system, as presented by the evidence, is mischievous nonsense; well calculated on tlie one hand to delude the vain, the weak, the foolish, and the superstitious; and on the other to assist the projects of the needy and the adventurer."] Mornington v. Wellesley, and Wellesley v. Mornington, 29 years in chancery, decided (costs above 30,000^.); 22,000^ awarded the countess of Mornington 7 May, " Thomas Wells; for murder of Mr. Walsh, station-master at Dover (first private execution) 13 Aug. " TRI Chronford v. Lingo: female suffrage declared illegal ..7-9 Nov. 1868 Baxter v. Langley: Sunday-evening lectures declared not ille- gal 19 Nov. " Cooper V. Gordon; verdict for plaintiff; vice-chancellor decides tiiat the majority of a congregation of dissenters may dis- miss their minister for any cause 28 May, 1869 Smith V. Earl Brownlow: after long litigation, decision against the enclosure of the common at Berkhampstead by lord of the manor 14 Jan. 1870 Sir Charles Mordaunt r. lady Mordaunt and others, for div^orco: preliminary trial of her sanity (declared insane, 30 Apr. 1869), 16-25 Feb. 1870; appeal, 27 Apr. 1870; judgment affirmed, 2 June, " Bishop Goss (Roman Catholic) v. Hill and Whittaker: will case; Mr. Moreton's will, bequeathing the chief of his property to the bishop, set aside 16 June, " Phillips V. Eyre, for imprisonment during Jamaica rebellion; verdict for defendant 23 June, " Michael Davitt and John Wilson, treason felony (Fenians), 18 July, " Tichborne Case. Tichborne v. Lushington: the plaintiff declared himself to be sir Roger Charles Tichborne, supposed to have been lost at sea ; and claimed the baronetcy and estates, worth about 2t,000Z. a year. Roger Charles Tichborne, son of sir James, born 1829 Educated in France till about 1843 Enters the army 1849 Proposes marriage to his cousin Kate Doughty; declined. .Jan. 1852 Sails from Havre for Valparaiso (Mch.), and arrives there, 19 June, 1853 Sails from Rio Janeiro in the Bella^ which founders at sea, 20 Apr. 1854 [ In a chancery suit his death was legally proved.] His mother advertises former son 19 May, 1865 Claimant (found by Gibbes and Cubitt in Australia) asserts that he, saved with 8 others from the wreck, went to Australia, and lived there, roughly, 13 years under the name of Castro; marries as Castro, Jan. ; as Tichborne 3 July, 1866 He is accepted by the dowager lady Tichborne as her son at Paris Jan. 1867 [Xoothers of the fiimily accepted him ; but sir Clifibrd Con- stable and some brother officers did.] His claim is resisted on behalf of sir Henry (a minor), son of sir Alfred Tichborne; and after chancery proceedings (begun Mch. 1867), a trial begins in the court of Common Pleas be- fore chief justice Bovill 11 May, 1871 Claimant is examined 22 days; the trial adjourns on 40th day, 7. July; resumed 7 Nov. ; case for claimant closes 21 Dec. " Trial resumed, 15 Jan. ; the attorney-general, sir J. D. Cole- ridge, speaks 26 days; on 4 Mch. the jury express themselves satisfied that the claimant is not sir Roger; on the 103d day he is declared nonsuited 6 Mch. 1872 [Case said to have cost the estate nearly 92,000^.] He is lodged in Newgate to be tried for perjury, 7 Mch. ; in- dicted as Thomas Castro, otherwise Arthur Orton, for per- jury and forgery 9 Apr. '* Court of Queens Bench decides that he may be admitted to bail, 23 Apr. ; released 26 Apr. '* Trial of the claimant for perjury and forgery begun before chief justice Cockburn, and justices Mellor and Lush at bar, 23 Apr.; case for the prosecution closes, 10 July; resumed (for defence) 21 July, " Lady Doughty, mother of sir Henry Tichborne, dies. . .13 Dec. " [Up to 27 June (47th day of the trial), out of 150 witnesses above 100 had sworn that the claimant was not Tichborne, and about 40 that he was Arthur Orton.] Guildford Onslow and G. H.Whalley, M.P.'s, fined for contempt of court in speeches of 20 Jan. ; Mr. Skipworth, barrister, for same offence, imprisoned 3 months and fined; claimant to give securities for 1000/. for a similar offence 29 Jan. 1873 Claimant forbidden to attend public meetings 19 Sept. " Cheltenham Chronicle fined 150i. for commenting on trial, 23 Sept. *' Case for defence closes on 124th day, 27 Oct. ; adjourns from 31 Oct. to 17 Nov., then to 27 Nov. ; rebutting evidence heard, 27, 28 Nov. " Dr. Kenealy's summing-up, 2 Dec. 1873-14 Jan. 1874; Mr. Hawkins's reply 15-28 Jan. 1874 [Mr. Whalley, M.P., fined for contempt of court, 250?., 23 Jan.] Chief-justice's summing-up 29 Jan.-28 Feb. " Verdict : that the claimant did falsely swear that he was Roger Charles Tichborne, that he seduced Catherine N. E. Doughty in 1851, and that he was not Arthur Orton; sentence, 14 years' imprisonment with hard labor 28 Feb. " [Longest trial known in England.] Charles Orton declares the claimant to be his brother Arthur, at the Globe office 10 Mch. '« Jean Luie (Lindgren) and " capt." Brown , for perjury in the Tich- borne trial, get 7 years and 5 years penal servitude, 9, 10 Apr. " New trial refused Orton by the"judges 29 Apr. " On appeal, sentence affirmed by the lords 10, 11 Mch. 1881 Released on Ticket-op-leave 20 Oct. 1884 Rev. John Selby Watson, eminent scholar, kills his wife in pas- sion, 8 Oot. ; convicted and imprisoned for life 10-12 Jan. 1872 Baker v. Loader, widow.to whom 107,000Z.had been bequeathed; in 10 years is reduced to poverty by imposition; she sues the widow of her friend Loader and solicitors; vice-chancellor Malins orders deeds to Loader to be cancelled; the solicitor to pay his own costs 20 Nov. " TRI ^1* Andrews v. Salt; deciglon by lord chancellor that a child shall be educated as a Protestant hy grundmother, not by Roman Catholic uncle; contlnned on appeal 6 May, 1873 Mordaunt r. Moncrieff (see 1870), divorce court; 3 judges hold iosanity no bar to suit for divorce; 2 Judges that it is, 15 May, " Rev. O'Koeffo v. cardinal Cullen (for libel, and virtually sus- pending him ft-ora his olHce)- consideration of demurrer; Judges (at Dublin) disagree; 3 liold that the papal ordinance on wiiich the cardinal relied was prohibited by the statutes of Klizabelh; demurrer set aside, 7 May; the trial begun, 12 May ; verdict for plaintiff; 1 farthing damages 27 May, " (Mr. O'Keoffe submitted to the cardinal, May, 1876.] Todd r. Lyne (father Ignatius); son of the plaintift" rescued from convent (where he had taken vows) by chancery, 25 July, " Bank forgery : Austin Biron Bidwell, George Macdonnell, (Jeorge Bidwell. and Edwin Noyes, Americans, forge bills for discount at bank of England, West Branch, and obtain 102.217/.; detected through not dating one bill; convicted; penal servitude for life (vain effort to escape by bribing warders) 18-26 Aug. " Epping forest case: decision against the enclosures of the lords of the manor as illegal (Commons) 10 Nov. '• Rubery v. baron Albert Grant and M. B. Sampson (long city editor of the rimes) for libel; the Times, 18, 20 Nov. and 20 Dec. 1872, charged Rubery with fraud in a diamond mine in Colorado; 10 days' trial; Grant cleared; Sampson fined 503/ 18 Jan. 1875 [These articles protected the public from a bad scheme] Alleged false prospectus case : (Canadian Oil-works corpora- tion), Charlton v sir John Hay; Mr. Eastwick and others grossly deceived; 17 days' trial; jury divided; discharged; no verdict 24 Feb. " [Oil-wells in Ontario, Canada, property of Prince's compa- ny got up to buy them, by Longbottom; scheme not accept- ed in the City; taken up at West End; sir John Hay, M'Cul- lagh Torrens, Mr. Eastwick, and others induced to become directors; wells bought; company collapsed.] Mordaunt v. Mordaunt and viscount Cole (see above. May, 1874) ; divorce granted 11 Mch. " Terry v. Brighton Aquarium company, for opening on Sun- days; verdict, penalty 2001. (Sunday) 27 Apr. " Keith Johnston v. proprietors of Athenaum, for libel in criti- cism of an atlas; Edinburgh; damages 1275i., 24 Mch. ; new trial, damages lOOl 16 June, " Jenkins r. rev. Flavel Cook (for exclusion from communion for heresy [denying personality of Satan and eternal punish- ment] ; verdict for defendant in court of arches) 16 July, " Col. Valentine Baker sentenced to fine of 500i. and 12 months' imprisonment for indecent assault on Miss Dickenson in a railway carriage (afterwards enters the service of the khedive of Egyi)t, where he is made a pacha and dies 17 Nov. 1837, aged 62 years) (Egypt) 2 Aug. " W. K. Vance and Ellen Snee, conspiracy to murder (ostensibly herself); singular case; sentenced to imprisonment, 1 June, 1876 Lewis V. Higgins, for alleged slander in speech as counsel; verdict for defendant, affirming privilege of counsel. .4 Dec. " Queen v. Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant, for publication of '-Fruits of Philosophy," by Dr. Knowlton, which they de- fend, on grounds of humanity, in long speeches; verdict, the book calculated to deprave, but not intended, 18-21 June; sentence (defendants not submitting to the court), 6 months' imprisonment, 200i. fine for both, 28 June; appeal, alleging informality, disallowed by Queen's Bench 16 Nov. 1877 Forged leases: Frederick Dimsdale, solicitor, Charles Burrell Moore, clerk, and others, forge leases, and borrow money on them (above 300,000^. ) ; many lenders do not appear; plead guilty ; sentence, Dimsdale, penal servitude for life ; Moore, 7 years; others less 16, 17 Jan. 1878 Madame Rachel (Levison, or Leverson); convicted of misde- meanor; obtains money and jewels from Mrs. Pearce, for "beautifying;" 5 years' penal servitude 10, 11 Apr. " In re Agar Ellis; the husband's promise before marriage that his children should be brought up Romanists, permitted to be withdrawn by chancery 6 Aug. " Paul and others v. Summerhayes; appeal; sentence against plaintiffs affirmed (fox-hunters may not trespass). Queen's Bench 16 Nov. " Whistler v. Ruskin, for libellous criticism in "Fors Clavigera;" 1 farthing damages 25, 26 Nov. " Rev. Christopher Newman Hall v. Mrs. Hall and Mr. Richard- son ; long trial ; divorce graHted 8 Aug. 1879 Adolphus Rosenberg, for libelling Mrs. Langtry and Mrs. West, iu Toion Talk; 18 months' imprisonment 25-27 Oct. " Phillips, surgeon, v. S.W. Railway company, for injury; award- ed lOOOl by justice Field; new trial, awarded lG,000i. by lord chief-justice Coleridge, Common Pleas; 3d trial refused, 6 Dec. " Debenham & Freebody v. Mellon, appeal; lords decide that a husband who supplies his wife with proper means is not re- sponsible for her debts 27 Nov. 1880 Dysart peerage legitimacy case: Wm. John Manners claims by an English marriage of lord Huntingtower, Albert Edwin Tollemache by a Scotch marriage (not proved), House of Lords 7 Mch. 1881 Spiritualist case: Susan Wills Fletcher (wife of a spiritualist doctor in America) for obtaining, by false pretences, about 10,000/. (in jewelry, etc.) of Mrs. Hart-Davies; 12 months' imprisonment with hard labor 12 Apr. " Johann Most, for libel against Alexander 11. of Russia, and in- TRI citement to murder in the Freiheit for 19 Mch., 25 May; sentence affirmed on appeal, 18 June; 16 months' imprison- ment with hard labor 29 June, Phronix park murders (Ireland) Apr-May, Dynamite plot: Thomas Gallagher, Henry Wilson, John Cur- tin, and Alfred Whitehead for treason felony; sentenced to penal servitude for life 11-14 June, Patrick O'Donnell, for murder of James Carey, the informer (Ireland) 30 Nov.-l Dec. Earl V. countess of Euston, for divorce because she had a hus- band living when married; but that husband had a wife liv- ing when he married her, and divorce is refused 4 Apr. Adams v. hon. B. Coleridge, for libel in a letter to miss M. Cole- ridge; verdict for plaintiff, 3000/.; set aside by judge Man- isty, the letter being privileged 21, 22 Nov. Edmund Yates sentenced to 4 months' imprisonment, for libel of earl Lonsdale (in the If o>7t/), July, 1883-Apr. 1884; appeal disallowed 16 Jan. Irving Bishop fined 10,000/. for libel (Thought-reading), 15 Jan. John Lee, footman, for murder of miss Emma A. W. Keyse, his mistress (at Babbicombe. near Torquay, 15 Nov.), 2-4 Feb.; to be hanged at Exeter, but the drop fails 3 times, and Lee is reprieved 23 Feb. Earl of Durham's petition to annul his marriage for insanity of the wife at the time; dismissedby sir James Hannen, after 8 days' trial 10 Mch. W. T. Stead, editor of Pall Mall Gazette (3 months' impri-son- ment) ; Sampson Jacques, assistant (1 month) ; Bramwell Booth, of Salvation Army (acquitted) ; Rebecca Jarrett (6 months); and Louisa Mourey (6 months with hard labor), for complicity in abduction, etc., of Eliza Armstrong, under 16, 23 Oct. -10 Nov. Crawford v. Crawford; divorce decreed, 12 Feb.; confirmed; charges against sir Charles Dilke denied by him, but accept- ed by jury 23 July, Mary Lena Sebright (formerly Scott) v. Arthur Sebright ; a marriage contract by plaintiff under terror annulled, 16 Nov. Adams v. lord Coleridge and his son, the hon. B. Coleridge, for libel in letters sent to an arbitrator (lord Monkswell), wrong- ly delivered ; verdict for defendants. . : 17-25 Nov. Lord and lady Colin Campbell divorce, double suit (after judi- cial separation) ; dismissed 27 Nov.-20 Dec. Prof Caird u. Syme (a bookseller); after conflicting decisions in lower courts, the lords, on appeal, hold unauthorized pub- lication of university lectures unlawful 13 June, Cuninghame Graham, M.P., and John Burns for assaulting po- lice, etc., on 13 Nov. 1887 (Riots); convicted of unlawful as- sembly; 6 weeks' simple imprisonment 16-18 Jan. Slater v. Slater; a chancery forgery; court defrauded of 4000/., property of miss Rose Maud Maxwell, by William Bowden, a solicitor's clerk ; the money ordered repaid to her by tlie court; Bowden in Nebraska; John Francis Lidiard, a solici- tor, his friend, to repay the court 4 Feb. Marquis of Abergavenny v. bishop of Llandaff; bishop's refu- sal to induct the rev. Robert W. Gosse, ignorant of the Welsh language, sustained 22 Feb. O'Donnell v. Walter and another (for libel in the Times); ver- dict for defendants (Parnell) 2-6 July, Regent's park murderers July, Anthony Isidor Glika sentenced to 10 years' penal servitude for defrauding his employers, messrs. Vagliano Bros., and the Bank of England, of 71,500/., 27 June-7 July; the Queen's Bench division throws the loss on the bank 2 Nov. [Sentence confirmed by court of appeal, 21 May, 1889; re- versed by lords, 5 Mch. 1891.] Charles Richardson and Edgell confess burglary at Edling- ham vicarage, near Alnwick, on 7 Feb. 1879 ; sentence, 5 years' penal servitude 24 Nov. [Michael Brannagham and Peter Murphy, wrongfully con- victed of this crime, with attemi)t to murder, and sentenced to penal .servitude for life, Apr. 1879; received 800/. each as compensation, Dec. 1888; police acquitted of perjury; con- fession of Richardson and Edgell doubted, Feb. 1889.] Florence Elizabeth Maybrick, for poisoning her husband, James Maybrick, at Aigburth, by arsenic ; tried at Liverpool by jus- tice Stephen, 21 July-7 Aug. ; sentence of death commuted to penal servitude for life 22 Ang. Herbert J. Gladstone v. col. George B. Malleson, for libel in Allahabad Morning Post ; damages awarded 1000/. . .16 Jan. Crewe murder: Richard and George Davies, aged 19 and 16, kill their father, Richard Davies, a clothier, 25 Jan., while riding home in a pony chaise; trial 20-21 Mch. ; Richard ex- ecuted, George reprieved (penal servitude for life) 8 Apr. Miss Gladys Knowles v. Leslie Duncan, proprietor and editor of the Matrimonial A^ews, for breach of promise of marriage; damages awarded, 10,000/ 11, 12 Aug. Capt. O'Shea v. Mrs. C. O'Shea and C. S. Parnell, M.P. ; divorce granted 15-17 Nov. Baccarat case: sir William Gordon-Cumming v. Mr. and Mrs. Lycett Green and others, for slander, charging him with cheating at baccarat, in the house of Arthur Wilson. Tranby Croft, near Doncaster, Sept. 1890 ; for plaintiff, sir Edward Clarke ; for defendants, sir Charles Russell and others ; Queen's Bench division, lord Coleridge ; prince of Wales a witness; verdict for defendants 1-9 June, Berkeley peerage case : decided 31 July, Miss Ethel Florence Elliot (afterwards Mrs. Osborne) v. major and Mrs. Hargreaves, for slanderous charge of stealing jewels while their guest at. Torquay, 9-18 Feb. ; verdict by consent for defendants 15-22 Dec. [It was proved that miss Elliot sold the jewels to messrs. 1 1881 "1 18^^ 1887 1888 TRI 815 TRI Spinks, in Gracechurch street, for 550^., 19 Feb. ; cashed the check for gold at the bank of Glyn, Mills & Co., 23 Feb. ; through messrs. Benjamin, of Conduit street, W., changed gold for bank-notes, at the National and Provincial bank, in St. James's square, early in j\Ich. ; endorsed one of these notes for 50/., and paid it to messrs. Maple, and it passed into the Bank of England. On information to justice Denman the trial was suspended, 19 Dec. It was admitted by all that capt. Osborne, plaintiff's husband, acted honorably through- out. Mrs. Osborne, for larceny and perjury, was sentenced to 9 months' imprisonment, with some hard labor, 9 Mch. ; released in the summer, 1892. The jewels were sold by auc- tion for major Hargrcaves for 1076^., 29 Mch. 1892.] Alexander Jacob, jeweller of Simla, charged at Calcutta by the Nizam of Hyderabad of criminally misappropriating 23 lacs of rupees (above 100,000/.) deposited as earnest money for purchase of the •' imperial diamond;" after a long trial, ac- quitted 22 Dec. 1891 Concha, pauper, v. Concha and wife; intricate property suits, be;,'un in 1858; the lords vary the decision of the court of Appeal , '-8 Mch. 1892 Mrs. Montague sentenced at Dublin to 1 year's imprisonment for manslaughter in killing her daughter, aged 3 4 Apr. " Melbourne murder : Frederick Bailey Deeming (alias Albert Oliver Williams) marries Emily Mather at Liverpool 17 Oct., brings her to Australia 15 Dec, kills her at Windsor near Melbourne about 25 Dec. 1891; convicted 28 Apr.-2 May; ex- ecuted 23 May, " [In Feb. 1881, he married Marie James, went with her to Sydney, was there convicted of fraud in 1882; he took Din- ham Villa, Raiuhill, near Widnes, Lancashire, Engl, 23 July, 1891; and there murdered his wife and 4 children about 2(5. 27 July, 1891; so the coroner's jury found, 28 Mch. 1892. WUITECHAPEL.] Mrs. Carhill v. the Carbolic Smoke Ball company, recovers 100/., promised by the company to any person who used the smoke ball in yain to prevent influenza (by advertisement 13 Nov. 1891) 4 July, " Mr. Boltems, contractor, v. Corporation of York; court of Ap- peals requires plaintiff to fuUil a ruinous contract 16 July, " TRIALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Anne Hutchinson; sedition and heresy (the Antinomian contro- versy) ; imprisoned and banished (Massachusetts) 1637 Trials of Quakers in Massachusetts 1656-61 Jacob Leisler, New York, convicted and executed for treason (New York) 16 May, 1691 Trials for WitchCraft, Massachusetts 1692 Thomas Maule, for slanderous publications and blasphemy; Massachusetts 1096 Nicholas Bayard ; treason 1702 John Peter Zenger, for printing and publishing libels on the colonial government, Nov. 1734; acquitted (New York) 1735 Michael Corbett, Massachusetts; murder on the high seas; dis- chiirged 1767 William Wemms, James Hartegan, William McCauley, and other British soldiers, in Boston, Mass., for the murder of Crispus Attucks, Samuel Gray, Samuel Maverick, James Caldwell, and Patrick Carr (Boston massacre) 5 Mch. 1770 Col. David Henley, Massachusetts, for improper conduct as an officer of the army ; discharged 1778 Maj.-gcn. Charles Lee; court-martial after the battle of Mon- mouth; found guilty of, 1st, disobedience of orders in not attacking the enemy; 2d, unnecessary and disorderly retreat; 3d, disrespect to the commander-in-chief; suspended from command for 1 year; tried 4 July, " Bathsheba Spooner and others, for murder of Joshua Spooner, Massachusetts; convicted " John Hett Smith, for assisting Benedict Arnold, New York; not guilty 1780 Maj. John Andre, adjutant-general, British army, seized as a spy at Tappan, N. Y., 23 Sept. 1780; tried by military court and hung (New York) 2 Oct. " Sweeting (Whiting) at Albany, for murder of Darius Quimby; executed 16 Aug. 1791 Gideon Henfrield, convicted of illegal privateering, Pennsyl- vania 1793 John K. Guinett, convicted of illegal privateering, Pennsylvania, Stewart, Wright, Porter, Vigol, and Mitchell, western insur- gents, found guilty William Blount, U. S. Senate, impeached for misdemeanor William Corbett, for libelling the king of Spain and his ambas- sador, writing as Peter Porcupine in Poi-cupine'' s Gazette, 17 July; before Supreme court of Pennsylvania; acquitted Francis Villato, for illegal privateering; discharged John Haner and others, for murder of Francis Shitz, Pennsyl- vania; executed .". . Robert Worrell, bribery ; imprisoned Thomas Cooper of Northumberland, Pa., convicted under the Sedition act of libel on the administration of pres. Adams in Reading Advertiser of 26 Oct. 1799; imprisonment for 6 months and $400 fine Duane, Reynolds. Moore, and Gumming acquitted of seditious riot, Pennsylvania Anthony Haswell, publisher of Vermont Gazette, for libel; fine of $200 and 60 days in jail Matthew Lyon convicted in Vermont, Oct. 1798, of writing for publication a letter calculated "to stir up sedition and to bring the president and the government into contempt ;" confined 4 months in Vergennes jail; fine of $1000 paid by friends and Lyon released 9 Feb. 1795 1797 1798 1799 Isaac Williams, illegal privateering, Connecticut 1799 J. T. Callender, for libel of pres. Adams in a pamphlet, " The Prospect Before Us;" tried at Richmond, Va., fined $200, and sentenced to 9 months' imprisonment (United States), 6 June, 1800 Thomas Daniel, for opening letters of a foreign minister " Levi Weeks, for the murder of Gulielma E. Sands; (Manhattan well murder) 3I Mch.-2 Apr. 1801 ["Norman Leslie," a novel by T. S. Fay, founded on this case.] Jason Fairbanks, for murder of miss Elizabeth Fales " Judge John Pickering impeached before the U. S. Senate, 3 Mch. 1803, for malfeasance in the New Hampshire District court in Oct. and Nov. 1802, in restoring ship Eliza, seized for smuggling, to its owners; judge Pickering, though doubt- less insane, is convicted and removed from office 4 Mch. 1804 Joshua Nettles and Elizabeth Cannon, for the murder of John Cannon night of 24 Oct. " Judge Samuel Chase impeached before the U. S. Senate; ac- quitted (United States, 1804) i805 William S. Smith and Samuel G. Ogden tried for misdemeanors in New York in Circuit court of the U. S July, 1806 Thomas 0. Selfridge tried for murder of Charles Austin on tlie Public exchange in Boston 4 Aug. " Aaron Burr,for treason, Virginia; acquitted(BuRR's conspiracy), 27 Mch. -7 Sept. 1807 Mary Cole, for murder of Agnes S. Teaurs i812 Col. Thomas H. Gushing, by court-martial at Baton Rouge, on charges of brig. -gen. Wade Hampton " King of Spain u D. Parish, for $180,000 duties on trade be- tween the Spanish colonies and the U. S. by license of Spanish crown; plaintiff" nonsuited at Philadelphia 8-24 Apr. «« Patrick Byrne, for mutiny, by general court-martial at fort Co- lumbus; sentenced to dpath 22 May, 1813 Gen.W. Hull, commanding the northwestern army of the U. S., for cowardice in surrender of Detroit, 16 Aug., etc. ; by court- martial, held at Albany, sentenced to be shot; sentence ap- proved by the president, but execution remitted (United States) 3 Jan. 1814 Levi and Laban Kenniston, for highway robbery of maj. Elijah P. Goodridge, Massachusetts, 19 Dec. 1816; acquitted 1817 [Daniel Webster for the defence.] Dartmouth college case, defining the power of states over cor- porations 1817-18 [Daniel Webster for the college.] Arbuthnot and Ambrister, by court-martial, 26 Apr. 1818, for inciting Creek Indians to war against the U. S. ; executed by order of gen. Jackson 30 Apr. 1818 Stephen and Jesse Boorn, at Manchester, Vt., Nov. 1819, for the murder of Louis Colvin, who disappeared in 1813; sen- tenced to be hung 28 Jan. 1820 [Six years after Colvin disappeared, an uncle of the Boorns dreamed that Colvin came to his bedside, declared the Boorns his murderers, and told where his body was buried; this was 27 Apr. 1819. The Boorns were arrested, confessed the crime circumstantially, were tried and convicted, but not executed, because Colvin was found alive in New Jersey. Wilkie Col- lins's novel, "The Dead Alive," founded upon this case.] Robert M. Goodwin, for manslaughter in killing James Stough- ton, esq. , in Broadway, New York " Michael Powers, for the murder of Timothy Kennedy " Daniel D. Farmer, for murder of Anna Ayer, at Goffstown, 4 Apr. 1821 James Prescott, judge of probate for county of Middlesex, im- peached before the senate of Massachusetts " Israel, Nelson, and Isaac Thayer, brothers, "the three Thay- ers," arrested m Boston, Erie county, N. Y., for murder of John Love, a lake-carrier and petty money-lender who held their notes for $250, and whose body was found buried near the Thayers"s dwelling. Tried at court house in Buffialo, 21 to 24 Apr., and hung 17 June, 1825 Capt. David Porter, by court-martial at Washington, for ex- ceeding his powers, in landing 200 men on Porto Rico and demanding an apology for arrest of the commanding officer of the Beadle, sent by him, Oct. 1824, to investigate alleged storage of goods on the island by pirates; suspended for 6 months 7 July, " People V. Henry Eckford, Joseph G. Swift, Matthew L. Davis,, etc., at court of Oyer and Terminer, New York 26 Sept. 1826 Jesse Strang, for murder of John Whipple, Albany, N. Y 1827 Alexander Drew, drunkenness 1828 (ieorge Swearingen, for murder of his wife; hanged 1829 John F. Knapp, murder of Joseph White, Salem, Mass. . .6 Apr. 1830 [Trial Aug. 1830, Daniel Webster for the state.] James H. Peck, judge of U. S. District court for the district of Missouri, impeached for alleged abuse of judicial authority; trial begins 4 May, 1830; acquitted 31 Jan. 1831 Dr. Butler and Mr. Worcester, Presbyterian missionaries ar- rested under Georgia law forbidding white men to reside in Cherokee possessions without a license (Georgia) " Lucretia Chapman or Lucretia Espos y Mina 1832 Rev. Ephraim K. Avery, for the murder of Sarah M. Cornell, Newi)ort, R. I. ; acquitted Mch. 1833 John A. Murrell, the great western land-pirate, chief of noted bandits in Tennessee and Arkansas, whose central committee, called "Grand Council of the Mystic Clan," is broken up by arrest of its leader 1834 [Murrell lived near Denmark, Madison county, Tenn. He was a man without fear, physical or moral. His favorite operations were horse-stealing and "negro-running." He promised negroes their freedom if they allowed him to con- TRI 816 TRI duit them north, selling them on the way by day and steal iug them bjick by night, always murdering them in the end. He was captured by Virgil A. Stewart in 1834, convicted, and sentenced to the penitentiary, where he died.] Sivinish pirates (I'i in number), for an act of piracy on board the brig Mexican: trial at Boston; 7 found guilty, 6 acquit- ted ... 11-25 Nov. 1834 Heresy trial; rev. I.yman Beecher, Presbyterian, before the presbytery and synod of Cincinnati, on charges preferred by dr. Wilson, of holding and teaching Pelagian and Arminian doctrines; acquitted 9 June et seq. 1835 John Karla, for murder of his wife ; Williamsport 1836 Abraham Prescott, for murder of Mrs. Sally Cochran of Pem- broke, N. H., 23 Juno, 1833. Executed at Hopkiuton.. 6 Jan. " Rev. Albert Barnes, Presbyterian, for heresies in " Notes on the Epistle to the Romans;" tried and acquitted by presby- tery of Philadelphia, 30 Juno-8 July, 1835] condemned by the synod and suspended for 6 months, but acquitted by the general assembly " Richard P. Robinson tried for murder of Helen Jewett (Dorcas Doyen) in New York, 11 Apr. 1836; acquitted 7 June, " (The jury were accused of corruption, and one perjured w;tnes.s committed suicide soon after.] Case of slave schooner Amistad 1839-40 Samuel R. Wood, for perjury 1840 Charles Cook, Oct. 1840, for the murder of Mrs. Merry, his em- ployer's wife, at Glenville, near Schenectady, N. Y., 22 Sept. 1840. Though probably insane, he is hung 18 Dec. " M^or McEllory, for murder of Rainsford Otis, whose body is found in the ruins of a burned barn in Concord, Erie county, N. Y., 23 Apr. 1840. Convicted Nov. 1840, on circumstantial evidence, and hung at Buffalo, N. Y 19 Jan. 1841 Alexander McLeod, a Canadian, charged as an accomplice in burning the steamer Caroline in the Niagara river, and in the murder of Amos Durfee, is tiiken from Lockport to New York on habeas corpus, May, 1841. Great Britain asks his release in extra session of Congress; Mr. Webster advocates his discharge. A special session of the Circuit court, ordered by the legislature of New York at Utica, tries and acquits him 4-12 Oct. ' ' A. W. Holmes, of the crew of the William. Brown (Wrecks), for murder on the h gh seas (44 of the passengers and crew escaping in the long-boat, the sailors threw some passengers overboard to lighten the boat, 19 Apr. 1841) ; convicted, but recommended to mercy May, 1842 Monroe Edwards, for forgery, New York city; sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment 6-12 June, " [William M. Evarts, in defence, laid the foundation of his fame as an advocate. Edwards paid for his services a forged check.] Thomiis W. Dorr, Rhode Island; treason (Dorr's rebellion).. " Alexander S. Mackenzie (Somers's mutiny) " John C. Colt, book-keeper, for murder of Samuel Adams, a printer, in New York. He pucks the body in a box and ships it to New Orleans; the vessel is delayed, the box discovered, Colt convicted and sentenced to death. He commits suicide in the Tombs by stabbing himself with a knife on the day appointed for his execution 18 Nov. " Benjamin D. White. Batavia ». 1843 Bishop Benjamin T. Onderdonk of New York, for immoral conduct; by ecclesiastical court suspended, 10 Dec 1844-3 Jan. 1845 H. Daniel, for murder of Clifton R. Thomson, Cincinnati " Ex senator J. C. Davis of Illinois, T. C. Sharp, editor of Warsaw Signal, Mark Aldrich,Wm. N. Grover, and col. Levi Williams, for murder of Hiram and Joe Smith (Mormons); trial begins at Carthage, 111. ; acquitted 21 May, " Henry G. Green, for poisoning his wife (called " the murdered bride"), Berlin, N.Y " Albert J. Tirrell (the somnambulist murderer), for killing Maria A. Bickford 1846 [Acquitted on the plea that the murder was committed while he was sleep-walking] Margaret Howard, for the murder of Mrs. M. E. Smith, her hus- band's paramour, Cincinnati 1849 Reuben Dunbar, for murder of S. V. and D. L. Lester, his young nephews, Albany county, N. Y. ; tried and executed at Al- bany 1850 Dr. John W. Webster, for the murder of dr. George W. Parkman in the medical college, Boston, 23 Nov. 1849. Webster partly burns his victim. The remains identified by a set of false teeth. Webster convicted and hung; trial 19-30 Mch. " Stephen Arnold, for the murder of Betsy Van Amburgh, a child 6 years of age, in Cooperstown 4 June, " Conspiracy for injuring the property of the Michigan Central railroad; 40 indicted; 12 convicted and sent to prison from 5 to 10 years; among the counsel for the defence is Wm. H. Seward; trial concluded at Detroit Sept. 1851 Catherine N. Forrest v. Edwin Forrest; divorce and alimony granted to Mrs. Forrest 16 Dec. 1851-26 Jan. 1852 Arthur Spring, for murder of Mrs. Shaw and Mrs. Lynch in Federal St., Philadelphia, 10 Mch. (one of the bodies stabbed in 43 places) ; sentenced to be hung 16 Apr. 1853 John Hendrickson, convicted of poisoning his wife Maria at Bethlehem, Albany county, N. Y., 6 Mch. ; trial. .June-July, " Matt. F. Ward, acquitted of the murder of Wm. H. G. Butler, principal of the Louisville (Ky.) high-school, 2 Nov. 1853, in tlie school room in presence of pupils; trial at Elizabeth town, 18-27 Apr. 1854 Anthony Burns, fugitive-slave case, Boston (Massachusetts), 27-31 May, " Robert Scott, for murder of Ann King, San Francisco 1854 Dr. Stephen T. Beale, ether case 1856 U. S. V. Henry Hertz et al., Ibr hiring and retaining persons to go out of the U. S. to enlist in the British Foreign Legion for the Crimea; tried in the District court of the U. S. for East District of Pennsylvania " David F. Mayberry, for murder of Andrew Alger, before the Rock county (Wis.) Circuit court; killed by a mob " Lewis Baker, James Turner, Cornelius Linn, Charles Van Pelt, John Huyler, John Morrisscy, James Irving, and Patrick McLaughlin, alias Pawdeen, for the murder of William Poole in Stanwix hall, opposite the Metroi)olitan hotel, on Broad- • way, N. Y., 24 Feb. 1855; jury disagree (Boxing) " Ellen Irving, murderer of 16 persons, Baltimore 1856 Slave case in Cincinnati, 0. (see Hai-per's Magazine, vol. xii. p. 691) Apr " James P. Casey, for shooting James King of William, editor of the San Francisco Bulletin, and Charles Cora, murderer of U. S. marshal Richardson; tried and hung by the Vigilance committee in San Francisco 20 May, " Dred Scott case " Charles B. Huntingdon, for forgery; guilty " R.J. M.Ward ("the most extraordinary murderer named in the calendar of crime "), Cleveland, 1857 Emma A. Cunningham, for the murder of dr. Burdell in New York city, 30 Jan. 1856; acquitted May, •' Edward W. Hawkins, for murder of James M. Land and Jesse Arvine (he committed 4 murders, many thefts and forgeries, and married 6 young women before he was 21); executed in Estill county, Ky 29 May, " Daniel E. Sickles, for killing Philip Barton Key, Washington, D. C. ; acquitted (United States) 4-26 Apr. 1859 John Brown, for insurrection in Virginia; tried 29 Oct. and executed at Charlestown, Va. (Brown's insijrrectio.v), 2 Dec. " Jacob S. Harden, for the murder of his wife at Belvidere, N. J. ; hung 6 July, 1860 Albert W. Hicks, pirate ; tried at Bedloe's island, 18-23 May; convicted of triple murder on the oyster sloop Edwin A. Johnson in New York harbor; hung 13 July, " Burch divorce case; adultery; Mrs. Burch exonerated; Chicago, Dec. " Herseyl, "the Yankee Bluebeard" (supposed to have killed 2 wives), for murder of Betsy F. Tyrrell, Boston; trial, 28-31 May; hung 8 Aug. 1861 Officers and crew of the privateer Savannah, on the charge of piracy; jury disagree 23-31 Oct. " Nathaniel Gordon, for engaging in the slave-trade, 6-8 Nov. 1861; hanged at New York 21 Feb 1862 Parish Will case; to set aside certain codicils added to the will of Henry Parish of New York after an attack of paralysis in Wall St., 19 July, 1849, and giving his estate mainly to his wife; he dies 2 Mch. 18.)6; the codicils set aside by the sur- rogate; decision affirmed by court of Appeals June, " Fitz-John Porter tried by military court (Porter, Case of), Nov. 18()2-Jan. 1863 C. L. Vallandigham, for treasonable utterances; by court-mar- tial in Cincinnati; sentence of imprisonment during the war commuted to banishment to the South (United States), 5-16 May, " Pauline Cushman, LTnion spy ; sentenced to be hung by a court- martial held at gen. Bragg's headquarters ; is left behmd at the evacuation of Shelbyville, Tenn , and rescued by Union troops June, " For conspiracy against the U. S., in organizing the Order of American Knights or Sons of Liberty about 16 xMay ; tried by a military commission at Indianapolis, Ind., beginning 27 Sept. ; William A. Bowles, L. P. Milligan, and Stephen Horsey sentenced to be hung (Milligan, Case of) 17 Oct. 1864 J. Y. Beall, tried at fort Lafayette by a military commission, for seizing the steamer Philo Parsons on lake Erie, 19 Sept., and other acts of war, without visible badge of military ser- vice; sentenced to death and hung; trial occurs Dec. " Miss Mary Harris for the murder of A. J. Burroughs in Wash- ington, D. C. ; acquitted; trial July, 1865 Capt. Henry Wirtz, commander of Andensonville prison during the war, for cruelty; trial begins 21 Aug. ; Wirtz hung, 10 Nov. " Conspirators for assassination of pres. Lincoln (Booth's con- spiracy) " Dr. John W. Hughes hanged for murder of miss Tamzen Par- sons, Cleveland 1866 Antoine Probst, for the murder of the Deering family (father, mother, 4 children, and 2 other children in the family) on 7 Apr. ; executed at Philadelphia 8 June, " John H. Surratt (Booth's conspiracy) 1867 In the case of William H. McCardle of Mississippi, testing the constitutionality of the Reconstruction act of 1867; Matt. H. Carpenter of Wisconsin, Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, and Henry Stanberry, attorney -general, appear for the govern- ment, and judge Sharkey, Robert J. Walker of Mississippi, Charles O'Conor of New York, Jeremiah S. Black of Pennsyl- vania, and David Dudley Field for McCardle; Reconstruction a(;t repealed during the trial; habeas corpus issued. .12 Nov. " Andrew Johnson, impeachment (United States) 1868 George S. Twitchell, jr., for murder of his mother-in law, Mrs. .Mary E. Hill, Sunday, 22 Nov. 1868; sentenced to death, 30 Jan. ; commits suicide in Philadelphia 8 Apr. 1869 Col. Yerger, for murder of col. Crane, U. S. army, at Jackson, Miss 8 June, " Wm. H. Holden, governor of North Carolina, impeached and removed 22 Mch. 1870 i TRI 8i7 Daniel MacFarland, for the murder of Albert D. Richardson, 25 Nov. 18()9, in New York city ; acquitted 4 Apr. -10 May, 1870 David P. Butler, governor of Nebraska, impeached for appropri- ating school funds, and suspended 2 June, " Benjamin Nathan, a prominent Hebrew of New York, is found murdered in his home, his head beaten in by a lieavy iron bar- one of his sons suspected, but never brought to trial, ' night of 29-30 July, " "The Bible in the Public Schools," Case of; J. D. Miner et al. V. the Board of Education of Cincinnati et al. ; tried in the Superior court of Cincinnati; arguments for the use of the Bible in the public school by \Vm. M. Ramsey, George R. Sage, and Rufus King; against, J. B. Stallo, George Hoadly, and Stanley Matthews " James W. Smith, first colored boy admitted to the U. S. Mili- tarv academy; by court-martial for striking a cadet, 7-12 Jan. 1871 Laura D. Fair, for murder of A. P. Crittenden in San Francisco, Cal., 3 Nov. 1870; acquitted 27 Mch.-26 Apr. " Edward H. Ruloff, philologist ("the modern Eugene Aram"), for murder; hung at Binghamton, N. Y 18 May, " Aratus F. Pierce, for murder of William Bullock at Lockport, N. Y. ; acquitted " George Vanderpool, for the murder of Herbert PMeld at Manistee, Mich., 5 Sept. 1869; 1st trial, prisoner found guilty and sen- tenced to life imprisonment at Jackson; 2d trial, jury disa- gree; acquitted on the 3d trial Aug. " Fanny Hyde, for murder of George W. Watson, N. Y 1872 Mrs. Wharton, for murder of gen. W. S. Ketchum, U. S. A., at Washington, 28 June, 1871; acquitted 4 Dec. 1871-24 Jan. " George C. Barnard (judge of Supreme court, New York) im- peached, 13 May, for corruption, and deposed 18 Aug. " Jacob Rosenzweig (abortionist), for killing Alice A. Bowlesby in New York ; the body is found in a trunk shipped to Chicago ; verdict, manslaughter in 2d degree ; sentence, state-prison for 7 years 26 Oct. et seq. " John Scanlan, for murder of T. Donohue in New York. .2 Nov. " Lydia Sherman, convicted of poisoning 3 husbands and 8 chil- dren, Philadelphia 1873 William Foster (car-hook murderer), for killing Avery D. Put- nam, 26 Apr. 1871, in New York city; tried, 22 Mch.-26 May, 1871 ; convicted and hung 21 Mch. • " Frank H. Walworth (the "boy parricide"), for killing his father in New York city; sentenced to imprisonment for life; afterwards pardoned 24 June-5 July, " Capt. Jack and 3 other Modoc Indians tried 3 July for the mas sacre of gen. E. R. S. Canby, U. S. A., and rev. dr. Thomas (commissioner), 11 Apr. ; convicted and huug at Fort Kla- math, Or 3 Oct. " K. S. Stokes, for the murder of James Fisk, jr., in New York, 6 Jan. 1872; first jury disagree, 19 June, 1872; second trial (guilty and sentenced to be hanged 28 Feb. 1873). 18 Dec. 1872-6 Jan. 1873; third trial (guilty of manslaughter in 3d degree ; sentence, 4 years in prison at Sing Sing). .13-29 Oct. " W. M. Tweed, for frauds upon the city and county of New York; sentenced to 12 vears' imprisonment 19 Nov. " A. Oakey Hall, ex-mayof of New York, for complicity with the Tweed "ring" frauds; jury disagree, 1-21 Mch. 1872; second trial, jury disagree, 1 Nov. ; acquitted 24 Dec. " Emil Lowenstein. for murder of John D. Weston at West Albany, 5 Aug. 1873; hung at Albany, N. Y 10 Apr. 1874 David Swing, for heresy before the Chicago Presbytery, 15 Apr. et seq., in 28 specifications by prof Francis L. Patton; acquit- ted after a long trial " [Prof Swing withdrew from the Presbyterian church and formed an independent congregation.] William E. Udderzook (the insurance murderer), for the mur- der of W. S. Goss, 2 Feb. 1872, at West Chester, Pa. ; tried 27 May-9 Nov. 1873, and found guilty ; hung 12 Nov. " [Goss, whose life was insured for $25,000, ran away, and Udderzook, his brother-in-law, by perjury, collected the money for Goss's wife; Goss reappearing, Udderzook killed him to avoid exposure.] Belfry murder in Boston; little Mabel H. Young butchered by the sexton of the Warren Ave. Baptist church 1875 James M. Lowell, for wife murder " Theodore Tilton i'. Henry Ward Beecher, for adultery, Brook- lyn, N. Y. ; jury disagree; case ended 2 July, " Jesse Pomerov, the Boston boy murderer, for killing of Horace W. Millen, 22 Apr. 1874, supposed to be Pomeroy's fourth victim " Gen. 0. E. Babcock, private secretary of pres. Grant, tried at St. Louis for complicity in whiskey frauds; acquitted, 7 Feb. 1876 [Babcock was drowned off the Florida coast, 3 June, 1884.] Pasach N. Rubenstein, for murder of Sarah Alexander, 12 Dec. 1875, in Brooklyn. N. Y. ; tried 31 Jan.-12 Feb. ; sentenced to be hanged, but dies in jail 9 May, " W. W. Belkuiip, U. S. secretary of war, impeached (Unitkd Statks); acquitted 1 Aug. " John I) Lee, for the Mountain Meadow massacre, 15 Sept. 1857; convicted and executed 23 Mch. 1877 Je-sse Billings, jr., for murder of his wife at Saratoga, N. Y., 4 June; acquitted Oct. 1878 Rev. H. H. Hayden, for murder of Mary Stannard, New Haven, Conn 1879 Benjamin F. Hunter, for murder of J. F. Armstrong in Camden, N. J., 23 Jan. 1878; hung in Camden 10 Jan. " John P. Phair tried. for murder of Ann E. Frieze of Rutland, Vt., 9 June, 1874; sentenced to be hung, 6 Apr. 1877; re- prieved until 4 Apr.; hung at Windsor, Vt., protesting his innocence 10 Apr. " TRI Col. Thomas Buford, for killing judge Elliott at Frankfort, Ky. ; acquitted on ground of insanity ; trial July, 1879 Chastine Cox, negro, for murder of Mrs. Jane Deforest Hull, in New York city, 10 June, 1879; hung 16 July, 1880 Whittaker, colored cadet at West Point, by military court for injuring himself on pretence of being hurt by others, 6 Apr. ; expelled <; Pietro Balbo, for the murder of his wife, New York; executed, 6 Aug. " Monroe Robertson, murderer of 9 men, the last, his wife's brother, Wiley Coulter, a boy of 19, in Oct. 1879; hung at Greenville, , 20 Aug. " George Smith and Mrs. Catherine Miller, for murder of An- drew Miller (the latter's husband), at the instigation of Mrs. Miller, 18 Mch. 1880, near Jersey Shore, Pa.; hung at Will- iamsport. Pa 3 Feb. 1881 Joseph Stevens, colored, for murder of Andrew Mobley. col- ored, 20 May, 1878, by stabbing in the breast at a prayer- meeting because he felt a severe pain in his arm when shaking hands with him. A sorceress, "old Nell Gyles," of Augusta, had told him he would feel a sharp pain in the arm when he shook hands with the person causing his aches and pains; hung at Edgefield, S. C 20 May, " James Malley, for the murder of Jennie E. Cramer, New Ha- ven, Conn., Aug. 5, 1881; acquitted June, 1882 Lieut. Flipper, colored, by military court, for embezzlement and false statements, Nov. 1881 ; dismi.ssed from the service " Charles F. Kring, for murder of Mrs. Dora C. J. Broemser, St. Louis " Charles J. Guiteau, for the assassination of pres. Garfield (United States, 1881); convicted, 26 Feb. ; hanged, 30 June, " Star Routk trials " John Cockrill. managing editor of the St. Louis Post- Despatch, for fatally shooting coL Slayback (acquitted) 13 Oct. " N. L. Dukes, for murder'of col. Nutt, Uuiontown, Pa. (acquit- ted) 21 Mch. 1883 Edward N. Rowell of Batavia, for fatally shooting Johnson L. liynch of Utica, his wife's paramour (acquitted) 30 Oct. " Debris suit (California), decided against hydraulic miners, judge Sawyer of the U. S. court, San Francisco, Cal., granting a perpetual injunction 7 Jan. 1884 William Berner, convicted at Cincinnati of manslaughter in killing William H. Kirk 28 Mch. " [Berner was a confessed murderer; the verdict of man- slaughter, when 20 untried murderers were in the city jail, led to a 6 days' riot, during which the court-house and other buildings were set on fire, 45 persons were killed, and 138 injured.] Brig. -gen. D. G. Swaim, judge-advocate general of the army, tried by court-martial for attempt to defraud a banking firm in Washington, and failing to report an army officer who had duplicated his pay account; sentenced to suspension from duty for 12 years on half-pay ; triiil opens 15 Nov. " James D. Fish, president of the Marine bank of New York, secretly connected with the firm of Grant & Ward, convict- ed of misappropriation of funds, 11 Apr., and sentenced to 10 years at hard labor in Sing Sing, N. Y 27 June, 1885 Mrs. Lucilla Dudley, tried at New York for shooting O'Dono- van Rossa in Chambers St., fi Feb. ; the shot not fatal, and Mrs. Dudley acquitted as insnne — 30 June, " Ferdinand Ward, of the suspended firm of Grant & Ward, New York city, indicted for financial frauds, 4 June; convicted and sentenced to 10 vears at hard labor in Sing Sing, 31 Oct. " [Released, 30 Apr. 1892.] Henry W. Jaehne, vice president of the New York common council, for receiving a bribe to support Jacob Sharp's Broad- way surface road on 30 Aug. 1884; sentence, 9 years and 10 mouths in Sing Sing (New York) 20 May, 1886 Alfred Packer, one of 6 miners, who killed and ate his compan- ions when starving in their camp on the site of Lake City, Col., in 1874; convicted at New York of manslaughter, and sentenced to 40 years' imprisonment Aug. " Mrs. Roxalana Druse and daughter, for murder of Mr. Druse in ls84; Mrs. Druse convicted and hung at Herkimer, N. Y. ; daughter imprisoned for life Feb. 1887 Tillie Smith, a serving -maid in an educational institute, is found murdered at Hackettstown, N. J., 9 Apr. 1886; inno- cent persons suspected, but the crime proved on one Titus, the janitor, who is convicted 15 Oct. 1886, and sentenced to death ; commuted to imprisonment for life 21 Mch. " Trial of Jacob Sharp; found guilty of bribery and sentenced to 4 years' imprisonment and a fine of $.5000 14 July, " [Sentence reversed by court of Appeals.] Anarchists at Chicago (United States): 22 indicted, 27 May, 1886; 7 convicted of murder, 20 Aug.; 4 (Spies. Parsons, Fischer, and Engle) hung; and 1 (Lingg) commits suicide, 11 Nov. " [Gov. Altgeld pardoned all the anarchists (Schwab, Neebe, and Fielden) in prison, 26 June, 1893.] Maxwell, an Englishman, alias Brook, aZtas I,ennox. under con- viction for more than 2 years for murder of Mr. Preller, exe- cuted at St. Louis 10 Aug. 1888 David Walker. William Walker, and John Matthew, noted "bald knobbers" (Missouri, 1887-89), sentenced 18 May, 1888; executed at Ozark 10 May, 1889 City of New Orleans against administratrix of the estate of Myra Clark Gaines, deceased, 9 Jan. 1885, in Supreme court of U. S. ; judgment against the city for over $500,000, 13 May, " [About 1836 Myra Clark Gaines filed a bill in equity to re- cover real estate in the possession of the city of New Or- leans. Her father, Daniel Clark, who died in New Orleans a TRI 818 TRI reputed bucholor, 16 Aug. 1813, by will dated 20 May, 1811, nave the proiu-rty to his mother, and by momorandum for a will (which was never found) made in 1813, gave it to his dauKhler Mvni. The latter will was received by the Su- preme court" of Louisiana 18 Keb. 1856, and the legitimacy of Urn questioned. Judge Billings of the U. S. Circuit court ut" New Orleans rendered a decision which recognized the probjite of the will of 1813, in Apr. 1877 ; an appeal was taken, and in 188;i judgment was again given in favor of Mrs. (Jaines for f 1,1)25,667 and interest. The final appeal, June, 1883 resulted as above. In 1861 the value of the property was 'estimated at $35,000,000.] Dr. Patrick Henry Cronin, Irish dynamite nationalist (expelled from the Clanna Gael, and denounced as a spy by Alex. Sullivan and the leaders, termed the "Triangle," and con- demned to death by them for accusing them of embezzling funds allotted for dynamiting in Kngland in Feb., 4 May), found murdered at liake View, Chicago 22 May, 1889 Coroner's jury declare the murder to be the result of a con- spiracy of which Alexander Sullivan, P. O'SuUivan, Daniel Coughliu, and Frank Woodruff (connected with the Clan-na- Gael) were the principals. Alex. Sullivan and others ar- rested, 12 June; Sullivan released on high bail 15 June, " Martin Burke arrested at Winnipeg, Canada, indicted about 20 June. The grand jury at Chicago, after 16 days' inves- tigation, indict Martin Burke, John F Beggs, Daniel Coughlin, Patrick O'Sullivan, Frank Woodruff, Patrick Cooney, and John Kunz, with others unknown, of conspiracy and of the murder of Patrick Henry Cronin 29 June, " Coughlin, Burke, O'Sullivan, Kunz, and Beggs for murder of Cronin in Chicago, 6 May; trial begins 30 Aug. ; the first 3 are sentenced to imprisonment for life, Kunz for 3 years, and Beggs discharged 16 Dec. «« [Second trial of Daniel Coughlin began 3 Nov. 1893; ac- quitted bvjurv, 8 Mch. 1894.] Commander B. H. McCalla of U. S. S. Enterprise, by court-mar- tial foe malfeasance and cruelty, 22 Apr., on finding of a court of inquirv held in Brooklyn navy-yard, 11 Mch. ; suspended from rank and duly for 3 years; sentence approved by sec. Tracy 15 May , 1890 William Kemmler, for murder of his paramour at Buffalo, n: Y. ; the first execution by electricity, at Auburn prison, N. Y 6 Aug. " Dr. T. Thacher Graves, for murder of Mrs. Josephine Barnaby of Providence, R. I. , by poison, at Denver, Col 1891 [While awaiting his second trial he committed suicide in the county jail at Denver, 3 Sept. 1893.] Rev. Charles A Briggs. charged by the presbytery of New York, 5 Oct. 1891, with teaching doctrines "which conflict irreconcilably with, and are contrary to, the cardinal doc- trines taught in the Holy Scriptures," in an address at the Union Theological seminary in New York, 20 Jan. 1891; case dismissed, 4 Nov. ; prosecuting committee appeal to the Gen- eral Assembly, 13 Nov. ; judgment reversed and case re- manded to the presbytery of New York for new trial, 30 May, 1892; prof. Briggs acquitted after a trial of 19 days. .30 Dec. 1892 Dr. Robert W. Buchanan, tried in New York city for wife pois- oning; verdict, "guilty of murder in 1st degree". .. .26 Apr. 1893 Carlyle W. Harris, for murder of Helen Potts, 1 Feb. 1891, to whom he was secretly married, 8 Feb. 1890; she dies of an overdose of morphine, and Harris is convicted on circum- stantial evidence, 2 Feb. 1892; executed by electricity at Sing Sing 8 May, »' George H. Abbott, alias Frank C. Almy, for murder of Christie Warden, near Hanover, N. H., June, 1891; hung at Concord, N. H 16 May, " Lizzie Borden, arrested in Fall River, 11 Aug. 1892, for murder of her father and stepmother on 4 Aug. 1892 ; arraigned at New Bedford, pleads not guilty, 8 May, 1893; acquitted. .20 June, *' [Defended by ex-gov. Robinson of Massachusetts.] John Y. McKane, Gravesend, L. I., for election frauds , con- victed and sentenced to Sing Sing for 6 years 19 Feb. 1894 Miss Madeline V. Pollard, for breach of promise, against repre- sentative W. C. P. Breckenridge of Kentucky; damages, $50,000; trial begun 8 Mch. 1894, at Washington, D. C. ; ver- dict of $15,000 for miss Pollard, Saturday 14 Apr. " Patrick Eugene Prendergast, for the murder of Carter Harri- son, mayor of Chicago, 28 Oct. 1893; plea of defence, insanity; jury find him sane and he is hung 13 July, " George A. Bartliolomy for the murder of William E. Delaney, ex city clerk, Buffalo, N. Y., 14 June, 1894; sentenced to Auburn state-prison for life 10 Oct. " tribune§ of tlie people (tribuni pkUs), magis- trates of Rome, first chosen from among the commons to rep- resent them, 494 B.C., when the people, after a quarrel with the l>atricians, had retired to Mons Sacer. The first 2 tribunes were C. Licinius and L. Albinus, but the number was soon raised to 5, and 37 years later to 10. The office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the ides of Dec, that day was chosen for the election. In A.n. 1347 Nicolo di Rienzi assumed absolute power in Rome as tribune of the peo- ple, and reformed many abuses; but his extravagances de- stroyed his popularity and he abdicated, returned to Rome, and was assassinated, 8 Sept. 1354. triellillia§i§ (^trick-i-nVa-sis), a disease, often fatal, occasioned by eating raw or underdone pork containing a minute worm named Ti-ichina spiralis. Prof. Owen discov- ered these worms in cysts, in liuman muscle, hi 1832. The trichinae are thoroughly destroyed by proper cooking. Tlie disease excited much attention in 1865, and was the subject of a lecture by dr. Thudichum at the Society of Arts on 18 Apr. 1866. tricolor flag (red, white, and blue), adopted by France 1789. tricoteil§e§ (tree-co-tuz'), knitters, a name given to fa- natical women in Paris, in 1792, who zealously attended polit- ical meetings and executions, knitting at intervals. A notable example, madame Defarge in Dickens's "Tale of Two Cities." Trieste (Jree-est''), an Austrian port on the Adriatic, de- clared a free port by the emperor Charles VI., 1719, confirmed by Maria Theresa in 1750. It was held by the French in 1797 and 1805. Since the establishment of the overland mail to India it has risen to great commercial importance. After various changes of rulers it was restored to Austria in 1814, Pop. 1890, 158,344. trillimer, a term applied to Charles Montague, earl of Halifax, and others who held similar political opinions, mid- way between the extreme Whigs and Tories, in the latter ])art of the 17th century. He accepted the title as an honor, as- serting that it belonged to the British constitution and church. Macaulay regarded Halifax as a trimmer on principle, and not a renegade. He died in 1715. Tri-moiintaln. Boston, 1630: Massaciiusktts. Trinac'ria (3-cornered), a name of Sicily. The title " King of Trinacria " was temporarily assumed bv Frederick II. (1302) and Frederick III. (1373). Trinidad, an island of the British West Indies, dis- covered by Columbus in 1498, was taken from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595; by the French from the Eng- lish in 1676. Taken by the British, with 4 ships of the line and a military force under sir Ralph Abercromby, to whom the i.sland capitulated, 18 Feb. 1797 ; they captured 2 and burned 3 Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession was confirmed to England by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes occurred 4 Jan. 1832. A large lake of pitch or bitumen on the island is extensively worked. Asphalt. Area, 1754 sq. miles; pop. 1890, 208,030. Trinity and Trinita'rian§. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the 2d century, was the first who gave the term Trinity to the supposed 3 persons in the God- head. His "Defence of Christianity " was edited by (iesner, at Zurich, in 1546. — Wathins. An order of the Trinity, termed Mathurins, was founded about 1198 by John de Matha and Felix de Valois. A Trinity fraternity of 16 persons was instituted at Rome by St. Philip Neri in 1548. In England the act to exempt from penalties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity (such as Unitarians and Swedenborgians) passed in 1813. Trinity Churcll, New York cit}^, Protestant-Episco- pal, the wealthiest church corporation in the United States. First building 1696, enlarged 1737, burned 1776. rebuilt 1788,. taken down 1839; present edifice consecrated, 21 May, 1846; height of spire, 284 ft. Trinity COlleg^eS. Cambuidgk, Oxfoud. Trin- ity college, Dublin, called the university ; grant of the Augus- tine monastery of All-Saints within the suburbs for erecting this college conferred by queen Elizabeth, 1691. First stone laid by Thomas Smith, mayor of Dublin, 1 Jan. 1593. New charter, 1637. Made a barrack for soldiers, 1689.— A'wn?.*. The principal or west front erected, 1759. Library erected, 1732. This college grants degrees upon examination without resi- dence. The Roman Catholics desire exemption from mixed education and special privileges. Great changes were pro- posed by an Irish Universit}' bill brought into Parliament Feb. 1873, but withdrawn. Religious tests were abolished in the same year. Proposal to establish a Roman Catholic college within the uni- versity negatived by senate (74-7) 18 May, 1874 Trinity Sunday, the next after Whitsunday. The festival of the Holy Trinity was instituted by pope Gregory IV. in 828, on ascending the papal chair, and is observed by the Latin and Protestant churches originally as an octave > TRI 819 The observance was first enjoined TRU } Pentecost or Whitsunday, in the council of Aries, 1260. It was fixed on the present day by pope John XXI. in 1334. XrilloB>ail'teSj a British tribe which occupied Mid- dlesex and Essex, and joined in opposing the invasion of Julius Caesar, 54 b.c, but soon submitted. They joined Boadicea, queen of the Ickni, and were defeated by Suetonius Paulinus near London, 61. Tripar'tite treaty, name given to treaty of Paris, 1856. Triple allianee was ratified between the States- general and England against France for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known as the Triple alliance, 23 Jan. 1668. Another Triple alliance was that between England, Holland, and France against Spain, Jan. 1717. Another between Great Britain, Russia, and Austria, 28 Sept. 1795. Germany, Austria, and Italy against France and Russia, 13 Mch.1887. Trip'oli ("3 cities"). (1) In Syria, comprised three quarters built by the Tyrians, Sidonians, and Arabians ; was taken by the crusaders, 1109, and made a county for Raymond of Toulouse. It was conquered by Egyptians in 1832; re- stored to the Porte, 1835; surrendered to the British, 1841. (2) A Turkish province, N. Africa, comprised the cities Sa- brata, CEa (the present Tripoli, the capital), and Leptis (the ancient Tripolitana) ; after having been held by Greeks, Ro- mans, Vandals, and Saracens, it was conquered and annexed by the Turks, 1551. Hamet Bey, pacha in 1741, made himself independent, and the government remained in his family till 1835, when Tripoli was restored to nominal subjugation to the sultan. Naval BATTLES ; United States, 1800, etc. tri'renies, galleys with 3 banks of oars, said to have been invented by Corinthians, 784 or 700 b.c. trilimphs were granted by the Roman senate to gen- erals of armies after important victories. They were welcomed into the city with magnificence and public acclamations. The greater of these festivals of welcome was called the triumph ; and the less, the Ovation. trillin'virates, Roman. In 60 B.C., Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed a coalition to rule the state. This lasted 10 years, and civil war ensued. The second triumvirate, 43 B.C., formed by Octavius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, destroyed the liberty of the Romans. Lepidus was expelled in 36 ; Antony was subdued in 31, and Octavius made himself absolute. Rome. In Feb. 1849, a triumvirate was appointed at Rome, consisting of Joseph Mazzini, Armellini, and Saffi, which resigned on 1 July, 1849, when the city was taken by the French. trog'lodytes (Gr. rpwyXoSvTtjg, one who creeps into holes, a cave dweller; from rpwyXri, a cave, and dvu), to enter, to creep in). A name given by the ancient Greeks to various races of savages who lived in caverns or abodes excavated in the earth ; generally applied to the inhabitants of southern Egypt, Ethiopia, and the mountain districts of Arabia ; but all cave dwellers may be so denominated ; all prehistoric peo- ple were probably troglodytic. Figuratively applied to one who secludes himself from the affairs of the world. trou'badour§ and trOUVere§' (from trouhar, trouver, to find or invent), the poets of the middle ages (11th to 15th centuries). The former flourished in the south of France and north of Spain, and used the langue d'oc (that is, oc for oui, yes) ; the latter flourished in the north of France, and used the langue d'oil (that is, oil for oui). The troubadours produced romances, but excelled chiefly in lyric poetrj'^ ; the trouveres excelled in romances, several of which are extant : as the "Brut d'Angleterre " and the "Rou," by Wace ; the "Romance of the Rose," b}' Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meung. The troubadours were usually accompanied by jon- yleiirs, who sang their masters' verses, with the accompaniment of the guitar. Histories of these French poets and specimens of their works have been published in France. These poets, although frequently very licentious, tended to promote civili- zation during those warlike times. Troy or Ilium, capital of Troas, Asia Minor; Homer's " Iliad " and " Odyssey." Its history mythical. Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia (Blair) 1546 Teucer succeeds his father 1502 Dardanus succeeds ; builds Dardania 1480 Reign of Erichthonius 1449 Reign of Tros; from whom the people are called Trojans, and the city Troas 1374 This, his son, reigns; the city called Ilium ' 1314 Reign of Laomedon 1200 Arrival of Heracles in Phrygia. Hesione delivered from the sea-monster (Blair, Usher) 1225 War of Heracles and Laomedon 1224 Reign of Priam or Podarces " Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son of Priam, 20 years be- fore the sacking of Troy (Homer's Iliad, book xxiv. ) 1204 Commencement of the invasion of the Greeks to recover Helen, 1193 Troy taken and burned in the night, 11 June, i. e., 23d of the month Thargelion. —Parian Marbles. 408 years before the 1st Olympiad.— Apollodorus, Hales, and Clinton, 1183; others. . . 1184 [W. E. Gladstone dates the war 1316-07.] ^neas arrives in Italy (Lenglet) 1183 [Some time after the destruction of Troy a new city was built with the same name about 30 stadia distant. It was favored by Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition, but never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo was nearly in ruins. — Priestley.] a.d. Dr. H. Schliemann, at Hissarlik in the Troad, excavates a very ancient buried city, which he names "Novum Ilium ".. .1872-73 He pub. " Troy and its Remains " (transl. by dr. P. Smith) 1875 His Trojan antiquities arranged at South Kensington museum, Dec. 1877 Dr. Schliemann resumes excavations at Hissarlik; discovers Trojan houses and many antiquities, a dagger, earrings, bracelets, idols, shells, etc 30 Sept.-l Dec. 1878 Again with prof. Virchow and M. Burnouf, 1 Mch. ; makes fresh discoveries described in a letter, 5 June, 1879; pubs, his book, "Ilios" 1880 troy weight. The Romans introduced their ounce, the avoirdupois ounce, into Britain. The present ounce was brought from Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the crusades, 1095, and was first adopted at Troves, a city of France, whence the name. It is used to weigh gold, silver, and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was established by James VI. (James I. of England) in 1618. Standards. Troye§ (troi), central France, where a treaty was con- cluded between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daugh- ter of Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and, after the death of Charles, should inherit the crown, 21 May, 1420. truce of Ood {frera, or treuga Dei), a term given to a cessation of the private feuds and conflicts so general during the middle ages all over Europe, said to have been ad- vocated by the bishop of Aquitaine in 1032. The clergy gave their influence for it. A synod at Roussillon, 1027, decreed that none should attack his enemy between Saturday evening (at nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). Similar regulations were adopted in England, 1042 (some- times Friday and Wednesday being chosen for the time). The truce of God was confirmed by many councils of the church, especially the Lateran council in 1179. truck-farming is raising vegetables for the mar- kets, usually on a larger scale than what is called market- gardening, and is dependent on transportation companies and commission merchants to place its products on sale. Before 1860 this industry was but little known, and confined to the immediate vicinity of the cities; now many of its products are transported from 600 to 2000 miles for consumption. Late in the autumn and early in the spring the Gulf states and the lower Mississippi valley supply the enormous demand for green vegetables to the northern cities until the season, ad- vancing at the rate of 13 miles a day, gradually brings the growth northward, so that now at no season of the year are the great northern cities without fresh summer fruits and veg- etables. The first report of the Census Bureau on truck farms, made in 1890, shows that in 1889 the value of products sold, after deducting freight and commissions, was $76,518,155; after deducting for labor, seed, etc., the net income was $51,- 909,265, from the following acreage in different districts: District. Acres. 1. New England 6,838 2. New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania 108,135 3. Delaware, Maryland, Virginia (east of Chesapeake bay). . . 25,714 4. Southeastern counties of Virginia and northeastern ) ._ „,._ counties of North Carolina ] ^^.-^'O 5. Western Maryland and western Virginia 37,181 6. North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida 111,441 7. Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Tennessee, Kentucky., 36,180 TRU 820 TUN Wttrict. A^cret. a Texas, Arkansas. Missouri, Kansas. 3«,889 9 Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Nebraska ... 107,414 10 M iniiesoUi, North DukoUi, Soiilh Dakota 1,083 11. Idaho, Wyoming Utah, Nevada, Colorado, New Mexico, > g ggg Arliona. / , ' ,„ 11 California, Oregon, Washington U,95l Total 634,440 The principal vegetables gruwn are here mentioned in order of the values sold : 1 Watermelons. 2. CablNige. 3. Pease. 4. Asp.iragiis. 6. Melons other than water- melons. G. Sweet potatoes. 7. Tomatoes. 8. Spinach. i). Irish potatoes. 10. Celery. 11. String-beans. Other vegetables connected with this industry are : beets, cucumbers, cauliflower, carrots, egg-plant, kale, lettuce, Lima beans, onions, parsnips, radishes, rhubarb, squashes, sweet corn, and turnips. trumpet, a wind instrument of great antiquity, prop- erly of metal, with a flaring opening for the sound to issue. Some of the (ireek historians ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the time of Homer. Shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were in use as signals among most primitive peoples. —Potter. The Jewish feast of trumpets was appointed 1490 B.C. (Lev. xxiii. 24). OflFa, king of Mercia, is said to have Imd trumpets sounded before him when travelling, about 790 A.u. Speaking-tkumpet. tnimpet- flower, Bignonia radicans. Flovveus AND Plants. trUiS (probably derived from Lat. torqueo, to twist, to bend, to bind together). A transverse spring-truss for rupt- ures was patented by Robert Brand in 1771, and by many other persons since. tru§t§ and eoinbiliei. Terms applied in the United States originally to organizations and agreements, by which a body of trustees hold the stock of a number of corporations, or a controlling interest in each, and administer them in common, constituting a more or less complete monopoly. The Stand- ard oil and the sugar trusts were first organized on this plan, and many other combinations have imitated them. But the courts being hostile to such monopolies, nearly all the trusts have been converted into business corporations. But the name trust is still popularly given to all such associations which unite many factories under one control, limiting com- petition. Capital invested in the principal trusts in the U. S. in 1893 mav be stated as follows : Mineral oil $150,000,000 Sugar 75,000,000 Whiskey 35,000,000 General electric. 34,000,000 Lead 30,000,000 Cotton oil 30,000,000 Tobacco 129,000,000 Rubber 28,000,000 Cordage 25,000,000 Linseed oil 18,000,000 Starch 8,000,000 Tuam, a town of W. Ireland. ■ St. Jarlath, the son of Loga, who lived about 501, is looked upon as the first founder of the cathedral of Tuam, though the abbey is said to have been founded in 487. The church was anciently called Tuaim- dii-Gualand. In 1511 Edan O'Hoisin was the first archbishop, at least the first who received the pall, for some of his prede- cessors are sometimes called bishops of Connaught, and some- times archbishops, by Irish historians. The see of Mayo was annexed to Tuam in 1559. It ceased to be archiepiscopal, conformably with the statute 3 and 4 Will. IV., 1833 ; and is now a bishopric only, to which Killala and Achonr}', a joint see, has been added. Archbishops, Bishops in Ireland. lubercllIo'si§, a disease consisting of the degeneration of tissue and growth of tubercles, masses of diseased matter, in the lungs (phthisis or consumption) or other parts of the body. Dr. Robert Koch of Berlin discovers in a minute organism, named bacillus tuberculosis, the cause of the disease 1882 Koch announces a lymph by the injection of which, as in vac- cination, he hopes to cure the disease autumn of 1890 Full account of dr. Koch's method pub Nov. " Exaggerated reports of success discussed 1890-91 Df. Koch explains his lymph, tuberculine, as a glycerine ex- tract from the pure cultivation of the tubercle bacilli. 15 Jan. 1891 Prof Badenhencr of Cologne asserts that out of 100 surgical cases no perfect cure has been effected by the lymph .Jan. " Prof. Virchow. Berlin, reports in 21 cases of injection of lymph unfavorable results Jan. " Dra Bertin, Picq, and Bernheim propose the cure of tubercu- losis by the transfusion of goat's blood Jan., Feb. 1891 Dr. Koch acknowledges the failure of bis remedy, and proposes an improvement by the addition of alcohol 2'i Oct. " The use of tuberculitie, though not curative, has proved to be of the highest importance in the diagnosis of the disease. In cases in which tuberculosis has found a lodgement, an in- jection of this substance into the circulation is at once fol- lowed by a marked rise of the temperature, even though no other symptom of the disease is exhibited. It is by this means that suspected cattle are examined, and diseased ones distinguished. Tii'bin^en MCIiooI of Theology (Old), connected with the Tubingen university. Its first representative, Gott- lob Christian Storr (1746-1805), aimed to fix faith firmly on the authority of revelation as in the Scriptures, miracles, etc., in opposition to the philosophy of Kant, Fichte, Schelling, etc. Modern school, founded by Ferdinand Christian Baur (1792- 1860), introduced a rigid criticism of the books of the New Testament and strove to free Christianity' from supernatural- ism, i. e., miracles, etc. tubular bridgC§. Bridges. Tueiday (Lat. Dies Martis, the day of Mars), the 3d day of the week, so called from Tiiisto, Tito, or Tuesco, a Saxon deitj', worshipped on this day. Tuisto is mentioned by Taci- tus. Week-days. Tuilerie§ {tweel-ree'), Paris, the imperial palace of France, commenced by Catherine de Medicis, after the plans of IMiilibert de I'Orme, 1564 ; continued by Henry IV., and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was stormed by the mob, 10 Aug. 1792; and ransacked in the revolutions of July, 1830, and Feb. 1848. Louis Napoleon made it his residence in 1851, and greatly renovated it. The restoration of the Tiiileries (much injured by fire by the Communists, May, 1871) was determined on, Oct. 1872, but not proceeded with. The ruins were sold for $161,000 to M. Picard, 4 Dec. 1882. tulip§, indigenous in the east of Europe, were taken to England from Vienna about 1578. It is recorded in the register of Alkmaer, in Holland, that in 1639 120 tulips, with the off- sets, sold for 90,000 florins ; and that one, called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 guilders! The government stopped this ruinous traffic. — The tulip-tree, Liiiodendron tulipifera, was carried to England from America, abotit 16G3. Flowers and Plant.s. TullallO'nia campaign. The Confederate com- mander Bragg, after the battle of Murfreesborough, re- treated to Shelby ville, about 25 miles south from Murfrees- borough, and part of his array to TuUahoma, somewhat farther away. Here he intrenched to resist the Federal advance. It was not until 24 June, 1863, that gen. Rosecrans advanced from Murfreesborough, and in a short campaign of 15 days (24 June- 7 July), without severe fighting, compelled Bragg to evacu- ate middle Tennessee and retreat across the Tennessee river. Chickamauga. tumulus, pi. tumuli (Lat.) ; a mound, a heap. They are found in all parts of the world, and date from prehistoric times. Mentioned in the Bible, Josh. vii. 26; viii. 29; 2 Sam. xviii. 17. Erected over the dead by the ancient Greeks ; thus Homer, speaking of the burial of Patroclus : " Then drew a circle for the sepulchre And, laying its foundations to enclose The pyre, they heaped the earth, and having reared A mound, withdrew." — "Iliad, "bk. xxiii., lines 314-17. Artificial mounds vary in size from a few feet to over 200 feet in height; the highest in England, at Silbnry hill, is 170 feet. The utensils found in them indicate that they belong to the neolithic (''tone), bronze, or iron age, and are probably unciv- ilized attempts at pyramid building. Mound Builders. tUUg'§ten (also called wolfram and scheelium) , a hard, whitish, brittle metal. From tungstate of lead, Scheele, in 1781, obtained tungstic acid, whence the brothers De Ltiyart, iu 1786, obtained the metal. In 1859 it was employed in making a new kind of steel. Xu'nis, a seaport town and state of N. Africa, stands nearly on the site of Carthage. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX. of France, who died near it, 25 Aug. 1270. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for Solyman the « J TUN 821 TUN Magnificent, 1531. Barbarossa was expelled by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, June, 1535. The country was recovered by the Turks under Selira II., 1575. The bey of Tunis was first appointed in 1574. Tunis was reduced by adm. Blake on the bey refusing to de- liver up the British captives, 1655. The Hussein dynasty was founded 1705. In July, 1856, the bey agreed to make constitutional reforms. He died 22 Sept. 1859 ; and his brother and successor, Mohamed-es-Sadok, took the oath of fidelity to the constitution. Died 1882 ; succeeded by his brother, Sidi- Ali, 28 Oct. 1882. Area, 45,000 sq. mUes ; pop. 1890, 1,500,000. It is now under French protection. Tunis incorporated with the Turkish empire 25 Oct. 1871 Dispute with France; predatory incursions of the Kroumirs, nomadic shepherd tribes, on Algerian territory, Mch. ; mili- tary expedition sent from France; lands iuTabarka, 25 Apr. ; bombards fortress and occupies Bizerta 30 Apr. 1881 Bey appeals to Turkey, 11 Apr. ; and the great powers, 27 Apr. '• French approach Tunis, alleging the object to be to restrain warlike tribes and protect their frontier 11 May, " Treaty with France signed ; France to occupy the positions which she deems necessary for the maintenance of order and the security of the frontier and the coast, and to send a resi- dentministertothecapital. French government guarantees to the bey the security of his person, his states, and his dynasty, and the maintenance of existing treaties with the European powers ; while the bey undertakes not to conclude any interna- tional convention without a previous understanding with the French government, and to prevent the introduction of arms into Algeria through Tunis. Financial system of the regency to be regulated by France in concert with the bey. . .12 May, " M. Roustan, the consul, appointed French resident minister (said to be virtual ruler, replacing bey); French army re- turning home June, " Mustapha ben Ismail, the bey's chief minister, received by pres. Gr^vy at Paris 21 June, " French courts of law established 1 Jan. 1884 Canal from Timis to its port Goletta, a distance of 7 miles, is being built, to be finished 1894 T'linker§, a sect of American Baptists, called also Dunkers or Tumblers (from their mode of baptism by putting converts, while kneeling, head-foremost into the water), are an offshoot of a German Baptist community at Schwartzenau, on the river Eder, a number of whom emigrated to America under Conrad Beissel (or Peysel) and others, about 1719. Peysel afterwards founded a separate settlement at Ephrata, about 50 miles from Philadelphia, where celibacy and monas- ticism were encouraged but not made obligatory. tunnage and poundage were ancient duties levied on every tun of wine and pound of other goods, imported or exported, and were the origin of "customs." They com- menced in England about 1346, and were granted to the kings for life, beginning with Edward IV. Charles I. gave offence by levying them on his own authority, 1628. They were granted to Charles II. for his lifetime, 24 June, 1660. By the act 27 Geo. III. c. 13, these and other duties were repealed, 1787, and the present system of excise and customs introduced. tunnel, an underground passage or roadway through a mountain or hill or under the bed of a stream, etc. Herodotus speaks of a tunnel 7 furlongs long and 8 feet high through a hill on the island of Samos. The Romans constructed a tunnel 6000 feet long by 7 high and 5 wide to tap lake Albanus, 359 B.C. Lake Fucino in Italy was drained by a tunnel 3 miles long, 20-30 feet high, and about 30 feet wide, devised by Julius Caesar and executed by Claudius, 52 a.d. One of the earliest known tunnels, said to have been constructed to drain the plateau on which stands the city of Mexico, pierced the Nochistengo ridge for 6 miles. It was destroyed during a flood and replaced by an open cut, with a maximum depth of 200 feet, in 1608. The first canal tunnel constructed in Eng- land was the Harecastle, 1 mile 5 furlongs in length, for the Trent and Mersey canal, in 1766-77. Among other noted tunnels built for canal purposes are: Thames and Medway, 3720 yards; Tipton Green, 2926 yards; Bilsworth (Grand Junction), 3080 yards; Sapperton (Thames and Severn), 4180 yards; Soussey (Bourgogne), 3852 yards; Nauvages (Canal du Marne au Rhin), 5320 yards; Lapal (Dudley canal), 3776 yards; Ripley (Cromford canal), 2966 yards; Marsden (Hud- dersfield), 5500 yards; Noirieu (St. Quentin), 13,128 yards; Pouilly (Bourgogne), 3660 yards. Railroad tunnels are innu- merable; besides t/hose detailed below, there may be noted the Woodhead tunnel, between Manchester and SheflSeld, Engl., 3 miles in length ; Standedge, on London and Northwestern rail- road, over 3 miles ; at Nerthe, France, about 3 miles ; at Blaisy, France, about 2 J miles in length, and many in the United States. First tunnel in the U. S. near Auburn, Pa., for the Schuylkill Navigation company's canal, 450 feet long, 20 wide and 18 high ; begun 1818, completed 1821 Alleghany Portage railroad tunnel in Pennsylvania, one of the first in the U. S., 900 feet in length; begun 1831, completed. . 1833 Black Rock tunnel, on the Reading railroad, Pennsylvania, 1932 feet long, constructed 1836 Thames tunnel, between Rotherhithe and Wapping; length, 1200 feet; width, 35 feet; height, 20 feet; cost about $5500 per lineal yard; planned. by I. K. Brunei in 1823; excavation begun, Dec. 1825; irruptions of river 18 May, 1827 and 12 Jan. 1828, when 6 workmen were drowned ; thickness of earth between the crown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, about 15 feet; opened for foot passengers 25 Mch. 1843 [It was purchased by the East London railway and closed to others, 21 July, 1866.] Machine rock drill invented by J. J. Couch, an American, 1849, and machine drills first used practically in tunnelling mont Cenis 1861 Nitroglycerine first applied to blasting 1863 Machine rock drill first practically used in tunnelling in the U. S. in the Hoosac tunnel Nov. 1866 Tunnel extending 2 miles under lake Michigan at Chicago, to supply the city with water, the first of its kind; begun 17 Mch. 1864, and completed 17 Dec. " [A second tunnel was built 1872-74.] Dynamite invented by Nobel 1867 Great tunnel of the Central Pacific railroad at the summit of the Sierra Nevada oi)eued Jan. 1868 First river tunnel in the U, S. constructed under the Chicago river; length, 810 feet- completed Dec. " Mont Cenis tunnel, nearly 8 miles long, extends from Modane to Bardonnfeche under the Col de Frejus; site was indicated in 1840; cost about |1100 per lineal yard; engineers, messrs. Grattoni, Grandis, and Sommeiller; work begun by king Vic- tor Emmanuel, 31 Aug. 1857; blasting by hand until 1H60 at the south heading, and 1862 at the north, when rock drills were introduced; 2 headings meet, with a difference of 1 foot in level, 25 Dec. 1870; tunnel opened 17 Sept. 1871 Hoosac tunnel, through the Hoosac mountains, near North Adams, Mass., is 4% miles long, averages 25x25 feet, and cost about $14,000,000. Massachusetts legislature reports in favor of a canal tunnel, 1825; railroad tunnel located, 1850; act of legislature authorizing its construction and lending state aid passed, 1854; tunnel driven 2400 feet at the east heading and 610 feet at the west, 1855-61; abandoned by contractors, July, 1861; work resumed by state, Oct. 1863; head house, etc., destroved by fire, the result of an explosion, and 13 lives lost, Oct. 1867; headings of tunnel meet, 27 Nov. 1873 Tunnel under the Detroit river, begun in 1872, to connect the Michigan Central railroad with the Great Western of Canada; abandoned on account of irruption of sand and water from the river " Flood rock in the East river, N. Y., near Hallet's Point, honey- combed with tunnels and blown up; work begun, Aug. 1869; total length of tunnels, 7425 feet; explosion conducted by gen. John Newton, U. S. A 24 Sept. 1876 Rothschonberg tunnel, to drain the Freiberg mines. Saxony, 31>^ miles in length and about 10 feet high; begun in 1844, completed 1877 Sutra tunnel, 4 miles long, to drain the Comstock Lode, Ne- vada, at a depth of 1600 feet; company chartered 4 Feb. 1865 ; completion celebrated in Carson Valley 30 June, 1879 Ancient aqueduct tunnel, about 11 miles long, built in the time of Augustus, to supply Bologna with water from the Setta; is restored by count Gozzadini and reopened 5 June, 1881 St. Gothard tunnel, piercing the Alps; actual length, 9)^ miles; cost about $700 per lineal yard; work begun at each end, Sept. 1872; machinery used after Apr. and July, 1873; head- ings joined, 29 Feb. 1880, with a horizontal difference at joining of only 2 inches, and a lateral of 13 inches; first passenger train through 1 Nov. " Rack-a-rock blasting-powder invented by S. R. Divine 1882 Hudson river tunnel. New York to Jersey City, begun 1874; 20 workmen drowned by irruption of water, July, 1880; work stopped for lack of funds on New Jersey side, Nov. 1882, and on the New York side, July, 1883, and tunnel aban- doned after an expenditure of over $1,000,000 July, 1883 Arlberg tunnel, under the Alps, at the Arl mountain, from Langen to St. Anton, 6^ miles; cost about $500 per lineal yard; work begun, July, 1880; headings joined, Nov. 1883; railway opened Sept. 1884 Tunnel under the Mersey, between Liverpool and Birkenhead, Engl., was authorized by Parliament, 1866; dimensions: width, 26 feet; height, 19 feet; length, \}4 miles; experi- mental work begun, Dec. 1879; regular work begun, 1881; tunnel opened 13 Jan. 1886 Big Bend tunnel, Cal., to drain a section of the Feather river for gold mining, was begun Nov. 1882; length, 12,000 feet; cross section, 12X16 feet; work completed Apr. " Company chartered by New York to construct a tail race tunnel about IX miles in length, in the bank of Niagara river, from a point above to a point below the falls, to supply water- power for mills, electric plants, etc " Severn tunnel, built for the Great Western railway, from Mon- mouthshire to Gloucestershire; total length. 4 miles 626 yards; work begun, 1873; submerged by irruption from river for 1 year from Oct. 1879; hning with brick-work begun, 1881; TUR 822 TUR floodctl again, Oct 1883; connections made, Oct 1884; opened for tn«fHo oept 18ao Tunnel iliroi'igh "the Cascade range in Washington, 9850 feet long; cross section, 16X20>tf feet; work begun, Apr. 1886; completed June, 1888 New Crolon aqueduct, which is 33^ miles long, built to supply water to Now York city, contains 30?^ miles of tunnels; this portion of the work completed (Croto.n aqueduct) " Sarnia tunnfl, under the St. Chiir river, from Sarula to I'ort Huron- a cast-iron tube, over 6000 feet iu length, 21 foot in diameter and lined with masonry; opened for railroad trafllc, 1890 Tunnel under the Channel between Dover and Calais, proposed 18(59; ex|>erimcnt!»l boring begun in France, 187(>; lu Eng- land 18«'2; Channel tunnel disapproved by sir G. Wolseloy and "other otllcers, British and foreign, Mch. 1882; work 8top|>ed by the government, 6 July, 1882; sir E. Watkiu's bill for oxi>erimental works opposed by the government and rejected iu the Commons, Juno, 1888, and again June, Tura'lliUII, a subdivision of the Mongolian race. ExHNOiXKiY, Language. turbine wheel (Lat. tmbo, a reel, a whirl, etc.), a form of a water-wheel invented by Benoit Fourneyson, 1^23 ; first built, 1827. The varieties are now numerous. Tu'rill, the ancient Augusta Taminorum in Liguria. Under the name of Taurasia it was taken by Hannibal, 218 B.C. Capital of Piedmont, of the Sardinian states, and of the kingdom of Italy till 1864, when it was superseded by Florence. Its importance dates from the permanent union of Savoy and Piedmont in 1416. The French besieged this city; but prince Eugene defeated their army and compelled them to raise the siege, 7 Sept. 1706. In 1798 the French re- publican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the island of Sardinia. In 1799 the French were driven out by the Austrians and Russians; but the city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French, June, 1800. In May, 1814, it was restored to the king of Sardinia. Italy, 1864. University founded 1405. Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, died here, 20 Mch. 1894, aged 92 years. Pop. 1890, 320,808. Turin Papyru§, The, or « Book of Kings,'- a frag- mentary list of Egyptian kings, brought from Thebes by an Italian named Drovetti. A fac-simile is preserved in the Royal Society of Literature, London. Turkestan', called by the Persians Turan, Indepen- dent Tartary, the original country of the Turks, in central Asia, was reached by Alexander, 331 b.c. The Russians are gradually encroaching on this country; on 14 Feb. 1865, a new- province, Turkestan, was created by decree, and gen. Kauff- mann made governor, 26 July, 1867. It includes Saraarcand, Ferghanah, Semiryetchensk, and Syr-Daria. Area, 409,414 sq. miles ; pop. 3,400,000. Turkey or the Ottoman Empire. The Turks were originally a tribe of Tartars; but, by incorporation with the peoples they have conquered, have become a mixed race. About 760 they obtained possession of a part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania, They first appeared in Europe in 1080, crossing the Bosporus to assist the emperor Botoniates against his rival. Under Othman or Osman, the founder of the present dynasty, they made themselves masters of several places in Asia, captured Nicea, and made Broussa their capital (1326). By the end of the 14th century they controlled Thessaly, Macedonia, and Bulgaria in Europe and nearly all western Asia. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Ma- homet II., its conqueror, proceeded to subdue Trebizond, Wal- lachia, Bosnia, lUyria, and the Morea. Egypt, Syria, Cir- cassia, and Moldavia passed under Turkish rule, 1481-1512. In 1522 they subdued Rhodes, and in 1525 invaded Hungary and invested Vienna, from which they were repulsed, 1529. At this time they were at the height of their power, ruling an area in Europe of 230,000 sq. miles. Their power has since rapidly declined. It has not been the custom of the sultans of Turkey for some centuries to contract regular marriages. The inmates of his harem are not Turkish subjects, but come by purchase or free will from other districts, chieflv from Cir- cassia. From these inmates the sultan selects a certain num- ber, generally 7, to be "kadyn" or ladies of the palace; the rest, called " odalik," remain as servants to them. But one, and only one, lady of the palace, bearing the title of Harnadar- Kadyn, and she always old, keeps any intercourse with the outer world, and this only through the chief of the guard of eunuchs, called Kyzlar-Agassi, bearing tlie same rank as the grand-vizier. The will of the sultan is absolute in so far as it is not in opposition to the teachings of the Koran. Forms of constitution, after the model of the western European states, have been drawn up, the first proclaimed 18 Feb. 1856, and a second as a decree of sultan Abdul-Hamid II., Nov. 1876, but it appears impossible to carr}' them out in the present condition of the Ottoman empire. ARUA AND POPULATION OF THE IMMEDIATE POSSESSIONS OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. Country. Sq. miles. Population. 61,200 687,640 398,738 4,780,000 21,608,000 1,300,000 Asia Africa.... Total 1,147,578 27.688,000 [This does not include Bulgaria, which is virtually free from Turkey, nor Bosnia and Herzegovina, now governed by Austro- Huugary, nor Egypt.] Alp Arslan and the Turks conquer Armenia and Georgia 1065-68 Asia M inor conquered, 1074-84 ; Jerusalem taken 1076 Solyinan Shah drowned in the Euphrates on the march; his son Ertoghul, granted territories near Angora, d 1288 Othman, his son, emir of the sultan of Iconium, founded the Ottoman empire at Priisa, Bithynia 1299 Organization of Janissaries by Orcan about 1330 Nicsea conquered, 1330 ; and the Morea 1346 Turks penetrate into Thrace and take Adrianople 1361 Amurath I. remodels the Janissaries 1362 Bajazet I. overruns provinces of Eastern empire 1389 et seq. He defeats Sigismund of Hungary at Nicopolis 28 Sept. 1396 He besieges Constantinople; but interrupted by Tamerlane (or Timour), defeated and made prisoner, at Ancyra 28 July, 1402 Macedonia annexed 1430 Ladislas of Hungary defeated and slain at Varna by Amurath, 10 Nov. 1444 Amurath defeats John Hunniades at Kossova Oct. 1448 Turks, invading Hungary, repelled by Hunniades 1450 Constantinople taken by the Turks under Mahomet II., which ends the P^astern or Greek empire 29 May, 1453 Belgrade relieved by Hunniades's victory over the Turks, July, 1456 Grkece subjected to the Turks 1458-60 Turks take Otranto, spreading terror in P^nrope 1480 Selini I. raised to the throne by the Janissaries; murders his father, brothers, etc 1512 He takes the islands of the Archipelago 1514 He overruns Syria 1515 Gains Egypt by defeat of Mamelukes Aug. 1516 Solyman takes Belgrade, Aug. 1521; and 1 hodes Dec. 1522 Defeats Hungarians at Mohatz 29 Aug. 1526 Repulsed before Vienna Oct. 1529 Peace with Austria 1533 Cyprus taken from the Venetians Aug. 1571 Great battle of Lepanto 7 Oct. " Treaty of commerce with England 1579 Turks driven out of Persia by shah Abbas 1585 War with the Cossacks, who take Azof. 1637 Turks defeat Persians and take Bagdad 1638 Candia (Crete) taken from Venice, after a 25-years siege 1669 Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but relieved by John of Po- land 12 Sept. 1683 Peace of Carlovitz 26 Jan. 1699 Mustapha II. deposed by Janissaries 1703 Morea retaken by the Turks 1715 Turks defeated at Peterwardein / , 1716 They lose Belgrade, and their power declines 1717 Peace of Erivan (with Persia) 1732 Belgrade taken from Austria, Russia relinquishes Azof 1739 Turks defeated at Kars 1745 Insurrection of Wahabees 1749 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio; Russian fleet defeats the Turkish 1770 Crimea ceded to Russia Jan. 1784 War with Russia and Austria; Turks lose more than 200,000 men 1787-91 Cession of Oczacow 1791 War with the French, who invade Egypt 1798 Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo 1803 War against Russia and England 7 Jan. 1807 Passage and repassage of the Dardanelles by the British fleet, with great loss 19 Feb. " Murder of Hali Aga 25 May, " Janissaries massacre the newly disciplined troops 1808 R'lssians defeated at Silistria 1809 Treaty of Bucharest 28 May, 1812 Caravan of 2000 souls on return from Mecca destroyed by hot wind in Arabian desert; 20 saved 9 Aug. " Subjugation of the Wahabees 1818-19 Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself independent. . 1820 Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia 6 Mch. 1821 Persecution of Christians, 6 Mch. ; the Greek patriarch mur- I dered at Constantinople (Greece) 23 Apr. " I Horrible massacre at Scio (Chios) " 1822 1 Sea-fight near Mityleue ; Turks defeated 6 Oct. 1824 i 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 ne, 1849 TUR 823 New Mahometan army organized 29 May, 1826 Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinoi)le; they are sup- pressed and massacred 14-16 June, " Battle of Navarino; Turkish fleet destroyed by those of Eng- land, France, and Russia 20 Oct. 1827 Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 85 Russian settlers from the empire 5 Jan, 1828 War with Russia 26 Apr. " Czar Nicholas takes the field 20 May, " Capitulation of Brahilow 19 June, " Surrender of Anapa 23 June, " Eminences of Shumla taken by Russians 20 July, " Czar arrives before Varna 5 Aug. " Battle of Akhalzic 21 Aug. " Fortress of Biijazet taken. 9 Sept. " Sultan proceeds to the camp with the sacred standard. .26 Sept. " Dardanelles blockaded 1 Oct. " Surrender of Varna 11 Oct. ' ' Russians retreat from Shumla 16 Oct. " Surrender of castle of the Morea to French 30 Oct. " Siege of Silistria raised by Russians 10 Nov. " Victory of Russians at Kuleftscha, near Shumla 11 June, Battle near Erzeroum 2 July, Adrianople entered by Russians, 20 Aug. ; armistice. . . 29 Aug. Treaty of peace at Adrianople U Sept. Porte acknowledges independence of Greece 25 Apr. Treaty with America 7 May, Military "order of glory " (Nischan) founded 19 Aug. St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, son of Mehemet Ali of Egypt 2 July, He defeats the army of the sultan at Konieh 21 Dec. Ibrahim Pacha marches within 80 leagues of Constantinople, and the sultan asks the aid of Russia Jan. Russians enter Constantinople 3 Apr. Treaty with Russia, offensive and defensive 8 July, Office of grand-vizier abolished 30 Mch. Treaty of commerce with England, concluded by lord Ponsonby, ratified 16 Aug. War with Egypt. Syria, 1839-41. Christians admitted to office in Turkey Ju Turkey, countenanced by England, refuses to surrender Hun- garian and Polish refugees on joint demand of Russia and Austria 16 Sept. Russia suspends intercourse with the Porte 12 Nov. British fleet, under sir W. Parker, anchors in Besika bay, 13 Nov. Diplomatic relations between Russia and the Porte resumed, 31 Dec. ; refugees sent to Konieh Jan. Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion " Treaty with France on Holy places 13 Feb. Imperial order of Medjidie founded Aug. " Prince Menschikofl" at Constantinople as Russian negotiator, 28 Feb. ; his demands rejected 19 Apr. 1853 Reschid Pacha becomes foreign minister; the ultimatum reject- ed, Menschikofl" quits Constantinople 21 May, " Hatti-scheriff issued, confirming rights of Greek Christians, 6 June, " Russian manifesto against Turkey 26 June, " Russian army crosses the Pruth 2 July, " Grand national council; war to be declared if the principalities are not evacuated 26 Sept. " War declared against Russia (Russo-Turkish war, Crimean), 5 Oct. " Commencement of national debt (Loans, 1854) 1854 Insurrection in Rpirus and Albania favored by government at Athens; Hellenic empire proclaimed 27 Jan. " Volunteers from Athens join it 14 Mch. " Rupture between Greece and Turkey 28 Mch. " [Several conflicts ensue with varied success.] Osman Pacha storms Peta, the centre of insurrection. . . 25 Apr. " English and French governments, after remonstrances, send troops to Pirseus; the king of Greece submits, promising strict neutrality ; Greek volunteers recalled. . . 25 and 26 May, " Convention between Turkey and Austria 14 June, " xVbdi Pacha and Fuad Effendi take the intrenched camp at Ko- lampaka; insurrection ends 18 June, " Reschid Pacha retires, 3 June; resumes office 1 July, " Russians leave the principalities; Austrians enter Sept. " Turkish Loans ...Aug. 1855 Firman authorizing free exercise of religion 18 Feb. 1856 Peace with Russia by treaty of Paris 30 Mch. " Great Britain, France, and Austria guarantee integrity of Turk- ish empire 15 Apr. " Austrians quit the principalities Mch. 1857 Misunderstanding among the allied powers respecting Molda- vian elections, which are annulled July, " Massacre of Christians at Jedda 15 June, 1858 Conflicts in Montenegro between natives and Turks -Tuly, " Turkish flnancial reforms begun Aug. " First Turkish railway opened, Aidan to Smyrna 19 Sept. "• Electric telegraph completed, Aden to Suez May, 1859 Conspiracy against sultan, 17 Sept.; his brother implicated; several condemned to die; reprieved Sept. and Oct. " Alleged ill-treatment of Christians in Turkey; proposed inter- vention of great powers, 5 May; Turkish government prom- ises redress, 30 May; all powers satisfied except Russia, June, 1860 War between Druses and Maronites in Lebanon; massacres, June, " Massacre of Christians at Damascus (Syria) 9-11 July, " Convention of the great powers at Paris; French armed inter- vention agreed to 2 Aug. ' ' 1850 1851 1852 TUR Sultan AbdulMedjid d. ; Aziz, his brother, succeeds . .25 June, Imperial order of knighthood (Osmaneh), to include civil as well as military persons, founded Sept. Treaties of commerce with Sweden, Spain, etc Mch. Insurgents in Herzegovina submit; peace made with Monte- negro 23 Sept. Dispute with Servia settled 7 Oct. Cholera at Constantinople; nearly 50,000 deaths, Aug.; sub sides 1861 1862 Revolt of the Maronites under Joseph Karam 30 Dec, Revolution in Bucharest (Roumania) Insurrection in Candia Aug. Maronite revolt under Joseph Karam suppressed; his flight, Jan. ; Turks leave 28 Mch. Recommendation of the European powers to the sultan to give up Candia finally declined 31 Mch. Sultan, with his son and nephew, visits Paris, 1-12 July; Lon- don, 12 July; entertained by the queen at Windsor, 13 July; by the lord mayor, 18 July; returns to Constantinople, 7 Aug. Sultan declines a proposition of Russia to suspend hostilities in Crete, and an international commission 4 Sept. Meeting of the new council of state (including Jews and Chris- tians), with legislative, but not executive, functions. .18 May, Porte requests the European powers to abolish consular juris- dictions, termed " capitulations " June, Khedive or viceroy of Egypt censured for encroaching on the sovereignty of the sultan Aug. System of compulsory education promulgated Oct. Khedive submits to the sultan Dec. Modification of the " capitulations " Apr. Russia repudiates the treaty of Paris, 1856 31 Oct. Note delivered to the Porte (Russia) 15 Nov. Sultan agrees to a conference on the Black Sea question alone, about 3 Dec. Black Sea question setfjed by the conference at London (Rus- sia) 13 Mch. Tunis incorporated with the empire by decree 23 Oct. Political reforms inaugurated bj' the new ministry Nov. Roumelian railway connecting Constantinople, Adrianople, etc., opened 17 June, Sultan's jewels, etc., valued at 8,000, 000^., exhibited at Vienna, Aug. Inability to raise a loan ; the sultan gives up a large sum ; great flnancial reforms proposed Oct. Turkish aggressions on South Arabia checked by Great Britain, Nov. Great improvements in the army; formation of reserves Sultan ill; he recognizes his nephew Murad as successor, about 5 Oct. Austria, Germany, and Russia assert to Turkey their right to treat separately with Roumania 20 Oct. Mesondive or Mesoudiye, Turkish iron-clad, launched at Black- wall, Engl 28 Oct. Turkish debt 3,000,000?. in 1854; 180,000,000/ Budget: estimated receipts, 21, 711, 764i. : expenditure, 26,299. IISI Sept. 1865 1866 1867 1870 1874 June, 1875 Insurrection in Herzegovina ; excitement in Bosnia, Servia, and Montenegro July-Aug. Decree (deficit of 5,000, OOOZ. in the budget) for 5 years' half in- terest on the debt, to be paid in cash, half in 5 per cent, bonds 6 Oct. Circular note, remitting taxes and promising economical and commercial reform, 7 Oct. ; another, stating purpose of the government to stop onerous loans, develop the resources of the empire, etc 20 Oct. Remonstrance of British and Russian ambassadors with the government respecting expenditure and treatment of Chris- tian subjects '. Sept. -Nov. Firman issued, ordering reforms, equality of rights to Chris- tians, etc Dec. Note of Andrassy, Austrian minister, respecting reforms, 30 Dec. ; adopted by Germany and Russia, Jan. ; by Great Brit- ain, 18 Jan. ; transmitted to the Porte about 7 Feb. ; agreed to 10 Feb. Insurrection in Bulgaria, promoted by foreign agitators, 1, 2 May; quickly suppressed by troops sent, 7 May; about 65 villages burned by the Bashi - bazouks and other Turkish troops; several towns destroyed; about L5,000 persons killed; cruelties to women and children; a few Turks killed by Bul- garians in self-defence (report by Mr. Schuyler) May, Riots at Constantinople; the softas, fanatical students, and others, demand reforms, and "Turkey for the Turks;" min- isterial changes; Mahmoud Pacha, the grand-vizier, replaced by Mehemet Ruchdi; Europeans alarmed 10 May et seq. British fleet arrives in Besika bay 26 May, At Berlin, ministers of Austria, Germany, and Russia meet; adopt a note to Turkey requiring an armistice of 2 mouths, and other measures, 11, 12 May; note accepted- by France and Italy, not by Great Britain, 19 May; not presented be- cause of the revolution 30 May, Grand-vizier Mehemet Ruchdi, Hussein Avni, and Midhat Pa- cha request of the sultan some of his treasure to save the nation; he refuses, and is deposed, 29 May; his nephew pro- claimed as Murad V. ; accepted by people, and recognized by Western powers 30 May et seq. Manifesto recognizing the danger of the empire through mis- government, and promising amendment 2 June, Abdul-Aziz recognizes Murad; his reported suicide by cutting arteries in the arm when insane {see below, June, 1881), 4 June, War declared by Servia, 1 July; by Montenegro 2 July, TUR Tchernayeff and Servians enter Turkey; battle at Saltschar, or Zaicar ; Turks have the advantage 3 July, Severe flght with Servians at Yavor, near Novl Bazar. (5 July; with Montenegrins at Nevesinje 27 July, League in aid of Turkish Christians formed in London, " Mukhuir Pacha defeated by prince Nikita, at L'rba or Urbitza, in Herzegovina 28 July, Several days" conflict; Turks enter Servia, and capture Gurgo- savatz; Servians retreat 7 Aug. Turkisli barbarities in Bulgaria reported by Daily News cor- respondent; substantiated by Mr. Schuyler, American com- missioner from Constantinople, dated 10 Aug. Asserted victory of prince Nikita at Medun, near Kutchi, about 14 Aug. Advance of the Turks under AbdulKerim Pacha upon Alexi- natz; severe lighting, 9 Aug 19-30 Aug. Servia invites the mediation of the guaranteeing powers, al)out 24 Aug. Murad V. de|K)sed on account of bad health ; his brother, Abdul- Hamid IL, proclaimed 31 Aug. Armistice till 25 Sept. agreed to about 17 Sept Prince Milan proclaimed king by the army at Deligrad; dis- approved 16 Sept. Report of .Mr. Baring, the British commissioner in Bulgaria, published 19 Sept. [It established the facts "that a ferocious Mussulman soldiery, in revenge for a feeble and abortive insurrection, were let loose on the inhabitants of a large province; that the population were barbarously mas&'icred, men, women, and children included; and that during the storm of savage fury crimes of all descriptions, and outrages unmentionable, were perpetrated on the inhabitants." — Times.] Firm despatch, lord Derby to sir H. Elliot, referring to Mr. Bar- ing's report, proposing longer armistice, etc 21 Sept. Porte receives propositions of 6 great powers 26 Sept. Lord Derby informs deputation from city of London that the government seeks local self government for Turkish prov- inces in Europe, equal treatment of Mahometans and Chris- tians, better administration for both, security for life and property, and effectual guarantees against outrages. .27 Sept. Servia rejects renewal of armistice; Tchernayeft" and army dominant; fighting renewed 26, 27 Sept. Servian attacks on Turks near Alexinatz repulsed. .28, 29 Sept. In reply to Great Powers, the Porte declines armistice, opposes administrative autonomy to provinces as impracticable, pro- poses a senate, and guarantees reforms 2 Oct. Montenegrin victory at Danilograd 13 Oct. Turkey proposes armistice for 6 months, 10 Oct. ; declined by Russia, who proposes 4 to 6 weeks, longer being injurious to commerce, etc 14 Oct. Continued fighting, unfavorable to Servians 15-19 Oct. Medun surrenders to Montenegrins 20 Oct. Krevet taken by Turks 21 Oct. Result of fighting very favorable to Turks 19-24 Oct. Turkish successes in the valley of the Morava " Servians and Russians defeated; armies under Tchernayeff and Horvaritch divided, 19-24 Oct. ; Djunis taken by Turks; Deli- grad untenable ; severe Russian loss 29 Oct. Alexinatz captured by Turks; Russian ultimatum demands 6 weeks' armistice within 48 hours dated 31 Oct. Armistice for 2 months signed 1 Nov. Deligrad captured by Turks, now virtually masters of Servia, 1 Nov. Deligrad evacuated by Turks 4 Nov. Czar's speech at Moscow; he will act independently if guaran- tees are not obtained 10 Nov. Preliminary meetings of conference of representatives of 6 great powers begin (Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Germany, France, and Italy) 12 Dec. Armistice extended to Feb. 1877 Dec. New political constitution proclaimed (chief provisions: indi- visibility of the empire; the sultan supreme; individual lib- erty; freedom of all creeds, of the press, and of education; equal legal taxation; a senate and 2 chambers; general elec- tions by ballot every fourth year; irremoval^le judges, etc.), 23 Dec. Opening of the conference " Armistice extended to 1 Mch 28 Dec. Great national council of Turkey rejects the propositions of the conference, 18 Jan. ; it closes, 20 Jan. ; chief ambassadors leave soon after 22 Jan. Negotiations for peace opened with Servia and Montenegro, about 26 Jan. GortschakofTs circular to great powers, inquiring their pur- poses, signed 19 Jan. ; published about 7 Feb. Protocols of the confel-ence published in Times, etc., early in Feb. In Turkey "there is no aristocracy; no governing class; no organized democracy ; no representative government " {Mar- quess of Salisbury) 20 Feb. Peace with Servia signed 1 Mch. First Turkish parliament opened; 30 senators, 90 deputies; speech from the sultan 19 Mch. Protocol signed for 6 powers; principles— to wait for Turkish reforms and watch; conditional disarmament in Russia and Turkey (voidable under certain conditions) 31 Mch. Protocol rejected by Turkey, 12 Apr. ; justificatory circular sent to the powers Apr. War declared by Russia (Russo-Tcrkish war, 1877) 24 Apr. JiHAo or holy war against Russia propounded by the Sheikh- ul- Islam about 28 May, 824 TUR I Proclamation for increase or army by 150,000— Christians and 1876 others to serve 26 Nov. 1877 i Surrender of I'levna, 10 Dec. ; circular note to the great pow- " I ers requesting mediation 12 Dec. " '• Parliament opened; the sultan's speech censures the war, and I praises his generals and soldiers 13 Dec. " " I British fleet enter the Dardanelles without permission of the sultan 13 Feb. 1878 " Parliament dissolved by the sultan 14 Feb. " Insurrection in Crete, Thessaly, Epirus, etc Feb., Mch. " Treaty of peace with Russia signed nt San Stefano (Stefano, " I Sa.n), 3 Mch. ; ratified at St. Petersburg 17 Mch. " Osman Pacha honorably received by sultan 24 Mch. " " Grand-duke Nicholas and the sultan exchange visits at Con- stantinople 26 Mch. " " Secret British convention with Turkey (defensive alliance); if, by treaty of Berlin, Russia acquires Kars, Ardahan, or Ba- toum. Great Britain to join the sultan in arms in defending his dominions, he engaging to reform his government; Cy- prus to be held by Great Britain till Russia returns its acqui- sitions 4 June, " Cyprus ceded to Great Britain 3 July, " Berlin conference meets, 13 June; treaty signed (Berlin), 13 July, " Ratification of the treaty of Berlin announced 4 Aug. " Definitive treaty of peace with Russia, signed 8 Feb. 1h79 British fleet leaves the sea of Marmora Mch. " Definitive treaty with Austria, published 2G May, " Russians evacuate Turkey July, Aug. " Pressure for reforms by British ; adm. Hornby and the fleet enter Turkish waters; quit early in Nov. " Baker Pacha appointed inspector general of gendarmerie in Asia Minor announced 18 Nov. " Official relations with Great Britain temporarily suspended on account of the imprisonment of dr. KOller, a German mis- sionary, and Ahmed Tewfik, who assisted him in translations, 31 Dec. " Successful intervention of sir A. H. Layard 1-10 Jan. 1880 Col. and Mrs. Synge (distributers of relief to Mussulmans) capt- ured by Greek brigands, near Salonica, about 19 Feb. ; re- leased for 10,000/ about 24 Mch. " Collective note of Berlin conference presented 15 July, " Madame Skobelefl; mother of the Russian general, robbed and murdered near Philippopolis by Ouzalis, a Russian. .18 July, " Collective note from powers urging cession of Dulcigno, etc., to Montenegro, and proposing to aid the prince in taking possession 3 Aug. " Final note from powers respecting cession of Dulcigno to Mon- tenegro, delivered 15 Sept. " Adm. Beauchamp Seymour, commander of combined fleet at Ragusa, sent for a demonstration near Dulcigno 20 Sept. " Sultan refuses to surrender Dulcigno; French decline to par- take in attack about 27 Sept. " Note from the sultan limiting his concessions and resisting coercion ; presented 3 Oct. " Immediate cession of Dulcigno ordered by the sultan, about 23 Oct.; effected .