Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2007 with funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofrhetorOOdemirich 
 
THE 
 
 ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC 
 
 By JAMES DE MILLE, M.A. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS 
 
 FRANKLIN SQUARK 
 1882 
 

 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by 
 
 Harper ^ Brothers, 
 
 In the OflScc of the Libranan of Congress, at WasRington. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The epigrammatic saying, '' Writers are not made by- 
 rhetoric," is not unfrcqucntly quoted as a reason for 
 depreciating a valuable study, and for advocating in 
 its place the practice of exercises in composition. If 
 the only aim of rhetoric were to make good writers, 
 this objection would have to be met and answered; 
 but if it have another and a broader purpose, then its 
 true character should be clearly ascertained and set 
 forth with emphasis. 
 
 There is an important distinction between rhetoric 
 and composition. The latter is concerned with prac- 
 tical exercises by which the student acquires skill in 
 writing ; the former embraces that wide field of sur- 
 vey by which he makes himself familiar with the qual- 
 ities of literature. The province of each is therefore 
 quite distinct, and where this is not clearly apprehend- 
 ed, there is a danger lest the work of rhetoric as an 
 educational instrument may not be sufficiently appre- 
 ciated, and that it may be neglected for the more prac- 
 tical but altogether different work of exercises in com- 
 position. 
 
 It may be conceded that great writers, like great 
 poets, are born, not made ; but for the average mind 
 some training is necessary before it can secure the best 
 power of expression. The most direct way towards 
 the attainment of skill and aptitude in this respect is 
 undoubtedly afforded by the practice of composition ; 
 and where this is judiciously carried out it can hardly 
 fail to give to the diligent student the habit of ready 
 and effective writing. But the student cannot pro- 
 
iv Preface. 
 
 ceed far without meeting with something which lies 
 beyond the simpler forms of composition. He be- 
 comes aware of the persuasive power of style, the 
 harmony of words, and the ever -varying features of 
 figurative expression ; he encounters many different 
 modes by which the writer may accumulate the ma- 
 terial for his work, classify his thoughts, and present 
 them in order. Such things as these must be con- 
 sidered in every manual of composition ; and those 
 who write much, and attain to success, will generally 
 acquire a knowledge of the facts and principles which 
 form the subject - matter of rhetorical works, even 
 though such works may never have been read. The 
 direct study of these subjects in a formal treatise may 
 therefore be regarded as of no little importance to 
 those who wish to succeed as writers, since it will give 
 them an early and methodical knowledge of that 
 which otherwise they will only learn after a long 
 period and in an unmethodical manner. 
 
 But while the number of writers is necessarily lim- 
 ited, the number of those who love literature for its 
 own sake is virtually unlimited. The reading of 
 books is a very different thing from the writing of 
 books; and the class of readers must always far out- 
 number the class of writers. It is to the former that 
 the study of rhetoric chiefly commends itself, since it 
 affords a way towards a larger as well as a finer dis- 
 cernment of those beauties in which they take delight. 
 While, therefore, a knowledge of rhetoric is of great 
 importance to the writer, it may be shown to possess 
 a still higher value as a means of culture and educa- 
 tional discipline. 
 
 By culture is meant the refining and humanizing 
 influence of art or letters, through which one attains 
 to a more delicate sensibility of taste, and a higher 
 and purer stage of intellectual enjoyment. As a 
 means of culture, literature is at once more accessible, 
 more effective, and more enduring than art. There 
 
Preface. v 
 
 was a time when literary culture was considered pos- 
 sible only with those who studied the ancient classics ; 
 but at the present day a far larger field is recognized. 
 It may arise in many ways, both in art and literature ; 
 and in the latter it niay be effected by the study of 
 German as well as Greek, Italian as well as Latin. For 
 the great purposes of culture Dante is equal to Virgil, 
 Goethe to Homer; while a familiarity with Shake- 
 speare is of itself a liberal education. Of all literatures 
 English \^ the most fully equipped, since it possesses 
 works of the highest excellence in all its departments, 
 many of which can never be surpassed, and some of 
 which have never been equalled. 
 
 In order to obtain the full benefit of our literature, 
 it should be studied in accordance with some system. 
 In this way the effort after culture may be combined 
 with an educational discipline not inferior to any which 
 may be derived from the ancient classics. There are 
 three modes by which the study of literature may be 
 pursued : first, the philological ; secondly, the historical ; 
 and, thirdly, the rhetorical. The first has reference to 
 the language, its origin and growth, its dialects and 
 idioms; the second concerns itself with the rise and 
 progress of literature, the influences by which it is af- 
 fected, and the character which it assumes in different 
 periods ; while the third has to do with the style of v^ari- 
 ous works, their excellences and defects, together with 
 the principles upon which they are constructed. These 
 three modes may all be carried on simultaneously; and 
 though the teacher may emphasize one beyond the 
 others, it would be a mistake to neglect any one in 
 any scheme of liberal education. As to the first and 
 second, there is at the present day but little danger 
 of such neglect. The taste of the age is eagerly turned 
 to philology and history; for the third there seems to 
 be neither so lively an appreciation nor so vigilant a 
 regard. 
 
 The study of rhetoric may be regarded as an an- 
 
VI Preface. 
 
 alytical examination of literature. In this way the 
 student is led to investigate the qualities of style, and 
 the various forms of expression employed by different 
 writers. He searches into the causes of literary suc- 
 cess or failure; and endeavors to find out why it is 
 that one author writes with clearness, another with 
 persuasiveness ; one expresses himself with energy, an- 
 other with elegance ; one is distinguished for vivacity, 
 another for sonorous rhythm. He also makes himself 
 familiar with the modes by which the material for com- 
 position is collected, set forth in proper order, unfolded 
 in due course of discussion, amplified, illustrated, and 
 enforced, till the purpose of the writer is attained. 
 Besides this, he pays attention to those higher quali- 
 ties of writing which appeal to the taste and influence 
 the emotions. It will not fail to heighten his appre- 
 ciation of literature thus to examine it from within 
 and from without, to mark its frame-work and observe 
 its adornment, to become acquainted with its beauties 
 and its defects, to tell wherein these consist, to have 
 the nomenclature of criticism and use it intelligently. 
 Such a study, if properly pursued, must surely tend to 
 true culture, and blend with this a fine educational 
 discipline, awakening the more delicate sensibilities of 
 the mind, and calling forth its more robust faculties 
 into active exercise. 
 
 In the present work an effort has been made to con- 
 sider everything that can properly be regarded as be- 
 longing to the province of rhetoric, and its contents 
 embrace the subjects of style, method, the language 
 of the emotions, and the general departments of litera- 
 ture. Under the head of style, the figures of speech 
 have been subjected to a minute survey ; and while 
 the ancient names have been retained, a new classifica- 
 tion has been adopted so as to make their character 
 and mutual relation clearly apparent. It will not be 
 forgotten that these figures of speech are something 
 more than mere names. They are forms of expres- 
 
Preface. vii 
 
 sion in actual use, pervading all literature, and entering 
 largely into the speech of common life ; so that while 
 their effect upon the development of language may- 
 claim the attention of the philologist, their influence 
 upon literature will not be disregarded by the student 
 of style. Attention has also been paid to that aspect 
 of rhetoric which is commonly described by the term 
 " belles-lettres," under which it approximates in char- 
 acter to the fine arts, and presents for consideration 
 such topics as word-painting, tone, and rhythm. These 
 subjects, and others which need not be enumerated 
 here, form the leading features of style, and disclose 
 the various modes by which the writer attains to clear- 
 ness, harmony, or persuasiveness. Besides this, there is 
 also the preparation of subject-matter, which is here 
 discussed under the name of method, and embraces in- 
 vention, the author's point of view, classification of 
 material, order of thought, argument, and the laws of 
 reasoning. The language of the emotions is also re- 
 garded as appertaining to the sphere of rhetoric, and 
 considered in connection with the beautiful and the 
 sublime, wit and humor, the fantastic and the pathetic. 
 Finally a survey is made of the general departments of 
 literature : description and narration, exposition and 
 oratory, poetry and the drama, in which each of these 
 subjects is investigated in order. 
 
 So many writers have been consulted in the prepara- 
 tion of this work that an acknowledgment of indebt- 
 edness would be little else than the catalogue of a 
 good -sized library. Wherever special use has been 
 made of any author, care has been taken to give full 
 credit, and if this has not been done in any case, the 
 omission has not been intentional. Some things will 
 be found here which are jottings from memory, or 
 newspaper clippings, the authorship of which could 
 not be traced ; but many others are the common prop- 
 erty of writers on rhetoric, and for the use of these no 
 acknowledgments are due. 
 
viii Preface. 
 
 While a work on rhetoric can hardly contain any- 
 thing new in the subject-matter, it is still possible to 
 exhibit some originality in the mode of treatment. 
 Not a few subjects are discussed here in a way which 
 differs somewhat from that adopted by other writers. 
 A leading feature of the book may be found in the 
 fulness and profusion of the examples and illustrations 
 which accompany the discussion of each topic. No 
 pains have been spared to make these at once appli- 
 cable and accurate, for it has been felt that without 
 these the best definitions and explanations are compar- 
 atively useless. 
 
 The author's design has been to make his labors sub- 
 serve what he conceives to be the great end of rhetor- 
 ical study. He has endeavored to make his method 
 distinct and intelligible, and in style he has aimed at 
 nothing more than clearness and simplicity. How he 
 has succeeded it is for others to say, but he may be 
 permitted to indulge the hope that this work will not 
 be without some value both to the student and the 
 general reader. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I.— PERSPICUITY IN STYLE. 
 
 Chafi'ER I. Style Page 13 
 
 § I. Derivation and Definition of the Term Rhetoric ; § 2. Main 
 Divisions of the Subject ofHRhetoric ; § 3. Definition of Style ; 
 § 4. Style differs among Nations and Individuals ; § 5. Utility of 
 Rules ; § 6. General Divisions of Style. 
 
 Chapter II. Perspicuity in Words. — Simplicity 17 
 
 § 7. Perspicuity Defined and Explained ; § 8. Divisions of the Sub- 
 ject of Perspicuity ; § 9. Sources of Perspicuity in Words ; § 10. Sim- 
 plicity ; § II. Concrete Terms ; § 12. Words of Anglo-Saxon Origin ; 
 § 13. Table showing the Percentage ot Words of Anglo-Saxon Origin ; 
 § 14. Anglo-Saxon the Essential Element in the Language ; § 15. The 
 most Popular Books in the Language show a Preponderance of the 
 Anglo-Saxon Element ; § 16. Many Latin Words equally Simple ; 
 § 17. Importance of the Latin Element in our Language. 
 
 Chapter III. Perspicuity in Words, Continued. — Precision... 27 
 § i8. Precision ; § 19. In Substantive Terms ; § 20. In Attributive 
 Terms; § 21. In Predicative Terms; § 22. Clearness of Cooception ; 
 § 23. Care in the Use of Words ; § 24. Synonymous Words ; § 25. Im- 
 propriety ; § 26. Vague Words ; § 27. Verbosity ; § 28. Tautology ; 
 § 29. Circumlocution ; § 30. Verbosity in the Pulpit and the Press. 
 
 Chapter IV. Perspicuity in Words, Continued.— Purity 41 
 
 § 31. Purity; § 32. Obsolete Words; § 33. Obsolete Terminations 
 and Meanings ; § 34, Obsolete Words used in Religious Literature ; 
 § 35. In Poetry ; § 36. In Fiction ; § 37. Archaism ; § 38. Obsolete 
 Words Restored to General Use ; § 39. New Words ; § 40. Their 
 Growth; § 41. Sources; § 42. Rapidity of Increase; § 43. Proper 
 Authority Defined ; § 44. Faulty Use of New Words ; § 45, New Com- 
 pound Words ; § 46. Faulty Use of New Compounds ; § 47. Conclud- 
 ing Remarks on Purity ; § 48. Grammar and Idiom. 
 A2 
 
X Contents. 
 
 Chapter V. Perspicuity in Sentences Page 56 
 
 § 49. Periodic and Simple Structure ; § 50. Rule for Arrangement 
 of Words; § 51. Limitation of Rule; § 52. Unity; § 53. Prominence 
 of the Principal Subject ; § 54- Appended Clauses j § 55. Parenthesis ; 
 § 56. Long and Short Sentences. 
 
 Chapter VL Perspicuity in General. 72 
 
 § 57. Clearness of Conception and Method ; § 58. Conciseness ; 
 § 59. Diffuseness ; § 60. Repetition ; § 61. Digression ; § 62. Loose 
 Style ; § 63. Perspicuity sometimes not aimed at 
 
 PART II.— PERSUASIVENESS IN STYLE. 
 
 Chapter L Figures of Speech 85 
 
 § 64. Persuasiveness ; § 65. Definition of; § 66. General Divisions ; 
 § 67. Figures of Speech ; § 68. Their Importance ; § 69. Trojjes ; 
 § 70. Various Classifications of Figures ; § 71. Classification adopted 
 in this Work. 
 
 Chapter II. Figures op Relativity arising from the Idea of 
 Contrast 93 
 
 § 72. Figures of Relativity ; § 73. Contrast ; § 74. Antithesis De- 
 fined ; § 75. Its Utility ; § 76. Its Effectiveness in V^arious Departments 
 of Literature; § 77. Antithesis Compared with Plain Statement; 
 § 78. Various Forms of Antithesis ; § 79. Antimctabole ; § 80. Para- 
 diastole ; § 81. Synocceosis, or Enantiosis ; § 82. Oxymoron ; § 83. Pa- 
 rison, Isocolon ; § 84. Prosapodosis. 
 
 Chapter III. Figures of Relativity arising from the Percep- 
 tion OF Rf^emblance. 102 
 
 § 85. The Perception of Resemblance ; § 86. Parallel ; § 87. Diexo- 
 dus ; § 8& Tricola ; § 89. Diallage ; § 90. Metabole ; § 91. Exergasia ; 
 § 92. Paradiastole ; § 93. Comparison ; § 94. Of Degree ; § 95. Of 
 Analogy ; § 96. Of Similarity ; § 97. As an Ornament ; § 98. P'or Ex- 
 planation ; § 99. Faults in the Use of Comparison ; § 100. Metaphor ; 
 § loi. Where one Living Thing is put for Another ; § 102. One Inani- 
 mate Thing for Another ; § 103. Inanimate Things for Things having 
 Life ; § 104. Inanimate Things Represented as Endowed with Life ; 
 § 105. Metaphor used as an Ornament ; § 106. For Explanation ; 
 § 107. To give Elmphasis ; § 108. Faults in their Use; § 109. Mixed 
 Metaphors; § no. Not always Objectionable; § iii. Catachresis ; 
 § 112. Allegory; § 113. Parable; § 114. Fable; § 115. Personitication ; 
 § 116. Apostrophe; § 117. Vision ; § 118. Allusion; § 119. Historical 
 Allusion; § 120. Literary Allusion; § 121. Quotation ; § 122. Plagiar- 
 ism ; § 123. Other Figures; § 124. Irony; § 125. Sarcasm; § 126. In- 
 nuendo. 
 
\ Contents. xi 
 
 Chapter IV. Figures of Relativit\' arising from the Idea of 
 Contiguity Page 134 
 
 §.127. Figures of Contiguity; § 128. Synecdoche; § 129. Antimeria, 
 Enallage ; § 130. Metonymy; § 131. Metalepsis ; § 132. Periphrasis; 
 § 133. Euphemism ; § 134- Hypocorisma ; § 135. Litotes ; § 136. Ex- 
 emplum ; § 137. Epithets; § 138. Importance of; § 139. Their Popu- 
 larity ; § 140. In Poetry ; § 141. In Prose ; § 142. Faulty Use. 
 
 Chapter V. Figures of Gradation — Augmentative 152 
 
 § 143. Figures of Gradation ; § 144. Augmentative Figures ; § 145. 
 Amplification ; § 146. By Dwelling upon Details ; § 147. By Direct 
 Statement ; § 148. B^ Comparison ; § 149. Accumulation ; § 15a Col- 
 lectio, Aggregatio ; § 151, Synathroismus ; § 152. Diasceue ; § 153. 
 Synezeugmenon ^ § 154. Epexergasia ; § 155. Dinumeratio ; § 156. De- 
 scription ; § 157. Ecloge ; § 158. Hypotyposis ; § 159. Metastasis; 
 § 160. Climax ; § 161. Incrementum ; § 162. Progressio; § 163. Hyper- 
 bole; § 164. Transgressio. 
 
 Chapter VI. Figures of Gradation — Decrementim . 168 
 
 § 165. Decrementive Figures; § 166. Diminution; § 167. Deprecia- 
 tion ; § 168. Anticlimax. 
 
 Chapter VII. Figures of Emphasis.— Direct Stress and Itera- 
 tion 172 
 
 § 169. Figures of Emphasis; § 170. By Direct Stress.— Assertion ; 
 § 171. Negation ; § 172. Emphasis by Repetition ; § 173. The Iterative 
 Figures; § 174. Epizeuxis ; § 175, Kepctitio Crebra ; § 176. An.ipho- 
 ra ; § 177. Epistrophe ; § 178. Antistrophe ; § 179. Epanaphora ; 
 § 180. Anadiplosis ; § 181. Epanodos ; § 182. Epanalepsis ; § 183. 
 Ploce ; § 184. Symploce ; § 185. Synonymia ; § 186. Alliteration; 
 § 187. Homoeoteleuton. 
 
 Chapter VIII. Figures of Emphasis arising from the Inversion 
 of Words 182 
 
 § 188. Inversion; § 189. In Poetry; § 190. In Prose; § 191. Anas- 
 trophe ; § 192. Synchesis ; § 193. Tmesis ; § 194. Hyperbaton ; § 195. 
 Hysteron Proteron. 
 
 Chapter IX. Figures of Emphasis arising from an Unusual or 
 
 Striking Presentation 189 
 
 § 196. Unusual Modes of Statement ; § 197. Exclamation ; § 198. 
 Salutation ; § 199. Epiphonema ; § 200. Interrogation ; § 201. Sermo- 
 cinatio ; § 202. Percontatio and Expositio ; § 203. Responsio Sibi Ipsi ; 
 § 204, Parenthetical Figures; § 205. Commentum ; § 206. Appositio 
 and Explanatio ; § 207. Elliptical Figures ; § 208. Ellipse ; § 209. 
 Zeugma; § 210. Synesis ; § 211. Anacoluthon ; § 212. Aposiopesis; 
 § 213. Epanorthosis ; § 214. Interruptio ; § 215. Suppressio; § 216. 
 Asyndeton ; § 217. Pleonastic Figures; § 218. Pleonasm; § 2i9.'Ana. 
 
xii Contents. 
 
 lepsis ; § 220. Polysyndeton ; § 221. Asyndeton and Polysyndeton Con- 
 trasted ; § 222. ParcEmiac Figures; § 223. Proverb; § 224. Apoph- 
 thegm ; § 225. Epigram. 
 
 Chapter X. Energy Page 204 
 
 § 226. Definition ; § 227. Simplicity as Tending to Energy ; § 228. 
 Conciseness ; § 229. Retrenchment of Superfluous Words ; § 230. Pre- 
 cision ; § 231. The Definite ; § 232. The Concrete ; § 233. Demonstra- 
 tive Terms ; § 234- Proper Terms ; § 235. Other Qualities that Tend 
 to Energy ; § 236. Ulustrations ; § 237. Faults of Style as Opposed to 
 Energy. 
 
 Chapter XI. Vivacity 218 
 
 § 238, Definition ; § 239. Vivacity in Thought ; § 240. In Expression ; 
 § 241. Copiousness ; § 242. Versatility; § 243. Brilliancy; § 244, Vivid- 
 ness ; § 245. Felicity of Style ; § 246. Faults of Style as Opposed to 
 Vivacity. 
 
 Chapter XII. The Illustratfv^e Style. 226 
 
 § 247. The Illustrative Style ; § 248. Example ; § 249. Allusion ; 
 § 250. Comparison and Metaphor ; § 251. Anecdote. 
 
 Chapter XIII. The Epigrammatic St^'le 230 
 
 § 252. Epigrammatic Style ; § 253. In Poetry ; § 254, In Prose ; 
 § 255. Faults in the Epigrammatic Style. 
 
 Chapter XIV. Other Qualities of Style associated with Vi- 
 vacity 234 
 
 § 256. Classical Style ; § 257. Suggestive Style ; § 258. Other Terms 
 applied to Style 
 
 PART III.— HARMONY IN STYLE. 
 
 Chapter I. Euphony. 239 
 
 § 259. Harmony in Style ; § 260. Euphony ; § 261. In Different Kinds 
 of Composition ; § 262. Examples ; § 263. Violations of Euphony in 
 Various Letters and Syllables ; § 264. By Repetition of Words ; § 265. 
 Repetition of Words sometimes Necessary. 
 
 Chapter II. Elegance. 247 
 
 § 266. Elegance ; § 267. Violations of Elegance ; § 268. Affectations ; 
 § 269. Mannerism ; § 270. Colloquialisms; § 271. Slang; § 272. Cant ; 
 § 273. Vulgarisms. 
 
 Chapter III. The Harmonious Arrangement of Words 254 
 
 § 274. Harmonious Arrangement of Words requires Euphony and 
 Elegance ; § 275. Harmonious Succession of Words ; § 276. Modi- 
 fying Words ; § 277. Impersonal Constructions ; § 278. Appended 
 
Contents. xiii 
 
 Clauses ; § 279. Explanatory Words ; § 280. Prepositions ; § 281. Va- 
 riation of Connectives ; § 282. Variety in Clauses ; § 283. Co-ordina- 
 tion of Clauses ; § 284. The Close of the Sentence. 
 
 Chapter IV. Transitions Page 261 
 
 § 285. Harmony in General ; § 286. The Introduction ; § 287. Transi- 
 tions ; § 288. The Formal Transition ; § 289. The Elegant Transition ; 
 § 290. Paragraphs ; § 291. Conclusion. 
 
 Chapter V. Word-Painting and Onomatopceia 265 
 
 § 292. Word-Painting ; § 293. The Music of Words ; § 294. Onoma- 
 topoeia ; § 295. In Poetry ; § 296. In Prose ; § 297. The Latin Element 
 in the English Language Invaluable for Purposes of Harmony. 
 
 Chapter VI. Rhythm 276 
 
 § 298. Rhythm in Poetry ; § 299. Rhythm in Prose. 
 
 Chapter VII. Qualities of Style associated with Harmony.. 282 
 
 § 300. Qualities of Style Conducive to Harmony ; § 301. Figures of 
 
 Speech ; § 302. Ease of Style ; § 303. Ornament ; § 304. Violations of 
 
 Elegance ; § 305. Carelessness ; § 306. The Florid Style ; § 307. The 
 
 Pretentious Style ; § 308. Ostentation ; § 309. Vulgarity. 
 
 PART IV.— METHOD. 
 
 Chapter I. Subject-Matter 294 
 
 § 310. Method Defined ; § 311. Subject-Matter. 
 
 Chapter IL The Purpose of the Writer 296 
 
 § 312. The Purpose of the Writer; § 313. The Aim to Instruct; 
 § 314. The Aim to Convince; § 315. The Aim to Persuade; § 316. 
 The Aim to Please ; § 317. The Union of Different Aims. 
 
 Chapter III. Modes of Invention 304 
 
 § 318. Two Kinds of Invention; § 319. Accumulative Invention; 
 § 320. Creative Invention; § 321. The Real and the Ideal; § 322. 
 Poetic Fiction ; § 323. Prose Fiction ; § 324. The Two Kinds of In- 
 vention Intermingled ; § 325. Of the Two Kinds, the Creative is the 
 Greater. 
 
 Chapter IV. The Status 309 
 
 § 326. Arrangement of Subject-Matter ; § 327. Status ; § 328. Where 
 the Aim is to Instruct ; § 329. Where the Aim is to Convince or Per- 
 suade ; § 330. Leading Stages of Oratory ; § 331. The Status where the 
 Aim is to Please ; § 332. The Title. 
 
 Chapter V. Classification • 315 
 
 § 333- Classification ; § 334. In Narrative; § 335. In Description; 
 
xiv Contents. 
 
 § 336. Grouping ; § 337. In Exposition ; § 338. Analysis and Synthesis ; 
 § 339- General and Particular Propositions. 
 
 Chapter VI. The Order of Thought Page 325 
 
 § 340. Order of Thought ; § 341. Chronological ; § 342. Logical ; 
 § 343. In Narration ; § 344. Concurrent Streams ; § 345. Retrogression ; 
 § 346. Explanatory Narrative ; § 347, Summary ; § 348. In Exposition ; 
 § 349. Proof; § 350. Refutation; § 351. Examples; § 352. Dramatic 
 Order of Thought ; § 353. Scenic Order of Thought ; § 354. Order of 
 Thought in Dramatic and Narrative Writing ; § 355. General Rule. 
 
 Chapter VII. Arguments 347 
 
 § 356. Arguments ; § 357. Difference between Rhetoric and Logic ; 
 § 358. Logic Defined ; § 359. Reasoning ; § 360. Terms ; § 361. Propo- 
 sitions ; § 362. Definitions ; § 363. Proof; § 364. Deduction ; § 365. In- 
 duction ; § 366. Mill's Four Experimental Methods of Inquiry; § 367. 
 Enthymeme ; § 368. Kinds of Arguments; § 369. Causative; § 370. 
 Illustrative ; § 371. Exemplative ; § 372. Experience ; § 373. Analogy ; 
 § 374. Contrast; § 375. Application of the Different Classes of Argu- 
 ments. 
 
 Chapter VIII. The Presentation of Arguments 358 
 
 § 376. Presentation of Arguments ; § 377. Clearness of Statement and 
 Strengthening of Argument ; § 378. Transition ; § 379. Amplification ; 
 § 380. Diminution ; § 381. Condensation ; § 382. Comprehensiveness ; 
 § 383. Generalization ; § 384. The Definite ; § 385. Description in 
 Oratory ; § 386. Emphasis of Propositions ; § 387. Assertion ; § 388. 
 Denial ; § 389. Apophthegm ; § 390. Digression ; § 391. Repetition of 
 Propositions ; § 392. Recapitulation. 
 
 Chapter JX. The Introduction 368 
 
 § 393. Introduction ; § 394- In Narrative ; § 395. In the Drama ; 
 § 396. In Oratory ; § 397. The Introduction with Reference to its own 
 Character ; § 398. General Nature of the Introduction ; § 399. The 
 Preface. 
 
 Chapter X. The Conclusion 373 
 
 § 400. The Conclusion ; § 401. In Narrative Fiction ; § 402. In His- 
 tory ; § 403. In Biography ; § 404. In the Drama ; § 405. In Oratory ; 
 § 406. Different Kinds of Conclusion. 
 
 PART v.— THE EMOTIONS. 
 
 Chaffer L The Beautiful 380 
 
 § 407. Influence of the Emotions in Literature ; § 408. Classifica- 
 tion of the Emotions ; § 409. Literary ^Esthetics ; § 410. Theories 
 of the Beautiful; § 411. Definition of the Beautiful; § 412. Taste; 
 § 413. The Beautiful in Nature; § 414. Color; § 415. Form or Fig- 
 
Contents, xv 
 
 ure ; § 416. Motion ; § 417. Sound ; § 418. Proportion ; § 419. Variety ; 
 § 420. Design ; § 421. The Beautiful in Morals ; § 422. The Beautiful in 
 Literature ; § 423. Difference between the Ancient and Modern Idea 
 of the Beautiful. 
 
 Chapter II. The Sublime Page 395 
 
 § 424. The Sublime ; § 425. The Sublime in Nature — the Vast and 
 Boundless ; § 426. Awe ; § 427. The Moral Sublime ; § 428. The Sub- 
 lime in Literature ; § 429. Sources of the Sublime ; § 430. Illustrations ; 
 § 431. Difference between the Sublime and the Beautiful. 
 
 Chapter IIL The Ridiculous 404 
 
 § 432. The Ridiculous ; § 433. Wit ; § 434. Humor ; § 435. Wit and 
 Humor in English Literature ; § 436. The Ridiculous in Literature ; 
 § 437. Without a Purpose ; § 438. With a Purpose ; § 439. Epigram ; 
 § 440. Squib; § 441. Pasquinade ; § 442. Lampoon ; § 443. Bon-Mot ; 
 § 444. Parody ; § 445. Satirical Poetry in General ; § 446. Satirical 
 Writings in Prose ; § 447. Special Forms of the Ridiculous ; § 448. 
 Banter; § 449. Chaff; § 45a Paronomasia; § 451, The Pun; § 452. 
 Retort ; § 453. Repartee ; § 454. Double- Entendre ; § 455. Buffoonery ; 
 § 456. Irony ; § 457. Innuendo; § 458. Sarcasm ; § 459. Sneer; § 460. 
 The Power of the Ridiculous ; § 461. Legitimate Use of the Ridicu- 
 lous ; § 462. Abuse of the Ridiculous. 
 
 Chapter IV. The Fantastic 428 
 
 § 463. The Fantastic 
 
 Chapter V. The Desires 430 
 
 § 464. The Desires; § 465. Self- Preservation ; § 466. Sel f- Esteem ; 
 § 467. Ambition ; § 468. Avarice ; § 469. The Desire for Knowledge. 
 
 Chapter VI. The Affections 435 
 
 § 470. The Affections. 
 
 Chapter VII. The Passions 437 
 
 § 471. The Passions ; § 472. Love ; § 473. Aversion; § 474. Passions 
 associated with Happiness ; § 475. Passions associated with Sorrow. 
 
 Chapter VlIL Literature of the Desires, Affections, and Pas- 
 sions 442 
 
 § 476. Literature of the Affections and Passions ; § 477. Expressing 
 Happiness ; § 478. Sorrow ; § 479. The Pathetic in the Sacred Scrip- 
 tures ; § 480. In Classical Literature ; § 481. In Mediaeval Literature ; 
 § 482. In Modern Literature ; § 483. The Pathetic an Animating Ele- 
 ment in Literature. 
 
 Chapter IX. Forms of Expression associated with the Emo- 
 tions AND Passions 448 
 
 § 484. Forms of Expression relating to the Emotions ; § 485. Where 
 
xvi Contents. 
 
 Superiority is Implied ; § 486. Inferiority ; § 487. Equality ; § 488. 
 Personal Reference. 
 
 PART VI.— THE GENERAL DEPARTMENTS OF 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 Chapter I. Description Page 456 
 
 § 489. Literature Defined and Classified ; § 490. Objective Descrip- 
 tion ; § 491. Subjective Description ; § 492. The Two Kinds United, 
 
 Chapter II. Narration 461 
 
 § 493. Narration ; § 494. Objective ; § 495. Subjective. 
 
 Chapter III. Exposition 466 
 
 § 496. Exposition ; § 497. Outline of Human Knowledge ; § 498. 
 Classification of Expository Writings. 
 
 Chapter IV. Oratory 469 
 
 § 499. Oratory ; § 500. Debate ; § 501. Controversial ; § 502. Parlia- 
 mentary. 
 
 Chapter V. The Tactics of Oratory 474 
 
 § 503. Tactics of Oratory ; § 504. Conciliation ; § 505. Self-Deprecia- 
 tion ; § 506. Compliment ; § 507. Thanks ; § 508. Concession ; § 509. 
 Confession; § 510. Permission ; § 511. Consultation with the Aadience ; 
 § 512. Emphasis ; § 513. Statement of the Necessity of a Case ; § 514. 
 Statement of a Future Occurrence; § 515. Dwelling upon a Proposi- 
 tion; § 516. Rapid Mention; § 517. Holding the Audience in Sus- 
 pense; § 518. Preparation for What is to Follow; § 519. Unexpected 
 Statement; § 520. Reference to Past Events; § 521. Possibility Con- 
 trasted with Reality ; § 522. Explanation ; § 523. Statement of the 
 Reason for a Thing ; § 524. Answers to Objections ; § 525. Anticipa- 
 tion of Objections. 
 
 Chapter VI. The Artifices of Oratory 485 
 
 § 526. Artifices of Oratory ; § 527. Expression of Doubt or Igno- 
 rance; § 528. Intentional Omission of Words ; § 529. Withdrawal of an 
 Expression; § 530. Apparent Intent; § 531. Supposed Case; § 532. 
 Other Forms of Artifice. 
 
 Chapter VII. Attack and Defence 491 
 
 § 533. Attack and Defence ; § 534. Attack ; § 535. Personal Attack ; 
 § 536. Incidental Reference; § 537. Side-Thrust; § 538. Defence; 
 § 539- Strict Defence ; § 540. Indirect Reply ; § 541. Defence turned 
 into Attack ; § 542. Testimony of an Adversary. 
 
Contents. xvii 
 
 Chapter VIII. Display of Feeling in Oratory Page 498 
 
 § 543. Display of Feeling; § 544. Sudden Outburst of Feeling; § 545. 
 Extravagance of Expression ; § 546. Control of Emotion ; § 547. 
 Eulogy ; § 548. Panegyric ; § 549. Retort ; § 550. Sarcasm. 
 
 Chapter IX. Qualifications for an Orator 504 
 
 § 551. Qualifications for an Orator ; § 552. Command of the Subject ; 
 § 553- Fertility in Resources ; § 554. Conciliatory Demeanor ; § 555. 
 Knowledge of the Persons Addressed ; § 556. Adaptation to the Intelli- 
 gence of the Audience ; § 557. Judicious Selection of the Occasion for 
 Speaking; § 558. The Orator should not Aim after too much ; § 559. 
 Physical Advantages; § 560. Moral Qualities; § 561. Intellectual 
 Qualities. 
 
 Chapter X. Dialogue 513 
 
 § 562. Dialogue ; § 563. Didactic ; § 564. Dramatic. 
 
 Chapter XI. The Drama 515 
 
 § 565. The Drama ; § 566. Divisions of Dramatic Literature ; § 567. 
 Origin of the Drama; § 568. Mystery and Morality I'liv-^ : t. !:;69. I'he 
 Greek Drama ; § 570. The Modern Drama. 
 
 Chaffer XII. Poetry 518 
 
 § 571. Poetry ; § 572. Poetry differs from Prose as to the Sentiment ; 
 § 573. As to the Form ; § 574. It Exhibits the Highest Power of Lan- 
 guage ; § 575. It Affords the Strongest Expression for Emotion ; § 576. 
 Poetry Defined ; § 577. Parallelism ; § 578. Quantity ; § 579. Allitera- 
 tion ; § 580. Sequences ; § 581. Greek Ecclesiastical Metres ; § 582. 
 Accentuated Metres ; § 583. English Versification ; § 584. Iambic Me- 
 tres ; § 585. Trochaic Metres ; § 586. Anapaestic Metres ; § 587. Dac- 
 tylic Metres ; § 588. Nomenclature of Metres ; § 589. Interchange of 
 Feet ; § 590. Long Catalectic Syllable ; § 591. Interchange of Metres ; 
 § 592. Other Feet ; § 593. Caesural Pause ; § 594, Rhyme ; § 595. Blank 
 Verse ; § 596. Nomenclature of Verses ; § 597. Species of Poetry ; 
 § 598. Narrative Poetry ; § 599. Lyric Poetry ; § 600. Dramatic Poetry ; 
 § 601. Descriptive Poetry ; § 602. Didactic Poetry ; § 603. Pastoral 
 Poetry; § 604. Satirical Poetry; § 605. Humorous Poetry; § 606. 
 Poems which Share the Characteristics of Several Classes; § 607. 
 New Developments in Versification. 
 
^uhiieiiitt: 
 elements of rhetoric 
 
 PART I. 
 
 PERSPICUITY IN STYLE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 STYLE. 
 
 § I. DERIVATION AND DEFINITION OF THE TERM RHETORIC. 
 
 The term rhetoric is of Greek origin, and was first used to 
 signify that which belongs to the pi}ru>p {rhetor^ i. e., orator), a 
 word which is derived from ptw, to speak. The ancient 
 rhetoricians discussed chiefly the art of oratory, leaving to 
 the grammarians the investigation of the beauties of style in 
 general prose composition. In all their definitions of rhetoric 
 they make it the art of persuasion. Isocrates calls it " the 
 worker of persuasion." Plato makes Gorgias define it as " the 
 power of persuasion by speaking." Aristotle defines it as "a 
 faculty of considering all the possible means of persuasion on 
 every subject." Quintilian, after enumerating many definitions 
 similar to these, finally gives his own, and calls it " the art of 
 speaking well." 
 
 At the present day the meaning of the word is less restricted ; 
 and popular usage involves two separate and distinct ideas. 
 The one refers to arguments, and appeals to the emotions, by 
 which the speaker or writer seeks to convey his own sentiments 
 
14 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 to others. The abuse of this sort of rhetoric is ascribed by 
 Milton to Belial : 
 
 " His tongue 
 
 Dropp'd manna, and could make the worse appear 
 
 The better reason, to perplex and dash 
 
 Maturest counsels." 
 
 On the other hand, writing is said to be rhetorical when it ex- 
 hibits more than usual ornament. The abuse of this is popu- 
 larly stigmatized as " rhetorical artifice," '' mere rhetoric," and 
 the like ; thus conveying the idea that rhetoric is only an ag- 
 gregation of plausible words or euphonious sounds, without any 
 adequate sense. The popular idea, though often exaggerated, 
 nevertheless contains the truth, and it is from this that the 
 materials for a proper definition of rhetoric may best be gath- 
 ered. 
 
 From this we see that the term rhetoric has now a twofold 
 meaning, referring both to the subject-matter and to the mode 
 of Its presentation. 
 
 In the first case it relates to the subject-matter, its choice 
 and arrangement, where the writer's aim is to instruct, convince, 
 or persuade. Here it may be defined as the art of persuasion. 
 
 In the second case it relates to the manner of expression, 
 where the writer treats his subject with conscious ornament, 
 not so much in order to win assent ^s to stimulate the atten- 
 tion and gratify the taste. Here it may be defined as the art 
 of ornamental composition. 
 
 § 2. THE MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE SUBJECT OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Rhetoric comprehends the following subjects, which will be 
 adopted as the main divisions of the present work : 
 
 / I. Style^ or the choice and arrangement of words. 
 
 ^' II. Method^ or the choice and arrangement of subject-matter. 
 
 III. The Literature of the Emotions. 
 
 IV. The General Departments of Literature. 
 
 § 3. DEFINITION OF STYLE. 
 
 Style refers to the choice and arrangement of words, and 
 may be defined as the peculiar manner in which thought is 
 expressed in language. 
 
Style, 1 5 
 
 § 4. STYLE DIFFERS AMONG NATIONS AND INDIVIDUALS. 
 
 When we consider the subject of style in general, we notice 
 that there are great differences in this respect, as well among 
 nations as among individuals. " If we contemplate," says 
 Quintilian, "the varieties of oratory, we find almost as much 
 diversity in the minds as in the bodies of orators. The dis- 
 tinction between Attic and Asiatic orators is of great antiquity ; 
 the Attics being regarded as compressed and energetic in their 
 style, the Asiatics as inflated and deficient in force. Those who 
 made distinctions in these matters soon after added a third 
 kind — the Rhodian, which they define to be of a middle char- 
 acter between the other two." Such differences as these may 
 always be found. In Oriental literature great license is allowed 
 to the imagination ; in European it is held under stricter con- 
 trol. In Europe itself there are strongly marked varieties of 
 national taste. The Italian enjoys a certain warmth of expres- 
 sion which to the Englishman is displeasing. The German, the 
 Frenchman, and the Spaniard, each exhibits in his writings his 
 peculiar characteristics. In every nation also there is a distinc- 
 tive style at different periods. This is illustrated by the well- 
 known division of Latin literature into the ages of gold, silver, 
 and iron ; while in English the same thing is exemplified in the 
 prose of such writers as Hooker, Addison, Johnson, and Macau- 
 lay, each of whom represents a different age. Besides this, we 
 have to consider the personal peculiarities of the individual 
 author, which are so strikingly manifested that a man's writings 
 have come to be considered as much a mark of himself as his 
 face or figure. Thus Bacon exhibits in his essays the force of 
 concise and well-balanced antithesis; Addison, negligent grace; 
 Goldsmith, ease and elegance ; Sterne, sprightliness and wit. 
 The style of Johnson and of Gibbon is elaborate and Latin- 
 ized; that of Bunyan and Defoe is marked by Saxon simplicity; 
 Carlyle displays vehemence and energy ; De Quincey, richness 
 and splendor ; Emerson, epigrammatic point and sparkle. 
 
 There is a different style for different classes of literature. 
 "That is good rhetoric for the hustings," says De Quincey, 
 " which is bad for a book. Every mode of intellectual com- 
 munication has its separate strength and separate weakness; 
 its peculiar embarrassment compensated by peculiar resources. 
 
1 6 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 It is the advantage of a book that you can return to the past 
 page if anything in the present depends upon it. But return 
 being impossible in the case of a spoken harangue, where each 
 sentence perishes as soon as it is born, both the speaker and 
 the hearer become aware of a mutual interest in a much looser 
 style, and a perpetual dispensation from the severities of ab- 
 stract discussion. It is for the benefit of both that the weight- 
 ier propositions should be detained before the eye a good deal 
 longer than the chastity of taste or the austerity of logic would 
 tolerate in a book." 
 
 In private life also, in conversation and in letter-writing, the 
 character is revealed in the style. One is harsh and abrupt, 
 another easy and fluent, a third rapid and impetuous, a fourth 
 genial and attractive, a fifth tedious and garrulous. Thus in- 
 dividuals as well as nations impress their personal peculiarities 
 upon their writings; the form of expression always varies with 
 the writer, and this has given rise to the saying that style is the 
 man himself. 
 
 Style, then, belongs to the man himself; it partakes of the 
 characteristics of the individual ; and the question of the im- 
 provement of this quality becomes the same as the question 
 of the improvement of any other quality. All our powers, 
 whether physical or intellectual, are susceptible of change for 
 the better. Gymnastic exercise develops the muscles ; mu- 
 sical practice gives to the fingers the most rapid accuracy of 
 execution ; the faculties of the mind may be cultivated to an 
 unusual degree of excellence; even the moral qualities may be 
 strengthened by discipline. As by association with polite so- 
 ciety the tone and manners become refined, so by familiarity 
 with the best authors and by imitation of their beauties may 
 the style of a writer be elevated. 
 
 § 5. THE UTILITY OF RULES. 
 
 Rhetorical rules are useful but to a limited extent. They 
 themselves have been formed originally not by any creative 
 power or process of argument, but rather from the observa- 
 tion of the best examples and the study of the best authors. 
 Great writers arise and are succeeded by others ; they are after- 
 wards followed by the rhetorician, the grammarian, and the 
 critic, by whom the secret of their composition is investigated; 
 
p:nVEP.3ITY 
 
 Perspicuity in Words^^SSkkplicif^r , k I 
 
 their excellences, their faults, and their fanww=ftBrfKrtS^and 
 these are studied and compared, until at length it is decided 
 what is to be imitated and what is to be avoided. 
 
 " Rules," says Quintilian, " are only useful, which not only 
 interpret the law of rhetoric, but also serve to strengthen the 
 faculty of speech. ... In general, bare treatises on art, through 
 too much affectation of subtlety, break and cut down whatever 
 is noble in eloquence ; drink up all the blood of thought, and 
 lay bare the bones, which, while they ought to exist, and to be 
 united by their ligaments, ought still to be covered with flesh." 
 
 When rules are followed too exclusively, the young writer is 
 apt to become a mere slave to them, and but rarely attains to 
 any kind of excellence. Their real use is to show in a gen- 
 eral way the excellences that are to be followed, and the faults 
 that are to be avoided. After learning these the student is 
 left to himself, and, while he has the benefit of all that he has 
 learned, he must put forth his own strength, and rely chiefly 
 upon this. He must seek to give full play to his own powers, 
 and to exhibit that style which is most in accordance with his 
 own character. 
 
 § 6. THE GENERAL DIVISIONS OF STYLE. 
 
 The subject of style may be divided into three general heads, 
 under which may be classified all possible excellences or faults 
 of expression. These are : I. Perspicuity; II. Persuasiveness; 
 III. Harmony. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PERSPICUITY IN WORDS.— SIMPLICITY. 
 § 7. PERSPICUITY DEFINED AND EXPLAINED. 
 
 Perspicuity means clearness of expression, and may be de- 
 fined as such a use of words that they may be understood 
 without difficulty by those to whom they are addressed. It 
 may be regarded as the first essential of style, without which 
 all other beauties are of no avail. Indeed, it may be shown 
 that in most cases the so-called beauties of style would be un- 
 
i8 Elejuents of Rhetoric. 
 
 attainable unless in the first place the language be clear and 
 intelligible. In order to be perspicuous, however, it is not 
 necessar)' that the style be understood by all, but that it be un- 
 derstood by those to whom it is addressed. To make style in- 
 telligible to all would be impossible. By the ignorant and un- 
 educated many of the most beautiful thoughts and graceful 
 sentiments of aiwriter like Addison would not be appreciated. 
 In writings connected with science, it is necessary that the 
 reader know something of the elements at least of that science 
 before he can understand what is written. Hugh Miller was 
 commended by Sir Roderick Murchison for his admirable clear- 
 ness, and justly too, yet to one who knows nothing about geol- 
 ogy his "Testimony of the Rocks " would be obscure. In re- 
 ligious works an acquaintance is presupposed not only with the 
 Bible, but also with a large number of theological terms, with- 
 out which the plainest and clearest expressions will often be 
 simply unintelligible. 
 
 § 8. DIVISIONS OF THE SUBJECT OF PERSPICUITY. 
 
 Perspicuity may be considered, first, with reference to the 
 choice of words ; secondly, in their arrangement ; and, thirdly, 
 in general composition. 
 
 § 9. SOURCES OF PERSPICUITY IN WORDS. 
 
 Some words are clear because they are simple ; others be- 
 cause they are precise ; and others because they are pure 
 English. In each case we have a distinct source of perspicu- 
 ity, which requires special attention. The first of these to be 
 considered is simplicity. 
 
 § 10. SIMPLICITY. 
 
 By simplicity is meant the choice of simple words, and their 
 presentation in an unaffected manner. This quality is a chief 
 characteristic of the most ancient literatures, and of the oldest 
 writings in any language. It is very perceptible in the narra- 
 tive portions of the sacred Scriptures. In the Greek Iliad and 
 Odyssey, the German "Nibelungenlied," the Spanish "Cid,"the 
 Norman metrical romance, the English ballads, we find early 
 poetry to be above all things simple and natural ; and the 
 same is true of early prose, as may be seen in the writings of 
 
Perspicuity in Words, — Simplicity. 19 
 
 the Greek Herodotus, the Italian Boccaccio, the English 
 Mandeville, and the French Froissart. One reason for this is 
 to be found in the condition of language, which in its earlier 
 stages is always fresher and more artless; while in its later 
 developments there is a tendency to elaboration and affecta- 
 tion. 
 
 As literature grows, the arts of embellishment are made use 
 of to a continually increasing degree ; but there are always 
 many who from their own genius prefer the plain and unaffect- 
 ed manner to the grand and imposing. Such simplicity is 
 often combined with easy grace and tender pathos ; and its 
 effect is more striking in times when an artificial diction is in 
 vogue. Thus, while Johnson was composing his sonorous pe- 
 riods, Goldsmith was writing those delightful passages where 
 wit, humor, philosophy, and pathos are all expressed with that 
 charm which belongs to the unconscious grace of childhood. 
 Among prose writers, Bunyan, Defoe, Addison, Steele, Sterne, 
 and Thackeray are conspicuous for this quality ; and among 
 poets, Cowper, Burns, and Wordsworth. This subject may be 
 illustrated by the following verses, which are translated from 
 the German of Elizabeth Gliick : 
 
 " That thy true soul 
 May wed with mine, 
 And that I may 
 Be ever thine, 
 
 " I pray, and trust 
 
 In God's sole might 
 To keep us one, 
 
 And so — good-night." 
 
 The charm of unaffected simplicity is nowhere more touch- 
 ingly exhibited than in the following lines by Wordsworth : 
 
 "She dwelt among the untrodden ways 
 Beside the springs of Dove, 
 A maid whom there were none to praise 
 And very few to love. 
 
 **A violet by the mossy stone 
 Half hidden from the eye ! 
 Fair as a star when only one 
 Is shining in the sky. 
 B 
 

 20 Elemejits of Rhetoric, 
 
 " She lived unknown, and few could know 
 When Lucy ceased to be ; 
 But she is in her grave, and oh. 
 The diflference to me !" 
 
 § II. CONCRETE TERMS SIMPLER THAN ABSTRACT. 
 
 The simplest and most intelligible words are those which de- 
 scribe common things and common actions. Opposed to these 
 are all general and abstract terms. The difference between 
 these two classes of words may be seen by comparing a plain 
 narrative of fact with exposition in philosophy. Concrete 
 terms are understood without trouble, but abstract terms give 
 rise to difficulty. The respective effects of these are visible in 
 other qualities of style and departments of literature ; for while 
 they have a direct bearing upon perspicuity, they assume a 
 greater importance in connection with energy of expression 
 and the language of the emotions ; and they will receive fur- 
 ther consideration in the discussion of those subjects. 
 
 § 12. WORDS OF ANGLO-SAXON ORIGIN CONDUCIVE TO SIMPLICITY. 
 
 Simplicity is best attained by the employment of words of 
 Anglo-Saxon origin. 
 
 The English language has a power of absorbing foreign words 
 which distinguishes it from all others, and makes it capable on 
 this account alone of becoming the dominant speech of the 
 world. It has received contributions from many sources ; but 
 by far the largest class of words which have thus far been ab- 
 sorbed by our mother tongue consists of those which have had 
 a Latin origin. The chief cause of this is to be found in the 
 Norman conquest, which, by subjecting the English people to 
 the influence of a race of men who spoke a language derived 
 from the Latin, caused the introduction of many words out of 
 that vocabulary. After this the admission of words of Latin 
 origin was easier, and the influence of the universities and of the 
 learned class has ever since tended towards the multiplication 
 of such words. Thus our language is at present highly Latin- 
 ized, and presents to the cursory observer a twofold character, 
 being in part native English, or Anglo-Saxon, as it is called, and 
 in part Latin. 
 
 In order to arrive at a knowledge of the true proportion of 
 these words in our language, it is not sufficient to examine die- 
 
Perspicuity in Words, — Simplicity. 21 
 
 tionaries ; for these contain a large number of technical terms, 
 which, being chiefly derived from Latin and Greek, show a pre- 
 ponderance of words of foreign origin. The true way of judg- 
 ing is by an examination of the literature. 
 
 From an examination of the dictionary, Dean Trench comes 
 to the following conclusion : Suppose the English language 
 to be divided into one hundred parts ; of these, to make a 
 rough distribution, sixty are Anglo-Saxon ; thirty are Latin ; 
 five Greek ; the other five parts are to be divided among all 
 the other languages from which isolated words have been de- 
 rived. 
 
 But when the works of standard authors are examined a dif- 
 ferent result is obtained. Such an examination was made by 
 Sharon Turner, and the estimate reached by him has been 
 widely adopted. But his examination was very slight, since 
 the passages from each author did not consist of more than a 
 hundred or a hundred and fifty words. 
 
 A more thorough and extensive search was made by Mr. 
 George P. Marsh, the result of which is ^o be found in his 
 " Lectures on the English Language." 
 
 The following table is the result of another examination, 
 made in the same manner and upon the same scale as that of 
 Mr. Marsh. 
 
 § 13. TABLE SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF WORDS OF ANGLO- 
 SAXON ORIGIN IN DIFFERENT BOOKS. 
 
 THE ENGUSH BIBLE AND PRAYER-BOOK. 
 Ruth 96 
 
 Jonah 93 
 
 Malachi 91 
 
 The Book of Common Prayer — Morning Service 87 
 
 POETRY. 
 
 Cursor Mundi — ^418 lines 96 
 
 Piers Plowman, Passus 1 92 
 
 Chaucer, Man of Lawes Tale — 560 lines. 89 
 
 Shakespeare, Midsummer-Night's Dream, Act 1 92 
 
 " King John, Act 1 89 
 
 Milton, Lycidas 87 
 
 Spenser, Faerie Queene, Book V., Canto 1 88 
 
 Dryden, Religio Laici 80 
 
 Butler, Hudibras, Canto I. — 500 lines 88 
 
 Pope, To Augustus 81 
 
22 Elements of R/ietoric. 
 
 Cowper, The Task, Book 1 80 
 
 Scott, Lay of the Last Minstrd, Canto 1 90 
 
 Wordsworth, Ode on Immortality 88 
 
 Shelley, Revolt of Islam, Canto 1 85 
 
 Byron, Prisoner of Chillon 91 
 
 " Childe Harold, Canto IV., stanza cxl to close 83 
 
 Tennyson, Vivien 90 
 
 Robert Browning, Christmas Eve 88 
 
 Mrs. Browning, The Poet's Vow 89 
 
 Keble, Christian Year — 5 poems 88 
 
 Poe, The Raven 85 
 
 Longfellow, The Building of the Ship 89 
 
 PROSE FICTION. 
 
 Defoe, Robinson Crusoe. The Shipwreck Scene, 8014 words. . 93 
 
 Bunyan, Pilgrim's Progress, 3000 words. 93 
 
 Scott, Bride of Lammermoor, Chapter III 80 
 
 Lord Lytton, Rienzi, Chapter 1 85 
 
 Charles Dickens, Pickwick- The Bagman's Story 90 
 
 George Eliot, Middlemarch, Chapter 1 80 
 
 ESSAYS AND EXPOSITORY WRITINGS. 
 
 Hooker's Ecclesia^ical Polity, Book I., Chapters IV., V., VI. . 89 
 
 Junius, Letter III. to Sir William Draper 75 
 
 De Quincey, Apparition on the Brocken, and Savannah la Mar. 82 
 
 Macaulay, Preface to the Lays of Ancient Rome 76 
 
 Emerson, Essay on Circles 80 
 
 Henry Rogers, Review of Sydney Smith's Lectures on Moral 
 
 Philosophy 71 
 
 Hamerton, Intellectual Life. To a Solitary Student 72 
 
 HISTORY. 
 Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter LIV.. 68 
 
 Hallam, Constitutional History, Chapter VII 70 
 
 Alison, History of Europe. Introduction 68 
 
 Froude, History of England, Chapter I. (one half) 77 
 
 Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, Chapter 1 77 
 
 Motley, History of the Dutch Republic, Chapter 1 75 
 
 Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe, Chapter 1 67 
 
 ORATORY. 
 
 Chatham, on the Address to the Throne 72 
 
 Burke, on the Nabob of Arcot's Debts 74 
 
 Grattan, on Irish Right 73 
 
 Erskine, on Paine's Age of Reason 73 
 
 Brougham, against the Durham Clergy 75 
 
 Bishop Butler, Sermon on the Ignorance of Man 80 
 
 Rev. F. W. Robertson, Sermon on the Doubt of Thomas 82 
 
Perspicuity in Words, — Simplicity, 23 
 
 WORKS ON RHETORIC. 
 
 Blair, Rhetoric. Introduction 69 
 
 Campbell, " " 69 
 
 Whately, " " 68 
 
 NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 London Times, on the Eastern Question 72 
 
 London Telegraph, " " 7° 
 
 Pall Mall Gazette, " " 80 
 
 New York Herald, " Presidential Election 67 
 
 New York Tribune, " " 7° 
 
 New York Sun, " " 73 
 
 The above table leads to the follownig conclusions : 
 
 1. In the literature of the present day there is a larger pro- 
 portion of words of Anglo-Saxon origin than would appear 
 from an examination of the dictionaries. 
 
 2. In poetry the proportion of such words is larger than in 
 prose. 
 
 3. From the above a new table may be deduced, showing the 
 relative proportion of Anglo-Saxon words in different depart- 
 ments of literature : 
 
 6. Oratory 76 
 
 7. History 72 
 
 8. Newspapers 72 
 
 9. Works on Rhetoric 69 
 
 1. The English Bible 93 
 
 2. The Prayer-book 87 
 
 3. Poetry 88 
 
 4. Prose Fiction 87 
 
 5. Essays 78 
 
 Surprise may be felt at the large proportion of Anglo-Saxon 
 words in prose fiction ; but this may be accounted for, first, 
 because it deals largely with domestic affairs and matters of a 
 trivial and commonplace character ; and, secondly, because it 
 abounds in dialogue, and all the colloquialisms of common con- 
 versation. 
 
 § 14. ANGLO-SAXON FORMS THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENT IN THE 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon constitutes the essential element in the Eng- 
 lish language. This may be seen from the following summary : 
 
 1. English grammar is almost exclusively Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 2. To Anglo-Saxon belongs the vocabulary of common life, 
 with all our colloquialisms, idiomatic phrases, and the language 
 of conversation. Among the uneducated this is very marked ; 
 
24 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 but it is almost equally so in those circles where the best and 
 purest English is spoken ; for there the proportion of Anglo- 
 Saxon words is higher than in contemporary literature, and the 
 undue use of words of Latin origin is regarded as pedantic, or 
 in bad taste. The chief difference between colloquial and lit- 
 erary English is the predominance in the former of our primi- 
 tive speech. 
 
 3. To this may be added the language of business ; of the 
 street, market, and farm ; of sailor and fisherman ; and of most 
 of the ordinary pursuits of life. 
 
 4. It comprises the language of the emotions — love, hate, 
 hope, fear, sorrow, shame, and the like. It has given names to 
 most of those objects which are associated with our strongest 
 feelings — as home, hearth, fireside, life, death, sickness, health ; 
 and claims the words of childhood and youth, which for all 
 after-life have the deepest meaning and are surrounded by the 
 most moving associations. The Anglo-Saxon speech which the 
 child learns at his mother's knee is the speech which he best 
 loves in the hour of death. 
 
 5. While general and abstract terms are derived from the 
 Latin, those which are special and definite are Anglo-Saxon. 
 This is illustrated in the following way in an essay by Henry 
 Rogers : " ' Move ' and ' motion ' are general terms of Latin 
 origin ; but all the special terms for expressing varieties of mo- 
 tion are Anglo-Saxon, as, 'run,' 'walk,' 'leap,' 'stagger,' 'slip,' 
 'step,' 'slide.' 'Color* is Latin, but 'white,' 'black,' 'green,' 
 'yellow,' 'blue,' 'red,' 'brown' are Anglo-Saxon. 'Crime' is 
 Latin, but ' murder,' ' theft,' ' robbery,' ' to lie,' * to steal ' are 
 Anglo-Saxon. ' Member' and 'organ,' as applied to the body, 
 are Latin or Greek, but ' ear,' ' eye,' ' hand,' ' foot,' ' lip,' 
 ' mouth,' ' teeth,' ' hair,' ' finger,' ' nostril ' are Anglo-Saxon. 
 'Animal' is Latin, but 'man,' 'horse,' 'cow,' 'sheep,' 'dog,' 
 *cat,' 'calf,' 'goat' are Anglo-Saxon. 'Number' is Latin, but 
 all our cardinal and ordinal numbers as far as a million are 
 Anglo-Saxon." 
 
 § 15. THE MOST POPULAR BOOKS IN THE LANGUAGE EXHIBIT 
 A PREDOMINANCE OF THE ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT. 
 
 From the foregoing statements it will be seen that words de- 
 rived from Anglo-Saxon sources are always the simplest and 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Simplicity, 25 
 
 the most intelligible. These form the vocabulary of children, 
 of the uneducated ; and in the language of social intercourse 
 even of the most cultivated classes such words outnumber 
 those of Latin origin far more than in general literature. 
 
 If we seek for the most intelligible books in the language, 
 we shall find them in those which are most widely circulated ; 
 and if we seek for those which are most widely circulated, we 
 shall find that by universal consent they are the following : 
 the English Bible, the Pilgrim's Progress, Robinson Crusoe, 
 and Gulliver's Travels. The English Bible, for various reasons, 
 surpasses all other books in circulation. The authorized ver- 
 sion is rightly considered as the noblest body of English prose 
 which the language possesses. Its excellence may best be 
 seen from a comparison with other versions. If it be compared 
 with the " Douay " Bible, the inferiority of the latter will at 
 once be apparent ; and this inferiority is owing to the fact that 
 the translators of the " Douay " version were not sufficiently 
 alive to the superior force and clearness of Anglo-Saxon words, 
 and adopted many of Latin origin. In the authorized version, 
 on the contrary, the proportion of Anglo-Saxon words is greater 
 than in a^ny other English book, 
 
 Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress stands next to the English Bible 
 in point of circulation, and has the same characteristics, name- 
 ly, great simplicity of style, and a great preponderance of 
 Anglo-Saxon words. This may be illustrated by the opening 
 sentences : 
 
 " As I walked through the wilderness of this world I lighted upon a cer- 
 tain place, where was a den, and laid me down to sleep; and as I slept I 
 dreamed a dream, and behold 1 saw a man clothed with rags standing in a 
 certain place, with his face from his own house, a book in his hand, and a 
 great burden upon his back. I looked and saw him open the book, and as 
 he read he wept and trembled ; and, not being abl& to contain, he brake out 
 into a lamentable cry, saying. What shall I do ?" 
 
 In this passage ninety-three per cent, of the words are of 
 Anglo-Saxon origin. 
 
 About thirty years ago a new version of the Pilgrim's Prog- 
 ress was published in England " for the use of the children of 
 the aristocracy." It was written by a clergyman, who was of- 
 fended at what he considered the " vulgarity " of Bunyan. His 
 version was chiefly characterized by a superabundance of long 
 
26 Elentejits of Rhetoric. 
 
 words of Latin origin, and was a melancholy exhibition of min- 
 gled ignorance, ineptitude, and bad taste. It never attained 
 to any circulation, and is long since forgotten. 
 
 If we compare with the above the following passage from 
 Burke, a great difference will be perceived : 
 
 "This idea of a liberal descent inspires us with a sense of habitual native 
 dignity, which prevents that upstart insolence almost inevitably adhering to 
 and disgracing those who are the first acquirers of any distinction. By this 
 means our liberty becomes a noble freedom. It carries an imposing and 
 majestic aspect. It has a pedigree and illustrating ancestors. It has its 
 bearings and its ensigns armorial. It has its gallery of portraits, its monu- 
 mental inscriptions, its records, evidences, and titles. We procure reverence 
 to our civil institutions, on the principle upon which nature teaches us to 
 revere individual man ; on account of their age, and on account of those 
 from whom they are descended." 
 
 In this passage only sixty-three per cent, of the words are of 
 Anglo-Saxon origin. 
 
 § 1 6. MANY LATIN WORDS ARE EQUALLY SIMPLE. 
 
 Although words of Anglo-Saxon origin are, as a whole, the 
 most simple and perspicuous, yet it must be observed that very 
 many words of Latin origin are equally so. Such words have 
 been long in the language, and have become so thoroughly nat- 
 uralized that it is only by a di^stinct effort of the mind that any 
 difference of derivation can be seen. Those writers who seek 
 above all things after clearness and intelligibility, are therefore 
 not expected to avoid good and useful words merely because 
 they are of Latin origin, for this would be doing violence to the 
 genius of our language, but merely to avoid" such as are not in 
 common use ; and, again, when an Anglo-Saxon word is as ex- 
 pressive as a Latin word, to give the former the preference. 
 
 § 17. IMPORTANCE OF THE LATIN ELEMENT IN OUR LANGUAGE. 
 
 Apart from the subject of perspicuity, the Latin element in 
 our language is of inestimable value, and tends to give it that 
 comprehensiveness, that all-expressiveness, and that rich and va- 
 ried music which make English literature the crown and glory 
 of all the works of man. For by being made up of these two 
 elements, the English language exhibits the strength, tender- 
 ness, and simplicity of the Teutonic tongues, together with the 
 euphony, sonorousness, and harmony of the Latin. 
 
Perspicuity in Words* — Precision, 27 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PERSPICUITY IN WORDS, CONTINUED.— PRECISION. 
 § 18. PRECISION. 
 
 Another essential to perspicuity is precision, which consists 
 in the selection of such words as may exhibit neither more nor 
 less than the meaning which the writer intends to convey. 
 Precision may also be defined as the choice of the best possible 
 word, so as to express the idea with the greatest possible ac- 
 curacy. It refers in the first place to exactness of expression; 
 but where ideas are expressed in the most exact manner pos- 
 sible, there are other results beside perspicuity. Thus we find 
 that where precision is attained there is not only clearness, but 
 great energy and emphasis. 
 