- 26 Nov. " Combined fleet disperses 4 Dec " Note from the sultan to powers respecting the Greek arming, 14 Dec. " Circular from powers recommending arbitration, 24 Dec. 1880; declined by Turkey and Greece early in Jan. 1881 Circular from Turkey proposing conference at Con.stantinople, etc about 15 Jan. " Notes from the powers presented 21 Feb. " Conference at Constantinople; agreement between Turkey and powers; proposals referred to Athens 30 Mch. '' Sultan protests against French invasion of Tun's May, " Turkey protests against the Tunis treaty of 12 May " " Convention between Turkey and Greece arranged at Constanti- nople, settling frontiers; Thessaly ceded by Turkey. .24 May, " Trial of Midhat Pacha and others for murder of Abdul-Aziz, June 4, 1876; convicted; Mustapha Fahri Bey and Hadji Mehmed actual assassins; others, Mahmoud and Nouzi Pa- chas, the sultan's brothers-in-law, Midhat Pacha, and others, accomplices 27, 28 June, " Sentence, death to all, except 2 subordinates to imprisonment, 29 June, " Turco-Greek convention ceding Thessaly to Greece, signed at Constantinople 2 .July, " Trial of Midhat and others said to be a mockery; pardon ex- pected July, '* Midhat Pacha and his companions sentenced to death ; punish- ment commuted to exile, on intercession of British govern- ment; announced 31 July, " Henry Suter, engaged in mining, seized by brigands at Cas- sandria, Salonica, about 8 Apr. 1881; liberated on paying 15,000/. ransom, 23 May; brigands captured in Greece, 15 Aug. German vessel Vulcan laden with dynamite (said to belong to Russia), cargo discharged near Constantinople, .about 8 Oct. Decree signed for a satisfactory settlement of the national debt, 28 Dec. '* Sultan protests against bombardment efforts at Alexandria, about 11 July, 1882 Turkish note to the powers against British Egyptian circular, about 23 Jan. 1883 Death of Midhat Pacha, great statesman and reformer, in exile, aged 62 May, 1884 Circular to the 6 great powers announcing the stoppage of the post-offices in Con.stantinople, 20 July, resisted; Turkish ar- rangements fail, and are withdrawn Aug. " i TUR 825 TUS le§. Decemviri. Ty'burn, at the west end of Oxford street, W. London ; a noted place of execution for criminals convicted in Middle- sex county, inchiding London, down to 1 Nov. 1783, when the place of execution was transferred to Newgate, where the 1st execution took place 9 Dec. the same year. The name is de- rived from a brook called Tyburn, which oiice flowed from Hampstead into the Thames. — Chambers. Tyler, John, administration of. United States, 1841. Tyler's in§urreetiOIl, against a poU-t^x imposed in England on all persons above 15, 5 Nov. 1380. One of the collectors, acting with indecent rudeness to Wat Tyler's daugh- ter, was struck dead by the father, J«ne, 1381. His neighbors took arms, and almost the whole population of the southern 5 TYR and eastern counties soon rose, extorting freedom from their lords, and plundering. On 12 June, 1381, they gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men, and on 14 June murdered Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of Canterbury, and sir Robert Hales, the royal treasurer. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley, which took place on the 15th at Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in a menacing manner, now and again lifting up his sword. On this the mayor, Walworth, stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of the king's knights despatched him. Richard tena- porized with the multitude, promising a charter, and thus led them out of the city, when sir R. Knollys and a band of knights attacked and dispersed them with great slaughter. The in. surrection in Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by the bishop of Norwich, and 1500 of the rebels were executed. type-eompo§ingr maeliine. Linotype, under Printing, 1888, type-writers. M. Foucault sent to the Paris exhibi- tion of 1855 a writing-machine for the blind ; and several were invented by Wheatstone. After successive improvements, messrs. Remington, in the United States, in 1873, contracted to construct 25,000. The speed is said to have been raised to 75 words a minute. Many improved patents since. Action of the type-writer somewhat resembles that of a pianoforte. Pressure upon a key marked with a letter raises a hammer with a type-cut letter, which presses upon paper; provision is made for inking the type, shifting the paper, etc. tyrant (Gr. rvpawoc). In early Greek history, the term was applied to any man who obtained despotic power in a state. The term was applied by the Greeks to the mild Pisistratus, but not to the autocrats of Persia. It became a term of reproach, because of the unjust manner in which the despots of cities often obtained and exercised their powers. Solon objected to the term, and chose the name ap^ovC ruler"), 594 B.C. The earliest tyrants were those at Sicyon, beginning with Cleisthenes, in the 7th century b c. Tyranny declined in Greece about 490 b,c., and revived after the close of the Peloponnesian war, 404 B.c. Thirty tyrants. Tyre in Phoenicia, a great city, said to have been first built by Agenor. Another city was built 1257 (about 2267, Hales) B.C. It was besieged by the Assyrians, who retired^ from before it, after a siege of upwards of 5 years, 713 Taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 572 B.C., after a siege of 13 year and the city demolished, when the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It wa taken by Alexander with much difficulty, after a siege of months, July, 332 b.c. He joined the island to the continenti by a mole. — Strabo. Tj're was captured by the crusader 7 July, 1124, and formed a royal domain of the kingdom ofi Jerusalem, as well as an archiepiscopal see. The first arcl bishop was an Englishman, William of Tyre, the well-knownl historian. In 1289 it was retaken by the Saracens; by the French, 3 Apr. 1799 ; and by the allied fleet, during the wa against Mehemet Ali, 1841. Tyre, Era of, began on 19 Oct. 125 b.c., with the month of Hyperberetaeus. The months were the same as in the Grecian era, and the year is similar to the Julian year. Tfl reduce this era to ours, subtract 124. But for a year less tha 125, deduct the number from 125, and the remainder will be the year before Christ. Tyr'ol, the ea.stern part of ancient Rhaetia, now a prov- ince of the Austrian empire, was ceded to the house of Hap burg in 1359 by Margaret, the heiress of the last count. It^ became an appanage of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the '^ imperial house, which came to the throne in the person of Maximilian II., in 1618. The French conquered the Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria; but in 1809 an insurrectioa broke out, headed bj' Andreas Hofer, an innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out of the Tyrol, tlioroughly defeated some French detachments, but laid down his arms at the treaty of Vienna. He was subsequently accused of corresponding with the Austrians, captured and sent to Mantua, and there shot by order of the French government, 20 Feb. 1810. The Austrian emperor ennobled his family in 1819, and erected his statue in ' Innspruck in 1834. The Tyrolese riflemen were very effec- tive in the Italian war in 1859. Tyrrhe'ni included the ancient Etruscans, and other I u 827 tribes, said to have come from Lydia, Asia Minor, under Tyr- rhenus, a son of Atys, king of Lydia, long before the destruc- tion of Troy. — Herodotus. " Neither do I think the Tyrrhenes a colony of Lydians, for there is no resemblance here in lan- UNI guage. These 2 peoples differ in laws, in manners, and insti- tutions. That opinion then seems the most probable which supposes them an indigenous race in Italy." — Clinton, " Chro- nology of Greece." U U, the 21st letter of the English alphabet, and its 5th vowel. The v (upsilon) added by the Greeks to the alpha- bet borrowed from the Phoenicians. Ubiqiiita'riaii§ or Ubiqua'rian§, a small Ger- man sect, originated by John Brentius about 1660, who asserted that the body of Christ is present everywhere (ubique). Ucliee§. Indians. Ug'an'da, a kingdom of equatorial Africa, near the head of the Nile, bordering on lake Victoria Nyanza. Capital, Mengo. Missionaries sent out by the Church Missionary Society. .July, 1877 French Roman Catholic missionaries arrive.' 1879 Uganda placed under British influence by Anglo-German treaty, 1 .July, 1890 Trouble between Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries; disorder and bloodshed 1891 Order restored at Mengo; the British East African company predominant 1892 Uhlan§, the national Polish lancers, adopted after the partition of Poland in the Austrian and German armies; effi- cient in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. U'krailie (Polish for frontier), a vast fertile plain in Russia, ceded to the Cossacks by Poland in 1672, and obtained by Russia in 1682. The country was divided, Poland having the west side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. The whole was assigned to Russia by the treaty of partition in 1795. " Among the rest Mazeppa . . . The Ukraine's hetman, calm and bold.'' —Byron, "Mazeppa." Ulm, a town of Wurtemberg, S. Germany, where a peace was signed, 3 July, 1620, by which Frederick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it previously). Ulm was taken by the French in 1796. After a battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, under gen. Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss by marshal Ney, Ulm surrendered with 28,000 men, the flower of the Austrian army, 17-20 Oct. 1805. The cathedral was built 1377-1494. Last stone of the spire, 530 ft. high, said to be the loftiest in the world, laid with great rejoicing 31 May, 1890 n'phila§'§ Bible. Bible. Ulster, the N. division of Ireland. After the death of Strongbow, 1176, John de Courcy was made earl of Ulster; Hugh de Lacy was earl in 1243, and Walter de Burgh in 1264, whose descendant, Elizabeth, married Lionel, son of Edward III., 1352. He thus became earl of Ulster. In 1611, the British colonfeation of the forfeited lands (termed the Ulster settle- ments or plantation.s) began, much land being granted to the corporation of London. The consequent rebellion of the Irish chieftains, Roger More, Phelim O'Neale, McGuire, earl of Inniskillen, and others, broke out on 23 Oct. 1641 (Ireland). Ulster king-at-arms appointed for Ireland, 1553. By the ancient "Ulster tenant-right," the outgoing tenant of a farm received from his successor a sum of money for the privilege of occupancy. A modified form of this right was adopted in the Irish Land act, passed 8 July, 1870. Ulster convention, proposed 8 Apr., met at Belfast, 17 June, 1892. 12,000 dele-, gates present ; duke of Abercorn presided. 5 resolutions for firmly maintaining the union of Great Britain and Ireland, in opposition to the scheme for home rule, were passed unani- mously. Ultramon'tailistS (from uUramontanus, beyond the mountains), a term originally applied in France to those who upheld the authority of the pope against the freedom of the Gallican church, which had been secured by various bulls, and especially by the concordat of 15 July, 1801. Ultramontanists now are those who maintain the official infallibility of the pope of Rome. Gallicanism, umbrella, described in early dictionaries as "a porta- ble penthouse to carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrellas appear in the carvings at Persepolis. Niebuhr saw a great Arabian prince returning from a mosque, he and each of his family having a large umbrella carried by their side. Old chinaware shows the Chinese shaded by umbrellas. First used in the United States in Baltimore, brought from India, 1772. It is said that the first person who commonly carried an umbrella in London was the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786. John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, informs us that lie had "a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain; but he could not with any comfort to himself use it, the people calling, out, ' Frenchman ! why don't you get a coach ?' " The hackney- coachmen and chairmen were clamorous against their rival. The footman says he " persisted for three months, till they took no further notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs; and then the English." 1778. "Uncle Sam." The United States government is sometimes personified under this name, the origin of which is uncertain, though sometimes attributed to an incident in the commissary department in the state of New York during the war of 1812, where casks, etc., of provisions were marked U. S., supposed to stand for " Uncle Sam," as Samuel Wilson, who had charge of the stores, was called. " Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. Stowe, first pub- lished in portions in the National Era at Washington, 1850, and complete in Boston, 1852. The rev. Josiah Henson, the orig- inal " Uncle Tom," died at Dresden, Ont., 5 May, 1883, aged 93. unction, Extreme. Anointing. Underg-round railroad, a popular designation (1850-60) of the secret means by which slaves fleeing from their masters to the northern or free states were forwarded into Canada and thus made secure from the slave-hunters. un'dulatory theory of light supposes a pro- gressive wave-like motion from the source of light to the eye. It is said to have been suggested by Francisco Grimaldi about 1665, and was propounded by Robert Hooke and Huyghens about 1672; opposed by Newton; but confirmed by Thomas Young's experiments in 1801, and since fully demonstrated. Emission theory. Light. uniform, the particular distinguishing dress of soldiers. The army of Timour or Tamerlane, who defeated the sultan Bajazet at Angora, 28 July, 1402, wore uniforms. At the re- lief of Neuss, 1471, the bishop of Munster's troops (7400 men) had green uniforms. Military uniforms were first used in France " in a regular manner " by Louis XIV., about 1668, and were soon after adopted in England. In the English navy uniforms were not definitely fixed until the beginning of the reign of George III. Scarlet is the prevailing color of the British army ; blue of the French ; white of the Austrian ; green of the Muscovite and Spanisli, and brown of the Portu- guese. Uniforms in the American Revolution were of every variet}', brown and white, blue and red, black and red, green and red, blue and white, etc. In 1777 gen. Knox's artillery wore black coats turned up with red, white wool jackets, and hats trimmed with yellow. The uniform of col. Heartley's foot-guards is described as blue regimental coat, white cape, white jacket, buckskin breeches, stockings and shoes. In 1778 col. Lee's regiment wore blue faced with white, white waist- coats and black breeches. In 1779 capt. Scott's company (gen. Putnam's division) wore blue regimental coat turned up with red, buttons marked U. S., flannel jacket and drawers, coarse white linen stockings, and shoes. Revolutionary " blue and buff" is spoken of as the American imiform worn at the Inau- guration ball,30 Apr. 1789. In " Duane's Military Dictionary," UNI 828 pnb. 1810, blue is said to be the established uniform in the U. S., and "Hoj't's Military Dictionary" of the same date says, " the uniform of the infantry of the American army is blue with red facings." Now uniform for the army of the U. S. ordered to be worn on and after 1 Jan. 1852 Uniform for the navy established 4 July, " (Uniform of the U. S. army during the civil war, enlisted men dark-blue blouse, light-blue trousers and overcoats; offi- cers dark-blue; of the confederates, gray. Prevailing color of present uniform in both army and navy of the U. S. , dark- blue ] Ulliforniit)' act§. That of 2 and 3 Edward VI., 15 Jan. 1549, ordained that the order of divine worship drawn up by Cranmer and others, " with the aid of the Holy Ghost," should be the only one after 20 May, under penalties of fine and imprisonment. This act was confirmed in 1552 ; repealed by Mary, 1554 ; and re-enacted by Elizabeth in 1559. The act of Uniformity, 14 Caro II. c. 4, was passed in 1662. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all clergy to subscribe the 39 articles, and use the same form of worship and book of common prayer. Its enforcement on 24 Aug. 1662, termed Black Bartholomew's day, caused, it is said, upwards of 2000 ministers to quit the church of England. This day was commemorated by dissenters in 1862. The Act of Uniformity Amendment act, whereby shortened services were authorized and other changes made, was passed 18 July, 1872. The Uniformity of Process act, which made many law changes, was passed 23 May, 1832. Union, American. Unitkd States. Union COlleg^e. Founded at Schenectadj'-, N. Y., Feb. 1795; the second in the state, Columbia college, New York city, being the first. Called Union, as indicating its free- dom from sectarian influence. 1st president, rev. John Blair Smith of Philadelphia ; 2d, rev. Jonathan Edwards ; 3d, rev. Jonathan Maxcy; 4th, rev. Eliphalet Nott, 1804-66; 5th, dr. Laurens P. Hickok, 1866-68 ; 6th, rev. Charles A. A. Akin, D. D., 1869-71; 7th, rev. Eliphalet Nott Potter, D.D., 1872-87; 8th, Harrison E. Webster, LL.D., 1888. 1st commencement, 1797, 3 graduates. It is claimed for Union college that it was the first to provide a scientific course of study ; substituting, in 1835, modern languages and an increased amount of mathe- matics and physical science for part of the Greek and Latin classical course. By a law of 1873, Union college, the Medical college, the Law school, Dudley Observatory, and the college of Pharmacy at Albany, were authorized to unite for their mu- tual benefit in one university corporation as Union university. Union-jacli.. The original flag of England was the banner of St. George, i. e., white with a red cross, which, 12 Apr. 1606 (3 years after James I. ascended the throne), was incorporated with the banner of Scotland, i. e., blue with a white diagonal cross. This combination obtained the name of '• union-jack," in allusion to the union with Scotland ; and the word jack is considered a corruption of the word Jacobus, Jacques, or James. This arrangement continued until the union with Ireland, 1 Jan. 1801, when the banner of St. Pat- rick, i. e., white with a diagonal red cross, was amalgamated with it, and forms the present British Union flag. The union- jack of the United States or American jack is a blue field with white stars, denoting the union of the states. It is without the fly, which is the part composed of alternate stripes of white and red. Union of En&rland and l^cotland by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, 24 Mch. 1603. The legislative union of the 2 kingdoms (as Great Britain) was attempted, but failed in 1604 and 1670 ; in the reign of Anne commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwithstanding a great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and afterwards by the peers, 22 July, 1706; ratified by the Scottish Parliament, 16 Jan. 1707, and became law 1 May, same year. Union of Oreat Britain and Ireland effected 2 July, 1800. Proposed in the Irish Parliament 22 Jan. 1799 Act passes in the British Parliament 2 July, 1800 Imperial united standard first displayed at the Tower of Lon- don, and upon Bedford Tower, Dublin Castle, on the act ot legislative union becoming operative 1 Jan. 1801 UNI I Union Pacific railroad. Pacific railroad, Unita'rians, termed Socinians from Lajlius Socinua, who founded a sect in Italy about 1546. They |)rofess to believe in and worship one only self-existent God, in opposi- tion to those who worship the Trinity in unity. They con- sider Christ to have been a mere man, and do not admit the need of atonement or of the complete inspiration of the Script- ures. Michael Servetus printed a tract in disparagement of the doctrine of the Trinity. In 1553, proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy. Servetus, refusing to retract his opinions, was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried into execution, 27 May, 1553. Servetul is numbered among anatomists who came near the expla- nation of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey made the theory complete. Matthew Hamont was burned at Nor- wich for denying Christ to be the son of God, 1 June, 1579, One of the first churches nominated Unitarian in England was established in Essex street, London, in 1774, by rev. The- ophilus Lindsey. Dr. Joseph Priestley for preaching the doc- trine, was driven out of Birmingham, 1794. Unitarians were not included in the Toleration act till 1813. Their tenets re- sembled those of the Arians and Socinians. The Unitarian Marriage bill was passed in Great Britain June, 1827. In Dec 1833, by a decision of the vice-chancellors, the Unitarians (as such) lost the possession of lady Hewley's charity ; the decision was affirmed on appeal in 1842. British and Foreign Unitarian Association founded to promote Unitarianism, f825. There, were between 300 and 400 Unitarian churches in the United Kingdom in 1891. In America dr. James Freeman of King's chapel, Boston, in 1783, removed from the "Prayer Book of Common Prayers" all reference to the Trinity or Deity and worship of Christ ; his church became distinctly Unitarian in 1787. In 1801 the Plymouth church declared itself Unitarian. Dr. William Ellery Channing (1780-1842) was the acknowl- edged head of this church until his death. The American Unitarian association was formed 24 May, 1825; headquarters at Boston, Mass. The Western conference organized 1852, and a National Unitarian conference at New York city, 5 Apr. 1865. There are about 400 churches in the United States ; 2 theologi- cal schools, one at Cambridge, Mass., and one at Meadville, Pa. United Brethren. Moravians. United Kingdom. England and Wales were united in 1283; Scotland to both in 1707; and the British realm was named the United Kingdom on the union of Ire*^ land, 1 Jan. 1801. Union of P^ngland ani> Scotland. ; United Presbyterians. In 1732 Ebenezer Ers- kine and others seceded from the church of Scotland. DifiFer- ing in interpretation of the oath administered to the burgesses, to profess " the true religion, presently professed within this realm and authorized by the laws thereof," they divided into Burghers and Anti-Burghers in 1747. In 1820 they reunited as the United Associate Synod of the Secession church, which joined the Relief church, 13 May, 1847, to form the United Presbj'^terian church in Scotland. The United Presbyterian church of North America was formed in May, 1858, by the union of the Associated Presbyterian church and Associate Reformed Presbyterian church, and their first General As-' sembly met at Xenia, O., in May, 1859. The United Pres- byterian Theological seminary at Xenia, O., was founded at Cnnonsburg, Pa., in 1794, removed to Xenia in 1860, and char- tered in 1877. The Seminary of the United Presbyterian church was established at Alleghany City, Pa., in 1825, and chartered in 1868. The present (189"i) strength of the United Presbyterian church in the United States is as follows : Pres- byteries, 59; ministers, 782; churches, 816; members, 106,385, United States of America. On 9 Sept. 1776, the Continental Congress resolved "that in all continental commissions where heretofore the words 'United Colonies' have been used, the style be altered for the future t(t ' United States." This domain now numbers 45 states, 5 ter- ritories, and 1 district. The area of the states is 2,718,780 sq. miles; of the territories, 883,490 ; and of the district, 70; in all 3,602,340 .sq. miles. In latitude it extends from Key West, its most southerly point, 24° 33' K, to the 49th parallel of north latitude. From this latitude, on the Pacific coast, the UNI 829 UNI territory belongs to Canada to 64° 40', where Alaska begins, extending to the Arctic ocean and embracing an area of over 577,000 sq. miles. In longitude it extends from the most easterly point of Maine, 66° 48' W., to 125° 20' W., and if Atoo, the most westerly of the Aleutian islands, be taken for its western limits, it extends to the 174th meridian. The population of this territory in 1890, not including Alaska or the Indian territory, was 62,622,250. The government is a representative democracy. Each state has an independent legislature for its local affairs, but all are legislated for, in na- tional matters, by 2 houses of congress : the Senate, whose members are elected for 6 years by the state legislatures, and the House of Representatives, elected for 2 years by the people of the different states. Representation in the Senate is b}' states, without regard to population; in the House of Representatives the representation is in proportion to population. The presi- dent of the United States is elected every 4th year by electors chosen bj' the people, each state having as many electoral votes as it has senators and representatives in Congress. For its general historj', administration, etc., see infra ; for the col- onies and states see under their proper heads; also Army, Cabinet, Coin, Customs, Expenditures, National debt. Navy, Population, President, Representatives, Rev- enue, Senate, Tariff, etc. Under the Continental Congress. [For previous history see each state separately.] Pursuant to arrangements made by committees appointed in the several colonies to confer with each other regarding the mutual interests and safety of the colonies, and termed "Committees of Correspondence," delegates were chosen for the First Continental Congress, to meet at Philadelphia about 1 Sept. 1774. First Continental Congress meets at Carpenter's hall, Philadelphia (44 delegates present, representing all the states except Georgia and North Carolina ; see below) Monday, 5 Sept. 1774 [Peyton Randolph of Virginia, president; Charles Thomson, secretary. Mr. Thomson remained secretary of the Continental Congress from its beginning to its close, 1774-89.] delegates to the first continental congress. Delegates. Maj. .Fohn Sullivan. Col. Nathaniel Folgom Hon. Thomas Gushing John Adams Samuel Adams Robert Treat Paine. Hon. Stephen Hopkins Hon. Samuel Ward Hon. Eliphalet Dyer. . Hon. Roger Sherman.. Silas Deane James Duane Philip Livingston John Jay Isaac Low John Alsop John Herring Simon Boeriim Henry Wisner Col. William Floyd.... James Kinsey John De Hart Richard Smith William Livingston. . . Stephen Crane Hon. Joseph Galloway Samuel Rhodes Thomas .M fflin John Morton Charles Humphreys.. Edward Biddle George Ross John Dickinson Hon. Caesar Rodney. . . Thomas McKoan George Read Robert Goldsborough . William Paca . .. . Samuel Chase Thomas Johnson Matthew Tilgbman I New Hampshire. . . . 1 [•Massachusetts Bay. Rhode Island and Prov- idence Plantations. . . \- Connecticut. City and county of "j New York, and other ! counties in province [ of New York I (County of Suffolk inl ( province of New York \ New Jersey. Pennsylvania . Newcastle, Kent, and Sussex on the Dela- ware i- Maryland. Credentials signed. 21July,1774 17 June, 1774 10 Aug. 1774 13 July, 1774 28 July, 1774 28 July, 1774 23 July, 1774 22 July, 1774 1 Aug. 1774 22 June, 1774 DELEGATliS TO FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS.- -(Continued.) Delejiates. State represented. Credentials signed. 42. Hon. Peyton Randolph 43. Patrick Henry 44. Benjamin Harrison... 45. George Washington... Virginia 5 Aug. 1774 6 July, 1774 25 Aug. 1774 Date of joining. 6 Sept. 1774 « « 46. Richard Bland 47. Edmund Pendleton... 48. Richard Henry Lee... 49. Henry Middleton 50. Christopher Gadsden . 5L Edward Rutledge ■ South Carolina 52. John Rutledge 53. Thomas Lynch 54. Richard Caswell 55. Joseph Hewes North Carolina 56. William Hooper ) Delegates mentioned above not present at Ist day of meeting. Richard Henry Lee Vireinia Thomas Johnson Matthew Tilghman 12 Sept. " Henry Wisner } New York 14 Sept. " George Ross . .Pennsylvania U (( \ North Carolina 11 n Richard Caswell ) 17 Sept. «^ U ({ John Dickinson .John Herring ..New York 26 Sept. " Simon Boerum u Congress resolves " that in determining questions, each colony or province shall have one vote " ... 6 Sept. 1774 Rev. Jacob Duche (Episcopal) opens Congress with prayer 7 Sept. « [Mr. Duche afterwards went over to the British and retired to England, 1778 ; but returned to the U. S. 1790, and died in Philadelphia, 1794.] Resolution of Suffolk, Mass., convention (6 Sept.), " that no obedience is due to any part of the recent acts of Parliament," approved by Congress, 10 Sept. » Congress rejects a plan for union with Great Britain, proposed by Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, as intended to perpetuate dependence 28 Sept. " Battle of Point Pleasant, west Virginia (Virginia), 10 Oct. " Congress adopts a " Declaration of Colonial Rights," claiming self-government 14 Oct. " American Association, denouncing foreign slave-trade, and pledging the signers to non-consumption and to non-intercourse with Great Britain, Ireland, and the British West Indies, signed by 62 members of Con- gress 20 Oct. " " Address to the People of Great Britain," prepared by John Jay, approved by Congress 21 Oct. " Congress adopts a " Memorial to the Several Anglo- American Colonies " 21 Oct. " A letter to the unrepresented colonies of St. John, N.S., Georgia, and east and west Florida, despatched by Congress 22 Oct. ** Randolph resigning on account of indisposition, Henry Middleton of South Carolina succeeds him as presi- dent of Congress 22 Oct. " " Petition to the King " drawn by John Dickinson, ordered sent to colonial agents in London by Con- gress 26 Oct. " Congress adopts "An Address to the People of Quebec," drawn by Dickinson 26 Oct. " First Continental Congress dissolved ; 62 days' session (act- ual session 31 days) 26 Oct. "^ [Proceedings of First Continental Congress en- dorsed by the colonies: Connecticut, Nov. 1774; Massachusetts, 5 Dec. 1774; Maryland, 8 Dec. 1774; Rhode Island, 8 Dec. 1774; Pennsylvania, 10 Dec. 1774; South Carolina, 11 Jan. 1775; New Hamp- shire, 25 Jan. 1775; Delaware, 16 Mch. 1775; Vir- ginia, 20 Mch. 1776 ; North Carolina, 7 Apr. 1775 New Jersey, 26 May, 1776.] Rhode Island colonists seize 44 pieces of ordnance at Newport 6 Dec. **- Maryland convention enrolls the militia and votes 16,000/. to purchase arms 8-12 Dec. *' UNI '^ New Hampshire freemen seize 100 barrels of powder j and some ordnance at Portsmouth 11 Dec. 1774 Benjamin Franklin returns from England (Pennsyl- vania) Apr. 1776 Delegates from Georgia to Congress by letter express loyalty, and explain inability to attend 8 Apr. " First anti-slavery society in the U. S. formed by Quakers of Philadelphia 14 Apr. " Battle of Lexington, Mass., at dawn of 19 Apr. " Letters from England to public officials in America, expressing determination of England to coerce the colonies, intercepted at Charleston, S. C 19 Apr. " Col. Samuel H. Parsons and Benedict Arnold plan, at Hartford, Conn., the capture of fort Ticonderoga, N. Y 27 Apr. « Arnold leads his company from New Haven to Boston, arriving ' 29 Apr. " Second Continental Congress meets at Independence hall, Philadelphia 10 May, " [Peyton Randolph, president; Charles Thomson, secretary.] COLONIES REPRESENTED IN SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. Colonies representad. Connecticut Massuchusetts Maryland Pennsylvania New Jersey New Hampsliire South Carolina. Delaware Virginia North Carolina New York Pennsylvania (additional) Rhode Island 5 3 Nov. 1774 .5 5 Dec. " 7 8 Dec. " fi 15 Dec. " 5 24 Jan. 1775 2 25 Jan. " 5 3 Feb. " 3 16Mch. " 7 20 Mch. " 3 5 Apr. " 2 22 Apr. " 3 6 May, " 2 7 May, " Fort Ticonderoga captured by Ethan Allen, 10 May, Cbovvn Point, N. Y., captured by Americans, 12 May, Lyman Hall seated in Congress as delegate from Georgia 13 May, Americans under Benedict Arnold capture St. John, Canada 16 May, Articles of Union and Confederation (Confederation, Articles of) agreed upon in Congress. ..20 May, Mecklenburg declaration of independence signed and forwarded to Congress (North Carolina), 20 May, John Hancock of Massachusetts chosen president of Congress 24 May, [Randolph having resigned on account of ill- health.] British generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne arrive at Boston from England with troops 25 May, Congress adopts an " Address to the Inhabitants of Canada " 29 May, Congress votes to raise 20,000 men 14 June, George Washington, nominated by Thomas Johnson of Maryland, is unanimously elected by Congress commander-in-chief of the American forces, 15 June, Battle of Bunker HiU (Massachusetts, 16-17 June, 1775) and burning of Charlestown 17 June, Resolved by Congress, " That a sum not exceeding two million of Spanish milled dollars be emitted by Congress in bills of credit for the defence of Amer- ica " 22 June, Washington takes command of the army at Cambridge (he left Philadelphia 21 June) .' 3 July, Declaration by Congress, the causes and necessity for taking up arms 6 July, Congress adopts a second petition to the king . .8 July, First provincial vessel commissioned for naval warfare in the Revolution, sent out by Georgia . . 10 July, Congress organizes a systematic superintendence of Indian affairs, creating 3 departments, northern, middle, and southern 12 July, Importation of gunpowder, saltpeter, sulphur, and fire- arms permitted by act of Congress 15 July, Georgia joins the United Colonies 20 July, UNI 1 Franklin's plan of confederation and perpetual union, " The United Colonies of North America," consid- ered by Congress 21 July, 1776 Benjamin Franklin, first postmaster-general, establishes posts from Falmouth, Me., to Savannah, Ga., 26 July, « Congress resolves to establish an army hospital, 27 July, '« Congress adopts an "Address to the People of Ireland," 28 July, « Resolved by Congress, "That Michael Hillegas and George Clymer, Esqs., be joint treasurers of the United Colonies " 29 July, « British vessel, the Betsy, surprised by a Carolina pri- vateer off St. Augustine bar, and 111 barrels of pow- der captured (Georgia) Aug. " King issues a proclamation for suppressing rebellion and sedition in the colonies 23 Aug. " American troops under gen. Richard Montgomery sent into Canada to cut off British supplies Sept. " Col. Benedict Arnold, with a force of about 1100 men, marches against Quebec via Kennebec river . . Sept. " English ship seized off Tybee island, Ga., by the Lib- erty people, with 250 barrels of powder. . . .17 Sept. " British capture col. Ethan Allen and 38 men near Mon- treal 25 Sept. « Bristol, R. I., bombarded (Rhode Island) 7 Oct. " Gen. William Howe supersedes gen. Gage as com- mander of the British army in America, who em- barks for England 10 Oct. " Falmouth, Me., burned by British (Maine) ... 18 Oct. " Peyton Randolph d. at Philadelphia 22 Oct. « St. John, Canada, surrenders to Americans under Mont- gomery 2 Nov. " Congress orders a battalion to protect Georgia, 4 Nov. " British fleet repulsed at Hampton, Va., 25 Oct. 1775, and lord Dunmore declares open war 7 Nov. " Night attack of the British vessels Tamar and Cherokee on the schooner Defence, in Hog Island channel, S. C. (South Carolina) 12 Nov. " Americans under Montgomery capture Montreal, 13 Nov. " Benjamin Harrison, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas John- son, John Dickinson, and John Jay, appointed by Congress a committee for secret correspondence with friends of America in Great Britain, Ireland, and other foreign nations 29 Nov. Battle of Great Bridge (Virginia) 9 Dec. Congress appoints Silas Deane, John Langdon, and Christopher Gadsden, a committee to fit out 2 vessels of war, 25 Nov., orders 13 vessels of war built and ap- points Esek Hopkins commander(NAyy, U.S.), 13Dec. British vessels driven from Charleston harbor, S. C, by artillery company under col. Moultrie, stationed on Haddrell's Point Dec. American forces united under Montgomery and Ar- nold repulsed at Quebec ; gen. Montgomerj^ killed, 31 Dec. " Washington unfurls the first union flag of 13 stripes at Cambridge, Mass. (Flag) 1 Jan. 177( Norfolk, Va., partly burned by gov. Dunmore . . " " Thomas Paine publishes "Common Sense" (Penn- sylvania) 8 Jan. " Battle of Moore's Creek, N. C. ; McDonald's loyalists routed by militia; 70 killed and wounded. .27 Feb. " Silas Deane appointed political agent to the French court 2 Mch. " Howe evacuates Boston (Massachusetts). ..17 Mch. '<- Congress authorizes privateering 23 Mch. " Congress orders the ports open to all nations. . .6 Apr. " North Carolina declares for independence ... .22 Apr. " American forces under gen. John Thomas retire from the siege of Quebec 6 May, " Rhode Island, 4 May; Massachusetts, 10 May; and Virginia, 14 May, declare for independence " Congress advises each colony to form a government independent of Great Britain 15 May, " Gen. Thomas d. of small-pox at Chambly 2 June, " Resolution introduced in Congress by Richard Henry ^^hh Lee, that " the United Colonies are and ought to be ^^Hl « UNI 831 UNI free and independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that their political connection with Great Britain is and ought to be totally dissolved " 7 June, 1776 Committee appointed by Congress to prepare a form of confederation (Confederation, Articles of), 11 June, " Committee appointed by Congress to draw up a Declaration of Independence . .11 June, " Board of War and Ordnance appointed by Congress, con- sisting of 5 members, viz. : John Adams, Roger Sher- man, Benjamin Harrison, James Wilson, and Edward Rutledge ; Richard Peters elected secretary, 12 June, " [This board, several times changed, continued un- til Oct. 1781, when Benjamin Lincoln was appointed secretary of war, an office created by Congress in Feb.] American forces under gen. Sullivan retire from Can- ada to Crown Point, N. Y 18 June, " Unsuccessful attack on Fort Moultrie by British fleet under sir Peter Parker 28 June, " Declaration of Independence adopted by Congress, 4 July, « Declaration of Independence read to the army in New York by order of gen. Washington 9 July, " [The same night the statue of George III. in Bowl- ing Green was thrown down, and the lead in it after- wards cast into 42,000 bullets for the patriot army.] Engrossed Declaration signed by 54 delegates . . 2 Aug. *' British gen. lord Howe lands 10,000 men and 40 guns near Gravesend, L. 1 22 Aug. " Battle of Long Island (New York) 27 Aug. " Washington withdraws his forces from Long Island to the city of New York 29-30 Aug. " Tirst society of Shakers in the United Colonies reach New York, 1774, and settle at Watervliet, N. Y., Sept. " Congress resolves "that all Continental commissions in which heretofore the words 'United Colonies' have been used, bear hereafter the words ' United States '" 9 Sept. " Americans evacuate New York city 14 Sept. " British repulsed at Harlem Heights 16 Sept. " Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee ap- pointed ambassadors to the court of France, 22 Sept. " Nathan Hale executed as a spy at New York, 22 Sept. " Battle on lake Charaplain ; British victory (New York) 11-13 Oct. " Thaddeus Kosciuszko, a Pole, arrives ; recommended to Washington by dr. Franklin ; appointed col. of en- gineers by Congress 18 Oct. " Battle of White Plains, N. Y. ; British victory, 28 Oct. " Franklin sails for France in the Reprisal, of 16 guns, one of the new Continental frigates, the first national vessel to appear in the eastern hemisphere . . . .Oct. " Congress authorizes the raising of $5,000,000 by lot- tery for expenses of the next campaign 1 Nov. " FoKT Washington on the Hudson captured by the British 16 Nov. " Americans evacuate Fort Lee, 18 Nov., and retreat across New Jersey to Pennsylvania Nov. " Eight thousand British troops land and take possession of Rhode Island 28 Nov. " Washington with his forces crosses the Delaware into Pennsylvania 8 Dec. " Sir Peter Parker takes possession of Rhode Island, and blockades the American fleet at Providence. .8 Dec. " Second Continental Congress (Philadelphia) adjourns; 582 days' session 12 Dec. '• Maj.-gen. Charles Lee captured bv British at Basking- |i ridge, N.J ' 12 Dec. " Third Continental Congress meets at Baltimore, Md., [John Hancock president.] ^^' Battle of Trenton, N. J 26 Dec. '* Congress resolves to send commissioners to the courts of Vienna, Spain, Prussia, and Tuscany 30 Dec. " Battle of Princeton 3 Jan. 1777 Washington's army encamps for the winter at Morris- town Jan. " Voted in Congress "that an authentic copy, with names of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, be sent to each of the United States " 20 Jan. 1777 Americans under gen. Maxwell capture Elizabethtown, N.J 23 Jan. « Letters of marque and reprisal granted by England against American ships 6 Feb. " Five vessels belonging to a British supply fleet are sunk near Amboy, N. J 26 Feb. " Third Continental Congress (Baltimore) adjourns; 75 days' session 4 Mch. " Fourth Continental Congress meets at Philadelphia, [John Hancock president.] * ^^^' Vermont declares itself an iffdependent state, Jan. 1777, and presents a petition to Congress for admission into the confederacy, which was denied 8 Apr. " Danbury, Conn., destroyed by troops under ex-gov. Tryon 26 Apr. " Col. Meigs, with whale-boats from Guilford, attacks the British forces at Sag Harbor, destroying vessels and stores and taking 90 prisoners 23 May, " Stars and Stripes adopted by Congress (Flag), 14 June, " British under gen. Howe evacuate New Jersey, crossing to Staten Island 30 June, " British under BurgoynS appear before Ticonderoga, 1 July, " American garrison withdraw (New York) ... .6 July, " Battle of HuBBARDTON, Vt. (Vermont) 7 July, " British gen. Richard Prescott surprised and captured near Newport by lieut.-col. Barton (Rhode Island), 10 July, « Miss Jane McCrea captured by Indians in British em- ploy at fort Edward, N. Y., and shot and scalped (New York) 27 July, " On the approach of Burgoyne gen. Schuyler evacuates fort Edward, and retreats down the Hudson valley, 29 July, « Gen. Lafayette, who volunteers his services to Con- gress, is commissioned major-general 31 July, " Lafayette introduced to Washington in Philadelphia, and attached to his personal staff 3 Aug. " Battle of Oriskany, N. Y 6 Aug. " Battle of Bennington, Vt 16 Aug. " Gen. Philip Schuj'ler succeeded by gen. Horatio Gates in command of the northern army 19 Aug. " Gen. Arnold sent to relieve Fort Schuyler, invested by British under St. Leger, who retreats and returns to Montreal 22 Aug. " Battle of Brand YwiNE, Washington defeated, 11 Sept. " Count Pulaski commissioned brigadier- general by Con- gress 15 Sept. " Fourth Continental Congress adjourns, 199 days' session, 18 Sept. « Battle of Stillwater, N. Y. ; indecisive (Bemis's Heights) 19 Sept. " Three hundred of Wayne's troops slaughtered at Paoli 20-21 Sept. " British army occupies Philadelphia. . . 27 Sept. " Fifth Continental Congress meets at Lancaster, Pa., and adjourns ; one day's session 27 Sept. " [Hancock president.] Sixth Continental Congress meets at York, Pa., [Hancock president.] ^ ' Battle of Germantown ; Americans repulsed. .4 Oct. " Forts Clinton and Montgomery captured by the British 6 Oct. « Battle of Saratoga, N. Y. (Bemis's Heights), .7 Oct. " Gen. Burgoyne's army surrenders (Convention troops) 17 Oct. " Successful defence of Fort Mifflin and Fort Mer- cer 22-23 Oct. « Congress creates a new Board of War, gen. Gates pre- siding Oct. " [The "Conway cabal," a conspiracy to remove Washington, followed.] UNI Henry Laurens of South Carolina chosen president of Ck)ngress to succeed Hancock, resigned on account of ill health 1 Nov. Articles of Confederation adopted (Confkdekation, Articlks of) 15 Nov. Forts Mifflin and Mkrcer besieged by the British and captured 16-20 Nov. Congress recommends to the several states to raise by taxes $5,000,000 for the succeeding year Nov. Howe leaves Philadelphia with 14,000 men to drive Washington from his position at Whitemarsh, but does not attack 4 Dec. Howe hurriedly returns to Philadelphia 8 Dec. American army goes into winter quarters at Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill . » . . 18 Dec. Gen. Chas. Lee released in exchange for gen. Prescott, Dec. Battle of the Kegs 5 Jan. Gen. John Cadwallader seriously wounds gen. Conway in a duel (Conway cabal) 5 Feb. Louis XVI. acknowledges the independence of the colonies, and signs a treaty of alliance and commerce, 6 Feb. Congress prescribes an oath for officers of the army, Feb. Baron Steuben joins the camp at Valley Forge (Army, List of general officers ; New York, 1794) .... Feb. Bill introduced by lord North in Parliament concerning peace negotiations with America reaches Congress 15 Apr., and is rejected 22 Apr. French treaty reaches Congress by messenger. . 2 May, Deane's treaty with France ratified 4 May, Mischianza, a festival, is given at Philadelphia by the British officers in honor of sir William Howe (who had been succeeded by sir Henrj' Clinton), 6 days before his return to England 18 May, [Maj. John Andr6 was the chief inventor of the pageant, which consisted of a regatta on the Dela- ware river, a tournament, grand ball, and supper; and concluded with a great display of fireworks.] Affair at Barren hill .20 May, British raid in Warren and Bristol, R. 1 25 May, Col. Ethan Allen, released from imprisonment, returns to Bennington, Vt 31 May, Count Pulaski raises a legion in Maryland Earl of Carlisle, George Johnstone, and William Eden appointed peace commissioners to America, with prof. Adam Ferguson as secretary ; on reaching Phil- adelphia they address a letter to Congress (see below, 11 Aug.) . .'. 10 June, British evacuate Philadelphia and retire across the Delaware into New Jersey 18 June, Americans break camp at Valley Forge and follow, 18 June, Sixth Continental Congress adjourns, 272 days' session, 27 June, Battle of Monmouth Court-house, N. J., British retreat 28 June, " Molly Pitcher " commissioned sergeant by Washing- ton for bravery at Monmouth 29 June, Seventh Continental Congress meets at Philadelphia, [Henry Laurens, S. C, president.] ^ "^^^y* Massacre of inhabitants in Wyoming Valley, Pa., by Indians and Tories 4 July, Expedition from Virginia under maj. George Roger Clarke captures the British fort at Kaskaskia (Illi- nois) 4 July, Articles of Confederation signed by delegates from 8 states — New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Isl- and, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New York, Virginia, and South Carolina 9 Jul}', Delegates from North Carolina sign them. . , .21 July, Delegates from Georgia sign them 24 July, Francis Hopkinson elected treasurer of loans by Con- gress 27 July, French fleet, under count D'Estaing, enters Narragan- sett bay 29 July, 832 1777 1778 UNI M. Gerard, minister from France to America, received in Congress 6 Aug. 177»i Congress rejects the bills of Parliament, and refuses to negotiate with Great Britain until lier fleets and ar-, mies are withdrawn, and she acknowledges the in- dependence of the colonies 11 Aug. Gen. Charles Lee by court-martial for disobedience, misbehavior, and disrespect to Washington, sus- pended from command for one year 12 Aug. Battle of Rhode Island 29 Aug. Americans evacuate Rhode Island 30 Aug., and British occupy Newport 31 Aug. British under gen. Grey burn Bedford village, in Dart- mouth, Mass., and 70 American vessels lying at the wharfs 5 Sept. Benjamin Franklin appointed minister to the court of France 14 Sept. Territory northwest of the Ohio, occupied for Virginia by maj. Clarke, is constituted a county of Virginia by the assembly, and named Illinois Oct. Congress advises the several states to take measures for the suppressing of " theatrical entertainments, horse- racing, gaming, and such other diversions as are pro- ductive of idleness, dissipation, and general depravity of principles and manners" 12 Oct. Massacre by Indians and Tories at Cherry Valley, N. Y 10 Nov. Delegates from New Jersey sign the Articles of Con- federation 26 Nov. John Jay of New York chosen president of Congress, 10 Dec. '^ British troops under Howe capture Savannah ; the Americans retreat across the Savannah river (Georgia) 29 Dec. " Thomas Hutchins of New Jersej' appointed " geogra- pher-general of the United States " by act of Con- gress, which office he holds until his death at Pitts- burg, 28 Apr. 1789 '< ] Northern American army hutted in cantonments from Danbury, Conn., to Elizabethtown, N. J., for the winter 1778-79' First society of Universalists in the U. S. organized at Gloucester, Mass 1 Jan. 1779" Maj.-gen. Benjamin Lincoln, commanding the south- ern forces, establishes his first post at Purysburg, on the Savannah river " Congress calls upon the states fur their quotas of $15,000,000 for the year, and #6,000,000 aniuially for 18 years to follow as a sinking-fund 2 Jan. " j Vincennes, Ind., captured by the British Jan. " I British under gen. McLane take possession of Castine (Maine) 12 Jan. *' British under maj. Gardiner driven from Port Roval island by gen. Moultrie (South Carolina), 3 Feb. " Franklin commissioned sole minister plenipotentiary to France, and Adams recalled Feb. " Battle of Kettle Creek, Ga., American victory, 14 Feb. " Americans under maj. Clarke capture Vincennes, 20 Feb. " Battle of Brier Creek, Ga., British victory. . . .3 Mch. " Salt works at Horseneck, Conn., destroved by gen. Tryon '. . . .26 Mch. " American ministers recalled, except at Versailles and Madrid Apr. " Articles of Confederation signed by Thomas McKean of Delaware, 12 Feb., and by John Dickinson of Delaware 5 May, " Americans repulsed at Stono Ferry, S. C 20 June, " Spain declares war against Great Britain June, " British under Tryon plunder New Haven, 5 July, and burn Fairfield, 8 July, and Norwalk 12 -July, " Americans under Wavne take bv storm Fort Stony \ Point, N.Y .' .' 16 July, " Expedition against the British at fort Castine, Me., repulsed 25 Juljs American fleet arrive at Penobscot, 25 July, and are dispersed by British fleet (Maine) 13 Aug. Congress agrees to a basis of terms for a peace with Great Britain 14 Aug. UNI Gen. Sullivan's campaign against the Six Nations; the Indian villages of the Genesee valley destroyed (New York) July-Sept. British fleet at Tybee captured by count D'Estaing (Georgia) 3 Sept. Congress votes thanks and a gold medal to maj. Lee, for surprising and capturing (19 Aug.) the British garrison at Paulus's Hook Sept. Congress guarantees the Floridas to Spain if she takes them from Great Britain, provided the U. S. should enjoy the free navigation of the Mississippi river, 17 Sept. Naval engagement off Flaraborough Head, Engl. ; the Bonhomme Richard (American), Paul Jones com- mander, captures the British gun-ship Serapis (Na- val BATTLES of the U. S.) 23 Sept. John Jay appointed minister to Spain, and John Adams to negotiate a peace with Great Britain. . .27 Sept. Samuel Huntington of Connecticut chosen president of Congress 28 Sept. Siege of Savannah, Ga., by Americans and French, fails; Pulaski killed (Georgia) 23 Sept.-9 Oct. A company of British regulars and 4 armed vessels in the Ogeechee river, Ga., surrenders to Col. White, 1 Oct. British evacuate Rhode Island 11-25 Oct. M. Gerard succeeded by the Chevalier de la Luzerne as minister from France to the U. S 17 Nov. American army winters at Morristown Dec. Gen. Clinton sails from New York against Charleston, 26 Dec. Washington reprimands gen. Arnold, by order of Con- gress, for misconduct charged by the council of Philadelphia Jan. [Arnold had been already for months in secret cor- respondence with maj. Andre of gen. Clinton's stafiF.] Gen. Charles Lee dismissed from the army. . . .10 Jan. Legislature of New York empowers its delegates to cede to Congress a portion of its western territory for the common benefit 19 Feb. Bank of Pennsylvania, the first in the U. S., chartered and located at Philadelphia 1 Mch. Congress sends gen. Gates to succeed Baron de Kalb, who, by the surrender of gen. Lincoln, had been com- mander-in-chief in the south Mch. Gen. Clinton lays siege to Charleston 10 Apr. Battle at Monk's Corner, S. C 14 Apr. Lafayette rejoins the army, after a visit to France, bringing a commission from the French government to Washington as lieutenant-general and vice-ad- miral of France, so that he may be commander-in- chief of the united forces of France and the U. S., 11 May, Fort Moultrie, S. C, surrendered to capt. Hudson of the British navy 6 May, Charleston, S. C, capitulates (South Carolina), 12. May, "Dark day" in New England (Massachusetts), 19 May, Massacre of Americans under col. Buford at Waxhaw, on the North Carolina border, by British under Tarlton 29 May, Gen. Clinton proclaims South Carolina subject to Eng- land 3 June, Battle of Ramsour's Mills, N. C 20 June, Battle at Springfield, N. J. ; gen. Clinton burns the town 23 June, French army of 6000 men, under Rochambeau, reaches Newport harbor, R, 1 10 July, Battle of Rocky Mount, S. C 30 July, Command in the highlands of the Hudson with West Point given to gen. Benedict Arnold 3 Aug. Battle of Hanging Rock, S. C 6 Aug. Battle of Camden, S. C. ; Gates defeated 16 Aug. Battles of Musgrove Mills and Fishing Creek, S. C, 18 Aug. Congress advises states to surrender their territorial claims to western land for the general benefit, 6 Sept. 27 833 1779 UNI Maj. John Andre, British adjutant-general, meets Ben- edict Arnold near Stony Point, N. Y. (New York), 21 Sept. Maj. Andre captured near Tarry town 23 Sept. Arnold escapes to the British vessel Vulture . . 24 Sept. Battle of Charlotte, N. C 26 Sept. Andre convicted as a spy by military board, gen. Na- thaniel Greene, president, 29 Sept., and hung at Tap- pan, N. Y , 2 Oct. Congress votes John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart, captors of Andre, its thanks, a sil- ver medal, and a pension of $200 each vearly, for life '. Oct. Henry Laurens, minister from U. S., seized on his way to Holland by a British frigate, 3 Sept., and impris- oned in the Tower of London 6 Oct. Battle of King's Mountain, S. C 7 Oct. Congress resolves that western lands to be ceded sliall be formed into republican states, and become equal members of the Union 10 Oct. Gen. Nathaniel Greene appointed to command of the armies in the south, superseding gen. Gates. .14 Oct. Congress sends the ministers to France and Spain a statement of the claims of the U. S. to lands as far as the Mississippi river 17 Oct. Col. John Laurens appointed a special minister to France to secure a loan Dec. Pennsylvania troops break camp at Morristown, 1 Jan., demanding back pay. Congress appoints a commis- sion, which accedes to their demand (Mutiny), 1 Jan. Benedict Arnold plunders Richmond, Va. . . .5-6 Jan. Robert R. Livingston appointed secretary of foreign affairs by Congress Tan. Battle of Cowpens, S. C; American victory. .17 Jan. Mutiny of New Jersey troops quelled by gen. Robert Howe 23-27 Jan. Young's house, near White Plains, surprised by British, 2 Feb. Robert Morris appointed superintendent of finances by Congress 20 Feb. Skilful retreat of Americans under gen. Greene from Cowpens to the river Dan, pursued by Cornwallis, 28 Jan.-13 Feb. [The distance traversed was over 200 miles over roads almost impassable.] Delegates from Maryland sign the Articles of Confed- eration 1 Mch. Final ratification of Articles of Confederation announced by order of Congress 1 Mch. Battle of Guildford Court-house, N. C. . . 15 Mch. British under gens. Phillips and Benedict Arnold oc- cupy Petersburg (Virginia) 24 Apr. Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, S.C 26 Apr. Union of Vermont with the British proposed to col. Ira Allen at Isles aux Noix, Canada May, Cornwallis joins Arnold at Petersburg, Va . . . .20 May, Augusta, Ga., taken by col. Clark, 14 Sept. 1780; re- taken by British, 17 Sept. 1780 ; capitulates to Amer- icans., 5 June, Gen. Wadsworth captured, and imprisoned at Castine (Maine) 18 June, British abandon Fort Ninety-six 21 June, Jonas Fay, Ira Allen, and Bazaleel Woodward appoint- ed to represent the cause of Vermont in the Conti- nental Congress 22 June, Gen. Lafayette attacks Cornwallis, near Green Springs, Va., and is repulsed 6 July, Thomas McKean of Delaware elected president ol" the Continental Congress 10 July, Cornwallis retires with his army to Y'orktown. .4 Aug. R. R. Livingston appointed secretary of foreign af- fairs by Congress Aug. Congress' requires Vermont to relinquish territory east of the Connecticut and west of the present New- York line before admission as a state ..20 Aug. Combined armies of Americans and French start for Yorktown, Va.,from the Hudson river 25 Aug. 1780 1781 UNI 834 UNI Count de Grasse, with the French fleet, arrives in the Chesapeake 80 Aug. 1781 Lafayette joins French troops under count de St. Simon at Green Springs, 3 Sept., and they occupy Williamsburg, about 15 miles from Yorktown..5 Sept. " Bene«lict Arnold plunders and burns New liOndon, Conn., and captures Fort Guiswoi.d 6 Sept. " British fleet under adm. Graves appears in the Chesa- peake 7 Sept. " Indecisive battle of Eutaw Springs, S. C 8 Sept. " Washington and count Kochambeau reach Williams- burg 14 Sept. « Siege of Yorktown (Virginia) 6-19 Oct. " Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown 19 Oct. " Sir Henry Clinton, with fleet of 35 vessels and 7000 troops, arrives at the Chesapeake, 24 Oct., and re- turns to New York 29 Oct. " Benjamin Lincoln appointed secretary of war by Con- gress 30 Oct. " John Hanson of Maryland chosen president of Conti- nental Congress 5 Nov. *' Day of public thanksgiving and prayer observed throughout the U. S 13 Dec. « Henry Laurens released from imprisonment in the Tower of London 31 Dec. " Bank of North America established at Philadelphia (Banks in the U. S.) 31 Dec. « Holland recognizes the independence of U. S. .19 Apr. 1782 Sir Guy Carleton, appointed to succeed Clinton, lands in New York 5 May, " Orders received by sir James Wright at Savannah for the evacuation of the province . .14 June, " Congress adopts a Great seal for the U. S. .20 June, " Savannah, Ga., evacuated by the British 11 July, " Treaty of amity and commerce concluded by Mr. Adams, on part of the U. S., with Holland. . .8 Oct. " First manufacture of fustians and jeans in the U. S. begins at Philadelphia " Elias Boudinot of New Jersey chosen president of the Continental Congress 4 Nov. " Preliminary articles of peace signed at Paris by Richard Oswald for Great Britain, and by John Adams, Ben- jamin Franklin, John Jav, and Henry Laurens for the U. S '. ' 30 Nov. " ■ British evacuate Charleston, S. C 14 Dec. " French army -embarks from Boston for St. Domingo, having been in the U. S. 2 years 5 months and 14 days 24 Dec. " Sweden recognizes independence of U. S 5 Feb. 1783 Denmark recognizes independence of U. S, . . .25 Feb. " Congress being unable to paj' either officers or men of the array, an anonymous address is circulated, 11 Mch. 1783, advising the army at Newburg, N. Y., to enforce its claims. The situation is critical, but Washington, by an admirable address, obtains from the officers a declaration of confidence in Congress and the country , 15 Mch. " [The author of the "Anonymous Address" was maj. John Armstrong, afterwards secretary of war.] Congress grants 5 years' full pay to officers in lieu of half-pay for life, 'promised 21 Oct. 1780 22 Mch. " Spain recognizes independence of U. S. . . . .24 Mch. " Congress ratifies the preliminary treaty with Great Britain 15 Apr. " n[ Congress proclaims a cessation of hostilities, 11 Apr. 1783, which is read to the army 19 Apr. " Constitution for the Society of the Cincinnati, fo/med at the army quarters on the Hudson river. .13 May, " First vessel to carry the flag of the U. S. to a Russian port enters Riga 1 June, *' Washington writes on the situation to each of the state governors 8 June, " Seventh Continental Congress adjourns ; session, 1816 days, 21 June, « [The longest session ever held in the U. S.] £/ghth Continental Congress meets at Princeton, [Elias Boudinot president.] 30 June, Independence of the U. S. recognized by Russia. .July, 1783 Definitive treaty signed by David Hartley on the part ^. of Great Britain, and by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay on the part of the U. S., 3 Sept. " Washington issues his "Farewell Address to the Army" from Rocky Hill, near Princeton, N. J 2 Nov. " Thomas Mifflin of Pennsylvania chosen president of the Continental Congress 3 Nov. " By general order of Congress, proclaimed 18 Oct., the army is disbanded, a small force remaining at West Point 3 Nov. " Eighth Continental Congress adjourns; 127 days' session, 4 Nov. " British evacuate New York city 25 Nov. " Ninth Continental Congress meets at Annapolis, Md., [Thomas Mifflin president.] ^^ ^^'^' Gen. Washington bids farewell to his officers at Fraunce's tavern, cor. Pearl and Broad sts., New York city 4 Dec. " British evacuate Long Island and Staten Island (with- drawing their last armed man sent for the purpose of reducing the colonies to subjection) 4 Dec. " Washington resigns his commission as commander-in- chief at tlie State-house, Annapolis, Md., and retires to Mount Vernon 23 Dec. " Congress ratifies the definitive treaty of peace.. 14 Jan. 1784 Congress accepts cession of northwest territory by Virginia ; deed signed by Virginia delegates . 1 Mch. " American Daily Advertiser, first daily newspaper in America, issued at Philadelphia by Benjamin Franklin Bache " Fiscal affairs of the U. S. placed in the hands of 3 commissioners appointed to succeed Robert Morris. . " John Jay appointed secretary of foreign affairs in place of Livingston, resigned Mch. " Ninth Continental Congress adjourns; 189 days' session, 3 June, " (ieneral Assembly of North Carolina cedes her western lands to the U. S. on condition of acceptance within 2 years, Apr. 1784, but repeals the act 22 Oct. " Washington makes a tour of the western country to ascertain bj' what means it could be most effectually bound to the Union " Tenth Continental Congress meets at Trenton, N. J., 1 Nov. " Richard Henry Lee of Virginia chosen president of Continental Congress 30 Nov. " Tenth Continental Congress adjourns; 54 days' session, 24 Dec. « Methodist Episcopal church organized at a Christmas conference in Baltimore, Md. . .24 Dec. 1784-2 Jan. 1785 Eleventh Continental Congress meets at New York, [Richard H. Lee president.] Gen. Henry Knox appointed sec. of war with added duties of sec. of navy 8 Mch. " [ He was continued sec. of war under Washington's administration until 1795.] Franklin, minister to France, obtains leave to return; Jefferson is appointed 10 Mch. " Dispute between the U. S. and Spain on uavigation-of the Mississippi river and the boundaries of the Floridas " City directory of Philadelphia, first in America, pub, . " Massachusetts cedes to the U. S. her claims to lands west of the Niagara river, in accordance with an act of legislature of 13 Nov. 1784 19 Apr. " John Adams appointed minister plenipotentiary' to Great Britain, 24 Feb., and received at the court of George III 1 June, " Don Diego Gardoqui, minister from Spain to the U. S., recognized by Congress '. 2 July, " First Episcopal ordination held in the U. S., that of rev. Ashbel Baldwin at Middletown, Conn. . .3 Aug. " Treaty of amity and commerce concluded between the king of Prussia and the U. S., and signed by Thomas UNI 835 Jefferson at Paris, 28 July, Benjamin Franklin at Pas.sy, 9 July, and J. Adams at London 5 Aug. 1785 Franklin returns to Philadelphia from France, after an absence of 9 years, landing 13 Sept. " State of Frankland formed from western lands of North Carolina Nov. " Eleventh Continental Congress adjourns; 298 days' session, 4 Nov. " Twelfth Continental Congress meets at New York, 7 Nov. " John Hancock of Massachusetts chosen president of the Continental Congress 23 Nov. " [Did not serve owing to continued illness.] James Rumsey succeeds in propelling a boat by steam and machinery on the Potomac Mch. 1786 First spinning-jenny in the U. S. put in operation by Daniel Jackson of Providence, R. I " Nathaniel Gorham chosen president of the Continental Congress 6 June, " Gen. Nathaniel Greene dies at Mulberry Grove, 14 miles from Savannah, Ga 19 June, " Ordinance establishing the coinage passed Aug. " Delegates from Virginia, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, and New York, at Annapolis, Md., consider the condition of the nation, and request all the states to send delegates to a convention at Philadelphia in May following II Sept. " Connecticut makes a qualified cession to the U. S. of all territory south of 41° N. lat., and west of a line 120 miles west of Pennsylvania 14 Sept. " Shays's rebellion in Massachusetts '* Ordinance establishing a U. S. mint passed by Con- gress 16 Oct. " Twelfth Continental Congress adjourns ; 362 days' session, 3 Nov. " Thirteenth Continental Congress meets at New York, 6 Nov. " Arthur St. Clair of Pennsylvania chosen president of Congress 2 Feb. 1787 Congress advises the states to send delegates to a con- vention in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, to meet 14 May (Constitution of THK United States) 21 Feb. " Congress by ordinance provides government for the territory northwest of the Ohio (now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin), ...... .13 July, " Treaty between the U. S. and the emperor of Morocco, negotiated Jan. 1787 by John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, is ratified by Congress 18 July, " South Carolina cedes to the U. S. her claims to a strip 12 miles wide, west of a line from the head of the Tugaloo river to the North Carolina border, 9 Aug. " Delegates to the convention sign the Constitution, 17 Sept. " Manufacture of cotton first attempted in the U. S. at Beverly, Mass " Manufacture of salt from the Onondaga springs at Syracuse, N. Y., began " Ship Columbia, capt. John Kendrick, and the sloop Washington, capt. Robert Gray, sail from Boston for the northwest coast, where they exchange ships, and Gray proceeds to Canton on his way around the world '.30 Sept. " Thirteenth Continental Congress adjourns ; 359 days' ses- sion 30 Oct. " Fourteenth Continental Congress meets at New York, 5 Nov. « Spanish intrigues in Kentucky 1788 Cyrus Griffin of Virginia chosen president of Conti- nental Congress 22 Jan. " Method for putting the new government into opera- tion reported by the committee adopted by Con- gress (Constitution), 13 Sept. " Fom-teenth and last Continental Congress adjourns; 353 days' session . ^ . . 21 Oct. " Electors in the several states vote for president and vice-president Feb. 1789 UNI History knows of few bodies more remarkable than the Continental Congress. It is often compared with the Long Parliament of Charles I. and the French National Assembly. Coming together at first as a gathering for consultation, the delegates had boldly seized the reins of power, assumed the leadership of the insurgent states, issued bills of credit, raised armies, declared independence, negotiated foreign treaties, carried the nation through seven years of war; finally, had extorted from a powerful ruling government an acknowledg- ment of the authority so daringly assumed and so indomita- bly maintained. But its career was not destined to end glo- riously. Its decline began during the war. Exhausted by its early efforts, smitten with poverty, insdvent almost from the beginning, pensioner on the bounty of France, without sympathy at home or abroad, unable to fulfil the treaties it had made, issuing fruitless requisitions which it had no power to enforce, vainly begging for more authority to prolong its existence — even while all eyes were turned towards the rising splendors of the new government, with hardly a respectful word uttered in its belialf or a recollection of the incompara- ble good wrought in its early days, the Continental Congress passed into history. Under the Constitution. The Constitution of the United States takes effect in the 11 states which Jiave ratified it, forming a nation of Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Caro- lina, New Hampshire, Virginia, and New York, 4 Mch. 1789 First Administration — Federal. 4 Mch. 1789 to 3 Mch. 1793. Seat of Government, New York city, 1789, and Phila- delphia from 6 Dec. 1790. George Washington, Va., president. John Adams, Mass., vice-president. cabinet. Thomas Jefferson, Va., sec. of state, from 21 Mch. 1790. Alexander Hamilton, N. Y., sec. of treas. from 11 Sept. 1789. Henry Knox, Mass., sec. of war, from 12 Sept, 1789. Edmund Randolph, Va., attorney-gen., from 26 Sept. 1789. Samuel Osgood, Mass., postmaster-gen. from 26 Sept. 1789. Timothy Pickering, Mass., postmaster-gen. from 12 Aug. 1791. [The postmaster-gen. not a member of the cabinet until 1829. Cabinet council.] First Congress, First Session, meets, New York.. 6 Apr. 1789 Speaker of the House, F. A. Muhlenberg, Pa. Electoral vote counted. George Washington of Va. receives the entire electoral vote, 69, and is chosen president; and John Adams of Mass. receives 34 votes and becomes vice-president 6 Apr. *' President takes the oath of office, New York. . .30 Apr. " First tariff bill passes (Tariff) 4 July, " Department of Foreign Affairs organized... .27 July, " This name is changed to State department. ..15 Sept. " Act organizing the War (and Navy) department, 7 Aug. " Treasury department organized 2 Sept. '* Post-office department temporarily established. 22 Sept. " Office of attorney-general organized 24 Sept. " Supreme court of the U. S. established, with John Jay of N. Y. as chief-justice Sept. " XII. Amendments to the Constitution agreed upon, and submitted to the states for ratification .25 Sept. " [Ten of these ratified, taking effect 15 Dec. 1791.] Thomas Jefferson of Va., the minister to France, ap- pointed secretary of state 26 Sept. " First Session adjourns 29 Sept. " President visits northern and eastern states. . .15 Oct, " North Carolina ratifies the Constitution 21 Nov, " John Fenno's Gazette of the United States began (sup- ports the principles of the Federalist) " Second Session meets, New York 4 Jan. 1790 First annual message from the president " " Secretary Hamilton reports on the public debt. . 14 Jan. " [He proposed that the government (1) fund UNI 886 UNI and pay the foreign debt of the Confederation (f I2,00(),00()) ; (2) fund and pay the domestic debt ($40,000,(HX)) ; (3) assume anil pay the unpaid war debt ($21,500,000) of the states. The last proposi- tion was strongly opposed, but was finally carried : Senate, 14 to 12; House, 34 to 28.] An act ordering a census passed 1 Mch. 1790 Franklin dies at Philadelphia, aged 84 17 Apr. " Rhode Island ratifies the Constitution 29 May, '• [The last of the 13 colonies.] An act passed by 32 to 29 — House — authorizing the acquisition of the District of Columbia for the seat of government 10 July, " First mechanical patent issued to Samuel Hopkins for making potash and pearlash 31 July, " First national census begun; population enumerated as of 1 Aug. '* Treaty with the Creek Indians 7 Aug. " Tariff bill amended by increasing duties 10 Aug. " Capt. Robert Gray, in the Columbia, returns to Boston from his voyage around the world (see 1787), 10 Aug. " [The first American ship to sail around the world.] Second Session adjourns 12 Aug. " Gen. Harmar's and col. Hardin's expedition against the Indians defeated in northwestern Ohio. .17-20 Oct. " Third Session, Philadelphia, opens 6 Dec. " Act incorporating Bank of the United States. ..8 Feb. 1791 [Bank to be at Philadelphia; might establish branches; chartered for 20 years; capital, $10,- 000,000.] "Vermont, the 14th state, admitted 18 Jan. " An act taxing imported spirits, with new duty on do- mestic spirits " First Congress adjourns 3 Mch. " [An able Congress. In 2 years it provided a com- petent revenue, funded the public debt, and gave the young nation a respectable standing in the world.] Great Britain appoints her first minister, George Ham- mond, to the U. S 7 Aug. " Second Congress, First Session, opens at Philadel- phia ^4 Oct. " Speaker of the House, Jonathan Trumbull of Conn, Gen. Arthur St. Clair's expedition against the Indians of Ohio surprised and routed 4 Nov. " Philip Freneau's National Gazette started at Philadel- phia in-i,he interest of the Republican party " Congress grants a bounty for fishing- vessels. . ,16 Feb. 1792 Post-office department reorganized 20 Feb. " U. S. Mint established (Coin) 2 Apr, *' Apportionment act, gives one representative to 33,000 inhabitants ; 105 in all 14 Apr. " TariflF amended 2 May, " Laws organizing the militia.. , 8 May, " First Session adjourns " " Capt. Robert Gray, in the Columbia, discovers the mouth (lat. 46° 10' N.) of the river Columbia, 11 May, " [This discovery strengthened the U. S. claim to the Oregon territory.] Kentucky admitted (the 15th state) 1 June, " Second Session opens at Philadelphia 5 Nov. " Second presidential election 6 Nov. " President's salary fixed at $25,000 8 Feb. 1793 Electoral count 13 Feb. " [George Washington of Va. received 132 electoral votes (all) ; John Adams of Mass. 77 votes ; and George Clinton, opposition, 50. ] Second Congress adjourns 2 Mch. " Second Administration— Pederal. 4 Mch. 1793 to 3 Mch. 1797. Seat of Govemment, Philadelphia, Pa, George Washington, Va,, president, John Adams, Mass., vice-president. CABINET. Thomas Jefferson, Va., sec. of state, continued from 1790 to 1793. Resigns. Edmund Randolph, Va., sec, of state, from 2 Jan. 1794. Resigns. Timothy Pickering, Mass., sec. of state, from 10 Dec. 1795. Alexander Hamilton, N. Y., sec. of treas., continued from U Sept. 1789. Resigns. Oliver Wolcott, Conn., sec. of treas., from 2 Feb. 1795. Henry Knox, Mass,, sec. of war, continued from 12 Sept, 1789. Resigns. Timothy Pickering, Mass., sec. of war, from 2 Jan. 1795. James McIIenry, Md,, sec. of war, from 27 Jan. 1796. Edmund Randolph, Va., attorney- gen., continued from 26 Sept. 1789. Resigns. William Bradford, Pa., attorney-gen., from 8 Jan. 1794. Dies in office. Charles Lee, Va., attorney-gen., 10 Dec. 1795. Timothy Pickering, Mass., postmaster- gen., continued from 1791. Joseph Habersham, Ga., postmaster-gen. from 25 Feb. 1795. " Citizen " Genet of France, as minister to the U. S., arrives at Charleston, S. C. ; warmly received, 9 Apr. 1793 Eli Whitney invents the cotton-gin; marked effect on slavery '« President issues his celebrated proclamation of neu- J trality (severely criticised by the opposition), 22 Apr. " French government directs the seizure of vessels car- rying supplies to an enemy's port 9 May, " Great Britain orders her ships of war to stop all.vess^ls laden with French supplies and turn them into British ports 8 June, " Minister Genet's recall asked for by the government, • Aug, " Corner-stone of the U, S. Capitol laid by Washington, 18 Sept, " Followers of Jefferson begin to assume the name of Republicans, in opposition to the Federalists, under leadership of Alexander Hamilton " Third Congress, First Session, opens at Philadelphia, Pa 2 Dec. « Speaker of the House, F. A. Muhlenberg, Pa. Thomas Jefferson retires from State department. .Dec. '* [A place he could no longer consistently' hold, owing to his opposition to the administration, an opposition which, aided by dissensions among the Federalists themselves, finally resulted in that party's overthrow,] An Amendment (XI,) to the Constitution approved by Congress, securing states against suits in the U, S. courts 6 Mch. 1794 [Declared in force, 8 Jan. 1798.] Act authorizing the construction of 6 ships of war. the foundation of the U. S. navy 11 Mch. " [Three 44 guns ; three 38 guns. Of these, 3 were finally finished: Constitution, 44 guns, at Boston, launched 20 Sept. 1797 ; United States, 44 guns, at Philadelphia, launched 10 July, 1797 ; and Constel- lation, 38 guns, at Baltimore, 7 Sept. 1797.] An act is passed forbidding any American vessel to supply slaves to another nation, under penalty of forfeiture of the vessel and fine of $2000, 22 Mch, " In retaliation against England, an embargo is laid on all shipping, continued for 60 days 26 Mch. '* Senate ceases to sit with closed doors 27 Mch. " President nominates John Jay^ as envoy extraor- dinary to England, with a view to a treaty, 16 Apr. '« Gouverneur Morris recalled as minister to France, and James Monroe appointed 27 May, " An act relating to neutrality passed 5 June, " [This was necessary because popular sympathy with the French and the French minister Genet threatened to embroil the country with Eng- land.] Post-office department permanently established " UNI 837 UNI Tariff act of 1792 further amended by increasing the ad valorem rates of duty 7 June, 1794 First Session adjourns 9 June, " Whiskey insurrection in western Pennsylvania, July-Nov. " Gen. Anthony Wayne defeats the Indians near Mauraee Rapids, in Ohio 20 Aug. " French minister Fanchet's despatch, supposed to com- promise Edmund Randolph, sec. of state, intercept- ed by the British, and shown to the U. S. govern- ment ; Randolph resigns " Second Session opens at Philadelphia, Pa 3 Nov. " Draft of treaty with England agreed to by John Jay, special envoy ' 19 Nov. " Stringent naturalization law passed, requiring renun- ciation of titles of nobility 29 Jan. 1795 Act passed for gradual redemption of public debt. ... " . Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, resigns Jan. '* Third Congress adjourns 3 Mch. " President calls the Senate together to consider the Jay treaty with England 8 June, " 1/ [Senate favored it by a two-thirds majority; vio- lent popular remonstrances against it.] Washington signs the treaty 14 Aug. Gen. Wayne's treaty with the Ohio Indians at Green- ville; they cede 25,000 sq. miles 3 Aug. Treaty with Algiers to ransom prisoners taken by cor- sairs, and to pay annual tribute of $23,000 to the dey 5 Sept. Treaty with Spain, opening the Mississippi and estab- I / lishing boundaries 20 Oct. " V Fourth Congress, First Session, opens at Philadelphia, Pa 7 Dec. " Speaker of the House, Jonathan Dayton of N. J., Federalist. Proclamation of the Jay treaty 1 Mch. 1796 House demands the papers relating to the Jay treaty, 24 Mch. <' [President declined, the House being no part of the treaty-making power. J Jefferson writes the famous "Mazzei letter," about 21 Apr. " [The publication of this letter, about a year later, severs all friendly relations between Washington and Jefferson.] Fisher Ames's speech before the House on the Jay treaty with England 28 Apr. " ["The most eloquent speech ever heard in Con- gress by his generation."— /S'cAow/er'* " Hist. U. S.," vol. i. p. 313.'] House agrees to sustain Jay's treaty 3.0 Apr. '* Tennessee admitted (the 16th state) 1 June, '• First Session adjourns " '• New treaty with the Creek Indians 29 June, '• i, Washington's " Farewell Address " issued, refusing to accept office again 19 Sept. " Charles C. Pinckney succeeds James Monroe as minis- ter to I'rance Sept. " Third presidential election 8 Nov. " [Federals, John Adams, Mass., and Thomas Pinck- ney, S. C. ; Republicans, Thomas Jeffersoti, Va., and Aaron Burr, N. Y.] Second Session opens at Philadelphia, Pa 6 Dec. " Congress assembles in the House for the purpose of counting the electoral vote .....'... .8 Feb. 1797 [Of the 138 votes cast, John Adams of Mass. re- ceived 71; Thomas Jefferson of Va. 68; Thomas Pinckney of S. C. 59; and Aaron Burr,- 30.] [At this time was illustrated one .of the great faults in the Constitution relative to the election of president and vice-president prior to the Xll.th Amendment — Adams, a strong Federalist, president, and Jefferson, in direct opposition to that party, vice- president.] ■, Charles C. Pinckney, U. S. minister, not received by the French government, leaves France Feb. " Fourth Congress adjourns 3 Mch. " Third Administration — Federal. 4 Mch. 1797 to 3 Mch. 1801. Seat of Government, Philadelphia, until 1800, then trans- ferred to Washington, D. C. John Adams, Mass., president. Thomas Jefferson, Va., vice-president CABINET. Timothy Pickering,Mass.,sec.o{ state, continued from 10 Dec. 1795. Resigns. John Marshall, Va., sec, of state, from 13 May, 1800. Oliver Wolcott, Conn., sec. of treas., continued from 2 Feb. 1795. Samuel Dexter, Mass., sec. of treas , from 1 Jan. 1801. James McHenry, Md., sec. of war, continued from 27 Jan. 1796. Resigns. Samuel Dexter, Mass., sec. of war, from 13 May, 1800. Roger Griswold, Conn., acting sec. of war, from 3 Feb. 1801. George Cabot, Mass., sec. of navy, 3 May, 1798. Declined. Benjamin Stoddert, Md., sec. of'navy, from 3 May, 1798. ^harles Lee, Va., attorney-gen., continued from 10 Dec. 1795. Joseph Habersham, Ga., postmaster-gen., continued from 25 Feb. 1795. Special session of Congress called to consider the threat- ening relations with France 25 Mch. 1797 Fifth Congress, First Se*ssion (extra), assembles at Phil- adelphia, Pa 15 May, " Speaker of the House, Jonathan Dayton of N. J., Fed- eralist. \ Congress subjects to a finliof $10,000 and 10 years' imprisonment any citizen concerned in privateering against a friendly nation 14 June, " Congress authorizes the president to raise 80,000 mili- tia for 3 months — the quota from Tennessee, the smallest, 806, and Massachusetts, the largest, 11,836, 24 June, « President empowered to employ the frigates Constitu- tion, ConsteUatio7i,an^ United States (see 1794), 1 July, " Duties on stamped vellum parchment and paper, re- ceipts, bonds, bills, insurance policies, certificates, etc., by act of. . .6 July, " A duty on salt levied • 8 July, " Senate expels William Blount of Tennessee ... 9 July, " [Committee of Ways and Means organized in the House for the first time at this session.] First Sessio7i adjoih^s .10 July, " President appoints^ohn Marshall of Va. and Elbridge Gerry of Mass. with C. C. Pinckney, as commission- ers to treat with France ; they meet at Paris..4 Oct. " [Commissioners asked to bribe members of French Directory, but indignantly refuse. Talleyrand, the French minister of foreign affairs, implicated. Mr. Marshall and Mr. Pinckney ordered out of France. C. C. Pinckney declared that the U. S. had " mill- ions for defence, but not one cent for tribute."] Second Session assembles at Philadelphia, Pa. . . 13 Nov. " First personal encounter in Congress between Matthew Lyon of Vt. and Roger Griswold of Conn. ; the House fails to censure or punish 12-15 Feb. 1798 Mississippi territory organized 3 Apr. " Navy department organized 30 Apr. " Secretary of the navy appointed 3 May, " Harper's Ferry selected as site for a government ar- mory and manufactory 4 May, " Congress authorizes a Provisional army, and em- powers the president, in case of an. actual declara- tion of war or invasion, to enlist, for 3 years, 10,000 men ; and to appoint one lieutenant-general, to be chief commander of the army, and one inspector- general, with other necessary officers ; all to remain in the service only so long as the president deems necessary for the public safety 28 May, " Congress authorizes the president to instruct command- ers of ships of war to seize French armed vessels attacking American merchantmen or hovering about the coast for that purpose 28 May " Song " Hail, Columbia !" first sung May, " UNI Imprisonment for debt abolished 6 June, 1798 Commercial intercourse with France suspended. 12 June, " Washington accepts appointment as commander-in- chief, with rank of lieutenant-general (Army), 17 June, '* Uniform rule of naturalization adopted 18 June, " President announces the failure of the commission sent to France to make peace 21 June, " Alien act passed (Alikn and Sedition law8)..25 June, " All French treaties declared void 6 July, " [The tenor of judicial opinion has been that France and the U. S. were not at war, although naval engagements took place. — " Narrative and Critical History of America," vol. vii. p. 473.] Marine corps tirst organized by act of. 11 July, " Sedition laws passed (Alien and Sedition laws), 14 July, " Second Sessioti adjourns 16 July, " [Jefferson looked anxiously for this adjournment, as affording the opposition (of which he was the head) the only chance to rally. — HUdretKs " U. S.," vol. V. p. 236.] By treaty the Cherokees allow a free passage through their lands in Tennessee to all travellers on the road to Kentuckv passing through Cumberland Gap, 2 Oct. " Trial of Matthew Lj'on of Vt. before judge Patterson, under the sedition law (Trials) 7 Oct. " Third Session assembles at Philadelphia, Pa 3 Dec. " " Wieland," the first novel of Charles Brockden Brown, appears " U. S. frigate Constellation, com. Thomas Truxtun, capt- ures the French ship of war U Insurgente, off the island of St. Kitts 9 Feb. 1799 General post-office established by act of 2 Mch. " Act to regulate the collection of duties and tonnage, and to establish ports of entry 2 Mch. " Estimates for the year amount to over ,$13,000, 000. , . " Fifth Congress adjourns 3 Mch. " Upon assurance from France that a representative from the U. S. will be received with the " respect due a powerful nation," president nominates William Van Murray as minister to France, and associates with him chief-justice Ellsworth of Connecticut and gov. Davie of North Carolina ; all are received by Napo- leon, first consul 30 Mch. " Sixih Congress, First Session, assembles at Philadel- phia, Pa 2 Dec. " Speaker of the House, Theodore Sedgwick, Mass. John Randolph of Roanoke, Va., enters Congress, 2 Dec. " George Waslungton d .;^. ... 14 Dec. " Eulogy before Congress by Henry Lee of Va. calling him "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen" 26 Dec. " U. S. frigate Constellation, com. Thomas Truxtun, de- feats the French frigate La Vengeance 1 Feb. 1800 [Congress honored Truxton with a gold medal.] General Bankruptcy act 4 Apr. " Territory of Indiana organized 7 May, " Stricter law against the slave-trade 10 May, " Congress establishes 4 land offices for the sale of pub- lic lands in the Northwest territory (Ohio) . 10 May, " First Session (last meeting in Philadelphia) adjourns, 14 May, « President Adams removes Timothy Pickering, sec. of state, and James McHenry, sec. of war May, '• U. S. government removes from Philadelphia to the new capital, Washington July, " [One packet-sloop carried from Philadelphia all the furniture of the several departments, together with the archives of the Federal government, which filled " 7 large boxes and 4 or 5 smaller ones."] Frigate George Washington, capt. William Bainbridge, carries to Algiers the dey's tribute-money, and is required to carry the dey's ambassador to Con- stantinople Sept. " [First U. S. man-of-war in the Bosporus.] 838 UNI Envoys to France negotiate a convention for 8 years, preventing open war. 30 Sept. 1800 [Ratified by France, 31 July, 1801, and by the U. S., 19 Dec. 1801. Under this treaty the daims for indemnity, known as the " French Spoliation Claims," have been the subject of frequent reports and discussions in Congress, with no result until referred to the court of Claims by the act of 20 Jan. 1883.] Spanish government cedes Louisiana to France by the secret treaty of St. Ildefonso 1 Oct. " Fourth presidential election 11 Nov. " [Democratic-Republican candidates, Thomas Jef- ferson and Aaron Burr; Federalists, John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney.] Second Session (first meeting in Washington, D. C), 17 Nov. « Capitol building burned at Washington 19 Jan. 1801 John Marshall appointed chief-justice 20 Jan. " , Electoral votes counted 11 Feb. [Thomas Jefferson received 73 ; Aaron Burr, 73 ; John Adams, 65; Charles C. Pinckney, 64; John Jay, 1. The tie between Jefferson and Burr re- mained for the House of Representatives to decide. Balloting began Wednesday, Feb. 11, and continued for 7 days, until a choice was effected. Seats were provided for the president and Senate, but the gal- lery was cleared and the doors were closed. On the first ballot. New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, aiwi Tennessee voted for Jefferson, while New Hamp- shire, Massachusetts, Khode Island, Connecticut, Del- aware, and South Carolina voted for Burr. Vermont and Maryland were divided. 104 members were present. In the afternoon of 17 Feb., on the 36th ballot, Delaware and South Carolina cast blanks, while Vermont and Maryland voted for Jefferson and elected him.] Congress assumes jurisdiction over the District of Columbia 27 Feb. Navy reduced to 13 vessels ; the rest to be disarmed fl and sold 3 Mch. [Among those reserved were the frigates United States, Constitution, President, Chesapeake, Phila- delphia, Constellation, Congress."] Sixth Congress adjourns 3 Mch. " Fourth Administration— Democratic-Republican. 4 Mch. 1801 to 3 Mch. 1805. Seat of Government at Washington, D. C. Thomas Jefferson, Va., president. Aaron Burr, N. Y., vice-president. cabinet. James Madison, Va., sec. of state, from 5 Mch. 1801. Samuel Dexter, Mass., sec. of treas., continued. Albert Gallatin, Pa,, sec. of treas., from 15 May, 1801. Henry Dearborn, Mass., sec. of war, from 5 Mch. 1801. Benjamin Stoddert, Md., sec. of navy, continued. Robert Smith, Md., sec. of navy, from 26 Jan. 1802. Jacob Crowninshield, Mass., sec. of navy, from 2 Mch. 1805. Levi Lincoln, Mass., attorney-gen., from 5 Mch. 1801. Robert Smith, Md., attorney-gen., from 2 Mch. 1805. Joseph Habersham, Ga., postmaster-gen., continued. Gideon Granger, Conn., postmaster-gen. from 28 Nov. 1801. Three frigates and one sloop-of-war sent to the Bar- barv coast to protect our commerce, commanded by com. Richard Dale 20 May, 1801 Tripoli declares war against the U. S 10 June, " Seventh Congress, First Session, convenes 7 Dec. " Speaker of the House, Nathaniel Macon, N. C. President Jefferson sends a written message to Con- gress and announces that no answer is expected. No president has since addressed Congress orally. Congress appoints John Beckleyof Va. librarian, with a room of the Capitol for the library 26 Jan. 1802 UNI i Congress recognizes the war with Tripoli 6 Feb. 1802 Repeal of the new Circuit act , 8 Mch. " Congress reduces the army to the peace establish- ment of 1796 — 1 regiment of artillery and 2 of in- fantry — and organizes a military academy at West Point ' '.16 Mch. '« Excise tax repealed 16 Mch. »* Naturalization laws of 1798 repealed ; those of 1795 restored 14 Apr. '* [That of 1795 required 5 years' residence, and application 3 years prior to naturalization; that of 1798 required 14 years' residence, and application 5 years prior to naturalization.] Judicial system of the U. S. amended 29 Apr. " Library of Congress catalogued, containing 964 vol- umes and 9 maps Apr. ** First Session adjourns 3 May, " Washington incorporated as a city " " Ohio adopts a state constitution 29 Nov. " [Political intrigues in the state of New York and at Washington against Aaron Burr, destroying his political prospects, culminated during 1802. " Never in the history of the United States did so powerful a combination of rival puliticians unite to break down a single man as that which arrayed itself against Burr; for, as the hostile circle gathered about him, he could plainly see Jefferson, Madison, and the whole Virginia legion, with DeWitt Clin- ton and others of New York, and among them Alex- ander Hamilton, joining hands with his own bitter- est enemies to complete the ring and bring about his political ruin." — Henry Adamses " Hist. U. S.," vol. i.p.332.] Second Session convenes 6 Dec. " Ohio admitted as a state (the 17th) 19 Feb. 1803 Seventh Couf/ress adjourns 3 Mch. " Treaty with France : the U. S. purchases Louisiana for $15,000,000 30 Apr. " Eighth Congress, First Session, convenes 17 Oct. " Speaker of the House, Nathaniel Macon, N. C. Senate ratifies the treaty with France, by vote of 24 to 7 *. 20 Oct. " President authorized by Congress to take possession of Louisiana 30 Oct. " Frigate Philadelphia, 44 guns, capt. Bainbridge, pur- suing Tripoli tan ship of war, strikes a rock in the harbor of Tripoli and is captured 31 Oct. " Independence of Hayti proclaimed 29 Nov. " XH.th Amendment to the Constitution, relative to electing the president and vice-president, passed by the Senate, 22 to 10 2 Dec. " [By this amendment the electors are required to ballot separately for president and vice - president. The election of 1804 the first under the amendment.] Same passed by the House — 83 to 42 12 Dec. " New Orleans delivered to the U. S 20 Dec. " Lieut. Stephen Decatur, with the ketch Intrepid, de- stroys the Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli under the guns of the castle, without losing a man, night of 16 Feb. 1804 Impeachment of Samuel Chase, associate justice of the Supreme court; trial began Feb. " [Acquitted Mch. 1805.] Louisiana purchase divided into the territory of Or- leans and the District of Louisiana 26 Mch. " First Session adjourns 27 Mch. " ('apt. Meriwether Lewis, of the First Infantry, and lieut. William Clark, appointed to explore the Missouri river and seek water communication with the Pacific coast, enter the Missouri river, 14 May, " Burr, vice-president, mortally wounds Alexander Ham- ilton in a duel at Weehawken, N. J., Hamilton hav- ing fired in the air (Buhr's conspiracy, Duels), 11 July, " Xll.th Amendment being accepted by two thirds of the states — Massachusetts, Connecticut, and ^ UNI Delaware only dissenting — is declared ratified, 25 Sept. 1804 Second Session convenes 4 Nov. " [7 Federal senators and 25 representatives.] Fifth presidential election 13 Nov. " Territory of Michigan formed from Indiana. . .11 Jan. 1805 [Division to take place 30 June, 1805.] Electoral vote counted 13 Feb. '* [For president, Thomas Jefferson, Va., 162 votes; for vice-president, George Clinton, N. Y., 162 votes, both Democratic-Republicans. Charles C. Pinck- ney, S. C, for president, and Rufus King, N. Y., for vice-president. Federal, each receiving 14 votes.] Twenty-five gunboats ordered for the protection of ports and harbors 2 Mch. " [This measure was urged by President Jefferson, but proved to be useless.] Genesee and Buffalo Cteek,AiJ. Y., made ports of en- try /. 3 Mch. « Eighth Congress adjourns, . ,'. " ♦» [With this Congress closes the political life of Aaron Burr.] Fifth Administration — Democratic-Eepublican. 4 Mch. 1806 to 3 Mch. 1809. Thomas Jefferson, Va., president. George Clinton, N. Y., vice-president. CABINET, James Madison, Va., sec. of state, continued. Albert Gallatin, Pa., sec. of treas., continued. Jacob Crowninshield, Mass., sec. of navy, from 3 Mch. 1805. IIen7y Dearbo7-n, Mass., sec. of war, continued. Robert Smith, Md., attorney-gen., from 3 Mch. 1805. John Breckinridge, Ky., atlorney-gen., from 25 Dec. 1805. Ccesar A. Eodneg, Del., attorney-gen., from 20 Jan. 1807, Gideon Granger, Conn., postmaster-gen., continued. Treaty of peace with Tripoli 3 June, 1805 Abiel Holmes's "American Annals" first pub " Uinth Congress, First Session, convenes 2 Dec. " Speaker of the House, Nathaniel Macon, N. C. Commission authorized to lay out a national road from Cumberland, Md., to the Ohio river 29 Mch, 1806 First Session adjourns 21 Apr. " Leander, a British naval vessel, fires into an Amer- ican coaster, the Richard, off Sandy Hook, and kills the helmsman 25 Apr. " Great Britain issues an " order in council " declaring the whole coast of Europe, from the Elbe to Brest, in France, under blockade 16 May, " Napoleon issues the Berlin Decree 21 Nov. " Second Session convenes 1 Dec. " Treaty with Great Britain signed by commissioners, but the president did not even send it to the Senate, 3 Dec. « Aaron Burr's supposed conspiracy culminates " Burr arrested by lieut. Gaines, near fort Stoddart, Ala 19 Feb. 1807 Act to prohibit import of slaves from 1 Jan. 1808 passes the House 7 Feb. 1807, by 113 to 5; approved, 2 ]\Ich. « Duty on salt repealed 3 Mch. " Xinth Congress adjourns . . , " " Burr brought to Richmond, Va., early in Mch. " His trial for treason begins there (Burr's con- spiracy. Trials) 22 May, " British frigate Leopard, 50 guns, capt. Humphreys, fires into the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, com. Barron, off Chesapeake bay, killing 3 and wounding 8, and takes 4 seamen, claiming them as British subjects, 22 June, « [Barron was suspended by a court-martial for 5 years without pay and emoluments, for making no resistance and surrendering his ship.] American ports closed to the British, and British ships ordered from American waters Julv, " 1807 1808 UNI First steamboat, the Clermont (Fulton's), starts from New York for Albany 14 Sept. [From this time regular trips were made on the Hudson at about 5 miles an hour.] Aaron Burr acquitted 16 Sept. Tenth Congress, First Session, convenes 26 Oct. Speaker of the House, Joseph B. Vara um, Mass. A British "order in council" forbids neutral nations to trade with France or her allies except under tribute to Great Britain 11 Nov. Napoleon's Milan decree forbids trade with England or her colonies, and confiscates any vessel paying tribute or submitting to English search. . . .17 Dec. Congress authorizes the building of 188 gunboats, at a cost of not over $852,000 18 Dec. [This made, with those previously built, 257.] Embargo act prohibits foreign commerce. . . .22 Dec. [On the mere recommendation of the executive, with little debate, with closed doors, with scarcely any warning to the public, or opportunity of advice by those most able to give it, this act was forced through by night sessions, and by the overbearing determination of a majority at once pliant and ob- stinate — an act striking a deadly blow at the na- tional industry and at the means of livelihood of great numbers, the real nature and inevitable oper- ation of which seems to have been equally misap- prehended by the president and the cabinet recom- mending it, and by the majority enacting it, — Hildreth's '• Hist. U. S.," vol. vi. p. 37.] Second and more stringent Embargo act (commonly called, reading the title backward, the " O grab me act") 9 Jan. Embargo modified ; the president authorized to per- mit vessels to transport American property home from foreign ports 12 Mch. Army raised to 5 regiments of infantry, 1 of riflemen, 1 of light artillery, and 1 of light dragoons, to be enlisted for 5 years 12 Apr. "Salmagundi," first work of Washington Irving, pub First Session adjourns 26 Apr. Burr leaves New York for Europe 9 June, Sixth presidential election 8 Nov. Second Session convenes 7 Nov. Territory of Illinois established 3 Feb. [Now the states of Illinois and Wisconsin.] Electoral vote counted in the House 8 Feb. [Candidates : Democratic - Republicans, James Madison of Va. for president, 122 ; George Clinton of N. Y. for vice-president, 113. Federalists, Charles C. Pinckney of S. C. for president, 47 ; Rufus King of N. Y. for vice-president, 47 , scattering, 21.] Embargo act repealed 1 Mch. Non - intercourse act forbids commercial intercourse with Great Britain, France, and their dependencies after May 20 1 Mch. Tenth Congress adjourns 3 Mch. Sixth Administration— Democratio-Eepublican. 4 Mch. 1809 to 3 Mch. 1813. James Madison, Va., president. George Clinton, N. Y., vice-president. CABINET. Robert Smith, Md., sec, of state, from 6 Mch. 1809. Jmnes Monroe, Va., sec. of state, from 2 Apr. 1811. A Ibert Gallatin, Pa., sec. of treas., continued. William Eustis, Mass., sec. of war, from 7 Mch. 1809. John A rmstrong, N. Y., sec. of war, from 13 Jan. 1813. Paul Hamilton, S. C, sec. of navy, from 7 Mch. 1809. William Jones, Pa., sec. of navy, from 12 Jan. 1813. Ccesar A. Rodney, Del., attorney-gen., continued. William Pinkney, Md., attorney-gen., from 11 Dec. 1811. Gideon Granger, Conn., postmaster-gen., continued. President proclaims that both England and France 840 UNI 1 1809 have revoked their edicts as to neutrals, and ter- minates the Non-intercourse act 19 Apr. 1809 Eleventh Congress, First Session (extra), convenes, 22 May, « Speaker of the House, Joseph B. Varnum, Mass. Francisco Miranda, a native of South America, aiming to overthrow the Spanish power in Caracas, S. A., engages a vessel, the Leander, and with about 250 men sails from New York, Feb. 1806. Although re- inforced by some other vessels, and gaining some advantages, the expedition results in failure. The Americans of the expedition captured by the Span- iards, while confined at Carthagena, petition their government for relief, 9 June. A resolution request- ing the president to take measures for their libera- tion, if satisfied that they are entitled to it, is offered in the House,- it is lost (61 to 61) by the speaker's casting vote 14 June, " John Quincv Adams, minister to Russia, continued un- til 1813.'. « First Session (extra) adjourns 28 June, " Great Britain not revoking her " Orders in Council " of 1807, the president proclaims the Non-intercourse act still in force towards that country 9 Aug. " David M. Erskine, British minister to U. S., recalled, and Francis J. Jackson appointed arrives Sept. " [British minister F. J. Jackson left Washington, and from New York asked for his passport. His rela- tions with this government being unsatisfactory, his recall was asked for.] Second Session convenes 27 Nov. " Committee appointed by the House to inquire into the charge that brig. -gen. James Wilkinson had re- ceived a bribe from the Spanish government; or was an accomplice, or in any way concerned, with the agent of any foreign power, or with Aaron Burr (see this record, 1811) 3 Apr. 1810 General post-office established at Washington under the postmaster-general (Postal servick) 30 Apr. " British and French armed vessels excluded from Amer- ican waters by act approved .1 May, " Second Session adjourns " " Napoleon's Rambouillet decree, dated Mch. 23, issued. May, " [Ordered the sale of 132 American vessels capt- ured ; worth, with their cargoes, $8,000,000 (see Mc- Master^s " Hist, of the People of the U. S.," vol. iii., p. 367, note).] France proclaims the revocation of the Berlin and Milan decrees, to take effect after 1 Nov. " [The revocation was not carried into effect, but American vessels still continued to be seized by French cruisers and confiscated.] Third Session convenes 3 Dec. ** Recharter of the U. S. bank passed by the House, 66 to 64; fails in the Senate, 17 to 17, by the casting vote of president of the Senate, George Clinton, 20 Feb. 1811 Trading-posts first established among the Indians by Congress ; act approved 2 Mch. " Eleventh Congress adjourns 3 Mch. " William Pinkney, U. S. minister to England, returns to the U. S May, " President, U. S. frigate, 44 guns, com. John Rodgers com- manding, meets the British sloop-of-war Little Belt in lat. 37°, about 40 miles off cape Charles . . 16 May, " [In this engagement (both parties denied begin- ning it) the Little Belt, a much weaker vessel than the President, was badly ri " Com. Oliver Hazard Perry dies at Trinidad, West Indies, of yellow-fever 23 Aug. " Sixteenth Congress, First Session, convenes. . . .6 Dec. " Henry Clay, speaker of the House. Memorial from the people of Maine, praying for ad- mission into the Union, presented 7 Dec. " Memorial from Missouri, asking for admission, again presented in the House 7 Dec. " Alabama admitted (the 22d state) 14 Dec. " Bill for the admission of Maine passes the House, 3 Jan. 1820 Senate adds to the bill admitting Maine a clause for the admission of Missouri and an amendment pro- posed by senator Thomas, III., prohibiting the intro- duction of slaves into Louisiana north of the Arkan- sas boundary, 36° 30', except in Missouri. Thomas proviso passes the Senate, 30 to 10, and the bill as amended passes the Senate, 24 to 20 18 Feb. " House rejects the amendments ; Senate asks for a com- mittee of conference; House passes Missouri bill with a clause prohibiting the further introduction of slaves, 93 to 84 29 Feb. « Senate returns the Missouri bill to the House with slavery clause struck out and senator Thomas's ter- ritorial proviso inserted 2 Mch. " Committee of conference advises the Senate to recede from its amendment to the Maine bill, and the House to pass the Senate Missouri bill ; House strikes out from the Missouri bill the prohibition of slaverv, 90 to 84, and inserts the " Thomas proviso," 134 to' 42 2 Mch. « Maine admitted (the 23d state) by act of Congress ap- proved 3 Mch. " [To take effect 15 Mch.] Congress authorizes the people of Missouri to form a state government 6 Mch. " UNI «46 Duel between com. Stephen Decatur and com. James Barron at Bladensburg, Md 22 Mch. 1820 [Decatur was mortally and Barron severely wounded.] Congress abolishes the sale of public lands on credit, 24 Apr. " Congress organizes the first committee on agriculture, 3 May, " Congress authorizes a loan of $3,000,000 15 May, " First Session adjourns " " First steamship line between New York and New Or- leans established June, " Daniel Boone dies at Charrette, Mo., aged 85, 26 Sept. " Spain ratifies her treaty with the U. S. whereby she cedes Florida 20 Oct. " Second Session convenes 13 Nov. " Henry Clay resigns the speakership ; John W. Taylor of N. Y. elected on the 22d ballot by a majority of 1, 14 Nov. « Presidential election held " " [James Monroe of Va., Democratic-Republican, for president ; Daniel D. Tompkins of N. Y. for vice- president. No opposition.] Missouri, in her constitution, requires her legislature to prohibit free colored persons from settling in the state. The Senate adds a proviso that nothing contained in the constitution shall be construed as conflicting with thatclause in the Constitution of the U. S. which declares " the citizens of each state shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states." The bill admitting Missouri, with her constitution as amended, passes the Senate, 26 to 18 11 Dec. « Electoral votes counted 14 Feb. 1821 [James Monroe of Va. for president, 231 ; John Q. Adams, 1. Daniel D. Tompkins of N. Y. for vice- president, 218; scattering, 14.] House not agreeing with the Senate, 22 Feb., on the Missouri bill, Henry Clay of Ky. moves a committee to act with a committee of the Senate " to consider whether it is expedient to admit Missouri into the Union, and for the due execution of the laws of the U. S., and if not, whether any other or what provision should be made." The joint committee consists of 7 senators and 23 representatives. Clay reports a joint resolution from the committee 26 Feb. 1821 This resolution — " that Missouri shall be admitted on the fundamental condition that the 4th clause (re- specting free negroes) shall never be construed to authorize the passing of any law, and no law shall be passed, by which any citizen of any of the states shall be excluded from the enjoyment of any of the privileges to which he is entitled by the Constitution of the U. S. ; provided the legislature, by a solemn public act, shall declare and transmit to the president its assent to the amendment recommended by the se- lect committee "—passes the House, 87 to 81, 26 Feb. « Senate concurs, 26 to 15 27 Feb. " Resolution passed by Congress admitting Missouri into the Union (the 24th state) approved 2 Mch. « [It was 3 years after the question of admitting Missouri came before Congress that the final com- promise and resolution of admission passed.] Congress authorizes a loan of $5,000,000 3 Mch. " Sixteenth Congress adjourns " " [It was during this and the preceding Congress, and in the discussions on the admission of Missouri, that the Southern slave interest outlined its future course as a political power.] Ninth Administration— Democratic-Bepublioan. 5 Mch. 1821 to 3 Mch. 1825. James Monroe, Va., president. Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y., vice-president. CABINET. John Quincy A dams, Mass., sec. of state, continued from 1817. William H. Crawford,G&.,sec. of treas., continued from 1817. UNI John C. Calhoun, S. C, sec. of war, continued from 1817. Smith Thompson, N. Y., sec. of navy, continued from 1818. John Rogers, Mass., pres. of navy committee, 1 Sept. 1823. Samuel J. Southard, N. J., sec. of navy, 16 Sept. 1823. WiUiam Wirt, Va., attorney-gen., continued from 1817. Return J. Meigs, O., postmaster-gen., continued from 1814. John McLean, O., postmaster-gen., 26 June, 1823. President appoints gen. Andrew Jackson governor of Florida .Apr. 1821 Gen. Jackson takes possession of Florida 1 July, Pres. Monroe proclaims the admission of Missouri as the 24th state lo Aug. " Seventeenth Congress, First Session, convenes. .3 Dec. « Philip P. Barbour, Va., elected speaker of the House. Thomas H. Benton enters the Senate from Missouri, 6 Dec. « William Pinkney of Md. dies, aged 58 25 Feb. 1822 Apportionment bill passed (Representatives, Hquse of) 1 Mch. » President, by message, recommends the recognition of the independence of the South American states and Mexico 8 Mch. « Bankrupt bill defeated in the House by a vote of 72 to 99 12 Mch. « Resolution recognizing the independence of the Amer- ican provinces of Spain passed by the House, 167 tol 28 Mch. [Mr. Garnett of Va. voted against the measure.] Territorial government established in Florida, 30 Mch. President vetoes an appropriation of $9000 for preserv- ing and repairing the Cumberland road. .4 May, President submits to Congress his objection to national appropriations for internal improvements. . .4 May, ["This important state paper, together with the veto, interposes a breakwater to the popular policy of the day."— Schouler's " Hist, of the U. S.," vol. iii. p. 254.] First Session adjourns 8 May, Second Session convenes 2 Dec. A petition to Congress asks that capt. John Cleves Symmes's theory be verified by a voyage to the north, and that capt. Symmes be intrusted with the conduct of the expedition (Symmes's theory), 27 Jan. 1828 Stephen F. Austin obtains from Mexico a grant of land in Texas for colonization Feb. [The settlement named Austin, now the capital of the state. Texas.] Seventeenth Congress adjourns 3 Mch. Eighteenth Congress, First Session, convenes. . .1 Dec. Henry Clay of Ky. elected speaker. Pres. Monroe, in his message, proclaims the " Monroe Doctrine " in the following words : " We owe it to candor, and to the amicable relations existing be- tween the United States and those great European powers, to declare that we should consider any at- tempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies and depen- dencies of any European power we have not inter- fered, and shall not interfere ; but with the govern- ments who have declared their independence and maintained it, and whose independence we have on great considerations and on just principles acknowl- edged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power, in any other light than as a manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards the United States." This is known as the " Monroe doctrine ". . . .2 Dec. A resolution authorizing an embassy to Greece offered in the House by Daniel Webster of Mass. . .8 Dec. [This, resolution was defeated 26 Jan. 1824, al- though ably supported by Clay, Webster, and others. John Randolph opposed it in speeches full of sense UNI 847 UNI and sarcasm. " Of the three distinct types of our congressmen's oratory, no better specimens to this day can be found than in the several speeches which Clay, Webster, and Randolph delivered in the win- ter of 1823-24 on the spur of Webster's resolution." —Schouler's " Hist, of the U. S.," vol. iii. p. 304.] TariflF (protective) bill brought before the House, 9 Jan. 1824 [Clay and Buchanan supported the bill, while Webster opposed it.] Congress by resolution oifers the marquis de Lafay- ette a ship to bring him to the U. S., approved 4 Feb. " Act to survey routes for canals and roads Feb. " Ninian Edwards presents an address to the House bringing charges against secretary Crawford. This is known as the A. B. Plot 19 Apr. " [A committee of 7 appointed to investigate.] Tariff bill passes the House, 125 to 66 19 May, " Approved 22 May, " [37 per cent, was the average rate of duty.] Report of committee exonerating secretary Crawford froni the charges of Mr. Edwards 25 May, " First Session adjourns . .27 May, " Lafayette, with his son, arrives at New York. 15 Aug. " [He declined the offer of a government vessel.] Tenth presidential election 9 Nov. " [There were 4 Dem.-Rep. candidates : John Q. Adams of Mass., sec. of state ; William H. Crawford of Ga., sec. of treasury; Henry Clay of Ky., speaker of the House ; and Andrew Jackson of Tenn. John C. Calhoun of S. C. was the candidate for vice-presi- dent.] Second Session convenes 6 Dec. " Lafayette welcomed to the House of Representatives, in an address by the speaker, Mr. Clay 10 Dec. " Congress (the House by 166 to 26, the Senate unani- mously) votes to Lafayette $200,000 and a town- ship of land in any part of the U. S. he might se- lect, now unoccupied . . .22 Dec. " Treaty with Russia ratified 11 Jan. 1825 I [Establishing the boundary-line between the U. S. I and Russia at 54° 40' N. lat.] ' Electoral votes counted 9 Feb. 1825 [Of these votes for president Andrew Jackson re- ceived 99, John Quincy Adams 84, William H. Crawford 41, Henry Clay 37. John C. Calhoun, for vice-president, received 182 ; scattering, 78. As no candidate for president had a majority, the House proceeded to vote for the three highest — Jackson, Adams, and Crawford. This vote was taken by states, each state having 1 vote. Of tliese John Q. Adams received 13, Andrew Jackson 7, and Will- iam H.Crawford 4; and Adams was elected. Clay throwing his influence for him. This produced great excitement, as the country expected Jackson to be chosen.] Treaty with the Creek Indians termed the "Indian Spring treaty " 12 Feb. " [This treaty was signed by their chief Mcintosh, and provided for the cession of all the Creek terri- tory in Georgia and several million acres in Ala- bama for $400,000. The Indians repudiated this cession and killed Mcintosh, about 30 Apr.—" Niles's Register," 21 May, 1825.] An act appropriating $150,000 to extend the Cum- berland ROAD from Canton, on the Ohio, opposite Wheeling, to Zanesville, O approved 3 Mch. " An act of Congress for strengthening the laws of the U. S approved 3 Mch. " Eighteenth Congress adjourns " " Tenth Administration.— Democratic -Eepublican (co- alition) 4 Mch. 1825 to 3 Mch. 1829. John Quincy Adams, Mass , president. John 0. Calhoun, S. C, vice-president. CABINET. Henry Clay, Ky., sec' of state, from 7 Mch. 1825. Richard Rush, Pa., sec. of treas., from 7 Mch. 1825. James Barhour, Va., sec. of war, from 7 Mch. 1825. Peter B. Porter, N. Y., sec. of war, from 26 May, 1828. Samuel L. Southard, N. J., sec. of navv, continueil from 16 Sept. 1823. William Wirt,Ya., attorney-gen., continued from 13 Nov. 1817. John McLean, O., postmaster-gen., continued from 26 June, 1823. [Senate confirmed the cabinet officers unanimously, except the secretary of state. The vote upon his nom- ination was 27 to 14. The opposition charged Clay with defeating Andrew Jackson by a coalition with Mr. Adams.] Corner-stone of Bunker Hill monument laid. .17 June, 1825 [Lafayette was present, and Daniel Webster de- livered the oration.] Lafayette leaves Washington for France in the new frigate Brandywine, furnished him by the govern- ment 7 Sept. " [He had visited every state (24) of the Union.] Mordecai M. Noah selects Grand Island, in the Niagara river, as a site for a city of refuge for the Jews, to be called Ararat 17 Sept. " [The only remaining relic of this scheme, now in possession of the Buffalo Historical Society, is a stone tablet bearing a Hebrew inscription, and the name of the founder, etc.] Illuminating gas comes into general use in New York . " Cbtn. David Porter, while cruising, lands a force at Porto Rico and exacts an apology for an insult to the American flag. He is recalled and suspended for 6 months " Erie canal finished (New York) 26 Oct. " Nineteenth Congress, First Session, convenes. . .5 Dec. " Speaker of the House, John W. Taylor, N. Y. [Edward Everett entered Congress this session from Mass., and James K. Polk from Tenn.] Dispute between the state of Georgia and the U. S. , upon the removal of the Creek Indians 1825-29 John Gaillard, U. S. senator from S. C. from 1804-26, and from 14 Apr. 1814 to 9 Mch. 1825, president pro tem. of the Senate, dies at Washington. . . . .26 Feb. 1826 South American states call a general congress, to meet at Panama in June, 1826, and to consider the rights of those states, and invite delegates from the U. S. Congress appropriates $40,000, and ap- points Richard C. Anderson, minister to Colombia, and John Sargeant of Philadelphia, delegates, 14 Mch. 1826 During the debate on the " Panama congress " in the Senate, John Randolph refers to the coalition of Adams and Clay as that of " the Puritan and the blackleg." A duel followed between Clay and Ran- dolph (Duels) 8 Apr. " First Session adjourns 22 IMay, " John Adams, b. Braintree, Mass., 19 Oct. 1735, and Thomas Jefferson, b. Monticello, Va., 2 Apr. 1743, die on the 50th anniversary of American indepen- dence 4 July, " Abduction of William Morgan from Canandaigua, N. Y .' 12 Sept. " [(iave rise to a political party — the Anti-Ma- sonic — that became national in importance, though short-lived. Morgan, W^illiam ; New York ; Po- litical PARTIES.] Convention with (ireat Britain concerning indemnities for the war of 1812-14 13 Nov. " Second Session convenes 4 Dec. " Congress makes an appropriation for the payment of ■Revolutionary and other pensions 29 Jan. 1827 Nineteenth Congress adjourns 3 Mch. " Gen. Gaines ordered into the Creek Indian country. . . " Protectionists hold a convention at Harrisburg, Pa., and demand a higher tariff 30 July, " U. S. and Great Britain by treaty agree to extend or renew the commercial agreements of 1818, and the Oregon boundary to continue indefinitelv, 6 Aug. « UNI First railroad in ihe U. S., niiining from Qiiincy, Mass., to the Ne|»onset river, 3 miles, comraenced 1826; completed (operated by horse-power) . 1827 Boundary differences between the U. S. and the Brit- ish possessions to be referred to an arbiter. .29 Sept. " Twentieth Congress, First Session, convenes.. . .3 Dec. " Speaker of the House, Andrew Stevenson of Va. By another treaty Creek Indians cede their remaining lands in Georgia for $47,491. Ratified Jan. 1828 Maj.-gen. Jacob Brown dies at Washington. . .24 Feb. " Debate on the tariff bill begun in the House.. .4 Mch. " Debate in the Senate 5-14 May, " Tariff bill passed by the House 15 May, " Approved ; known as the " Tariff of Abominations " (Tariff) 19 May, " [Principal speakers in the Senate on this bill were: Thomas H. Benton, Mo. ; M. Dickerson, N. J. ; Robert Y. Hayne, S. C. ; Daniel Webster, Mass. ; Levi Woodbury, N. H. ; and Samuel Smith, Md.] Congress by resolution grants Charles Carroll of Carrollton, only surviving signer of the Declara- tion of Independence, the franking privilege, 23 May, " First Session adjourns 26 May, " Second railroad in the U. S. from Mauch Chunk, Pa., to the Lehigh river, 9 miles, commenced 1827, and finished Eleventh presidential election 11 Nov. " [Candidates : Democrats, for president, Andrew Jackson. Tenn. ; vice-president, John C. Calhoun, S. C. National-Republicans, for president, John Q. Adams, Mass. ; vice-president, Richard Rush, Pa.] Second Session convenes 1 Dec. " Electoral votes counted in the House 11 Feb. 1829 [Democrats, Andrew Jackson, Tenn., for president, 178; John C. Calhoun, S. C, vice-president, 171. National-Republicans, John Quiucy Adams, Mass., for president, 83 ; Richard Rush, Pa., vice-president, 83. Nullifiers, William Smith, S. C, for vice-presi- dent, 7.] Twetitieth Congress adjourns. 3 Mch. " Eleventh Administration— Democratic. 4 Mch. 1829 to 3 Mch. 1833. Andrew Jackson, Tenn., president. John C. Cnlhoun, S. C, vice-president. CABINET, Martin Van Buren, N. Y., sec. of state, from 6 Mch. 1829. Resigned. Edward Livingston, La., sec. of state, from 24 May, 1831. Samvel D. Ingham, Pa., sec. of treas., from 6 Mch. 1829. Louis McLane, Del., sec. of treas., from 8 Aug. 1831. John ff. Eaton, Tenn., sec. of war, from 9 Mch. 1829. Lewis Cass, Mich., sec. of war, from 1 Aug. 1831. John Branch, N. C, sec. of navy, from 9 Mch. 1829. Levi Woodbury, N. H., sec. of navy, from 23 May, 1831. John McPherson Beriien, Ga., attorney-gen., from 9 Mch. 1829. Roger B. Taney, Md., attorney-gen., from 27 Dec. 1831. Willidin T. Barry, Ky., postmaster-gen., from 9 Mch. 1829. [ Po6tmaster-gen. had not hitherto been recognized as a member of the cabinet.] John Jay, statesman, dies at Bedford, N. Y. . . 19 May, 1829 James L. M. Smithson, founder of the Smithsonian Institution, dies in Genoa, Italy 27 June, " " Stourbridge Lion," the first locomotive run in the U. S., is purchased in England and arrives in New York in June, 1829 ; shipped to Carbondale, and tried on the track at Honesdale 8 Aug. " William Lloyd Garrison publishes the Genius at Balti- more, Md., advocating immediate emancipation.. . . " [Benjamin Lundy associate editor.] Twenty-first Congress, First Session, convenes.. 7 Dec. " Speaker of the House, Andrew Stevenson of Va. Robert Y. Hayne's (S. C.) great speech in defence of state rights in the Senate on " the Foote resolution," limiting the sale of public lands 25 Jan. 1830 848 UNI Daniel Webster's reply defends the Constitution, 26-27 Jan. 1880 [Perhaps the most eloquent speeches ever made in Congress.] '.^ Jared Sparks begins his " American Biography " « ^# Bill before the House for a national road from Buffalo, N. Y., to New Orleans, La., via Washington, 23 Mch. " Treaty with Denmark ; indemnity claims. . . .28 Mch. " Pres. Jackson at a public dinner in Washington on Jef- ferson's birthday gives this toast, "Our Federal Union, it must be preserved." Vice-pres. Calhoun responded : " Liberty dearer than Union ". .13 Apr. " Bill for a national road from Buffalo, N. Y., to New Orleans, La., rejected in House by 88 to 105..14 Apr. '« Treaty with the Ottoman empire 7 May, « Final rupture between Jackson and Calhoun May, " [Van Buren set to work to destroy the friendship and confidence that existed between Calhoun and the president. — Blaine's " Twenty Years of Con- gress," vol. i. p. 28.] Duties on coffee, tea, and cocoa reduced 20 May, " President vetoes the Mayville and Lexington, Kv., road bill (Vkto) 27 May, « Massachusetts obtains from the U. S. $430,748.26 for services of her militia 1812-14 31 May, " First Session adjourns " " John Randolph sails as minister to Russia June, " [He remained in Russia for 10 days, went to Eng- land for nearly a year, returned in Oct. 1831, and drew $21,407 as pay.— Schouler's " Hist, of the U. S.," vol.iii.p.461.] Anti-Masonic party hold the first national convention in the U. S. at Philadelphia, Pa., Francis Granger of New York presiding Sept. • '* Second Session convenes 6 Dec. " Senate rejects the award of the king of the Nether- lands as arbitrator of the boundary between Maine and Great Britain (Maine) 10 Jan. 1831 First locomotive built in the U. S., " The Best Friend," at the West Point foundery shops in New York city ; first trip on the South Carolina railroad. ... 15 Jan. " ^ Twenty-first Congress adjourns 3 Mch. John H. Eaton, sec. of war, resigns 7 Apr. Martin Van Buren, sec. of state, resigns " Ex-pres. James Monroe dies in New York, aged 73, 4 July, Negro insurrection led by Nat Turner in Southampton county, Virginia Aug. Pres. Jackson re-forms his cabinet **^^| Anti-Masonic party hold a national convention at Bal- timore, Md., and nominate William Wirt of Va. for president and Amos Ellraaker of Pa. for vice-presi- dent; number of delegates 112 26 Sept. Free-trade convention held at Philadelphia. . . .5 Oct. High-tariff convention held at New York 26 Oct. Copyright law radically amended, making the term 28 years instead of 14, with renewal of 14 years more, and wife and children of author, in case of his death, entitled to a renewal " William Lloyd (iarrison begins the publication of the Liberator at Boston " Twenty-second Congress, First Session, convenes, 5 Dec. " Speaker of the House, Andrew Stevenson of Va. [Thomas Corwin's first appearance in Congress as a member from Ohio.] National-Republican party hold a national convention at Baltimore, Md., and nominate Henry Clay of Ky. for president and John Sergeant of Pa. for vice-pres- ident ; number of delegates 155 12 Dec. [This party advocated higher tariff and internal improvements.] Memorial for the renewal of the charter of the National bank presented to Congress 9 Jan. 1832 William L. Marcy of N. Y., while urging the Senate to confirm Martin Van Buren as minister to England, says, " They see nothing wrong iii the rule that to the victors belong the spoils of the enemy," 25 Jan. '* 4 i UNI Henry Clay advocates the " American system " of pro- tection in the Senate, supported by the senators from Delaware, Maine, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island Jan.-Feb. 1832 Democratic (first so called) National convention meets in Baltimore .' 21 May, " [Nominated Jackson for president, and Martin Van Biiren of N. Y. for vice-president, he having been rejected as minister to England in the Senate by the vote of vice-pres. Calhoun. In this convention it was resolved " that two thirds of the whole number of votes in the convention shall be necessary to con- stitute a choice." This was the origin of the fa- mous two-thirds rule,] Ratio of representation agreed upon by Congress ac- cording to the 5th census, 47,700 22 May, " [Number of Representatives, 240.] Black Hawk war May-Aug. " Gen. Thomas Sumter, distinguished Revolutionary soldier, dies near Camden, S. C, aged 98 1 June, " Bill re-chartering the National bank passes the Sen- ate, 28 to 20 11 June, " And the House, 107 to 85 3 July, " Commissioner of Indian affairs first appointed . .9 July, " President vetoes the Bank bill 10 July, " Senate fails to pass the Bank charter over the presi- dent's veto 13 July, " Source of the Mississippi discovered by an exploring party under Henry R. Schoolcraft 13 July, " Partial repeal of the tariff measures of 1828 . , 14 July, " [This repeal reduced many of the revenue taxes, but the protective taxes were not materially altered. Woollen yarn was now first taxed.] First Session adjourns. . . 16 July, " Cholera first appears in the U. S " [First case in Quebec, 8 June ; in New York, 27 June.] Treaty with the Two Sicilies, indemnity 14 Oct. " Presidential election . , 13 Nov. " [Candidates: Democrats, for president, Andrew Jackson of Tenn ; for vice-president, Martin Van Buren of N. Y. National-Republicans, for president, Henry Clay of Ky. ; for vice-president, John Ser- geant of Pa, Anti-Masons, for president, William Wirt of Va. , for vice-president, Amos EUmaker of Pa. NuUifiers (S. C), for president, John Floyd of S. C ; for vice-president, Henry Lee of Va.] Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Md., last surviving signer *of the Declaration of Independence, dies at Balti- more, aged 95 14 Nov. " Convention is held at Columbus, S. C, which by ordi- nance declares the Tariff acta of 1828 and 1832 null and void 19 Nov. " [The terra " nullification " was borrowed from the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of 1798.] Second Session convenes 3 Dec. " Pres. Jackson issues a proclamation to the people of South Carolina 10 Dec. " [An able and eloquent paper, written by Living- ston, sec. of state, after an original draft by Jackson.] John C. Calhoun, vice-president, resigns 28 Dec. " [Hugh L.White of Tenn. president pro tern, of the Senate.] Pres. Jackson, by message, informs Congress of the proceedings of South Carolina, and asks power to enforce the collection of the revenue 16 Jan. 1833 John C. Calhoun, now a senator from S. C, introduces resolutions: that the theory that the people of the U. S. are now or ever have been united in one nation is erroneous, false in history and reason. . . .22 Jan. " Henry Clay introduces the •' compromise tariff" in the Senate as a solution of all pending troubles between the manufacturing states and the South .... 12 Feb. " Electoral votes counted 13 Feb. " [Andrew Jackson, Tenn., for president, 219 ; Mar- tin Van Buren, N. Y., for vice-president, 189 ; Henry Clay, Ky., for president, 49 (Mass., R. I., Conn., Del., Ky., Md.) John Sergeant, Pa., for vice-president. 849 UNI 49 (Mass., R. I., Conn., Del., Ky., Md.) ; William Wirt, Va., for president, 7 (Vt.) ; Amos EUmaker, Pa., for vice-president, 7 (Vt.) ; John Floyd, S. C, for president, 1 1 (S. C.) ; Henry Lee, for vice-presi- dent, 1 1 (S. C.) ; William Wilkin, Pa., for vice-presi- dent, 30 (Pa.).] "Compromise tariff" passes the House, 119 to 85, 26 Feb. 1833 And the Senate, 29 to 16 1 Mch. " Becomes a law 3 Mch. " [This law scaled down all duties so that 20 per cent, should be the standard duty in 1842.] Twenty-second Congress adjourns . .3 Mch, " Twelfth Administration — Democratic. 4 Mch. 1833 to 3 Mch. 1837. Andrew Jackson, Tenn., president. Martin Van Buren, N. Y., vice-president. CABINET. Louis McLane, Del., sec. of state, from 29 Mch. 1833. John Forsyth, Ga., sec. of state, from 27 June, 1834. Louis McLane, Del., sec. of treas., continued from 8 Aug. 1831. William J. Duane, Pa., sec. of treas., from 29 May, 1833. Roger B. Taney, Md., sec. of treas., from 23 Sept. 1833. Not confirmed by the Senate. Levi Woodbury, N. H., sec. of treas., from 27 June, 1834. Lewis Cass, Mich., sec. of war, continued from 1 Aug. 1831. Levi Woodbury, N. H., sec. of navv, continued from 23 May, 1831. Mahlon Dickerson, N. J., sec. of navj', from 30 June, 1834. William T. Barry, Ky., postmaster-gen., continued from 9 Mch. 1829. Amos Kendall, Ky., postmaster-gen., from 1 May, 1835. Roger B. Taney, Md., attorney-gen., continued from 27 Dec. 1831. Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y., attorney-gen., from 24 June, 1834. South Carolina repeals the ordinance of nullification in a convention held 16 Mch. 1833 John Randolph of Va. dies in Philadelphia, aged 60, 24 May, « Pres. Jackson lays near Fredericksburg, Va., the corner- stone of a monument to Washington's mother, Mary Washington May, " Pres. Jackson makes a tour of the eastern states as far as Concord, N. H., returning to Washington, 3 July, " [Harvard university conferred upon him the de- gree of LL.D.] Gen. John Coffee d. near Florence, Ala., aged 61,7 July, " Com. William Bainbridge dies in Philadelphia, aged 59 28 July, « Sun, newspaper, first pub. in New York, price 1 cent ; Benjamin H. Day publisher. \ 3 Sept. " President removes W. J. Duane, sec. of treas., for re- fusing to withdraw the deposits from the National bank, and appoints Roger B. Taney of Md. in his place 23 Sept. « Pres. Jackson directs the secretary of the treasury to withdraw the deposits, about $10,000,000, from the National bank 26 Sept. « Indian chief Black Hawk is taken through the princi- pal eastern cities autumn of " Bank deposits removed from the National bank . . 1 Oct. " [This action of pres. Jackson caused great dissat- isfaction.] Anti-slavery society organized in New Y'ork city, 2 Oct. " First severe railway accident in the U. S. on the Amboy and Bordentown railroad; several killed 8 Oct. " Great display of shooting-stars . . .morning of 13 Nov. " [Generally visible in North America, though most brilliant in the eastern U. S., commencing at mid- night and continuing until sunrise.] Twenty -third Congress, First Session, convenes. 2 Dec. " Speaker of the House, Andrew Stevenson of Va. American Anti-slavery society organized at Philadel- phia; Beriah Green president, and John G.Whittier one of the secretaries 6 Dec. " UNI 850 Mr. Clay oflfere a resolution, 10 Dec, inquiring of the president whether a |Mi|)er reail to heads of depart- inenta under ilate of 18 SepU 1833, relative to the de|)OMt^ of the public money, was genuine, and re- questing that said paper be laid before the Senate. This resolution passes the Senate, 23 to 18. .11 Dec. 1833 Senate appoints a committee to investigate the National bank 4 Feb. 1834 Treaty with Spain, indemnity 17 Feb. " William Wirt, orator, lawyer, and author, dies at Wash- ington, D. C, aged 62 18 Feb. " Senate resolves that in removing the deposits the pres- ident had assumed authority not conferred by the Constitution and the laws 28 Mch. " House resolves that the National bank shall not be re- chartered nor the deposits restored 4 Apr. " President protests against the resolution of 28 Mch., but the Senate refuses to enter the protest in its minutes, 16 Apr. « Gen. Lafayette dies in France (French Revolution), 19 May, « Senate, by resolution, censures the president for re- moving the deposits June, " Coinage of the U. S. changed (Com) 28 June, " Indian territory established by Congress 30 June, " First Session adjourns " " " Whig " party first so called (New York) " [Name pleased the Federals of New England and the State-rights men of the South. The party claimed to be the true successors of the Whigs of 1776.] Treaty is made with the Seminole Indians at Payne's Landing, 9 May, 1833, and an additional treaty at fort Gibson, 28 Mch. 1834, for their removal to' the Indian territory; Indians reject the treaty of their chiefs. Gen. Thompson sent by the U. S. to insist on its execution 28 Oct. " [Seminole Avar began, 1835-42. Florida, 1832-42.] Second Session convenes 1 Dec. " John Bell of Tenn. speaker in place of Andrew Steven- son, resigned ; John Hubbard of N. H. speaker pro tern, during this session. Over 500 local banks in the U. S " ["The government revenues were deposited in banks selected by the treasury. Neither these nor their unselected rivals were under any sort of super- vision by the state which chartered them or by the federal government, and no bank-note had any cer- tainty of value."—" Narrative and Critical Hist, of America," vol. vii. p. 289.] President in his message announces the extinguishment of the national debt Dec. " John Quincy Adams, member from Mass., delivers an oration on Lafayette before Congress 31 Dec. " Attempted assassination of pres. Jackson at the Capitol by Richard Lawrence 30 Jan. 1835 [Lawrence tried in Apr., but proved insane.] Congress awards a gold medal to col. George Croghan for his gallant defence of Fort Stephenson 22 years before 13 Feb. " Senate appoints a committee of 5 to inquire into the al- leged complicity of sen. Poindexter of Miss, in the attempt to assassinate the president 22 Feb. " [Investigation showed sen. Poindexter innocent.] Congress establishes branch mints at New Orleans, La., Charlotte, N. C, and Dahlonega, Ga 3 Mch. " Tioenty-lhird Congress adjourns " " New York Herald appears, James Gordon Bennett pub- lisher 6 May, " National Democratic convention at Baltimore, Md., May, " [Martin Van Buren of N. Y. nominated for presi- dent; Richard M. Johnson of Ky. for vice-presi- dent.] Antislavery documents taken from the mail and burned at Charleston, S. C Aug. " Name "Loco-focos" first applied to the Democratic party (Loco-foco) " Gen. William H. Harrison of O. nominated for president, UNI I with Francis Granger of N. Y, for vice-president, by a state Whig convention at Harrisburg, Pa [Gen. Harrison also received the nomination at the Whig state conventions of New York, Ohio, Mary- land, and other states. No national Whig conven- tion was held. Hugh L. White of Tenn. was sup- ported by the states of Tennessee and Georgia, Daniel Webster receiving the vote of Massachusetts, and W. P. Mangum of N. C. the vote of South Carolina.] Samuel Colt patents a "revolving pistol" Twenty-fourth Congress, First Session, convenes, 2 Dec. Speaker of the House, James K. Polk of Tenn. The president, in his message, asserts that publications addressed to the passions of the slaves and stimulat- ing them to insurrection are circulated through the mails, and suggests laws to prohibit, under severe penalties, such circulation. Great fire in New York city 16-17 Dec. Seminole Indians commence the war in Florida by the massacre of gen. Thompson, lieut. C. Smith, and others, at fort King, about 60 miles southwest of St. Augustine 28 Dec. [Osceola, whom gen. Thompson had shortly before put in irons for a day, led this war-party, j Maj. F. L. Dade, with 100 men, moving from fort Brooke to the relief of gen. Clinch, is waylaid and the entire party killed except 4, who afterwards die of injuries there received 28 Dec. Treaty with the Cherokee Indians in Georgia; they cede all their territorj' east of the Mississippi for $5,000,000 29 Dec. Memorial presented to Congress praying for the aboli- tion of slaverj'^ within District of Columbia. .11 Jan. Texas declares her independence 2 Mch. Mexicans under Santa Ana capture the Alamo, San Antonio, Tex., and massacre the garrison. David Crockett killed here 6 Mch. Battle of San Jacinto, defeat of Santa Ana. . . .21 Apr. Mexico acknowledges independence of Texas, 14 May, House resolves, by a vote of 117 to 68, that all peti- tions, memorials, resolutions, propositions, or papers relating in any way to the subject of slavery or the abolition of slavery shall, without being printed or referred, be laid on the table, and that no further action shall be had thereon 26 May, [This was the first of the famous " gag rules " of Congress. But discussion on the slaverj'^ question still continued in the House, under the leadership of John Quincy Adams.] Arkansas admitted as the 25th state 15 June, James Madison dies at Montpelier, Va., aged 85, 28 June, Jared Sparks begins the publication of Benjamin Franklin's works Treaty with Venezuela and the Peru-Bolivian confed- eracy Territory of Wisconsin organized First Session adjourns 4 July, First observatory in the U. S. built at Williams college. Mass Treasury issues a "specie circular," requiring collec- tors of the public revenue to receive only gold and silver 11 July, [This proceeding hastened the panic of 1837.] Aaron Burr dies at Staten Island, aged 80. . . .14 Sept. Samuel Houston elected first president of the republic of Texas 22 Oct. Presidential election 8 Nov. [Candidates : Democrats, for president,Martin Van Buren, N. Y. ; for vice-president, Richard M. John- son, Ky. Whigs, for president, William Flenry Har- rison, O., Hugh L. White, Tenn., Daniel Webster, Mass., W. P. Mangum, N. C. ; for vice - president, Francis (iranger, N. Y., John Tyler, Va., Wra. Smith, Ala.] Second Session convenes 5 Dec. Resolution of Senate, June, 1834, censuring pres. Jack- 1836 UNI 851 son for removing the public mone}' from the Na- tional bank, expunged from the records. . . ,16 Jan. 1837 Coinage of the U. S. again changed 18 Jan. " Michigan admitted into the Union, the 26th state in order 26 Jan. " Electoral vote counted 8 Feb. " [Martin "Van Buren, N. Y., for president, 170 ; Richard M. Johnson, Ky., for vice-president, 147; William Henry Harrison, O., for president, 73; Hugh L. White, Tenn., for president,- 26; Daniel Webster, Mass., for president, 14 ; W". P. Mangum, N. C, for president, 11 ; Francis Granger, N. Y., for vice-president, 77 ; John Tyler, Va., for vice-presi- dent, 47; Wm. Smith, Ala., for vice-president, 23. No candidate having a majority for vice-president, the Senate elected Richard M. Johnson by a vote of 33 to 16 for Francis (iranger.] Twenty-fourth Congress adjourns 3 Mch. " Thirteentli Administration— Democratic. 4 Mch. 1837 to 3 Mch. 1841. Martin Van Kuren, N. Y., president. Uicliard M. Johnson, Ky., vice-president. CABINET. John Forsyth^ Ga., sec. of state, continued from 27 June, 1834. Levi Woodbury^ N. H., sec. of treas., continued from 27 June, 1834. Joel R. Poinsett, S. C, sec. of war, from 7 Mch. 1837. Mahlon Dickeison, N. J., sec. of navy, continued from 30 June, 1834. James K. Paulding, N. Y., sec. of navy, from 20 June, 1838. A mos Kendall, Ky., postraast.er-gen., continued from 1 May, 1835. John M. Niks, Conn., postmaster-gen., from 18 May, 1840. Benj. F. Butler, N. Y., attorney-gen., continued from 24 June, 1834. Felix Grundy, Tenn., attorney-gen., from 7 July, 1838. Henry D. Gilpin, Pa., attorney-gen., from 10 Jan. 1840. Great commercial panic begins by the failure of Her- man Briggs & Co., New Orleans, La . .Mch. 1837 [This panic reached its height in May.] All the banks in New York city suspend specie pay- ment 10 May, " [Banks in Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore followed.] An extra session of Congress called to meet first Mon- day in Sept 15 May, " Victoria, daughter of the duke of Kent, succeeds to the throne of England on the death of William IV., 28 June, " Twenty-fifth Congress, First Session (extra), assembles, 4 Sept. " Speaker of the House, James K. Polk, Tenn. President's message advocates the sub-treasury. First Sub-treasury bill reported in the Senate. . .14 Sept. " Passes the Senate by a small majority 4 Oct. " Defeated in the House (see 6 Aug. 1846) 14 Oct. " " Patriot war " in Canada commences " First Session (extra) adjourns 16 Oct. " Osceola, the Seminole chief, with a party of 70 war- riors, visits the camp of gen. Jessup under stipula- tions of safety, and is detained as prisoner. .21 Oct. " [He was confined in fort Moultrie, Charleston, S.C, where he died, 31 Jan. 1838.] Many citizens of the U. S. along the borders of Canada join the insurgents in the Patriot war during the autumn " Elijah P. Lovejoy shot while defending his printing- press and paper at Alton, 111., from the attack of a pro-slavery mob (Alton riot, Illinois). . .7 Nov. " Second Session assembles 4 Dec. " Wendell Phillips's first " abolition " speech in Faneuil hall, Boston, to protest against the murder of Elijah P. Lovejoy. 8 Dec. " Col. Zachary Taylor defeats the Seminole Indians at Okeechobee swamp, Fla 25 Dec. American steamer Caroline is attacked and burned by UNI Canadian troops at Schlosser's Landing, above Niag- ara falls, on the American side (Nkw York), 29 Dec. 1837 President issues a proclamation of neutrality as re- gards the disturbance in Canada . ..5 Jan. 1838 Duel between William J. Graves of Ky. and Jonathan Cilley of N. H., members of the House. . . .24 Feb. " [Fought with rifles ; Cilley killed at the 3d shot.] First regular passage by steamer across the Atlantic completed by the Great Western and Sirius. Sirius 17 days from London, and Great Western 15 days from Bristol. Both arrive at New York city, 23 Apr. " Banks in New England and New York resume specie payments 10 May. " Iowa receives a territorial government. .... .12 June, " Second Session adjourns 9 July, " U. S. Exploring expedition to the Antarctic and Pa- cific oceans, under command of lieut. Charles Wilkes, sails from Hampton Roads 18 Aug. " [The expedition consisted of the sloops-of-war Vincennes and Peacock, brigs-of-war Porpoise and Relief, and the schooners Flying Fish and Sea Gull.'] Third Session assembles 3 Dec. " Charles G. Atherton of N. H. introduces a resolution in the House, known as the " Atherton gag," to pre- vent the discussipn of slavery. It passes by a vote of 127 to 78 (see 1836) 11 Dec. " Loss of steamboats on the western rivers': Mississippi, 55; Ohio, 13; Missouri, 2; Illinois, 2; Arkansas, 1; Red, 1 ; and 4 others during the year (" Niles's Reg- ister," vol. Ivii. p. 32) " Unsettled boundary between Maine and the British prov- inces results in the "Aroostook war", .Feb.-Mch, 1839 Rev. Zerah Colburn d. at Norwich, Vt., aged 35, 2 Mch. " [A mathematical prodigy.] Twenty-fifth Congress adjourns 3 Mch. '* UAmistad ("Friendship") is captured off Montauk point by the U. S. brig Washington, lieut. Ceding commanding (Amistad, case of; Connecticut), 29 Aug. " Daguerrotypes first taken in the U. S. by prof. J. W. Draper " Jesse Buell, agriculturist, dies at Danbury, Conn., aged 61 6 Oct. « Liberty party, in convention at Warsaw, N. Y., nomi- nates James G. Birney for president and Thomas Edrle of Pa. for vice-president 13 Nov. " [This was the first appearance of a national anti- slavery party, and although Mr. Birney declined the nomination, it polled over 7000 votes.] Ulysses, a Portuguese brig, built at Baltimore, is capt- ured by the British war-schooner Skipjack oflf the Isle of Pines with a cargo of 556 Africans. .30 Nov. " [These negroes were confined in a space of 2 ft. 4J in. each and had been 50 da3's at sea.] Twenty-sixth Congress, First Session, assembles, 2-16 Dec. " Robert M. T. Hunter of Va., Whig, elected speaker of the House on the 11th ballot, receiving 119 votes out of 232. Whig National convention at Harrisburg, Pa. , .4 Dec. " [First ballot, Clay, 103; Harrison, 94; and Scott, 57. Fifth ballot. Clay, 90 ; Harrison, 148 ; and Scott, 16. The nomination of Harrison was made unani- mous, and John Tyler nominated for vice-president.] Steamer Lexington burned on Long Island sound, be- tween New York and Stonington 13 Jan. 1840 [140 lives lost.] Lieut. Charles Wilkes discovers the antarctic con- tinent, 66° 20' S. lat., 154° 18' E. Ion 19 Jan, " [He coasted westward along this land 70 degrees.] Washingtonian Temperance Society founded in Balti- more " Democratic National convention at Baltimore, Md. Martin Van Buren nominated for president, leaving the states to nominate for vice-president. . .5 May, " Sub-treasury or Independent Treasury bill passed and approved 4 July, " UNI BrUannia, the first regular steam-packet of the Cu- nard line, arrives at Boston, 14 days and 8 hours from Liverpool 19 July, 1840 First Session adjourns 21 July, " "Log-cabin" and "Hard-cider" canopaign, in the in- terest of William Henry Harrison, begins. . . .July, " [Modem methods of conducting a presidential campaign were now introduced.] Steamship Arcadia arrives at Boston from Liverpool in 12 davs and 12 hours, the shortest passage up to that time 17 Oct. « Alexander MacLeod arrested in the state of New York for complicity in the destruction of the steamer Caro- line, 29 Dec. 1837 Nov. « [He was tried and acquitted 12 Oct. 1841.] Log-cabin, a Whig campaign paper, edited by Horace Greeley, reaches a circulation of 80,000 during the autumn " Fourteenth presidential election 10 Nov. " [Candidates : Whigs, for president, William Henry Harrison, O. ; for vice-president, John Tyler, Va. Democrats, for president, Martin Van Buren, N. Y. ; for vice-president, Richard M. Johnson, Ky. Liberty party, for president, James G. Birney, N. Y. ; for vice-president, Thomas Earle, Pa.] Treatv of commerce between Texas and Great Britain made 14 Nov. " Second Session assembles 7 Dec. " Electoral votes counted 19 Feb. 1841 [For president, Harrison, 234, Van Biiren, 60 ; for vice-president, Tyler, 234, Johnson, 48.] Twenty-sixth Congress adjourns B Mch. " Fourteenth Administration— Whig. 4 Mch. 1841 to 3 Mch. 1845. William Henrjr Harrison, O., president. John Tyler, Va., vice-president. CABINET (until 11 Sept, 1841). Daniel Webster, Mass., sec. of state, from 5 Mch. 1841. Thomas Swing, O., sec. of treas., from 5 Mch. 1841. John Bell, Tenn., sec. of war, from 5 Mch. 1841. George E. Badger, N. C, sec. of navy, from 5 Mch. 1841. Francis Granger, N. Y., postmaster- gen., from 6 Mch. 1841. John J Crittenden, Ky., attorney-gen., from 5 Mch. 1841. Steamer President sails from New York city with 109 passengers and is never heard of again. . . .11 Mch. 1841 [This vessel, when launched, 1840, was considered the largest ship afloat, being 268 ft. in length, 64 ft. in width, including paddle-boxes, engine 500 horse- power, 2360 tons' register.] President calls an extra session of Congress for 31 Mav, 17 Mch. « Pres. Harrison d. aged 68 years 4 Apr. " Vice-pres. Tyler takes the oath of office as president, CABINET. ^ ^P""' Daniel Webster, Mass., sec. of state, continued from 5 Mch. 1841. Hugh S. Legare, S. C, sec. of state, from 9 May, 1843. Abel P. Upshur, Va., sec. of state, from 24 July, 1843. John Nelson, Md., sec. of state, acting, from 29 Feb. 1844. John C. Calhoun, S. C, sec. of state, from 6 Mch. 1844. Thomas Ewing, O., sec. of treas., continued from 5 Mch. 1841. Walter Forward, Pa., sec. of treas., from 13 Sept. 1841. Caleb Gushing, Mass., sec. of treas., rejected by the Senate. John C. Spencer, N. Y., sec. of treas., from 3 Mch. 1843. George M. Bibb, Ky., sec. of treas., from 15 June, 1844. John Bell, Tenn., sec. of war, continued from 5 Mch. 1841. John McLean, O., sec. of war, declined from 13 Sept. 1841. John C. Spencer, N. Y., sec. of war, from 12 Oct. 1841. James M. Porter, Pa., sec. of war, rejected by the Senate, 8 Mch. 1843. William Williams, Pa., sec. of war, from 15 Feb. 1844. George E. Badger, N. C., sec. of navy, continued from 5 Mch. 1841. Abel P. Upshur, Va., sec. of navy, from 13 Sept. 1841. David Henshaw, Mass., sec. of navy, rejected bv the Senate, 24 Julv, 1843. 852 1 UNI Thomas W. Gilmer, Va., sec. of navy, from 15 Feb. 1844. John Y. Mason, Va., sec. of navy, from 14 Mch. 1844. Francis Granger, N. Y., postmaster-gen., continued from & Mch. 1841. |k Charles A. Wickliffe, Ky., postmaster-gen., from 13 Sept. 1841!^ John J. Crittenden, Ky., attorney-gen., continued from 5 Mch. 1841. ffugh S. Legari, S. C, attorney-gen., from 13 Sept. 1841. John Nelson, Md., attorney-gen., from 1 July, 1843. Corner-stone of the Mormon temple at Nauvoo, 111., laid 6 Apr. 1841 Horace Greeley issues the first number of the New York Daily Tribune 10 Apr. " [A small sheet selling for 1 cent. The Weekly Tribune was issued the following autumn.] Twenty-seventh Congress. First Session (extra), assem- bles 31 May, " Samuel L. Southard, N. J., president pro tern, of the Senate and acting vice-president of the U. S. until hisdeath, 22May, 1842. W. P. Mangum, N. C., president pro tern, of the Senate and acting vice-president of the U. S. from 31 May, 1842, to the end of pres. Tyler's term. Speaker, John White, Ky. Act to appropriate the proceeds of the public lands and pre-emptive rights granted, passed 6 July, " U. S. sloop-of-war Peacock, of the Wilkes U. S. Explor- ing expedition, is lost at the mouth of the Colum- bia river, Or 18 July, « Sub-treasury or Independent Treasury' act repealed, 9 Aug. « Pres. Tyler vetoes the bill to incorporate the Fiscal Bank of the U. S 16 Aug. « Bankruptcy' bill passed 19 Aug. " -^ Pres. Tyler vetoes the Fiscal Corporation bill. .9 Sept. " i Party of British volunteers from Canada carry off col. Grogan 9 Sept. " [This seizure was unauthorized by the British government, and Grogan was promptly released. The seizure, however, caused great excitement.] Cabinet resigns, except the sec. of state 11 Sept. [Because of the veto of the Fiscal Corporation bill.] First Session (extra) adjourns 13 Sept. President's proclamation forbids American citizens to invade British possessions 25 Sept. Failure of the U. S. bank under the Pennsylvania charter 11 Oct. Brig Creole, Ensor, master, sails from Richmond, Va., for New Orleans with merchandise and 135 slaves ; some of the slaves attack the captain and crew, and capture the vessel 7 Nov. [They proceeded to the island of New Provi- dence, belonging to Great Britain ; the magistrates refused to give the negroes up, and they were fi- nally liberated. Serious dispute with England fol- lowed. ] Second Session assembles G Dec. " Joshua R. Giddings, member from Ohio, presents resolu- tions concerning the brig Creole and adverse to slavery 21 Mch. 1842 [Being censured by the House by a vote of 125 to 69, he immediately resigned, returned to Ohio, and was re-elected by a large majority.] Henry Clay resigns from the Senate 31 Mch. " Influenza, called "la grippe," widely prevalent " Col. John C. Fremont's first exploring expedition to the Kocky Mountains commences 2 May, " U. S. Exploring expedition under lieut. Charles Wilkes — which penetrates to 66° S. lat., and discovers the antarctic continent (now known as Wilkes's Land), along which it coasts 70° — after a voyage of 4 years and over 90,000 miles, returns to New York (see this record, 1838) 10 June, « Dorr's rebellion in Rhode Island, caused by the disa- greement between the Charter and Sufl'rage parties (Dorr's rebellion) May-Jime, " UNI 853 UNI Statue of Washington, by Horatio Greenough, placed in the Capitol 1842 [It was executed in Italy, and in position cost $45,000.] Charles Dickens visits the U. S " Earliest actual finding of gold in California in Los Angeles district (California) « "Ashburton treaty" with England for settling the boundaries between Maine and the British prov- inces, also for suppressing the slave-trade and extra- dition, negotiated at Washington between lord Ash- burton, special minister of "Great Britain, and Daniel Webster, sec. of state, and signed 9 Aug. " End of the Indian war in Florida proclaimed. . 14 Aug. " Ashburton treaty ratified b)' the Senate, 39 to 9 .20 Aug. '* Beginning of the fiscal year changed from 1 Jan. to 1 July by law of 28 Aug. " [To take effect from 1 July, 1843.] After vetoing 2 tariff bills, pres. Tvler signs the 3d, 30 Aug. «' [The prevailing rate of this tariff was 20 percent.] Second Session adjourns 31 Aug. " [It passed 95 acts, 13 joint resolutions, and 189 pri- vate bills, sitting 269 days — the longest session since the beginning of Congress.] New ratio of representation, based on the census of 1840, gives 1 representative for every 70,^80 population. . " William Ellery Channing, Unitarian minister, dies at Bennington, Vt., aged 62 2 Oct. " Alexander Slidell Mackenzie, commanding the U. S. brig Somers, while on a short cruise, hangs at the yard-arm Philip Spencer, a midshipman and son of John C. Spencer, then sec. of war; Samuel Crom- well, a boatswain's mate; and Elijah H. Small, for an alleged conspiracy (Somers, U. S. brig-of-war, Mutiny on) 1 Dec. " Third Session assembles 5 Dec. " Samuel Woodworth (author of the *' Old Oaken Buck- et ") dies at New York city, aged 57 9 Dec. *' Resolution offered by John M. Botts of Va., for the im- peachment of pres. Tyler for gross usurpation of pow- er, wicked and corrupt abuse of the power of appoint- ments, high crimes and misdemeanors, etc. . . 10 Jan. 1843 [Rejected by a vote of 83 to 127. ] Francis S. Key, author of " Star-Sp angled Banner," dies at Baltimore, Md., aged 64 11 Jan. " Com. Isaac Hull dies at Philadelphia, Pa., aged 68 (Naval battles of the U. S.) 13 Feb. " Dr. Marcus Whitman, learning of the intention of the British government to permanently occupy the Ore- gon territory, and desirous of a personal interview with the U. S. government, to give warning and also to announce the practicability of overland emi- gration to that region, leaves Walla Walla Oct. 1842, and reaches Washington, D. C 3 Mch. " [This information aided the U. S. government in retaining this territory. Dr. Whitman was appoint- ed a missionary commissioner to the Oregon Indians, and with his wife and the rev. Henry Spaulding and his wife, made the first journey over the Rocky moun- tains in a wagon, 1835-36. Dr. Whitman, his wife, and several others were massacred by the Cayuse Indians, 1847. Oregon, 1850.] Bankruptcy act of 1841 repealed 3 Mch. " Congress appropriates $30,000 to build Morse's electric telegraph from Washington to Baltimore. . .3 Mch. " Twenty-seventh Conc/ress adjourns " " John Armstrong, sec. of war 1812, dies at Red Hook, N. Y.,aged 85 ' 1 Apr. " Col. John C. Fremont starts on his second exploring expedition with 39 men May, " [Reached Salt lake, 6 Sept., and the Pacific coast, at the mouth of the Columbia river, Nov. 10 ; re- turned July, 1844.] BunkerHill monument completed and dedicated, 17 June, " [Pres. Tyler was present, and Daniel Webster de- livered the address.] National Liberty party, in convention at Buffalo, N. Y., nominates James G.Birney for president, and Thomas Morris of O. for vice-president 30 Aug. 1843 Twenty-eighth Congress, First Session, convenes . 4 Dec " John W. Jones of Va. elected speaker. Explosion of a large gun, " the Peace-maker," on the U. S. war-steamer Princeton, on the Potomac, carry- ing, with many excursionists, the president and sev- eral of his cabinet; kills Mr. Upshur, sec. of state, Mr. Gilmer, sec. of navy, David Gardiner, and others, besides wounding 12 of the crew 28 Feb. 1844 Treaty of annexation with Texas signed 12 Apr. " [Rejected by the Senate, 35 to 16.] National Whig convention at Baltimore 1 May, " [Henry Clay of Ky. nominated for president, and Theodore Frelinghuysen of N. J. for vice-president.] Riots in Philadelphia between native Americans and the Irish 6-8 Maj', •• National Democratic convention at Baltimore, Md., 27 May, « [Martin Van Buren of N. Y. received on the 1st ballot 146 out of 266 votes, but failed to get the required two-thirds vote ; his name was withdrawn on the 8th ballot, and James K. Polk of Tenir. was nominated on the 9th ; Silas Wright of N. Y. was nominated for vice - president, but declined, and George M. Dallas of Pa. was nominated.] First telegraphic communication in the U. S. during this convention, on the experimental line erected by the government between Baltimore and Washing- ton (Electricity) 27 May, " First Session adjourns 17 June, " "Joe" Smith, the Mormon prophet, with his brother Hiram, murdered bv a mob at the jail in Carthage, 111 ' 27 June, « Treaty with China, of peace, amity, and commerce, 3 July, " Henry Clay's Alabama letter, published in the North Alabamian, alienates the northern Whigs, .16 Aug. " Fifteenth presidential election 12 Nov. " [Candidates : Democrats, for president, James Knox Polk of Tenn. ; for vice-president, George Mifflin Dallas of Pa. Whigs, for president, Henry Clay of Ky. ; for vice-president, Theodore Freling- huysen of N. J. Liberty part}', for president, James G. Birney of N. Y. ; for vice-president, Thomas Mor- ris of O.j Second Session assembles 2 Dec. " On motion of John Quincy Adams the "gag rule," pro- hibiting the presentation of Abolition petitions, is rescinded, 108 to 88 3 Dec. « Samuel Hoar, sent by Massachusetts to South Carolina in aid of the Massachusetts colored citizens impris- oned at Charleston, S. C, is expelled from Charleston by citizens (Massachusetts) 5 Dec. " Congress appoints the Tuesday following the first Mon- day in Nov. for the national election daj'.. .23 Jan. 1845 Electoral votes counted 12 Feb. " [For president, Polk, 170; Clay, 106; for vice- president, Dallas, 170 ; Frelinghuysen, 105. Liberty party, popular vote, 62,300.] Pres. Tyler vetoes a bill forbidding the building of any steam-vessel for the revenue service unless by special appropriation 20 Feb. " [This bill passed both branches of Congress over the veto, the first veto overruled by Congress.] Texas annexed by a joint resolution 28 Feb. " Which the president approves 1 Mch. " Florida admitted as the 27th state 3 Mch. " Congress reduces postage on letters to 6 cents within 300 miles and 10 cents for greater distances. .3 Mch. " Twenty-eighth Congress adjourns " " Fifteenth Administration— Democratic. 4 Mch. 1845 to 3 Mch. 1849. James Knox Polk, Tenn., president. George Mifflin Dallas, Pa., vice-president UNI 854 UNI CABINET. Janws Buchanati, Pa., 8ec. of state, from 5 Mch. 1845. Ri>beit J. Walker, Miss., sec. of treas., from 5 Mch. 1845. WilUam L. Marcy, N. Y., sec. of war, from 5 Mch. 1845. George BancroJ), Mass., sec. of navy, from 10 Mch. 1845. John Y. Mason, Va., sec. of navy, from 9 Sept. 1846. Care Johnson, Tenn., postmaster-gen., from 5 Mch. 1845. John Y. Mason, Va., attorney-gen., from 5 Mch. 1845. Nathan Clifford, Me., attorney-gen., from 17 Oct. 1846. Isttac Toucet/, Conn., attorney-gen., from 21 Jiuie, 1848. Mexican minister demands his passport 6 Mch. 1845 Steamboat 5wa//ow, from New York for Albany,wrecked on a rock near Athens ; the stern sinking, many pas- sengers are drowned 7 Mch. " Andrew Jackson, 7th president, dies at the Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn., aged 78 8 June, " By an act of amnesty the Rhode Island legislature re- leases Thomas W. Dorr, who was under a life sen- tence for treason 27 June, " Naval school established at Annapolis, Md., while George Bancroft is sec. of navy " Annexation ratified by Texas in convention. . .4 July, " Texas in convention adopts a constitution. . . 27 Aug. " Gov. Silas Wright of N. Y. proclaims Delaware county in a state of insurrection from anti-rent diflSculties, 27 Aug. « Joseph Story, associate -judge of the U. S. Supreme court, dies at Cambridge, Mass., aged 66 ... 10 Sept. " Texas state constitution ratified by the people. 13 Oct. " Twenty-ninth Congress. First. Sessio7i, assembles . 1 Dec. •' John W. Davis of Ind. elected speaker. Texas admitted as the 28th state 29 Dec. " American army of occupation, gen. Zachary Taylor, 3500 strong, reaches the Rio Grande, and takes post opposite Matamoras 28 Mch. 1846 Hostilities begun between Mexico and the U. S. ; a small force of U. S. troops captured by the Mexicans , (Mexican war) 25 Apr. " Battle of Palo Alto 8 May, " Battle of Resaca i>k la Palma 9 May, " Pres. Polk, by special message to Congress, announces that war exists by the act of Mexico 11 May, " Congress authorizes the president to raise 50,000 men and $10,000,000 for the war 13 May, « Treaty with Great Britain signed, establishing the boundaries west of the Rocky mountains on the 49th parallel of N. lat., and thus settling the " Oregon difficulty " 15 June, " [The U.S. claimed the whole territory to 54° 40' N. lat. by the right of discovery and entrance of the . Columbia river by capt. Grey in 1792, which river and its tributaries water all that region.] Com. John D. Sloat, of the Pacific squadron, occupies Monterey, Cal., and proclaims the countrv annexed to the U. S 1 . .6 July, « Congress re-cedes to Virginia the southern part of the Disa-RiCT OF Columbia 9 July, " Collection district of Chicago established; Chicago made a port of entry 16 July, " TarifiF of 1842 repealed, and a revenue tariff passed (in the Senate by the casting vote of vice-pres. George M. Dallas) approved 30 July, " " Warehouse system " established by Congress. . 6 Aug. " Independent Treasury system re-enacted " " Wisconsin authorized to form a constitution and state government 6 Aug. " Bill with the " Wilmot proviso " attached passes the House by 85 to 79 (no vote in the Senate). .8 Aug. '• Act establishing the Smithsonian Institution ap- proved 10 Aug. " First Session adjourns " « Brig.-gen. Kearny takes peaceable possession of Santa VQ- 18 Aug. « Gen. Zachary Taylor captures Monterey, Mexico, after a three days' battle or siege 24 Sept. " Second Session assembles 7 Dec. " Iowa admitted as the 29th state 28 Dec. " Battle of San Gabriel, California, fought. . . .8 Jan. 1847 Congress authorizes 10 additional regiments for the regular army 11 Feb. " Battle of Buena Vista 22-23 Feb. " Battle of Sacramento 28 Feb. " Congress resolves to light with gas the Capitol and Capitol grounds 3 Mch. " Twenty-ninth Congress adjourns " " Gen. Scott lands at Vera Cruz, Mexico, with 13,000 men 9 Mch. " Vera Cruz surrenders after a bombardment of 9 days, 29 Mch. " Army moves from Vera Cruz towards the city of Mex- ico under gen. Twiggs 8 Apr. " Battle of Ckrro Gordo fought 18 Apr. " Army enters Puebla 15 Ma)', " Pres. Polk visits the eastern states as far as Augusta, Me., and returns to Washington 7 July, " Battles of Contreras and Churubusco 20 Aug. " Armistice granted the Mexicans by gen. Scott, from 21 Aug. to 7 Sept. " Salt Lake City founded by the Mormons " Battle of El Molino del Rey (" The King's Mill "), 8 Sept. Fortress of Chapultepec carried by storm, and the city of Mexico occupied by the U. S. troops . 13 Sept. Gen. Zachary Taylor returns to the U. S Nov. Spi-ingfield Republican appears at Springfield, Mass., Samuel Bowles publisher ' Thirtieth Congress, First Session, assembles 6 Dec. ' Speaker of the House, Robert C. Winthrop, Mass. By resolution Congress authorizes the erection on pub- lic grounds in Washington of a monument to George Washington 31 Jan. li Treaty of peace, friendship, limits, claims, etc., between the U. S. and Mexico signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, 2 Feb. ' [Ratified 19 May, and proclaimed b}' pres. Polk, 4 July. The U. S. stipulated to pay $ 1*5,000,000 for New Mexico and California, and assume debts due citizens of the U. S. from Mexico of #3,500,000.] John Quincy Adams, 6th president, dies at Washing- ton, aged 81 23 Feb. ' [He was in his seat in the House when stricken with apoplexy, 21 Feb. J John Jacob Astor dies in New York, aged 85, 29 Mch. ' Congress authorizes a loan of $16,000,000 31 Mch. ' By resolution Congress tenders the congratulations of the people of the U. S. to the French people on be- coming a republic 13 Apr. ' Democratic National convention at Baltimore nomi- nates upon the 4th ballot, under the two-third rule, Lewis Cass of Mich, for president, and William 0. Butler of Ky. for vice-president 22-26 May. * Wisconsin admitted as the 30th state bv act approved, 29 May. ' Congress appropriates $25,000 to buy the unpublished papers of James Madison 31 May, * Whig National convention at Independence hall, Philadelphia, on the 4th ballot nominates maj.-gen. Zachary Taylor of La. for president ; Millard Fill- more of N. Y. for vice-president 7-8 June, * Corner-stone of the Washington monument laid at Washington, D. C 4 July, * [Robert C. Winthrop of Mass., speaker of the House, delivered the address. Washington mon- ument.] Free-soil National convention at Buffalo, N. Y., nom- inates Martin Van Buren of N. Y. for president, and Charles Francis Adams of Mass. for vice-president, 9-10 Aug. '' So much of the Cumberland road as lies in Indiana is surrendered to that state by act approved, 11 Aug. " Territorial government established in Oregon by act approved 14 Aug. " First Session adjourns " " J UNI 855 Sixteenth presidential election 7 Nov. 1848 [Candidates: Democrats, Lewis Cass, Mich., for president ; William O. Butler, Ky., for vice-pres- ident. Whigs, Zachary Taylor, La., for president; Millard Fillmore, N. Y., for vice-president. Free- soilers, Martin Van Buren, N. Y., for president; Charles Francis Adams, Mass., for vice-president.] Second Session assembles 4 Dec. " First gold from California (1804.59 ounces troy, aver- age value per ounce, f 18.05|) deposited at the U. S. mint by David Carter 8 Dec. " Postal treaty with Great Britain 15 Dec " Electoral votes counted 14 Feb. 1849 [For president, Taylor, 163 ; Cass, 127. For vice- president, Fillmore, 163; Butler, 127. Free-soilers, popular vote, 291,263.] Act granting swamp-lands to the state of Louisiana, approved (see Mch. 1857) 2 Mch. " Territorial government of Minnesota established by act approved 3 Mch. " Coinage of the gold dollar and double-eagle authorized, 3 Mch. " Department of Interior created by act approved . " " Work of census office, previously under secretary of state, transferred to the Interior by act of. ..3 Mch. " Thirtieth Congress adiourns " " Sixteenth Administration— Whig. 5 Mch. 1849, to ''• Mch. 1853. Zachary Taylor, La., president. Millard Fillmore, N. Y., vice-president. CABINET. John M. Clayton, Del., sec. of state, from 7 Mch. 1849. William M. Meredith, Pa., sec. of treas., from 7 Mch. 1849. George W. Crawford, Ga., sec. of war, from 7 Mch. 1849. William B. Preston, Va., sec. of navy, from 7 Mch. 1849. Thomas Ewing, O., sec. of interior, from 7 Mch. 1849. Jacob Collame?; Vt., postmaster-gen., from 7 Mch. 1849. Reverdy Johnson,'M.d., attorney-gen., from 7 Mch. 1849. Gen. William J. Worth, U. S. A., dies at San Antonio, Tex., aged 55 , . . . 7 May, 1849 Gen. Edmund P. Gaines dies at New Orleans, aged 72, 6 June, " James K. Polk, Uth president, dies at Nashville, Tenn., aged 54 15 June. " Pres. Taylor issues a proclamation against filibustering expeditions to Cuba under Lopez (F'ilibusters), 11 Aug. « Albert Gallatin, distinguished statesman, dies at Asto- ria, L. 1 12 Aug. " Thirty-first Congress, First Session, assembles. .3 Dec. " Senate strongly Democratic, and in the House the Free-soilers hold the balance of power between the Democrats and Whigs. After 63 ballots for speak- er, 22 Dec, Howell Cobb of Ga. chosen by a plu- rality of 102 to 99 for Robert C. Winthrop of Mass. Organization of the House not completed until 11 Jan. 1850 [This Senate was illustrious for talent, including Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, King of Ala., Davis and Foote of Miss., Hamlin of Me., Cass of Mich., Seward and Dickinson of N. Y., Chase and Corwin of O., Douglas of 111., Fremont of Cal., Soule of La., Hale of N. H., Mangum of N. C, Hunter and Mason of Va., and Bell of Tenn., besides others of note.] Henry Clay introduces 6 resolutions as a basis for com- promise of the slavery controversy 29 Jan. " [These resolutions related to (1) admission of Cal- ifornia as a free state ; (2) territorial governments for Utah and New Mexico without conditions as to slavery; (3) boundaries of Texas; (4) payment of Texas debt ; (5) suppression of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia; (6) fugitive-slave laws.] Clay advocates his resolutions in the Senate . .5-6 Feb. " Resolution of Congress for purchasing the manuscript of Washington's " Farewell Address" 12 Feb. " UNI Abolitionists attacked by Daniel Webster in debating the Compromise bill 7 Mch. 1850 [This speech much weakened Webster's influence at the north.] John C. Calhoun, statesman and member of the Senate, dies at Washington, aged 68 31 Mch. " Bulwer-CIayton treaty with Great Britain, for a joint occupancy of the proposed ship-canal through Cen- tral America, signed 19 Apr. " After a debate of over 2 months, Clay's Compromise resolutions are referred to a committee of 13, with Clay as chairman 19 Apr. " [Committee consisted of 6 Democrats and 7 Whigs. ] Collins line of steamers between Great Britain and the U. S. goes into operation 27 Apr. " Committee on the Compromise resolutions submits an elaborate series of bills embodying the substance of the resolutions of Jan. 29 8 May, " [These several bills are known as the Compromise or " Omnibus " bill, the last passed 20 Sept.] Narcisso Lopez, a South American adventurer, makes a filibustering expedition to Cuba from New Orleans in the steamer Creole, and lands at Cardenas 19 May, with about 600 men ; is repulsed and retires to the steamer with a loss of 30 killed and wounded ; is pursued by the Spanish war-steamer Pizarro to Key West, where he escapes (Filibusters), 21 May, « Advance, 140 tons, and Rescue, 90 tons, equipped by Henry Grinnell of New York to search for sir John Franklin, sail from New York city, under lieut. E. J. De Haven, with dr. Elisha Kent Kane as sur- geon 23 May, •' Pres. Taylor dies at Washington, aged 66 9 July, " Vice-pres. Fillmore takes the oath of office as presi- dent 10 July, « Wm. R. King of Ala. president pro tern, of the Senate, • 11 July, « PRES. Fillmore's cabinet. Daniel Webster, Mass., sec. of state, from 20 July, 1850. Edward Everett, Mass., sec. of state, from 9 Dec. 1852. Thomas Corwin, O., sec. of treas., from 20 Juh', 1850. Charles M. Conrad, Va., sec. of war, from 20 Jul}', 1850. Wm. A. Graham, N. C, sec. of navy, from 20 July, 1850. John P. Kennedy, Md., sec. of navy, from 22 July, 1852. James A, Pearce, Md., sec. of interior, from 20 July, 1850. Alex. H. H. Stuart, Va,, sec. of interior, from 12 Sept. 1850. N. K. Hall, N. Y., postmaster-gen., from 20 July, 1850. Samuel D. Iiubbard,Coim., postmaster-gen., from 31 Aug. 1852. John J. Crittenden, Ky., attorney-gen., from 20 July, 1850. Treaty between the U. S. and the Hawaiian or Sand- wich islands, signed 20 Dec. 1849 ; ratified, 24 Aug. 1850 Territory of Utah created, and territorial government established (Utah) 9 Sept. " Territorial government established in New Mexico, 9 Sept. " [The act provided that the territory or any portion of it should be received into the Union with or with- out slavery, as its constitution might prescribe at the time of its admission.] California admitted as the 31st state, her constitu- tion excluding slavery 9 Sept. ". Northern and western boundaries of Texas established. Texas cedes all claim to territory beyond this boun- dary, and relinquishes all claim for debt, compensa- tion, or indemnity for the surrender of all U. S. property; $10,000,000 to be paid by the U. S. gov- ernment in stocks bearing b% interest, and redeem- able at the end of 14 years 9 Sept. " Jennv Lind gives her first concert at Castle Garden, New York . 12 Sept. " Amendments of great stringency to the Fugitive Slave laws of Feb. 12, 1793, pass the' House by 109 to 75, 12 Sept. 1850 ; approved 18 Sept. " Slave-trade suppressed from 1 Jan. 1851, in the District of Columbia, by act approved . .20 Sept. " Flogging abolished in the na\'y' and on vessels of com- merce by act approved 28 Sept. " UNI 856 Act grantiug swamp-lands to Arkansas and other states, approved (see 3 Mch. 1857) 28 Sept. 1850 First Session (302 days) adjourns 30 Sept. " [This session the longest np to this tinne.] City council of Chicago passes a resolution nullifying the Fugitive Slave law, and releasing the police from obedience to it 22 Oct. " [They subsequently reconsidered it.] Second Session assembles 2 Dec. " British consul at Charleston, S. C, in a communication to the governor, calls attention to the state law under wltich a class (negroes) of her majesty's subjects, en- tering the ports of South Carolina on the guarantee of a national treaty, in trading vessels or in distress, are taken from the protection of the British flag and imprisoned, and hopes that the state will abrogate such portion of the law as applies to British subjects (see this record, 5 Dec. 1844, and Massachusetts, 1844) 14 Dec. " John James Audubon, distinguished ornithologist, dies near New York city, aged 71 27 Jan. 1851 Pres. Fillmore issues a proclamation relative to the rescue of Shadrach, a negro, at Boston, Mass., who had been arrested as a fugitive slave, 15 Feb. 1851, calling on all officers and citizens to aid in recaptur- ing him, and commanding the arrest of all persons aiding in his escape (Massachusetts) ... .18 Feb. " Letter postage reduced to 3 cents for 3000 miles or less, if prepaid, and 5 cents if not ; over 3000 miles double rate. Coinage of 3-cent piece authorized . . .3 Mch. " Congress authorizes the president to employ a public vessel, then cruising in the Mediterranean, to convey to the U. 8. Louis Kossuth and his associates in cap- tivity, if they wish to emigrate to the U. S., and if the Shltan of Turkey will consent 3 Mch. " Thirty-first Congress adjourns " " « [At this time it was decided that Congress ex- pires at noon on the 4th day of March.] Com. James Barron dies at Norfolk,Va., aged 83, 21 Apr. " Pres. Fillmore issues a proclamation against the pro- moters of a second expedition against Cuba, and the ship Cleopatra, with military supplies for that island, is seized 25 Apr. " First train on the Erie railway. New York to Dunkirk, 28, 29 Apr. « Extension of the U. S. Capitol ; corner-stone laid by the president; oration by Daniel Webster 4 July, " [Extensions finished Nov. 1867.] Gen. Lopez's second expedition against Cuba (FiLi- BusrERs) 3 Aug. " Louis Kossuth and suite received on the U. S. war steamer Mississippi at the Dardanelles. . . .10 Sept. " James Fenimore Cooper, author, dies at Cooperstown, N. Y., aged 62 14 Sept. " Hudson River railroad opened from New York to Albany 8 Oct. «« Kossuth leaves ih^ Mississippi at Gibraltar and embarks on the Madrid, an English passenger steamer, for Southampton, Engl 15 Oct. " Pres. Fillmore issues a proclamation forbidding mili- tary expeditions into Mexico 22 Oct. " Grinnell expedition, sent out in search of sir John Franklin, May, 1850, returns to New York Oct. " Thirty-second Congress, First Session, assembles, 1 Dec. " Speaker of the House, Linn Boyd of Ky. Kossuth arrives at New York from England. ... 5 Dec. " [He was received with enthusiasm.] Resolution of welcome to Louis Kossuth by Congress approved 15 Dec. " Henry Clay resigns his seat in the Senate (to take effect Sept. 1852) 17 Dec. « A fire in the library of Congress destroys 35,000 of its 55,000 volumes. 24 Dec. " Kossuth arrives at Washington, D. C, on the invita- tion of Congress 30 Dec. " A memorial presented to the Senate from citizens of the U. S. (about 160 in number), captured by the 1 UNI Spanish government in Cuba while engaged in the expedition of Lopez, sent to Spain as prisoners, and there liberated by queen Isabella IL, asking Congress . for transportation to the U. S 7 Jan. 1862 Congress appropriates $6000 to return them to the U.S., 10 Feb. '« Congress appropriates $72,500 for the repair of the Con- gressional library 19 Mch. " Democratic National convention held at Baltimore, the two-third rule governing 1 June, " [Four principal candidates for the presidency at this convention were gen. Lewis Cass, Mich., James Buchanan, Pa., ex-gov. William L. Marcy, N. Y., and Stephen A. Douglas, III. On the 35111 ballot the name of Franklin Pierce of N. H. was first presented and received 15 votes, and on the 49th ballot he was nominated, receiving 282 votes. William R. King of Ala. nominated for vice-president.] Whig National presidential convention meets at Balti- more 16 June, « [Candidates for the presidency were Millard Fill- more, N. Y., gen. Winfield Scott, Va., and Daniel Webster, Mass. On the first ballot Fillmore had 133 votes, Scott 131, and Webster 29 ; these proportions were maintained very steadily until the 53d ballot, when gen. Scott received 159 votes to 1 12 for Fillmore and 21 for Webster. William A. (Iraham, N. C, was on the 2d ballot nominated for vice-president. ] Henry Clay dies at Washington, D.C.,aged 75.29 June, " Branch of the U. S. mint established at San Francisco, Cal 3 July, " Free-soil convention at Pittsburg, Pa 11 Aug. " [Named John P. Hale, N. H., for president, and . George W. Julian, Ind., for vice-president.] Fi7-st Session adjourns (after a session of 275 days), 31 Aug. " Daniel Webster dies at Marshfield, Mass., aged 70. 24 Oct. " Seventeenth presidential election takes place. . .2 Nov. " [Candidates: Democrats, Franklin Pierce, N. H., for president ; William R. King, Ala., for vice-presi- dent. Whigs, gen. Winfield Scott,Va., for president ; William A. Graham, N. C, for vice-president. Free- soilers, John P. Hale,N. H., for president; George W. Julian, Ind., for vice-president.] Second Session assembles 6 Dec. " William R. King, Ala., president pro tern, of the Senate, resigns, and David R. Atchison, Mo., chosen, . 20 Dec. " Caloric ship Ericsson makes a trial trip from New York to the Potomac 11 Jan. 1863 Congress transfers all that portion of the Cumberland road which lies between Springfield, O., and the western boundary of that state to Ohio, by act ap- proved 20 Jan. " Electoral vote counted 9 Feb. " [For president. Pierce, 254; Scott, 42; for vice- president. King, 254; Graham, 42. Free - sellers, pop. vote, 156,149.] Coinage of $3 gold-pieces authorized, and the weight of the half-dollar fixed at 192 gr., and the quarter- dollar, the dime, and half-dime at proportionate amounts, by act approved (Com) 21 Feb. " Territory of Washington formed by act approved, 2 Mch, " Further purchase of ailanthus- trees for the public grounds forbidden by Congress (Floavers and Plants) *. 3 Mch. " Congress authorizes a survey for a railway from the Mississippi to the Pacific » 3 Mch. " Thirty-second Congress adjourns " " Seventeenth Administration — Democratic. 4 Mch. 1853 to 3 Mch. 1857. Franklin Pierce, N. H., president. William It. King, Ala., vice-president. Oath of office is administered to the vice-president elect by U, S. consul Sharkey, at Cumbre, near Ma- tanzas, on the island of Cuba 24 Mch. 1853 [A special act of Congress authorized Mr. Shar- key to do this,] UNI 857' UNI CABINKT. William L. Mara/, N. Y,, sec. of state, from 5 Mch. 1853. James Guthrie, Ky., sec. of treas., from 5 Mch. 1853. Jefferson Davis, Miss., sec. of war, from 5 Mch. 1853. James C. Dobbin, N. C, sec. of navy, from 5 Mch. 1853. Robert McClellan, Mich., sec. of interior, from 6 Mch. 1853. James Campbell, Pa., postmaster-gen., from 5 Mch. 1853. Caleb Cushing, Mass., attorney-gen., from 5 Mch. 1853. Wm. R. King, 13th vice-president of the U. S., dies at Cahawba, Ala., aged 67 18 Apr. 1853 Kane sails from New York in the brig Advance, under the auspices of the U. S. navy, in search of sir John Franklin 30 May, « [Reached 78° 43' N. in 1855. See this record, 1855.] KoszTA AFFAIR, at Smyrna, Turkey 21 June, " Com. M. C. Perry, a brother of Oliver Hazard Perry, with a fleet of 7 vessels, proceeds to Japan with a letter from pres. Fillmore to the t3'coon, soliciting a treaty. Com. Perry arrives at the bay of Yedo (Japan, and this record, 1854) 14 July, " World's Fair, Crystal palace, opening at New York city ; pres. Pierce present 14 July, " William Walker's filibustering exfjedition to Sonora, Mexico (Filibusters) July, " Thirty-third Congress. First Session, assembles. .5 Dec. " David R. Atchison, president p7'o tern, of the Senate, and acting vice-president of the U. S. in place of Wm. R. King, deceased ; Linn Boyd of Ky. speaker of the House. James Gadsden of S. C, minister to Mexico, by treaty purchases her territory south of the Gila river, now known as the " Gadsden purchase," and included in Arizona, containing 45,535 sq. miles, for $10,000,000. Treaty and purchase approved 30 Dec. " Stephen A. Douglas of 111. introduces a bill in the Sen- ate, organizing the territory of Nebraska. . . .4 Jan. 1854 A. Dixon of ^3'. gives notice of an amendment ex- empting the territory from the Missouri compro- mise prohibiting slavery 16 Jan. " Proclamation of pres. Pierce against the invasion of Mexico (called out bj' Walker's expedition into Sonora and Lower California. Filibusters), 18 Jan. " Sen. Douglas of 111. reports a bill creating 2 territories, Kansas and Nebraska, of the same territory as the former Nebraska bill, with a section virtually repeal- ing the Compromise of 1820 23 Jan. " U. S. steamer Black Warrior seized by the Cuban authorities at Havana 28 Feb. " Kansas-Nebraska bill passes the Senate,37 to 14 .3 Mch. " First treaty between the U. S.and Japan, of peace, am- ity, and commerce, concluded and signed at Kana- waga, Japan 31 Mch. " [Two ports of entry opened to the U. S., Hako- dadi and Simoda.] Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Society organized by Eli Thayer, and incorporated (to aid emigration to Kansas) 20 Apr. " Kansas-Nebraska bill taken up in the House. .8 Ma}', " Bill passes the House as an original measure, bv 112 to 99 24 May, " It passes the Senate, 35 to 13, and approved. .30 May, " [The Missouri Compromise measures of 1820 re- pealed by sec. 14 of this act.] Pres. Pierce issues a proclamation against the invasion of Cuba 31 May, " Anthony Burns, arrested as a slave at Boston, Mass., is taken by the revenue cutter Morris, by order of pres. Pierce, conveyed to Norfolk, Va., and delivered to his alleged master,a Mr.Suttle (Massachusetts), 2 June, " Treaty with Great Britain, reciprocity'; the fishery dif- ficulty settled 5 June, " George N. HoUins, commander of the ship Cyane, bom- bards and destroys the small town of Greytown on the Mosquito coast. Central America 13 June, " [This was an attempt to obtain redress for a per- sonal insult to one of the officers of the government, and to enforce a claim of $24,000 indemnity.] Merrimac, a new steam war - frigate, launched at the Charleston navy-yard .14 June, 1854 [This was one of the vessels seized by the con- federates at the Norfolk navy-yard, Apr. 1861.] Medal presented to capt. Ingraham, U. S. N., by a reso- lution of Congress, as a testimonial of the high sense entertained of his gallant and judicious conduct on 2 July, 1853, in rescuing Martin Koszta from ille- gal seizure and imprisonment on board the Austrian brig Huzzar, approved (Koszta afb'Air) . . .4 Aug. " [Ingraham resigned in 1861 and joined the Con- federate navy ; d. in Charleston, S. C, 16 Oct. 1891, aged 89.] First Session adjourns 7 Aug. " OsTEND manifesto issued 18 Oct. " Andrew H. Reeder of Pa. appointed governor of Kan- sas by pres. Pierce (Kansas) '♦ Second Session assembles 4 Dec. " Jesse D. Bright of Ind. elected president pro tern, of the Senate 6 Dec. " Congress assents to the cession by Massachusetts to New York of "Boston Corner," the southwesterly corner of Berkshire county, approved 3 Jan. 1855 Annexation of the Sai^dwich islands discussed in Con- gress (strongly opposed by England) Jan. " Panama railroad completed; first train from ocean to ocean 28 Jan. " Rights of citizenship secured to children of citizens born in foreign territory by an act approved . 10 Feb. •' Grade of lieutenant-general by brevet revived by a resolution approved 15 Feb. " [This rank was immediately conferred upon maj.- gen. Winfield Scott.] Right of way granted to Hiram O. Alden and James Eddy for a line of telegraph from the Mississippi river to the Pacific by an act approved. . . .17 Feb. " Thirty-third Congress adjourns 3 Mch. " Gov. Reeder of Kan. removed by pres. Pierce ; Wilson Shannon of O. appointed in his place. .... .28 July, " William Walker lands in Nicaragua with 160 men, 3 Sept. " Col. Henry L. Kinney made civil and military gov- ernor of Greytown, Nicaragua, by citizens, 12 Sept. " Expedition in search of dr. Kane, under lieut. Hart- stene, U. S. N., finds at the isle of Disco, Greenland, Kane and his companions, who had left the ship in the ice, 17 May, and reached Disco 8 Aug., 13 Sept. « This expedition returns to New York city 11 Oct. " Thirty-fourth Congress, First Session, assembles .3 Dec. " After a contest of 9 weeks, on the 133d ballot, Nathaniel P. Banks of Mass. is elected (2 Feb. 1856) speaker by a plurality of 3 votes over William Aiken of S. C. [" It was a distinctive victory of the free states , over the consolidated power of the slave states. It marked an epoch." — Blaine's " Twenty Years of Congress," vol. i. p. 122. This session was the storm- iest ever held.] Proclamation of pres. Pierce against the invasion of Nicaragua 8 Dec. " Pres. Pierce, in special message, recognizes the pro- slavery legislature of the territory of Kansas, and calls the attempt to establish a free-state govern- ment an act of rebellion (Kansas) 24 Jan. 1856 Pres. Pierce by proclamation warns all persons against unlawful combinations against the constituted au- thorities of Kansas 11 Feb. " American National convention at Philadelphia, Pa., on the 1st formal ballot nominates Millard Fillmore of N. Y. for president, and Andrew J. Donelson of Tenn. for vice-president 22 Feb. " Capture and sack of Lawrence, Kan., by the pro-slavery party (Kansas) 21 May, " Charles Sumner of Mass. beaten down in the Senate 1 UNI 868 UNI chamber by Preston S. Brooks, of S. C, because of his speech," The Crime against Kansas". .22 May, 1866 [Brooks accompanied by L. M. Keitt of S.C.] House committee recommends the expulsion of Brooks and censure of Keitt, but the resohition fails, 121 to 95 (two-thirds required); Brooks and Keitt resign, 2 June, « Democratic National convention meets at Cincinnati, O 3 June, " [James Buchanan of Pa. nominated for president on the 17th ballot, and John C. Breckinridge of K}'. for vice-president. Franklin Pierce and Stephen A. Douglas were also candidates for the presidency, but were withdrawn on the 15th and 16th ballots.] First Republican National convention held at Phila- delphia 17 June, " [On the Ist formal ballot John Charles Fremont of Cal. was nominated for president, 329 votes to 37 for McLean of O., and 1 for W. H. Seward ; Wm. L. Dayton of N, J. was nominated for vice-president.] John W. Geary of Pa. appointed governor of Kansas in place of Shannon 1 July, " Committee appointed by the House, 19 Mch. 1856, con- sisting of John Sherman of O., Wm. A. Howard of Mich., and M. Oliver of Mo., to inquire into the Kansas troubles, reports : (1) that the election held by the free-state party was not illegal ; (2) that the elections under the alleged territorial laws were car- ried by invaders from Missouri ; (3) that the alleged territorial legislature was illegal ; (4) that its acts were intended for unlawful ends; (6) that neither of the delegates to Congress was entitled to a seat; (6) that no election could be held without a new census, a stringent election law, impartial judges of election, and U. S. troops at every polling place ; (7) that the constitution framed by the convention em- bodies the will of the majority of the people, IJuly, " [Mr. Oliver of Mo. made a minority report.] Grand-jury at Washington indicts Preston S. Brooks for assault and battery upon Charles Sumner, 22 June ; on trial Brooks admits the facts, and is fined $300 8 July, " Preston S. Brooks challenges to a duel Anson Bur- lingame, member from Mass. Mr. Burlingame in reply agrees to meet him at the Clifton house, Niag- ara Falls, on 26 July at noon, when differences be- tween them can be adjusted. Burlingame leaves Washington for the rendezvous ; Brooks declines to pursue the matter further 21 July, " Preston S. Brooks and L. M. Keitt are returned to Con- gress from South Carolina 28 July, " First Session adjourns 18 Aug. " Army appropriation bill failing to pass, owing to a proviso that the army be not used to aid the pro- slavery legislature of Kansas, an extra session of Congress is called for 21 Aug 19 Aug. " Second Session (extra) convenes 21 Aug. " Governor of ELansas proclaims the territory in insur- , rection 25 Aug. " Army appropriation bill passes without the proviso, 30 Aug. " Second Session (10 days) adjourns " " [The shortest session of any Congress. ] Whig National convention meets at Baltimore, 17 Sept. " [It adopted the nominees of the American party for president, Fillmore and Donelson. Last appear- ance of the Whig party in politics.] Eighteenth presidential election held 4 Nov. " Third Session convenes 1 Dec. " Dispersion of the Free - state legislature at Topeka, Kan., by federal troops 6 Jan. 1857 Electoral votes counted 11 Feb. '• [Democrats, James Buchanan, Pa., for president, 174; John C. Breckinridge, Kj'., for vice-president, 174. Republicans, John C. Fremont, Cal., for presi- dent, 114 ; Wm. L. Dayton, N. J., for vice-president, 114. Americans, Millard Fillmore, N. Y., for presi- dent, 8 ; Andrew J. Donelson, Tenn., for vice-presi- dent, 8.] Death of Elisha Kent Kane (arctic explorer), at Ha- vana, Cuba, aged 35 16 Feb. 1857 Act to confirm to the several states the swamp and overflowed lands selected under act of 2 Mch. 1849, which granted to the state of Louisiana all such lands found unfit for cultivation, and under act of 28 Sept. 1850, which made similar grants to Arkansas and other states; approved 3 Mch. " [Excepted California, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, these lands have been selected by agents of the state, who furnish to the U. S. proofs of their unfitness for cultivation, etc. It was estimated in 1849-50 from government surveys that the total area of swamp-lands would not exceed 21,000,000 acres. But these acts and grants have led to complaints of fraud and deceit. Millions of acres have been listed as swamp-land which are now held for further inves- tigation. The area claimed by the states under the various acts amounts to over 80,000,000 acres to 30 June, 1891, of which 58,000,000 acres have been pat- ented to the states. Of the principal states claiming such lands under the several acts, Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Miiniesota, Mississippi, Misouri, Ohio, Oregon, and Wisconsin, Florida has received the most, 22,500,000 acres, and Ohio the least, 1 17,000 acres. — Report of the sec. of the interior, 1891.] Act passed materially reducing duties 3 Mch. " Thirty-fourth Congress adjourns " " Eighteenth Administration— Democratic. 4 Mch. 1857 to 3 Mch. 1861. James Buchanan, Pa., president. John C. Breekinrhige, Ky., vice-president. CABINET. Lewis Cass, Mich., sec. of state, from 6 Mch. 1857. Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., sec. of state, from 17 t)ec. 1860. Howell Cobb, Ga., sec. of treas., from 6 Mch. 1857. PhUip F. Thomas, Md., sec. of treas., from 12 Dec. 1860. John A . Dix, N. Y., sec. of treas., from 11 Jan. 1861. John B. Floyd, Va., sec. of war, from 6 Mch. 1857. Joseph Holt, Ky., sec. of war, from 18 Jan. 1861. Isaac Toucey, Conn., sec. of navy, from 6 Mch. 1857. Jacob Thompson, Miss., sec. of interior, from 6 Mch. 1857. [Resigned 8 Jan. 1861 ; no one appointed in his place.] Aaron V. Brown, Tenn., postmaster-gen., from 6 Mch. 1857. Joseph Holt, Ky., postmaster-gen., from 14 Mch. 1859. Horatio King, Me., postmaster-gen,, from 12 Feb. 1861. Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., attornej'-gen., from 6 Mch. 1857. Edwin M. Stanton, O., attorney-gen., from 20 Dec. 1860. Chief-justice Taney, of the Supreme court, delivers his decision in the Dred Scott case 6 Mch. 1857 Robert J. Walker of Miss, appointed governor of Kansas in place of Geary of Pa., resigned Apr. " Second treaty with Japan; the third port, Nagasaki, opened to the U. S 17 June, " Shore end of the Atlantic submarine telegraph cable is fixed by the U. S, steam-frigate Niagara at Va- lencia bay, Ireland 5 Aug. " Cable breaks after paying out 335 miles 11 Aug. " [It was abandoned until the next year,] Brigham Young, governor of Utah, by proclamation forbids any armed force coming into Salt Lake City, and orders the troops in readiness to repel such in- vasion and declares martial law 15 Sept. " Mountain Meadow massacre (Utah, 1857-77), 18 Sept. " Mormons attack the government trains and destroy 78 wagons 5 Oct. " Great financial distress ; banks in New York city and Boston suspend 13-14 Oct. " Pres. Buchanan removes Brigham Young, and appoints Alfred Gumming of the U. S. army as governor of Utah '* William Walker makes his third filibustering expedi- tion to Nicaragua from New Orleans 11 Nov. A UNI Lands on the Nicaraguan coast with 400 men, 25 Nov. Com. Paulding of the U. S. navy arrests Walker at Greytown, Nicaragua, and he is taken to New York as prisoner 3 Dec. Thirty-fifth Congress, First Session, assembles. .7 Dec. James L. Orr of S. C. elected speaker of the House. [House, 131 Democrats, 92 Republicans, and 14 Americans. Senate, 39 Democrats, 20 Republicans, 5 Americans.] Stephen A. Douglas of 111. in the Senate opposes forcing the Lecompton constitution on Kansas. .... 9 Dec. [He thus parted from the southern Democracy.] Robert J. Walker, governor of Kansas, resigns, 15 Dec. The House of Representatives met for the first time in the new hall of representatives in the south wing of the extension 16 Dec. [By an act approved 2 July, 1864, the old hall of representatives was set apart as a national statuary hall, and each state invited to furnish in marble or bronze statues of 2 of its most distinguished citizens.] James H. Hammond of S. C. makes a " memorable speech " in the Senate in reply to W. H. Seward, 4 Mch. [This speech expressed the confidence of the South in her ability to organize a government and defend it, and in its bold stand for the perpetuation of slavery. In this speech originated the terra " mud- sills of society."] Pres. Buchanan issues a proclamation respecting the Mormon rebellion in Utah 6 Apr. Thomas H. Benton dies at Washington, aged 76, 10 Apr. An act to admit Kansas under the Lecompton consti- tution 4 May, Minnesota admitted as the 32d state 11 May, Congress authorizes a loan of $20,000,000 ... 14 June, First Session adjourns « Second treaty with China of peace, amity, aiid com- merce *. . .18 June, Debates in the senatorial contest in Illinois between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas during June and July, Remains of James Monroe, 5th president of the U. S., buried at New York, 1831, taken up and conveyed to Virginia 2 July, Street deposit boxes (iron) for letters for the mails first used in Boston, Mass 2 Aug. Lecompton constitution for Kansas rejected by the people of Kansas, 11,088 to 1788 2 Aug. Atlantic submarine telegraph completed 5 Aug. First message from queen Victoria to pres. Buchanan, 16 Aug. [After 23 days, 400 messages having been trans- mitted, the cable lost its conducting power] Seizure of the Echo, a slaver, with 318 slaves, by the U. S. brig Dolphin, lieut. John H. MafRt command- ing (South Carolina) 21 Aug. Fifteen hundred U. S. troops leave fort Laramie for the suppression of Mormon troubles in Utah . . Sept. Crystal palace burned in New York 5 Oct. First mail overland from San Francisco reaches St. Louis, 24 days 18 hours in transit 9 Oct. Donati's comet, first appearing in June, attains its greatest brilliancy (Comets) 9 Oct. Pres. Buchanan issues a proclamation respecting an apprehended invasion of Nicaragua 30 Oct. Paul Morphy of New Orleans becomes the champion CHKSS-player of the world Grand-jury of Columbia, S. C, refuses to indict the crew of the slaver Echo 30 Nov. Second Session assembles 6 Dec. Senate leaves the old to occupy the new Senate cham- ber in the north wing of the extension 4 Jan. [Before leaving a memorial address was delivered by vice-president Breckinridge reviewing the history of the old chamber. Since Dec. 1860, it has been occupied by the Supreme court of the U. S.] 859 UNI 1857 1858 A bill presented in the Senate giving the president $30,000,000 to purchase Cuba 24 Jan. 1859 William H. Prescott, author, dies at Boston, Mass., aged 63 28 Jan. " Oregon admitted as the 33d state 14 Feb. " Daniel E. Sickles, congressman from New York, kills Philip Barton Key at Washington for adultery with his wife ; 27 Feb. " Thirty-fifth Congress adjourns 3 Mch. " Trial of Daniel E. Sickles begun at Washington, D. C, 4 Apr. " [It lasted 18 days and resulted in his acquittal.] A rich gold mine opened in Colorado, on the north fork of Clear creek, by John H. Gregory ... 10 May, '« Unexampled frost throughout the northern U. S., night of 4 June, " M. Blondin for the first time crosses the Niagara river just below the falls on a tight-rope 30 June, " San Juan islands occupied by gen. Harney, U. S. army (though claimed by Great Britain as belonging to Vancouver island) 9 July, " Little John, a negro, arrested at Oberlin, O., as a slave, and rescued at Wellington (Ohio) 13 Sept. " Senator David C. Broderick of Cal., mortally wounded in a duel with judge Terry near lake Merced, Cal, 13 Sept., d ^ 16 Sept. « U. S. steamship Niagara sails from Charleston, S. C, for Liberia, Africa, with the negroes taken from the slaver Echo ; 271 are returned out of 318. . .20 Sept. « Jefferson Davis addresses the Democratic State con- vention of Mississippi in behalf of slavery and the extension of slave territory Oct. " Brown's insurrection at Harper's Ferry, W. Va., 16-18 Oct. " Gen. Winfield Scott is ordered to the Pacific coast in view of the British claims to San Juan ; he arrives at Portland, Or. 29 Oct. " Washington Irving dies at Tarrytown, N. Y., aged 76, 28 Nov. « John Brown (Brown's insurrection) hanged at Charlestown, W. Va 2 Dec. " Thirty-sixth Congress, First Session, assembles, .5 Dec. " [Senate Democratic, House with no clear majority for any party. John Sherman of O. was the Re- publican candidate for speaker and Thomas S. Bocock of Va. the Democratic. After 8 weeks' balloting Mr. Sherman withdrew, and William Pennington of N. J. was elected on the 44th ballot, 1 Feb. I860.] Green, Copeland, Cook, and Coppoc, Harper's Ferry in- surgents, hanged (Brown's insurrection), 16 Dec. " Mr. Clark of Mo. introduces a resolution in the House that no one who had approved Helper's "The Im- pending Crisis" was fit to be speaker Dec. " House adopts resolutions offered by John Covode of Pa., for a committee to investigate the conduct of the president 5 Mch. 1860 A. C. Stephens and Albert Hazlett hanged at Charles- town, W. Va 16 Mch. " [These were the last of the prisoners captured at Harper's Ferry in the John Brown insurrection.] National Democratic convention meets in Charleston, S.C 23 Apr. " After much discord the southern members secede, and the convention, after 57 ballotings without nom- inating, adjourns to meet at Baltimore 18 June, 3 May, " " Constitutional Union " party holds a national conven- tion in Baltimore 9 May, " [John Bell of Tenn. and Samuel Houston of Texas were the candidates for nomination ; on the 2d ballot Bell received 138 votes and Houston 69. Edward Everett of Mass. unanimously nominated for vice- president.] Morrill Tariff bill passes the House 10 Maj--, " [It was protective, the duties being high and specific; it passed the Senate after the southern members withdrew ; approved 2 Mch. 1861.] UNI « Japanese embassy, numbering 72, of all grades, arrive at Hampton Koads and reaches Washington, 14 May, 1860 National Republican courention meets at Chicago, 16 May, « [All the free states were strongly represented, be- sides delegates from Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, District of Columbia, and terri- tories of Kansas and Nebraska. George Ashmun of Mass. was chosen president ; convention decided that a majority nominate; platform protested against the indefinite extension of slavery in the territories, but proposed no interference with it in the states. Bal- loting began 18 May, with 465 delegates; necessary to a choice, 233. Candidates were Abraham Lincoln of 111., William H. Seward of N. Y., Simon Cam- eron of Pa. (withdrew after the 1st ballot), Salmon P. Chase of O., and Edward Bates of Mo. Mr. Sew- ard received on the Ist ballot 173J votes ; 2d, 184 J ; 3d, 180 ; Mr. Lincoln, Ist ballot, 102 votes ; 2d, 181 ; 3d, 231 J; changes then made gave Mr. Lincoln 354 votes. Hannibal Hamlin of Me. was nominated for vice-president on the 2d ballot.] Southern seceders from the Charleston Democratic convention meet at Richmond, Va., and adjourn to await the decision of the Baltimore convention, 11 June, " Seceders, with the rejected delegates, meet at Balti- more 18 June, " [Twenty-one states were represented by 105 del- egates. John C. Breckinridge of Ky. was nomi- nated for president and Joseph Lane of Or. for vice- president, 23 June.] National Democratic convention assembles at Balti- more pursuant to adjournment 18 June, " After some days of debate over credentials of delegates, many delegates withdraw, and the chairman, Caleb Cushing of Mass., resigns. David Tod of O. is chosen chairman and balloting begins 22 June, " [On the 2d ballot Stephen A. Douglas of 111. re- ceived 181|^ votes. Benjamin Fitzpatrick of Ala. was nominated for vice-president, but declined, and the National committee nominated Herschel V. Johnson of Ga.] A loan of $21,000,000 authorized by Congress . 22 June, " Homestead bill vetoed by the president " f' [Senate fails to pass it over the veto by 3 votes.] First Session adjourns 25 June, " Steamship Grkat Eastern sails from England, 17 June, reaching New York in 1 1 davs, 2 hours, 28 June, « Kansas elects a convention to draft a second constitu- tion ; it meets 5 July, " [Under this, the Wyandotte constitution, prohib- iting slavery, Kansas was afterwards admitted.] Lady Elgin, a steamer on lake Michigan, sunk by col- lision with the schooner A ugusta, morning of 8 Sept. " [Outof385 persons on board, 287 were lost. Wrecks.] William Walker, Nicaraguan filibuster, captured and shot at Truxillo, Nicaragua (Filibusters) . 12 Sept. " Prince of Wales arrives at Detroit, Mich., from Canada, 21 Sept. « After visiting Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Washing- ton, Baltimore, Philadelpliia, New York, and Boston, he embarks fur England from Portland, Me., 20 Oct. " Nineteenth presidential election held 6 Nov. " [Candidates and popular votes: Republicans, Abraham Lincoln of 111., for president, and Hannibal Hamlin of Me., for vice-president, 1,866,362 votes. Democrats : Stephen A. Douglas of 111., for presi- dent, and Herschel V. Johnson of Ga., for vice-pres- ident, 1,375,157. Seceding Democrats : John C. Breckinridge of Ky., for president, and Joseph Lane of Or., for vice-president, 847,514. Constitutional Union: John Bell of Tenn., for president, and Ed- ward Everett of Mass., for vice-president, 587,830.] Second Session assembles 3 Dec. " President's message contends that the south has no UNI legal right to secede, and the government no power to prevent secession 4 Dec. 1860 A special committee of 33, one from each state, ap- pointed by the House upon the condition of the coimtry 4 Dec. " [This committee submitted 5 propositions, 14 Jan. 1861; but one, that proposing a constitutional amend- ment, ever reached the Senate.] Howell Cobb of Ga., sec. of treasury, resigns . . 10 Dec. " Lewis Cass of Mich., sec. of state, resigns because the president refused to reinforce maj. Anderson at fort Moultrie, S. C 14 Dec. •' A loan of $10,000,000 authorized by Congress, 17 Dec. " Senate appoints a committee of 13 upon the condition of the country, and to report a plan on adjusting the difficulty . . .' 18 Dec. " [On 31 Dec. the chairman reported that the com- mittee were unable to agree.] John J. Crittenden of Ky. speaks for union in the Senate, and offers resolutions for amending the Constitution, 18 Dec. « [These resolutions, known as the Crittenden Com- promise measure of 1860-61, proposed to restore the compromise of 1820 and strengthen the Fugitive- Slave law of 1850. They were rejected after a con- tinued debate by 19 to 20, 2 Mch. 1861.] State of South Carolina unanimously passes the ordi- nance of secession (South Carolina) 20 Dec. " Robert W. Barnwell, James H. Adams, and James L. Orr, appointed commissioners by South Carolina, to treat for the possession of U. S. property within the limits of South Carolina 21 Dec. " [On their arrival at Washington they addressed a diplomatic letter to the president, 28 Dec. The president replied, 30 Dec, but persistently refused to receive them officially.] Maj. Robert Anderson, in command at fort Moultrie, Charleston harbor, S. C, abandons that fort and, with its garrison, consisting of 7 officers, 61 non-commis- sioned officers and privates, and 13 musicians, occu- pies Fort Sumter night of 26 Dec. " Ralph Farnham, last survivor of the battle of Bunker Hill, dies at Acton, N. H., aged 104J 27 Dec. " Castle Pinckney and fort Moultrie seized by South Carolina state troops 27 Dec. " U. S. arsenal, with 75,000 stands of arms, seized by South Carolina state troops at Charleston . . .30 Dec. " Edward D. Baker of Or. answers the plea of Judah P. Benjamin of La. in the Senate for the right of secession 2 Jan. 1861 Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah river, Ga., seized by Georgia state troops 3 Jan. " U. S. arsenal seized at Mt. Vernon, Ala., by the Ala- bama state troops 4 Jan. " Forts Morgan and Gaines, at the entrance of Mobile bay, seized by the Alabama state troops 5 Jan. " Fernando Wood, mayor of N. Y., recommends secession to the common council 6 Jan. " U. S. arsenal at Appaiachicola, Fla., seized by Florida state troops 6 Jan. " Fort Marion and fort St. Augustine, Fla., seized by Florida state troops 7 Jan. " Robert Toombs, senator from Ga., delivers his last speech in the Senate 7 Jan. " Star of the West, sent by the U. S. government to re- inforce fort Sumter with 200 men under lieut. Chas. R. Wood of the 9th infantry, is fired on from Morris island and forced to retire 9 Jan. " Ordinance of secession of Mississippi adopted in con- vention, 84 to 15 9 Jan. " Fort Johnston seized by citizens of Smithville, N. C, 9 Jan. " Fort Caswell seized by citizens of Smithville and Wil- mington, N. C 10 Jan. " Ordinance of secession of Florida adopted in conven- tion, 62 to 7 10 Jan. " U. S. arsenal and barracks at Baton Rouge, La., seized by Louisiana state troops 10 Jan. " UNI Fort Jackson and fort Philips, below New Orleans, seized by Louisiana state troops 11 Jan. Ordinance of secession of Alabama adopted in conven- tion, 61 to 39. 11 Jan. Florida demands the surrender of fort Pickens, at the entrance of Pensacola bay, Fla., with the garrison of 81 men, under lieut. Sleramer: refused 12 Jan. Fort Taylor, Key West, garrisoned by U. S. troops, 14 Jan. Ordinance of secession of Georgia adopted in conven- tion, 208 to 89 19 Jan. U. S. senators Clement C. Clay of Ala., Thomas L. Clingman of N. C, Jeiferson Davis of Miss., Stephen R. Mallory and David L. Yulee of Fla. withdraw from the Senate with speeches of defiance. .21 Jan. U. S. arsenal at Augusta, (ia., seized by Georgia troops, 24 Jan. Ordinance of secession of Louisiana adopted in conven- tion, 113 to 17 26 Jan. Alfred Iverson of Ga. withdraws from the Senate in a speech of defiance 28 Jan. Kansas admitted as the 34th state 29 Jan. Ordinance of secession of Texas adopted in convention, 166 to 7 1 Feb. Peace conference held at Washington, D. C, at the re- quest of the legislature of Virginia 4 Feb. [21 states represented; ex-pres. Tyler chosen pres- ident. It adjourned 27 Feb., after proposing amend- ments to the Constitution, which were offered in the Senate 2 Mch., and rejected by a vote of 3 to 34.] U. S. senators Judah P. Benjamin and John Slidell of La. withdraw from the Senate with speeches, 4 Feb. Confederate congress meets at Montgomery, Ala . " [6 states represented; 8 delegates from South Carolina, 10 from Georgia, 9 from Alabama, 7 from Mississippi, 5 from Louisiana, and 3 from Florida. (Confederate States.)] Choctaw nation adheres to the Confederate States, 7 Feb. Congress authorizes a loan of $25,000,000 8 Feb. U. S. arsenal seized at Little Rock, Ark., by the state troops 8 Feb. JeflFerson Davis of Miss, chosen president, and Alex. H. Stephens of Ga. vice-president, by the Confederate congress (Confederate States) 9 Feb. Electoral vote counted 13 Feb. [Lincoln for president and Hamlin for vice-presi- dent, 180. Breckinridge for president and Lane for vice-president, 72. Bell for president and Everett for vice-president, 39. Douglas for president and Johnson for vice-president, 12.] U. S. arsenal and barracks seized at San Antonio by the Texas state troops 16 Feb. U. S. military posts in Texas surrendered to the state by gen. Twiggs, U. S. A 18 Feb. [The amount of U. S. stores surrendered estimated at $1,300,000, of which $55,000 was specie ; 35,000 stands of arms and 70 pieces of artillery, besides commissary and quartermaster's stores.] Jefferson Davis inaugurated president of the Confed- eracy (Confederate States) 18 Feb. Territorial government established in Colorado, 28 Feb. Gen. D. E. Twiggs dismissed from the army . . 1 Mch. Territorial governments established in Dakota and Nevada 2 Mch. [No restrictions as to slavery in the acts estab- lishing these governments.] Gen. Winfield Scott, in a letter to Mr. Seward, submits 4 plans of dealing with the seceding states: (1) by conciliation, as proposed by Mr. Crittenden or the Peace convention; (2) collect duties on foreign goods outside the ports of the seceding states and blockade them ; (3) conquer the seceding states (which will take 300,000 men) and hold them as conquered provinces ; or (4) say to the seceding states, " Wayward sisters, go in peace" 3 Mch. Thirty-sixth Congress adjourns 4 Mch. 1861 861 UNI Nineteenth Administration— Eepnblican. 4 Mch. I86l to 3 Mch. 1865. Abraham Lincoln, 111., president. Hannibal Hamlin, Me., vice-president. cabinet. William H. Seward, N. Y., sec. of state, from 5 Mch. 1861. Salmon P. Chase, O., sec. of treas., from 7 Mch. 1861. Simon Cameron, Pa., sec. of war, from 5 Mch. 1861. Edwin M. Stanton, O., sec. of war, from 15 Jan. 1862. Gideon Welles, Conn,, sec. of navy, from 5 Mch. 1861. Caleb B. Smith, Ind., sec. of interior, from 5 Mch. 1861. John P. Usher, Ind., sec. of interior, from 8 Jan. 1863. Montgomery Blair, Md., postmaster-gen., from 5 Mch. 1861. William Dennison, O., postmaster-gen., from 24 Sept. 1864. Edward Bates, Mo., attornej'-gen., from 5 Mch. 1861. T. J. Coffey, ad int., attorney-gen., from 22 June, 1863. James Speed, Ky., attorney-gen., from 2 Dec. 1864. State of Louisiana seizes the bullion in the New Or- leans mint, $536,000, for the Confederate govern- ment (Coin, Confederate) 7 Mch. 1861 John Forsyth of Ala. and Martin J. Crawford of Ga. present credentials as commissioners of the Confed- erate States to the secretary of state 12 Mch. " He declines official intercourse with them. . . .15 Mch. " Gen. P. T. G. Beauregard summons fort Sumter to sur- render : 11 Apr. " Fire opened on fort Sumter on the morning of. . 12 Apr. " [First gun fired by Edmund Ruffin, a Virginian, 75 years of age. He survived the war, in which he lost all his property, but committed suicide soon after. South Carolina.] Fort Sumter surrenders on Sunday, 14 Apr. " President by proclamation calls for 75,000 troops, and convenes Congress for 4 July 15 Apr. " Governor of North Carolina refuses to furnish quota of militia (2 regiments) to the U. S 15 Apr. " Forts Caswell and Johnston of North Carolina taken possession of by state troops 16 Apr. " Ordinance of secession of Virginia adopted in conven- tion by 88 to 55 17 Apr. " Governor of Missouri refuses to furnish quota of militia (4 regiments) to the U. S 17 Apr. " U. S. armory at Harper's Ferry, W.Va., abandoned and burned by its garrison (Virginia) 18 Apr. '* U. S. arsenal seized at Liberty, Mo., by state troops, 18 Apr.. « Conflict between the Sixth Massachusetts and mob in Baltimore, Md. (Maryland) 19 Apr. " President proclaims the blockade of all ports of the seceding states 19 Apr. " Gen. Benj. F. Butler's command arrives at Annapolis, Md 20 Apr. " U. S. officers seized at San Antonio, Tex., as prisoners of war 23 Apr. « Governor of Arkansas refuses to furnish quota of mili- tia (1 regiment) to the U. S 23 Apr. " John A. Campbell of Ala., associate-justice of the Su- preme court of the U. S., resigns. . . . about 1 May, " [Campbell alone of the 3 Southern justices joined the Confederacy. He became assist.-sec. of war of the Confederate States; d. 1889.] Pres. Lincoln calls for 42,034 volunteers for 3 years, and adds 22,714 men to the regular army and 18,000 to the navy 3 May, " U. S. ordnance stores seized at Kansas City. .4 May, " Ordinance of secession of Arkansas adopted in conven- tion by 69 to 1 6 May, « President proclaims martial law and suspends the ha- beas corpus in Key West, the Tortugas, and Santa Rosa 10 May, « Baltimore, Md., occupied by U. S. troops. . . .13 May, " Gen, Geo. B. McClellan, U. S. army, assumes command of the department of the Ohio, embracing a portion of W. Virginia 13 May, " Engagement at Sewell's Point, Va 18-19 May, " Ordinance of secession of North Carolina adopted in convention, vote unanimous 21 May, " UNI 862 U. a tnwps advance into Virginia and occupy Arling- ton Heights and Alexandria 24 May, 1861 Col. E. E. Ellsworth, of the New York Fire Zouaves, shot at Alexandria, Va. (Vikginia) 24 May, " Gen. Irwin McDowell, U. S. army, assumes command of the department of N.E.Virginia 28 May, " Grafton, W. Virginia, occupied by U. S. troops, 30 May, " Ordinance of secession of the state of Tennessee adopted by the legislature (Tknnksske) 8 June, " Virginia state troops transferred to the Confederate government 8 June, " Engagement at Bio Bkthkl, Va. (Virginia), 10 June, " Governor of Missouri calls for 50,000 state militia to repel invasion 12 June, " Harper's Ferry abandoned by the confederates, 15 June, " Gren. Banks arrests George P. Kane, chief of police, at Baltimore 27 June, " And police commissioners (Habkas corpus). .I.July, " Western department constituted (Missouri). . 3 July, " Thirty-seventh Congress, First Session (extra), assem- bles 4 July, " (ialusha A. Grow of Pa. elected speaker of the House. [States not represented in the 37th Congress: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas ; from Louis- iana 2 representatives were present from Feb. 1863 ; Tennessee was represented in the Senate by Andrew Johnson, and in the House by 3 members, 2 of them from Feb. 1863] President's first message to Congress 4 July, " Engagement at Carthage, Mo. (Missouri), between the federals under col. Franz Sigel and confederates under gen. Jackson ; Sigel retreats 5 July, " Senate, by a vote of 32 to 10, expels Mason and Hun- ter of Va., Clingman and Bragg of N. C, Chestnut of S. C, Nicholson of Tenn., Sebastian and Mitch- ell of Ark., Hemphill and Wigfall of Tex. .11 July, « [These senators had vacated their seats at the previous session.] Congress authorizes a loan of $250,000,000. . . 17 July, " Battle of Bull Run 21 July, " Gen. (ieorge B. McClellan ordered to Washington, 22 July, « Congress authorizes the enlistment of 500,000 men, 22 July, « Gen. William S. Rosecrans assumes command of the 'department of the Ohio 23 July, " Gen. John C. Fremont assumes command of the western department 25 July, " Gen. George B. McClellan assumes command of the division of the Potomac 27 July, " State troops of Tennessee transferred to the Confeder- ate government 31 July, " First (extra) Session (34 days) adjourns 6 Aug. " [The second shortest session of any Congress.] An act confiscating the property, including slaves, of enemies of the U. S 6 Aug. " Gen. U. S. Grant assumes command of the district of Ironton, Mo. 8 Aug. " Battle of Springfield or Wilson's Creek, Mo., and death of gen. Lyon (Missouri, Wilson's Crekk), 10 Aug. " Kentucky and Tennessee constituted the department of the Cumberland, under command of gen. Robert Anderson 15 Aug. ** President by proclamation forbids commercial inter- course with seceding states 16 Aug. " Departments of northeastern Virginia, of Washington, and of the Shenandoah merged into the department or army of the Potomac 17 Aug. " Gen. Butler captures forts Hatteras and Clark, at the entrance of Hatteras inlet, with 715 prisoners and 25 guns 29 Aug. " Gen. Fremont proclaims martial law in Missouri, w^ith freedom to the slaves of active rebels 31 Aug. " [This act was disapproved by the president.] Gen. Grant assumes command of southeastern Missouri, 1 Sept. " UNI Advance of the confederates into Kentucky, and capt- ure of Columbus 3-12 Sept. 1861 Paducah, Ky., occupied by gen. Grant 6 Sept. " Gen. George H. Thomas assigned to command at camp " Dick Robinson," E. Kentucky 10 Sept. " Siege and surrender of Lkxington, Mo.. . 11-20 Sept. " Bowling Green, Ky., occupied by the confederates, 18 Sept. " Gen. O. M. Mitchel assumes command of the depart- ment of the Ohio 21 Sept. " Gen. William T. Sherman supersedes gen. Anderson in the department of the Cumberland 8 Oct. " Gen. O. M. Mitchel organizes an expedition for the oc- cupation of E. Tennessee 10 Oct. " James M. Mason of Va., John Slidell of La., Confeder- ate envoys to Great Britain and France, run the block- ade of Charleston harbor, S. C, in the steamship Theodora (Trent affair), on the night of, 12 Oct. " Battle of Ball's Bluff, Va 21 Oct. « Gen. Scott retired, aged 75 1 Nov. " Gen. David Hunter, U. S. army, relieves gen. Fremont at St. Louis, Mo 2 Nov. " Battle of Belmont, Mo 7 Nov. " British royal mail- contract packet Trent leaves Ha- vana, Cuba, for England, 7 Nov., with Mason and Slidell on board ; she is stopped by the U. S. war steamer San Jacinto, capt. Wilkes, and the envoys taken from her (Trent affair) 8 Nov. " Department of Missouri constituted 9 Nov. " Department of the Ohio reorganized to include Ken- tucky and Tennessee, 9 Nov. ; gen. Don Carlos Buell assumes command 15 Nov. " Gen. Halleck assumes command of the department of Missouri 19 Nov. " Second Session assembles 2 Dec. " Pres. Lincoln's first annual message to Congress, 3 Dec. " John C. Breckinridge, Ky., expelled from the Senate, 4 Dec. « [He had remained in the Senate until the end of the previous session.] Senate resolves that a joint committee of 3 members from the Senate and 4 from the House be appointed to inquire into the conduct of the war, with power to send for persons and papers, and to sit during the session (33 yeas to 3 nays) 9 Dec. " House concurs 10 Dec. " This committee consists of senators Benj. F. Wade of O., Zachariah Chandler of Mich., and Andrew John- son of Tenn., 17 Dec. ; and congressmen Daniel W. Gooch of Mass., John Covode of Pa., George W. Julian of Ind., and Moses F. Odell of N. Y., 19 Dec. « Committee convenes, Mr. Wade chairman ... .20 Dec. " Affair at Dranesville, Va " " Government suspends specie payment 1 Jan. 1862 Department of North Carolina established, gen. A. E. Burnside commander. 7 Jan. " Burnside's expedition arrives at Hatteras inlet, N. C, 13 Jan. " Engagement at Logan's Cross Roads or Mill Spring, Ky 19 Jan. " Jesse D. Bright of Ind. expelled from the Senate on a charge of disloyalty, by 32 to 14 20 Jan. " Capture of Fort Henry, Tenn., by forces under gen. Grant and com. Foote 6 Feb. " Battle of Roanoke Island, by troops under command of gen. Burnside 8 Feb. " Gen. Grant assigned to command of district of W. Tennessee 14 Feb. " Surrender of fort Donelson, Tenn., to Federal forces under gen. Grant (Fort Donelson) 16 Feb. " Nashville, Tenn., occupied by Federal forces, 25 Feb. " Congress authorizes $150,000,000 U. S. notes, the Legal- tender bill 25 Feb. « Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark. (Arkansas, 1862), 6-8 Mch. » Naval engagement at Hampton Roads, Va., and de- struction of the U. S. frigate Congress and sloop-of- war Cumberland by the Confederate iron-clad Vir- ginia, formerly the U. S. frigate Merrimac. .8 Mch. " UNI Fight between the Merrimac and Monitor (Hampton Roads); the Merrimac retires 9 Mch. Advance of the army of the Potomac to Manassas Junction, Va 7-11 Mch. Gen. McClellan relieved from command in chief, retain- ing the army of the Potomac 11 Mch. Departments of Kansas, of Missouri, and part of Ohio merged into the department of the Mississippi un- der maj.-gen, Halleck 11 Mch. All persons in the service forbidden to return escaped slaves to Confederate owners, by a new article of war 13 Mch. New-Berne, N. C, occupied by the U. S. forces, 14 Mch. Embarkation of the army of the Potomac for the Penin- sula commenced at Alexandria (Peninsular cam- paign) 17 Mch. Battle of Kernstovvn or Winchester, Va. ; brig.-gen. James Shields defeats " Stonewall" Jackson, 23 Mch. Siege of Yorktown,Va., commenced by gen. McClellan, 5 Apr. Battle of Pittsburg Landing, Tenn 6-7 Apr. Island No. 10, in the Mississippi, evacuated by the con- federates 7 Apr. Huntsville, Ala., occupied by the U. S. forces under gen. O. M. Mitchel 11 Apr. Bill abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia passes the Senate Apr. 3, 29 to 14, and the House Apr. 11, 92 to 39 ; approved 16 Apr. [The average compensation paid by the govern- ment for each slave was $300.] Adm. Farragut with his fleet passes Forts Jackson and St. Philip, the two forts guarding the Missis- sippi below New Orleans (Louisiana) .... 24 Apr. Adm. Farragut occupies New Orleans (Louisiana), 25 Apr. Gen. B. F. Butler occupies New Orleans with his troops, 1 May, Gen. Magriider evacuates Yorktown, Va 4 May, Battle of Williamsburg, Va. (Pkninsular campaign), 5 May, Gen. David Hunter proclaims emancipation of slaves, and authorizes arming all able-bodied negroes in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina 9 May, [These orders were not approved by the president.] Norfolk, Va., occupied by U. S. forces under gen. Wool 10 May, Merrimac blown up by the confederates 11 May, Department of Agriculture established 15 May, Gen. Butler issues General order No. 28 at New Or- leans regarding the conduct of the women of that city 15 May, [This order produced great excitement in the south, and, with other acts of the general, called forth a proclamation from the president of the Con- federacy. See 23 Dec. 1862.] Gen. McDowell moves towards Richmond to co-operate with gen. McClellan (Peninsular campaign), 17 May, President approves the Homestead act 20 May, Education of colored children provided for in the Dis- trict of Columbia by act of. 21 May, Battle of Hanover Court - house, Va. (Peninsular campaign) 24 May, Corinth, Miss., evacuated by the confederates, and oc- cupied by the U. S. forces under maj.