 When we examine the works of writers who are most noted 
 for precision, we find that they are conspicuous not only for 
 clearness, but also for great force of expression. Such writers 
 are foremost in literature; their works are studied by all; they 
 are models of style ; and they abound in sentences which are 
 widely quoted, and used as common maxims or proverbial say- 
 ings. Of such writers the most eminent is perhaps the poet 
 Pope, who made this peculiar quality his chief aim. 
 
 § 19. PRECISION IN SUBSTANTIVE TERMS. 
 
 The subject of precision will be best considered by an ex- 
 amination of the constructions in which its presence is most 
 marked. These are: ist, Substantive terms; 2d, Attributive 
 terms ; 3d, Predicative terms. 
 
 I. Substantive terras. 
 
 I. Precision may be seen here, first, in the application of 
 terms or designations. An example of this may be found in 
 the following passage from Junius (to the Duke of Grafton) : 
 
 " I do not give you to posterity as a pattern to imitate, but as an example 
 to deter ; and as your conduct comprehends everything that a wise or hon- 
 
 B2 
 
28 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 est minister should avoid, I mean to make you a negative instruction to your 
 successors forever." 
 
 There is great delicacy of expression associated with great 
 subtlety of conception in this sentence. It is a common thing 
 to speak of actions that should be imitated, and which thus be- 
 come instructive ; but it is more unusual and more difficult to 
 speak of actions that should be avoided, and make them a 
 " negative instruction." 
 
 This criticism is also applicable to the following passage 
 from Burke's Letter to the Duke of Bedford : 
 
 " If his Grace can contemplate the result of this innovation . . . viithout a 
 thorough abhorrence of everything they say and everything they do, I am 
 amazed at the morbid strength or the natural infirmity of his mind." 
 
 " Morbid strength " is suggestive of the capacity to inflict 
 evil which belongs to the man familiar with wickedness and 
 cruelty; "natural infirmity" indicates one who^ lacks common 
 intelligence, and contemplates crime with the stolidity of an 
 idiot. The alternative presented here with such refinement of 
 language is the same as that which would be stated by a less 
 skilful writer in the abusive terms "villain" and "fool." 
 
 2. Precision is sometimes attained by the use of proper 
 names, especially where a name is put for a class. This is 
 illustrated by the following lines from Pope : 
 
 "What can ennoble sots, or slaves, or cowards? 
 Alas I not all the blood of all the Howards." 
 
 Here there is a close and accurate specification of different 
 classes of men, concluding with the mention of a class by the 
 word " Howards," where one well-known name is put for noble 
 families in general. 
 
 ♦• And more true joy Marcellus exiled feels 
 Than Caesar with a senate at his heels." 
 
 Great precision is gained here by the use of these names, 
 the one of an exiled patriot, the other of a triumphant t)Tant. 
 
 " If parts allure thee, think how Bacon shined, 
 - The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind !" 
 
 Precision is shown here in selecting Bacon from among all 
 men as the highest example of human genius. The summary 
 of his character affords a still better instance. In these three 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Precision. 29 
 
 words are found that popular estimate of this great man which 
 prevailed at that time, and to which this memorable line gave 
 new emphasis. 
 
 3. Precision in substantive terms is also seen when they as- 
 sume the form of definitions or explanations. 
 
 There is great care and accuracy in the treatment of the fol- 
 lowing passage from Disraeli's speech on the death of the 
 Duke of Wellington : 
 
 ♦' The Duke of Wellington left to his countrymen a great legacy, greater 
 even than his glory. He left them the contemplation of his character. I 
 will not say that his conduct revived the sense of duty in England. I will 
 not say that of our country. ' But that his conduct inspired public life with 
 a purer and more masculine tone, I cannot doubt His career rebukes 
 restless vanity, and reprimands the irregular ebullitions of a morbid ego- 
 tism." 
 
 The true meaning of this passage is to be found in the care- 
 fully chosen words of the conclusion ; yet in order to heighten 
 their precision, and give them increased emphasis, the speaker 
 introduces them by mentioning that which he will not say, and 
 by these very words he insinuates with g^eat delicacy the very 
 fact which he represents himself as unwilling to state. 
 
 The same method is followed by Burke, when he says, " I 
 do not say I saved my country, I am sure I did my country im- 
 portant service. There were few indeed that did not at that 
 time acknowledge it." 
 
 In the following passage there is a careful definition : 
 
 " I mean to give peace. Peace implies reconciliation ; and where there 
 has been a material dispute, recondliation does in a manner imply conces- 
 sion on the one part or the other." — Burke. 
 
 4. Precision is very striking in antithetical sentences. 
 
 " To make a virtue of iie€essity."~SHAKESPEARK. 
 
 Here the contrast of "virtue" with "necessity" renders each 
 word more distinct in its meaning; 
 
 •• There is, however, a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue."— 
 Burke. 
 
 Here the stress is laid upon "forbearance" and "virtue," 
 which are each more sharply defined by contrast. 
 
 " Kings will be tyrants from policy when subjects are rebels from prin- 
 ciple." — Burke. 
 
30 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The word "kings" is here contrasted with "subjects;" "ty- 
 rants" with "rebels;" "policy" with "principle;" and the ar- 
 ray of such terms in opposition results in a careful accuracy of 
 meaning. 
 
 Junius, in his letter to the Duke of Grafton, says with his 
 usual malignity : 
 
 " In this humble imitative line you might long have proceeded safe and 
 contemptible. You might probably never have risen to the dignity of be- 
 ing hated, and you might even have been despised with moderation." 
 
 This is one of those passages upon which Junius expended 
 an unusual amount of the care and study that, according to his 
 own statement, characterized his composition. The antithesis 
 of "safe" and "contemptible" may be noticed, and also that 
 of " hated " and " despised." The studied-bitterness with which 
 Junius wrote was never more forcibly displayed than in such 
 expressions as "have risen to the dignity of being hated;" 
 "despised with moderation;" and the sting lies in the perfect 
 precision of the words. 
 
 § 20. PRECISION IN ATTRIBUTIVE TERMS. 
 
 II. We have, in the second place, to consider precision in 
 attributive terms. 
 
 I. This is especially seen in the application of epithets, and 
 may best be illustrated by selecting some one subject, and com- 
 paring the ways in which it is presented by different writers. 
 
 The sea affords a theme upon which many poets have loved 
 to dwell, and whose powers they seek to set forth by vivid de- 
 scriptive words. Byron's lines are familiar to all : 
 
 •' Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean, roll." 
 
 "Deep and dark blue" is an expression of the most general 
 kind, without any very definite force or meaning. Barry Corn- 
 wall's lines are equally familiar: 
 
 " The sea, the sea, the open sea. 
 The blue, the fresh, the ever free 1" 
 
 " Open," " blue," " fresh," " free," are all words which lack 
 precision; they are commonplace, and might suggest them- 
 selves to any writer. Far different from these is " the multitu- 
 dinous" sea of Shakespeare, which is full of suggestions of roll- 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Precision. 31 
 
 ing billows and resistless power; while in the very sound of 
 the word itself there is something that is not unlike the thing 
 which it represents. The uvi]ptd^ov yiXaa^a of ^schylus (the 
 infinite laughter of ocean waves) is of a higher description ; 
 and the iro\v(p\oi(Tl3oio daXaafTjjq of Homer has become proverb- 
 ial for pregnant meaning and sonorous music. These last have 
 a rare precision and effective force, which have made them ad- 
 mired in all ages, and have caused them to be quoted so often 
 that they have become hackneyed by repetition. 
 
 The songs of birds form another favorite theme for the poets, 
 and especially that of the nightingale. It will be instructive 
 to compare the epithets applied to this by various writers. 
 
 " It is the hour when from the boughs 
 The nightingale's high note is heard."— Byron. 
 
 Here the epithet " high " is general, and of no particular 
 meaning. It is quite evident that the poet wrote this with- 
 out thinking very much about the real nature of the thing de- 
 scribed. Far different from this is the description of the same 
 thing by Keats, whose genius led him irresistibly to all forms 
 of the beautiful : 
 
 *' While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad 
 In such an ecstasy, 
 Still wouldst thou sing, and I have ears in vain. 
 To thy high requiem become a sod." 
 
 The epithet "high" is here used, but in conjunction with 
 other words which greatly refine and at the same time enlarge 
 the meaning. 
 
 The same poet also says : 
 
 " Adieu, adieu, thy plaintive anthem fades 
 Past the near meadows." 
 
 A different character is here ascribed to the note of the 
 nightingale ; and still another by Milton in the following : 
 
 "The wakeful nightingale. 
 She all night long her amorous descant sang." 
 
 " Plaintive" and " amorous" are words which are very differ- 
 ent, yet they each state in a precise and specific manner the 
 poet's thought ; while such general terms as " high," " low," 
 " musical " are little better than conventionalisms, and are sug- 
 
32 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 gestive of such expressions as the " brave" soldier, the " bright" 
 sun, the " dark " night. 
 
 With these may be compared Wordsworth's lines to the 
 cuckoo : 
 
 " O cuckoo, shall I call thee bird, 
 Or but a wandering voice? 
 
 Even yet thou art to me 
 No bird, but an invisible thing, 
 A voice, a mystery." 
 
 In such words as these there is revealed a rare power of im- 
 aginative conception and great accuracy of expression. They 
 are as far as possible from the commonplace, and form the lan- 
 guage of true poetry. 
 
 Finally, let us take a few lines from Shelley's Ode to a 
 Skylark : 
 
 "In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. 
 
 I have never heard 
 Praise of love or wine 
 That panted forth a flood of rapture so divine. 
 With thy clear keen joyance, 
 Languor cannot be." 
 
 Words like these carry us up to the heights of poetical inspira- 
 tion. The poet's mind is overpowered by his theme, yet his 
 capacity for expressing that theme never fails him. His words 
 set forth with exquisite refinement and subtlety the most deli- 
 cate and evanescent tints of meaning. Describing the song of 
 a skylark may be compared to an artist's attempt to paint a 
 rainbow; yet in this attempt Shelley has not failed. He has 
 tested to the uttermost the capacities of language, and has ex- 
 hausted its resources in this wonderful ode. 
 
 2. Precision in attributive terms may also be seen in the de- 
 scription of qualities, and in the use of qualifying terms. 
 
 **Such language," says Burke, "might have been spared, 
 were it only as a sacrifice to the ghost of departed friend- 
 ship." 
 
 He alludes here to his rupture with Fox. A commonplace 
 statement would have been something like, " were it only from 
 consideration for our former friendship ;" but in these words all 
 this is expressed, while much more is implied. 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Precision. 33 
 
 Landor exhibits the same thing in a fine passage where he 
 speaks of the difference between Shakespeare and Bacon : 
 
 " There is as great a difference between Shakespeare and Bacon as be- 
 tween an American forest and a London timber-yard. In the timber-yard 
 the materials are sawed and squared and set across ; in the forest we have 
 the natural form of the tree, all its growth, all its branches, all its leaves, all 
 the mosses that grow about it, all the birds and insects that inhabit it ; now 
 deep shadows absorbing the whole wilderness ; now bright bursting glades, 
 with exuberant grass and flowers and fruitage ; now untroubled skies ; now 
 terrific thunderstorms ; everywhere multiformity ; everywhere immensity." 
 
 This description of a forest displays distinctness of conception 
 and accuracy of statement; but its chief virtue consists in the 
 fact that it is applied figuratively to Shakespeare ; so that from 
 the framing and setting forth of this comparison there arises 
 another and a higher beauty. 
 
 § 21. PRECISION IN PREDICATIVE TERMS. 
 
 III. In the third place we have to consider precision in 
 predicative terms. 
 
 I. These may refer to acts. 
 
 This may be illustrated by the following passage from 
 Thackeray : 
 
 " It is said the king winced when he first saw his homely little bride ; but, 
 however that may be, he was a true and faithful husband to her, as she was 
 a faithful and loving wife." 
 
 Compare the word " winced" with such common expressions 
 as " shrank back," " felt disgusted," " was disappointed," and 
 its precise force will at once be apparent. The word " homely" 
 also has a meaning of its own, which makes it most appropriate 
 in its application. 
 
 " Mother, for love of grace, 
 Lay not that flattering unction to your soul 
 That not your trespass but my madness speaks ; 
 It will but skin and film the ulcerous place. 
 Whiles rank corruption, mining all within, 
 Infects unseen." — Shakespeare. 
 
 This whole passage affords a study in precision. Its figura- 
 tive character does not at all detract from this, but rather aug- 
 ments it. " Lay not that flattering unction to your soul " is 
 one of those Shakespearian phrases which have entered into 
 
34 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 our common speech by virtue of its expressiveness. " Skin " 
 and " film " are singularly exact and suggestive. 
 
 " It is not that you do wrong by design, but that you should never do 
 right by mistake."— Junius. 
 
 The contrast between these two acts is sharply drawn, and, 
 as usual with Junius, full of malicious insinuation. 
 
 2. They may refer to the state or condition. An example is 
 found in Milton's lines: 
 
 " Fallen cherub, to be weak is miserable, 
 Doing or suffering." 
 
 The conciseness of this statement is equalled by its keen 
 distinctness. 
 
 " One flaunts in rags, one flutters in brocade." 
 
 Pope exhibits here his usual exactness of expression in 
 coupling these particular verbs with these particular nouns. 
 Gouverneur Morris, writing of Lafayette, says: 
 
 " Dreadful situation ! Obliged to do what he abhors, or suffer an igno- 
 minious death, with the certainty that the sacrifice of his life will not pre- 
 vent the mischief" 
 
 This painful position in which Lafayette was placed could 
 not be presented with greater vividness or distinctness. 
 
 § 22. CLEARNESS OF CONCEPTION NECESSARY TO PRECISION. 
 
 The chief essential to precision of expression is clearness 
 and accuracy of conception, for when the writer thinks with 
 certainty he will generally express himself with certainty. Ob- 
 scurity of style, vagueness of statement, loose and inaccurate 
 phraseology will generally be found to originate in hasty or 
 careless conceptions; for when the mind is at no pains to 
 acquire a firm grasp of the subject, no clear and definite de- 
 scription can be expected. Precision must, therefore, be sought 
 after in the first place by securing a clear and luminous view 
 of that which is to be set forth. 
 
 § 23. AND ALSO CARE IN THE USE OF WORDS. 
 
 It by no means follows, however, that even a clear view of 
 the subject will of itself result in a clear statement. It is well 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Precision. 35 
 
 known that very many who are masters of particular sciences 
 fail to impart them to others with any degree of precision. In 
 order to attain to this, it is therefore further necessary that the 
 writer attend very closely to the study of words, their choice 
 and arrangement. The two processes are quite distinct; nei- 
 ther can dispense with the other; and while, in the first place, 
 the subject must be mastered, so it is equally necessary that 
 close attention be paid to the best modes of expression. 
 
 § 24. VIOLATIONS OF PRECISION. — THE FAULTY USE OF 
 SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 We have next to consider the most frequent ways in which 
 precision is violated. 
 
 I. In the first place, precision is violated by the faulty use 
 of synonymous words. 
 
 Synonymous words are those which express similar ideas. 
 The fault spoken of arises when they are used to express the 
 same idea ; and as there is always a shade of difference in the 
 meaning of these, it follows that precision can only be attained 
 to when such words are used with perfect accuracy. This is a 
 point of great importance in the English language; for synon- 
 ymous words are more frequent here than in any other. The 
 cause of this lies in its formation : for, as has already been 
 shown, there was a primitive English language, now for con- 
 venience' sake called Anglo-Saxon, upon which was superim- 
 posed another — the Norman-French. The consequence is that 
 there are many words of Anglo-Saxon and Norman origin now 
 in the language, which exist side by side, and express very 
 similar ideas. Besides this, the English, in common with other 
 cultivated languages, is rich in words that differ by nice shades 
 of meaning, and to all of these the writer must pay special 
 attention. 
 
 A familiar example of this is to be found in the Book of Com- 
 mon Prayer, where the following words are associated together: 
 acknowledge and confess; sins and wickedness; dissemble 
 arid cloak; humble, lowly, penitent, and obedient; goodness 
 and mercy; assemble and meet together; pray and beseech; 
 pure heart and humble voice ; erred and strayed ; godly, right- 
 eous, and sober life, etc. 
 
 Synonymous words may be said to be similar as to their gen- 
 
36 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 eral meaning, but dissimilar as to their specific meaning. This 
 is illustrated by the following : 
 
 Female zxidi feminine. — Female is said of the sex itself Fem- 
 inine of the qualities of the sex. A third term, effeminate, may 
 also be mentioned, which is applied to feminine qualities dis- 
 covered in a man. 
 
 Untruth— falsehood. — In the former there is no intention to 
 deceive, and the absence of truth may arise from ignorance ; in 
 the latter the deceit is intentional. 
 
 Figure — trope. — Figure is a general term applied to certain 
 artificial forms of expression ; trope is a special term indicating 
 that kind of figure by which a word is turned from its literal 
 signification to another of a different kind — as, the sword of 
 state. 
 
 Modest — bashful. — Modest refers to the habit of mind, bash- 
 ful-to the state of feeling; the one is commendable, the other 
 reprehensible. 
 
 Economy^^rugcLlity ^parsimony. — Economy means the man- 
 agement of outlay in accordance with income ; frugality, a lim- 
 ited expenditure from motives of self-restraint or temperance; 
 parsimony, a limited expenditure from motives of avarice. 
 
 Effect — consequence. — An effect proceeds from a cause ; a 
 consequence follows something that stands to it simply in the 
 relation of antecedent. 
 
 Centre — middle. — Centre involves the idea of a circle, middle 
 has a more general application. Macaulay says, " the centre 
 of the grand alley," in which he shows a lack of his usual pre- 
 cision. 
 
 Happiness— blessedness. — Blessedness is applied to those who 
 enjoy the divine favor, and who may not be actually happy, as 
 " Blessed are they that mourn." In a recent translation of the 
 Scriptures this is changed to " Happy are they that mourn." 
 The translator, while aiming after a supposed verbal accuracy, 
 has thus missed the whole point of the passage, which is the 
 " blessedness " of affliction. 
 
 § 25. IMPROPRIETY. 
 
 2. Another violation of precision is called impropriety. 
 It often happens that one word is used for another of a to- 
 tally different signification. There is a resemblance either in 
 
Perspicuity in Words, — Precision. 37 
 
 the appearance of two words, or in their sound, and by this the 
 writer is misled. This must not be confounded with the fault 
 just mentioned. Synonymous words have similar meanings; 
 these words now under consideration have totally different 
 meanings, and are only similar in sound or in appearance. 
 
 The following are some of the most conspicuous exam- 
 ples : 
 
 Demeati. — "I would not demean myself" is an example of 
 impropriety in the use of this word. The mistake arises from 
 its resemblance to the adjective mean, i. e., base, low. But the 
 true signification of the word is " to behave," as may be seen 
 in the substantive "demeanor." 
 
 I lay and I lie. — These are often confounded. Additional 
 confusion arises in the employment of the past tenses. The 
 
 forms are — 
 
 Present — lay^ Past — laid. 
 
 Present— //>, Past — lay. 
 
 The resemblance between the present of one and the past 
 of the other leads to frequent mistakes. The most memorable 
 example of impropriety in this respect is found in Byron's 
 famous lines: 
 
 "And send'st him shivering in thy playful spray 
 And howling to his gods, where haply lies 
 His petty hope in some near port or bay, 
 And dashest him again to earth; there let him lay." 
 
 Here we see both the right and the wrong use of the same 
 word. 
 
 Sit and set are apt to be confounded in precisely the same 
 manner as lay and lie. 
 
 Decompose — discompose. — A foreigner once said, speaking of 
 a bashful friend, that his face was very much decomposed. 
 Errors of this kind, purposely made, have giv en rise to a feeble 
 sort of wit called malapropism. 
 
 Loose — lose. — The mistakes that occur here are perhaps gen- 
 erally due to the spelling, as these words are seldom or never 
 confounded in common conversation. 
 
 Sanitary — sanatory. — Sanitary is from sanitas, health; sana- 
 tory, from sano, to heal. The former is subjective, the latter 
 objective. 
 
38 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Predicate— predict. — Predicate is to assert one thing of an- 
 other; predict, to foretell the future. 
 
 Ingenuous — ingenious. — The former suggests frankness and 
 guilelessness; the latter intellectual skill or cleverness. 
 
 § 26. VAGUE WORDS. 
 
 Another fault arises from the use of words that are vague 
 and general, instead of such as are exact and definite. This 
 is a characteristic of those who think loosely, or who prepare 
 their subject-matter carelessly, and are as destitute of distinct 
 ideas as they are of accurate words by which to express them. 
 General terms are always more convenient than special; and 
 to make use of any one at random will save trouble, and pre- 
 vent the difficulty of searching after one which may be more 
 appropriate. There are many words which are thus made use 
 of, and a few of these may serve as examples. 
 
 .Affair. — This word is made to do duty for almost anything 
 — a battle, a conversation, a convention, a revolution, or a re- 
 ligious revival. 
 
 Circumstance is used in the same general way. 
 
 Considerable is a favorite word with writers who are inaccu- 
 rate <ibout numbers; but it is also applied to a great variety of 
 subjects, as, "a person of considerable influence," "a town of 
 considerable size," "attained to considerable distinction." 
 
 " Remarkable," " tolerable," " several," " person," " party," 
 "individual," are other examples. "Thing" is a word of ex- 
 tended signification, though it does not nearly rival its German 
 equivalent, "ding;" but its use should be restricted, and other 
 special words will be more precise. To this list may be added 
 a larger number of formulas, phrases, and sentences of a pure- 
 ly conventional character, such as abound in sermons, newspa- 
 per articles, third-rate political oratory, but above all in so-called 
 "complimentary addresses." These are perhaps beyond the 
 pale of criticism, since precision is about the last thing that is 
 thought of by those who compose them. 
 
 § 27. VERBOSITY. 
 
 By verbosity is meant an excessive use of words. It arises 
 from a natural gift of fluent expression, which has not been 
 sufficiently chastened and corrected. For the present pur- 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Precision. 39 
 
 pose it will be necessary to consider only the chief ways in 
 which verbosity may affect precision. 
 
 § 28. TAUTOLOGY. 
 
 1. Tautology arises from verbosity, and may be defined as 
 the repetition of the same idea in ditferent words. It must be 
 distinguished from the faulty use of synonymous words. The 
 former is a case of useless repetition, the latter of different 
 things taken for the same. This may be seen in the familiar 
 example : They returned back again to the same place from 
 whence they came forth; which is reducible to: They returned 
 to the place whence they departed. 
 
 Dr. Johnson, from his habit of presenting kindred words in 
 pairs, in triplets, and in many varieties of similar and contrast- 
 ed meaning, often falls into this error. In the following pas- 
 sage, speaking of the style of Prior, he says ; 
 
 " He had often infused into it much knowledge and much thought ; had 
 often polished it into elegance, often dignified it into splendor, and some- 
 times heightened it to sublimity ; and did not discover that it wanted the 
 power of engaging attention and alluring curiosity." 
 
 Although it is certainly possible to show that there is a sep- 
 arate meaning to every one of these words, yet it is evident 
 that the real distinction is but slight, and they are equivalent 
 to so many tedious repetitions of the same thing. 
 
 A biography of Dr. Johnson was published shortly after his 
 death, in which the author quoted the following well-known 
 
 couplet: 
 
 " Let observation, with extensive view, 
 Survey mankind from China to Peru;" 
 
 which he maintained was equivalent to this: Let observation 
 with extensive observation observe mankind extensively. 
 
 § 29. CIRCUMLOCUTION. 
 
 2. Circumlocution is another characteristic of verbosity. It 
 means a roundabout mode of speech, where, instead of a direct 
 statement of meaning, the words are multiplied to an unnec- 
 essary extent. When properly employed this is a recognized 
 figure of speech (periphrasis), but the kind now under consid- 
 eration is that which results from carelessness. It is character- 
 
40 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 ized by the tedious accumulation of unnecessary explanations 
 or unmeaning definitions; by an excessive use of epithets; and 
 in general by an imposing array of words which circle about 
 the subject without tending to any definite conclusion. 
 
 § 30. VERBOSITY IN THE PULPIT AND PRESS. 
 
 Verbosity is a fault in style which prevails very widely at the 
 present day, on account of the existence of certain departments 
 of literature which had no counterparts in ancient times. Of 
 these two may be mentioned. 
 
 1. Pulpit oratory. 
 
 Since the Reformation, the rise of Protestantism has caused 
 greater importance to be attached to the sermon than ever 
 before. Every Sunday, and even oftener, the minister must 
 be prepared with his discourse, which has to fill up a certain 
 amount of time. Now, after making all due allowance for those 
 earnest preachers who, full of desire to benefit the souls of men, 
 stand forth to preach with sincere feeling the word of eternal 
 life, there must remain a large number who regard this as an 
 onerous task, and fulfil it in a perfunctory manner. Hence 
 the words sermon and sermonize have become proverbial for 
 dulness and tediousness. In many cases this necessity of 
 filling up the time makes the sermon an array of paraphrases 
 and circumlocutions, which would not for a moment be tolerated 
 in forensic or parliamentary oratory. 
 
 2. The modern newspaper. 
 
 Here we find a similar cause producing similar effects. There 
 is the regular demand for a certain amount of writing to be 
 furnished at a given time, and to fill a given space. Deduct- 
 ing those who do their task well, we have left a large number 
 who are merely " machine " writers, and fill up the allotted 
 space with words rather than ideas. 
 
Perspicuity i?t Words. — Purity. 41 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 PERSPICUITY IN WORDS, CONTINUED.— PURITY. 
 
 § 31. PURITY. 
 
 By purity is meant the employment of such words and 
 idioms as are sanctioned by the best contemporary usage. 
 
 In order to write pure English, it is necessary to avoid the 
 use of all old words that have become obsolete ; and all new 
 words that are strange and unfamiliar. It is further necessary 
 that there be no departure from the best idiomatic style of 
 expression. 
 
 The study of words belongs to philology rather than rhet- 
 oric, but a brief consideration of this subject, in so far as it 
 relates to purity of style, will not be out of place in this 
 work. 
 
 § 32. OBSOLETE WORDS. 
 
 In the history of a language great changes are found to be 
 constantly occurring. Authors arise who develop its capa- 
 bilities and establish a standard of excellence. But language 
 has in itself a growth which is quite independent of literature, 
 and it soon passes beyond the usage of any one age. Some 
 words cease to be employed^andjthe Author of one period be- 
 comes oHsc^LiriTTcr ihe rekdeF of another. Many words once 
 familiar become unintelligible, or at least difficult of compre- 
 hension. These are called obsolete. Of these, however, many 
 are only obsolete in common conversation or in ordinary -profi<>- 
 TTTerature; and though not in general use, they are, neverthe- 
 less, understood without difficulty. These offer important 
 limitations as to the degree to which words become obsolete. 
 A definition of the term may be given as follows : Obsolete 
 words are those which are no longer used in good prose litera- 
 ture or in common conversation. Of such the following may 
 be taken as examples : " peradventure," " anon," " astonied," 
 "erst," "hight," "cleped," "yclept," "whilom," "iwis" or 
 
42 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 "I-wis," "erewhile," "ne," "list," "wist,*' "wight," "twain," 
 "eke," "yea," "verily." 
 
 § 33. OBSOLETE TERMINATIONS AND MEANINGS. 
 
 In addition to this, there are certain terminations of words 
 which have become obsolete. These are chiefly in " en " and 
 " eth," the one being an old form of the plural, and the other a 
 well-known verbal inflection. Certain compounds of the pro- 
 noun with the substantive verb may also be considered as 
 obsolete in this sense, as, "'tis," "'twas," "'twere." Another 
 class may be found in words which have changed their signifi- 
 cation, in which case it is the meanings and not the words that 
 are obsolete. Thus "admirable'' once meant "surprising;" 
 "to be amused" meant "to be occupied;" "brave" meant 
 "gaudy;" "caitiff"," "captive;" "chimney," "stove;" "corpse," 
 a " person ;" " desire," " regret ;" " equal," " impartial ;" " ex- 
 plode," "to hiss off";" "generous," "high-born;" "imp," a 
 "scion" (of nobility) ; " lively," " living ;" "mediterranean," 
 " inland ;" " novelist," an " innovator ;" " pomp," a " proces- 
 sion ;" "spice," a "sort;" "table," a "picture;" "wit," "in- 
 telligence." 
 
 § 34. OBSOLETE WORDS USED IN RELIGIOUS LITERATURE. 
 
 Certain important limitations are, however, to be observed 
 on this subject, for in some departments of composition words 
 are freely admitted which are obsolete in general prose. The 
 first of these departments is that of religious literature, which 
 is largely modified by the English Bible. This is essentially 
 an ancient book. It has gone through many versions, namely, 
 those of Wycliffe, Tyndale, Coverdale, the Bishops' Bible, Cran- 
 mer's, and that of King James, which is at present used. Most 
 of these were revisions of preceding editions, rather than new 
 translations, and retained many words and phrases which had 
 been used before. The version of King James is of a more 
 antique cast than the prose of the contemporary writers of that 
 age. This great English book has had a circulation far sur- 
 passing that of any work ever published in the language ; it 
 has served as a perpetual storehouse for allusion, quotation, 
 and reference ; and its most ancient forms of speech are as 
 familiar to all as the most modern colloquialisms. Now in re- 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Purity. 43 
 
 ligious works of all kinds, constant reference is made to this 
 English Bible. Its words are not only quoted directly, but are 
 also appropriated and incorporated with the phraseology of 
 other writers. On this account an antique character pervades 
 the larger portion of our religious literature, and words are 
 freely used here which on no account would find admission 
 into a magazine article, a newspaper editorial, or any work in 
 general prose composition. 
 
 Besides the English Bible there is the Book of Common 
 Prayer, whose influence over language and literature has been 
 of a similar character. The tendency to make use of obsolete 
 words in religious writing is seen still more strikingly in the 
 whole vocabulary of prayer. Deity is addressed in those forms 
 of speech which the associations of the past, the usage of the 
 English Bible and Prayer-book, and the phraseology of relig- 
 ious writings have combined to invest with deep solemnity and 
 venerable antiquity. 
 
 § 35. OBSOLETE WORDS USED IN POETRY. 
 
 An exception is also to be made in favor of poetry, for the 
 free use of obsolete words forms part of what is called poetic 
 license. 
 
 Poetry requires a different phraseology from prose, a lan- 
 guage in some sort of its own. A poetic dialect exists in all 
 languages, but in English it is more strongly marked and more 
 copious than in any other ; and, among other peculiarities, it is 
 distinguished by the possession and use of many of those words 
 which are considered obsolete in general prose. For poetry 
 requires the largest possible vocabulary, it strains the resources 
 of language to the uttermost, and if an old word may best ex- 
 press the poet's meaning, it is made use of without hesitation. 
 The causes of this may be found in the general characteristics 
 of poetry, which may be stated as follows : 
 
 1. The style is more exalted. Subjects are treated of which 
 would not be considered at all in any other way. For instance, 
 prose could not be applied to such themes as the Divina Com- 
 media or the Paradise Lost. 
 
 2. The thought is more vivid and intense. Lyrical poetry 
 has a high impassioned character altogether diverse from the 
 nature of sober prose, and its effects are commensurate with 
 
 C 
 
44 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 that character. This may be illustrated by a literal translation 
 into English prose of such a poem as the French " Marseilhiise." 
 
 3. The exigencies of metre demand an unlimited supply of 
 words in order to make the verse run smoothly, and yet secure 
 the highest poetic excellence of expression. 
 
 4. The exigencies of rhyme require for the poet the same 
 liberty. 
 
 Thus we shall find that the very words which are not allowa- 
 ble in general prose are welcome to poetry, and this may be 
 seen from the following examples : 
 
 '■^Whilom in Albion's isle there dwelt a youth 
 Who ne in virtue's ways did take delight ; 
 Ah me ! in sooth he was a godless 7oight^ 
 Childe Harold was he highty — Byron. 
 "I who erewhtU the happy garden sang." — MrLT9N. 
 " Eagerly I loved to borrow from ray books surcease of sorrow." — PoE. 
 ".As his corse to the ramparts we hurried." — Wolfe. 
 ** iTvis in all the senate 
 There was no heart so bold." — Macaulay. 
 
 The use of obsolete terminations is still more conspicuous 
 in poetry. The poets discard the modern terminations in the 
 hissing " s," and cling to the musical old endings in " en " and 
 "et h ;" 6r, rather, it would be more correct to say that they use 
 either form with equal liberty. The result is, however, that all 
 the beautiful and expressive words and euphonious endings that 
 have ever existed in the language are cherished by the poets ; 
 and so it has been said that those forms of speech which have 
 died in the world of prose go up to live forever in the heaven 
 of poetry. 
 
 § 36. OBSOLETE WORDS USED IN CERTAIN KINDS OF FICTION. 
 
 Another exception is to be noted in works of fiction, where 
 there is an attempt to represent an earlier period. Here the 
 first aim is verisimilitude, and the writer must avail himself of 
 everything that contributes to this. To imitate the language 
 of a given period in a general way is often an effectual means 
 of securing the truth of resemblance ; and hence many obso- 
 lete words make their appearance, used by the imaginary char- 
 acters of the age to which they belong. The old words and the 
 old idioms then appear with good effect. Yet even here these 
 
Perspicuity in Words, — Purity, 45 
 
 words must be used correctly, and not too extensively. The 
 abuse of this liberty is seen in the inferior order of so-called 
 historical novels, , where the writer, undertaking to handle a 
 subject to which he is unequal, interlards the dialogue of his 
 characters with obsolete words and formulas selected at ran- 
 dom from the works of old authors. 
 
 § 37. ARCHAISM. 
 
 To this employment of obsolete words in the departments 
 of literature above mentioned the term archaism is applied ; 
 and this may be defined as the intentional use of the older 
 words and terminations of a language. 
 
 § 38. MANY OBSOLETE WORDS RETURN INTO GENERAL USE. 
 
 The use of obsolete words in general prose literature is not 
 of common occurrence, nor, when it happens, is it to be con- 
 sidered as a very serious offence. It is, in fact, somewhat diffi- 
 cult to say what words are really obsolete, and what are not ; 
 for religious literature and poetry have so familiarized old 
 words to the reader that they are seldom obscure, and their 
 employment becomes a question of taste, rather than of per- 
 spicuity or of grammatical purity. In fact, obsolete words are 
 regarded with much favor by many of the best writers of the 
 present day. Increased attention to the study of early English 
 has led to a very general effort to revive the use of many words. 
 Accordingly a large number may be found which have actually 
 come back into prose literature after a temporary banishment. 
 These words have held their own in poetry and in religious 
 literature, and thus have easily returned to general prose. 
 We may see in a comparatively recent period the revival of 
 such words as "benison," "malison," "outrance," "plea- 
 saunce," "guerdon," and others of a like nature. Nor is this 
 revival confined to our own time, although it is certainly more 
 extensive now than ever before. Obsolete words have been 
 introduced in former periods, as may be seen from a few brief 
 statements. 
 
 In Spenser's day objections were made to such words as 
 "dapper," "scathe," "askance," "embellish," "forestall," 
 " fain," and others which soon came into general use. 
 
 In the seventeenth century the following words of Chaucer 
 
46 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 were considered obsolete : " anthem," " carve," " blithe," 
 "bland," "franchise," "sphere," "transcend." About the 
 same time other words were called obsolete ; as " strath," 
 "landlouper," "yelp," "thrill," "dovetail," "kirtle," "grisly," 
 " ledge," " trenchant," " tissue," " plumage," " resource," " vic- 
 inage," " tapestry," " villainy." All these, and many others 
 like them, though once rejected by critics, are indispensable to 
 prose literature at the present day. 
 
 As a general thing the restoration of a word to current prose 
 literature is now regarded as a matter for gratification rather 
 than objection. It often happens that such a word actually 
 expresses the writer's idea in the best possible manner ; and 
 under such circumstances perspicuity itself might seem to de- 
 mand its use. Such a writer as Carlyle, for instance, does not 
 hesitate for a moment about using an obsolete word if it hap- 
 pens to express his meaning better than others that are in more 
 familiar use. The faulty use of obsolete words is where they 
 are really obscure, or where their introduction may savor of 
 affectation or pedantry on the part of the writer. 
 
 § 39. NEW WORDS. 
 
 We have next to consider the introduction of n6w words. 
 Among the Greeks this was stigmatized as a barbarism ; but 
 the English language is less exclusive. - 
 
 Language is a living thing, and has a life of its own. It is 
 born ; it grows ; it flourishes ; it languishes ; and it dies. Its 
 life resembles that of man, both as an individual and in com- 
 munities; and is characterized by innumerable vicissitudes. In 
 connection with this subject, it will be useless to talk vaguely 
 of the importance of purity ; to denounce all words that may 
 not please ; or to insist on the rejection of all that may not 
 have already gained a place in the language. The class of 
 new words will always be a large one, so long as the language 
 itself has any vitality. 
 
 § 40. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE HAS ABSORBED NEW WORDS 
 INTO ITSELF IN EVERY AGE, IN SPITE OF OBJECTIONS. 
 
 If we look back upon the history of the English language, 
 we find it exhibiting a moi;^ varied growth than any other. It 
 has passed through several distinct periods : the Anglo-Saxon, 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Purity. 47 
 
 the Semi-Saxon, the Old English, the Middle English, and the 
 Modern English ; and in each of these it has had remarkable 
 features. Ever since the Norman Conquest it has shown a 
 singular capacity for absorbing new words into itself. In the 
 latest period, when it stands fully formed before us, we find 
 this tendency as strong as ever ; and we have to regard it as 
 a leading characteristic. Inventions and discoveries are con- 
 stantly being made which require new forms of expression. 
 Science makes the same demand, which is repeated by learn- 
 ing, philosophy, art, commerce, and other great movements 
 among mankind. While in every age there has been a throng 
 of new words pressing in upon the language, there has also been 
 in every age an outcry raised against them. This outcry, how- 
 ever, has been of little avail ; and the history of the past shows 
 us many such words which once were objected to, but which, in 
 spite of objections, have prevailed, and are now in general use. 
 In 1534 Sir Thomas Elyot mentioned " frugality," " temper- 
 ance," " sobriety," and " magnanimity " as modern words. In 
 1589 Puttenham called the following modern inventions : 
 "function," "numerous," "penetrate," "indignity," "savage," 
 "scientific," "dimension," "idiom," " compendious," " prolix," 
 "figurative," "impressive," " metriral," "inveigle." In 1601 
 Philemond Holland gave the same character to' the following : 
 " acrimony," " austere," " bulk," " consolidate," " debility," 
 " dose," " aperient," " opiate," " propitious," " symptom." Ba- 
 con did not know "encyclopaedia," but used "circle learning." 
 Shakespeare, in Twelfth Night, alluded to "element" as new; 
 and Wotton spoke of " characters " as a recent acquisition. 
 Fulke, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, objected to 
 scandal," "neophyte," "despicable," "de- 
 ." Thomas Fuller stated that "plunder " 
 was imported from Germany, where it originated during the 
 Thirty- Years' War. "Malignant," "cavalier," "Roundhead," 
 and " selfish " arose during the Parliamentary War. " Pathos " 
 arose a little later ; as did also " mob." In 1658 the follow- 
 ing were objected to in Heylin's Observations on L'Estrange's 
 History of Charles 11. : " adoption," " abstruse," "amphibious," 
 " articulate," " adventitious," " complicated," " compensate," 
 "concede," "caress," "destination," "horizontal," "oblique," 
 :** ocular," " radiant." " Dragonnade " and " refugee " came into 
 
48 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 use during the age of Louis XIV. In 1670 Dryden objected 
 to "good graces," "repartee," "embarrass," "grimace," "cha- 
 grin." " Suicide " was condemned at about the same time. In 
 Skinner's Etymologicon, 1688, "cajole," and "sentiment" 
 were called new. Johnson was blamed for using "resuscita- 
 tion," "narcotic," "fatuity," "germination." " Sans-culotte," 
 "guillotine," and " terrorism " arose during the French Revolu- 
 tion ; and hosts of new words have been coming into the lan- 
 guage ever since. 
 
 § 41. SOURCES OF NEW WORDS. 
 
 The sources from which new words are derived are numer- 
 ous, and may be set down as follows : 
 
 1. Science and Learning. — Science is continually enlarging its 
 sphere. The old sciences are widening their scope and increas- 
 ing their action ; while, in addition to these, new ones arise which 
 rival the old in importance. Geology, Mineralogy, Compara- 
 tive Philology, and many others, have arisen in this age ; and 
 all these require a nomenclature of their own. The names 
 which are thus required are generally made up from Greek or 
 Latin roots. All the natural sciences have created new words 
 of this sort, which are intelligible to the students throughout 
 Christendom. With technical terms, literature has not much 
 to do ; but some of them pass into literary use, and of these 
 the following may serve as examples : " encyclopaedia," " meth- 
 od," " function," " nomenclature," " horizontal," " oblique," 
 "objective," "subjective," "aesthetic," " ethicj" " ethnic," " iso- 
 thermal," "telegraphy," "statistics," "myth," "cult," "mag- 
 netism." 
 
 2. Invention. — As this is pre-eminently the age of invention, 
 the field here is very wide, and new words come in from this 
 source by the hundred. Of these many must perish, but, on 
 the other hand, many survive. A large number are made up 
 from Greek roots, some from Latin. The following are exam- 
 ples : "telescope," "microscope," "chronometer," "telegraph," 
 " photograph," " stereoscope," " micrometer," " aeronaut," 
 " velocipede," " bicycle," " elevator," " locomotive." 
 
 3. Discovery. — Some discoveries are made in science by 
 which words arise that are generally of Greek or Latin origin, 
 as " hydrogen," " oxygen," "gravitation." Others refer to the 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Purity, 49 
 
 vegetable world, and are illustrated by " tea," " coffee," " tobac- 
 co," " cocoa," " opium," " potato." 
 
 4. Art. — A large number of words in common use have been 
 derived from this source. For example, in architecture we 
 have " dome," " piazza," " veranda ;" from painting, " tone," 
 "fresco," "ultramarine;" from sculpture, " bust," " torso," " bas- 
 relief;" from engraving, "mezzotint," "lithograph," "chromo- 
 lithograph ;" from music, " opera," " oratorio," " prima donna ;" 
 besides which are many words belonging to other departments 
 of art, such as " mosaic," "cameo," " intaglio," " filigree," etc. 
 
 5. Fashion. — Here the words are innumerable, but the most 
 of them are shortlived, and few, indeed, are those which endure. 
 " Surtout," "paletot," and "galoches," once in general use, are 
 now obsolete ; but permanent words from this source may be 
 illustrated by " tunic," "muslin," " calico," etc. 
 
 6. National Afovettients. — These include wars, revolutions, and 
 other popular commotions. The words derived from these are 
 numerous, and are illustrated by " Puritan," " Roundhead," 
 "Whig," "Tory," "cabal," "clique," "caucus," "coup-d'^tat." 
 
 7. Foreigti Intercourse. — From this source we have many for- 
 eign words which have become naturalized, as "shah," "czar," 
 "sultan," " pacha;" "drosky," " kayak," "canoe ;" " sombrero," 
 " poncho ;" " stiletto," " creese ;" " mustang," " barbe ;" " taboo," 
 " tattoo," etc. 
 
 8. Colonizing Movements. — The English race, in extending it- 
 self over all parts of the world, has developed new modes of 
 life, and with these new words have sprung up. California and 
 Australia have contributed many which have come into general 
 use; for example, "diggings," "prospect," "lead," "cradle," 
 " ranch," " bush," " bushwhacker." 
 
 9. Americanisms. — The rapid growth of the American nation 
 has been characterized by the utmost activity of intellect, and 
 multitudes of words have arisen which were before unknown. 
 Such as are peculiarly American may be illustrated by " sen- 
 sation," " medium," " spirit-rapping," " camp-meeting," " barbe- 
 cue,*^ " baggage," " barrens," " bobolink," " buncombe," "clap- 
 board," " dime," " stump-^p,eech," etc. 
 
 10. Orientalisms. — The British empire in the East, the great 
 missionary operations of England and America, and the spread 
 of commerce and travel, have brought many words into the 
 
50 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 language from the whole of Asia, as " bungalow," " moon- 
 shee," " pundit," " fakir," " bonze," " santon," " dervish." 
 
 LI. New Ideas. — The progress of civilization tends to create 
 new sensations and new ideas, for which names must be found. 
 Thus the French were the first to devise a word for the sensa- 
 tion of tedium, which they called "ennui." The English have 
 applied to this the name " bore." This class of words may be 
 illustrated by "prestige," "coincidence," "amateur," "connois- 
 seur," " pluck," " push," " bounce." 
 
 12. New Verbs. — These are formed from nouns already in 
 use ; as, " to telegraph," " to coal " or " coal up," " to steam 
 away," " to switch off." 
 
 13. Names of Men. — New words are formed from the names 
 of men in cases of discovery or invention. Such are found in 
 "galvanism," "voltaic" pile, "guillotine," "bowie" knife^^" mac- 
 adamize." Others are formed from the names ofmose who 
 have promulgated new doctrines, or headed movements among 
 men,as"Wesleyan," "Garibaldian," "Benthamite," "Comptist," 
 " Millerism." Others are formed from the qualities of men, as 
 " Platonic," " Miltonic," " Napoleonic." 
 
 14. Slang. — From this source, also, many words are derived. 
 Originating no one knows how, perhaps in the most disreputable 
 way, they evince a native force and expressive energy which 
 compel reception. Of this sort are the following : " mob," 
 "humbug," "quiz," "chaff;" "hoax," "beau," "dandy," "fop," 
 " swell," " Bohemian," " prig," " cad," " bumptious." ' 
 
 New words are furnished to the English by many different 
 languages, and if we compare these, we shall find that several 
 have supplied distinct classes. Thus Greek and Latin con- 
 tribute those which relate to science and learning, invention 
 and discovery ; French, those which refer to fashion, cookery, 
 and warfare ; Italian, those which belong to art ; Hebrew has 
 contributed some which belong to the vocabularj' of religion, 
 and a large number of proper names in general use. 
 
 § 42. THE GROWTH OF NEW WORDS IS RAPID. 
 
 The growth of new words is very rapid. What is a barbar- 
 ism in one age is a standard word in the next. Examples of 
 this may be found in "connoisseur," "reconnoitre," "verbiage," 
 "gasconade," " rhodomontade," which were all objected to by 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Purity. 51 
 
 Dr. Campbell in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, yet since his 
 time have become thoroughly naturalized. 
 
 § 43. THE OBJECTIONABLE USE OF NEW WORDS. — PROPER 
 AUTHORITY DEFINED. 
 
 New words are objectionable when they are employed with- 
 out proper authority. 
 
 'i'his term " authority " has given rise to such frequent mis- 
 apprehension that it may be well to explain its true significa- 
 tion. It may be defined in a twofold way. 
 
 1. It is the usage of a writer of commanding genius and in- 
 fluence. Thus Shakespeare, Addison, and Johnson intro- 
 duced new words, to which their names afterwards gave a sanc- 
 tion. In our own day Carlyle, Coleridge, Tennyson, and 
 Browning have introduced or given currency to new words, 
 and made strange ones familiar. 
 
 2. It is the sanction of the literary world of any given period; 
 and at the present day may be defined as the usage of the 
 leading periodicals. From this source have been derived such 
 words as " telegram," " bicycle," " unwisdom," and many others 
 which have held their ground in spite of strenuous opposition. 
 
 Generally new words come in to supply a real want. No 
 one knows who uses them first. If they are really needed they 
 are welcomed by the world of literary men, and thus take a 
 permanent place. But if a word present itself without the 
 sanction of supreme genius, or the consent of the world of let- 
 ters, then it may properly be rejected as a barbarism. 
 
 § 44. THE FAULTY USE OF NEW WORDS. 
 
 Such objectionable words are derived from various sources. 
 
 1. Some originate in our own language, and of these the 
 following are examples: " happify," " gasalier," "unuseful," 
 " charmfulness." The verb " to interview " was at first ac- 
 cepted in jest, then violently denounced, and finally, by a 
 strange fate, it appears to be accepted with mournful resigna- 
 tion, and may actually take a permanent place. 
 
 2. Many words are taken from the French language, and 
 abound in fashionable novels and in newspapers. " Politesse," 
 " delicatesse," "hauteur," "dernier-resort," "exposition," for 
 " exhibition," are examples of constant occurrence. The word 
 
 C 2 
 
52 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 " solidarity " appears to be winning its way in spite of opposi- 
 tion ; and so does " plebiscite," simply because they express 
 ideas for which there are no exact English equivalents. The 
 excessive use of words of this sort has been parodied in the 
 following passage : " The ball was most recherche. Madame 
 presented an appearance that was distingue in the extreme. 
 The toilettes oi les jenties dames were ravissantes. On entering 
 the room the coup-d'oeil was magnifique^ and the tout-ensemble 
 could not be surpassed." 
 
 3. The Italian language, also, affords words of this sort. 
 These are chiefly to be found in writings which refer to art, 
 particularly music. When they are used in a purely techni- 
 cal sense no objection can be made ; the fault is when they 
 are introduced into general literature. To intermingle with 
 one's English such words as "maestro," "impresario," "fiasco," 
 is as bad a piece of affectation and as reprehensible a vice as 
 the one just mentioned. Those writers who know and love the 
 English language find it all-sufficient. Those who really un- 
 derstand Italian and French are not apt to indulge in such idle 
 display. It is rather the characteristic of those who have but 
 a slight acquaintance with these languages, and are anxious to 
 make known to the world all the little that they know. 
 
 4. Many are derived from the Latin, and are introduced 
 through a pedantic taste, or the desire for a cheap display of 
 learning. Examples of this may be found in the following 
 words: "centrical" for "central," "envisaging" for "view- 
 ing," "resuming" for "summing up." The word "donate," 
 for "give," is bad; but not worse than "locate" for "live." 
 "Effectuate" and "eventuate" are in bad taste and preten- 
 tious. " Collide " is a word which has fought its way into re- 
 spectable use. " Sororize," as the counterpart of " fraternize," 
 and " viatricide," as a name for death by railway accident, seem 
 to have been made up in jest. " Governmental " and " pessi- 
 mistic " are both as bad as they can be. 
 
 5. Oriental words. These are very common, on account of 
 the increasing connection with the East, through commerce, 
 politics, travel, missionary effort, and the like. Many Oriental 
 words have come into established use, but many more must be 
 condemned. The excessive employment of these has been 
 ridiculed in the following passage, which may serve to illustrate 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Purity. 53 
 
 this sort of barbarism : " While seated in the bungalow^ waiting 
 for the /f7/^//^«///, there arose a sudden outcry from the Tatmut- 
 gars, followed by rapid drum-beats. We started up, but the 
 moonshee, noticing our agitation, said,* Don't be alarmed, Sahiby 
 it's only the Gooroos with their tomtoms''' 
 
 § 45. NEW COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 In addition to those words which are absolutely new, there 
 is another class made up of old words already existing, but pre- 
 sented as compounds. 
 
 Two classes of compound words are here to be observed. 
 First, those of foreign derivation. To this class belong those 
 which are derived from Greek or Latin sources, and are lised 
 for scientific or other purposes. These, however, come into 
 the language already compounded, and therefore belong to 
 the new words already mentioned. The point now under dis- 
 cussion refers to a second class, namely, those new compounds 
 which are made up of words already existing in the English 
 language. 
 
 The growth of language arises chiefly from two causes : first, 
 tropes, by which concrete terms are turned from a literal to a 
 figurative meaning; and, secondly, composition, by which words 
 already existing are compounded, and thus formed into a new 
 term. All languages in their early stages have this power of 
 composition, and a large number of words in every language 
 are compounds. 
 
 The English language has less power of composition than 
 any other of the Teutonic family. The Latin was very defi- 
 cient in this respect, and the languages which have been derived 
 from it show the same peculiarity. The Greek, on the other 
 hand, had a great capability for this, which belongs in an 
 equal degree to the modern German. The Anglo-Saxon had 
 the same capacity; but in the Early English period it had be- 
 come weakened if not lost, and the decay of this power in our 
 language is chiefly due to the influence of the Norman French. 
 
 When we consider the newly compounded words of the 
 present day, we find that their source is chiefly in science and 
 invention. Leaving aside Greek and Latin compounds for rea- 
 sons already mentioned, let us consider those of English origin. 
 
 I. Science and Learning. — In these departments we have such 
 
54 Elements of RJutoric. 
 
 words as " stone-period," " flint-folk," " bronze-folk," " mound- 
 builders," " folk-lore," " hand-book." 
 
 2. Invention. — "Steamboat," "railroad," "diving-bell," "sew- 
 ing-machine," "tramway," "gun-cotton," "iron -clad," "gas- 
 pipe." 
 
 3. Discovery. — " India-rubber," " soapstone," " gum-tree." 
 
 4. The movement called "Spiritualism" has given rise to 
 many words, such as " table-tipping," " spirit-rapping," etc. 
 
 § 46. FAULTS IN THE USE OF NEW COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 The genius of the English language is so alien to the forma- 
 tion of compound words that faults are not as frequent here as 
 elsewhere. The influence of other languages in the introduction 
 of new words has already been noticed. Greek, Latin, French, 
 and Italian furnish a large supply; but upon the class of words 
 now under consideration these languages have no influence. 
 The Greek and Latin give us words already compounded, but 
 they do not cause the English language to make new com- 
 pounds out of words already in use. Another language has 
 some influence in this respect, and that is the German. This 
 is due to several causes. 
 
 1. The German has a power of composition not equalled by 
 any other of the great modern languages. 
 
 2. German philosophy has a commanding position, and is 
 illustrated by several schools, each of which has its own nomen- 
 clature made up out of German words; and English thinkers 
 who discuss philosophical subjects are often forced to transfer 
 German compounds to their own language. 
 
 3. These words in many cases have roots which exist in Eng- 
 lish also. 
 
 In the case of scientific writing every liberty must be allow- 
 ed ; and as the botanist may freely make use of Greek words, 
 so the metaphysician may employ German. But in general 
 literature the case is different, and English imitations of Ger- 
 man compounds are to be condemned. 
 
 These may be illustrated by such terms as the following: 
 "Word-building," "time-spirit," "nature-spirit," "earth-soul," 
 "woman-nature," "world-idea," "hero-saint," "art-show," 
 "soul-life," "wonder-smith," "life-pleasure," "youth-season." 
 
 Another class of objectionable compounds may be found in 
 
Perspicuity in Words. — Purity. 55 
 
 cases where a noun is turned into a verb, as " the population 
 had fivefolded." Here the word fivefold is transformed into 
 another part of speech. We may say " the population had 
 doubled" or "tripled," but not "fourfolded" or "fivefolded." 
 These last resemble such expressions as "to dress-make," "to 
 shoe-make," " to ship-build," which are sometimes used in jest, 
 but never in earnest. 
 
 § 47. CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 
 In concluding this subject, we may notice several important 
 truths. 
 
 1. Obsolete words in certain branches of literature are al- 
 lowable, and even in general prose they are not so unwelcome 
 now as formerly, but may be used under certain restrictions. 
 
 2. New words are incessantly coming forward, and much 
 discrimination is needed in order to decide what are and what 
 are not offences against purity of style. 
 
 3. Compound words, though far less numerous, stand in the 
 same position as new words. 
 
 4. In every age grammarians and rhetoricians have de- 
 nounced words, which have come into use in spite of them. 
 
 5. In view of these facts, the best course to be taken by one 
 who seeks to preserve purity of style is to maintain a judicious 
 conservatism. This is best stated in the lines of Pope : 
 
 " In words as fashions the same rule doth hold, 
 Alike fantastic if too new or old ; 
 Be not the first by whom the new is tried, 
 Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." 
 
 § 48. PURITY ALSO REQUIRES CONFORMITY TO GRAMMAR AND 
 
 IDIOM. 
 
 In order to write pure English, it is further necessary that 
 there be no departure from those forms of speech which are 
 established by the laws of grammar or sanctioned by the best 
 idiomatic usage. The violation of either of these is called a 
 solecism. This word is of Greek origin, and is said to have 
 arisen from the corruption of the Attic dialect among the 
 Athenian colonists of Soloe, a town in Cilicia. 
 
 The solecism includes all violations of good usage, all those 
 faults in speech commonly called " bad grammar." It is not 
 
56 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 necessary to dwell upon the importance of grammatical correct- 
 ness in style. It must be evident that pure English consists in 
 something more than well-chosen words ; and that these words, 
 when connected together in phrases, must accord with the 
 standard which has been established by the best authority^ 
 English grammar requires far more attention than it usually 
 receives from the literary man. It may not be so logical or so 
 symmetrical as that of the classical languages, and there may 
 be not a few points about which professed grammarians differ; 
 yet it may be affirmed that this very looseness and comparative 
 lawlessness arises from the world - wide comprehensiveness 
 which distinguishes it, and it should incite every writer to mas- 
 ter whatever difficulties there may be. — 
 The solecism is a subject that belongs to grammar, and not 
 to rhetoric, and all violations of the rules of syntax may be 
 found fully discussed in the works of Latham, Fowler, Angus, 
 and others. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 PERSPICUITY IN SENTENCES. 
 
 § 49. PERIODIC AND SIMPLE STRUCTURE. 
 
 Perspicuity depends not only upon the choice of words, but 
 also upon their arrangement. 
 
 Sentences, in their various divisions of simple, complex, and 
 compound, naturally fall into two great classes — long and short ; 
 and these produce such an effect upon the manner of compo- 
 sition that style itself has been classified upon this basis. 
 Where the writing is chiefly characterized by long sentences, 
 it has been called '' style periodique,'' and also '' style soutenu ;" 
 where short sentences abound, it has been called ''style coupL" 
 These words, however, have not yet been naturalized in our 
 language, and the terms "periodic structure" and "simple 
 structure " are for various reasons preferable. Of the two, the 
 simple structure is the more conducive to perspicuity, for where 
 the sentences are long great care is needed that the clauses be 
 kept in their proper order and relation ; that the leading subject 
 
Perspicuity in Sentences. '5J' 
 
 be retained prominently before the mind ; and that too many 
 things be" not crowded together. In short sentences the diffi- 
 culties are not so great ; and although they have their own 
 faults, yet obscurity is by no means one of them. 
 
 French prose literature is considered by competent critics 
 as superior to all others in perspicuity, and it is a significant 
 fact that the simple structure prevails there to a greater extent 
 than elsewhere. The French writer aims in the first place to 
 make his meaning clear, and seems to feel instinctively that 
 this aim may be best secured by the short sentence. On the 
 other hand, that of Germany is distinguished by its lack both of 
 brilliancy and perspicuity ; while at the same time it is marked 
 by the frequent recurrence of long, clumsy, and unwieldy pe- 
 riods. German prose literature has produced no group of great 
 writers like those of Rome, France, and England ; and its chief 
 fault lies in the persistent choice and careless treatment of long 
 sentences. The genius of the language commends the periodic 
 structure to the German writer, but this is no excuse for the 
 awkward manipulation of words. 
 
 In English prose there are abundant examples of both styles. 
 The long sentence characterizes the writings of Hooker, Milton, 
 Johnson, Gibbon, and De Quincey, while the short sentence is 
 the chief feature in Bacon's Essays, and in the works of Addi- 
 son, Sterne, Lamb, and Macaulay. 
 
 This subject is well presented by De Quincey in the follow- 
 ing passage : 
 
 " In French authors, whatever may otherwise be the differences of their 
 minds or the differences of their themes, uniformly we find the periods short, 
 rapid, unelaborate. Pascal or Helvetius, Condillac or Rousseau, Montes- 
 quieu or Voltaire, Buffon or Duclos — all alike are terse, perspicuous, brief. 
 Even Mirabeau or Chateaubriand, so much modified by foreign intercourse, 
 on this point adhere to their national models. Even Bossuet or Bourda- 
 loue, where the diffuseness and amplitude of oratory might have been plead- 
 ed as a dispensation, are not more licentious in this respect than their com- 
 patriots. One rise in every sentence, one gentle descent — that is the law for 
 French composition, even too monotonously so ; and thus it happens that 
 such a thing as a long, involved sentence could not be produced from French 
 literature, though a sultan were to offer his daughter in marriage to the man 
 who should find it. 
 
 "The character of German prose is an object of legitimate astonishment. 
 Whatever is bad in our o^vn ideal of prose style, whatever is most repulsive 
 in our own practice, we see there carried to the most outrageous excesa 
 
•58 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Lessing, Herder, Richter, and Lichtenberg, with some few beside, either 
 prompted by nature or trained upon foreign models, have avoided the be- 
 setting sin of German prose. . . . Among ten thousand offenders we would 
 single out Immanuel Kant. ... A sentence is viewed by him, and by most 
 of his countrymen, as a rude mould or elastic form admitting of expansion to 
 any possible extent ; it is laid down as a rude outline, and then, by super- 
 struction and ^//-superstruction, it is gradually reared to a giddy altitude 
 which no eye can follow. Yielding to his natural impulse of subjoining all 
 additions or exceptions or modifications, not in the shape of separate con- 
 secutive sentences, but as intercalations and stuffings of one original sen- 
 tence, Kant might naturally enough have written a book from beginning to 
 end in one vast hyperbolical sentence." 
 
 English prose literature affords abundant examples of each 
 style ; some authors prefer the short sentence, others the long, 
 while others again exhibit in their writings an equal proportion 
 of both. 
 
 The following is an example of the simple structure : 
 
 "The allies had during a short time obtained the most appalling suc- 
 cesses. This was their auspicious moment. They neglected to improve it 
 It passed away and returned no more. The Prince of Orange arrested the 
 progress of the French armies. Louis returned to be amused and flattered 
 at Versailles. The country was under water. The winter approached." — 
 Macaulay. 
 
 With this may be contrasted the following example of the 
 periodic structure : 
 
 " Were I ambitious of any other patron than the public, I would inscribe 
 this work to a statesman who, in a long, a stormy, and at length an unfor- 
 tunate administration, had many political opponents almost without a per- 
 sonal enemy ; who has retained on his fall from power many faithful and 
 disinterested friends,.and who under the pressure of severe infirmity enjoys 
 the livdy vigor of his mind and the felicity of his incomparable temper." — 
 Gibbon. 
 
 In all vivacious writing, the simple structure is very gener- 
 ally employed ; and it lends itself readily to a brisk and brill- 
 iant movement of thought : 
 
 " Don't tell me that I am giown old and peevish and supercilious ; name 
 the geniuses of 1774, and I submit. The next Augustan age will dawn on 
 the other side of the Atlantic. There will, perhaps, be a Thucydides at 
 Boston, a Xenophon at New York, and in time a Virgil at Mexico and a 
 Newton at Peru. At last some curious traveller from Lima will visit Eng- 
 land, and give a description of the ruins of St. Paul's, like the editions of 
 IJaalbec and Palmyra."— Horace Walpole. 
 
Perspicuity in Sentences. 59 
 
 In graver composition, especially of the didactic sort, the 
 periodic structure is more common. This is especia.<ly seen 
 in the works of Dr. Johnson : 
 
 "And yet it fills me with wonder that in almost all countries the most 
 ancient poets are considered the best ; whether it be that every other kind 
 of knowledge is an acquisition gradually attained, and poetry is a gift con- 
 ferred at once ; or that the first poetry of every nation surprised them as a 
 novelty, and retained the credit by consent which it received by accident at 
 first ; or whether, as the province of poetry is to describe nature and pas- 
 sion, which are always the same, the first writers took possession of the most 
 striking objects for description, and the most probable occurrences for fic- 
 tion, and left nothing to those who followed them but transcription of the 
 same events, and new combinations of the same images." 
 
 Both styles are often employed by the same writer. The 
 following examples are taken from Leigh Hunt's essay on 
 Books: 
 
 Periodic structure : 
 
 " Sitting last winter among my books, and walled round with all the com- 
 fort and protection which they and my fireside could afford me, to wit, a 
 table of high-piled books at my back, my writing-desk on one side of me, 
 some shelves on the other, and the feeling of the warm fire at my teet, I 
 began to consider how L loved the authors of these books ; how I loved 
 them^ too, not only for the imaginative pleasures they afforded me, but for 
 their making me love the very books themselves, and delight to be in con- 
 tact with them." 
 
 Simple structure : 
 
 " I intrench myself in my books equally against sorrow and the weather. 
 If the wind comes through a passage, I look about to see ho^ I can fence 
 it off by a better disposition of my movables. If a melancholy thought is 
 importunate, I give another glance at my Spenser. When I speak of being 
 in contact with my books, I mean it literally ; I like to lean my head against 
 them." 
 
 The following passages are from the writings of Chalmers : 
 Periodic structure : 
 
 .' " Though the earth were to be burned up, though the trumpet of its dis- 
 
 ' solution were sounded, though yon sky were to pass away as a scroll, and 
 
 every visible glory which the finger of the Divinity has inscribed on it were 
 
 extinguished forever ; an event so awful to us and to every world in our vi- 
 
 , cinity, by which so many suns would be extinguished, and so many varied 
 
 V Scenes of life and population would rush into forgetfulness — what is it in 
 
 "^ the high scale of the Almighty's workmanship ?" 
 
6o Ele?nents of Rhetoric. 
 
 Simple structure : 
 
 " These poor animals just look, and tremble, and give forth the very indi- 
 cations of suffering that we do. Theirs is the unequivocal physiognomy of 
 pain. They put on the same aspect of terror on the demonstrations of a 
 menaced blow. They exhibit the same distortions of agony after the inflic- 
 tion of it. The bruise, the burn, or the fracture, or the deep incision, or the 
 fierce encounter with one of equal or superior strength, just affects them simi- 
 larly to ourselves. Their blood circulates as ours. They sicken, and they 
 grow feeble with age, and finally they die, just as we do." 
 
 § 50. RULE FOR THE GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN 
 A SENTENCE. 
 
 Attention must be paid to the general arrangement of words 
 in a sentence. 
 
 The rule which is usually given for this is as follows : The 
 words and members most nearly related should be placed in 
 the sentence as near to each other as possible, so as to make 
 their mutual relations clearly apparent. The same rule is also 
 stated in the following words : Those parts of a sentence which 
 are most closely connected in their meaning should be as close- 
 ly as possible connected in position. 
 
 From inattention to this various errors frequently arise. 
 Sometimes the adjective is placed in a wrong position : 
 
 " The Episcopal Church furnishes the assurance of an organic and un- 
 broken unity and succession from the apostles, by a line of unbroken bish- 
 ops, down to the bishop of this diocese" 
 
 The writer should have said, "an unbroken line of bishops." 
 The adverb is misplaced in the following sentence : 
 
 " They thought that, if he wanted his civil rights, he ought to have sent 
 in his application for pardon at least" 
 
 Here "at least " seems to qualify " pardon," but it was intend- 
 ed to refer to the act of sending in an application ; and it should 
 have been, " he ought at least to have sent in his application." 
 
 The position of the relative should receive careful attention : 
 
 " I struck the animal with my knife on the head, which, being made of 
 bad steel, broke, and I was left at his mercy." 
 
 "They flew to arms and attacked Northumberland's horse, whom they 
 put to death." 
 
 In these sentences the position of the relative is such as to 
 give an absurd turn to the meaning. 
 
Perspicuity in Sentences. 6i 
 
 Personal pronouns give rise to frequent obscurity, and the 
 difficulty attending their proper management is sometimes al- 
 most insuperable. Thus, speaking of Marlborough, a writer 
 says : 
 
 " He had an interview with King Charles, and spoke much about his vic- 
 tories, telling him that all Europe now lay at his feet, and that the final issues 
 of the war were in his hands." 
 
 To one unacquainted with the facts this sentence would be 
 quite unintelligible. 
 
 Clarendon writes as follows ; 
 
 " On which, with the king's and queen's so ampic promises to him, so 
 few hours before conferring the place upon another, and the Duke of York's 
 manner of receiving hini, after he had been shut up with him, as he was in- 
 formed, might very well excuse him from thinking he had some share in the 
 affront he had undergone." 
 
 One way of preventing such obscurity is by inserting in brack- 
 ets after each pronoun the name of the person referred to. 
 This is commonly done by reporters of speeches, when the re- 
 port of the speech is made in the third person ; as: " He would 
 inform the right honorable gentleman that he [Mr. Disraeli] 
 differed from him [Mr. Gladstone] in every particular." This, 
 though the easiest way, and certainly the clearest, is, however, 
 hardly tolerable in general prose composition. The better plan 
 is to reconstruct the sentence altogether. This may be done 
 by breaking it up into shorter sentences, or by substituting for 
 the pronouns the names that may be appropriate, the reflexive, 
 the relative, or such words as " the former," " the latter." 
 
 The position of clauses requires the same attention as that 
 of words, and gives rise to the same class of errors : 
 
 " He determined to force his son to the marriage, and afterwards to ob- 
 tain the king's consent, whether he would or not." 
 
 In this sentence the final clause seems to refer to the king, 
 whereas it really refers to the " son " spoken of. 
 
 Anthon translates a passage in the fifth book of Xenophon's 
 Anabasis thus : 
 
 " Boys belonging to the wealthy classes, fattened by being fed on boiled 
 chestnuts, soft and exceedingly white, and not wanting much of being equal 
 In length and breadth, of various colors on their backs," etc. 
 
 In the original the inflections of the words prevent obscurity; 
 
62 Elements of Rlietoric. 
 
 but here it is not quite certain whether it is the boys or the 
 chestnuts that are thus characterized. 
 
 § 51. LIMITATIONS TO THE GENERAL RULE OF ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 The above rule for arrangement is subject to limitations. 
 
 No composition can be so framed as to withstand the pos- 
 sible distortions or wilful misapprehensions of hypercritical 
 readers, who refuse to take the obvious meaning of a sentence, 
 and seize upon one which they may contrive to extract from 
 the words. Such a course could reduce to nonsense the finest 
 passages of literature, and by its excesses destroy everything 
 like true criticism. The writer must always remember, and the 
 critic also, that fair and candid treatment is to be expected. 
 To be perspicuous is to be intelligible to those to whom a writ- 
 ing is addressed, and not to write so that a sentence cannot 
 possibly be distorted in meaning. This is not only impossible 
 in itself, but the very attempt would destroy all ease or vivac- 
 ity of style, and reduce all composition to one dead level of 
 dulness. 
 
 In the arrangement of words there are various things to be 
 considered. 
 
 I. Emphasis. 
 
 The subject of emphasis is one of the utmost importance, and 
 will receive a fuller treatment in a more appropriate place, and 
 is now merely touched upon in order to show its effect upon 
 the arrangement of words. 
 
 In all sentences there are emphatic words which in many 
 cases indicate their character sufficiently well by the context. 
 But careful writers are generally desirous of adding to the force 
 of these ; and the chief way in which this can be done is by 
 placing them in an unusual position : 
 
 " Me he restored to my position, and him he hanged." 
 " Him, being delivered by the determinate counsel and foreknowledge of 
 God, ye have taken, and by wicked hands have crucified and slain." 
 
 In the first of these sentences " me " and " him," which or- 
 dinarily would be connected in position with " restored " and 
 "hanged," are separated from them by the personal pronoun. 
 
 In the second this separation is greater, and the emphasis is 
 more striking. According to the rule "him" follows " taken 3'* 
 
Perspicuity in Sentences. 63 
 
 but here they are separated, with no less than twelve words 
 between them. 
 
 2. The general rule for arrangement is also affected by paren- 
 thetical clauses, which include all those phrases or statements 
 inserted in the body of a sentence for purposes of explanation 
 or illustration. These, when properly employed, are not only 
 intelligible, but contribute in the highest degree to the clear- 
 ness of the writer, and as such should be employed wherever 
 they are needed : 
 
 " He came over, to my amazement, and accosted me." 
 
 To pretend that the phrase " to my amazement " is grammat- 
 ically the object of " he came over," is a piece of trivial crit- 
 icism which is beneath notice. 
 
 *' People fall, from their ignorance, into strange mistakes." 
 
 This is a sentence of a similar character, which is quite clear 
 and faultless in construction. In both of these we see that 
 words most nearly connected may be separated, whenever it is 
 desirable, by parenthetical clauses. 
 
 3. Relatives. 
 
 A sentence may be perfectly intelligible even when the 
 relative is separated from its antecedent : 
 
 " Xenophon, the disciple of Socrates, who wrote the^Iemorabilia." 
 
 It may be said that Socrates is described here as the writer 
 of the Memorabilia; but a sufficient answer is that Xenophon's 
 authorship may be considered as too well known to be mis- 
 taken. 
 
 "Paris, the capital of France, which at that time was the largest city in 
 Europe." 
 
 Here it may be said that France is described as the largest 
 city in Europe ; but for perversity or ignorance which could so 
 distort the meaning of plain sentences the average author does 
 not pretend to write. 
 
 In this case there is a rule, sanctioned by the best writers, 
 which may be stated thus : Attributive, descriptive, or explana- 
 tory terms may stand between the antecedent and its relative, 
 as, " Alexander, the son of Philip, who conquered Persia." 
 
 In the case of personal pronouns it is sufficient for the writer 
 
64 Eleme7its of Rhetoric. 
 
 to frame his sentences for people of ordinary candor and intel- 
 ligence, and see that there be as little obscurity as possible. 
 This can best be done by allowing the context to throw light 
 on the reference of the pronouns in each instance. 
 
 The true rule to follow is to allow the words and members 
 of a sentence which are most nearly related to stand as near 
 to one another as may be consistent with a due regard for em- 
 phasis, or for explanatory words and clauses. To this may be 
 added a general rule laid down by a recent Edinburgh review- 
 er : " Write in a way which cannot be misunderstood by a read- 
 er of common candor and intelligence." 
 
 § 52. UNITY. 
 
 In the construction of sentences, attention must also be paid 
 to unity. 
 
 Unity is that quality of style by which the precise idea of 
 the writer is presented to the mind as one whole, with all its 
 co-ordinate and subordinate relations duly arranged so that no 
 misconception can arise. 
 
 A sentence is the enunciation of a thought, which may be 
 presented in the simplest or the most complex form ; and thus 
 sentences may be found which range all the way from a mere 
 statement of not more than two words up to entire page% 
 which may be fiWed by one long, complicated, and highly elab- 
 orated period. 
 
 Sentences are called simple, complex, or compound ; but 
 these may all be analyzed, and reduced to subject and predi- 
 cate. The difference between the short and the long sentence 
 is that the former is generally simple or complex, and the lat- 
 ter is compound. In the former there is seldom any lack of 
 unity ; it is with the latter that this subject has to do. 
 . Sentences are called compound when they contain two or 
 more principal assertions, co-ordinate with each other. There 
 are three principal relations in which the parts of a compound 
 sentence may stand towards each other : first, when they are 
 coupled together, as, " Man proposes, God disposes ;" secondly, 
 the antithetical, as, " A wise son maketh a glad father, but a 
 foolish son is a heaviness to his mother;" thirdly, the causative, 
 as, "As he was valiant, I honor him; but as he was ambitious, 
 I slew him." 
 
Perspicuity in Sentences. 65 
 
 In every sentence, however long or involved, there is or 
 ought to be some dominant idea, to which all the statements 
 refer; and unity means the preservation of this dominant idea 
 in its prominent place before the mind. 
 
 In this way the attention of the reader is retained, and his 
 intelligence is satisfied ; otherwise he loses his grasp of the 
 idea ; and as he quickly becomes distracted among various 
 circumstances, the result is obscurity. 1 
 
 § 53. PROMINENCE OF THE PRINCIPAL SUBJECT. 
 
 In order to preserve unity in the construction of sentences, 
 it is necessary to pay attention to several things, which will 
 now be considered. 
 
 I. The principal idea should retain its prominent place be- 
 fore the mind of the reader, and transitions from one topic to 
 another should not be made in the same sentence. 
 
 An example of this is found in the following sentence, the 
 length of which does not interfere with its unity : 
 
 " Remember that at this very moment, and at each tick of the clock, 
 some fifty souls have departed hence, gone with their tempestuous passions, 
 their strife, their truth, their hopes, into space and silence ; not, either, with 
 the appearance of forces spent and finished — for there are children fallen 
 away, with expectant look on life, nothing doubting the secure embrace that 
 seems to fold them round ; there is youth, raised up to self-subsistence, not 
 without difficulty and sorrow, with the clear, deep light of thought and won- 
 der shining from within, quenched in sudden night ; there is many an heroic 
 life built on no delusion of sense and selfishness, but, firm on the adamant 
 of faith, and defying the seductions of falsehood and the threats of fear, 
 sunk from us absolutely away, and- giving no answer to our recalling en- 
 treaties and our tears." — James Martineau. 
 
 The theme here is that some fifty souls die every second \ 
 these are then classified ; and the different classes are minor 
 subjects, among which the principal subject never loses its 
 prominence. 
 
 The following sentence, which is an equally good illustration, 
 is constructed on similar principles : 
 
 "There sits a somewhat ancestral dignity and glory on this favorite pas- 
 time of joyous old England; when the gallant knighthood, and the hearty 
 yeomen, and the amateurs or virtuosos of the chase, and the full assembled 
 jockeyship of half a province, muster together in all the pride and pageant- 
 ry of their great emprise ; and the panorama of some noble landscape, 
 
6b Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 lighted up with an autumnal clearness from an unclouded heaven, pours 
 fresh exhilaration into every blithe and choice spirit of .he scene ; and 
 every adventurous heart is braced and impatient for the hazards of the com- , 
 ing enterprise ; and even the high-breathed coursers catch the general sym- 
 pathy, and seem to fret in all the restiveness of their yet checked and irri- 
 tated fire, till the echoing horn shall set them at liberty ; even that horn 
 which is the knell of death to some trembling victim now brought forth of 
 its lurking-place to the delighted gaze, and borne down upon with the full 
 and open cry of its ruthless pursuers." — Chalmers. 
 
 In this sentence there is the enumeration of many different 
 particulars, yet they create no confusion whatever, for they are 
 all kept in due subordination to the chief statement, which is 
 that " dignity and glory " is connected with the chase, and to 
 this all others serve as illustrations. 
 
 The following sentence is of unusual length, yet the unity of 
 construction is preserved throughout : 
 
 •• He urged to him that the desperate situation of the Duke of Normandy 
 made it requisite for that prince to bring matters to a speedy decision, and 
 put his whole fortune on the issue of a battle; but that the king of England, 
 in his own country, beloved by his own subjects, provided with every supply, 
 had more certain and less dangerous means of insuring to himself the victory; 
 that the Norman troops, elated, on the one hand, with the highest hopes, 
 and seeing, on the other, no resource in case of a discomfiture, would fight 
 to the last extremity, and being the flower of all the warriors on the Conti- 
 nent, must be regarded as formidable to the English ; that if their first fire, 
 which is always the most dangerous, were allowed to languish for want of 
 action, if they were harassed with small skirmishes, shortened in provisions, 
 and fatigued with the bad weather and deep roads during the winter season, 
 which was approaching, they must fall an easy and bloodless prey to their 
 enemy ; that if a general action were delayed, the English, sensible of the 
 imminent danger to which their properties as well as liberties were exposed 
 from those rapacious invaders, would hasten from all quarters to his assist- 
 ance, and would render his army invincible ; that at least, if he thought it 
 necessary to hazard a battle, he ought not to expose his own person, but re- 
 ser\'e, in case of disastrous accidents, some resource to the liberty and inde-*— 
 pendence of the kingdom ; and that having once been so unfortunate as to 
 be constrained to swear, and that upon the holy relics, to support the pre- . 
 tensions of the Duke of Normandy, it were better that the command of the 
 army should be intrusted to another, who, not being bound by those sacred 
 ties, might give the soldiers more assured hopes of a prosperous issue to the 
 combat." — Hume. 
 
 This is like the report of a speech ; there is a succession of 
 particulars, but all are kept in subordination to the main idea, 
 which is the address of Gurth to King Harold. 
 
Perspicuity iii Sentences. 6/ 
 
 Violations of this law of unity are very common. We often 
 find carelessly huddled together in the same sentence a suc- 
 cession of particulars, which divert the mind more and more 
 from the principal subject, until at last it is forgotten. Lord 
 Clarendon is a great offender in this respect ; and the following 
 sentence, which serves to illustrate this fault, is a very fair 
 specimen of his loose and careless construction : 
 
 *• That people, after they had once begun, pursued the business vigorous- 
 ly, and with all imaginable contempt of the government ; and though in the 
 hubbub of the first day there appeared nobody of name and reckoning, but 
 the actors were really of the dregs of the people, yet they discovered by the 
 countenance of that day that few men of rank were forward to engage them- 
 selves on behalf of the bishops, whereupon more considerable persons every 
 day appeared against them as heretofore in the case of St. Paul — Acts xiii., 
 50 : ' The Jews stirred up devout and honorable women ' — the women and 
 ladies of the best quality declared themselves of the party, and, with all the 
 reproaches imaginable, made war upon the bishops as intro<lucers of popery 
 and superstition, against which they avowed themselves to be irreconcila- 
 ble enemies, and their husbands did not long defer the owning of the same 
 spirit, insomuch that within a few days the bishops durst not appear in the 
 streets, nor in any courts or houses, but were in danger of theii* lives ; and 
 such of the lords as durst be in their company, or seemed to desire to res- 
 cue them from violence, had their coaches torn to pieces and their persons 
 assaulted, insomuch that they were glad to seijd for some of those great 
 men who did, indeed, govern the rabble, though they appeared not in it, 
 who readily came, and redeemed them out of their hands, so that by the 
 time new orders came from England there was scarce a bishop left in Edin- 
 burgh, and not a minister who durst read the Liturgy in any church." 
 
 There is no principal subject here, but several of equal im- 
 portance, which interfere with each other. An analysis of this 
 sentence shows the following statements : i. The people pur- 
 sued the business ; 2. Influential men began to appear ; 3. 
 Women and ladies came forward ; 4. Their husbands fol- 
 lowed ; 5. The bishops were in danger ; 6. Their defenders 
 were maltreated ; 7. There was scarce a bishop left, and not a 
 minister that dared officiate. 
 
 The following passage is taken from Milman's History of 
 Latin Christianity : 
 
 ** Under the stately nave of the cathedral of that city, where the aspiring 
 Lombard, or, rather, Italian architecture had lifted the roof to a majestic 
 height yet unequalled in Italy even by Gothic assistance, and supported on 
 tall harmonious pillars, even now the noblest model of the Italian Basilica 
 expanded into the Latin cross ; where over the altar hovered the vast and 
 
 D 
 
68 Elements of RJutoric. 
 
 solemn picture of our Lord, with the Virgin on one side, Sl John on the 
 other, in which Cimabue made the last and most splendid effort of the old 
 rigid Hyzantine art to retain its imperilled supremacy ; and thus Latin 
 Christianity seemed to assert its rights against Teutonic independence be- 
 fore their final severance ; beneath these auspices met the most august as- 
 sembly, as to the numbers and rank of the prelates, and the ambassadors of 
 Christian kings, which for centuries had assumed the functions of a repre- 
 sentative senate of Christendom." 
 
 In this sentence the description of the place of meeting, quite 
 allowable in itself, and when properly treated with due subor- 
 dination to the main idea, is interrupted by side remarks which 
 tend to distract the attention and obscure the meaning. These 
 may be stated in the following order: i. The height never be- 
 fore equalled; 2. The tall pillars; 3. The Italian Basilica ex- 
 panded into a Latin cross ; 4. The picture over the altar ; 5. 
 Byzantine art ; 6. Latin Christianity asserting its rights. From 
 the beginning to the end of this long sentence the sense is held 
 in suspense ; and after the presentation of this array of topics, 
 the interrupted sentence is at length resumed ; but the reader's 
 attention "has been carried so far away from the subject that 
 the connection can only be perceived with difficulty. There is 
 a similar passage in Macaulay's essay on Warren Hastings, 
 where he describes the scene of the trial. In this the simple 
 structure is adopted. The same effort is made in each to pre- 
 pare the reader for 'the acts of an assembly, by a description 
 of the place in which those acts occurred. But in Macaulay's 
 work there is no confusion ; the scene is presented with vivid 
 distinctness ; and the impression left upon the mind is at once 
 clear and permanent. 
 
 These faults may be perceived in shorter sentences as well 
 as in those of greater length. 
 
 "After Napoleon's escape from Elba, and landing on the coast of France, 
 he advanced as rapidly as possible towards Paris, and on the way he was met 
 by the troops under the command of Marshal Ney, who had sworn to bring 
 him back in an iron cage, but now saluted him as emperor." 
 
 Here the fault consists in a transition from Napoleon to 
 Marshal Ney ; for whereas the sentence begins with the escape 
 of the former from Elba, and his march on Paris, it ends with 
 the action of the latter. 
 
 " The successor of Henry II. was Francis II., the first husband of Mary, 
 
Perspicuity in Sentences, 69 
 
 afterwards Queen of Scots, who died after a reign of one year, and was 
 succeeded by his brother, Charles IX,, then a boy only ten years old, who 
 had for his guardian Catherine de' Medici, an ambitious and unscrupulous 
 woman." 
 
 In this sentence a transition is made from Francis II. to 
 Charles IX., and another to Catherine de' Medici. 
 
 § 54. APPENDED CLAUSES. 
 
 2. Another rule for the observance of unity is that mem- 
 bers should not be added after the sentence has come to a 
 close. 
 
 In the following sentence from Lord Clarendon's History, a 
 violation of this rule will be noticed : 
 
 '♦The next day upon the plains. Dr. Henchman, one of the prebends of 
 Salisbury, met the king, the Lord Wilmot and Philips then leaving him to 
 go to the sea-coast to find a vessel, the doctor conducting the king to a 
 place called Heale, three miles from Salisbury, belonging then to Sergeant 
 Hyde, who was afterwards Chief-Justice of the King's Bench, and then in 
 possession of the widow of his elder brother ; a house that stood alone from 
 neighbors and from any highway, where, coming in late, he supped with 
 some gentlemen that were accidentally in the house, which could not very 
 well be avoided." 
 
 This whole passage is confused in its arrangement, but the 
 most noticeable fault is the appendage of a clause after the 
 words "elder brother," where the sentence comes naturally to 
 an end. 
 
 § 55. THE PARENTHESIS. 
 
 3. Unity requires that proper attention be paid to the use of 
 the parenthesis. 
 
 The parenthesis generally conveys an idea of a subordinate 
 character, and it is inserted in the midst of the sentence near- 
 est to those words whose meaning it is designed to affect. 
 When properly employed it is of great value in composition, 
 and need not interfere at all with the unity of the sentence ; 
 but it is very liable to improper use. 
 
 The parenthesis is usually indicated by certain marks; but 
 these are merely for the convenience of the reader, and in many 
 cases it has nothing whatever to indicate its presence. Whether 
 these marks be used or not is a mere question of punctuation, 
 and does not at all affect the true nature of the parenthesis. 
 
70 Elements of EJietoric. 
 
 The parenthesis is useful under the following circumstances: 
 
 1. To give emphasis. 
 
 The following is an example : 
 
 " Suppose (and we beg pardon for putting such a supposition even for the 
 sake of argument) that the Duke of Wellington had, after the campaign of 
 1815, privately accepted ;^200,cxx5 from Louis XVIIL, as a mark of his 
 gratitude."— Macaulay. 
 
 Here the parenthesis conveys an apology for putting a sup- 
 posed case ; and therefore the thing referred to is marked as 
 disgraceful and infamous, with an emphasis that could not 
 otherwise be given. 
 
 2. The parenthesis is also used to offer a necessary expla- 
 nation : 
 
 *' If the debt were wiped out (a measure, be it understood, which we by no 
 means recommend), the fundholder would cease to spend his five hundred a 
 year." — Macaulay. 
 
 Here the parenthesis inserts a necessary explanation of the 
 author's own views in the most convenient and striking place. 
 
 3. Another case is to be found in parenthetical clauses. 
 These are numerous and useful. They comprise all such 
 
 convenient and often indispensable formulas as the following: 
 " So to speak," " strange to say," " if I may be allowed the ex- 
 pression," " in spite of himself," " out of the very kindness of 
 his heart," " through utter ignorance," " through mere wanton- 
 ness," "awful thought," and the like. 
 
 In all cases where the parenthesis is used care should be 
 taken that there be no abrupt transition, but that it flow on- 
 ward smoothly with the rest of the sentence. 
 
 Errors in the use of the parenthesis are very common. Some 
 writers employ them to an excessive degree, and seem unable 
 to produce any number of sentences without inserting explan- 
 atory clauses or modifying statements. Their intention is to 
 make the meaning clearer; but the result of so many inter- 
 ruptions to the course of thought is generally to make it ob- 
 scure. 
 
 The improper use of the parenthesis takes place whenever it 
 is of undue length or of too frequent occurrence, or when it has 
 too slight a connection with the subject under consideration. 
 This may be seen in the following passage from De Quincey : 
 
Perspiaiity in Sentences. 71 
 
 *' Forty years ago (or in all probability a good deal more, for we have 
 already completed thirty-seven years from Waterloo, and my remembrance 
 upon this subject goes back to a period lying much behind that great era) 
 I used to be annoyed and irritated by the false interpretation given to the 
 Greek word aidv (eson).^^ 
 
 Here the parenthesis is of undue length, for out of fifty-five 
 words it comprises thirty-four; and besides, while the sentence 
 refers to false interpretations of the Greek word, the parenthesis 
 takes away the attention of the reader to the totally different 
 subject of the era of Waterloo. 
 
 In the following example from Bolingbroke the same fault 
 may be seen : 
 
 "It seems to me that in order to maintain the system of the world at a 
 certain point far below that of ideal perfection (for we are made capable of 
 conceiving what we are incapable of attaining), but, however, sufficient upon 
 the whole to constitute a state easy and happy (or at the worst, tolerable) ; 
 1 say, it seems to me that the Author of nature has seen fit to mingle among 
 the societies of men a few, and but a few, of those on whom he is graciously 
 pleased to bestow a larger portion of the ethereal spirit than is given in the 
 ordinary course of his government to the sons of men." 
 
 This passage exhibits many faults, such as useless repetitions, 
 tedious circumlocution, and general awkwardness of construc- 
 tion; but the thing to be noticed here is the use of the paren- 
 thesis without any sufficient cause, and its occurrence twice 
 in the same sentence. 
 
 The following is an extract from a translation of Rotteck's 
 Universal History : 
 
 ** Only what was decreed or approved by such assemblies (of the people 
 themselves in so far as it was possible, or at least of the great who represent- 
 ed them in some measure) was regarded as law." 
 
 Here the parenthesis is of disproportionate length, since it 
 comprises twenty-three words out of thirty-six. 
 
 § 56. UNITY IN LONG AND SHORT SENTENCES. 
 
 From the foregoing illustrations it is evident that unity does 
 not depend upon mere length, since it may be as well observed 
 in the periodic as in the simple structure. The long sentence 
 has its own beauties and its own advantages; but it requires 
 more careful handling and a higher degree of elaboration in 
 order to be effective. Violations of unity are no doubt chiefly 
 
72 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 visible in long sentences, but these arise not so much from 
 their length as from the carelessness of the writer. Lord Clar- 
 endon, amid many excellences which have made his history 
 a classical work, exhibits this one great blemish; for his care- 
 less constructions lead to more frequent offences against unity 
 than can be found in any other writer of equal merit. His 
 habit often is to begin a statement, and then append clause 
 after clause, joining each by any connective that may come to 
 hand, without any thought of proper subordination ; and when 
 at length the sentence comes to an end, its close does not 
 appear to depend upon any purpose of the writer, but seems 
 rather to come by chance. 
 
 Where unity is thus affected the remedy is generally easy. 
 Either the sentence itself may be reconstructed, or, if this can- 
 not be done, it may be broken up into two or more new ones, 
 each of which will be complete in itself. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PERSPICUITY IN GENERAL. 
 
 § 57. PERSPICUITY IN GENERAL. — CLEARNESS OF CONCEPTION 
 AND METHOD. 
 
 We have now to consider the subject of perspicuity in gen- 
 eral. 
 
 The chief requisite here is clearness of conception on the 
 part of the writer. It is evident that one who has distinct ideas 
 of his subject will be best able to impart such ideas to others; 
 and, on the other hand, it may be said that without this it is im- 
 possible to attain to perspicuity. No writer can give to others 
 that which he himself does not possess. Of obscure passages, 
 some are without any definite meaning; others lead to a con- 
 clusion which is not what is to be expected from the context; 
 others again are susceptible of a meaning which was never in 
 the mind of the writer ; and in such cases the fault will gen- 
 erally be found to arise from the lack of clear conceptions on 
 the part of the author. 
 
Perspicuity in General. 73 
 
 But even where the writer has the clearest possible concep- 
 tion of his subject, it by no means follows that his style will be 
 perspicuous. The art of expression must be studied as well ; 
 and where this is neglected the most complete and acknowl- 
 edged mastery of the subject will not prevent obscurity. 
 
 In addition to this, the argument must be presented in a dis- 
 tinct and intelligible manner. However clear the ideas may 
 be, and however lucid the individual sentences, unless the ar- 
 rangement of the whole be perspicuous, the general impression 
 left upon the mind will after all be but vague and obscure. 
 Hence the order of thought must be attended to, as well as the 
 art of expression. 
 
 A conspicuous example of one whose method is inferior to 
 his power of expression may be found in De Quincey. No Eng- 
 lish prose writer surpasses him in command over words, or in 
 the construction of sentences ; but he seems incapable of ar- 
 ranging his thoughts, in the most effective manner. His suc- 
 cession of ideas is often quite inconsequential ; he inserts un- 
 expectedly new suggestions which distract the attention ; he is 
 discursive, irregular, unmethodical ; and at the close of his es- 
 say the reader finds that he has been engaged in a delightful 
 survey of several pleasing themes, among which the formal sub- 
 ject is far from being the most prominent. 
 
 Nowhere is this so strikingly visible as in the difference be- 
 fore alluded to between French and German writers. The lat- 
 ter, who in many cases are the acknowledged leaders in sci- 
 ence and philosophy, are notoriously obscure in the expression 
 of their ideas, and confused in the arrangement of them ; while 
 the former, who are most precise in the expression of their 
 thoughts, are no less clear and luminous in their method. 
 
 In connection with perspicuity in general various qualities 
 of style present themselves for consideration, and these have 
 both their beauties and defects, which will be noticed in order. 
 
 § 58. CONCISENESS, OR BREVITY. 
 
 Conciseness means the employment of no more words than 
 are absolutely necessary. When not carried too far it may be 
 quite consistent with perspicuity. " Brevity is the soul of wit," 
 and great and important truths are often summed up in a short 
 but pithy statement. The most familiar examples of this are 
 
74 Elemtnts of Rlutoric. 
 
 found in proverbs, maxims, and current sayings, which are 
 usually as clear as they are brief. Certain writers are fond of 
 this mode of expression ; and as it is frequently very effective 
 when associated with the figure antithesis, so those writers who 
 are most concise will generally be found employing an anti- 
 thetical style. Tacitus, Lord Bacon, and Emerson are striking 
 examples of this. 
 
 The following sentences exhibit this quality : 
 
 " Content may dwell in all stations. To be low, but above contempt, may 
 be high enough to be happy. But many of low degree may be higher than 
 computed, and some cubits above the common commensuration ; for in all 
 states, virtue gives qualifications and allowances which make out defects. 
 Rough diamonds arc sometimes mistaken for pebbles ; and meanness may 
 be rich in accomplishments which riches in vain desire." — Sir Thomas 
 Browne. 
 
 In this passage we find no more words employed than are 
 absolutely necessary. The style is compact and energetic, yet 
 quite clear; and if the reader feels himself constrained to pause 
 over the perusal of these sentences, it is not on account of their 
 obscurity, but rather from the perception of a suggested mean- 
 ing underlying that which is at first apparent. 
 
 Sometimes the meaning is not at once evident, and patient 
 attention is required in order to arrive at it. This may be 
 seen in the following sentences from Emerson : 
 
 " Literature is a point outside of our hodiernal circle through which a 
 new one may be described." 
 
 " Our moods do not believe in each other." 
 " Men walk as prophecies of the next age." 
 
 Sometimes the thought is not stated at sufficient length. 
 Conciseness is a virtue in style when the words are sufficient; 
 but when they are too few, then obscurity is the result. Con- 
 cise writers, as may be expected, while seeking to express them- 
 selves with but few words, often limit them to too small a num- 
 ber ; and for this reason are understood with difficulty. Hence 
 those who are distinguished for this quality abound in obscure 
 passages. This arises, first, from an excessive paucity of words ; 
 secondly, from elliptical forms of expression ; and, thirdly, from 
 not dwelling sufficiently upon the thought that has been ex- 
 pressed. 
 
Perspicuity in General. 7j 
 
 Emerson's style is concise; it is often clear, but it is often 
 obscure. For example : 
 
 "Every man is an inlet to the same and all of the same." 
 "Moons are no more bounds to spiritual power than bat-balls." 
 
 There is a meaning in these sentences which is of sufficient 
 value to reward the effort to acquire it, yet to the ordinary 
 reader they are obscure. 
 
 Conciseness is often conducive to perspicuity where a synop- 
 sis is needed of some previous statement. Here, by refreshing 
 the memory, it helps to clear up obscurities ; but at the same 
 time such a repetition must necessarily be brief 
 
 Conciseness does not furnish the best means for rhetorical 
 excellence, though there are many concise writers who are by 
 no means deficient in fondness for the beauties of style. In 
 Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, and Emerson may be found great 
 epigrammatic point and brilliancy. Yet for all other qualities 
 of style, for everything like richness and splendor of imagery, 
 profusion of illustration, amplitude of statement, and magnifi- 
 cence and variety of diction, conciseness does not afford suffi- 
 cient space. 
 
 § 59. DIFFUSENESS. 
 
 Diffuseness means the employment of a liberal number of 
 words for the expression of our ideas. Where it is held in check 
 by a cultivated taste it may be called affluence of expression, 
 and it is a characteristic of many of the greatest authors. 
 Those who are fond of the beauties of style, and regard rhetoric 
 as a fine art, are generally diffiise; they take delight in the 
 rhythms and cadences of periods, and in all modes of embel- 
 lishment; and seek to express their thoughts not only with 
 clearness, but also with an attractive beauty. When to afflu- 
 ence of expression is also added precision, the highest perspi- 
 cuity is the result. As examples of this, it will be sufficient to 
 mention a few of the best-known names among ancient and 
 modern authors, such as Xenophon, Livy, Clarendon, Macau- 
 lay. When these are compared with concise writers — Xenoplion 
 with Thucydides, Livy with Tacitus, Macaulay with Hallam — 
 the truth of this statement will be manifest. 
 
 Those writers who are. most highly rhetorical are most dis- 
 tinguished for this affluence of style. Among the ancients 
 
 D 2 
 
^6 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 Cicero is pre-eminent In English literature the most striking 
 examples are Jeremy Taylor, Edmund Burke, and Thomas De 
 Quincey. 
 
 This may be illustrated by the following passage from Ma- 
 caulay : 
 
 "In truth there is no sadder spot on earth than that little cemetery. 
 Death is there associated, not as at Westminster Abbey and St. Paul's, with 
 genius and virtue, with public veneration and imperishable renown ; not as 
 in our humblest churches and churchyards, with everything that is most 
 endearing in social and domestic charities ; but with whatever is darkest in 
 human nature and in human destiny — with the savage triumph of implaca- 
 ble enemies — with the inconstancy, the ingratitude, the cowardice of friends 
 — with all the miseries of fallen greatness and of blighted fame. Thither 
 have been carried, through successive ages, by the rude hands of jailers, 
 without one mourner following, the bleeding relics of men who had been 
 the captains of armies, the leaders of parties, the oracles of senates, and the 
 ornaments of courts." 
 
 In this passage we are struck by the great variety of modes 
 in which one idea, that of the sadness of St. Peter's Chapel, is 
 presented to the mind. The writer seeks, in many different 
 directions, for points of contrast with his main theme, and his 
 meaning is set forth with great richness of language and clear- 
 ness of illustration. 
 
 Affluence of style is as useful in expository writing as in 
 descriptive and narrative, and may be illustrated by the fol- 
 lowing passage, in which Professor Tyndall speaks of the 
 sun: 
 
 •• Measured by our largest standards, such a reservoir of power is infinite ; 
 but it is our privilege to rise above these standards, and to regard the sun 
 himself as a speck in infinite extension, a mere drop in the universal sea. 
 We analyze the space in which he is immersed, and which is the vehicle 
 of his power. We pass to other systems and other suns, each pouring forth 
 energy like our own, but still without infringement of the law which reveals 
 immutability in the midst of change, which recognizes incessant transference 
 and conversion, but neither final gain nor loss. This law generalizes the 
 aphorism of Solomon that there is nothing new under the sun, by teaching 
 us to detect everywhere, under its infinite variety of appearances, the same 
 primeval force. To nature nothing can be added ; from nature nothing can 
 be talcen away ; the sum of her energies is constant ; and the utmost man 
 can do in the pursuit of physical truth, or in the application of physical 
 knowledge, is to shift the conditions of the never-varying total, and out of 
 one ot them to form another." 
 
 Professor Tyndall is one of those scientific writers who seek 
 
Perspicuity in Genet aL Jj 
 
 to render their style attractive by means of rhetorical em- 
 bellishment ; nor does the cultivation of the art of expression 
 detract in any degree from the accuracy of his method. In 
 this passage the reader will find copiousness of thought, 
 profusion of illustration, and affluence of language, all com- 
 bining to present a clear and vivid impression of the mean- 
 ing. 
 
 Diffuseness, when carried too far, becomes a fault in stj-le, 
 for then the meaning is obscured under a mass of unnecessary 
 words. Thus the very affluence of language and the rich vo- 
 cabulary which are an advantage at the outset, from the want 
 of due repression, grow at last to be an evil of no common 
 magnitude. 
 
 There are some who arc naturally gifted with great fluency 
 in speaking or writing. They express their thoughts with so 
 much ease and fulness that -they never think of examining what 
 they have written, still less of correcting it. This self-compla- 
 cency destroys at the outset all that nobler effort after self-im- 
 provement which is generally born of discontent or self distrust, 
 and terminates in a confirmed habit of carelessness or intel- 
 lectual indolence. Short and long essays and short and long 
 sermons are often misjudged, and the superficial hearer often 
 supposes that the longer work is the result of greater labor. As 
 a matter of fact, however, the shorter work may have been pro- 
 duced by laborious and painstaking compression, while the 
 longer one may retain its original length out of the mere care- 
 lessness of the writer. It is plain that, under such circumstan- 
 ces, the former will be far clearer and more satisfactory. Among 
 speakers, that one is most intelligible who uses words liberally, 
 but is precise in their application ; and he is most difficult 
 to follow who is diffuse without precision, and, being carried 
 away by his own fluency, hides his meaning under a cloud of 
 words. 
 
 Diffuseness, when carried too far, may be considered as ver- 
 bosity, and among its characteristics the following may be men- 
 tioned as the most striking : first, the mention of unnecessary 
 circumstances ; secondly, the excessive use of epithets ; and, 
 thirdly, the tedious reiteration of the same thought in different 
 words. 
 
yS Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 . § 60. REPETITION. 
 
 Perspicuity is frequently gained or increased by the reitera- 
 tion of some important fact or statement. In scientific works 
 it is often necessary to remind the reader of what has been said 
 before. In a course of lectures, each one will often be advan- 
 tageously begun by a summary of the subject-matter of the 
 preceding. In sermons, incessant repetition of the same 
 idea may be not only beneficial but necessary, for in this 
 way any important point is sure to be inopressed upon the 
 mind. Reiteration, however, has to do not only with clear- 
 ness, but with emphasis, and will come up again for fuller 
 consideration. 
 
 The utility of repetition is shown forth very forcibly by De 
 Quincey : 
 
 " In the senate, and for the same reason in a newspaper, it is a virtue to 
 reiterate your meaning ; . . . variation of the words, with a substantial iden* 
 tity of the sense and dilution of the truth, is oftentimes a necessity. . . . 
 Time must be given for the intellect to eddy about a truth, and to appro- 
 priate its bearings, . . . and this is obtained by varying the modes of present- 
 ing it — now putting it directly before the eye, now obliquely, now in an ab- 
 stract shape, now in the concrete ; all which being the proper technical 
 discipline for dealing with such cases, ought no longer to be viewed as a 
 licentious mode of style, but as the just style in respect of those licentious 
 circumstances. And the true art for such popular display is — to continue 
 the best forms for appearing to say something new, when in reality you are 
 but echoing yourself; to break up massy chords into running vibrations, 
 and to mask by slight differences in the manner a verbal identity in the 
 substance." 
 
 The following is an example of repetition in the form of 
 a summary of the subject-matter of a previous discourse. 
 It is taken from the second Advent lecture of the Rev. F. W. 
 Robertson : 
 
 " Last Thursday we considered the effects of this advent in Greece. We 
 found the central principle of Grecian life to be worldliness. The Greek 
 saw and sought and worshipped nothing higher than this life, but only this 
 life itself. Hence Greek religion degenerated into mere taste, which is per- 
 ception of the beautiful. The result on character was threefold. Restless- 
 ness, which sent the Greek through this world with his great human heart 
 unsatisfied, fickle in disposition, and ever inquiring with insatiable curiosity 
 after some new thing. Licentiousness ; for whosoever attaches his heart to 
 the outward beauty, without worshipping chiefly in it that moral beauty of 
 
Perspicuity in General. 79 
 
 which all else is but the type and the suggestion, necessarily, slowly it may 
 be, but inevitably, sinks down and down into the deepest abyss of sensu^ 
 existence. Lastly — unbelief. The Greek, seeing principally this world, lost 
 his hold upon the next For the law of faith is that a man can only believe 
 what is already in his spirit. He believes as he is." 
 
 § 61. DIGRESSION. 
 
 Digression is a departure from the immediate subject for 
 the consideration of something else. It bears the same 
 relation to the whole work which the parenthesis bears to 
 the sentence, and, like the parenthesis, it has its use and its 
 abuse. 
 
 The proper use of digression may be stated thus : 
 
 First. It is used to introduce a necessary explanation. 
 
 Secondly. It is used to give additional emphasis to previous 
 statements. 
 
 There are two chief classes of digression — first, narrative or 
 descriptive, which consists of anecdotes for illustration, or other 
 similar passages; secondly, the discussion of some point which 
 stands in close relation to the subject. 
 
 The following is an example of the use of digression of the 
 narrative kind, which also serves to illustrate the subject: 
 
 "The hasty multitude 
 Admiring entered, and the work some praise 
 And some the architect ; his hand was known 
 In heaven by many a towered structure high. 
 
 Nor was his name unheard or unadored 
 In ancient Greece ; and in the Ausonian land 
 Men called him Mulciber ; and how he fell 
 From heaven they fabled, thrown by angry Jove 
 Sheer o'er the crystal battlements : from mom 
 To noon he fell, from noon to dewy eve, 
 A summer's day; and with the setting sun 
 Dropped from the zenith like a falling star 
 On Lemnos, the itgean isle ; thus they relate 
 Erring." — Milton. 
 
 The architect of Pandemonium is thus ingeniously identified 
 with Vulcan, and the narration of the classical myth presents 
 the mind with a familiar subject, and gives greater distinctness 
 to the poet's conception. 
 
8o Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 TTie following is an example of the second class of digres- 
 sion, which discusses some theme in close connection with the 
 subject. This serves to give additional emphasis to what has 
 been said : 
 
 "Hail, holy light ! offspring of heaven first-born. 
 Or of the eternal co-eternal beam. 
 
 thee I revisit safe. 
 And feel thy sov'ran vitalness ; but thou 
 Revisitest not these eyes, that roll in vain 
 To find thy piercing ray, and find no dawn — 
 So thick a drop serene hath quenched their orbs 
 Or dim suff^usion veiled. Yet not the more 
 Cease I to wander where the Muses haunt 
 Clear spring, or shady grove, or sunny hill, 
 Smit with the love of sacred song. 
 
 Thus with the year 
 Seasons return ; but not to me returns 
 Day, or the swq^t approach of even or mom, 
 Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose. 
 Or flock, or herds, or human face divine ; 
 But cloud instead, and ever-during dark 
 Surrounds me." — Milton. 
 
 The poet begins with an invocation to light, after which he 
 makes a digression, in which he alludes to his own personal 
 condition and feeling, in language full of pathetic beauty ; and 
 by the contrast betA^een his own melancholy darkness and the 
 joy of heavenly light, he gives to his subject a greater emphasis 
 than it had gained even from the sublime opening descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 De Quincey is noted for his frequent digressions. This 
 arises from his faulty method, and his lack of p^er to con- 
 centrate his thoughts upon one leading subject. Sometimes, 
 however, his digressions are most apt and luminous ; and it 
 must be confessed that even when he wanders away too far he 
 is generally sure to be instructive or entertaining. In the fol- 
 lowing passage the digression adds much to the force of the 
 description : 
 
 " Entering I closed the door so softly that, although it opened upon a 
 hall which ascended through all the stories, no echo ran along the silent 
 walls. Then turning around I sought my sister's face. But the bed had 
 been moved, and the back was now turned. Nothing met my eyes but one 
 large window wide open, through which the sun of midsummer at noonday 
 
Perspicuity in General. 8i 
 
 was showering down torrents of splendor. The weather was dry, the sky 
 was cloudless, the blue depths seemed to express types of infinity ; and it 
 was not possible for eye to behold or for heart to conceive any symbols 
 more pathetic of life and the glory of life. 
 
 " Let me pause for one instant in approaching a remembrance so affect- 
 ing and revolutionary in my own mind, and one which (if any earthly remem- 
 brance) will survive for me in the hour of death, to remind some readers 
 and to inform others that in the original Opium Confessions I endeavored 
 to explain the reason why death, ceteris paribus, is more profoundly affecting 
 in summer than in other parts of the year ; so far at least as it is liable to 
 any modification at all from accidents of scenery or season. The reason, as 
 I there suggested, lies in the antagonism between the tropical redundancy 
 of life in summer and the dark sterilities of the grave." 
 
 By pausing here he leaves the reader confronted by a most 
 affecting scene, and the digression is made to a kindred theme 
 which serves to deepen the effect of what he has previously 
 written. 
 
 The improper use of digressions may be observed under the 
 following circumstances : 
 
 1. When the writer enters upon something which is not suf- 
 ficiently connected with the subject. 
 
 2. When they are too long. 
 
 3. When they are too frequent. 
 
 De Quincey often exhibits these faults. 
 
 In his essay on Secret Societies he makes a digression to 
 speak of a certain family, which is quite proper in its way. The 
 fault is that in the midst of this he suddenly turns aside upon 
 a fresh digression : 
 
 " Among these families, and distinguished among them, was that of the 
 Farrers. The name of their patrimonial estate was Little Gedding, and, I 
 think, in the County of Hertford. They were by native turn of mind and 
 by accomplishments a most interesting family. In some royal houses of 
 Europe it was once a custom that every son, if not every daughter, should 
 learn a trade. This custom subsisted down to the days of the unhappy 
 Louis XVL, who was a locksmith, and I was once assured by a French- 
 man who knew him well, not so bad a one, considering (you know) that one 
 cannot be as rough as might be wished in scolding a locksmith that one is 
 obliged to address as * your majesty.' A majestic locksmith has a sort of 
 right to be a bad one. The Farrers adopted this custom, and most of them 
 chose the trade of a bookseller. Why this was a good trade to chose, I will 
 explain in a brief digression. It is a reason which applies only to three 
 other trades, viz., to coining, to printing books, and to making gold or sil- 
 ver plate. And the reason is this — all the four arts stand on an isthmus, 
 connecting them on one side with merely mechanic arts, on the other with 
 
82 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 the fine arts. This was the marking distinction between the coinages of 
 ancient classical days and our own. Our European and East Indian coins 
 are the basest of all base products from rude barbaresque handicraft. They 
 are imagined by the man, some horrid Cyclops, who conceived the great 
 idea of a horseshoe, a poker, and a tenpenny nail." 
 
 In the first place this subject of the Farrers family consti- 
 tutes a digression from the main subject, "secret societies," 
 and from this a second digression is made to " coining." 
 
 § 62. A LOOSE STYLE. 
 
 Perspicuity is violated by a loose style arising from confusion 
 of thought, and carelessness in the choice and arrangement of 
 words. This is characterized by lack of precision, frequent 
 repetitions, and the presentation of topics in a disconnected or 
 inconsequential manner ; while not unfrequently the statements 
 are so self-contradictory as to have a ridiculous effect. In the 
 following sentences will be found some of the more glaring ex- 
 amples of looseness of style. 
 
 A speaker, alluding to the late Vice-President Wilson, said : 
 *' Here was a man who never struck his colors till he had se- 
 cured a victory." A newspaper, noticing a death from drown- 
 ing, says "that the coroner held an inquest concerning the 
 death of Thomas Shipp, who was drowned on the following 
 night." Another, noticing an accident to a trapeze performer, 
 says : " It was afterwards discovered that the boy's collar- 
 bone was broken, but unfortunately his injuries are not of a 
 dangerous description." A third says : " A pony carriage was 
 passing along New Bond Street, Bath, when in turning into 
 Northgate Street it fell down and broke both of its legs." 
 Describing a steeple - chase, the Irish Times says : " A very 
 nice day's sport was carried on over an excellent course, all 
 grass, over the lands of Mr. Henderson, whose hospitality was 
 unbounded. It consisted of two walls, two bank drops,"a water 
 cut, and two hurdles." Recording the death of a man at a 
 riot, a Belfast paper says : " They fired two shots at him, the 
 first shot killed him, but the second shot was not fatal." An- 
 other, speaking of a deaf man who was run down by a train 
 and killed, says : " He was injured in a similar way two years 
 ago." Another speaks of the Princess Louise as going to 
 Wimbledon to witness "the shooting of her husband." An- 
 
Perspicuity in General. 83 
 
 other describes the second son of the Prince of Wales as "an 
 amiable boy, like his mother;" and another announces that 
 "the Duke of Hamilton will shortly take to wife the late Lady 
 Mary Louisa Elizabeth Montagu." 
 
 § 63. PERSPICUITY SOMETIMES NOT 'AIMED AT. 
 
 Perspicuity is sometimes not aimed at. This is more espe- 
 cially the case in some kinds of oratory, where the arts of con- 
 cealment, suppression, misunderstanding, special pleading, or 
 talking apart from the question, may be made use of to an ex- 
 tent which is not possible in books that are intended for peru- 
 sal. The following ate the chief classes of oratory in which 
 this may occur : 
 
 1. Where the orator is anxious to persuade, but is unwilling 
 or unable to discuss the subject directly, and therefore seeks 
 to convey a general impression, which will be favorable to his 
 cause. This is often attempted by means of appeals, more or 
 less direct, to the passions, emotions, or prejudices of the hear- 
 ers. A speaker may utter nothing that is clear and direct, his 
 speech may consist of mere generalities,, yet he may succeed 
 in swaying his audience and in gaining his point. Although 
 there is often disingenuousness in this, still it by no means 
 follows that this is always the case. Those who indulge large- 
 ly in exhortations, or in the declamatory style, are often in- 
 fluenced by the desire not so much to speak clearly, as to 
 speak in such a way that the general impression shall be in 
 their favor. 
 
 2. A second case arises where the orator who is defending a 
 weak cause turns from open and direct argument to the re- 
 finements of special pleading ; and resorts to sophistry and 
 casuistry, not for the sake of enlightenment, but rather for the 
 purpose of confounding and baffling his opponent. 
 
 3. A third case is found in that kind of political oratory 
 which is known as " talking against time." This is a definition 
 which expresses its character with sufficient exactness. 
 
 4. There are also certain kinds of speeches in which perspi- 
 cuity is of comparatively inferior importance. These are set 
 orations made upon occasions of state or ceremony, compli- 
 mentary addresses, panegyrics, and all such as have a conven- 
 tional or artificial character. Among these may be included 
 
84 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 "Fourth of July" orations. All these aim to be splendid, 
 showy, and ornate in the highest degree ; and have the same 
 relation to other branches of composition as that which is 
 held by the sumptuous furniture and gaudy ornaments of a 
 hotel or theatre to the tasteful decoration of a private man- 
 sion. 
 
PART II. 
 
 PERSUASIVENESS IN STYLE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
 
 r- 
 
 § 64. PERSUASIVENESS. — PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 Thus far our attention has been directed to perspicuity, but 
 it is evident that we must seek for something very different if 
 we would find the cause of the persuasive power of style. In 
 the works of great authors we perceive many things which arrest 
 the attention and retain it. The imagination is stimulated by 
 certain peculiarities of thought and expression; and hints are 
 given that raise up a world of associated ideas. The emotions 
 also are excited ; and the reader is moved not so much by the 
 subject as by the mode of its presentation. The same effect 
 is also produced even upon the reason. The method of one 
 author may be faultless, and yet quite ineffective from dulness 
 or frigidity of treatment; while another, with similar or even 
 inferior arguments, may exhibit such attractiveness of language 
 that his power is almost irresistible. 
 
 Style, therefore, is capable of exhibiting something higher 
 than perspicuity, and of exerting a strong persuasive power. To 
 attain to this it should display life, vigor, and brilliancy. It is 
 not enough that it show a mere negative freedom from defect; 
 it should be marked by an attractive power, which may compel 
 by its force or allure by its graceful charm. It is this that 
 constitutes the chief difference between a good style and a bad 
 one. For a book may be perfectly intelligible ; the words may 
 be well chosen; they may exhibit precision, purity, and unity; 
 
86 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 and yet it may be unreadable on account of its dulness. Where 
 this is the case the style is bad. Dulness and monotony are 
 worse faults than obscurity, when obscurity is associated with 
 other qualities which make the work readable. 
 
 This vital element of style is known by different names, no 
 one of which can be said to be altogether satisfactory. By 
 Campbell it is called "vivacity," and by Whately "energy." 
 Other writers speak of it as " animation," " elevation," " attrac- 
 tiveness," and the like. The celebrated treatise of Lx)nginus, 
 whose Latin title, " De Sublimitate," has been translated " On 
 the Sublime," is entitled in Greek Trtpi v;//oi;c, which may be 
 translated "On Elevation" (that is, of style). It treats of 
 many things which have no connection with the " sublime," as 
 we understand that word ; and in many cases refers to the very 
 quality now under consideration. Where this difference exists 
 as to the application of a fitting term, it is perhaps better to 
 select another that shall accord with the chief end of rhetoric, 
 of which this quality is the highest exponent. Now the ends 
 of rhetoric are to instruct, to convince, to persuade, and to 
 please ; but of these the highest and most characteristic is the 
 aim to persuade. Accordingly, if this quality be called " per- 
 suasiveness," the rather cumbrous character of the word may 
 be excused on the ground of its appropriateness. 
 
 § 65. DEFINITION OF PERSUASIVENESS. 
 
 Persuasiveness in style, therefore, comprehends everything 
 that may conduce to arouse the attention, enforce argument, 
 'Stimulate imagination, and excite the feelings. 
 \ It may be well to note that persuasiveness and also perspi- 
 cuity are terms that have a twofold application — the one to 
 style, and the other to method. In style it refers to the mode 
 of expression, in method to the arrangement of the subject- 
 matter; and to one who bears in mind this distinction be- 
 tween the two there need be no cause of misapprehension of 
 meaning. 
 
 § 66. GENERAL DIVISIONS OF THE SUBJECT OF PERSUASIVENESS. 
 
 The subject of persuasiveness, upon which we are about 
 to enter, will embrace the following divisions: I. Figures of 
 Speech. II. Energy. III. Vivacity. 
 
/ 
 
 Figures of Speech. Sj 
 
 § 67. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
 
 The first subject for our consideration is figures of speech. 
 
 A figure is a form of speech artfully varied from the com- 
 mon usage. 
 
 Figures are found in the various departments of language: 
 j in logic, grammar, and rhetoric. In grammar there are fig- 
 ures of euphony, prosody, and syntax; in rhetoric there are 
 figures of style, oratory, and emotion. Our present concerr^ is 
 with figures of style, which are also called figures of speech. \ 
 
 The Greek and Roman rhetoricians carried the study of 
 figures to an extent which has been considered excessive, not 
 Bierely in modern times, but in ancient. Cicero, in his De 
 /foratore, and elsewhere, enumerates many of the most minute 
 / character. Under this head he includes all the embellish- 
 ments of oratory, and makes all expressions figurative which 
 j /are most brilliant and most effective in impressing an audience. 
 Quintilian is opposed to the multiplication of figures, and his 
 words are worth quoting. "They are," he says, "far from 
 being so numerous as many writers represent them ; for all 
 those names of figures, which it is so easy for the Greeks to 
 invent, have no influence with me. First of all, those who think 
 that there are as many figures as affections of the mind are 
 to be utterly disregarded ; not because an affection of the mind 
 is not a certain condition of it, but because a figure is not a 
 mere expression of any condition of mind whatever. ... To 
 testify anger or grief or pity or fear or confidence or con- 
 tempt is not to use a figure ; any more than to advise or 
 threaten or entreat or excuse." These remarks are so full of 
 good sense that they must commend themselves to all. Thus, 
 in the case of the emotions, it is evidently unnecessary and 
 illogical to set down as figures all expressions of hate, abhor- 
 rence, contempt ; of menace or defiance ; of assertion or denial. 
 If this were followed out, figures would be multiplied indefinite- 
 ly. The same remark holds good with regard to the tactics 
 and artifices of oratory — explanation, offer of proofs, interrup- 
 tion, confessions, concessions, and the like. All these, though 
 deserving consideration, need scarcely be set down as figures, 
 but may rather be regarded as modes of presentation of argu- 
 ments. 
 
88 Elements of R/ietoric. 
 
 The term figure of speech is equivalent to form of expres- 
 sion, with a restricted and technical application. It means 
 such a form of expression as shall comply with the following 
 requisites : 
 
 1. It is purposely and artificially varied from the common 
 usage. 
 
 2. It is used with sufficient frequency to possess marked and 
 definable characteristics of its own. 
 
 3. It must further the ends of rhetoric by tending to persuade 
 or please. 
 
 If this test be applied to any of the well-known figures, it 
 will be found to hold good. Antithesis, metaphor, and climax, 
 for instance, are all artificial forms; they all have strongly 
 marked characters ; and they all tend to promote the ends of 
 rhetoric. 
 
 § 68. IMPORTANCE OF FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
 
 Figures of speech are of such importance that they must 
 always occupy a prominent place in every treatise on style or 
 criticism. 
 
 1. Though differing in special character or effects, they all 
 have one thing in common, and that is, they contribute beyond 
 anything else to the embellishment of style. Some create a 
 picture before the mind ; others gratify the sense of propor- 
 tion; others adorn the subject by contrasting it with some 
 other which is like or unlike; and thus in various ways they 
 appeal to the aesthetical sensibilities. 
 
 2. They contribute to perspicuity, by the power which many 
 of them have of throwing fresh light upon a subject by pre- 
 senting it in a new and unexpected form. This is especially 
 the case with comparison, metaphor, and example, and many 
 others of the figures of relativity, which are used by writers who 
 would never adopt them merely for ornament. They are used 
 to illustrate a subject, which thus gains a clearness that could 
 be given in no other way. 
 
 3. They add to the persuasiveness of style. They give va- 
 riety to it, by enabling the author to change his form of expres- 
 sion at will. Thus a perpetual freshness and vivacity is the 
 result, together with an attractive brilliancy. Old thoughts, 
 which have lost their force through familiarity, may thus be 
 
Figures of Sp^ 
 
 rendered striking by assuming a novel 
 have all the force of an original statement. 
 
 4. In the whole world of literature, both ancient and mod- 
 ern, figures of speech occupy a foremost place. The Sacred 
 Scriptures abound in them, because the Hebrew mind delight- 
 ed in Oriental imagery. Nowhere can be found such an im- 
 mense number of figures so effectively presented. Antithesis 
 and parallel embrace all the poetry and no little of the prose 
 of both the Old and New Testament. A place only less prom- 
 inent is held by figures in the literature of Greece and Rome. 
 The most famous passages of poetry — epic, lyric, and dramatic 
 — the noblest strains of eloquence, the most vivid descriptions, 
 all exhibit their presence and effective force. 
 
 Not the least sign of their power may be perceived in the 
 common language of every-day life. Every one uses exclama- 
 tion, interrogation, comparison, metaphor, hyperbole, climax, 
 vision ; the figures of amplification and extenuation are indis- 
 pensable in eager, animated conversation ; so also are itera- 
 tion, emphasis, periphrasis, litotes. All these and many more 
 are incessantly used; and always indicate vivacity or energy. 
 This fact shows that while art and elaboration can make the 
 highest use of figurative language, nature also resorts to it; 
 and as nature has invented it, so she prompts its use and 
 shows its effectiveness. 
 
 § 69. TROPES. 
 
 The term figurative language is often confounded with 
 " tropes," as being equivalent. There is, however, a distinc- 
 tion between the two. Figurative language is a generic term, 
 including all that has been mentioned above. The trope is 
 a special class of figures of speech, which in some systems 
 of classification is considered by itself. 
 
 , The word " trope " is derivable from rpeVw, " to turn," and 
 means a word or phrase which is "turned" from its literal 
 meaning to another and a different one. These are numer- 
 ous, and have been divided into various kinds, all of which are 
 characterized by the use of words in what is called a *' trop- 
 ical " sense, that is, a sense different from the primitive and 
 literal usage. 
 
 It is not appropriate here to enlarge upon the importance 
 
go Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 of tropes from a philological point of view ; but it may be said, 
 in passing, that language owes its growth and development 
 from its earlier and ruder stages, to its higher and more refined 
 ones, more to this source than to any other. If we study the 
 history of language, we shall find its growth to be characterized 
 in this way; and in the later stages we shall also find multi- 
 tudes of words which, however worn down by the attrition of 
 ages, still bear unmistakable marks of their lowly origin. 
 Thus " soul," in Latin, is " wind ;" in Greek, the same ; in He- 
 brew, " breath ;" " reason " is derived by some from " reor," 
 " reo," to flow ; " consideration " means to fix our eyes on 
 " the stars ;" " deliberate," to weigh ; " cogitare," to act with 
 mind. In Hebrew, the " heart," " liver," and " kidneys " are 
 used for " mind " and " understanding ;" " nose " is used for 
 "anger;" "a man of lips" is a "babbler." In Greek, "dia- 
 phragm " is used for the " understanding ;" " breast," for 
 " courage ;" the " nostrils," for " contempt." In Latin, " nos- 
 trils," for " taste " and " refinement ;" " nose," for " satire ;" 
 " eyebrows," for " disdain ;" " stomach," for " anger ;" " throat," 
 for " gluttony." Many of these tropes have been transferred 
 to English. 
 
 Every color recalls some emblematic meaning : black— death, 
 mourning, misfortune ; white — innocence, candor, festivity ; rose- 
 color — beauty and freshness ; purple — majesty and splendor: 
 The words indicating numbers were originally names bor- 
 rowed from natural phenomena. Every part of the body has 
 given rise by a trope to some new and abstract expression: 
 the head of a department ; the members of a society ; the arm 
 of the law ; the hands in a factory ; the body politic ; the tail- 
 end of a procession ; ih^/oot of a class ; to take sides ; to go 
 back; 2i front w\tWj a black/f^. 
 
 Current sayings illustrate the same thing. The Greeks 
 characterized human follies and absurdities by such phrases 
 as : " He ploughs the air," or the " sand ;" " He is making 
 clothes for fishes ;" " He catches the wind with a net ;" " He 
 roasts snow in a furnace ;" " He holds a looking-glass to a 
 mole;" " He is teaching iron to swim;" " He is teaching a pig 
 to play on a flute ;" "He seeks wool on an ass ;" "He washes 
 the Ethiopian." 
 
 In our own language the number of such sayings is immense. 
 
Figures of Speech, 91 
 
 They enter into our common conversation ; they form collo- 
 quialisms ; they make up the rich vocabulary of slang. 
 
 In literature the trope is of the highest importance ; poetry 
 lives upon it ; prose would often be but lifeless without it ; nor 
 is any style so cold, bald, and prosaic but that the trope may 
 be found frequently necessary for explanation or illustration. 
 
 § 70. VARIOUS CLASSIFICATIONS OF FIGURES. 
 
 Various classifications of the figures of speech have been 
 adopted by the different writers on the subject The most 
 common are the following : 
 
 A. — I. Figures of Arrangement 
 
 II. Figures of Conversion, or Tropes. 
 
 B. — I. Figures of Analogy. 
 II. Figures of Substitution. 
 
 III. Figures of Construction. 
 
 IV. Epithetic Figures. 
 
 V. Figures resulting from the impassioned and indirect expression 
 of thought 
 
 C. — I. Figures which add beauty to language. 
 II. Figures which add beauty to thought 
 
 D. — I. Figures addressed to the intellect 
 II. Figures which affect the passions. 
 
 E. — I. Figures of Imagination. 
 II. Figures of Intellect. 
 
 III. Coalescent figures, or those which excite at once the imagination 
 and intellect 
 
 F. — I. Figures of Sound. 
 II. Figures of Sense. 
 
 G. — I. Figures of Similarity. 
 II. Figures of Opposition. 
 III. Figures of Substitution. 
 
 H.— I. Figures of Intellect 
 
 II. Figures of Imagination. 
 
 III. Figures of Emotion. 
 
 IV. Epithetic Figures, 
 
 No one of the above can be said to have met with general 
 adoption. One difficulty will always be felt with any system 
 of classification, and that is, the number of figures which seem 
 equally entitled to a place in different classes. The nature 
 and constitution of figures is such that they must intermingle 
 
 E 
 
92 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 largely ; and there will always be a gradual shading off from 
 one to another. Hyperbole and climax are akin to amplifica- 
 tion, but almost equally so to those figures which are based 
 upon similarity. The figure parallel may be regarded as equal- 
 ly related to antithesis and comparison. All tropes have so 
 much in common that some combine them into a class by 
 themselves; while others blend them with the general body 
 of figures, and break them up into different classes. 
 