-gen. Halleck (Mississippi, Tennessee) 30 May, Battle of" Seven Pines or Fair Oaks," near Richmond, Va. (Peninsular campaign) 31 May-1 June, IMaj.-gen. Robert E. Lee assigned to command the Con- federate forces about Richmond 3 June, President authorized to appoint diplomatic representa- tives to the republics of Hayti and Liberia. .5 June, Treaty with Great Britain for the suppression of the African slave-trade 7 June, Gen. Butler hangs Wm. Mumford at New Orleans, 7 June, Battle of Cross Keys, Va. (Peninsular campaign, Virginia) 8 June, 863 UNI 1862 Battle of Port Republic, Va. (Peninsular campaign, Virginia) 9 June, Confederate cavalry, 1500 men, under gen. J. E. B. Stuart, pass around army of the Potomac, 12-13 June, Slavery forever prohibited in the territories. .19 June, Army of Virginia formed and placed under command of maj.-gen. John Pope (Pope's Virginia cam- paign) 26 June, Seven days' fighting and retreat of the army of the Potomac from before Richmond to Harrison's Land- ing on the James river 26 June-2 July, [Battles fought: Mechanicsville,26 June; Gaines's Mill, 27 June ; Savage Station, 29 June ; Glendale, .SO June; Frazier's Farm or White Oak Swamp, 30 June; Malvern Hill, 1 July. Peninsular cam- paign.] Vicksburg canal begun ; designed by gen. Thomas Williams to change the course of the Mississippi and isolate Vicksburg (Vicksisurg campaign) .27 June, [Gen. Grant recommenced work on this canal, 22 Jan. 1863, but it proved a failure.] Act for a railroad and telegraph line from the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean ; approved 1 July, Office of Commissioner of Internal Revenue created (Income-tax in the U. S.) 1 July, Pres. Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers for 3 years, 2 July, Gen. McClellan's letter to pres. Lincoln from Harrison's Landing, Va., giving advice on the i)olicy of the government 7 July, Maj.-gen. Halleck commander-in-chief 11 July, By resolution Congress provides 2000 "medals of hon- or" for distribution to non-commissioned officers and privates who shall distinguish themselves (Medals), 12 July, Maj.-gen. John Pope takes command of the army of Virginia (Pope's Virginia campaign). . .14 July, Congress authorizes the enrolment of the militia be- tween 18 and 45 ; the appointment of a judge-advo- cate-general; the president to organize army corps at his discretion ; persons of African descent to be admitted to the army ; act approved. .... .17 July, Congress authorizes the seizure and confiscation of rebel property 17 July, Second Session adjourns " Ex-pres. Martin Van Buren dies at Lindenwold, N. Y., aged 80 24 July, Pres. Lincoln calls for 300,000 9-months militia. .4 Aug. [A special draft ordered in states whose quotas are not filled by 15 Aug.] Battle of Cedar Mountain, Va. (Pope's Virginia cam- paign) 9 Aug. Property in Louisiana belonging to John Slidell, Con- federate commissioner to France, confiscated by or- der of gen. Butler 11 Aug. Army of the Potomac evacuates Harrison's Landing (Peninsular campaign) 16 Aug. Sioux Indians attack the frontier settlements of Min- nesota 19 Aug. Confederates, under gen. Braxton Bragg, invade Ken- tucky, crossing the Tennessee river at Harrison, above Chattanooga (Bragg's Kentucky cam- paign) 21-24 Aug. Secretary of war directs the military governor of the coast islands of South Carolina to enlist 5000 volun- teers of African descent 25 Aug. [The first permission by the government to em- ploy negroes as soldiers.] Battle of Groveton, Va., between the advance of gen. Lee's army and gen. Pope 29 Aug. Battle of Manassas or " second Bull Run," a continua- tion of Groveton (Pope's Virginia campaign), 30 Aug. Kirby Smith, with Bragg's right, advances on Rich- mond, Ky., and defeats the Union forces. . .30 Aug. Battle of Ciiantillv, Va. (Pope's Virginia campaign), 1 Sept. Gen. Pope asks to be relieved from his command of the 1862 UNI army of Virginia, and transferred to the department of the Northwest 8 Sept. Joseph Holt of Ky. appointed Judge-advckiatk- QKNEKAL of the U. S 3 Sept. Confederate forces cross the Potomac and occupy Fred- erick City, Md 4-6 Sept. Department of the Northwest created of Iowa, Minne- sota, Wisconsin, and the territories of Dakota and Nebraska; gen. Pope commanding 6 Sept. Gen. Lee issues a proclamation on entering Maryland, 8 Sept. Harper's Ferry surrenders to "Stonewall" Jackson, (Makyi.ani> campaign) 15 Sept. Battles of South Mountain, Md *' Capture of Munfordville, Ky., by the Confederate forces under Bragg (Bragg's Kentucky cam- paign) 14-16 Sept. Advance of gen. Kirby Smith appears before Coving- ton, Ky., but immediately retires 15 Sept. Battle of Antietam (Maryland campaign), 16-17 Sept. Confederate army retreat across the Potomac on the night of 18-19 Sept. Battle of luka. Miss.; gen. Rosecrans forces Confederate gen. Price to retreat 19-20 Sept. Preliminary proclamation of pres. Lincoln announcing that in territory still in rebellion on 1 Jan. 1863, the slaves will be declared forever free 22 Sept. Convention of governors from 14 loyal states, with proxies from 3 others, meet at Altoona, Pa., and ap- prove the emancipation proclamation 24 Sept. Gen. Buell with the U. S. forces arrives at Louisville, Ky., in advance of the Confederate forces. .25 Sept. Oflice of provost-raarshal-general created b}-^ the sec- retary of war 26 Sept. Brig.- gen. Jeff. C. Davis, U. S. A., shoots and mortally wounds gen. William Nelson at the Gait House, Louisville, Ky 29 Sept. [No notice was ever taken of this affair by the government.] Battle of Corinth, Miss. (Corinth) 3-4 Oct. Battle of Perryville, Ky. (Bragg's Kentucky cam- paign) 8 Oct. Eighteen hundred Confederate cavalry, with 4 pieces of artiller}', under gen. J. E. B. Stuart, cross the Poto- mac for a raid into Pennsylvania 10 Oct. They reach and occupy Chambersburg, Pa., on 11 Oct., and return to Virginia through Maryland, crossing the Potomac at White's Ford, without the loss of a man killed, and having secured 1000 horses, 12 Oct. Ten Confederate prisoners at Palmyra, Mo., shot by or- der of gen. McNiel (Allsaian, Andrew, Case of), 18 Oct. Gen. McClellan assumes the offensive, and crosses the Potomac from Maryland 26 Oct. Rear of the Confederate army under gen. Bragg passes through Cumberland Gap on its retreat from Ken- tucky 26 Oct. Death of gen. O. M. Mitchel, U. S. A., at Beaufort, S. C, aged 52 30 Oct. Maj.-gen. Buell, commanding army of the Ohio, sup- seded by maj.-gen. Rosecrans 30 Oct. Large Democratic gains in elections in northern states, 4 Nov. [Horatio Seymour, Democrat, elected governor of New York.] Gen. McClellan relieved of command of army of the Potomac^ and ordered to Trenton, N. J. ; gen. Burn- side appointed (Fredericksburg, Battle of), 5 Nov. Gen. Porter ordered to Washington to answer charges of gen. Pope (Porter, Fitz-John, Case of), 8 Nov. Gen. B. F. Butler relieved from command of New Or- leans 9 Nov. Lord Lyons, British minister to the U. S., reports to his government upon the prospects of the confederates; the intentions of the conservative (Democratic) par- ty ; and the probability of success of mediation by foreign governments in the war 17 Nov. 1862 864 UNI Third Session convenes 1 Dec. [The president's message recommended a plan of emancipation in the loyal states : (1) Any state abol- ishing slavery prior to 1 Jan. 1900 should receive compensation ; (2) slaves made free by the war to be forever free, loyal owners to be compensated.] Battle of Prairie Grove, Arkansas 7 Dec. Gen. Burnside moves the army of the Potomac to the Rappahannock, opposite I'redericksburg. . . .10 Dec. Army crosses the river 11-12 Dec. Battle of Fhedericksburg 13 Dec. Gen. N. P. Banks assumes command of the Department of the Gulf, headquarters at New Orleans. ,16 Dec. Gen. Grant expels Jews from his department. . 17 Dec. Pres. Davis proclaims gen. Benj. F. Butler a felon, out- law, and common enemj' of mankind, directing that if captured he be hung immediately without trial, and all his commissioned officers or others serving with armed slaves, if captured, be reserved for exe- cution 23 Dec. Thirty-eight Indians hung at Mankato, Minn., for par- ticipation in the massacres (see 19 Aug.).. .26 Dec. Gen. W. T. Sherman, aided by adm. Porter, assaults Vicksburg on the north 27-28 Dec. [Known as the battle of " Chickasaw Bayou."] Monitor founders off cape Hatteras in a storm, with a loss of 16 of her crew, night of 30 Dec. Act admitting West Virginia, to date from 20 June, 1863 (the 35th state), approved 31 Dec. Battle of Murfreesborough or Stone River, 31 Dec. 1862-2 Jan. Pres. Lincoln proclaims all slaves free in the seceding states (Slavery in the U. S.) 1 Jan. Absent from dut}' in the army 8987 officers and 280,- 073 enlisted men 1 Jan. Galveston, Tex., captured bv the confederates. . " Gold at New York 133i@133| 2 Jan. M. Drouyn de I'Huys, French minister of foreign af- fairs, addresses M. Mercier, French minister at Wash- ington, concerning mediation between the U. S. gov- ernment and Confederate 9 Jan. Arkansas post captured by the U. S. forces under W. T. Sherman and McClernand, with a fleet of gun- boats under adm. Porter 11 Jan. Gen. Burnside resumes active operations, but is foiled by storms (Fredericksburg, Battle of). . .20-24 Jan. Gen.Fitz-John Porter cashiered and dismissed from the service of the U. S. under the 9th and 52d articles of war (Porter, Fitz-John, Case of) 21 Jan. Organization of the 1st South Carolina colored loyal volunteers, col. T. W. Higginson commander . 25 Jan. Maj.-gen. Burnside relieved by maj.-gen. Hooker, 25 Jan. A. D. Boileau, proprietor of the Philadelphia Evening Journal, arrested and taken to Washington . 27 Jan. Sec. Seward replies to the French government upon mediation (see 9 Jan.) 6 Feb. Commissary-general of subsistence first appointed, with the rank of brigadier-general 9 Feb. Territorial government established in Arizona, 24 Feb. Congress provides a national currency secured by U. S. bonds approved 25 Feb. [Vote in the Senate, 23 to 21 ; House, 78 to 64.] Destruction of the Confederate war-steamer Nashville by the Montauk, in the Ogeechee river, Ga., 28 Feb. Congress authorizes, besides the 4 major-generals and 9 brigadier-generals for the regular army, 40 major- generals and 200 brigadier-generals for the volunteer service; there may be appointed 30 major-generals and 75 brigadier-generals for the volunteers, 2 Mch. Congress resolves that it is the unaltemble purpose of the U. S. to prosecute the war vigorously until the rebellion is suppressed. . . . That any attempt at mediation will prolong instead of shortening the war. . . . That the rebellion is now sustained by the hope of such intervention 3 Mch. Congress empowers the president to suspend the writ of habeas corpus 3 Mch. 1862 1868 i UNI Congress authorizes loans of $300,000,000 for 1863, and $600,000,000 for 1864 3 Mch. 1 Thirty-seventh Congress adjourns 4 Mch. [This Congress faced extraordinary difficulties, and solved unprecedented problems of statesnoanship with wisdom and patriotism.] Proclamation of the president relative to desertions in the army 10 Mch. Maj.-gen. Burnside supersedes raaj.-gen. H. G. Wright in the department of the Ohio 25 Mch. Adm. Farragut passes the Confederate batteries at Grand Gulf, Miss., with 3 gun-boats 1 Apr. Raid of mounted infantry from Tuscumbia, Ala., tow- ards Rome, Ga. The entire force, 1700 men, with col. A. D. Streight, captured by the confederates (Stkeight's uaii>) 7 Apr.-3 May, Maj.-gen. Burnside orders that death shall be the pen- alty for aiding the confederates, sympathizers with rebellion be sent into the Confederate lines, 13 Apr. Adm. Porter, with 8 gun-boats and 3 steam transports, passes (down) the Confederate batteries at Vicks- burg 16 Apr. Maj.-gen. Hooker crosses the Rappahannock at Kelly's Ford 28-29 Apr. 'Gen. Grant crosses the Mississippi at Bruinsburg, below VicUsburg (Vicksb^rg campaign) 30 Apr. Battle of CuANcriLLORSViLLE, Va 2-4 May, ["Stonewall" Jackson (Confederate general), mortally wounded on the 2d, died on the 10th.] •Grand Gulf, below Vicksburg, abandoned by the con- federates 3 May, •Clement L. Vallandigham arrested at Dayton, O., for treasonable utterances, by orders from gen. Burnside, 4 May, •Gen. Hooker recrosses the Rappahannock 5 May, Gen. Grant occupies Jackson, Miss 14 May, C. L. Vallandigham, convicted by court-martial at Cincinnati, of disloyal utterances, and sentenced to close confinement during the war in some fortress of the U. S. Gen. Burnside approves, and designates fort Warren, Boston 16 May, Battle of Champion Hills, Miss. (Vicksbuhg cam- paign) 16 May, Battle of Big Black River, Miss 17 May, •Confederates retire within the defences of Vicksburg, and the siege begins 18 May, U. S. forces assault the works at Vicksburg without success 21-22 May, President rescinds gen. Burnside's order concerning C. L. Vallandigham, and sends him into the confed- eracy 22 May, Jklaj.-gen. Banks, investing the Confederate works at Port Hudson, assaults them without success, 27 May, Tifty-fourth Massachusetts (colored), the first negro regiment sent from the north, departs for Hilton Head, S. C; 28 May, "Gen. Lee begins his movement for the invasion of the north (Gkttysburg, Pa., Battle of) 3 June, ■Cavalry battle at Beverh''s Ford, Va., between gens. Pleasanton, Buford, and Gregg, and the Confederate gen. J. E. B. Stuart 9 June, •C. L. Vallandigham nominated for governor by the Ohio Democratic convention 11 June, Gen. Hooker begins the movement of his army north- ward from the Rappahannock 13-15 June, Battle of Winchester, Va. ; gen. Ewell defeats the U. S. I troops under gen. Milroy 14-15 June, Pres. Lincoln calls for 100,000 men for 6 months to resist the invasion of Pennsylvania 15 June, [Maryland to furnish 10,000, Pennsylvania 50,000, W. Virginia 10,000, and Ohio 30,000. These men were not used.] Cliarabersburg, Pa., raided by Confederate cavalry, II 15 June, [ Confederate army crosses the Potomac . . . 24-25 June, ! "Gen. Rosecrans finishes the Tullahoma campaign, Tenn., forcing the confederates across the Tennessee at Bridgeport, Ala 24 June-7 July, 2« 865 UNI Gen. Rosecrans advances from Murfreesborough against gen. Bragg at Tullahoma, Tenn 24 June, 1 Army of the Potomac crosses the Potomac. . .26 June, Confederates advance to within 13 miles of Harris- burg, Pa.- 27 June, Maj.-gen. Hooker relieved of command of the army of the Potomac, and maj.-gen. George (i. Meade suc- ceeds 27 June, U. S. and Confederate forces concentrating at Gettys- burg, Pa., battle of Gettysburg begins 1 July, and continues with the defeat of confederates (GK-rrvs- BURG, Pa., Battle of 2-3 July, Franklin Pierce, ex-president of the U. S., addresses a Democratic mass-meeting at Concord, N. H., 4 July, [Extract : " In this republic ... it is made crim- inal ... for that noble martyr of free speech, Mr. Vallandigham, to discuss public aJBFairs in Ohio — ay, even here the temporary agents of the sovereign people, the transitory administration of the govern- ment, tell us that in time of war the mere arbitrary will of the president takes the i)lace of the Consti- tution; and the president himself announces to us that it is treasonable to speak or to write otherwise than he may prescribe — nay, that it is treasonable even to be silent."] , Vicksburg surrenders to gen. Grant (Vicksburg cam- paign) 4 July, Four thousand Confederate raiders, with 10 guns, under John H. Morgan, cross the Ohio river at Branden- burg, Ky., into Indiana (Morgan's raid). . .7 July, Port Hudson surrenders to gen. Banks (PoRr Hudson), 8 July, Confederate army recrosses the Potomac at Williams- port during the night of 13 July, Draft riot in New York city 13-16 July, Repulse of the U. S. troops in their assault on Fort Wagnp:r, Morris Island, S. C 18 July, Samuel Houston dies at Huntersville, Tex., aged 70, 25 July, John J. Crittenden dies at Frankfort, Ky., aged 77, 26 July, Pres. Lincoln proclaims protection of colored soldiers against retaliation by the confederates 30 July, Gov. Seymour of N. Y. requests pres. Lincoln to sus- pend the draft for troops in that state 3 Aug. John B. Floyd, ex-sec. of war and confederate briga- dier-general, dies at Abingdon, Va 26 Aug. Army of the Cumberland crosses the Tennessee m pur- suit of gen. Bragg. . 29 Aug.-3 Sept. Advance of gen. Burnside's command occupies Knox- ville, E. Tenn 4 Sept. Confederates evacuate fort Wagner on the night of, 7 Sept. Gen. Wood's division of the 21st corps, army of the Cumberland, occupies Chattanooga, Tenn. . .9 Sept. Pres. Lincoln suspends the writ of habeas corjms by proclamation 15 Sept. Battle of Chickamauga 19-20 Sept. llth and 12th corps, army of the Potomac, maj.-gen. Hooker, ordered to Middle Tennessee to reinforce the army of the Cumberland 23 Sept. 20th and 21st corps consolidated into the 4th corps, maj.-gen. Gordon Granger commander ; maj.-gens. Alex. McDowell McCook of the 20th corps and T. L. Crittenden of the 21st corps relieved, and or- dered to Indianapolis, Ind., to await a court of in- quiry upon their conduct at Chickamauga. .28 Sept. Engagement at Bristow Station, Va., between the rear of the Potomac army and A. P. Hill 14 Oct. Maj.-gen. U. S. Grant appointed to the division of the Mississippi, including the departments of the Ten- nessee, Cumberland, and Ohio; maj.-gen. Wm. S. Rosecrans relieved of command of the army of the Cumberland, and maj.-gen. George H. Thomas suc- ceeds, bv general order No. 337, War department, 16 Oct. Pres. Lincoln calls for 300,000 men for 3 years. .17 Oct. ..'" ^^ OF THE '*' (XJKIVERSIT UNI * R»>Kulations issued for the re-enlistment of soldiers in the field in " veteran volunteer regiments," 28 Oct. 1863 Gen. Hooker crosses the Tennessee at Bridgeport, Ala., 23 Oct., and advances to the Wauhatchie valley, at the foot of Lookout mountain, on the west , . 27 Oct. " Pontoon bridge thrown across the Tennessee at Brown's Ferry, below Chattanooga 27 Oct. " Battle of Wauhatchie (Chattanooga campaign), 27 Oct. " Gen. Longstreet, detached from the Confederate army before Chattanooga, advances towards Knoxville, E.Tennessee (Chattanooga campaign).. .4 Nov. " ICngagement at Rappahannock Station and Kelly's Ford, Va. The Potomac army succeeds in crossing the Rappahannock, Lee retiring to the line of the Rapidan 7 Nov. " Confederate forces under gen. Longstreet before Knox- ville 19 Nov. " Battle of Lookout Mountain (Chattanooga cam- paign) 24 Nov. " Battle of Chattanooga or Missionary Ridge (Chat- tanooga campaign) 25 Nov. " At Mine Run, Orange county, Va., the advance of the army of the Potomac under gen. Meade meets the confederates under gen. Lee. Attacks desultory; Meade retires 27-30 Nov. " Gen. Longstreet assaults the defences of Knoxville, especially Fokt Sanders; repulsed with heavy loss 29 Nov. " Gren. Longstreet raises the siege of Knoxville, retreats towards Virginia, remaining in northeastern Tennes- see during the winter ; in the spring he joins gen. Lee at Richmond 1-4 Dec. " Gen. Sherman's command and the 4th corps, army of the Cumberland, reinforce Knoxville from Chatta- nooga 3-6 Dec. '• Thirty-eighth Congress, First Session, convenes. .7 Dec. " Schuyler Colfax of Ind. elected speaker. Pres. Lin- coln proclaims amnesty to all confederates on re- turning to their allegiance 8 Dec. " Total debt of confederacy, $1,220,866,042.50 ... 1 Jan. 1864 Isaac Murphy inaugurated provisional governor of Ar- kansas 22 Jan. " President calls for 500,000 men for 3 years 1 Feb. " Sherman's Meridian expedition leaves Vicksburg. Miss 3 Feb. " More than 100 Union prisoners, including cols. Thomas E. Rose and col. Streight, escape from Libby prison, Richmond, Va., by tunnelling under the walls (Streight's raid) 9 Feb. " First Federal prisoners received at Andersonville prison, Ga 15 Feb. " Second Confederate congress meets at Richmond, 19 Feb. " Battle of Cluster, Fla 20 Feb. " Battle of Tunnel HUl, Ga 22-25 Feb. " Congress votes to every Union master whose slave en- lists in the Federal army a compensation not exceed- ing $300, the volunteer to be free 24 Feb. " Congress revives grade of lieutenant-general in the army 29 Feb. " Secretary of the treasury authorized to borrow $200,- 000,000 upon "5.40 bonds " 3 Mch. " Kilpatrick attempts in vain to release Union prisoners at Libby prison, 28 Feb. Col. Dahlgren loses his life in a raid 4 Mch. " Ulysses S. Grant commissioned lieutenant-general, 9 Mch. ; takes chief command 10 Mch. " Draft for 200,000 men for the navy and the reserve ordered for 15 Apr. by the president 14 Mch. " Gov. Michael Hahn appointed military governor of Louisiana 15 Mch. " Enabling act for admission of Nevada and Colorado, 21 Mch. " New York Sanitary Commission fair (receipts $1,200,- 000) opened. ■ 4 Apr. " UMI Battles of Sabine Cross Koads, IMcasant Grove, and Pleasant Hill, La. (Ricd River campaign), 8-9 Apr. 1 Fort Pillow, Tenn., captured by confederates under Forrest, and colored garrison slaughtered. . .12 Apr. Enabling act taadmit Nebraska approved. . .19 Apr. Motto " In God we Trust " first stamped upon the bronze two-cent coins authorized by act of 22 Apr. Hon. Daniel Clark of N. H. elected president of the Senate p7'o tern 26 Apr. Arm)' of the Potomac, 130,000 strong, crosses the Rap- idan (Grant's campaign in Vir(jima). . ..4 May, Sherman advances southward from Chattanooga (At- lanta campaign) 4 May, Sassacus defeats the Confederate ram Albemarle, in Albemarle sound 5 May, Battle of the Wilderness, Va 5-6 May, Battle of Spottsylvania Court-house, Va 10 May, Battle at New Market, Va. ; Sigel repulsed by confed- erates 15 May, Confederates under Johnston evacuate Resaca, Ga. (At- lanta campaign) 15 May, Act for a postal money-order system 17 May, Offices of the New York Journal of Commerce and Wo7-ld, which had published a forged proclamation of the president, calling for 400,000 troops, seized and held several days by order of the secretary of war 19 May, [On 1 July gen. John A. Dix and others were ar- rested, in accordance with a letter from gov. Sey- mour to district-attorney A. Oakey Hall, for seizing these oflfiices.] Nathaniel Hawthorne dies at Plymouth, N. H., aged 60 19 May, Battles near Dallas, Ga 25-28 May, Act creating Montana territory out of part of Idaho, approved 26 Maj-, Convention of radicals at Cleveland, O., protests against the government's policy, and nominates gen. John C. Fremont for president and gen. John Cochrane for vice-president, by acclamation 31 May, Morgan raids Kentucky (Morgan's raid) June, Battle of Cold Harbor, Va 1-3 June, Currency bureau of the treasury established, with a comptroller of the currency, appointed by president by act 3 June, Philadelphia Sanitary fair (receipts $1,080,000) opens, 7 June, Union National convention meets at Baltimore, Md., on call of the National executive committee, 22 Feb.; appoints hon. William DennisonofO. president; ad- mits delegates from Virginia and Florida to seats without votes, and rejects delegates from South Carolina 7 June, National Republican convention meets at Chicago, 7 June, [On the 1st ballot for president, Lincoln received all the votes, except those of Missouri for Grant, which were changed to Lincoln before the result was announced. 1st ballot for vice-president, An- drew Johnson 200, D, S. Dickinson 108, H. Ham- lin 150, scattering 61 ; after many changes the vote was announced : Johnson 494, Dickinson 17, Ham- lin 9.] Vallandigham returns to Dayton, O., from Canada, 15 June, General assault of federals on Petersburg, Va,, 16-18 June, Confederate cruiser Alabama fights the U. S. ship Kearsarge off Cherbourg, France, and surrenders in a sinking condition 19 June, IJattle of Weldon Railroad, Va 21-22 June, Lincoln accepts the renomination by letter, dated Washington 27 June, Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Ga. (Atlanta cam- paign). 27 June, Repeal of Fugitive Slave law of 1850 approved, 28 June, UNI Act authorizing the issue of bonds not to exceed $400,000,000, or treasury notes not to exceed $200,- 000,000 and bonds for same amount 30 June, 1864 Congress grants Yosemite valley and Mariposa Big Tree grove to California for a public park. .30 June, " Secretary Chase resigns 30 June; William P. Fessenden appointed 1 July, " Confederates evacuate Marietta, Ga '.' " Act prohibiting the coast-wise slave-trade forever ap- proved 2 July, " First Session adjourns " " President suspends the habeas corpus in Kentucky, and proclaims martial law 5 July, " President, under resolution of Congress, appoints the 1st Thursday of August as a day of humiliation and prayer 7 July, " President by proclamation explains veto, 2 July, of a Reconstruction bill passed less than an hour before the adjournment of Congress 8 July, " Battle of Monocacy, Md 9 July, " Repulse of gen. Early (confederate) at fort Stevens, 6 miles from Washington 12 Julj', "' Gold reaches 285 per cent., the maximum. . .16 July, " Hood supersedes Johnston in defence of Atlanta, 17 July, " President calls for 500,000 volunteers fori, 2, or 3 vears, 18 'July, " On 5 Jul\' Horace Greeley received a letter from George N. Sanders, Clifton, Canada, averring that Clement C. Clay of Ala., Jas. P. Holcombe of Va., and the writer, confederates in Canada, would pro- ceed to Washington in the interest of peace if full protection were accorded them. Greeley referred this letter to the president, suggesting with it a plan of adjustment. The president requested him to pro- ceed to Niagara falls and communicate with the 1 parties in person 18 July, " [A fruitless conference was the result.] Battle of Peach Tree Creek, Ga. (Atlanta cam- paign) 20 July, " Battle of Decatur or Atlanta, Ga 22 July, " Battle of Ezra's Church, Ga 28 July, " Chambersburg, Pa., raided and mostly burned (Gkant's Virginia campaign) 30 July, " Unsuccessful mine explosion under a Confederate fort, near Petersburg, Va., conducted by gen. Burnside (Mine explosion) 30 July, " Confederate steamer Tallahassee, built in England, de- stroys many U. 8. merchantmen July -Aug. '• Successful attack on the harbor of Mobile ; forts Gaines, Morgan, and Powell captured by fleet under Farragut and land forces under Granger 5-22 Aug. " ]\Iaj.-gen. Philip H. Sheridan appointed to the army of the Shenandoah (Grant's Virginia campaign), 7 Aug. " luiglish-built cruiser Georgia captured at sea by the Niagara 15 Aug. " Gen. Grant seizes the Weldon railroad 18 Aug. '• I Democratic National convention meets at Chicago, ! 29 Aug. ; Horatio Seymour chosen president of the convention and platform adopted, 30 Aug. On 1st ballot for president, gen. George B. McClellan of N. J. has 174 votes (as revised and declared, 202|^); nomination made unanimous. George H. Pendle- ton of O. nominated on the 2d ballot for vice-presi- dent 31 Aug. " Battles at Jonesborough, Ga. (Atlanta campaign), 31 Aug.-l Sept. " Hood evacuates Atlanta, Ga " " Gen. John H. Morgan killed at Greeneville, Tenn., 4 Sept. '• Gen. McClellan's letter accepting nomination, dated Orange, N. J 8 Sept. '' Fremont withdraws in favor of Lincoln and Johnson, by letter 17 Sept. " Battle of Winchester, Va 19 Sept. " Battle of Fisher's Hill, Va 22 Sept. " Gen. Price invades Missouri 24 Sept.-28 Oct. " 867 UNI English-built cruiser Florida captured in the Brazilian harbor of Bahia by the U. S. war-ship Wachitseit, and taken to Hampton Roads, where she is sunk by a collision a few days after (Brazil) .... 7 Oct. 1864 Chief-justice Roger B. Taney dies in Washington, 12 Oct. " Battle of Cedar Creek, Va 19 Oct. " Raid on St. Albans, Vt., by confederates from Canada (Vermont) 19 Oct. " Confederates under Price enter Linn county, Kan., 23 Oct. » Confederate ram Albemarle blown up by lieut. Gush- ing, U. S. navy, at Plymouth, N. C 27 Oct. " Battle of Hatcher's Run, Va " " Nevada, the 36th state in order, admitted into the Union by proclamation of the president. . . .81 Oct. " Mr. Seward telegraphs the mayor of New York of a conspiracy to burn the principal cities of the North, 2 Nov. " Second session of second Confederate congress con- venes at Richmond 7 Nov. " McClellan resigns his command in the army. . .8 Nov. " At the general election, Lincoln and Johnson, Repub- lican, carry 22 states; McClellan and Pendleton, 3 (New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky) ; 11 not voting „ 8 Nov. " Atlanta burned, and Sherman begins his march to the sea 14 Nov. " Blockade of Norfolk, Va., Fernandina, and Pensacola, raised by proclamation of president 19 Nov. " Benjamin Silliman, LL.D., born 1779, dies at New Haven, Conn 24 Nov. " Confederate incendiaries fire many hotels in New York, 26 Nov. " Battle of Franklin 30 Nov. " Second Session convenes 5 Dec. " Fourth annual message of pres. Lincoln 6 Dec. " Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, LL.D., born 1793, died at Washington, D. C 10 Dec. " Fort McAllister, Savannah, Ga., captured by Hazen's division of Sherman's army 13 Dec. " Thomas defeats Hood at Nashville, Tenn., 15-16 Dec. " Pres. Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers to make up deficiency in call 18 July, 1864. If not obtained before 15 Feb., 1865, a draft to be made 19 Dec. " Savannah, evacuated by confederates 20 Dec, occupied by Sherman 21 Dec. " Grade of vice-admiral established for the U. S. Navy by act of Congress 21 Dec. " Fort Fisher, N. C, bombarded by gen. Porter, 24 Dec, and unsuccessfuUv attacked by gens. Butler and Por- ter '. 25 Dec " Vice-pres. Hamlin resumes the chair in the Senate, 5 Jan. 1865 Gen. Grierson's raid ; after destroying 100 miles of rail- road, taking 600 prisoners and 1000 contrabands, he arrives at Vicksburg 5 Jan. " Fort Fisher captured 15 Jan. " Edward Everett dies at Boston, aged 71 " " Monitor Patapsco sunk off Charleston by a torpedo, 15 Jan. « Joint resolution, proposing a Xlll.th Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery, passes the House, 119 to 56 31 Jan. " Sherman leaves Savannah and starts northward, 1 Feb. " President and sec. Seward meet Alexander H. Ste- phens, vice-president of the confederacy, and com- missioners R. M. T. Hunter and judge Campbell, to treat for peace, in Hampton Roads 2-3 Feb. " Bennett G. Burley, the Confederate raider on lake Erie, surrendered to the U. S. by the Canadian govern- ment 3 Feb. " Battle of Hatcher's Run, Va 5 Feb. " Electoral votes counted; necessary to a choice, 117. For president and vice-president, Lincoln and John- son receive 212, McClellan and Pendleton 21. .8 Feb. " Gen. J. M. Schofield appointed to command depart- UNI « ment of North Carolina, with headquarters at Ra- leigh 9 Feb. 1865 President calls an extra session of the Senate, 4 Mch. 1865 17 Feb. " C-olunabia, S. C, surrenders to gen. Sherman. . " " I..ee takes command of the Confederate armies, 18 Feb. " Charleston, S. C. , evacuated and burned by gen. Har- dee, 17 Feb., is occupied by Federal troops. .18 Feb. " Fort Anderson captured by federals under gen. Cox, 18 Feb. " Wilmington, N. C, captured by gen. Schofield, 22 Feb. " Secretary of the treasury authorized to borrow $600,- 000,000 on bonds at not exceeding 6 per cent, in coin, 3 Mch. " Act passed to establish a bureau for the relief of freed- men and refugees 3 Mch. " A tax of 10 per cent, imposed on notes of state banks paid out after 1 July, 1866 3 Mch. " Confederate debt disowned by U. S. Senate, 17 Feb. ; by House of Representatives 3 Mch. " Andrew Johnson inaugurated vice-president ; oath ad- ministered bv H. Hamlin in the Senate chamber, 3 Mch. " Thirty-eighth Congi-ess adjourns " . " Senate assembles in special session 4 Mch. " Lincoln inaugurated president " " [Second term ; oath administered by chief-justice Chase at the Capitol. In his inaugural address occur the words : " With malice towards none, with charitj' for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in ; to bind up the nation's wounds ; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphan ; to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and a lasting peace among our- selves and with all nations."] Twentieth Administration— Kepublioan. 4 Mch. 1865 to 3 Mch. 1869. Abralinm Lincoln, 111., president. Andrew Johnson, Tenn., vice-president. CABINKT (until 15 Apr. 1865). William H. Seward, N. Y., sec. of state, continued. Hugh McCulloch, Ind., sec. of the treasury, appointed 7 Mch. 1865. Kdwin M. Stanton, O., sec. of war, continued. Gideon Welles, Conn., sec. of the navy, continued. John P. Usher, Ind., sec. of the interior, continued. William Dennison, O., postmaster-gen., continued. James Speed, Ky., attorney-gen., continued. L. S. Foster of Conn, elected president pro tern, of the Senate (serves through the session) 7 Mch. 1865 Special session of Senate adjourns 11 Mch. " Battle of Averysborough, N. C 15 Mch. " Confederate Congress adjourns sine die 18 Mch. " Battle of Bentonville, N. C 19 Mch. " Armies of Sherman, Terry, and Schofield join at Golds- borough, N. C 23 Mch. " Battle of Five Forks, Va 31 Mch.-l Apr. " Richmond evacuated by confederates and partly burned 2 Apr. " Selma, Ala., captured with large stores " " Ewell's division, some 8000 men, cut off, surrounded, and captured at Sailor's creek, Va 6 Apr. '' Correspondence between U. S. minister Adams in Lon- don and earl Russell, respecting the Alabama, be- gins 7 Apr. " Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox Court-house, Va 9 Apr. " Montgomery, Ala., surrenders to Wilson 11 Apr. " Mobile evacuated by confederates 12 Apr. '• Secretary of war issues orders to stop drafting and fur- ther purchase of war materials 13 Apr. " Gen. Sherman occupies Raleigh, N. C " " •^' Stars and Stripes" raised over Fort Sumter, Charles- ton 14 Apr. " ^ UNI Pres. Lincoln shot by J. Wilkes Booth in Ford's theatre, Washington (Booth's conspiracy), 14 Apr. 1865 Sec. Seward and his son wounded in his own house by an assassin 14 Apr. *• Pres. Lincoln dies at about 7.30 a.m 15 Apr. '' Chief-justice Chase administers the oath of office as president to Andrew Johnson 15 Apr. " PRES. Johnson's cabinet. William If. Seward, N. Y., sec. of state, continued. Hugh McCulloch, Ind,, sec. of treas., continued, Edwin M. Stanton, 0., sec. of war, continued. U. S. Gi'ant, 111., sec, of war (ad interim), from 12 Aug. 1807. Lorenzo Thomas, sec. of war {ad interim), from 21 Feb. 1868. John M. Schofield, N. Y., sec. of war, from 30 May, 1868. Gideon Welles, Conn,, sec. of navy, continued. John P. i/sAer, Ind., sec. of interior, continued. James Harlan, la,, sec. of interior, from 15 May, 1865. Orville H. Browning, III., sec. of interior, appointed 27 July, served from 1 Sept. 1866. James Speed, Ky., attorney-gen., continued. Henry Stanbery, Ky., attorney-gen., from 23 July, 1866. William M. Evarts, N.Y., attorney-gen., from 15 July, 1868. William Dennison, O., postmaster-gen., continued. Alexander W. RandaU, Wis., postmaster-gen., from 25 Julv, 1866. Funeral services of pres, Lincoln at the Executive man- sion at noon, and appropriate memorial services held throughout the country 19 Apr. 1865 [Remains of the president, after lying in state at the Capitol through the 20th, conveyed to Spring- field, 111., ria Baltimore, Harrisburg, Philadelphia, New York, Albany, Buffalo, Cleveland, Columbus, Indianapolis, and Chicago; buried at Springfield (Lincoln's monument), 4 May,] Macon, Ga., occupied by Union forces 20 Apr. " J. Wilkes Booth, discovered in a barn near Bowling Green, Va., shot by serg. Boston Corbett, and his accomplice Harold captured 26 Apr. " Memorandum for a peace, signed by gens. Sherman and Johnston at Durham Station, N. C, 18 Apr,, is rejected at Washington 21 Apr. Grant arrives at Raleigh 24 Apr. ; and gen. Johnston surrenders to Sherman at Bennett's house, near Durham Station, 26 Apr. " Executive order for trial by military commission of alleged assassins of pres. Lincoln issued 1 May, " Reward of $100,000 offered for the capture of Jefferson Davis by proclamation of president 2 May, " Confederate gen, Richard Taylor surrenders at Citro- nelle, near Mobile, Ala 4 May, " Executive order re-establishing authority of the U. S. in Virginia, recognizes Francis H. Pierpont as gov- ernor 9 May, " Jefferson Davis captured, with his wife, mother, post- master-gen. Reagan, col. Harrison, Johnson, and oth- ers, by 4th Michigan cavalry under col. Pritchard, at Irwinsville, Ga 10 May, " [Davis taken to fortress Monroe.] Last fight of the war near Palo Pinto, Tex,; a Federal force under col. Barret defeated by confederates un- der gen. Slaughter 13 May, " Confederate ram Stonewall surrenders to Spanish au- thorities in Cuba 20 May, Pres, Johnson proclaims southern ports open. .22 May, Grand review of the armies of the Potomac, Tennessee, and Georgia at Washington, D. C 22-23 May, Gen. E, Kirby Smith surrenders his trans-Mississippi army ', 26 May, President proclaims general amnesty to rebels, with exceptions, on taking oath of allegiance ... 29 May, William W. Holden proclaimed provisional governor of North Carolina by pres. Johnson 29 May, Day of humiliation and mourning on account of the assassination of Lincoln 1 June, British government rescinds its recognition of the con- federates as belligerents 2 June, UNI 869 UNI (lalveston, Tex., the last seaport held bj' the South, surrenders 5 June, 1865 French government rescinds its recognition of the con- federates as belligerents 6 June, " Judge William L. Sharkey appointed provisional gov- ernor of Mississippi by pres. Johnson 13 June, " Proclamation of president removing restrictions on trade east of the Mississippi after 1 July, and declar- ing insurrection in Tennessee suppressed. ..13 June, •' Gen. A. J. Hamilton appointed provisional governor of Texas by president 17 June, " James Johnson appointed provisional governor of Georgia 17 June, " Lewis E. Parsons proclaimed provisional governor of Alabama 21 June, " Proclamation of the president rescinding the blockade, 23 June, " Restriction of trade west of the Mississippi removed by proclamation of president 24 June, " Benjamin F. Perry proclaimed provisional governor of South Carolina 30 June, " Execution of Lewis Payne, G, A. Atzerodt, David E. Harold, and Mary E. Surratt, implicated in the as- sassination of Lincoln 7 July, " William Marvin proclaimed provisional governor of Florida 13 July, " Confederate privateer Shenandoah (capt. Waddell) de- stroys about 30 Federal vessels during Aug. " ^Mississippi nullifies the ordinance of secession, 22 Aug. '• All restrictions on southern ports removed after 1 Sept. by proclamation of president 29 Aug. " South Carolina repeals ordinance of secession, 15 Sept. " Alabama annuls the ordinance of secession. . .25 Sept. " North Carolina annuls the ordinance of secession, 7 Oct. " Alexander H. Stephens of Ga., John H. Reagan of Texas, John A. Campbell of Ala., George A. Tren- holm of S. C, and Charles Clark of Miss., paroled by executive order 11 Oct. •' President proclaims end of martial law in Kentucky, 12 Oct. " Great Fenian meeting at Philadelphia ; the Irish re- public proclaimed 16-24 Oct. " Florida repeals ordinance of secession 28 Oct. " Georgia repeals ordinance of secession 30 Oct. " National thanksgiving for peace 2 Nov. " Shenandoah, capt. Waddell, reaches Liverpool, Engl., 6 Nov. ; he had first heard of the peace 2 Aug. ; vessel given up to British government and crew paroled 8 Nov., and the vessel given to the Amer- ican consul 9 Nov. " Capfc.Wirz, after military trial, begun 21 Aug., is con- victed of cruelty to Federal prisoners in Anderson- ville, and hung 10 Nov. " Ex.-pres. Buchanan publishes a vindication of his ad- ministration Nov. •• Habeas corpus restored in the northern states by president's proclamation 1 Dec. " Thirty-ninth Congress, First Session, convenes. .4 Dec. " Lafayette S. Foster, president p7-o tern, of the Senate. Schuyler Colfax elected speaker of the House by a vote of 139 to 36 for James Brooks of New York. President's annual message presented 4 Dec. " House appoints as committee on reconstruction messrs. Stevens, Washburn, Morrill, Grider, Bingham, Conk- ling, Boutwell, Blow, and Rogers 14 Dec. " Sec. Seward declares the Xlll.th Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery, ratified by Illinois, Rhode Island, Michigan, Maryland, New York, West Virginia, Maine, Kansas, Massachusetts, Pennsyl- vania, Virginia, Ohio, Missouri, Nevada, Indiana, Louisiana, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Vermont, Tennes- see, Arkansas, Connecticut, New Hampshire, South Carolina, Alabama, North Carolina, and Georgia, 27 states 18 Dec. '• President sends a message to Congress on the insur- gent states, with report of gen. Grant 18 Dec. " Senate appoints as committee on reconstruction messrs. Fessenden, Grimes, Harris, Howard, Johnson, and Williams 21 Dec. 1865 Gov. Holden of N. C. relieved by pres. Johnson, and governor-elect Jonathan Worth appointed. .23 Dec. " Death of Joseph Crele, said to be 141 years of age; born at site of Detroit in 1725 ; dies at Caledonia, Wis 27 Jan. 1866 Freedmen's Bureau bill passed bv Senate, 25 Jan. ; by House, 6 Feb. 1866 ; vetoed . .'. 19 Feb. " [The Senate fails to pass this bill over the presi- dent's veto, vote being 30 for to 18 against.] President denounces Congress and the Reconstruction committee, in a speech at the executive mansion, 22 Feb. " Civil Rights bill passed 16 Mch. ; vetoed. . . .27 Mch. " President proclaims the insurrection at an end in Georgia, South Carolina, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missis- sippi, and Florida 2 Apr. " First post of the Grand Army of the Republic organ- ized at Springfield, 111. (Grand army) 6 Apr. " Civil Rights bill passed over the president's veto, 9 Apr. ■■ Fair held in Baltimore for the relief of the destitute in the southern states nets §164,569. 97 Apr. •' Race riot in Memphis, Tenn 1-2 May, "• Boundary of Nevada extended 1 degree east, by act of Congress 6 May, "• Jefferson Davis indicted for complicity in the assassi- nation of pres. Lincoln, in the U. S. Circuit court of Virginia 8 May, " Fourth Wisconsin cavalry mustered out, after serving 5 years and 1 da}' ; the longest term of volunteers on record 28 May, " Death of gen. Winfield Scott at West Point, aged 80, 29 May, " Customs officers seize 1200 stands of Fenian arms at Rouse's Point, N. Y., 19 May, and 1000 at St. Alban's, Vt 30 May, " Fenian raid into Canada ; about 1200 men cross the Niagara river at Buffalo, N. Y., landing near old fort Erie, 31 May, 1866. After a skirmish near Ridgeway they withdraw to the U. S., where many are arrested for violating the neutrality laws, and over 1000 paroled 2 June, " President's proclamation against the invasion of Can- ada by Fenians 6 June, " Over 1000 Fenians attack St. Armand, Quebec, and are routed 9 June, " XIV. th Amendment to Constitution passes the Sen- ate 8 June, the House 13 June ; reaching the State department 16 June, " Majority of Reconstruction committee report the late Confederate States not entitled to representation in Congress 18 June, " Message from the president to Congress adverse to presenting the XlV.th Amendment to the states, 22 June, " Great fire in Portland, Me 4 July, •' James H. Lane, senator from Kansas, commits suicide, 11 July, " [For cause, see Blaine's " Twenty Years of Con- gress," vol. ii. p. 185-6.] Tennessee readmitted by joint resolution of Congress, approved 24 July, " Congress creates the grades of admiral and vice-admi- ral in the navy, and revives that of general in the army (Army, Navy) 25 July, " Atlantic telegraph completed 27 July, " Act increasing and fixing the military peace establish- ment 28 July, "■ First Session adjourns " '* Race riot in New Orleans, many negroes killed. 30 July, '* National Union convention of Conservatives in Phil- adelphia ; senator James R. Doolittle, president, 14 Aug. '* UNI 870 UNI This convention adopts a declaration of principles vin- dicating the president 17 Aug. 1866 [I'he previous political character of its members made this convention somewhat noted ; it contained prominent citizens whose course throughout the re- bellion had been patriotic, such as Thurlow Weed, Marshall O. Roberts, Henry J. Kaytiioiid, John A. Dix, and Robert S. Hale of N. Y., Cowan of Pa., Doolittle of Wis., and others of previous good stand- ing in the Republican party, together with Vallan- digham of O., Fernando Wood and Jas. Brooks of N. Y., Burke and Sinclair of N. H., Phelps of Vt., Campbell of Pa., Carmichael of Md., and others, who had been known as "copperhead" or "secession- ist," and other more conservative Democrats, such as Tilden, Dean Richmond, and Sanford E. Church of N. Y., Stockton and Parker of N. J., Porter, Bigler, and Packer of Pa., English of Conn., Johnson of Md., and many others.] President proclaims the decree of Maximilian, 9 July, 1866, closing Mataraoras and other Mexican ports, null and void as against the U. S 17 Aug. " Insurrection in Texas at an end by proclamation of the president 20 Aug. " Pres. Johnson visits Philadelphia, New York, Chicago, etc., speaking in favor of his policy and against Congress 24 Aug.-18 Sept. " [In this journey, then popularly known as "swing- ing around the circle," the president was accompa- nied by sec. Seward, sec. Welles, postmaster-gen. , Randall, gen. Grant, adra. Farragut, and other army officers and civilians.] Convention of Southern Loyalists, held at Philadel- phia 3-7 Sept. " [This convention united with the convention of the congressional party opposing the president's policy.] Corner-stone of monument to Stephen A. Douglas laid in Chicago 6 Sept. " National mass convention of soldiers and sailors held in the interest of the president at Cleveland, in reso- lutions reported by col. L. D. Campbell, approve unanimously the action of the Philadelphia conven- tion of 17 Aug 18 Sept. " Pittsburg convention of soldiers and sailors held in opposition to the president's policy 25-26 Sept. " Peabody Institute, Baltimore, Md., inaugurated; George Peabody present 24 Oct. " Soldiers first admitted to the National Home for Dis- abled Volunteers, located at Togus, near Augusta, Me 10 Nov. " A gold medal for Mrs. Abraham Lincoln, the gift of 40,000 French citizens, is delivered to minister Big- elow at Paris I Dec. " Second Session convenes ; president's message received, 3 Dec. " Geo. H. Williams of Or. introduces bill " to regulate the tenure of civil offices " 3 Dec. " Massacre by Indians of U. S. troops at fort Philip Kear- ney, near Big Horn, Wyoming ; 3 officers and 90 men killed and scalped 21 Dec. " III the House of Representatives, James M. Ashley of O. charges pres. Johnson with usurpation, corrupt use of the appointing, pardoning, and veto powers, and corrupt disposition of public property, and in- terference in elections. The case is referred to the judiciary committee by 108 to 39 7 Jan. 1867 Bill extending suffrage to negroes in the District of Columbia, passed by Congress 14 Dec. 1866, vetoed 5 Jan. ; passed over the veto 8 Jan. " N. P. Willis, born 1807, dies at Idle wild on the Hud- son 20 Jan. " Evangelical Alliance of the U. S. organized in New York, with William E. Dodge as president. .30 Jan. " Congress admits Nebraska as a state over the presi- dent's veto 9 Feb. " Alexander Dallas Bache, LL.D., A.A.S., born 1806, dies ♦ at Newport, R. 1 17 Feb. " Nebraska, the 37th in order, proclaimed a state by the president 1 Mch. 1867 Tenure of Civil Office bill passed over the president's veto; Senate, 35 to 11 ; House, 133 to 37. . .2 Mch. " Military Reconstruction act introduced in the House by Thaddeus Stevens, Feb. 6, providing for the di- vision of the insurrectionary states into 5 military districts, as follows: 1st, Virginia ; 2d, North and South Carolina; 3d, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama ; 4th, Mississippi and Arkansas; 6th, Louisiana and Texas. Passed over the president's veto ; House, 138 to 51 ; Senate, 38 to 10 2 Mch. " National Bankruptcy bill passed " " Department of F^ducation established by act of Con- gress 2 Mch. '■ Peonage in the territory of New Mexico abolished and forever prohibited by act of Congress 2 Mch. '• Committee on the Judiciary reports, concerning im- peachment, its inability to conclude its labors (re- port presented at 3 a.m. Sunday, 3 Mch.), and rec- ommends a continuance of investigation ... .2 Mch. '' B. F". Wade of O. elected president pro tem. of the Senate, Mr. F'oster retiring 4 Mch. " Thirty-ninth Congress adjourns " " Fortieth Congress, First Session, convenes " " Schuyler Colfax re-elected speaker by a vote of 127 to 30'for Samuel S. Marshall of 111. [The 1st session of the 40th Congress was contin- ued by repeated adjournments, sitting lst,4-29Mch.; 2d, 3-20 July ; 3d, 21 Nov.-2 Dec, when it adjourned sine die. Congress distrusting the president, it was deemed advisable " that the president should not be allowed to have control of events for 8 months with- out the supervision of the legislative branch of the government." Benj. F. Butler enters Congress for the first time at this session as Republican repre- sentative from Massachusetts.] Charles F\ Browne (Artemus Ward), born 1834, dies at Southampton, Engl 6 Mch. General orders No. 10, issued from army headquarters by direction of the president, assigning gen. J. M. Schofield to command 1st military district ; gen. D. E. Sickles to command 2d military district ; gen. G. H. Thomas to command 3d military district; gen. E. O. C. Ord to command 4th military district; gen. P. H. Sheridan to command 6th miiitary dis- trict 11-12 Mch. Gen. John Pope assigned to 3d militarv district, gen. Thomas to command department of the Cumberland, 15 Mch. Henry Barnard, LL.D., appointed commissioner of edu- cation 16 Mch. Peabody Southern Educational Fund (a gift of $2,- 100,000 from George Peabody) transferred to a board of trustees, rev. dr. Barnas Sears superinten- dent 22 Mch. Supplementary Reconstruction act concurred in 19 Mch., vetoed by president 23 Mch.; is passed over his veto by the House, 114 to 25, and bv the Senate, 40 to 7 ! ! ... 23 Mch. Congress adjourns to 3 July, after a session of 26 days, 29 Mch. Special session of the Senate in accordance with presi- dent's proclamation, 30 Mch., meets 1 Apr. Special session of the Senate adjourns srae die, 19 Apr. Expedition against the Indians in western Kansas, led by gens. Hancock and Custer 30 Apr. Jeflferson Davis taken to Richmond on habeas corpus and admitted to bail in $100,000 ; sureties, Horace Greeley and Augustus Schell of New York ; Aris- tides Welsh and David K. Jackman of Philadel- phia; W. H. McFarland, Richard B. Haxall, Isaac Davenport, Abraham Warwick, G. A. Myers, W. W. Crump, James Lyons, J. A. Meredith, W. H. Lyons, John M.Botts, Thomas W.Boswell, and James Thom- as, jr., of Virginia 13 Ma\', Congress reassembles 3 July, UNI ^ .Supplementary Reconstruction bill, reported 8 July, vetoed and passed over the veto 19 July, 1867 •Congress adjourns to 21 Nov., after a session of 18 days. 20 July, " Catharine Maria Sedgwick, authoress, born 1789, dies near Roxbury, Mass 31 July, " John H. Surratt, implicated in a.ssassination of'pres. Lincoln, is arrested in Alexandria, Egypt, and placed on the American vessel Swataj-a, 2i Dec. 1866; his trial begins 10 June, 1867, in the Criminal court for District of Columbia ; the jury, disagreeing, are dis- missed , 10 Aug. " E. M. Stanton, sec. of war, refusing to resign at the re- quest of the president, 5 Aug., is suspended, and gen. Grant appointed secretary ^?"o tern., Stanton submit- ting under protest 12 Aug. " •Sheridan relieved of command in 5th military district, and gen. Hancock appointed 17 Aug. " Cen. Sickles succeeded by gen. E. R. S. Canby as com- mander of 2d military district. .......... .26 Aug. " "Woman's SuflFrage campaign in Kansas conducted by Lucy Stone, Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and George Francis Train with the Hutch- inson family of singers Sept.-Oct. " ■General amnesty proclaimed bj' the president. .7 Sept. " National cemetery at Antietam dedicated. . . .17 Sept. " Act reducing the U. S. army to a peace footing, " •Second Session adjourns " First through-car from the Pacific reaches New York, 24 July, Adm. David C. Farragut, born 1801, dies at Ports- mouth, N. H 14 Aug, National Labor congress meets in Cincinnati . . 15 Aug. President proclaims neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war 22 Aug. Irish National congress assembles at Cincinnati, 23 Aug. National Commercial convention meets at Cincinnati, O., 4 Oct. 28* 873 UNI 1870 Gen. Robert E. Lee, born 1807, dies at Lexington, Va., 12 Oct. President's proclamation forbidding military expedi- tions against nations at peace with the U. S., 12 Oct. Oliver P. Morton, appointed minister to Great Britain, declines for political reasons . 25 Oct. Jacob D. Cox, secretary of interior, resigns. . . .30 Oct. John Lothrop Motley, minister to England, asked to resign by the president, July, 1870; disregarding the request, is recalled Nov. Third Session opens 5 Dec. President's annual message presented " J. H. Rainey of S. C, first colored member of House of Representatives, is sworn in 12 Dec. Colored Methodist Episcopal church in America organ- ized by bishop Paine at Jackson, Tenn 16 Dec. Gen. Robert Schenck appointed minister to Great Britain 22 Dec. Resolution authorizing a San Domingo commission approved (B. F. Wade of O., A. D. White, president of Cornell university, and S. G. Howe of Mass., named) 12 Jan. Supreme court decides the Legal Tender act of 1862 con- stitutional 16 Jan. Statue of Lincoln in the rotunda of the Capitol un- veiled .• .* 25 Jan. George Ticknor, historian, born 1791, dies at Boston, 26 Jan. Act for a commission of fish and fisheries (Spencer F. Baird appointed) 9 Feb. District of Columbia made a territorial government, by act of 21 Feb. Act for celebration of centennial of Independence by an international exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, 3 Mch. Forty-first Congress adjourns 4 Mch. Forty-second Congress, First Session, meets " Speaker of the House, James G. Blaine of Me. Charles Sumner, chairman of Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, replaced by sen. Cameron of Pa., 10 Mch. President's proclamation against unlawful combinations of armed men in South Carolina (Ku-ki.ux), 24 Mch. Sen. Sumner's speech on the resolutions regarding the employment of the navy on the coast of San Domin- go during negotiations for the acquisition of part of that island ; 27 Mch. [The acquisition of San Domingo by annexation was favored by the president, but was not by either the House or the Senate. The speeches of sen. Sumner were so bitter towards the measure and the administration that all personal intercourse ceased between him and the president.] First Civil-service commission, George William Curtis, Alexander G. Cattell, Joseph Medill, D. A. Walker, E. B. EUicott, Joseph H. Blackfan,and David C, Cox, appointed by president Mch. William H. Gibson (colored), U. S. mail agent on the Lexington and Louisville railroad, assaulted at North Benson, Ky., 26 Jan ; U. S. troops sent into Ken- tucky, and mail withdrawn on that route for one month Mch. San Domingo commission's report sent to Congress with a special message by the president 5 Apr. Act to enforce the XlV.th Amendment (Ku-klux act), 20 Apr. Branch mint at Dahlonega, Ga., conveyed to trustees of the North Georgia Agricultural college for educa- tional purposes, by act of. 20 Apr. First Session adjourns " Under call, dated 20 Apr., Senate meets in special ses- sion 10 May, Henry B. Anthony elected president pro teni. of the Senate .' .23 May, International Young Men's Christian Association meets at Washington, D. C 24 May, Extra session of Senate adjourns sine die 27 May, 1870 187 UNI Hall's Arctic expedition sails from New York (North- east ANi> Northwest passages) 29 June, Riot in New York city between Irish Orangemen and Catholics 12 July, First narrow-gauge (3 feet) locomotive built in the U. S. shipped from Philadelphia for the Denver and Rio Grande railroad 13 July, Tweed Ring frauds first exposed in the New York Times, 22 July, Boiler on Staten Island ferry-boat Westfield at New York explodes; 100 killed, 100 wounded. . .30 July, Political disturbance in Louisiana begins (Louisiana, 1871-75) 8 Aug. National Labor congress held in St. Louis ... .10 Aug. Mass-meeting in New York held to consider the Tweed Ring frauds ; committee of 70 appointed. . . .4 Sept. Pres. Lincoln's bodv removed to the permanent vault at Springfield, 111" 19 Sept. National Commercial convention meets at Baltimore, Md 26 Sept. Brigham Young arrested in Salt Lake City for polyg- amy 2 Oct. Chicago fire breaks out Sunday evening, 8 Oct. Forest fires in vicinity of Green Bav (Wisconsin), 8-9 Oct. Proclamation by the president against Ku-klux in South Carolina. . . * 12 Oct. William M. Tweed arrested and released on $2,000,000 bail 27 Oct. Capt. Charles Francis Hall, Arctic explorer, dies on the Polaris 8 Nov. Grand-duke Alexis of Russia arrives at New York with a fleet of war vessels, 19 Nov., public reception, 21 Nov. Russian envoy to the U. S., Catacazy, recalled, owing . to personal differences with sec. Fish 25 Nov. Second Session convenes 4 Dec. Fish-Catacazy correspondence published 6 Dec. Attorney-gen. A. T. Akerman resigns his office, 13 Dec. Tweed committed to the Tombs, but released on writ of habeas corpus 16 Dec. President's message with report of Civil-service Reform commission 19 Dec. Brigham Young arrested in Salt Lake City as impli- cated in murder of Richard Yates 2 Jan. Col. James Fisk, jr., shot in the Grand Central Hotel, New York, by Edward S. Stokes, 6 Jan., dies (Trials) 8 Jan. Congress accepts from Rhode Island a statue of Roger Williams ....". 11 Jan. Sen. Sumner's speech on civil rights 15 Jan. Liberal Republican movement begins with a conven- tion held at Jefferson City, Mo 24 Jan. Martin J. Spalding, Roman Catholic archbishop of Baltimore and primate of the church in America, born 1810, dies ; 7 Feb. Sen. Sumner offers resolutions to investigate sales of ordnance stores by the governmentduring the Fran- co-German war 12 Feb. Labor Reform convention meets at Columbus, O., 21 Feb., and nominates judge David Davis of 111. for president, and judge Joel Parker of N.J. for vice- president 22 Feb. National Prohibition convention at Columbus, O., nom- inates James Black of Pa. for president, and John Russell of Mich, for vice-president 22 Feb. Yellowstone National park established by act ap- proved 1 Mch. Imperial Japanese embassy, of 114 persons, is presented to the president at the Executive mansion. .4 Mch. U. S. Centennial commissioners and alternates meet in Philadelphia and organize, electing Joseph R. Haw- ley president 4 Mch. Statues of Jonathan Trumbull and Roger Sherman pre- sented to the Senate by Connecticut for the old Hall of Representatives 8 Mch. Pres. Grant appoints gen. A. A. Humphreys, U.S.A., prof. Benjamin Pierce, U. S. coast survey, and capt. Daniel Araraen, U. S, N., a commission to examine 874 UNI 1871 1872 plans and proposals for an interoceanic canal across the Isthmus of Darien Mch. Prof. S. F. B. Morse, born 1791, dies in New York, 2 Apr. National convention of colored men at New Orleans; Frederick Douglass, chairman 10-14 Apr. Assassination of judge J. C. Stephenson, Thomas E. Detro, and James C. Cline at Gun City, Mo. (Mis- souri) 24 Apr. Sen.-elect Matthew W. Ransom from N. C. admitted to a seat, and the Senate for the first time since 1861 is full 24 Apr. Brigham Young taken to camp Douglas, 21 Mch., and released 30 Apr. Duty on tea and coffee repealed by act of 1 May, National Liberal Republican convention meets in Cin- cinnati, O., Carl Schurz permanent president. Hor- ace Greeley of N. Y. nominated for president on the 6th ballot, 3 May ; gov. B. Gratz Brown of Mo. for vice-president 1-3 May, [The result of the balloting in the nomination of Greeley created surprise and disappointment. "That a convention which owed its formal call to a body of active and aggressive free-traders, should commit its standard to the foremost champion of protection in the country. That a convention, composed largely of Democrats, should select him who had waged in- cessant and unsparing war against them from the hour he first entered political life, who had assailed them with all the terms of abuse found in his well- filled armory of denunciation, was not only singular but incongruous." — Blaine's " Twenty Years of Con- gress," vol. ii. p. 624.] Greeley's letter of acceptance dated 20 May, Political disabilities under article 3 of the XlV.th Amendment removed, except from senators and rep- resentatives in 36th and 37th Congresses, and offi- cers of the judicial, military, and naval service of the U. S., heads of departments, and foreign minis- ters of the U. S., by act of 22 May, Workingmen's National convention at New York nomi- nates Grant and Wilson for president and vice-presi- dent 23 May, Sumner assails the president in the Senate. . .31 May, [ " Sumner seeks to prevent the renomination of gen. Grant by concentrating, in one massive broad- side, all that should be suggested against him." — Blaine's " Twenty Years of Congress," vol. ii. p. 533.] B. Gratz Brown accepts the nomination for vice-presi- dent 31 May, Dispute with Spain respecting the imprisonment of dr, Howard, an American citizen, in Cuba since 13 Dec. 1870, settled, and dr. Howard released. , .June, General labor strike in New York settled (Strike), June, Centennial Board of Finance incorporated by act of, • 1 June, James Gordon Bennett, founder of the New York Herald, born 1795, dies at New York 1 June, National Republican convention at Philadelphia, 5 June, Thomas Settle of N. C. permanent president. Grant renominated by acclamation, and on 1st ballot Henry Wilson of Mass. nominated for vice-president by 364^ votes to 3211 votes for Schuyler Colfax, 6 June, Henry B. Anthony chosen president pro tern, of the Senate 8 June, Second Session adjourns 10 June, Grant accepts the Republican nomination. ... " Sen. Wilson's letter of acceptance dated 14 June, World's Peace Jubilee at Boston (Music), 17 June-4 July, Liberal Republican Revenue Reformers' convention at New York nominates William S. Groesbeck of O. for president, and Frederick Law Olmstead of N. Y. for vice-president 21 June, Judge David Davis declines the Labor Reform nomi- nation for president 24 June, 187X1 UNI 875 Joel Parker, nominated for vice-president by Labor Re- form convention, declines 28 June, 1872 National Democratic convention meets at Baltimore, Md., 9 July, James R. Doolittle of Wis. chairman. Horace Greeley of N. Y. nominated for president on 1st ballot by 686 votes out of 732, and B. Gratz Brown of Mo, for vice-president by 713 votes out of 732 9-10 July, « Mr. Greeley accepts the nomination 12 July, " Jesse Olney, geographer, born 1798, dies at Stratford, Conn 30 July, « B. Gratz Brown accepts the Baltimore nomination, 8 Aug. « National Labor Reform convention at Philadelphia nominates Charles O'Conor for president, and Eli Saulsbury for vice-president 22 Aug. " O'Conor declines the nomination 27 Aug. " National convention of " Straight-out " Democrats in Louisville, Ky., repudiates the Baltimore nominees, and nominates Charles O'Conor of N. Y. for presi- dent, and John Quincy Adams of Mass. for vice-pres- ident (both decline) 3-5 Sept. " National Industrial Exposition opens at Louisville, Kv., 3 Sept. " Tribunal at Geneva, under article vii. of the treaty of Washington, 8 May, 1871, awards to the U. S. $15,- 500,000 as indemnity from Great Britain. . . 14 Sept. " Colored Liberal Republican National convention at Louisville, Ky. delegates from 23 states; Greeley and Brown nominated 25 Sept. " William Henry Seward, born 1801, dies at Auburn, N. Y 10 Oct. " "Epizootic," affecting horses throughout the country, reaches the city of New York 23 Oct. " Emperor of Germany, arbitrator in the San Juan diffi- culty, awards the islands to the U. S. (Juan, San), 23 Oct. » General election : Grant and Wilson carry 31 states, popular vote, 3,697,070 ; Greeley and Brown, 6 states, popular vote, 2,834,079 ; Black and Russell, 5608... 5 Nov. " Great tire in Boston ; loss 180,000,000 9-10 Nov. " Susan B. Anthony and 14 other females prosecuted for illegal voting in Rochester, N. Y 18 Nov. " Modoc war in California 29 Nov. " Horace Greelev, born 1811, dies at Pleasantville, N. Y., 29 Nov. " Nicaragua expedition, in charge of commander E. P. Lull, sails from the U. S. (returns July, 1873). .Dec. " Third Session begins 2 Dec. " President's annual message received " " Resolutions of Mr. Blaine adopted in the House, to in- vestigate the accusation in the public press that members of the House had been bribed in behalf of the Union Pacific railroad by stock in the Credit MoBiLiKK of America, and Luke P. Poland of Vt., Nathaniel P. Banks of Mass., James B. Beck of Ky., William E. Niblack of Ind., and George W. Mc- Crary of la., appointed the committee 2 Dec. " Edwin Forrest, the tragedian, born 1806, dies at Phila- delphia. 12 Dec. " Cri^dit Mobilier investigation to be henceforth con- ducted in open session by resolution of the House, 6 Jan. 1873 Resolution adopted by the House to investigate the relations of the Credit Mobilier and the Union Pacific railroad company to the government. 6 Jan. " Committee appointed to investigate: J. M.Wilson, Ind.; Samuel Shellabarger, O.; Henry W. Slocum, N. Y.; Thos. Swaini, :\[d. ; and Geo. F. Hoar, Mass.. 7 Jan. " [This committee reported 20 Feb.] William M. Tweed placed on trial 8 Jan. " Act to abolish the grades of admiral and vice-admiral in the U. S. navy ; no future appointments to be made 24 Jan. " Jury disagree in the Tweed trial 31 Jan. '• Postal franking privilege abolished by act of Congress, 31 Jan. " UNI " Trade dollar " ordered and silver demonetized by act passing the Senate 6 Feb. and the House 7 Feb. 1873 Electoral votes counted 12 Feb. " [Whole number of electors, 366 ; majority, 184. The electoral votes of Louisiana and Arkansas were not counted, and the 3 votes of Georgia, cast for Horace Greeley for president, were excluded. Num- ber of votes counted for president, 349; for vice- president, 352; distributed as follows: For presi- dent, Ulysses S. Grant, 111., 286 ; B. Gratz Brown, Mo., 18; Thomas A. Hendricks, Ind., 42 ; Charles J. Jenkins, Ga., 2; David Davis, 111., 1. For vice- president, Henry Wilson, Mass., 286; B. Gratz Brown, Mo., 47; Nathaniel P. Banks, Mass., 1; George W. Julian, Ind., 5^ Alfred H. Colquitt, Ga., 5 ; John M. Palmer, 111., 3 ; Thomas E. Bramlette, Ky., 3; William S. Groesbeck, O., 1; Willis B. Machen, Ky., 1.] March 4, 1873, designated for extraordinary session of Senate, by proclamation of president 21 Feb. " Alexander H. Stephens elected to 43d Congress from Georgia 26 Feb. " Resolutions of the House censuring Oakes Ames of Mass., and James Brooks of N. Y., for connection with Credit Mobilier 27 Feb. " Act by which hereafter no Indian nation or tribe with- in the territory of the U. S. shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the U. S. may contract by treaty, 3 Mch. " Amendment to appropriation bill offered by B. F. But- ler, fixing salary of the president of the U. S. at $50,000 per year, vice-president $10,000, and sena- tors, representatives, and delegates, including those of the 42d Congress, $7500, besides travelling ex- penses (the "Salary Grab" bill), passed. . . .3 Mch. " Act to establish 10 life-saving stations on the coast of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Virginia, and North Carolina 3 Mch. " Oath of office administered to vice-pres. Wilson, 4 Mch. " Forty-second Congress adjourns " " Senate convenes in special session " " Pres. Grant reinaugurated " " Twenty-second Administration— EepubKcan. 4 Mch. 1873 to 3 Mch. 1877. Ulysses S. Grant, 111., president. Henry Wilson, Mass., vice-president. CABINET. Hamilton Fish, N. Y., sec. of treas., continued. William A. Richardson, Mass., sec. of treas., from 17 Mch. 1873. Benjamin If. Bristow, Ky., sec. of treas., from 4 June, 1874. Lot M. Morrill, Me., sec. of treas., from 7 Julj'^, 1876. Columbus Delano, O., sec. of interior, continued. Zachariah Chandler, Mich., sec. of interior, from 19 Oct. 1875. W. W. Belknap, la., sec. of war, continued. Alphonso Taft, O., sec. of war, from 8 Mch. 1876. James D. Cameron, Pa., sec. of war, from 22 May, 1876. George M. Robeson, N. J., sec. of navy, continued. John A. J. Creswell, Md., postmaster-gen., continued. James W. Marshall, Va., postmaster-gen., from 7 July, 1874. Marshall Jev^ell, Conn., postmaster-gen., from 24 Aug. 1874. James N. Tyner, Ind., postmaster-gen,, from 12 July, 1876. George H. Williams, Or., attorney-gen., continued. Edwards Pierrepont, N. Y., attorney-gen., from 26 Apr. 1875. Alphonso Taft, O., attorney-gen., from 22 May, 1876. Special session of Senate adjourns 26 Mch. 1873 VVhite Star steamship A tlantic wrecked on Marr's Rock, off Nova Scotia ; 547 lives lost 1 Apr. " Massacre by Indians under capt. Jack of gen. Canby, in the lava beds near fort Klamath, Cal 11 Apr. " James Brooks of N. Y., born 1810, dies at Washing- ton 30 Apr. " Rescue of 19 persons (late of the Polaris') from float- ing ice in Baffin's bay, by the sealing- vessel Tigress, capt. Bartlett of Conception bay, Newfoundland, 30 Apr. " UNI 876 UNI One-cent postal-cards issued by the U. S. government, 1 May, 1873 National Cheap Transportation Association organized in New York 6 May, " Chief-justice Salmon P. Chase, born 1808, dies in New York city 7 May, " Cakes Ames, member of Congress from Mass., " father of the Credit Mobilier," born 1804, dies 8 May, " President's proclamation dispersing disorderly bands in Louisiana 22 May, " U. S. Agricultural congress, organized in St. Louis, 1872, meets at Indianapolis, Ind 28 May, " Nearly all the Modocs surrender, 22 May ; capt. Jack and the remainder surrender 1 June, " Susan B. Anthony fined $100 for illegal voting at Rochester 18 June, " Mavenscraig of Kirkcaldy, Scotland, in 75° 38' N. lat., and 65° 35' W. Ion., rescues the remainder of the crew of the Polans 23 June, " Hiram Powers, sculptor, born 1805, dies at Florence, Italy 27 June, " Centennial exposition at Philadelphia, to open 19 Apr. 1876, and close 19 Oct. following, by proclamation of president 3 July, " Site of Exposition buildings in Fairmount park, Phila- delphia, transferred to the Centennial commission, 4 July, " England pays the Alabama award ($15,500,000), 5 Sept. " Panic begins in the Stock exchange. New York city, 19 Sept. " New York Stock exchange closed Sept. 20 ; reopens, 30 Sept. « Execution of capt. Jack and other Modocs 3 Oct. " Evangelical Alliance of the World holds a session in New York 3-11 Oct. " Virginius, an American schooner, suspected of convey- ing men and arms from New York to the insurgents in Cuba, is captured by the Spanish gun-boat Tor- nado, and conveyed to Cuba 31 Oct. " Above 90 insurgents and sailors tried; many insur- gents and 6 British and 30 Americans shot . 4-7 Nov. " William M. Tweed convicted (New York). . . 19 Nov. " Hoosac tunnel completed (Tunnel) 27 Nov. " Forty-third Congress, First Session, opens 1 Dec. " Vote for speaker of the House : James G. Blaine, 189 ; Fernando Wood, 76; S. S. Cox, 2; Hiester Clymer, 1; Alexander H. Stephens, 1 1 Dec. " Matthew H. Carpenter of Wis. chosen president pro tern, of Senate 11 Dec. '• Prof. Louis J. R. Agassiz, scientist, born 1807, dies at Cambridge, Mass 14 Dec. " Virginius surrendered to the U. S. by Spain ; she founders at sea off cape Fear while on her way to New York 19 Dec. " Ex-mayor Hall of New York acquitted 24 Dec. " Survivors of the Virginius massacre, 102, surrendered to the U. S. authorities at Santiago de Cuba, 18 Dec, reach New York on the Juniata 28 Dec. " Leavenworth, Kan., selected as the site for the National Military prison 29 Dec. " Women's Temperance crusade begins at Hillsborough, O Dec. " Chang and Eng, the Siamese twins, born in Siam, 15 Apr. 1811, came to the U. S. 1828, die at their home near Salisbury, N. C, Eng surviving Chang about 2 hours 17 Jan. 1874 Act of 3 Mch. 1873 (" Salary Grab " bill), repealed, ex- cept as to salaries of the president and justices of the Supreme court 20 Jan. " Morrison R. Waite appointed and confirmed chief-jus- tice of the Supreme court 21 Jan. " Act authorizing coinage at the mint of coins for for- eign nations 29 Jan. " Act providing for busts of chief-justices Taney and Chase, to be placed in the Supreme Court room of the U. S 29 Jan. " Ex-pres. Millard Fillmore, born 1800, dies at Buffalo, N. Y 8 Mch. 1874 Charles Sumner, born 1811, dies at Washington, D. C, 1 1 Mch. " Bill to inflate the currency, fixing the maximum limit at $400,000,000, passed by Senate, 6 Apr., by 29 to 24, and House, 14 Apr., by 140 to 1 02, vetoed . 22 A pr. " Condition and status of the fur trade in Alaska to bo investigated by special government agent, bj' act, 22 Apr. " Proclamation of president commanding turbulent and disorderly gatherings in Arkansas to disperse, 15 May. " Reservoir dam on Mill river, Mass. , bursts : loss of prop- erty $1,500,000 ; of life nearly 200 persons, 16 May, " W. A. Richardson, sec. of the treasury, resigns. 1 June, " President to invite foreign governments to take part in the Centennial Exhibition, by act h June, ' Territorial government for the District of Columbia abolished, and a board of 3 governing regents pro- vided for, by act of. 20 June, ' Congress appropriates $300 or less to purchase and re- store to the family of Lafayette the watch presented him by gen. Washington, lost during his visit to the U. S. in 1825, and since found 22 June, ' " Hazing " at the Annapolis Naval academy to be in- vestigated by court-martial, and punished by dis- missal, by act 23 June, ' Court of Commissioners of Alabama claims constituted by act of Congress 23 June, ' Law to punish by imprisonment and fine the bringing into the U. S., and selling or holding in involuntary servitude inveigled or kidnapped foreigners, 28 June, ' First Session adjourns " ' Postmaster-gen. A. J. Creswell resigns 24 June, ' Great distress in Minnesota, Kansas, and Nebraska by the grasshopper plague July-Oct. * Mysterious abduction of Charley Ross, aged 4 years, from his father's home in Germantown, Pa. (never found) 1 July, ' Illinois and St. Louis railroad bridge over the Missis- sippi at St. Louis opened 4 July, " Rev. Henry Ward Beecher demands an investigation of Theodore Tilton's charges against him . . .7 July, " Sixteen negroes forcibly taken outof the Trenton, Tenn., jail by disguised men and shot 26 Aug. " Rev. H. W. Beecher acquitted by a committee of his church 28 Aug. " Headquarters of the U. S. army removed to St. Louis, 1 Oct. " Lincoln monument at Springfield, 111., dedicated, 15 Oct. " National Woman's Christian Temperance Union organ- ized at Cleveland, O 19 Nov. " Second Session opens 7 Dec. " President's message received " " Race riot at Vicksburg, Miss. ; 75 negroes killed, " " Death of hon. Ezra Cornell, born 1807, occurs at Ithaca, N. Y. 9 Dec. " Official reception given king Kalakaua of the Hawaiian islands by Congress 18 Dec. " President by proclamation orders turbulent and disor- derly gatherings in Mississippi to disperse. .21 Dec. " Gerrit Smith, philanthropist, born 1797, dies at New York city 28 Dec. " Sen. Sherman's bill for resumption of specie payment, 1 Jan. 1879, approved, with special message. 14 Jan. 1875 President calls the Senate for 5 Mch 17 Feb. " Indemnity from the Spanish government for families of men shot in the Virginius massacre fixed at $80,000 27 Feb. " Civil Rights bill, to enforce equal enjoyment of inns, public conveyances, theatres, etc., approved . .1 Mch. " Contract with James B. Eads for jetty-work at the mouth of the Mississippi river, by act of. . . .3 Mch. " Enabling act for Colorado passed " '• Supplementary Immigration act passed " " Act authorizing twenty-cent pieces of silver, . . " " Part of island of Mackinac made a national park, bv act of 3 Mcii. " UNI 877 Forty-third Congress adjourns 4 Mch. 1875 Special session of Senate convenes, T. W. Ferry presi- dent;:>ro tern 5 Mch. '* Gold discovered in Deadwood and Whitewood gulches, S. Dakota 14 Mch. " Special session of Senate adjourns 24 Mch. " Wheeler adjustment of Louisiana state governnoent (Louisiana, 1871-75) 14 Apr. « Centenary of the battle of Lexington 19 Apr. " Archbishop John McCloskey invested with the biretta of a cardinal of the Roman Catholic church, in St. Patrick's cathedral, N. Y 27 Apr. " Whiskey frauds in western states, causing a loss to the U. S. of $1,650,000 in revenue in 10 months, exposed 1 May, " Secret investigation of the Whiskey ring by sec. Bristow, aided by Myron Colony, leads to seizure of 16 distilleries and many rectifying-houses in St. Louis, Milwaukee, and Chicago 10 May, " George H. Williams, attorney-general, resigns, 22 Apr., to take effect 15 May, " John C. Breckinridge, born 1821, dies at Lexington, Ky 17 May, " Pres. Grant's letter on the " Third term " appears, 29 May, " Centenary of the battle of Bunker Hill 17 June, " Jury in the case of Tilton vs. Beecher disagree and are discharged 2 July, " Andrew Johnson, born 1808, dies near Jonesborough Tenn 31 July, " Hon. Horace Binney, born 1780, graduate of Harvard, 1797, and oldest member of Philadelphia bar, dies at Philadelphia 12 Aug. " Com. Perry's flag-ship, the Lawrence^ sunk for preser- vation in Misery bay, lake Erie, in July, 1815, is raised for transportation to the Centennial exposi- tion 14 Sept. " Democratic conventions of New York declare for spe- cie resumption 16 Sept. " Columbus Delano, secretary of the interior, resigns 5 July ; resignation accepted 22 Sept. *• Pres. Grant speaks against sectarian schools in Des Moines, la 29 Sept. " Steamship Pacific founders between San Francisco and Portland ; 200 lives lost 4 Nov. " Henry Wilson, vice-president, born 1812, dies at Wash- ington, D. C 22 Nov. " Thomas W. Ferry of Mich., president pro tern, of the Senate, becomes acting vice-president 22 Nov. " William B. Astor, born 1792, dies in New York, 24 Nov. " Forty-fourth Congress, First Session, meets ... .6 Dec. " Democratic majority ill the House of Representatives for the first time in 15 years ; Michael C. Kerr chos- en speaker bv 173 to 106 for James G. Blaine, 6 Dec. " Seventh annual message of pres. Grant advocates un- sectarian and compulsory education 7 Dec. " Extensive forgeries of E. D. Winslow of Boston dis- covered, and he flees the country 25 Jan. 1876 Reverdv Johnson, born 1796, dies at Annapolis, Md., 10 Feb. " Congress appropriates $1,500,000 to complete Centen- nial buildings, etc., at Philadelphia ...... .16 Feb. " Charlotte Cushman, born 1816, dies at Boston, Mass., 18 Feb. " W. W. Belknap, secretary of war, resigns ; the House, by resolution, impeaches him 2 Mch. " Articles of impeachment presented in Senate. . 4 Apr. " Charles A Dana, appointed minister to Great Britain, rejected by the Senate 5 Apr. " Alexander T. Stewart, born in Belfast, Ireland, 1803, dies at New York 10 Apr. " Statue of Abraham Lincoln, from contributions of freedmen, unveiled in Lincoln park, Washington (Sculpture, Ward, John Q. A.) 14 Apr. " Pres. Grant vetoes Senate bill to reduce his salary after 4 Mch. 1877, from $50,000 to $25,000 19 Apr. « UNI Message from pres. Grant justifying his absence from the seat of government by precedents 4 Mav, Dom Pedro IL, emperor of Brazil, with the empress Theresa, arrives in New York 15 Apr., and is pre- sented to pres. Grant 7 May, Centennial exposition at Fairmount park, Philadel- phia, opened by pres. Grant and dom Pedro, 10 May, Prohibition convention at Cleveland, O., nominates gen. Green Clay Smith of Ky. for president, and (i. T. Stewart of O. for vice-president 17 May, National Greenback convention at Indianapolis, Ind., nominates Peter Cooper of N. Y. for president ; U. S. sen. Newton Booth, nominated for vice-president, declines, and Samuel F. Gary of O. substituted, 18 May, Alphonso Taft, secretary of war, resigns, being ap- pointed attorney-general 22 May, Peter Cooper's letter of acceptance 31 May, Edwards Pierrepont, attorney-general, resigns, 1 June, Site for observatory of Mount Hamilton, Santa Clara county, Cal., granted to the trustees of Lick obser- vatory by Congress 7 June, Ezra D. Winslow, the American forger, surrendered by Great Britain (Extradition) 15 June, Republican National convention meets at Cincinnati, O., 14 June. Edward McPherson of Pa. permanent president. On the 16th, 9 nominations for president are made ; votes necessary to a choice, 378 ; on the 1st ballot, Rutherford B. Hayes has 61; Jas. G. Blaine, 285 ; B. H. Bristow, 113 ; on the 7th ballot, Hayes, 384; Blaine, 351; Bristow, 21 ; for vice- president, William A. Wheeler of N. Y. unanimously elected on first ballot 16 June, B. H. Bristow, sec. of the treasury, resigns. . .20 June, Massacre of gen. George A. Custer and 276 men, by Indians under Sitting Bull, near the Little Big Horn river, Montana 25 June, President suggests public religious services on 4 July, 1876, by proclamation 26 June, Democratic National convention at St. Louis, gen. John A. McClernand permanent president, 27 June; six nominations for president made; 1st ballot gives Samuel J. Tilden of N. Y. 417, Thomas A. Hen- dricks of Ind. 140; on the 2d ballot Tilden receives 635 votes, and his nomination made unanimous, 28 June ; Thomas A. Hendricks nominated for vice- president by acclamation . .29 June, Centenary of American independence 4 July, R. B. Hayes accepts Republican nomination. . .8 July, Shooting of 5 negro militiamen by whites at Ham- burg (South Carolina) 9 July, Postmaster-general Jewell resigns 11 July, W. A. Wheeler's letter of acceptance. 15 July, Congress authorizes the minting of not less than $10,000,000 in silver coin to exchange for legal- tender notes, and declares the trade dollar no longer a legal tender 22 July, Hendricks's letter of acceptance dated 24 July, Tilden's letter of acceptance dated 31 July, W. W. Belknap acquitted by the Senate ; vote on first article, 35 guilty, 25 not guilty 1 Aug. Colorado, the 38th state in order, admitted by act of 3 Mch. 1875, and by proclamation of president, 1 Aug. Congress appropriates $200,000 to complete the Wash- ington monument 2 Aug. First Session adjourns 15 Aug. Hon. M. C. Kerr, speaker of House of Representatives, born 1827, dies at Rockbridge Alum springs, Va., 19 Aug. Bronze statue of Lafayette, the gift of the French re- public to New York city, is unveiled 6 Sept. Hallet's Point reef, "Hell gate," blown up. . .24 Sept. Gen. Braxton Bragg, born about 1816, dies at Galves- ton, Tex .27 Sept. By proclamation pres. Grant commands disorderly and turbulent gatherings in South Carolina to disperse, 17 Oct. 1876 UNI Popular vote at preaidential election : Hayes, Republi- can, 4,033,295 ; Tilden, Democratic, 4,284,265; Coop- er, Greenback, 81,737; Smith, Prohibition, 9522, 7 Nov. International exhibition at Philadelphia closes, 10 Nov. Second Session meets; Thomas W. Ferry presiding in the Senate 4 Dec. In the House, Samuel J. Randall is elected speaker by 162 to 82 for James A. Garfield 4 Dec. Pres. (irant's 8th annual message 5 Dec. Brooklyn theatre burned during h performance of "The Two Orphans," and 295 lives lost 5 Dec. First incineration in the U. S. of body of baron De Palm, at the crematory in Washington, Pa . .6 Dec. Return ing-boards give Hayes 185 electoral votes, Tilden 184 ; election disputed (the country in great excite- ment till the following March) . .6 Dec. Com. Cornelius Vanderbilt, born 1794, dies at New York, 4 Jan. Two governors, NichoUs (Dem.) and Packard (Rep.), inaugurated in Louisiana 8 Jan. Joint congressional committee agrees upon a plan for counting the electoral votes 17 Jan. Act passed by Senate, 25 Jan , by 47 to 17, and by House, 26 Jan., by 191 to 86, provides for an electoral commission of 5 members of each House, elected viva-voce on the Tuesday before the first Thursday in Feb. 1877, with 4 associate justices of the Supreme court from the 1st, 3d, 8th, and 9th circuits, together with a 5th associate justice selected by the other 4; the commission not to be dissolved when organized, and no withdrawal of members permitted except by death or physical disability; approved 29 Jan. Senate elects as members George F. Edmunds, Oli- ver P. Morton, Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, Allen G. Thurman, Thomas F. Bayard ; the House elects Henry B. Payne, Eppa Hunton, Josiah G. Abbot, James A. Garfield, George F. Hoar ; the justices of the Supreme court designated are Nathan Clifford, Samuel F. Miller, Stephen J. Field, and William Strong, and select Joseph R. Bradley as the 5th ; in all 8 Republicans, 7 Democrats 30 Jan. Three certificates from Florida referred to the Electoral commission, and the vote awarded to the Republi- cans by 8 to 7 9 Feb. Prof. A. Graham Bell exhibits his Telephone at Sa- lem, Mass 12 Feb. Commission awards the electoral vote of Louisiana to the Republicans by vote 8 to 7 16 Feb. Contested vote of Oregon counted for the Republicans by the commission ; 8 to 7 23 Feb. Political disabilities of Joseph E. Johnston of Va., under the XIV. th Amendment, removed bv act of, ' 23 Feb. Sen. Francis Kernan of N. Y. substituted on Electoral commission for sen. Thurman, physically unable to serve 26 Feb. Contested vote of South Carolina awarded to Republi- cans by Electoral commission, 8 to 7 27 Feb. Election of R. B. Hayes as president and William A. Wheeler as vice-president confirmed, and joint meet- ing of 2 Houses of Congress dissolves at 4.10 a.m., 2Mch. Act to remove political disabilities of John S. Marma- duke approved 2 Mch. President calls special session of the Senate for 5 Mch. 1877 2 Mch. House of Representatives resolves that Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas A. Hendricks received 196 electoral votes for president and vice-president, and were elected, 136 yeas, 88 nays, 66 not voting. . . .3 Mch. R. B. Hayes privately takes oath of office as president, 7.05 P.M., Saturday, 3 Mch. Forty-fourth Congress adjourns 4 Mch. R. B. Hayes inaugurated and publicly takes the oath of office 5 Mch. Special sessi^on of Senate convenes; vice-president Wheeler sworn in 5 Mch. 878 UNI 1876 187; Twenty-third Administration — Eepublican. 4 Mcli 1877 to 3 Mch. 1881. Itutlierford B. Hayes, O., president. William A. Wheeler, N. Y., vice-president. CABINET. William M. Evarts, N. Y., sec. of state, from 12 Mch. 1877,] John Sherman, O., sec. of trcas., from 12 Mch. 1877. George W. McCrary, la., sec. of war, from 12 Mch. 1877. Alexander Ranisey, Minn., sec. of war, from 10 Dec. 1879, Richaid IV. Thompson, Ind., sec. of navy, from 12 Mch. 1877,^ Nathan Gaff, jr., W. Va., sec. of navy, from 6 Jan. 1881. Carl Schurz, Mo., sec. of interior, from 12 Mch. 1877. David McK. Key, Tenn., postmaster-gen., from 12 Mch. 1877, Horace Maynard, Tenn., postmaster-gen., from 2 June, 1880. Charles Devens, Mass., attorney -gen., from 12 Mch. 1877. Special session of Senate adjourns 17 Mch. 187 John D. Lee, convicted of complicity in the Mountain Meadow massacre, executed (Massackes, U. S. ; Utah) 23 Mch. « Packard legislature in Louisiana breaks up. . .21 Apr. " Forty-fourth Congress adjourning without making the usual appropriations for the army for the year ending 30 June, 1878, the president calls on the 45th Congress to meet 15 Oct 5 May, " Ex-pres. Grant leaves Philadelphia for an extended European tour 17 May, " John L. Motley, historian, born 1814, dies at Dorset- shire, Engl 29 May, « Ten Molly Maguires hung, 6 at Pottsville and 4 at Mauch Chunk, Pa 21 June, " Civil-service order issued by pres. Hayes : " No officer should be required or permitted to take part in the management of political organizations or election campaigns" 22 June, " Strike on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad begins at Martinsburg, W. Va. (Mauyland, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and other states) 16 July, " Proclamations of president against domestic violence in West Virginia (dated 18 July), in Maryland (21 July), and Pennsylvania 23 July, " Two satellites of Mars discovered by prof. Asaph Hall of the U. S nights' of 11 and 17 Aug. " Armed band of Mexican outlaws forcibly release 2 noto- rious criminals, Esproneda and Garza, from jail in Rio Grande Citj'^, Tex., escaping to Mexico, 12 Aug. " Brigham Young, b. 1801, dies at Salt Lake City, 29 Aug. « Monument to John Brown dedicated at Ossawatomie, Kan 30 Aug. « War with the Nez Perces Indians breaks out in Idaho, ^ 15 June ; closed by surrender of Indians to col. Miles, 30 Sept. « Forty-fifth Congress, First Session (extra), opens, 15 Oct. " Samuel J. Randall elected speaker of House by 149 to 132 for James A. Garfield. Pres. Hayes's message 16 Oct. " Bill for free coinage of the standard silver dollar as a legal tender introduced in the House by Mr. Bland of Mo 5 Nov. " Fisheries commission, under treaty of Washington, awards $5,500,000 in gold to be paid by the U. S. to Great Britain for fisheries privilege 23 Nov. " U. S. sloop-of-war Huron wrecked in a gale off the coast of North Carolina near Oregon Inlet ; over 100 lives lost 24 Nov. « First Session adjourns 3 Dec. Second Session meets " President's message recommends resumption of specie payment, 1 Jan. 1879 3 Dec. President and Mrs. Hayes celebrate their silver wedding at the White House 31 Dec. About 100 lives, chiefly railroad engineers and artisans bound for Brazil, lost by wreck of the steamship Metropolis near Kitty Hawk, N. C 31 Jan. 1878 Greenback National convention in Toledo, O., organizes a National Greenback party, with judge Francis W. Hughes as president 22 Feb. UNI 879 Bland Silver bill, as amended, passed over the pres- ident's veto 28 Feb. 1878 Benjamin F. Wade, born 1800, dies at Jefferson, O., 2Mch. '< American register to be issued to, and naval officers de- tailed for, the Jeannette (fitted for a Polar expedition by James Gordon Bennett), by act of. 18 Mch. " William M. Tweed, born 1823, dies in Ludlow Street jail. New York 12 Apr. " Thomas W. Ferry chosen president pro tern, of the Senate 17 Apr. " First train on the Gilbert Elevated railroad, New York, is run on Sixth avenue 29 Apr. " ■Coinage of 20-cent silver pieces stopped by act of 2 May, " Prof. Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institution, born 1797, dies 13 May, « ■Select committee appointed in the House on motion of Mr. Potter to investigate alleged frauds in the presi- dential election in Louisiana and Florida. . .17 May, " Further retirement of legal -tender notes forbidden; the balance, $350,000,000, to be kept in circulation, by act of 31 May, " Bill to repeal the Bankrupt law passed 7 June, " Act providing for government of the District of Co- lumbia by 3 commissioners 11 June, " William Cullen Bryant, born 1794, dies in New York, 12 June, " It is made unlawful to employ the army as a posse comitatus to execute laws except as expressly au- thorized by the Constitution 18 June, " Act for additional life-saving stations and for organiz- ing the Life-saving service 18 June, " Act to relieve political disabilities of gen. E. Kirby Smith 19 June, " Second Session adjourns 20 June, " Yellow-fever prevails in the southern states, begin- ning at New Orleans about 10 to 15 July, " Gen. B. F. Butler joins the Greenback party. .10 Aug. " Repeal of Bankrupt laws of 1867 and 1874 takes effect, 1 Sept. " First resident embassy of China to theU. S., Chen Lan Pin, Yung Wing, and 36 others, arrive at Washing- ton, 20 Sept., and present their credentials. 28 Sept. " Proclamation of president warning all persons to de- sist from violence in New Mexico 7 Oct. " Remains of the late A. T. Stewart mysteriously stolen from the vault in St. Mark's churchyard, N. Y., 7 Nov. " Third Session meets, and pres. Hayes's second annual mes- sage received 2 Dec. " Gold reaches par in Wall St., N. Y., for the first time since 13 Jan. 1862 17 Dec. " Bayard Taylor, born 1825, dies at Berlin, Germany, 19 Dec. " Government resumes specie payment 1 Jan. 1879 Caleb Gushing, born 1800, dies at Newburyport, Mass., 2 Jan. " Potter committee of House of Representatives begins the " Cipher Despatches " inquiry at Washington, 21 Jan. " Act to incorporate the Society of the Jesuit Fathers of New Mexico, passed by the legislative assembly of New Mexico over the governor's veto, 18 Jan., is de- clared void by act approved 3 Feb. " During the debate on the Chinese Immigration bill in the Senate, for the first time a colored senator, B. K. Bruce of Miss., occupies the chair 14 Feb. " Women permitted to practise before the Supreme court by act of. 15 Feb. " Sec. of navy authorized to accept for a voyage of ex- ploration by Behring's strait the ship Jeannette, ten- dered by James Gordon Bennett, by act of. .27 Feb. " Bill to restrict Chinese immigration passes the Senate 15 Feb., the House 22 Feb., is vetoed 1 Mch. " Congress appropriates $250,000 as a perpetual fund for the American Printing-house for the Blind at Louis- ville, Ky. (incorporated 1858) 3 Mch. " Act for taking the 10th and subsequent censuses, " " National Board of Health of 7 members (one from a UNI state), to be appointed by the president by act of, 3 Mch. 1879 Forfy-Jifth Congress adjourns " « Congress not having made the necessary appropria- tions, pres. Hayes calls an extra session for 18 Mch., 4 Mch. «' Forty-sixth Congress, First Session (extra),meets 18 Mch. « Samuel J. Randall is chosen speaker of the House by 143 to 125 for James A. Garfield 18 Mch. " [ " For the first time since the Congress that was chosen with Mr. Buchanan in 1856, the Democratic party was in control of both branches."— ^/aiwe'* " Twenty Years of Congress," vol. ii. p. 642.] Negro exodus from southern states to Kansas, Mch.-Apr. " Allen G. Thurman of O. elected president pro tern, of the Senate 15 Apr. '* Proclamation of president ordering the removal of squatters from Missouri and Texas settling in Okla- homa 26 Apr. « Army Appropriation bill vetoed 29 Apr. « William Lloyd Garrison, abolitionist, born 1804, dies in New York 24 May, " Veto of the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial Ap- propriation bill 29 May, " Joint resolution to, erect a monument at the birth- place of George Washington 14 June, "' Second Army Appropriation bill approved bv the president 23 June, « Commission of 7 members for the improvement of Mis- sissippi river to be appointed by the president, by act of. .' 28 June, « First Session adjourns 1 July, " Yacht Jeannette sails from San Francisco for the Arctic regions (Northeast and Northwest passages), 8 July, « Confederate gen. John B. Hood, born 1831, dies at New Orleans 30 Aug. " Excitement over elections in Maine begins ... 8 Sept. " Indian massacre at the White River agency, Col., of N. C. Meeker and 12 others ..29 Sept. " Henry C. Carey, political economist, born 1793, dies at Philadelphia .13 Oct. " French ocean cable landed at North Eastham, Mass., 15 Nov. " Second Session meets ; pres. Hayes's third annual mes- sage received 1 Dec. " Sec. of war McCrary resigns 10 Dec. " Parnell and Dillon arrive at New York 2 Jan., and Parnell addresses a large meeting 4 Jan. 1880 Second proclamation of president to prevent settlement of Oklahoma 12 Feb. " Ferdinand de Lesseps banqueted in New York, 1 Mch. *' Denis Kearney, sand-lots agitator of San Francisco, sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment and $1000 fine (California) 15 Mch. " U. S. steamer Constellation, commissioned under act of 25 Feb. 1880, to carry contributions for relief of suf- fering poor in Ireland, sails from New York, 30 Mch. " Allen G. Thurman, elected president of the Senate pro tern., serving till 15 Apr 7 Apr. " Congress accepts from Thomas Jefferson Coolidge and others, of Mass., the desk used bj' Thomas Jefferson in writing the Declaration of Independence, to be deposited in the Department of State 28 Apr. " Pres. Hayes authorized to accept the steamship GuU nare from H. W. Howgate, and fit her up to establish a temporary station for Arctic scientific observation at some point north of 81°, or on or near the shore of Lady Franklin bay 1 Maj', " Appropriation bill vetoed because of a clause modi- fying the election laws 4 May, " Republican Anti-Third- Terra convention held at St. Louis, gen. John B. Henderson presiding. . .6 May, " Allen G. Thurman chosen president pro tern, of the Senate 6 May, « Postmaster-gen. Key resigns May, " UNI Republican National convention meets at Chicago, 2 June; George F. Hoar permanent president, 3 June; 14 nominations made for president. On the 2d ballot James A. Garfield's name appeared, with 1 vote. Un- til the 34th ballot the votes remained substantially unchanged ; the 5 most important ballots are given : Ist 2d. 34th. 35th. 36th. James A. Garfield. . .. 1 17 260 399 U. S. Grant 804 305 312 313 306 James G.Blaine... 284 282 275 57 42 John Sherman 93 94 107 99 3 Garfield nominated for president, and gen. Chester A. Arthur of N. Y. on the 1st ballot, for vice-president, 7 June, Congress appropriates $100,000 or less to carry into effect its resolution of nearly 100 years previously (29 Oct. 1781), to erect a marble column at York- town, Va., " inscribed with a succinct narrative of the surrender of earl Cornwallis to his excellency gen. Washington " 7 June, Act to pay the Oneida Historical Society $4100, ac- cording to resolution of the Continental Congress, 4 Oct. 1777, to erect a monument to brig.-gen. Her- kimer, killed at the battle of Oriskany 8 June, Greenback National convention meets at Chicago, 9 June ; Richard Trevellick of Mich, president. ' After an informal ballot, James B. Weaver of la. receives the entire vote (718) for president, and B. J. Chambers of Tex. 403 for vice-president to 311 for gen. A. M. West of Miss 11 June, Second Session adjourns 16 June, Neal Dow of Me. nominated for president, and A. M. Thompson of O. for vice-president, by Prohibition National convention at Cleveland, 17 June, Samuel J. Tilden declines to be a candidate for presi- dent, by letter of 18 June, Democratic National convention meets in Cincinnati, 22 June ; John W. Stevenson of Ky. chosen perma- nent president on the 1st ballot. Winfield S. Han- cock has 171 and Thomas F. Bayard 153J out of 728^ cast, 23 June ; 2d ballot : Hancock 320, Samuel J. Randall 128J, Bayard 113, and nomination of Han- cock made unanimous. For vice-president, William H. English of Indiana nominated by acclamation, 24 June, Gen. Weaver accepts Greenback nomination. . .3 July, Gen. Garfield accepts Republican nomination . .12 July, Steamer Dessong, with Egyptian obelisk " Cleopatra's Needle," arrives in New York 20 July, Neal Dow accepts Prohibition nomination ... " G^n. Hancock accepts Democratic nomination, 29 July, Dr. Henry S. Tanner of Minneapolis, Minn., completes at New York a fast of 40 days, living upon water alone 7 Aug. International sheep-and-wool show held at Philadel- phia, Pa Sept. Return of the Schwatka Arctic Exploration expedi- tion to New York 23 Sept. Arctic steamer Gulnare returns to Washington, 10 Oct. Publication of forged letters on the Chinese question (MoREY letters) attributed to gen. Garfield, ad- dressed to a mythical person, H. L. Morey of Lynn, 20 Oct. Popular vote at presidential election : James A. Gar- field, Republican, 4,450,921 ; Winfield S. Hancock, Democrat, 4,447,888; James B. Weaver, Greenback, 307,740; Neal Dow, Prohibition, 10,305 2 Nov. Lucretia Mott, born 1793, dies in Montgomery county, Pa 11 Nov. Electoral votes of states, except Georgia, cast. .6 Dec, Third Session meets " Samuel J. Randall speaker of House. President Hayes's 4th annual message presented . " Electoral vote of Georgia, 11 for Hancock and English, cast 8 Dec. R. W. Thompson, secretary of navy, resigns. .15 Dec. Nearly 1 mile of Broadway, N. Y., is lighted by elec- tricity, Brush system 20 Dec. 1880 UNI International Sanitary Conference, called by resolution of Congress, 14 May, 1880, meets at Washington, D. C 5 Jan. 18811: "Cleopatra's Needle" set up in Central park, N. Y., 22 Jan. " Electoral votes counted in Congress, the reading of the formal parts of the certificates being omitted : for Garfield and Arthur, Republicans, 214 ; for Han- cock and English, Democrats, witli Georgia, 155, without, 144. Garfield and Arthur declared elected, 9 Feb. " Pres. Haves calls the Senate in extra session for 4 Mch. 1881 . ! 28 Feb. " President vetoes the "Funding act of 1881". . .3 Mch. " Forty-sixth Congress adjourns " '' Special session of Senate convenes, Chester A. Arthur presiding 4 Mch. '* James A. Garfield inaugurated president " " Twenty-fourtli Administration— Kepublioan. 4 Mch^ 1881 to 3 Mch. 1885. James A. Garfield, O., president. Chester A. Artliur, N. Y., vice-president. cabinet. James G. Blaine, Me., sec. of state, from 5 Mch. 1881. William Windom, Minn., sec. of treas., from 5 Mch. 1881. Samuel J. Kirkwood, la., sec. of interior, from 5 Mch. 1881.. Robert T. Lincoln, 111,, sec. of war, from 5 Mch. 1881. William H, Hunt, La., sec. of navy, from 5 Mch. 1881. Thomas L. James, N. Y., postmaster-gen., from 5 Mch. 188L- Wayne McVeagh, Pa., attorney-gen., from 5 Mch. 1881. Postmaster-gen. James presents to president the pro- test of himself, vice -pres. Arthur, and U. S. sens. Conkling and Piatt of N. Y. against the removal of gen. Merritt from the collectorship at New York, and appointment of Mr. Robertson, without consukiiig said senators 28 Mch. 188t Investigation of alleged " Star Route " frauds leads to resignation of second assistant postmaster- general Thomas A. Brady 20 Apr. « Vinnie Ream-Hoxie's bronze statue of adm. Farragut unveiled at Washington, D. C 25 Apr. " Sens. Conkling and Piatt of N. Y. resign 16 May, " Special session of Senate adjourns sine die. . . .20 May, " Arctic steamer Jeawwe^te, crushed in the ice in lat. 77° N., Ion. 157° W., is abandoned and sinks (Northeast AND Northwest passages) 12 June, " Steam-whaler Rodgers despatched from San Francisco by the Navv department in search of the Jeanneite, 15 June, '^ Sec. Blaine writes to American ministers at princijial European courts that any movement to jointly guar- . antee the neutrality of the interoceanic canal at Panama would be regarded by the U. S. as an un- called-for interference 24 June, "• American Association of the Red Cross, organized 9 June, with miss Clara Barton as president, incorpo- rated (Red Cross) 1 July, " Pres. Garfield shot by Charles Jules Guiteau in the Baltimore and Potomac railroad station at Washing- ton, D. C 2 July, «- Lieut. Adolphus W. Greely, with a party of 25 in all, sails from St. John's, Newfoundland, in the Proteus to establish 1 of 13 circumpolar stations for scientific purposes in accordance with European plans (Ab- stinence, Northeast and Northwest pas- sages) 7 July, "• Warner Miller of N. Y. elected to Senate to succeed Piatt 16 July, '^ Elbridge G. Lapham of N. Y. elected to Senate to suc- ceed Conkling 22 July, " Nathan CliflFord, U. S. Supreme court judge, born 1803, dies at Cornish, Me 25 July, "• Wrangell island or land, off the Siberian coast, taken pos- session of in name of the U. S. by capt. Hooper and Mr. Reynolds of the revenue cutter Corwin, Vl Aug. '*" Forest fires in Huron and Sanilac counties, Mich., UNI 881 spread over 1800 sq. miles, making 2900 families homeless, and destroying 138 lives Sept. 1881 Pres. Garfield removed from Washington to the Franck- lyn cottage, Elberon, N. J 6 Sept. " Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside, born 1824, dies at Bristol, R. 1 13 Sept. " Pres. Garfield dies 10.35 p.m 19 Sept. " Vice-pres. Arthur sworn as president at his residence in New York city between 2 and 3 o'clock a.m. by judge John R. Brady .20 Sept. " Pres. Arthur formally takes the oath of office in Wash- ington 4 22 Sept. " PRES. Arthur's cabinet., James G. Blaine, Me., sec. of state, continued. F. T. Frelinghuysen, N. J., sec. of state, from 12 Dec. 1881. William Windom, Minn., sec. of treas., continued. Charles J. Folger, N. Y., sec. of treas., from 27 Oct. 1881. Walter Q. Greskam, Ind., sec. of treas., from 24 Sept. 1884. Hugh McCulloch, Ind., sec. of treas., from 28 Oct. 1884. Samuel J. Kirkwood, la., sec. of interior, continued. Henry M. Teller, Col., sec. of interior, from 6 Apr. 1882. Robert T. Lincoln, 111., sec. of w-ar, continued. William H. Hunt, La., sec. of navy, continued. William E. Chandler, N. H., sec. of navy, from 1 Apr. 1882. Thomas L. James, N. Y., postmaster- gen., continued. Timothy 0. Hoioe, Wis., postmaster-gen. from 20 Dec. 1881. Walter Q. Gresham, Ind., postmaster-gen., from 3 Apr. 1883. Frank Hatton, la., postmaster-gen., from 14 Oct. 1884. Wayne McVeagh, Pa., attorney-gen., continued. Benjamin H. Bi-ewster, Pa., attorney-gen., from 19 Dec. 1881. President calls the Senate in extra session for 10 Oct., 23 Sept. 1881 Funeral train, bearing the remains of'pres. Garfield, leaves Washington for Cleveland, O 23 Sept. " Obsequies of pres. Garfield at Cleveland ; day of mourn- ing observed throughout the country under procla- mation of president, dated 22 Sept 26 Sept. " International Cotton exposition opens at Atlanta, Ga., 5 Oct. « Special session of Senate convenes 10 Oct. " Thomas F. Bayard elected president^ro tem. of Senate, 10 Oct. " J. G. Holland, poet and author, born 1819, dies at New York city 12 Oct. " David Davis elected president joro tem. of Senate. 13 Oct. " One hundredth anniversary of the surrender of lord Cornwallis celebrated at Yorktown, Va 19 Oct. " Special session of Senate adjourns 25 Oct. " Sec. of treas. Windom resigns 14 Nov. " Resignation of attorney-gen. McVeagh accepted, " " Trial of Charles J. Guiteau for murder begins at Wash- ington 14 Nov. " Forty-seventh Congress, First Session, opens. . .5 Dec. " David Davis presiding in Senate ; Joseph Warren Keifer of O. elected speaker by 148 votes to 129 for Samuel J. Randall of Pa 5 Dec. " Pres. Arthur's annual message 6 Dec. " Sec. of state Blaine resigns 15 Dec. " Dr. Isaac I. Hayes, Arctic explorer, born 1832, dies in New York city 17 Dec. '" Franking privilege granted to Lucretia, widow of ■ James A. Garfield, by act of 20 Dec. " Exodus of colored people from Edgefield county, S. C, 24-31 Dec. " Postmaster-gen. James surrenders his department to his successor 6 Jan. 1882 Congress tenders the thanks of the U. S. to the khedive of Eg5'pt for the obelisk known as " Cleopatra's Needle" 12 Jan. " Guiteau convicted of murder 25 Jan. " Act granting an additional pension to Mary, widow of Abraham Lincoln 2 Feb. " Guiteau sentenced to be hanged 30 June 4 Feb. " National memorial services in the hall of House of Representatives; James G. Blaine delivers a eulogy upon the late pres. Garfield 27 Feb. " UNI Act passed for the apportionment, after 3 Mch. 1883, of representation by the census of 1880, increasing the number of representatives to 325 28 Feb. 1882r Floods in the Mississippi valley . .Feb.-Mch. '« In the Criminal court of the District of Columbia John W. Dorsey, John M. Peck, John R. Miner, Stejjhen W. Dorsey, M. C. Rerdell, Thomas J. Brady, William H. Turner, and J. L. Sanderson are indicted for frauds and conspiracy to defraud the government in bids for mail service on Star routes 4 Mch. " Edmunds's law, excluding bigamists and polygamists in the territories from voting or holding office, passed, 22 Mch. '« Engineer Melville finds the bodies of DeLong and 11 of his men, near the mouth of the river Lena, Siberia, 23 Mch. '"- Henry W. Longfellow, born 1807, dies at Cambridge, Mass 24 Mch. " Northern boundary of Nebraska extended to 43d paral- lel by act of 28 Mch. « Annual pension of $5000 each granted to widows of James A. Garfield, James K. Polk, and John Tyler, by act of 31 Mch. "^ Jesse James, notorious desperado, killed at St. Joseph, Mo., by the Ford brothers 3 Apr. " Pres. Arthur vetoes bill restricting Chinese immigra- tion for 20 y earS 4 Apr. " Sec. of the interior Kirkwood resigns Apr. " Sec. of the navy Hunt resigns. " " Elephant " Jumbo " arrives in New York from Eng- land 9 Apr. " Congress appropriates $10,000 for a monument at the grave of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello, Va., 18 Apr. "^ Ralph Waldo Emerson, b. 1803, dies at Concord, Mass., 27 Apr. " Proclamation of president against violence in Arizona, referring to the "cowboys" 3 May, "^ Pres. Arthur remits the unexecuted part of the sen- tence disqualifying gen. Fitz-John Porter.. ,4 May, " Immigration of Chinese laborers to the U. S. suspended for 10 3'ears, and admission of Chinese to citizenship prohibited by act of 6 May, '^ Lt. James B. Lockwood and sergeant Brainard of the Greely expedition reach 83° 23' 8" N. lat. (North- east AND Northwest passages) 13 May, "^ Bill to appoint a Tariff commission approved, 15 May, " New indictment in the Star-route trial presented, with Sanderson's name omitted 20 May, " Lieut. Danenhower, dr. Newcomb, Cole, and Long Sing, part of the survivors of the Jeannette, arrive in New York 28 May, «- Deadlock in the House of Representatives begins 25 May, over contested election of E. M. Mackey of S. C. vs. Samuel Dibble ; the former finally seated, 31 May, " New Star-route trial begins 1 June, "^ Iron-workers' strike begins " " Guiteau executed at Washington, D. C 30 June, "■ Tariff commission meets at Washington ; John L. Hayes, president 6 July, " Mrs. Lincoln, widow of pres. Lincoln, dies at Spring- field, 111 16 July, " Veto of River and Harbor Appropriation bill. . . 1 Aug. "^ [Extract from the president's veto message: "The appropriations for river and harbor improvements have, under the influences to which I have alluded, increased out of proportion to the progress of the country, great as it has been. In 1870 the aggre- gate appropriations for this purpose were $3,975.900 ; 1875, $6,648,517; 1880, $8,976,500; 1881, $11, 451,000; while the present act appropriates $18,743,875." River and Harbor bills.] River and Harbor Appropriation bill passed over the veto '. 2 Aug. '* President authorized to call an international confer- ence at Washington, to fix on a common prime meridian for the world 3 Aug. "^ First Session adjourns 8 Aug. "^ UNI National Mining and Industrial exposition held at Denver, Od Aug. 1882 Verdict in Star- route case: Peck and Turner not guiltv; Miner and Rerdell guilty; jury disagree on the others H Sept. " Engineer G. \V. Melville of the Jeannette and seamen William Noros and William Ninderman arrive at New York 13 Sept. " Iron-workers' strike ended 20 Sept. " Bi-centennial of the landing of William Penn cele- brated in Philadelphia 22-27 Oct. « Thurlow Weed, politician and journalist, born 1798,dies, 22 Nov. " iSecond Session convenes 4 Dec. " David Davis presiding in Senate, Tariff commission submits an exhaustive report, " " New trial of Star-route cases begins " " Newhall House, Milwaukee, Wis., burned ; nearly 100 lives lost 10 Jan. 1883 Lot M. Morrill, born 1813, dies at Augusta, Me. " " Act to regulate and improve the civil service of the U. S., under which Dorman B. Eaton of N. Y., John M. Gregory of 111., and Leroy D. Thoman of O. were appointed a Civil-service commission 16 Jan. " William E. Dodge, born 1805, dies at New York, 9 Feb. " In Star-route case Rerdell pleads guilty, and offers to testify touching the conspiracy 15 Feb. " Ohio river flood ; at Cincinnati the water reaches the height of 66 ft. 4 in 15 Feb. " George F. Edmunds elected president pro tern, of the Senate . 