 § 71. THE CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN THIS WORK. 
 
 The classification adopted here is one which is founded upon 
 the ends or aims of all figures of speech. If we regard such 
 ends or aims, we shall find that they all tend to persuasiveness 
 in the following ways. All figures of speech are used : 
 
 1. To present a subject with greater clearness and illustra- 
 tion. 
 
 2. To present a subject with increased importance. 
 
 3. To present a subject with unusual emphasis. 
 
 I. When the aim is clearness and illustration. Here the 
 subject is regarded as standing in some definite relation to 
 some other subject, viz., the relation of contrast, or similarity, 
 or contiguity. By thus considering a thing in association with 
 something else, there arises greater distinctness of view, and a 
 clearer perception of its true character. The figures which are 
 formed upon this basis may be called figures of relativity. 
 ' 2. When the aim is to present 'a subject with increased im- 
 portance. Here the subject is brought before the mind with 
 enlarged dimensions, so that it may receive greater considera- 
 tion. At the same time other different or opposing subjects 
 may be depreciated ; but the augmentation of the one, or the 
 diminution of the other, all tend to produce the same result. 
 These may be called figures of gradation. 
 
 3. When the aim is to present a subject with unusual em- 
 phasis. Here the subject is brought before the mind with the 
 greatest possible strength and energy, so that by its own force 
 it may produce the desired effect. These may be called figures 
 of emphasis. 
 
Figures of Relativity. 93 
 
 V^, 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FIGURES OF RELATIVITY ARISING FROM THE IDEA OF 
 CONTRAST. 
 
 § 72. FIGURES OF RELATIVITY, — GENERAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 Figures of relativity include, first, those which arise from the 
 idea of contrast; secondly, those which arise from the idea of 
 similarity ; and, thirdly, those which arise from the idea of 
 contiguity. 
 
 § 73. FIGURES WHICH ARISE FROM THE IDEA OF CONTRAST. 
 
 Of these we have first to consider those which arise from 
 the idea of contrast, which consist chiefly of the figures of 
 antithesis. 
 
 § 74. ANTITHESIS DEFINED AND ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 By antithesis is meant the comparison of different things. 
 -This is a figure which possesses great energy and versatility, 
 and owes its power to the effect of contrast. 
 
 The following description of the varied powers of the steam- 
 engine may be taken as a general example of antithesis : 
 
 "It can engrave a seal, and crush masses of obdurate metal ; draw out, 
 without breaking, a thread as fine as gossamer, and lift a ship-of-war like a 
 bauble in the air. It can embroider muslin, and forge anchors ; cut steel 
 into ribbons, and impel loaded vessels against the fury of winds and 
 waves." 
 
 In this passage extreme delicacy of action is contrasted with 
 gigantic effort, and our conception of the manifold capacity of 
 the steam-engine is made at once stronger and clearer. 
 
 With antithesis, the figure called parallel is perfectly identi- 
 cal in form, but different in sentiment; for while antithesis is 
 the comparison of dissimilar things, parallel is the comparison 
 of similar things. 
 
 Antithesis is founded upon a deep principle of human nat- 
 
94 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 ure, by which it is led to feel more strongly the force of things 
 while regarding them in contrast with one another. Everything 
 is most truly estimated by being contemplated in reference to 
 its opposite. In morals, we best appreciate virtue by contrast- 
 ing it with vice; valor, with cowardice; pity, with ruthlessness. 
 In art, the force of contrast is always felt ; the divine face of 
 the Saviour is most effective when contrasted with the fiendish 
 lineaments of his reviler in the Ecce Homo ; the pyramid must 
 have a man at its base to reveal its vastness. Thus, in litera- 
 ture, words, which are the names of things, are as effective by 
 contrast as the things themselves. 
 
 § 75. UTILITY OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 The utility of antithesis to the writer is manifest for the fol- 
 lowing reasons : 
 
 1. Because his ideas may be conveyed most vividly by the 
 force of contrasted expression. 
 
 2. Because important words in this way receive the strongest 
 possible emphasis. 
 
 3. He is trained by the use of antithesis to great discrimina- 
 tion in the choice of words. 
 
 Its effect upon the reader is manifest : 
 
 1. Because it makes the strongest impression at the time. 
 
 2. It is most easily apprehended and committed to mem- 
 ory. 
 
 3. It is retained longest by the memory. 
 
 Antithesis has always been a potent force in literature. All 
 the poetry of the Hebrews was written in this form ; for this 
 was their only versification. In other literatures we find it oc- 
 cupying a commanding position in ancient and modern times, 
 and used by men of the highest order of genius. Among Greek 
 prose writers it is largely employed by Thucydides ; among the 
 Romans by Tacitus. French writers have used it to a degree 
 that has been considered reprehensible, and, in fact, it is the 
 leading characteristic of French prose. Among English authors 
 it has been employed by the wisest and profoundest thinkers. 
 Lord Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, and Ralph Waldo Emerson 
 are distinguished by the great and even the excessive use of this 
 figure. An example is given from each of these : 
 
 " Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, 
 
Figures of Relativity. 95 
 
 nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. Some books are 
 to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and di- 
 gested ; that is, some books are to be read only in parts ; others to be read, 
 but not curiously ; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and 
 attention. Some books, also, may be read by deputy, and extracts made of 
 them by others ; but that would be only in the less important arguments, 
 and the meaner sort of books ; else distilled books are like common distilled 
 waters — flashy things." — Lord Bacon. 
 
 " Thus there are two books from whence I collect my divinity. Besides 
 that written one of God, another of his servant, nature — that universal and 
 public manuscript that lies expansed unto the eyes of all. Those that never 
 saw him in the one have discovered him in the other : this was the Scrip- 
 ture and theology of the heathens ; the natural motion of the sun made them 
 more admire him than its supernatural station did the children of Israel. 
 The ordinary effects of nature wrought more admiration in them than in the 
 other all his miracles." — Sir Thomas Browne. 
 
 " Our strength grows out of our weakness. Not until we are pricked and 
 stung and sorely shot at awakens the indignation which arms itself with se- 
 cret forces. A great man is always willing to be little. While he sits on 
 the cushion of advantages he goes to sleep. When he is pushed, tormented, 
 defeated, he has a chance to learn something ; he has been put on his wits, 
 on his manhood ; he has gained facts ; learns his ignorance ; is cured oF 
 the insanity of conceit, has got moderation and real skill. The wise man 
 always throws himself on the side of his assailants. It is more his interest 
 than it is theirs to find his weak point. The wound cicatrizes, and falls off 
 from him like a dead skin ; and when they would triumph, lo ! he has passed 
 on invulnerable." — R. W. Emerson. 
 
 § 76. EFFECTIVENESS OF ANTITHESIS IN VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS 
 OF LITERATURE. 
 
 There is scarcely any department of literature in which an- 
 tithesis is not effective, as may be seen from the following 
 summary. 
 
 I. Proverbs. 
 
 A striking proof of the power and popularity of antithesis is 
 seen in the fact that proverbs so frequently assume this form. 
 It is essential that the proverb be quickly grasped by the 
 memory, and long retained. Various other aids are sought, 
 such as rhyme, alliteration, etc. ; but none are so common as 
 antithesis. This may be seen from the following examples : 
 "Vox populi, vox Dei." "Man proposes, God disposes." 
 "Forewarned, forearmed." "Out of sight, out of mind." 
 "Penny wise, pound foolish." "A bird in the hand is worth 
 two in the bush." All the proverbs of Solomon, and the ma- 
 jority of all others, are antithetical in their form. 
 
96 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 2. Maxims, apophthegms, current sayings, mottoes, etc. 
 Here, as with proverbs, there is need of brevity, emphasis, and 
 
 something that shall strike the mind and cleave to the memory. 
 This may be illustrated by the maxims of Rochefoucauld ; the 
 apophthegms of Bacon ; sayings, such as, "Victor)' or death." 
 " A peerage or Westminster Abbey." " The Guard dies, it never 
 surrenders." Mottoes, such as, " E pluribus unum." "The 
 blood of martyrs is the seed of the Church." 
 
 3. Dialogues. 
 
 This is constantly seen in the Greek tragedies, where the 
 dialogue is largely antithetical. The story of Leonidas at Ther- 
 mopylae contains an antithetical dialogue full of immortal force, 
 which may be reduced to the following form : 
 
 ** Deliver up your arms ! — Come and take them." 
 
 " Our arrows darken the sun. — Then we will fight in the shade." 
 
 " You will all be slain. — Then to-night we will sup with Pluto." 
 
 4. Antithesis is invaluable to precision, and for the sake of 
 making nice distinctions : 
 
 " He can bribe, but he cannot seduce. He can buy, but he cannot gain. 
 He can lie, but he cannot deceive. It is the very struggle of the noble 
 Othello. His heart relents, but his hand is firm. He does naught in hate, 
 but all in honor. He kisses the beautiful deceiver before he destroys her." 
 — Macaulay. 
 
 " I do not live that I may eat ; but I eat that I may live." 
 
 5. For this reason it is admirably adapted for the portrayal 
 of character : 
 
 " The Puritan was made up of two different characters : the one all self- 
 abasement, penitence, gratitude, passion ; the other proud, calm, inflexible, 
 sagacious. He prostrated himself in the dust before his Maker, but he set 
 his foot on the neck of his king." — Macaulay. 
 
 " Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong. 
 Was everything by starts, and nothing long; 
 But in the course of one revolving moon 
 Was chemist, fiddler, statesman, and buffoon. 
 Railing and praising were his usual themes ; 
 And, both to show his judgment in extremes. 
 So over-violent or over-civil. 
 That every man with him was God or devil. 
 In squandering wealth was his peculiar art, 
 Nothing went unrewarded but desert. 
 
Figures of Relativity. 97 
 
 Beggared by fools, whom still he found too late, 
 
 He had his jest, and they had his estate." — Dryden. 
 
 "Should such a man, too fond to rule alone. 
 Bear, like the Turk, no brother near the throne, 
 View him with scornful, yet with jealous eyes. 
 And hate the arts that caused himself to rise; 
 Damn with faint praise, assent with civil leer, 
 And without sneering teach the rest to sneer ; 
 Willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike, 
 Just hint a fault, and hesitate dislike. 
 A timorous foe, by flatterers besieged, 
 And so obliging that he ne'er obliged." — Pope. 
 
 6. Lofty and serious themes : 
 
 " Go, tell the court it glows 
 
 And shines like rotten wood. 
 Go, tell the church it shows 
 
 What's good, and doth no good. 
 If church and court reply, 
 Then give them both the lie. 
 
 "Tell zeal it lacks devotion. 
 
 Tell love it is but lust. 
 Tell time it is but motion. 
 
 Tell flesh it is but dust 
 And wish them not reply, 
 For th6u must give the lie." — Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 " All are but parts of one stupendous whole. 
 Whose body Nature is, and God the soul ; 
 That, changed through all, and yet through all the same, 
 Great in the earth as in the ethereal frame ; 
 Warms in the sun, refreshes in the breeze. 
 Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees ; 
 Lives through all life, extends through all extent. 
 Spreads undivided, operates unspent ; 
 Breathes in our soul, informs our mortal part, 
 As full, as perfect, in a hair as heart ; 
 As full, as perfect, in vile man that mourns. 
 As the rapt seraph that adores and burns : 
 To Him no high, no low, no great, no small ; 
 He fills, he bounds, connects, and equals all." — Pope. 
 
 7. The sublime. Hebrew poetry is full of passages which 
 illustrate this. The following is from Habakkuk : 
 
 "God came firom Teman, and the Holy One from Mount Paran. 
 His glory covered the heavens, and the earth was full of his praise. 
 
^8 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 He stood, and measured the earth : 
 
 He beheld, and drove asunder the nations ; 
 
 The everlasting mountains were scattered. 
 
 The perpetual hills did bow: 
 
 His ways are everlasting. 
 
 The mountains saw thee, and they trembled : 
 The overflowing of the water passed by : 
 The deep uttered his voice, 
 And lifted up his hands on high." 
 
 8. The pathetic : 
 
 "Our very hopes belied our fears, 
 Our fears our hopes belied ; 
 We thought her dying when she slept, 
 And sleeping when she died. 
 
 "For when the mom came dim and sad. 
 And chill with early showers. 
 Her quiet eyelids closed — she had 
 Another morn than ours." — Thomas Hood. 
 
 9. Wit and humor. 
 
 The application of antithesis to the purposes of wit is so 
 general that some have considered this figure one of its con- 
 stituent elements. " To extirpate antithesis from literature al- 
 together," says a writer, " would be to destroy at one stroke 
 about eight tenths of all the wit, ancient and modern, now ex- 
 isting in the world." 
 
 10. The epigram. 
 
 A large proportion of epigrams are made up by means of 
 antithesis. This will be fully discussed under its own head. 
 
 § 77. ANTITHESIS COMPARED WITH PLAIN STATEMENT. 
 
 The force of antithesis can be well tested by taking any pas- 
 sage of literature and writing it in the antithetical form and in 
 the common style for the sake of comparison. 
 
 The following is an example of this : 
 
 " Prosperity in a virtuous man creates self-restraint ; it is mentioned as a 
 blessing in the Old Testament, yet even there it is associated with many fears 
 and distastes. Adversity, on the other hand, produces fortitude in a virtu- 
 ous man ; it is spoken of as a blessing in the New Testament, and always 
 has many comforts and hopes." 
 
 " The virtue of prosperity is temperance, the virtue of adversity is forti- 
 tude. Prosperity is the blessing of the Old Testament Adversity is the 
 
Figures of Relativity. 99 
 
 blessing of the New. The one is not without many fears and distastes, the 
 other is not without comforts and hopes." — Bacon. 
 
 § 78. VARIOUS FORMS OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 Antithesis assumes a number of specific forms which were 
 all carefully classified and defined by the old rhetoricians. 
 Although these are not often mentioned by name at the pres- 
 ent day, the consideration of them is of value, as showing the 
 various manifestations of this important figure. 
 
 § 79. ANTIMETABOLE. 
 
 The order of the words is reversed in each member of the 
 antithesis. This is called " antimetabole :" 
 
 " Be wisely worldly, but not worldly wise." — Quarles. 
 " A wit with dunces, and a dunce with wits." — Pope. 
 "'Twas sad by fits, by starts 'twas wild." — Collins. 
 *• He best can paint them who can feel them most." — Pope. 
 
 "Where ignorance is bliss, 
 'Tis folly to be wise."— Gray. 
 
 " Beautiful as sweet 1 
 And young as beautiful ! and soft as young I 
 And gay as soft 1 and innocent as gay 1" — Young, 
 
 § 80. PARADIASTOLE. 
 
 Things which are similar, or have something in common, 
 are set in opposition and distinguished from one another. 
 This is called "paradiastole :" 
 
 "Life only avails, not the having lived." — Emerson. 
 
 " Eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, blood for blood, measure for meas- 
 ure. Give, and it shall be given. He that watereth, shall be watered him- 
 self." 
 
 § 81. SYNCECEOSIS, OR ENANTIOSIS. 
 
 Things of an opposite or different nature are contrasted 
 with one another. This is called " synceceosis," and also 
 ' "enantiosis :" 
 
 " Polarity, or action and reaction, we meet in every part of nature, in 
 darkness and light, in heat and cold, in the ebb and flow of waters, in male 
 and female, in the inspiration and expiration of plants and animals, in the 
 systole and diastole of the heart." — Emerson. 
 
 "Every sweet has its sour, every evil its good." — Emerson. 
 
 E2 
 
lOO Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 " Opinions may make a man a heretic, but that they make a traitor I have 
 never heard till now." — Earl of Strafford. 
 
 " My hold on the colonies is the close affection which grows from common 
 names, from kindred blood, from similar privileges, and equal protection. 
 These are ties which, though light as air, yet are strong as links of iron." — 
 Burke. 
 
 " To a shape like this, so small yet so comprehensive, so slight yet 
 so lasting, so insignificant yet so venerable, turns the mighty activity of 
 Homer, and so turning is enabled to live and warm us forever." — Leigh 
 Hunt. 
 
 *' High interest, bad security." — Duke of Wellington. 
 
 "But thousands die without or this or that. 
 Die, and endow a college or a cat." — PoPK. 
 
 § 82. OXYMORON. 
 
 There is a peculiar kind of antithesis which arises from the 
 opposition of two contradictory terms. To this the name "oxy- 
 moron" is given, by which is meant the saying of that which ap- 
 pears foolish, but yet is wise. It unites words of contrary sig- 
 nification, and produces a seeming contradiction : 
 
 "A howling wilderness." 
 
 " A pious fraud." 
 
 " Travelling is a fool's paradise." — Emerson. 
 
 *' He carries ruins to ruins." — Emerson. 
 
 "The borrower runs in his own debt" — Emerson. 
 
 "Take, O take those lips away. 
 Which so sweetly were forsworn." — SHAKESPEARE. 
 
 " How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, 
 How complicate, how wonderful is man, 
 An heir of glory, a frail child of dust 
 Helpless immortal, insect infinite, 
 A worm or God. I tremble at myself. 
 O what a miracle is man to man ; 
 Triumphantly distressed, what joy, what dread, 
 Alternately transported and alarmed." — Edward Young. 
 
 " Poor rich man, he can hardly know anything of industry in its exertions, 
 or can estimate its compensations when work is done." — Burke. 
 " O illustrious disgrace ! O victorious defeat !" — Burke. 
 
 § 83. PARISON, ISOCOLON. 
 
 Sometimes antithetical clauses of similar construction follow 
 in a series. This is called "parison," and also " isocolon." Here 
 word is contrasted with word, and clause with clause, and the 
 
Figures of Relativity. loi 
 
 force of the contrast is marked ; but the figure is too elaborate 
 for ordinary prose of the present day. 
 
 " Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the better artist. In the one we 
 most admire the man, in the other the work. Homer hurries us with a 
 commanding impetuosity, Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty. Homer 
 scatters with a generous profusion, Virgil bestows with a careful magnifi- 
 cence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a boundless over- 
 flow, Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a gentle and constant stream." — 
 Pope. 
 
 Here the clauses are all arranged in couplets; and each 
 clause of each couplet is formed in exactly the same manner, 
 so that substantive is balanced against substantive, verb against 
 verb, adjective against adjective. 
 
 " Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an ex- 
 act man ; and therefore if a man write little, he had need have a great 
 memory ; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit ; and if he read 
 little, he had need have much cunning to seem to know that he doth not. 
 Histories make men wise ; poets witty ; the mathematics subtle ; natural 
 philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend." — 
 Bacon. 
 
 Here the first three clauses are alike, word corresponds with 
 word, and then follow three more similar clauses. In the sec- 
 ond sentence are six clauses, all corresponding word for word. 
 
 § 84. PROSAPODOSIS. 
 
 Another kind is found in sentences where the statement of 
 a thing is followed by the antithesis of its cause. This is call- 
 ed " prosapodosis :" 
 
 " Neither do I dread him as an accuser, inasmuch as I am innocent ; nor 
 do I fear him as a competitor, since I am Antonius ; nor do I expect any- 
 thing from him as consul, since he is Cicero." — Quoted by Quintilian. 
 
 " It is better to command no one than to be a slave to any one ; for we 
 may live honorably with command, but in slavery there is no endurance of 
 life." — Quoted by Quintilian. 
 
 " Judge not, that ye be not judged ; for with what judgment ye judge, ye 
 shall be judged ; and with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to 
 you again," 
 
I02 Elefnents of RJietoric, 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FIGURES OF RELATIVITY ARISING FROM THE PERCEP- 
 TION OF RESEMBLANCE. 
 
 § 85. FIGURES WHICH ARISE FROM THE PERCEPTION OF 
 RESEMBLANCE. 
 
 The perception of resemblance is a fruitful source of figures. 
 The power of like to suggest like is inherent in the human 
 mind; and it is a universal fashion to explain one thing by 
 means of some other thing which it resembles. The figures 
 based upon this include, among others, comparison and meta- 
 phor, which are the most widely used, the most effective, and 
 the most important of all; and which have an influence out- 
 side of literature altogether, affecting common life, social inter- 
 course, and the growth and development of language. 
 
 § 86. PARALLEL. 
 
 This is similar to antithesis in form, but different in charac- 
 ter; for while antithesis is the comparison of different things, 
 parallel is the comparison of similar things. 
 
 In antithesis we have the effect which is produced by con- 
 trast ; in parallel we have the effect which is produced by re- 
 semblance. But the true force of parallel consists in this, that 
 it is generally the repetition of a statement. Sometimes it is 
 associated with the accumulative figures, as when a series of 
 similar things are mentioned with cumulative effect; and some- 
 times it is associated with the iterative figures, as when a 
 thought is repeated with additional emphasis. 
 
 The most conspicuous example of the use of parallel is found 
 in the poetry of the Sacred Scriptures. The Hebrews did not 
 make use of any kind of metre; their versification was nothing 
 more than the figure parallel, with which antithesis was also 
 joined. This peculiar kind of versification is called parallel- 
 
Figures of Relativity. 103 
 
 ism. This figure is found in many forms, from the simplest up 
 to the most complicated. 
 
 " Lord, who shall abide in thy tabernacle, 
 Who shall walk on thy holy hill." 
 
 This is the simplest form of parallel. Here the sentiment 
 of the first line is repe'ated in the second. 
 
 " The heavens declare the glory of God, 
 And the firmament showeth his handy-work. 
 Day unto day uttereth speech. 
 And night unto night showeth knowledge." 
 
 Antithesis and parallel are visible throughout the New Tes- 
 tament also. The Sermon on the Mount presents one long 
 series of these figures. The parallelism may also be found in 
 the canticles of St. Luke, and the songs of the Apocalypse. 
 
 In English literature it is frequent, though far less so than the 
 
 antithesis : .. ^ . . .u . • u 
 
 ** O joy ! that m our embers 
 
 Is something that doth live. 
 
 That nature yet remembers 
 
 What was so fugitive."— Wordsworth. 
 
 The sentiment expressed in the first and second of these 
 lines is repeated in the third and fourth. 
 
 Many examples of this figure may be found in Shelley, who 
 uses it for iterative purposes : 
 
 •• Bending from heaven, in azure mirth. 
 It kissed the forehead of the earth, 
 And smiled upon the silent sea. 
 And bade the frozen streams be free." — Shelley. 
 
 "Away, away, from men and towns. 
 To the wild wood and the downs, 
 To the silent wilderness." — Shelley. 
 
 In these passages the figure parallel consists of the presen- 
 tation of a series of similar acts or circumstances. 
 
 " Private prayer is essential to spiritual life ; without it there is no 
 life." — Rev. F. W. Robertson. 
 
 " How much of what he acknowledges as truth is profoundly mysterious ! 
 What difficulties throng great portions of Scripture ! How dark the dis- 
 pensations of Providence ! What subject for implicit faith in the workings 
 of God's moral government." — Rev. Henry Melvill. 
 
 " Let the spot be purified, or let it cease to be New England. Let it be 
 purified, or let it be set aside from the Christian world ; let it be put out of 
 
104 Elements of Rlietoric. 
 
 the circle of human sympathies and human records ; and let civilized man 
 henceforth have no commimion with \V — Daniel Webster. 
 
 In each of these passages there is also a series of similar 
 statements. 
 
 Parallel, like antithesis, assumes various forms to which 
 names have been given. These will now be briefly considered. 
 
 § 87. DI EXODUS. 
 
 There is the enumeration of successive particulars in such a 
 way that they are presented in parallel order. This is called 
 " diexodus :" 
 
 " This is the state of man : to-day he puts forth 
 The tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blossoms. 
 And bears his blushing honors thick upon him ; 
 The third day, comes a frost, a killing frost ; 
 And — when he thinks, good easy man, fall surely 
 His greatness is a ripening — nips his root. 
 And then he falls, as I do." — Shakespeare. 
 
 " At thirty, man suspects himself a fool ; 
 Knows it at forty, and reforms his plan ; 
 At fifty, chides his infamous delay ; 
 Pushes his prudent purpose to resolve. 
 Resolves; and re-rcsolvcs; then dies the same." — Young. 
 
 § 88. TRICOLA. 
 
 Another variety is found when similar clauses are arranged 
 by threes. This is called " tricola :" 
 
 " Such notions shock every precept of morality, every feeling of human- 
 ity, every sentiment of honor." — Chatham. 
 
 " He has this day surprised the thousands who hung with rapture on his 
 accents, by such an array of talents, such an exhibition of capacity, such a 
 display of power, as are unparalleled in the annals of oratory." — Burke, 
 
 "My heart leaps up when I behold 
 ^ A rainbow in the sky. 
 
 So was it when my life began. 
 So is it now I am a man. 
 So be it when I shall grow old, 
 Or let me die." — Wordsworth. 
 
 § 89. DIALLAGE. 
 
 Diallage is the union of words partly of similar, and partly 
 of different signification. 
 
Figtites of Relativity. 105 
 
 If the following sentences be written out separately, in par- 
 allel order, their nature will be more clearly apparent : 
 
 " I have found them and shared their fellowship among the daring, the 
 ardent, the indomitably active French. 
 
 " I have found them among the persevering, resolute, and industrious 
 Swiss. 
 
 " I have found them among the laborious, the warm-hearted, the enthu- 
 siastic Germans." — Brougham. 
 
 Here there is a parallel in the general idea, while there are 
 certain special differences. The same is seen in the following 
 sentence : 
 
 " Castlereagh and Canning fought in the same ranks with Pitt ; and 
 Grattan took his place in the great contests of party by the side of Fox." 
 
 § 90. METABOLE. 
 
 Metabole is the repetition of similar ideas : 
 
 " I entreat you by your love of peace ; by your hatred of oppression ; by 
 your weariness of burdensome and useless taxation." 
 
 § 91. EXERGASIA. 
 
 Elxergasia is the employment in succession of different 
 phrases conveying the same meaning : 
 
 " Who is to blame for this ? Against whom shall the charge be brought ? 
 Whom shall we accuse of having committed it ?" — Cicero. 
 
 *' But, my lords, who is the man that has dared to associate to our arms 
 the tomahawk and seal ping -knife of the savage — to call into civilized alliance 
 the wild and inhuman inhabitant of the woods — to delegate to the merciless 
 Indian the defence of disputed rights, and to wage the horrors of his bar- 
 barous war against our brethren?" — Chatham. 
 
 § 92. PARADIASTOLE. 
 
 Things which have similitude are distinguished. This is 
 called "paradiastole." 
 
 " Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one, 
 Have ofttimes no connection ; . . . 
 Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much, 
 Wisdom is humble that he knows no more." — CowPER. 
 
 "True fortitude is seen in great exploits." 
 " 'Tis Greece, but living Greece no more." — Byron. 
 E 2 
 
io6 Ele7nents of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 93. COMPARISON. 
 
 Comparison is that figure by which the resemblance between 
 two objects is pointed out. 
 
 There are three kinds of comparison : 
 
 1. The comparison of degree. 
 
 In this the comparison refers to equality, superiority, or in- 
 feriority; e.g.," He is as brave as a lion." 
 
 2. The comparison of analogy. 
 
 Here the objects compared are not similar in themselves, 
 but occupy similar relations to something else; e.g., "Time is 
 like a river." 
 
 3. The comparison of similarity. 
 
 Here the objects compared are actually similar in them- 
 selves; e.g.," He is like his father." 
 
 The comparison of analogy and that of similarity are both 
 called simile. 
 
 § 94. THE COMPARISON OF DEGREE. 
 
 The comparison of degree, or, where the comparison refers 
 to equality, superiority or inferiority. The following are ex- 
 amples : 
 
 " As far removed from God and sight of heaven 
 As from the centre thrice to the utmost pole." — Milton. 
 
 "No more like my father 
 Than I to Hercules." — Shakespeare. 
 
 " Go wing thy flight from star to star, 
 From world to luminous world, as far 
 
 As the universe spreads its flaming wall; 
 Take all the pleasures of all the spheres, 
 *' And multiply each through endless years — 
 
 One moment of heaven is worth them all." — MoORE. 
 
 "These philosophers consider men in their experiments no more than 
 they do mice in an air-pump, or in a recipient of mephitic gas." — Burke. 
 
 " We question whether the world has since witnessed so utterly sad a 
 scene ; whether Napoleon himself, left to brawl with Sir Hudson Lowe and 
 perish on his rock, presented to the reflecting mind such a 'spectacle of 
 pity and fear,' as did this intrinsically nobler, gentler, and perhaps greater 
 soul, wasting itself away in a hopeless struggle with base entanglements." — 
 Carlyle. 
 
 " Nothing can be conceived more hard than the heart of a thoroughbred 
 metaphysician." — Burke. 
 
Figures of Relativity. 107 
 
 § 95. THE COMPARISON OF ANALOGY. 
 
 The comparison of analogy : where the objects compared 
 are not similar in themselves, but occupy similar relations to 
 something else : 
 
 "She pined in thought; 
 And, with a green and yellow melancholy, 
 She sat, like Patience on a monument, 
 Smiling at grief." — Shakespeare. 
 
 " As some tall cliff that lifts its awful form, 
 Swells from the vale and midway leaves the storm; 
 Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread, 
 Eternal sunshine settles on its head." — Goldsmith. 
 
 "The correctness which the last century prized so much resembled the 
 correctness of those pictures of the Garden of Eden which we see in old 
 Bibles — an exact square enclosed by the rivers Pison, Gihon, Hiddekel, 
 and Euphrates ; each with a convenient bridge in the centre ; rectangular 
 beds of flowers ; a long canal, neatly bricked and railed in ; the tree of 
 knowledge, clipped like ovtt of the limes behind the Tuileries, standing in 
 the centre of the grand alley ; one snake twined around it ; the man on the 
 right hand ; the woman on the left ; and the beasts drawn up in an exact 
 circle around them. In one sense the picture is correct enough. That 
 is to say, the squares are correct, the circles are correct, the man and the 
 woman arc in a most correct line with the tree, and the snake forms a most 
 correct spiral."— Macaulay. 
 
 " Or, again, is that old Italian speech dead and gone that murmurs in 
 Lucretius a ceaseless, solemn monotone of sea-shell sound ; that in Virgil 
 flows like the Eridanus, calmly but majestically, through rich lowlands 
 fringed with tall poplars, and rimmed with grassy banks ; that quivers to 
 wild strings of passion in Catullus ; that wimples like a beck in Ovid ; that 
 coos in Tibullus like the turtle ; that sparkles in Horace like a well-cut dia- 
 mond." — D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson. 
 
 § 96. THE COMPARISON OF SIMILARITY. 
 
 The comparison of similarity : when the objects compared 
 are actually similar in themselves : 
 
 "The citizen of an Italian commonwealth was the Greek of the time of 
 Juvenal, and the Greek of the time of Pericles, joined in one. Like the 
 former, he was timid and pliable, artful and unscrupulous. But like the 
 latter, he had a country. Its independence and prosperity were dear to 
 him. If his character were degraded by some mean crimes, it was on the 
 other hand ennobled by public spirit and by an honorable ambition." — 
 Macaulay. 
 
 " The peasant poet bears himself, we might say, like a king in exile ; he 
 is cast among the low, and feels himself equal to the highest; yet he claims 
 
io8 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 no rank, that none may be disputed to him. The forward he can repel, 
 the supercilious he can subdue ; pretensions of wealth and ancestry are of 
 no avail with him ; there is a fire in that dark eye under which the ' inso- 
 lence of condescension" cannot thrive. In his abasement, in his extreme 
 need, he forgets not for a moment the majesty of poetry and manhood." — 
 Carlyle. 
 
 § 97. COMPARISON AS AN ORNAMENT. 
 
 All figures tend, in the first place, to embellishment; and 
 also contribute to enliven style, either by making it more viva- 
 cious, or by throwing additional light upon the subject with 
 which they are connected. It will give a clearer view of the 
 true nature of comparison if we consider its effects; first, in the 
 way of ornament ; and, secondly, in the way of explanation or 
 illustration. 
 
 I. When comparison is used as an ornament. This is very 
 apparent in poetry, and also in belles-lettres. Even here, how- 
 ever, the ornament is associated with illustration, and seldom 
 or never exists by itself alone. The ornamental character of 
 the figure may be perhaps more prominent, and the mind may 
 be so taken up with the beauty of the imagery that it does not 
 perceive its force. This is illustrated by Shelley's ode to the 
 Skylark : 
 
 " Like a poet hidden 
 
 In the light of thought. 
 Singing hymns unbidden 
 Till the world is wrought 
 To sympathy with hopes and fears it heeded not : 
 
 Like a high-bom maiden 
 
 In a palace tower. 
 Soothing her love-laden 
 Soul in secret hour 
 With music sweet as love, which overflows her bower : 
 
 Like a glow-worm golden 
 
 In a dell of dew. 
 Scattering unbeholden 
 Its aerial hue 
 Among the flowers and grass which screen it from the view : 
 
 Like a rose embowered 
 
 In its own green leaves, 
 By warm winds deflowered, 
 
 Till the scent it gives 
 Makes faint with too much sweet these heavy-winged thieves. 
 
Figures of Relativity, 1 09 
 
 Sounds of vernal showers 
 
 On the twinkling grass, 
 Rain awakened flowers, 
 
 All that ever was 
 Joyous and clear and fresh, thy music doth surpass." 
 
 Here the poet, in his high enthusiasm, seems to exhaust him- 
 self in search of fitting subjects of comparison. Each one as 
 it comes is made use of, but each one is hurriedly dismissed, 
 in order to present another; and the rich and varied imagery 
 never fails to respond to the sustained elevation of this perfect 
 song. 
 
 § 98. COMPARISON USED FOR EXPLANATION AND ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 2. Where comparison is used for purposes of explanation and 
 illustration. This is Apparent in poetry and belles-lettres when 
 it is used for embellishment; but it is more clearly conspicu- 
 ous in writings which do not admit of much ornament, such as 
 those which are devoted to purposes of instruction. The use 
 of comparison in scientific and didactic composition gives to 
 this figure a practical character which is possessed by no other 
 to an equal degree. In the following example there will be 
 perceived a clear explanation, by comparison, of the author's 
 view, which could not be so well given in any other way : 
 
 " Women are less capable than men of perceiving qualifying circumstan- 
 ces ; of admitting the existence of elements of good in systems to which 
 they are opposed ; of distinguishing the personal character of an opponent 
 from the opinions he maintains. Men lean most to justice, and women to 
 mercy. Men are most addicted to intemperance and brutality; women to 
 frivolity and jealousy. Men excel in energy, self-reliance, perseverance, and 
 magnanimity ; women in humility, gentleness, modesty, and endurance. 
 The realizing im.igination which causes us to pity and to love is more sen- 
 sitive in women than in men ; and it is especially more capable of dwelling 
 on the unseen. Their religious or devotional realizations are incontestably 
 more vivid ; and it is probable that, while a father is most moved by the 
 death of a child in his presence, a mother generally feels most the death of 
 a child in some distant land. But, though more intense, the sympathies of 
 women are commonly less wide than those of men." — W. E. H. Lecky. 
 
 § 99. FAULTS IN THE USE OF COMPARISON. 
 
 A figure like comparison, which is so universally employed, is 
 
 liable to many abuses, the chief of which it may be well to note. 
 
 I. AVhere the comparison is made between things which have 
 
no Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 a resemblance that is too familiar to the mind. A large num- 
 ber of similitudes are familiar to all ; for instance, the resem- 
 blance of a brave man to a lion; a cunning man to a fox; a 
 cruel man to a tiger or a hyena; time to a river; eternity to an 
 ocean ; life to day, and death to night; of man to strength, and 
 woman to beauty. All these comparisons have been used 
 over and over again since the origin of literature, and from fre- 
 quent repetition have become so worn out that they cease to 
 be either ornamental or useful. 
 
 2. Where the resemblance is not easily apparent or difficult 
 to discover. In such a case the comparison seems far-fetched, 
 and offends the taste as too artificial, while it conveys no ade- 
 quate idea to the mind. 
 
 3. Where the comparison refers to something which is un- 
 known or unfamiliar. Here it has no Effect, for it is unintel- 
 ligible. To an ordinary mind some of Milton's comparisons 
 might seem faulty in this respect, and the only answer to this 
 objection is that his works were written for those who have 
 sufficient learning to appreciate them. Yet, on account of the 
 learning which is necessary to a full comprehension of some 
 of his best passages, Milton's works will never be popular in 
 the sense in which those of Shakespeare are popular, or Burns, 
 or even Pope, Addison, and Cowper. 
 
 4. Where the comparison is made with anything that is lower 
 than the subject. By this the subject is degraded, and th^ 
 effect is spoiled. Of course, where there is a deliberate inten- 
 tion to depreciate, the case is different; and this can only refer 
 to serious composition where there is no such purpose. 
 
 § 100. METAPHOR. 
 
 A metaphor is an implied comparison. In comparison the 
 resemblance between two things is formally expressed, as, for 
 example, " He is as brave as a lion." In metaphor the sign of 
 comparison is dropped, the two are identified, and the one is 
 asserted to be the other, as, " He is a lion." Hence metaphor 
 is attended with a higher degree of animation, and involves a 
 bolder effort of the imagination. 
 
 Metaphors have had various classifications, but the best- 
 known is that of Quintilian, which is as follows : 
 
 I. Where one living thing is put for another. 
 
Figures of Relativity. Ill 
 
 2. Where one inanimate thing is put for another. 
 
 3. Where inanimate things are put for things having life. 
 
 4. Where inanimate things are represented as endowed with 
 life. 
 
 § lOI. WHERE ONE LIVING THING IS PUT FOR ANOTHER. 
 
 1. Where one living thing is put for another : 
 
 " His rustic friend, his nut-brown maiden, are no longer mean and home- 
 ly, but a hero and a queen, whom he prizes as the paragons of earth." — 
 Carlyle. 
 
 "Nor second he that rode sublime. 
 Upon the seraph wings of ecstasy, 
 The secrets of the abyss to spy ; 
 He passed the flaming bounds of place and time ; 
 The living throne, the sapphire blaze. 
 Where angels tr-emble while they gaze, 
 He saw ; but, blasted with excess of light, 
 Closed his eyes in endless night" — Gray. 
 
 In this passage Milton is represented as riding upon "seraph 
 wings;" that is as if in emulation of Deity, for this passage 
 contains an allusion to Milton's words — 
 
 " He on the wings of seraph rode sublime, 
 On the crystalline sky." 
 
 It is as though in his enthusiasm the poet has represented 
 Milton as a god. 
 
 § 102. WHERE ONE INANIMATE THING IS PUT FOR ANOTHER. 
 
 2. Where one inanimate thing is put for another : 
 
 "An Englishman's house is his castle." 
 "Athens, the eye of Greece." — Milton. 
 
 " Sundays the pillars are 
 On which heaven's palace arched lies. 
 
 The other days fill up the spare 
 And hollow room with vanities. 
 They are the fruitful beds and borders 
 
 In God's rich garden ; that is bare 
 Which parts their ranks and orders." — Geo. Herbert. 
 
 Sundays are here called " pillars," and afterwards " beds and 
 borders," while the other days of the week are spoken of as 
 "vanities" and "bare spaces." 
 
112 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 103. WHERE INANIMATE THINGS ARE PUT FOR THINGS HAV- 
 ING LIFE. 
 
 3. Where inanimate things are put for things having life : 
 
 Kaled, the " Sword of God." 
 " Stonewall " Jackson. 
 
 "A true poet soul, for it needs but to be struck, and the sound it yields 
 will be music."— Carlyle. 
 
 In this passage the soul of Burns is represented as a musical 
 instrument. 
 
 § 104. WHERE INANIMATE THINGS ARE REPRESENTED AS EN- 
 DOWED WITH LIFE. 
 
 5. Where inanimate things are represented as endowed with 
 life. This is identical with personification in its lower grades 
 (see Personification). 
 
 A hard heart 
 The thirsty ground. 
 
 "Now upon Syria's land of roses, 
 Softly the light of eve reposes ; 
 And like a glory the broad sun 
 Hangs over sainted Lebanon, 
 Whose head in wintry grandeur towers. 
 
 And whitens with eternal sleet ; 
 While summer, in a vale of flowers, 
 
 Is sleeping rosy at his feet." — T. Moore. 
 
 The light of eve is here represented as endowed with life, 
 and reposing, while summer also is sleeping. 
 
 § 105. METAPHOR USED AS AN ORNAMENT. 
 
 Metaphor, like comparison, has widely varied effects; and it 
 is from the observation of these that it may best be appreciated. 
 There are three chief applications of this figure, which will pre- 
 sent sufficient matter for consideration. These are, first, when 
 it is applied to ornament; secondly, to illustration; and, third- 
 ly, to emphasis. 
 
 I. Ornament. 
 
 Such is the great beauty of metaphor, and so large is its ap- 
 plication to purposes of embellishment, that to the ordinary ob- 
 server it seems to belong altogether to ornament. We shall 
 
Figures of Relativity. 1 1 3 
 
 see that it has far higher purposes, but yet, as far as embellish- 
 ment is concerned, it may safely be said to surpass every other 
 figure : 
 
 " The turf shall be my fragrant shrine, 
 My temple, Lord, that arch of thine ; 
 My censer's breath the mountain airs, 
 And silent thoughts my only prayers." — T. MoORE. 
 
 " See truth, love, and mercy in triumph descending. 
 And nature all glowing in Eden's first bloom ; 
 On the cold cheek of death smiles and roses are blending. 
 And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb." — Beatfie. 
 
 § 106. METAPHOR USED FOR EXPLANATION AND ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 Seldom, however, will it be found that a beautiful metaphoi 
 rests in beauty only. From its very beauty other results flow, 
 which tend to throw a new light over a subject, or give it a new 
 meaning or a stronger emphasis. For the present purpose it 
 is enough to let the mind dwell upon the beauty of a metaphor, 
 apart from its other effects ; and then consider those other ef- 
 fects by themselves. Among these is next to be considered 
 the effect of the metaphor towards explanation or illustration. 
 
 2. Explanation and illustration. 
 
 In Wordsworth's sublime ode on Immortality he teaches the 
 doctrine of a previous conscious existence; and seeks to sup- 
 port this, not by proofs, for that were impossible, but by a se- 
 ries of facts in human experience. In the following example 
 there is in the first line a statement of the theory, "Our birth 
 is but a sleep and a forgetting," after which follow several met- 
 aphors, which serve to explain the theory and illustrate it : 
 
 "Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting: 
 The soul that rises with us, our life's star, 
 
 Hath had elsewhere its setting. 
 And Cometh from afar : 
 
 Not in entire forgetfulness. 
 
 And not in utter nakedness. 
 But trailing clouds of glory, do we come 
 
 From God, who is our home : 
 Heaven lies about us in our infancy. 
 Shades of the prison-house begin to close 
 
 Upon the growing boy; 
 But he beholds the light, .and whence it flows; 
 
 He sees it in his joy. 
 
1 14 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The youth, who daily farther from the east 
 Must travel, still is nature's priest ; 
 And by the vision splendid 
 Is on his way attended. 
 At length the man perceives it die away, 
 And fade into the light of common day. 
 
 Hence in a season of calm weather. 
 
 Though inland far we be, 
 Our souls have sight of that immortal sea 
 
 Which brought us hither, 
 
 Can in a moment travel thither, 
 And see the children sport upon the shore. 
 And hear the mighty waters rolling evermore." 
 
 In the following passage De Quincey affirms the human 
 brain to be a palimpsest, that is, a parchment sheet upon 
 which the original writing has been obliterated, in order to re- 
 ceive new writing; which in its turn has been obliterated in 
 such a way that the first draught stands revealed. This met- 
 aphor is used for purposes of explanation : 
 
 " What else than a natural and mighty palimpsest is the human brain. 
 Such a palimpsest is my brain ; such a palimpsest, O reader, is yours ! 
 Everlasting layers of ideas, images, feelings, have fallen upon your brain, 
 softly as light. Elach succession has seemed to bury all that went before. 
 And yet m reality not one has been extinguished. And if, in the vellum 
 palimpsest, lying among the other diplomata of human archives, or libra- 
 ries, there is anything fantastic, or which moves to laughter, as oftentimes 
 there is in the grotesque collisions of those successive themes having no 
 natural connection, which by pure accident have consecutively occupied the 
 roll, yet, in our own heaven-created palimpsest — the deep memorial palimp- 
 sest of the brain — there are not and cannot be such incoherences." 
 
 § 107. METAPHOR USED TO GIVE STRENGTH AND EMPHASIS. 
 
 The effect of metaphor sometimes is to present a thought 
 with extraordinary vigor and emphasis ; and where it is success- 
 fully employed in this way there is a union of beauty and 
 strength such as arrests the attention and impresses itself 
 upon the memory. 
 
 In the following passage an aspersion upon Ireland, convey- 
 ed in a metaphor, is admirably encountered, and turned back 
 upon the adversary by another metaphor : 
 
 " You say that Ireland is a millstone about our necks ; that it would be 
 better for us if Ireland were sunk at the bottom of the sea ; that the Irish 
 
Figures of Relativity. 1 1 5 
 
 are a nation of irreclaimable savages and barbarians. How often have I 
 heard those sentiments fall from the plump and thoughtless squire, and from 
 the thriving English shopkeeper, who has never felt the rod of an Orange 
 master upon his back. Ireland a millstone about your neck? Why is it not 
 a stone of Ajax in your hand?"— Rev. Sydney Smith. 
 
 ** Once to every man or nation comes the moment to decide, 
 In the strife of Truth with Falsehood, for the good or evil side ; 
 Some great cause, God's new Messiah, offering each the bloom or blight, 
 Parts the goats upon the left hand and the sheep upon the right. 
 And the choice goes by forever 'twixt that darkness and that light. 
 
 Careles? seems the great Avenger ; history's pages but record 
 One death-grapple in the darkness 'twixt old systems and the Word ; 
 Truth forever on the scaffold. Wrong forever on the throne ; 
 Yet that scaffold sways the future, and, behind the dim unknown, 
 Standeth God within the shadow, keeping watch above his own." 
 
 —James Russell Lowell. 
 
 In this passage the metaphor identifies a good cause, its 
 struggles and certain victory, with Christ, his passion and 
 triumph. 
 
 Mrs. Julia Ward Howe's thrilling Battle Hymn of the Repub- 
 lic consists of a series of metaphors, each line containing a 
 separate one conceived and expressed with resistless force and 
 effect : 
 
 ** Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord : 
 He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored ; 
 He hath loosed the fateful lightning of his terrible swiA sword. 
 
 He hath sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat ; 
 He is sifting out the hearts of men before his judgment-seat ; 
 O, be swift, my soul, to answer him ! be jubilant, my feet !" 
 
 § 108. FAULTS IN THE USE OF METAPHOR. 
 
 In considering the faults which occur in the use of this fig- 
 ure, some will be found which are similar to the faults which 
 arise in comparison, while others are peculiar to metaphor. 
 Thus in metaphor, as in comparison, the resemblance should 
 not be too familiar or too remote; it should not refer to 
 what is unknown, or to what is low and degraded. The in- 
 termingling of different images is something which has to do 
 with metaphors only, since it is but seldom to be found in com- 
 parison. 
 
 I. When the resemblance is too familiar the image has no 
 
 F 
 
1 1 6 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 effect. This is the case with all such as are trite, hackneyed, 
 and worn out from frequent use, as, the azure skies ; the silver 
 moon ; a lion heart ; smiling morn. 
 
 2. When the resemblance is remote it is not readily under- 
 stood or appreciated. Such metaphors are called far-fetched 
 and strained, as, 
 
 "... to and fro weltering of my long ago . . . 
 Shapes of goods once fleshed and fair, 
 Grown foul bads in alien air" . . . — Centennial Ode. 
 These images are not easily intelligible. 
 
 3. When the metaphor involves something that is beneath 
 the dignity of the subject the effect is to degrade it; and this 
 is a great fault, except in cases where it is the intention of the 
 writer to depreciate or abase it. Such metaphors are frequent 
 enough, and belong to the figures of diminution, under which 
 head they are considered. They may also be found in humor- 
 ous wriring, where sometimes the degradation of a grave theme 
 gives rise to the ridiculous. 
 
 4. The metaphor should not be carried too far, nor should 
 too many be introduced. The effect of this is to overload the 
 style with ornament, and to render it weak and tedious. This 
 is a fault which pervades Oriental writing: it is also found in 
 Anglo-Saxon and ancient Icelandic poetry. The excess of met- 
 aphor here often leads to great obscurity, ^schylus is open 
 to the charge of frequent offences in this respect. But some- 
 times certain passages may consist of numerous metaphors; 
 and when they are well chosen, and the imagination is strongly 
 excited, the effect is good. This is set down by some as a sep- 
 arate figure, and is called phantasia. 
 
 § 109. MIXED METAPHORS. 
 
 The chief fault in the employment of this figure is that which 
 is called mixed metaphors. This signifies what the name im- 
 plies, that is, the intermingling of metaphorical language with 
 literal, or the confusion of different metaphors. These tv/o 
 faults are essentially the same, but for purposes of clearness 
 and convenience they may be considered separately. 
 
 I. Where metaphorical and plain language are intermingled : 
 
 " The fiend Intemperance is marshalling his hosts, so as to poison the 
 minds and bodies of poor inebriates." 
 
Figures of Relativity. 1 1 7 
 
 Here the image of an armed body of men is intermingled 
 with the plain statement of the poisonous effects of alcohol. 
 
 " Sailing on the sea of life, we are often in danger from the temptations 
 around us." 
 
 Here the voyage of life is presented as an image, and con- 
 fused with the literal "temptations" of life. 
 
 " If we put on the whole armor of righteousness, we shall be less liable to 
 yield to the allurements of sin." 
 
 The figure of an armed man has no connection with literal 
 "allurements." 
 
 2. Where different metaphors are intermingled and con- 
 fused : 
 
 " Virtue alone can save us from the hosts of evil when they roll in upon 
 us." 
 
 The image of hosts is here confused with that of rolling 
 billows. 
 
 This resembles Shakespeare's lines : 
 
 •' Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, 
 And, by opposing, end them ?" 
 
 " He alone can manage the storm-tossed ship of state on its march." 
 
 The mixture of metaphors is here very glaring, as also in the 
 following example : 
 
 " My lords, the main feature on which this question hinges — " 
 
 Burke, in his speech on the East India Bill of Mr. Fox, in 
 describing the class of Englishmen who go to India, has the 
 following : 
 
 " Animated with all the avarice of age and all the impetuosity of youth, 
 they roll in one after another, wave after wave ; and there is nothing before 
 the eyes of the natives but an endless, hopeless prospect of new flights of 
 birds of prey and passage, with appetites continually renewing for a food that 
 is continually wasting." 
 
 Here the English are called "waves" and "birds of prey." 
 Some of the finest passages in Shakespeare exhibit an inter- 
 mingling of metaphors : 
 
 "As glorious 
 As is the winged messenger of heaven . . . 
 When he bestrides the lazy pacing clouds 
 And sails upon the bosom of the air." 
 
Ii8 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 "The charm dissolves apace, 
 And as the morning steals uporTthe night, 
 Melting the darkness ; so their rising senses 
 Begin to chase the ignorant fumes that mantle 
 Their clearer reason." 
 
 Critics have condemned these on the ground that it is im> 
 possible for the imagination to form a picture composed of 
 such confused objects. But these are defended by another 
 class, and this controversy brings the subject into a new posi- 
 tion, which must be considered. 
 
 § no. MIXED METAPHORS ARE NOT ALWAYS OBJECTIONABLE. 
 
 It may be shown that mixed metaphors are not always ob- 
 jectionable. The greatest poets have not been most careful 
 to avoid these incongruities ; and Shakespeare in every play 
 shows a lordly disregard of convention. There are two cases 
 in which mixed metaphors may be defended. 
 
 I. Phantasia. 
 
 By some phantasia is set down as a separate figure. It 
 means the accumulation of tropes or images. These are gen- 
 erally crowded together without intermingling, though there 
 may be confusion. 
 
 The following is an example : 
 
 "As killing as the canker to the rose, 
 Or taint-worm to the weanling herds that graze, 
 Or frost to flowers that their gay wardrobe wear 
 When first the white thorn blows — 
 Such, Lycidas, thy loss to shepherd's ear." — Milton. 
 
 Here there is certainly no confusion, but there is a rich ac- 
 cumulation of figures. 
 
 In Shelley's ode to a Skylark, already quoted, there is also 
 an example of accumulated images. 
 
 In the following passages from Macaulay's essay on Bacon, 
 there is another example : 
 
 "Assuredly, if the tree which Socrates planted and Plato watered is to 
 be judged of by its flowers and leaves, it is the noblest of trees. But if we 
 take the homely test of Bacon, if we judge of the tree by its fruits, our 
 opiiiion of it may be less favorable. . . . Plato drew a good bow, but like 
 Acestes, in Virgil, he aimed at the stars ; and therefore, though there was 
 
Figures of Relativity. 119 
 
 no want of strength or skill, the shot was thrown away. His arrow was in- 
 deed followed by a track of dazzling radiance, but it struck nothing. Bacon 
 fixed his eye on a mark which was placed on the earth, and within bowshot, 
 and hit it on the white. ... He desired such persons to remember that he 
 had from the first announced the objects of his search to be, not the splen- 
 did and the surprising, but the useful and the true ; not the deluding dreams 
 which go forth through the shining portal of ivory, but the humbler realities 
 of the gates of horn. . . . Though Bacon did not arm his philosophy with 
 the weapons of logic, he adorned her profusely with all the richest decora- 
 tions of rhetoric." 
 
 In this group of passages we have an array of different fig- 
 ures in which there is not the slightest confusion. A rich and 
 vivid imagination will often delight in throwing off from its very 
 richness numerous images, which may be collected in one pas- 
 sage; and sometimes two or more of these will be incongruous. 
 Yet the incongruity is more apparent than real. For instance, 
 in Hamlet's soliloquy a number of images are accumulated, 
 among which is the following, quoted above : 
 
 *' Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, 
 And, by opposing, end them .>" 
 
 Although one cannot literally take arms against the sea, yet 
 there are some who contend that there need be no confusion 
 here. They maintain that the term, " a sea of troubles," in- 
 volves in itself the conception of a host of enemies, against 
 which arms may be taken. The defenders of this, and of 
 other great passages of a similar character, rest their argument 
 upon the theory that in every metaphor there is not only a 
 direct meaning, but also a suggested one, and that where this 
 suggested meaning does not create any conflict of ideas, there 
 need be no confusion. Thus the lines, quoted before ; 
 
 "When he bestrides the lazy pacing clouds 
 And sails upon the bosom of the air," 
 
 are defended on the ground that the word "sails" suggests any 
 easy, gliding motion. 
 
 2. In many religious hymns there is a mixture of metaphors. 
 For instance, it is charged upon the " Rock of Ages," which is 
 so well known and so deeply loved, that the image of a rock is 
 confounded with the person of Christ. The answer that has 
 been given to this is that the confusion is only apparent, and 
 
120 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 is due to the peculiar nature of religious phraseology. For 
 this forms, so to speak, a language by itself, with its own ap- 
 propriate vocabulary ; and is full of imagery and figurative ex- 
 pressions drawn from the Bible, which have gained for them- 
 selves almost a literal character. In the language of religion, 
 as in that of common life, many metaphors have come into 
 general use, the purely figurative character of which is not often 
 suspected, and the intermingling of these in a hymn, such as 
 the " Rock of Ages," need not be regarded as an actual fault. 
 
 § III, CATACHRESIS. 
 
 There is a peculiar kind of metaphor, called catachresis, 
 
 which is sometimes defined as " an abuse of metaphor ;" but 
 
 aljetter definition is that it is a word turned from its literal 
 
 signification, and made to express something at variance with 
 
 it, as, 
 
 " The music of her face." 
 
 Here " music," which is the beauty of sound, is affirmed of 
 the beauty of aspect, with which it is at variance as belonging 
 to a different class of things. 
 
 " There, too, the goddess loves in stone, and fills 
 The air around with beauty." 
 
 The phrase "loves in stone" is similar to the above; and 
 of the same nature is the following : 
 
 •' Heartlessness, in comparison with which the ice of Nova 2^mbla is 
 warm." 
 
 Coldness of heart is here contrasted with a certain kind of 
 ice. 
 
 § 112. ALLEGORY. 
 
 Allegory is closely associated with metaphor. It has been 
 called " a prolonged metaphor," and may be defined as a nar- 
 rative with a figurative meaning, designed to convey instruction 
 of a moral character. 
 
 Allegory is found in the most ancient writings. It is very 
 common in the literature of Oriental nations, but in that of 
 Greece and Rome it is of less frequent occurrence, the Choice 
 of Hercules being perhaps the most familiar example. This 
 
Figures of Relativity. 12 1 
 
 species of composition rose to extended use during the Middle 
 Ages. The mystery and morality plays may be regarded as 
 dramatic allegory, and show the existence of an extraordinary 
 fondness for this sort of figurative treatment. The first im- 
 portant work in English poetry was of this character — the 
 "Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman;" and about 
 the same time Chaucer wrote his " House of Fame." It was in 
 this form that Spenser wrote his Faerie Queene, which is the 
 noblest example of allegory in English verse. The next great 
 work was in prose. This was Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, 
 the immense popularity of which shows no signs of abatement. 
 The next of importance are Johnson's Rasselas, and Thom- 
 son's Castle of Indolence. Passing over other examples, we 
 come to the poems of Edgar Poe, which are generally of this 
 description, and of which the chief one, " The Raven," has had 
 a world-wide popularity. Here the poet, or speaker, is repre- 
 sented as having lost his early loVe, Lenore (innocence or pu- 
 rity), and as visited by a raven (remorse). Foreign literature 
 abounds in examples, but especially the German.' Many of 
 Uhland's poems belong to this class. Chamisso's " Shadow- 
 less Man" is a powerful work of the same kind. To this be- 
 long also the best-known writings of De la Motte Fouqud. In 
 " Undine," the water-spirit (poetry^ comes to dwell with man, 
 but is finally destroyed by a drop of water (prosait or practi- 
 cal life). In " Sintram and his Companions," by the same 
 author, is represented the struggle of the human soul with the 
 world, the flesh, and the devil. Far beyond these is Goethe's 
 Faust, the theme of whii^li is the*stru^gle of the soul with 
 temptation, its fall, and its final redemption, which in the sec- 
 ond part is somewhat vaguely suggested. But the greatest of 
 all allegories is Dante's Divina Commedia. This shows the 
 progress of Dante (the soul of man), guided by Virgil (earth- 
 ly wisdom) and Beatrice (celestial wisdom), through Inferno 
 (scenes of sin and suffering), and Purgatorio (scenes of expia- 
 tion), to Paradiso (final blessedness). Its general scheme is 
 analogous to that of the Pilgrim's Progress, though the details 
 are infinitely different. 
 
 The greatest allegories in English literature are the Faerie 
 Queene of Spenser and the Pilgrim's Progress of Bunyan. The 
 former is a poem of the highest order, but is not at all popular; 
 
122 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 the latter is the most widely circulated book in existence, next 
 to the Bible, and next to that has been translated into more 
 languages than any other work. Macaulay compares these 
 two, and accounts for the unpopular character of the former 
 on the ground that allegory is uninteresting, " Even Spenser 
 himself," he says, " could not succeed in the attempt to make 
 allegory interesting." But such a statement is disproved by 
 the notorious fact that allegory has always been interesting, 
 and continues to be so. It is rather Spenser's treatment that 
 is at fault, for this, though richly poetical, is certainly not pop- 
 ular. He wrote for the few, and has always been admired and 
 beloved by the few. Macaulay's criticism is severe, yet in part 
 just " One unpardonable fault," he says, *' the fault of dulness, 
 pervades the whole of the Faerie Queene. We become sick of 
 cardinal virtues and deadly sins, and long for the society of 
 plain men and women. Of the persons who read the first 
 canto, not one in ten reaches the end of the first book, and not 
 one in a hundred perseveres to the end of the poem. Very few 
 and very weary are those who are in at the death of the bla- 
 tant beast." 
 
 On the contrary, of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, he says : 
 
 " All the forms which cross or overtake the pilgrims are actually exist- 
 ing beings for us. We follow the travellers through their allegorical prog- 
 ress with interest not inferior to that with which we follow Elizabeth from 
 Siberia to Moscow, or Jeanie Deans from Edinburgh to London. Bunyan 
 is almost the only writer that ever gave to the abstract the interest of the 
 concrete. The mind of Bunyan was so imaginative that personifications 
 when he dealt with them became men. A dialogue between two qualities 
 in his dream has more dramatic effect than a dialogue between two human 
 beings in most plays." 
 
 The characters in an allegory may have the names of ab- 
 stract qualities, as in the Pilgrim's Progress ; or names drawn 
 from other sources, such as legend or the fancy of the writer, 
 as in Spenser's Faerie Queene. Its effectiveness does not de- 
 pend upon the names of the characters, but rather upon the 
 characters themselves. If they are lifelike; if the action is 
 vigorous; if the author gives himself up to the narrative, and 
 allows it to convey its own lesson, without interrupting it with 
 his own moralizing, then the allegory will be as interesting as 
 any other narrative. As far as names are concerned, they may 
 
Figures of Relativity. 123 
 
 belong to abstract qualities, as in the Pilgrim's Progress, or 
 they may be taken from real life, as in many of the cases 
 above mentioned. 
 
 § 113. PARABLE. 
 
 The parable may be defined as a fictitious example designed 
 to inculcate moral or religious truth. It is similar to the alle- 
 gory; and indeed it often happens that it is difficult to assign 
 some pieces with certainty to the one or the other. There is, 
 however, an essential difference between them. 
 
 The allegory sets forth a story which shall impart moral in- 
 struction of a general character; the parable is a story told for 
 the sake of illustrating some special point. The former is 
 many-sided, the latter is single in its aim; in the one the moral 
 follows from the narrative, in the other the narrative is made 
 up expressly for the sake of the moral; in the allegory the 
 story itself is full of interest, in the parable the moral quite 
 overshadows the story. 
 
 The most familiar examples of the parable are those in the 
 Sacred Scriptures. 
 
 § 114. FABLE. 
 
 The fable originally meant any short story conveying a mor- 
 al; but at the present lime its application is confined to those 
 stories in which animals or inanimate objects are represented 
 as endowed with intelligence and other human attributes, and 
 acting or speaking in such a way as to convey a useful lesson. 
 The most familiar examples are ^Esop's Fables. 
 
 § 115. PERSONIFICATION. 
 
 Personification is that figure by which life is attributed to in- 
 animate objects. It is a trope, and is closely identical with 
 metaphor; for in Quintilian's classification the fourth class is 
 merely the lower kind of personification. The tendency to en- 
 dow inanimate objects with the properties of life and sense is 
 universal, and is part of human nature, being found among 
 savages as well as among the civilized, and in all races and ages 
 and classes. It lies at the basis of religious superstition. Thus 
 the ancient Greek regarded all inanimate nature as instinct 
 with life; he peopled the woods and waters with sentient be- 
 
 F 2 
 
124 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 ings, and looked upon the trees and streams and mountains 
 as actual persons. The child shows the same tendency to per- 
 sonify when he strikes back at the stone over which he has 
 stumbled. Its power is also seen in the development of lan- 
 guage, where we find things without life classified as masculine 
 or feminine. 
 There are three degrees of personification : 
 
 1. When inanimate objects are conceived of as endowed with 
 life; as, "a raging storm," "a cruel disease," "the smiling 
 morn," " a living spring," " a frowning precipice," " winged 
 words," "a pitiless stone," "thirsty ground." This is illus- 
 trated in the following lines : 
 
 "Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright. 
 The bridal of the earth and sky, 
 The dews shall weep thy fall to-night, 
 For thou must die." — George Herbert. 
 
 This is the lowest and most familiar form of personification. 
 It is in general use in poetry, and also in prose ; and is so nat- 
 ural and prosaic that it is employed in common conversation. 
 
 2. The second degree of personification is where the object 
 is described as acting. The following are examples : 
 
 "Law steps forth to protect the accused." 
 •* Britain strikes off the captive's chains." 
 
 " Earth felt the wound, and nature, from her source. 
 Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe." — MiLTON. 
 
 "The bridegroom sea 
 Is toying with the shore, his wedded bride ; 
 Retires a space to see how fair she looks, 
 Then, proud, runs up to kiss her." — Alexander Smith, 
 
 "How sleep the brave who sink to rest 
 By all their country's wishes blest ! 
 
 By fairy hands their knell is rung ; 
 
 By forms unseen their dirge is sung ; 
 
 There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray, 
 
 To bless the turf that wraps their clay; 
 
 And Freedom shall awhile repair, 
 
 To dwell a weeping hermit there." — Collins. 
 
 This is common in prose also, as, "France goes to war for 
 an idea ;" " America was agonized by the fratricidal conflict." 
 
Figures of Relativity. 125 
 
 In nearly all languages but the English inanimate things are 
 personified, since they are regarded as masculine or Riniiiine. 
 In English poetry this is done by a regular act of personifica- 
 tion. They are represented as living and acting. Things per- 
 sonified are with us chiefly feminine, and include more partic- 
 ularly countries, cities, and abstract qualities. 
 
 In common conversation there is a strong tendency to this 
 figure among the lower orders. Thus a " ship " is feminine, 
 and is spoken of as " she ;" so is a " watch," a *' gun," and 
 many other articles of personal property. This probably arises 
 from a tendency to regard such things as " pets," or objects of 
 affection; and hence they are naturally made feminine. In 
 other cases, where there is antagonism or hostility, the object 
 is made masculine. 
 
 3. The third kind of personification arises where the object 
 is represented as endowed with the powers of speech and in- 
 telligence. The most common form of this consists of an ad- 
 dress to the personified object : 
 
 " O unexpected stroke, worse than of death ! 
 Must I thus leave thee, Paradise?" — MiLTON. 
 
 " Farewell, happy fields, 
 Where joy forever dwells ! Hail, horrors, hail ! 
 And thou, profoundest hell !" — Milton. 
 
 "Go, lovely rose, 
 Tell her that wastes her time and mc, 
 
 That now she knows, 
 When I resemble her to thee. 
 How sweet and fair she seems to be." — Ed. Waller. 
 
 " Fair daffodils, we weep to see 
 You haste away so soon."— Robert Herrick. 
 
 " Wake from thy nest, robin redbreast, 
 Sing, birds, from every furrow, 
 And from each hill let music shrill, 
 Give my fair love good-morrow." — Thomas Heywood. 
 
 "If aught of oaten stop, or pastoral song. 
 May hope, chaste Eve, to soothe thy modest ear, 
 Like thy own solemn springs, 
 Thy springs and dying gales." — CoLLINS. 
 
 " Ye living flowers that skirt the eternal frost ! 
 Ye wild goats sporting rotind the eagle's nest ! 
 
 /I 
 
126 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain-storm ! 
 
 Ye lightnings, the dread arrows of the clouds ! 
 
 Ye signs and wonders of the element ! 
 
 Utter forth God, and fill the hills with praise."— Coleridge. 
 
 *• Good-bye, proud world ! I'm going home : 
 Thou art not my friend, and I'm not thine. 
 
 Long through the weary crowds I roam, 
 A river-ark on the ocean brine. 
 
 Long I've been tossed like the driven foam ; 
 
 But now, proud world, I'm going home." — R. W. Emerson. 
 
 This kind of personification is the result of strong emotion 
 or excited imagination, and belongs peculiarly to poetry and 
 oratory. 
 
 § Il6. APOSTROPHE. 
 
 Apostrophe is an address to the absent or dead, as though 
 really present. It resembles personification of the third de- 
 gree, with which it is frequently confounded. It is associated 
 with high emotion, and is chiefly found in poetry and oratory. 
 
 ** How shall I know thee in the sphere which keeps 
 The disembodied spirits of the dead?" — Bryant. 
 
 " Green be the turf above thee. 
 Friend of my better days ; 
 None knew thee but to love thee. 
 Nor named thee but to praise." 
 
 — Fitz-Greene Halleck. 
 
 Milton's address to Shakespeare is a well-known instance : 
 
 " What needs my Shakespeare for his honored bones ? 
 The labor of an age in piled stones "i 
 
 Dear son of memory, great heir of fame !" 
 Wordsworth's sonnet to Milton affords another example : 
 
 ♦• Milton ! thou shouldst be living at this hour. 
 England hath need of thee !" 
 
 This figure abounds in the Lycidas of Milton, and in Ten- 
 nyson's In Memoriam, as in all other cases when there is a 
 direct address to the dead. The invocation of the Muse in 
 poetry may also be mentioned as an example : 
 
 *' Of man's first disobedience . . . sing, heavenly muse." 
 
 "Achilles' wrath, to 'Greece the direful spring 
 Of woes unnumbered, heavenly goddess, sing." 
 
Figures of Relativity. 127 
 
 Religious hymns exhibit this very frequently, as — 
 
 " Thou art gone to the grave, but we will not deplore thee." 
 " Sister, thou wast mild and lovely." 
 "Brother, thou hast gone to rest." 
 
 The same figure is exhibited in those hymns which contain 
 an invocation of higher beings : 
 
 "Ye principalities and powers. 
 That never tasted death ! 
 Witness from off your heavenly towers 
 Our act of Christian faith." — George Rawson. 
 
 The apostrophe is found frequently in oratory, and is very 
 effective when it is the expression of fervid passion : 
 
 " I found Ireland on her knees. I watched over her with an eternal solici- 
 tude, and have traced her progress from injuries to arms, and from arms to 
 liberty. Spirit of Swift ! spirit of Molyneux ! your genius has prevailed. 
 Ireland is now awaking — in that new character I hail her, and, bowing to her 
 august presence, I say, Esto perpttua /" — Grattan. 
 
 It is also found in prose writing, where the author is carried 
 away by his own feelings and rises to a more impassioned 
 strain of eloquence. Carlyle has frequent examples of this, 
 but none are equal to the tender pathos and profound com- 
 passion of the description of Marie Antoinette, in which occurs 
 the following apostrophe : 
 
 " There is no heart to say, God pity thee ! O think not of these ; 
 think of Him whom thou worshippest — the Crucified — who also, treading 
 the wine-press alone, fronted sorrow still deeper, and triumphed over it, 
 and made it holy, and built of it a sanctuary of sorrow for thee and all the 
 wretched !" 
 
 The invocation of the Deity, and the language of prayer, 
 must not be regarded as apostrophe ; for in this case the ad- 
 dress is offered not to the dead or absent, but to the living God, 
 who is ever present to hear those who call upon him. 
 
 § 117. VISION. 
 
 Vision is the narration of past or absent scenes as though 
 actually occurring before us. It is sometimes closely allied to 
 the third kind of personification and to apostrophe. It is a 
 
128 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 figure that may be used to express strong emotion, or for the 
 purposes of animated narrative. 
 
 1. The most striking examples of this figure are found in con- 
 nection with deep feeling, when the imagination is in a state 
 of high excitement, and the writer seems to have an actual 
 vision of the scene which he describes. Apostrophe is often 
 found united with it. No better examples of vision can be 
 found than those which occur in Byron's Childe Harold. His 
 description of a storm in the Alps is familiar to all : 
 
 " The sky is changed ! and such a change ! O night, 
 And storm, and darkness, ye are wondrous strong, 
 Yet lovely in your strength, as is the light 
 Of a dark eye in woman ! Far along. 
 From peak to peak, the rattling crags among. 
 Leaps the live thunder, not from one lone cloud. 
 But every mountain now hath found a tongue. 
 And Jura answers from her misty shroud 
 Back to the joyous Alps, which call to her aloud." 
 
 In the same poem the descriptions of the Dying Gladiator, 
 the Laocoon, St. Peter's Cathedral, the Falls of Velino, and 
 some others, afford striking examples. 
 
 Vision is frequent in lyrical poetry, particularly religious 
 hymns : 
 
 •• Bound upon the accursed tree, 
 Faint and bleeding, who is he ?" 
 
 *' These glorious forms, how bright they shine I 
 Whence all their bright array?" 
 
 This figure is common in oratory : 
 
 " I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens, lying unburied in the 
 midst of their ruined country." — Cicero. 
 
 The higher order of vision is not common in ordinary prose, 
 but when there is deep excitement or strong emotion it is used 
 with great effect. Many passages of this nature are to be 
 found in the works of Carlyle. 
 
 2. Vision is also used for purposes of animated narrative. 
 Here, for the sake of avoiding monotony, and varying the ex- 
 pression and style, the present tense is employed instead of the 
 past, and the scene is thus narrated as though occurring before 
 
Figures of Relativity. 129 
 
 the eyes of the writer. This use, of the present tense for the 
 past is very prevalent in Latin and Greek writers. Livy in 
 particular is partial to it, and it is recognized and named as 
 the " historical -present." Carlyle makes frequent use of it ; 
 and it is employed largely by newspaper correspondents, more 
 especially'by Mr. W. H. Russell. The following passage from 
 his description of the battle of Balaklava will serve as an ex- 
 ample : 
 
 " With breathless suspense every one awaits the bursting of the wave 
 upon the Gallic rock ; but ere they come within another hundred and fifty 
 yards, another deadly volley flashes from the levelled rifles, and carries 
 death and terror into the Russians." 
 
 In the following passage there is a very beautiful example 
 of this kind of vision : 
 
 •' Time labors on — your skin glows, and your shoulders ache. Your Arabs 
 moan, your camels sigh, but conquering Time marches on, and by and by the 
 descending sun has compassed the heaven, and now softly touches our right 
 arm, and throws your lank shadow over the sand right along on the way for 
 Persia ; then again you look upon his face, for his power is all veiled in his 
 beauty, and the redness of flames has become the redness of roses ; the fair 
 wavy cloud that fled in the morning now comes to his sight once more — 
 comes blushing, yet still comes on — comes burning with blushes, yet hastens, 
 and clings to his side." — Kinglake. 
 
 § 118. ALLUSION. 
 
 Allusion may be defined as the reference to some familiar 
 event in the past, or the appropriation of familiar words from 
 some well-known author, for purposes of explanation or illus- 
 tration. This figure is based upon the idea of similarity, and 
 may be presented in three modes: 
 
 1. The direct allusion ; as — 
 
 " The patience of Job is proverbial." 
 
 2. The allusion of comparison ; as — 
 
 " Like Alexander, he wept because he had no more worlds to conquer." 
 "Like the musician at Alexander's feast, it can raise a mortal to the 
 skies ; but, like St. Cecilia, it can also bring an angel down." 
 
 3. The allusion by metaphor; as — 
 
 " He was the Achilles of the war." 
 *' They made him their scapegoat." 
 
1 30 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 119. HISTORICAL ALLUSION. 
 
 There are two kinds of allusion ; first, the historical ; and, 
 secondly, the literary. 
 
 I. The historical allusion : 
 
 The allusion is said to be historical when refereilte is made 
 to any well-known event or character in the past. It may 
 refer — 
 
 1. To history; as — 
 
 " Like rigid Cincinnatus, nobly poor." 
 
 2. To fiction; as — 
 
 "Lady Macbeth is the Clytemnestra of the modem drama." 
 
 3. To anecdote, fable, etc. ; as — 
 
 " Like the ass between two bundles of hay." 
 "A dog-in-the-manger policy." 
 
 The following passages will further illustrate this kind of 
 allusion : 
 
 " When I was a beggarly boy, 
 
 And lived in a cellar damp, 
 I had not a friend nor a toy, 
 
 But I had Aladdin's lamp. 
 When I could not sleep for cold, 
 
 I had fire enough in my brain; 
 And builded with roofs of gold 
 
 My beautiful castles in Spain."— J. R. Lowell. 
 
 The allusions are, first, to Aladdin in the Arabian Nights ; 
 and, secondly, to the common saying, " Chateaux d'Espagne," 
 i.e.," castles in the air." 
 
 " For humanity sweeps onward : where to-day the martyr stands, 
 On the morrow crouches Judas, with the silver in his hands. 
 Far in front the cross stands ready, and the crackling fagots burn, 
 While the hooting mob of yesterday in silent awe return. 
 To glean up the scattered fragments into history's golden urn." 
 
 — J. R. Lowell. 
 " I can see my own vices without heat in the distant persons of Solo- 
 mon, Alcibiades, and Catiline." — R. W. Emerson. 
 
Figures of Relativity. 131 
 
 § 120. LITERARY ALLUSION. 
 
 2. Literary allusion is the appropriation of familiar words 
 from some well-known author, for purposes of explanation or 
 illustration : 
 
 " It may be said of him that he came, he saw, he conquered." 
 "He has fallen into the sere and yellow leaf." 
 " He has gone to that bourne from which no traveller returns." 
 "I'm sitting here waiting for the train, like Patience on a monument, and 
 mean to let Patience have her perfect work." 
 
 " Arms and the man whose reascending star 
 Rose o'er an empire." — Byron. 
 
 "That shepherd who first taught the chosen seed 
 In the beginning how the heaven and earth 
 Rose out of chaos." — Milton. 
 
 The most common sources of literary allusion may be 
 summed up as follows : 
 
 1. Ancient literature: Homer, Virgil, Horace. 
 
 2. Modern literature: The English Bible; Shakespeare; 
 Milton ; Pope ; Robinson Crusoe ; Gulliver's Travels ; the Pil- 
 grim's Progress; the Arabian Nights' Entertainments; Fairy 
 tales; certain popular novels, especially Scott, Dickens, and 
 Thackeray. 
 
 3. Anecdotes, sayings, etc. : 
 
 " He did it with his little hatchet'* 
 
 4. Sometimes in humorous works allusions are wholly ficti- 
 tious : 
 
 " As the old woman says." 
 
 Allusion is effective in all kinds of literature — the grave, the 
 gay, the lively, the severe; and ranges all the way from the 
 sublime to the ridiculous. 
 
 The English Bible is the richest source of allusions. The 
 works of Burke and Macaulay abound in them. 
 
 " I am alone. I have none to meet my enemies in the gate." — Burke. 
 
 " Mr. Speaker, I cannot prevail on myself to hurry over this great con- 
 sideration. It is good for us to be here. We stand where we have an im- 
 mense view of what is and what is past. Clouds indeed and darkness rest 
 upon the future." — Burke. 
 
132 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 " The anathema maranatha of every fawning dean." — Macaulay. 
 
 "This makes the character complete. Whatsoever things are false, 
 whatsoever things are dishonest, whatsoever things are unjust, whatsoever 
 things are impure, whatsoever things are hateful, whatsoever things are of 
 evil report— if there be any vice, and if there be any infamy, all these things 
 we know were blended in Barere." — Macaul.\y. 
 
 *' And O, when stoops on Judah's path, 
 In shade and storm, the frequent night. 
 Be thou long-suffering, slow to wrath, 
 A burning and a shining light" — Scott. 
 
 " 'Tis a populous solitude, festal, fearless. 
 For men of good-will prepared. 
 
 That dty he sees on whose golden walls 
 
 No light of a rising sun or setting 
 
 Of moon or of planet falls ; 
 
 For the Lamb alone is the light thereof. 
 
 The city of Truth — the kingdom of Love." 
 
 — Sir Aubrey de Vere. 
 
 Gray's ode on the Progress of Poesy contains a prolonged 
 literary allusion, in the second stanza of which there is a para- 
 phrase of the opening lines of Pindar's first Pythian ode : 
 
 " Oh ! Sovereign of the willing soul, 
 Parent of sweet and solemn-breathing airs I 
 Enchanting shell ! the sullen cares 
 
 And frantic passions hear thy soft controL 
 On Thracia's hills the Lord of War 
 Has curbed the fury of his car, 
 And dropped his thirsty lance at thy command. 
 Perching on the sceptred hand 
 Of Jove, thy magic lulls the feathered king 
 With ruffled plumes and flagging wing : 
 Quenched in dark clouds of slumber li« 
 The terror of his beak, and lightnings of his eye." 
 
 " Pallid death, having seized upon the luckless Princess in her castle of 
 Ahlden, presently pounced upon H. M. King George I. in his travelling 
 chariot on the Hanover road. What postilion can outride the pale horse- 
 man ?" 
 
 Here the allusion is to Horace's " pallida mors," and to the 
 " pale horse " of the Apocalypse. 
 
 § 121. QUOTATION. 
 
 Literary allusion and quotation must not be confounded. 
 
Figures of Relativity. 133 
 
 A quotation is an extract from any author, and is formally 
 stated as such. An allusion appropriates well-known words, 
 and incorporates them as one's own without acknowledgment. 
 A quotation may be made from any work ; an allusion must 
 refer to writings that are familiar to all. 
 
 " Over all the heaven above, over all the earth beneath, there was no 
 visible power that could balk the fierce will of the sun ; 'he rejoiced as a 
 strong man to run a race, his going forth was from the end of the heaven, 
 and his circuit unto the ends of it, and there was nothing hid from the heat 
 thereof.' " — Kinglake. 
 
 The latter part of the above sentence consists of well-known 
 words, and they are presented as a quotation. 
 " The scholar in Chaucer who would rather have 
 .•at his beddes head 
 A twenty bokes clothed in black and red 
 Of Aristotle and his philosophy • 
 Than robes rich, or fiddle, or psaltrie,' 
 doubtless beat all our modern collectors in his passion for reading." — Leigh 
 Hunt. 
 
 In the above quotation, as also in that which follows, the 
 words are unfamiliar, but they are presented in an informal 
 way, with the ease and grace of an allusion. 
 
 " When any one thinks he has caught her (Nature), it is only a part of 
 her drapery which she yields to his clutches, never herself. * Science,' says 
 the Persian mystic, ' puts her finger on her mouth and cries because the 
 mystery of life will not reveal itself.' " — Dr. F. H. Hedge. 
 
 § 122. PLAGIARISM. 
 
 Literary allusion must not be confounded with plagiarism. 
 
 Plagiarism is literary theft; where important ideas or ex- 
 pressions are appropriated from sources to which it is supposed 
 that they cannot be readily traced, and presented as the actual 
 work of the appropriator. In allusion the words are well 
 known; they are presented as such; there is no possibility of 
 mistake as to their origin ; but in plagiarism the words are not 
 well known, and the writer presents them as his own. 
 
 § 123. OTHER FIGURES. 
 
 There are several other figures which may be named here: 
 Syllepsis, paronomasia, annominatio, and antanaclasis. These 
 
134 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 are all of the nature of tropes, and by allowing some par- 
 ticular term to be taken in two senses — literal or meta- 
 phorical — they give rise to what is called a " play on words." 
 They all have the same general characteristics, and will be 
 considered farther on. 
 
 § 124. IRONY. 
 
 Irony is the use of words whose literal meaning is contrary 
 to the real signification. 
 
 § 125. SARCASM. 
 
 Sarcasm is irony with vituperation directed generally against 
 personal opponents. 
 
 § 126. INNUENDO. 
 
 Innuendo is the employment of insinuation instead of direct 
 statement 
 
 These three figures — irony, sarcasm, and innuendo — are 
 sometimes classified under this head, and it seems proper to 
 make some mention of them here. They will, however, receive 
 a fuller consideration in connection with the subject of the 
 ridiculous. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FIGURES OF RELATIVITY ARISING FROM THE IDEA OF 
 CONTIGUITY. 
 
 § 127. FIGURES OF CONTIGUITY. 
 
 Many things which are neither contrasted nor similar are 
 often associated together in the mind from certain connections 
 that may exist between them, as that of cause and effect, ante- 
 cedent and consequent, and others. Washington may thus be 
 associated with patriotism ; a king with his crown ; a cup with 
 its contents. By this process of association one of two things 
 may be taken for the other, and this gives rise to a new class 
 of figures. The relation between such objects, upon which 
 these figures are founded, may be designated contiguity. 
 
Figures of Relativity, 135 
 
 § 128. SYNECDOCHE. 
 
 Synecdoche is a figure which consists in the substitution for 
 one another of words which indicate the relations of principal 
 and subordinate; as, when a part is put for the whole, or the 
 whole for a part; species for genus, or genus for species; the 
 concrete for the abstract, or the abstract for the concrete. 
 
 In this figure we may observe two general divisions: first, 
 where the definite is used for the indefinite ; and, secondly, 
 where the indefinite is used for the definite. 
 
 I. Where the definite is used for the indefinite. 
 
 1. A part is put for the whole. Thus we say "a fleet of fifty 
 sail." "Sail" is a part of a ship, and is here used to signify 
 that to which it belongs. 
 
 "Hands" is used to represent "men," as in Dibdin's words, 
 "the call to pipe all hands." "Souls" is used in the same 
 way, as, " five hundred souls," for five hundred men. " Wave " 
 is used for sea; as — 
 
 " Though the night shades are gone, yet a vapor dull 
 Bedims the wave so beautiful." — Wilson. 
 
 Further examples may be found in the following: "Sixteen 
 summers" for "sixteen years," or "sixty winters" for "sixty 
 years;" "day" for "life;" "horse" and "foot" for "cavalry" 
 and " infantry ;" " a force of ten thousand bayonets " for 
 "men." 
 
 2. The species is put for the genus; as, "our daily bread," 
 where " bread " represents all " food." The words " panem et 
 circenses," " bread and the games," have come to signify em- 
 ployment and amusement for the proletariate. "Cut-throat" 
 represents " murderer." 
 
 3. The concrete is put for the abstract ; as, "They that take 
 the sword shall perish by the sword." " Sword " is used here 
 for "war." "All the father yearns within his heart;" "father" 
 means paternal love. To " play the fool " means to simulate 
 folly, and to " play the man " to be valiant. " The lion shall 
 lie down with the lamb" means the fierce shall be at peace 
 with the gentle. 
 
 4. Proper names are used to designate a class. This is 
 called antonomasia. 
 
136 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Thus a rich man is called a " CrcEsus " or a " Rothschild." 
 The " new Cassandra " signifies a prophet of evil. This form 
 of synecdoche is well illustrated in the following lines : 
 
 " Some village Hampden, that with dauntless breast 
 The little tyrant of his fields withstood, 
 Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest, 
 Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood." — Gray. 
 
 5. An individual is designated by some circumstance con- 
 nected with him instead of his own proper name ; as, the 
 " Prince of Roman Eloquence," for Cicero ; the " Father of 
 Epic Poetry," for Homer; the "Morning Star of the Reforma- 
 tion," for Wycliffe ; the " Father of English Song," for Chaucer; 
 the " Swan of Avon," for Shakespeare. This is very similar to 
 the kind just mentioned, and is also called antonomasia. Ex- 
 amples are found in the following passages : 
 
 " Last came, and last did go. 
 The pilot of the Galilean lake."— Milton. 
 
 " The light which the blind old man of Sdo had kindled in Greece shed 
 its radiance over Italy." — Wayland. 
 
 II. The second division of synecdoche is where the in- 
 definite is put for the definite. 
 
 1. The whole is put for a part, as "America" for the United 
 States. The " Old World " for Europe. 
 
 " Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay." 
 
 In this, all the world represents the smaller world of Belinda. 
 Similar examples of this figure may be found in the expres- 
 sions "everybody," "every one," "his whole time," "all the 
 time." 
 
 2. The abstract is used for the concrete, as, " her beauty and 
 her chivalry;" the concrete for which is beautiful women and 
 brave men. 
 
 " There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray." 
 
 •' The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
 And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave." 
 
 "Talking age." 
 
 In this form of synecdoche there is usually some degree of 
 personification. 
 
Figures of Relativity. 137" 
 
 The use of the abstract for the concrete is by some set down 
 as a distinct figure under the name of antimeria. 
 
 § 129. ANTIMERIA — ENALLAGE. 
 
 Antimeria means the substitution of one part of speech for 
 another. It is also called enallage. 
 
 1. The use of an adjective for an adverb: 
 
 " Loud roared the blast" 
 
 "A braying ass 
 Did sing most loud and clear." — COWPER. 
 
 2. The use of a noun as a verb : 
 
 " To outherod Herod." " A hectoring fellow." 
 
 " Whether the charmer sinner it, or saint it, 
 If folly grow romantic, I must paint it." — Pope. 
 
 § 130. METONYMY. 
 
 Metonymy is the substitution for one another of words which 
 indicate chiefly the relations of cause and sign. The following 
 is a summary of the various applications of this figure. 
 
 1. Cause and effect. 
 
 The cause is put for the effect ; as — 
 
 "With thun^ier from her native oak, 
 
 She quells the floods below."— Campbell. 
 
 Here oak represents ships-of war, the material standing for 
 the things made from it. 
 
 The effect is put for the cause ; as — 
 
 " Can gray hairs make folly venerable ?" — ^Junius. 
 
 "Gray hairs" is here used for old age. 
 
 " By the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat bread." 
 
 " Sweat" is used for "labor." 
 
 2. The sign is used for the thing signified, as, "crown," 
 "sceptre," "throne," etc., for "king;" "red-coats," for "sol- 
 diers;" "toga," for "civilians." 
 
 " Confusion on thy banners wait" 
 Here "banners" represents "soldiers" or "army." 
 
138 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 3. The container is used for the thing* contained ; as, " cup," 
 for "drink;" a "country," for its "people;" "heaven," for 
 "God." 
 
 •' Large was his bounty, and his soul sincere, 
 
 Heaven did a recompense as largely send." — Gray. 
 
 " He who steals my purse steals trash." — Shakespeare. 
 
 4. The instrument is put for the agent; as, " the sword of the 
 law," for the "magistrate;" "bayonets," for "soldiers." 
 
 5. The author is mentioned instead of his works ; as — 
 
 " Plato says." " We find in Bacon." 
 
 6. A thing is represented by some quality appropriate to it : 
 
 "The pale realms of shade, where each shall take 
 His chamber in the silent halls of death." — Bryant.- 
 
 § 131. METALEPSIS. 
 
 Metalepsis is founded on the relation between antecedent 
 and consequent. The word which forms this trope has always 
 a suggested meaning, which gives it its full force : 
 
 " Fuit Ilium"—" Troy has been." 
 
 This suggests the meaning that Troy is no more. 
 "' Vixi "— " I have lived." 
 
 That is, the best part of the speaker's life is over. 
 
 The phrase " sharp-pointed islands" is noticed by Quintilian 
 as suggesting " swift islands," and involving the idea of" ships." 
 
 The term "wooden walls" is of this nature, and implies the 
 defensive character of a fleet 
 
 Metalepsis is of no value whatever unless it is taken in this 
 sense as suggesting a meaning, in which case it becomes almost 
 identical with another form of expression, sometimes set down 
 as a separate figure under the name significatio. 
 
 In this the meaning is implied rather than asserted, and may 
 be illustrated by the following from Waller, in which we find a 
 lover's extravagant estimation of his lady : 
 
 "Give me but what this ribbon bound, 
 Take all the rest the sun goes round." 
 
Figures of Relativity. 139 
 
 Byron in the following lines suggests the total destruction 
 of the host of Xerxes : 
 
 " He counted them at break of day, 
 But when the sun set where were they !" 
 
 In the same way Wordsworth describes the desolation of 
 bereavement : 
 
 " But she is in her grave, and oh ! 
 The difference to me !" 
 
 An additional illustration may be given from the old ballad 
 of Sir Patrick Spence : 
 
 **0 our Scots nobles were right laith 
 To wet their cork-heeled shoon. 
 But lang ere a' the play were played 
 Their hats they swam aboon." 
 
 § 132. PERIPHRASIS. 
 
 Periphrasis is also known as circumlocution; but the term 
 periphrasis generally refers to those cases where the figure is 
 used with effect, while ''circumlocution" refers to its faulty use. 
 
 Periphrasis may be defined as naming a thing indirectly by 
 means of some well-known attribute, or characteristic, or at- 
 tendant circumstance. 
 
 ** It is the hour when from the boughs 
 The nightingale's high note is heard." — Byron. 
 
 Here evening is mentioned by means of its attendant cir- 
 cumstance, the song of the nightingale. 
 
 "But a Disposer whose power we are little able to resist, and whose 
 wisdom it behooves us not at all to dispute, has ordained it in another 
 manner." — Burjce. 
 
 Here the Deity is mentioned in an indirect way by means of 
 his attributes. 
 
 " The man who has once murdered another in a fit of insanity indicates 
 himself as a proper person to be held in restraint, until there is a moral cer- 
 tainty that he will not repeat the offence ; and this moral certainty can only 
 be reached when the lid of his coffin is screwed down." 
 
 These last words are used periphrastically for " when he is 
 dead." 
 
 G 
 
I40 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Periphrasis is used : 
 
 1. For embellishment. Poetry abounds in this. It is found 
 in common with such subjects as " dawn of day," " even- 
 ing," "night," "storms," and other things of common occur- 
 rence, which receive new beauty by being described at greater 
 length. 
 
 2. For emphasis. Writers sometimes employ the periphrasis 
 for the sake of presenting a thing in a new light, so as to make 
 it more impressive. 
 
 § 133. EUPHEMISM. 
 
 Euphemism is a form of periphrasis. It is the mention of 
 disagreeable things by agreeable names. Examples may be 
 found in such words and phrases as, " If anything should hap- 
 pen," to indicate " death ;" " he was unable to meet his en- 
 gagements," for " he failed ;" " untidy," for " dirty;" " unfortu- 
 nate," for " dishonest." 
 
 The ancients called the left hand the " better," the " well- 
 named" hand. "Taxes" have sometimes been called "sub- 
 scriptions;" "executioners," "public servants;" and in the 
 American war fugitive slaves were well known as "contra- 
 bands." 
 
 Certain practices of dishonest tradesmen are indicated in 
 the following passage : 
 
 " The glamour of the salesroom, the too rosy light which it is the natural 
 tendency of the seller to throw on what he offers for sale." 
 
 " Convey him to the Tower. * 
 Convey ! Oh good ! Conveyers are you all." 
 
 —Shakespeare. 
 
 § 134. HYPOCORISMA. 
 
 A certain kind of euphemism is sometimes called "hypocoris' 
 ma." This is the application of decorous names to actions or 
 things which are base or bad. An immense number of collo- 
 quialisms and slang expressions consist of this softening down 
 of evil and villany. 
 
 § 135. LITOTES. 
 
 In litotes a statement is made by means of the negation of 
 its opposite ; as — 
 
Figures of Relativity. 141 
 
 "The man is no fool," for "the man is wise." 
 "To thee I call, but with no friendly voice" — /.^., unfriendly. 
 " Immortal names, 
 That were not born to die" — i.e., that will live. 
 " It created no little excitement" — /. e., much excitement. 
 "There was no small stir" — i.e., much stir. 
 
 " I will not say that the authorities of the world, charged with the care of 
 their country and people, had not a right to confine him [Napoleon] for life, 
 as a lion or a tiger, on the principle of self-preservation." — ^Jefferson. 
 
 " I will not say that they had not a right," is about equal to 
 saying that " they had a right." 
 
 " I speak within bounds when I say that the British traveller is not ex- 
 ceptionally noted, in any part of the world, for the gentle humility with 
 which he submits to the extortions and other disagreeable things incident 
 to a tourist's life."— /'a// Mall Gazette. 
 
 This means that he is noted for his impatience. 
 Innuendo is very often produced by this figure : 
 
 " Mr. is allowed to hold this large sum without paying one dollar of 
 
 interest I do not think he is likely to go into bankruptcy, whoever else is." 
 
 It is here insinuated that the person referred to has made 
 money by this particular transaction. 
 
 § 136. EXEMPLUM. 
 
 There is no way in which a thing can be stated more clearly 
 and explicitly than where general truths are illustrated by partic- 
 ular examples. The definite is always more forcible than the 
 indefinite; but when both are united, the effect is still stronger. 
 This union is effected when the indefinite appears first in the 
 enunciation of a general statement, which is followed immedi- 
 ately by particular statements in the shape of examples. To 
 this is given the nanie of " exemplum." 
 
 " A great writer is a great benefactor. Thackeray has caused many happy 
 hours, and the man who has read Pickwick has received real joy and in- 
 struction." 
 
 Here the first sentence contains the general statement ; the 
 second contains the examples, />., Thackeray and Pickwick. 
 
 " A man always acts from self-interest. But it is impossible to reason 
 with certainty from what we take to be his interest to his actions. One man 
 goes without his dinner, that he may add a shilling to a hundred thousand 
 
142 Elements of RJietoric, 
 
 pounds ; another runs in debt to give balls and masquerades, One man 
 cuts his father's throat to get possession of his old clothes ; another hazards 
 his own life to save that of an enemy. One man volunteers on a forlorn 
 hope ; another is drummed out of a regiment for cowardice. Each of these 
 men has no doubt acted from self-interest." — Macaulay. 
 
 Here the general statement is enunciated in the opening 
 sentence. The others contain particular examples. 
 
 " Why should all virtue work in one and the same way ? Why should 
 all give dollars ? It is very inconvenient to us country-folk, and we do not 
 think that any good will come of it. We have not dollars. Merchants 
 have. Let them give them. Farmers will give corn. Poets will sing. 
 Women will sew. Laborers will lend a hand. The children will bring 
 flowers."— Emerson. 
 
 Here the general proposition is that pecuniary contributions 
 should not be expected from all classes; after which follow 
 certain special statements as to the modes by which different 
 classes may render assistance. 
 
 This figure is often very effective in descriptive writing : 
 
 " My beloved spake, and said unto me. 
 Arise, my love, my fair one, and come away: 
 For lo ! the winter is past. 
 The rain is over and gone ; 
 The flowers appear on the earth ; 
 The time of the singing of birds has come, 
 And the voice of the turtle is heard in the land ; 
 The fig-tree putteth forth her green leaves, 
 And the vines with the tender grape perfume the air. 
 Arise, my love, my fair one, and come away." 
 
 Here the general statement, " the winter is past," is follow- 
 ed by a series of particulars which give a most vivid impres- 
 sion of the advent of spring. 
 
 " Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
 Had in her sober livery all things clad ; 
 Silence accompanied ; for beast and bird, 
 They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, 
 Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale ; 
 She all night long her amorous descant sung." — MiLTON. 
 
 Here there is first the general announcement of evening, 
 after which follows an enumeration of particulars, descriptive 
 of the subject. 
 
Figures of Relativity, 143 
 
 § 137. EPITHETS. 
 
 Epithets may be considered as figures of contiguity, since 
 they depend upon the association of things with their appro- 
 priate qualities. 
 
 An epithet is a word joined to another in order to explain 
 its character; as, " the azure sky;" " the briny deep ;" "William 
 the Conqueror;" "Stonewall Jackson." 
 
 Epithets are of two kinds, according as they refer to what 
 has been called the quid or the quale; or, in other words, the 
 nature of a thing or the character of a thing. These are named 
 respectively substantive and attributive epithets. 
 
 1. Substantive epithets indicate what the thing is, and in- 
 clude all titles, surnames, nicknames, and other special desig- 
 nations by which the nature of a thing may be stated. 
 
 " O Rome, my country, city of the soul !" — Byron. 
 
 " The Niobe of nations !" — Byron. 
 
 "Sweetest Shakespeare, Fancy's child." — Milton. 
 
 In these examples the epithets " City of the Soul," " Niobe," 
 " Fancy's Child," are special designations, pointing out some- 
 thing in the nature of the subjects to which they are applied. 
 They are all of the nature of names. 
 
 In such expressions as " Charles Martel " — " the Hammer," 
 " Ethelred the Unready," " Richard Cceur de Lion," the epi- 
 thets are like surnames. 
 
 ' In the following passage there is a series of epithets of the 
 same kind : 
 
 " O Caledonia ! stern and wild. 
 Meet nurse for a poetic child ! 
 Land of brown heath and shaggy wood ; 
 Land of the mountain and the flood ; 
 Land of my sires !" 
 
 2. Attributive epithets indicate what the thing is like. Sub- 
 stantive epithets have the force of substantives, and may be re- 
 solved into names or titles; attributive epithets have an ad- 
 jective force, and indicate qualities. The following are ex- 
 amples : 
 
 "The young-eyed cherubim." — Milton. 
 
144 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 "The torrent's sounding shore." — ScoTT. 
 " Care-encumbered men."— Longfellow. 
 
 Th*ey are very numerous in the following passage : 
 
 "For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, 
 
 This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned, 
 Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day. 
 Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind." — Gray. 
 
 § 138. IMPORTANCE OF EPITHETS. 
 
 Epithets are of great importance in literature, and are often 
 capable of conveying an impression with a beauty, a directness, 
 and a force that can be attained in no other way. Their chief 
 purposes may be summed up as follows: 
 
 1. To describe a character : 
 
 " Wordsworth, the high-priest of Nature." 
 " Washington, the Father of his country." 
 
 2. To paint a scene : 
 
 " Wind-swept citadel." 
 " Sea-girt Salamis." 
 
 3. To suggest ideas : 
 
 ** Winged words." 
 
 " Myriad summits, old in story." 
 
 § 139. POPULARITY OF EPITHETS. 
 
 The love of epithets is universal, and the use of this figure 
 is in the highest degree popular. Its extended application 
 may be seen in the following summary : 
 
 1. Most countries have some epithet, commonly applied, by 
 which their nature is described — " La belle France ;" " Merrie 
 England;" "Old England;" "Scotland, the land o' cakes;" 
 " The Emerald Isle ;" " Germany, the Vaterland ;" " Classic 
 Italy;" "Palestine, the Holy Land;" "Holy Russia;" "The 
 Sunny South;" "The Frozen North." 
 
 2. The same is true with regard to cities. All those of Italy 
 have well-known epithets ; as, " Genoa the Superb ;" " Florence 
 the Fair;" "Naples the Captivating;" " Rome the Magnificent." 
 This fashion is common in the United States ; as, " The Em- 
 
Figures of Relativity. 145 
 
 pire City ;" " City of Notions;" " City of Brotherly Love ;" "The 
 Monumental City;" "The Crescent City;" "Mound City;" 
 " Lake City ;" " Porkopolis," etc. 
 
 3. Rivers have their peculiar epithets ; as, " The Yellow 
 Tiber;" "Father Thames:" "The Father of Waters" (Missis- 
 sippi) ; "La belle Riviere" (Ohio), etc. 
 
 4. In many systems of religion epithets hold a prominent 
 place as applied to the objects of worship. Thus, in classical 
 mythology, Jupiter had many names, such as " Tonans," " Plu- 
 vius," " Olympian," " Greatest and Best ;" while all the principal 
 deities had similar titles. Among Christians of the Greek and 
 Roman communion, the Virgin Mary and the patron saints are 
 known by many terms of endearment. 
 
 5. The application of epithets to men has always been com- 
 mon. In the names applied to the Carlovingian kings the his- 
 tory of the Franks is summed up ; as, " Karl the Hammer ;" 
 "Pepin the Short;" "Karl the Great;" "Karl the Bald;" 
 " Karl the Fat ;" " Karl the Simple." A summary of part of 
 English history may also be found in the surnames of the early 
 English and Norman kings. The influence of epithets applied 
 to great men is as strong in modern times. Louis XIV. 
 was " Le Grand Monarque ;" Frederick the Great, " Father 
 Fritz ;" Napoleon, " Le Petit Corporal ;" Wellington, " the Iron 
 Duke." 
 
 6. Many famous sayings owe all their force to this figure. 
 Nicholas of Russia applied to Turkey the epithet which that 
 country has retained ever since, " the Sick Man of Europe ;" 
 Bismarck announced his intention to adopt " a blood and iron " 
 policy ; Seward hoped that the Southern War would be " short, 
 sharp, and decisive." 
 
 This subject may be considered with reference to poetry and 
 prose, of which the former will be noticed first. 
 
 § 140. EPITHETS IN POETRY. 
 
 Epithets are prominent in the poetry of all nations, but in 
 some they have far more importance than in others. Thus in 
 the modern Persian, Sir William Jones says that poets not un- 
 frequently fill whole verses with them ; as — 
 
 " A damsel with a face like the moon, scented like musk, a ravisher of 
 hearts, delighting the soul, beguiling the senses, beautiful as the full moon." 
 
146 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 Anglo-Saxon poetry is characterized by the liberal use of 
 epithets, indeed, they are multiplied to such an extent that 
 they often obscure the meaning. The following passage will 
 illustrate this : 
 
 " Then was the glorious spirit of the warder of heaven 
 Borne over the deep with great speed ; 
 The creator of angels, the distributer of light, bade 
 Light come forth over the wide abyss. 
 Quickly was fulfilled the high king's behest. 
 For him was holy light produced over the waste, 
 As the creator commanded. 
 Then the triumphant ruler sundered 
 Over the water-flood light from darkness. 
 Shade from brightness. 
 
 The distributer of life created names for both ; 
 Through the Lord's word light was first named day. 
 The teeming time well pleased the Master at the beginning." 
 
 In the space of a few lines the poet speaks of God by no 
 less than nine different epithets ; as, " the glorious spirit of the 
 warder of heaven ;" " the creator of angels ;" " the distributer 
 of light;" "the high king;" "the creator;" "the triumphant 
 ruler ;" " the distributer of life ;" " the Lord ;" " the Master." 
 
 In Greek poetry ^schylus is distinguished for the lavish use 
 of epithets. One of these has come into world-wide use — 
 dyt'ipi^fiov yiXarr^a — the innumerable, or infinite laughter of the 
 ocean waves. In another well-known passage he characterizes 
 Helen as the bride of the spear, and the object of strife, a hell 
 to men, a hell to ships, a hell to cities ; and again, speaking 
 of the same Helen, he says : 
 
 " There arrived at Ilium the spirit of a breathless calm, a gentle idol 
 of wealth, darting the tender shaft from her eyes, the soul-piercing flower 
 of love — " 
 
 Homer, the father of epic poetry, may also be called the 
 father of epithets ; for nowhere does this figure appear with 
 such a blending of beauty and energ}' as in the Homeric 
 poems. Every god, every hero, every scene has its own dis- 
 tinguishing epithet, so well applied that it is always afterwards 
 associated with the subject. They all show such picturesque 
 force that his scenes live, his battles are fought out before the 
 mind,*the ocean roars, the arrows of Apollo twang ; we behold 
 the city, the sea, the plain, the fleet, the counsels of heroes. 
 
Figures of Relativity. 147 
 
 Zeus is " cloud-compelling," "wide-seeing," "cegis-bearing," 
 Hera is "ox-eyed" (large-eyed, or soft-eyed), and "venerable ;" 
 Athena is "blue-eyed;" Apollo is "far-darting," and also 
 " bearer of the silver bow ;" Poseidon is " earth-shaking ;" 
 Hephaeston is "skilled in art;" Thetis is " silver -footed;" 
 Aphrodite is "smiling;" Agamemnon is "the king of men," 
 and " wide-ruling ;" Achilles, " swift-footed." 
 
 Hector has perhaps the finest, the most magnificent of all 
 the epithets — Ko^v^awXo^ — "helm-nodding," or " Hector of the 
 glancing helm." 
 
 Words with Homer are "winged;" men are "articulate-speak- 
 ing ;" and never has any epithet been given to the sea which 
 can equal the sonorous pomp and power of sound and mean- 
 ing which are in his famous Tro\v<p\otal^oio ^aXaaarfQ. 
 
 In English literature we may find in Shakespeare the same 
 pre-eminence in the use of epithets which he possesses in other 
 things, the same versatility, and, what is more to the point, the 
 same precision. The "multitudinous" sea is, perhaps, as good 
 a rival to Homer's polyphloisboian epithet as the English lan- 
 guage can furnish. His works are full of such expressions as 
 " contentious waves ;" " black-browed night ;" " cloud-capp'd 
 towers;" "unsubstantial pageant;" "airy nothings;" "mur- 
 muring surge ;" "unnumbered idle pebbles." 
 
 Milton's epithets are like himself, Miltonic ; that is to say, 
 they are less versatile than Shakespeare's, but pre-eminent for 
 perfect music, beauty, and grandeur. £.^., "Gay-enamelled 
 colors;" "wasteful deep;" "gentle gales, fanning their odorif- 
 erous wings ;" " ponderous shield, ethereal temper, massy, large, 
 and round." In these we see Milton's chief characteristics ; 
 but if any one passage may be taken to indicate Miltonic epi- 
 thets, no better one could be found than the following : 
 
 " Where the bright seraphim, in burning row, 
 Their loud, uplifted, angel trumpets blow." 
 
 Dryden's epithets exhibit a strong grasp of the subject 
 m a general way. In painting a scene he uses descriptive 
 terms that are vigorous and sonorous ; but he does not 
 often make use of any that are remarkably characteristic. 
 In the following passage Dryden is seen at his best in this 
 respect : 
 
 G 2 
 
148 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 •' The waves behind impel the waves before. 
 Wide-rolling, foaming high, and tumbling on the shore." 
 
 The native acuteness and precision of Pope caused him to 
 employ epithets with fine discrimination, and his love for an- 
 tithesis led him to bring out their force by balancing one against 
 
 another : 
 
 " He can't be wrong, whose life is in the right" 
 " The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." 
 
 In the case of Pope it is generally the antithesis that is im- 
 pressive, and not any particular epithet. 
 
 Gray indulges in this figure to a great extent. He is accused 
 by some critics of having used it to excess in his Elegy ; but 
 this poem is so universally beloved that the critics are listened 
 to with impatience. One critic went so far as to propose leav- 
 ing out the epithets altogether. For example : 
 
 " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 
 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 
 
 " Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 
 And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 
 Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight. 
 And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds." 
 
 By omitting the epithets, Gray's Elegy was made by his critic 
 to assume the following form : 
 
 " The curfew tolls the knell of day, 
 The herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 
 The ploughman homeward plods his way, 
 And leaves the world to me. 
 
 " Now fades the landscape on the sight. 
 And all the air a stillness holds, 
 Save where the beetle wheels his flight, 
 And tinklings lull the folds." 
 
 This critic has furnished the best answer possible to his own 
 charge of an excess of epithets in this poem. Gray's epithets 
 are always chosen with care, and a large majority exhibit the 
 character of onomatopoeia ; that is, a resemblance between the 
 sound of the word and the thing signified. 
 
 The epithets of Collins have the same characteristics as 
 those of Gray, namely, care, precision, and onomatopoeia : 
 
Figures of Relativity. 149 
 
 "With woful measure wan despair, 
 Low sullen sounds his grief beguiled." 
 
 "The weak-eyed bat. 
 With short, shrill shriek, flits by on leathern wing ; 
 Or where the beetle winds 
 His small, but sullen horn." 
 
 The epithets of Byron exhibit vigor, but never strike the 
 mind by their superior appHcability. Shelley, on the contrary, 
 surpasses all poets since Shakespeare and Milton in- this re- 
 spect. Like those of his great predecessors, his epithets are so 
 precise and so felicitous that they seem the best possible under 
 the circumstances : 
 
 " The point of one white star is quivering still 
 Deep in the orange light of widening morn 
 Beyt)nd the purple mountains : through a chasm 
 Of wind-divided mist the darker lake 
 Reflects it j now it wanes ; it gleams again. 
 
 Beneath is a wide plain of billowy mist, 
 Encinctured by the dark and blooming forests. 
 Dim twilight lawns and stream-illumined caves. 
 And wind-enchanted shapes of wandering mist ; 
 And far on high the keen sky-cleaving mountains 
 From icy spires of sunlike radiance fling 
 The dawn." 
 
 A poet of lesser intensity of passion and delicacy of imagina- 
 tion will rest content with epithets that may express qualities 
 in general ; but it is a sign and proof of the highest order of 
 poetic genius to be able to see into the very heart of a thing, 
 and by one felicitous word to set it forth to the world. 
 
 Tennyson resembles Shelley in this, although he never per- 
 haps attains to that high rapture and inspiration by which the 
 latter could descry and portray the innermost nature of things. 
 The following may be taken as among the best of Tennyson : 
 
 " The ever-silent spaces of the East, 
 Far-folded mists, and gleaming halls of morn." 
 
 " The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls." 
 § 141. EPITHETS IN PROSE. 
 
 Epithets are of importance in prose as well as in poetry ; 
 and they are liberally used by the most vigorous writers. In 
 
1 50 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 the following passage from Milton, this figure is used to give 
 great exactness in the description of character : 
 
 "Lords and Commons of England, consider what nation it is whereof ye 
 are, and whereof ye are the guardians ; a nation not slow and dull, but of a 
 quick, ingenious, and piercing spirit ; acute to invent ; subtle and sinewy 
 to discourse ; not beneath the reach of any point that human capacity can 
 soar to." 
 
 Milton exhibits in his prose works not only strictness and 
 vigor in his epithets, but also much of that splendor and reso- 
 nant harmony which marks his poetry. 
 
 In the following passage from Carlyle, the epithets are used 
 for the portrayal of the personal features of Oliver Cromwell : 
 
 "Massive stature ; big, massive head, of somewhat leonine aspect ; wart 
 above the right eyebrow ; nose of considerable, blunt, aquiline proportions ; 
 strict, yet copious lips ; full of all tremulous sensibilities ; and also, if need 
 be, of all fiercenesses and vigors ; deep, loving eyes — call them grave, call 
 them stern — looking from under those craggy brows as if in lifelong sor- 
 row, and yet not thinking it sorrow, thinking it only labor and endeavor." 
 
 Carlyle, like Milton, can make use of epithets which are full 
 of sounding harmony ; for example : 
 
 " Far as the eye reaches, a multitudinous sea of upturned faces, the air 
 deaf with their triumph yell." 
 
 Burke's style is characterized by abundant epithets. This 
 is due to his affluence of language, copious expression, and 
 rich and fertile imagination. These are often accumulated in 
 rich, but never useless profusion : 
 
 " Whatever his Grace may think of himself, they look upon him, and 
 everything that belongs to him, with no more regard than they do upon the 
 whiskers of that little, long-tailed animal, that has been lontj ihc game of the 
 grave, demure, insidious, spring-nailed, velvet-pawed,'green-eyed philoso- 
 phers, whether going upon two legs or upon four." 
 
 § 142. FAULTS IN THE USE OF EPITHETS. 
 
 The chief faults in the use of epithets may be briefly summed 
 up as follows : 
 
 I. The commonplace. 
 
 A large number of terms have been worn out by frequent 
 use, and produce no effect, except to render style tedious. 
 Such are, " briny deep," " azure sky," " silver moon," " golden 
 sun," "gallant warrior," "rolling sea," "winding river," "vault- 
 
Figures of Relativity. 151 
 
 ed sky," ''•shadowy tree," "towering cliff^" "lofty summit," 
 and the like. Sometimes a thoroughly commonplace epithet 
 will be used in a vague and indiscriminate way, exhibiting the 
 last degree of imbecility. For example, the word "noble" is 
 sometimes applied by the same writer to a great variety of 
 totally different things ; as, " noble character," " noble ship," 
 " noble scene," " noble sentiment," " noble book," " noble 
 cause," "noble style." 
 
 2. The use of too many epithets. 
 
 Except in rare cases, such as the passage above quoted from 
 Burke, the accumulation of epithets gives weakness to style. 
 It is usually accompanied by a total want of precision and 
 applicability. It is one of the chief characteristics of a loose, 
 weak, and verbose writer. 
 
 3. Where the epithets are too strong. 
 
 Extravagance of expression is the result, and this repels the 
 reader. This is visible in much of the political writing of the 
 present day, where personalities are indulged in. It is also often 
 a characteristic of so-called "temperance" literature. Thus 
 an ordinary opponent is called "infamous" or "detestable" or 
 * corrupt " or " traitorous ;" and the writer who thus reviles his 
 enemies overpraises his friends equally. This is the abuse of 
 words which destroys their power; for when such strong ex- 
 pressions are lavished where they are not applicable, nothing 
 remains to apply when strong words are actually needed. 
 
 4. Where the epithets are too weak. This fault arises when 
 the descriptive terms are quite inadequate to express the char- 
 acter of the subject : as — 
 
 " Waterloo resulted in considerable carnage." 
 " Napoleon attained high excellence as a commander." 
 " The great waves rolled up, and thundered on the beach with much 
 noise." 
 
 5. Words that are vague or general ; as, " considerable," 
 "several," "numerous," "nice." 
 
 To this class may be applied many words that have no par- 
 ticular meaning, but are used only in a conventional way; as, 
 "able editor," "gallant captain," "enterprising merchant," 
 "good bishop," "learned counsel." 
 
 Precision is of the utmost importance in the choice and ap- 
 plication of epithets. 
 
152 Elements of RJietoric, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FIGURES OF GRADATION.— AUGMENTATIVE. 
 § 143. FIGURES OF GRADATION. 
 
 These include certain forms of expression by which a sub- 
 ject is elevated to a higher degree of importance than usual, 
 or depressed below its ordinary level. Statements when thus 
 put forth naturally attract more notice; and it is a frequent aim 
 of writers to call attention in this way to propositions of special 
 interest. While one topic may be presented with enlarged di- 
 mensions, another, which is opposed to it, may be depreciated; 
 but the augmentation of the one or the diminution of the 
 other tends to the same result These are called figures of 
 gradation, because they indicate degrees of value, either in- 
 creasing or diminishing. 
 
 Figures of gradation are divided into tWo general classes : 
 first, augmentative ; and, secondly, decrementive. 
 
 § 144. AUGMENTATIVE FIGURES. 
 
 Of these we have to consider in the first place augmentative 
 figures. 
 
 In this class are included all those figures by which any 
 given subject is expanded before the mind, and invested with 
 more than ordinary importance. They are especially applica- 
 ble to the leading propositions of arguments, to deductions, and 
 to conclusions. It is evident that these should always be pre- 
 sented in the most striking manner, so that they shall arrest 
 the attention and be retained by the memory. It is necessary 
 to enlarge upon them, so that they may be appreciated at their 
 highest value, and that the reader may feel the full weight that 
 is attached to them by the writer. They are often associated 
 with strong emotion ; they are found in all departments of lit- 
 erature; but the best examples exist in oratory. This arises 
 from the fact that the orator is more directly under the influence 
 
Figures of Gradation. 153 
 
 of feeling than any others who deal in prose composition. The 
 augmentative figures therefore, being thus associated with emo- 
 tion, may be found exhibiting every gradation of feeling, from 
 the slightest expression of thought up to the most exaggerated 
 display of passion. 
 
 The augmentative figures comprise : 
 
 I. Amplification. II. Climax. III. Hyperbole. 
 
 § 145. AMPLIFICATION DEFINED. 
 
 Amplification is the expansion of any topic by the assem- 
 blage of particulars appertaining to it, so that it shall be con- 
 veyed to the mind with enlarged force and dignity. Longinus 
 defines amplification as " a full and complete assemblage of 
 the particulars and arguments appertaining to subjects, giving 
 additional strength to, and heightenitrg a point that has been 
 already made out." 
 
 This amplifying process may consist of many gradations, 
 from the slightest possible enlargement of any given point to 
 the boldest and most extravagant description. It may also be 
 done in different ways, all of which have been set down by the 
 ancient rhetoricians as so many separate figures. The names 
 and definitions of these figures will be given for the sake of 
 fulness of treatment, but at the same time it will be proper to 
 regard them merely as so many forms of amplification. 
 
 § 146. AMPLIFICATION BY DWELLING UPON DETAILS. 
 
 The topic is expanded and brought into connection with new 
 and striking trains of thought, either by exposition or descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 The following example is taken from Burke's speech on con- 
 ciliation with America. In considering the state and circum- 
 stances of the colonies, the orator comes to the subject of the 
 fisheries, which he amplifies in this way : 
 
 " Pass by the other parts, and look at the way in which the people of New 
 England have of late carried on the whale-fishery. While we follow them 
 among the tumbling mountains of ice, and behold them penetrating into 
 the deepest frozen recesses of Hudson Bay and Davis Straits — while we 
 are looking for them beneath the Arctic Circle, we hear that they have 
 pierced into the opposite region of polar cold — that they are at the antipodes, 
 and engaged under the frozen Serpent of the South. Falkland Island, which 
 seemed too remote and romantic an object for the grasp of national ambition, 
 
1 54 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 is but a stage and resting-plaee in the progress of their victorious industry. 
 Nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging to them than the accumulated 
 winter of both the poles. We know that while some of them draw the line 
 and strike the harpoon on the coast of Africa, others run the longitude and 
 pursue their gigantic game along the coast of Brazil. No sea but what is 
 vexed by their fisheries. No climate that is not witness to their toils." 
 
 Starting from the idea of the whale-fishery, the speaker ex- 
 pands into a train of thought full of rich suggestiveness. To 
 any other man nothing might seem more unpromising than 
 such a topic as the fisheries; but by this amplification it re- 
 ceives a new and unexpected turn full of interest, and from 
 prose it is transformed into poetry. 
 
 § 147. BY DIRECT STATEMENT. 
 
 2. The topic is magnified in importance by a direct state- 
 ment of its character or effects : 
 
 " At his touch crowns crumbled ; beggars reigned ; systems vanished ; 
 the wildest theories took the color of his whims ; and all that was vener- 
 able and all that was novel changed places with the rapidity of a dream." 
 — Charles Phillips. 
 
 Here, by a few startling statements of sharply contrasted 
 acts, the genius of Napoleon is greatly magnified. 
 
 " The dawn is overcast, the morning lowers, 
 And heavily in clouds brings on the day — 
 The great, the important day, big with the fate 
 Of Cato and of Rome." — Addison. 
 
 In this passage, "the day," announced as "great" and "im- 
 portant," is made still more so by the previous mention of 
 attendant circumstances, and significant hints at the events 
 which are destined to follow. 
 
 § 148. BY COMPARISON. 
 
 3. The importance of the subject is heightened by bringing 
 it into comparison with something else. To display the true 
 character of any one thing, nothing is more effective than to 
 present it in contrast with some other thing. In this lies the 
 force of the figure comparison, which is here made use of for 
 purposes of amplification : 
 
 " It was the boast of Augustus that he found Rome of brick, and left it 
 marble ; a praise not unworthy of a great prince, and to which the present 
 
Figures of Gradation. 155 
 
 reign has its claim also. But how much nobler will be our sovereign's 
 boast when he shall have it to say that he found Law dear, and left it cheap ; 
 found it a sealed book, left it an open letter ; found it the patrimony of the 
 rich, left it the inheritance of the poor ; found it the two-edged sword of 
 craft and oppression, left it the staff of honesty and the shield of innocence." 
 — Lord Brougham. 
 
 In this passage the comparison by analogy is presented in 
 order to give enhanced importance to the subject. By this 
 means it is introduced with luminous and effective illustration, 
 and enlarged to the utmost dignity with which the speaker can 
 endow it. The same may be seen in the following examples : 
 
 " If the task of a king be considered as difficult who has the care of only 
 a few millions, to whom he cannot do much good or harm, what must be 
 the anxiety of him on whom depend the action of the elements, and the 
 great gifts of light and heat." — Johnson. 
 
 " His spear, to equal which the tallest pine. 
 Hewn on Norwegian hills, to be the mabt 
 Of some great ammiral, were but a wand." — MiLTON. 
 
 § 149. ACCUMULATION. 
 
 4. There is an aggregation of particulars relating to the sub- 
 ject. This is sometimes considered a separate figure under 
 the name of "accumulation." The following is an example : 
 
 *• This arbitrary and tyrannical power which the Earl of Strafford did ex- 
 ercise with his own person, and to which he did advise his majesty, is in- 
 consistent with the peace, the wealth, and the prosperity of the nation ; it is 
 destructive to justice, the mother of peace ; to industry, the spring of wealth ; 
 to valor, which is the active virtue whereby only the prosperity of a nation 
 can be produced, confirmed, enlarged." — John Pym. 
 
 Here the subject is amplified by the mention of a number of 
 cases in which the policy of Strafford wrought evil ; as in the 
 case of peace, wealth, prosperity, justice, industry, and valor. 
 
 The same may be seen in the following : 
 
 •* Do not entertain so weak an imagination as that your registers, and 
 your bonds ; your affidavits, and your sufferances ; your cockets, and your 
 clearances, form the great securities of your commerce." — Burke. 
 
 "Observing the wide and general devastation, and all the horrors of the 
 scene — of plains unclothed and brown ; of vegetables burned up and extin- 
 guished ; of villages depopulated and in ruins ; of temples unroofed and 
 perishing ; of reservoirs broken down and dry — he would naturally inquire, 
 what war has thus laid waste the fertile fields of this once beautiful and 
 opulent country •* — Sheridan. 
 
156 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Amplification is here applied to description, and the subject, 
 which is the devastation of Oude, is enlarged by the accumula- 
 tion of particulars, such as the plains, the vegetation, the vil- 
 lages, the temples, and the reservoirs. 
 
 " I stigmatize it as a revolutionary tribunal. What in the name of Heaven 
 is it, if it is not a revolutionary tribunal ? It annihilates the trial by jury ; it 
 drives the judge from his bench — the man who from experience could weigh 
 the nice and delicate points of a case, who could discriminate between the 
 straightforward testimony and the suborned evidence ; who could see plain- 
 ly and readily the justice or the injustice of the accusation. It turns out 
 this man, who is free, instructed, unprejudiced, who has no previous opinions 
 to control the free exercise of duty." — O'Connell. 
 
 This accumulation of particulars, relative to the ordinary 
 characteristics of the regular judge, tends to enhance the idea 
 of his impartiality and his value, as opposed to the character 
 of those who would preside over military tribunals. 
 
 § 150. COLLECTIO, AGGREGATIO. 
 
 5. Sometimes the particulars introduced are not actually a 
 part of the subject, but are suggested by it, and are set forth in 
 order. This is called " collectio," and also " aggregatio," and 
 may be defined as an orderly array of particulars, which, though 
 disconnected among themselves, are yet suggested by the 
 subject : 
 
 " Straight mine eye hath caught new pleasures. 
 
 While the landscape round it measures — 
 
 Russet lawns, and fallows gray. 
 
 Where the nibbling flocks do stray ; 
 
 Mountains, on whose barren breast 
 
 The laboring clouds do often rest ; 
 
 Meadows trim with daisies pied, 
 
 Shallow brooks, and rivers wide; 
 
 Towers and battlements it sees 
 
 Bosom'd high in tufted trees, 
 
 Where perhaps some beauty lies, 
 
 The cynosure of neighboring eyes." 
 
 In this accumulation of particulars, the details, though dis- 
 connected, are set forth in an orderly manner. 
 
 " A royalist, a republican, and an emperor ; a Mohammedan, a Catholic, 
 and a patron of the synagogue; a traitor and a tyrant ; a Christen and an 
 infidel, he was through all his vicissitudes the same stern, impatient, in- 
 flexible original." — Charles Phillips. » 
 
Figures of Gradation. 157 
 
 The particulars here accumulated are of widely diverse 
 character, and naturally disconnected among themselves ; but 
 they are set forth with remarkable attention to order in their 
 presentation, and the strongly marked antitheses heighten the 
 effect of the treatment. The same may be seen in the follow- 
 ing passage : 
 
 " It is not enough to say that he must be an engineer, a geographer, learn- 
 ed in human nature, adroit in managing mankind ; that he must be able to 
 perform the highest duties of a minister of state, and sink to the humblest 
 offices of a commissary or clerk ; but he has also to display all this knowl- 
 edge, and he must do all these things at the same time, and under extraor- 
 dinary circumstances." — Disraeli. 
 
 § 151. SYNATHROISMUS. 
 
 6. A further change in accumulation may be seen when par- 
 ticulars disconnected in themselves are set forth, not in order 
 (as in collectio), but in a confused and disorderly manner. 
 The statement is thus enlarged in importance, and heightened 
 in effect, both by the force of the accumulated particulars, and 
 also by the suggestion of mental emotion which their confused 
 order conveys. This has been called " synathroismus." 
 
 " Methought I saw a thousand fearful wrecks ; 
 A thousand men that fishes gnaw'd upon ; 
 Wedges of gold, great anchors, heaps of pearl, 
 Inestimable stones, unvalued jewels — 
 All scattered in the bottom of the sea." — Shakespeare. 
 
 " So eagerly the fiend, 
 O'er bog or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, 
 With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, 
 And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies." — Milton. 
 
 " He disposed of courts and crowns and camps and churches and cab- 
 inets as if they were the titular dignitaries of the chess-board." — Charles 
 Phillips. 
 
 § 152. DIASCEUE. 
 
 7. The impressiveness of a subject is enhanced by an accu- 
 mulation of minute details, in which everything is laid down 
 with the most prosaic and painstaking circumstantiality. This 
 is called " diasceue." 
 