3 Mch. " Tariff bill approved " " Foi-ty-seventh Congress adjourns 4 Mch. " Alexander H. Stephens, born 1812, dies at Atlanta, Ga., 4 Mch. " Envoys from the queen of Madagascar presented to pres. Arthur in Washington 7 Mch. " Postmaster-gen. T. O. Howe, born 1816, dies at Keno- sha, Wis 25 Mch. " Four survivors of the Jeannette arrive at New York, 27 Mch. " Peter Cooper, bom 1791, dies at New York city .4 Apr. " Brig-gen. Joseph K. Barnes, surgeon-general of the U. S. army 1864-82. dies at Washington, D. C, 5 Apr. " Ex-sen. William P. Kellogg of La. indicted for com- plicity in Star-route frauds by grand-jury at Wash- ington 18 Apr. " Irish-American National convention at Horticultural hall, Philadelphia; nearly 1600 delegates; Alex- ander Sullivan of Chicago permanent president. Object, to sustain the league in Ireland and to pro- mote a clearer understanding by the American peo- ple of the Irish question 26 Apr. " New Civil-service rules published by the president, 8 May, " New York and Brooklyn bridge opened 24 May, " National exposition of railway appliances opened in Chicago 24 May, " Panic on the New York and Brooklyn bridge; 12 killed, 29 injured .' 30 May, " Remains of John Howard Payne, author of "Home, Sweet Home." who died at Tunis, 1 Apr. 1852, are brought, by aid of W. W. Corcoran of Washington, and interred in Oak Hill cemetery, Wa.shington, 9 June, " Verdict of not guilty in the Star-route case. . . 14 June, " Celebration of the 333d anniversary of Santa Fe, New Mexico 2 July, " Charles H. Stratton (Tom Thumb), born 1838, dies at Middleborough, Mass 15 July, " General strike of telegraph operators ; 1200 quit work, 12 o'clock noon 19 July, " Brig.-gen. E. O. C. Ord, born 1818, dies at" Havana, Cuba 22 July, " Capt. Matthew Webb drowned in swimming the Avhirl- pool below. Niagara (body found at Lewiston 4 days later) *. 24 Julv, " 882 UNI Southern exposition opened at Louisville, Ky., by pres. Arthur 1 Aug. 1883 American Forestry congress meets at St. Paul, Minn., 8 Aug. " Boston Foreign exhibition opens 3 Sept. " Last spike of the Northern Pacific Railroad driven op- posite mouth of Gold creek, Mont., by Henry Villard (Pacific railroads) 9 Sept. " U. S. steamer Yantic and Arctic steamer Proteus leave St. John's, Newfoundland, for relief of Greely expe- dition, 29 June; the Proteus is crushed in the ice at entrance to Smith's sound, 23 July ; the Yantic, re- turning, arrives at St. John's 13 Sept. " Pres. Arthur receives the Corean ambassadors at the Fifth Avenue hotel. New York city 18 Sept. " Direct telegraphic communication between U. S. and Brazil via Central America opened; message by pres. Arthur to the emperor 21 Sept. " National convention of colored men — 300 delegates from 27 states — meets at Louisville, Ky. . .24 Sept. " Centennial of the disbanding of the Army of the Rev- olution celebrated at Newburg, N. Y 18 Oct. " Lieut.-gen. Philip H. Sheridan succeeds gen. W. T. Sherman, retired, in command of U. S. army, 1 Nov. " Dr. J. Marion Sims, surgeon, born 1813, dies . .13 Nov. " Standard railroad time in the U. S, goes into effect (Standard time) 18 Nov. " Forty-eighth Congress, First Session, convenes, 3 Dec. " George F. Edmunds presiding in Senate ; John G. Car- lisle chosen speaker of the House by 190 votes, to 113 for J. Warren Keifer. Pres. Arthur's thijd annual message .4 Dec. " New cantilever bridge opened over the gorge at Ni- agara falls 20 Dec. « President, by proclamation, recommends observance by appropriate exercises of the 100th anniversary of the return by George Washington to the Continental Congress at Annapolis (23 Dec. 1783) of his commis- sion as commander-in-chief 21 Dec. " Dr. Edward Lasker, distinguished German liberal, dies suddenly in New York city 4 Jan. 1884 George F. Edmunds continued as president pro tern, of the Senate, sen. H. B. Anthony, elected, having de- clined 14 Jan. " Steamship Citi/ of Columbus wrecked on Devil's Bridge, off Gay Head, Mass.; 97 lives lost 18 Jan. " WendelfPhillips, born 1811, dies at Boston, Mass., 2 Feb. " Morrison Tariff bill introduced in the House. . . .4 Feb. " Arnold Henry Guyot, geographer, born 1807, dies at Princeton, N. J .' 8 Feb. " Joint resolution for an expedition to the coast of Green- land to relieve the Greel\' Arctic expedition, 13 Feb. " Floods in the Ohio valley ; the river rises 71 feet at Cincinnati 14 Feb. " Congress appropriates $300,000, 12 Feb., and $200,000 additional, 15 Feb., for relief of flood sufferers in the Ohio valley 12 and 15 Feb. " Funeral services in New Y''ork, at the Church of the Holy Trinity, for victims of the Jeannette Arctic expedition (brought to New York) 22 Feb. " Pres. Arthur, by special message to Congress, asks ap- propriation to reconstruct the navy 26 Mch. " Three days of mob rule in Cincinnati, arising from a verdict of manslaughter against William Berner for complicity in the murder of his emplover, W. H. Kirk 28-30 Mch. " Government offers $25,000 for the discovery and rescue, or ascertaining the fate, of the Greely Arctic expe- dition, by act of 17 Apr. " Steamer Thetis leaves Brooklyn navy-yard for relief of Greely 1 May, " Morrison Tariff bill rejected in House of Representa- tives 6 May, " Failure of the Marine bank and firm of Grant & Ward in New York city 6 and 7 May, " Statue of chief-justice John Marshall unveiled at Washington, D. C 10 May, '' UNI Alert, the last Greely relief steamer, sails from Brook- lyn navy-yard 10 May, Charles O'Conor, born 1804, dies at Nantucket, 12 May, Bill repealing the test oath of 1862 approved . " Financial crisis in New York city 14 May, National Anti-monopoly convention in Chicago nomi- nates gen. B. F. Butler for president; the candidate for vice-president left to the committee. ... 14 May, Act passed providing for the civil government of Alaska 17 May, National Greenback-Labor convention meets in Indian- apolis, Ind., 28 May ; James B. Weaver permanent president ; B. F. Butler nominated for president, and gen. A. M. West of Miss, for vice-president , . 29 May, Republican National convention meets at Chicago, 3 June; John B. Henderson of Mo. permanent presi- dent, 4 June ; nominations made for presidential can- didates, 5 June ; 4 ballots cast, 6 June ; of the 8 can- didates, James G. Blaine receives on the 1st ballot 334|^ votes, and on the 4th, 541 ; Chester A. Arthur on the 1st, 278, on the 4th, 207 ; the votes necessary to a choice being 411, the nomination of Blaine is made unanimous. John A. Logan nominated for vice-president 6 June, Oen. B. F. Butler endorses the Greenback-Labor plat- form 12 June, American Prohibition National convention at meeting in Chicago nominates Samuel C. Pomeroy of Kan. for president, and John A. Conant of Conn, for vice- president (candidates withdraw in favor of St. John and Daniel in Aug. following) 20 June, Lieut. A. W. Greely and 6 others found alive by search party in Thetis and Bear, under W. S. Schley, in Smith sound, 5 miles off cape Sabine (Abstinence, Northeast and Northwest passages), 22 June, Act passed to establish a bureau of labor in the depart- ment of the interior 27 June, Proclamation by president warning persons not to settle on Oklahoma lands 1 July, Gen. West accepts nomination of Greenback-Labor party 3 July, Bill for relief of Fitz-John Porter vetoed, and passed over the veto by House, 2 July, is killed in the Senate .3 July, Bureau of navigation in the department of the treasury, created by act of Congress, approved 5 July, First Session adjourns 7 July, Paul Morphy, famous CHESS-player, dies at New Or- leans, La., aged 47 10 July, Democratic National convention meets in Chicago, 8 July ; William F. Vilas chosen permanent president of convention, 9 July; balloting for 9 candidates; necessary to a choice, 547 votes : on 1st ballot Grover Cleveland of N. Y. receives 392 votes, T. F. Bayard, 170, and Thomas A. Hendricks, 1, 10 July -, 2d ballot: Grover Cleveland 475, amended 683; T. F. Bayard 150J, amended 81J; Thomas A. Hen- dricks 124|, amended 45J. Thomas A. Hendricks of Ind. nominated for vice-president by Democratic convention, unanimously 11 July, Blaine's letter of acceptance 18 July, Gen. Logan's letter of acceptance published. . .22 July, National Prohibition convention meets in Pittsburg, Pa., 23 July; ex-gov. John P. St. John of Kan. nominated for president, and William Daniel of Md. for vice-president 24 July, National Labor party at Chicago adopts the Democratic nominees for president and vice-president . .30 July, Lieut. Greely and his men reach Portsmouth, N. H., 2 Aug., and are publicly welcomed 4 Aug. Corner-stone of pedestal of the statue of " Liberty En- lightening the World" laid on Bedloe's island, New York harbor 5 Aug. Thetis, Bear, and A lert, with bodies of the dead of the Greel^' expedition, arrive at New York 8 Aug. Gen. A. M. West of Miss, nominated for vice-president of U. S. by National committee of the Anti-monopoly party 16 Aug. 1884 3 UNI Butler's letter of acceptance published 19 Aug. 1884 Cleveland's letter of acceptance published. ... " " Hendricks's letter of acceptance published 20 Aug. " St. John and Daniel announce their acceptance of the prohibition nomination at a temperance camp-meet- ing at Cuba, N. Y 25 Aug. « International Electrical exhibition opens at Philadel- phia 2 Sept. " Charles J. Folger, ex-secretary of the treasurv, born 1818, dies at Geneva, N. Y. 4 Sept. " Mrs. Belva Lockwood of Washington accepts the nom- ination of the California Woman's Rights convention for president Sept. " Messrs. Fisher and Mulligan publish letters of J. G. Blaine, upon which he is charged with corruption in legislation favoring the Little Rock and Fort Smith railroad in 1876 16 Sept. " International Prime Meridian conference opens in Washington, D. C, 1 Oct., 25 nations represented; the meridian of (xreenwich is recommended by 21 nations, San Domingo opposing it, and France and Brazil not voting 13 Oct. " Secretary of the treasury Gresham resigns. . . .28 Oct. " Famous alliterative sentence of dr. Burchard, who, at the reception by Mr. Blaine of a delegation of cler- gymen in New York city, refers to the Democracy as the party wfiose antecedents have been " rum, Romanism, and rebellion " 29 Oct. " Popular vote for president : Cleveland and Hendricks, Democrats, 4,911,017 ; Blaine and Logan, Republi- cans, 4,848,334; Butler and West, Greenback and Anti-Monopoly, 133,825 ; St. John and Daniel, Pro- hibition, 151,809 4 Nov. " Capt. David L. Pajme, famous leader of Oklahoma boomers, dies at Wellington, Kan 29 Nov. " Second Session meets ; sen. Edmunds presiding in Senate; president's annual message presented 1 Dec. " Capstone of the Washington monument, Washington, D. C. (foundation first laid, 4 July, 1848), is em- bedded 6 Dec. " World's Industrial Cotton Centennial exposition opens at New Orleans ; machinery set in motion by pres. Arthur by telegraph from Washington, and opening address sent by telegraph 16 Dec. " Pres. - elect Cleveland resigns as governor of New York; David B. Hill, lieut. gov., succeeds. . . .6 Jan. 1885 Schuyler Colfax, born 1823, dies at Manl^ato, Minn., 13 Jan. " Electoral votes of Iowa and Oregon not reaching the sec. of state before the first Wednesday in January, Congress appropriates $1000 to send special messen- gers for them 17 Jan. " Act to ascertain claims of American citizens for spolia- tions by the French prior to 31 July, 1801 . .20 Jan. " " Liberty bell," sent from Philadelphia, arrives at the New Orleans exhibition 25 Jan. " President announces the expiration on 1 July of the treaty with Great Britain concluded 8 Ma}-, 1871 (Treaties) 31 Jan. " Electoral votes counted in Congress : For Cleveland and Hendricks, 219 ; for Blaine and Logan, 182. In announcing the votes for Cleveland and Hendricks, sen. Edmunds, president of the Senate ^770 tern., uses the expression, " and so appear to have been elect- ed;" and adds that the president of the Senate makes this declaration only as a public statement of the contents of papers opened and read, and not as possessing any authority in law to declare any legal conclusions whatever H Feb. " Act to authorize a retired list at three-quarter pay for private and non-commissioned officers in U. S. armj' or marine corps who have served 30 years . . 14 Feb. " Dedication of Washington monument at Washington, D. C. ; orations by Robert C. Winthrop of Mass. and John W. Daniels' of Va 21 Feb. « Court convened 15 Nov. 1884, for the trial of brig.-gen. David G. Swaim ; judge advocate-gen. concludes its work, and sentences him to suspension from the du- UNI 884 UNI ties of his office on half-pav for 12 years (see 1 Dec. 1894) 24 Feb. 1885 President-elect, in a letter to congressmen, advises sus- pension of the purchase and coinage of silver . 24 Feb. " Act to prohibit the importation and migration of aliens under contract or agreement to perform labor, except domestic service, or skilled labor in new industries not otherwise obtainable 2G Feb. '* Special session of Senate called for 4 Mch 27 Feb. " Act to appoint 1 person from those who have been generals or generals-in-chief of the army of the U. S. on the retired list with rank and full pay (gen. U. S. Grant so appointed by pres. Arthur), approved, 3 Mch. " Act approved appropriating $1,895,000 for 4 new ves- sels for U. S. navy : 2 cruisers and 2 gun-boats . 3 Mch. " Oath of office as vice- president administered to Mr. Hendricks by sen. Edmunds 3 Mch. '* Forty-eighth Congress adjourns " " Special session of Senate, vice-president presiding, 4 Mch. " Cleveland inaugurated president ; oath administered by chief-justice Waite 4 Mch. " Twenty-fifth Administration— Democratic. 4 Mch. 1885 to 3 Mch. 1889. Grorer Cleyeland, N. Y., president. Thomas A. Hendricks, Ind., vice-president. CABINET. [Named in order of succession established by act of Con- gress, 19 Jan. 1886 (see below) ; the Department of Agri- culture was not created until 9 Feb. 1889.] Thomas F. Bayard, Del., sec. of state, from 6 Mch. 1885. Daniel Manning, N. Y., sec. of treas., from 6 Mch. 1885. Charles S. Fairchild, N. Y., sec. of treas., from 1 Apr. 1887. William C. Endicott, Mass., sec. of war, from 6 Mch. 1885. A ugustus H. Garland, Ark., attorney-gen., from 6 Mch. 1885. William F. Vilas, Wis., postmaster-gen., from 6 Mch. 1887. Bon M. Dickinson, Mich., postmaster-gen., from 16 Jan. 1888. WilHam C. Whitney, N. Y., sec. of navy, from 6 Mch. 1885. Lucius Q. C. Lamar, La., sec. of interior, from 6 Mch. 1885. William F. Vilas, Wis, sec. of interior, from 16 Jan. 1888. Norman J. Coleman,Mo., sec. of agriculture, from 12 Feb. 1889. Proclamation of president warning persons against at- tempting to settle on Oklahoma lands 13 Mch. 1885 U S. government determines to guarantee free and un- interrupted transit across the isthmus of Panama, now threatened by insurgents 2 Apr. " Special session of Senate adjourns " " Richard Grant White, Shakespearian critic and philolo- gist, born 1822, dies in New York city. .... .8 Apr. " Five hundred U. S. troops enter Panama, arrest Aizpuru, leader of insurgents, and protect American property, 24 Apr. " Revised version of the Old Testament published in London and New York (Bible) 15 May, " Apache Indian outbreak under Geronimo in New Mex- ico and Arizona 17 May, " F. T. Frelinghuysen, ex-sec. of state, born 1817, dies in Newark, N. J 20 May, " Cotton Centennial exposition at New Orleans closes, 31 May, « Benjamin Silliman, chemist, born 1816, dies at New Haven, Conn 14 June, " James D. Fish, president of the suspended Marine bank of New York city, sentenced to 10 years' imprison- ment at Sing Sing 27 June, " Niagara Falls reservation formally opened to the pub- lic 15 July, " Samuellrenaeus Prime, American journalist, born 1812, dies at Manchester, Vt 18 July, " Investigation of contract for ship-building with John Roach instituted by sec. of navy Whitney, in Mch. ; payments to Mr. Roach suspended 19 July, " Gen. U. S. Grant dies at Mount McGregor, near Sara- toga, N. Y., 8.08 A.M 23 July, " Proclamation of president suspending all public business on the day of funeral of gen. Grant 23 July, *' Gen. Grant buried at Riverside park, New York city, 8 Aug. 1885 James W.Marshall, the discoverer of gold in California, dies there in poverty 8 Aug. " Helen Hunt Jackson, author, born 1831, dies at San Francisco, Cal 12 Aug. " Massacre of Chinese at Rock Springs, Wyo. ; 50 killed by the opposing miners 2 Sept. " Maj. Aaron Stafford, last surviving officer of the war of 1812, dies at Waterville, N. Y., aged 95 6 Sept. '♦ American sloop Puritan wins the Americans cup in a race with the British cutter Genesta at New York, 14-16 Sept. " William Page, American artist, born 1811, dies at Tot- tenville, N. Y 1 Oct. "- John McCloskey, first American cardinal, born 1810, dies at New York 10 Oct. •'■ Breaking up at 1 blast of Flood rock. Hell Gate, N. Y., covering 9 acres ; 282,730 pounds of explosive used ; conducted bv gen. John Newton, U. S. A. (total cost, $106,509.93)*' 10 Oct. " H. W. Shaw (" Josh Billings "), born 1818, dies at Mon- terey, Cal 14 Oct. "^ Gen. George B. McClellan, born 1826, dies at Orange, N. J 29 Oct. " Ferdinand Ward, of firm of Grant & Ward, New York citv, indicted 4 June, sentenced to 10 years in Sing Sing 31 Oct. '^ All insurgents and unlawful assemblages in Washing- ton territory commanded to disperse by proclama- tion of president 7 Nov. "^ John McCuUoch, actor, born 1837, dies at Philadelphia, Pa .8 Nov. '' North, Central, and South American exposition opened at New Orleans 10 Nov. "^ Elizur Wright, abolitionist, born 1804, dies at Medford, Mass 22 Nov. "^ Vice-pres. Thomas A. Hendricks, born 1819, dies at In- dianapolis, Ind 25 Nov. '' [His death left the country without any one in the line of succession of the president, there being no pres- ident j^ro tern, of the Senate or speaker of the House.] Farmers' congress, at its 5th annual meeting, held at Indianapolis, Ind., organizes with Robert Beverly of Va. as president 3 Dec. '' Forty-ninth Congress, First Session, meets 7 Dec. "^ John Sherman of O. elected president pro tern, of the Senate, and John G. Carlisle of Ky. speaker of the House 7 Dec. "■ Pres. Cleveland's first annual message 8 Dec. " W. H. Vanderbilt, born 1821, dies in New York city, 8 Dec. "■ Robert Toombs, Confederate sec. of state, born 1810, dies at Washington, Ga 15 Dec. " Pension of $5000 per annum granted to Julia D. Grant, widow of gen. Grant 26 Dec. " Capt. Emmet Crawford, U. S. A,, shot by Mexicans probably by mistake while in pursuit of Apaches, 50 miles southwest of Nacori,Mex., 11 Jan., dies, 18 Jan. 1886 Act providing that, in case of removal, death, resigna- tion, or inability, both of the president and vice- president, the cabinet officers succeed in the following order: Sec. of state, sec. of treas., sec. of war, attorney- gen,, postmaster-gen., sec. of navy, and sec. of in- terior 19 Jan. " Four hundred Chinamen driven out of Seattle, Wash- ington territory, without violence, and sent to San Francisco, 7 Feb. ; riots result, and U. S. troops or- dered out 7-9 Feb. " Proclamation of president orders unlawful assemblages in W^ashington territory to disperse 9 Feb. " Maj.-gen. W. S. Hancock, born 1824, dies at Govern- or's island, N. Y 9 Feb. " Horatio Seymour, born 1810, dies at Utica, N. Y., 12 Feb. " Mr. Morrison introduces his tariff bill in the House, 15 Feb. " 1 UNI ^ John B. Gough, temperance lecturer, born 1817, dies at Frankford, Pa 18 Feb. 1886 Lay Sang, Chinese merchant, member of a business firm in San Francisco, returning from Hong-Kong, is refused permission to land at San Francisco, al- though presenting a certificate from the U. S. con- sul at Hong-Kong 21 Feb. " House of Representatives appoints a committee to in- vestigate the " Pan-Electric scandal," attorney-gen. Garland being accused of connivance, in a govern- ment suit against the Bell Telephone company, with a company in which stock was given him . . 26 Feb. " Message of pres. Cleveland to the Senate on suspen- sion from office and the constitutional competence of Congress to have access to official papers and documents. The phrase " innocuous desuetude " is here applied to unenforced laws 1 Mch. " President informs Congress that the nation is probably not liable for the Kock Springs Chinese outrages, but suggests indemnity 2 Mch. " Blair Educational bill considered and passed in the Senate 5 Mch. " Knights of Labor strike on the Gould southwestern railway system 6 Mch. " Blair Educational bill referred to House committee on education 9 Mch. " Masked strikers disable 12 locomotives at Kansas City, Mo 23 Mch. « U. S. troops ordered to St. Louis and other points, to prevent interruption of mail transportation, 26 Mch. " Pension of $2000 per annum granted to the widow of gen. W. S. Hancock 29 Mch. " Bill for the free coinage of silver (without limit) de- feated in the House by 163 to 126 8 Apr. «• Six strikers killed in a collision with sheriff's officers at East St. Louis, 111. 9 Aftr. " Gov. Alger of Mich., by proclamation, designates " Ar- bor day " to be celebrated bv general tree-planting, 11 Apr. " Mr. Morrison reports from the committee on ways a«d means his tariff bill 12 Apr. " President's message suggesting a Commission of Labor, to consider and settle, when possible, controversies between labor and capital 22 Apr. " Great railroad strike formally declared at an end by Knights of Labor 4 May, " Anarchist riot, " Haymarket massacre," in Chicago, 111 " 4 May, " Act of Congress to provide for study of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, and their effect on the human system, in public schools of territories. District of Columbia, and in military and naval academies and Indian and colored schools of the U. S 20 May, " Henry W. Jaehne, vice-president of the New York city common council, sentenced to 9 years and 10 months in Sing Sing, for receiving a bribe from Jacob Sharp's Broad wav surface road, 30 Aug. 1884 (New York), 20 May, " Dr. Dio Lewis, born 1823, dies at Yonkers, N. Y., 21 May, " Twentv-two anarchists indicted at Chicago for murder, 27 May, " Pres. Cleveland married to Frances Folsom at the White House, Washington, D. C 2 June, " Johann Most, anarchist, sentenced in New York city to 1 year's imprisonment and $500 fine for inciting to murder, etc., and his companions Schenck and Braunschweig to 9 months' imprisonment. . .2 June, " General " tie-up " of New York city street-car lines by Knights of Labor 5 June, " Morrison Tariff bill defeated in House of Representa- tives by 157 to 140 17 June, « Judge David Davis, born 1815, dies at Bloomington, 111 26 June, *' Franking privilege granted to the widow of gen. U. S. Grant by act of Congress 28 June, " Act to legalize incorporation of national trade unions, headquarters in District of Columbia 29 June,- " • UNI James Gibbons created archbishop of Baltimore, 7 June, and invested with the biretta 30 June, 1886 Act restoring gen. Fitz-John Porter to the army, ap- proved 1 July, " Paul Hamilton Hayne, the southern poet, born 1831, dies near Augusta, Ga 7 July, " C. D. Graham, cooper, passes through the Whirlpool rapids at Niagara falls in a barrel of his own con- struction 11 July, " Order of pres. Cleveland warning office-holders and subordinates against the use of official positions to influence political movements 14 July, " Bi-centennial of the founding of the city of Albany, N. Y., celebrated 18-22 July, " A. K. Cutting, an American and editor of a paper in Texas, imprisoned by Mexican authorities at Paso del Norte for libel, in calling a Spanish-Mexican, Emilio Medina, a "fraud and a dead-beat". .23 July, " Act taxing and regulating the manufacture of oleo- margarine 2 Aug. " Sec. Bayard demands the immediate release of Cutting, which is refused, and the secretary and president having exhausted their powers, the case is referred to Congress 2 Aug. " Fitz-John Porter appointed to a colonelcy in the army (Porter, Case of) 2 Aug. " Act to increase th'e navy, providing for 4 double-tur- reted monitors, and 2 armed vessels, a cruiser and a torpedo-boat, to be built of American steel and domestic armor-plate 3 Aug. " Congress authorizes 1, 2, and 5 dollar silver certifi- cates 4 Aug. " Samuel J. Tilden, born 1814, dies at Greystone, N. Y., 4 Aug. " By joint resolution. Congress accepts from Mrs. Grant and W. H. Vanderbilt the presents of various for- eign governments to the late gen. U. S. Grant, 5 Aug. " First Session adjourns " " [ During this session of Congress, pres. Cleveland vetoed 145 bills out of 1649 passed ; of 977 private pension bills he vetoed 123.} Cutting found guilty by Mexican court, 6 Aug., and sen- tenced to 1 year's imprisonment and $600 fine, 7 Aug. " Two men in a cask pass in safety through the Whirl- pool rapids below Niagara falls 8 Aug. " Seven Chicago anarchists convicted of murder: Au- gust Spies, Michael Schwab, Samuel Fielden, Al- bert A. Parsons, Adolph Fischer, George Engel, and Louis Lingg, sentenced to death ; Oscar W. Neebe to 15 years' imprisonment 20 Aug. " William J. Kendall of Boston swims through the Ni- agara rapids and whirlpool with cork life-preserver, 22 Aug. " Cutting set at liberty by Mexican authorities, 23 Aug. " Lightning ignites 70,000 pounds of dynamite and 70 tons of powder at Laflin & Rand's powder-maga- zine near Chicago, 111. ; 5 killed, 25 injured, 29 Aug. " Charleston Earthquake 31 Aug. " Apache Indian chief Geronimo, with his band, surren- ders to gen. Miles at Skeleton canon, Arizona, 4 Sept. " American yacht Mayflower defeats the British yacht Galatea off New York, in international race for A vier- ica's cup 7 and U Sept. " First national convention of anti-saloon Republicans meets at Chicago ; 300 delegates 16 Sept. " Asher Brown Durand, line engraver and painter, born 1796, dies at South Orange, N. J 17 Sept. " Disastrous gale on gulf of Mexico and floods in Texas; 250 lives lost, 2000 persons left desolate 12 Oct. " " Boodle " aldermen in New York city arraigned for bribery 19 Oct. " Bartholdi's statue of Liberty Enlightening the World unveiled 28 Oct. " Reception to French delegates to the Bartholdi statue dedication given at the White House, Washington, 4 Nov. " Ex-pres. Chester A. Arthur, born 1830, dies at New York 18 Nov. " UNI Charles Francis Adams, sr., born 1807, dies at Boston, Mass. 21 Nov. Henry M. Stanley, the African explorer, received in New York 27 Nov. Arbor day celebrated in San Francisco by school chil- dren ; 40,000 young trees supplied by Adolph Sutro for the occasion 27 Nov. Second Session begins 6 Dec. John Sherman of O. president pro tern, of the Senate. President's message presented 6 Dec. Isaac Lea, LL,D., naturalist, born 1792, dies at Phila- delphia, Pa 8 Dec. Gen. John A. Logan, born 1826, dies at Washington, D. C 26 Dec. John Roach, ship-builder, born 1813, dies at New York city 10 Jan. Remnant of Table Rock at Niagara falls, 100 ft. long, 76 wide, and 170 deep, falls 12 Jan. Edward L. Youmans, scientist, born 1821, dies at New York 18 Jan. Mexican-war Pension bill approved 29 Jan. Act fixing 2d Monday in Januarj-^ for meeting of elec- tors of each state at such place as legislatures may direct, and 2d Wednesday in February for counting electoral votes in Congress 3 Feb. Interstate Commerce bill, appointing 5 commissioners to regulate commerce between the states, approved, A TPpK [Salary of each $7000 per annum.] Pension bill for relief of dependent parents and honor- ably discharged soldiers and sailors who served 3 months in the civil war, now disabled and depend- ent upon their own labor, vetoed 11 Feb. Daniel Manning resigns as secretarv of the treasury, 14 Feb. Union Labor party organized at Cincinnati, O., 22 P'eb. Bill to prohibit importation of opium from China ap- proved 23 Feb. Act prohibiting the hiring or contracting out of the labor of prisoners under the laws of the U. S., 23 Feb. Veto of the Dependent Pension bill sustained in the House 24 Feb. Congress appropriates $147,748 to indemnify Chinese subjects for the Rock Springs massacre 24 Feb. John J. Ingalls elected president p?-o tern, of the Senate, in place of John Sherman resigned 26 Feb. Act to organize the Hospital corps of the armv of the U. S '.IMch. Act to establish agricultural experiment stations in colleges established by act of 2 July, 1862, in the several states 2 Mch. President authorized to adopt retaliatory measures in the fishery dispute with Canada 2 Mch. Act authorizing the president to deliver the so-called " Twiggs swords," captured or seized by gen. B. F. Butler in 1862, to such person as the court of claims may decide to be the owners 3 Mch. Tenure of Office act repealed « Act for return and recoinage at par of trade dollars, 3 Mch. Forty-ninth Congress adjourns " Henry Ward Beecher, stricken with apoplexy 2 Mch., dies in Brooklyn 8 Mch. James B. Eads, engineer, born 1820, dies at Nassau, N. P. (Mississippi river) 8 Mch. Interstate Commerce commission appointed by the president 22 Mch. Transatlantic yacht race from Sandy Hook to Queens- town, between the Coronet and Dauntless, won by the former in 14 days 19 hrs. 3 m. 14 sec, sailing 2934 miles 27 Mch. John G. Saxe, poet, born 1816, dies at Albanv, N. Y. , 31 Mch. Body of Abraham Lincoln, carefully guarded since an effort to steal it from the sarcophagus of the Lincoln monument, Springfield, 111., made in 1876, is buried in a grave dug in the crypt and covered with 6 feet of cement, the sarcophagus being replaced. .14 Apr. 1887 6 UNI Monument to James A. Garfield unveiled in Washing- ton, D. C 12 May, 1887 Fire in liorse-car barns, New York city ; 1200 horses suffocated 27 May, " William A. Wheeler, ex-vice-president, born 1819, dies at Malone, N. Y 4 June, " A recommendation made by adjt.-gen. Drum on 30 Apr., to return flags, both Union and Confederate, captured in the civil war and stored in the War De- partment, approved by the president and endorsed by the secretary of war, is revoked by pres. Cleve- land as not authorized by law nor justifiable as an executive act 16 June, " Reunion of Union and Confederate soldiers, survivors of the Philadelphia brigade and Pickett's division, is held at Gettysburg, Pa 2-4 July, " Jacob Sharp, found guilty of bribing New York alder- men, is sentenced to 4 years' imprisonment and a fine of $5000 14 July, " Miss Dorothea L, Dix, philanthropist, born 1805, dies at Trenton, N. J 19 July, "■ Failure of H. S. Ives & Co., of New York, stock-brokers; liabilities, $20,000,000 11 Aug. " Spencer F. Baird, naturalist, born 1823, dies at Wood's Holl, Mass 19 Aug. " Ninth international medical congress meets at Wash- ington, D. C 5 Sept. " Labor day observed as a legal holiday for the first time in New York 5 Sept. " Three days' centennial celebration of the formation of the Constitution begins at Philadelphia, . . .15 Sept. " American party organized in Philadelphia 17 Sept. " American sloop Volunteer wins the international yacht race over the British cutter Tkisfle..27 and 30 Sept. " Pres. and Mrs. Cleveland leave Washington for a tour of the West and South ! 30 Sept. "■ Elihu B. Washburne, born 1816, dies at Chicago, 111., 22 Oct. '^ Sentence of anarchists Fieldcn and Schwab commuted to imprisonment for life ; Lingg kills himself by ex- ploding a bomb in his mouth 10 Nov. " Chicago anarchists Spies, Fischer, Engel, and Parsons hanged 11 Nov. " Johann Most, anarchist, of New York, arrested for in- cendiary language 17 Nov. " Fiftieth Congress, First Session, opens 5 Dec. 1887; John J. Ingalls of Kan. president pro tem. of the Sen- ate ; John G. Carlisle of Ky. elected Speaker of the House by 163 to 147 for Thomas B. Reed 5 Dec. « Pres. Cleveland's third annual message 6 Dec. " Anarchist Most sentenced to 1 year's imprisonment, 8 Dec. " Cigar-shaped raft 560 ft. long, 65 wide, 38 high, with draught of 19 ft. and containing 27,000 logs, which cost $30,000, and launched in the bay of Fundy, bound for New York, goes to pieces off Nantucket shoals during a storm. . . about 20 Dec. " Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden, geologist, born 1829, dies at Philadelphia 22 Dec. " Ex-sec. of the treas. Manning, born 1831, dies at Al- bany, N. Y 24 Dec. " , Sec. Lamar resigns 7 Jan. 1888 Asa Gray, botanist, born 1810, dies at Cambridge, Mass., 30 Jan. " David R. Locke, " Petroleum V. Nasby, Confederate X Roads," born 1833, dies at Toledo, 15 Feb. " W. W. Corcoran, philanthropist, born 1798, dies at Washington, D. C 24 Feb. " A. Bronson Alcott, born 1799, dies at Boston, Mass., 4 Mch., and Louise M. Alcott, his daughter, novelist, born 1832, dies at Boston 6 Mch. " "Blizzard" on the Atlantic coast; 30 lives lost; $10,000,000 worth of property destroyed ; about 4 feet of snow falls in New York city and drifts in the streets 10 to 20 feet deep (Storms) 12-13 Mch. " Chief-justice Morrison R. Waite, born 1816, dies at Washington, D. C 23 Mch. " i UNI CoHgress votes $1000 to reward the Esquimaux of the Asiatic coast of the Arctic ocean for acts of human- ity to shipwrecked seamen.. . , . .2 Apr. : Brighton Beach hotel, Kings county, N. Y., a wooden structure 465 ft. long, 150 deep, and 3 stories high, estimated weight 5000 tons, is moved back from the ocean 600 feet by 112 platform cars on 24 parallel tracks drawn by 4 locomotives attached by tackle, 3 Apr. et seq. Roscoe Conkling, statesman, born 1829, dies at New York 18 Apr. Convention of delegates from nearly all the Southern states east of the Mississippi meets at Hot Springs, N. C, to promote immigration 25 Apr. Belva A. Lockwood, nominated for president by Equal Rights convention at Des Moines, la. .... .15 Ma}', Alson J. Streeter of 111. nominated for president, and C. E. Cunningham of Ark. for vice-president, by Union Labor party, at Cincinnati, 16 May, Robert H. Cowdrey of 111. nominated for president, and W. H. T. Wakefield of Kan. for vice-president by United Labor convention at Cincinnati, O., 17 May, Clinton B. Fisk of N. J. nominated for president, and John A. Brooks of Mo. for vice-president by Prohi- bition National convention at Indianapolis, 31 May, Grade of lieut.-gen. in the army merged into grade of general, and president authorized to appoint a gen- eral of the army by act 1 June, P. H. Sheridan commissioned general of the army, 1 June, Lick Observator)', 13 miles east from San Jose, Cal., transferred by the trustees to the University of California 1 June, Act providing for execution of murderers by electricity in New York state signed by gov. Hill ... .4 June, Democratic National convention meets in St. Louis, Patrick A. Collins of Mass. permanent president, 5 June ; Grover Cleveland nominated for president by acclamation, 6 June ; Allen G. Thurman of O. nomi- nated for vice-president by 690 to 105 for Isaac P. Gray of Ind. and 25 for John C. Black of 111., 7 June, Department of Labor, in charge of a commissioner of labor to be appointed by the president, established by act of , . 13 June, Republican National convention opens in Chicago, 19 June : M. M. Estee of Cal. made permanent president, 20 June; 19 candidates are balloted for— necessary to a choice, 416. 2 ballots are cast 22 June, 3 on 23 June, and 3 on 25 June. The result of the 1st and 8th ballots for the 4 principal candidates as follows ; 887 UNI 1st 8th 544 118 100 59 Benjamin Harrison of Ind 80 John Sherman of 229 Russell A. Alger of Mich 84 Walter Q. Gresham of 111 .111 Levi P. Morton of N. Y. nominated for vice-presi- dent , . , , 25 June, Monument to Francis Scott Key unveiled in Golden Gate park, San Francisco, Cal 4 July, Centennial exposition of the Ohio valley and central states, continuing until 28 Oct., is opened at Cin- cinnati, O , - , . . .4 July, Debate on Mills Tariff bill in the House closed, 19 July, and bill passed by 162 to 149 21 July, Second timber-raft launched at Toggins, bay of Fundy, 25 July, containing 22,000 logs averaging 40 ft. in length, is towed in safety to New York, arriving about 5 Aug. Gen. P. H. Sheridan, born 1831, dies at Nonquitt, Mass , 5 Aug. Candidates of Prohibition party publish letters of ac- ceptance , • - - 6 Aug. Gen. J. M. Schofield succeeds to command of army of the U. S , . 14 Aug. James Langdon Curtis of N. Y. nominated for presi- dent, and James R. Geer (replaced by P. D. Wiggin- ton, 2 Oct.) for vice-president by the American party in convention at Washington 15 Aug. President's message outlining a plan of retaliation in the matter of the Fishery treaty 23 Aug. 1888 Grover Cleveland's letter of acceptance 8 Sept. " Canadian Retaliation bill passes House of Represen- tatives by 176 to 4, 8 Sept. ; referred to the Senate committee on foreign relations 10 Sept. " Benjamin Harrison's letter of acceptance. . . .11 Sept. " Richard A. Proctor, astronomer, born, Engl., 1837, dies at New York city 12 Sept. "■ Immigration of Chinese into the U. S,, except offi- cials, teachers, students, merchants, or travellers for pleasure, prohibited by act approved 13 Sept. " Hodjii Hussein Ghooly Khan, first minister from Per- sia to the U. S., arrives at New York ,30 Sept. •'• Levi P. Morton's letter of acceptance 2 Oct. " Melville W. Fuller, appointed chief-justice of the U. S. 30 Apr., is confirmed, 20 July, and sworn in, 8 Oct. " Allen G Thurman's letter of acceptance 12 Oct. " First Session (321 days) adjourns. . , . , 20 Oct. " [This was the longest session on record. 15,585 bills and joint resolutions were introduced, of which 1237 bills and 57 joint resolutions became laws.] Indiscreet letter on American politics from the British minister, lord Sackville West, dated Beverlv, Mass., 13 Sept. 1888, to Charles F. Murchison of Pomona, Cal., a naturalized Englishman who had asked ad- vice how to vote, published. 25 Oct. "■ Recall of minister Sackville suggested, and the presi- dent refuses to recognize him officially 30 Oct. '^ General election, popular vote : Cleveland, Democrat, 5,540,329', Harrison. Republican, 5,439,853; Fisk, Prohibition, 249,506, Streeter, Union Labor, 146,- 935, Cowdr\', United Labor, 2818; Curtis, Ameri- can, 1591. Cleveland's plurality, 100,476. . .6 Nov. " Second Session meets 3 Dec. " President's annual message presented " " Oyster war in Chester river, etc. (Maryland), 11 Dec. " Act incorporating the American Historical Associa- tion 4 Jan. 188^ Upper Suspension bridge at Niagara falls torn from its cables and blown into the river during a gale, 10 Jan. " Substitute for the Mills Tariff bill passes the Senate, 22 Jan.; is debated in the House and referred to committee on ways and means 26 Jan. " John M. Clayton, Republican candidate for Congress from second district, Arkansas, assassinated at Plura- mersville. Ark 29 Jan. " New executive department, " the Department of Agri- culture," created by act of 9 Feb. '* John Call Dalton, physiologist, born 1825, dies at New York city , 12 Feb. '^ Norman J. Coleman of Mo. appointed first secretary of agriculture 12 Feb. '* Electoral votes counted in Congress; Benjamin Har- rison of Ind. and Levi P. Morton of N. Y., Republi- cans, receive 233 votes , Grover Cleveland of N. Y. and Allen G. Thurman of O., Democrats, receive 168 votes 13 Feb. "■ Act to create the Maritime Canal company of Nica- ragua . . .20 Feb. "^ Act dividing Dakota into 2 states, and enabling the people of North and South Dakota, Montana, and Washington to form constitutions and state govern- ments 22 Feb. "■ Congress appropriates $250,000 to aid American work- men thrown out of employment by stoppage of work on the Panama canal 25 Feb. '^ President calls the Senate in extraordinary session, 4 Mch 26 Feb. " Bill passed retiring gen. William S. Rosecrans, 27 Feb. *' Act to provide for taking the 11th and subsequent censuses 1 Mch. "^ Congress appropriates $100,000 for a permanent coal- ing station at Pago Pago, Tutuilla, Samoa. . . 2 Mch. "- Bill to refund to the states and territories the direct tax levied by act of 5 Aug. 1861, vetoed by pres. Cleveland, 2 Mch., is passed by the Senate, but lost in the House 2 Mch. « UNI » Act to punish the use of the tnails in "the sawdust swindle" or "counterfeit-money fraud," or by deal- ing; in "green articles," "green coin," "bills," "pa- per goods," "green cigars," etc., by fine and impris- onment 2 Mch. 1889 Levi P. Morton, vice-president elect, takes the oath of office in the Senate 4 Mch. " Fiftieth Cotiffiess adjourns " " Special session of the Senate convenes, vice-pres. Mor- ton presiding 4 Mch. " Prea. Harrison inauguratctl " " "Twenty-sixth Administration— Eepublioan. 4 Mch. 1889 to 3 Mob. 1893. Itenjaiiiin Harrison, Ind., president. Levi P. .Morton, N. Y., vice-president. CABINET. James G. Blaine, Me., sec. of state, from 5 Mch. 1889. John W. Foster, Ind., sec. of state, from 29 June, 1892. William Windom, Minn., sec. of treasury, from 5 Mch. 1889. Charles Foster, O , sec. of treasury, from 24 Feb. 1891. Redfield Proctor, Vt., sec. of war, from 5 Mch. 1889. Stephen B. Elkins, W. Va., sec. of war, from 24 Dec. 1891. William H. //. MUler, Ind., attorney-gen , from 5 Mch. 1889. John Wanamaker, Pa., postmaster-gen., from 5 Mch. 1889. Benjamin F. Tracy, N. Y., sec. of navy, from 5 Mch. 1889. John W. Noble, Mo., sec. of interior, from 5 Mch. 1889. Jeremiah M. Rusk, Wis., sec. of agriculture, 5 Mch. 1889. Sen. Ingalls re-elected president pro tern, of Senate, pre- siding imtil 18 Mch 7 Mch. 1889 John Ericsson, scientist and inventor, born 1803, dies in New York city 8 Mch. " U. S. steamers Trenton and Vandalia wrecked and the Nipsic stranded in a storm near Apia, Samoan ISLANDS 16 Mch. " Proclamation of the president warning persons against entering Behring sea for unlawful hunting of fur- bearing animals 21 Mch. " Staulev Matthews, associate justice of Supreme court of U. S., born 1824, dies in Washington, D. C, 22 Mch. " Extra session of Senate closes 2 Apr. " Proclamation of president designates 30 Apr. 1889, the centennial of the inauguration of Washington as president, as a day of special thanksgiving. . .4 Apr. " ■Oklahoma, by proclamation of president, 23 Mch. 1889, is opened for settlement at noon, and city of Guthrie established 22 Apr. " Simpson dry-dock at Newport News, Va., the largest in the U. S., formally opened 24 Apr. " ■Centennial of inauguration of pres. Washington cele- brated in New Y'ork city and elsewhere, 29 Apr.-l May, " Body of dr. Cronin of Chicago, who had disappeared 3 weeks previously, found in a sewer; murdered. (Trials) 22 May, " Johnstown flood .31 May, " John Brown's fort, near Harper's Ferry, swept away by flood on the Potomac June, " ■City of Seattle, W. T., nearly destroyed by fire; 30 acres burned over; loss, $5,000,000 6 June, " Simon Cameron, statesman, born 1799, dies in Donegal, Lancaster county. Pa 26 June, " ^laria Mitchell, astronomer, born 1818, dies at Lynn, Mass 28 June, " Theodore Dwight Woolsey, ex-president of Yale col- lege, born 1801, dies at New Haven, Conn ... 1 July, " Mavor of New York calls a meeting with a view to holding a World's Fair in 1892 18 July, " Sioux reservation in Dakota (11,000,000 acres) ceded to the U. S 6 Aug. " Mayor Grant of New York city appoints committees for the World's Fair in 1892 11 Aug. " David S. Terry, assaulting judge Stephen Field at La- throp, Cal., is shot dead by U. S. marshal Nagle, 14 Aug. " Cronin murder trial begins in Chicago (Trials), 30 Aug. " « UNI Deep Harbor convention, with delegates from 16 states and territories, meets at Topeka, Kan., to consider the security of a harbor on the Texas coast . . 1 Oct. 1 Pan-American congress organizes in Washington, D.C., 2 Oct. International Marine conference meets in Washington, D. C 16 Oct. Work formall}' begun on the Nicaragua canal .22 Oct. North and South Dakota admitted into the Union as states (39th and 40th in order), by proclamation of the president 2 Nov. Maritime exhibition opens in Boston, Mass. . . .4 Nov. Montana (41st state in order) admitted into the Union by proclamation of president 8 Nov. Washington (42d state in order) admitted into the Union by proclamation of president 11 Nov. Pan-American delegates, after visiting all sections of the countr}', a journey of 6000 miles, return to Wash- ington 13 Nov. Great fire in Lynn, Mass. ; 80 acres burned over ; 296 buildings destroyed; loss over $4,000,000. .26 Nov. Fifty-first Congress, First Session, meets 2 Dec. Thomas B. Reed of Me. elected speaker of the House. Pre.s. Harrison's first annual me.ssage 3 Dec. Jefferson Davis, ex-president of the Confederacy, born 1808, dies at New Orleans 6 Dec. Committees representing the Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union and the Knights of Labor meet at St. Louis and adopt a platform of principles demand- ing the free and unlimited coinage of silver, the abo- lition of national banks and issue of legal-tender treasury notes, prohibiting alien ownership of land and dealing in futuresof agricultural and mechanical products 6 Dec. Auditorium building and opera-house, Chicago, dedi- cated 9 Dec. Coughlin, O'Sullivan, and Burke sentenced to life im- prisonment, and Kunze to 3 years, for complicity in murder of dr. Cronin of Chicago,and Beggs acquitted, 16 Dec. " La grippe " invades the U. S 21 Dec. Horatio Allen, first locomotive engineer in the U. S., dies at Montrose, N. J., aged 88 .- . 1 Jan. State dinner given by the president to the vice-presi- dent and cabinet ^ 7 Jan. William D. KelW, born 1814, the oldest member of the House of Representatives in term of service (since 1860) as well as in years, dies 9 Jan. Adam Forepaugh, veteran circus manager, born 1831, dies at Philadelphia 22 Jan. Woman's Christian Temperance league organized at Cleveland, 23 Jan. " Nellie Bly " (miss Pink E. Corkran), of the New York World, completes a trip around the world eastward in 72 days, 6 hrs. 11 min 25 Jan. House of Representatives disputes on the power of the speaker to count a quorum when members present refuse to vote 29 Jan. Wife and daughter of sec. of the navy Tracj^ lose their lives in the burning of their residence at Washing- ton, D. C 3 Feb. Gentiles at Salt Lake City, Utah, for the first time ob- tain control in a local election 10 Feb. Proclamation of the president opening part of the Great Sioux reservation for settlement 10 Feb. Proclamation by the president against the use of the Cherokee strip for grazing by whites under private contract with the Cherokees 17 Feb. John Jacob Astor, born 1822, dies at New York, leaving a vast fortune 22 Feb. Vote in the House of Representatives on a site for the World's Columbian exposition results : Chicago, 157; New York, 107 ; St. Louis, 26 ; Washington, D. C, 18 : necessar}'- to a choice, 155 24 Feb. U. S. steamer Enterprise arrives at New York with the body of the late George H. Pendleton, who died at Brussels, 24 Nov. 1889 27 Feb. 1 i 1890 I UNI North American Commercial company secures the Alaskan fur-seal rights (Alaska) 28 Feb. National league of Republican clubs meets at Nash- ville, Tenn 4 Mch. Act authorizing an assistant sec. of war at a salary of $4500 5 Mch. Owing to British seal-poaching in American waters, and refusal of Great Britain to recognize a close sea- son, the president by proclamation warns persons against entering Behring sea for the purpose of un- lawfully killing fur-bearing animals 15 Mch. Large number of "boomers" invade the Cherokee strip 23 Mch. Gen. Robert C. Schenck, born 1809, dies at Washing- ton, D. C 23 Mch. Louisville tornado (Storms) 27 Mch. Australian ballot-system successfully introduced at a state election in Rhode Island 2 Apr. Panic in the Chicago Board of Trade 12 Apr. Samuel J. Randall, born 1828, dies at Washington, D.C., 13 Apr. McKinley Tariff bill introduced from the committee on ways and means , 16 Apr. Pan-American conference, in which was represented Hayti, Nicaragua, Peru, Guatemala, Colombia, Ar- gentine Republic, Costa Rica, Paraguay, Brazil, Honduras, Mexico, Bolivia, United States, Venezu- ela, Chili, San Salvador, and Ecuador, adjourns, 19 Apr. John C. Fremont placed on the army retired-list, with the rank of major-general, by act of 19 Apr.; ap- proved 21 Apr. Pan-Electric suit decided by the Supreme court in favor of ex- attorney-gen. Garland 21 Apr. Commander B. H. McCallaof U. S. S. Enterprise court- raartialled on charges of malfeasance, based on find- ings of a court of inquiry which met 11 Mch. at Brooklyn navy-yard 22 Apr. Congress appropriates $150,000 for relief of sufferers from floods on the Mississippi 25 Apr. Act passed to provide for celebrating the 400th anni- versary of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus by an international exhibition of arts, in- dustries, manufactures, and products of the soil, mines, and sea, at Chicago, III 25 Apr. Supreme court decides that imported liquors may be carried into any state, and sold in the original packages, without reference to local prohibitory or restrictive laws 28 Apr. Act to provide for a temporary government in the ter- ritory of Oklahoma 2 May, Commander B. H. McCalla sentenced to be suspended from rank and duty for 3 years ; sentence approved by sec. Tracy 15 May, McKinley Tariff bill debated in the House of Repre- sentatives 7-10 May, and passed by the House, 164 to 142 21 May, Work of taking the U. S. census begins 2 June, McKinley Tariff bill reported in the Senate . . 18 June, National Commission of the World's Columbian ex- position appointed by the president ; elects ex-sen. Thomas VV. Palmer of Detroit permanent chairman, and John T. Dickinson of Tex. permanent secretary, 27 June, Bill passes granting pensions to soldiers and sailors who served 90 days in the civil war, now or here- after disabled, and to widows and minor children and dependent parents 27 June, Bill to protect trade and commerce against unlawful restraints of trusts, monopolies, etc., approved, 2 July, Act admitting Idaho as a state (the 4Bd) 3 July, Gen. Clinton B. Fisk, born 1828, dies at New York city, 9 July, Act admitting Wyoming as a state (the 44th), 10 July, Act authorizing a bridge over the Hudson river be- tween New York and New Jersey, and incorporating the North River Bridge company 11 July, 1890 UNI Maj.-gen. John C. Fremont, born 1813. dies at New York 13 July, Act authorizing the purchase of not more than 4,500,000 ounces of silver per month at not more than $1 for ^^^I%\ grains, and to issue treasury notes therefor, and coinage of 2,000,000 ounces per month until 1 July, 1891, and thereafter as necessary. . . .14 July, C. H. F. Peters, American astronomer, discoverer of 50 asteroids, born 1813, dies. 18 July, Message of pres. Harrison recommends legislation clos- ing the mails and express lines of the U. S. against lottery companies .29 Julj'', Post-office department excludes from the mails Tolstoi's " Kreutzer Sonata " as an immoral work .... 1 Aug. William Kemmler, murderer, executed bv electricity at Auburn prison, N. Y. (Trials) ' 6 Aug. Strike of 3000 trainmen on the New York Central failroad 8 Aug. Wilson bill as amended, authorizing the states to pro- hibit sale of imported liquors in " original packages," approved g Aug. John Boyle O'Reilly, Irish patriot and poet, born 1844, dies at Hull, Mass 10 Aug. First annual convention of letter-carriers of the U. S. held at JBoston, Mass. ; 100 delegates 13 Aug. Act establishing a National military park at the battle- field of Chickamauga 19 Aug. Body of capt. John Ericsson sent to Sweden on the U. S. S. Baltimore 23 Aug. Act for inspection by the Department of Agriculture of salted pork and bacon for export and of foods and drink and cattle imported, and empowering the pres- ident to retaliate upon foreign nations discriminating against the U. S 30 Aug. Act for an annual appropriation of moneys received from the sale of public lands to Colleges of Agricult- ure and Mechanics' Arts established by act of Con- gress 2 July, 1862 ; each state and territory to re- ceive $15,000 the first year, increased by $1000 annually, until $25,000 is reached, which shall be a permanent annual donation 30 Aug. Single Tax convention meets in New York city 2 Sept. and adopts a platform 3 Sept. Criminal jurisdiction of U.S. Circuit and District courts extended to the Great Lakes and connecting waters by act of 4 Sept. Direct Trade convention, with delegates from 6 cotton- producing states, organizes at Atlanta, Ga. .10 Sept. Strike of trainmen on the N. Y. Central railroad de- clared off. 17 Sept. Dion Boucicault, dramatist, born 1822, dies at New York city 18 Sept. Act amending sec. 3894 of Revised Statutes, relating to advertising of lottery tickets, approved. . . .19 Sept. River and Harbor bill, appropriating $24,981,295, ap- proved 19 Sept. George R. Davis of 111. selected as director-gen. of the World's Fair 19 Sept. Bronze statue of Horace Greeley, by John Quincy Adams Ward, unveiled in front of the Tribune build- ing, New York city , 20 Sept. Act reserving as a public park the big-tree groves in townships 17 and 18 south, in California.. . .25 Sept. Coinage of 3-dollar and l-dollar gold pieces, and 3-cent nickel pieces discontinued by act of (Coin), 26 Sept. Celebration at Providence, R. I., of the centennial of the introduction of cotton spinning into America, 29 Sept. Pension of Sarah Dabney, widow of John Q. Dabney, Revolutionary .soldier, increased from $12 to $30 per month by act 20 June ; also of Asenath Turner, wid- ow of Samuel Dunham, and Mary Snead, widow of Bowdoin Snead, Revolutionary pensioners, 30 Sept. McKinley Tariff bill approved 1 Oct. Act of Congress setting apart certain tracts of land in California as forest reservations 1 Oct, Act transferring the Weather bureau to the depart- ment of agriculture 1 Oct. 1890 UNI Firrt Session (304 days) adjourns 1 Oct. [This was the second lon^eat session ever held; f6,972 bills introduced, nearly 1400 became laws.] Louis Philip{>e Albert d'Orl6ans, comte de Paris, vol- unteer aide on gen. McClellan's staflF during the civil war, arrives in New York 3 Oct. Polygamy abolished as an institution of the church of Latter-dav Saint;* at a general conference in Salt Lake City, Utah 6 Oct. Daughters of the American revolution organized at Washington II Oct. Associate-justice Samuel Miller of the Supreme court, struck with paralysis 10 Oct , dies at Washington, 13 Oct. William W. Belknap, ex-sec. of war, born 1829, dies at Washington, D. C 13 Oct. Cliief of police David C. Hennessy of New Orleans waylaid before his own home by Italian " Maffia," to whose band he had traced a number of crimes, and killed, receiving 6 wounds 15 Oct. Religious excitement among the Indians of the North- west ("Messiah craze") first appears 3 June, when 3 Indian chiefs, representing the Comanches, Chey- ennes, and Arapahoes, meet near the Crow agency in Montana to behold the Great Spirit on the rocks; it develops into the " ghost dances" among the Sioux tribes the latter part of. Oct. Henry M. Stanley begins a lecture tour at New York city 12 Nov. Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber, "Mrs. Partington," born 1814, dies at Chelsea, Mass 25 Nov. Second Session convenes 1 Dec. President's message read " David Kalakaua, king of the Sandwich islands, lands at San Francisco, Cal 4 Dec. Tatonka Otanka, " Sitting Bull," born in Dakota, 1837, who posed as leading apostle in the ghost dances, is arrested, and is killed during an attempt of Ind- ians to rescue him, near Grand river, about 40 miles from Standing Rock agency, N. Dak 15 Dec. Maj.-gen. Alfred H. Terry, bora 1827, dies at New Haven, Conn 16 Dec. Sec. Blaine proposes to the British minister at Wash- ington arbitration in the Behring Sea difficulty (our government contending that the phrase "Pacific ocean," in the Russo-American and Anglo-Russian treaties of 1824 and 1825, does not include '' Behring sea") 17 Dec. Giovanni Succi concludes a fast of 45 da3's at New York (Abstinence) 20 Dec. By proclamation the president appoints 1 May, 1893, as the opening, and the last Thursday of Oct. 1893 as the closing, day of the World's Columbian exposi- tion at Chicago 24 Dec. Battle with " Big Foot's " baud of Indians on Wounded Knee creek, S. Dak.; among the Indians killed were 44 squaws and 18 pappooses; loss to U. S. troops, 32 killed, 39 wounded 29 Dec. Gen. Francis E. Spinner, U. S. ex-treasurer, born 1802, dies at Jacksonville, Fla 31 Dec. International Monetary conference meets at Washing- ton 7 Jan. Motion for leave to tile a petition for a writ of prohi- bition against the condemnation of the Canadian sealer W, P. Sayward, condemned by the U. S. Dis- trict court in Alaska in 1887 for violating U. S. laws, by taking seals in Behring sea, and appealed to the Supreme court, is entered on behalf of the attorney- general of Canada 12 Jan. Senate passes a Free Coinage bill, adopted 17 June, 1890, as a substitute for the Financial bill, and takes up the Federal Election bill by 34 to 33 14 Jan. George Bancroft, historian, born 1800, dies at Washing- ton 17 Jan. Indian chiefs at Pine Ridge agency, 14 Jan., agree to surrender to gen. Miles, who declares the Indian out- break ended 19 Jan. Discussion of the Federal Election bill (H. R. 11,045), 890 UNI 1890 I passed by House of Representatives 2 July, 1890, closes in the Senate 19 Jan. 1891 ' Aldrich cloture rule, to limit debate, submitted 29 Dec. I 1890, is considered in Senate 20 Jan. " I King Kalakaua, born 1836, dies at San Francisco, 20 Jan. " " I Representatives of the Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union in Washington, D. C, agree upon a confeder- ! ation of the labor organizations 22 Jan. " " j Aldrich cloture resolution displaced in Senate by bill for apportionment of representation, by 35 to 34, 26 Jan. '■ Over 100 miners killed by an explosion of fire-damp in the coke-mines near MU Pleasant, Pa 27 Jan. " Secof treas. Windom, born 1827, dies suddenly of heart- disease at a banquet at Delmonico's, New York city, 29 Jan. " Act apportioning representatives in Congress, 356 after 3 Mch. 1893, approved 7 Feb. " Strike involving 10,000 miners begins in Connellsville coke regions, Pa 9 Feb. " Adm. David Dixon Porter, born 1814, dies at Washing- ton, D. C 13 Feb. " [With him expired the grade of admiral in the navy.] Gen. William T. Sherman, born 1820, dies at New York, 14 Feb. " Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks placed upon the pension roll at the rate of $100 per month 18 Feb. " Sen. Ingalls chosen president of the Senate pro tern., 25 Feb. 1886, and continued by successive elections un- til 3 Apr. 1890. On 12 Mch. 1890, he is unanimously designated to preside during the future absences of the vice-president and at the pleasure of the Senate, a function never before exercised by any member of the Senate ; he resigns this office 19 Feb. " Prof. Alexander Wiuchell, geologist, born 1824, dies at Ann Arbor, Mich 19 Feb. " First triennial of National Council of Women of the U. S. meets at Washington, D. C 23 Feb. " Act torefund to the states i 15,227,632.03 collected un- der the direct-tax act of 1861,levving $20,000,000, 2 Mch. " Act authorizing 3 U. S. prisons : 1 north, another south of 39° and east of the Rocky mountains, the 3d west of the Rocky mountains 3 Mch. " Congress appropriates $15,000 for experiments in for- estry and artificial rain-making 3 Mch. " Act creating 9 Courts of Appeal and 9 additional U. S. Circuit Court judges approved 3 Mch. " Act granting registry to certain foreign-built vessels with subsidies; the mails to be carried when required without additional compensation, and new vessels to be built suitable for conversion into auxiliary cruis- ers or transports 3 Mch. " International Copj'right act approved " " Fifty-first Congress adjourns 4 Mch. " [The 51st Congress was nicknamed the " Billion Dollar Congress " from the grand total of its appro- priations.] " I Eleven Italians confined in the parish prison. New Or- I leans, on charge of the murder of chief Hennessy, 6 '■ of whom had just been acquitted b}'^ jury trial, are j massacred 14 Mch. " 1891 I Baron Fava, Italian minister at Washington, protests against the New Orleans lynching 15 Mch. " Gen. Joseph E. Johnston, born 1807, dies at Washing- ton, D. C 21 Mch. " Italian minister Fava recalled 31 Mch. " Gen. Albert Pike, born 1809, dies at Washington, D. C, 2 Apr. " Sen. George F. Edmunds resigns, to take effect 1 Nov., 6 Apr. " Phineas T. Barnum, born 1810, dies at Bridgeport, Conn 7 Apr. " Patent centennial opened in Washington by pres. Har- rison 8 Apr. " Pres. Harrison and party leave Washington for an ex- tended trip in the South and West 14 Apr. ." Resignation of sen. John H. Reagan of Tex., to take effect 10 June 24 Apr. " \ UNI Convention of International Young Women's Christian Association at Scran ton, Pa 24-26 Apr. 1891 China formally objects to Henry W. Blair as min- ister from the U. S., because of his speech in Con- gress against the Chinese 28 Apr. " Verdict of " not guilty" in Millington murder case at Denver, Col .* 29 Apr. " Charles Pratt, philanthropist, born 1830, dies in New York city 4 May, " U. S. marshal, at the request of Chilian minister, seizes the Chilian insurgent transport Itata at San Diego, Cal 6 May, " Itata sails from San Diego, carrying off the U. S. dep- uty marshal 7 May, " [The marshal was landed some 8 miles south of San Diego, and the Itata took from the American schooner Robert and Minnie a cargo of arms shipped fromIlion,N.Y.] U. S. cruiser Charleston sails in pursuit of the Itata, 9 May, " Pres. Harrison returns to Washington 15 May, "■ Kear-adm. McCann given command of the American vessels in the South Pacific 17 May, " Trans-Mississippi Commercial congress (1200 delegates) opens at Denver, Col 19 May, " People's party organized at the National Union con- ference (1418 delegates from 32 states) at Cincin- nati, O 19 May, " President opens to settlement about 1,600,000 acres of the Fort Berthold Indian reservation, S. Dak., 20 May, " Charleston reaches Callao without having seen the Itata 27 May, '^ First Sunday opening of the New York Metropolitan museum ; 10,000 visitors 31 May, " Benson John Lossing, historian, born 1813, dies at Chestnut Ridge, Dutchess county, N. Y 3 June, " Itata surrenders to adms. McCann and Brown in the harbor of Iquique with a cargo of 5000 rifles, 4 June, " Lieut. R. E. Peary and wife (the first lady to join a Polar expedition) sail for the Arctic regions, 6 June, " Great Britain agrees to a modus vivendi, a close season and limited privilege in the seal fisheries, until 1 May, 1892. Proclaimed by president 15 June, " Monument, inscribed, " On this spot Christopher Co- lumbus first set foot upon the soil of the New World," erected on Watling island by the Chicago Herald 15 June, " Nine new U. S. Circuit courts of Appeal formally or- ganized 16 June, " Rain-making experiments begun in Texas under the department of agriculture 23 June, " Discovery recorded of a new lake forming in Salton Sink, Ariz., owing to floods on the Colorado, 29 June, " Weather bureau transferred from war department to department of agriculture ; prof. Mark W. Harring- ton appointed chief. 30 June, " Ex-vice-pres. Hannibal Hamlin, born 1809, dies at Bangor, Me 4 July, " Charleston and Itata arrive at San Diego, Cal., " " Four murderers, Slocum, Smiler, Wood, and Jugiro, executed by electricity at Sing Sing, N. Y. .7 July, " Secretary of the treasury accepts $500 from the Itata for violation of the navigation laws 8 July, Cargo of arms and ammunition on the Itata libelled by the U. S. marshal at San Diego, Cal 14 July, " Statue of gen. Stonewall Jackson unveiled at Lexing- ton, Va. ; 15,000 Confederate veterans present; ora- tion by gen. Early 21 July, Smokeless powder used for the first time in this coun- try in experiments at Sandy Hook, N. J . . .25 July, '• Thomas W, Bocock, born 1815, for 14 years in congress from Virginia and for 4 years speaker of Confederate congress, dies in Appomattox co., Va 5 Aug. Two vessels seized in Behring sea for unlawful seal- ing 7 Aug. '• James Russell Lowell, born 1819, dies at Cambridge, Mass 12 Aug. '■ 891 UNI Cherokee strip closed to the whites by order of the president 13 Aug. 1891 Sarah Childress Polk, widow of ex-pres. James K. Polk, born 1803, dies at Nashville, Tenn 14 Aug. " Battle monument, 308 feet high, at Bennington, Vt., dedicated; address by pres. Harrison 19 Aug. " Over 60 persons killed by a falling building in Park place. New York city 22 Aug. " II. G. Dyrenforth and staff experiment in artificial rain production by dynamite bombs exploded in the air, etc., near Midland, Tex 18-26 Aug. '• First reunion of survivors of the Black Hawk war of 1832 held at Lena, 111. ; 17 veterans over 70 years old present 28 Aug. " Germany removes restrictions on imports of American pork 3 Sept. " New Chilian government, with Jorge Montt as presi- dent, officially recognized by the department of state at Washington, D. C 7 Sept. " Denmark revokes prohibition of import of American pork 8 Sept. " Forest reservation in Wyoming, adjoining Yellowstone National park, set apart by proclamation of pres. Harrison, 30 Mch., and supplementary proclamation, 10 Sept. " William Ferrel, meteorologist, born 1817, dies at May- wood, Kan 18 Sept. « President proclaims the ceded Indian lands in Okla- homa territorv open to settlement on 22 Sept., 18 Sept. " Opening of the St. Clair river tunnel celebrated at Port Huron and Sarnia. .•. 19 Sept. " Russian man-of-war Alente seizes an American sealer, the Lewis, at Behring's island and carries the crew to Vladivostocks for trial 2 Oct. " Human Freedom league organized in Independence hall, Philadelphia 12 Oct. " Boatswain, mate, and 6 sailors of the U. S. cruiser Baltimoi-e injured by a mob in the streets of Val- paraiso, Chili, resulting in death of 2 sailors (see this record, 21 Jan.-17 July, 1892). ... 16 Oct. ■' Nathaniel Duncan Ingraham, formerly of the U. S. navy (Koszta affair), afterwards in the Confed- erate service, dies at Charleston, S. C 16 Oct. " James Parton, author, born 1822, dies at Newburyport, Mass 17 Oct. '• Italy withdraws her prohibition of American pork, 21 Oct. " Officers of the Louisiana State lottery indicted under U. S. law by the grand-jurv in Sioux Falls, N. Dak., 23 Oct. " First Empire State express train runs from New York to Buffalo via N. Y. C. & H. R. R. R. in 8 hours 42 min 26 Oct. " Southern States exposition opens at Augusta, Ga., 2 Nov. " Itata case submitted by counsel in the U. S. court at Los Angeles, Cal 5 Nov. " Sefior Pedro Montt, minister from Chili, officially pre- sented to pres. Harrison 14 Nov. " A lunatic enters the office of Russell Sage in New York city with a hand-bag, demands $1,250,000, and on refusal drops the bag filled with explosives, killing himself and a bystander, injuring others, and wreck- ing the building 4 Dec. '• Sec. of war Redfield Proctor resigns 5 Dec. '• France removes restrictions on American pork . .6 Dec. '• Martin D. Loppy, murderer, executed at Sing Sing by electricity 7 Dec. Fifty-second Congress, First Session, meets " '• Charles F. Crisp (Democrat) of Ga. elected speaker of the House 8 Dec. '• Annual message of pres. Harrison 9 Dec. '• U. S. Senate ratifies the general act passed by the Anti- slavery conference in Brussels, 2 July, 1890, 11 Jan. 1892 Forest preserve in New Mexico set apart by proclama- tion of president H Ja''- " UNI Randolph Rogers, sculptor, born 1825, dies at Rome, N. Y l** J*"' Cong. Bland introduces a" Free Coinage bill in the House 21 Jan. Ultimatum of the U. S. served on the Chilian govern- ment by sec. Blaine, through minister Montt, de- manding an apology for the assault upon the sailors of the Baltimore in'tlie streets of Valparaiso, an in- demnity, and the withdrawal of the insulting circular of minister Matta 21 Jan. Satisfactory answer to the ultimatum from Chili sub- mitted to Congress with a message from the presi- dent 27 Jan. James G. Blaine writes to chairman Clarkson of the Republican National committee, refusing to be a candidate for president 6 Feb. Senate Financial committee reports against 3 Free Sil- ver Coinage bills 9 Feb. France, Italy, and Sweden chosen as Behring Sea arbi- trators 10 Feb. Bland Free Coinage Silver bill reported favorably by the House 10 Feb. Resolution for investigation of the so-called " sweating system" of tenement labor upon manufacture of clothing, etc 13 Feb. National Real Estate association formally organized in Nashville, Tenn \ 18 Feb. First Continental congress of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, Mrs. Har- rison president-general, opens in Washington, 22 Feb. National Industrial conference meets in St. Louis, Mo., with delegates from Farmers' Alliance, 246 ; Farm- ers' Mutual Benefit Association, 53; Knights of Labor, 82; National Farmers' Alliance, 97 ; National Citi- zens' Alliance, 25; Colored Farmers' Mutual Benefit Association, 97 ; National Citizens' Independent Al- liance, 27 ; Patrons of Industry, 25 ; National Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 4. Delegates decide to act with the Pe»)ple's party in the presi- dential canvass 22 Feb. Treaty signed at state department, Washington, by sir Julian Pauncefote and sec. Blaine, referring the Behring Sea dispute to an international arbitration commission of 7 members 29 Feb. Ex-sec. Bayard opposes the free coinage of silver in an open letter 14 Mch. Forest reserve. Pike's peak, Col., set apart by proclama- tion of pres Harrison 11 Feb. and 18 Mch. Standard oil trust dissolved 21 Mch. David Hayes Agnew, surgeon, born 1818, dies at Phila- delphia, Pa 22 Mch. Debate on the Silver bill closes in House of Representa- tives and fails of a vote 24 Mch. Walt Whitman, poet, born 1819, dies at Camden, N. J., 26 Mch. Treaty with foreign powers for repressing the slave- trade in Africa and the importation of fire-arms, ammunition, and spirituous liquors, signed at Wash- ington 2 Apr. Steamer Missouri, which sailed from New York, 15 Mch., carrying food supplies to starving Russians, arrives at Libau 3 Apr. President proclaims open to settlement the greater part of Lake Traverse Indian reservation in North Dakota, 15 Apr 11 Apr. President proclaims open to settlement Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indian lands in Oklahoma, 19 Apr., about 3,000,000 acres 12 Apr. Under instruction from pres. Harrison, sec. Blaine tenders the Italian government, as a voluntary offer- ing for distribution among the relatives of Italians lynched in New Orleans, 14 Mch. 1891, $25,000, which is accepted and paid 14 Apr. Baron Fava ordered to resume his position as minister to the U. S. by the Italian government 16 Apr. Sec. Blaine and sir Julian Pauncefote conclude a new modus Vivendi for the Behring sea 18 Apr. Bill introduced in the House by Mr. Geary of California, 1892 UNI 6 Jan., to prohibit absolutely the coming of Chinese into the U. S., whether subjects of the Chinese em- pire or otherwise ; referred to the committee on for- eign affairs. On 19 Feb. he reports a substitute from the committee, which, taken up and debated, 4 Apr., passes the House, 179-43, 107 not voting. Senate and House not able to agree, a conference is held and a bill presented, which passes the Mouse, 3 May, and the Senate, 4 May, and approved 5 May, 1892 Behring Sea Arbitration treaty ratified 9 May, " Act to encourage American shipping approved, 10 May, " Steamer Conemaugh sent from New York and Phila- delphia with provisions for the starving Russians, arrives at Riga 12 May, " Spain removes restriction on American pork . . 22 May, Sen. Stewart's bill for free coinage of silver taken up by the Senate 26 May, Provision for closing the World's Fair government exhibit on Sundays adopted by the House of Repre- sentatives 26 May, James G. Blaine, secretary of state, resigns. . . .4 June, Dam at Spartansburg. Pa., bursts, causing a flood and the breaking of tanks of gasoline, which ignites on Oil creek between Titusville and Oil City ; flood and fire result in the loss of over 100 lives. .5 June, Republican National convention assembles at Minne- apolis, Minn., 7 June ; gov. McKinley of O. perma- nent chairman, 8 June ; on 1st ballot Benjamin Har- rison receives 585i votes; Blaine, 182^; McKinley, 182; Reed, 4; Robert T. Lincoln, 1. On motion of Charles McKinley the nomination of Harrison is made unanimous. At the evening session White- law Reid of N. Y. is nominated for vice-president by acclamation 10 June, Pres. Harrison, by message to Congress, recommends retaliation against Canada for discrimination against American vessels 20 June, Democratic National convention meets in Chicago, 111., 21 June ; W. L. Wilson of W. Va. chosen permament chairman, 22 June ; First ballot for president cast 23 June: Cleveland, 617^ ; Hill, 115 ; Boies, 103 ; Gor- man, 36J ; Carlisle, 14 ; Cleveland declared nomi- nated ; and for vice-president Adlai E. S"tevenson of 111. chosen unanimously on first ballot 23 June, National Prohibition convention meets at Cincinnati, O .29 June, Congress authorizes the president to proclaim a gen- eral holiday commemorating the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America 29 June. John W. Foster of Ind. confirmed by the Senate as sec. of state 29 June, Gen. John Bidwell of Cal. nominated for president, and J. B. Cranfell of Tex. for vice-president by the Prohibition convention 30 June, Lock-out of strikers at the Carnegie Steel company's mills at Homestead, Pa., begins 1 July, Catholic Sioux congress opens at the Chej-enne agen- cy, S. Dak. ; 6000 Sioux Indians present, , . .3 July, First National convention of the People's party meets at Omaha, Neb., 2 July ; H. L. Loucks of S. Dak. permanent chairman. Gen. James B. Weaver of la. nominated for president, 4 July ; gen. James G. Field of Va. for vice-president 5 July, Congress appropriates $50,000 for site and pedestal for a statue of gen. W. T. Sherman 5 July, Pinkerton detectives, attempting to land from a barge at the Carnegie mills, Homestead, Pa., are attacked by strikers; several detectives and strikers killed or wounded 6 July, Entire National Guard of Pennsylvania is ordered to Homestead by gov. Pattison 10 July, Lock-out involving 3000 striking miners begins in the Coeur d'Alene mining district, in Shoshone county, Id., 1 Apr. ; an attack is made by union men on new hands employed in the Gem mine, in which several are killed 11 July, Cyrus W. Field, born 1819, dies at Ardslev, N. Y., 12 July, UNI 8 Eiver and Harbor bill, appropriating $21,153,618 and authorizing in contracts $31,555,401, approved, 13 July, 1892 Bland- Stewart Free Silver bill, passed by the Senate, 29 to 25, 1 July, is refused consideration in the House by 154 to 136 13 July, *' Proclamation of president commanding all persons in insurrection in Idaho to disperse 16 July, " Indemnity of $75,000 in the matter of the Chilian af- fair of 16 Oct. 1891, accepted from Chili by U. S. minister Eagan (the monej' to be distributed among the relatives of the 2 sailors killed and those who were injured) 17 July, " Proviso for closing the World's Fair on Sunday con- firmed by Senate 14 July, and concurred in by House. . 19 July, " President authorized to contract for 1 armored cruiser of about 8000 tons and 1 coast-line battle-ship of 9000 tons, by act approved 19 Jul}', " Two thousand U. S. troops, sent by pres. Harrison to the Coeur d'Alene mining district, Id., occupj' Ward- ner, 14 Jul}-; order restored among the strikers, and soldiers ordered home 23 July, " H. C. Frick, chairman of the Carnegie Steel company, shot and twice wounded by a Russian-Hebrew an- archist named Berkman 23 July, " Private lams of Company K, 10th regiment, calling for three cheers for the assassin, is hung up by his thumbs for 30 minutes by order of col. Streeter. . . .23 July, " Act authorizing the president in retaliation to demand tolls for, or prohibit the passage of, St. Mary's Falls canal by foreign vessels, in his discretion . .26 July, " Act granting pensions of $8 per month to survivors of the Indian wars of 1832-42 (Black Hawk war, Creek war, Cherokee disturbance, and Seminole war), ap- proved 27 July, " Act changing date of the dedication of the World's Fair buildings from 12 Oct. to 21 Oct 4 Aug. '• Act granting pensions of $12 per month to all nurses during the civil war, now dependent 5 Aug. " Bill for coinage of 5,000,000 half-dollar silver pieces as souvenirs for the benefit of the Columbian exposi- tion, on condition that the exposition shall not be opened on Sunday 5 Aug. " Train in charge of the U. S. government, carrying $20,000,000 in gold, leaves San Francisco for New York . .5 Aug. " Resolution of Congress inviting the king and queen of Spain and the descendants of Columbus to the World's Columbian exposition 5 Aug. " First Session adjourns " " Miss Lizzie Borden arrested in Fall River, Mass., charged with the murder (4 Aug.) of her father and step-mother (Trials) 11 Aug. " Violence by miners in Tennessee opposed to convict labor, quelled by National Guard 13-16 Aug. " Switchmen's strike on Erie railroad begins at Buffalo, N. Y., where the strikers burn freight trains, destroy- ing about a million dollars' worth of railroad prop- erty 14 Aug. " Kelly and Frye industrial armies across the Poto- 1^ "mac 11 Aug. " [They were finally furnished transportation to their western homes by the government.] U. S. Senate ratifies the new Chinese treaty regulating immigration, signed Mch., by 47 to 20 13 Aug. " [Formally proclaimed by the president, 8 Dec] House passes the Senate Tariff bill by 182 yeas (175 Democrats, 7 Populists) to 106 nays (93 Republicans, 13 Democrats), and passes bills for free coal, iron, barbed wire, and sugar 13 Aug. " Tariff bill becomes a law without the president's sig- nature (Tariff) midnight 27 Aug. " •Second Sessio?i (268 days) adjourns 28 Aug. " Ten towns in Minnesota, 6 in Wisconsin, and 3 in Michigan totally destroyed by forest fires Aug. " Gen. N. P. Banks, born 30'jan. i816, dies at Waltham, Mass 1 Sept. " Samuel J. Kirkwood, U. S. ex-senator, ex-secretary of the interior, and war governor of Iowa, dies at Des Moines, aged 81 1 Sept. " Maj.-gen. George Stoneman, ex-governor of California, born 8 Aug. 1822, dies at Buffalo, N. Y 5 Sept. " Successful strike of United Garment Workers and United Brotherhood of Tailors in New York, Brook- lyn, and vicinitv 4 to 13 Sept. " 29 UNI Pres. Cleveland proclaims amnesty to persons convicted of polygamy under the Edmunds act 27 Sept. Proclamation of president setting apart the Ashland Forest reserve in Oregon .... 28 Sept. Brig.-gen. John P. Hawkins, commissary-gen. of sul)- sistence, U. S. army, retired 29 Sept. Oliver Wendell Holmes, born in Cambridge, Mass., 29 Aug. 1809, dies at his residence in Boston ... .7 Oct. Andrew G. Curtin, war governor of Pennsylvania, dies at Bellefonte, Pa., aged 77 7 Oct. Col. Michael Morgan made commissary- gen., U. S. army, and brig.-gen .8 Oct. Corner-stone of the Commercial Travellers' Home of the U. S. laid at Binghamton, N. Y. 9 Oct. Train on the Fredericksburg and Potomac railroad held up 41 miles south of Washington, D. C, and robbed of $150,000 12 Oct. Memorial tablet to memory of Robert C. Morris, the financier of the Revolution, unveiled at Batavia, N. Y. ; oration by sec. of treas. Carlisle 13 Oct. Sec. Carlisle offers for sale $50,000,000 of U. S. 5-per- cent. 10-year bonds 13 Nov. [Awarded to the Stewart svndicate of New York cit}', 26 Nov.] Dr. James McCosh, ex-president of Princeton college, dies in Princeton, N« J., aged 83 16 Nov. Rev. dr. W. G. T. Shedd, theologian and scholar, dies in New York city, aged 74 17 Nov. New treaty with Japan signed at Washington, 23 Nov. President remits the unexpired portion of brig.-gen. Swaim's sentence (see Feb. 1886) 1 Dec. John Burns, the English labor leader and member of Parliament, arrives at New York 1 Dec. [Returned to England, 3 Jan. 1895.] Third Session convenes 3 Dec. Emigrant convention with China ratified 7 Dec. During the year 1893 charges were made accusing superintendent Z. R. Brock way of the Elmira re- formatory, N. Y., of mismanagement, together with cruel and inhuman treatment of the prisoners. To investigate these charges, gov. Flower appointed a. committee of 3 which met at Elmira, 11 May, 1894. After a thorough and extended investigation, 2 of the committee report favorably to Brockway and the 3d unfavorably. Gov. Flower dismisses the charges, 10 Dec. Ex-gov. B. R. Tillman elected U. S. senator by South Carolina legislature to succeed M. C. Butler, 11 Dec. Pres. Cleveland issues an order placing in the classified civil service the internal-revenue force 12 Dec. Eugene V. Debs sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment, and his associates to 3 months' imprisonment for contempt of court (sentence to begin 8 Jan. 1895), 14 Dec. Mosquito reservation formally incorporated with Nic- aragua 17 Dec. Brig-gen. Swaim, judge advocate-gen., retired, 24 Dec. Philological congress in the U. S. opens at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia ... .27 Dec. Act to establish a National Military park at the battle- field of Pittsburg Landing or Shiloh approved, 28 Dec. James G. Fair, U. S. ex-senator from California, dies at San Francisco, aged 63 29 Dec. [Estate estimated at $40,000,000.] Lexow committee, investigating the methods of the police department of New York city, holds its last session 29 Dec. [This committee was appointed under a resolution offered by Clarence Lexow in the Senate of New York, 24 Jan. 1894, and passed unanimously, charges against the police of the city of New York having been made publicly by the rev. dr. Charles H. Park- hurst of that city. The committee was appointed 31 Jan., with sen. Lexow chairman. Investigation commenced on 9 Mch., at the court-room of the County court-house in New York, with William A. Sutherland as counsel for the committee until 13 Apr., when John W. Goff appeared as counsel. At 1894 UNI 898 the end of June the committee adjourned until 10 Sept., and continued with one or two short intermis- sions until 29 Dec. The evidence confirmed the charges. The committee submitted its report to the legislature at Albany, 18 Jan. 1896. The examina- tion and testimony of the 700 witnesses making 10,576 printed pages.] President nominates col. G. N. Lieber to be judge-ad- vocate-gen. in place of brig.-gen. David G. Swaim, retired 3 Jan. 1895 Royalist uprising at Waikiki Beach, about 5 miles from Honolulu, for the purpose of overthrowing the gov- ernment (easily suppressed) 6 Jan. " Brooklyn street-car strike, attended with great loss of property and several lives, without beneficial result to the strikers 10 Jan. " Senate passes the Urgency Deficiency bill, including appropriations for collecting the income tax, 16 Jan. " M. Casimir-Perier resigns the presidency of France, 15 Jan. " M. Felix Faure elected to the presidency of France, 17 Jan. " Nicaragua Canal bill passes the Senate 26 Jan. " Loss of the North German Lloj'd steamship Elbe off the coast of Holland (Wrecks) 30 Jan. " Springer (Administration) Finance bill, authorizing the issue of $500,000,000 of gold bonds, etc., de- feated in the House (136 to 162) 5 Feb. " Joint resolution passed to revive the grade of lieut.- gen. in the army for the benefit of maj.-gen. John M. Schofield; signed by the president, and con- firmed 6 Feb. " Brig.-gen. Thomas H. Ruger, U. S. army, nominated by the president to be maj.-gen 8 Feb. " President sends a message to Congress advising it of a loan of $62,400,000 @ 4 per cent, for 30 years, under provision of the act of 14 Jan. 1875. . . .8 Feb. " At an executor's sale in New York city 240 paintings, by George Inness, sold for $108,670 ; sale for 3 days, closing 14 Feb. " Frederick Douglass, colored, celebrated in the history of the country, dies at Anacostia, D. C, aged about 78 years 20 Feb. " Postmaster-gen. Wilson S. Bissell resigns ... .27 Feb. " Wm. L. Wilson of West Virginia appointed postmas- ter-gen., and confirmed 1 Mch. " Fifty-third Congress adjourns 4 Mch. " [Appropriations allowed for the year $498,952,524, of which $141,381,570 was for pensions.] Steamship AUianga fired upon by Spanish cruiser Conde de Venadito 5 Mch. " Riot and massacre on the levee, New Orleans, 12 Mch. " United Workmen, Ancient Order of, founded 1868. Object, fraternal and beneficiary ; number of grand lodges, 27 ; number of sub-lodges, 4200; number of members, 267,611. Benefits disbursed since organization for beneficiary fund, $37,776,350; for charity, $5,000,000; beneficiary fund, $4,762,- 157. The chief officer is termed supreme master-workman. This order stands third in the list of fraternal organizations, in the number of members being exceeded by the Freemasons and Odd-fellows only. unity. Christian unity. univer§al §ufrrag[e (pkbisciiumX one of the 6 points of the charter (Chartists), was adopted in the constitution of France in 1791, and used in the election of president in 1851 and of emperor in 1862, and by the Italian states in voting for annexation to Sardinia in 1860, 1861, 1866, and 1870. Universaii§t§, a sect who believe in the final salvation of all. This doctrine, declared in the Talmud, and ascribed to Origen about 230, was advocated by other early fathers, but opposed by St. Augustine, about 420; and condemned by the 5th general council at Constantinople, May, June, 553. It was received by the Unitarians in the 17th century, and avowed by many clergymen of the church of England. James Relly, who published his " Union " in 1760, founded the sect of Uni- versalists in Britain; and John Murray, in America, about 1770. The sect barely exists in Great Britain, but flourishes UNI in the United States. Before 1818, many Universalists in th& United States were believers in future retribution, and the terms Restorationists and Universalists were used synony- mously. In 1818 Hosea Ballou taught that retribution'is con- fined to this life, and those who could not accept this doctrine- formed a distinct sect and took the name of Universal Resto- rationists at Mendon,Mass., 17 Aug. 1831. The present strength of the Universalists in the U. S. (1891) is: parishes, 947 ;. church-members, 41,177. univerMlty, a school for universal knowledge, an as- sociation of men for the purpose of study empowered to- confer degrees which are recognized throughout Christendom, often endowed by the State. The most ancient universities- in Europe are those of Cambridge, Paris, Oxford, Cordova,. and Bologna. In old Aberdeen was a monastery, in which youths were instructed in theology, the canon law, and the school philosophy, at least 200 years before the imiversity and King's college were founded. Degreks. For leading uni- versities in the U. S., Colleges and states separately. DATES OF the FOUNDING OF THE PRINCIPAL UNIVERSI- TIES IN EUROPE. (Arranged according to dates, some of them now extinct.) Founded. . (?) 635 ... 792 ... 879 . .. 968 ...1116 ...1209 ...1215 ...1224= ...122ijr ...1229 ...1233 ...1239 ...1243 ...1245 ...1253 ...1279 ...1289 ...13(X) .1305 .1307 .1332 .1339 .1346 ,1348 .1354 .1364 Name. Country. Cambridge England. Paris France.. Oxford England Cordova Spain... Bologna Italy Valencia Spain. . . Arezzo Italy Naples " ... Padua " ... Toulouse France.. Salerno Italy Salamanca Spain. . . Genoa Italy Rome " Sorbonne. France.. Coimbra Portugal MontpcUier. . . France.. Lyons " Lerida Spain. . . ^Avignon France. . Orleans " Perugia Italy Cahors France. . Grenoble '* Valladolid Spain... Prague Bohemia Huesca Spain... Cracow Poland.. Angers France " Vienna Austria 1365 Funfkirchen. . Hungary 1367 Geneva Switzerland . 1368 Sienna.: Italy 1380 Cologne Germany 1385 Heidelberg..,. " 1386 Erfurt Thuringia . . 1390 Ferrara Italy 1391 WQrzburg Germany 1403 Turin Italy 1405 Leipsic Saxony 1409 "St. Andrews. . . Scotland 1411 Rostock Mecklenberg.1419 Dole ... Burgundy.. . .1422 Louvaine Belgium 1426 Poitiers France 1431 Florence Italy 1439 Mechlin Belgium 1440 Palermo Italy 1447 Glasgow Scotland 1450 Valence France 1454 Freibourg Germany 1460 Nantes France " Basle Switzerland. . ' ' Bourges France 1463 "^Mafnz"}-- Germany 1467 Bordeaux France 1472 Treves Germany 1473 Saragossa Spain 1474 Upsal Sweden 1476 Copenhagen. . . Denmark " Tubingen Germany 1477 Parma Italy 1482 Munster Prussia 1491 Aberdeen Scotland 1494 Toledo Spain 1499 Alcala " " Wittenberg . . . Germany 1502 Seville Spain 1504 Frankfort-on the-Oder. Prussia 1506 Urbino Milan Dillingen. .. Douay Ingolstadt . , Helmstadt. . Graz. Dublin Paderborn . . Venirie Pavia Harder wijk. Giessen Name. Country. Founded.. Siguenza Spain 151T Compostella... " " Marburg Prussia 152T Debreczin Hungary 1531 Evora Portugal 153$ Grenada Spain 15^7 Strasburg Germany 153* KOnigsberg . . . " 1544 Jena Thuringia 1547 Greifswald. ... Germany " Rhei ms France 1548 ^ Italy 1552 " 1564r " 1565- Swabia " France 1568- Bavaria 1573: Brunswick. ..1675> Leyden Holland "i Edinburgh Scotland 1582 Franeker Belgium 1585- Austria 1586 Ireland 1591 Germany 1592: Italy " " 1599 Holland 1600- Groningen Holland 1614- Salzburg Austria 1623 Mantua Italy 1625- Dorpat Livonia 1632 Utrecht Holland 1634 Buda-Pest Hungary 1635 Bamberg Bavaria 1648 Kiel Germany 1665 Bruges Belgium " Lund Sweden 1668 Besanf on France 1676- Innsbruck Tyrol 1692 Dresden Saxony 1694 Halle " .... " Breslan Prussia 1702 Dijon France 1722 Pan Italy " Cameriiio " 1727 G5ttingeu Hanover 1736- Erlangeu Bavaria 1743 Nancy France 1769 Stuttgart Germany 1775 Lemberg Austria 1784 Wilnaor Vilna. Russia 1803 Kieflf " " Moscow " " Caen France " Kasan Russia 1804 KharkofT. " " Berlin Germany 1810- Christiania Norway 1811 Ghent Belgium 1816 Liege " " Bonn Germany 1818 St. Petersburg. Russia 1819- London England 1826- Helsingfors... Finland " Munich Bavaria " Durham England 1831 Zurich Switzerland. .1832 Brussels Belgium 1834 Berne Switzerland. . " Name. McGill... Toronto. Country. Founded. ( Montreal, ( I Can. . . . f ' Toronto, | jg2-j 1821 UNI » DATKS OF THE FOUNDING OF THE PRINCIPAL UNIVERSI- TIES IN EUROPE. — {Continued.) Name. Country. Founded. Name. Country. Founded. Madrid Spain 1836 Czernowitz Austria 1875 Allien.s Greece " Amsterdam ..Holland 1877 London England 1837 Irish Ireland 1879 Barcelona Spain 1841 yworia ( Manchester, ) .'o^.^ Odessa Russia 1865 Victoria | ^^g, J 1880 Agram Austria 1869 j OF THE BRITISH COLONIES. Name. Country. Founded. Calcutta India 1857 Bombay " " Madras " " Can ... )••••""-'■ , New Zealand. . New Zealand . 1870 Queens j '=S°°;i- •■'^V''*'''- ■■ •{ '"Sia^".- 1- -^^'^ si^-y I ^'«,yal°r!-«^ ; ^'p' '^"'-^■i ^"e.'.":?'!""' Melbourne Victoria 1855 ' Punjab India 1883 imiversity boat-races. Boat-races. university extension, a plan originating at the University of Cambridge, England, in 1872, for extending the advantages of university instruction by lectures and classes at important centres. The popular favor and success of the scheme in England encouraged Provost William Pepper, of the University of Pennsylvania, to introduce it in the tJnited States in 1890. From this beginning the movement has spread through the country. The plan of instruction includes a course of from 6 to 12 lectures on diiferent branches of edu- cation, some attention being given to class work, as reference reading, examinations, etc. It must be admitted that the plan of instruction is too limited as well as too general in its topics to be of much disciplinary service; but it is popular and doubtless useful in awakening interestin many subjectsof study. uniinoivn tong[ues. Irvingites. Upsa'ia, a city of Sweden. The Swedish rulers were kings of Upsala till 1001. The university was founded in 1476, by Sten Sture, the "protector," and opened 21 Sept. 1477. Celebration of foundation of university, Sept. 1877. lira'nium, a brittle gray metal discovered by Klaproth in 1789, in the mineral pitchblende ; lately employed in man- ufacturing glass for philosophical purposes. U'ranus, a planet with 4 satellites, was discovered by "William Herschel, 13 Mch. 1781 ; first called Georgium Sidus, after George III. ; next Herschel ; and finally Uranus. Its mean distance from the sun is 1,753,869,000 miles, and its diameter is 32,250 miles, density about that of ice. It re- ceives from the sun about ^|^ of the heat received by the earth. The completion of its first revolution (in 84 years 7 days) since discovery was celebrated on 20 Mch. 1865. Its perturbations led to the discovery of Neptune in 1846. Uranus is accompanied bv at least 4 satellites; Herschel discovered 2, 11 Jan. 1787, Lassell 1, 14 Sept. 1847, and O. Struve 1, 8 Oct. 1847. Herschel thought he had discovered 6, which, with the 2 discovered later, would make 8, but 4 of them are unverified. Urbi'no, the ancient Urbinum Hortense, central Italy, capital of a duchy created for Malatesta, 1474. It was treacher- ously seized by Caesar Borgia, 1502 ; captured by Julius II., 1503, and given to Borgia, 1504; given to Lorenzo de' Medici by Leo X., 1516; after many vicissitudes recovered by the duke Francesco, 1522 ; on the duke's resig^iation annexed to the Papal States, 1631 ; annexed to Italy, 1860. • Urim and Tliummini, "Light and Perfection" (Exod. xxviii. 30), words connected with the breastplate worn by the high-priest when he entered the holy place to obtain an answer from God (1490 b.c.). Ursa Major, " Great Bear " constellation, one of the most familiar in the heavens. It contains the " Pointers," and is popularly known as the " Butcher's Cleaver " and " Charles's Wain." " And we danced about the May-pole and in the hazel copse, Till Charles's Wain came out above the tall white chimney-tops." —Tennyson's " May Queen." Ur'SUline nuns (so called from St. Ursula), founded originally by St. Angela of Brescia, about 1537. Several com- munities' existed in England, and some still exist in Ireland. First convent in America built at Quebec, founded by madame delaPeltrie, 1641. ^ UTA U'ruguay, Banda Orientale (the " Eastern side "), a re- public in South America, formerly part of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres ; declared its independence, 25 Aug. 1825 ; recog- nized, 4 Oct. 1828; constitution proclaimed, 18 July, 1830. Area, 72,110 sq. miles; pop. 1890, 684,000. In form the gov- ernment is similar to that of the United States. Ushant (ush'-ang), an island near Brest, N.W. France, near which 2 naval battles were fought between the Hritish and French fleets. The first, 27 July, 1778, indecisive. The English under adm. Keppel, the French under count d'Orvil- liers. The second fought 1 June, 1794. The English under lord Howe, with 25 ships, defeated the French, 26 ships, under Villaret-Joyeuse. As the battle saved to the French a large fleet of merchantmen, they claimed the honors of the day. U'SUry is payment for the use of money, interest ; but is commonly applied to an excess of interest above the legal rate. The Jews might take interest from strangers, but not from their brethren, 1491 b.c. (Exod. xxii. 25; Deut. xxiii. 19). This law was enforced by Nehemiah, 445 b.c. (Neh. v.). Usury was prohibited by the English Parliament, 1341. Until the 15th century no Christians were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and therefore often banished and persecuted ; Jews. By 37 Hen. VIII. the rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute was repealed by Edward VI., but re-enacted 13 Eliz. 1570. Interest. * Utah, a state of the United States, the 45th in admis- sion, is bounded on the north b}' Idaho and Wyoming, east by Wyoming and Colorado, pTv/yyVVi south by Arizona, and west ^;^^^^^^^^h^ by Nevada. Area, 84,970 sq. ry^^^^^^^^(^%^-7 miles. Iving between 109° and \/f^M^^^^^^^^%? 1 14° W. Ion., and north of 37° l/n/r^^^'^^^^ N. lat. Pop. 1890, 207,905. 5r (■**'*^H^^Si/''-"'| ^'Ki Capital, Salt Lake City. ^A^i O.m'^J^^^^^^^^f^^^' W' ^/>' Franciscan friars, Silvestre c\> vi^^^^^^^^^^i^J'^^ ^®'62 ^® Escalante and ^y'^i^^i^L^^Wh^'^^A^ Francisco Atanasio Do- Zjsv, ^^^^^^^'^ -^^ minguez, looking for a ^:^j\,'3«5® -i>^rJ route from Santa Y6 ^>^>^jli2^ Sept. 1856 Judge nrninmond resigns 'M Mch. 1857 Army of I'tah, sent by pres. Buchanan as a jMsse comitatus to sustain the governor, begins to assemble at fori Leavenworth, June, " Nauvoo legion, organized in 1840, is reorganized in Utah. .July, " Alfrod Cumming appointed governor of Utah 11 July, " Mountain .Meadows massacre, about 30 miles southwest from Cedar City; Arkansas emigrants, 30 families, are fired upon by Indians, 7 Sept. ; forming a corral, after a siege of 4 days they surrender to a company of the Mormon Nauvoo legion, headed bv John I). Lee, who promises protection, but all ex- cept 17 children under 7 years of age are massacred by Ind- ians and Mormons 11 Sept. " Brigbam Young by proclamation forbids armed forces to enter Salt I.ake Ciiy,"directs the troops in the territory to repel such invasion, and declares martial law 15 Sept. " Mormons under m^. Lot Smith destroy on the Green river and Big Sandv 3 or more supply trains destined for the army of Utah . . . .' 5-6 Oct. ' ' Army of Utah, under col. Albert Sidney Johnston, is ordered to fort Badger, and into winter-quarters at camp Scott, 2 or 3 miles from fort Badger and 115 from Salt Lake City Nov. " Gov. Cummings at camp Scott proclaims the territory in re- bellion 27. Nov. " Col. Thomas L. Kane arrives at Salt Lake City as a peacemaker, with credentials from pres. Buchanan 25 Feb. 1858 Gov. Cummings visits Salt Lake City with col. Kane, leaving camp Scott 5 Apr. " A constitution for the state of Deseret, formed by a people's convention at Salt Lake City in Mch. 1856, is tabled in the U. S. Senate 20 Apr. " Proclamation by pres. Buchanan oflering amnesty to Mormons who submit to federal authority, issued 6 Apr., is accepted by the Mormon leaders 2 June, " Van of the army of Utah finds Salt Lake City deserted ; 30,000 Mormons had moved southward 26 June, " Gov. Cumming resigns and leaves Salt Lake City May, 1861 Another convention meets 20 Jan., finishes a constitution for the state of Deseret, 23 Jan., ratified by the people.. . .3 Mch. 1862 Act of Congress passed to punish and prevent polygamy in the territories 1 July, " Mormon apostates, known as Morrisites, indicted for armed resistance to law, when summoned to surrender by the sher- iff, resist for 3 days, 13-16 June, 1862, until their leader, Joseph Morris, and others are killed; tried before judge Kinney, 7 are convicted of murder in the second degree Mch. 1863 Gov. James Duane Doty d 13 June, 1865 University of Deseret at Salt Lake City, chartered 1850, organ- ized 8 Mch. 1869 Mass-meeting of Mormons at Salt Lake City to protest against interference by Congress with polygamy 5 Apr. 1870 m. Porter, after a desperate fight, surrendered his ves- sel, the AAwr, to the British ships Cherube ami Pha;bt,2S Mch. 1814. Navai. BATTLK8. Pop. 1891, 105,000. Valtel'llne, N. Italy, a district near the Rhtetian Alps, «ei*eil bv the Grison league, 1512, and ceded to it, 1530. At the in««tij:ation of Spain, the Catholics rose and massacred the Protestants, 19-21 July, 1620. After much contention be- tween the French and Austrians, the neutrality of the \ altel- Hne was assured in 1639. It was annexed to the Cisalpine Republic ia 1797; to Italy, 1807; to Austria, 1814; to Italy, 1860. var%-B$«or or vaV'a§or. The first dignity in Eng- land beneath a peer was anciently that of vidames,vice'domint, or ralntsors. Valvasors are mentioned by ancient lawyers as riri magncB dignitatis, and sir Edward Coke speaks highly of them. Now, the first personal dignity after the nobility is a knight of the (\tiTi^x.- Blackstone. TaU'erde, Battle of. New Mexico, 1862. Van Buren, Martin, Administration of. United States, 1837. Taiia'dium (from Vanadis, the Scandinavian Venus), roeul tUscovered by Sefstrom, in 1830, in iron ore. A similar metal, discovered in lead ore by Del Rio in 1801, and named etytkronium, was proved by Wdhler to be vanadium. Vana- dium was discovered in the copper-bearing beds in Cheshire, in 1865, by H. E. Koscoe, by whom its peculiarities were fur- ther studied, and published in 1867-68. It is likely to be use- ful in photography and dyeing. VanC0U'ver'§ l§laild, North Pacific ocean, near the mainland of the state of Washington, U. S., and British Columbia, from which it is separated by the gulf of Georgia. It is about 300 miles long, and was named after capt. Geo. Vancouver, an English navigator, who was sent on a voyage of discoverj' to seek any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans. He sailed 7 Jan. 1791, and returned 24 Sept. 1795. He compiled an account of his survey of the northwest coast of America, and died in 1798. Settlements, made here by the English in 1781, were seized by the Spaniards in 1789, but restored. By treaty with the U. S., in 1846, the island was secured to Great Britain. It has become of importance since the discovery of gold in the neighboring mainland, in 1858, and the colonization of British Columbia. The island was united with British Columbia in Aug. 1866; and on 24 May, 1868, Victoria, founded in 1857, was declared the capital. Vail'dal§, a Germanic race, attacked the Roman em- pire in the 3d century, and began to ravage Germany and Gaul, 406-14; their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411; under Genseric they invaded and conquered the Roman ter- ritories in Africa, 429, and took Carthage, Oct. 439. They were subdued by Belisarius in 534. They were driven out by the Saracen Moors. The dukes of Mecklenburg style them- selves princes of the Vandals. VANDAL KINGS IN AFRICA. 496. Thrasimund. 523. Hilderic. 531. Gelimer. Van DIemen's Land. Tasmania. Varan'giaili, northern pirates who invaded Flanders about 813 ; France about 840 ; Italy, 852. Their leader, Ruric, invited by the Novgorodians to help them, founded the Rus- sian monarchy, 862. Varennes (va-ren'), a town in N.E. France, is cele- brated for the arrest of Louis XVI., his queen, sister, and 2 children. They fled from the Tuileries on 21 June, 1791 ; were overtaken here next day, and conducted back to Paris, mainly through Drouet, the postmaster, who at an intermedi- ate town recognized the king. variable §tar§. Those which change in brilliancy; mostly in regular periods, varying from 70 years or more to a few hours. The first observed was a small star of Cetus, or the Whale, by Daniel Fabricius, 13 Aug. 1596. In October of same year the star had vanished. Since then many simi- lar variations have been observed by Goodricke, Herschel, 429. Genseric (Mecklexbchg). 477. Hunneric, his son. 484. Gundamund. VEH and other astronomers, until the number of variable stars in- cluded in standard catalogues is 234, with 126 " suspected," and new ones are disoovereil every year. In many cases the change is explained by the revolution of a dark or less bright com- panion, intercepting part of its light; but some astronomers incline to think all the fixed stars aifected in brilliancy by in- ternal commotions, and that these variations may be impor- tant enough in some of them to account for changes of mag- nitude. Varna, a fortified seaport in Bulgaria, formerly Euro- pean Turkey. A great battle was fought near this place, 10 Nov. 1444, the Turks under Amurath II. defeating the Hun- garians under king Ladislaus and John Huimiades, with great slaughter, killing the king and capturing Hunniade.s, who. had urged the Christians to keep the truce recently made at Szegedin for 10 years. The emperor Nicholas of Russia arrived before Varna, the headquarters of his army, besieging the place, 5 Aug. 1828. The Turkish garrison made a vigorous sortie, 7 Aug.; and another on the 21st, but were repulsed. Varna surrendered 1 1 Oct. 1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829 ; its fortifications were dismantled, but have been restored. The allied armies disembarked at Varna, 29 May, 1854, and sailed for the Crimea, 3 Sept. They suffered severely from cholera. Under the treaty of Berlin,Varna was evacuated by the Turks, and occupied by Russians, autumn, 1878. vas§alag^e. Feudal laws, Slavery. Va§§ar college, the first institution in the world designed to give women a full collegiate education, was found- ed at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., in 1861, by Matthew Vassar. His first bequest was $408,000, with additions of as much more. It was opened, Sept. 1865, with a full faculty and 350 stu- dents. It has been successful, and is considered a model in- stitution. Vaisy (yas'see'), a town of N.E. France. The massacre of the Protestants at this place by the duke of Guise, on 1 Mch. 1562, led to desolating civil wars. Vat'ican, Rome, the ancient Mons Vaticanus, a hill of Rome. The foundation of the palace is ascribed to Coustan- tine, Liberius, and Symmachus. It became the residence of the pope at his return from Avignon, 1377. It is said to con- tain 7000 rooms, rich in works of art, ancient and modern. The library, founded by pope Nicholas V., 1448, is rich in printed books and MSS. — Pistolesi's description of the Vati- can, with numerous plates, pub. 1829-38.— The phrase " Thun- ders of the Vatican " was first used by Voltaire, 1748. The an- cient Vatican codex of the Old and New Testament in Greek was published at Rome in 1857. " Vatican Decrees," Councils OF THE CHURCH. Vaud {vo). a Swiss canton, long held by the Franks, the kings of Burgundy, emperors of Germany, dukes of Zahrin- gen, and dukes of Savoy, was conquered by the Bernese, Jan. 1536, and annexed, 1554. Vaud, made independent in 1798, joined the confederation in 1815. A new constitution was obtained in 1830, after agitation. Vaudol§. Waldenses. Vedas, the sacred books of the Hindus, in Sanscrit, were probably written about 1000 b.c. Veda means knowl- edge. These writings comprise hymns, prayers, and liturgical formulae, supposed to have been revealed to certain Brahmins. They are divided into 4 parts or books, called (in the order in which they were written) the Rig- Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur- Veda, and the Atharva-Veda. Often spoken of as separate Vedas. Prof. Max MUller published them under the patron- age of the East India company in 1849-74. 4 volumes of a translation by H. H. Wilson, pub. 1850-67; vols. v. and vi., completing the work, pub. 1889. A new edition of Max Mul- ler's text in progress, 2 vols. pub. 1890. VehmiC tribunali (Ger. Vehmgerichte, FeJmge- richte, or Femgerichte), secret tribunals in Westphalia to maintain religion and the public peace, founded in the time of Charlemagne, rose to importance in 1182, when Westphalia became subject to the archbishop of Cologne. Persons of ex- alted rank were at times seized, tried, and executed by them. The emperors endeavored to suppress them, but did not suc- ceed till the 16th century. Their last court, it is said, was VEI 903 VEN held in 1568. Sir W. Scott has described them in " Anne of Geierstein." A remnant of this tribunal was abolished by- Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, in 1811. "Veil (ve'i), an independent Latin city near Rome. Be- tween the Romans and Veientes frequent wars occurred, till Veil was destroyed, after 10 years' siege, 396 b.c. A Roman family, the Fabii, who had seceded from Rome for political reasons, were surprised and destroyed at the river Cremera by the Veientes, 477 B.C. veloc'Ipedes. Bicycle. velvet (from O. It. veluto), a cloth made from silk or cotton with a close pile. The manufacture, long confined to Genoa, Lucca, and other places in Italy, was carried to France, and thence to England, about 1685. Velvet is mentioned by Joinville in 1272; and Richard II., in his will, directed his body to be clothed " in velveto," 1399. Jerome Lanyer in London patented " velvet paper " in 1634. Vendee. La Vendue. Vendemiaire 12, 13, 14 (3, 4, 5 Oct.), 1795, Barras and Napoleon Bonaparte suppressed a royalist revolt against ithe convention. Tendome column (132 feet 2 inches high), erected in the Place Vendome, Paris, by Napoleon I. in 1806 to com- memorate his successful campaign in Germany in 1805. On its side were bass-reliefs by Launay. It was pulled down by the communists "in the name of international frater- nity," 16 May, 1871 ; restored by the National Assembly, 31 Aug. 1874; statue of Napoleon I. on the top replaced, 28 Dec. 1875. Ven'eti, maritime Gauls, of uncertain origin, inhabiting Arraorica, N.W. France. They rose against the Romans, 57 B.C., and were quelled by Julius Caesar, who defeated their fleet, 56, and exterminated an active commercial race. Vene'tia. Venice. Venezue'la, a South American republic. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some huts in an Indian village named Cora, built upon piles to raise them above the stagnant water on the plain, and gave it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. In Julj^, 1814, a congressional assembly declared the sovereignty of the people, which was recognized in 1818. It formed part of the republic of Co- lombia till it separated from the federal union, Nov. 1829. The charter or fundamental law in force from 1830, and re-pro- claimed with alterations on Mch. 28, 1864, and Apr. 1881, is modelled on the Constitution of the United States. Area, 594,165 sq. miles; pop. 1890, 2,285,054. Independence recognized by Spain 1845 Gen. D. T. Monagas elected president 1855 A new constitution promulgated 1864 Renunciation of papal authority Sept. 1876 [The country is in an almost constant state of insurrection.] " Veni, vidi, vici," " I came, I saw, I conquered." Zela. Venice, a city of N. Italy in the province of Venetia. The Veneti, said to be descendants of Antenor, a Trojan prince, who settled here with a colony of Paphlagonians after the fall of Troy, made an alliance with the Romans, 215 b.c., who founded Aquileia, 181, and gradually acquired the whole coun- try. Under the empire, Venetia included Padua, Verona, and other important places. Population of Venice in 1857, 1 18,173 ; in 1890, 158,019 ; and of the province, 2,985,036. Area of the province, 9059 sq. miles. New line of steamers for the East started from Venice by the Peninsular and Oriental company, July, 1872. Venice founded by families from Aquileia and Padua fleeing from Attila about 452 First doge (or dnke) chosen, Anafesto Paiilulio 697 Bishopric founded "733 Doge Orso slain; an annual magistrate {maestro di militi, mas- ter of the militia) appointed 737 Diodato, son of Orso. made doge 742 Two doges reign : Maurizio Galbaio and bis son Giovanni 777 Rialto made tiie seat of government 811 Venice independent of the Eastern empire, and acquires the maritime cities of Dalmatia and Istria 997 Its navy and commerce increase 1000-1100 Venetians aid capture of Tyre and acquire the third part, 1124; and ravage the Greek archipelago 1125 Bank of Venice established 1157 Ceremony of wedding the Adriatic instituted about 1177 Zara captured by the Venetians 24 Nov. 1202 Venetians aid crusaders with men, horses, and ships " Crete purchased 1204 Venice helps in the Latin conquest of Constantinople, and ob- tains power in the East 1204-5 Four bronze horses by Lysippus, from Constantinople, placed at St. Mark's by doge Pietro Ziani, d 1229 Venetians defeat Genoese near Negropont 1263 War with Genoa 1293 Venetian fleet defeated by Genoese in the Adriatic, 8 Sept. 1298 ; peace 1299 Louis of Hungary defeated at Zara 1 July, 1346 Severe contest with Genoa 1350-81 Doge Marino Faliero, to avenge an insult, conspires against the republic; beheaded 17 Apr. 1355 Venetians lose Istria and Dalmatia 1358 War with Genoese, who defeat Venetians at Pola, and attack Venice; vigorous defence 1377 Genoese fleet captured at Chiozza 1380 Peace concluded 1381 V^enice flourishes under Antonio Vernieri 1382-1400 War with Padua; conquest of Padua and Verona 1404 With Milan ; conquest of Brescia, 1425 ; of Bergamo 1428 Plague in Venice 1447 War against Milan, 1430; conquest of Ravenna 1454 War with Turks ; many Eastern possessions lost 1461-77 Venetians take Athens, 1466; and Cyprus 1475 Venice excommunicated, 1483; joins league against Naples. 