 In the following passage, the ruinous effects of war are am- 
 plified in a novel and unexpected way, by showing the financial 
 losses that may arise from even a mere rumor, and this is done 
 by minute detail : 
 
158 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 " A fall of ten per cent in the funds is nearly eighty million sterling of 
 value ; and railway stock having gone down twenty per cent., makes a dif- 
 ference of sixty millions in the value of the railway property of this country. 
 Add the two— one hundred and forty millions — and take the diminished pros- 
 perity and value of manufactures of all kinds during the last few months, 
 and you will understate the actual loss to the country now if you put it down 
 at two hundred million sterling." — John Bright. 
 
 " He is a king every inch of him, though without the trappings of a king. 
 Presents himself in Spartan simplicity of vesture; no crown but an old mil- 
 itary cocked hat — generally old, or kneaded into absolute softness if new ; 
 no sceptre, but one like Agamemnon's, a walking-stick cut from the woods, 
 which serves also as a riding-stick (with which he hits the horse 'between 
 the ears,' say authors), and for royal robes a mere soldier's blue coat with 
 red facings — coat likely to be old, and sure to have a good deal of Spanish 
 snuff on the breast of it ; rest of the apparel dim, unobtrusive in color or 
 cut, ending in high overknee military boots, which may be brushed (and I 
 hope kept soft with an underhand suspicion of oil), but are not permitted 
 to be blackened or varnished : Day and Martin with their soot-pots forbid- 
 den to approach." — Thomas Carlyle. 
 
 In this series of minute details the subject is brought before 
 the mind with wonderful vividness. Carlyle indulges freely 
 and frequently in this elaborate mention of particulars ; and 
 this is one of the great characteristics of his descriptions. It 
 is a leading quality in^he works of Bunyan and Defoe, through 
 which they were able to throw around their writings that un- 
 paralleled verisimilitude by which they are distinguished. 
 
 § 153. SYNEZEUGMENON. 
 
 8. A peculiar kind of accumulation is found where several 
 phrases or thoughts are grouped together and referred by com- 
 bination to the same word, each of which when used alone would 
 require that word for itself This is called " synezeugmenon/' 
 
 " The breezy call of incense-breathing mom. 
 The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed. 
 The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, 
 No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed." — Gray. 
 
 " Justice I have now before me, august and pure ; where her favorite at- 
 titude is to stoop to the unfortunate, to hear their cry and to help them, to 
 rescue and relieve, to succor and to save." — Sheridan. 
 
 § 154. EPEXERGASIA. 
 
 9. Sometimes a proposition is amplified by the superabun- 
 
Figures of Gradation. 159 
 
 dant accumulation of examples, illustrations, or proofs. This 
 is called " epexergasia." 
 
 " All men desire to be immortal. The desire is instinctive, natural, uni- 
 versal. In God's world such a desire implies the satisfaction thereof eqaally 
 natural and universal. It cannot be that God has given man the universal 
 belief in immortality, and yet made it a mockery. Man loves truth, tells it, 
 rests only on it, yet how much more God, who is the trueness of truth. Bod- 
 ily senses imply their objects — the eye light ; the ear sound ; the touch, the 
 taste, the smell, things relative thereto. Spiritual senses likewise foretell 
 their object — are silent prophecies of endless life. The love of justice, beau- 
 ty, truth, of man and God, points to realities unseen as yet. We are ever 
 hungering after noblest things, and what we feed on makes us hunger more." 
 — Theodore Parker. 
 
 ■ Here the proposition is that desire implies satisfaction. This 
 is illustrated and set forth by numerous familiar cases, both 
 concrete and abstract. 
 
 •' There is scarcely any profession in the commonwealth more necessary, 
 which is so slightly performed. First, young scholars make this calling 
 their refUge, yea, perchance before they have taken their degree in the uni- 
 versity, commence schoolmasters in the country, as if nothing else were req- 
 uisite to set up this profession but only a rod and a ferule. Secondly, 
 others who are able use it only as a passage to better preferment, to patch 
 the rents in their present fortune till they can fyid a new one, and betake 
 themselves to some more gainful calling. Thirdly, they are disheartened 
 from doing their best with the miserable reward which, in some places, they 
 receive, being masters to the children and slaves to the parents." — Thomas 
 Fuller. 
 
 § 155. DINUMERATIO. 
 
 10. Amplification sometimes is produced by the enumeration 
 of well-known names, which, by force of the associations con- 
 nected with them, and by expressed or suggested meaning, 
 increase the importance of the subject. This is called "dinu- 
 meratio." 
 
 " It did not because they were Irishmen pay a less sincere, a less willing 
 homage to the glorious memory of a Ponsonby and a Packenham. Castle- 
 reagh and Canning fought in the same ranks with Pitt ; and Grattan took 
 his place in the great contests of party by the side of Fox." — Sir Robert 
 Peel. 
 
 The mention of proper names is always effective on account 
 of their definiteness, a quality the importance of which has al- 
 ready been considered. In this passage, the names thus intro- 
 
i6o Elemcfits of Rhci. ric. 
 
 duced call up a world of associations, r.n I contribute greatly to 
 the enlargement of the topic. The same thing may be seen 
 even more impressively displayed in the following passages : 
 
 " All his victories should have rushed and crowded back upon his mem- 
 ory — Vimiera, Badajos, Salamanca, Albuera, Toulouse, and last of all the 
 greatest." — Sheil. 
 
 "The blood of England, Ireland, and Scotland flowed in the same stream, 
 and drenched the same field." — Sheil. 
 
 " Or call up him who left half told 
 The story of Cambuscan bold. 
 Of Camball and of Algarsife, 
 And who had Canace to wife." — Milton. 
 
 Chaucer is thus introduced by the enumeration of the names 
 of the actors in what the poet selects as his most characteristic 
 poem, " The Squieres Tale." 
 
 § 156. DESCRIPTION. 
 
 II. Sometimes in the midst of narrative or expository writing 
 the attention is diverted for a time to a piece of description, in 
 which some prominent subject is presented in a most impres- 
 sive aspect. When well carried out it is highly effective. It 
 is a well-known and tery common device of novelists and his- 
 torians; it is also one of the recognized tactics of oratory. Its 
 nature and effects are such that it may be closely associated 
 with amplification, with which it is often identified, for this is 
 one of the most frequent modes in which that figure is pre- 
 sented. It may, however, be considered as a separate figure, 
 and as such it has been called "descriptio." 
 
 As representative examples may be mentioned Burke's de- 
 scription of the descent of Hyder Ali on the Carnatic, and 
 Sheridan's description of the desolation of Oude — which are 
 among the most famous in oratory; also Scott's description 
 of the trial of Effie Deans ; Macaulay's description of the trial 
 of Warren Hastings ; and Carlyle's description of Oliver Crom- 
 well, Frederick the Great, or the execution of Marie Antoinette. 
 
 The following is from the Romola of George Eliot : 
 
 " The blind father sat with head uplifted and turned a little aside toward 
 his daughter, as if he were looking at her. His delicate paleness, set off by 
 the black velvet cap which surmounted his drooping white hair, made all 
 the more perceptible the likeness between his aged features and those of 
 
Figures of Gradation. i6i 
 
 the young maiden, whose cheeks were also without any tinge of the rose. 
 There was the same refinement of brow and nostril in both, counterbalanced 
 by a full though firm mouth and powerful chin, which gave an impression 
 of proud tenacity and latent impetuousness ; an expression carried out in 
 the backward poise of the girl's head, and the grand line of her neck and 
 shoulders." 
 
 Description may also refer to character. Dryden's sketches 
 of Shaftesbury and Buckingham in Absalom and Achitophel 
 may be mentioned as examples of this, and also Macaulay's 
 portrayal of the Puritans. 
 
 The following is an example : 
 
 "Think of him reckless, thriftless, vain if you like — but merciful, gentle, 
 generous, full of love and pity. He passes out of our life, and goes to ren- 
 der his account beyond it. Think of the poor pensioners weeping at his 
 grave ; think of the noble spirits that admired and deplored him ; think of 
 the righteous pen that wrote his epitaph, and of the wonderful and unani- 
 mous response of affection with which the world has paid back the love he 
 gave it. His humor delighting us still ; his song fresh and beautiful as 
 when first he charmed with it ; his words in all our mouths ; his very weak- 
 nesses beloved and familiar ; his benevolent spirit seems still to smile upon 
 us ; to do gentle kindnesses ; to succor with sweet charity ; to soothe, ca- 
 ress, forgive ; to plead with the fortunate for the unhappy and the poor." — 
 Thackeray. 
 
 § 157. ECLOGE. * 
 
 12. One great essential to success in description consists in 
 the judicious selection of the most striking circumstances. This 
 is called "ecloge." 
 
 Longinus attaches to this very great importance. " As there 
 are no subjects," he says, " which are not attended by certain 
 adjuncts coexistent with their very essence, a judicious choice 
 of the most suitable of these adjuncts must necessarily pro- 
 duce elevation of style." He commends as an example of this 
 the famous ode of Sappho, in which the effects of jealousy are 
 described : 
 
 " Blest as the immortal gods is he, 
 The youth who fondly sits by thee. 
 And sees and hears thee all the while, 
 Softly speak and sweetly smile. 
 
 " 'Twas this deprived my soul of rest, 
 And raised such tumults in my breast; 
 For while I gazed, in transport tossed. 
 My breath was gone, my voice was lost. 
 
1 62 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 ** My bosom glowed, the subtle flame 
 Ran quick through all my vital frame ; 
 O'er my dim eyes a darkness hung, 
 My ears with hollow murmurs rung. 
 
 " In dewy damps my limbs were chilled. 
 My blood with gentle horrors thrilled. 
 My feeble pulse forgot to play, 
 I fainted, sunk, and died away." 
 
 — Philips' Translation. 
 
 " Are you not amazed," he continues, " how in the same 
 moment she is to seek for her soul, her body, her ears, her 
 tongue, her eyes, her color, all of them as much absent from 
 her as though they had never belonged to her. How she 
 glows, chills, raves, reasons ; for either she is in tumults of 
 alarm or she is dying away." 
 
 A passage in the speech of Demosthenes On the Crown is 
 also quoted by him as an example : 
 
 " For it was evening when a courier brought to the magistrates the news 
 of the surprise of Elatea. Immediately they arose, though in the midst of 
 their repast Some of them hurried away to the Agora, and. driving the 
 tradesmen out, set fire to the booths. Others fled to advertise the com- 
 manders of the army of the news, and to summon the public herald. The 
 whole city was full of tumult. On the morrow, at break of day, the magis- 
 trates convened the senate. You, gentlemen, obeyed the summons. Before 
 the public council proceeded to debate the people took their seats above. 
 When the senate were come in the magistrate laid open the reasons of their 
 meeting, and produced the courier." 
 
 The following passage from Macaulay's essay on Barfere 
 affords a striking example of ecloge : 
 
 " Then came the days when the most barbarous of all codes was adminis- 
 tered by the most barbarous of all tribunals ; when no man could greet his 
 neighbor, or say his prayers, or dress his hair, without danger of committing 
 a capital crime ; when the guillotine was long and hard at work every morn- 
 ing ; when the jails were filled as close as the hold of a slave-ship ; when 
 the gutters ran foaming with blood into the Seine ; when it was death to 
 be great-niece to a captain of the Royal Guards, or half-brother to a doctor 
 of the Sorbonne ; to express a doubt whether assignats would not fail ; 
 to trust that the English had been victorious in the action of the first of 
 June ; to have a copy of one of Burke's pamphlets locked up in one's desk ; 
 to laugh at a Jacobin for taking the name of Cassius or Timoleon, or to 
 call the fifth Sans-culottide by its old superstitious name of St. Matthew's 
 day." 
 
Figures of Gradation. 163 
 
 ** Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet, 
 With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the sun, 
 When first on this delightful land he spreads 
 His orient beams on herb, tree, fruit, and flower. 
 Glistering with dew ; fragrant the fertile earth 
 After soft showers ; and sweet the coming on 
 Of grateful evening mild." — Milton. 
 
 In this passage there is a selection of the general beauties 
 of nature, such as morning air, sunrise, songs of birds, spark- 
 ling dew, rain-showers, evening. 
 
 In the following lines from the Earthly Paradise of William 
 Morris there will be seen a selefction of special circumstances 
 connected with a mid-day repast of reapers : 
 
 " He could see 
 The masters of that ripening realm, 
 Cast down beneath an ancient elm, 
 Upon a little strip of grass. 
 From hand to hand the pitcher pass, 
 While on the turf beside them lay 
 The ashen-handled sickles gray. 
 The matters of their cheer between 
 Slices of white cheese, sijecked with green, 
 And green-striped onions and rye bread, 
 And summer apples faintly red 
 Even beneath the crimson skin ; 
 And yellow grapes, well ripe and thin, 
 Plucked from the cottage gable-end." 
 
 § 158. HYPOTYPOSIS. 
 
 13. Some kinds of description closely resemble vision, yet 
 are to be distinguished from it. One of these is called "hypo- 
 typosis," and has been defined as the representation of things so 
 fully expressed in words that it seems to be seen rather than 
 heard. This is the description of a thing in strong and vivid 
 colors; yet it is not vision, which is the representation of things 
 as if actually present before the writer or speaker : 
 
 " He himself, inflamed with wickedness and fury, came into the Forum ; 
 his eyes glared ; cruelty showed itself over his whole countenance." — Cicero. 
 
 " Do you not think that whoso could by adequate description bring be- 
 fore you that winter of the Pilgrims — its brief sunshine, the nights of storm 
 slow waning ; the damp and icy breath felt to the pillow of the dying ; its 
 destitutions ; its contrast with all their former experiences in life : its utter 
 isolation and loneliness; its death-beds and burials; its memories, its ap- 
 prehensions, its hopes ; the consolations of the prudent, the prayers of 
 
 H 
 
164 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 the pious ; the occasional cheerful hymn in which the strong heart threw 
 off its burden, and, asserting its un vanquished nature, went up like a bird 
 of dawn to the skies ; do you not think that whoso could describe them 
 waiting in that defile, lonelier and darker than Thermopylae, for a morning 
 that might never dawn ; or might show them when it did a mightier army 
 than the Persian, raised as in act to strike — would he not sketch a scene 
 of more difficult and rarer heroism?" — Rufus Choate. 
 
 § 159. METASTASIS. 
 
 14. Another kind of description similar to vision is called 
 " metastasis," and involves a transition from the present to 
 the future. 4 
 
 A good example of this is to be found in Daniel Webster's 
 great peroration in his reply to Hayne : 
 
 " Beyond that I seek not to penetrate the veil. God grant that in my 
 day at least that curtain may not rise. God grant that on my vision never 
 may be opened what lies behind. When my eyes shall be turned for the 
 last time to behold the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the 
 broken and dishonored fragments of a once glorious Union ; on states dis- 
 severed, discordant, belligerent ; on a land rent with civil feuds, or drench- 
 ed, it may be, in fraternal blood. Let their last feeble and lingering gleam 
 rather behold the gorgeous ensign of the Republic, now known and honored 
 through the earth, still full high advanced, its arms and trophies streaming 
 in their original lustre, not a stripe erased or polluted, nor a single star ob- 
 scured ; bearing for its motto no such miserable interrogatory as * What is 
 all this worth ?' nor those other words of delusion and folly, ' Liberty first, 
 and the Union afterwards ;' but everywhere spread all over in characters 
 of living light, blazing on all its ample folds, and as they float over the sea 
 and over the land, and in every wind under the whole heavens, that other 
 sentiment, dear to every American heart — ' Liberty and the Union, now and 
 forever, one and inseparable.' " 
 
 § 160. CLIMAX. 
 
 One of the most important of the augmentative figures is 
 climax. It has something in common with the figures of simi- 
 larity, and also with those of contiguity, so that it is sometimes 
 classified with the one or the other of these ; but its chief effect 
 seems to be to augment the subject by presenting it in con- 
 nection with others. By climax is meant an ascending series 
 of thoughts or statements, which go on increasing in impor- 
 tance until the last. 
 
 The ancient rhetoricians gave a different account of climax, 
 since they separated it from other figures which are now blend- 
 ed with it (incrementum and progressio). In this restricted 
 
Figures of Gradatioft. 165 
 
 form, climax meant with them such a disposition of statements 
 that they go on increasing in importance by successive stages, 
 but that at each stage of the ascent a new statement is com- 
 pared with the previous one, and formally elevated above it. 
 
 " Climax," says Quintilian, " recurs to what has been said, 
 and takes a rest, as it were, on something that precedes, before 
 it passes on to anything else ;" as — 
 
 " I not only did not say this, but did not even write it ; I not only did not 
 write it, but took no part in the embassy ; I not only took no part in the 
 embassy, but used no persuasion with the Thebans." 
 
 The following is a familiar example : 
 
 "And besides this, giving all diligence, add to your faith virtue; and to 
 virtue knowledge ; and to knowledge temperance ; and to temperance pa- 
 tience ; and to patience godliness ; and to godliness brotherly kindness ; 
 and to brotherly kindness charity." — St. Paul. 
 
 At the present day climax has a less strict definition, and 
 means generally that figure by which statements are arranged 
 in an ascending series, the final one being the most important 
 of all. It is very effective, for the thoughts thus presented fall 
 upon the mind as though with successive blows, the final one 
 having the greatest force. The impression is thus made con- 
 tinually stronger until the close is reached. 
 
 The following passage from Shakespeare is often quoted to 
 illustrate other figures, but it may be taken most fittingly as aa 
 example of climax : 
 
 "The cloud-capp'd towers, the gorgeous palaces, 
 The solemn temples, the great globe itself. 
 Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve, 
 And, like this insubstantial pageant faded, 
 Leave not a wreck behind." 
 
 The ascending series of tlioughts in this passage is seen in 
 the words " towers," " palaces," " temples," the abodes of lords, 
 kings, and gods. Then follows the globe itself, and all which 
 it inherit, which comprehends all the others. 
 
 " For if such holy song 
 Enwrap our fancy long, 
 
 Time will run back and fetch the age of gold ; 
 And speckled Vanity 
 Will sicken soon and die. 
 
 And leprous Sin will melt from earthly mould ; 
 
1 66 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 And Hell itself will pass away, 
 
 And leave her dolorous mansions to the peering day." 
 
 — Milton. 
 
 Here the climax may be stated as follows : first, the return 
 of the age of Gold; secondly, the death of Vanity; thirdly, 
 the departure of Sin; and, last of all, "Hell itself will pass 
 away." 
 
 Similar examples of climax may be found in the following 
 passages : 
 
 " He had been rescued by no common deliverer from the grasp of no 
 common foe. He had been ransomed by the sweat of no vulgar agony, by 
 the blood of no earthly sacrifice. It was for him that the sun had been 
 darkened, that the rocks had been rent, that the dead had arisen, that all 
 nature had shuddered at the sufferings of her expiring God." — Macaulay. 
 
 "Crime succeeded to crime, and disgrace to disgrace, till the race ac- 
 cursed of God and man was a second time driven forth, to wander on the 
 face of the earth, and to be a byword and a shaking of the head to the 
 nations." — Macaulay. 
 
 " Thou didst blow with thy wind ; the sea covered them : they sank like 
 lead in the mighty waters." — Exodtis. 
 
 " I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the 
 faith : henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness." — 
 St. Paul. 
 
 " If we rise yet higher, and consider the fixed stars as so many oceans of 
 flame, that are each of them attended with a different set of planets, and 
 still discover new firmaments and new lights that are sunk farther in these 
 unfathomable depths of ether, we are lost in such a labyrinth of suns and 
 worlds, and confounded by the magnificence and immensity of nature." — 
 Chalmers. 
 
 § l6l. INCREMENTUM. 
 
 With climax is now associated incrementum, once consider- 
 ed as a separate figure. In this the thought with which the 
 sentence begins is enlarged, and its force increased by the 
 addition of others of more importance. The following illus- 
 trations present no essential difference from those already 
 given : 
 
 "I trust myself once more in your faithful hands. I fling myself again on 
 you for protection. I call aloud on you to bear your own cause in your 
 hearts. "—Brougham. 
 
 " It is coming fast upon you ; already it is near at hand — yet in a few short 
 weeks, and we may be in the midst of those unspeakable miseries the rec- 
 ollection of which now rends your souls asunder." — Brougham. 
 
Figures of Gradation. 167 
 
 § 162. PROGRESSIO. 
 
 Progressio also, once considered as a separate figure, is now, 
 like incrementum, associated with climax. It is defined as a 
 progressive strengthening of the expression. The following is 
 an example : 
 
 " The minister alights ; justice looks up to him with empty hopes, and 
 peculation faints with idle alarms ; he finds the city a prey to an unconsti- 
 tutional police — he continues it ; he finds the country overburdened with a 
 shameful pension-list — he increases it ; he finds the House of Commons 
 swarming with placemen — he multiplies them ; he finds the salary of the 
 secretary increased to prevent a pension — he grants a pension ; he finds the 
 kingdom drained by absentee employments and by compensations to buy 
 them home ; he gives the best reversion in the country to an absentee — his 
 brother."— Grattan. 
 
 § 163. HYPERBOLE. 
 
 Hyperbole may be considered as the highest form of the 
 augmentative figures. It gives the largest possible liberty to 
 the imagination, and for this reason is often classified with the 
 figures of similarity, with which imagination has more to do. 
 It is properly, however, one of the figures of gradation. 
 
 Hyperbole may be defined as the enlargement of an object 
 beyond its natural and proper dimensions. Quintilian calls 
 it "an elegant surpassing of truth." In its highest form it is 
 associated with excitement of feeling. 
 
 This is seen in Satan's despairing soliloquy in Paradise Lost: 
 
 " Beneath the lowest deep, a lower deep. 
 Still threatening to devour me, opens wide." 
 
 This is not to be criticised for its grammar; but to be taken 
 as the language of intense emotion. 
 
 " Mean weeds," says Carlyle, in his description of the exe- 
 cution of Marie Antoinette, "clothe the Queen of the world." 
 
 Burke's well-known passage on the same Marie Antoinette 
 affords another example : 
 
 ** Never lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch, a more 
 delightful vision." 
 
 Emerson's lines contain an hyperbole of the best kind : 
 
 " Here once the embattled farmers stood, 
 And fired the shot heard round the world." 
 
1 68 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 § 164. TRANSGRESSIO. 
 
 With hyperbole may be associated a form of statement once 
 considered as a separate figure, and called " transgressio," which 
 consists of any kind of exaggeration. It therefore includes 
 the following in addition to those which have already been no- 
 ticed : 
 
 1. Animated description passing beyond literal truth. This 
 may be allowed as legitimate hyperbole, or, if a separate name 
 be preferred, transgressio. Poets, orators, and writers of fiction 
 all indulge in this exaggerated statement, and Victor Hugo's 
 writings abound in it 
 
 " This is our bad condition here. How much worse it is ten miles from 
 Boston you may conceive. The darkness might be felt" — Fisher Ames* 
 
 2. Many colloquial expressions illustrate this figure ; as " to 
 cry one's eyes out," " to weep as if one's heart would break," 
 "to split one's sides with laughing." " If a young merchant 
 fails," says Emerson, " men say he is ruined." 
 
 3. Humorous writing abounds in this; indeed, a distinct de- 
 partment of this sort of literature, /. ^., American, is based upon 
 exaggeration. 
 
 Hyperbole, when improperly used, is certain to degenerate 
 into bombast. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FIGURES OF GRADATION.— DECREMENTIVE. 
 
 § 165. DECREMENTIVE FIGURES. 
 
 Under this class is included those various forms of expres- 
 sion by which any given subject is diminished before the mind 
 and divested of its ordinary importance. They are the opposite 
 of those which have just been considered ; but like them are 
 applicable to leading propositions, deductions, and conclusions. 
 While the augmentative figures present these in the most strik- 
 ing and effective manner, so that they may arrest the attention, 
 the decrementive forms are used to lessen their importance, and 
 
Figures of Gradation. 169 
 
 make them appear of little value. The former would be ap- 
 plied by the writer to his chief topics to enhance their value, 
 and the latter would be applied by his opponent to the same 
 topics to diminish that value. 
 
 § 166. DIMINUTION. 
 
 Diminution is the opposite of amplification, and may be 
 defined as the lowering of the importance of any topic by the 
 assemblage of particulars designedly introduced for the pur- 
 pose of lessening its force and proper value. As amplifica- 
 tion may proceed through many stages of expansion, so this 
 lowering process may consist of many gradations, from the 
 slightest diminution of any given subject to the lowest possible 
 depreciation, accompanied with contempt and ridicule. All 
 the modes by which the one may be effected have also their 
 counterparts in the other. 
 
 1. This figure is exhibited, first, in the form of direct state- 
 ment : as — ., ,,,.,, ^ J . , . . 
 
 ' " Will God incense his ire 
 
 For such a petty trespass?" — Milton. 
 Here the offence is affirmed to be " petty " simply in itself. 
 " Did ye not hear it ? No. *Twas but the wind." — Byron. 
 
 2. Sometimes diminution is made by means of a comparison 
 with some other object : 
 
 " Nature will not have us fret and fume. When we comb out of the cau- 
 cus, or the bank, or the temperance meeting, or the Transcendental Club 
 into the fields and woods, she says to us — ' So hot, my little sir I' " — Emer- 
 son. 
 
 Here the excitement of common life is made to seem trivial 
 beside the grand calm of Nature. 
 
 " How it aggravates the disgust with which these paste diamonds are now 
 viewed, to remember that they were paraded in the presence of Edmund 
 Burke — nay (credite postert), in jealous rivalry of his genuine and priceless 
 jewels. Irresistibly one is reminded of the dancing efforts of Lady Blarney 
 and Miss Carolina Wilhelmina Skeggs against the native grace of the Vicar 
 of Wakefield's family." — De Quincey. 
 
 The Style of Sheridan, when set in comparison with that of 
 Burke, is thus made to appear tawdry and meretricious. 
 
 " And what is this world in the immensity which teems with them, and 
 what are they who occupy it ? The universe at large would suffer as little 
 
I/O Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 in its splendor and variety, by the destruction of our planet, as the verdure 
 and sublime magnitude of a forest would suffer by the fall.of a single leaf." 
 — Chalmers, 
 
 Here this world and all its concerns are made to appear in- 
 significant in comparison with the immensity of the universe. 
 
 " An Aristotle was but the rubbish of an Adam, and Athens but the 
 rudiments of Paradise."— Dr. R. South. 
 
 Man at his best is here represented as of little worth when 
 compared with the possibilities which lay before him, had he 
 kept his first estate. 
 
 3. It is also sometimes effected by accumulation ; that is to 
 say, a number of particulars are gathered together for the ex- 
 press purpose of lowering the importance of any given subject : 
 
 " What, then, have you made Ireland ? Look at her again. This fine 
 country is laden with a population the most miserable in Europe, and of 
 whose wretchedness, if you are the authors, you are beginning to be the 
 victims ; the poisoned chalice is returning in its just circulation to your 
 own lips. Your domestic swine are better housed than the people. Har- 
 vests the most abundant are reaped by men with starvation in their faces, 
 famine covers a fruitful soil, and disease inhales a pure atmosphere ; all 
 the great commercial facilities of the country are lost ; the deep rivers that 
 should circulate opulence and turn the machinery of a thousand factories 
 flow to the ocean without wafting a boat or turning a mill ; and the wave 
 breaks in solitude in the silent magnificence of deserted and shipless har- 
 bors." — Daniel O'Connell. 
 
 In this passage there is an accumulation of particulars re- 
 ferring to the condition of Ireland, for the purpose of repre- 
 senting that country at its very worst. 
 
 § 167. DEPRECIATION. 
 
 Depreciation is diminution associated with the feeling of 
 contempt. 
 
 An illustration of this may be found in Sir Walter Raleigh's 
 verses, " Go, Soul, the Body's Guest," from which are taken the 
 following lines : 
 
 " Tell physic of her boldness, 
 Tell skill it is pretension. 
 Tell charity of coldness, 
 Tell law it is contention. 
 And as they do reply — 
 So give them both the lie." 
 
Figures of Gradation. 171 
 
 Dean Swift's well-known lines convey still greater contempt : 
 
 " So, naturalists observe, a flea. 
 Has smaller fleas on him that prey; 
 And these have smaller ones to bite 'em, 
 And so proceed ad infinitum. 
 Thus every poet in his kind 
 Is bit by him that comes behind. 
 Who, though too little to be seen, 
 Can tease, and gall, and give the spleen." 
 
 Contemptuous depreciation is nowhere more forcibly ex- 
 pressed than in the words of Sir Robert Walpole : 
 
 *'A patriot, sir? Why, patriots spring up like mushrooms. I could 
 raise fifty of them in four-and-twenty hours." 
 
 In the following passages De Quincey depreciates the elo- 
 quence of Sheridan : 
 
 •* In the course of the Hastings trial upon the concerns of paralytic Be- 
 gums and ancient Rannies — hags that, if ever actually existing, were no 
 more to us and our British sympathies than we to Hecuba — did Mr. Sheri- 
 dan make his capital exhibition. . . . Considered as rhetoric, it is evidently 
 fitted to ' make a horse sick ;' but, as a conundrum in the ' Lady's Maga- 
 zine,' we contend that it would have great success." 
 
 Here depreciation is heightened by the employment of vitu- 
 perative epithets, low images, and colloquialisms, such as " par- 
 alytic Begums," "hags," " making a horse sick," "conundrum," 
 etc. In the following passage from one of the speeches of 
 Mr. John Bright, there will also be found depreciation by means 
 of trivial associations : 
 
 "In pursuit of this Will-o'-the-Wisp — the liberties of Europe and the 
 balance of power — there has been extracted from the industry of the people 
 of this small island no less an amount than two thousand millions of pounds." 
 
 § 168. ANTICLIMAX. 
 
 Anticlimax is usually considered in connection with climax, 
 although it belongs to an opposite class of figures, the one be- 
 ing augmentative and the other decrementive ; so that while the 
 former enhances the importance of the subject, the latter dimin- 
 ishes or degrades it. 
 
 In climax the thoughts are arranged in an ascending series, 
 the most important being reserved until the last. In anticli- 
 max the thoughts are also arranged in an ascending series, but 
 
 H 2 
 
1/2 Elements of Rhetor k, 
 
 in the last place, instead of the most important, there suddenly 
 occurs something trivial : 
 
 " The king of France, with twice ten thousand men, 
 Marched up the hill, and then — marched down again." 
 
 " Here thou, great Anna ! whom three realms obey, 
 Dost sometimes counsel take, and sometimes — tea." 
 
 The effect of anticlimax is generally ludicrous, and when 
 used intentionally it tends to depreciate the subject to which 
 it is applied by covering it with ridicule. It is, therefore, very 
 frequently employed in humorous and satirical composition. 
 But it is sometimes used unintentionally, and then it is called 
 " bathos," the effect being to turn the ridicule with which it is 
 associated upon the writer himself. The following are ex- 
 amples : 
 
 " And thou, DsUhousie, the great god of war, 
 Lieutenant-colonel to the Earl of Mar." 
 
 *' They gazed in awe uf)on the Corsican, 
 That mighty-minded — but small-bodied man." 
 
 *• The arm of the Lord," said a preacher, " is as fixed as fiate, as sure as 
 eternity — as strong as the rock of Gibraltar." 
 
 " Were Russia to possess the Bosporus," says a recent writer, '* and the 
 Turks be driven out, progress would cease. The missionaries would be 
 exiled, religious freedom crushed out, and ninety millions of people speak- 
 ing one language would be brought under the yoke of an iron despotism, 
 which in its strength and noiseless movement is as resistless as the great 
 Corliss engine at Philadelphia." 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FIGURES OF EMPHASIS. — DIRECT STRESS AND 
 ITERATION. 
 
 § 169. FIGURES OF EMPHASIS. 
 
 Emphasis in general means a certain stress placed upon 
 words. Figures of emphasis include all those by which any 
 given word or subject is presented before the mind with the 
 greatest possible strength and energy. Words, phrases, and 
 whole sentences may thus be emphasized. 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 173 
 
 Three general groups are included here : 
 
 1. Where direct stress is laid upon words, 
 
 2. Where emphasis is produced by a change in the order of 
 words. 
 
 3. Where statements are made in a way which is unusual or 
 startling. 
 
 § 170. EMPHASIS BY DIRECT STRESS. — ASSERTION. 
 
 A direct stress is sometimes laid upon words. This is pro- 
 duced, first, by assertion, and, secondly, by repetition. 
 
 I. By emphatic assertion is meant the statement of a thing 
 with more or less vehemence, as in the following examples : 
 
 " He is fallen ! We may now pause before that splendid prodigy which 
 towered amidst us like some ancient ruin, whose frown terrified the glances 
 its magnificence attracted." — Charles Phillips. 
 
 In this passage the emphasis on the words, " He is fallen," 
 is direct, intense, and unmistakable. 
 
 " But you see, sir — the balance of power. Gentlemen assert that the en- 
 trance of France into Spain disturbed that balance, and that we ought to 
 have gone to war to restore it." — George Canning. 
 
 The words, " the balance of power," are put forth prominently 
 with strong emphasis, both by the preceding words, " but you 
 see, sir," and the subsequent allusions to " that balance." 
 
 " I say that the education of the people ought to be the first concern of 
 the state." — Macaulay. 
 
 The words, " I say," call attention to the whole statement 
 which follows. 
 
 " I will give, therefore, at once and without hesitation, an emphatic nega- 
 tive to the motion for repeal. There are truths that lie too deep for argu- 
 ment — truths to the establishment of which the evidence of the senses or 
 the feelings of the heart have contributed more than the slow processes of 
 reasoning — which are graven in deeper characters than any that reason can 
 either impress or efface. When Dr. Johnson was asked to refute the argu- 
 ments for the non-existence of matter, he stamped his foot upon the ground, 
 and exclaimed, * I refute them thus.' When Mr. Canning heard the first 
 whisper in this house of a repeal of the Union, this was all the answer that 
 he vouchsafed — the eloquent and indignant answer — * Repeal the Union ? 
 Restore the Heptarchy !* " — Sir Robert Peel. 
 
 These sayings of Johnson and Canning are introduced with 
 
174 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 great effect, and tend to throw stronger emphasis upon the 
 speaker's own negative to the motion for repeal. 
 
 § 171. NEGATION. 
 
 Negation is a statement thrown into a negative form. It 
 may be associated with the highest excitement of feeling or 
 the mildest animation. It may assume the interrogative or 
 the exclamatory form, and it may be susceptible of the strong- 
 est or the lightest emphasis. 
 
 " Not every one that saith unto me, ' Lord, Lord,' shall enter into the 
 kingdom of heaven." 
 
 " Not all the blood of beasts, 
 On Jewish altars slain. 
 Could give the guilty conscience peace. 
 Or wash away the stain." 
 
 In these and similar passages the emphasis is intensified by 
 the position of the negative particle. 
 
 " Never was there a jar or discord between genuine sentiment and sound 
 policy. Never, no, never did nature say one thing and wisdom say an- 
 other."— BuRKE. 
 
 •' Never — never more 
 While I live. 
 May I hope to see his face 
 As before." — Browning. 
 
 "No; a thousand times no." — Kossuth. 
 
 "It was not in the battle." — Cowper. 
 
 § 172. EMPHASIS BY REPETITION. 
 
 2. Another kind of emphasis is that which arises from the 
 repetition of the same word or sentiment. This has given rise 
 to a numerous class of figures, which are called iterative. 
 Their effectiveness depends altogether upon the well-known 
 emphasis that arises from the repetition of a word. For if a 
 word or statement is uttered once, its emphasis can never be 
 so strong but that it may be increased by repetition. An ex- 
 ample of this may be seen in the speech of the Earl of Chat- 
 ham : 
 
 " If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop 
 were landed in my country, I would never lay down my arms — n ever, never, 
 never !" 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 175 
 
 § 173. THE ITERATIVE FIGURES. 
 
 The iterative figures comprise many which are distinguish- 
 ed by names now but seldom used ; yet these, like previous 
 ones, will be defined and illustrated for the sake of clearness 
 and completeness of treatment. At the same time, by includ- 
 ing them all under one well-defined head, there need be no 
 danger of confounding them with others of a different nature. 
 
 § 174. EPIZEUXIS. 
 
 Epizeuxis is immediate repetition for the sake of emphasis : 
 
 " You cannot, my Lords, you cannot conquer America." — Earl of Chat- 
 ham. 
 
 " Arm ! arm ! it is, it is the cannon's opening roar !" — Byron. 
 
 "Charge, Chester, charge ! on, Stanley, on !" — ScoiT. 
 
 " Remind me not, remind me not." — Byron's Hebrew Melodies. 
 
 "Can I forget, can I forget?" — Byron's Hebrew Melodies. 
 
 " A floating, a floating, 
 
 All on a summer sea." — Kingslky. 
 
 "The day of the Lord is at hand, at hand." — Kingsley. 
 "Few, few shall part where many meet." — Campbell. 
 
 This figure is frequent in oratory; it is also common in 
 songs: as — 
 
 " I'm afloat, I'm afloat." 
 
 "Lochaber no more, Lochaber no more. 
 We'll maybe return to Lochaber no more." 
 
 § 175. REPETITIO CREBRA. 
 
 3. Sometimes the word is repeated frequently; and this is 
 called " repetitio crebra :" 
 
 " The double, double, double beat 
 Of the thundering drum." — Dryden. 
 
 " He sang Darius, good and great. 
 Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen. 
 Fallen from his high estate." — Dryden. 
 
 " None but the brave, 
 None but the brave. 
 None but the brave deserves the fair." — Dryden. 
 
\'j(i Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 " With honor, honor, honor, honor to him, 
 Eternal honor to his name."— Tennyson. 
 
 In Poe's Song of the Bells there are examples of more fre- 
 quent repetitions of the same word than can be found any- 
 where else. 
 
 § 176. ANAPHORA. 
 
 4. Anaphora is the repetition of a word at the beginning of 
 successive clauses or sentences. An example of this is found 
 in the " Pricke of Conscience" by Richard Rolle de Hampole : 
 
 "Thare es ay lyfe withouten dede, 
 Thare es yhowthe ay withouten elde, 
 Thare es alkyn welth ay to welde, 
 Thare es rest ay withouten travayle, 
 Thare es alle gudes that never sal fayle." 
 
 "Truth-teller was our English Alfred named, 
 Truth-teller was our English Duke." — Tennyson. 
 
 "By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed. 
 By foreign hands thy decent limbs composed. 
 By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned, 
 By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned." — Pope. 
 
 " • Educate the people,' was the admonition by Penn to the common- 
 wealth he founded. 'Educate the people,' was the last legacy of Washing- 
 ton to the Republic of the United Stales. 'Educate the people,' was the 
 unceasing exhortation of Jefferson." — Macaulay. 
 
 ** It was Homer who gave laws to the artist ; it was Homer who inspired 
 the poet ; it was Homer who thundered in the senate ; and, more than all, 
 it was Homer who was sung by the people." — Wayland. 
 
 " It shall go forth, exulting in, but not abusing its strength. It shall go 
 forth, remembering in its prosperity the pledges it gave in the time of its 
 depression. It shall go forth, uniting a disposition to correct abuses, and 
 to redress grievances. It shall go forth, uniting the disposition to improve, 
 with the resolution to maintain and defend." — Sir Robert Peel. 
 
 The most celebrated example of this figure is to be found in 
 the peroration of Burke's great speech against Warren Hastings, 
 where six sentences full of intense passion are arranged in an 
 ascending series, and each begins with the words, " I impeach." 
 
 § 177. EPISTROPHE. 
 
 Epistrophe is the repetition of the same word at the end of 
 successive clauses or sentences : 
 
 " The glorious company of the apostles praise thee ; the godly fellowship 
 of the saints praise thee ; the noble army of martyrs praise thee." 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 177 
 
 *' Lust will become a law ; envy will become a law ; covetousness and 
 ambition will become a law." — John Pym. 
 
 " The borrower is timid ; our laws are timid ; the cultivated classes are 
 timid." — Emerson. 
 
 § 178. ANTISTROPHE. 
 
 Antistrophe is that figure by which the same word is placed 
 both at the beginning and at the end of a clause or sentence : 
 
 " Fare thee well ! and if forever, 
 Still forever, fare thee well." — Byron. 
 
 " A mother's love ! how sweet the name ! 
 
 What is a mother's love?" — Montgomery. 
 
 " Where's Harry Blount, Fitz-Eustace where ?" — Scott. 
 
 " Loyalty is a noble, a judicious, and a capacious principle ; but in these 
 countries loyalty distinct from liberty is corruption, not loyalty." — Grat- 
 
 TAN. 
 
 § 179. EPANAPHORA. 
 
 Epanaphora may be defined as that figure by which seveial 
 clauses have the same word at the beginning and at the end 
 of successive clauses or sentences : 
 
 " When you enact that on account of his religion no Catholic shall sit in 
 Parliament, you do what amounts to the tyranny of a sect. When you en- 
 act that no Catholic shall be a sheriff, you do what amounts to the tyranny 
 of a sect. When you enact that no Catholic shall be a general, you do 
 what amounts to the tyranny of a sect." — Grattan. 
 
 § 180. ANADIPLOSIS. 
 
 Anadiplosis is that figure by which the word used at the end 
 of one sentence or clause is repeated at the beginning of an- 
 other : 
 
 " When the sun set, where were they ! 
 And where are they, and where art thou, 
 My country." — Byron. 
 
 "Three fishers went sailing out into the west, 
 Out into the west as the sun went down." — Kingsley. 
 
 "Lycidas is dead — dead ere his prime." — Milton. 
 
 " If you do not go forth on this occasion to the aid of Portugal, Portugal 
 will be trampled down, to your irrecoverable disgrace ; and then war will 
 come, and come, too, in the train of degradation." — Canning. 
 
 " That occupation is an unpaid and unredeemed burden to France. 
 France would be glad to get rid of the possession of Spain." — Canning. 
 
178 Elemeyits of RJietoric. 
 
 *' The same country is once more awake — awake to the condition of negro 
 slavery." — Brougham. 
 
 § 181. EPANODOS. 
 
 Epanodos is the repetition of a word anywhere within the 
 sentence, either in the same sense' or in different senses : 
 « Will it be next week, or next year ?"— Patrick Henry. 
 
 "Thine island loves thee well, thou famous man, 
 The greatest sailor since the world began ; 
 Now to the roll of muffled drums, 
 To thee the greatest soldier comes."— Tennyson. 
 
 " Bounce is never a thing to be proud of, but prudently calculated bounce 
 is a thing altogether contemptible." — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 This figure is also called " regressio." 
 
 § 182. EPANALEPSIS. 
 
 Epanalepsis is like epanodos, but differs in this, that while 
 the latter is the repetition of a word anywhere in the sentence, 
 the former is the repetition of a word in different sentences : 
 
 •' He have arbitrary power ! My lords, the East India Company have 
 not arbitrary power to give him ; the king has no arbitrary power to give 
 him ; your lordships have it not ; nor the Commons ; nor the whole legis- 
 lature. We have no arbitrary power to give, because arbitrary power is a 
 thing which neither any man can hold nor any man can give." — Bukke. 
 
 § 183. PLOCE. 
 
 Ploce is the repetition of the same word under different forms 
 or with different meanings in the same sentence. It often re- 
 fers to the repetition of proper names: as — 
 
 ** I love and honor Epaminondas ; but I do not wish to be Epaminondas." 
 — Emerson. 
 
 " Hills peep o'er hills, and Alps on Alps arise." — Pope. 
 
 But its more general use refers to common terms : as — 
 
 *• Judge not, that ye be not judged." 
 
 " We have petitioned ; we have remonstrated ; we have supplicated ; we 
 have prostrated ourselves before the throne, and implored its interposition 
 to arrest the tyrannical hands of the ministry and Parliament Our peti- 
 tions have been slighted ; our remonstrances have produced additional vio- 
 lence and insult ; our supplications have been disregarded ; and we have 
 been spurned with contempt from the foot of the throne." — Patrick 
 Henry. 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 179 
 
 Several other figures are now combined with ploce. 
 Paregmenon, which is the use of several words of the same 
 origin : 
 
 " Judge righteous judgment." 
 
 " Drops the light drip of the suspended oar." — Byron. 
 " The varnished clock that clicked behind the door." — Goldsmith. 
 ♦♦ All mankind love a lover." — Emerson. 
 
 Polyptoton — a repetition with change of cases or tenses : 
 
 " I dreamed a dream." 
 
 " On apples, apples ; figs on figs arise." — Pope, Odyssey. 
 
 These may be considered as constituting the same figure, 
 and the illustration of one is suitable to all. 
 
 § 184. SYMPLOCE. 
 
 Symploce is the repetition of a word at the beginning, and 
 of another at the end of successive clauses. Although some- 
 times confounded with ploce, it is really identical with epana- 
 phora, which has already been explained and illustrated (§ 179). 
 
 § 185. SVNONYMIA. 
 
 Synonymia is a term applied to cases where several words 
 or phrases of similar signification follow one another: 
 
 " Abiit, erupit, evasit." — Cicero. 
 . "I am astonished, I am shocked." — Chatham. 
 "They are various, they are conflicting." 
 
 " For this great town, for the country at large, whose cause we are up- 
 holding, whose fight we are fighting." — Brougham. 
 
 This figure often consists of words used in pairs. A remark- 
 able example is found in the Book of Common Prayer : 
 
 "The Scripture moveth us in sundry places to acknowledge and confess 
 our manifold sins and wickedness, and that we should not dissemble nor 
 cloak them ..." 
 
 § 186. ALLITERATION. 
 
 Alliteration is the repetition of the same initial letter of em- 
 phatic words. Although the same word is not repeated, yet it 
 may be classed among the iterative figures, since it tends to 
 emphasis by means of repetition : 
 
 " The /loughman homeward /lods his weary way." 
 "The winds in wonder wist." 
 " All ye that /abor and are heavy /aden." 
 
i8o Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Alliteration was once of far more importance than at the 
 present day, for out of it arose the whole versification of the 
 Teutonic race. The poetry of the Anglo-Saxons and Scandi- 
 navians still attests its capabilities in this respect. Alliterative 
 verse lingered in English literature until the age of Chaucer, 
 when important poems were written in it, of which the chief 
 is " The Vision concerning Piers the Plowman." The follow- 
 ing passage may serve as a specimen : 
 
 " I was weory of wandringe, 
 
 And wente me to reste 
 Undur a brod banke 
 
 By a bourne syde ; 
 And, as I lay and leonede, 
 
 And lokede on the watres, 
 I slumberede in a slepyng 
 
 Hit sownede so murie." 
 
 The alliterative principle has never ceased to be present in 
 English poetry, and may be seen in many familiar verses : 
 
 " There will we jit upon the rocks. 
 And jee the xhepherds /eed their /locks, 
 By shallow rivers, to whose fa\\& 
 J/elodious birds sing iwadrigaJs." — Marlowe. 
 
 * When to the jejjions of jweet jilent thought 
 I jummon up remembrance of things past." — Shakespeare. 
 
 " /reeze, freeze, thou bitter sky, 
 Thou dost not ^ite so nigh 
 
 As ^nefits forgot 
 7'hough /hou the waters warp. 
 Thy Jting is not so jharp 
 As friend remembered not" — Shakespeare. 
 
 "^ull ^thorns /ive thy^ther lies."— Shakespeare. 
 
 Alliteration abounds in Milton's poems. In the ode on the 
 Nativity are the following examples, and many more : " Solemn 
 strain," " lay it lowly," " winter wild," " foul deformities," " soft- 
 ly sliding," " waving wide," " Cynthia's seat," " sworded sera- 
 phim," "on hinges hung," "hideous hum," "dismal dance." 
 The whole poem affords examples of alliteration in every stan- 
 za, the alliterated words in most cases being separated, as in 
 the following lines : 
 
Figures of Emphasis, i8i 
 
 " Nor is Osiris seen 
 In Memphian ^rove or ^een 
 Trampling the unshowered ^rass with /owings /oud." 
 
 The later poets present equally striking examples : as — 
 
 "The master saw the madness rise." — Dryden. 
 
 "With woful measures wan Despair, 
 
 Low, sullen sounds his grief beguiled." — Collins. 
 
 " Ne'er sighed at the sound of a knell, 
 Or smiled when a Sabbath appeared." — Cowper. 
 
 " Ye banks and braes o' bonnie Doon, 
 
 How can ye bloom sae fresh and fair?" — Burns. 
 
 " She walks in beauty, like the night 
 Of cloudless climes and starry skies." — Byron. 
 
 " Britannia needs no bulwarks. 
 No towers along the steep ; 
 Her march is o'er the mountain waves, 
 Her home is on the deep." — Campbell. 
 
 "Where furious Frank and fiery Hun 
 
 Shout in their sulphurous canopy." — CAMPBELL. 
 
 " Like a glow-worm golden 
 
 In a dell of dew." — Shelley. 
 
 " Best and brightest, come away. 
 Fairer far than this fair day." — Shelley. 
 
 " He clasps the crag with hooked hands. 
 Close to the sun in lonely lands." — Tennyson. 
 
 "Fairer than all fancy fathoms, falser than all songs have sung." 
 
 — Tennyson. 
 
 Alliteration is used to give emphasis to proverbs ; as— 
 
 " All is not gold that glitters." 
 
 " A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush." 
 
 " Sweets to the sweet." 
 
 " Many men of many minds." 
 
 "Fingers were made before forks." 
 
 "Penny wise, pound foolish." 
 
 " Take care of the pence, and the pounds will take care of themselves." 
 
 "Love me little, love me long." 
 
 " Better be an old man's darling than a young man's drudge." 
 
 The titles of books are often alliterative : Piers Plowman ; 
 the Pilgrim's Progress ; the Dairyman's Daughter ; the Saint 
 and his Saviour ; Frost and Fire. 
 
1 82 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 § 187. HOMCEOTELEUTON. 
 
 Homoeoteleuton is the opposite of alliteration, being the repe- 
 tition of the same sound at the end of words. Formerly it was 
 of little importance, but in modern times it has risen to be one 
 of the leading elements in versification. For rhyme is the same 
 as homoeoteleuton, and in the presence of its superior music 
 and power alliteration has given way. Its importance in ver- 
 sification will be considered elsewhere. In prose it has no 
 place whatever at the present day, although the Greeks and 
 Romans made use of it not unfrequently. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 FIGURES OF EMPHASIS ARISING FROM THE INVERSION 
 OF WORDS. 
 
 § 188. INVERSION. 
 
 We have next to consider those figures which produce em- 
 phasis by a change in the position of words. This is called 
 inversion. 
 
 The order of words differs in different languages. In some 
 the subject stands first, then the predicate, and then the object: 
 as, "James strikes John." In others the predicate follows the 
 object : as, "James John strikes." Neither can be called " the 
 natural order," for every language has its own usage in ac- 
 cordance with its own genius. 
 
 A marked difference is to be obser\'ed between inflected and 
 uninflected languages as regards the order of words. In the 
 former this is of secondary importance, since the meaning of a 
 sentence depends upon inflection ; but in the latter it is of the 
 first importance, since the meaning depends upon position. It 
 is chiefly in this respect that the modern languages of Europe 
 differ from the ancient, and the English from the Latin. Thus 
 in Latin we can say either Ccesar Pompeium vicit^ or Pompeium 
 vicit Ccesar ; but in English we must say, Caesat conquered Pom- 
 pey, nor can we reverse this without reversing the meaning. 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 183 
 
 This freedom of change in position gave some advantages 
 to the classical languages in the way of emphasizing words. In 
 these there was a certain order which was the normal one ; and 
 when this was varied, the word was placed in an unusual posi- 
 tion, which made it more conspicuous, and, as a consequence, 
 more emphatic. 
 
 The same thing holds good to a certain extent in modern 
 languages, and emphasis is given to a word by placing it in an 
 unusual position. 
 
 § 189. INVERSION IN POETRY. 
 
 . Inversion is more striking in poetry, for here there is a larger 
 liberty in changing the position of words. This is one of the 
 things that come under the head of poetic license, which affects 
 both the choice of words and their arrangement. In poetry 
 the full powers of the language may be seen more conspicuous 
 in every respect than in prose. 
 
 In no poet can such remarkable examples of inversion be 
 found as in Milton. This was in part due to his classical taste, 
 which led him often to imitate classical idioms, and in part to 
 his exquisite musical feeling. 
 
 The opening of Paradise Lost affords an example of this : 
 
 " Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
 Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
 Brought death into the world and all our woe, 
 With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
 Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
 Sing, heavenly Muse." 
 
 Here the natural order would require that " heavenly Muse" 
 should come first, and then " sing of man's first disobedience." 
 As it is, the subject of his poem gains greater prominence. 
 
 The same thing may be seen equally well illustrated in the 
 opening lines of the second book : 
 
 " High on a throne of royal state, which far 
 Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, 
 Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand 
 Showers on her kings barbaric peail and gold, 
 Satan exalted sat." 
 
 In ordinary narrative the sentence would begin with the 
 
1 84 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 subject, " Satan ;" but here, by this inversion, "Satan" is intro- 
 duced with immense pomp and splendor. 
 
 " Him the Almighty Power 
 Hurled headlong, flaming down the ethereal heights 
 To bottomless perdition, there to dwell 
 In adamantine chains and penal fire, 
 Who durst defy the Omnipotent to arms." 
 
 This is a very remarkable case of inversion, and it will be 
 seen what emphasis is laid on the word "him" by placing it 
 first in the sentence. The word "me" in the following pas- 
 sage gains the same emphasis : 
 
 " Me, though just right and the fixed laws of heaven 
 Did first create your leader." 
 
 But nowhere can be found an example of more intense em- 
 phasis arising from inversion than in the following from Mac- 
 beth : 
 
 "Not in the legions 
 Of horrid hell can come a devil more damned 
 In ills to top Macbeth." 
 
 Here the name " Macbeth," being reserved till the last, comes 
 in with all the force of a climax, and with all the emphasis that 
 arises from an unusual position, and the introduction of the 
 whole by the negative particle. 
 
 Poetry is full of these inversions, as may be seen in the fol- 
 lowing passages, which show an arrangement of words of con- 
 stant occurrence : 
 
 " Aloft in godlike state 
 The royal hero sate." — Dryden. 
 
 In prose "the royal hero" would stand first. 
 
 " And longer had she sung, but with a frown 
 Revenge impatient rose." — Collins. 
 
 " Full many a gem 'of purest ray serene. 
 
 The dark, un fathomed caves of ocean bear." — Gray. 
 
 § 190. INVERSION IN PROSE. 
 
 Although inversion is not carried out to so great an extent 
 in prose, it is nevertheless of much importance. Many remark- 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 185 
 
 able examples are to be found in the English Bible, which show 
 how emphasis may be produced in this way. This is in part 
 due to the fact that it is a translation ; and the order of words 
 of the original has in many cases been preserved. 
 
 " In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth." 
 
 The natural order would be— God created the heavens and 
 the earth in the beginning. 
 
 " Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord." 
 
 Natural order — He that cometh in the name of the Lord is 
 blessed. 
 
 "Great and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Almighty." 
 
 Natural order — Thy works are great and marvellous. 
 
 " Among many nations there was no king like unto Solomon, who was 
 beloved of God, and God made him king over all Israel, nevertheless even 
 him did outlandish women cause to sin." 
 
 Here the emphasis upon the word "him" is of unusual 
 force. 
 
 " Silver and gold have I none, but such as I have give I unto thee." 
 
 Such inversion as this is very unusual in prose, yet it is 
 quite in accordance with the genius of the English language, 
 and presents the statement with the utmost possible force. 
 
 Examples of a similar kind may be found everywhere in Eng- 
 lish prose, and always have the same effect. 
 
 "The man who first saw that it was possible to found a European em- 
 pire on the ruins of the Mogul monarchy was Dupleix." — Macaulav. 
 
 This is far more effective than if the sentence were written, 
 Dupleix was the first man who saw, etc. 
 
 " Then was committed that great crime, memorable for its singular atroc- 
 ity, memorable for the tremendous retribution by which it was followed." 
 — Macaulay. 
 
 The common order would be, Then that great crime was 
 committed. 
 
 " Like the Puritans, he lived ' as ever in the great Taskmaster's eye.' Like 
 them, he kept his mind continually fixed on an Almighty Judge and an eternal 
 
1 86 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 reward- But not the coolest sceptic or the most profane scoffer was more 
 perfectly free from the contagion of their frantic delusions." — Macaulay. 
 
 Here the natural order would be as follows : He lived like 
 the Puritans, etc. But the coolest sceptic or the most pro- 
 fane scoffer was not more perfectly free, etc. The position of 
 the word "not" must be regarded as peculiarly emphatic. 
 
 Inversion is so common in English prose that it may be said 
 to be quite as much in accordance with the genius of the lan- 
 guage as any other figure ; indeed, in many cases it may well 
 be doubted whether there is any real inversion at all. Thus it 
 may be quite as much the natural order to say, " Blessed are 
 the pure in heart," as to say, "The pure in heart are blessed;" 
 only in this case it becomes a species of exclamation, and as- 
 sumes the order appropriate to that form of statement. Apart 
 from this there is an abundant use of this figure, and he must 
 be indeed a dull writer who does not frequently find occasion 
 to employ it. 
 
 "The most questionable act of his life was the execution of Charles." 
 "The forerunner of the great restoration in our literature was Cowper." 
 " Of all conquerors, the greatest was Alexander." 
 
 In these examples the subject is put last, and is presented 
 with the greatest possible emphasis. Sometimes the character 
 of a subject may be emphasized by being placed in the first 
 part of the sentence : 
 
 " For magnificence, for pathos, for vehement exhortation, for subtle disqui- 
 sition, for every purpose of the poet, the orator, and the divine, this homely 
 dialect, the dialect of plain workingmen, was amply sufficient." — Macaulay. 
 
 A qualifying word is emphasized ; as — 
 
 "Up went the flag to the top of the mast" — for "the flag went up." 
 "Away went the horse, and after him toiled the dismounted rider." 
 
 Any given word may thus be made to receive emphasis : 
 
 " Napoleon could not recover from this defeat, although he had retrieved 
 his fortunes in others." 
 
 If it were required to arrange this sentence so as to empha- 
 size the word " this," which is very important here, it could be 
 done as follows : 
 
Figures of Emphasis, 187 
 
 " Although Napoleon had retrieved his fortunes in other defeats, yet he 
 could not recover from this." 
 
 " Your attempts will be in vain, although you strain every nerve." 
 
 "In vain" will be emphasized by being placed last; as — 
 
 " Although you strain every nerve, your attempts will be in vain." 
 " You cannot escape ;" " escape" may be emphasized thus : " Escape you 
 cannot." 
 
 § 191. ANASTROPHE. 
 
 Anastrophe mean's, generally, the inversion of words, but 
 more particularly the inversion of words in immediate connec- 
 tion; as — 
 
 " Were ne'er prophetic sounds so full of woe," — Collins. 
 For " Prophetic sounds were ne'er." 
 
 "At length did cross an albatross."— Coleridge. 
 
 " Till clomb above the eastern bar 
 The horned moon." — Coleridge. 
 
 *' When round the lonely cottage, 
 Roars loud the tempest's din." 
 
 § 192. SYNCHESIS. 
 
 Synchesis is a kind of inversion where the words are in a 
 confused order : as — 
 *' Tumble precipitate ; down dashed." 
 
 § 193. TMESIS. 
 
 Tmesis has the effect of inversion. It is the division of a 
 compound word into two : as — 
 
 "On what side soever," for "on whatsoever side." 
 "To God ward," for "toward God." 
 
 § 194. HYPERBATON. 
 
 By this is meant inversion in the order of thought. It 
 arises naturally from emotion or passion, and is the language 
 of those who, when laboring under great excitement of feeling, 
 express their ideas in a confused manner — thrusting forward 
 indiscriminately those thoughts which are most prominent in 
 their minds. This is explained by Longinus in a passage 
 which is at once a definition and an illustration ; 
 
 I 
 
1 88 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 " For as when men are really impelled by anger, or fear, or indignation, 
 or jealousy, or any other passion (for they are numberless and cannot be 
 reckoned up), they are forever getting wrong ; and when they have proposed 
 one thing are constantly running off into another, absurdly obtruding some 
 intermediate matter ; and then again coming round to their original subject, 
 are ever and anon pulled back suddenly from conflicting feelings, now this 
 way, now that, as if the sport of a shifting wind ; incessantly chopping and 
 changing their expressions, their ideas, and the order of their natural con- 
 nection in all sorts of ways, to suit their ever-varj'ing purpose ; so the best 
 writers endeavor to imitate the truth of nature's doings by means of trans- 
 positions." 
 
 " In Herodotus," he continues, " is a speech which gives an example of 
 this : * For our aflFairs,* says a speaker, ' are balanced on a razor's edge. 
 Men of Ionia, now is the crisis of our fate, whether to be free or slaves — yes, 
 runaway slaves, the most abject and degraded ; now, then, if you make up 
 your mind to endure hardness, you will indeed have to encounter toil for 
 the present, but you will be able to vanquish the enemy.' " 
 
 " The natural order," Longinus resumes, " was this : * Men of Ionia, now 
 is the time to submit to toil and labor, for our affairs are balanced on a ra- 
 zor's edge.' But he has transposed the salutation, 'Men of Ionia;' for he 
 has commenced with giving utterance to his fears, as if he could not com- 
 mand himself to accost his hearers first, from his sense of imminent danger. 
 In the next place he has distorted the order of the thoughts, for before he 
 said they must exert themselves, he first assigns the reason why they should 
 do so, saying, ' our affairs are balanced on a razor's edge,' so that his words 
 seem not premeditated, but forced from him." 
 
 The following passage is from the same author : 
 
 " Thucydides is a great master of transposition ; but Demosthenes is 
 more abundant in this than any other writer, exhibiting an appearance of 
 much earnestness, nay, of uttering everything on the spur of the moment by 
 means of transposition, and dragging his hearers along with him into a per- 
 ilous maze of things seemingly unconnected. For frequently suspending 
 the thought with which he set out, and abruptly interposing by way of 
 parenthesis a mass of matter apparently quite irrelevant, and thrust ih 
 quite incongruously and strangely, he puts the hearer in fear that he has 
 suffered the subject to drop altogether, and compels him from earnest feel- 
 ing to share the dangers of the speaker ; then at length, towards the close, 
 he very pertinently, but unexpectedly, adds the long-sought link of connec- 
 tion, and raises surprise and admiration still higher by the mere daring and 
 imminent hazard of his transposition." 
 
 The following passage from Hamlet afTords an admirable 
 example of this figure : 
 
 " But two months dead ! — nay, not so much, not two : • 
 So excellent a king ; that was, to this. 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 189 
 
 Hyperion to a satyr : so loving to my mother, 
 
 That he might not beteem the winds of heaven 
 
 Visit her face too roughly. Heaven and earth ! 
 
 Must I remember ? Why, she would hang on him, 
 
 As if increase of appetite had grown 
 
 By what it fed on : and yet, within a month — 
 
 Let me not think on't — Frailty, thy name is woman ! — 
 
 A little month, or ere those shoes were old 
 
 With which she followed my poor father's body, 
 
 Like Niobe, all tears ; — why she, even she — 
 
 O heaven ! a beast, that wants discourse of reason, 
 
 Would have mourned longer — married with my uncle, 
 
 My father's brother ; but no more like my father 
 
 Than I to Hercules : within a month, 
 
 Ere yet the salt of most unrighteous tears 
 
 Had left the flushing in her galled eyes, 
 
 She married." 
 
 § 195. HYSTERON PROTERON. 
 
 Hysteron proteron is similar to hyperbaton, but is more lim- 
 ited in its scope, being confined to a few words, where the or- 
 der of thought is reversed, and that is put first which should 
 stand last : 
 
 "Valet atque vivit." — TERENCE. 
 " He is well and alive." 
 
 This is sometimes considered as identical with anastrophe, 
 already considered. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 FIGURES OF EMPHASIS ARISING FROM AN UNUSUAL 
 OR STRIKING PRESENTATION. 
 
 § 196. UNUSUAL OR STRIKING MODES OF STATEMENT. 
 
 The third class of figures of emphasis comprises those by 
 which statements are made in an unusual or striking manner. 
 This class is a large one, including such figures as exclama- 
 tion, interrogation, elliptical and pleonastic forms, with a few 
 others. 
 
190 Elements of EJietoric. 
 
 § 197. EXCLAMATION. 
 
 Exclamation is a figure of very extended application. It is 
 closely connected with the expression of the feelings, and 
 many of the so-called figures of emotion are merely different 
 kinds of exclamation. It is also a form of statement varied 
 from the common order, so as to avoid monotony, or to attract 
 attention. 
 
 I. Exclamation associated with emotion. This will be fur- 
 ther considered under the head of "The Emotions," and a gen- 
 eral notice of its chief applications will suffice for the present 
 Its chief use is in poetry and oratory, which are pre-eminently 
 the literature of the feelings. 
 
 •' O unexpected stroke, worse than of death !" — Milton. 
 
 " Me miserable ! which way shall I fly 
 Infinite wrath, and infinite despair?" — Milton. 
 
 *• O Time, the beautifier of the dead 1 "—Byron. 
 
 Personification and apostrophe are associated with exclama- 
 tion. It is also found in very animated prose. 
 
 " A heroic Wallace quartered on the scaffold cannot hinder that his Scot- 
 land become one day part of England, but he does hinder that it become 
 on tyrannous terms a part of it. Fight on, thou brave, true heart, and falter 
 not through dark fortune and through bright" — Carlvle. 
 
 " Look there, O man of woman bom ! The bloom of that fair face is 
 wasted." — Carlyle. 
 
 • 2. Exclamation is also used simply to vary the style and give 
 emphasis to passages. This is common in all kinds of prose 
 writing. It is generally introduced by interjections, "oh," 
 "alas," and by the words, "how," " what." 
 
 " When I have no more to say to you, you will like me no longer. How 
 dreadful is that thought !" — Lady M. W. Montagu. 
 
 " What folly it would be to sacrifice liberty, and, for the sake of life, to 
 give up that which alone makes life worth having !" 
 
 § 198. SALUTATION. 
 
 A certain kind of exclamation is called "salutation." It is 
 often intermingled with apostrophe, and is a salutatory address 
 to the dead or absent. 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 191 
 
 " All hail to thee, Edmund Burke, the supreme writer of his century, tne 
 man of the largest and finest understanding !" — De Quincey. 
 
 At Other times it is simple exclamation addressed to some 
 person or thing. 
 
 " Hail to the chief who in triumph advances !" — Scott. 
 This is addressed to the living Roderick Dhu. 
 
 " O thou, that with surpassing glory crowned !" — Milton. 
 Satan's address to the sun is made to a visible object. 
 
 § 199. EPIPHONEMA. 
 
 Another kind of exclamation is called " epiphonema." This 
 is a grave reflection consequent upon statements that have 
 preceded. 
 
 " Ne'er saw I, never felt a calm so deep ! 
 The river glideth at his own sweet will ; 
 Dear God ! the very houses seem asleep ; 
 
 And all that mighty heart is lying still I" — WoRDSWORTH. 
 
 § 200. INTERROGATION. 
 
 Interrogation, like exclamation, may be used both with emo- 
 tion and without it. On the one hand it may express the most 
 intense passion ; on the other it may be used merely to vary 
 the form of statement, and give animation to style. Interro- 
 gation forms a sudden and abrupt change to ordinary state- 
 ment, and passages are introduced in this way in order that 
 they may be presented with greater emphasis ; for the flow of 
 the narrative is thrown out of its course, and the mind, which 
 may be growing wearied, suddenly receives some new stimulus. 
 
 Two kinds of interrogation are frequently noticed : 
 
 1. Where an answer is expected. 
 
 2. Where no answer is expected. This is called the ques- 
 tion of appeal, and is merely a statement thrown into the inter- 
 rogative form. Of the two, the latter is far more commonly 
 used for rhetorical purposes. 
 
 The noblest thoughts, the most sublime conceptions, and the 
 most striking images may be found presented under this figure. 
 Like exclamation, it is found through all the Sacred Scriptures, 
 and has no less prominent a place in our own literature. 
 
192 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 " Who would bear the whips and scorns of time. 
 The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely ?" 
 
 — Shakespeare. 
 " Who would lose this intellectual being, 
 Those thoughts that wander through eternity ?"— Milton. 
 
 " For who to dumb forgetful ness a prey, 
 
 This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned ?" — Gray. 
 
 " What objects are the fountains 
 Of thy happy strain ; 
 What fields, or waves, or mountains; 
 What shapes of sky or plain. 
 What love of thine own kind, what ignorance of pain ?" — Shelley. 
 
 " Breathes there the man, with soul so dead, 
 Who never to himself hath said 
 This is my own, my native land?" — ScoTT. 
 
 The power of this figure to present a statement with strong 
 emphasis may be seen in the following passage from the letters 
 of Junius: 
 
 " Let us consider you, then, as arrived at the summit of worldly great- 
 ness. Let us suppose that all your plans of avarice and ambition are ac- 
 complished, and your most sanguine wishes gratified, in the fear as well as 
 in the hatred of the people. Can age itself forget that you are now in the 
 last act of life ? Can gray hairs make folly venerable ?" 
 
 It is difficult to see how these concluding sentences could 
 be presented with such a fierce and scornful emphasis in any 
 other way than the sharp and direct personality which may 
 characterize the interrogation. 
 
 The force of interrogation may be seen by comparing sen- 
 tences which exhibit this figure side by side with plain state- 
 ments : 
 
 " He could not lose this favorable opportunity by waiting for reinforce- 
 ments." 
 
 " Was he to lose this favorable opportunity by waiting for reinforce- 
 ments ?" 
 
 " Life is not the most precious thing ; it is better to lose this than to lose 
 honor." 
 
 " Is life the most precious thing t Is it not better to lose this than to 
 lose honor ?" 
 
 '• No one would be so infatuated as to accept in good faith such a prom- 
 ise." 
 
 " Who would be so infatuated as to accept in good faith such a prom- 
 ise?" 
 
Figures of Emphasis. -193 
 
 Many questions are introduced by such formulas as, " Can 
 any one suppose ?" " Will it be believed ?" " Can any one 
 doubt?" 
 
 Interrogation is very common in oratory, especially in delib- 
 erative oratory where the presence of an opponent or an ad- 
 verse party gives a personal flavor to the speeches. At the 
 same time it is sufficiently prevalent in demonstrative and ju- 
 dicial oratory. Demosthenes employed this figure to a great 
 extent. It is one of his characteristics that he seems to delight 
 in hurling a whole mass of questions at the heads of his oppo- 
 nents or his auditors. Thus : 
 
 " But when, O my countrymen, will you begin to exert your vigor ? Do 
 you wait till roused by some dire event, till forced by necessity? What, 
 then, are we to think of our present condition ? ... Or say, is it your sole 
 ambition to wander through the public places each inquiring of the other — 
 What news ? Can anything be more new than that a man of Macedon should 
 conquer the Athenians and give laws to Greece? Is Philip dead? No, 
 but he is sick. Pray, what is it to you whether Philip is sick or not ?" 
 
 Cicero's first oration against Catiline gives a remarkable 
 example of interrogation in its opening sentences. 
 
 § 201. SERMOCINATIO. 
 
 In oratory there is a form of interrogation where the ques- 
 tion is immediately followed by an answer. It is a species of 
 dialogue with one's self, and is called "sermocinatio." 
 
 *' Corruption has introduced such manners as have proved the bane and 
 destruction of our country. Is a man known to have received foreign mon- 
 ey ? People envy him. Does he own it ? They laugh. Is he formally 
 convicted ? They forgive him." — Demosthenes. 
 
 "With what possible intent could you have sent them? For peace? 
 But all had it Well, then, for war ? But you yourselves were desirous of 
 peace." — Demosthenes. 
 
 § 202. PERCONTATIO AND EXPOSITIO. 
 
 Sometimes the question and answer are more expanded, in 
 which case they are each set down as a separate figure, the one 
 being called "percontatio" and the other "expositio." 
 
 Percontatio is a consultation with the audience, or seeming 
 inquiry, followed by the statement of one's own feelings. 
 
 Expositio is the statement following percontatio. 
 
194 Elements of Rfutoric. 
 
 Percantatio. — " What will you say now when the viceroy shakes hands 
 with the populace, and enfeoflFs himself to the lowest popularity ?" 
 
 Expositio. — " He should not proceed on the principles of Punic faith or 
 of Parthian flight To retain the affections of the public on negative terms 
 is difficult ; but to attach them by injuries, to annex the delusion of the pub- 
 lic to his person, and the plunder of the country to his family, is a monster 
 in the history bf ambition." — Grattan. 
 
 This is not infrequent in ordinary prose composition. 
 
 •' But was there nobody among the ninety thousand prisoners of Jerusa- 
 lem who could have spoken to parts of this man's life ? Doubtless there 
 were, but to what purpose for people in their situation to come forward ? 
 One and all, positively without a solitary exception, they were themselves 
 captives — slaves, condemned and despairing." — De Quincky. 
 
 § 203. RESPONSIO SIBI IPSI. 
 
 Another form is sometimes distinguished as " responsio sibi 
 ipsi," or answer to one's own question : 
 
 "Is any man fallen into disgrace? Charity doth hold down its head, 
 abashed and out of countenance, partaking of his shame. Is any man dis- 
 appointed of his hopes or endeavors ? Charity crieth out, Alas ! as if it were 
 itself defeated. Is any man afflicted with pain or sickness ? Charity look- 
 cth sadly, it sigheth, it groaneth, it fainteth, and languisheth with him. Is 
 any man pinched with hard want ? Charity, if it cannot succor, will con- 
 dole. Doth ill news arrive ? Charity doth hear it with an unfiling ear 
 and a sad heart, although not particularly concerned in it" — Barrow. 
 
 § 204. PARENTHETICAL FIGURES. 
 
 Parenthetical figures include certain forms of expression in 
 which the parenthesis is used. 
 
 The parenthesis has already been noticed in relation to per- 
 spicuity, and may now receive further attention from another 
 point of view. 
 
 § 205. COMMENTtm. 
 
 One form of the parenthesis is sometimes considered as a 
 separate figure under the name of " commentum," which may 
 be defined as a passing comment, or reflection, on what has 
 been said. 
 
 Horace Walpole, speaking of Dr. Johnson, says : 
 
 " Some of his own works show that he had at times strong excellent com- 
 mon-sense ; and that he had the virtue of charity to a high degree is indu- 
 bitable ; but his friends (of whom he made woful choice) have taken care 
 to let the world know that in behavior he was an ill-natured bear, and in 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 195 
 
 opinions as senseless a bigot as an old washerwoman — a brave composition 
 for a philosopher !" 
 
 This /parenthetical remark upon Dr. Johnson's friends serves 
 to give additional emphasis to the report which they made of 
 him. 
 
 " Bom to inherit the most illustrious monarchy in the world, and united 
 at an early period to the object of her choice, whose virtues amply justified 
 her preference, she enjoyed (what is not always the privilege of that rank) 
 the highest connubial felicity." — Robert Hall. 
 
 This passing comment upon the ordinary fate of exalted rank 
 sets forth in a striking manner the unusual good fortune of the 
 Princess Charlotte. 
 
 § 206. APPOSITIO AND EXPLANATIO. 
 
 Under this head may be classed another figure, which con- 
 sists in giving emphasis to any statement by placing words after 
 it of an explanatory character. This is called " appositio," 
 and also " explanatio." 
 
 " Music, painting, poetry — the aesthetic arts — are the results of genius 
 and industry." 
 
 .The explanatory parenthesis renders this sentence clearer 
 and more forcible. 
 
 *' Ships by thousands lay below, 
 And men in nations — all were his." 
 
 The words "all were his" serve to enlarge our conception 
 of the power of Xerxes. 
 
 " Above all, to an Irishman — to that Arthur Wellesley who, in the em- 
 phatic words of the learned gentleman [Mr. Sheil], * eclipsed his military vic- 
 tories by the splendor of his civil triumphs,' to him was committed the great 
 and glorious task of effecting the deliverance of the world." — Sir Robert 
 Peel. 
 
 Here the statement that a great work was performed by an 
 Irishman receives additional emphasis by the mention of his 
 name and actions. 
 
 This figure is equally striking in the following passage : 
 
 " Let us not deceive ourselves, sir. These are the implements of war 
 and subjugation — the last arguments to which kings resort." — Patrick 
 Henry. 
 
 I 2 
 
196 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 With the parenthetical figures digression is also classed, but 
 that has already been sufficiently considered under the head of 
 perspicuity. 
 
 § 207. ELLIPTICAL FIGURES. 
 
 Elliptical figures include all those forms of expression in 
 which words are omitted or suppressed. 
 
 § 208. ELLIPSE. 
 
 By ellipse is meant the omission of words : 
 
 " And yet, on the other hand, unless wariness be used, as good almost 
 kill a man as kill a good book." — Milton. 
 
 If the ellipse were removed by the restoration of the words 
 omitted, the sentence would assume some such form as this : 
 
 " And yet, on the other hand, unless wariness be used, evil may result^ 
 for you might as well almost kill a man as kill a good book." 
 
 Ellipse, when not carried too far, tends to conciseness and 
 energy of expression, and emphasizes statements by presenting 
 them in a compact form or in an unusual manner. Carlyle 
 deals frequently in this figure : 
 
 •' The man is not of godlike physiognomy any more than of imposing 
 stature or costume — close shut mouth with thin lips, prominent jaws aftd 
 nose, receding brow, by no means of Olympian height ; head, however, is of 
 long form, and has superlatively gray eyes in it Not what is called a beau- 
 tiful man, nor yet by any means a happy." 
 
 § 209. ZEUGMA. 
 
 Zeugma is a figure in which, by the omission of one word, 
 another is joined to words with which it has properly no con- 
 nection : 
 
 •' They wear a dress like that of the Scythians, but a language peculiar to 
 themselves." 
 
 By the omission of the word "speak," the word "wear" is 
 here used in connection with "language." 
 
 § 210. SYNESIS. 
 
 Synesis is an adaptation of the construction to the sense of 
 words rather than to their grammatical character: 
 
 " My paternal home was made desolate, and he himself was sacrificed." 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 197 
 
 It is plain that "he himself" refers to father as an ante- 
 cedent; that word, however, has not been expressed, but is 
 implied in the word paternal. 
 
 § 211. ANACOLUTHON. 
 
 Anacoluthon is a disagreement in construction between the 
 latter and the former part of a sentence. The proposition is 
 left unfinished, and something else is introduced to complete 
 the sentence. The emphatic force of this figure arises from 
 its suggestion of emotion on the part of the speaker : 
 
 " If thou be'st he — but O, how fallen, how changed 
 From him who in the happy realms of light. 
 Clothed with transcendent brightness, didst outshine 
 Myriads, though bright !" 
 
 Here the completion of the sentence is prevented by the suf- 
 fering of the speaker. The same thing is seen in the follow- 
 ing lines: .,, ^ , . ^ 
 
 ° "Into what pit thou seest. 
 
 From what height fallen — so much the stronger proved 
 He with his thunder; and till then who knew 
 The force of those dire arms ?" 
 
 ** I perish by this people which I made, 
 Though Merlin sware that I should come again 
 To rule once more — but let what will be, be. 
 I am so deeply smitten through the helm 
 That without help I cannot last till mom." — Tennyson. 
 
 •• All study is not reading, any more than all reading is study. By study I 
 mean — but let one of the noblest geniuses and hardest students of any age 
 define it for me. * Study,' says Cicero, *is the persistent and intense occu- 
 pation of the mind, directed with a strong effort of the will to any subject' " 
 — Edward Evereit. 
 
 "They are not uncivil to him, but they are peremptory to the extent 
 of— Rotch may shudder to think what." — Carlyle. 
 
 § 212. APOSIOPESIS. 
 Aposiopesis is very similar to the last. It is a sudden pause 
 in the course of a sentence by which the conclusion is left un- 
 expressed : 
 
 "For there I picked up on the heather, 
 And there I put within my breast, 
 A moulted feather, an eagle's feather — 
 Well — I forget the rest." — Browning. 
 
198 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Although the sentence is unfinished, yet the unexpressed 
 words are implied, and with deep significance. In the follow- 
 ing passage the effect of this figure is very striking : 
 
 " The blood and spirit of Le Fevre, which were waxing cold and slow 
 within him, and were retreating to their last citadel — the heart — rallied back ; 
 the film forsook his eyes for a moment ; he looked up wistfully in my Uncle 
 Toby's face, then cast a look upon his boy ; and that ligament, fine as it was, 
 was never broken. Nature instantly ebbed again ; the film returned to its 
 place ; the pulse fluttered — stopped — went on — throbbed — stopped again 
 — moved — stopped — Shall I go on? No." — Sterne. 
 
 § 2X3. EPANORTHOSIS. 
 
 Another very similar figure is found in epanorthosis. Here 
 a statement is retracted in order that something stronger may 
 be substituted : 
 
 "Well, we shall jneld Spain, and then you will pass into Africa. Will 
 pass, did I say ? This very year they ordered one of their consuls into 
 Africa, the other into Spain." — Hannibal, from " Livy." 
 
 " Rejoice, my friends, the tyrant dies this day. This day, do I say ? This 
 very moment in which I kept silence he suffered for his crime." — Apollo- 
 Nius OF Tyana. 
 
 " The burden of thought from having given the chief value to the vellum, 
 has now becoipe the chief obstacle to its value — nay, has totally extinguish- 
 ed its value." — De Quincev. 
 
 In these passages the first statement is felt to be inade- 
 quate, and by being retracted it causes the strongest possible 
 emphasis to be placed upon that which is substituted for it. 
 
 § 214. INTERRUPTIO. 
 
 Another figure of the same kind is found in interruptio, 
 where a speaker interrupts himself in the course of his thought 
 and turns away to something else. But, as in the preceding 
 cases, the unuttered words are left to the imagination, and 
 thereby gain a greater force : 
 
 " Spite of the weak heart so have I 
 Lived ever, and so fain would die, 
 Living and dying thee before, 
 But if thou leavest me — 
 
 Less or more 
 I suppose that I had spoken thus 
 When — have mercy. Lord, on us ! — 
 The whole face turned upon me full." 
 
 — Robert Browning. 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 159 
 
 In the preceding lines the effect of this figure is to give 
 greater stress both to that which precedes the interruption 
 and that which follows it. 
 
 ** Where in the Iliad shall we find simplicity and pathos which shall vie 
 with the narrative of Moses ; or maxims of conduct to equal the Proverbs 
 of Solomon ; or sublimity which does not fade away before the conceptions 
 of Job, or David, or Isaiah, or St. John? But I cannot pursue this com- 
 parison. I feel that it is doing wrong to the mind which dictated the Iliad, 
 and to the other mighty intellects on whom the light of the holy oracles 
 never shined." — Wayland. 
 
 By thus interrupting himself, the writer has in this case made 
 his comparison more striking. 
 
 § 215. SUPPRESSIO. 
 
 In this figure the anticipated conclusion of a sentence is 
 suppressed, and something else is substituted : 
 
 '* Julius Caesar had his Brutus ; Charles the First had his Cromwell ; and 
 George the Third— may profit by their example."— Patrick Henry. 
 
 In this sentence there is a deep significance which conveys 
 the strongest conceivable emphasis. 
 
 § 216. ASYNDETON. 
 
 Asyndeton is the omission of conjunctions. It produces 
 emphasis by introducing circumstances in an unusual manner, 
 and by the exciting effect of rapid utterance. 
 
 The best examples of this may be found in the New Testa- 
 ment : 
 
 " In all things approving ourselves as the ministers of God, in much pa- 
 tience, in afflictions, in necessities, in distresses, in stripes, in imprisonments, 
 in tumults, in labors, in watchings, in fastings ; by pureness, by knowledge, 
 by long-suffering, by kindness, by the Holy Ghost, by love unfeigned, by the 
 word of truth, by the power of God, by the armor of righteousness on the 
 right hand and on the left, by honor and dishonor, by evil report and good 
 report." — St. Paul. 
 
 The omission of conjunctions makes this construction un- 
 usual, and thus gives emphasis to the different topics which are 
 enumerated. Another example of the same kind is seen in 
 the following passage : 
 
 " Be ye kindly affectionate one to another, with brotherly love, in honor 
 
200 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 preferring one another, not slothful in business, fervent in spirit, serving the 
 Lord, rejoicing in hope, patient in tribulation, continuing instant in prayer, 
 distributing to the necessities of the saints, given to hospitality." — St. Paul. 
 
 While the omission of conjunctions attracts attention from 
 the fact that such a construction is unusual, the reader will 
 also observe how much energy and animation is produced by 
 this figure. The emphasis caused by asyndeton may be at- 
 tributed, first, to its striking character, and, secondly, to its 
 vivacity. 
 
 § 217. PLEONASTIC FIGURES. 
 
 Pleonastic figures include all forms of expression in which 
 words are multiplied for the sake of emphasis. 
 
 § 218. PLEONASM. 
 
 By pleonasm is meant the employment of more words than 
 usual, or of redundant words. When properly employed it is 
 productive of a high degree of emphasis : 
 
 "The Lord he is God." 
 
 Here the word "he" is emphasized, and indicates more 
 strikingly the antecedent " Lord." 
 
 *' Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me." 
 
 The emphasis placed on the word "they" serves to call 
 greater attention to the antecedents. 
 
 § 219. ANALEPSIS. 
 
 Analepsis is another name for pleonasm, as above defined, 
 being a grammatical redundancy employed for rhetorical em- 
 phasis : 
 
 " Health, virtue, industry — these are the elements of happiness." 
 
 "The armaments that thunder-strike the walls 
 Of rock-built cities, bidding nations quake. 
 And monarchs tremble in their capitals — 
 
 These are thy toys.*'— Byron. 
 
 In these examples different things are mentioned individual- 
 ly, and then by means of this figure are combined with greater 
 emphasis in one conception. 
 
Figures of Emphasis. 20I 
 
 § 220. POLYSYNDETON. 
 
 Another form of pleonastic figures is found when conjunctions 
 are used to an unusual degree. This is called polysyndeton. 
 
 This figure, like asyndeton, is found best exemplified in pas- 
 sages in the New Testament : 
 
 " For I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor princi- 
 palities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor 
 depth, nor any other creature shall be able to separate us from the love of 
 God, which is in Jesus Christ our Lord." — St. Paul. 
 
 Here the conjunctions are multiplied to an unusual degree, 
 and therefore the topics mentioned receive the greater atten- 
 tion. Each one is also presented before the mind with some 
 degree of formality, so that the emphasis must be placed upon 
 each word. This is equally visible in the following passage : 
 
 "That ye being rooted and grounded in the faith, may be able to com- 
 prehend with all saints what is the breadth, and length, and depth, and 
 height, and to know the love of God that passeth knowledge." — St. Paul. 
 
 § 221. ASYNDETON AND POLYSYNDETON CONTRASTED. 
 
 Asyndeton and polysyndeton may sometimes be found illus- 
 trated in the same passage : a» — 
 
 "So eagerly the fiend 
 O'er bog or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare. 
 With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way. 
 And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies." — Milton. 
 
 Here the emphasis arising from asyndeton is due to its en- 
 ergy and animation, while that which arises from polysyndeton 
 is due to its gravity and formality. 
 
 These two figures are also illustrated in the following pas- 
 sage : 
 
 " Dining one day, at an alderman's in the city, Peter observed him ex- 
 patiating after the manner of his brethren on the praises of his sirloin of 
 beef. ' Beef,' said the sage magistrate, * is the king of meat. Beef compre- 
 hends in it the quintessence of partridge, and quail, and venison, and pheas- 
 ant, and plum-pudding, and custard.' ... * Bread,' said he, * dear brothers, 
 is the staff of life, in which bread is contained inclusive the quintessence of 
 beef, mutton, veal, venison, partridges, plum-pudding, and custard ' " — Swift. 
 
202 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The first portion of the above passage exhibits polysyndeton, 
 and has a slow, grave movement, while the latter part, which 
 consists of asyndeton, is marked by briskness and animation. 
 
 Asyndeton and polysyndeton, though differing in this way, 
 contribute each to emphasis. 
 
 Asyndeton gives emphasis by introducing circumstances in 
 a rapid and energetic manner. 
 
 Polysyndeton gives emphasis by introducing circumstances 
 in a slow and formal manner. 
 
 Of the two, the emphasis given by polysjmdeton is the 
 greater. 
 
 Polysyndeton has the greater gravity and solemnity; asyn- 
 deton the higher animation. 
 
 § 222. PAROEMIAC FIGURES. 
 
 Paroemiac figures include all proverbs, apophthegms, max- 
 ims, sayings, " saws," and the like. 
 
 § 223. PROVERB. 
 
 A proverb is the utterance of a truth, derived from general 
 experience, in a concise and striking form. 
 
 Lord John Russell defines it as "the wit of one and the wis- 
 dom of many." 
 
 A proverb must be brief; the language must be simple ; and 
 it must also have some other peculiarity in order to catch the 
 attention, be readily committed to memory, and long retained. 
 This is sometimes done by alliteration : as — 
 
 "All is not gold that glitters." 
 •' Penny wise, pound foolish." 
 
 Sometimes rhyme is employed : as — 
 
 " Many a slip 'twixt cup and lip." 
 " To-day be mine, to-morrow thine." 
 
 Antithesis is used very extensively : 
 
 "Out of sight, out of mind." 
 
 " Nothing venture, nothing have." 
 
 Proverbs are constantly introduced into literature. 
 
 " For the ages after Alexander, it is certain that Greece proper was so 
 much broken in spirit by the loss of her autonomy, dating from that era, as 
 
Figures of Emphasis. ' 203 
 
 never again to have rallied sufficiently to produce a single man of genius 
 — not one solitary writer who acted as a power upon the national mind. 
 Callimachus was nobody, and not decidedly Grecian. Theocritus, a man 
 of real genius in a limited way, is a Grecian in that sense only according to 
 which an Anglo-American is an Englishman. Besides, one swallow does 
 not make a summer."— De Quincey. 
 
 The proverb introduced at the close of this passage serves 
 to give emphasis to the main proposition. 
 
 r 
 
 § 224. APOPHTHEGM. 
 
 The apophthegm is a short, pithy sentence or maxim, and 
 it contributes to emphasis by its conciseness and energy. A 
 large proportion of those passages which are widely known 
 and quoted are of this description. Among English writers 
 the following abound most in this: — Poets— Shakespeare, Mil- 
 ton, Pope ; — Prose writers — Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, Emer- 
 son. Among writers of the present day, George Eliot employs 
 this figure very extensively. The following are examples : 
 
 " We are such stuff 
 As dreams are made on ; and our little life 
 Is rounded by a sleep." — Shakespeare. 
 
 "To be weak is miserable, 
 Doing or suffering." — Milton. 
 
 "A little learning is a dangerous thing." — Pope. 
 
 " A crowd is not company ; and faces are but a gallery of pictures ; and 
 talk but a tinkling cymbal, when there is no love." — Bacon. 
 
 " Many have ruled well who could not perhaps define a commonwealth ; 
 and they who understand not the globe of the earth command a great part 
 of it. When natural logic prevails not, artificial too often faileth. When 
 nature fills the sails, the vessel goes smoothly on ; and when judgment is 
 the pilot, the insurance need not be high. Wlien industry builds upon nat- 
 ure, we may expect pyramids ; when that foundation is wanting, the struct- 
 ure must be low." — Sir Thomas Browne. 
 
 § 225. EPIGRAM. 
 
 The epigram may also be named among those figures which 
 contribute to emphasis by making statements in an unusual or 
 striking manner; but other qualities belong to it which form 
 its chief characteristics, and it will receive full consideration 
 in connection with the subject of the ridiculous. 
 
204 Elements of EJietaric, 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ENERGY. 
 § 226. DEFINITION OF ENERGY. 
 
 The word energy is used by Dr. Whately in a very comprehen- 
 sive sense, namely, as expressive of that vital element in style 
 which is here called persuasiveness. Such an extension of its 
 meaning is, however, liable to objection ; first, because it has a 
 definite signification of its own ; and, secondly, because there 
 are certain qualities belonging to this present division of style 
 which cannot be classified under such a head. This word is 
 generally explained by such terms as " force," " vigor," or 
 " strength," and energy in style may, therefore, be defined as 
 strength of expression. 
 
 A general example of this quality may be found in the fol- 
 lowing passage from Emerson : 
 
 " A foolish consistency is the hol^oblin of little minds, adored by little 
 statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a great soul has 
 simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself with his shadow on 
 the wall. Out upon your guarded lips. Sew them up with packthread — 
 do. Else, if you would be a man, speak what you think to-day in words as 
 hard as cannon-balls, and to-morrow speak what to-morrow thinks, in words 
 as hard again — though it contradict everything you said to-day. ' Ah, then,' 
 exclaim the aged ladies, 'you shall be sure to be misunderstood.' Misun- 
 derstood ! It is a right fool's word." 
 
 § 227. SIMPLICITY AS TENDING TO ENERGY. 
 
 The first requisite of energy is simplicity. 
 
 The strongest words are often the simplest : Thus, " die " is 
 stronger than "expire," "live" than "exist," "rot" than "de- 
 cay." Shakespeare says, in a passage of memorable force, " to 
 lie in cold obstruction and to rot;'' and Byron expresses vehe- 
 ment scorn by the use of the same word : " Such clay as rots 
 into the souls of those whom I survey." Pope caps a climax 
 of contempt by means of the same word : 
 
Energy. 205 
 
 " Fixed like a plant on his peculiar spot, 
 To draw nutrition, propagate, and rot^ 
 
 Simple words are so clear and so familiar that their meaning 
 is unmistakable ; their force also cannot be evaded ; and when 
 properly directed they strike home with resistless effect. 
 
 " A broken complexion," says Emerson, " a swinish look, all 
 blab." No other words can have the force of "swinish" and 
 " blab." It is a common saying that when a man feels strongly 
 he expresses himself in "plain Saxon," which may be accepted 
 as the testimony of the common mind to the superior energy 
 of simple words. It is surprising how many of Shakespeare's 
 most vigorous lines are marked by the presence of some sim- 
 ple word which takes the chief emphasis. The following will 
 explain what is meant : 
 
 " Aye, there's the ruby 
 
 " O my offence is rank^ it smells to heaven !" 
 
 ** Enterprises of great pith and monrjent." 
 
 The force of simple speech is seen in proverbs and old 
 "saws." It is also seen in the sayings of great men, and es- 
 pecially in the words attributed to that most energetic of states- 
 men, Bismarck, who flings his words at the world with a sim- 
 plicity and a directness that is only equalled by his cynicism. 
 " Blood and iron " is his policy. " Let Paris fry in her own 
 fat" was his well-known remark when that city was encircled 
 by its besiegers. Artificial words are best for innuendo, but 
 simple words for direct and vigorous statement. 
 
 Such vigorous expressions abound in the speeches of Burke 
 and in the writings of De Quincey, two authors whose style 
 exhibits beyond all others the extremes of most elaborate splen- 
 dor and homely simplicity; who were equally at home amid 
 the pomps and sounding harmonies of rhythmical periods, or 
 the plain and vigorous phraseology of the most common and 
 familiar speech. 
 
 The following examples are from Burke : 
 
 *' Of these two propositions I shall give such damaging proof that, how- 
 ever the contrary may be whispered in circles or bawled in the newspapers, 
 they never more will dare to raise their voices in this house." 
 
 " But still it sticks in their throats." 
 
 " They wait until Camot shall have snorted away the fumes of the indi- 
 gested blood of his sovereign." 
 
2o6 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 "All this U mighty well." 
 
 " We have not been drawn and trussed in order that we may be filled, 
 like stuffed birds in a museum, with chaff and rags, and paltry blurred shreds 
 of paper about the rights of man. . . . We have real hearts of flesh and 
 blood beating in our bosoms." 
 
 § 228. CONCISENESS AS TENDING TO ENERGY. 
 
 Conciseness is another requisite to energy. The intimate 
 connection between these two qualities is admirably illustrated 
 in the case of the Spartans, who cherished the habit of using 
 as few words as possible, yet of making those words pregnant 
 with meaning. Hence arose the terms " Spartan brevity," 
 " laconic speech," " a laconic saying," which have always been 
 synonymous with energetic brevity. This quality is exemplified 
 in the pages of Thucydides, who never uses a superfluous word, 
 and who was thus able to make his work what he desired it to 
 be — in his own condensed statement, a *,T^/ia iq at 1 — an everlast- 
 ing possession. The style of Tacitus is of the same kind, but 
 more highly elaborated. Many of his sentences have the 
 brevity and weight of maxims : 
 
 /'They make a solitude, and call it peace." 
 
 •* We should have lost our memory also with our voice, if it had been 
 possible as well to forget as to keep silent" 
 
 "To woman it is given to weep, to man to remember." 
 
 No author, however, has surpassed Dante in this respect. 
 His great poem is a storehouse of quotations ; and he himself 
 sought diligently to attain to the most pregnant brevity of 
 speech, for he more than once refers to it in a pointed man- 
 ner : 
 
 " There is no greater pain," he says, " than in sorrow to recall a happy 
 time." 
 
 Tennyson has reproduced this : 
 
 " A sorrow*s crown of sorrow is remembering happier days." 
 
 At the end of the episode of Francesca da Rimini is the 
 
 " On that day we read in it no farther." 
 
 Here by metalepsis is the implied statement of their death. 
 
 " I made a gibbet for myself with my own dwelling." 
 
Energy. 207 
 
 The speaker in the mystic wood of self-murderers here sums 
 up, together with his own suicide, the utter ruin of his family. 
 
 " He listens well who marks the saying." 
 
 " It is good to know of some ; of others it is well to be silent" 
 
 These lines explain themselves. 
 
 The stern judgment of an indignant patriot is passed upon 
 Pope Celestine V. in the famous line : 
 
 "Chi fece per viltate il gran rifiuto." 
 
 " Who made through cowardice the grand refusal." 
 
 Allusion is made to his pusillanimity in refusing to retain 
 the office of pope in a time of difficulty. In equally famous 
 lines he passes his judgment upon those who have lived for 
 themselves, were neither good nor bad, and therefore have no 
 place either in heaven or hell : 
 
 " Misericordia e Giustizia gli sdegna ; 
 Non ragioniam di lor^ma guarda e passa." 
 
 " Mercy and justice both alike disdain them ; 
 Take no account of them, but look and pass." 
 
 § 229. RETRENCHMENT OF SUPERFLUOUS WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Where the aim is not merely perspicuity, but also an ener- 
 getic conciseness, it is necessary to subject the style to close 
 restraint, and divest it of all words or phrases that are super- 
 fluous. Where these are retained, the language may, indeed, 
 be clear, but it is apt to be weak and ineffective. Each word 
 should add something in itself; it should be actually need- 
 ed, or else it is better elsewhere. " Obstat," says Quintilian, 
 "quidquid non adjuvat." 
 
 The following passages are perfectly clear, but may be made 
 more concise : 
 
 "Being content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of one." 
 " Being " may be omitted. 
 
 " There is nothing which is more beneficial to a state than a healthy and 
 vigilant public spirit." 
 
 " There is " and " which " may be omitted. 
 
2o8 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 " After having attempted it three times, he found the task an impossible 
 one, and so he concluded to desist" 
 
 Omit "after," "so he." 
 
 " The king, finding that the Parliament was as troublesome as ever, de- 
 termined to dissolve it." 
 
 Omit "that," "was." 
 
 "When he was unfortunate, he was humble enough; but when he was 
 prosperous he became the vainest of men." 
 
 "When unfortunate" and "when prosperous" is better. 
 
 Phrases and clauses should be rejected, like words, whenever 
 they are superfluous. It has already been shown how such 
 phrases interfere with perspicuity, but reference is now made 
 to cases in which there is no obscurity at all. Indeed, a fault 
 often arises from the very effort to give additional clearness, 
 but the result is a certain tediousness and feebleness, by which 
 the sentence is weakened, and all its clearness thus made of no 
 avail. 
 
 In the style of Johnson there is a perpetual tendency to repeat 
 the idea expressed in one clause under a different form in the 
 next. A proposition is made, then reiterated in other words, 
 and this again is discussed only to be again presented. By a 
 plentiful use of the figures of antithesis, apposition, and the 
 like, there is apparent variety ; but when the subject-matter is 
 analyzed the redundancies become apparent, and thus the 
 judgment of De Quincey can scarcely be considered too 
 severe when he says that Johnson was " the most faulty writer 
 in this kind of inanity that has ever played tricks with lan- 
 guage." 
 
 In the following example the repetitions are italicized: 
 
 "He that willingly suffers the corrosions of inveterate hatred, and gives 
 up his days and nights to the gloom and malice and perturbations o/stratugem^ 
 cannot surely be said to consult his ease." 
 
 Here a self-evident proposition is presented with unrivalled 
 wordiness and turgidity. 
 
 " Resentment is a union of sorrow with malignity, a combination of a 
 passion which all endeavor to avoid with a passion which all concur to 
 detest" 
 
In the second clause there is a met^J^^^^^^i^^aning 
 of the first, presented as a comment, with an attempt to con- 
 ceal its monotony under the form of antithesis. 
 
 § 230. PRECISION. 
 
 Another essential to energy is precision. By this quality the 
 writer is enabled to say exactly what he means, and to speak 
 directly to the point. This subject has already been fully dis- 
 cussed in respect of the nature of words, and the distinctions 
 in their meanings ; but something still remains to be said with 
 regard 10 its connection with energy, and this refers chiefly to 
 the superiority in this respect of definite terms over indefinite. 
 
 § 231. THE DEFINITE MORE ENERGETIC THAN THE 
 INDEFINITE. 
 
 The use of the definite for the indefinite tends to produce 
 a forcible impression upon the mind. It gives a distinct 
 picture of something, instead of a vague statement, and upon 
 this the mind seizes. Whenever an author is able to particu- 
 larize, he is sure of exciting interest. Among the character- 
 istics of the style of Macaulay, none will serve to account for 
 its great vigor and effectiveness more than his attention to this 
 very thing. 
 
 " Five hundred years before the Christian era, the citizens of the repub- 
 lics around the /^gean Sea formed perhaps the finest militia that ever 
 existed." 
 
 Here there is a description full of picturesque force of the 
 "Greeks," suggesting their republican forms, and the situation 
 of the Greek states. 
 
 "The Highland gentleman who a century ago lived by taking black- 
 mail from his neighbors committed the same crime for which Wild was 
 accompanied to Newgate by the huzzas of two hundred thousand people." 
 
 Here the indefinite terms would be illustrated by a sentence 
 like the following: The Highland chiefs committed with im- 
 punity the same crimes for which English highwaymen were 
 executed. " Blackmail," " neighbors," " Wild," " Newgate," 
 and " huzzas of two hundred thousand spectators," are all bits 
 
210 Elements of R/tetoric. 
 
 of definite description, which are reproduced by the mind in 
 the most vivid manner. 
 
 " At feeding-time we observe that men of all nations grow savage if, by a 
 fine scene, you endeavor to make amends for a bad beefsteak." — Emerson. 
 
 This idea expressed in an indefinite manner would be : Men- 
 tal taste is less influential than bodily appetite. 
 
 " Do not think that the youth has no force because he cannot speak to 
 you and me. Hark, in the next room who spoke so clear and emphatic ? 
 Good heaven ! it is he — it is that very lump of bashfulness and phlegm 
 which for weeks has done nothing but eat when you were by, that now rolls 
 out his words like bell-strokes."— Emerson. 
 
 This vigorous bit of description, when rendered into indefi- 
 nite forms, is : We cannot tell what is in a boy by observing 
 his action towards his superiors. 
 
 " The nonchalance of boys who are sure of a dinner is the healthy atti- 
 tude of human nature." — Emerson. 
 
 When stated indefinitely this becomes : Man is seen at his 
 best in times of prosperity. 
 
 This principle is visible in proverbs. Here the indefinite is 
 avoided, and the expression assumes a direct form : as — 
 
 " A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush." 
 " A cat in gloves catches no mice." 
 
 § 232. THE CONCRETE MORE ENERGETIC THAN THE ABSTRACT. 
 
 The same principle is exemplified by the superior energy 
 of the concrete as compared with the abstract. 
 
 Abstract terms are grasped with difficulty by the mind, but 
 the concrete tells its own story. The one is vague, the other 
 presents a picture. The allegory affords no exception to this. 
 Here things dealt with are abstractions, but they are presented 
 under concrete forms. When allegory fails, it is because the 
 personages are too abstract. 
 
 The history of the English drama is instructive on this point. 
 In the Mystery plays of the Middle Ages religious legends 
 were made use of, and the characters were such as seemed 
 real, and therefore were full of interest. Then came the era 
 of the Morality plays, when the characters were abstract qual- 
 
Energy. 21 1 
 
 ities : when Catholicism contended with Protestantism, Ambi- 
 tion with Loyalty, Patriotism with Treason, Virtue with Vice. 
 But this quickly passed away. The world preferred Macbeth 
 to Ambition, and Othello to Jealousy. 
 
 The same thing may also be seen in sermons. The most 
 uninteresting and least effective are those which dwell upon 
 abstract themes. The great preachers are direct, and not gen- 
 eral ; they deal little in abstractions. They come to the hearer 
 like Nathan to David, and say, " Thou art the man !" These 
 are the men who reason most energetically, because most def- 
 initely, upon temperance, righteousness, and judgment to come, 
 so that, like Felix, the hearers tremble. 
 
 § 233. DEMONSTRATIVE WORDS AN AID TO ENERGY. 
 
 The demonstrative pronouns are aids towards definiteness 
 of statement. 
 
 *' I have coveted no man's silver or gold," says St Paul ; " yea, you your- 
 selves are witnesses that these hands have ministered." 
 
 In this demonstrative there is unusual force. A fuller de- 
 monstrative is to be seen in the following : 
 
 " That tongue of his that bade the Romans mark him." 
 "Yonder" and "yon" point out a thing with great force : 
 
 " Near yonder copse." " Hard by yon wood." " Yon tower-capp'd 
 Acropolis." 
 
 Also where an object is still more distinctly pointed out, as 
 in the figure vision : 
 
 " The Niobe of nations — there she stands, 
 Childless and crownless !" — Byron. 
 
 This definiteness is increased by the use of proper names 
 rather than common terms ; for a proper name is the most def- 
 inite possible. Thus we may go through different gradations of 
 definiteness in the following order: A man, a Greek, an Athe- 
 nian, an Athenian philosopher, Socrates. When we come to 
 the name " Socrates," we have reached a point in the way of 
 definiteness beyond which we can go no farther. 
 
 Thus, in the saying attributed to Nelson, " A peerage or 
 Westminster Abbey," we have the definiteness of a proper 
 
 K 
 
212 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 name, and an expression of the same idea which is found more 
 generally stated in "Victory or death." 
 
 " When I rest in perfect humility," says Emerson, "when I bum in pure 
 love, what can Calvin or Swedenborg say more ?" 
 
 Here the names "Calvin" and "Swedenborg" represent 
 respectively "dogmatic theology" and "mysticism." 
 
 § 234. PROPER TERMS. 
 
 The effective employment of proper names is admirably 
 illustrated in the following passage from Macaulay, which is 
 so well known that the image in the last clause has become 
 proverbial. Speaking of the Church of Rome, he says : 
 
 ** She was great and respected before the Saxon had set foot in Britain, 
 before the Frank had passed the Rhine, when Grecian eloquence still flour- 
 ished at Antioch, when idols were still worshipped at the temple of Mecca; 
 and she may still exist in undiminished vigor when some traveller from 
 New Zealand shall, in the mid&t of a vast solitude, take his stand on a 
 broken arch of London Bridge to sketch the ruins of St PauPs." 
 
 Here, instead of the general phrases, "ancient times" or 
 " before the rise of modern nations," we have a series of his- 
 torical events brought forward, such as the origin of England 
 and France, and suggestions of the prevalence of Christianity 
 and the rise of Mohammedanism, while, instead of " future 
 times," we have the vivid picture of the New Zealander. 
 
 Reduced to indefinite expressions the above sentence would 
 read : She was great and respected before the rise of modem 
 nations, and she may still exist in undiminished vigor in the 
 distant future, when a new civilization shall supplant the old. 
 
 Another passage from the same author illustrates this prin- 
 ciple equally well. His statement in general terms is that the 
 policy of the Church of Rome has been to encourage reformers 
 and aid them to the utmost, while that of the Church of Eng- 
 land has been to thwart and repel them. With his usual love 
 of definiteness, he expresses this in the following way : 
 
 " At Rome the Countess of Huntingdon would have had a place in the 
 calendar as St. Selina, and Mrs. Fry would be the foundress and first su- 
 perior of the Blessed Order of the Sisters of the Jails. Place Ignatius Loy- 
 ola at Oxford. He is certain to become the head of a formidable secession. 
 Place John Wesley at Rome. He is certain to be the first general of a new 
 society devoted to the interests and honor of the Church." 
 
Energy, 2 1 3 
 
 § 235. OTHER QUALITIES OF STYLE THAT TENI> TO ENERGY. 
 
 There are certain terms applied to style which are some- 
 times used as synonymous with energy, and sometimes as in- 
 dicative of qualities that tend to energy. The chief of these 
 will now be considered. 
 
 Vehemence is an important quality in oratory. It was 
 the chief characteristic of Demosthenes, called by ^schines 
 cuyu-r\q^ when he took the trouble to warn the judges against 
 the fiery energy of his great opponent. The best examples 
 of this in English literature are to be found in the speeches 
 of the Earl of Chatham, from one of which the following pas- 
 sage is taken : t 
 
 "The people whom they affect to call contemptible rebels, but whose 
 growing power has at last obtained the name of enemies; the people with 
 whom they have engaged this country in war, and against whom they now 
 demand our implicit support in €very measure of desperate hostility — this 
 people, despised as rebels or acknowledged as enemies, are abetted against 
 you, supplied with every military store, their interests consulted, and their 
 ambassadors entertained by your inveterate enemy, and our ministers dare 
 not interpose with dignity or effcct. Is this the honor of a great kingdom ? 
 Is this the indignant spirit of England, who but yesterday gave laws to the 
 house of Boarbon ?" 
 
 Vehemence implies strpng personal feeling, and therefore 
 it is peculiar to oratory. It is also seen in other kinds of com- 
 position ; as, for instance, in the famous letter of the Caliph 
 Haroun-al-Raschid to the Emperor Nicephorus : 
 
 ** Haroun-al-Raschid, the Commander of the Faithful, to Nicephorus the 
 Roman dog — I have received thy letter, oh thou son of an unbelieving 
 mother ! Thon shalt not hear, thou shalt behold my reply." 
 
 The term massive is sometimes applied to a style which 
 exhibits cogent argument in concise language expressed with 
 dignity and force : 
 
 " Though all the winds of doctrine were let loose to play upon the earth, 
 so truth be in the field, we do injuriously, by licensing and prohibiting, to 
 misdoubt her strength. Let her and falsehood grapple. Who ever knew 
 truth to be put to the worse in a free and open encounter?" — Milton. 
 
 A style is called masculine when it exhibits a certain rug- 
 ged force without much attention to elegance. This term 
 is often applied to the prose of Carlyle and the poetry of 
 
214 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Browning. Here there are frequent faults of carelessness, or 
 even rudeness ; but the great qualities of these writers make 
 them effective in spite of such faults. 
 
 A style which exhibits conciseness without meagreness, and 
 which is forcible and axiomatic, is called terse : 
 
 " If you would not be known to do anything, never do it A man may 
 play the fool in the drifts of the desert, but every grain of sand shall seem 
 to see." — Emerson. 
 
 " We are told by Mr. Dundas that there is no eagerness for reform. Five 
 minutes before Moses struck the rock this gentleman would have said that 
 there was no eagerness for water." — Sydney Smith. 
 
 An incisive style means the exhibition of great precision and 
 conciseness; direct force, keenness, and adroitness, with a dash 
 of sarcasm : 
 
 " I found in your letter the usual remarks about fire, fagot, and bloody 
 Mary. Are you aware, my dear priest, that there were as many persons 
 put to death for religious opinions under the mild Elizabeth as under the 
 bloody Mary ? The reign of the former was, to be sure, ten times as long ; 
 but I only mention the fact, merely to show you that something depends on 
 the age in which men live, as well as on their religious opinions. Three 
 hundred years ago men burned and hanged one another for these opinions. 
 Time has softened Catholic as well as Protestant They both required it, 
 though each perceives only his own improvement, and is blind to that of 
 the other. We are all the creatures of circumstances. I know not a kind- 
 er or a better man than yourself; but you, if you had lived in those times, 
 would certainly have roasted your Catholic" — Sydney Smith. 
 
 Soberness implies gravity and restraint, the absence both of 
 emotion and of ornament. It is generally confined to writings 
 of an argumentative character, and the most familiar examples 
 are the so-called " doctrinal " sermons. The force that is in 
 these arises from the cogency of the argument. 
 
 Severity implies a still greater restraint upon style. The 
 argument here is made the chief thing; and the only aim of 
 the writer is to present this with clearness, leaving it to pro- 
 duce its effect. Severity requires the utmost conciseness of ex- 
 pression and an utter absence of ornament. Butler's Analogy 
 may be mentioned as an example. 
 
 Dignity is exhibited where the thought is elevated and the 
 style is more or less elaborate. It is associated with a certain 
 stateliness and pomp. The term is often applied to the style 
 
Energy. 215 
 
 of Johnson, Gibbon, Robertson. The following passage from 
 Carlyle will serve as an illustration : 
 
 "Conquerors are a race with whom the world could well dispense ; nor 
 can the hard intellect, the unsympathizing loftiness, and high but selfish 
 enthusiasm of such persons inspire us in general with any affection ; at best 
 it may excite amazement ; and their fall, like that of a pyramid, will be be- 
 held with a certain sadness and awe. But a true poet, a man in whose 
 heart resides some affluence of wisdom, some tone of the 'eternal melodies,' 
 is the most precious gift that can be bestowed on a generation ; we see in 
 him a freer, purer development of whatever is noblest in ourselves ; his life 
 is a rich lesson to us ; and we mourn his death as that of a benefactor who 
 loved and taught us." 
 
 § 236. ILLUSTRATIONS FROM VARIOUS AUTHORS. 
 
 Before concluding this notice of energy, it may be well to give 
 a few further illustrations from authors who are distinguished 
 for this quality; and here it is scarcely necessary to say that 
 the first place in this respect must be assigned to the Sacred 
 Scriptures. This is owing partly to the nature of the Hebrew 
 mind, which was characterized by a power of intense concen- 
 tration on one thing, so that its utterances were made with a 
 vehemence and fervor that surpass everything else known to 
 the sons of men. It is also due in part to the themes treated 
 of, which were such as stir up the feelings to their lowest depth. 
 This will be the conclusion of those who consider the character 
 of those writings merely from a literary point of view, and with 
 no reference to their theological or spiritual claims. 
 
 Shakespeare, who exhibits every quality, is equal to every 
 occasion, and affords examples of the most energetic expres- 
 sion. His works abound with such phrases as these : 
 
 "The foremost man of all the world." "A deed without a name." 
 " Pride, pomp, and circumstance of glorious war." " Curses not loud, but 
 deep." "Thrilling regions of thick-ribbed ice." "The deep damnation of 
 his taking oft" 
 
 The greatness of Milton's themes, and the intense earnest- 
 ness of his character, makes this quality a prevalent one in the 
 works of that author. The following examples will serve to il- 
 lustrate his capacity for energetic expression : 
 
 "Infinite wrath and infinite despair." "A shout that tore hell's con- 
 cave." " The mind is its own place, and in itself can make a heaven of 
 
2i6 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 hell, a hell of heaven." " Fierce as ten furies, terrible as hell." " Millions 
 of spirits for his fault amerced." " Tears such as angels weep." 
 
 Energy is manifest among the succeeding English poets; 
 but nowhere in the same degree till we come to Byron, with 
 whom it is the prominent quality. The following passages 
 are in his most vehement manner : 
 
 "Though the strained mast should quiver as a reed. 
 And the rent canvas fluttering strew the gale, 
 Still I must on." 
 
 ** From peak to peak, the rattling crags among. 
 Leaps the live thunder." 
 
 " The hell of waters ! how they howl and hiss, 
 And boil in endless torture." 
 
 "A father's love and mortal's agony 
 With an immortal's patience blending." 
 
 Scott and Campbell exhibit this quality in a high degree, 
 and in our own day it is visible in Browning. The following 
 passages afford examples: 
 
 •* The war that for a space did fail. 
 Now trebly thundering swelled the gale. 
 And — ' Stanley !' was the cry." — Scott. 
 
 " Then shook the hills with thunder riven. 
 Then rushed the steed to battle driven. 
 And louder than the host of heaven. 
 
 Far flashed the red artillery."— Campbell. 
 
 § 237. FAULTS OF STYLE AS OPPOSED TO ENERGY. 
 
 It remains now to notice the faults of style as opposed to 
 energy. 
 
 The most prominent of these is the weak style, by which is 
 meant that sort of writing in which the language falls short of 
 the subject or occasion. 
 
 If, for example, the occasion demands vehement force, a 
 style that is merely elegant would be weak, since it would be 
 utterly inadequate. Thus the style and treatment of one of 
 Addison's papers in the Spectator would be weak when brought 
 to bear upon a great theme like that of the guilt or innocence 
 of Warren Hastings. 
 
Energy. 2 1 7^ 
 
 A weak style also results when an author undertakes a task 
 that is above him, as when Martin Farquhar Tupper ventured 
 to write a conclusion to Christabel. In general, when an au- 
 thor is successful in one class of writing, he should apply him- 
 self to that, and not go beyond it. A good essayist will write 
 weak novels. The brilliant Macaulay left a fragment of a very 
 dull work of fiction ; the witty poet Aytoun failed as a novelist; 
 the novelist Bulwer was by no means brilliant as an essayist; 
 Dickens was nothing outside of his fictions. In short, when a 
 writer leaves his own department, and attempts another, the 
 result is deplorable, except in the case of a few very versatile 
 minds. No one affirms this more strongly than Horace, who 
 again and again refuses to leave his light themes for the loftier 
 but more dangerous. realms of epic song. 
 
 In these cases the style may be said to be only relatively 
 weak. There is another weakness of style, which amounts to 
 positive puerility, where the writer shows plainly that his ideas 
 are feeble, that he has no clear grasp even of these, and that 
 he has no power of giving them adequate expression. But 
 such a style as this does not belong to literature, and therefore 
 may be dismissed from our consideration. 
 
 Similar to this is the languid style, which indicates a want of 
 interest in the subject on the part of the author. 
 
 Tameness is a fault of the same nature, and indicates a lack 
 of proper spirit and boldness. 
 
 The effeminate style is that in which attention is paid to 
 smoothness, euphony, and elegance of expression, where the 
 ideas are feeble or conventional, and there is an utter absence 
 of earnestness of purpose. 
 
2 1 8 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 VIVACITY. 
 § 238. DEFINITION OF VIVACITY. 
 
 The word vivacity is used by Dr. Campbell in a very extend- 
 ed sense, being selected by him to include all those qualities 
 which are here represented by the general term persuasive- 
 ness. 
 
 In a more restricted sense it may be defined as the exhibi- 
 tion of life and feeling, of vividness in portrayal, and perpetual 
 variety in expression. 
 
 The worst faults in composition are dulness in conception 
 and monotony in expression. With other faults failure is not 
 so inevitable, for there may be success of a certain kind. 
 There are books which exhibit every variety of vice in style — 
 the obscure, the florid, the puerile, the vulgar, the flippant, the 
 pretentious; yet in spite of such faults they reach a certain 
 class of readers; but where there is dulness and monotony, 
 even such success as this is unattainable, and there can be no 
 result save utter failure. 
 
 Vivacity is opposed to both of these. To dulness it opposes 
 animation ; to monotony it opposes perpetual variety. It rises 
 from the lowest stage of liveliness to the highest enthusiasm ; 
 and in expression it makes use of every conceivable device to 
 vary perpetually the form of statement. 
 
 Energy refers to strength of words and intensity of thought 
 and feeling; vivacity connects itself rather with versatility in 
 thought and statement. Energy belongs more exclusively to 
 eloquence, and springs more directly from nature ; vivacity as- 
 sociates itself readily with art, and is more entirely rhetorical. 
 For this reason vivacity is connected with all the arts of em- 
 bellishment ; it brings to its aid all the figures of speech, and 
 blends a profusion of imagery with affluence of expression. 
 
 According to the definition above given, vivacity refers first 
 
Vivacity, 219 
 
 to the thought, and secondly to the expression. In order to 
 consider this topic fully, it will be necessary therefore to ob- 
 serve it according as it refers to either of these departments. 
 
 § 239. VIVACITY AS IT REFERS TO THE THOUGHT. 
 
 I. Vivacity as it refers to the thought may exist in various 
 gradations. 
 
 Animation may be considered as the first ascent above the 
 level of ordinary expression, and may be defined as that degree 
 of feeling which is quite under control, and merely serves to 
 give life and interest to composition. The term liveliness may 
 be considered as almost synonymous with it, yet it is somewhat 
 different, for it involves the exhibition of cheerfulness and pleas- 
 antry, with the addition in some cases of wit and humor. With 
 liveliness sprightliness is almost interchangeable. Any author 
 who writes with evident interest in his work is animated; but 
 a lively writer is one who throws over his style a certain cheer- 
 ful glow which is communicated to the reader. 
 
 Rising beyond these we come to a feeling which is called 
 abandon. The term is applied to those cases where the writer 
 seems to abandon himself to his subject, or is carried away by 
 it. In its lower grades it is like liveliness and animation, and 
 amounts to little more than a kind of confidential manner or 
 communicativeness. It is very common with Thackeray, and 
 is illustrated in the following passage : 
 
 " Would you not like to slip back into the past and be introduced to Mr. 
 Addison? — not the Right Honorable Joseph Addison, Esq., George II. 's 
 Secretary of State, but to the delightful painter of contemporary manners ; 
 the man who, when in good-humor himself, was the pleasantest companion 
 in all England, I should like to go into Lockit's with him, and drink a bowl 
 along with Sir Richard Steele, who has just been knighted by King George, 
 and who does not happen to have any money to pay his share of the reck- 
 oning. I should not care to follow Mr. Addison to his secretary's office in 
 Whitehall. There we get into politics. Our business is pleasure, and the 
 town, and the coffee-house, and the theatre, and the Mall. Delightful Spec- 
 tator ! kind friend of leisure hours ! happy companion ! true Christian 
 gentleman ! How much greater, better you are than the king Mr. Secretary 
 kneels to !" 
 
 But in its higher manifestations this abandon leads to the 
 most rapturous flights of the imagination, as in Shelley's ode 
 on the Skylark: 
 
 K2 
 
220 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 ** Teach me half the gladness 
 
 That thy brain must know, 
 
 Such harmonious madness 
 
 From my lips would flow, 
 
 The world should listen then, as I am listening now." 
 
 It was this total abandonment of himself to his theme that 
 led to that sublime outburst of Demosthenes, in which he swears 
 by those who fought at Marathon. 
 
 But this brings us to that higher stage of feeling and expression 
 known as eloquence, one of the modes in which vivacity may 
 be manifested. Eloquence which is simple and natural may 
 be regarded as belonging to a display of energy, but where it is 
 ornate and elaborate it is connected rather with vivacity. Such 
 a display is seen in the following passage from Erskine's speech 
 on Stockdale. He is alluding to the trial of Warren Hast- 
 ings : 
 
 " There the most august and striking spectacle was daily exhibited which 
 the world ever witnessed. A vast stage of justice was erected, awful from 
 its high authority ; splendid from its illustrious dignity ; venerable from the 
 learning and wisdom of its judges ; captivating and affecting from the mighty 
 concourse of all ranks and conditions which daily flocked into it as into a 
 theatre of pleasure. There, where the whole public mind was at once awed 
 and softened to the impression of every human affection, there appeared, 
 day after day, one after another, men of the most powerful and exalted tal- 
 ents, eclipsing by their accusing eloquence the most boasted harangues of 
 antiquity ; rousing the pride of national resentment by the boldest invectives 
 against broken faith and violated treaties ; and shaking the bosom with al- 
 ternate pity and horror by the most glowing pictures of insulted nature and 
 humanity ; ever animated and energetic from the love of fame which is the 
 inherent passion of genius ; firm and indefatigable from a strong preposses- 
 sion of the justice of their cause." 
 
 Beyond this there is a still higher elevation— enthusiasm, 
 which may be defined as the sustained warmth and glow of in- 
 tense personal feeling. This may be seen in Martineau's ar- 
 gument from a disaster at sea : 
 
 "There were travellers from foreign lands, ready with pleased heart to 
 tell at home the thousand marvels they had gathered on their way. There 
 was a family of mourners, taking to their household graves their unburied 
 dead. And there was one at least of rare truth and wisdom, of designs 
 than which philanthropy knows nothing greater ; of faith that all must ven- 
 erate, and love that all must trust ; of persuasive lips, from which a thought- 
 ful genius and the simplest heart poured forth the true music of humanity. 
 And does any one believe that this freight of transcendent worth — all this 
 
Vivacity. 221 
 
 sorrow, and thought, and hope, and moral greatness, and pure affection — 
 was burned, and went out with flame and cotton-smoke ? Sooner would I 
 believe that fire consumed the less everlasting stars ! Such a galaxy of spir- 
 itual light and order and beauty is spread above the elements and their 
 power, and neither heat can scorch it nor cold water drown. The bleak 
 wind that swept in the morning over the black and heaving wreck would 
 moan in the ear of sympathy with the wail of a thousand survivors, but to 
 the ear of wisdom and of faith would sound as the returning whisper and 
 requiem of hope." 
 
 The high enthusiasm that is perceptible in this passage trans- 
 forms it from argument to poetry. 
 
 § 240. VIVACITY AS IT REFERS TO THE EXPRESSION. 
 
 2. Vivacity as it refers to the expression is produced by va- 
 rious qualities which will be considered in order. The first of 
 these is copiousness. 
 
 § 241. COPIOUSNESS. 
 
 Copiousness in its more general meaning is referred by 
 Quintilian to thought as well as expression. "There is one 
 kind," says he, " that is rich in thought, and another that 
 abounds in flowers." Here, however, the latter only is meant, 
 and indicates amplitude andJulness of diction, where there is a 
 vocabulary of unusual richness and abundant imagery. This 
 is the characteristic of the writings of Jeremy Taylor, Landor, 
 and Ruskin. 
 
 § 242. VERSATILITY. 
 
 Another quality that conduces to vivacity is versatility. 
 
 Versatility is also called variety. This refers to an author's 
 power to adapt his style to many different subjects. The most 
 remarkable example of this in English literature is Shakespeare, 
 who was great in tragedy, comedy, and lyric poetry. In French* 
 literature Voltaire is a striking instance of this, since his works 
 consist of philosophical essays, tragedy, and epic poetry. Bul- 
 wer Lytton is a versatile author, since he produced two differ- 
 ent classes of novels, epic poetry, dramatic works, and lyric 
 poetry. Tennyson is another example, though of a different 
 kind, for his poetry represents five distinct classes: ist. The 
 Romantic, or Arthurian Epic; 2d, Classical, as Ulysses, Titho- 
 nus; 3d, Domestic, as The Miller's Daughter, The May Queen; 
 4lh, Emotional, as Maud, Locksley Hall; 5th, Songs. Sir 
 
222 Elemejits of Rhetoric. 
 
 Walter Scott wrote 90 volumes : 48 of novels, 2 1 of history and 
 biography, 2 1 gf poetry. 
 
 § 243. BRILLIANCY. 
 
 The next quality associated with vivacity is brilliancy. By 
 this is meant a high degree of animation, a copious diction, 
 and abundant imagery. With these wit and humor are some- 
 times blended. 
 
 Among those who are most conspicuous for the display of 
 this quality are Hazlitt, Lamb, Leigh Hunt, Sydney Smith, and 
 Macau lay. 
 
 The following is an example of a brilliant passage in oratory 
 from Curran's speech on behalf of Rowan : 
 
 " No matter in what language his doom may have been pronounced ; no 
 matter what complexion incompatible with freedom an Indian or an African 
 sun may have burned upon him ; no matter in what" disastrous battle his 
 liberty may have been cloven down ; no matter with what solemnities he 
 may have been devoted upon the altar of slavery ; the first moment he 
 touches the sacred soil of Britain, the altar and the god sink together in 
 the dust ; his soul walks abroad in her own majesty ; his body swells be- 
 yond the measure of the chains that burst from around him ; and he stands 
 redeemed, regenerated, and disenthralled by the irresistible genius of Uni- 
 versal Emancipation." « 
 
 § 244. VIVIDNESS. 
 Another quality which may be mentioned is vividness. This 
 is the representation of facts or occurrences with unusual clear- 
 ness and force of expression, so as to make the scene live before 
 the mind. A familiar example is found in Byron's lines : 
 
 •* And there was mounting in hot haste : the steed, 
 
 The mustering squadron, and the clattering car, 
 
 Went pouring forward with impetuous speed, 
 
 And swiftly forming in the ranks of war ; 
 
 And the deep thunder peal on peal afar ; 
 
 And near, the beat of the alarming drum 
 
 Roused up the soldier ere the morning star ; 
 
 While thronged the citizens with terror dumb, 
 Or whispering, with white lips, ' The foe ! They come, they come !' " 
 
 § 245. FELICITY OF STYLE. 
 