1493; helps to overcome Charles VIII. of France 1495 Injured by the discovery of America (1492) and the passage to the Indies 1497 Venetians nearly ruined by the League of Cambray 1508 They assist in defeating the Turks at Lepanto 7 Oct. 1571 Turks retake Cyprus " Destructive fire at Venice 1577 " Bridge of Sighs," a single span (enclosed) connecting the ducal palace with the prisons, built, some say, by the builder of the Rialto, and others by the architect San Sovino about 1580 [Those who passed over it after trial were prisoners on their way to execution ; hence the name. " I stood in Venice on the Bridge of Sighs, A palace and a prison on each hand." — Byron, " Childe Harold," canto iv. stanza i.] Rialto bridge and Piazza di San Marco erected about 1592 Paul V. 's interdict on Venice (1606) disregarded 1607 Naval victories over Turks: at Scio, 1651; and in the Darda- nelles 1655 Turks take Candia after 24 years' siege 1669 Venice recovers part of the Morea, 1683-99 ; loses it 1715-39 Bonaparte seizes Venice, and by treaty at Campo Formio gives part to Austria, and the rest to the Cisalpine republic 1797 Venice annexed to Italy by treaty of Presburg 26 Dec. 1805 Transferred to empire of Austria 1814 Venice declared a free port 24 Jan. 1830 Insurrection, 22 Mch. 1848; the city, defended by Daniel Manin, surrenders to Austrians after a long siege 22 Aug. 1849 Venetia surrendered to Napoleon III., for Italy (by treaty of Vienna), 3 Oct. ; transferred to Italy 17 Oct. 1866 Plebiscitum: 651,758 votes for annexation to Italy; 69 against, 22 Oct. " Masterpiece of Titian (" Death of Peter Martyr ") destroyed by the burning of a chapel 15 Aug. 1867 Remains of Daniel Manin (brought from Paris) buried in St. Mark's 23 Mch. 1868 His statue unveiled 22 Mch. 1875 Restoration of palace of the doges completed and opened. .Nov. 1889 [Venice has had 122 doges : Anafesto, a.d. 697, to Luigi Manin, 1797. J ventilators were invented by the rev. dr. Hales, and described to the Royal Society of London, May, 1741 ; and a ventilator for ships was announced by Mr. Triewald in Nov. same year. The marquess of Chabannes's plan for warming and ventilating theatres and houses for audiences was applied in London about 1819. The systems of dr. Reid (about 1834) and others followed, with much controversy. Dr. Arnott's work on this subject was published in 1838. ventriroquism ("speaking from the belly") is evi- dently described in Isa. xxix. 4 (about 712 B.C.). Among eminent ventriloquists were baron Mengen and M. Saint Gille, about 1772 (whose experiments were examined by a commis- sion of the French academy); Thomas King (about 1716), Charles Mathews (1824), and M. Alexandre (1822). Venu§, the second planet from the sun, its mean distance being 66,134,000 miles, and its orbit almost a circle. Its period is 224 days 17 hours ; its orbital velocity 78,000 miles an hour. Its diameter is about 7510 miles, and its daily revolution was determined by Cassini in 1667 at 23 hours 21 minutes 23 sec- onds, but there is some uncertainty from recent observations. The rare transits of Venus across the sun's disc are watched by astronomers with great interest, as one of the best means of determining the sun's distance from us. Transits occur VEN 904 VER in pairo, 8 veare apart, at int€r>wl8 of more than a century. Tnuwita occurretl 5 June, 1761, 8 June, 1769, 8 Dec. 1874, 6 Dec 1882 ; next transits 8 June, 2004, 6 June, 2012, the pairs oocurrintj aliernatelv in Dec. and in June. The transit of Venus over the sun was predicted by Kepler, but not observed. The ant ever observed was by the rev. Jeremiah Horrox, or Horrock^and his friend William Crabtree, on 24 Nov. 1(539, as pnnlicteil by Horrox in 1638. The astronomer-royal Maske- Ivne observed one at St. Helena, 6 June, 1761. Capt. Cook made his first voyage in the Emieavor to Otaheite to observe a transit of Venus, 8 June, 1769. Halley explains iho method of determining the distance of the by the trausit . 1716 Another melhotl by Delisle about 1743 Both pUns used l^ec 1874 Expeditions for accurate observation on 8 Dec. astronomical day (ordinary day, 9 Dec), are sent to difforent parts of the ^^ globe by all the great powers ^ • • • Transit observed at Bath, Penzance, Cork. Cape Town, Wash- iBKton, D. C, Melbourne, and many other places (Sun), 6 Dec. 1882 TenUS, the Roman goddess of love and beauty, identified with the Greek Aphrodite. To represent her in marble has always been a favorite work of famous sculptors, the most cele- brateil statues being the Venus di Medici found near Tivoli early in the 17th century, and at first placed in the Medici pal- ace in Rome (whence the name), removed to Florence, 1680, and the Venus of Melos, or Milo, discovered on the island of Melos by a farmer in 1820, placed in the Louvre, 1834, sup- posed to' be the work of the 4th century b.c. Of less note are the Venus of Aries, the Venus of Capua, the Venus of the Capitol, and later the Venus Borghese by Canova, whose model was Pauline Bonaparte. Sculpture. Vera Cruz, a seaport town of Mexico, built about 1600, was taken by U. S. troops in 1847, and by the allies on 17 Dec. 1861, during the intervention ; retaken by the liberals under Juarez, 27 June, 1867. Vercel'll (the ancient Vercellce), a town of Piedmont, near which Marius defeated the Cimbri, 101 B.C., was the seat of a republic in the 13th and 14th centuries. It was taken by the Spaniards, 1630 ; French, 1704 ; and allies, 1706 ; and after- wards shared the fortunes of Piedmont. Ver'den, a town of Hanover. Here Charlemagne mas- sacred about 4500 Saxons, who had rebelled and relapsed into idolatry, 782. Fort Dummer built by the colony of Massachusetts on the Connecticut river at Brattleborough 1724 French settle at Chimuoy Point, Addison township, Vt 1T30 Township Number One, now Westminster, laid out between the great falls and the land grant of 171(5, by the general court of Mas.S!K'husett8 19 Nov. 1736 Grant of Walloomsack, 1200 acres, mostly in New York, but extending into the township of Bennington 1739 Gov. Wenlworth of New Hampshire makes a grant of Ben- nington 1749 Bennington settled 17C1 Northern boundary of Vermont fixed at 45° N. lat 1763 Proclamation by lieut.-gov. Colden of New York claiming the territory west of the Connecticut, now V^ermont, under grants from Charles II. to the duke of York, and ordering the sheriff to return the names of those who had settled on it under titles from New Hampshire 28 Dec. " [This claim was not settled until 1790.] Gov. Wentworth, after granting about 130 townships west of the Connecticut, proclaims the claims of New York obsolete, and jurisdiction belong*to New Hampshire 13 Mch. 17G*- New York appeals to the king, who decides the Connecticut river to be the eastern boundary of New York 20 July, " Lieut. -gov. Colden proclaims Vermont annexed to New York, 10 Apr. 1765 First New York patent for lands in Vermont, under Colden's proclamation, for 20,000 acres, called Princetown, in the val- ley of the Batteukill, between Arlington and Dorset, 21 May, " Samuel Robinson, appointed by 1000 settlers under the New Hampshire grants to present their petition to the king, sails from New York for England 25 Dec. 1766- King George III. forbids New York, until authorized, to grant land in Vermont 24 July, 17G7 Lieut. -gov. Colden disregards the order, and between Sept. 1769 and Oct. 1770, grants 600,000 acres 1769-Ta' New-Yorkers, claiming the farm of James Breakenridgo in the township of Bennington (part of the Walloomsack grant of 1739), send commissioners and surveyors who are dispensed by friends of Breakenridge 19 Oct. 1709' Ejectment suits for lands claimed by New York at Albany are decided against settlers under New Hampshire grants. .June, 1770' Sheriff Ten Kyck, with a posse of about 300 citizens of All)any, attempts to take Breakenridge's farm for New York claim- ants, but is driven off by armed settlers 19 July, 1771 Organization of the "Green Mountain Boys" under command of col. Ethan Allen, for opposing "the Yorkers" " Jehiel Hawley and James Breakenridge appointed by deputies of Bennington at Manchester. 21 Oct., to petition the king to confirm their grants from New Hampshire 21 Oct. 1772. Green Mountain Boys visit Durham (Clarendon) twice, armed and with threats, to compel the inhabitants to acknowledge the New Hampshire title Oct. -Nov. 1773-. Gov. Tryon of New York, by proclamation, commands Ethan Allen, Seth Warner, Remember Baker. Robert Cochran. Peleg Sunderland, Silvanus Brown, James Breakenridge, and John Smith to surrender within 30 days, offering 1.50i. for capture of Allen, and bOl. each for cai)ture of the others 9 Mch. 1771- Verdnn' (the ancient Verodunum), a first-class fortress . Convention at Manchester resolves that whoever takes a com- the Meuse, N.E. France, made a magazine for his legions mission of the peace froin New York will be deenied an ' ' ^ ° enemy to his country and the common cause 12-13 Apr. Benjamin Hough, an inhabitant of New Hampshire grants, fa- voring New York, procures a commission as justice of the by Julius Caesar. It was acquired by the Franks in the 6th century, and formed part of the dominions of Lothaire by the treaty of Verdun, 843, when the empire was divided between the sons of Louis I. It was taken and annexed to the empire by Otho I. about 939. It surrendered to France in 1552, and was formally ceded in 1648. It was taken and held by the Prussians 43 days, Sept.-Oct. 1792. Gen. Beaurepaire, the commandant, committed suicide before the surrender, and 14 ladies were executed on 28 May, 1794, for appealing to the king of Prussia for the town. Verdun surrendered to the Ger- mans, 8 Nov. 1870, after a brave defence. It was the last place held by the Germans, and was given up 15, 16 Sept. 1873, and the troops retired. Vermont, a New England state, is bounded on the north by the province of Qaebec,'east by New Hampshire, south by Massachusetts, and west by New York and lake Champlain. It lies between 42° 44' to 45° 43' N. lat., and 71° 38' to 73° 25' W. Ion. Area, 9565 sq. miles, in 14 counties ; pop. 1890, 332,422. Capital, Montpelier. Samuel de Champlain ex- plores the lake bearing his name 1609 .\bout 44,000 acres in south- ern Vermont, granted to the colony of Connecticut, - in 1715, as an equivalent for lands granted by Massachusetts in Connecticut territory, transferred to William Dummer, Anthonv Stoddard, Willinm Brattle, and John Wh ite .' 1716 He is found guilty of violating the resolution of Apr. 1774, publicly whipped, and sent to New York 30 Jan. 1775- People, to resist the holding of court under royal authority at Westminster appointed for 14 Mch. 1775, assemble at the court-house, 13 Mch. A guard left during the night is fired upon by sheriff Patterson and his posse a little before mid- night, wounding 10, 2 mortally, and 7 are taken prisoners. In the morning court is opened, but the judge and officers are imprisoned at Northampton by the mob 14 Mch. " Ethan Allen, with 83 men, captures Fort Ticonderoga, 10 May, " Ethan Allen and 38 men, captured in an attack on Montreal, sent in irons to England 25 Sept. " Convention of the New Hampshire grants at Dorset; 56 dele- gates from 33 towns, to form a separate state 25 Sept. 177(> Convention at Westminster declares Vermont "a separate, free, and independent jurisdiction or state, as ' New Connecticut,' " 17 Jan. 177T- Convention at Windsor names the state Vermont, adopts a constitution, and appoints a provisional council of safety for the state 2-8 July, ' British troops under gens. Fraser and Riedesel attack and dis- perse the rear guard of St. Clair's army under cols. Francis and Warner at Hubbardton 7 July, • Council of Vermont appoints "commissioners of sequestra- tion " to seize property of " all persons in the state who had repaired to the enemy" 28 July, ' Battle of Bennington ; gen. Burgoyne sends about 1000 German troops under cols. Baume and Breyman to seize provisions at Bennington; they are routed by Americans under gen. Stark, 16 Aug. " Legislature at Windsor divides the state into 2 counties: one east of the Green mountains, called Cumberland, and another west, called Bennington 12 Mch. 1773; Stockade fort and blockhouse erected at Rutland Apr. " Col. Ethan Allen, prisoner of the British since 1775, exchanged, is welcomed to Bennington by a salute of 14 guns, "one for young Vermont " 31 May, VER 905 VER •Convention of towns on both sides of the Connecticut river, in- cluding 8 from Vermont, at Cornish, N. H., proposes to form a state, with capital on the Connecticut 9 Dec. 1778 .Assembly of Vermont declares the union of 1778, with the 16 towns east of the Connecticut, null and void I'i Feb. 1779 9>egislalure of New York refers to Congress to determine equita- bly the controversy between New York and Vermont, 21 Oct. " Pamphlet, " Vermont's Appeal to the Candid and Impartial World," for independence, pub. at Hartford by Hudson & Goodwin Dec. " Town of Royalton attacked by 300 Indians from Canada; many buildings burned 16 Oct. 1780 Massachusetts assents to the independence of Vermont. . .Mch. 1781 Towns east of the Connecticut annexed to Vermont at their re- quest Apr. " First newspaper in Vermont, the Vermont Gazette ^or Green Mountain Post-boy, printed at Westminster by Judah Paddock Spoouer and Timothy Green " D..... Iwao TicbeAor. KlUah Pkine Nathaniel Cblpman. Stephen R Bradley . Israel Smith Jonathan Robinson . Dudley Chaoc Isaac Tiohenor. James Fisk William A. Palmer. . Horatio Seymour . . . Dudley Chace. Samuel Prentiss BeiUamin Swift Samuel S. Phelps ... Samuel C. Crafts.... William Upham Samuels. Phelps.... Solomon Foot, Lawrence Brainerd. . Jacob Collamer , George F. Edmunda . Lulce P. Poland Justin S. .Morrill Red field Proctor 2d to 2d •' 4th " 4th " 6th " 4th 4th 6th 7th 8th 7th " 13th 8th " 10th 10th " 14th 13th " 16ih 14th " 17 Ih 15th 16th to 19tb 17th " 23d 19th 22d 26tb 22d 27th 2fith 32d 27th 28th to 33d 33d 32d to 39th 33d 34th to 39th 39th " 52d 39th 40th to 52d " 1791 to 1796 1791 " 1796 1796 " 1797 1796 " 1801 1797 " 1803 1801 " 1813 1803 " 1807 1807 " 1816 1813 " 1817 1816 " 1821 1817 " 1818 1818 " 1825 1821 " 1833 1825 " 1831 1831 " 1842 1833 " 1839 1839 " 1851 1842 " 1843 1843 " 1853 1853 " 1854 1851 " 1866 1854 " 1855 1855 " 1865 1866 " 1891 1865 1867 to 1891 " Resigned 1797. Resigned 1796. Elected iu place of Robinson. Resigned 1801. (Elected in place of Paine ; elected president pro tern. 14 Dec 1802- [ 25 Feb. and 2 Mch, 1803-28 Dec. 1808. Resigned 1807. Elected in place of Smith. Resigned 1815. Elected in place of Chace. Resigned 1818. Elected in place of Fisk. Resigned 1842. Appointed pro tem. in place of Prentiss. Died 1853. Appointed in place of Upham. : President pro tem. 16 Feb. and 18 July, 1861; 23 Feb. 1864. ; 1866. Elected in place of Upham. Died 1865. Elected in place of Foot. Resigned 1891. Appointed in place of Collamer. Terra expires 1897. Elected in place of Edmunds. Term expires 1899. Died! Vero'na, a fortified city of N. Italy, was founded by the Gauls or Etruscans. Campus Raudius. It was the birth- place of the poet Catullus and the celebrated architect Vitru- vius, and probably of the biographer Cornelius Nepos and the elder Pliny. The amphitheatre was built by Titus, a.d. 82. Verona has been the site of many conflicts. It was taken by Constantine, 312 ; and on 27 Sept. 489, Theodoric defeated Odo- acer, king of Italy. Verona was taken by Charlemagne, 774. About 1260 Mastino della Scala was elected podesta, and his descendants (the Scaligeri) ruled till subdued by the Visconti, dukes of Milan, 1387. Verona was conquered by the Vene- tians, 1405, and held by them, with some intermissions, till its capture by the Fr«nch general Massena, 3 June, 1796. Near to it Charles Albert of Sardinia defeated the Austrians, 6 May, 1848. Verona was 1 of 4 strong Austrian fortresses termed the Quadrangle, or Quadrilateral. It was surrendered to the Italian government, 16 Oct. 1866. Above 50,000 coins of Gallienus and other emperors, chiefly bronze, discovered near Verona, Jan. 1877. Yer§aille§ {ver-say'-ye), near Paris, was a small village, in a forest 30 miles in circuit, where Louis XIII. built a hunt- ing-seat about 1632. Louis XIV., between 1661 and 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent palace, which became the usual residence of the kings of France. By the treaty between Great Britain and the revolted colonies of North America, signed at Paris, the United States was admitted to be sover- eign and independent, 3 Sept. 1783. On the same day a treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain, by which Pondicherry and Carical, with other posses- sions in Bengal, were restored to France, and Trincomalee re- stored to the Dutch. Here was held the military festival of the royal guards, 1 Oct. 1789, which was followed (on the 5th and 6th) by the attack of the mob, who massacred the guards and brought the king back to Paris. Versailles became the residence of Louis Philippe in 1830. The historical gallery was opened in 1837. Versailles, with the troops there, surren- dered to the Germans, 19 Sept. 1870, and the crown-prince of Prussia entered the next day ; and on 26 Sept. he awarded the iron cross to above 30 soldiers at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV. The palace was converted into a hospital. The royal headquarters were removed here from Ferriferes, 5 Oct After the peace Versailles became the seat of the French gov- ernment (France), Mch. 1871. verse (Lat. versus, a line, a row— in particular, a line of poetry, a succession of feet written or printed in one line ; met- rical composition in general, rhymed or unrhymed). Surrey's translation of part of Virgil's "!lEneid " into blank verse is the hrst English composition of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant m the English language (pub. in 1547). The verse previously used in grave compositions was the stanza of 8 lines, the ottava nma (adopted, with the addition of one line, in the " Faerie Queene," by Spenser, who probably borrowed it from Ariosto- and Tasso). Boccaccio introduced it into Italy in his " Te- seide," having copied it from the old French chansons. Tris- sino is said to have been the first introducer of blank verse- among the moderns, about 1508. — Vossius. Elegy, Hexa- meter, Iambic, Literature, Poetry, etc. Veseronee', a village of S.E. France, near Vienne. Here Gondemar, king of the Burgundians, defeated and killed Clodomir, king of Orleans, and revenged the murder of his brother Sigismond and his family, 524. This conflict is called also the battle of Voiron. Vespucius, Americus. America. Vesta, a goddess among the Romans, identified with the Greek Hestia, presiding over public and private hearths. — One of the asteroids discovered by dr. Olbers of Bremen, 29 Mch.. 1807. vestals, virgin priestesses, took care of the perpetual fire- consecrated to Vesta. The mother of Romulus was a vestal.. Numa is said to have appointed 4, 710 b.c., and Tarquin added 2, and the number remained 6 ever after. If any of them vio- lated her vow of chastity, she was buried alive in the Campus Sceleratus. Minutia was so buried for breaking her virgin vow, 337 B.C. ; Sextilia, 273 b.c. ; and Cornelia Maximiliana, 92 A.D. Chastity. The order was abolished by Theodosius,. 389. "Vestiges of the IVatural History of Creation," a work which upholds the doctrine of pro- gressive development in organic creation, ascribed to Robert Chambers and others, first appeared in 1844, and occasioned much controversy. Vesuvius, an active and destructive volcano, near Na- ples in Italy. Cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum are overwhelmed, and ^ more than 200,000 persons perish, among them Pliny the elder 24 Aug. 79' Torre del Greco with 4000 persons destroyed 17 Dec. 1631 Violent eruption 24 Nov. 1759 Another, being the 34th from the time of the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum 8 Aug. 1767. Destructive eruption, the lava flowing over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated land, and Torre del Greco again burned ; the top of the mountain falls, forming a crater 2 miles in circumference June, 1794 Severe eruption Oct. 182^ Another " May, 1855 Destructive eruption Slay-June, 1858 Torre del Greco again destroyed Dec. 1861 Severe eruption Feb. 1865 Almost constant eruption, commencing 12 Nov. 1867, and con- tinuing throughout 1867-68 Phenomena observed by profs. Tyndall, Miller, sir John Lub- bock, and other scientific men Apr. T868; Severe eruption, 60 lives lost 23 Apr. -3 May, 1872 Active 187& Another eruption; lava thrown to the height of 300 ft. .20 Sept. 1878- VET 907 VET Another 11 June, 1879 Intermittent 2 May, 1885 New crater formed 8 June, 1891 Brazilian tourist falls into the crater July, " Active 13 Sept. 1892 veto (a Lat. verb, I forbid)^ the power of the executive in a government to negative legislation. The president of the United States may treat a bill passed by Congress in any of 5 ways : (1) Sign it ; (2) sign it with a protest ; (3) if presented more than 10 days before the close of the session, and he takes no action, at the expiration of 10 days it becomes a law with- out his signature; (4) if presented within 10 days of the close of the session, and he fails to return it, it does not become a law ; this is termed a " pocket veto " ; (5) veto it, giving his reasons to Congress. BILLS VETOED BY THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. President. N.. I Date. Subject of bill. Remarks. 1 5 Apr. 1792 Apportionment of Representation. Washington, 2 2 28 Feb. 1797 Reduction of the Army. Incorporating Church at Alexandria. 3 21 Feb. 1811 4 28 Feb. " Relief 5 3 Apr. 1812 Trials in District Courts. Madison, 6 6 6 Nov. " Naturalization Pocketed. -7 30 Jan. 1815 Incorporation of National Bank. 8 9 3 Mch. 1817 4 May, 1822 Internal Improvements. Internal Improvements, Cumberland Road. Internal Improvements, Maysville Road, Ky. Monroe, 1 10 27 May, 1830 U 31 May, " Internal Improvements, Turnpike Stock. 12 «^ \\ Internal Improvements, Light houses and Beacons Pocketed. 13 H Internal Improvements, Canal Stock Pocketed. 10 July, 1832 Extension of Charter of U. S. Bank. 15 6D/8C. " Interest of State Claims Pocketed. Jackson, 12 16 17 4 Dec. 1833 River and Harbor Pocketed. Proceeds of Land Sales Pocketed. 18 19 1 Dec 1834 Internal Improvements Wabash river Pocketed. 3 Mch. 1835 Compromise Claims against the Two Sicilies. 20 9 June, 1836 Regulations for Congressional Sessions. 21 22 3 Mch. 1837 16 Aug. 1841 Funds receivable from U. S. Revenue .* Pocketed. Incorporating Fiscal Bank. 23 9 Sept. " Incorporating Fiscal Corporation. 24 29 June, 1842 First Whig Tariff. 25 9 Aug. " Second Whig Tariff. Tyler, 9 26 27 28 29 14 Dec. " Proceeds of Public Land Sales Pocketed. Testimony in Contested Elections Pocketed. 18 Dec. " 11 June, 1844 Payment of Cherokee Certificates Pocketed. River and Harbor. 30 31 20 Feb. 1845 3 Aug. 1846 Revenue Cutters and Steamers for Defence Passed over the veto, the first. River and Harbor. Polk, 3 32 8 Aug. " French Spoliation Claims. 33 34 15 Dec. 1847 3 Mav, 1854 Tnfpmfil Irnnrnvpmpn ts . .. ............. Pocketed. liltt:i Litll Xlkl\J\ \}\ ClIlCllLO. • ........••••• Land Grant for Indigent lusnne. 35 4 Aug. " Internal Improvements. 36 17 Feb. 1855 French Spoliation Claims. 37 3 Mch. " Subsidy for Ocean Mails. Pierce, 9 38 39 40 19 May, 1856 Tnfornal Tmiimi^Ampnf fl HTlRciiRQirini Passed over veto. llllcl Uctl 1 III pi uv i> III cuts, uxinoiDoi \tyi .................. Internal Improvements St. Clair Flats, Mich Passed over veto. 22 May, " Internal Improvements, St. Mary's river, Mich Passed over veto. 41 11 Aug. " Internal Improvements, Des .Moines river, Mich Passed over veto. 42 43 14 Aug. " 7 Jan. 1859 Internal Improvements Patapsco river, Md Passed over veto. Overland Mails '. Pocketed. 44 24 Feb. " Land Grants for Agricultural Colleges. 45 46 47 IFeb. 1860 6 Feb. " 17 Apr. " Tntprnnl Tmnrnrprnpnt'5 St Clair Flats Mich Pocketed. Buchanan, 7 Tntfirrinl Tmnrnv'PiTipnf ..■••■•• Passed over veto. >\U[llloolUIJ Ul i^CUIdOIVC* ••.«••■••••■•• Tonnro nf OflRpp •■•■....... Passed over veto. Johnson, 21 J.WIiUIty yji \Jiii\j\j .....-...••• • •••.••••.•• Reconstruction Passed over veto. 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 23 Mch. " 19 July, " QiTnT^Iomon till Rpi^nn<5trnPt,ifin Passed over veto. OuppitJllltJUtai xvtjV^uiioti uv^vivu Qnririltitnonf sil RppntiQlrilPliOTl .. Passed over veto. Tnifil' T?iacr»lntir*n RAcnrmtnif^tiOD Passed over veto. 25 Mch. 1868 20 June, " 25 June, " 20 July, " llUlUt IvCoUlULIUIl rVC^-'UUOlI uv Government Land Purchase, Council Bluffs, la. 1 010 to to Pensions and Reliefs, Private. (344 26 July, " ) 345 u u Right of Way for Railroad through Indian Lands. 346 3 Aug. " Relief. 347 7 Aug. " Land Grant to Tacoma, Wash. (348 ( 9 Aug. " ) ) to to Pensions, Private. (361 (10 Aug. " ) 362 (373) 14 Aug. " Additional Copies of U. S. Map for 1886. aeveland, 301 "to " i 27 Aug. ;; ) Pensions and Reliefs. 374 Public Building, Sioux City, la. ! "to ■■ Pensions and Reliefs, Private. (385) (13 Sept. " 386 24 Sept. " Land Grant to Kansas. 387 u u Sale of Military Reservation in Kansas. (388) (10 Oct. " "J to i to I Pensions and Reliefs, Private. 424 j (14 Feb. 1889) 425' 21 Feb. " Quieting Settlers' Titles on the Des Moines river. ^^32 (23 Feb. " ) \ to I Pensions and Reliefs, Private. l26Feb. " j 433 2 Mch " Refunding the Direct Tax Parj^I^H rtVAl* t1l#> 17PtA in f Ti^ CiAnnf a 434 26 Apr. 1890 City of Ogden Increased Indebtedness. * X a.oo\7u uvci tuc VCLU ill tlic OcUatc. 435 29 Apr. " Public Building, Dallas, Tex. 436 4 June, " Public Building, Hudson, N. Y. 437 12 June, " Public Building, Tuscaloosa, Ala. 438 17 June, " To change boundary of Uncompahgre Reservation. 439 20 June, " (Bonds issued by Maricopa countv, Arizona, for certain \ Railroad. 440 9 July, " Indian Payment. 441 30 Sept. " Relief of Capt. Charles B. Stivers. 442 1 Oct. " Relief of the Portland Company. 443 (t u Relief of Charles B. Chouteau. Harrison, 19 444 11 11 Pool Selling in the District of Columbia. 445 24 Dec. " Public Building, Bar Harbor, Me. 446 26 Jan. 1891 Bonds, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Territory. 447 26 Feb. " (Act to Establish the Record and Pension of the War ( Department, etc. 448 2 Mch. " Relief of George W. Lawrence. 449 450 451 19 July, 1892 29 July, " 3 Aug. " An Act to Establish Circuit Court of Appeal, etc. Relief of William McGarrhan (Senate fails to pass it over the \ veto, 17 Jan. 1893. ( An Act to provide for bringing Suit against the United ) States. (An Act to prescribe the number of District Attorneys) 452 27 Feb. 1893 -i and Marshal's in the Judicial Districts of the state ^ of Alabama. ) Passed over the veto, 2 Mch. 1893. vice or vi§e, an instrument which Archytas of Taren- tura, disciple of Pythagoras, is said to have invented, with the pulley and other implements, 420 b.C. Vicenza {vee-chen'-tsa), the ancient Vicentia, N. Italy, was the seat of a republic in the 12th century. It suffered by ravages of Aiaric, 401, and Attila, 452. Having joined the Lombard league, it was sacked by Frederic II., 1236. After many changes it was subjected to Venice, and with it fell under the French domination, 1796 ; and was given to Austria in 1814. Having revolted, it was retaken by Radetzky, 11 June, 1848. It was annexed to the kingdom of Italy, Oct. 1866. vice-president of the United States. He presides in the Senate, and on the death, resignation, or disa- bility of the president, succeeds him. 4 vice-presidents have in this way become presidents : John Tyler, succeeding Will- iam Henry Harrison, who died 4 Apr. 1841; Millard Fillmore, succeeding Zachary Taylor, who died 9 July, 1850 ; Andrew Johnson, succeeding Abraham Lincoln, who died 15 Apr. 1865 ; Chester A. Arthur, succeeding James A. Garfield, who died 19 Oct. 1881. For their administrations, United States for the years as above. Ticksburg, Miss., Campaigns for the possession of. Vicksburg, about 400 miles above New Orleans, and about the same distance from Cairo, stands on a high bluff on the east side of the Mississippi river, which just above the town runs for several miles in a northeasterly direction, then, suddenly changing its course, it passes Vicksburg, flowing southwesterly, forming a peninsula several miles in length and from three- quarters to a mile in width directly opposite the town. It was connected with Jackson, the capital of the state, about 45 miles to the east, by the Vicksburg and Jackson railroad, and west of the river it drew the land-commerce of northern Lou- isiana and Texas by the Vicksburg and Shreveport railroad, the only railroad communication the confederacy had with her territory west of the Mississippi, thus making Vicksburg the most important point to the confederacy on the river. The place is easily defensible, the high bluflFs extending along the river banks from Warrenton, about 8 miles below, to Haines's Bluff, 15 miles above, where they terminate at the Yazoo river. The country to the north on the same side of the river is filled with swamps, lagoons, sloughs, and bayous, through which flows the sluggish Yazoo, which empties into the Mississippi 9 miles above Vicksburg. The country west of Vicksburg across the Mississippi is also covered with swamps and bayous; to the east the ground is higher, but much broken, the Big Black river flowing through it. First advance against Vicksburg made from New Orleans, after its occupancy by gen. Butler, when Samuel P. Lee, command- ing the advance naval division of Farragut's squadron, de- manded its surrender and was refused. M. L. Smith com- mands the military defences with 10,000 men 18 May. 1862 Gen. Thomas Williams, with 4 regiments and 8 guns, from Baton Rouge, occupies the peninsula opposite 24 June, " Gen. Williams begins to cut a canal across the peninsula oppo- site Vicksburg, to change the course of the river 27 June, " Farragut runs the Vicksburg blockade to join Davis, and bom- bards Vicksburg 28 June. " Van Dorn takes command at Vicksburg 28 July. "■ Expedition up the Yazoo to destroy the ram Arkansas meets her coming down and retires; the ram enters the Mississippi and takes refuge under the guns of Vicksburg 15 July, " Ellet and W. D. Porter, with the Qtieen of the West and Essex, attack the ram, are repulsed, and with difficulty escape, 22 July, " Williams's canal proves a failure " "■ Williams's force leaves for Baton Rouge 24 July, ■•' Breckenridge attacks gen. Williams's force at Baton Rouge, but is repulsed ; gen. Williams killed 5 Aug. " VIO 1862 OMtruction of the ram Arkanxu by com. Porter In the Eis^x^ ^^^ VIckrturg't defenoM stronRthened and a lino of works built ISnif ibo bluir trom Haines's Bluff to Warrenton . . Aug -Oct. " Deoartiueut of Mississippi and East Louisiana consiituled (Coufedenito) under m^J -gen. John C. Pomborton, who s^uper- iedes Van i>oru and assumes command at Vicksburg, H Oct '« Grants Campaign against Vicksburg .18b2-()J JranTs advance was at Bolivar. S.W. Tennessee while Sherman was at Memphis. Tha confederates occupied Grand Junitiou on the Memphis and Charleston railroad, and the entire line of the Mississippi Central south fVom that point. 51 484 Missing. 25 37 7 187 147 37 453 Total. 875 442 300 2441 279 241 942 3199 641 Confederate losses about 10,000 prior to the surrender. Confederate gen. Johnston, on hearing of the surrender of Vicksburg, falls back and occupies Jackson; Grant orders Sherman to proceed against him, and by 11 July he is close to the defences of the city; on the 17th Johnston evacuates and retires eastward. Chatta- nooga campaign. Victoria, formerly Port Phillip, a British col- ony in S. Australia, between New South Wales and South Aus- tralia. In 1798, Bass, in his whale-boat expedition, visited Western Port, one of its harbors; and in 1802 Flinders sailed into Port Phillip bay. The legislative authority is vested in a parliament of 2 chambers, and the executive in a governor appointed bv the crown. Area, 87,884 sq. miles; pop. 1836, 224; 1846,32,879; 1857,403,519; 1871,729,654; 1891,1,140,411. Col. Collins lauds with convicts to found a settlement at Port Phillip, but afterwards removed to Van Diemen's Land 1804 Messrs. Hume and Hovell, stock-owners from New South Wales, explore part of the country, but do not discover its great ad- I vantages 1824 Edward Henty (of a Sussex family) comes from Tasmania with cattle, sheep, shepherds, etc., and settles in Portland bay; his brothers, Stephen, George, and John, follow soon 1832 John Batman enters between the heads of Port Phillip, and purchases a large tract of land from the aborigines for a few gewgaws and blankets; he soon after, with 15 associates from Hobarton, takes up 600,000 acres in the present Geelong country May, 1835 Launceston associates, and John Pascoe Falkner, ascend the Yarra-Yarra (or ever-flowing) river, and encamp on the site of Melbourne " Colonists (450 in number) possess 140,000 sheep, 2500 cattle, and 150 houses; sir R. Bourke, governor of New South Wales, visits the colony, determines the sites of towns, and causes the land to be surveyed and resold, setting aside contending claims; he appoints capt. Lonsdale chief-magistrate 1837 Colony named Victoria 1839 Province declared independent of New South Wales; a reward of^OO;. offered for the discovery of gold in Victoria, which is soon found near Melbourne, and profitably worked.. . .Aug. 1851 [From 30 Sept. to 31 Dec. 1851, 30,311 ounces of gold were obtained from Ballarat; and from 29 Oct. to 31 Dec. 94,524 ounces from mount Alexander — total, 124,835 ounces.] Representative constitution granted 1855 Parliament opened 26 Nov. 1857 Great opposition to reception of convicts in any part of Aus- tralia; a ship containing them sent back Oct. 1864 First woollen and paper manufactories established May, 1868 Payment (3001. a year) to members of Parliament begins 1872 International exhibition at Melbourne opened 1 Oct. 1880 Chinese immigrants virtually excluded 1885 Government submits to the protectionists; the import duties increased and new ones imposed 13 Sept. 1880 Irrigation conference at Melbourne; 250,000Z. advanced by the state 25 Mch. 1890 Victoria CrOlS, an order of merit instituted by the VIC English government to reward gallantry in all ranks of the army and navy, 5 Feb. 1856. It is a Maltese cross made of Russian cannon from Sebastopol. Queen Victoria conferred the honor on 62 persons (of both services) on Friday, 26 June, 1857 ; and on many of the Indian array, 2 Aug. 1858. Victoria ^yanza. Africa, 1863, 75, etc. Victoria Railway bridge. Bridges. Victoria regia, the magnificent water-lily taken to England from Guiana by sir Robert Schomburgk, in 1838, and named after the queen. Fine specimens are at the Botanic gardens at Kew, Regent's park, etc. It was grown in the open air in 1855 by messrs. Weeks of Chelsea. Vict'liallers, an ancient trade in England. The Vinters' company of London was founded 1437 ; their hall rebuilt in 1823. None shall sell less than one full quart of the best beer or ale for Id. and two quarts of the smaller sort for Id 1603 Power of licensing public-houses granted to sir Giles Mompes- son and sir Francis Mitchel 1621 Number in England then about 13,000 " In Great Britain about 76,000 public-houses 1790 Licensed victuallers in the United Kingdom, 99,465 1872 New licensing act, regulating hours of opening and shutting, etc., passed and came into execution 10 Aug. " [It caused much irritation, and was said to have conduced to the fall of the Gladstone ministry, 1874.] Vienna (the Roman Vindobona), capital of the margra- viate of Austria, 984 ; virtual capital of the German empire, 1273 ; since 1806 capital of the Austrian provinces only. Pop. in 1857, 476,222 ; 1872, 901,000 ; 1880, 1,103,857 ; 1890, 1,864,- .548. Vienna made an imperial city 1136 Walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. of England. 40.000i 1194 Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnificent, with 300,000 men ; forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70,000 of his best troops 1529 Besieged by the Turks July, 1683 ;Siege raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who defeats the Turkish army of 100,000 12 Sept. " Vienna taken by the French under prince Murat, 14 Nov. 1805; evacuated 12 Jan. 1806 ■Captured by Napoleon 1 13 May, 1809 Restored on the conclusion of peace 14 Oct. " Congress of sovereigns at Vienna Nov. 1814 Imperial Academy of Sciences founded 1846 Vienna bombarded by Windischgratz and Jellachich, 28 Oct. ; it capitulates 30 Oct. 1848 Conferences on Russo-Turkish war held at Vienna 1853-55 Fortifications demolished; the city enlarged and beautified, 1857-58 Imperial parliament (Reichsrath) meets here 31 May, 1860 Prussians encamp near Vienna; stateof siege proclaimed, July, 1866 Ring theatre burned; 447 persons perish out of 2000 8 Dec. 1881 .Joseph Pircher, a gilder, climbs the spire of St. Stephen's ca- thedral, 432 feet high, and places a banner on the cross, 18 Aug. 1886 •City enlarged by incorporating the suburbs Dec. 1891 TREATIES OF VIENNA. 1. Between the emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, con- firming to each other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they respectively possessed, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to use his powers to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to place the Pretender on the throne of Great Brit- ain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. 30 Apr. 1725. ■2. Alliance between the emperor of Germany, Charles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and the states of Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated. (Spain acceded to the treaty on 22 July. ) Signed 16 Mch. 1731. .3. Peace between the emperor Charles VI. of Germany and the king of France, Louis XV. ; the latter power guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France. Signed 18 Nov. 1738. Pragmatic Sanction. •4. Between Napoleon I. of France and Francis (II. of Germany) I. of Austria. Austria ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other territories, which were shortly after declared united to France as the Illyrian Provinces, and engaged to adhere to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Rus- sia. 14 Oct. 1809. ■5. Between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, confirming the principles of the treaty of Chaumont, 1 Mch. 1814. Signed 23 Mch. 1815. 6. Between the king of the Netherlands on the one part and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia on the other, enlarging the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the house of Orange. 31 May, 1815. 7. Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania and Rugen to Prussia, in ex- change for Lauenburg, 4 June, 1815. 8. Commercial treatv for 12 years between Austria and Prussia. Signed at Vienna, 19 Feb. 1853. ■S. For the maintenance of Turkey, by Great Britain, France, Aus- tria, and Russia. Signed 9 Apr. 1854. 911 viN 10. Between Austria, Prussia, and Denmark, Denmark ceding the duchies. 30 Oct. 1864. 11. Peace between Austria and Italy; Venetia given up to Italy. 3 Oct. 1866. Vienne (vi-en), the ancient Vienna Allobrogum, a town of S.E. France. Here the emperor Valentinian II. was put to death by Arbogastes, 15 May, 392, and a short reaction in favor of paganism followed. Vienne was capital of the kingdom of Burgundy in 432 and 879, and sometimes gave its name to the kingdom. A general council was held here in 1311. Vienne was annexed to the French monarchy, 1448. Vigilance committee. California, 1851-56. Vigo {vee'go), a seaport town of N.W. Spain, was attacked and burned by the English under Drake and Norris in 1589. Sir George Rooke, with the combined English and Dutch fleets, attacked the French fleet and the Spanish galleons in the port of Vigo, when several men-of-war and galleons were taken, and many destroyed, and abundance of plate and other valu- able effects fell into the hands of the conquerors, 12 Oct. 1702. Vigo was taken by lord Cobham in 1719, but relinquished after raising contributions. It was again taken by the British, 27 Mch. 1809. viking'§, Scandinavian chiefs, Swedes, Danes, and Norse- men, who in the 4th century migrated— eastward, to the coun- tries beyond the Baltic ; westward and southward, chiefly to the British Isles. , Paul B. du Chaillu, in his " Viking Age," de.scribes the vikings as the ancestors of the English. Villere'S plantation, La., about 9 miles south from New Orleans, where an indecisive engagement was fought on the night of 23 Dec. 1814, between American forces under Jackson and British under gen. Keene. The Ameri- cans numbered about 1800 and the British 2500. The British lost 400 and the Americans over 200 ; both retired. United States, 1814. Viile'ta, a town of Paraguay, South America. Here Lopez and the Paraguayans were defeated by the Brazilians and their allies, 11 Dec. 1868. Lopez and 200 men fled, 3000 prisoners were made, and the war was ended. Vimeira (ye-ma'e-ra), a town of Portugal, where the British and Spanish forces, under sir Arthur Wellesley, defeat- ed the French, under marshal Junot, duke of Abrantes, 21 Aug. 1808. The attack, made and repulsed with great bravery, was then repeated by Kellermann with the French reserve in vain. The French, charged with the bayonet, withdrew on all points in confusion, leaving many prisoners. Vincennes {vin-sm'), a strong castle near Paris; a residence of the French kings from the 12th to the 14th cen- tury. Henry V. of England died at the Bois de Vincennes, 31 Aug. 1422. At the fosse of the castle, Louis due d'Enghien was shot by order of Napoleon, after a hasty trial, early on the morning of 22 Mch. 1804. Indiana. Vincent de Paul, St., Charitable Society of, founded in 1833, in France, by 12 young men. It extends its beneficial operations into Britain. The jealousy of the French government suppressed its central committee of Paris in Oct. 1861. St. Vincent de Paul was born 1576; established the congregation of Lazarists, or Vincentines, 1625; Sisters of Charity, 1634; a foundling hospital, 1648. He died 1660. Vincent, St., West Indies, long a neutral island; but at the peace of 1763 the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. The latter soon after en- gaged in war against the Caribs, on the windward side of the island, and forced them to a peace, ceding a large tract to the British crown. In 1779 the Caribs greatly aided the French in the reduction of the island, but they restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which was not subdued for several months. A great eruption of the Souffrifere mountain, after the lapse of nearlv a centurv, occurred in 1812. Area, 132 sq. miles. Pop. 186i, 31,755 ; 'l891, 41,054, Vincy, N. France. Here Charles Martel defeated the Neustrians, 21 May, 717, and acquired their country. vine (Lat. vinea, a climbing plant with a woody stem of the genus vitis; the fruit is the grape). The vine was planted by Noah, 2347 b.o. (Gen. ix. 20). A colony of vine-dressers VIN 912 VI R from Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructetl the South Gaula in tillage, vine - dressing, and commerce, about tiOO B.C. Some think the vine a native of Languedoc, Pro- vence, and Sicily ; and growing spontaneously on the Mediter- ranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The vine was car- riml into Champagne, and part of Germany, by the emperor Pmbus, about 279 a.d. The vine and sugar-cane were planted iu Madeira in 1420. In the gardens of Hampton-court palace is an old vine, said to surpass any in Europe. The Tokay vines were planted in 1350. Fix)wers ani> Plants. I'liM disrate. In the spring of 1845 E. Tucker, of Margate, ob served a fbngus (since named ohiium Tttckeri) on grapes iu tlic hot houses of Mr. Slater, of Margate. It is a whitish mildew, and totally destroys the fruit. The spoces of this oidium were found in the vineries at Versailles in 1847. The disease soon reached the irellised vines, and iu 185(t many lost all their produce. In 1852 it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and in Zante and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reducing the crop to one twelfth of the usual amount. Through its ravages the wine manufacture iu Madeira ceased for several years. Attempts to arrest the progress of this disease have had little suc- cess. Sulphur-dust is the most efficacious remedy. Thediseasehnd much abated in France. Portugal, and Madeira in 1863. In 186*i Califoruian vines were introduced into the two latter. New malady (microscopic insect, phylloxera vaslalrix) in S. France, observed 1865 Remedy, sulphuret of carbon, recommended by M. Dumas, Aug. 1873 Not successful : great destruction : 12,000i. offered for a remedy, July, 1876 Phylloxera prevalent in Malaga and France; reported July- Aug. 1878; Portugal, Italy, Spain, Sept -Nov. 1879; appears in Victoria, Australia Nov. 1880 Phylloxera congress at Bordeaux 10-16 Oct. 1881 PhvUoxera driven out of W. France through the researches of il. Pasteur. 1883-91 Grapbs, Wink. Tineg^ar, dilute acetic acid obtained by the acetous fer- mentation of spirits. The ancients had several kinds, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accustomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich citizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers (1312 B.C.), a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy. Yineirar Hill, near Enniscorthy, in Wexford, S.E. Ireland. Here the Irish rebels, headed by father John, a priest, encamped and committed outrages on the surrounding country. They were gradually surrounded by the British troops, commanded by Lake, 21 June, 1798 ; and after a fierce struggle, with much slaughter, dispersed. Tfol and violill. The lyre of the Greeks became our harp, and the viol of the middle ages became the violin. The violin is mentioned as early as 1206, in the legendary life of St Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II. Straduarius (or Stradivarius) of Cremona was a renowned violin-maker (1700 to 1722). The eminent vio- linist Paganini died at Nice, 27 May, 1840. Virg^ill lilands, West Indies, an eastern group dis- covered by Columbus (1494) : Virgin Gorda, Tortola, Anegada, etc., and the Danish isles, St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St. John. Tortola settled by Dutch buccaneers about 1648; expelled by the English (who have held it since) 1666 Earthquake at St. Thomas and other isles; much damage; few •i'^es lost Nov. 1867 St. Thomas settled by Danes 1672, and St. John a few years after; held by the British 1801-2, 1807-15; proposed sale to the U. S. for 1,500,500^. to be made a "territory." Danish proclamation, 25 Oct. 1867; purchase declined by U. S. Senate, 23 Mch.-May, 1870 [By a hurricane off St. Thomas, the British mail steamers Rhone and Wye were wrecked; the Conway and Derwent, and above 50 other vessels, driven ashore; about 1000 per- sons said to have perished.] Santa Cruz. A negro insurrection; M. Fontaine, a planter, killed; Fredericksted and 36 out of 50 sugar plantations burned, and about 3000 whites rendered homeless ; suppressed by coL Garde, the governor ; about 200 negroes killed, 1-5 Oct. 1878 Virgin Mary. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin churches, in honor of the sup- posed ascent of Mary into heaven, 15 Aug. 45 a.d. The Pres- entation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated 21 Nov., said to have been instituted among the Greeks in the 11th century; its institution in the West is ascribed to pope Gregory XL, 1372. Annunciation; Conception, Immaculate. Vir'ginali, an early keyed instrument of the kind termed clavichords; used in the 16th and 17th centuries; played on by queen Elizabeth and iMary queen of Scots. Ac- cording to Johnson, named from young women being the usual performers. Tallis, Morley, Purcell, Gibbons, and Bull composed for this instrument. Virg^iiiia. Decemviiu. Tirgillia, one of the 13 original states of the U. S., lies between 36° 30' and 39° 40' N. lat. and 75° 25' and 83-"' 34' W. Ion. It is bounded north and west by Kentucky and West Virginia, north and east by Maryland, Chesapeake bay,, and the Atlantic ocean, and on the south by North Carolina and Tennessee. It is 425 mile* length east and west and 205 miles in breadth north and' south. Area, 40,125 sq. miles in 100 counties; pop. 1890, 1,- 655,980. Capital, Richmond. Lucas Vasquez de Ayllons supposed entry of the James river (America, Principal persons connected with dis- covery, etc. ) 1527 Capt. Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow leave the Thames in 2 small vessels fitted out by sir Walter Raleigh 27 Apr. 1584 They enter Ocracock inlet and land on the island of Wocoken in Albemarle sound 13 July, " After exploring Albemarle and Pamlico sounds and the island of Roanoke, they take 2 natives, Manteo and W^auchese, to England Sept. "^ [This country, lying between 34° and 45° of N. lat., called Virginia, in honor of queen Elizabeth.] Sir Waiter Raleigh despatches 7 vessels from Plymouth under sir Richard Grenville to plant settlements in the territory. 9 Apr. 1585- Grenville lands on the island of Wocoken 26 July, " Leaving 108 men under Ralph Lane as colonists, Grenville re- turns to England 25 Aug. " Sir Francis Drake with 23 ships anchors outside of Roanoke inlet 10 June, 1586. Drake sails for England with all the colonists, who had become very despondent, thus ending the first settlement of the Eng- lish in America 19 June, " Another ship of 100 tons, sent by sir Walter Raleigh at his own expense with supplies, arrives at Roanoke a few days later; finding the colonists gone she returns to England June, "- Sir Richard Grenville with 3 ships visits Roanoke about 15 days after the departure of Drake, and leaves 15 men plenti- fully supplied for 2 years to keep the land " New colony of 150, sent by sir Walter Raleigh in charge of John White, leaves Plymouth 26 Apr. 1E8T They reach Roanoke to find that the men left by Grenville have been murdered by Indians 22 July, " Eleanor Dare, wifeof one of the assistants, gives birth to the first Englishchildon American soil (named Virginia Dare), 18 Aug. " John White returns to England at request of colonists for sup- plies,leavingbehind89men,17 women,aud2children,27 Aug. " John White returns to Roanoke 9 Aug. 1590 [He found the settlement deserted. Its fate is conjectural. White's delay in returning was due to the engrossing efforts of England to repel the Spanish armada.] James I. of England grants the London company, including sir Thomas Gates, sir George Somers, Richard Hakluyt (the his- torian), and Edward M. Wingfleld the exclusive right to oc- cupy the land from 34° to 38° N. lat 10 Apr. 1606- Three vessels— Susan Constant, of 100 tons, capt. Christopher Newport; 6rOod-speed, of 40 tons, capt. Bartholomew Gosnold; and Discovery, 20 tons, capt. John Ratcliffe— with 105 emi- grants sail from the Downs, Engl, destined for Virginia, 19 Dec. " They enter Chesapeake bay, naming the capes at its entrance Charles and Henry, after the sons of king James 26 Apr. 160T They enter the James river and land at a place they name Jamestown 13 May, ' ' Edward M. Wingfield chosen president " Christopher Newport sails to England for provision and more settlers 15 June, " Bartholomew Gosnold, the projector of the settlement, dies and is buried at Jamestown 22 Aug. " Before autumn 50 more die; Wingfield is deposed and John Ratcliffe chosen president, whose incompetence gives the control to capt. John Smith during the autumn of. " Capt. John Smith, in exploring the Chickahominy, is attacked by Indians and captured; his companions killed Dec. " Condemned to death by Powhatan, he is saved by his daughter Pocahontas Dec. " [The truth of this story is disputed. See Charles Deane's introduction to Smith's "True Relation."] Capt. Newport returns with supplies and 120 immigrants. 8 .Jan. 160ft Newport returns to England with a ship-load of worthless earth, supposed to contain gold 10 Apr. " Capt. John Smith explores the region of the Chesapeake bay, nearly 3000 sq. miles, as far north as Wyoming valley. 24 July, " [His map is so exact that it was adduced as authority as late as 1873.—" Narrative and Critical History of America," vol. iii. p. 132.] VIR 913 VIR Smith returns to Jamestown 7 Sept. 1608 He is made president of the council 10 Sept. ' ' Newport arrives with supplies and about 70 immigrants, among them 2 women, the first in this colony Sept. " Smith compels the colonists to labor 6 hours each day 1608-9 New charter granted the London company under the title of "Adventurers and Planters of the City of London," with am- pler privileges 23 May, 1609 [" The new charter transferred to the company the powers which had before been reserved to the king. The lives, liber- ty, and fortune of the colonists were placed at the arbitrary will of a governor, who was to be appointed by a commercial corporation." — BancrnfVs "Hist. U S.," vol. i. p. 137, 9th ed.] Nine vessels, with more than 500 emigrants, many swine, and a few horses, sail from England for Virginia 12 June, " [Two of the vessels were driven on the Bermudas and wrecked; the rest reached Virginia] Cupt. John Smith, disabled by an explosion of gunpowder, em- barks for England about 29 Sept. " [He never returned to Virginia.] Colony reduced from 490 to 60 in 6 months 1609-10 [This is known in Virginia history as " the starving time. "] Sir Thomas Gates and the passengers wrecked on the Bermu- das construct 2 vessels and reach Jamestown 24 May, 1610 In their destitution the whole colony leave Jamestown for Newfoundland in their few small vessels; near the mouth of the river they meet a boat of lord Delaware's, whose ships had just arrived with more colonists and supplies, and together they return to Jamestown 8 June, " Lord Delaware the tirst executive of Virginia called governor; owing to ill-health he embarks for England 28 Mch. 1611 Sir Thomas Dale reaches Jamestown from England with 3 ves- sels and Jimpie supplies, and assumes the government, 12 May, " Sir Thomas Gates, with his wife and daughters, bringing in 6 ships 300 settlers, 100 cows and other cattle, and an abundant supply of provisions, arrives at Jamestown early in Aug. " Third charter granted transfers the control from the council or the king to the London company 12 Mch. 1612 Capt. Samuel Argall, in a foraging expedition, entices Pocahon- tas, daughter of Powhatan, on his vessel and brings her to Jamestown " Marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe by the rev. Alexander VVhitaker at Jamestown (she had previously been baptized and named Rebecca) 5 Apr. 1613 First establishment of fixed property in the soil; the company granting 50 acres to every freeman in fee-simple (Land) 1615 Sir Thomas Dale embarks with John Rolfe and his wife Poca- hontas, reaching Plymouth 12 June, 1616 [Pocahontas soon after presented at the court of James.] Pocahontas dies at Gravesend, Kent, when about to embark for Virginia, aged 22, leaving one child 21 Mch. 1617 [" From her child, a son, can be traced descendants both in England and America." — " Narrative and Critical History of America," vol. iii. p. 141.] Capt. Samuel Argall returns toVirginia as deputy-governor with 100 settlers, and John Rolfe as secretary 15 May, " First seal (colonial) of Virginia " Lord Delaware embarks in the Neptune with 200 settlers and supplies ; he dies on the passage 18 Apr. 1618 Powhatan d " Deputy-gov. Argall, convicted of malfeasance and oppressive exaction, escapes 9 Apr. 1619 Sir George Yeardley succeeds Lord Delaware as governor, and arrives at Jamestown 19 Apr. ' ' First representative legislative assembly ever held in America meets at Jamestown 30 July, " [It was composed of 22 burgesses ; all interests of the colony were debated. No legislation was of force till ratified by the company in England.] Dutch man-of-war sells colonists at Jamestown 20 negroes, Aug. " [" This is the epoch of the introduction of negro slavery in the English colonies."— .Bancro/Y's " Hist, of the U. S.," vol. i. p. 177.] Earl of Southampton, the early patron of Shakespeare, elected treasurer of the London company 28 June, 1620 Population estimated at 4000, and 40,000 pounds of tobacco shipped to England " England claims a monopoly of trade of her plantations Oct. 1621 London company begins to ship respectable young women to supply the colonists with wives " [They were sold for 120 lbs. of tobacco each, or the cost ot bringing them over. Offers were made and matches agreed upon; the men paying for their partners, whom they imme- diately married. These unions were often happy.] Sir Francis VVyatt chosen governor, and with 9 ships with emigrants and supplies, reaches Virginia Oct. " Cotton-seed planted as an experiment for the first time " Indians rise and massacre the wliites at nearly all the planta- tions, extending 140 miles on both sides of the river; only Jamestown and the nearest settlements saved, a converted Indian revealing the plot 22 Mch. 1622 [About 347 persons were killed in a few hours; 80 planta- tions were reduced to 8. A war ensued, with little loss to the colonists; no settled peace for 14 years.] Dissensions arising in the Virginia company, and king James wishing to annul the charter, appoints commissioners to in- vestigate it, who advise a dissolution May, 1623 Charter annulled by the King's Bench 16 June, 1624 [The company had spent .$7.50,000, had sent 9000 emigrants to Virginia, and granted the colony free government.] Death of James L and accession of Charles 1 27 Mch. 1625 Sir Francis Wyatt succeeded by sir George Yeardley as govern- or May, 162G Gov. Yeardley d 14 Nov. 1627 Council elects Francis West, a younger brother of lord Delaware, governor 15 Nov. " Gov. West goes to England, dr. John Potts succeeds 5 Mch. 162S Population, 5000 1629 George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, arrives in Virginia in the au- tumn of. " [He visited the territory about Chesapeake bay, and, return- ing to England, obtained a patent for the territory now Mary- land.] Ministers of the gospel are ordered to conform in all things to the canons of the church of England 1629-30 Gov. Potts superseded as governor by sir John Harvey. . .Mch. 1630' Trouble with Maryland as to land titles 1632-44 Virginia divided into 8 counties or shires, viz., Elizabeth City, Warwick, James City, Charles City, Henrico, Isle of Wight, York, and Accomac 1634 William Clayborne, a Virginia contestant, sent to England by gov. Harvey to answer for attempting to establish his claim against Maryland 1635 Gov. Harvey deposed by the Virginia assembly, and commis- sioners appointed to impeach him in England. He accom- panies the commission " John West acting governor during the absence of gov. Harvey, 1635-36 Harvey, reinstated by Charles, returns 1837 Sir Francis Wyatt succeeds Harvey as governor Nov. 163^ Sir William Berkeley appointed governor, and arrives in Vir- ginia Feb. 1642 Massachu.setts sends 3 clergymen to Virginia at the request of Puritans there " Virginia assembly enacts that all ministers in the colony shall conform to the 9rder and constitution of the church of Eng- land or depart 164S Indians, incited by Opechancanough, sachem of the Powhatans, attack the outlying settlements and massacre 300 colonists, 18 Apr. 1644 Indians are quickly overcome, and the aged Opechancanough is captured and dies in prison " Gov. Berkeley sails for England for a year's visit, and leaves Richard Kemp as deputy June, " Virginia in sympathy with the Cavaliers of England. Popula- tion consists of 20,000 whites and 300 negroes; average year- ly export of tobacco, 1,500.000 lbs 1648 Dissenters having increased to 118, encounter all the rigor of colonial authority, and are suppressed by imprisonment and banishment " Virginians continue their allegiance to Charles II. after the execution of Charles 1 30 Jan. 1649 Three hundred and thirty adherents of Charles I. come to Vir- ginia near the close of " Gov. Berkeley sends col. Henry Norwood to Breda to invite Charles IL to Virginia 1650 King Charles II. sends a new commission to Berkeley as gov- ernor, dated 3 June, " Capt. Robert Dennis, one of the commissioners of the common- wealth to reduce Virginia, arrives at Jamestown Mch. 1652 Colony surrenders 12 Mch. " Provisional government organized, Richard Bennett governor, 30 Apr. " Richard Bennett succeeded by Edward Digges as governor 1655 Col. Edward Hill attacks the Indians at the falls of James riv- er and is. repulsed with loss 1656 [Bloody Run, near Richmond, received its name from this encounter.] Samuel Matthews succeeds Edward Digges as governor 1657 Gov. Matthews d Jan. 1659 Sir William Berkeley elected governor 23 Mch. 1660 Charles II. monarchy re-established in England 29 May, " New commission as governor transmitted to Berkeley by Charles II 31 July, " Gov. Berkeley goes to England to defend the colony against the Navigation act 30 Apr. 1661 Col. Francis Morrison acting governor 1661-62 Quakers and other separatists persecuted by fines and banish- ment 1662 Virginia assigned for 31 years to lords Arlington and Culpepper by Charles II.,at the yearly rental of 40 shillings 1673 [This grant covered not merely the wild lands, but private plantations long settled and improved.] Colonists become dissatisfied with their oppressive and un- equal taxes. "To produce an insurrection nothing was want- ing but an excuse for appearing in arms " 1674-75 Susquehanna Indians, driven from the head of the Chesapeake, commence depredations on the colonists of Virginia and Maryland 1675 These Indians are attacked in their fort, near the present site of Washington, by 1000 men from Virginia and Maryland, under col. John Washington, great grandfather of George Washington " Six Indian chiefs, sent out the fort for a parley, are killed " Indians escape from the fort and spread dismay and havoc upon the plantations along the James and Rappahannock. . . " Assembly meets and declares war against them. 500 men gath- ered under sir Henry Chicheley Mch. 1676 When about to march, gov. Berkeley orders the force disbanded, " Alarmed colonists choose Nathaniel Bacon (b. in Suffolk, Engl.) as their leader ; he, failing to procure a commission from the governor, marches against the Indians without one and defeats them May, CALIFORHI^L^ VIR Gov Berkeley proclaims Bacon a rebel 29 May, Baoon cltH-ted a membor i>f the new assembly He 18 taiuuretl ou his way to Jamosiown, tried before the gov- oruor and couucil, aud released on iJarole •'yP?» Bacon bolure the assembly asks the governor for i)ardou,vvhich is granted 6 June, Bacon leaves Jamestown •' "^61 He returns with 600 men and again demands a commission against the Indians. Ho is made commander-in-chief and authoriaswl by the assembly to raise 1000 men, and this is ratiflcil bv the governor Juue. Bacon while engaged in a successful campaign ugaiust the Indians, is again proclaimed a rebel and a traitor by gov. Berkeley \:\;-r "'^ '''^^I' Governor, unable to resist Bacon, Is compelled to retreat to A'comac Aug. Gaiherlng 8t)me vessels and about 1000 men, the governor re- turns to Jamestown "^ Sept. Bacon marches to Jamestown and drives out the governor aud his (bllowera 18 Sept. He bums Jamestown 19 Sept. [It consisted of a state-house, church, and about 18 houses, mostly of briuk.] €ov. Berkeley retires again to Accomac, while Bacon suddenly sickens of a malignant fever, u result of exposure and anx- iety, and d '. 26 Oct. (•' Nobody of later times knew where Nathaniel Bacon was buried." The death of Bacon ended the rebellion, as there was no competent leader left. 23 were executed for this re- bellion, more than those killed on both sides during the war.] News of this rebellion in England prevents the issue of the promised liberal charter, just ready to pass the seals Oct. Three commissioners despatched to Virginia and 1 regiment of soldiers arrive 29 Feb. Gov. Berkeley, being recalled by the king, sails for England greatly disliked '. 27 Apr. Gov. Berkeley succeeded by sir Herbert Jeffreys, who d. .Dec. William Byrd builds a mill and trading-house upon the present site of Richmond, the place known as "Byrd's warehouse," Sir Henry Chicheley governor until 10 May, [Succeeded by lord Culpepper.] John Buckner brings a printing-press to Virginia and prints the session laws, but is called to account by gov. Culpepper and the council, and obliged to give bonds to print nothing more till the king's pleasure be known; all printing forbid- den in the colony Lord Culpepper succeeded by lord Howard of Efflngham Gov. Efflngham visits gov. Dongan of New York, and at Albany concludes a treaty with the Iroquois chiefs. July, Accession of James II. to the throne 6 Feb. Many j)ersons engaged in the rebellion of the duke of Mon- mouth transported to V^irginia Gov. Efflngham embarks for England, and the assembly sends col. Ludwell to lay the grievances of the colony before the English government William and Mary proclaimed in Virginia Apr. Huguenots of France first come to Virginia Francis Nicholson, formerly governor of New York, appointed governor of Virginia 3 June, First assembly under William and Mary at Jamestown Ai)r. Rev. James Blair obtains from William and Mary a charter for William and Mary college at Williamsburg Feb. [The plan of the building was drawn by sir Christopher Wren. It was amply endowed. Rev. Mr.Blair was its first president] Sir Edmund Andros, formerly governor of New York and New England, succeeds Nicholson as governor of Virginia. . . Feb. Francis Nicholson again governor of Virginia .Nov. Williamsburg settled First commencement at William and Mary college Williamsburg made the capital Edward Nott appointed lieut. -governor 13 Aug. Gov. Nicholson recalled George Hamilton, earl of Orkney, appointed governor of Vir- 914 VIR 1676 1678 1679 1682 1684 1685 1698 1699 1700 u 1704 1705 gin [From this time the office became a pensionary sinecure, the governor residing in England, and out of a salary of 2000/. paid his deputy, the actual governor, 8001.] Edward Nott d. in office Aug. 1706 Robert Hunter appointed lieut. -governor, but is captured on the voyage by the French 1708 Affairs of the colony managed by the council, Edward Jennings president 1705-10 Col. Alexander Spotswood arrives in Virginia as lieut. -gov- ernor June, 1710 [He was received with satisfaction by the people, and granted the right of habeas corpus, hitherto withheld.] Gov. Spotswood explores the country west as far as the Shenan- doah valley, crossing the Blue Ridge; the expedition occu- pies 6 weeks Aug. -Sept. Gov. Spotswood sends lieut. Maynard of the British navy with 2 small vessels into Pamlico bay in pursuit of the pirate John Teach or "Blackbeard" 21 Nov. [Maynard sailed back with the head of the pirate chief as a trophy. 13 captured pirates hung at Williamsburg. Ben- jamin Franklin, then a printer's apprentice at Boston, Mass., wrote a ballad on Blackbeard's fate, which was sold in the streets of that city.] Gov. Spotswood effects a treaty with the Iroquois 1722 I Gov. Spotswood succeeded by Hugh Drysdale " I Gov. Drysdale succeeded by William Gooch 1727 I 1716 1718 Boundary established between Virginia and North Carolina. . . 1728 Alexander Spotswood appointed deputy postmaster-general of the colony, and through him Benj. Franklin is appointed postmaster of Pennsylvania 1730 First settler in the Shenandoah valley Joist Hite, who takes up 40,000 acres and enters upon possession with a jiarty from Pennsylvania 1732 Richard Henry Lee b. at Stratford on the Potomac 20 Jan. " Geo. Washington b. Westmoreland county 22 Feb. " Patrick Henry b. at Studley, Hanover county 29 May, 1736 First newspaper in Virginia, the Virginia Gazette, published by William Parks, weekly, at 15s. per annum, appears at Will- iamsburg Aug. " Richmond settled by William Byrd 1739 Virginia raises a regiment to assist in the reduction of Cartha- gena, W. Indies. Lawrence AVashington, half-brother of George Washington, is a captain in it, embarking 1740 iMount Vernon named by Lawrence Washington after adm. Vernon, who commanded the fleet against Carthagena " George Whitefield comes to Virginia " Richmond incorporated 1742 Augustine Washington, father of George Washington, d. ..Apr. 1743 Thomas Jefferson b. in Albemarle county 2 Apr. " Dr. Thomas Walker, of the council of \nrginia, crosses and names the Cumberland mountains 1747 Harper's Ferry named after Robert Harper, an English mill- wright, who obtains a grant of it from lord Fairfax 1748 [The first survey of it was made by Washington.] Thomas Lee, of the council, proposes to form the Ohio com- pany, consisting of himself and 12 others, among them Lawrence and Augustine Washington " They obtain a grant of ()00,000 acres west of the mountains and south of the Ohio river between the Mouongahela aud the Kanawha Mch. 1749 William Gooch, governor of Virginia for 22 years, retires to England Aug. " Christopher Gist is sent to explore the Ohio country as far as the falls of the Ohio by the Ohio company 1750-51 John Robinson, president of the council, acting governor, dy- ing, is succeeded first by Thomas Lee, then by Lewis Bur- well 1750-51 Robert Dinwiddie appointed lieut. -governor, and arrives in Vir- ginia early in By treaty the western Indians at Logstown, a trading-post about 17 miles northwest from Pittsburg, agree not to molest any settlement on the south side of the Ohio 13 June, Gov. Dinwiddie sends Washington (then 21 years old) as a com- missioner to investigate the proceedings of the French on the Ohio; Washington leaves Williamsburg with a few at- tendants 30 Oct. Christopher Gist meets Washington at Cumberland and ac- companies him 14 Nov. They arrive at Logstown 24 Nov. They reach fort Le Bceuf on French creek, Pa., about 15 miles south of lake Erie 11 Dec. Deliver gov. Dinwiddie's letter to St. Pierre, commandant at Le Bceuf, receive a written reply, and return 16 Dec. Reach Williamsburg in 11 weeks, after a journey of 1500 miles through an almost trackless wilderness 16 Jan. [The answer of the French was evasive and unsatisfactory.] Assembly vote 10,000Z. for an expedition to protect the Ohio company in settling the territory on the Ohio and building fortifications Feb. Washington, with 2 companies, sent by gov. Dinwiddie to the Great Meadows Apr. Washington attacks a small party of French near the Great Meadows 28 May, [The leader, M. De Jumonville, was killed ; first bloodshed in this war.] Washington surrenders fort Necessity, a rude stockade at the Great Meadows, to the French after a spirited defence, and with military honors leads out its garrison 3 July, ["In the whole valley of the Mississippi, to its head-springs in the Alleghanies, no standard floated but that of France. ' '— 5ancro/rs "Hist. U. S."] Fort Cumberland, about 55 miles northwest of Winchester, 1752 1753 built. Gen. Edward Braddock arrives in Virginia as commander-in- chief of all the forces in America Feb. Gen. Braddock starts from fort Cumberland for fort Duquesne with 2150 men (Pennsylvania) 7-8-10 June, Consternation on the western frontier of Virginia in conse- quence of Braddock's defeat Virginia assembly votes 40,000i. for the public service; calls out 1500 men for active duty, and appoints Washington com- mander-in-chief Aug. Assembly allows Washington 'SOOl. as a compensation for his losses at the battle of Monongahela (Pennsylvania, 1755), Aug. Washington visits gov. Shirley at Boston to deliver to him a memorial from the officers of the Virginia regiment asking king's commissions, and also to acquaint himself with the governor's military plans Feb.-Mch. [During this journey made on horseback, while a guest of his friend Beverly Robinson, Washington became acquainted with miss Mary Phillipse, afterwards wife of col. Roger Mor- ris, an officer in the British army.] Winchester incorporated 1752 ; the only settlement not deserted west of the Blue Ridge Gov. Robert Dinwiddie retires Ian. [John Blair, president of the council, acting governor.] Francis Fauquier, appointed governor, arrives 7 June, 1758 VIR 915 VIR Oen. John Forbes's expedition against fort Duquesne (Pennsyl- vania) July, 1758 Washington commands a regiment, and from it garrisons fort Pitt (formerly Duquesne), then considered within the juris- diction of Virginia. He marches back to Wmchester and takes his seat in the assembly, resigning his commission after more than 5 years' continuous service Dec. " /He marries Martha, widow of John Parke Custis, and daughter of John Dandridge G Jan. 1759 Patrick Henry's speech in the " Parsons' case " 1 Dec. 1763 Stamp act approved by the king 22 Mch. 1765 Patrick Henry introduces in the Virginiaassembly 5 resolutions against the Stamp act 30 May, " [During the debate, referring to the fate of Tarquin, Caesar, and Charles I., he boldly exclaimed that George III. might profit by their example. The resolutions passed by a close vote; the 5th by a majority of 1.] Virginia prevented by gov. Fauquier from sending delegates to the congress in New York to oppose the Stamp act Oct. '' George Mercer appointed distributer of stamps, but not permit- ted to serve Oct. ♦' Repeal of the Stamp act Mch. 1766 Gov. Fauquier d 1768 Norborne Berkeley, baron de Boutetourt, arrives in Virginia as governor Nov. " Gov. Boutetourt d Oct. 1770 [William Nelson, president of the council, acting governor.] John Murray, earl of Dunmore, governor, arrives at Williams- burg 1772 Virginia House of Assembly appoints a " Committee of Corre- spondence," and recommends similar appointments to the other colonies to promote union Mch. 1773 Gov. Dunmore dissolves the house of burgesses for setting apart 1 June as a day of fasting and prayer, in sympathy with the people of Boston 25 May, 1774 First Continental Congress meets at Philadelphia; Peyton Ran- dolph of Virginia president 5 Sept. " Indian war " [Gov. Dunmore's conduct of the expedition from fort Pitt to meet gen. Lewis at the mouth of the Great Kanawha sug- gests i)remeditated treachery. (See "Narrative and Critical History of America," vol vi. p. 716.) This war was caused by the cold-blooded murder of the family and relatives of Logan, chief of the Mingoes, and other atrocities by the frontier men.] Battle of Point Pleasant, at the junction of the Great Kanawha and Ohio, opposite the present town of Gallipolis, 10 Oct. " [About 1200 Virginians under gen. Andrew Lewis were at- tacked by 1500 Indians led by Cornstalk and Logan. The Ind- ians, after fighting all day, retreated. The Virginians lost 75 killed and 140 wounded.] k/ Speech of Patrick Henry before the convention in the old church at Richmond, urging resistance to England. . .20 Mch. 1775 Gov. Dunmore removes the gunpowder at Williamsburg to a British man-of-war in the James river 20 Apr. Gov. Dimmore leaves Williamsburg, taking refuge on board the Fowey, a British ship, at Yorktown 8 June, GeorgeWashingtonappointedcommander-in-chiefof the Amer- ican forces by Congress 15 June, Virginia convention appoints a Committee of Safety, with Ed- . mnud Pendleton president July, %/Tliis convention appoints Patrick Henry commander-in-chief of the Virginian forces Battle of Great Bridge, near the Dismal Swamp, 12 miles from Norfolk 9 Dec. [Col. William Woodford's successful defence against troops of lord Dunmore, who lost 55 killed and wounded. John Marshall, afterwards chief-justice of the U. S., was a lieuten- ant under Woodford. This was the first bloodshed of the Revolution in Virginia.] • Lord Dunmore burns Norfolk 1 Jan. 1776 Patrick Henry, feeling slighted, resigns as commander-in-chief, Feb. " ^ Patrick Henry elected a delegate to the convention Apr. " Convention instructs her delegates to Congress to advocate in- dependence 15 .May, " Declaration of rights by George Mason adopted by the conven- tion 12 June, " V Patrick Henry elected governor of Virginia Tune, " • State constitution adopted, and colonial government ceases in Virginia 29 June, '| Kentucky made a countv of Virgin. a " Henry Clay born in "The Slashes," Hanover county. ..12 Apr. 1777 Maj. George Roger Clarke sent by gov. Henry with an expedi- tion against the British fort at Kaskaskia (now in Illinois) and captures it 4 July, 1778 He also occupies Vincennes (Illinois) Aug. " All territory northwest of the Ohio river occupied by Clarke is made by the Virginia assembly into the county of Illi- nois Oct. ' ' Col. John Todd appointed its county-lieutenant 12 Dec. " Richmond becomes the capital of the state 1779 Virginia tenders to Congress the entire region beyond the Ohio, 1780 [This vast domain extended to the Mississippi. Virginia retained the jurisdiction of the remaining territory east of the Mississippi river and north of 35° 30'.] Virginia charters the town of Louisville, Ky " Virginia issues $30,000,000, and makes it legal tender at $40 for $1 ; " Benedict Arnold, with 1600 men, enters the James river by order of sir Henry Clinton 2 Jan. 1781 He plunders Richmond and destroys stores 5-6 Jan. " He fixes headquarters at Portsmouth 20 Mch. 1781 Gen. Phillips, with 2000 men, reinforces him 27 Mch. Phillips and Arnold leave Portsmouth 18 Apr. and occupy Peters- burg, driving out baron Steuben and gen. Nelson 24 Apr. Gen. Lafayette approaches Petersburg 11 May, Gen. Phillips dies at Petersburg 13 May, Lord Cornwaliis reaches Petersburg 19 May, Corn wallis sends Arnold to New York May, Cornwaliis starts in pursuit of Lafayette " Lafayette and Wayne unite their forces 7 June, Cornwaliis retires to Williamsburg 25 June, [Estimated destruction of property by the British during this campaign in Virginia, $15,000,000.] Lafayette attacks Cornwaliis near Green Springs, and is re- pulsed 6 July, Cornwaliis crosses the James and reaches Portsmouth. .9 July, Cornwaliis retires with his army to Yorktown 4 Aug. Gen. Lafayette at the forks of the Pamunky and Mattaponey, 13 Aug. American and French army starts for Yorktown, Va., from the Hudson river 25 Aug. Count deGrasse arrives in the Chesapeake with 26 French ships of the line, besides frigates and transports 30 Aug. Combined army passes Philadelphia on the way to Yorktown, 2 Sept. Count de St. Simon lands 3200 French at Jamestown island, and Lafayette joins him at Green Spring 3 Sept. They occupy Williamsburg, about 15 miles from Yorktown, 5 Sept. British fleet under adm. Graves appears off the Chesapeake, and skirmishes with the French fleet 7 Sept. Washington reaches Williamsburg 14 Sept. He visits count de Grasse to plan the siege 18 Sept. French and American army (about 16,000) advances within 2 miles of the British outposts 28 Sept. First parallel of the American opened on Yorktown. . .5-6 Oct. Storming parties (American under col. Alexander Hamilton and French under baron de Viomenil) carry 2 British redoubts, 14 Oct. Lieut, -col. Abercrombie vainly assaults the French batteries on the morning of 16 Oct. Cornwaliis attempts to escape across the river to Gloucester Point on the n ght of 16 Oct. [He was prevented by a storm.] Negotiations for capitulation begin 17 Oct. Cornwaliis surrenders 7247 men, 75 brass guns, 69 iron guns, 19 Oct. [Several vessels, with 900 oflBcers and men, surrendered to the French fleet. Casualties during the siege: Americans, 23 killed, 65 wounded; French. 52 killed, 134 wounded; Brit- ish, 156 killed, 326 wounded, 70 missing. This victory, large- ly dte to chance, virtually ended the war. — "Narrative and Critical Hist.- of America," vol. vi. p. 504.] Adm. Digby appears off the capes of the Chesapeake with 25 , ships of the line, 2 50-gun ships, and 8 frigates, carrying sir Henry Clinton and 7000 troops 24 Oct. " Learning of the surrender, he returns to New York 29 Oct. " Thomas Fairfax, 6th lord and baron of Cameron, dies at his lodge, Greenway court, Frederick county, aged 90 years, 12 Dec. " [He was a stanch loyalist, but took no part in the war. Learning that his friend Washington had compelled Corn- waliis to surrender, he was overcome with emotion, exclaim- ing, "It is time for me to die."] Northwest territory, ceded by Virginia to the U. S., accepted by Congress 1784 Religious Freedom act passed 1785 It is made treason to erect a new state in the territory of Vir- ginia without permission from the assembly Oct. " Legislature authorizes the 5 counties of Kentucky to elect 5 delegates each to consider an independent government. Nov. " James Rumsey moves a boat by steam on the Potomac. . .Mch. 1786 Lynchburg on the James river laid out " Kentucky favors separation at a convention held at Danville, 7 Sept. 1787 Convention at Richmond on the Federal Constitution. .2 June, 1788 Patrick Henry, James Monroe, George Mason, etc., oppose it; James Madison, Edmund Pendleton, John Marshall, etc., ad- vocate it. It is ratified, 89 to 79 25 June, " Virginia cedes 40 sq. miles south of the Potomac to the U. S. for a Federal district 1790 [This land was restored to Virginia by Congress in July, 1846. District of Columbia.] Government armory and manufactory located at Harper's Ferry 4 Mch. 1798 Patrick Henry d 6 June, 1799 George Washington d 14 Dec. " Insurrection of the negroes under one Gabriel, slave of a plant- er near Richmond 1800 [Most of the negroes were captured and executed.] John Marshall of Virginia appointed chief-justice of the Su- preme court 31 Jan. 1801 Richmond Enquirer appears at Richmond 9 Mch. 1804 Trial of Aaron Burr for high-treason at Richmond 1 Sept. 1807 Verdict, not proven, returned (Burr's conspiracy) 9 Sept. " Theatre at Richmond burned 26 Dec. 1811 (During a play called "The Bleeding Nun " about 70 per- ished, among them the governor, George W. Smith.] Chesapeake and Ohio Canal company chartered 27 Jan. 1824 University of Virginia opened 25 Mch. 1825 [It was chartered 1819.] VIR Tb« Whig, newBiwpor. appoars lu Richmond. • VpVh A«»inbly coudeinus the larifl as uucouslilutlonal 21 Feb. G«oloKlcal survey of Virgin in ordered (completed in 6 years) . . Sixty gold mines or "diggings" worked in Virginia (26 in Siwilsvlvttuia and 15 In Orange county) • • • • John IJrown. with several men, rents a small fiirm near Har iwr'H Kerry •'""®' Bn>wn. with 16 whiles and 6 blacks, captures the U. S. armory building at Han»er'8 Kerry on the night of 16 Oct. Alliicked by V. S. troo|>a under col. Robert E. I.ee, he is capt- ured with the survivors 18 Oct. He is hung at Charleston, Va. (Brown'8, John, insurbkction). Gov. Ix>tther calls an extra session of the legislature, which orders a convention 13 "I***- Convention n^jecU an ordinance of secession, 89 to 46. . .4 Apr. It chooses 3 commissioners to ask of the president his policy towanls the Confederate Stales * Apr. First shot at fort Sumter (Vom Stevens's battery, fired by Edmund Ruffln of Virginia at his earnest request (United States) .12 Apr. Virginian commissioners present their credentials to the pres- ident 13 Apr. President answers the commissioners, refusing to acknowledge the Confederate Slates 15 Apr. Gov. [.etcher refuses to furnish troops at the call of the presi- dent 16 Apr. Virginia Stale convention passes a secession ordinance, 88 to M, subject to a vote of the people 17 Apr. Gov. I^etther by proclamatiou recognizes the Confederacy, and orders the stale troops in readiness 17 Apr. Norfolk harbor obstructed by sinking vessels, by order of gov. Letrher 17 Apr. Gen. W. B. Talieferro assigned to the command of the Virginia troops at Norfolk 18 Apr. Harper's Kerry, threatened by Virginia militia, is evacuated by lieut. Jones and 45 regulars, after destroying public prop- erly 18 Apr. Norfolk navy-yard evacuated and property destroyed. .20 Apr. [Among the ships scuttled and sunk was the Merrimac, aaerwards raised and iron clad. See 9 Mch. 1862.] Robert K. I.ee nominated by the governor and confirmed by Ihe convention as commander of the state forces 21 Apr. Virginia convention sends commissioners to Alexander H. Stephens, vice-president of the Confederacy, to treat for the annexation of Virginia 24 Apr. Governors proclamation that Virginia is a member of the Con- federacy (subject to popular vote in May) 25 Apr. Richmond becomes the capital of the Confederacy and general rendezvous of southern troops May, Virginia incorporated with the Confederacy, and gen. Robert E. Lee in command of the Virginia Confederate forces, 6 May, Gen. Benj. F. Butler takes command at fortress Monroe, 22 May, People confirm the secession ordinance 23 May, First advance of the federals into Virginia. 24 May, [3 regiments crossed at Georgetown, 4 at Washington, and 1 (Ellsworth Zouaves) at Alexandria.] Col. E. E. Ellsworth enters Alexandria in command of the New York Fire Zouaves, and is shot by Jackson, a hotel-keeper at Alexandria, while taking down a Confederate flag, 24 May, [Jackson was instantly shot by Francis E. Brownell, one of the Zouaves.] Slaves around fortress Monroe entering the Federal lines are declared "contrabrand " by gen. B. F. Butler 27 May, Occupation of Newport New^s by the federals 27-29 May, Federal troops cross the Ohio at Wheeling and at Parkersburg, 27 May, Occupy GraOon, W. Va 30 May, Affair at Philippi, confederates retreat to Beverly 3 June, Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard proclaims to the people of Loudoun, Fairfax, and Prince William counties that the federals are warring for " Beauty and Booty "... ,5 June, Virginia troops transferred to the Confederate government by the governor 8 June, Affair at Big Bethel, near fortress Monroe 10 June, [Maj. Theodore Winlhrop, aid to gen. Butler, killed. The federals repulsed with slight loss.] Gen. Patterson crosses the Potomac at Williamsport 2 July, [His advance defeated gen. Jackson's brigade at Falling Wa- ter.] Affair at Rich Mountain. W. Va. : the confederates under col. George H. Pegram defeated by the federals under gen. Rose- crans 11 July, Battle at Carricksford, W. Va. ; confederates defeated with the loss of their general, Robert S. Garnett 14 July, Battle of Bill Ru.v 21 July, Gen. Patterson relieves gen. Nathaniel P. Banks in command of the department of the Shenandoah 25 July, 'j. gen. George B. McClellan appointed to the army of the Potomac 27 July, JIding or accepting office under the Federal government de- clared treason by the state 1 Aug. Battle of Ball's Blcff 21 Oct. West Virginia votes for a separation from Virginia; vote sub- stantially .unanimous 24 Oct. Confederate armies in Virginia reorganized under gen. Joseph E. Johnston 9 Nov. Union troops occupy Big Bethel 3 Jan. 916 VIR 1826 1829 1836 1861 At Hampton Roads the Confederate ram Merrimac, capt. Frank- lin Buchanan, sinks the Federal ship Cumberland, captures the Congress, and forces the Minnesota aground 8 Mch. Battle between the Merrimac and Monitor, lieut. Worden com- mander; Merrimac retires 9 Mch. Manassas Junction evacuated by the confederates 10 Mch. Battle of Winchester or Kernstown, gen. James Shields com- manding Federal forces; gen. "Stonewall" Jackson, confed- erates ; confederates retire 23 Mch. Peninsular campaign in Virginia begun " Norfolk reoccupied by Union troops 11 May, Confederates under "Stonewall" Jackson drive gen. Banks from Winchester 25 May, Gen. Robert E. Lee assumes command of the Confederate forces in Virginia 3 June, Battle of Cross- Keys: gen. Fremont attacks a part of Jackson's command under gen. Ewell, but retires (Cross-Kkys, Pknin- SULAR CAMPAIGN) 8 June. Battle of Port Republic: the federals with 2 brigades (3000) defeated by "Stonewall" Jackson (8000) (Peninsular cam- paign) 9 June, Maj. -gen. John Pope appointed to the army of Virginia (Pope's Virginia campaign) 26 June, Lee advances into Maryland; " Stonewall " Jackson crosses the Potomac at White's ford, near Leesburg 5 Sept. "Stonewall" Jackson captures Harper's Ferry (Maryland campaign) 15 Sept. Battle of Fredericksburg 13 Dec. Battle of Chancellorsville 2, 3, 4 May, Federals under Millroy driven out of Winchester by the Con- federate gen. Ewell (Gettysburg) ". .15 June, Grant's campaign in Virginia begins 4 May, Gen. B. F. Butler forbids civil government in Norfolk liy F. H. Pierpont as loyal governor of Virginia 30 June, [On appeal, the president sustained gen. Butler.] Maj. -gen. Philip H. Sheridan appointedto the army of the Shen- andoah 7 Aug. Battle of Winchester 19 Sept. Battle of Fisher's Hill 22 Sept. Battle of Cedar Creek 19 Oct. Confederates abandon and partly burn Richmond 2 Apr. Surrender of Lee at Appomattox (Grant's Virginia campaign), 9 Apr. Francis H. Pierpont recognized as governor of Virginia by a proclamation of pres. Johnson 9 May, Gov. Pierpont assumes office 26 May, XIV. th Amendment rejected by Virginia By act of Congress the Federal government assumes the gov- ernment of V^irginia 2 Mch. Gen. Schofield assigned to the 1st Military District 13 Mch. Gen. Schofield prescribes regulations for registering voters for a state convention 13 May, Election for a convention to frame a constitution 22 Oct. [Vote for, 107,342; against, 61,887.] Convention meets 3 Dec, adjourns 20 Dec. 1867, to 2 Jan. Convention reassembles " Convention adopts a constitution by 51 to 36 17 Apr. [It was to be submitted to the people 2 June; state officers and representatives of Congress to be elected at the same time. The assembly to meet 24 June. No election was held, the state remaining under military authority.] Gen. Schofield relieved, and gen. George Stoneman assigned to the command 1 June, Gen. George Stoneman relieved, and gen. E. R. S. Canby assumes command 20 Apr. Virginia adopts her new constitution at an election by a ma- jority of 39,957 6 July, [It recognizes equal civil rights irrespective of race, color, or former condition. Gilbert C. Walker elected governor.] Legislature assembles at Richmond 5 Oct. [The first deliberative assembly of the state for 3 years, and the first regular legislature for 10.] XlV.th and XV.th Amendments to the Federal Constitution ratified 8 Oct. Act admitting Virginia into the Union without further condi- tions approved 26 Jan. Gen. Canby turns the state over to the civil authorities, 27 Jan. Gov. Walker proclaims the final reconstruction of the state, 8 Feb. Capitol at Richmond falls, the galleries giving away; about 60 persons killed and 120 injured 27 Apr. Freshets in the James and Shenandoah valleys; $5,000,000 worth of property destroyed Sept. Burning of the Spotswood hotel at Richmond 25 Dec. State Board of Health organized in Virginia Gen. Grant has a majority for president of 1975 over Horace Greeley State Board of Immigration established Completion of the Chesapeake and Ohio railroad between Rich- mond and Huntington on the Ohio; length 421 miles Richmond and Atlantic " Air Line " railroad opened James river free bridge at Richmond completed Constitutional amendment abolishing the township system rati- fied Educational convention (colored) meets at Richmond. .24 Aug. Statue of gen. Thomas ("Stonewall ") Jackson unveiled on Cap itol square at Richmond 26 Oct. Violent earthquake shock at Richmond 22 Dec. W. W. Corcoran of Washington gives the University of Virginia $55,000 1863 1864 1872 1873 1874 1875 Edward Maria Wingfleld., John Ratcliflfe Capt. John Smith George Percy . . Lord Delaware.. , Sir Thomas Dale.. Sir Thomas Gates.. 1607 to 1608 1608 " 1610 1610 '• 1611 GOVERNORS. 1611 1611 1611 to 1614 Sir Thomas Dale | 1614 " 1616 George Yeardley .1 1616 " 1617 Samuel Argall j 1617 " 1619 Sir George Yeardlev 1619 " 1621 Sir Francis Wyatt 1621 " 1626 Sir George Yeardley ! 1626 -'1627 Francis West i 1627 " 1629 John Potts 1629 Deposed from the oflQce by the colonists. Relieved. Returns to England. Returns to England. (Dep. gov. Superseded \ by sir Thomas Gates. (Dep. gov. Returns to ( England. JDep. gov. Returns to ( England. Dep. gov. " Depose*. Returns to England. Dies in office. Acting. ( " Relieved by ( John Harvey. VIR 917 Twenty-four U. S. soldiers posted at Petersburg to protect the polls 4-13 Nov. 1876 Readjusters, formerly Democrats, organize as a party. . .25 Feb. 1879 Readjusters hold a state convention at Richmond 7 July, 1880 One hundredth anniversary of the surrender of Cornwallis cele- brated at Yorktown 19 Oct. 1881 [Robert C. Winthrop of Massachusetts delivered the oration. Representatives of the families of Lafayette, count Rocham- beau. and baron Steuben were present. The corner-stone of the monument (122 ft. high), to commemorate this victory, was laid 18 Oct. 1881; military review 20, and naval 21 Oct. ] Act passed making receivable for taxes only gold, silver, U. S. Treasury notes, national bank-notes, and currency (excluding coupons on state bonds) 26 Jan. 1882 " Riddleberger act" passed, oflfering terms of settlement with state bond-holders 14 Feb. " All acts for punishment by stripes repealed, and other punish- ment substituted " Legislature meets in extra session 7 Mch.-22 Apr. " Amendment to state constitution abrogating capitation tax as a condition of voting ratified by vote, 107,303 to 66,131, at elec- tion Nov. " Virginia Normal and Collegiate institute established at Peters- burg 1883 Extra session of the legislature Aug.-Dec. 1884 Southwestern Lunatic asylum provided for by law " State Woman Normal school established at Farmville " U. S. Supreme court decides that coupons are a good tender in payment of taxes in Virginia 20 Apr. 1885 Act to establish an Agricultural Experiment station at the Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical college at Blacksburg; one appointing a commission to fix the boundary line with North Carolina, and a Local Option act passed by legislature, which adjourns 5 Mch. 1886 Legislature convenes in extra session 16 Mch. 1887; among other acts passes one to punish persons fraudulently using coupons, and adjourns 24 May, 1887 Board of Agriculture established by legislature, which ad- journs 5 Mch. 1888 College of William and Mary becomes State Male Normal col- lege by act approved 5 Mch. " Nineteenth Jan. (gen. Robert E. Lee's birthday) made a legal holiday by legislature at session ending 1 Mch. 1890 Mercie's equestrian statue of gen. Robert E. Lee unveiled at Richmond 29 May, " Monument to the Confederate dead unveiled at Fredericks- burg 10 June, 1891 Statue of gen. Stonewall Jackson unveiled at Lexington; 15,000 Confederate veterans present; oration by gen. Early, 21 July, " Thomas W. Bocock, born 1815, for 14 years a congressman and for 4 years s|)eaker of the Confederate Congress, dies in Ap- pomattox county 5 Aug. " Appomattox Courthouse building destroyed by fire 3 Feb. 1892 Legislature ratifies a final settlement of the State debt with the bond-holders. $19,000,000 in bonds, to run 100 years at 2 per cent, for 10 years and 3 per cent, for 90 years, to be issued for the $28,000,000 outstanding Feb. " Senator John S. Barbour dies suddenly in Washington, 14 May, " Eppa Hunton of Warrenton, under executive appointment 28 May, qualifies as U. S. senator 1 June, " Corner-stone of new Chamber of Commerce laid at Richmond, 25 Aug. " Convention of Southern governors meet at Richmond in the interest of the South 12 Apr. 1893 Remains of Jefferson Davis, brought from New Orleans, buried in Hollywood cemetery, Richmond 31 May, *' Jubal A. Early, confederate general, dies at Lynchburg, 2 Mch. 1894 Monument at Fredericksburg, erected to the memory of the mother of Washington, unveiled 10 May, " GOVERNORS UNDER THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. PRESIDENTS OF THE COUNCIL. VIR GOVERNORS.— (Continued J Name. Date. Remarks. John Harvey 1629 to 1635 1635 " 1636 1636 " 1639 1639 " 1641 1641 " 1652 1652 " 1655 1655 " 1656 1656 " 1660 1660 " 1661 1661 " 1663 1663 " 1677 1677 " 1678 1678 " 1680 1680 " 1684 1684 " 1688 1688 " 1690 1690 " 1692 1692 " 1698 1698 " 1705 1705 " 1706 1706 " 1710 1710 " 1722 1722 " 1726 1726 " 1749 1749 " 1752 1749 " 1752 1752 " 1758 1758 " 1768 1768 " 1770 1770 " 1772 1772 " 1775 \ Goes to England to an- ( swer charges. Acting. John West John Harvey Sir Francis Wyatt Sir William Berkeley Richard Bennett (Appointed by the Com- ■{ monwealth of Eng- land (Appointed by the Com- < monwealth of Eng- ( l.nd. Edward Digges Samuel Matthews . .. Sir William Berkeley Col. Francis Moryson Sir William Berkeley Sir Herbert Jeffreys Sir Henry Chicheley Lord Culpepper Returns to England. Acting. ( Retires to England to \ remain. Lt-gov. Dies in office. Dep. gov. (Recalled and deprived ( of his office. Retires to England. Acting. Lord Howard of Effingham. Nathaniel Bacon Francis Nicholson . Sir Edmund Andros Francis Nicholson Removed. Edward Nott Dep.gov. Dies in office. Lt-gov. Removed. '' Dies in office Edmund Jennings Alexander Spotswood Hugh Drysdale William Gouch. . . .». Thomas Lee and ) } Acting. Lt. gov. Lewis Burwell j Robert Dinwiddle Francis Fauquier Lord Boutetourt . . " Dies William Nelson . . . . Lord Dunmore /Last of the royal gov- ( ernors. Provisional convention from 17 July, 1775, to 12 June, 1776 GOVERNORS UNDER THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS AND THE CONSTITUTION. Patrick Henry 1776 to 1779 Thomas .Jefferson 1779 " 1781 Thomas Nelson 1781 Benjamin Harrison 1781 to 1784 Patrick Henry 1784 " 1786 Edmund Randolph 1786 " 1788 Beverly Randolph 1788 " 1791 Henry Lee 1791 " 1794 Robert Brooke 1794 " 1796 James Wood j 1796 " 1799 James Monroe i 1799 " 1802 John Page 1802 " 1805 William H. Cabell 1805 " 1808 John Tyler 1 1808 " 1811 James Monroe I 1811 George W. Smith i 1811 to 1812 Date. James Barbour , 1812 Wilson C. Nicholas i 1814 James P. Preston Thomas M. Randolph. James Pleasants . . John Tyler William B. Giles 1816 1819 1822 1825 1826 John Floyd [ 1829 Littleton W. Tazewell j 1833 Wypdham Robertson I 1836 David Campbell 1837 Thomas W. Gilmer 1840 John Rutherford. John M. Gregory.. James McDowell.. William Smith... John B. Floyd John Johnson Joseph Johnson. . Henry A. Wise. .. John Letcher 1841 1842 1843 1846 1849 1851 1852 1814 1816 1819 1822 1825 1826 1829 1833 1836 1837 1840 1841 1842 1843 1846 1849 1851 1852 1856 1860 " 1864 William Smith 1864 Francis A. Pierpont j 1863 Henry A. Wells i 1867 1865 1867 Gilbert C. Walker. 1869 " 1874 James L. Kemper. ; 1874 " 1878 F. W. M. Holliday ! 1878 " 1882 W. E. Cameron 1882 " 1886 Fitz-Hugh Lee 1886 " 1890 Philip W. McKinney I 1890 " 1894 Charles T. O'Ferrall | 1894 " 1808 Resigns. Democrat. Resigns. Democrat. ( Also governor under the ( Confederacy. Confederate governor. j Provisional governor. \ Resigns Sept. 1869. (Provisional governor ^ from Sept. 1869, to ( Jan. 1870. I Democrat. Maj. - gen. ( Confederate army. Democrat. Readjuster Democrat. VIR 918 VIV UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF VIRGINIA. Nmm. No. of CongT^. Date. Remarks. 1st to 2d Ist Ist 1st to 4th ad '• 3d 3d •♦ 8th 4tb '• 8th 6th " 8th 8th " 11th 8th '• 14th 8th 8th nth to 13th 13th " 19th 14th 15ih 16th to 17th 17th " 18th 18th " 22d 19th " 20th 20th " 24th 22d " 23d 23d " 24th 24th " 25lh 24th " 29th 26th " 27 th 27th " 30ih 29th " 30th 29th " 37th 30th " 37th 37th 37th 38th 1789 to 1792 1789 " 1790 1790 1790 to 1796 1792 " 1794 1794 " 1799 1796 " 1803 1800 " 1804 1804 " 1809 1804 " 1815 1803 1803 to 1804 1809 " 1814 1815 " 1825 1816 " 1817 1817 " 1819 1819 " 1822 1822 " 1824 1824 " 1832 1825 " 1827 1827 " 1836 1833 " 1834 1834 '• 1836 1836 " 1837 1836 " 1845 1837 " 1841 1841 " 1847 1845 " 1847 1847 " 1861 1847 " 1861 1861 1861 to 1863 1863 " 1864 President pro tem. 18 Apr. 1792. Resigned 1792. Died 1790. Appointed pro tem. in place of Grayson. Elected in place of Grayson. Klected in place of Lee. Resigned 1794. ( Elected in place of Taylor; president »>-o tem. 7 Dec. 1795; ( 1799. Died 1803. Resigned 1804. Resigned 1815. Appointed pro tem. in place of Mason. Resigned 1804. Died iu office 1814. President pro tem. 15 Feb. 1819. Resigned 1825. Elected in place of Giles. Resigned 1819. Elected in place of Eppes. Resigned 1822. Elected in place of Pleasants. Died 1824. ( Elected in place of Taylor. President pro tem. 9 July, 1832. \ signed 1882. Elected in place of Barbour. (Defeated Randolph for the Senate. President pro tem. 3 t 1835. Resigned 1836. Resigned 1834. Elected in place of Rives. Resigned 1836. Elected in place of Leigh. " 18.37. Elected in place of Tyler. Elected in place of Parker. ( Elected in place of Pennybacker; president pro tem. 6 Jan I 4 Mch. 1857; expelled July, 1861. Expelled July, 1861. Elected in place of Hunter. Elected in place of Mason. Died. James Monroe Henry Taiewell died tStAvnna ThnmSAII VaJUIU . . Dirilu.in (htrv VirhnlAD .. .. Jimo^ HHrbour Anui^toail T M&son. Johu W KuiWR James I'lf'as&ots. .Inhn Tavlor I ittlAtnn W Tazewell Re- John Randolph John Tyler. Mch. William C Rives ; Richard E Parker. William H. Roane William S Archer Isaac S. Pennvbacker James M Mason and Robert M. T. Hunter John S Carlile WaitemanT. Willey John J. Bowden John W. Johnston. . John F. Lewis Robert E. Withers.. William .Mahone... H. H. Riddleberger. John W. Daniels... John S. Barbour..;. Eppa Hunton Thomas S. Martin. . 39th and 40th Congresses vacant. 41st 1870 to 1883 I 41st to 44th 1870 " 1875 44th " 47th 1875 " 1881 47th '' 50th 1881 " 1887 48th " 51st 1883 " 1889 50th " 1887 " 5l8t " 52d 1889 " 1892 52d " 54th 1892 " 1895 54th " 1895 " Term expires 1899. Died 1892. Term expires 1901. Yirg^iniUi. United States, Oct.-Dec. 1873. VI§COIIti {vis-con'ti), a noble Italian family, which ruled in Milan from about 1277 to 1447 ; the heiress of the family married Francesco Sforza, who became duke 1450. ViiCOUnt (vi'count) {Vice Comes), anciently the deputy of an earl. The first viscount in England created by patent was John, lord Beaumont, whom Henry VI. created viscount Beaumont, giving him precedence above all barons, 10 Feb. 1440. — Ashmole. This title is of older date in Ireland and France. John Barry, lord Barry, was made viscount Butte- vant, in Ireland, 9 Rich. II. 1385. — Beatson. Yisll'nu, the second person of the Hindu triad sustaining the role of Preserver. In the earlier Vedas he appears as a mani- festation of the sun. When necessary in certain crises he assumes the human form and preserves by his power the human race. iriitble speech, as Alex. Melville Bell calls his " Uni- versal Self- Interpreting Physiological Alphabet," comprises 30 symbols representing the forms of the mouth when uttering sounds. About 50 symbols, he asserts, would be required to represent the sounds of all known languages. He expounded his system to the Society of Arts, London, 14 Mch. 1866, and published a book in 1867. Yi§ig^Oth§, or western Goths, separated from the Ostro- goths about 330. Goths. The emperor Valens, about 369, al- lowed them to cross the Danube and settle in Roman territories on condition of serving when wanted in the Roman armies; and Theodosius the Great permitted them to form distinct corps with their own officers. In 400,under Alaric,they invaded Italv,and though at first defeated by Stilicho,they took Rome, 4 10. They founded the kingdom of Toulouse, 414 ; conquered the Alani, and extended theirrule into Spain, 414, which they occupied un- til conquered by the Saracens under Muza, 711, when their last king, Roderic, was defeated and slain. Spain. Their rule in France ended with their defeat by Clovis at Vougle, 507. Vftal force, defined by Humboldt as "an unknown cause preventing the elements from obeying primitive affini- ties." This theory is rejected by many physiologists, and ani- mal motion is attributed to muscular and nervous irritabilitj-, illustrated by the researches of Galvani, Humboldt, sir Charles Bell, Marshall Hall, and others. The subject is fully discussed by Huxley and other physiologists. Vitto'ria, a town of N. Spain, the site of a victory of Wellington over the French armies of Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and marshal Jourdan, 21 June, 1813. The hostile armies were nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. After a long struggle, the French were driven, towards evening, through the town of Vittoria, and were thrown into irretriev- able confusion. The British loss was 22 officers and 479 men killed ; 167 officers and 2640 men v/ounded. Marshal Jourdan lost 161 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, his bag- gage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a mar- shal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Welling- ton took Jourdan's only remaining gun, Vivisec'tion (Lat. vivus, alive, and secare, to cut), the dissection of living subjects. Physiological experiments upon living animals having much increased, societies for the pre- vention of cruelty to animals in Dresden and Paris in 1859 asked of several eminent scientific men the value of knowledge thus acquired. Their judgment was not unanimous. The London society took up the question in 1860, and printed a pamphlet by G. Macilwain against vivisection. In Aug. 1862, an international conference to discuss the question was held at the Crystal palace, Sydenham. After another discussion in 1866, a prize was awarded by the London society. Sir Charles Bell's opinion of vivisection was that it either obscured the subject it was meant to illustrate, or mi.sled men into serious practical errors. But of late years discoveries of vast impor- tance in the treatment of disease have been made by experi- ments on living organisms, and scientific opinion is practically unanimous that this method is valuable and indispensable to the progressive art of healing, though so liable to abuse that it ought to be practised with caution and limited by necessity. Discussion revived by prosecution of dr. Sohiff" in Florence, who justified vivisection under anaesthetics 1873-7ft Rival societies: 1. Society for the Abolition of Vivisection, VIZ 919 1875; 2. International Association for Total Suppression of Vivisection Ig76 [Commission (viscount Cardwell, prof. Huxley, and others") to inquire into the practice, appointed 23 June, 1875; report signed, 8 Jan.; pul). Mch. 1876; bill to regulate vivisection (Cruelty to Animals act) introduced In Parliament; opposed by the medical profession, June, July; passed, 15 Aug. 1876. Vivisectors to have a license or certificate.] Resolutions in favor of vivisection, by the International Medi- cal congress, London 9 Aug. 1881 Prof Terrier (who experimented on brains of monkeys under anaesthetics) and others prosecuted; no conviction Nov. " Dr. Koch of Berlin demonstrates the cause of tubercular dis- ease to be minute organisms termed bacilli 1882 Bill before the British Parliament to prohibit vivisection talked out 4 Apr. 1883 Four hundred and forty-one experiments in Great Britain in. . 1884 Instructed by dr. Ferriers vivisection experiments, dr. Hughes Bennett localizes in a man's bruin a tumor, which is re- moved by dr. Godlee 25 Nov. " One thousand and sixty-nine experiments in Great Britain in 1888 Dr. Nicolaier, a German, experiments with live animals, inocu- lating them for tetanus (lock-jaw), 1884; further discoveries in dr. Koch's laboratory at Berlin, and at Bologna by prof. Tizzoni and Cattani 1889 [These and all other investigations in this direction place it beyond doubt that all forms of tetanus are due to the drum- stick-shaped bacillus of Nicolaier] Pasteur's experiments with animals inoculated for hydrophobia result in a cure for it 1885-90 Medical science. vizier', jg^rand, an officer of the Porte, said to have been first appointed by Amurath I., about 1386. The office was abolished in 1838, but has since been frequently revived and suppressed. VOlapiik (vo-la-pUk'), from 2 words in the new lan- guage : vol, world, universe, and puk, speech, discourse, etc. An attempt to form a universal language by Johann M. Schleyer, a German teacher at Constance, Germanj', about 1879, by a selec- tion of words or roots from most of the modern European lan- guages, and from Latin. Its peculiarities are: (1) Alphabet con- sists of 27 letters, 8 vowels and 19 consonants. (2) Each letter has but one sound. (3) Consonants are sounded as in English, except c and^; g is always hard, and h is an aspirate. (4) Ac- cent invariably on the last syllable. (5) One conjugation and no irregular verbs. (6) All word forms and inflections are regu- lar. (7) Adjectives, verbs, and adverbs regularly formed frotn substantives. (8) w becomes v, and I is substituted for r. (9) Words are as far as possible reduced to one syllable. (10) Nouns have one declension and 4 cases. (11) Adjectives are formed by adding ik to the substantive, and adverbs by add- ing to the adjective, as fam, glory ; famik, glorious ; and famiko, gloriously. It was adopted for international corre- spondence by many business houses, and schools of volapUk were opened in many cities ; but it is now nearly forgotten. VOlca'no (Ital., from Lat.Fo?canMs, Vulcan, god of fire), originally the name of Etna, in which Roman mythology placed the forge where Vulcan wrought the thunderbolts of Jupiter; later a general name for a mountain with a crater or opening into a mass of molten rock within the earth. Such mountains are widely distributed over the globe, but are mostly near the sea. They are very variable in activity, and usually intermittent ; sometimes quiet for many years or even centu- ries, and again extremely violent, throwing high in the air vast columns of smoke and fire with cinders, and pouring through crevices streams of lava or melted rocks, which at times cover large tracts of land. Many volcanoes, once ac- tive, have been quiescent from the dawn of history. The fol- lowing is a list of active and extinct volcanoes located by groups. Under the 2 systems of central and linear, the former consisting of several vents grouped together, but one of which is usually in eruption at any one time. The latter system consists of vents extending in one direction along a range of mountains, as the Andes in South America, and extending into North America as the Rocky Mountains. Some, long regarded as extinct, have suddenly become active. CENTRAL SYSTEM — GROUPS. MEDITERRANEAN SEA. Name of group. No. Remarks. I. Etna, Sicily II. Vbsuvics, Italy .... III. Lipari islands 1 1 2 Active. ( Stromboli the principal, always ' active, called the Light -house ( of the Mediterranean. VOL ATLANTIC OCEAN. Name of group. IV. Jan Mayen island. . . V. Iceland VI. Azores VII. Canary islands VIIL Cape Verde islands. IX. Ascension •' . X. Tristan d'Acunha) islands \ XI. Trinidad island XII. Traverse isles Remarks ( Active. Most northern volcanoes I on the globe. Lat. 70° 49' N. Hecla the principal. All active. 1 active. Active. (Teneriffe quiet.) INDIAN OCEAN. Xm. Mauritius and Bour-)| „ i , „„,,_ bon isles Jj ^ | 1 active. PACIFIC OCEAN. XIV. Hawaii archipelago. 4 (3 active. 1 cipal. Active. XV. Galapagos islands. . . XVI. Marquesas " ... XVII. Society " ... XVIII. Easter " ... 1 1 1 1 WESTERN ASIA. XIX. El Burs, Ararat, etc. | 3 j 1 active. EASTERN AFRICA. XX. Zanguebar 2 Mauna Loa the prin^ LLNEAR system — GROUPS. MEDITERRANEAN SEA. I. Santorini,Gr. islands! 1 I Active. ASIA. II. Thian-Shan i 2 I Active. III. Red sea 2 1 active. IV. Kamtchatka | 21 I All active. PACIFIC OCEAN, SOUTH. V. Friendly isles i 4 i 2 active. VL Australasian isles. . . | 13 I All active. PACIFIC OCEAN, NORTH. vn. Moluccas, Philip pine, Formosa. . , VIII. Ladrone isles IX. Benin Sima isles. . X. Japan , XI. Kurile isles XII. Aleutian isles , At least 25 active. 3 active. Active. From 15 to 19 active. 11 active. 23 " INDIAN OCEAN, SUNDA. |47 are on the island of Java, 16 of XIII. Sunda isles. I them active, and 7 on the island j of Sumatra. On the island of ] Krakatoa the greatest eruption I of modern times occurred, 26- [ 28 Aug. 1883. AMERICA. Java. XIV. North Paciflc coast.. XV Mexico 10 7 36 10 17 12 22 3 3 408 4 active. 5 " XVI. Central 25 " XVII. West Indies XVIII. South, Quito XIX. " Peru and Bolivia XX " Chili 9 " Highest in the world. 17 " XXI. Terra del Fuego .... XXII. Antarctic continent. ( Active. Erebus, on Victoria Land,. 77° 32' S. lat., is the most south- ( em volcano known. VolSCi (wols'kee or vol'se), an ancient Latin people, fre- quently at war with the Romans. From their capital, Corioli, Caius Martius (who defeated them about 490 b.c.) derived his name Coriolanus. The legend of his banishment by his ungrate- ful countrymen, of his revenge by bringing the Volsci to the gates of Rome, yet afterwards sparing the city at the entrea- tiesof his mother Volumnia (487 B.c.),is immortalized in Shake- speare's tragedy of " Coriolanus." The Volsci and their allies were subdued at Sutrium by the consul Valerius Corvus (346- B.C.), and incorporated with the Roman people about 338 b.c. voltaic pile or battery was constructed by Gal- vani. Galvanism under Electricity. The principle was discovered by Alessandro Volta, of Como (b. 1745), for 30 years professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, and announced by him to the Royal Society of London in 1793. The battery was first .set up in 1800. Volta was made an Italian count and senator bj' Napoleon Bonaparte, and was greatly honored. While young he invented the electrophorus, electric pistol^ VOL ^ Mad hvdrogen Ump. He dieil in 1826, aged 81. The form of Che voluic battery has been greatly improved by recent elec- trieians. The nitVic-acid battery of sir W. R Grove was con- structed in 1839; Alfreil Smee's battery in 1840; the carbon battery of pruf. Hubert Bnnsen in 1842. Grove's is best known ill Knglaiid; Biinsen's on the European continent. CorPKK. voluntary contributions, public and private, to the United States government during the civil war, 1861- imo, were not less than $500,000,000.— Greeley's "American Ooitlict," vol. ii. ap|>ended notes ii. Tiiia came in all amounts, from one cent up to Cornelius Vanderbilt's gift of a fully equippetl war-steamer valued at $800,000. Johnstown Flood, Sanit.vhv C0M.MISS10N, etc. volunteers. Ahmv, Unitku States. vote. Popular votk; for electoral, United States. Vouyl^ or Voullle iyool-ya'), a town of S.W. France, near Poitiers, where Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, was de- feateil and slain by Clovis, king of France, 507, who subdued the whole country from the Loire to the Pyrenees. Peace fol- lowetl between the Franks and Visigoths, who had been set- tleil above 100 years in that part of Gaul called Septimania. Clovis soon after made Paris his capital. ) WAH VOyagpes. America, Circumnavigatoks, Expedi- tions, Northeast and Northwest passages, et«. YuTcan (Lat. Volcanus), the Roman god of fire and the worker of metals, the same with Hephaestus of the Greeks ; according to Homer, the son of Zeus and Here. Vulcan is the "Tubal-Cain "of heathen mythology.— This name has also been given to a conjectural planet between the orbit of Mer- cury and the sun ; first reported by M. Lescorbault, a physician of Orgeres, France, 26 Mch. 1859. The French astronomer Le Verrier accepted it, but nothing has been seen of it by other astronomers. Vul'gate (from vulgatus, published), a term applied to the Latin version of the Scriptures which is authorized by the council of Trent (1546), and which is attributed to St. Jerome, about 384. The older version, called the Italic, is said to have been made in the beginning of the 2d century. A critical edition was printed by order of pope Sixtus V. in 1590, which, being considered inaccurate, was superseded by the edition of pope Clement V. in 1592. The earliest printed Vulgate is without date, by Gutenberg and Faust, probably about 1455 ; the first dated (Faust and Schoffer) is 1462. Bible. W W, the 23d letter and 18th consonant of the English alpha- bet. It began to be used in the Uth century, and owes its origin to the upsilon of the Greeks. It was made by doubling the u or v sign. ^^Waelit de§ Dcutschen Yaterlands" ("Watch of the German Fatherland"). German national hymn, by Reichardt, first performed 2 Aug. 1825. Very popu- lar during the war 1870-71. IVadal, Sultanate of, is at present the most pow- erful state in Central Soudan, and occupies, with its tributary states, the whole region between Dar-Fur and lake Chad, and from the southern verge of the Sahara southward to the COMPARISON OF AVERAGE WAGES PAID PER DAY IN THE THE OCCUPATIONS divide, between lake Chad and the Congo basin. Area, 172,- 000 sq. miles ; pop. 2,600,000. ^vager of battle. Appeal. wag'es, earnings of persons in the emploj'ment of others. — A thinson. The purchasing power of money, cost of Ii ving,etc., cannotbe excludedin considering the subject of wages. On com- paring wages now customary, with those formerly paid, it will be seen that they have materially increased, especially in the United States, while the average price of provisions has remained about the same ; some articles as beef, potatoes, apples, butter, eggs, milk, and coffee, being dearer, while the cereals, sugar, and tea, are cheaper. The following tables show the facts in detail. FOR THE YEARS 1800, 1840, 1890, IN UNITED STATES MENTIONED. Blacksmitha. Carpenters. Laborers : Farm, etc. Masons, bricklayers, plasterers. House painters. Plumbers. • Printers. Weavers. Tailors. Slioemakers. 1800 fO.75 1.40 2.50 fl.OO 1.40 2.50 $0.50 0.90 $1.00 1 .^iO $1.00 1.50 2.50 $2 ."66 3.00 $1.00 1 $0.50 1.25 0.90 2 25 1 - f>n $0.75 1.25 2 00 $0.75 1840 1.00 1890 1.50 ! 3.00 2.00 COMPARISON OF THE PRICE OF PROVISIONS IN THE UNITED STATES FOR THE YEARS 1800, 1840, 1890, 1895. Beef. Ham. Pork. Lard. Corn- meal. m.. 1 '•"'0"'. *^^'*- [wheat. Pota- toes. Apples. Beans. Butter. Cheese. Eggs. Milk. Sugar. Coffee. Tea. 1800 per lb. $0.08 0.09 0.14 0.14 per lb. $0.12 0.11 0.13 0.13 per lb. $0.11 0.09 0.11 0.11 per lb. $0.13 0.10 0.10 0.10 per lb. $0.04 0.02 0.02 0.02 per lb. $0.06 0.05 0.08 0.08 perbl. $9.00 7.00 6.00 4.50 perbu. $0.50 0.60 0.75 0.75 per bu. $0.35 0.80 1.00 1.00 per qt. $0.05 0.07 0.10 0.08 per lb. $0.16 0.18 0.26 0.26 per lb. $0.14 0.10 0.15 0.15 per doz. 10.12 0.16 0.22 0.22 perqt. $0.04 0.05 0.06 0.06 per lb. $0.16 0.11 0.06 0.045 per lb. $0.27 0.20 0.30 0.30 per Id. $0.95 1840 0.75 1890 1895 0.50 0.50 Thus wages have increased more than 100 per cent, during the last 90 years. The progression of division of labor in large establishments prevents an exact comparison in many cases ; but the instances recorded represent a fair average concerning the wages of the skilled artisan and common laborer. " A man who performed what is now called unskilled labor — sawing wood, digging ditches, mixing mortar, cutting hay, etc. — received 2s. or 25 cents per day in 1784, yet the pay was twice as great as in l77i."—McMa'ster's " Hist. U. S.," vol. i. p. 96. " Hours of labor from sunrise to sunset, at 40 cents per day, in 1800 ; or by the month, $Q iii the summer, and $5 in the winter, with board — $65 a year average, with board and perhaps lodging." — Ibid., vol. ii. p. 617. " A few classes of artisans greatly in demand, as ship-carpenters, were paid $2 per day, 1810-20, but they were the exception." — Ibid,, vol. iii. p. 510. Iff'a'g^rani, a village near Vienna, where Napoleon I. defeated the archduke Charles, 5, 6 July, 1809, with great slaughter on both sides ; 20,000 Austrians were taken by the French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia. An ar- mistice was signed on the 12th; and on 24 Oct., by a treaty of peace, Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France; the king- doms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense ; part of Galicia was ceded to Russia, and Joseph Bonaparte was recognized as king of Spain. Waha'bees or l¥a1ia'bite§, a warlike Mahome- tan reforming sect, claiming to be the only true followers of the prophet, established themselves in Arabia about 1750, under Abd-el-Wahab, who died 1787. His grandson, Saoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition headed by the caliph of Bagdad. In 1803 this sect seized Mecca and Medina, and continued their conquests, although their chief was assassinated in the midst of his victories. His son, Abdallah, long resisted Mahommed Ali, pacha of Egypt, but in 1818 was defeated and taken pri.s- oner by Ibrahim Pacha, who sent him to Constantinople, where he was put to death. The sect, now flourishing, is de- scribed by W. Gifford Palgrave, in his " Journey and Residence WAI 921 WAL in Arabia in 1862-63," published in 1865. It is influential in India, and is suspected of a tendency to insurrection. waits, a name given in England to night minstrels who perform shortly before Christmas. The name was given to the musicians attached to the court of the king. A company of waits was established at Exeter in 1400 to "pipe the watch." The waits in London and Westminster were long officially recognized by the corporation. Wakefield, W. Yorkshire, Engl., an ancient town. Near it a battle was fought between the adherents of Mar- garet, the queen of Henry VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists fell upon the field, 31 Dec. 1460. The earl of Warwick supported the cause of the duke's son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and the civil war was continued. WakefleUl e§tate, Va.,on which Washington was born, about half a mile from the junction of Pope's creek with the Potomac, in Westmoreland county. The house was de- stroyed before the Revolution, but upon its site Geo. W. P. Custis placed a slab of freestone, June, 1815, with the simple inscription : here, the 11th of February (o. s.), 1732, george AVASHINGTON WAS BOKN. Wakei. (1) The ancient parish festivals on the saint's day to commemorate the dedication of the church; regulated in 1536, but gradually became obsolete. (2) Watching with a dead body prior to burial, by friends and neighbors of the deceased. Custom formerly prevalent in Scotland and still in Ireland. "Walcliereil {waVker-en), an island at the mouth of the Scheldt, Holland. The unfortunate expedition of the British to this isle in 1809 consisted of 35 ships of the line, 200 smaller vessels, principally transports, and 40,000 land forces, the latter under the earl of Chatham, the fleet under sir Richard Strach- an. For a long time its destination remained secret; but be- fore 28 July, 1809, when it set sail, the French journals had fixed Walcheren as the point of attack. Flushing was in- vested in Aug. ; a bombardment followed, and the place was taken 15 Aug. ; but neither the naval commander nor his own officers could drive the earl to vigorous action until the chance of success was gone, and he had to return with such troops as disease had spared. The place was evacuated 23 Dec. 1809. The House of Commons instituted an inquiry, and lord Chat- ham resigned his post of master-general of the ordnance, to pre- vent greater disgrace ; but the policy of ministers in planning the expedition was, nevertheless, approved. The following epigram, of which various readings exist, appeared at the time: "Lord Ciuitham [or the warrior earl], with [his] sabre drawn, Stood waiting for sir Richard Strachan ; Sir Richard, longing [or eager] to be at "em, Stood waiting for the earl of Chatham." Wal'deiises (also called Valdenses, Vallenses, and Vau- dois), asect inhabiting the Cottian Alps, derive their name, according to some authors, from Peter de Waldo, of Lyons (1170). They were known, however, as early as 1100, their confession of faith published 1120. Their doctrine condemned by the council of Lateran, 1179. They had a translation of the Bible, and allied themselves to the Albigenses, whose | persecution led to the establishment of the Holy Office or In- j quisition. The Waldenses settled in the valleys of Piedmont about 1375, but were frequently dreadfully persecuted, notably | 1545-46, 1560, 1655-56, when Oliver Cromwell, by threats, ob- ' tained some degree of toleration for them ; again in 1663-64 and 1686. They were permitted to have a church at Turin, t Dec. 1853. In Mch. 1868, it was stated that there were in | Italy 28 ordained Waldensian ministers and 30 other teachers. ; Early in 1893 a delegation was sent to the United States to investigate the advantages of forming a settlement in some j favorable locality. It resulted in their purchasing several thousand acres of land in Burke county, N. C, and establish- ing a colony the same year, calling the place Waldese. Wales, Cambria, Cymru, the land of the Cymry, called by the Romans Britannia Secunda. Welsh and Wales are corruptions of Teutonic epithets of foreigners, especiall}^ Gauls. After the Roman emperor Honorius gave up Britain, Vorti- gern was elected king of South Britain. He invited the Saxons over to defend his country against the Picts and Scots; but the Saxons perfidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, and made themselves masters of South Britain. Many of the Britons retired to Wales, and defended against the Saxons their inaccessible mountains^ about 447. Thus Wales remained unconquered till Henry II. ' subdued South Wales in 1157; and in 1282 Edward I. reduced the whole country, its independence ending by the death of Llewelyn, the last prince. In 1284 the queen gave birth to a son at Caernarvon, whom Edward styled prince of Wales— a title since given to the heir-apparent to the crown of Great Britain. Wales was incorporated with England by act of Parliament, 1536. Area, 7363 sq. miles, in 12 counties; pop, 1891,1,518,914. Bards, Britain. /^ Ostorius Scapula, propraetor of Britain, defeats the Cymry 56 Supreme authority in Britannica Secunda intrusted to Sueto- nius Paulinus, who causes desolating wars 58-61 Conquests by Julius Frontinus [\ iq Silures totally defeated ."."'.!.'.".'!'.!!!!!".!! " Roman Julius Agricola cotiimands in Britain 73 Bran ab Llyr, the Blessed, dies about 80 Druidical class gradually dissolved by the-influence'ofChri's- tianityin 300-40O Britons defeat the Saxons 447-4:48 Vortigern king '..".....,. " Renowned Arthur elected king !about 50O Defeats Saxons about 527 Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd, defeated and slain by the Sax- ons at Denisburn about 634 Dyvnwal Moelmud, from Armorica, said to have reigned west of the Tamar and Severn over the Cymry about 640 Reign of Roderic the Great 844 He unites the pettystates into one principality; d 877 Division of Wales— into north, south, and central (or Powvs- land) :.. cc Welsh princes submit to Alfred ', 885 Danes land in Anglesey " ' . 900 Laws enacted by Howel Dha, prince of all Wales about 92a Athelstan subdues the Welsh 933 Civil wars at his death about 948 Sons of Howel Dha defeated by sons of Idwal Voel 954 Edgar invades Wales about 973 Devastations committed by Edwin, the son of Eineon 980 Danes invade Wales; lay Anglesey waste, etc 980-1000 Country reduced by Aedan, prince of North Wales " Aedan, the usurper, slain in battle by Llewelyn 1015 Part of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold 1063 William L claims feudal authority over Wales ; 107O Rhys ab Owain kills king Bleddyn, 1073; defeated and slain. . . 1077 Ravaging invasion of Hugh, earl of Chester 1079-80 Invasion of the Irisli and Scots 1O8O William I. invades Wales 108I Battle of Llechryd 1087 [The sons of Bleddyn ab Cynvyn were slain by Rhys ab Tewdwr, the reigning prince.] Rhys ab Tewdwr slain; S. Wales conquered by the English 1090 Invasion of the English under William II 1095-97 Settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings 1106 Nest, wife of Gerald de Windsor, seized by Owain, son of Cadw- gan ab Bleddyn 1108 Cardigan conquered by Strongbow 1109 Cadwgan assassinated 1112 Gruffydd ab Rhys lays claim to the sovereignly 1113- Another body of Flemings settle in Pembrokeshire " [Their posterity differ from the true British in language, manners, and customs.] Civil war in South Wales and Powysland; the English occupy the country; Henry I. erects castles in Wales 1114 et seq. Owain killed in battle with Gerald de Windsor 1116 Revolt of Owen Gwynedd on the death of Henry I. ; part of South Wales laid waste 1135 English defeated in several battles ll3d Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, invested with the powers of a count palatine in Pembroke 1138 Henry II. invades Wales; resisted by Owen Gwynedd; subdues South Wales 1157 Princes of Wales combine to recover independence 1164 Prince Jladoc said to have emigrated to America about 1169 Anglesey devastated 1173 Crusades preached by Baldwin, archbishop of Canterbury 1188 Earl of Chester's inroad into North Wales 1210 King John invades Wales, laying waste a great part; exacts tribute and allegiance 1211 Pope incites the Welsh to resist John 1212 Revolt of the Flemings 1220 Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, commits great ravages; re- pulses Henry III 1228 Earl of Pembroke and other nobles join Llewelyn against Henry III., 1233; a truce 1234 Prince David ravages the marches, etc 1244 Invasion of Henry III 1245 Anglesey cruelly devastated by the English St'iu. " Llewelyn ap Griffith, the last prince 124& Welsh princes combine against the English 1256 Invasion by the English, who retreat with loss 1257 Welsh offers of peace refused 1257-62 Llewelyn's incursions into English territory 1263 Reported conference between him and Simon de Montfort against the Plantagenets 1265 Llewelyn does homage to Henry III. for a treaty Sept. 1267 WAL 922 WAR Edwmid I. tummoDs IJewolvn to Westminster; on his reAisal, dtpoMS htm, l-iTti ; and iiivudes Wales June, 1277 Lleireiyii lubmitd and obtains good terms. 10 Nov. " He m«rrl«8 Eleanor do .Moutfort. 13 Oct. " 3oas of Grutlydd traachorously drowned in the Dee by earl Warreone and Roger Mortimer; insurrection 1281 Bawardeu castle taken by surprise by Llewelyn and his broth- er David, 21 Hch. ; thej destroy Flint and Khuddlan castles. Kruiileas negotiations. Nov. 1282 Battle l>etweeu Llewelyn and the English near Aber Edw; Lle- welyn slain, after the battle, by Adam Frankton 11 Dec. " PTihco David surrenders, and is executed 1288 WiiM tlnally sulMlued by Edward I " First English prince of Wales, son of Edward, born at Caernar von cast le 25 A pr. 1284 Statute of Wales enacted 19 Mch. " Insurrections suppressed and leaders e.xecuted 1287-1320 Owain Glyndwr or Owen Glendower (descendant of the last prince, Llewelyn), relwis 1400 Radnor and other places taken by Owain. Glyndwr 1401 Allies with Scots and the Percies; besieges Caernarvon 1402 >iid seizes Harlocli castle 1404 Makes a treaty with France 10 May, " Harlech castle retaken by the English forces 1407 Loees his allies by their defeat at Branhara moor 19 Feb. 1408 Ravages the English territories 1409 Refuses to ask for terms or submit; d 21 Sept. 1415 His son submits. 24 Feb. 1416 Margaret of Ai\jou, queen of Henry VL, takes refuge in Harlech castle 1459 Town of Denbigh burned 1460 Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VIL, lands in Pembroke, and is aided by the Welsh Aug. 1485 Palatine jurisdictions in Wales abolished by Henry VIII 1535 Monmouth made an English county; counties of Brecknock, Denbigh, and Radnor formed " Act for " laws and justice to be administered in Wales in same form as in England," 27 Hen. VIII " "Wales incorporated into England by Parliament 1536 Divided into 12 counties 1543 Dr. Ferrar. bishop of St. David's, burned for heresy. . .30 Mch. 1555 Lewis Owain, a baron of the exchequer, attacked and murdered on his assize tour. '< Bible and prayer-book ordered translated into Welsh, and divine service to be in that language 1562 Welsh Bible printed 1588 First congregation of dissenters assembled in Wales; Vavasour Powel apprehended while preaching 1620 Beaumaris castle garrisoned for king Charles 1 1642 Powys castle taken by sir Thomas Myddelton Oct. 1644 Or. lAUd, formerly bishop of St. David's, beheaded on Tower ^ hill 10 Jan. 1645 Surrender of Hawarden castle to parliament general Mytton. . . " Charles I. takes refuge in Denbigh " Rhuddlan castle surrenders " Harlech castle surrenders to Cromwell's army under Mytton. . 1647 Battle of St. Fagan's; the Welsh defeated by col. Hortou, Crom- well's lieutenant 8 May, 1648 Beaumaris castle surrenders to Cromwell . " Pembroke castle taken 1649 Lords marchers' court suppressed i(588 "Charitable Society of Ancient Britons" and Welsh charity schools, established (now at Ashford) 1715 ■Cymmrodorion Society (charitable) established !i'751-81 French land in Pembrokeshire, and are made prisoners. . .Feb. 1797 Rebecca or "Becca" riots against toll-gates, Feb.; an old woman, a toll - keeper, murdered, 10 Sept. ; many persons tried and punished Oct 1843 Cambrian Archaeological Association founded.......... 1846 Subscriptions begun for a university in Wales ....". Dec 1863 National unsectarian university college at Aberystwyth opened, 9 Oct 1872 Cymmrodorion Society, to promote literature and art, re-estab- lished jg^ij " ^f ^*i?^ ' ' '■'"'^ ! P®°P^® <**" Rhayader on 'the Wye capture "flsh i legally, and resist water bailiffs Dec. 1878 Jan. 1879 National council of Wales meets at Aberystwyth ; advocates dis- establishment and disendowment of the church, home rule, etc <^ Qgj, iggY Mr. Dillwyn's motion for disestablishment of church in Wales rejected by the commons (284-231) 14 Mav 1889 Tithes collected by the help of the military Aug 1890 Proposed disestablishment of the church in Wales negatived by the commons (235-203), 20 Feb. 1891 ; and again (267-220), 23 Feb.' 1892 SOVEREIGNS OF WALES. ■eSO. Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd. 634. Cadwaladyr, his sou. 661. Idwal, son. 728. Rhodri,or Roderic; heroic defender. 75.5. Cynan and Howel, sons; incessant war. 818. Mervyn; son-in-law. and Essylt (wife). 844. Roderic the Great, son. PRINCES OF GWYNEDD, OR NORTH WALES, AND FREQUENTLY OF ALL WALES. 877. Anarawd. son of Roderic 915. Idwal Voel. 943. Howel Dha the Good, prince of all Wales. 548. lefan and lago ; sons of Idwal. 1301. 1343. 1376. 972. Howel ap lefan, the Bad. 984. Cadwallon, brother. 985. Meredilii ap Owen ap Howel Dha. 992. Idwal ap Moyric ap Edwal Voel; able, brave. 998. Aedan, a usurper. 1015. Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt; good sovereign. 1023. lago ap Idwal ap Meyric. 1039. Grirtith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt; killed. 1067. Bleddyn. 1073. Trahaern ap Caradoc. 1079. Griffith ap Cynan; able, warlike, generous. 1137. Owain Gwynedd; energetic, successful warrior. 1169. Howell, son. " David ap Owain Gwynedd, brother; married sister of Henry II 1194. Llewelyn the Great. 1240. David ap Llewelyn. 1246. Llewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood; slain after bat- tle, 11 Dec. 1282. ENGLISH PRINCES OF WALES. 1284. Edward Plantagenet (afterwards king Edward II.), sou of Ed- ward I., born in Caernarvon castle on '25 Apr. 1284. It is asserted that immediately after his birth the king held him in his arms before the Welsh chieftains as their future sov- ereign, saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich Dyn," liter- ally, "This is your man "—that is, "This is your country- man and king. " Ich dien. Edward of Caernarvon, made prince of Wales and earl of Chester. Edward the Black Prince. Richard his son (afterwards Richard II.). 1399. Henry (afterwards Henry V.). son of Henry IV. 1454. Edward, son of Henry VI. ; slain at Tewkesbury, 4 May, 1471. 147L Edward (afterwards Edward V.), son of Edward IV 1483. Edward, son of Richard III. ; d. 1484. 1489. Arthur, son of Henry VII. ; d. 1502. 1503. Henry, his brother (afterwards Henry VIII.). Edward, his son (afterwards Edward VI.), was duke of Corn- wall, and not prince of Wales. 1610. Henry Frederic, son of James I. ; d. 6 Nov. 1612. 1616. Charles, his brother (afterwards Charles I.). Charles, his son (afterwards Charles II.), never created prince of Wales. 1714. George Augustus (afterwards George XL). 1729. Frederic Lewis, his son; d. '20 Mch. 175L 1751. George, his son (afterwards George III.). 1762. George, his son (afterwards George IV.); b. 12 Aug. 1841. Albert Edward, son of queen Victoria; b. 9 Nov. IValharia. Valhalla. IValker's expeditions. Filibusters. IValiabout bay. New York, 1623. IValla'cllia, one of the fornaer Danubian princi- palities of Europe. On 23 Dec. 1861, the union of Walla- chia and Moldavia, under the name of Eoumania, was pro- claimed at Jassy and Bucharest. "Waller's plot. Edmund Waller, the poet, and others, conspired to disarm the London militia and let in the royal- ists. May, 1643. The plan was detected and punished, June- July, 1643. Waller betrayed his confederates, and was suffered to emigrate. Wallis'i voyage. Capt. Wallis sailed from England on his voyage round the world, 26 July, 1766 ; and returned to England, 19 May, 1768. IrValloons', descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the Low Countries. Some of them fled to England from the persecution of the duke of Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip IL of Spain, 1666. A church was given to them by queen Elizabeth at Sandwich, and they still have one at Canterbury. Their language is considered to be based on that of the ancient Gauls. New York, 1623. ivalls. Hadrian's, Roman and Chinese. 'Walpur'g'a, Saint, traditional character of the 8th cen- tury, England and Germany. The name has been associated with noted popular German superstitions, as Walpurgis-Night, 30 Apr. ; 1 May, Witch's Sabbath meeting, with the devil as master of ceremonies. Famous from Goethe's "Faust." "■Faust We climb the Brocken's top in the Walpurgis-Night." —Goethe's "Faust" (Taylor's translation). ivaltz, the popular German national dance, was introduced into England by baron Neuman and others in ISl'B.—Raikes. Wailderillg Jeir. Jew, The Wandering. "Wail'di wash, a town of S. India. Here the French, under Lally, were defeated by col. Eyre Coote, 22 Jan. 1760. war, called by Erasmus " the malady of princes." Osy- mandyas of Egypt, the first warlike king, passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 -B.C.— Usher. LIST OF MOST CELEBRATED WARS. WAR Trojan Messenian Persian-Grecian ( 1st.. . . Sacred < 2d i 3d. . . . Peloponnesian . Greco-Persian . . Samnite Punic, 1st, 2d, 3d Roman Grecian Jugiirthine Social Mithridatic Gladiatorial Gallic Civil, Roman Jewish Dacian 1193-1184 743-669 504-469 595-586 ) 448-447 [ 357-346) 431-404 334-331 343-290 264-146 200-146 112-106 90-88 Barbarian Saracen or Moslem — Crusades. Hundred Years, in] France Austro-Swiss . Hussite Roses, England Civil, in France Spanish, Netherlands.. Thirty Years Civil, in England Spanish Succession., Swedish-Russian — Austrian Succession . . Seven Years Revolution, American French Revolution Napoleonic. United States-England Greek of Independence Mexican Crimean Italian . . Civil, United States. Seven Weeks Franco-Prussian. 73-71 58-51 50-31 A.D. 70 86-100 410-553 710-1492 1337-1437 1385-1389 1419-1436 1455-1471 1562-1593 1567-1609 1618-1648 1642-1660 1701-1714 1700-1709 1740-1748 175&-1763 1775-1783 1792-1799 1800-1815 1812-1815 1821-1828 1846-1847 1854-1856 1859 1861-1865 Russo-Turkish, 1866 1870 1877 Greeks capture Troy Sparta conquers Messenia. Greece successfully resists Persia. Intestine Greek; without result. Lacedaemonians take Athens Greece conquers Persia Romans subjugate the Samnites. Romans destroy Carthage Rome subdues Greece Romans conquer Numidia The Socii obtain right of Roman citizenship. Mithridates defeated Gladiators defeated Gaul conquered Establishment of the Roman ) empire | Jerusalem taken; temple de- j stroyed J Country beyond the Danube) conquered ) Barbarians capture Rome and > ravage Italy ) Occupy Spain, but driven from ) France ) Christians take Jerusalem andl occupy ports of Sepia, but ! are Anally driven out by the j Moslems J English lose all their possessions j in France but Calais, although | France suffers sorely ) Swiss secure their independence. . Religious toleration House of York supplants House ) of Lancaster 1 Edict of Nantes. ; Netherlands made independent) [ of Spain ) [Freedom of religious faith.) [ Peace of Westphalia i I Estabhshment of the Common- 1 1 wealth ) Treaty of Utrecht. Defeat of Charles XII. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle [Peace of Paris. Prussia holds) [ part of Silesia ) [ Peace of Paris. Independence ] \ of the English colonies ) Successful resistance to the re- instatement of the Bourbons on the French throne Revives Europe and places) France in the first position . . | United States entirely inde-) pendent of Great Britain j Independence of Greece secured. Boundaries established Peace of Paris. Principal battles. Siege Marathon, Thermopylae, Sa- lamis, Platsea, Mycale Naval Granicus, Issus, Arbela Caudine Forks, Sentinum (Ticinus.Trebia, Thrasymenus. t Cannae, Metaurus, Zama... Cynoscephalae, Pydna '. Chaeronea, Cabeira Petelia Peace of Villafranca. Abolition of slavery. ( Prussia defeats Austria and be- { comes supreme in Germany. (Germans defeat French, take ) Paris, and add Alsace and ( Lorraine to Germany f Peace of San Stefano. Treaty: [ of Berlin ; Treatv of Shunonoseki Pharsalia, Thapsus, Munda, Philippi, Actium Siege Xeres, Tours, Tarifa, Grenada. (Crecy, Calais taken, Poictiers, ( Agincourt Sempach, Nafels.. Prague ( St. Albans, Bloreheath, Wake- I field,Towton,Barnet,Tewkes- ( bury ^Dreux, St. Denis, Jarnac, Mon-) ( contour, Ivry J ( Zutphen, Nieuport, sieges and ) [ naval ) ( Dessau, Leipsic, 1-2, Lech, ) ( Lutzen, Nordlingen, 1-2 — ) (Edgehill, Marston Moor,) \ Naseby, Dunbar, Worcester, j (Blenheim, Ramillies, Turin,) j Oudenarde, Malplaquet > Narva, Pultowa ChineseJapanese ! 1894-1895 For a fuller account consult the nations mentioned. Army, Battles. (Dettingen, Fontenoy, Placen- \ tia, Laffeldt jPrague,Kollin,Rosbach,Lissa, ( Torgau (Bunker Hill, Saratoga, Mon- ( mouth, Yorktown ( Valmy, Jemmapes,Wattignies, ] Loano, Lodi, Areola, Pyra- ( raids (Marengo, Trafalgar, Austerlitz, Jena, Eylau, Friedland, Wa- gram, Borodino, Leipsic, Ligny, Waterloo C Mostly naval, with the exception [ of New Orleans. Navarino, naval. ( Buena Vista, Cerro Gordo, Cap- ) ( ture of the City of Mexico. . | /Alma, Balaklava, Inkermann, 1 \ Malakhofif ) Magenta, Solferino Bull Run, Shiloh, Seven Days. Bull Run, 2d, Antietam^ Murfreesborough, Chancel '^ lorsville, Vicksburg, Gettys- j- burg, Chickamauga, Chatta nooga, Virginia campaign, Atlanta campaign, etc KOniggratz or Sadowa ( worth, Gravelotte, Sedan, \ Metz, Paris, etc Plevna, ShipkaPass, Kars, etc. r Japanese occupy Korea, Port) Arthur, Wei-Hai-Wei, "' 1 Chang, Port) Nin-y Hector, Agamemnon. [Miltiades, Leonidas, Themis- tocles. Pausanias, Leotychi- I des— Greek. Pericles. Alcibiades, I^ysander. Alexander the Great, Darius. I Fabius Maximus, Caius Pon- ( tius. Fabius, Scipio, Hannibal. (Flaminius, .^Emilius Paulus, ( Mummius, Perseus. Metellus, Marius LucuUus, Pompey, Sulla. Spartacus, Crassus. (Pompey, Caesar, Brutus, Cas- ( sius, Anthony, Augustus. Titus. Trajan. Alaric, Genseric, Totila. (Musa, Tarik, Charles Martel, \ Cid Rodrigo. Crusades. r Edward III. of England; Ed- I ward. Black prince, of Eng- ( land; Henry V. of England. {Arnold von Winckelried, Leopold II. John Ziska, Sigismund. f Richard, duke of York ; Ed- j ward, duke of York; War- ] wick, earl of ; Margaret, [ queen ; Henry VI. ( Duke of Anjou, Henry III. ; I Henry IV., Conde. William I., prince of Orange; Maurice; duke of Alva; Alex- ander Farnese.dukeof Parma. Gustavus Adolphus, Wallen- stein, Tilly, Turenne. 1 'r i nee Rupert,F'ai rfax, Charles I., Cromwell. Duke of Marlborough, prince Eugene, marshal Tallard, marshal Villars. (Charles XII. of Sweden, Peter ( the Great of Russia. ( MarshalSaxe,Georgen.ofEng- ( land, duke of Cumberland. Daun, Frederick the Great. (Washington, Burgoyne, Clin- ( ton, Howe. ( Kellermann,Dumouriez,Jour- I dan, Moreau, Hoche, Napo- ( leon. (Napoleon, Wellington, Nelson, Blucher, Alexander I.. Fran- cis I., and Frederic William IIL, etc. Taylor, Scott, Santa Afia. Lord Raglan, marshal St. Ar- naud, prince Menschikoff. gen. Canrobert. (Napoleon III., Victor Emman- ( uel, Francis Joseph I. (McClellan, Grant, Sherman, .^Sheridan, Thomas, Lee, I Johnston. Marshal Benedek, William I. (William I..VonMoltke,crown- J princeFrederick,princeFred- ] erick Charles, Napoleon III., [ MacMahon, Bazaine, Trochu. ! Grand duke Nicholas, Gourko. Skobelelf. Todleben, Osman Pacha, Mukhtar Pacha. I Count Oyama, prince Arisa- \ gawa, prince Komatsu. WAR 924 WAS 1495 1496 Wnrbeck'u liimirrectloii. Perkin Warbeck, the ton of a Florentine Jew, to whom Edward IV. had stood Bodfaiher, was |>er8uadcd by Margare^ duchess of liurgundy, Sster to liicharvl III., to iierstinate her nephew Kichard, Edwanl V.'s brother, which he did first in Ireland, where he landed, 1492. The imposture was discovered by Henry VII., 1493. Some writers have defended Warbeck's claims. Warbeck nltcmpta to land in Kent with 600 men; 169 are Uken prisoners and executed ;:;••; e ' •., " V Recommeuded by the king of Franco to .lames IV. of Scotland, ^Jglves h..n his kinswoman, lord Huntley's danghtcr, in marriage, when he assumes the title of Richard IV. James IV. Invades Kugland in his favor. :•••■•. • • • • ••••••;•• Leaves Scotland and goes to Bodmin in Cornwall, where 3000 it\\n him • .-... oCpt. 1 4 J i Ou the approach of Henry takes sanctflary at Beaulieu; sur- ^ renders; taken to London • • • • -"^^ Said to have been set in the shocks at Westminster and Cheap- side, and sent to the Tower J u^®. l*-*^ Accused of plotting with the earl of Warwick to escape by murdering the lieutenant, Aug.: the plot fails, and he is banged at Tyburn, 23 Nov. ; earl beheaded 28 Nov. Wardian Ca§e8. In 1829 N. B. Ward, from observ- ing a small fern and grass growing in a closed glass bottle, in which he had placed a chrysalis covered with moist earth, was letl to construct his well-known closely glazed cases, which afford to plants light, heat, and moisture, and exclude deleteri- ous gases, smoke, etc. They are particularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were first employed for the transmission of plants to Sydney, etc, with success, and prof. Faraday lectured on the subject, 1838. War'eaw, the metropolis of Poland up to 1772, now the capital of Russian Poland. The diet was transferred to this citv from Cracow in 1566, and it became the seat of gov- ernment in 1689. Pop. 1859, 162,777. Poles defeated in 3 days' battle by the Swedes 28-30 July, 1656 Alliance at Warsaw of Austria and Poland against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assists in raising the siege of Vienna (Sept. following) ; signed 31 Mch. 1683 Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII 1703 Treaty of Warsaw between Russia and Poland 24 Feb. 1768 Russian garrison expelled with loss of 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of cannon 17 Apr. 1794 Poles defeated by the Russians at Maciejovice 4 Oct. " King of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July; compelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is taken by the Russians Nov. " Suwarrow, Russian general, after the destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchers 30,000 Poles 4 Nov. " Warsaw made a duchy and given to the house of Saxony, Aug. 1807 Duchy overrun by the Russians; Warsaw made the residence of a Russian viceroy 1813 Liist Polish revolution at Warsaw begins 29 Nov. 1830 Battle of Grochow, near Warsaw, the Russians driven back with the loss of 7000 men 25 Feb. 1831 Battle of Warsaw; after 2 days' hard fighting the city capitu- lates, and is occupied by the Russians; Polish army retires towards Plock and Modlin 6-8 Sept. " Czar meets the emperor of Austria and the regent of Prussia; no result. 20-25 Oct. 1860 Poland, 1861-65. l^artburg^, a castle in Saxony, N. Germany, where Luther was conveyed for safety by the elector Frederick after the diet of Worms, Apr. 1521, and translated the Bible into Ger- man. IfVailling^ton, a western frontier state of the United States, between lat. 4.5° 40' and 49° N., and Ion. 117° and 124° W., is bounded on the north by the strait of Juan de Fuca and British America, east by Idaho, south by Oregon, and \ve.st by the Pacific ocean. Area, 69,180 sq. miles, in 34 counties;, pop. 1890, 349,390. Capital, Olympia. Juan Perez, in the ship San- tiago, coasts the shore of Washington and discov- ers mount Olympus, 10-11 Aug. 1773 Bruno Heceta, at the head of a Spanish expedition, discovers the mouth of the Colum- bia rivert 1775 Strait of Juan de Fuca explored and named by capt. Meares after a Greek mariner of that name 1788 ! Act of Congress approved, organizing as the territory of Idaho Capt. Meares sails from Nootka southward, names mount i that part of Washington east of Oregon and of the 117th me- Olympus, and discovers and names Shoal-water bay. .5 July, " I ridian of west longitude 3 Mch. Capt. Robert Gray discovers (iray harbor, which he names Bul- lluch harbor, and Columbia river, which he enters. . .11 May, Lieut. Broughton, of the British navy, ascends Columbia river about 100 miles Oct. -Nov. Lewis and Clarke U. S. government exploring expedition de- scends the Columbia river, reaching its mouth 5 Nov. Capt. Meriwether Lewis explores the coast from Columbia river to Shoalwater bay 18 Nov. Fort Okanagan, built by David Stuart on the Okanagan, a branch of the Columbia Aug. Pierre Dorion and 2 others massacred by Indians on the Snake river Jan. Fort Walla Walla, on the Columbia river, built by the Hudson Bay company Exploring party under James McMillan leaves Astoria, 18 Nov. 1824; ascends the Chehalis river to Black river, thence to Turn water lake; thence by an Indian portage it descends the Eld inlet to Puget sound Dec. Convention with Russia at St. Petersburg, 5-7 Apr. 1824, regu- lating fishing and trading on the Pacific coast, and fixing 54° 40' as the northern boundary of the U. S. ; ratified. . .12 Jan. Fort Colville built by Hudson Bay comi)auy at Kettle falls, on the Columbia Nathaniel J. Wyeth, with 21 men, starts from Boston overland for Oregon, and with a remnant of his party descends the Columbia, arriving at fort Vancouver 29 Oct. Fort Nisqually built by Archibald McDonald 4 or 5 miles from the mouth of the Nisqually river ' Mission station established at Waiilatpu, near Walla Walla, by the revs. Whitman, Spalding, and Gray Lieut. R. E. .lohnson. of the U. S. exploring expedition, with 3 men from Nisqually, visits forts Okanagan, Colville, Lapwai, and Walla Walla, and returns by Yakima river May-July, Michael T. Simmons, with 5 families, settles at Tumwater, at the head of Budd inlet, naming it New Market Oct. Congress notifies Great Britain that the conventions of 1818 and 1827, for joint occupation of Oregon territory (including Washington) will terminate after 12 months 9 Feb. Sraithfleld, afterwards (1850) Olympia, founded by Levi L. Smith Indian massacre at the Presbyterian mission at Waiilatpu; dr. M. Whitman and family killed 29 Nov. Fort Steilacoom, on Puget sound, established July, Convention of 26 delegates at Cowlitz landing memorializes Congress for a separate government for "Columbia " (Oregon north of the Columbia) 29 Aug. Seattle founded ; named from a noted Indian chief Coal discovered near Bellingham bay by William Battle First number of the Columbian, a weekly newspaper, issued at Olympia 11 Sept. Congress establishes a territorial government for Washington (Oregon north of the Columbia), and confirms titles of lands held by missionary stations before the establishment of Ore- gon, not exceeding 640 acres each, to their religious societies. 2 Mch. T. J. Dryer and party ascend mount St. Helen, which they dis- cover to be an expiring volcano Wagon road opened over the Cascade mountains, and 35 wag- ons, with 100 or 200 emigrants, reach Puget sound I. I. Stevens, appointed governor of the territory, arrives at Olympia, 26 Nov., and organizes the government 28 Nov. First Federal court held in Washington at Cowlitz landing by judge Monroe 2 Jan. Treaty at Point Elliott, near the mouth of Snohomish river, with 2500 Indians, agreeing upon a reservation on the Lumini river, 22 Jan.. and later with the tribes farther north, select- ing a reservation about the head of Hood canal Jan. Capital fixed at Olympia by act of legislature Gold discovered near fort Colville Treaty with the Nez Perces,Cayuses, Walla Wallas, and Yakimas at Waiilatpu, by commissioners from gov. Stevens. .11 June, Indian war begins; Indians attack 84 soldiers under maj. G. 0. Haller, sent from fort Dallas, 3 Oct., for the Yakima country, 6 Oct. Three families massacred by Indians in White River valley. 28 Oct. Indians under Leschi, Owhi. Tecumseh, and Curley, attacking Seattle, dispersed by shells from the sloop-of war Decatur, 26 Jan. Indians defeated in an attack on troops at White river, 8 Mch. Yakimas and Klikitats sweep down upon the Cascades, mas- sacre the family of B. W. Brown, 26 Mch., and besiege the garrison until relieved by troops under col. Wright, 28 Mch. Leschi, arrested Nov. 1856, is 3 times tried for murder and condemned, and is finally hanged 19 Feb. Col. George Wright subdues the Coeur d'Alenes and Spokanes, and executes treaties of peace at the mission on a branch of the Coeur d'Alc-nes 17-23 Sept. Light-house on cape Shoalwater, first illuminated 1 Oct. First vessel direct from China to enter Puget sound, the Lizzie Jarvis, arrives and secures a cargo of spars Oct. That part of Oregon territory not included in the state is add- ed to Washington territory by Congress 14 Feb, Fort Colville established a few miles east of the old Hudson Bay company's fort 20 June, First cargo of yellow-fir spars shipped to Atlantic ports of the U. S. from Port Gamble, in the Law$on, of Bath, Me University of Washington at Seattle, chartered 18G1, opened 1805 1811 1814 181& 1824 1825 1832 1833 1835 1841 1845 1846 1847 1849 1851 1852 1853 1854 1858 1860 1862 1863 WAS 925 WAT Capitol at Olympia completed 1863 William and George Hume and A. S. Hapgood erect the first factory at Eagle Cliff, on the Columbia river, for canning salmon 1866 Penitentiary located on McNeil's island, near Steilacoom, by commissioners appointed 1869 {government buildings at fort Steilacoom converted into a ter- ritorial insane asylum, and occupied Aug. 1871 Tacoma on Commencement bay, Puget sound, selected as the Western terminus of the Northern Pacific Railroad 1872 [Then the site of a sawmill and a few cabins.] First .settler at Spokane Falls 1878 Constitutional convention meets at Walla Walla 11 June, 1878, sits 24 days. Constitution ratified by the people Nov. " Whitman college at Walla Walla, opened 1882, chartered 1883 Attempts of Knights of Labor to expel the Chinese from Wash- ington lead to riots. Gov. Squire, by proclamation, calls on citizens to preserve peace, 5 Nov. 1885; and a riot occurring in Seattle, 7 Feb. 1886, he declares martial law 8 Feb. 1886 Northwest Normal school at Lynden opened " Washington School for Defective Youth at Vancouver opened, " Penitentiary at Walla Walla completed 1887 New insane asylum at Steilacoom completed 1888 Washington admitted to the Union 22 Feb. 1889 Constitution framed by a convention which meets at Olympia, 3 July; ratified by the people 40,152 to 11,879. Articles for woman suffrage and prohibition are rejected 1 Oct. " President proclaims Washington a state from 11 Nov. " New insane asylum at Medicine lake erected 1889-90 Legislature passes the Australian Ballot bill 19 Mch. 1890 New legislative apportionment law, on the census of 1890, enacted by the legislature at special session 3-11 Sept. " Forty-five men buried under 20,000 cubic feet of rock by the premature explosion of a blast at Spokane Falls 7 Sept. " Work begun at excavating for commerce a solid deposit of borax in Douglas county, 8)4 feet thick, IX miles long, and )4 mile wide, discovered in 1875 1891 New U. S. naval station established at Port Orchard Sept. " Centennial of the discovery of Puget sound celebrated at Port Townsend 7 May, 1892 TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS. I. I. Stevens assumes office 28 Nov. 1853 Fayette McMullen " Sept. 1857 C. H. Mason, acting " July, 1858 Richard D. Gholson " " 1859 Henry M. McGill, acting ... " May, 1860 W. H. Wallace " 1861 L. J. S. Turney, acting " " William Pickering '• June, 1862 Marshall F. Moore " 1867 Alvan Flanders " 1869 Edward S. Salomon " 1870 Elisha Pvre Ferry " 1872 William A. Newell " 1880 Watson C. Squire " 1884 Eugene Semple " 1887 Miles C. Moore " 1888 STATE- GOVERNORS. . . .assumes office 18 No%'. 1889 " Jan. 1893 Elisha P. Ferry . . John H. McGraw. UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE INGTON. STATE OF WASH- Name. No. of Congress. •Date. Remarks. John B. Allen Watson C. Squire.. Vacant * 51st to 53d 51st " 53d " 1890 to 1893 1890 " Term expires 1897. John L. Wilson.... 54th " 1895 Term expires 1899. « The state legislature having failed to elect a U. S. senator 1893, the governor appointed John B. Allen, whom the U. S. Senate refused to seat. ^Vasllington, City of. District of Columbia. " ^Vashington crossing the Delaware," a celebrated painting by Thontias Sully (b. England, 1783 ; d. Philadelphia, 1872) painted about 1820. Now in possession of Boston museum. 'Wasllington, Fort. Fort Washington. Washington, George, Administration of. United States, 1789-97. Washington monument, at Washington, D. C. The corner-stone was laid, 4 July, 1848, with Masonic rites, Robert C. Winthrop delivering the oration. The work pro- ceeded until 1854, when it ceased for want of funds. In 1880 it was resumed by the government, and completed 1884, the entire cost being $1,200,000. It is a white obelisk, 555 ft. high, being the loftiest structure in the world, except the Eiffel tower in Paris. The base is 55 ft. square, with walls 15 ft. thick. The exterior is of crystal Maryland marble ; while the interior, lighted by electricity, is occupied by a stairway of 800 steps, extending from the bottom to the top, and an elevator which rises in 7 minutes. ' W^ashington's birthday. First recorded cele- bration occurred in Richmond, Va., Feb. 11 (o. s.) 1782. It was celebrated there and in other places on 11 Feb. each year until 1793, when 22 Feb. was adopted, according to the new style. Washington's, George, record. Birth, Wakefield estate, Virginia 1732 In the French war (Virginia) 1753 et seq. Marriage, etc., p. 658. Army, pp. 49 and 54. Nominated commander-in-chief (United States) 1775 At Cambridge, Mass. (United States) " Unfurls flag (United States) 1776 Monmouth, battle of; also, United States, Conway Cabal. 28-29 June and 12 Aug. 1778 At Newburg (United States) 1783 Addresses state governors (United States) '• Issues farewell address (United State.s) " Takes leave of offlc-ers (United States) " At constitutional convention, p. 200. Arrives at New York, takes oath of ofQce, etc. (New York) 1789 Eulogy on (United States) Dec. 1799 Wasp and Frolic. Naval battles. Wasp, Cruise of the. Naval battles; United States, 1816. W^at Tyler's insurrection. Tylers insur- rection. watch of I^ondon, at night, appointed 1253, pro- claimed the hour with a bell before the introduction of public clocks. — Hardie. The old watch was discontinued, and a new police (on duty night and day) commenced, 29 Sept. 1829. Police. 'watches are said to have been invented at Nuremberg, 1447; although tradition asserts that Robert, king of Scot- land, had a watch about 1310. Watches first used in astronomical observations by Purbach. . 1500 Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first who had a real watch, though some call it a small table-clock. . . 1530 Watches first brought to England from Germany 1577 A watch which belonged to queen Elizabeth is preserved in the library of the Royal Institution, London. Spring pocket-watches (watches proporly so called) are as- cribed to dr. Hooke by the English, and to M. Huyghens by the Dutch. Dr. Derham, in his '-Artificial Clockmaker," says that dr. Hooke was the inventor; and he appears to have pro- duced the pendulum watch about 1658; an inscription on one of the double-balance watches presented to Charles II. reads, " Rob. Hooke, inven. 1658; T. Tompion, fecit, 1675." Repeating watches invented by Barlowe 1676 Harrison's first timepiece produced (Harrison's timepiece). . . 1735 Watches for the United States were formerly supplied from England, France, and Switzerland. In 1850 Aaron Dennison of Boston and Edward Howard, experts in watch and clock work, began making watches by machiner}'. They soon re- moved their works to Waltham, Mass., where they have be- come the largest in the world, with about 2800 operatives, turning out daily 2000 watches. A second centre of watch manufacture is at Elgin, 111. Clock. water. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, considered water to be the original principle of everything, about 594 b.c. — Stanley. In the Roman church water was first mixed with the sacramental wine, 122. — Lenglet. In cooling water contracts till it is reduced to 40° Fahr. ; it then begins to expand till it becomes ice at 32°. A cubic foot of water weighs 62.5 lbs. avoirdupois ; a cubic foot of ice weighs 57.25 lbs. Cavendish and Watt demonstrate that water is composed of 8 parts of oxygen and 1 part of hydrogen 1781-84 Water decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen gases by Lavoi- sier, 1783; by the voltaic battery by Nicholson and Carlisle, 1800; by the heat of the oxy-liydrogen flame by W. R Grove, 1846 Aqueducts, Croton aqueduct, etc. water-bed. Bed. water-clock. Clock. water-color painting has been gradually raised from the hard, dry style of the last century to its present brill- iancy, by the efforts of Nicholson, Copley Fielding, Sandby, Varley, the great Turner, Pyne, Cattermole, Prout, etc. The Water-color Society's exhibition (England), which began in 1805, was made royal in 1881 ; the diplomas were to be signed by the queen after Nov. 1882. The Institute of Painters in Water-colors established about 1831 (made royal in 1883). The first organized movement in associating water-color paint- WAT 926 en in the Unitetl Sutes was made in 1850; it was unsuccess- ful, and ccasetl in 1854. In 1866 the Artists' Funil Society, in its annual oxhibition held in the National Academy of Design, New York, made a feature of this branch of art, and exhibited a collection i»f works by native and foreign painters. The result was the organization, in Dec. 1866, of the American Society of Painters in Water Colors. WUtcr-fflaftM, a liquid mixture of sand (silex) and one of the alkalies ([wtash or soda). (Jlauber {De Lithiase) men- tions a similar mixture in 1644. Dr. Von Fuchs, the modern inventor, gave an account of his process in 1825; and Frederick Kanjwme, of Ipswich, ignorant of Von Fuchs's discovery, pa- tentetl a motie of preparing water-glass in 1845, which he has since greatly improved. In 1857, M. Kuhlmann, of Lille, pub- lished a pamphlet setting forth the advantageous employment of water-glass in hardening porous stone and in stereochromy. It has been applied to the exterior of many buildings in France and England. The memoirs of Von Fuchs and Kuhlmann were translated and printed in England in 1859, by direction of the prince-consort. Wat'erloo, a village of Belgium, the site of the great battle, on Sunday, 18 June, 1815, between 71,947 French, with 246 guns, under Napoleon, and the allies under the duke of Wellington, with 67,661 men and 156 guns. The French con- tinued their attacks from about 10 in the morning until 5 in the afternoon, when 16,000 Prussians reached the field ; and by 7, the force under Blucher amounted to above 50,000 men, with 104 guns. Wellington then moved forward his whole army. A rout ensued, with great carnage. Of the British (23,991), 93 officers and 1916 men were killed and missing, and 363 offi- cers and 4560 men wounded— total, 6932 ; and the total loss of the allied army amounted to 4206 killed, 14,539 wounded, and 4231 missing, making 22,976 hors de combat. Napoleon, quitting the wreck of his army, returned to Paris; and, find- ing it impossible to raise another, abdicated. — P. Nicolas. Na- poleon attributed his defeat to the failure of marshal Grouchy to keep Blucher from reinforcing Wellington. It is now con- ceded that this is correct ; that Napoleon would have defeated Wellington by 4 p.m. had it not been (1) for the anticipated reinforcements and (2) for the actual. It was without doubt known at an early hour to Wellington that Blucher would be on the field as early as 2 p.m., if not before, and it was about this time that detachments of the Prussian army appeared on the French left. With this expected and certain aid the Brit- ish held on, bearing blow after blow with dogged resolution, knowing that help was approaching. Had Grouchy placed his forces (35,000) between the British and Prussian armies, the battle of Waterloo would have been a French victory. Waterloo monument, over the remains of the oflacers and men who fell in the campaign of 1815, erected by queen Victoria in a cemetery at Brussels, unveiled by the duke of Cam- bridge 26 Aug. 1890 Gen. Geo. Whichcote, b. 21 Dec. 1794, who fought in the Span- ish campaigns and at Waterloo, d 26 Aug. 1891 William Hewitt, lieutenant-colonel, last surviving British offi- cer at this battle, d. aged 96 26 Oct. " IVaterlOO bridge (London). A bridge here over the Thames was repeatedly suggested during the last century, but no actual preparations for it were made till 1806, when G. Dodd procured an act of Parliament, and gave the present site, plan, and dimensions of the bridge ; but, under some disagree- ment with the committee, he was superseded by John Rennie, who completed this noble structure. It was commenced 11 Oct. 1811, and opened 18 June, 1817, on the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo, the prince-regent, the duke of Wellington, etc., being present. Its length within abutments is 1242 feet ; its width within balustrades is 42 feet; and the span of each of the 9 arches is 120 feet. Bought for 475,000/. by the Met- ropolitan Board of Works ; opened toll-free, 5 Oct. 1878 ; lit by electric light from 10 Oct. 1879. ivater-inilli, for grinding corn, are said to have been invented by Belisarius, the general of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, 555. The ancients parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, which were turned by men and beasts with great labor ; yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. Telodynamic TR.V2JSMITTER. ^iV^ater-§pout§. Storms. WEA Roman roads. IVatliiig street. MflXiWyinXe^sXwat-teen'yie), a village of N. France* Here Jourdan and tne French republicans defeated the Aus- trians under the prince of Coburg, and raised the siege of Mau- beuge, 14-16 Oct. 1793. 'Wauhatell'ie, Battle of. Chattamooga campaign. wave prilielple (in accordance with which the curves of the hull of a ship should be adapted to the curves of a wave of the sea) formed the subject of experiments begun by John Scott Russell in 1832, for increasing the speed of ships. Col. Beaufoy is said to have spent 30,000/. in researches upon this matter. It was taken up by the British Association, who have published reports. The principle has been adopted by naval architects. Light, Unuulatory theory. Wa'verley novels. The publication of the series began with '♦ Waverley ; or, 'Tis Sixty Years Since," in 1814, and closed with " Tales of my Landlord," 4th series, in 1831. The authorship was acknowledged by sir Walter Scott, at a dinner, 23 Feb. 1827. The original MSS. of several of Scott's poems and novels were sold by auction by Christie & Man- son for 1255 guineas, 6 July, 1867. Literature. liVavre {vav'r), a village in Belgium, 15 miles southeast from Brussels. Here Grouchy attacked the Prussians under Thielman, 18 June, 1815, instead of hastening to the support of Napoleon at Waterloo. Wawz or "Wawre, a town of Poland. The Poles under Skrzynecki attacked the Russians at Wawz, and after 2 days' hard fighting all the Russian positions were carried by storm, and they retreated, with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000' prisoners, 31 Mch. 1831. The loss of the Poles was small, but their triumph was soon followed by defeat and ruin. wax (A. S. weax, Ger. Wachs), a substance secreted by bees and used in constructing their cells, also a substance formed in leaves and fruit and certain plants. It came into use for candles in the 12th century; and wax candles were esteemed a luxury in 1300, and were rare. In China, candlea of vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. Candi.es. The wax- tree, Ligustrum lucidum, was taken to England from China before 1794.— Sealing-wax was not brought into use in England until about 1556. Its use has been almost superseded by adhesive envelopes, since 1844. waxwork. Exhibitions of models in wax were pop- ular in the 17th and 18th centuries. The collection of wax figures exhibited by Mrs. Salmon at Aldgate, early in the last century, was removed to Fleet street, London, and shown there till 1812, when it was sold, it is said, for 50/. Mme. Tns- saud, a skilful modeller, exhibited her collection of models and casts of eminent persons, witli costumes and other relics, in the boulevard du Temple, Paris, 1785. In 1802 she exhibited it at the Lyceum, Strand, London, and afterwards at other places. The interest of the exhibition has been energetically sustained for many years at Baker street, London, W., and lat- terly at Marylebone road, by Mme. Tussaud and her family ; she died 15 Apr. 1850, aged 90. Early in 1889 the collection was purchased by a company, John Tussaud being engaged as- manager. Louis Tussaud opened a new exhibition of wax- works at 207 Regent street, 24 Dec. 1890 ; it was destroyed by- fire, 20 June, 1891 ; estimated loss. 10,000/. Wayne'i Indian eampaii^n. Ohio, 1793. we. Sovereigns generally use we for /, a style which, began with king John, 1199.— Co^e. The German emperors and French kings used the plural about 1200. Weald of Kent and Sussex, the site of very large, an- cient forests ; St. Leonard's still remaining ; near which, in the Wealden formation, dr. G. A. Mantell discovered the remains- of huge extinct animals, 1825 et seq. R. Furley published an exhaustive " History of the Weald of Kent," 1871-74. " Wealth of IVationi," an inquiry into the cause of; by Adam Smith, pub. 1776. Of this work Buckle says, " probably the most important book which has ever been writ- ten, whether we consider the amount of original thought it contains or its practical influence." Weather bureau. The United States Weather bureau, frrillg§ were used by the ancients, and put upon the left third finger, from a supposed connection of a vein there with the heart. According to Pliny, they were made of iron ; in the time of Tertullian of gold. Wedding-rings in England are of standard gold by statute, 1855. Auriatic. Weddillg^§. Silver weddings are celebrated after a union of 25 years, golden weddings after 60 years, and dia- mond weddings after 60 years. WEL Wedgwood ware, pottery and porcelain produced by Josiah Wedgwood of Staffordshire, Engl., in 1762. His^ potteries, termed Etruria, were founded in 1771. Previous ta 1763 much earthenware was imported from France and Hol- land. Pottery. Wedlie§day, the 4th day of the week, so called from, the Saxon idol Woden, or Odin, worshipped on this day. Woden was the reputed author of magic and the inventor of all the arts, and was thought to answer to the Mercury of the Greeks and Romans. iveek, a period of 7 days, supposed to have been first used among the Jews, who observed as holy the sabbath or 7th day. They had 3 sorts of weeks — the common one of 7 days ; the 2d of 7 years ; the 3d of 7 times 7 years, at the end of which was the jubilee. All the present English names of days are derived from the Saxon names of gods ; and it is for this reason that Quakers regard it as idolatry to use these- names, and substitute numbers (1st day, etc.) for them. Latin. French. Dies Solis, Day of the Sun, Dimanche. Dies Lunse, Day of the Moon, Lundi. Dies Martis, Day of Mars, Mardi. Dies Mercurii, Day of Mercury, Mercredi. Dies Jovis, Day of Jupiter, Jeudi. Dies Veneris, Day of Venus, Vendredi. DiesSaturni, Day of Saturn, Samedi. English. « Saxon. German. Sunday, Sun's day, Sonntag. Monday, Moon's day, Montag. Tuesday, Tiw's day, Dienstag. Wednesday, Woden's day, Mittwoche (mid-week; or i gi nally Woden'sTag). Thursday, Thor's day, Donnerstag. Friday, Friga's day, Freitag. Saturday, Saterne's day, Samstag, or Sonnabend. weeping willow (Lat. Salix Bahylonica). Said to have been introduced into England from the East in 1722, and into the United States in 1775, by one of the British offi- cers who came to Boston with the army, bringing a twig. This twig came into possession of John Parke Custis, who planted it on his estate at Abingdon, Va., where it became the, progenitor of this species in the U. S. weigllt§ and measures. These and the stamping^ of gold and silver money are attributed to Pheidon, tyrant of Argos,895 b.c. Arundelian marbl?:s. Weights were orig- inally taken from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a grsim.—Chalmeis. Critii, Metric system, and Standard- measures. Much information is given by H. W. Chisholm in his work "On the^ Science of Weighing and Measuring." 1877. Jews ascribed weights and measures to Cain; Egyptians to Theuth, or Thoth; Greeks to Hermes (the Roniiin Mercury). Basis of ancient measures was the natural dimensions of the humaa body; the digit, or breadth of the middle part of the first joint of the forefinger, being the lowest unit of the scale. Egyptian cubit (6 palms), under the Pharaohs, was about 18.24 Eng- lish inches; cubit of Ptolemy about 21.87 inches; he determined the length of a stadium and of a degree. Sacred cubit of the Jews (Newton), 24.7 inches. Assyrian weights are described by Mr. Layard in his '•'■ Nineveh." Grecian 7roi)r = 1.01 ft., and a oTabiov or great measure = (507 ft. Roman pes =11.65 in. ; while the milliare = ^Vp of i mile. Grecian 5pdx/uri = 2. 46 drs. avoirdupois; while Che Roman libra z= 11 oz. 8.6 drs. avoirdupois. Standard measure was originally kept at Winchester, Engl., by the law of king Edgar 972 Standard weights and measures were provided for the kingdom of England by the sheriffs of London, 9 Rich. 1 1197 Public weighing-machine was set up in London, and all com- modities ordered to be weighed by the city officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between buyer and sell- er, sUt. 3 Edw. II. (Stow) 1309 Edward III. ordered that there should be "one weight, meas- ure, and yard " throughout the kingdom 1353- First statute, directing the use of avoirdupois weight, of 24 Hen. VIII 1532 Weights and measures ordered to be examined by the justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. Ill 1795 Again regulated 1800- Statute for establishing uniformity of weights and measures, 1824, took efliect throughout the United Kingdom 1 Jan. 1826- Specific gravities. Elements. Wein§l>er^, City of. Guelphs. Weldon Road, Battle of. Grant's campaign in. Virginia. Welland eanal. Canals. W^ell§ were dug by Abraham, 1892 B.C., and Isaac, 1804 WEN ^ (Gen. xxi. 80, ami xxvi. J 9). Danaus is said to have intro- duc€«l well-digging into Greece from Egypt. Norton's " tube- well," patentetl Oct. 18G7, is said to be the invention of Hiram J. Messenger, Stephen Brewer, and Byron Mudge, Americans, of the stale of New York. The apparatus consists of an iron lube jwrforated with holes at the lower end, and shod with a •teel |K)int, which readily enters the hardest soil when forcibly driven. It was used with great advantage during the civil war, 1801-04; by the British in their campaign in Abyssinia, 1867- 1868; and by the Russians in Khiva, 1873. Autksian wells. WCIICiS, a branch of the Slavonic family which spread over Germany in the 6th century, and settled especially in the northeastern parts. WCHlcyail WEctllodlstS. The term " Wesleyan " is applied to all Methodistj in England, but in the United States only to an organization that withdrew from the Meth- otlist Episcopal church in 1843, dissatisfied with the attitude of the Methixlist Episcopal church towards slavery. It has no distinctive doctrines, anil has not increased in strength or im|)ortance. According to the census of 1890 it has in the U. S. 341 churches, with 16,492 members. Methodism. West African §Cttletnent§ under the English government and protection. Gold Coast extends along the gulf of Guinea 350 miles. Area, 15,000 sq. miles (under Eng- lish protection, 46,600 sq. miles) ; pop. 1,905,000. Lagos, an island on the slave coast, with a protectorate extending some distance inland. Area, 1071 sq. miles ; pop. 100,000. Gam- bia^ at the mouth of the river Gambia. Area, 2700 sq. miles ; pop. 50,000. Sierre Leone, area, 15,000 sq. miles ; pop. 180,000. Each with a governor appointed by the i3riti8h crown. West Indies, islands discovered by Columbus (Amer- ica), form a long archipelago reaching from Florida and Yu- catan to the shores of Venezuela, South America, separating the open Atlantic from the gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea. So called because they were supposed to be a part of In- dia. 3 great divisions are recognized in this archipelago : I. Greater Antilles: Cuba, Hayti, Porto Rico, aud Jamaica. » II. Bahamas: Extending from about 20° to 27° N. lat., forming a British colonial possession, few inhabited; Nassau, on Prov- idence island, the capital. They form a barrier which throws the Gulf stream upon the Atlantic coast of the U. S., thus greatly modifying the climate of the eastern U.S. and northern Europe. III. I^esser An- tilles. Leeward isles. Virgin islands Possessors. British, Danish, Spanish. British. Anguilla St. Christopher (St. i ^^ Kitt's) \ St. Martin French, Dutch St. Bartholomew. French. Dutch. Windward isles. St. Eustatius Nevis Barbuda Antigua Montserret Guadeloupe Marie-Galante [ Dominica f Martinique St. Lucia St. Vincent Grenada Barbadoes Tobago Trinidad Oruba Curaf oa Buen Ayre Aves (Bird) islands Los Roques Orchilla ( Blanquella For special information see each separately. West Point, Orange county, N. Y., a town on the west bank of the Hudson river, 52 miles from New York city ; pop. about 1400. Site of forts Clinton and Putnam, built during the Revolution ; also scene of Arnold's treason. United States, 1780. West Point military academy, the only school to educate oflficers for the army of the United States, occupies 2200 acres at West Point. The 27 sec. of the act of Congress, 16 Mch.1802, by which the military peace establish- ment was determined, provided for a corps of engineers to be stationed at West Point, N. Y., and to constitute a military British. French. British. French. British. Dutch. Venezuela. 8 WES academy, the senior engineer officer, Jonathan Williams, maj. of engineers, to be superintendent. By act of 25 Feb. 1803, the president was empowered to appoint a teacher of French and one of drawing. Further provisions made by Congress for it 29 Apr. 1812, defining the principles upon which the school has since been conducted. This act established the following departments: Engineering, philosophy, mathemat- ics, French, Spanish, drawing, geograpliy, history, ethics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, infantry tactics, practical en- gineering, artillery and cavalry practice, ordnance and gun- nery, equitation, fencing, and bayonet exercise. Requirements for admission, time of study and service, rate of pay and emolu- ments prescribed. On 28 July, 1817, brevet-maj. Sylvanus Thayer, of the corps of engineers, known as " the Father of the academy," assumed control as superintendent. " From this period the commencement of whatever success as an educational institution and whatever reputation the academy may posse.ss throughout the country and abroad for its strict, impartial, salu- tary, elevating, and disciplinary government must be dated." —Capt. Edward C. Boynton, " History of West Point," p. 217. First graduates, Joseph G. Swift and Simon M. Levy.. .12 Oct. 1802 3 graduates 1803 | 15 graduates 1808 1809 1810 1811 2 " 1804 3 " 1805 15 " 1806 19 5 " 1807 [Total, 1802-94 Inclusive, 3616.] Permanent superintendent appointed 1815 Board of visitors ai)pointed 1816- [Board of visitors are appointed annually. 7 by the presi- dent, 2 by the president of the Senate, and 3 by the speaker of the House. They visit the academy in June and are pres- ent at the graduation of the class.] Uniforms prescribed " Class rank inaugurated isiS Martial law introduced ; first court-martial " [Cadets held to be subject to the rules and articles of war. Opinion confirmed by pres. Monroe and Calhoun, sec. of war.] Severer regulations introduced " [By sec. 28, act of Congress, 5 July, 1838. cadets to serve the government 8 years unless sooner discharged.] [Congress organized a commission of 2 senators, 2 repre- sentatives, and 2 army officers to examine the academy, to ascertain what changes, if any, were necessary, etc. It con- sisted of Jefferson Davis and Solomon Foot, of the Senate; John Cochrane and Henry W. Davis, of the House ; maj. Rob- ert Anderson and capt. A. A. Humphreys, U. S. army. They met at West Point, 17 July, 1860, and on 13 Dec, in a report of 350 pages, recommended the reorganization of the academy.] Total number of cadets present at the academy on 1 Nov. 1860 278 From the southern states 86 Of these from the south, the number discharged, dis- missed, and resigned, from causes connected with the civil war, was 65 Leaving at the academy from the south to prosecute their studies 21 Of the 1249 living graduates at the beginning of the civil war, 919 remained loyal, 283 joined the confederates, 47 neutral or unknown, 1249 total. By act of Congress, 3 Aug. 1861, the oath of allegiance was amended so as to abjure all allegiance, sovereignty, or fealty conceived to be due any state, county, or country whatsoever, and pledge an unqualified support to the Constitution and the national govern- ment. By provision of law, each congressional district and ter- ritorial district, as well as the District of Columbia, is entitled to 1 cadet. Appointments from the first two are made on the nomination to the sec. of war by the representative in Congress from his own district. However large the number of applicants from any district, the appointee is selected at the instance of the representative. The pres. of the U. S. is authorized to appoint 10 cadets at large independent of residence. Candidate must be over 16 and under 21 years of age, and at least 5 ft. high; must be able to read and write well, and grounded in the first 4 rules of arith- metic, etc. ; subject to examination by the medical board at West Point. SUPERINTENDKNTS OF WEST POINT. L Jonathan Williams... 1802-12 2. Joseph G. Swift 1812-17 3. Sylvanus Thayer 1817-33 4. Rene E. De Russy.. . .1833-38 5. Richard Delafleld 1838-45 6. Henry Brewerton 1845-52 7. Robert E. Lee 1852-55 8. John G. Barnard 1855-56 9. Richard Delafleld 1856-61 10. P. G. T. Beauregard.. 1861 [Served 5 days. Ap- pointed by John Floyd, sec. of war; relieved by Joseph Holt.] 11. Alexander H. Bow- man 12. Zealous B. Tower. . '. .1864 13. George W. Cullum . . . 1864-66 14. Thomas G. Pitcher. ..1866-71 15. Thos. H. Ruger 1871-76 16. Gen. John M. Scho- ) ,„„„ q. field } 1876-81 ^'^' ^^"rd^"''^''^' ^'"""i 1881-82 18. Wesley Merritt". '. .... 1882-87 19. John G. Parke 1887-89 20. Jas. M. Wilson 2L 0. H. Ernst 1894 1861-64 WES 929 WES -GRADUATES RANKING No. 1 FROM 1818 TO 1861 (NO CLASS RANK PRIOR TO 1818), WITH THE CLASS AND GRADTT ATING RANK OF OTHERS WHO BECAME DISTINGUISHED IN THE CIVIL WAR »»«AUU- Class rank, No. 1. Name. Richard Delafleld , William A. Eleason Stei)lien Tuttle Edward A. Courtenay George Dutton Alfred Mordecai Deiin is A. Mahan Alexander D. Bache William H. C. Bartlett Ebenezer S. Sibley Albert E. Church Charles Mason Alexander J. Swift Roswell Park George W. Ward P'rederic A. Smith Wm. D. Eraser (named Wm. Smith at graduation) George W. Morell George L. Welcker Henry W. Benham William H. Wright. Isaac J. Stevens. , Paul 0. Hebert. Zealous B. Tower , Henry L. Eustis.. William B. Franklin.. William G. Peck William H. C. Whiting, C. Seaforth Stewart. John C. Symmes. . . . . . William P. Trowbridge. Quincy A. Gilmore Frederick E. Prime... George L. Andrews . . . Thomas Lincoln Casey James B. McPherson. . G. W. Custis Lee Cyrus B. Oomstock . . . 30 Year of graduation. 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1827 1828 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1837 1840 1841 1843 1844 1845 No. in Class. 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 56 43 46 34 Remarks. Retired Died, 1839. Died, 1835. Resigned, 1834. Died, 1857 , Resigned, 1861. Died, 1867 Resigned, 1829 Resigned, 1864 Resigned, 1831 Died, 1847 Resigned, 1836 Resigned, 1836. Died, 1852 Died, 1856. ( Resigned, 1837 ; re-cn- \ teredthe army, 1861 Died, 1848 Died, 1845 [■Resigned, 1853; re-en- ] J tered the army, ! 1 1861 ; killed at f" [ Chantilly, 1862.... J f Resigned, 1845 ; reap- 1 pointed, 1847; re- ! signed, 1848; joined | the rebellion J Resigned, 1864. Resigned, 1866. Resigned, 1865. ^Resigned, 1861;) [ joined the rebellion J Retired, 186L. Resigned, 1856. Killed before Atlanta, ^ Ga., 1864, aged 35..) Resigned, 1861 ;) joined the rebellion) Class rank of disllngulahed officers graduating at the time. (David Hunter 25 (Joseph K. T. Mansfleld '. 2 f Robert A nderson 15 (Charles F. Smith .......19 ? Albert Sidney Johnston 8 (S. P. Heintzelman 17 Leonidas Polk q Jefferson Davis ....23 <). McKnight Mitchel !l5 Joseph E. Johnston 13 Robert E. Lee , 2 J. B. Magruder ' 15 (Samuel R. Curtis .27 (A. A. Humphreys 13 George W. Cullum s ("George G. Meade 19 (Gordon Granger .35 Thomas W. Sherman 18 ( Joseph Hooker 29 I John Sedgwick 24 ! Braxton Bragg , 5 ] Jubal A. Early 18 J. C. Pemberton 27 [William H. French 22 flrvin McDowell..; 23 J Andrew J. Smith 36 1 P. G. T. Beauregard 2 [ William J. Hardee 26 f Edward R. S. Canby 30 J Henry W. Halleck 3 ] Edward 0. C. Ord 17 [ Henry J. Hunt 19 r William Tecumseh Sherman 7 -i George H. Thomas 12 (Richard S. Ewell 13 f John F. Reynolds 26 I Don Carlos Buell 32 ^ Nathaniel Lyon 11 I Horatio G. Wright 2 ( John M. Brannan 23 ( John Newton 2 William S. Rosecrans 5 I John Pope 17 ■> (George Sykes 39 D. H. Hill 28 I James Longstreet 54 I Earl Van Dorn 52 (Christopher G. Auger 16 ^Ulysses S. Crant 21 ( Frederick Steele 30 I W'infleld S. Hancock 18 -^Alfred Pleasanton 7 (S. B. Buckner 11 ( Fitz-John Porter 8 I Charles P. Stone 7 Thomas J. Wood 5 William F. Smith 4 Edmund Kirby Smith 25 ( George B. McClellan 2 George Stoneman 33 J Darius Couch 13 j John G. Foster 4 Thomas J. Jackson, " Stonewall " 17 ( George Pickett 59 f Ambrose E. Burnside 18 I Orlando B. Wilcox 8 J Charles Griffin 23 ] John Gibbon 20 Romey n B. Ay res 22 [ Ambrose P. Hill 15 ] John G. Parke 2 (Absalom Baird 9 G. K. Warren 2 r David Stanley 9 j Henry W. Slocum 7 1 Alexander McDowell McCook 30 [ George W. Crook 32 John M. Schofield 7 Philip H. Sheridan 34 J. B. Hood 44 (0. 0. Howard 4 (J- E. B. Stuart 13 i William B. Hazen 28 Godfrey Weitzel 2 William B. Averell 26 David McM. Gregg 8 Alfred T. 0. Torbert 21 WES 980 WES GRADUATES RANKING Na 1, ETC.. WHO BECAME DISTINGUISHED IN THE CIVIL WAR. -(Continued. George W. Snyder. John C. Palfrey •• . William I'. hiiiH>. .. Wim»m K. Merrill. Walter McFarlaud . Henry A. Dupoot. Yaarof grMluktton. 1866 1867 1869 1860 18C1 Nn. in ClMi. Remarkt. Died, 1861. Resigned, 1863. Class rank of distiuguUhed officers graduating at the time. /Wesley Merritt 22 \James H. Wilson & ? Judson Kili>atrick 17 -^ Emory Upton 8 (George A. Custer 34 West Saxons. Britain. West Virginia, a state of the United States formed from Virginia west of the Alleghany mountains, is of irregular shape, a narrow strip known as the Panhandle extending north between Pennsylvania and Ohio some 70 miles, and Maryland cutting a triangle out of the northeastern por- tion*. It lies between lat. 37° 5' and 40° 37' N., and Ion. 77° 4' and 82° 40' W. Its general boundary is Pennsylvania and Maryland on the north, Vir- ginia on the east and south, and Kentucky and Ohio on the west. Area, 24,780 sq. miles in 54 counties. Pop. 1890, 762,794. Capital, Charles- ton. Virginia. Harper's Ferry established as a ferry 1748 Baptist church formed at Opequon, Berkeley county, under charge of rev. John Gerard from New England 1754 Battle of the Trough, near Moorefield. A small baud of set- tlers pursuing Indians under Kill Buck are hemmed in bfc- tween mounuin and river, and obliged to retreat with loss of half their number. spring of 1756 Massacre of the garrison of fort Seybert, 12 miles from site of Franklin, by Indians May, 1758 Romney laid out and named by lord Fairfax Nov. 1762 Capt. William Arbuckle. the first white man to traverse the Kanawha valley, reaches the site of Point Pleasant 1764 English exploring expedition under col. Crogan descends the Ohio, encamping at West Columbia and Little Guyandotte river May, 1765 George Washington, on a surveying expedition to the Ohio, passes through Romney 9 Oct. 1770 Indians attack the crew of a trading canoe from Pittsburg on the Ohio, near Wheeling, killing 1 man, thus breaking a 10 years' truce, 16 Apr. The settlers declare war and engage in a battle near the mouth of Captina creek 27 Apr. 1774 Fort Union built on site of Lewisburg " Fort Fincastle, afterwards fort Henry, at Wheeling, built " Battle of Point Pleasant, at the mouth of the Great Kanawha ( Vl RGINIA) 10 Oct. " Fort Randolph, at Point Pleasant, begun " " John Harvie and John Nevill, chosen to represent western Virginia in the Virginia convention, are admitted to seats, 21 Mch. 1775 Convention of Virginia frontiersmen west of the Alleghany mountains at Pittsburg elects John Harvie and George Rodes delegates to Continental Congress 16 May, " Tory insurrection under John Claypole, a resident of Hardy county, suppressed by troops under gen. Morgan June, " Capt. Foreman and 21 men massacred by Indians about 4 miles from Moundsville 25 Sept. 1777 Fort Hknky unsuccessfully besieged by Indians under Simon Girty 27-28 Sept. " Cornstalk, Shawnee chief, murdered at Point Pleasant, 10 Nov. " Fort Randolph besieged by Indians May, 1778 Attack by the Indians on Donnally's fort, 10 miles northwest of Lewisburg May, " By grant to William Penn in 1681, the western boundary of Pennsylvania is the meridian 5 degrees west of the Dela- ware. Virginia in ceding to the U. S. lands beyond the Ohio, in 1784, reserved a strip about 70 miles long upon the Ohio west of Pennsylvania, now known as the Panhandle. .1 Mch. 1784 General assembly directs the establishment of Morgantown, Oct. 1785 Wheeling laid out in town lots by col. Ebenezer Zane 1793 Charleston created by act of legislature 19 Dec. 1794 Aaron Burr visits Herman Blennerhassett at his island in the Ohio, 2 miles below Parkersburg (Blennerhassett's island; U.viTED States) 1805 First steamboat on the Great Kanawha, the Robert Thompson, ascends the river from Point Pleasant to Red House shoals. . 1819 Bethany college at Bethany, chartered 1840, opened 1841 Wheeling female college at Wheeling, chartered 1848, opened. . 1850 John Brown, seeking "to free the slaves," captures Harper's Ferry (Brown's, John, isscrrection; Virginia) .. 16-17 Oct. 1859 Petroleum discovered at Burning Springs, on the north bank of the Kanawha 1860 First public Union meeting in West Virginia, declaring against secession, held at Preston 12 Nov. " Forty-six delegates from what is now West Virginia vote on the ordinance of secession; 9 for, 29 against; 7 are absent, 1 excused 17 Apr. 1861 Garrison at Harper's Ferry burn the arsenal and flee into Maryland 21 Apr. " West Virginia declares for the Union " '' First Wheeling convention on the future of western Virginia meets in Washington hall. Wheeling 13 May, "■ First Virginia federal infantry mustered in on Wheeling isl- and by maj. Oaks 15 May, " Second Wheeling convention meets at Washington hall. Wheel- ing, 11 June, 1861; adopts a declaration of rights, 13 June; an ordinance to reorganize the state government, 19 June; and elects Francis H. Pierpont governor 20 June, ' Gen. Rosecrans defeats confederates under gen. R. S. Garnett, in the battle of Rich mountain 11 July, •' Battle of Carnifex Ferry; confederates under gen. H. A. Wise attacked by federals under Kosecrans 10 Sept. ' ' Gen. Reynolds repulses confederates under Lee in battle at Cheat mountain 12-14 Sept. " Convention at Wheeling passes an ordinance to form a new state in western Virginia called Kanawha, 20 Aug. 1861; ordinance ratified by popular vote of 18,408 to 781.. . .24 Oct. " Federals burn Guyandotte 11 Nov. " Constitution for a new state, named West Virginia, framed by convention which meets at Wheeling, 26 Nov. 1861, and com- pletes its labors, 18 Feb.; constitution ratified by popular vote of 18,862 to 514 Apr. 1802 General assembly of reorganized Virginia at Wheeling assents to the erection of the new state of West Virginia 12 May, " Harper's Ferry surrendered by gen. Dixon H. Miles to confed- erates under Stonewall Jackson (Maryland campaign), 15 Sept. •' Gen. J. A. J. Lightburn retreats through the Kanawha valley, pursued by confederates under gen. Loriug " Congress admits West Virginia into the Union from 20 June, 1863 31 Dec. " Confederates under gen. Jones burn 100,000 barrels of petro- leum at Burning Snrings 9 May, 1803 Inauguration of new*state government takes place at Wheel- ing . 20 June, " Supreme court of appeals organized at Wheeling 9 July, " Gen. W. W. Averill defeats maj. John Echols in battle of Droop mountain 6 Nov. " Hospital for the insane at Weston opened 18G4 Transfer of the counties of Berkeley (5 Aug. 1863) and Jeffer- son (2 Nov. 1863) from the state of Virginia to West Virginia is recognized by joint resolution of Congress 10 Mch. 1866 Amendments to state constitution ratified excluding from citi- zenship all who had, subsequent to June, 1861, given volun- tary aid to the southern Confederacy 24 May, " State penitentiary located at Moundsville by act of 7 Feb. 1866, begun July, " Legislature ratifies the XIV. th Amendment to federal Consti- tution 16 Jan. Fairmount State Normal school at Fairmount opened Storer college at Harper's Ferry opened West Virginia university at Morgantown opened 17 June, Marshall college, State Normal school at Huntington, opened. . Legislature ratifies the XV. th Amendment to federal Constitu- tion 3 Mch. Charleston chosen as seat of government by legislature, 20 Feb. 1869, from 30 Apr. State Normal school at West Liberty opened West Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind at Romney opened Amendment to sec. i. art. iii. of the state constitution, rehabili- tating citizens disfranchised, ratified by the people. . .27 Apr. Constitution framed by a convention which meets at Charles- ton, 16 Jan. 1872, and completes its labors, 9 Apr. 1872; rati- fied by the people 22 Aug. Shepherd college. State Normal college at Shepherdtown, opened " State Normal school at Glenviile opened 1873 Legislature meets at Wheeling as temporary seat of govern- ment by act of 20 Feb. 1875 10 Nov. 1875 Broaddus college at Clarksburg, opened 1871, chartered 1877 Strike on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad begun at Martins- burg V 16 July, " At election held by act of 21 Feb. 1877, to locate the state cap- ital after 1 May, 1885, Charleston has 41,288 votes, Clarks- burg, 30,812, Martinsburg, 8049 7 Aug. " Nathan Goff, jr., appointed secretary of the navy 6 Jan. 1881 1867 1868 1870 1871 1872 WES 931 WES Act striking the word "white " out of the " Woods Jury law " ofl872-73 1881 Act passed establishing a state Board of Health 11 June, " West Virginia Normal and. Classical Academy at Buckhannon opened 1882 West Virginia Immigration and Development Association or- ganized at Wheeling 29 Feb. 1888 Returns of election for governor in Nov. 1888 were: Nathan Goff, Rep., 78,714; A B. Fleming. Dem., 78,604. Fleming contests for fraudulent returns, and is declared elected by a party vote of the legislature, 43 to 40 4 Feb. 1890 State Reform school opened July, " Hatlield-ilcCoy feud ended by a marriage 21 Mch. 1891 First state Board of Agriculture meets at the capitol in Charles- ton 4 May, Stephen B. Elkins qualifies as U. S. secretary of war 24 Dec. GOVERNOK8 OF WEST VIRGINIA. Arthur I. Boreman inaugurated William E. Stevenson " John J. Jacob " Henry M. Mathews " Jacob B. Jackson " ... E. Willis Wilson " A.B.Fleming " William A. McCorkle " 1891 1871 1877 1881 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF WEST VIRGINIA. Name. Waitman T. Willey. . . Peter G. Van Winkle. Arthur I. Boreman. . . Henry G. Davis Allen T. Capertou Samuel Price Frank Hereford Johnson N. Camden . . John E. Kenna Charles E. Faulkner.. Johnson N. Camden.. Stephen B. Elkins No. of Congress. 38th to 42d 38th " 41st 41st " 44th 42d " 48th 44th 44th 44th to 47th 47th " 50th 48th " 52d 50th " 53d " 54th 54th " Date. 1863 to 1871 1863 " 1869 1869 " 1875 1871 " 1883 1875 " 1876 1876 1877 to 1881 1881 " 1887 1883 " 1893 1887 " 1893 " 1895 1895 " Seated 7 Dec. Died in office. Appointed pro tern, in place of Caperton. Elected in place of Caperton. . Died in office, 11 Jan. 1893. Term expires 1899. Elected in place of Kenna. Term expires 1901. IVestern Australia, formerly Swan River settlement, projected by col. Peel in 1828. Regula- tions issued from the colonial office, and capt. Stirling, ap- pointed lieutenant-governor, 17 Jan. 1829, arrived at the appointed site in Aug. The 3 towns of Perth, Freemantle, and Guildford were founded the same year. In Mch. 1830, 50 ships, with 2000 emigrants, with property amounting to 1,000,- 000/., had arrived before many dwellings had been erected or land surveyed. The more energetic settlers left for home or the neighboring colonies, and the colony languished for 20 years for want of suitable inhabitants— the first settlers, from their previous habits and rank, proving unfit for the rough work of colonization. In 1848 the colonists requested that convicts might be sent out, and in 1849 a band arrived, who were kindly received and well treated. The best results en- sued. By' 1853 2000 had arrived, and the inhabitants of Perth had requested that 1000 should be sent annually. The reception of convicts was stopped because of energetic opposi- tion by other Australian colonies (1865).— The settlement of King George's sound was founded in 1826 by the government of New South Wales. It was used as a military station for 4 years. In 1830 the home government ordered the settlement to be transferred to Swan River. Since steam communication began, the little town of Albany here, from a coaling-station, has become a thriving seaport. It has an excellent harbor, used by whalers. A journal called the Freemantle Gazette was pub- lished here in Mch. 1831. In 1890 it became self-governing; power vested in a governor, legislative council, and assembly. Area, 1,060,000 sq. miles; pop. 1891, 49,782. Capital, Perth ; pop. 1891, 9617. IVestern churcli, called also the Latin or Ro- man, broke off communion with the Greek or Eastern church 653. (iKp:EK CHUKCH. Its history is mainly that of the Popes and of the European kingdoms. This church was dis- turbed by the Arian heresy about 345 and 500; by Pelagianism, about 409; by image-worship about 600; by the celibacy of the clergy and the rise of monastic orders, about 649; by the contests between emperors and popes on ecclesiastical investi- tures between 1073 and 1173; by the Reformation of the 15th and 16th centuries ; by the contests of Jesuits and Jansenists in the 17th and 18th centuries; and by modern philosophy, rationalism, and ultramontanism in the 19th. Western empire. The Roman empire was divid- ed into Eastern and Western by Diocletian in 296 ; but was reunited under Constans in 340. It was again divided into Eastern and Western by Valentinian and Valens, the former having the Western portion, or Rome, 364. Eastern empire, Italy, Rome. emperoks. 364. Valentinian, son of Gratian. takes the Western, and his brother Valens the Eastern empire. 367. Gratian, a yoUth, son of Valentinian, made a colleague by his father. , . , . 375. Valentinian II., another son, very young, is, on the death of his father, associated with Gratian, who is assassinated by his general, Andragathius, in 383. Valentinian murdered by an officer, Arbogastes, in 392. 392. Eugenius, a usurpfer, assumes the imperial dignity; he and Arbogastes are defeated by 394. Theodosius the Great, who becomes sole emperor. [Andragathius threw himself into the sea, and Arbogastes died by his own hand.] 395. Honorius, son of Theodosius, reigns, on his father's death, in the West,andhisbrotherArcadiusintheEast. Honoriusdies,423. 423. John, the Notary, usurper, defeated and slain near Ravenna. 425. Valentinian III., son of the empress Placidia, daughter of Theo- dosius the Great; murdered at the instance of 455. Maximus: he marries Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian, who, to avenge her first husband, invites the African Vandals into Italy, and Rome is sacked. Maximus stoned. " Marcus Msecilius Avitus; forced to resign, and dies in his flight towards the Alps. 457. Julius Valerius Majorianus; murdered at the instance of his minister, Ricimer, who raises 461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the supreme power; Severus poisoned by Ricimer. 465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority, without the title of emperor.] 467. Antbemius, chosen by the senate and army; murdered by Ricimer, who dies soon after. 472. Flavius-Anicius Olybiius; slain by the Goths soon after. 473. Glycerius; forced to abdicate by 474. Julius Nepos: deposed by his general, Orestes, and retires to Salonse. 475. Romulus (called Augustulus, or Little Augustus), son of Orestes. Orestes is slain, and the emperor deposed by 476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli; takes Rome, assumes the style king of Italy; end of the Western empire. Germany, Italy, Rome. Western Reserve, Ohio. Connecticut, 1786, 1792, '95, 1800. Westminster atotoey, originally the church erected by Edward the Confessor as part of an abbey within his palace- grounds, is on the site of still earlier churches ; and from the time of Harold has been the coronation church of the monarchs of England. Christopher Wren, in his survey of the present edifice, found nothing to show that it was erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. The earliest edifice, of the 7th centurj', is ascribed to St. Sebert, king of Essex. Church, becoming ruinous, splendidly rebuilt by Edward the Confessor (10.55-65) and filled with monks from Exeter (Pope Nicholas II. assigned it for the inauguration of the kings); dedicated 28 Dec. 1065 Rebuilt in a magnificent style by Henry III 1220-69 In the reigns of Edward II., Edward III, and Richard II., the great cloisters, abbot's house, and principal monastic build- ings erected 1300-1400 Western parts of the nave and aisles rebuilt between. .1340 and 1483 West front and the great window built by Richard III. isind Henry VII. ; the latter commenced the chapel which bears his name; the first stone laid 24 Jan. 1502-3 Abbev dissolved and made a bishopric 1540 Made" a collegiate church by Elizabeth 1560 Made a barrack for soldiers (Mercurius Rusticus) July, 1643 Great west window and the western towers rebuilt in the reigns of George I. and II 1714-60 Choir injured by fire 9 July, 1803 Mr. Wyatt commences restoring the dilapidated parts, at an expense of 42.000i 1809 Eight hundredth anniversary of the foundation celebrated, ^ 28 Dec. 1865 WES "> Weiiliiilniitor Confession of Faltli atul Caleolll»in» were drawn up by the "Assembly of Di- vines" (jMirtlv consisting of laymen), who sat by authority of Parliament in Henry VI I.'s chapel, Westminster, from 1643 to I(M7. These have ever since been the doctrinal standards of Sct>tch Presbyterians. WestUl'hlMter Hall, London, first built by William Kufus in I0i)7, for a banqueting-hall; and here, in 1099, on hi.H return from Normandy, "he kept his feast of Whitsuntide very n>yallv." The hall became ruinous before the reign of Kicliard II.', who repaired it in 1397, raised the walls, altered the windows, and added a new roof, a stately porch, and other buildings. In 123G, Henry III., on New Year's Day, caused 6(H>0 |HM)r penkMis to be entertained in this hall, and in the other riM)ms of his palace, as a celebration of queen Eleanor's coronation; and here Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,000.—- 4>Vow. The courts of law were established here by king John.— Idem. Removed to the new buildings in the Strand, Jan. 1883. Westminster Hall was long believed to be the largest room in Europe unsupported by pillars (ex- cept a hall of justice at Padua) ; it is 270 feet in length, 74 feet broad. The roof and windows greatly injured by an explosion of dynamite, 24 Jan. 1885. Westplia'lia, Germany. This duchy belonged in former times to the dukes of Saxony, and afterwards became subject to the archbishop of Cologne. On the secularization, in 1802, it was made over to Hesse-Darmstadt ; and in 1814 was ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to the west of the Elbe, was created by decree 18 Aug. 1806, and Jerome Bonaparte appointed king 1 Dec. 1807. Hanover was annexed to it, 1 Mch. 1810. The kingdom was abolished in 1813, and the countries were re- stored to their former rulers. Wcitpha'lta or ]flun§ter, Peace of, the treaties signed at Osnaburg, 6 Aug., and at Miinster, 24 Oct. 1648, be- tween France, the emperor of Germany, and Sweden ; Spain continuing the war against France. By this peace (ending the Thirty Years' war) the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized ; Alsace given to France, and part of Pome- rania and some other districts to Sweden ; the Lower Palatinate restored to the elector palatine ; the religious and political rights of the German states established ; and the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognized by Germany. IVllCat, a grain of the order Gramimae of the species Triticum (from the h&t. tritum, " rabhed" or "ground," allud- ing to the manner of preparing it for food), and closely re- lated to barley and rye. It is the most valuable of cereals for food, and has been in use from the remotest ages. It may have been derived from the species yEgilopsoota of the Medi- terranean region. It was introduced into England about the 6th century, and into America by the Spaniards in 1530, and by the English into their colonies at their first settlements. The 2 principal varieties are spring wheat, sown in the spring and ripening the same summer, and winter wheat, sown in the early autumn and ripening the next summer. It can be cul- tivated as far north as 45° and in southern latitudes to the height of 2000 ft. above the level of the sea. PRODUCTION OF WHEAT IN THE PRINCIPAL WHEAT-GROW- ING COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD FOR THE YEAR 1891. Bushels. United States 612,000,000 India 250,000,000 France 230,000,000 Russia 190,000,000 Austro- Hungary 160,000,000 Italy 105,000,000 Germany 90,000,000 Spain 76,000,000 Great Britain 72,000,000 Roumania 65,000,000 Canada 62,000,000 Australia 45,000,000 Argentine Republic 40,000,000 Egypt and Algeria 40,000,000 Total 2,037,000,000 Other countries 150,000.000 Grand total 2,187,000,000 i WHI The wheat crop in the United States for 1892 was 515,949,000 bu., acreage, 38,554,430; 1893, 396,131,725 bu., the smallest crop since 1885, acreage, 34,629,418. Agriculture. wheel, Breaking on the. A barbarous mode of death of great antiquitv, ordered by Francis I. for robbers, about 1535. Wlli;;s. In the reign of Charles II. of England the name Whig was a term of reproach given by the court party to their antagonists for holding the principles of the " Whigs," or fanatical Covenanters in Scotland ; and in return the name Tory was given to the court party, comparing them to the tories, or popish robbers in Ireland. — Bake?: The distinction arose out of the discovery of the Meal-tuu plot in 1678. Upon bringing up the meal plot before Parliament, 2 parties were formed: those who doubted the plot styled those who believed in it Whigs; these styled their adversaries Tories. In time these names, given as marks of opprobrium, became honored distinctions. — Hume. The Whigs brought about the revolution of 1688-89, and established the Protestant suc- cession. They were chiefly instrumental in obtaining the abolition of the slave-trade and slavery, the repeal of the Test and Corporation act, Catholic emancipation, parliamentary and municipal reform, the repeal of the corn laws, and similar measures. 'J he Whig club was established b}' Charles James Fox. The principal Whig ministries of England were: Go- dolphin's, Halifax's, Walpole's, Rockingham's, Grenville's, Grey's, Melbourne's, Russell's, Palmerston's, and Gladstone's. For Whigs in the United States, see Political parties. whip, the popular title of the patronage secretary of the treasury of Great Britain, whose duty it is to collect mem- bers to make a house on important occasions, etc. Sir Wm. Hayter, the Liberal "whip," 1850-58, received a testimonial for his energetic services early in 1861. The right hon. Wm. P. Adam, an able whip, died governor of Madras, 24 May, 1881. The management of the House of Commons by bribery is said to have begun with Clifford of the " Cabal " ministry, and continued by Whigs and Tories. Mr. Roberts (under Henry Pelham) is said to have paid members sums of 1000/., 500/., etc., to each at the close of a session for their support. — Wraxall. IVhiskey in§urreetion, a popular outbreak in western Pennsylvania, in the summer of 1794, on account of the imposition of duties on domestic distilled spirits. The insurgents put 16,000 men in the field, maltreated the excise oflftcers, committed manj'^ outrages, and defied the national government. The governor of Pennsylvania refusing to act, Washington, as president of the United States, called out 13,- 000, afterwards increasing the number to 15,000, militiamen of Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey ; and, putting gen. Henry Lee of Virginia in command, ordered a movement against the insurgents on I Sept. 1794. The prompt response to the call for militia intimidated the insur» gents into complete submission. Among the leaders in this insurrection was Albert Gallatin, afterwards sec. of the treas- ury. It cost the national government $1,500,000, but was useful by showing its power to cope with so formidable an outbreak. \wlli§t, a game at cards, became popular at the end of the 17th century. "Whist," a poem 1791 Laws by "Cavendish," compiled about 1861 Edmund Hoyle, who published his "Short Treatise" about 1742, died in 1769, aged 97; lord Peterborough introduced short whist early in the present century; the laws revised . . 1864 James Clay, M.P., an eminent player, d 26 Sept. 1871 l¥hite Friar§. Carmelites. " White Hor§e." Ashdown. White House, Washington, the residence of the president, gives name to the executive of the United States, as St. James's palace does to that of Great Britain. The cor- ner-stone was laid 1792; building first occupied, by pres. Adams, 1800; burned by the British, 1814: restoration completed, 1818. White House, on the Pamunkey, Va., belonging to Mrs. Robert E. Lee, was made the headquarters of gen. Mc- Clellan, and its vicinity the depot of supplies while engaged in his advance on Richmond in 1862. White Mountains, in New Hampshire, covering 1300 sq. miles in several short ranges. In the Presidential WHI i range tower the peaks of mounts Washington, 6292 ft. , Adams, 5794; Jefferson, 5714 ; Madison, 5365 ; Monroe, 5384; Jackson, and others. They were called Waumbek Methna by the Indians, a name adopted by Whittier in his ballad of " Mary Garvin " : " From the heart of Waumbek Methna, From the lake that never fails, Falls the Saco in the green lap Of Conway's intervales." Mount Washington has a carriage-road ascending its rocky slope to the summit. The first cog-rail mountain railway in the world was built to the summit in 1868-69, rising 3730 ft. in less than 3 miles, the steepest grade being 13J ins. in a yard. Appalachian Mountains. White Plains, a post-village of New York. Here Washington opposed the advance of the British forces under sir William Howe, 28 Oct. 1776. It terminated in the defeat of the Americans, whose losses were about 300 in killed, wounded, and prisoners. New York, United States. White tower, the keep or citadel in the Tower of London, a large, square, irregular building, erected in 1070 by abbot Gundulph, afterwards bishop of Rochester. It measures 116 feet by 96, and is 92 feet in height; the walls are 11 feet thick, with a winding staircase along 2 sides, like that in Dover Castle. It contains an extensive armory. Within this tower is the ancient chapel of St. John, originally used by the English monarchs. The turret at the northeast angle, the highest of the 4, was used for astronomical purposes by Flamsteed before the erection of the royal observatory at Greenwich. Whiteehapel, a parish in E. London. In this par- isli much excitement was caused by the murder and brutal mutilation of unfortunate women at different times and ap- parently by the same person. Smith, 3 Apr.; Martha Tur- ner, 7 Aug.; Nichols, 31 Aug.; Chapman, 8 Sept.; Watts and Conway, 30 Sept. ; Mary Jane Kelly, 9 Nov., and Rose Millet, 28 Dec. 1888. Alice McKenzie, 17 July, and another woman, 10 Sept. 1889. Frances Coles, 13 Feb. 1891. The evidence showed a murderer possessed of surgical knowledge. Active measures were taken to discover the perpetrator of these mur- ders in vain; but there is reason to believe that it was Fred- erick Bailey Deeming alias Albert Oliver Williams, executed at Melbourne, Australia, 1892. Trials, 1892. Whitefleidite§. George Whitefield, the founder of the " Calvinistic Methodists," born in England, 1714, was the son of an innkeeper at Gloucester, where he received his first education. He was admitted a servitor at Oxford in 1732, became a companion of the Wesleys there, and aided them in founding Methodism. He left them in 1741, on account of their rejection of the doctrine of election. He was the most eloquent preacher of his day. His first sermon was preached in 1736, and he commenced field- preaching in 1739. He is said to have delivered 18,000 sermons in 34 years. He visited America in 1738, 1739, 1744, and several times after, and died at Newburyport, Mass., 30 Sept. 1770. His followers are termed " the countess of Huntingdon's connection," from his having become her chaplain in 1748, and from her energetic support of the sect by establishing a college at Trevecca, 1767. There were 109 chapels of this connection in 1851 ; but many of his followers have joined the Independents. Georgia, 1739-40; Massachusetts; Pennsylvania. Whitsuntide, a festival appointed to commemorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles; the newly baptized persons, or catechumens, are said to have worn white i,'arments on Whit-Sunday. This feast is movable, being always exactly 7 weeks after Easter. Rogation week is the week before Whit-Sunday. Whittington's charities. Sir Richard Whit- tington, a citizen and mercer of London, served the office of lord mayor 3 times, the last in 1419. Many false stories are connected with his name, and his munificent charities are lit- tle known. He founded his college, dedicated to the Holy (ihost and the Virgin Mary, in 1424; and his almshouses in 1429; the latter," originally built in London, now stand on llighgate hill (built 1808), near the supposed site of the famous stone which commemorated the legend of his return to Lon- =* WIL don, after leaving it in despair. Stopping to rest on this stone, immediately after his departure from London, his ear caught the sound of the London bells, which, to his disturbed fancy, repeated over and over again, "Turn again, Whittington, thrice lord mayor of London." Heeding the words he returned, his success in later years fulfilling the prophecy. Wick'liffltes, the followers of John Wickliffe (b. 1324), a professor of divinity in the university of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in Leicestershire. He was a forerunner of the reformation of the English church, being among the first who opposed the authority of the pope, transubstantia- tion, the celibacy of the clergy, etc. WicklifTe, protected bv John of Gaunt, Edward's son and Richard's uncle, was viru- lently persecuted by the church, and only saved from martyr- dom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death, 31 Dec. 1384, in his 60th year. The council of Constance, in 1414, decreed his bones to be disinterred and burned, which was done by the bishop of Lincoln, and his dust was cast into the river Swift, 1415. Wickliffe's English version of the Bible was commenced in 1380; a noble edition of it was printed at Oxford in 1850. Lollards. widows. The Jewish law required a man's brother to marry his widow (1490 b.c). For the burning of widows in India, Suttees. According to Swedenborg, widows signify in the Scriptures those without truth but desiring it. Wight, Isle of, the Roman Vecht, or Victis, an island in the British channel, was conquered by Vespasian in the reign of Claudius. It was conquered by the Saxons under Cerdic about 530 ; by the Danes, 787, and in 1001, when they held it for sev- eral years. It was invaded by the French, July, 1377, and has several times suffered from invasion by them. In 1442, Henry VI. alienated the isle to Henry de Beauchamp, first premier eari of England and then duke of Warwick, and afterward* crowned him king of the Isle of Wight with his own hands; but for want of heirs male his regal title died with him, and the isle reverted to the crown. Charles I., after his flight from Hampton court, was a prisoner in Carisbrooke castle, in 1647. In the time of Charies II. timber was very plentiful. In this isle is queen Victoria's marine residence, Osborne house; also the former residence of Tennyson. W^ilderness battles. Grant's campaign in Virginia ; United States, May, 1864. IVilites's Exploring^ expedition. United States, 1838 and 1842. Williams, Eleazar, was a reputed son of Thomas Will- iams, son of Eunice, daughter of rev. John Williams (Massa- chusetts, 1704). In 1853-54 rev. Mr. Hanson published a series of papers in Putnam's Monthly, under the title " Have We a Bourbon Among Us ?'^ and afterwards in a volume, en- titled "The Lost Prince," asserting the identity of Mr. William.s with the son of Louis XVI., whose death from neglect in prison, 8 June, 1795, has often been doubted, many rumors being cur- rent regarding his fate. One story was that he had been se- cretly conveyed to the United Stales and placed among the Indians, etc. So strong was the case presented by Mr, Hanson, that in 1854 the prince de Joinville visited Mr, Williams at Green Bay, Wis., but without definite results. Mr. Williams died at Hogansburg, N. Y., 28 Aug. 1858, aged 72. He was from 1826 an ordained Episcopal missionary, and labored in northern New York and Wisconsin among the Indians, trans- lating the " Book of Common Prayers " into the Mohawk lan- guage, and also prepared an Iroquois spelling-book. Williamsburg^, Va., Battle of. Peninsular cam- paign. w^illoAV-Ieaves. Sun. W^ills and testaments, as indicating in writing what a person desires to be done with his real and personal estate after death, are of high antiquity (Gen. xlviii.). Solon in- troduced them at Athens, 578 b.c. There are regulations re- specting wills in the Koran. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 b.c. The power of bequeathing lands by will was confirmed to English subjects, 1 Hen. I. 1100; but with restrictions and limitations respect- ing the feudal system, which were taken off by the statute of 32 Hen. VIII. 1541. — Blackstone's Commentaries. The first WIL 984 WIN will of a sovereign on record is said to be that of Richard II. 1399; but in fact Kdward the Confessor made a will, 1066. Ttio will of i\lirr the Great, described in the mmoires df la Cheva- li^re dJitm as a "plan for comiiassing European supremacy,' left for his nuc«-e88or«. and de|H)siteU in the archives of the palace of IVterhoff near St. Petersburg It advoaited ' approach as near M iHjasible to Consuutlnople and towards the Indies; wars with Turkey and I'orsiu; iwssosiiion of the shores of the Black sea and the lUiltic." etc. The existence of the will (denied by the czars) was first announced bv M. lieeur, In his " l'rogr{>8 de la Puissance Ruase " published at Paris in 181'2. In 1863, dr. Berkholz of Riga aaaerted that the will was a forgery, probably dictated by Napoleon I W. J Thorns, the antiquary, and others, contend for the genuine- DMB of the will, June, 1878. BxIraeUfrom the Latt Will of Napoleon I., Emperor of France. fHe died 6 May, 1821, 11 days after he had signed these documents- Tiie original, In French, occupies about 2C pages in Peignol's "Tes- Uuionts Ketnarquables," 1829.] •This day, 24 April, 1821, at Longwood, in the Island of St. Helena. This is niv testament, or act of my last will: . . . ••I leave the comte Montholou 2,000,000 francs as a proof of my 8;ili.«faction for the attentions he has paid to me for these 6 years, and to indemnif\- him for the losses which my residence in St. Hele- na has occasioned him. I leave to the comte Bertraud 500,000 francs. I leave to Marchand, my first valet-de-chambre, 400,000 francs; the services he has |)erfornied for me are those of a friend. I desire that he may marry a widow, sister, or daughter of an officer or soldier of my old guard. To St. Denis, 100,000 francs. To Novarre. 100,000 rruncs. To Pijerou, 100,000 francs. To Archambaud, 60,000 francs. To Cuvier, 50,(K)0 francs. To Chandelle, idem. " To the Abb«5 Vignali. 100,000 francs. I desire that he maybuild his house near I'onte Novo de Rossiuo. To the comte Las Casas, 100,000 francs. To comte Lavalette, 100,000 francs. To the surgeon- m chief I^irrey, 100,000 francs. He is the most virtuous man I have known. To gen. Brayer, 100,000 francs. '•To gen. I^fevre Desnouettes, 100,000 francs. To gen. Drouet, 100.000 (Vanes. To gen. Cambronne, 100,000 francs. To the chil- dren of gen. Muton Duvernais, 100,000 francs. To the children of the brave I^bedoydre, 100,000 francs. To the children of gen. Girard, killed at Ligny, 100,000 francs. To the children of gen. Chartrand, 100,000 francs". To the children of the virtuous gen. Travost, 100,- 000 francs. To gen. Lallemand, the elder, 100,000 francs. To gen. Clausel. 100,000 francs. To Costa Bastilica also 100,000 francs. To the baron de Menevalle, 100,000 francs. To Arnault, author of •'Marius,' 100,000 francs. "To col. Marbot, 100,000 francs; I request him to continue to | vrite for the defence and glory of the French armies, and to con- : found the calumniators and the apostates. To the baron Bignon, I 100,000 francs ; I request him to write the history of French diplo- | macy from 1792 to 181.5. To Poggi de Talaro, 100,000 francs. To the ; surgeon Emmery, 100.000. | "These sums shall be taken from the 6,000,000 which I deposited ' on tearing Paris in 1815, and from the interest at the rate of 5 per cent, since July, 1815; theaccountofwhichshallbeadjiisted with the bank- ers by the comtes Montholon and Bertrand and by Marchand. "These legacies, in case of death, shall be paid to the widows and children, and in their default, shall revert to the capital. I in- stitute the comtes Montholon, Bertrand, and Marchand my testa- mentary executors. This present testament, written entirely by my own hand, is signed and sealed with my arms. ,i ^.t . '• 24 April. 1821, Longwood. " in apoleon. The following are part of the 8 codicil's to the preceding will of the emperor: " On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy— such as money, jew- j els, plate, linen, coffers, caskets of which the viceroy is the deposi- tary, and which belong to me — I dispose of 2,000,000, which I leave to my most faithful servants. I hope that, without their showing any cause, my son Eugene Napoleon will discharge them faithfully, j He cannot forget the 40,000,000 which I have given him in Italy, or by the right {parage) of his mother's inheritance. " FrAn the funds remitted in gold to the empress Maria Louisa, | my very dear and well-beloved spouse at Orleans, in 1814:, there re- | main due to me 2,000.000, which I dispose of by the present codi- j cil. in order to recompense my most faithful servants, whom I be- side recommend to the protection of my dear Maria Louisa. I leave 200,000 francs to comte Montholon, 100,000 francs of which he shall j pay into the chest of the treasurer (las Casas) for the same purpose I as the above, to be employed according to my dispositions in lega- I cies of conscience. [ " 10,000 francs to the subofflcer Cantillon [d. July, 1869], who has ^mdergone a prosecution, being accused of a desire to assassinate lord Wellington, of which he has been declared innocent. Cantillon | had as much right to assassinate that oligarch, as the latter had to ; send me to perish on the rock of St Helena," etc. i Letter to M. Lafitte. j " Monsieur Lafitte.— I remitted to you in 1815, at the moment i of my departure from Paris, a sum of nearly 6,000,000. for which | you gave me a double receipt. I have cancelled one of these re- ceipts, and I have charged comte Montholon to present to you the , other receipt, in order that you may. after my death, deliver to him the said sum with interest at the rate of 5 per cent., from the 1st of July, 1815, deducting the payments with which you have been charged in virtue of my order. I have also remitted to you a box containing my medallion. I beg you will deliver it to comte .Montholon. " This letter having no other object, I pray God, monsieur Lafitte, that he may have you in his holy and worthy keeping. "Napoleon. | " Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, 25 April, 1821." i The following will of Napoleon III. was published in tue Times, 30 Apr. 1873: " April 24, 18C5. "This is my will. I commend my son and my wife to the high constituted authorities of the state {aux grands corps de Vitat), to the people, and the army. The empress Eugenie possesses all the quali- ties requisite for conducting the regency well, and my son disjjlays a disposition and judgment which will render him worthy of his high destinies. Let him never forget the motto of the head of our family, ' Everything for the French people.' Let him fix in his mind the writings of the prisoner of St. Helena; let him study the empe- ror's deeds and correspondence; finally, let him remember, when circumstances so permit, that the cause of the peoples is the cause of France. Power is a heavy burden, because one cannot always do all the good one could wish, and because your contemporaries seldom render you justice, so that, in order to fulfil one's mission, one must have faith in, and consciousness of, one's duty. It is necessary to consider that from heaven on higli those wliom you have loved re- gard and protect you; it is the soul of my illustrious uncle that has always inspired and sustained me. The like will apply to my son, for he will always be worthy of his name. I leave to the empress Eugenie all my private proi)erty. It is my desire that on the major- ity of my son she shall inhabit the Elysde and Biarritz. I trust that my memory will be dear to her, and that after my death she will forget the griefs I may have caused her. With regard to my son, let him keep as a talisman the seal I used to wear attached to my watch, and which comes from my mother; let him carefully pre- serve everything that comes to me from the emperor, my uncle, and let him be convinced that my heart and my soul remain with him. I make no mention of my faithful servants. I am convinced that the empress and my son will never al)andon them. I shall die in tlie Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion, which my son will always honor by his piety. Done, written, and signed with my hand at the palace of the Tuileries, the 24th of April, 1865. "Napoleon." The will of Prince Louis Napoleon was written with his own hand, and signed 26 Feb. 1879, the night before he sailed for South Africa (where he was killed while on a reconnoitring party, 1 June, 1879). He states that he dies in the Catholic religion; expresses his love for his country, his mother the empress, and his friends; and his gratitude to the queen and royal family of England, and to the English people for their cordial hospitality. He constitutes his mother sole legatee; bequeaths legacies and memorials to prince J. N. Murat, M. F. Pietri, baron Corvisart, M. Rouher, and others; and assigns to Victor, the eldest son of prince Napoleon Jerome, the task of continuing the work of Napoleon I. and Napoleon IIL Executors, MM. Rouher and Pietri. Wirmillg^tOIl, a town of North Carolina, was held by the confederates; resisted severe attacks of the federals in Dec. 1864. Fort Fisher was taken bj-^ assault on 15 Jan., and Wilmington was evacuated bv the confederates, 22 Feb. 1865. Wilmot proviso. While a bill was pending in Congress to authorize the president to purchase territory in negotiating peace with Mexico, David Wilmot of Pennsyl- vania offered an amendment, 8 Aug. 1846, providing *' that, as an express and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory from the republic of Mexico, neither slavery nor involuntary servitude should ever exist in any part of said territory." This " proviso " was adopted hj the House of Representatives, but rejected by the Senate. It became the doctrinal foundation of the Free -soil party in 1848, and of the Republican party in 1856. Wilson's Creelt, Battle of, a few miles from Spring- field, Mo. Here, early on the morning of 10 Aug. 1861, the Union forces, about 6000 men, under gen. Nathaniel Lyon, at- tacked the confederates, 20,000 strong, under McCuUoch and Price, but were obliged to retire, after severe fighting and the death of gen. Lyon, with a loss of 1235 in all ; Confederate loss about the same. ^Vinchester, Hampshire, Engl., an ancient city, per- haps founded by Celtic Britons, with the fabulous date 392 b.c. It was made the capital of the West Saxon kingdom under Cerdic, about 520; and of England b}^ Egbert, 827; it became the residence of Alfred, 879-901. In the reign of William I. London began to rival it; and the destruction of religious houses by Henry Vltl. almost ruined it. Several kings re- sided at Winchester, and many parliaments were held there. Memorials of its ancient superiority exist in the national de- nomination of measures of quantity, as Winchester ell, Win- chester bushel, etc., the use of which has been replaced by im- perial measures. The cathedral church was first founded and endowed by Cynegils, or Kenegilsus, the first Christian king of the West Saxons. Becoming ruinous, the present fabric was begun by bishop Walkelyn, the 34th bishop, 1073. The church was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then to St. Peter, and afterwards to St. Swithin, once bishop here. Dedi- cated to the Holy Trinity by Henry VIII. St. Birinus was WIN 935 WIS the first bishop of the West Saxons, his seat Dorchester, 636 ; VVina, in 660, was the first bishop of Winchester. Winche§teP, Va. This town is situated in the Shenandoah valley. During the civil war there were sev- eral conflicts here of greater or less importance. Here, on -23 Mch. 1862, gen. Shields repulsed "Stonewall" Jackson. Jackson attacked gen. Banks at this place, 25 May, and forced him to retreat. Gen. Milroy held the town with 7000 men at the time of Lee's invasion, June, 1863. On the approach of the confederates he retreated, 15 June, and a column of the «nemy gaining his rear, while another attacked in front, he was defeated, his force dispersed, and 2300 captured. In the autumn of 1864, gen. Sheridan, commanding the army of the Upper Potomac, held a strong position near the railroad from Harper's Ferry towards Winchester. The confederate general Early commanded a large force in the valley of the Shenan- Conventiou assembles at Madison. 15 Dec. 1847, fhimes a con- stitution, and adjourns, 1 Feb. 1848. Constitution ratified by a popular vote of 16,442 to 6149. 13 Mch. 1848 Wisconsin admitted into the Union by act approved. . .29 May, " First slate legislature convenes 5 imie, and officers take the oath. ... 7June, " First telegram received at Milwaukee from Chicago 17 Jan. 1849 State Historical Society organized at Madison 30 Jan. " Lawrence university at Appleton chartered and opened " University of Wisconsin at Madison, chartered 1848, opened. . " Amendment to the constitution conferring suffrage on colored men receives a majority of votes oast, but not a majority of 6 WIS all who voted for state officers, and the canvassers declare it rejected (! Nov. 1849 Wisconsin School for the Blind at Janesville opened 1 Aug. 1850 First railroad train between Milwaukee and Waukesha Feb. 1861 Question of banks or no banks submitted to the people of Wisconsin by act of 5 Mch. 1851 , 31,219 votes in favor to 9126 opposed " State prison at Waupun opened 1852 Wisconsin School for the Deaf at Delavan opened " St. Clara academy, at Sinsinawa Mound, opened 1845, chartered, " Capital punishment in Wisconsin abolished July, 1853 Milwaukee college at Milwaukee chartered and opened " Meeting at Kipon, called by A. E. Bovay, Jediah Boweu, and others to organize the Republican parly, and Mr. Bovay sug- gests the name " Rei)ublican " 28 Feb. 1854 Title "Republican" adopted for the parly at a mass conven- tion in Capitol park at Madison 13 July, " A negro, Joshua Glover, claimed as a slave by a Missourian named Garland, being forcibly released from prison in Mil- waukee, federal and slate authorities dispute on the legality of the Fugitive Slave law. " Act passed to extinguish the title of the Chippewa Indians to lands owned and clsiimed by them in Wisconsin and the ter- ritory of Minnesota 19 Dec. " Sherman M. Booth of Milwaukee, convicted in the Federal Dis- trict court of Wisconsin of violating the Fugitive Slave law by aiding in the liberation of Glover, and fined and impris- oned, is discharged by the Supreme court, which pronounces the law unconstitutional 3 Feb. 1855- Downer college at Fox lake chartered and opened " William A. Barstow, Dem., ex-governor, and Coles Bashford, Rep., each claiming lo be elected governor by the people, take the oath of office, the one at the capitol, the other in' the Supreme court-room 7 Jan. 1856 Assembly recognizes Barstow as governor and the Senate as governor de facto 10 Jan. " Supreme court of Wisconsin summons Barstow to show by what authority he claims to hold the office 17 Jan. " Supreme court decides that Barstow has been counted in upon fraudulent returns ; lieut.-gov. McArlhur fills the office for 4 days, when Coles Bashford assumes office 21 Mch. " Seminary of St. Francis of Sales, at St. Francis, chartered and opened " First railway reaches the Mississippi river at Prairie du Chien, 15 Apr. 1857 Wisconsin Industrial School for Boys, at Waukesha, opened, 23 July, 1860 Hospital for the insane at Madison opened " First Wisconsin regiment, mustered into service 17 May, 1861, receives marching orders 7 June, 1861 About 700 Confederate prisoners are received at camp Randall, Madison. Apr. 18G2. Gov. Harvey dies on his way to the battlefield of Shiloh to look after the welfare of Wisconsin soldiers Apr. " Personal Liberty law repealed July, " Negro suffrage amendment to the constitution rejected by vote of 55,591 to 46,588 ; Nov. 1865 Home for soldiers' orphans opened 1 Jan. 1866, established by private subscription, becomes a state institution 31 Mch. 1866 Fourth regiment Wisconsin cavalry mustered out after a ser- vice of 5 years and 1 day, the longest term on record of a volunteer organization 28 May, •' Alexander W. Randall appointed postmaster-general. .25 July, " Supreme court sustains the amendment to the constitution giv- ing suffrage to colored men, as ratified by the people in 1849, " State Normal school at Platteville opened •' Northwestern university at Watertown, opened 1865, chartered, 1867 State Normal school at Whitewater opened 1868 Legislature ratifies the XV. th Amendment to Constitution of theU. S , 9 Mch. 1869 Northwestern branch of the National Home for Disabled Vol- unteer Soldiers, near Milwaukee, dedicated Oct. " Catholic Normal School ofthe Holy Family,at St. Francis, opened, 1871 A ' ' whirlwind of fire ' ' 10 miles in width sweeps over the counties bordering on Green bay. Loss of life, 1000 persons, burned, drowned, or smothered; of property, over $3,000,000, 8-9 Oct. " State Board of Charities and Reform appointed by gov. Fair- child ; 4 men and 1 woman " College for women opened at Madison in connection with the state university 20 Dec. " Act punishing intoxication by fine and imprisonment 1872: Northern Hospital for the Insane at Oshkosh opened Apr, 1873 First state meeting of the "American Constitutional Union," 666 delegates, at Milwaukee 7 Aug. " " Potter Railroad law," relating to railroads, express, and tele- graph companies, fixing rates of transportation, and provid- ing for railroad commissioners H Mch. 1874 St. Paul and Northern railroads announce to the governor that they cannot obey the Potter law 27 Apr. " Supreme court sustains the Potter law Sept. " First cotton cloth manufactured in Wisconsin, at Janesville. . . 1875 Real estate of soldiers' orphans' home transferred to the re- gents of the slate university for a medical college " Wisconsin Industrial School for Girls at Milwaukee opened " State Normal school at River Falls opened " Supreme court rejects the application of miss Lavinia Goodell for admission to the bar, as a calling inconsistent with the duties of the sex Jan. 1876 Potter Railroad law of 1874 made much less stringent. .18 Feb. " St. John's Catholic Deaf Mute institution at St. Francis opened, " Legislature enables women to practise law 1877 WIT State park established in Lincoln county by act of legislature. . National German-American teachers' seminary at Milwaukee opened .- Legislature passes a compulsory Education law Death of "Old Abe," the Wisconsin war eagle, belonging to company C, Eighth Wisconsin infantry, the survivor of 36 battles and numerous wounds Mch. Timothy 0. Howe appointed postmaster-general 20 Dec. Milwaukee Day School for the Deaf at Milwaukee opened Science hall of the state university destroyed by fire ; loss $200,000 ■ 1 Dec. William F. Vilas appointed postmaster-general 6 Mch. Women empowered to vote at school elections Legislature appropriates $5000 yearly to hold farmers' institutes, State Normal school at Milwaukee opened Anarchist riots in Milwaukee 5 May, State public school at Sparta opened 13 Nov. Oral department of public schools at La Crosse opened State Normal school at Oshkosh opened William F. Vilas appointed secretary of the interior 16 Jan. Jeremiah M. Rusk appointed secretary of agriculture. . .5 Mch. Annual meeting of the Grand Army of the Republic held at Milwaukee 27 Aug. Acts passed to secure a secret ballot at elections Local Option law passed, providing for a vote on the question of license on petition of 10 per cent, of the voters in any town or village Bennet School law of 1889, requiring schools recognized by the state to teach reading, writing, arithmetic, and U. S. history in English, is rescinded by vote of the people Nov. Ex-sec. Vilas chosen U. S. senator 27 Jan. Ex-gov. Harrison Ludington dies at Milwaukee, aged 78, 17 June, Dr. Isaac Leo Nicholson enthroned as bishop of Milwaukee, the first ceremony of the kind in the U. S 10 Nov. Charles Kendall Adams, ex-president of Cornell university, ac- cepts the presidency of the University of Wisconsin.. 30 July, Legislature in special session to reapportion the state. .17 Oct. Destructive fire in Milwaukee ; over 300 buildings destroyed and 10 lives lost ; loss in property over $5,000,000 28 Oct. Dr. P. R. Hoy, naturalist, dies at Racine, aged 76 8 Dec. TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS. Henry Dodge assumes office James D. Doty " Nathaniel P. Tallmadge " Henry Dodge " 93; 1878 1879 1881 1883 1884 1885 1890 1891 1892 .1842 .1844 .1845 .1848 .1852 .1854 .1856 .1858 STATE GOVERNORS (term 2 years). Nelson Dewey assumes office I-eonard J. Farwell " William A. Barstow " Coles Bashford " Alexander W. Randall " Louis P. Harvey " Edward Salomon " James T. Lewis " Lucius Fairchild " C. C. Washburn " "William R. Taylor " Harrison Ludington " William E. Smith " Jeremiah M. Rusk " William D. Hoard " Geo. AV. Peck William H. Upham '• 1891 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF WISCONSIN. .1864 .1866 .1872 .1874 .1876 .1878 .1882 .1889 .1891 Name. Henry Dodge Isaac P. Walker . . Charles Durkee... James R. Doolittle Timothy 0. Howe. Matt. H. Carpenter Angus Cameron. . . Matt. H. Carpenter Philetus Sawyer. . Angus Cameron. . . John E. Spooner. . William F. Vilas.. John L. Mitchell.. No. of Congress 30th to 35th 30th " 34th 34th " 37th 35th " 41st 37th " 46th 41st " 44th 44th " 46th 46th 46th to 53d 46th " 49th 49th " 52d 52d " Date. 1848 to 1857 1848 " 1855 1855 " 1861 1857 " 1869 1861 " 1879 1869 " 1875 1875 " 1881 1879 " 1881 1881 " 1893 1881 " 1885 1885 " 1891 1891 " 1893 " Seated 23 June. Seated 26 June. /Pres. pro tern. 12 \ Mch. 1873. f Died in office, 24 \ Jan. 1881. ( Elected in place of ( Carpenter. Term expires 1897. Term expires 1899. "ivitclicraft, the practices and powers of a witch, a wom- an supposed to have supernatural power and knowledge given her by evil spirits. The Jewish law (Exod. xxii. 18), 1491 b.c., ■decreed, " Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." Saul, after banishing or condemning witchcraft, consulted the witch of En- dor, 1056 B.C. (1 Sam. xxviii.). Bishop Hutchinson's historical "Essay on Witchcraft" was published 1718. Pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull against witchcraft, 1484. Thousands of inno- cent persons were burned, and others killed by the tests applied. Many Templars burned at Paris for witchcraft, etc 1309 Joan of Arc burned at Rouen as a witch 30 May, 1431 About 500 witches burned in Geneva in 3 months 1515 Great number in France, when 1 sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates about 1520 Many witches burned in the diocese of Como in a year, .about 1524 Nine hundred burned in Lorraine 1580-95 30* WIT One hundred and fifty-seven burned at WQrzburg, old and young, learned and ignorant between 1027-29 Grandier, the parish priest at Loudon, burned on a charge of having bewitched a whole convent of nuns 1634 In Bretagne 20 poor women put to death as witches 1654 Maria Renata burned at Wurzburg 1749 At Kalisk, in Poland, 9 old women, charged witli having be- witched and rendered unfruitful the lands belonging to that palatinate, were burned 17 Jan. 1775 Five women condemned to death by the Brahmans, at Patna for sorcery, and executed 15 Dec' 1802 WITCHCRAFT IN GREAT BRITAIN. Statutes made all witchcraft and sorcery felony without benefit of clergy, 33 Hen. VIII. 1541, 5 Eliz. 1562, and 1 James I. 1603. The 73d canon of the church prohibits the clergy from casting out devils, 1603. Barrington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft in Ene- land in 200 years at 30,000. Matthew Hopkins, "witch finder," causes judicial murder of about 100 persons in Essex, Norfolk, and Sufl'olk, 1645-47. Sir Matthew Hale burned 2 persons for witchcraft in 1664. Seventeen or 18 persons burned at St. Osyths, in Essex, about 1676. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 1705 and 5 others 7 years afterwards. ' In 1716 Mrs. Hicks, and her daughter, aged 9, were hanged at Hunt- ingdon. Northamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than other counties. In Scotland thousands of persons were burned in about 100 years* among them persons of high rank, while all orders in the state concurred. James I. even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. The king published his " Daemonologie " in Ed- inburgh, 1597. Ttie last sufferer was at Dornoch in 1722. Laws against witchcraft had lain dormant for many years, when, an ignorant person attempting to revive them (by a bill against a poor old woman in Surrey for witchcraft), they were repealed 10 Geo. IL 1736. Belief in witchcraft still abounds in the coun- try districts of England. On 4 Sept. 1863, a poor old paralyzed Frenchman died from being ducked as a wizard at Castle Hed- ingham, Essex, and similar cases have since occurred. Ann Turner, old; killed as a witch by a half-insane man at Long Compton, Warwickshire, 17 Sept. 1875. witchcraft, Salem. A grewsome chapter in the history of popular delusions is the record of that which is known in American history as Salem witchcraft. The people of Mas- sachusetts generally believed in witchcraft. It had taken strong hold upon their feelings, and in Mch. 1692, excitement suddenly broke out at Danvers (part of Salem), Mass., and spread like an epidemic. It commenced in the family of the rev. Samuel Parris. The principal accusers and witnesses in the witchcraft prosecution were 8 females, nearly all young girls, viz.: Abigail Williams, aged 11 years; Mary Walcut, 17; Ann Putnam, 12; Mary Lewis, a servant, 17; Mary War- ren, 20; Elizabeth Booth, 18; Sarah Churchill, 20; and Su- sannah Sheldon. But 2 of these could write their names. Brokers " Annals of Witchcraft in New England." First person tried is Bridget Bishop, on charges by the rev. Samuel Parris, and she is hanged as a witch 10 June, 1692 Susannah Martin hanged as a witch 19 July, " Sarah Good hanged as a witch " <* [She is said to have exclaimed, at the time of her execution, to the rev. Nicholas Noyes, who was very active in these prosecutions, "If you take my life, God will give you blood to drink.'' Hawthorne has put this expression in the mouth of "Old Matthew Maule," in "The House of the Seven Gables."] Sarah Wildes hanged as a witch 19 July, " Elizabeth How hanged as a witch " ' <« Rebecca Nourse hanged as a witch " " [Mrs. Nourse was acquitted, but the court, being determined on her death, sent the jury out again and forced a verdict of guilty. She was a lady of worth, but old and in ill-health.] George Burroughs executed 19 Aug. " [He was a graduate of Harvard college, 1670. Had been a minister at Salem.] John Proctor executed 19 Aug. " John Willard executed " " [He was a resident of Salem, and had been a deputy in making arrests; becoming satisfied that the persons accused were innocent, he was "cried out upon, "and in attempting to escape he was captured and executed.] Martha Carrier executed 19 Aug. " {Her children forced by torture to testify against her.] George Jacobs, sen., executed 19 Aug. " [His granddaughter testified against him at his trial, but acknowledged her perfidy in a piteous letter when too late.— Bancroft's "Hist, of U. S."] Giles Corey, upwards of 80 years of age, refusing to plead, is pressed to death; the only instance of this horrible punish- ment in New England 17 Sept. " " Then by the statute you will be condemned To the peine forte et dure ! To have your body Pressed by great weights until you are dead." — Longfellow, " Giles Corey " (" New England Tragedies "), act iv. Martha Corey, wife of Giles Corey, Mary Easty, Alice Parker, Mary Parker, Ann Pudeator (70 years old), Willmot Reed, WIT ^ Ifuntrvt Soott, and Samuel Wardwell (he first confessed, the (tnlvone to do so, but declared his Innocence at his ezeou- tloo) In banged.. ! '-W Sept 1692 fAt the execuilou of these victims Nicholas Noyos, the minister at Salem, is said to have exclaimed, pointing to the bodies swinging. "There hang 8 flrebmnds of holl."] Cotton .Mather's uarrativo of "The Wonders of the Invisible World " a plott for the truth of wilchcn»ft Oct. " fThis book was approved by the president of Harvard col- lege, gov. I'hipps, aud William Sloughton, then lieutenant- governor of .Massachusetts, and afterwurds chief justice of Uie Superior couru— /J^ 144 185 171 217 186 159 194 183 178 17,900 23,950 28,653 50,236 42,000 60,000 52,000 60,000 65,422 6,170,000 5,162,330 6,211,103 10,200,000 7,254,687 9,789,392 16,032,725 32.354,111 27,529,400 $2,530,000 1,280,000 2,942.410 2,103,675 1,030,000 3,813,749 2,531.650 8,380,000 14,117,332 London Paris Vienna Philadelphia.. Paris Chicago ATTENDANCE AT WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. Month. Days open. Paid .admissions. Free ad- missions. Total Adults. Children. Total, admissions. May June July August September. October. . . . 28 30 30 31 30 30 1,027,212 2,541,958 2,619,605 3,328,522 4,477,467 6,228,510 22,825 133,155 140,658 186,971 182,404 587,925 1,050,037 2,676,113 2,760,263 3,515,493 4,659,871 6.816,435 481,947 902,721 1,217,239 1,172,215 1,149,071 1,128,995 1,531,984 3,577,834 3,977,502 4,687,708 5,808,942 7,945,430 Totals.... 179 20,223,274 1,253,938,21,477,212 6,052,188^27,529,400 Dr. Charles M. Zaremba of Chicago claims to have conceived and suggested the idea of celebrating the 4th centenary of the discovery of America by Columbus by a world's fair, 9 Sept. 1876 Alexander D. Anderson, sec. of the Board of Trade at Washing ton, D. C, claims to have presented the project of a world's WOR 941 fair, to be held in the city of Washington, at a public meet- ing held there 25 Feb. 1886 Hon. Ferry Belmont of New York submits to the House of Representatives, in behalf of a committee, a unani- mous report (No. 2601, 50th Congress, first session) in fa- vor of the project, designating Washington as the place, 16 June, 1888 Mayor of New York city issues invitations to 500 prominent citizens, requesting them to meet and discuss plans to secure the fair 17 July, 1889 Committee of 100, appointed by mayor De Witt C. Cregier of Chicago to secure the fair for that city, meets in the council chamber and appoints an executive committee, 1 Aug. " Business men of St. Louis assemble at the invitation of the mayor of that city, and decide to attempt to secure the fair, 11 Aug. " License granted to a corporation styled "The World's Exposi- tion of 1892," with a capital of $5,000,000, at Springfield, 111., for the holding of an international exposition at Chicago, 14 Aug. " St. Paul, Minn., through its Board of Trade, enters the lists, 1 Oct. " World's Fair bill introduced in the Senate by U. S. senator Cul- lom of Illinois .19 Dec. " Hearing before Senate committee on selection of site; New York represented bv Chauncey M. Depew, Chicago by mayor Cregier * 11 Jan. 1890 House of Representatives votes on the question of filling in the blank in the World's Fair bill with the name of a city in which the exposition should be held. First ballot, Chicago, 115; New York, 70; St. Louis, 61; Wash- ington, 58; Cumberland Gap, 1. Eighth ballot, Chicago, 157; New York, 107; St. Louis, 25; AVa.shington, 18. Nec- essary to a choice, 154, and site secured for Chicago, 24 Feb. ' ' First meeting of the board of directors of the World's Colum- bian Exposition held at the Sherman house 12 Apr. " World's Fair bill, fixing date of opening of the fair 1 May, 1893, signed by the president 28 Apr. " Board of directors elect permanent oflBcers: Lyman J. Gage, president; Thos. B. Bryan, 1st vice-president; and Potter Palmer, 2d vice-president 30 Apr. '' Pres. Harrison appoints members of the national commission on nominations made by the governors of the several states and territories 26 May, '• First session of the national commission held at the Grand Pacific hotel, Chicago 26 June, " Hon. Thomas W. Palmer of Michigan elected president of the national commission 27 June, '• National commission formally accepts Jackson park and Mid- way Plaisance as the site for the exposition 2 July, " Bill amending the constitution of Illinois, to authorize Chicago to issue $5,000,000 of bonds in aid of the exposition; signed by gov. Fifer. 5 Aug. " Col. George R. Davis of Chicago elected director-gen. of the exDOSition 19 Sept. " D. H. Burnham of Chicago appointed chief of construction, Oct. " Board of lady managers organized; Mrs. Potter Palmer of Chicago elected president 20 Nov. " Proclamation issued by pres. Harrison declaring that the ex- position will open 1 May, 1893, and in the name of the gov- ernment and people of the U. S. inviting "all nations of the earth to participate in the commemoration of an event that is pre eminent in human history, and of lasting interest to mankind" 24 Dec. " Wm. T. Baker elected to succeed Lyman T. Gage as president of Board of Directors 14 Apr. 1891 Proviso for closing the fair on Sunday passed by the Senate in committee of the whole, 14 July, and concurred in by the House 19 July, 1892 Date of dedication of World's Fair buildings changed from 12 Oct. to 21 Oct 4 Aug. " Congress by resolution extends an invitation to the king and queen of Spain and the descendants of Columbus to participate in the World's Columbian Exposition. 5 Aug. " Congress passes a bill authorizing a gift of $2,500,000 to the exposition in souvenir silver half-dollars 5 Aug. " Pres. W. T. Baker resigns, and H. N. Higinbotham is elected in his stead 18 Aug. " Title of "director of works" conferred on chief of construc- tion, D. H. Burnham Oct. " Buildings dedicated 21 Oct. " [The programme comprised: 1, "Columbian march," com- posed by John K. Paine of Cambridge; 2, Prayer by bishop Fowler; 3, Address, director- gen. Davis; 4, Dedicatory ode, by miss Harriet Stone Monroe, read by Mrs. LeMoyne; 5, Addresses by pres. Higinbotham, D. H. Burnham, pres. Palmer, Mrs. Potter Palmer, and vice-pres. Levi P. Mor- ton, who represented pres. Harrison; 6, Dedicatory ora- tion. Henry Watterson; 7, Anthem, " Star - Spangled Ban- ner;" 8, Oration, Chauncey M. Depew; 9, Prayer, cardinal Gibbons; 10, Benediction, rev. H. C. McCosh; 11, National salute.] Joint resolution for opening the fair on Sunday introduced in the House of , Representatives by congressman Burborow of Illinois and referred to committee 5 Dep. " Pres. Cleveland, the duke of Veragua, and the Liberty bell re- ceived at Chicago with honors 29 Apr. 1893 WOR Opening exercises held in front of Administration building. 1 May, 1893 [Programme: 1, "Columbian march;" 2, Prayer, rev. Will- iam H. Milburn, chaplain U. S. Senate; 3, Poem, "The Proph- ecy," Wm. A. Croffut, read by miss Jessie Couthoui ; 4, Over- ture from "Rienzi;" 5, History of growth and develop- ment of the exposition, director - gen. Geo. R. Davis; 6, Address, pres. Cleveland (at the close of his address pres. Cleveland touched an electric button, and the machin- ery of the great fair was set in motion at 12.04 p.m.); 7, Hallelujah chorus, "America." (Total attendance 1 May. 137,557.)] Sunday, fair closed 7 May " First illumination of buildings by electricity and search-lights' . . 8 May, " Local directory votes to open the grounds, but not the exhibi- tion buildings, on Sunday 12 May '* Sunday, fair closed 14 May,' " Congress of Woman's Progress opens 15 May' " Public Press congress opens 18 May, " Sunday, fair closed 21 May, " First open-air concert by Sousa's military band '. . .22 May', " World's Fair National commissioners vote to adopt the judici- ary committee's minority report in favor of Sunday opening, 23 May, " Haydn's "Creation" given by Columbian chorus in Festival hall 25 May, " Sunday, gates open all day; paid admissions, 77,212; 15 state buildings closed, also the U. S. government, British govern- ment, and other foreign exhibitions 28 May, " Congress of Medicine and Surgery opens 29 May, " Decoration day: attendance, 139,979; Montana silver statue, Ada Rehan, in Mines building, unveiled 30 May, " Argument on the proceeding of the government to close the gates of the fair on Sunday begun in the Federal court in Chicago. 31 May, " Congress of Temperance opens 5 June, " Infanta Eulalia visits the exposition; total attendance, 168,996, 8 June, " Congress of Moral and Social Reform opens 12 June, " German-American day: attendance, 200,718 15 June, " Federal Court of Appeals, chief-justice Fuller, decides that the World's Fair corporation has the right to open the gates on Sunday 17 June, " Congress of Commerce and Fi nance opens 19 June, ' ' Formal opening of the Ferris wheel 21 June, " Religious services held in Festival hall, Sunday 25 June, " Children's chorus, 1200 voices, at Festival hall 26 June, " Congress of Music opens 3 July, " Grand Fourth-of-July celebration from sunrise to sunset; total attendance, 330,542 4 July, " [Addresses by vice-pres. Stevenson, Hampton L. Carson of Philadelphia, and mayor Harrison; Paul Jones flag unfurled; monument of souvenir coins in Manufactures building un- veiled.] Spanish caravels arrive in Chicago 7 July, " Cold Storage building burned; 17 firemen lose their lives in the fire 10 July, " Congress of Literature opens " " Viking ship arrives at the pier near battle-ship Illinois, 12 July, " Congress of Education opens 17 July, " Sunday, fair closed by order of directors 23 July, " Congresses of Engineering, Art, Architecture, etc., open, 31 July, " Directors fined by judge Stein for contempt of court in closing the fair on Sunday, 23 July 2 Aug. '■'■ Congress of Government, Law Reform, Political Science, etc., opens 7 Aug. " British Empire day: total attendance, 213,436 19 Aug. " Congress of Science and Philosophy opens 21 Aug. " Colored people's day: attendance, 180,225 25 Aug. «' [Oration by hon. Frederick Douglass.] Congress of Labor opens 28 Aug. " New Columbian liberty bell dedicated 9 Sept. " Parliament of Religions opens in Chicago 11 Sept. " Spanish caravels transferred to the U. S. government by capt. Concas on behalf of the Spanish government 12 Sept. " Knights of Honor day : attendance, 256,930 23 Sept. " Odd Fellows' day : attendance, 238,360 26 Sept. " Chicago day : attendance, 761,942 9 Oct. " Firemen's day: attendance, 349,491 10 Oct. " Special days and amusements for children 18, 19, 20 Oct. " [While the average daily attendance of children was about 5 per cent, of the paid admissions, it rose to over 20 per cent, on these days, the paid admissions being 65,199 children and 240,762 adults on 19 Oct.] Manhattan day: attendance, 339,811 21 Oct. '' Marshall Field subscribes $1,000,000 conditionally for a Me- ! morial museum on the World's Fair grounds 27 Oct. " Fair officially closed 30 Oct. "■ : Roof of Manufactures and Liberal Arts building gives way under a weight of snow and ice 9 Dec. " One of several fires among the buildings destroys the Casino, Peristyle, and Music hall, and damages the Manufactures and Liberal Arts building 8 Jan. 1894= Field Columbian museum dedicated 2 June, " Fire destroys the Terminal station. Administration building, Manufactures, Electricity and Mining, Agriculture and Ma- chinery buildings; the supposed work of incendiaries, 5 July, " WOR 942 WOR STATISTICS OF STATE BUILDINGS OF THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. rin -«.»- and territories not mentioned about f ».'-.3,000 was raised for fair purposes, chiefly by private subscription, ^^J'^yT|rrr>,K>hit. in sections of the main exhibition buildings.] for the m ost part suit. Chtof oommtaionw. FuDd nUMdfor ■Sir Dewriptton of tute building. Cult of •tet« build- ing. When dedicated. Architect. 1 Attend- Special ance on state day. special 1 state day. Arkansas. rallforota Colorado James. Mitchell.... Irving M. Scott.... Gov. Davis H.Walte Gov. 1. B.Morris... Thos. B.Smith Arthur C. Jackson. James M.Wells.... Lafayette Funk.... Clem Studcbaker. . James 0. Crosby. . . M.W. Cobun W. H. Dulaney A. A. Wooda Hall C. Burleigh... Gov. Frank Brown. (Gen. Francis A. \ [ Walker ) Isaac M.Weston... D. A. Monfort N. A. Gentry Stephen De Wolfe.. Chas. A. Coe Chas. H. Amsden.. Stephen J. Meeker, ChaunceyM.Depew Martin Hector W. W. Peabody. . . . (Gov. Robert E.Pat-) \ tison ) $66,000 650,000 167,000 75,000 20,000 60,000 100,000 French rococo Old California mission Spnuisli renaissance. $18,000 76,000 35,000 15,000 8,000 20,000 30,000 250,000 75,000 35,000 25,000 . 18,000. 18,000 ► 22,000 . 12,000 ► 65,000 50,000 . 30,000 . 50,000 . 20,000 . 20,000 . 10,000 ■ 40,000 . 150,000 ■ 18,000 . 35,000 - 80,000 ;) 8,000 OQ 000 15 June, 1893 19 June, " 22 Oct. 1892 18 May, 1893 15 June, " 22 Oct. 1892 K IC 1 June,1893 10 Aug. " 24 May, " 22 Oct. 1892 17 May, 1893 19 July, " 8 June, " 26 June, " 1 May, " 22 Oct. 1892 20 May, 1893 22 Oct. 1892 10 TnUr 1 8Q?l Mrs. Jean Douglas. A. Page Brown H. T. E.Wendell J. W. Northrup W. W. Boynton & Co. Seymour Davis Maury & Dodd C. S. Frost. Peabody & Stearns. . W.C.Whitney Galbraith & Fuller.. Henry Voss 9 Sei)t. 12 Sept. 11 Oct. 23 Aug. 13 Sept. 24 Aug. 27 Sept. 20 Sept. 11 Sept. 1 June 12 Sept. 17 June 13 Sept. 13 Oct. 30 Aug. 20 Sept. 8 June 4 Sept. 10 Oct. 14 Sept. 7 Sept. 5 Oct. Ifi'Seijt. 15 Sept. 9 Aug. 23 Aug. 6 Sept. 9 Sept. 16 Sept. 277,118 206.931 349,877 Conneotiout.... Delaware Florida Idaho (Southern colonial) \ (native woods) — ) (Miniature of old fort) J Marion at St. Au- ^ ( gustine ) (3-story log-cabin) \ /C.i.ioo otirla\ i 192,003 202,527 800 000 •'■ Italian renaissance. . . 288,921 Indiana Iowa. 136,000 130,000 166,000 175,000 36,000 57,000 60,000 175,000 275,000 150,000 150,000 100,000 85,000 25,000 130,000 600,000 70,000 200,000 360,000 57,500 85,000 40,000 39,750 75,000 100,000 40,000 212,000 30,000 50,600 30,000) 35,000 17,500 French Gothic French chateau (2 -story frame and) J staff, with ellipti-V I cal glass dome ) Southern colonial. . . . (Colonial (imitation) ) of Creole home)... 1 ' Lower story, granite ' (octagonal) Upper story, wood (square) , 238,289 220,260 Kansas. Kentucky Louisiana Ifaine 202,932 61,727 Maryland Massachusetts.. Michigan Minnesota Missouri Monuna Nebraska. New Hampshire New Jersey New York 206,931 184,775 202,527 255,743 197,493 220,260 168,996 f Modelled after the] John Hancock ■ house. Beacon St., Boston , Renaissance (native) material) ) Italian renaissance. . . Spanish " Corinthian order G. B. Howe. Chas. Ailing Gifford. (McKim, Meade &) \ White ) Modelled after Wash- ington's headquar- ters at Morristown, I N.J J Pompeiian ("2 -story, with gable] ends of brick and sides timber and plaster Colonial 198,858 North Dakota... Ohio J. L. Silsbee I Jas. W. H. McLaugh- 1 349,491 238,718 Pennsylvania... (Colonial (front a re-] ■} production of In- ( dependence hall).. J Greek (araphiprostyh Romanesque Theo. P. Lonsdale.... (Stone, Carpenter &) [ Wilson ) J. R. Gordon J. L. Silsbee 245,467 Rhode Island. . . South Dakota... Texas (E. Benjamin An) \ drews ) L. G. Ochsenreiter.. H. B. Andrews B. B. Smalley A.S. Buford N. G. Blalock W.N. Chancellor... A. Ledyard Smith. . John S. Harper. . . . R. C. Chambers. . . . S. P. Behan. W. T. Thornton Gov. A. J. Seay 222,452 Spanish 30000 ^O.Tnlv.' " 246,717 8,000 25,000 i - i 50,000 20,000 30,000 . 20,000 15,000 i • ! 7,500 10 May, " 17 May, " 20 June, " 23 May, " 8 Sept. " 198,414 145,. 533 192,003 217,683 277,118 Virginia. Washington.... West Virginia... Wisconsin Wyoming Utah Washington's home, Mt. Vernon (repro- duced) (Foundation of im- 1 mense logs ; en- 1 ' trance a great ( stone arch ^ /Colonial (W. Va. res- ( idence) 1 Representation of a ) Wisconsin home.. French chateau ( Facade (modern re- \ naissance) [Composite (lower story supported by ^ Doric columns; 3 departments, 1 for [ each territory) Wra. Waters Van Brunt & Howe. Dallas & Hedges. . . . Seymour Davis Arizona New Mexico. . . . Oklahoma. 246,717 STATISTICAL TABLE OF MAIN EXHIBITION BUILDINGS. [Total cost of buildings, $7,290,000.] Name of bnilding. Administration Agriculture Annex Assembly hall, etc. Live-stock pavilion Sheds, etc Dairy Electricity Fine Arts , Two annexes , Fisheries Two annexes Forestry DimenBlons. 262X262 500X800 300X550 125X450 280X440 100X200 345X690 320x500 120X200 165X365 135 diam. 208X528 1.6 9.21 1.3 2 40. .5 5.5 3.7 1 L4 .8 2.5 Cost. $450,000 618,000 100,000 335,000 30,000 400,000 670,000 224,000 100.000 Style of architecture. French renaissance. Classic " Corinthian. Classic Spanish Romanesque. Rustic Name of architect. Richard M. Hunt, New York. . . /McKim, Meade & White, New) \ York / Holabird & Roche, Chicago, 111. C. B. Atwood {Van Brunt & Howe, Kansas) City / Charles B. Atwood Henry Ives Cobb, Chicago.. C. B. Atwood 25 May, 1891 18 July, " 24 Oct. 20 May, 19 Sept. 12 Aug. 18 Sept. WOR 943 WRE STATISTICAL TABLE OF MAIN EXHIBITION BVUhmNGS.— (Continued.) Name of building. U. S. governmeut Horticulture Eight greenhouses. . . Machinery hall Annex Power house Pumping works Machine shop Manufactures and Liberal Arts Anthropological Mines and Mining Transportation Annex "Woman's style of architecture. Name of architect. Contract let. 345X415 250X988 24X100 492X846 490X550 100X461) 77X84 y 146X250) 787X1687 255X415 350X700 256X960 425X900 199X388 3.3 5.7 .5 9.61 6.2) 2.1 2.2 5.6 5.6 8.8 L8 $400,000 300,000 5,000 85,000 1,500,000 100,000 265,000 370,000 138,000 Classic Venetian renaissance. . Renaissance of Seville. Italian renaissance Romanesque (approx-) imately) J Italian renaissance Windrim & Edbrook« W. L. B. Jenney, Chicago. Peabody & Stearns, Boston. George B. Post, New York. S. S. Beman, Chicago Adler & Sullivan, Chicago.. . Miss Sophia B. Hayden, Boston 9 June, 1891 24 Sept. " 25 May, " 14 May, " 24 June, " 3 June, " Worms, a city on the Rhine, in Hesse-Darmstadt. The Roman city, Borbetoraagus, was plundered by the Alemanni, 354, and by Attila, 451 ; rebuilt by Clevis I. about 475. Here Charlemagne resided in 806. Here was held the imperial diet before which Martin Luther was summoned, 4 Apr. 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league from Worms. When Spalatin sent to warn him of his danger, he answered, •' If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses, I would go on." He ap- peared before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, 6 electors. 24 dukes, 7 margraves, 30 bishops and prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, 17 Apr., acknowledged his writings and opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. Yet, to save his life, he had to remain in seclusion under the protection of the elector of Saxony for about a year. The edict putting him under the ban of the empire was issued 26 May, 1521. Worms was burned, by order of Louis XIV., 1689, the cathedral excepted ; and was taken by the French, under Custine, 4 Oct. 1792. A memorial statue of Luther at Worms was uncovered, 25 June, 1868, in the presence of the king of Prussia and other sovereigns. WOr§llip. The first worship mentioned is that of Abel, 3872 B.C. (Gen. iv.). " Men began to call on the name of the Lord," 3769 b.c. (Gen. iv.). The Jewish order of worship was set up by Moses, 1490 b.c. Solomon consecrated the tem- ple, 1004 B.C. To tlie corruptions of the simple worship of the patriarchs all the Egyptian and Greek idolatries owed their origin. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, 2112 B.C., is supposed to be the Cojjt of the Egyptians, and the Toth, or Hermes, of the Greeks, the Mercury of the Latins, and the Teutaies of the Celts or Gauls. — Usher, worship in England. The Druids were the priests here, at the invasion of the Romans (55 B.C.), who eventually introduced Christianity, which was almost extirpated by the victorious Saxons (455), who were pagans. The Roman Catholic form of Christianity was introduced by Augustine, 696, and continued till the Reformation. Sects. worsted, spun wool, obtained its name from having been first spun at a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still extensively carried on, 14 Edw. HI. 1340. — Anderson. "A worsted-stocking knave" is a term of reproach or con- tempt used by Shakespeare. WortU SUr Sauer (voi-t sur so-air'), a town in the department of the Lower Rhine, N.E. France. After storming Wissembourg, on 4 Aug. 1870, the crown-prince of Prussia, with the 3d array (about 150,000), marched rapidly forward and sur- prised part of the French army under marshal MacMahon, in- cluding the corps of Canrobert and part of that of Failly (about 47,000), and defeated it in a long, desperate, and sanguinary engagement near this place, 6 Aug. The battle lasted from 9 A.M. till 4 P.M. The chief struggles occurred in the country round Reichshoifen and in the village of Froeschweiller ; the French are said to have charged the German line 11 times, each time breaking it, but always finding a fresh mass behind. The ridge on which Worth stands was not captured until the French were taken in flank by the Bavarians and Wlirtera- bergers. Nearly all MacMahon's staff were killed, and the marshal himself, unhorsed, fell fainting into a ditch, from which he was rescued by a soldier. He then, on foot, directed the retreat towards Saverne, to cover the passes of the Vosges. The victory is attributed to the great numerical superiority of the Germans as well as to their excellent strategy. The French loss has been estimated at 5000 killed and wounded, and 55,000 prisoners, 2 eagles, 6 mitrailleuses, 35 cannon, and much baggage. The Germans are stated to have had above 8000 men put hors de combat. It was admitted that Mac- Mahon acted as an able and brave commander. VTOrtllies, nine, a term long ago applied to the fol- lowing eminent men : Jews. Died B.C. Joshua 1426 David 1015 Judas Maccabseus 161 Christians. Heathens. Died b c. Hector of Troy 1184 Alexander the Great 393 Julius Caesar 44 Died A.D. King Arthur of Britain 542 Charlemagne of France 814 Godfrey of Bouillon 1100 In some lists, Gideon and Samson are given instead of Hector and Arthur. In Shakespeare's "Love's Labor's Lost," act v. sc. ii., Hercules and Porapey appear as worthies. wrecks. Statistics of wrecks and shipping disasters on or near the coasts and on the rivers of the United States and to American vessels in foreign waters, collected under act of Congress, 20 June, 1874, are published in the "Annual Re- ports of the U. S, Life-saving Service." During 10 years, from 1 June, 1879, to 1 June, 1889, they show a yearly average of 1919 wrecks, involving the loss of 535 lives. During the same period of 10 years, of British vessels (exclusive of the royal navy), there were 6641 totally wrecked, while the loss to life by wrecks and casualties of all kinds on British vessels, navy excluded, was 19,130. During the same 10 years 1777 German vessels were wrecked, with a loss of 3460 lives ; and on the German coast 2640 wrecks occurred, involving the loss of 391 lives. On the French coast, during 5 years (1877-81), 1346 wrecks occurred, with loss of 949 lives ; and on the Italian coast, for the years 1886 to 1890 inclusive, the records show 483 wrecks, with loss of 116 lives. WKECKS AND CASUALTIES IN AMERICAN WATERS, AND DIS- ASTERS TO AMERICAN VESSELS IN FOREIGN WATERS. Atlantic and gulf coast. Pacific coast. Great lakes. Rivers. At sea or in foreign waters. Totals. . Year. ■i . 1^- ■s i ^ £ »• 1 jS3 American steamshipCity of Columbus wrecked on Devil's bridge, off Gay Head light, Mass. ; 99 lives lost 18 Jan. 1884 Belgian White Cross line steamship Daniel Steinman struck on rock off Sambro head, N. S. ; 131 lives lost 3 Apr. " Three American schooners lost at sea between Gloucester and St. George's bank; 42 lives lost 26 Dec. 1885 Cunard steamer Oregon, from Liverpool to New York, run into by an unknown schooner, 18 miles east of I>ong Island; all the passengers (631) and crew (205) taken off in safety, the ship sinking 8 hours afterwards 14 Mch. 1886 Three Atlantic steamers stranded in one day : the Persian Mon- arch on the Portland breakwater, the Cunard steiimer Pavo- nia on High Pine ledge, Massachusetts bay, and the Beaver line steamer Lake Huron on Madame island, 7 miles below Quebec ; each owing to heavy fog 29 Oct. " German ship Elizabeth stranded near Dam Neck mills, Va. ; 22 lives lost 8 Jan. 1887 Kapunda, from London for western Australia, collides with the bark Ada Melmore off coast of Brazil and founders; more than 300 lives lost 20 Jan. " American sloop yacht Mystery, on a pleasure trip, capsizes off Barren island, Jamaica bay, N. Y. ; 25 lives lost 10 July, " Steamer Vizcaya, from New York to Havana, run into by schooner Cornelius Hargraves near Barnegat light, N. J.; both vessels sink within 7 minutes; about 70 lives lost, 29 Oct. 1890 Brazilian turret-ship wrecked near the mouth of the La Platta; 120 lives lost , 22 May, 1892 Haytian war-ship Petron wrecked off cape Tiburon; 79 lives lost 6 Sept. 1893 Dynamite cruiser Vesuvius ordered to destroy all derelicts along the Atlantic coast 5 Oct. " Ward line steamer City of Alexandria, from Havana to New York, burned at sea; 30 lives lost 2 Nov. " Steamer Jason wrecked off cape Cod, Mass. ; 20 lives lost, 6 Dec. " U. S. corvette Kearsarge wrecked on Roncardo reef, about 200 miles northeast from Bluefield, Nicaragua 2 Feb. 1894 Pacific Ocean. Independence wrecked on Margaretta island, off coast ot Lower California, the vessel taking fire; 140 persons drowned or burned to death, a few escaping with great suffering on a barren shore 16 Feb. 1853 Explosion of steamboat Gazelle at Canemah, Or. ; 21 killed and many wounded 8 Apr. 1854 WRE 945 WRE Steamboat Secretary, crossing San Pablo bay from San Fran- cisco to Petaluma, bursts her boiler; more than 50 lives lost, 15 Apr. 1854 ■Chilian war-steamer Cazador, leaving Talcahuano with 358 per- sons on board, strikes a rock and sinks; 314 lives lost, 30 Jan. 1856 Steamer Northerner wrecked on a rock near cape Mendocino, between San Francisco and Oregon; 38 lives lost 6 Jan. 1860 American steamer Pacific collides, 30 miles southwest of cape Flattery; 236 lives lost 4 Nov. 1875 American schooner Sunshine stranded near cape Foulweather, Or.; 20 lives lost 18 Nov. " English Pacific Steam Navigation company's steamship Eten wrecked about 70 miles north of Valparaiso; about 100 out of 160 lost; many rescued by English ship Amethyst, 15 July, 1877 Steamer Atacama wrecked 22 miles south of Caldera, near Co- piapo, Chili ; about 104 lives lost end of Nov. " American bark Malleville stranded on Vancouver's island; 19 lives lost 10 Oct. 1882 Grappler burned near Bute inlet. Vancouver island; about 70 lives lost ' about 3 May, 1883 American schooner Flying Scud, bound for Kadiak, Alaska, never heard from ; 24 persons on board Nov. 1886 American schooner Harvey Mills founders, 60 miles southwest of cape Flattery, Wash. ; 23 lives lost. 14 Dec. " American bark Atlantic stranded at entrance to Golden Gate, Cal. ; 27 lives lost 17 Dec. " American ship St. Stephen, from Port Townsend to San Fran- cisco, founders at sea; 27 lives lost » Apr. 1887 British bark Abercoi-n stranded on Damon's Point, north of Gray's harbor, AVash. ; 22 lives lost 30 Jan. 1888 American ferry-boat Julia explodes her boiler at South Vallejo, Cal.; 30 lives lost 27 Feb. " American bark Ohio stranded near Point Hope, Alaska; 25 lives lost 3 Oct. " American steamer Alaskan founders at sea between Aslona, Or., and San Francisco; 26 lives lost 13 May, 1889 Ship Elizabeth wrecked at entrance to San Francisco harbor; 18 lives lost 22 Feb. 1891 Blanco Encalada, flagship of the revolutionary party in Chili, is blown up by a torpedo in Caldera bay; upwards of 200 lives lost 22 Apr. " Great Lakes. Steamboat Washington takes Are on lake Erie, near Silver creek; 40 to 50 lives lost 16 June, 1838 Steamboat Erie burned on lake Erie about 33 miles from Buf- falo ; about 170 lives lost 9 Aug. 1841 Steamer Phcenix burned on lake Michigan, 15 miles oflf She- boygan; about 240 lives lost, mostly emigrants from Holland, 21 Nov. 1847 Steamer Anthony Wayne, from Sandusky to Buffalo on lake Erie, explodes her boiler and sinks; 38 killed or missing, 27 Apr. 1850 Steamer Griffith, from Erie to Cleveland, burned; only 30 or 40 out of 330 lives saved 17 June, " Steamer Atlantic collides with propeller Ogdenshurg on lake Erie and sinks in lialf an hour; 250 lives lost 20 Aug. 1852 Steamer E. K. Collins, from Sault Ste. Marie to Cleveland, takes fire on the lake and is burned; 23 lives lost 8 Oct. 1854 Steamer Noriliern Indiana burned on lake Erie; over 30 lives lost 17 July, 1856 Steamer Niagara burned on lake Michigan; 60 to 70 lives lost, 24 Sept. " American steamer Lady Elgin sunk in collision with schooner A ugustus on lake Michigan ; of 385 persons on board, 287 lost, including Herbert Ingram, M. P., founder of the Illustrated London News, and his son 8 Sept. 1860 Steamer Sea Bird burned on lake Michigan; 100 lives lost, 9 Apr. 1868 Steamer Hippocampus wrecked in lake Michigan ; many lives lost 8 Sept. " American steamer Equinox founders on lake Michigan, 8 miles off Point Au Sable ; 26 lives lost 9 Sept. 1875 American steamer St. Clair burned on lake Superior, near Fourteen Mile Point 9 July, 1876 American steamer Alpena founders on lake Michigan ; 60 lives lost 16 Oct. 1880 Northwest transit service steamer Asia founders between On- tario and Sault Ste. Marie; about 98 lives lost 14 Sept. 1882 American steamer Manistee founders off Eagle Harbor, lake Michigan; 30 lives lost 14 Nov. 1883 British steamer A Igoma stranded on south shore Isle Royal, lake Superior; 48 lives lost 7 Nov. 1885 American steamer Champlain burned off Fisherman's island, lake Michigan; 22 lives lost 17 June, 1887 American steamer Vernon founders on lake Michigan; 41 lives Jo.st 29 Oct. " Steel steamer Western Reserve breaks in two on lake Superior; 26 persons drowned ". 1 Sept. 1892 Propeller Wocoken ashore off Long Point, lake Erie; 14 lives lost 14 Oct. 1893 I'ropeller Dean Richmond founders off Dunkirk, lake Erie; 23 lives lost... 14 Oct. " Propellers Philadelphia and Albany collide off Ft. Aux Barques, lake Huron; 24 lives lost 7 Nov. " Mississippi River. Steamboat Brandyunne burned near Memphis; about 110 lives lost 9 Apr. 1832 Steamer Rob Roy explodes near Columbia; about 20 lives lost, 9 June, 1836 Steamer Ben Sherrod, racing with steamer Prairie, takes fire 30 miles below Natchez; 175 lives lost 9 May, 1837 Steamer Dubuque explodes near Bloomington, Wis. ; 20 lives lost 15 Aug. " Steamer Monmouth collides with ship Trenton, in tow of steam- er Warren, near Prophet island, and sinks; of 490 emigrant Creek Indians, 234 perish 29 Oct. " Steamer Gen. Brown explodes at Helena; 60 killed and injured, 25 Nov. 1838 Steamer Edna collapses flues near mouth of Missouri; 33 lives lost 28 June. 1842 Steamer Eliza strikes on snag 2 miles below mouth of the Ohio and sinks; 30 to 40 lives lost 13 Oct. " Steamer Clipper bursts her boiler at bayou Sara, La. ; 20 killed, 19 Sept. 1843 Steamer Shepherdess strikes a snag below St. Louis; 20 to 30 drowned 4 Jan. 1844 Steamers De Soto and Buckeye collide; the latter sinks and more than 60 persons are drowned 28 Feb. " Steamer Belle of Clarksville run down by the Louisiana and sunk ; more than 30 drowned 14 Dec. " Steamer Edward Bates collapses 2 boiler flues; 28 killed, 12 Aug. 1848 Twenty-three steamboats with their cargoes burned at St. Louis 17 May, 1849 Steamer Louisiana explodes at New Orleans; 60 killed, 80 in- jured, and 12 missing 15 Nov. " Steamer Anglo-Norman explodes at New Orleans; 75 to 100 killed, wounded, or missing 13 Dec. 1850 Eight steamboats destroyed by fire at New Orleans; 37 lives lost 4 Feb. 1854 Steamer Caroh'n^ burned at the mouth of the White river; 45 lives lost 5 Mch. " ^iGSLinQr Pennsylvania bursts her boiler 80 miles below Mem- phis; about 100 lives lost 13 June, 1858 Steamer Prtncess explodes boiler and burns near Baton Rouge; 25 killed, 35 injured 27 Feb. 1859 Steamer Ben W. Lewis bursts boiler at Cairo; 50 lives lost. 24 June, 1860 Steamer Miami explodes boilers, burns, and sinks; 150 lives lost 30 Jan. 1866 Steamer Stonewall burned below Cairo; 200 lives lost. . .27 Oct. 1869 Steamer T. L. McGili burned ; 58 lives lost 14 Jan. 1871 Steamer H. R. Arthur explodes; 87 lives lost 28 Jan. " Steamer Oceanus explodes; 40 lives lost 11 Apr. 1872 Steajner George Wolfe explodes; 30 lives lost .23 Aug. 1873 Steamer Golden City burned near Memphis; 20 lives lost, 30 Mch. 1882 Steamer Robert E. Lee burned 30 miles below Vicksburg; 21 lives lost 30 Sept. " Steamer Yazoo strikes a log 35-mile point above New Orleans, and sinks; 19 lives lost 4 Mch. 1883 Flues of steamer La Mascotte collapse and vessel burned near Crawford's Landing, Mo. ; 34 lives lost 5 Oct. 1886 Steamer Kate Adams burned near Commerce Landing; 33 lives lost 24 Dec. 1888 Steamer John H. Hanna burned opposite Plaquemine, La. ; 22 lives lost 24 Dec. " Steamer Corona explodes; 38 lives lost 3 Oct. 1889 Ohio and other American Rivers. Steamer Benjamin Franklin explodes near Montgomery, Ala. ; 25 to 30 ki'Ued and injured 13 Mch. 1836 Boiler of steamer Moselle explodes soon after leaving her dock at Cincinnati ; over 100 lives lost 2.5 Apr. 1838 Steamer Shamrock bursts her boiler on the St. Lawrence river and sinks; 68 lives lost 9 July, 1842 Steamer Lucy Walker explodes 3 boilers simultaneously at New Albany, Ind. ; 50 to 60 killed and about 20 wounded, 2.8 Oct. 1844 Steamer Stvallow is broken on a rock in the Hudson river, near Athens 7 Mch. 1845 Steamer Tuscaloosa. 10 miles above Mobile, bursts 2 boilers; about 20 killed and many injured 28 Jan. 1847 Brig Carrick wrecked in a gale in the St. Lawrence; 170 emi- grants perish 19 May, " Steamer Talisman collides with the Tempest on the Ohio be- tween Pittsburg and St. Louis; more than 100 lives lost, 19 Nov. " Boilers of steamer £/«« Ridge on the Ohio river explode; 30 lives lost 8 Jan. 1848 Steamer Orville St. Johns burned near Montgomery. Ala. ; 30 lives lost 7 Mch. 1850 Steamboat Henry Clay burned on the Hudson river; over 70 lives lost 27 July, 1852 Boiler of siedimer Reindeer on the Hudson explodes; 38 lives lost, 20 injured 4 Sept. " Steamer Reindeer bursts a flue at Cannelton, Ind., Ohio river; 50 killed or injured 14 Mch. 1854 Steamer Montreal, from Quebec to Montreal, burned; nearly 250 lives lost, mostly emigrants 26 June, 1857 Steamer J/i,9S(mri explodes her boilers on the Ohio; 100 lives lost 30 ;ian. 1866 Steamer Magnolia explodes boilers on the Ohio river; 80 lives lost 18 Mch. 1868 Steamers United States and America collide in the Ohio river near Warsaw and burn ; great loss of life 4 Dec. " Steamer Wawasset burned in the Potomac river; 75 lives lost, 8 Aug. 1873 WRE 946 WRE 1881 Fat Rogern buroed on the OhJo; 60 lives lost, 'Jo July, 1874 SlwimvacJit Mamie cul in two by steamer Garland on the Deinill river; 16 lives lost ••• ••:-^ •'" >;- Steamer Victoria capsixed u)n Thames river, Canada; 200 drowned ^^ *"'y) StMuner W<^ Foint burned in York river, Va. ; 19 lives lost, 20 Dec. " Steamer Sdota wrecked in collision on the Ohio river; 67 lives lost ■* ''"'y' ^^^ Steamer If. H. OanUtfr burned on the Tombigbee river, 3 miles below Gainesville, Ala. ; 21 lives lost 1 Mob. 1887 KOTABLK WRKCKS AND SHIPPING DISASTERS IN FOKKION WATERS. Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, etc. Mary Rose. 60 guns, from Portsmouth to Spithead, upset in a squall ; all on boiird perish 20 July, 1545 Stirling CatUe, 70 guns; Mary, 70 guus; Northumberland, 70 guns, lost on the Uoodwin sands; Vanguard, 70 guns, sunk at Cbalhani; Yi^rk, 70 guus, lost near Harwich, all lost but 4 men; Raolution, 60 guns, coast of Sussex; Newcastle. 60 ffuns, at Spithead, 193 drowned; Reserve, 60 guns, at Yar- mouth, 173 perish night of 26 Nov. 1703 Auociatton, 70 guns, sinks with 800 men, and other vessels wrecked off Scilly isles 22 Oct. 1707 Prince George, 80 guns, burned in lat. 48° N. on way to Gibral- i tar; about 400 perish 13 Apr. 1758 LichMUL 60 guns, lost on the coast of Barbary; 130 of the ! criw^rish ..?. 29 Nov. " Sloop of- war Swan \vrecked off Waterford; 130 drowned, 4 Aug. 1782 Man of war Royal George, 108 guns, while keeled over to repair a pipe at Spithead, is foundered by a gust of wind and sinks; about 600 j)ersons perish 29 Aug. " [Portions of vessel and cargo were raised under superin- tendence of sir Charles Pasley about 58 years later.] East Indianian Count Belgioioso wrecked off Dublin bay; 147 lives lost 13 Mch. 1783 Ckarlemont packet, from Holyhead to Dublin, wrecked; 104 drowned 22 Dec. 1790 .4 mpAum, 38 guus, blown up while at anchor in Plymouth sound, and all the crew on board, 250 persons, perish 22 Sept. 1796 Nassau, 64 guns, wrecked on Haak bank, Texel ; 100 perish, 25 Oct. 1799 Sceptre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table bay, cape of Good Hope; 291 of the crew perish 5 Nov. " Ship-of war Queen Charlotte, 110 guns, burned off Leghorn; 673 lives lost by flre or drowning 17 Mch. 1800 Invincible, 74 guns, wrecked near Yarmouth; capt. John Ren- nie and the crew, except 126, perish 16 Mch. 1801 East Indiainan Abergavenny wrecked on the Bill of Portland; more than 300 persons perish 6 Feb. 1805 Transport Aurora lost on Goodwin sands; 300 perish. .21 Dec. " Packet King George lost on the Hoyle bank; 125 persons drowned 21 Sept. 1806 Athenien. 64 guns, wrecked near Tunis; 347 perish 27 Oct. " Ajax, 74 guns, burned off the island of Tenedos; 250 lives lost, 14 Feb. 1807 Park-gate packet Prince of Wales and transport Rochdale wrecked on Dunleary point near Dublin; nearly 300 lives lost 19 Nov. " Minotaur, 74gim8, wrecked on the Haak bank, Texel; 360 lives lost 22 Dec. 1810 Frigate Saldanha wrecked on the Irish coast; 300 persons perish 4 Dec. 1811 St. George of 98 and Defence of 74 guns and the Hero stranded on the coast of Jutland ; adm. Reynolds and all the crews (about 2000 men) perish, except 18 seamen 24 Dec. " Transport Seahorse wrecked near Tramore bay; 365 persons, chiefly soldiers, and most of the crew, drowned 30 Jan. 1816 Transports Lord Melville and Boadicea, with upwards of 200 soldiers with their wives and children, lost near Kinsale, Ireland; almost all perish 31 Jan. " Medusa, French frigate, bound for Senegambia, wrecked off cape Finisterre 22 June, " [400 on board. A raft is built to hold about 200, and the rest embark in boats, 17 July; 15 are rescued from the raft alive. " A scene from the wreck of the Medusa,'" a greatly noted painting by G^ricault.] Kent, East ludiaman, burned in the bay of Biscay 29 Feb. 1825 Steam-packet Rothsay Castle wrecked near Liverpool; more than 100 lives lost.. . .-. 19 Aug. 1831 Ship Amp'iitrite, with women convicts to New South Wales, - lost on Boulogne sands; out of 131 persons only 3 are saved, 30 Aug. 1833 English ship Jane and Margaret, from Liverpool to New York, wrecked near the Isle of Man ; over 200 lives lost Feb. 1837 Steamer Forfarshire, from Hull to Dundee, wrecked in a gale; 38 persons drowned; 15 persons saved by the keeper of the Outer-Fern light-house, James Darling, and his heroic daughter Grace, who venture out to their rescue in a coble, notwithstanding a tremendous sea 6 Sept. 1838 Steamer Thames, from Dublin to Liverpool, wrecked off St. Ives; the captain and 55 persons perish 4 Jan. 1841 Governor Fenner, from Liverpool to America, run down off Holyhead' by the steamer Nottingham, out of Dublin; 122 lives lost 19 Feb. " William Browne of Philadelphia wrecked by striking ice on her passage from England to America; about 70 lives lost; 16 passengers, who had been received into the long-boat, are thrown overboard by the crow to lighten her 19 Apr. Transports Abercrombie, Robinson, and Waterloo wrecked in Tabic bay, cape of Good Hope; of 330 persons on board the latter vessel, 189, principally convicts, perish 28 Aug. East ludiaman Reliance, from China to London, wrecked olf Merlemont, near Boulogne; of 116 persons on board only 7 are saved 13 Nov. Emigrant ship Exmouth, from Londonderry to Quebec, wrecked ; of 210 persons on board nearly ail are drowned 28 Apr. British steam-frigate Avenger wrecked off north coast of Africa; officers and crew of nearly 200 lost 20 Dec. American emigrant ship Ocean Monarch burned to the water's edge off Great Ormo's Head, Carnarvonshire, N. Wales; of the nearly 400 persons on board 178 perish, and 156 of the remainder are saved by crews and passengers of the Brazilian steam-frigate Alfonso and the yacht Queen of the Ocean; the ship had sailed from Liverpool '. 24 Aug. Emigrant ship Caleb Grimshaw takes flre, 12 Nov. ; 00 passen- gers leave on a raft the following day and are lost; the re- maining 400 are rescued by capt. Cook of the British bark Sarah 16 Nov. Steamer Royal Adelaide wrecked on tlie Tongue sands off Margate ; upwards of 400 lives lost 30 Mch. Steamship Orion strikes on a sunken rock on shore northward of Portpatrick and instantly fllls; of 200 passengers more than 50 are drowned 18 June, Emigrant ship Edmund, with nearly 200 passengers from Lim- erick to New York, wrecked off' the western coast of Ireland; about 100 lives lost 12 Nov. West India mail steamer Amazon destroyed by fire at sea about 110 miles W.S.W. of Scilly 4 Jan. [Out of 161 persons on board, 102 perished by flre or drown- ing, 21 saved by life-boats, 25 picked up by passing Dutch vessel, and 13 picked up in the bay of Biscay.] Troop -ship Birkenhead, from Queenstown to cape of Good Hope, strikes on a pinnacle rock off Simon's bay. South Africa; out of 638, 454 of the crew and soldiers peri.sh, 26 Feb. Steamship St. George,, from Liverpool to New York, with 121 emigrants and a crew of 29 seamen, destroyed by flre at sea (the crew and 70 of the passengers saved by the American ship Orlando and conveyed to Havre) 24 Dec. Steamship Queen Victoria, from liiverpool, wrecked off the Bailey light-house, near Dublin, in a snow-storm; 67 lost out of 120 15 Feb. Emigrant vessel Annie Jane, of Liverpool, driven on shore on the Barra islands, on the west coast of Scotland; about 348 lives lost 29 Sept. Emigrant ship Tayleur driven on the rocks off Lambay island, north of Howth ; about 380 lives lost 20 Jan. British steamer City of Glasgow sails from Liverpool for Philadelphia with 450 passengers and is never heard from, Mch. Eleven transports wrecked, 6 disabled, and the new steamship Prince sunk, with total loss of nearly 500 lives and a cargo of supplies for the army in the Crimea valued at 500,000/., in the storm on the Black sea 13-16 Nov. Emigrant vessel John wrecked on the M uncles rocks off Fal- mouth; 200 lives lost 1 May, Collins line steamer Pacific leaves Liverpool for New York with 240 persons on board and is never heard from. . 23 Sept. Steam emigrant-ship Austria, from Hamburg to New York, burns in the middle of the Atlantic ocean; of 538 persons on board only 67 are saved 13 Sept. American ship Pomona, Liverpool to New York, wrecked on Blackwater bank, the master mistaking the Blackwater for the Tuskar light; only 24 out of 419 persons saved, night of 27-28 Apr. Screw steamer Royal Charter totally wrecked off' Moolfra on the Anglesea coast; 446 lives lost, with 800,000/. of gold ($4,- 000,000), much of which has been recovered, night of 25-26 Oct. Steamer Ondine lost through collision with the Heroine of Bideford, abreast of Beachy Head; 60 lives lost 19 Feb. American emigrant vessel Luna wrecked on rocks off Barfleur; about 100 lives lest 19 Feb. Steamer London, on her way to Melbourne, founders in the bay of Biscay; about 220 lives lost 11 Jan. British steamship City of Boston sails from New York for Liv- erpool, 28 Jan. 1870; never since seen; a board, stating that she was sinking, found in Cornwall 11 Feb. British iron-clad Cap/am founders in a squall off Finisterre; 18 of the crew saved ; 472 lives lost 7 Sept. Iron screw steamer Cambria lost in a storm off Inishtrahul island, northwest of Ireland; about 170 lives lost 19 Oct. Steamer Delaware wrecked off Scilly rocks; only 2 out of 47 saved 20 Dec. Northfieet, laden with railway iron for Van Diemeu's Land, run into by a foreign steamer (probably a Spanish vessel, the Mu- rillo) off Dungeness; about 300 lives lost 22 Jan. Hamburg mail-steamer Schiller wrecked in a fog on rocks off the Scilly isles; 200 lives lost 7 May, Atlantic steamer Deutschland, from Bremen to New York, during a gale, wrecked on sand-bank, the Kentish Knock, at mouth of the Thames; 157 lives lost (many emigrants), 6 Dec. American ship Harvest Queen wrecked by collision about 45 miles from Queenstown ; 27 lives lost 31 Dec. American ship George Green stranded near Dartmouth, Engl. ; 24 lives lost. 22 Jan. 1841 1842 1847 :. 1848 1849 1850 1853 1855 1856 1860 1866 187C 1873 1875. 187T WRE 947 Frigate Eurydice, British training-ship, returning from the Bermudas, founders off Dunnose headland, near Ventnor, Isle of Wight, through a squall; about 300 lives lost, 24 Mch. 1878 Iron saloon-steamer Princess Alice, with about 900 persons, principally women and children, from Sheerness, nnmedi- utely sunk by collision with the large screw-steamer Bywell Castle, in the Thames, about a mile below Woolwich arsenal; less than 200 persons saved; 640 bodies recovered 3 Sept. " French steamer Byzantin sunk in collision with the English steamer Rinaldo in the Dardanelles during a gale; over 200 lives lost 18 Dec. *' Dominion steamer Borussia springs aleak in the Atlantic after leaving Corunna, Spain, and sinks; 10 out of 184 saved, 2 Dec. 1879 British training-ship Atalanta leaves the Bermudas on a trial voyage with 15 officers and 265 men and boys, and is never heard from 31 Jan. 1880 French steamer Oncle Joseph sinks by collision with Italian steamer Ortigia oflfSpezzia; about 50 out of 300 saved, 24 Nov. " Screw mail-steamer Teuton strikes on a rock near cape Agulhas, cape ofGood Hope, and founders; nearly 200 lives lost, 30 Aug. 1881 Coasting steamer Daphne keels over during launch in the Clyde; about 124 drowned 3 July, 1883 Bark Ponema collides with the steamship State of Florida about 1200 miles from coast of Ireland; both vessels sink; only 35 out of 180 persons saved 18 Apr. 1884 Collision between Spanish steamer Gijon and British steamer Laxham off cape Finisterre; both sink; over 150 lives lost, 22 July, " British gunboat Wasp wrecked on north side of Tory island off Donegal; 52 lives lost 22 Sept. " Red Star steamer W. A. Scholten collides with the steamer Mary Rosa in the English channel, near Dover, during a fog; the Scholten sinks ; loss.of life, 134 19 Nov. 1887 American ship Alfred D. Snow stranded off coast of Ireland; 30 lives lost 4 Jan. 1888 Collision between the steamship Geiser and Thingvalla of the Danish line; 105 lives lost by sinking of the Geiser. .14 Aug. " Collision between Italian steamship Sud America and French steamer Z/a France near Port Luz (Grand Canary); 89 lives lost 13 Sept. " Steamer Persia goes ashore on the island of Corsica; about 130 lives lost 2 Jan. 1890 British torpedo cruiser Serpent wrecked in a storm off north- west coast of Spain, about 20 miles from Corunna; only 3 out of 170 officers and men saved 10 Nov. " Anchor line steamer Utopia, with 850 passengers and crew, collides with British steamer Anson off Ragged Staff, Gibral- tar; Utopia sinks and 574 persons are drowned 17 Mch. 1891 Italian mail-steamer Taormina run down off cape Sunium (Colonna) by Greek steamer Thessalia; about 50 lives lost, 10 Sept. " British ship Thracian founders off the Isle of man ; 23 lives lost, 15 Aug. 1892 Anchor line steamer Roumania wrecked off the Portuguese coast; 113 lives lost out of 122 28 Oct. " Anchor line steamer Trinalria wrecked on the Bermellas rocks on the west coast of Spain ; 30 of a crew of 37 and all the pas- sengers lost 8 Feb. 1893 British battle-ship Victoria sunk by a collision with her sister- ship Camperdown, during a manoeuvre off Tripoli, Syria; vice adm. sir George Tryon, 22 officers, and 336 of the crew drowned 22 June, " German Lloyd steamer Elbe sunk by a collision with British steamer Crathie in the North sea; out of 355 passengers and crew only 20 saved, one a woman 30 Jan. 1895 Spanish cruiser Reina Regenta foundered in the Atlantic at the entrance of the Mediterranean; over 400 persons drowned, ^ .. ^ . - 11 Mch. " Pacific Ocean, etc. Clipper Dunbar wrecked on the rocks near Sydney, Australia; out of 121 persons on board only 1 saved, who was on the rocks for 30 hours 20 Aug. 1857 St. Paul, from Hong-Kong to Sydney, Australia, with 327 Chinese emigrants, wrecked on the island of Rossel, 30 Sept. 1858; the captain and 8 of thercrew, who left the island for assistance, are picked up by the schooner Prince of Den- mark. French steamer Styx, sent to the island, finds that the emigrants and crew have been massacred and devoured by the natives, except one Chinaman rescued 25 Jan. 1859 British steamer Orpheus, a new vessel, wrecked on Manakau bar, west coast of New Zealand; 70 persons saved; about 190 perish 7 Feb. 1863 British steamer Racehorse wrecked off Chefoo cape, Chinese coast; 99 lives lost 4 Nov. 1864 General Grant wrecked off Auckland isles on voyage from Melbourne to London ; only 13 out of about 100 saved. .May, 1866 American vessel Oneida run down by Peninsular and Oriental steamer Bombay, off Yokohama; about 115 lives lost, 24 Jan. 1870 Emigrant vessel Cospatrick, on her way to Auckland, New Zea- land, takes fire at midnight, 17 Nov. ; only 5 or 6 out of 476 escape, who are picked up 27 Nov., and arrive at St. Helena, 6 Dec. 1874 Australian Steam Navigation company's steamer Ly-ee-moo wrecked off Green cape on voyage from Melbourne to Syd- ney ; 70 lives lost 30 May, 1886 American ship Abbie Carver, from Hong-Kong to Callao, Peru, lost at sea; 20 persons perish 13 Aug. " British steamer Wah Yeung, trading between Canton and Hong- Kong, burns; 400 lives lost 15 Nov. 1887 WUR U. S. steamers Trenton and Vandalia wrecked, and the Nipsic stranded, in a storm at Apia, Samoan islands; 51 lives lost. In the same storm the German steamers Adler and Eber are wrecked, with a loss of 96 lives 16 Mch. 1889' British steamer Duburg wrecked in the Chinese sea; 400 lives lost 17 Feb. 1890 Quetta, of the Queensland line, strikes on a rock off cape York, Torres strait, and founders in 3 minutes; 124 lives lost, 1 Mch. " Turkish wooden frigate Ertogrul founders in a gale off south coast of Japan; only 6 officers and 57 men saved out of a crew of nearly 600 19 Sept. " British steamer Shanghai burned in the China sea; about 100 lives lost 27 Dec. " British ship St. Catharis wrecked off the Caroline islands; 90 lives lost 16 Apr. 1891 Steamer Namchow wrecked in the China sea; 414 lives lost, 13 Jan. 1892 Steamer Wairaropa wrecked off the coast of New Zealand; 134 lives lost 1 Nov. 1894 Indian Ocean. Pembroke, 60 guns, founders near Porto Nuovo; 330 of her crew perish 13 Apr. 1749 Due d^Aquitaine, 64 guns, and Sunderland, 60 guns, lost off Pondicherry ; all perish l Jan. 1761 East Indiaman Grosvenor wrecked off the coast of Caffraria, 4 Aug. 1782 East Indiaman Protector wrecked at Bengal; of 178 persons on board, 170 perish 21 Nov. 183» Troop ship Lady Nugent sails from Madras, 10 May. 1854; founders in a hurricane; 350 rank and file of the Madras light infantry, officers and crew, in all 400 souls, perish. May, l«54r Emigrant vessel * Eagle Speed founders near Calcutta; 265 coolies drowned 24 Aug. 186& Steamer Enterprise founders in the bay of Bengal; 77 lives lost 2 Nov. 1891 British ship Germania wrecked in a cvclone in the bay of Ben- gal; 64 lives lost '. 29 May, 1893 [For the list of vessels sailing from port and never afterwards heard of. Steam navigation.] IWriting'. Pictures are considered the first essay toward* writing. The most ancient remains of writing are upon hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts and matters of public interest. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have written a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of the hieroglyphics, 2112 b.c. — Usher. Writ- ing is said to have been taught to the Latins by Europa,^ daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 b.c. — Thucydides. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b.c., brought the Phoe- nician letters into Greece. — Vossius. The commandments were written on 2 tables of stone, 1491 b.c. — Usher. The Greeks and Romans used wax table-books, and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. Paper, Papy- rus, Parchment. Thomas Astle's "History of Writing" was first pub. in 1784 ; Natalis de Wailly's " Elemens de Paleo- graphie," 1838. Alphabet, Hieroglyphics, Literature^ Manuscript, etc. Wrox'eter, in Shropshire, Engl., the Roman city Uri- conium. Roman inscriptions, ruins, seals, and coins were found here in 1752. New discoveries having been made, a committee for further investigation met at Shrewsbury on 11 Nov. 1858. Excavations were commenced in Feb. 1859, which were con- tinued till May. Large portions of the old town were discov- ered; also specimens of glass and pottery, personal ornaments and toys, household utensils and implements of trade, cinerary urns, and bones of man and of the smaller animals. A com- mittee was formed in London in Aug. 1859, with the view of continuing these investigations, which were resumed in 1861,^ through the liberality of the late Beriah Botfield, M.P. The investigations, stopped through want of fimds, were resumed for a short time in 1867. Thomas Wright pub. " Uriconium " in 1872. Wiirtembers^, originally part of Swabia, was made a county for Ulric L, about 1265, and a duchy for Eberhard in 1494. The dukes were Protestants until 1722, when the reigning prince became a Roman Catholic. Wurtemberg has been repeatedly traversed by armies, particularly since the great French revolution of 1793. Moreau made his celebrated retreat 23 Oct. 1796. It is a constitutional hereditary mon- archy. The political constitution is dated 25 Sept. 1819. Wiirtemberg opposed Prussia in the war, June, 1866, but made peace, 13 Aug. following; in Oct. 1867, joined the ZoU- verein, but sent a contingent to Prussia in the war, 1870. Area, 7528 sq. miles; pop. in 1871, 1,818,539; 1875, 1,881,505; 1890, 2,036,556. WYO 948 Wromlnff, • western inland state of the United States, ^ying between Ut. 41° and 46° N. and Ion. 104° and 111° W., is bounded on the north by Montana, east by South Da- kota and Nebraska, south by Colorado and Utah, and west by Utah, Idaho, and Montana. Area, 97,890 sq. miles in 12 counties. Pop. 1890, 60,705. Capital, Cheyenne. Sieur de la Verendrye and bis sous, from Canada, travel as far south as Wind rivor 1743-44 Job!i Colter winters on the headwaters of Pryor's fork, 1806; visits Sho- shone lake, crosses the Rocky mounliiins to the head of Green river, and returns to the head of Wind river and Pryor's fork 1807 Eiekiel Williams, trapper, wanders fTom the Yellowstone to the South Platte through Wyoming " First recorded expedition from the east, the Pacific Fur com- pany, on the way to Oregon under Wilson Price Hunt, passes through Wyoming, crossing Powder River valley and Big Horn mountains to the Wind river, thence to the Snake river 1811 William H. Ashley, of the North American Fur company, with 300 men, explores the Sweetwater and Green rivers 1824 Capt. E. L. Bonneville leads the first caravan, 110 trappers and 20 wagons, from the Platte through South pass to the Green river. At the junction of Lead creek he builds a fort 1832 William Sublette and Robert Campbell erect a fort on I^aramie fork, which they name fort William, since fort Laramie 1834 First emigrant train for Oregon and California crosses Wyo- ming. 1841 Fort Bridger erected on Green river by James Bridger, a fa- mous trapper 1842 CoL J. C. Fremont, with a government exploring expedition, as- cends and names Fremont's peak " Mormon pioneers, led by Brigham Young, pass fort Laramie on their way to Great Salt lake through South pass 1 June, 1847 Part of Wyoming is included in the territory acquired by the U. S. from Mexico by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 2 Feb. 1848 Fort liaramie transferred to the U. S 1849 Fort Bridger sold for $8000 to the Mormons 1853 Sioux Indian war begins; lieut. Grattan and 28 men sent from fort Laramie to arrest an Indian who had shot a cow of a Mormon emigrant. The Indians refusing to give up the cul- prit, Grattan fires, and the whole party are killed, summer of 1854 Sir George Gore of Sligo, Ireland, with his private hunting expedition, winters at fort Laramie, 1854, and with James Bridger as guide travels north to Powder river 1855 Oil is collected from a spring near Poison Spider creek, and sold along the Mormon trail for axle-grease 1863 Bill introduced in Congress by James M. Ashley of Ohio to pro- vide a temporary government for "the territory of Wyo- „m'ng" 1865 Massacre of U. S. troops by the Indians in a sortie, under col. Fetterman, from fort Philip Kearney, near Big Horn ; 3 officers and 90 men killed and scalped 21 Dec. 1866 Gold discovered on the sources of the Sweetwater 1867 Cheyenne first settled, July, 1867, and a city government estab- lished, with H. M. Hook as mayor Aug. '< First newspaper published in the territory, the Cheyenne Even- ing Leader, 19 Sept. ; Daily Argus, 25 Oct. ; and Rocky . Mountain Star, S Bee <( First passenger train from Omaha arrives at Cheyenne, 13 Nov. " Laramie city located on the Union Pacific railroad Apr. 1868 Territory of Wyoming organized bv act of Congress out of parts of Dakota, Utah, and Idaho 25 July " Coal discovered 3 miles from Evanston, 1868, and first mine opened. 1869 Cheyenne designated as the capital of Wyoming, and first ter- ritorial court held there 7 Sept. " Act approved giving wOmen the right to vote and hold office in Wyoming 10 Dec. " Grand jury of men and women impanelled at liaramie. .7 Mch. 1870 Lieut. Gustavus C. Doane makes a reconnaissance from fort Ellis. Mont., to Yellowstone lake, via the Gallatin river " Act of Congress approved setting apart 3575 square miles near the headwaters of the Yellowstone as a public park. . . 1 Mch. 1872 Military expedition under capt. Jones proceeds north from Bryan on the Union Pacific railroad, through the Wiud River valley and the Yellowstone National park to fort Ellis 1873 Gov. William Hale d 13 Jan. 1885 Two hundred miners attack 400 Chinese, imported to work in the Union Pacific Railroad coal mines, and drive them to the hills, massacring many 2 Sept. " Treaty concluded with the Shoshones and Bannacks at fort Bridger, setting apart a reservation in Wyoming 3 July, 1886 Laramie glass company inaugurate the first window -glass factory west of Illinois 6 Apr. 1887 University of Wyoming at Laramie chartered 1886; corner- stone laid 27 Sept. 1886; and opened Sept. " New capitol at Cheyenne occupied by the legislature 1888 Building for a school for the deaf and blind at Cheyenne com- pleted u Penitentiary, to bo located at Rawlins, provided for by act of legislature " Insane asylum at Evanston opened Apr 1889 Constitutional convention as.sembles at Cheyenne, 3-30 Sept. ; constitution submitted to the people, and ratified by a vote of 6272 for to 1923 against Nov. " Legislature i)asses the Australian Ballot law 1890 Wyoming admitted to the Union by act of Congress approved, 10 July, " State admitted into the Union by proclamation of the presi- dent 10 July, " Francis E. Warren inaugurated first governor of the state of Wyoming 14 Oct. " First state legislature convenes at Cheyenne 13 Nov. " Forest reservation in Wyoming adjacent to Yellowstone park set apart by proclamation of pres. Harrison, 30 Mch. and 10 Sept. 1891 Shoshone and Arapahoe Indians cede to the U. S. 1,000.000 acres of land at 55 cents per acre 16 Oct. " Five hundred cowboys set out to exterminate the cattle thieves in Wyoming and Montana 10 Apr. 1892 U. S. troops called out to suppress the cowboy disturbance, 13 Apr. " All persons engaged in resisting the laws and processes of the U. S. courts in Wyoming commanded to desist, by proclama- tion of pres. Harrison 30 July, " TKRKITOKIAL GOVKRNOItS. John A. Campbell assumes office •John M. Thayer " John M. Hoy t " William Hale " F.E.Warren " Thomas Moonlight..; " F.E.Warren " 1869 1875 1879 1885 .24 Jan. 1887 1889 STATK GOVERNORS. F. E. Warren inaugunitod 14 Oct. 1890 Amos W. Barber acting 1892 John E. Osborne 1893-95 William A. Richards 1895-99 UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF WYOMING. Name. No. of Congress. Date. Remarks. Francis E. Warren. Joseph M. Carey. . . Vacant* 52d.tO 53d 52d " 54th 53d 54th " 54th" 1891 to 1893 1891 " 1895 1895 " 1895 " F. E.Warren C.D.Clark Term expires 1901 " 1899 * The legislature having failed to elect a senator, the U. S. Senate refused to seat the appointee of the governor. Wyoming, Massacre of. A Tory leader named John Butler, at the head of loyalists and Indians, entered the beau- tiful Wyoming valley, in Pennsylvania, at the beginning of Jul}-^, 1778. Most of the able-bodied men were away with the army. Col. Zebulon Butler was there, and he rallied what force he could to confront the invaders. They had an engage- ment a little above Wilkesbarre on 4 July. The Americans were driven back, and took refuge in a fort. They then sur- rendered, with promise of protection ; but before sunset the Indians, thirsting for blood, spread over the valley, set fire to dwellings, and murdered many of the inhabitants. The valley was made a desolation before midnight. This massacre is the subject of Campbell's poem, "Gertrude of Wyoming," pub. in 1809. Its history is best detailed in Charles Miner's "History of Wyoming," Philadelphia, 1846. Susquehanna settlers. X, the.24th letter of the English alphabet, from the Greek to the Latin, thence to the English, where it is superfluous, smce it represents no sound not already provided for by other letters. It is initial only in a few words borrowed from the Greek, and then has the sound of z. As a numeral X stands for 10, it being a double (l) 5. It is also an abbreviation for Christ, from the Greek letter X (ch), beginning of XpitrTog. Xn is also written for Christian, and Xmas for Christmas. XAN 949 YAR Some suppose X to have been the sign seen in the heavens by i the emperor Constantine. Xanthian inarble§. British Museum. Xan'tllica, a military festival observed by the Mace- donians in the month called Xanthicus (April), instituted about 392 B.C. Xail'tllUS, an ancient city of Lycia, Asia Minor, was taken by Harpagus for Cyrus, about 646 b.c., when the inhab- | itants buried themselves in the ruins. It was besieged by the Romans under Brutus, 42 b.c. After a great struggle, the in- habitants set fire to their city, destroyed their wives and chil- dren, and perished. The conqueror wished to spare them, and offered rewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the Xan- thians into his presence; but only 150 were saved. — Plutarch. — A river of Troas in Asia Minor, the same as Scamander, and according to Homer called Xanthus by the gods and Scaman- der by men. Xenophon. Retreat of the ten thousand. Xeres de la Frontera, S.W. Spain, the Asta Re- (jia of the Romans, and the seat of the wine-trade in Spain, of which the principal wine is that so well known as Sherry, an English corruption of Xeres. Xeres is a handsome and large town, of great antiquity. At the battle of Xeres, 26 July, 711, Roderic, the last Gothic sovereign of Spain, was de- feated and slain by the Saracens, commanded by Tarik and Muza. Xerxe§'§ campaii^II. Xerxes crossed the Helles- pont by a bridge of boats, and eYitered Greece in the spring of 480 B.C. with an army which, with the numerous retinue of servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted (according to some historians) to 5,283,220 souls. Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry and the marines and attend- ants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at Tiikumop- YL^ by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas, 7-9 Aug. 480 B.C. The fleet of Xerxes was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, 20 Oct. 480 b.c; and he hastened back to Persia, leaving behind Mardonius, the best of his generals, who, with an army of 300,000 men, was defeated and slain at Plat^a, 22 Sept. 479 b.c. Xerxes was assassinated by Arta- banus, 465 b.c. Ximena, S. Spain, the site of a battle between the Spanish army under the command of gen. Ballasteros, and the French corps commanded by gen. Regnier, 10 Sept. 1811. The Spaniards defeated their adversaries ; the loss was great on both sides. XylOtechnog^rapllica, a process for staining wood various colors, invented and patented by A. F. Brophy ; an- nounced early in 1875. Y, the 25th letter of the English alphabet, coming through the Latin, from the Greek T (upsilon). In A. S. it is always a vowel, but in modern English both a vowel and a consonant. y is substituted for^ in numerous A. S. words — as year for gear^ day for daeg. In early English it occurs often as a prefix to the perfect participles of verbs, representing the Ger. and A. S. ge : yclad, clad ; yclept, called ; ydrad, dreaded. In all of these y has the sound of e. yacht (from the Y)\xtc\ijaght), a light vessel for pleasure or races. Sailing. Yale UIliver§ity. Charter for a college at New Haven granted by the General court 9 Oct. 1701. College es- tablished at Saybrook "as the most convenient place at pres- ent." First commencement held at Saybrook 13 Sept. 1702 College removed from Saybrook to New Haven 30 Oct. 1717 First commencement at New Haven; 8 are graduated. A mi- nority of the trustees, wishing to locate the college at Weth- ersfield, hold a commencement there at the same time, and graduate 5 others 12 Sept. 1718 [Opposition to removing the books of the college library from Saybrook to New Haven; about 250 valuable books and some important papers were scattered and lost. The opposi- tion soon subsided.] College receives the name of Yale after Elihu Yale, of London, Engl 12 Sept. " Elihu Yale dies in England 8 July, 1721 [Ho was a son of Thomas Yale, and was born at New Ha- ven, 5 Apr. 1648. His father settled at New Haven in 1638. He sent his son to England at the age of 10 to complete his ed- ucation. At 30 the son removed to India, where he remained 20 years, married, and acquired a large fortune, was made governor of the East India company and a fellow of the Royal Society. His donations at different times to Yale college amounted in all to about $2000. He intended to give the college about $2500 more, but died before completing the gift. " Never was human distinction so cheaply purchased as that which perpetuates the otherwise almost unknown names of John Harvard and Elihu Yale. ' '—Johnston's ' ' Connecticut. "] Sheffield Scientific school established 1847 [According to the catalogue of 1892-93 the number of stu- dents was 1969; of these 966 were students of Yale college, 529 of the Sheffield Scientific school, and the others of art, music, divinity, medicine, and law. Commencement occurs on 28 June, and the first term begins 28 Sept.] presidents of YALE COLLEGE FROM ITS BEGINNING. Rev. Abraham Pierson 1701-1707 " Timothy Cutler, S.T.D 1719-1722 " Elisha WiUiams 1726-1739 " Thomas Clap 1739-1766 " Naphtali Daggett, S.T.D 1766-1777 " Ezra Stiles, S.T.D., LL.D 1777-1795 Rev. Timothy Dwight, S.T.D., LL.D 1795-1817 " Jeremiah Day, " " 1817-1846 ' ' Theodore D. Woolsey, D. D. , LL. D 1846-1871 " Noah Porter, " " 1871-1886 " Timothy Dwight, " " 1886- COLLEGES, Libraries. Yankee, from " Yangees," a corruption of "English,"' the name originally given by the Massachusetts Indians to the colonists ;, applied solely to New-Englanders by British soldiers in the American war (1775-81) ; afterwards by for- eigners to all natives of the United States; and latterly by the confederates of the South to the federals of the North during the civil war, 1861-65. " Yankee Doodle," a popular national air of the United States, with nothing to recommend it except its lively spirit. Its origin is involved in obscurity, but it was introduced by the British troops about the beginning of the Revolution, and was taken up by the Americans. While the British were yet in Boston in the summer of 1775 some poet among them wrote a poem in derision of the New England troops. It is the original " Yankee Doodle " song. The following is one of the stanzas i "And captain Davis had a gun, He kind a clapped his hand on 't, And stuck a crooked stabbingiron Upon the little end on 't." yard, the fundamental unit of English long-measure — 3 ft. or 36 ins. The word is derived from the Saxon geard, or gyrd, a rod or shoot, or from gyrdan, to enclose, being anciently the circumference of the body, until Henry I. decreed that it should be the length of his arm (doubtless a fable). Stand- ard MEASURES. Yarmoiltll, Oreat, a sea-port of Norfolk, Engl., on the North sea, was a royal demesne in the reign of William I., as appears from Domesday book, 1086. It obtained a charter from John, and one from Henry III. In 1348. a plague here carried oflf 7000 persons; and did much havoc again in 1579 and 1664. Pop. 1881, 46,767; 1891, 49,318. Theatre built 1778 Nelson's pillar, a fluted column 140 ft. in heipht. erected 1817 Suspension chain bridge over the Bure, built by R. Cory, at an expense of about 4000/. ; owing to the weight of a vast num- ber of persons who assembled on it to witness an exhibition on the water, it suddenly gave way, and 79 lives (mostly chil- dren) were lost 2 May, 1845 Yarmouth disfranchised for bribery and corruption by the Re- form act .' Aug. 1867 Yarrovir or Yarrow water, a small river in Sel- YAZ 960 YEO kirk county, Scotl^ made familtAr by several poems, especially by Wm. Hamilton's "The Braes of Yarrow." •'SwTOl smoll ihP birk, fcrwn grows, green grows the grass, Yellow on Yarrow brai'S Iho gowau, Fair bangs thf apple Prao tlio rock. Sweet is the wave of Yarrow flowan." And Wordsworth's 8 poems, "Yarrow Unvisited," "Visited," and " Kevisited." The following 2 stanzas are selected from " Yarrow Unvisiteti," to show its exquisite beauty. " "Oh, green." said I, 'are Yarrow's hohns, And sweet is Yarrow flowing! Fair hangs the apple frae the rock, But we will leave it growing.' " "The swan on still Saint Mary's Lake Floats double, swan and shadow! We will not see them, will not go To-day, nor yet to morrow," etc. Yazoo iipcCUlatioil§, attempts made in 1789 and 1794 to obtain large grants of western land in Georgia, by land companies formed in South Carolina, Virginia, and Georgia. In 1785 the atate erected a large tract of land on the Mississippi river into a county called Bourbon, over which were appointed civil and judicial officers. The intervention of Spanish claim- ants and settlers caused the repeal of this act in 1788, but at- tracted the attention of 3 large land companies, who secured from the legislature grants of 15,500,000 acres, for which they pr«i|>osed to pay $207,580. Within 9 daj's of its presentation a bill was passed and signed by the governor of Georgia, 21 Dec. 1789, but the sale was never completed. In 1794 new proposals were made to the legislature, and after considerable opposition a bill was passed 7 Jan. 1795, and grants of land were made to " the Georgia," " the Georgia Mississippi," " the Upper Mis.sis.sippi," and " the Tennessee " companies, by which they obtained some 35,000,000 acres, at about IJ cents per acre. The people, aroused, remonstrated against the injustice, and at the next election nearly every member of the legislature was pledged to vote for repeal, gen. James Jackson resigning his seat in the U. S. Senate to work against the obnoxious act in the legislature. Largelj'^ through his efforts the Rescinding act was passed, the governor concurring, 13 Feb. 1796. By this act the enrolled bill and usurped act of 7 Jan. 1795 were pub- licly and solemnly burned in the square before the State-house in l.^uisville. As some of the land thus fraudulently obtained had been disposed of to companies in New England and else- where, the Rescinding act led to numerous lawsuits, which were not entirely settled until a final disposition of the whole subject was made by the U. S. Congress in 1814, Georgia having in 1802 ceded most of her western territory to the U. S. year, time of the earth's revolution around the sun ; A. S. gear. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the year. Roman year introduced by Romulus, 738 b.c. ; corrected by Numa, 713 B.c. ; and again by Julius Csesar, 4.5 B.C. Solar or astronomical year was estimated to comprise 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 decimals, 265 B.C., being about 3 seconds more than the present estimate. Lunar year (12 lunar months, or 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes) was in use among the Chaldseans, Persians, and Jews. Once in every 3 years was added another lunar month, to make the solar and the lunar year nearly agree. But, though the months Were lunar, the year was solar; that is, the first month was of 30 days, and the second of 29, and so alternately: and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews afterwards fol- lowed the Roman manner of computation. Sidereal year, or the sun's return to the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours. 9 minutes, 9.6 seconds. The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in Mch.,and civil year in Sept. ; the Athenians began the year in June; the Mace- donians on 24 Sept. ; the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on 29 or 30 Aug. ; and the Persians and Armenians on 11 Aug. Nearly all Christian nations now commence the year on 1 Jan. In France, the Merovingian kings began the year with Mch. ; the Carlovingians sometimes began the year with Christmas, 25 Dec. ; and sometimes with Easter, which, being a movable feast, led to much confusion. Charles IX. of France, in 1564, published an arrSt, the last article of which ordered that the year be constantly and universally begun and written on and from 1 .Ian. The beginning of the year has been reckoned from the day celebrat- mg the birth of Christ, 25 Dec. ; his circumcision, 1 Jan. ; his con- ception, 25 Mch. ; and his resurrection. Easter. The English began their year on 25 Dec. until the time of William the Conqueror. This prince, having been crowned on 1 Jan., gave occasion to the English to begin their year at that time, to make it agree with the then most remarkable period of their his- tory.— Stow. Until the act for altering the Style, in 1752, when the year was ordered to begin on 1 Jan., it did not legally and generally commence in England until 25 Mch. In Scotland, at that period, the year began on 1 Jan. This difference caused great practical inconveniences; and Jan., Feb., and part of Mch. some- times bore 2 dates, as it is often found in old records, 1745-1746, or 1745-6, or 174*/6. Such a reckoning often led to chronological mis- takes; for instance, it is popular to say the " revolution of 1688," as that event was completed in Feb. 1688, according to the then mode of computation; but if the year were held to begin, as it does now, on 1 Jan., it would be the revolution of 1689. The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland is described in the following calendar, given by a traveller: "23 June, snow melts. 1 July, snow gone. 9 July, fields quite green. 17 July, plants at full growth. 25 July, plants in flower. 2 Aug., fruits ripe. 10 Aug., plants shed their seed. 18 Aug., snow." The snow continues upon the ground from 18 Aug. of one year to 23 June of the year following, being 309 days out of 365; so that while the 3 seasons of spring, summer, and autumn are together only 56 days, or 8 weeks, the winter is of 44 weeks' duration iu these countries. Year of our Lord. Year of grace. Anno Domini (a.d.). Year and a day. A space of time in law, and in many cases estab- lishes and flxes a right; as in an estray, on proclamation, if the owner does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on land, if unclaimed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a legal space of time. Calendar, Epact, French revolutionary calendar, Mahometan YEAR, New style, Planets, Sabbatical year. Sidereal time, etc. yea§t, a substance causing fermentation. It was discov- ered by both Cagniard de la Tour and Schwann, in 1836, to be a vegetable cell or fungus. yellow-fever, an American pestilence, made its ap- pearance at Philadelphia, where it committed great ravages, 1699. It appeared in several islands of the West Indies in 1732, 1739, and 1745. It raged with unparalleled violence at Philadelphia in Oct. 1762 ; and most awfully at New York in the beginning of Aug. 1791. This fever again spread great devastation at Philadelphia in July, 1793, carrying off several thousand persons. — Hardie. It again appeared in Oct. 1797; and spread its ravages over the northern coast of America, Sept. 1798. It reappeared at Philadelphia in the summer of 1802; and broke out in Spain, in Sept. 1803. The yellow- fever was ver}' violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814 ; in the Mauritius, July, 1815; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz and the isle of St. Leon in Sept. 1819. A malignant fever raged at Gibraltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate until the following year. Yellow- fever ravaged Norfolk and Portsmouth, Va., in 1855 ; Wil- mington, N. C., in 1862; and Savannah, Ga., in 1876. It has been epidemic at New Orleans many times. YELLOW-B^EVER IN NEW OKLEANS. 1847. 1853. 1855. No. of deaths. . 2350 . 7848 . 2670 Year. 1858. 1867. 1868. No. of deaths. . 4845 , 3107 . 3977 Memphis was almost depopulated by this scourge in 1878-79. During 1878 there were 5160 deaths there from the fever; and during 1879, although the population was reduced to 18,- 500, there were 1532 cases and 485 deaths. The fever ap- peared as an epidemic in New Orleans, 12 July, 1878, and spread rapidly to interior towns, some of which were depopu- lated. The total number of cases in the United States during 1878 was 65,976, with 14,809 deaths. The first case in 1879 was reported 5 July ; first case in Memphis, 8 July. Yellowstone IVational park covers an area of 3575 square miles, most of it in northwestern Wyoming. Set apart and to be known as the "Yellowstone National park," by act of Congress, 1 Mch. 1872. " Yeoman of the Guard " {yo-man), an opera, by Arthur S. Sullivan, 1888. Music. Yeomen of the Ouard (yomen), a peculiar body of foot guards to the king's person, instituted at the coronation of Henry VII. of England, 30 Oct. 1485, which originally consisted of 50 men under a captain. They were called beef- eaters, a corruption of buffetiers, being attendants on the king's buffet or sideboard. Battlk-axe. They were of a larger stature than other guards, being required to be over 6 feet in height, and were armed with arquebuses and other arms. The band was increased by Henry's successors to 100 men, and 70 supernumeraries; and when one of the hundred died it was ordered that his place should be supplied out of the 70. They were clad after the manner of king Henry VIII. — Ash- YEW 951 ■mole's " Instit." This is said to have been the first permanent military band instituted in England. John, earl of Oxford, was the first captain in 1486. — Beatson's " Pol. Index." yew-tree (Taxus). The reason for planting yew-trees in church-yards was (these being fenced) to secure the trees from cattle, and preserve them for the encouragement of arch- erv. A general plantation of them for the use of archers was ordered by Richard III., 14B3.—Stow's " Chron." Near Foun- tains Abbey, Yorkshire, were 7 yew-trees, called the Seven Sisters, supposed to have been planted before 1088 ; the cir- cumference of the largest was 34 feet 7 inches round the trunk. In 1851 a yew-tree was said to be growing in the church-yard of (iresford, North Wales, whose circumference was 27 feet 9 inches, being the largest and oldest yew-tree in the British dominions; but tradition regards some yews in England as older than the introduction of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned in the survey taken of Richmond palace, in 1649, is said to be still standing. Yezdegird', or Per§ian era, was formerly uni- versally adopted in Persia, and is still used by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in certain computations. This era began on 26 June, 632, when Yezdegird was elected king of Persia. The year consisted of 365 days only, and therefore its ■commencement, like that of the old Egyptian and Armenian year, anticipated the Julian year by 1 day in every 4 years. This difference amounted to nearly 112 days in the year 1075, when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who ordered that in future the Persian year should receive an additional day whenever necessary to postpone the commencement of the following year, that it might occur on the day of the sun's passing the same degree of the ecliptic. Yggdraiil (ig'dra-sU), in Scandinavian mythology, the world-tree or askr yggdi-asil, ash-tree of existence. The name is derived from Odin's name Yggi' (the deep thinker), and drasil =z carrier — it therefore means the Bearer or Manifestor of God. It includes in unity Heaven, Earth, and Hell; its branches extend through all the world and beyond heaven ; its 3 roots centre in Heaven, Earth, and Hell. Its heavenly root is termed Urdu?'; its earthly root, il/i»«r ; and that in Hell, Hoergelmir. Tlie conception of this tree is one of the boldest and most phil- osophic in Scandinavian mythology. All things owe their life, tlioughts, feelings, in fact everything, to the sustenance derived from it. It seems to be a crude conception of the Tree of Life of the Bible, the leaves of which " were for the healing of the nations." yoRe is spoken of as a type of servitude. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it was practised by the Sam- nites towards the Romans, 321 b.c. Caudine forks. This disgrace was afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enemies. — Dufresnoy. Yokohama. Japan. York, in the N. of England, a town of the Brigantes, named Evrauc, settled by the Romans during the second cam- paign of Agricola, about 79, and named Eboracum or Eburacum; it became the metropolis of the north. Pop. 1891, 66,984. Emperor Severiis dies here 4 Feb. 211 Here Constantius Chlorus dies, and his son Constantine the Great proclaimed emperor 25 July, 30(5 Abbey of St. Mary's founded by Siward the Dane 1050 York burned by the Danes, allies of Edgar Atheling, and all the Normans slain 1069 •City and many churches destroyed by fire 3 June, 1137 Massacre and suicide of many Jews 1190 York receives its charter from Richard II., and the mayor is made a lord 1389 o;nted commander-in-chief, governor of SMh\. etc , sail.s for the Cape May, " British total loss, 11S» killed; 8A die of disease; announced, 27 May, " Cetywayo said to have suppressed nn insurrection, and to have retired to his kraal (or villaRe) at Ulundi May, " Reconnoitring |>arty, uudercapt. J. Brenton Carey, on Imbabani, near the .Moznui river, surprised; prince I^ouis Napoleon (acting as commander) killed 1 June, " Sir O. Wolseley arrives at the Cape 23 June, " Sir O. Wolseley sworn in as high - commissioner at Pieter- maritzburg 28 or 29 June, " Cety wayo totally defeated at Ulundi 4 July, " Lord Chelmsfont resigns 15 July, " Sentence u|>on capt. Carey respecting the death of prince Na- poleon quashed 22 Aug. " Pursuit of Cety wayo ; captured by maj. Richard Marter. 28 Aug. ' ' Meeting of sir G. Wolseley with Zulu chiefs; settlement by treaty: Zululand to be divided into 13 independent districts; John Dunn to be a chief ; British residents in each district (to be eyes and ears); celilmte military system abolished- no arms to be imported; ancient laws and liberties retained (John Dunn, 20 years in Zululand, conforms to Zulu ways), 1 86nt 18^9 Sir G. Wolseley's despatch, announcing end of the war, dated ' [Cost of Zulu war, about 4,920,000^.] '^ ^^V^- " Cety wayo visits England; received l)y the queen U auit 1882 Cetywayo's kingdom restored to him with restrictions, 29 .Jan 1883 He dies o ji.„i " ,00. British flag raised at St. Lucia bay " ' ' " Dec ° Zululand annexed to Natal as a British possession '.'.". .2*1' June', 1887 Zll'riell was admitted a member and made head of the Swiss confederacy, 1351, and was the first town in Swit- zerland that separated from the church of Rome. Switzkk- LAND. Zut'pllCn, a town of Holland. At a battle here, 22 Sept. 1586, between the Spaniards and the Dutch, the amiable sir Philip Sidney, the author of "Arcadia," was mortally wounded. He died 7 Oct. He was serving with the PLnglisb auxiliaries, commanded by the earl of Leicester. Zuyder zee. Zuidkr zee. Zuyper l$luy§, Holland. Here sir Ralph Abercromby defeated an attack of the French under Brune ; the latter suf- fered great loss, 9 Sept. 1799. THE END ^,e SOCIAL SCIENCES REFERENCE SERVICE