 Another quality of great importance is that which is called 
 felicity of style. 
 
Vivacity. 223 
 
 Felicity has much in common with precision, but goes be- 
 yond it. What precision is to perspicuity, felicity is to vivacity. 
 It means the choice of the best possible word ; but more than 
 this, it requires that the word should have great suggestiveness, 
 so as to impress the mind suddenly, sharply, and permanently. 
 This quality may be found in most of those striking sayings 
 and weighty maxims which are culled from the works of great 
 writers, and quoted from mouth to mouth, till they become 
 common property : 
 
 " History is philosophy teaching by examples." — Bolingbroke. 
 
 "These are the times that try men's souls." — Thomas Paine. 
 
 " It has all the contortions of the Sibyl, without the inspiration." — Burke. 
 
 " Kings will be tyrants from policy, when subjects are rebels from prin- 
 ciple."— Burke. 
 
 "The Commons, faithful to their system, remained in a state of masterly 
 inactivity." — Sir James Mackintosh. 
 
 " It is more than a crime ; it is a political blunder." — FoucH^. 
 
 " Washington — first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his 
 countrymen." — Henry Lee. 
 
 •'O liberty ! how many crimes are committed in thy name !" — Madame 
 Roland. 
 
 ♦' I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the 
 Old."— Canning. 
 
 " The gratitude of place-expectants is a lively sense of future favors." — 
 Sir Robert Walpole. 
 
 " His soul was like a star, and dwelt apart." — Wordsworth. 
 
 " But trailing clouds of glory do we come 
 From God, who is our home." — Wordsworth. 
 
 § 246. FAULTS AS OPPOSED TO VIVACITY. 
 
 The style may be beneath the level of the subject, or it may 
 be beyond it 
 
 I. When the style is beneath the level of the subject. 
 
 Vivacity means life, animation, perpetual variety in the ex- 
 pression, abundant use of all the multifarious changes of man- 
 ner afforded by the figures of speech, and by other things that 
 have been named. 
 
 Sometimes the fault is in the expression. 
 
 Monotony is the opposite of vivacity. It arises when the 
 mode of expression is not sufficiently varied. When the writer, 
 for sentence after sentence and page after page, presents his 
 
224 Elements of Rlietoric. 
 
 thoughts in the same fashion, it produces tediousness. If any 
 composition is framed in all its sentences after one unvarying 
 model, the result will be monotony. If all the sentences are 
 direct statements, and are never varied by such figures as in- 
 terrogation, exclamation, or antithesis, never enlivened by com- 
 parison, metaphor, or climax, vivacity is out of the question. 
 
 Again, if a writer resorts too much to one particular figure, 
 such as antithesis, or moulds his sentences too much after the 
 same fashion, monotony will follow. 
 
 In general, monotony arises when the composition, though 
 clear and correct, and even harmonious, shows no variety; but 
 being pitched upon one commonplace key, remains there. 
 Variety being necessary to stimulate attention, the monotonous 
 writer, however correct, can never be readable. 
 
 Another fault consists in the use of expressions that are hack- 
 neyed or stale. These terms are applied to figures of speech, 
 particularly tropes, epithets, and comparisons which have been 
 used so often that they have ceased to be effective. To these 
 the term "trite" or "worn out" has also been applied. These 
 have already been sufficiently illustrated under other heads. 
 
 Sometimes the fault is in the statement. In this case it 
 assumes various forms, which have been distinguished by dif- 
 ferent names. 
 
 The following are especially worthy of notice : 
 
 Frigidity is a cold, unsympathetic manner, in which the 
 writer exhibits no animation whatever. It is usually marked 
 by stiff and formal expressions. 
 
 Baldness and dulness are terms used to designate a style 
 which is utterly free from any attempt to enliven. 
 
 A heavy style is that in which the sentiments are common- 
 place, the vocabulary limited yet pretentious, and the whole 
 uninteresting and unreadable. 
 
 Jejune means vacant, empty, or void of matter that can en- 
 gage the attention. It is applied to writings where very ordi- 
 nary thoughts are expressed in a tedious and lifeless manner. 
 
 Meagre is a word that indicates poverty of conception, to- 
 gether with a limited vocabulary. It cannot for a moment be 
 confounded with conciseness, for the latter exhibits few words 
 because their number is purposely limited ; but the former is 
 poor in words because the writer has few at his command. 
 
Vivacity. 225 
 
 2. The style may be carried beyond the level of the subject. 
 
 An excess of vivacity leads to another set of faults which, 
 if not worse, are perhaps more marked. 
 
 The tendency to inflated expression is injurious to vivacity, 
 because the extravagance is apparent, and fails in its effect. 
 A certain amount of exaggeration is sometimes allowable, as 
 in the figure hyperbole ; but this to be effective should always 
 be sparingly used. 
 
 There is a certain inflation of style associated with florid 
 expressions, extravagance of sentiment, familiar confidences, 
 and idle display of feeling in the form of frequent ejaculations. 
 To this the term "gushing" is sometimes given. 
 
 A still greater excess of vivacity results in other faults, known 
 as bombast, fustian, bathos, etc. 
 
 Bombast was originally applied to a stuff" of soft, loose text- 
 ure, once used to swell the garment. Fustian was also a kind 
 of cloth of stiff" expansive character. These terms are applied 
 to a high, swelling style of writing, full of extravagant sentiments 
 and expressions. Bathos is a word which has the same appli- 
 cation, meaning generally the mock heroic — that "depth" into 
 which one falls who overleaps the sublime; the step which one 
 makes in order to pass from the sublime to the ridiculous. 
 
 " Arrest Simoom, amid thy waste of sand, 
 The poisoned javelin balanced in his hand; 
 Fierce in blue streams he rides the tainted air, 
 Points his keen eye, and waves his whistling hair, 
 "While as he turns, the undulating soil 
 Rolls in red waves and billowy deserts boil." — Dr. Darwin. 
 
 " Should the tempest of war overshadow our land. 
 
 Its bolts ne'er could rend Freedom's temple asunder 
 For unmoved at its portal would Washington stand, 
 
 And repulse with his breast the assaults of the thunder." 
 
 — Robert Treat Paine. 
 
 Another word has been derived from the tailor, and that is 
 " padding," which means stuffing a coat, but tropically is made 
 to describe the useless filling in of composition. This, however, 
 need not be connected at all with bombast ; it may be perfectly 
 simple, literal, and painfully true in its tediousness, yet it is 
 perhaps more frequently associated with bombast than not. It 
 is least faulty when used to create interest ; as when a speaker 
 
226 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 interlards his argument with themes suited to the popular taste. 
 Digressions are always allowable when not carried too far, but 
 mere padding is a term always used in a contemptuous sense, 
 and is meant to designate a fault. 
 
 Analogous to bombast, etc., are such terms as "buncombe," 
 "hifalutin," which have come into use in America. The origin 
 of one of these is given in Wheeler's History of North Carolina: 
 
 " Several years ago, in Congress, the member from this district (Bun- 
 combe) arose to address the house, without any extraordinary powers in 
 manner or matter to interest the audience. Many members left the hall. 
 Very naively he told those that remained that they might go, too ; he should 
 speak for some time, but ' that he was only talking for Buncombe.' " 
 
 The following are illustrations: 
 
 " We understand it now. The President is impatient to wreak his ven- 
 geance on South Carolina. Be it so. Pass your measure, sir ! Unchain 
 your tiger ! Let loose your war-dogs as soon as you please ! I know the 
 people you desire to war on. They await you with unflinching, unshrink- 
 ing, unblanching firmness." 
 
 " You may scoop out the Valley of the Mississippi and bury truth there ; 
 you may heap over her grave the Alleghanies, and pile above these the 
 Rocky Mountains— but in vain. After all truth will have her resurrection." 
 
 CHAPTER Xn. 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATIVE STYLE. 
 § 247. THE ILLUSTRATIVE STYLE. 
 
 In connection with the subject of vivacity there are certain 
 distinctive styles of writing which are worthy of special attention. 
 The first of these to be considered is the illustrative style. 
 
 This name is given to a certain manner of composition 
 where the subject is made clear and attractive by means of 
 illustration. Such a style is usually in the highest degree per- 
 spicuous, for the aim of the writer is to make himself under- 
 stood ; and it is also full of persuasiveness, for it is equally his 
 aim to commend his work to the reader. Therefore he spares 
 no pains to make his style agreeable, so that it shall win atten- 
 tion and attract sympathy. 
 
The Illustrative Style, 227 
 
 • In examining this subject it will be found that there are cer- 
 tain aids of which the writer avails himself, and which accord- 
 ingly form the chief characteristics of the illustrative style. 
 These are : 
 
 1. The statement of general propositions accompanied with 
 particular examples. 
 
 2. Allusion or quotation. 
 
 3. Comparison or metaphor. 
 
 4. Anecdote. 
 
 § 248. EXAMPLE. 
 
 1. The illustrative style is sometimes characterized by gen- 
 eral statements, with particular examples : 
 
 " The clergy were regarded as, on the whole, a plebeian class ; and, indeed, 
 for one who made the figure of a gentleman, ten were mere menial ser- 
 vants. ... A young Lcvite — such was the phrase then in use — might be had 
 for his board, a small garret, and ten pounds a year ; and might not only 
 perform his own professional functions ; might not only be the most patient 
 of butts and listeners; might not only be always ready in fine weather for 
 bowls and in rainy weather for shovel-board ; but might also save the ex- 
 pense of a gardener or of a groom. Sometimes the reverend man nailed 
 up the apricots, and sometimes he curried the coach horses. He cast up 
 the farrier's bills. He walked ten miles with a message or a parcel. If he 
 was permitted to dine with the family, he was expected to content himself 
 with the plainest fare. He might fill himself with the corned beef and the 
 carrots ; but as soon as the tarts and cheese-cakes made their appearance he 
 quitted his seat, and stood aloof till he was summoned to return thanks for 
 the repast, from a great part of which he had been excluded." — Macaulay. 
 
 The principle of which this is an illustration has already 
 been discussed and explained in connection with the figure 
 exemplum. It only remains to point out in this place the 
 bearing which this passage has on the present subject. The 
 general statement here is that the greater part of the clergy 
 were mere menial servants ; and this is explained and main- 
 tained by a number of details which in themselves would be 
 deemed trivial, but which, when assembled together and pre- 
 sented as examples, are full of convincing force. 
 
 § 249. ALLUSION. 
 
 2. In the following passage the theme is illustrated by means 
 of allusion : 
 
 " All human beauty is but skin-deep, and scarcely that. A little rough- 
 
228 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 ening of the cuticle will mar the direst face, and change beauty to hideous- 
 ness. What fearful irony leers upon us from the human skull. This was 
 the head, this the divine countenance of some Helen, some Aspasia or 
 Cleopatra ; some* Agnes of Meran or Mary of Scotland ; on whose eyelids 
 hung the destinies of nations ; for whose lips the lords of the earth thought 
 the world well lost ; from whose lineaments painters drew their presentment 
 of the Queen of Heaven."— Hedge. 
 
 In the enumeration of names there is an historical allusion, 
 while in the phrases " lords of the earth," " world well lost," 
 are literary allusions to well-known passages in Horace and 
 Shakespeare. This passage is immediately followed by an- 
 other which illustrates by quotation : 
 
 " The saying of the poet, * A thing of beauty is a joy forever,' is true only 
 when predicated of the image in the mind, and of intellectual contemplation. 
 The beauty of things is a phantom ; the enjoyment the senses have of it a 
 slippery illusion." 
 
 Quotation is elegantly used for purposes of illustration in 
 the opening of Thackeray's lecture on Goldsmith : 
 
 "Jet^ sur cette boule 
 Laid chetif et souffrant, 
 Etouffe dans la foule 
 Faute d'etre asse? grand. 
 
 " Unc plainte touchante 
 De ma bouche sortit ; 
 Le bon Dieu me dit : chante, 
 Chante, pauvre petit I 
 
 " Chanter, ou je m'abuse 
 Est ma tache ici bas. 
 Tous ceux qu'ainsi j'amuse 
 Ne m'aimeront-ils pas?" 
 
 " In those charming lines of Beranger, one may fancy described the ca- 
 reer, the sufferings, the genius, the gentle nature of Goldsmith, and the es- 
 teem in which we hold him. Who of the millions whom he has amused 
 doesn't love him ? To be the most beloved of English writers, what a title 
 is that for a man !" — Thackeray. 
 
 § 250. COMPARISON AND METAPHOR. 
 
 3. The subject will be found illustrated by both of these figures 
 in the following exquisite passage by Oliver Wendell Holmes : 
 
 " Did you never in walking in the fields come across a large flat stone, 
 which had lain, nobody k-nows how long, just where you found it, with the 
 
The Illustrative Style, 229 
 
 grass forming a little hedge, as it were, all round it close to its edges ? and 
 have you not, in obedience to a kind of feeling that told you it had been ly- 
 ing there long enough, insinuated your stick or your foot or your fingers 
 under its edge, and turned it over as a housewife turns i cake, when she 
 says to herself, ' It's done brown enough by this time.' What an odd reve- 
 lation, and what an unforeseen and unpleasant surprise to a small commu- 
 nity, the very existence of which you had not suspected, until the sudden 
 dismay and scattering among the members produced by your turning the 
 old stone over ! Blades of grass flattened down, colorless, matted together, 
 as if they had been bleached and ironed ; hideous crawling creatures, some 
 of them coleopterous, or horny-shelled — turtle-bugs one wants to call them ; 
 some of them softer, but cunningly spread out and compressed like Lepine 
 watches (nature never loses a crack or a crevice, mind you, or a joint in a 
 tavern bedstead, but she always has one of her flat-pattern live time-keepers 
 to slide into it) ; black, glossy crickets, with their long filaments sticking out 
 like the whips of four-horse stage-coaches ; motionless slug-like creatures; 
 young larvae, perhaps more horrible in their pulpy stillness than even in the 
 infernal wriggle of maturity ! But no sooner is the stone turned, and the 
 wholesome light of day let in upon this compressed and blinded community 
 of creeping things, than all of them which enjoy the luxury of legs — and 
 some of them have a good many — rush round wildly, butting each other and 
 everything in their way, and end in a general stampede for underground re- 
 treats from the region poisoned by sunshine. Next year you will find the 
 grass growing tall and green where the stone lay ; the ground-bird builds her 
 nest where the beetle had his hole ; the dandelion and the buttercup are 
 growing there, and the broad fans of insect angels open and shut over their 
 golden disks as the rhythmic waves of blissful consciousness pulsate through 
 their glorified being. 
 
 " The stone is ancient error. The grass is human nature, borne down 
 and bleached of all its color by it The shapes which are found beneath are 
 the crafty beings that thrive in darkness, and the weaker organisms kept 
 helpless by it. He who turns the stone over is whosoever puts the staff of 
 truth to the old lying incubus, no matter whether he do it with a serious 
 face or a laughing one. The next year stands for the coming time. Then 
 shall the nature which had lain blanched and broken rise in its full stature 
 and native hues in the sunshine. Then shall God's minstrels build their 
 nests in the hearts of a new-born humanity. Then shall beauty, divinely 
 taking outlines and color, light upon the souls of men, as the butterfly — 
 image of the beatified spirit rising from the dust — soars from the shell that 
 held a poor crub, which would never have found wings had not the stone 
 been lifted." 
 
 § 251. ANECDOTE. 
 
 In the following passage illustration is made by means of 
 anecdote : 
 
 " I hold old Johnson to be the great supporter of the British monarchy 
 and Church during the last age. . . . Johnson was revered as a sort of oracle, 
 and the oracle declared for Church and king. What a humanity the old 
 
230 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 man had ! He was a kindly partaker of all honest pleasures ; a fierce foe 
 to all sin, but a gentle enemy to all sinners. ' What, boys ! are you for a 
 frolic ?' he cries, when Topham Beauclerc comes and wakes him up at mid- 
 night. ' I'm with you.' And away he goes, tumbles on his homely old 
 clothes, and trundles through Covent Garden with the young fellows. 
 When he used to visit Garrick's Theatre, and had * the liberty of the scenes,' 
 he says, ' All the actresses knew me, and dropped me a courtesy as they 
 passed to the stage.' That would make a pretty picture ; it is a pretty 
 picture in my mind, of youth, folly, gayety, tenderly surveyed by wisdom's 
 merciful, pure eyes." — Thackeray. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE EPIGRAMMATIC STYLE. 
 § 252. EPIGRAMMATIC STYLE. 
 
 Another style associated with vivacity is that which is called 
 the epigrammatic. 
 
 By this is meant a style which resembles that of an epigram. 
 An epigram is a short poem or sentence, applied to some per- 
 son or thing, and ending in an ingenious point or witty sting, 
 as in the following examples: 
 
 ♦' Whilst Butler, needy wretch, was yet alive, 
 No generous patron would a dinner give ; 
 See him when starved to death, and turned to dust. 
 Presented with a monumental bust. 
 The poet's fate is here in emblem shown, 
 He asked for bread, and he received a stone." 
 
 ■*■ Seven Grecian cities strove for Homer dead. 
 Through which the living Homer begged his bread." 
 
 The characteristics of the epigrammatic style are — compari- 
 son, metaphor, allusion, and above all antithesis. 
 
 § 253. IN POETRY. 
 
 Pope surpasses all English poets in this respect ; nearly all 
 of his poetry being written in the epigrammatic style : 
 
 " Who sees with equal eye, as Lord of all, 
 A hero perish, or a sparrow fall ; 
 Atoms or systems into ruin hurled ; 
 And now a bubble burst, and now a world." 
 
The Epigrammatic Style. 231 
 
 "Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 
 As, to be hated, needs but to be seen ; 
 Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, 
 We first endure, then pity, then embrace." 
 
 "Or ravished with the whistling of a name. 
 See Cromwell damned to everlasting fame." 
 
 § 254. IN PROSE. 
 
 Among prose writers, Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, and Emer- 
 son are epigrammatic beyond all others. 
 
 " On him who scorned the world, as he said, the scorned world wreaks its 
 revenge. He that despiseth small things, will perish by little and little. 
 Goethe's Tasso is very likely to be a pretty fair historical portrait, and that 
 is true tragedy. It does not seem to me so genuine grief when some tyran- 
 nous Richard III. oppresses and slays a score of innocent persons, as when 
 Antonio and Tasso, both apparently right, wrong each other." — Emerson. 
 
 "♦ What hath he done?' is the divine question which searches men and 
 transpierces every false reputation. A fop may sit in any chair of the world, 
 nor be distinguished for his hour from Homer and Washington ; but there 
 can never be any doubt concerning the respective ability of human beings 
 when we seek the truth. Pretension may sit still, but cannot act. Preten- 
 sion never feigned an act of real greatness. Pretension never wrote an 
 Iliad, nor drove back Xerxes, nor Christianized the world, nor abolished 
 slavery."— Emerson. 
 
 The style of Macaulay may also be called epigrammatic : 
 
 " The sovereign whom James most resembled was, we think, Claudius 
 Caesar. Both had the same feeble and vacillating temper ; the same child- 
 ishness ; the same coarseness ; the same poltroonery. Both were men of 
 learning. Both wrote and spoke, not indeed well, but still in a manner in 
 which it seems almost incredible that wen so foolish should have written or 
 spoken." 
 
 "The regent was in many respects the facsimile of our Charles the Sec- 
 ond. Like Charles, he was a good-natured man, utterly destitute of sensi- 
 bility. Like Charles, he had good natural talents, which a deplorable indo- 
 lence rendered useless to the state. Like Charles, he thought all men cor- 
 rupt and indolent ; and yet did not dislike them for being so. His opinion 
 of human nature was Gulliver's ; but he did not regard human nature with 
 Gulliver's horror. He thought that he and his fellow-creatures were Yahoos ; 
 and he thought a Yahoo a very agreeable kind of animal." 
 
 "The Castilian of those times was to the Italian what the Roman in the 
 days of the greatness of Rome was to the Greek. The conqueror had less 
 ingenuity, less taste, less delicacy of perception than the conquered ; but far 
 more pride, firmness, and courage, a more solemn demeanor, a stronger 
 sense of honor." 
 
232 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Burke's style is full of epigrammatic passages : 
 
 " I would rather sleep in the corner of a little country churchyard than 
 in the tomb of the Capulets." 
 
 " The blood of man should never be shed but to redeem the blood of man. 
 It is well shed for our family ; for our friends ; for our God ; for our coun- 
 try ; for our kind. The rest is vanity ; the rest is crime." 
 
 " Nobility is a graceful ornament to the civil order. It is the Corinthian 
 capital of polished society." 
 
 Epigrammatic passages abound in the writings of Oliver 
 Wendell Holmes : 
 
 " Boston State House is the hub of the solar universe. You couldn't 
 pry that out of a Boston man if you had the tire of all creation straighten- 
 ed out for a crow-bar." 
 
 The following is from Daniel Webster's speech on Hamil- 
 ton : 
 
 " He smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of 
 revenue gushed forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it 
 sprang upon its feet." 
 
 § 255. FAULTS ARISIN(3 FROM THE EPIGRAMMATIC STYLE. 
 
 The epigrammatic style is highly artificial, and although it is 
 used with great success by writers of genius, its employment is 
 nevertheless attended with peculiar disadvantages, the chief of 
 which is the tendency to sacrifice truth for the sake of effect. 
 Where the writer is perpetually balancing word against word, 
 or seeking after novelties in thought and expression, or striving 
 to give to every sentence its own individual point and sparkle, 
 it is not surprising that he should give to many things an un- 
 due importance, and end with throwing around his work a 
 general air of extravagance. 
 
 In poetry this danger is far less than in prose, for poetry is 
 confessedly in some sort one of the fine arts; and being an 
 art, its movement is made in accordance with many artificial 
 rules. The license which is present in poetry does not exist 
 in prose. The poet, like the artist, may study effects; he may 
 aim after the ideal rather than literal fact; and thus it may be 
 a necessity for him to transcend the actual truth of things. 
 But nothing of this kind is open to the prose writer. Rhetoric, 
 even as belles-lettres, cannot go so far as this, and knows 
 nothing of that license which poetry enjoys. And thus, while 
 
The Epigrammatic Style. 233 
 
 the poet may indulge freely in hyperbole, the prose writer must 
 be very guarded in his dealings with extravagant language. 
 
 An illustration of this extravagance can be found in the 
 character of Napoleon by Charles Phillips, from which a few 
 sentences may be taken as examples of the whole : 
 
 " There was no creed that he did not profess, there was no opinion that 
 he did not promulgate." 
 
 " Nature had no obstacles that he did not surmount, space no opposition 
 that he did not spurn." 
 
 "Amid all these changes he stood immutable as adamant." 
 
 " The victorious veteran glittered with his gains, and the capital, gorgeous 
 with the spoils of art, became the miniature metropolis of the universe." 
 
 All this is very extravagant and very tawdry, particularly the 
 last sentence — "victorious veteran," "glittered with gains," 
 "miniature metropolis." 
 
 The imitators of Emerson, now happily less numerous than 
 formerly, afford examples of the evil results which appear when 
 such a style is employed by those who think that in imitating 
 the form of a master they may rival the master himself Emer- 
 son may move with ease and grace under his panoply ; but the 
 feeble army of imitators fall beneath the load. Out of this af- 
 fectation of a most difficult style there arises the great fault of 
 phrase-making. 
 
 The French are fond of antithesis, and the epigrammatic 
 style is far more common with them than with us. With them 
 it has been carried to a great excess, and the faults of extrava- 
 gance and phrase-making are common. Even men of genius 
 are not free from these faults, for Victor Hugo, in his later 
 works, has shown far more of the extravagance, the puerility, 
 and the absurdity of the epigrammatic style than of its beauty 
 and force. In his address to the Prussians at the time of the 
 siege of Paris he gave utterance to the ravings of a madman; 
 but the popular taste seemed to support him ; for M. Ollivier, 
 in the agonies of France, could find nothing better to give to 
 his countrymen than a series of miserable phrases, where the 
 clink and tinkle of childish rhymes and weak antitheses were 
 sent forth to prepare a nation for its most tremendous conflict : 
 
 ♦* To Prussian audacity le^ us oppose French tenacity." 
 
234 Elements of EJietoric. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 OTHER QUALITIES OF STYLE ASSOCIATED WITH 
 VIVACITY. 
 
 § 256. CLASSICAL STYLE. 
 
 The term " classical" is sometimes applied to a style which 
 abounds in allusions to the classical literature of Greece and 
 Rome, or to events in their history. Such allusions are fre- 
 quent in the writings of Burke, and may be illustrated by the 
 following passage : 
 
 " It is the spirit of the English Constitution which, infused through the 
 mighty mass, pervades, feeds, unites, invigorates, vivifies every part of the 
 empire, even down to its minutest member." 
 
 The allusion here is to the well-known lines of Virgil : 
 
 " Spiritus intus alit ; totamque infusa per artus 
 Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet." 
 
 But a truer definition of the classical style is that which 
 makes it such a style as is most in accordance with the genius 
 of the language, and serves to exhibit its highest qualities. 
 
 Addison, Goldsmith, and Irving; De Quincey, Hazlitt, and 
 Thackeray, are classical writers of English. 
 
 If we compare Thackeray with Dickens, we shall find that 
 the former writes the best English, and is distinguished by a 
 truly classical style, namely, one which is in accordance with 
 the best standards, and one which Addison himself might have 
 envied, while the other is full of faults and inaccuracies, which, 
 even though his wonderful genius may triumph over them, will 
 yet prevent him from ranking with the great masters. If we 
 compare De Quincey with Carlyle, we shall find that the latter 
 has chosen for himself a form of expression which, though full 
 of energy, is yet decidedly eccentric and unfit for imitation ; 
 while the former may be said to have attained the first rank in 
 the variety and splendor of his rhetoric, in the purity of his 
 
Style Associated zvith Vivacity. 235 
 
 English, and in the instructive lessons which his style may 
 convey to all who study it. 
 
 § 257. THE SUGGESTIVE STYLE. 
 
 The suggestive style indicates that form of writing in which 
 statements are made in an indirect way by means of hints, im- 
 plications, or suggested meanings. It is often associated with 
 innuendo and double entendre; and it enters into the nature 
 of the figures metalepsis and significatio. But its more ex- 
 tended use in literature goes beyond these limited depart- 
 ments. Passages full of suggested meaning are found in all 
 the more concise writers, for true conciseness is that in which 
 the sentence shall convey to the mind something more than 
 what is really expressed; but a suggestive style need not be 
 a concise one. Gibbon employs this style more largely than 
 any other writer. 
 
 The uses of this style are various, and may be summed up 
 as follows : 
 
 1. To give greater effect to statements. A suggested mean- 
 ing often has greater force than a direct statement. It comes 
 as a new discovery, made independently by the mind of the 
 reader ; and men are more impressed by that which they find 
 out for themselves than by that which is directly told them. j 
 
 " The Latin clergy, who erected their tribunal on the ruins of the civil 
 law, have modestly accepted, as the gi(t of Constantine, the independent 
 jurisdiction which was the fruit of time, of accident, and of their own in- 
 dustry,"-— Gibbon. 
 
 Here there is a suggestion of the donation of Constantine, 
 and of the great use made of this and of other forgeries during 
 the Middle Ages. 
 
 "The grateful applause of the clergy has consecrated the memory of a 
 prince who indulged their passions and promoted their interest." — Gibbon. 
 
 Here there is a suggestion that the clergy were mere time- 
 servers and flatterers. 
 
 2. Sometimes this style is employed so as to make indirect 
 mention of men and things, which are thereby presented in a 
 more striking light : 
 
 ** Were I ambitious of any other patron than the public, I would inscribe 
 
 L 
 
\ 
 
 236 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 this work to a statesman, who in a long, a stormy, and at length an unfor- 
 tunate administration, had many political opponents, almost without a per- 
 sonal enemy ; who has retained in his fall from power many faithful and 
 disinterested friends ; and who, under the pressure of severe infirmity, en- 
 joys the lively vigor of his mind and the felicity of his incomparable tem- 
 per." 
 
 In this passage from the preface to his great history, Gibbon 
 implies a dedication, and by this description draws strong at- 
 tention to Lord North, although his name is not mentioned 
 until the next sentence. 
 
 3. Sometimes the suggestion is made by silence, or the af- 
 fectation of silence : 
 
 " I was going to awake your justice towards this unhappy part of our fel- 
 low-citizens by bringing before you some of the circumstances of the plague 
 of hunger. Of all the calamities which beset and waylay the life of man, 
 this is one which comes the nearest to our heart, and in which the proudest 
 of us all feels himself to be nothing more than he is — but I find myself un- 
 able to manage it with decorum ; these details are of a species of horror so 
 nauseous and disgusting ; they are so degrading to the sufferers and the 
 hearers ; they are so humiliating to human nature itself, that in better 
 thoughts I find it advisable to throw a pall over this hideous object, and to 
 leave it to your general conceptions." — Burke. 
 
 4- In many passages of poetry the suggestion is full of force 
 and significance. 
 
 An example may be found in these lines of Shelley : 
 
 " O World ! O Life ! O Time ! 
 On whose last steps I climb^ 
 Trembling at that where I had stood before — 
 When will return the glory of your prime ? 
 No more — Oh, never more ! " 
 
 Forms of suggestion like the following, by Kingsley, are of 
 frequent occurrence: 
 
 "The rolling mist came down and hid the land — 
 And never home came she." 
 
 There is much tender pathos in the suggestion conveyed by 
 the last line of the following : 
 
 "Ah me ! how quick the days are flitting; 
 I mind me of a time that's gone. 
 When here I'd sit, as now I'm sitting. 
 In this same place — but not alone. 
 
Style Associated with Vivacity. 2^7 
 
 A fair young form was nestled near me, 
 
 A dear, dear face looked fondly up. 
 And sweetly spoke, and smiled to cheer me — 
 
 There's no one now to share my cup." — Thackeray. 
 
 5. A certain class of quasi-allegorical poems may be consid- 
 ered as examples of this style ; as the well-known ballads of 
 Uhland, some of Longfellow's, and nearly all of Poe's. In 
 these there is an undertone of mysticism which gives a deep 
 suggested meaning. 
 
 § 258. OTHER TERMS APPLIED TO STYLE. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, other terms are often applied to 
 style, which are here briefly enumerated : 
 
 Interesting. — A general expression referring to an author's 
 ability to excite attention. It is particularly applicable to 
 books of travel, and the letters of ordinary correspondents. 
 The term refers rather to the subject-matter than to the 
 style. 
 
 Popular. — This applies to a style which is pleasing to the 
 multitude. In this, as in the preceding one, there may be 
 great faults, yet there must be at least some degree of vivac- 
 ity. The term "popular author" is the best exponent of the 
 popular style. 
 
 Fluent. — By this is meant a ready flow of words, and the ex- 
 hibition of great ease in composition. It must not be con- 
 founded with " affluent," which in our present usage refers to 
 richness and copiousness of thought and diction ; whereas a 
 fluent style too often tends to verbosity, and is usually charac- 
 terized by great faults. Cicero and Burke are affluent writers ; 
 but any one is fluent who can compose readily, such as M. F. 
 Tupper, Dr. Gumming, Alexander Dumas, or other voluminous 
 writers. 
 
 Franks or Open. — This is applied to writing which contains 
 frequent references to the author's personal thoughts, feelings, 
 and experiences. It is the exhibition of confidence towards 
 the reader. Sterne and Thackeray afford examples of this. 
 
 Ingenuous. — A style characterized by candor and engaging 
 simplicity, with naivete of expression. The best example of 
 this is the Essays of Elia. 
 
 Racy. — A style full of vivacity, with novel terms of thought, 
 
238 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 accompanied by wit and humor. Lamb's Elia affords examples 
 of this also. 
 
 Spirituelle. — Delicate suggestiveness, with refined imagery 
 and tender grace of expression. It is chiefly applicable to 
 poetry. Shelley and Keats are most distinguished for this 
 quality. 
 
 Quaintness. — Simplicity and ingenuousness, generally accom- 
 panied with archaic forms of speech. It is found chiefly in the 
 older writers — Mandeville, Chaucer, Bunyan, Fuller, Quarles, 
 and old ballads. 
 
 Naivete is much like quaintness, being a certain ingenuous 
 simplicity and candor in the utterance of very simple things or 
 the narration of very common facts. Archaic forms of speech 
 are not essential. Although there need be no consciousness 
 of humor on the part of the writer, the effect of naivete is often 
 such as to excite this sentiment in the reader. 
 
PART III. 
 
 HARMONY IN STYLE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 EUPHONY. 
 
 § 259. HARMONY IN STYLE. 
 
 y^TVlAKMOVY is that qualtiy in style which gives pleasure to the 
 /^ ear and to the mind by the use of euphonious words, rhythmical 
 / arrangements, and elegant sentiments. It comprises three de- 
 I partments — euphony, rhythm, and elegance. 
 I By euphony is meant such a combination of letters and 
 
 \ syllables in a word as may afford a pleasing sound appreciable 
 V to the ear. 
 ^ By rhythm, such an arrangement of words as may have a 
 harmonious and musical effect. 
 
 By elegance is meant such a choice and arrangement of 
 words as shall be pleasing to the cultivated taste. 
 
 This subject may be best examined by considering it in 
 relation, first, to the choice of words ; and, secondly, to the 
 arrangement. 
 
 Harmony in words comprises two divisions: first, euphony; 
 and, secondly, elegance. 
 
 By euphony is meant such a combination of letters and syl- 
 lables in a word as may afford a harmonious and pleasing sound 
 which is appreciable to the ear. By elegance is meant such a 
 choice and arrangement of words as shall be pleasing to the 
 cultivated taste. Euphony, therefore, appeals to the ear and 
 elegance to the taste ; the one refers to the sound of words, the 
 other to their signification. 
 
240 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 260. EUPHONY IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES. 
 
 In all languages there are certain sounds that are sweet and 
 pleasant, and others that are rough and disagreeable. The 
 most agreeable are those of the liquids and vowels ; the harsh- 
 est the gutturals and sibilants. But an excess of softer liquid 
 and vowel sounds is injurious to euphony, since they are weak 
 and effeminate ; while the disproportionate combination of 
 mutes and gutturals produces harshness and discord. The 
 truest euphony is found where vowels and consonants are in 
 equal proportion ; and the languages which exhibit this in the 
 highest degree are the Greek and Latin. 
 
 The modern European languages belonging to the Latin 
 family, viz., the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, are 
 all euphonious, though differing in this respect among them- 
 selves. The languages of the Teutonic stock are more harsh. 
 The English occupies a position somewhere between these, 
 since to a Teutonic stock it has added a growth of Latin words, 
 by which it has been influenced directly through the words 
 themselves, and indirectly through the effect of the Latin upon 
 the Teutonic. 
 
 The Enjriish language as now spoken is considered more 
 euphonious than those of the Teutonic stock, but less so than 
 those of the Latin family. Its chief fault in this respect is the 
 prevalence of the hissing "s" sound. It has been stigmatized 
 for this in two memorable sayings. The Emperor Charles V., 
 who spoke fluently several European languages, was accustomed 
 to say that Spanish was the language of gods ; Italian the lan- 
 guage of lovers ; French the language of friends ; English the 
 language of geese ; German the language of horses ; and Bo- 
 hemian the language of devils. Equally contemptuous in his 
 account of English is Lord Byron, who calls it : 
 
 " Our harsh, northern, whistling, grunting guttural, 
 Which we're obliged to hiss, and spit, and splutter alL" 
 
 Both of these are humorous exaggerations, but they serve to 
 indicate the English "hiss." With this exception, it would not 
 be difficult to show that English prose is quite as euphonious 
 as that of any other language. 
 
 Poetry in English is more euphonious than prose can pos- 
 
Euphony. 241 
 
 sibly be, and chiefly because it can rid itself better of the hiss- 
 ing sound. Poetic license allows the use of a very important 
 termination, now obsolete in literary prose, by which the "s" 
 sound is very greatly diminished. This is the termination of 
 the third person present in verbs, as " loveth " for " loves." 
 Such liberty of inversion also is allowed, and such an extended 
 choice of words, that the highest poetry of the English language 
 may be said to exhibit perfect euphony. No Italian verse is 
 more smooth and soft than the English of Spenser. No poet 
 of any language ever wrought out more musical lines than those 
 of Tennyson ; and few have approached the sounding harmo- 
 nies and infinite variety which we find in Milton. 
 
 § 261. EUPHONY IN DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 Euphony differs as to importance in the various kinds of 
 composition. In poetry it is one of the very first requisites, 
 for this is in reality a fine art, and the poet, like the musician, 
 must deal with the effects of sound. In the appeal which 
 poetry makes to the sense of the beautiful, smoothly flowing 
 verse is essential. It may be objected that some poets, nota- 
 bly Browning, pay but little attention to euphony. The an- 
 swer here is not that Browning pays little attention to it, but 
 that it is his purpose to produce poetry of firmer tone and 
 stronger sound than others. The music is there, but it is dif- 
 ferent from the music of other poets. 
 
 In oratory euphony is of great importance, for here it affects 
 both speaker and hearer. The orator must concern himself 
 greatly with this as with a vital matter ; for certain sounds are 
 difficult to utter, and these must be mastered ; others are un- 
 pleasant to hear, and these should be avoided. The example 
 of Demosthenes in struggling with the impediments of articu- 
 lation shows how an earnest speaker may deal with this diffi- 
 culty. Euphony is also closely associated with rhythm, and in 
 the greatest orations many of the finest and most effective pas- 
 sages have been set forth on this principle. The hearer also 
 feels the effect ; for spoken words always show most plainly 
 any discordances of sound, since they are at once addressed to 
 the ear. The reader does not notice, for instance, the preva- 
 lence of the hissing " s," but with some speakers an audience 
 finds it intolerable. 
 
242 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 When we consider prose in general, it cannot be said that 
 euphony is of any very great value; for in most cases books 
 are read in silence, no words are spoken, and its presence or 
 absence is not noticed. Yet even here it is as well not to 
 neglect it, and it is always best to secure it when it can be 
 attained without sacrificing other qualities of more importance. 
 
 § 262. EXAMPLES OF EUPHONY. 
 
 In the following passages there are examples of the highest 
 order of euphony, and the reader will notice the very large 
 proportion of vowel and liquid sounds : 
 
 " In those deep solitudes and awful cells, 
 Where heavenly pensive contemplation dwells. 
 And ever-musing melancholy reigns." — Pope. 
 
 "On Susquehanna's banks, feir Wyoming." — Campbell. 
 
 "The moan of doves in immemorial elms. 
 And murmur of innumerable bees." — Tennyson. 
 
 •' Heaven opened wide 
 Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound, 
 On golden hinges turning." — Milton. 
 
 "Airs, vernal airs. 
 Breathing the smell of field and grove, attune 
 The trembling leaves, while universal Pan, 
 Knit with the graces and the hours in dance. 
 Led on the eternal spring." — Milton. 
 
 Milton's descriptions of Eden are emulated by Tennyson in 
 a passage which is characterized by the same euphony : 
 
 " Me rather all that bowery loneliness. 
 The brooks of Eden mazily murmuring, 
 And bloom profuse and cedar arches 
 Charm as a wanderer out in ocean." 
 
 Examples in prose are by no means so frequent, but the 
 following passage exhibits a remarkable assemblage of pure 
 euphonious sounds : 
 
 " The voice within us is more distinctly audible in the stillness of the 
 place ; and the gentler affections of our nature spring up more freshly in 
 its tranquillity and sunshine — nurtured by the healthy principle which we 
 
Euphony. 243 
 
 inhale with the pure air, and invigorated by the genial influences which 
 descend into the heart from the quiet of the sylvan solitude around, and 
 the soft serenity of the sky above." — Longfellow. 
 
 § 263. VIOLATIONS OF EUPHONY IN THE CASE OF VARIOUS 
 LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 
 
 This subject will be more fully illustrated by considering the 
 ways in which euphony is violated. 
 
 1. Where too many consonants are crowded together. This 
 is not produced by individual words so much as by certain 
 collocations of words. There is an undeniable roughness in 
 such words as "conventiclers," "inextricable," "stretched," 
 etc.; but the real difficulty arises when these are united with 
 others of a similar nature, as " stretched through ;" " the best 
 station ;" " high-arched church." Many of the difficult com- 
 binations of letters are put forth in the form of playful exercises 
 in articulation, as the rapid repetition of the words " good 
 blood — bad blood;" "Theophilus Thistle, the successful this- 
 tle sifter." This is illustrated in the following line — 
 
 "Twas thou that soothedst the rough, rugg'd bed of pain" — (Bowyer) 
 
 quoted by De Quincey, who says, "It seems to us as if 
 Bowyer's verses ought to be boiled before they can be read." 
 
 2. The hissing sound. This is more prevalent in the lan- 
 guage than formerly. In Old English many plurals were in 
 " n," and down to a comparatively recent period the third per- 
 son singular present of the verb ended in " th," as "loveth." 
 Dr. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, uses this form in- 
 variably. Now it is obsolete in ordinary prose, and both of 
 these musical terminations have changed to "s." This hissing 
 sound is actually more prevalent than would seem from a mere 
 cursory examination, for in its hard or soft form it exists in no 
 less than five different letters — in "c," which is sounded like 
 s before "e" and "i;" in "s" itself; in "z;" in "x," which is 
 equal to " ks ;" and in " t " whenever combined with " ion," 
 as in " nation." 
 
 3. Where the accent is thrown far back. The English allows 
 of this to a greater extent than other languages, none of which 
 admit of the accent being pushed back farther than the antepe- 
 nult. With us there are many words accented like the following: 
 "primarily," "cdrsorily," "summarily," " p^remptoriness," "ir- 
 
 L2 
 
244 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 refragableness," " indxplicableness." Many preachers accent 
 the word Deuteronomy on the first syllable. 
 
 4. When the same syllable is repeated, as " holily," " lowlily," 
 "farriery." Thus Thackeray, shunning this fault, says, "She, 
 too, in our age busies herself only with the affairs of kings, 
 waiting on them obsequiously and stately. "Statelily" would 
 be intolerable. 
 
 § 264. VIOLATIONS OF EUPHONY BY THE REPETITION OF WORDS. 
 
 The next violation of euphony is to be found in the careless 
 repetition of the same word. This is a fault of very frequent 
 occurrence, and even the best writers fall into it with no little 
 frequency : 
 
 " The effect of the concluding verb, placed where it w, is most striking." 
 — Whately. 
 
 *• Whichever it was, it was equally bad," 
 
 " They exchanged looks of fear ; they looked all around for some chance 
 of escape." 
 
 *' The war then began, and great calamities befell both parties in the course 
 of the war." 
 
 " Their amazement, great though it woj, was not greater than that of the 
 stranger." 
 
 "He then became king; but no one who had known him believed that he 
 would make a good king." 
 
 The Conjunction '■'• and.^^ — Great care is required in the use of 
 connectives. Words and clauses must all be joined in com- 
 position ; but the unwary or careless writer often multiplies the 
 conjunction "and" to an extent which is highly ineuphonious : 
 
 " The king and all his nobles, and all that belonged to the palace, fled, 
 and took with them their treasures and families, and sought refuge in a 
 strong fortress ; and arriving there they rested, and awaited the approach 
 of Heraclius and his army." 
 
 It is a characteristic of Old-English prose, such as that of 
 Mandeville, Chaucer, and Wycliffe, to repeat the " and " to ex- 
 cess ; but at the present day such repetition is awkward and 
 slovenly. Such a sentence as the above may be corrected in 
 one of two ways : first, by substituting other connectives ; and, 
 secondly, by reconstructing it altogether. 
 
 But. — This word is often used with equal carelessness : 
 
Euphony. 245 
 
 " But the Directory is not only generally allowed to have been one of the 
 weakest and most discreditable governments, because its vices were dis- 
 guised by the splendor of the victories won by the generals who nominally 
 obeyed it ; but those generals well knew its imbecility, and were preparing 
 its ruin. But, though if France is to have a republic, it must be a republic 
 with a president, her situation is such as enormously to aggravate the peril- 
 ousness of the ofl&ce." — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 However : 
 
 " This, however, was a futile attempt He did not despair, however, but 
 tried other measures." 
 
 Which : 
 
 " The road by which they travelled was the same one which had been 
 traversed by the army of Hannibal." 
 
 The common substitute for "which" is "that." 
 That. — This word is very useful as an additional relative; 
 yet on account of its manifold application it is liable to 
 frequent repetition. It has three different characters : first, 
 a conjunction ; second, a relative ; and, third, a demonstrative. 
 This variety of meaning is illustrated by the well-known sen- 
 tence : 
 
 " He said that that ' that ' that that man considered, was not that * that' 
 that he mentioned." 
 
 A very common fault is the following construction : 
 
 " It was quite evident that that battle was decisive." 
 
 *' He perceived that that fire was the work of an incendiary." 
 
 Brougham, in his defence of Queen Caroline, says : 
 
 •* But I do here pour forth my humble supplications at the throne of 
 mercy, that that mercy may be poured down upon the people." 
 
 These remarks apply also to cases where the same word is 
 used under different forms, such as are produced by inflection 
 or composition in grammar : 
 
 '* He did not enter the house until after the rest had entered.^'' 
 " One man upon their diplomatic list thoroughly qualified in soul and 
 qualities for the service." 
 
 '* Which again gaining strength flows onward." 
 
 The same fault is seen in the repetition of words of the same 
 
246 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 sound, though they may be of different meanings. The Eng- 
 lish language has many of these, which are set down in every 
 spelling-book— " night," "knight;" "red," "read;" "altar," 
 " alter," etc. They exist in all languages, and form the basis 
 upon which are founded certain figures of speech, like " par- 
 onomasia :" 
 
 " In the midst of this scene many villages with their picturesque costumes 
 might be seeny 
 
 " The country wore an appearance of prosperity, and did not show many 
 of the effects of a great and exhaustive war." 
 
 This fault is ridiculed by Juvenal in a line attributed to 
 Cicero : 
 
 "O fortunatam natam me consule Romam." 
 
 Which Dryden has thus paraphrased : 
 
 " Fortune fortuned the dying notes of Rome, 
 Till I, thy consul sole, consoled thy doom." 
 
 The careless repetition of words of similar sound is a fault 
 of the same kind : 
 
 " He felt afraid to mingle in such ^t./ray" 
 
 " The costumes of the people might seem strange, if their customs were 
 not altogether surprising." 
 
 § 265. REPETITION OF WORDS SOMETIMES NECESSARY. 
 
 The cases here mentioned need not be confounded with 
 those which have already been considered among the iterative 
 figures. In the former it is a fault arising from carelessness; 
 in the latter it is an ornament of style deliberately made use of. 
 
 Even where there is no question of figures, the writer may 
 find it necessary to repeat a word for the sake of clearness, 
 and in such cases the rejection of a good word, because it has 
 just been used, would weaken the style and create obscurity.. 
 It is always necessary to employ the most precise terms, and 
 mere euphony must give way to perspicuity. There are not a 
 few words for which the writer can find no proper equivalents, 
 and he must, therefore, employ these with great frequency, or 
 else express himself in a vague and indefinite manner. In 
 general, where any given word is best adapted to convey the 
 writer's meaning it should be used, even if it have to be fre- 
 
Elegance, 247 
 
 quently repeated. To substitute others would be a petty peda- 
 gogism, leading to one of the^worst of literary faults, since in 
 the endeavor to avoid a mere inelegance the writer would be 
 guilty of looseness of expression, intolerable circumlocutions, 
 and general vagueness of meaning. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 ELEGANCE. 
 § 266. ELEGANCE DEFINED AND ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 Elegance in Words. — By this is meant the choice of such 
 words as are most pleasing to the correct taste. By their 
 meaning, and by the associations connected with them, they 
 should excite within the mind conceptions of the beautiful, and 
 such thoughts as are mild, tender, and peaceful. With the 
 strong force of energy, with the keenness and penetrating 
 power of vivacity, such a quality as this has nothing in com- 
 mon. It never can rise to the sublime, and can never reach 
 as far as the pathetic. 
 
 Shelley and Keats are pre-eminently the poets of the beau- 
 tiful ; and if we can find passages which are free from that 
 intense passion which consumed these poets, they may be said 
 to exhibit elegance : 
 
 "I see the deep's untrampled floor 
 With green and purple sea- weeds strewn; 
 I see the waves upon the shore 
 Like h'ght dissolved in star-showers thrown; 
 I sit upon the sands alone ; 
 The lightning of the noontide ocean 
 Is flashing round me, and a tone 
 Arises from its measured motion — 
 How sweet did any heart now share in my emotion !" 
 
 —Shelley. 
 
 " I cannot see what flowers are at my feet, 
 Nor what soft incense hangs upon the boughs ; 
 But in embalmed darkness guess each sweet 
 Wherewith the seasonable month endows 
 
248 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The grass, the thicket, and the fruit-tree wild ; 
 While hawthorn, and the pastoral eglantine, 
 Fast-fading violets covert up with leaves. 
 
 And mid-May's eldest child, 
 The coming musk-rose, full of dewy wine, 
 The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves." — ^Keats. 
 
 The following passage may serve as an example of elegance 
 in prose composition : 
 
 " I saw the valley opening at the farther end, and spreading forth into an 
 immense ocean, that had a huge rock of adamant running through the midst 
 of it, and dividing it into two equal parts. The clouds still rested on one 
 half of it, insomuch that I could discover nothing in it ; but the other ap- 
 peared to me a vast ocean planted with innumerable islands, that were cov- 
 ered with fruits and flowers, and interwoven with a thousand little shining 
 seas that ran among them. I could see persons dressed in glorious habits, 
 with garlands upon their heads, passing among the trees, lying down by the 
 side of fountains or resting on beds of flowers; and could hear a confused 
 harmony of singing birds, falling waters, human voices, and musical instru- 
 ments. Gladness grew on me upon the discovery of so delightful a scene. 
 I wished for the wings of an eagle that I might fly away to those happy 
 seats." — Addison. 
 
 § 267. VIOLATIONS OF ELEGANCE. 
 
 Elegance, like euphony, can be most fully considered by 
 observing the ways in which it is violated. These are very 
 numerous, and it will only be necessary in this place to notice 
 the most conspicuous. 
 
 § 268. AFFECTATIONS. 
 
 I. Elegance is violated in the first place by various affecta- 
 tions. 
 
 I St. Exclamations. — In ordinary composition there is some- 
 times an affectation of feeling in the use of ejaculations, such 
 as, "oh!" "alas!" as— 
 
 " But oh ! who can tell the pangs that rend the heart !" 
 " Man was originally created pure and holy, but alas !" etc. 
 
 The interjection should be used but sparingly, and then only 
 when the circumstances fully justify its use. 
 
 2d. Strong Expressions. — Another affectation is found in the 
 use of expressions that are stronger than the subject will war- 
 rant. Those writers who habitually deal in extravagance offend 
 
Elegance. 249 
 
 the cultivated reader. A tendency to this is found in some of 
 the political writing of the present day, and too often in the 
 so-called "Temperance" literature, where a good cause is in- 
 jured by the intemperance of its advocates. Intoxicating 
 liquors are frequently alluded to, in an off-hand way, as " liquid 
 fire" and "distilled damnation;" those who deal in them as 
 "rumselling miscreants " or " beetle-browed murderers;" and 
 the business itself as " the infernal traffic." The same extrav- 
 agant style is sometimes found in ordinary narrative ; as — 
 
 " The bloodthirsty tyrant, at the head of his ferocious legions, advanced 
 with terrific speed into the midst of the panic-stricken people." 
 
 3d. Fine Writing.— Thtxe. is also the affectation of what is con- 
 sidered fine writing, resulting in a style full of weak sentimen- 
 talisms, tawdry epithets, etc. The composition is stuffed with 
 such phrases as "balmy zephyr," "azure skies," "heaving bil- 
 lows," " soaring aloft," " experiencing agony too great for ut- 
 terance," and all the claptrap of the hysterical school. There 
 are circumstances under which, in accordance with the hack- 
 neyed phrase, language is really " inadequate to express one's 
 feelings." But in general language can be found if one seeks 
 for it ; and the best way to succeed is to reserve all fine words, 
 as well as all strong words, for the proper occasions. When 
 a writer uses high-flown words on common subjects, he will 
 have nothing left with which to approach elevated themes. 
 He will waste all his resources ; and the very words themselves, 
 by misuse, will cease to have for him their proper meaning. 
 
 § 269. MANNERISM. 
 
 2. Another violation of elegance is found in mannerism. 
 
 This is the habit acquired by a writer of using certain favorite 
 words or phrases too frequently. It must not be confounded 
 with " manner," which is very much the same as style, and 
 which of course belongs to every writer. 
 
 Burke was fond of using the image " loosing the reins," 
 "pouring forth the reins," derived from "laxas habenas," and 
 " effundere habenas," of Virgil. His habit of extravagant 
 praise, in which he heaps up the strongest possible assertions 
 in favor of his subject, is liable to the same charge. This may 
 be illustrated by his eulogy on Sheridan. Macaulay's frequent 
 
250 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 allusions to the attainments of a schoolboy belong to the same 
 class. His mode of saying that certain things are well known 
 is, " Every schoolboy knows it." Dickens frequently repeats 
 some pet epithet or phrase. Carlyle loves to reiterate favorite 
 terms, names, and sayings—" the eternities," " the infinities," 
 "sublime," ''king of men ;" indeed, he surpasses all other writ- 
 ers in this respect ; and his very style, so elliptical and abrupt, 
 is of itself considered by some as a mannerism, but from such 
 a reproach its great eloquence and vigor must fully redeem it. 
 Emerson uses "shall" where other writers put "will," "may," 
 or " might ;" he is fond of remote allusions, and mentions the 
 Vedas or Brahma where other writers would be content with 
 more familiar documents and deities. The term mannerism 
 has been applied to Byron's misanthropical expressions ; to 
 Poe's incessant repetitions and echoes of words ; to Words- 
 worth's affectation of bald literalness ; to Browning's rough, 
 abrupt pauses and elaborate obscurities. Bulwer, especially 
 in his earlier novels, delighted in ringing the changes on 
 the " real " and the " ideal," and Disraeli filled his fictions 
 with pomp and splendor ; and, like the e.xhaustless East, 
 with richest hand, showered on his kings barbaric pearl and 
 gold. 
 
 By mannerism is not meant the peculiar dialect or form of 
 expression which a writer may adopt, but the excessive use 
 of favorite forms. These, though excellent when used moder- 
 ately, become a blemish when used too frequently. 
 
 § 270. COLLOQUIALISMS. 
 
 3. Colloquialisms have a place in certain departments of lit- 
 erature, namely, familiar and humorous writing ; but in grave 
 composition they are objectionable. They consist of the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 ist. Contractions generally, which form so striking a dis- 
 tinction between conversational and literary English ; as, 
 "I'm," for "I am;" "I'm not," "he's going," "he isn't," 
 "we're," "you're," "theyW' "didn't," "hasn't," "wouldn't." 
 
 2d. Various expressions, especially vulgarisms such as 
 " most," for " almost ;" " likely," for " perhaps ;" as, " If the 
 farmer has likely only a few books he is content." 
 
 3d. The omission of the relative pronouns, and of the con- 
 
Elegance, 251 
 
 junction " that." In grave composition it is generally more 
 elegant to express these. In oratory, however, they are often 
 omitted, especially during the heat of debate. The speeches 
 of Burke and Fox show many instances of this : as — 
 
 . " Whether he really believes the return of the high-bailiflf is an act of 
 conscience." — Fox. 
 
 " This very person, insensible of the rank he maintains." — Fox. 
 
 " The honorable gentleman knows full well that all I am saying is strictly 
 true." — Burke. 
 
 § 271. SLANG. 
 
 4. Slang is closely associated with the colloquialism. In its 
 origin this is low and vulgar, the name having been first given 
 to the jargon of gypsies and thieves. Its meaning is now very 
 widely extended, and it is applied to all words peculiar to any 
 set, clique, or society of men. Thus we hear of the slang of 
 artists, of lawyers, of newspapers, and of colleges. 
 
 The language of slang has become indefinitely enlarged, 
 and extends to all degrees of respectability, as well as of vul- 
 garity. Slang dictionaries are published, containing hundreds 
 of closely printed pages. The slang of the upper classes is as 
 well defined and as pronounced as that of the lower. In the 
 former case they are almost the same as colloquialisms. Such 
 are — "to feel quite upset," "to feel hipped," "no end of fun," 
 " no end of a row," " a s^ll," " to be sold," " to chaff," " to 
 bore," " to look seedy," " feel seedy," " an old bloke," " a 
 brick." 
 
 Slang words may be used in certain kinds of composi- 
 tion : 
 
 I St. Humorous Writing. — This field is large, from the most 
 delicate raillery to the broadest ridicule ; so that it is difficult 
 to say what is not allowable here. The farce, the satire, and 
 the comic paper, all deal fi-eely in slang. The only guide is 
 good taste. Wit and humor are never so effective as when 
 refined, and the low slang of coarse writers is fit only for the 
 coarse-minded and vulgar. 
 
 2d. Familiar Essays. — This is a branch of literature which 
 has risen to great prominence, and in which men of great 
 genius have given forth their sentiments to the world. It is 
 a departure from the gravity of serious and formal composition. 
 It admits of greater ease and playfulness, with something of 
 
252 Elements of Rlutoric. 
 
 the freedom of conversation. Sterne and Thackeray have in- 
 dulged in this style, and are the most successful of those who 
 have attempted it. Here that kind of slang is allowable which 
 is used in good society, and which ranks with colloquialisms; 
 as, " to come to grief," *' to go to the dogs," '* to go to grass," 
 " to be used up," " to be knocked on the head." 
 
 *• To write a book or an article in either country (England or America) 
 likely to injure the feelings of people in the other, is now considered a 
 rather disreputable thing to do. In England it is not considered ' in good 
 form ;' in America it is not considered as either ' a smart thing ' or * the 
 straight thing.' The literary Bedouin, seeing this state of things at home, 
 is reduced to the painful alternative of being either good-natured or silent" 
 —Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 § 272. CANT. 
 
 5. Cant was originally applied to religious subjects; but, 
 like slang, it has attained a more extended signification. 
 There is now not only religious cant, but also cant political 
 and professional, temperance cant, and the cant of the news- 
 papers. Of these, religious cant is the most familiar. It con- 
 sists of the use of the language of Scripture, or the phrases and 
 formulas of religion, in connection with the affairs of every-day 
 life. It implies hypocrisy, or at least insincerity, on the part 
 of the speaker. 
 
 Other kinds of cant consist of the irreverent application of 
 lofty phrases, the familiar use of high-sounding maxims, and 
 the like. Thus, political cant is illustrated by such expressions 
 as " free and enlightened citizen ;" " great and glorious coun- 
 try ;" " truly loyal ;" " liberty, fraternity, and equality ;" " a man 
 and a brother;" "glorious constitution;" "the birthright of an 
 Englishman ;" " the free and enlightened American ;" temper- 
 ance cant, by " the glorious cause ;" " king alcohol ;" " the 
 poisonous cup ;" " the accursed traffic ;" newspaper cant, by 
 "the free and patriotic press;" "able editor;" "enlightened 
 correspondent;" here the reporters are "active;" the hotel 
 clerks "obliging;" a concert comes off with great "^clat;" a 
 lecture, if stupid, is " chaste ;" and if pretentious, is " eloquent." 
 
 Cant and slang are often confounded ; but there is an essen- 
 tial difference between the two, which can be very simply set 
 forth. Slang is the elevation of what is low ; cant, the degra- 
 dation of what is high. 
 
Elegance. 253 
 
 Cant is always offensive, but especially religious cant. This 
 offends more than the taste, for it shocks the religious sensi- 
 bility and the sense of true veneration. Sometimes a preacher 
 may be found who, instead of bringing cant into common life, 
 introduces slang into the sacred desk : as — 
 
 " Give me two live men, and I'll run this church." 
 
 " The question of the day, my brethren, is not ' How are your poor feet V 
 but * How are your poor souls ?' " 
 
 § 273. VULGARISMS. 
 
 6. Vulgarisms of all kinds, including provincialisms and sole- 
 cisms, are gross offences. Most of these need not be named ; 
 but a certain class of affectations come under this head, and 
 deserve a brief notice. The use of pretentious words is vul- 
 gar ; as, While these events were " transpiring," for " occur- 
 ring ;" " demise," for " death ;" " eventuate ;" " inaugurate ;" 
 " reliable," for " trustworthy ;" " this section ;" " endorse," for 
 " approve." 
 
 Sometimes low and degrading expressions are used even by 
 the best writers. Burke never shrank from saying anything. 
 For example, he says : 
 
 " They are not repelled, through a fastidious delicacy, at the stench of 
 their arrogance and presumption, from a medicinal attention to their men- 
 tal blotches and running sores." 
 
 This might have been less disgusting and equally strong. 
 Of the same nature is the image of Lord Chatham's adminis- 
 tration, " pigging together in the same truckle-bed ;" and that 
 still more famous one of Mr. Dundas, with his East India bills, 
 " exposed like the imperial sow of augury." 
 
254 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE HARMONIOUS ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 
 
 § 274. HARMONY IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS REQUIRES 
 BOTH EUPHONY AND ELEGANCE. 
 
 We have next to consider harmony in the arrangement of 
 words. 
 
 The words must not only be well chosen, but they must also 
 be well arranged; otherwise the most musical collection may 
 be inharmonious in the general effect. 
 
 Hence euphony and elegance must both be sought after. 
 
 Elegance in sentences exists where the words are well chosen, 
 and so arranged as to gratify the taste. 
 
 Euphony in sentences exists where the general arrangement 
 of the words is such as will give pleasure to the ear, and will 
 serve to adorn the sentiment. 
 
 In the following passage from Kinglake's Eothen the words 
 are all euphonious, and the arrangement is full of harmony : 
 
 " The mystery of holy shrines lies deep in human nature. For however 
 the more spiritual minds may be able to rise and soar, the common man 
 during his mortal career is tethered to the globe that is his appointed dwell- 
 ing-place ; and the more his affections are pure and holy, the more they 
 seem to blend with the outward and visible world. For men strongly 
 moved by the Christian faith it was natural to yearn after the scenes of the 
 Gospel narrative. In old times this feeling had strength to impel the chiv- 
 alry of Europe to undertake the conquest of a barren and distant land ; 
 and although in later days the aggregate faith of the nations grew chill, and 
 Christendom no longer claimed with the sword, still there were always 
 many who were willing to brave toil and danger for the sake of attaining to 
 the actual and visible Zion." 
 
 There are several topics arising out of this subject which are 
 worthy of attention. These refer to the arrangement of words 
 and of clauses, and will be considered in order. 
 
The Harmonious Arrangement of Words. 255 
 
 § 275. HARMONIOUS SUCCESSION OF WORDS. 
 
 I. The arrangement of words must be so made as to con- 
 duce to harmony. 
 
 I St. The words should follow in harmonious succession. A 
 good example of this may be found in the following passage : 
 
 " On the fifth day of the moon, which, according to the custom of my fore- 
 fathers, I always keep holy, after having washed myself and offered up my 
 morning devotions, I ascended the high hills of Bagdad, in order to pass the 
 rest of the day in meditation and prayer." — Addison. 
 
 If attention be paid to the succession of words in this sen- 
 tence, it will be found that they all flow onward with smooth- 
 ness and euphony, each being in its proper place, and that the 
 pauses are so disposed as to contribute in the highest degree 
 to the harmonious effect of the whole. The elegance of this 
 construction will be better seen by contrasting it with another 
 passage of a different nature, in which out of carelessness the 
 subject is protracted through several awkward clauses : 
 
 '* To behold the little band emerging from the mountain passes, moving 
 quietly on till by numerous additions it marches forward with something of 
 the appearance of an armed host, which again gathering fresh strength con- 
 tinually enlarges, and we look on a mighty army driving all its enemies be- 
 fore it, or watch it entering in triumph the capital of the empire, is a glori- 
 ous sight." 
 
 The chief thing to be noticed here is the fault by which the 
 sense is held in suspense throughout the whole sentence, until 
 the close is reached. The intervening clauses are also dealt 
 with in a careless and awkward manner. 
 
 § 276. MODIFYING WORDS. 
 
 2d. The insertion of modifying words is sometimes made in 
 such a way as to give offence to the cultivated taste. This 
 will be explained by the following examples : 
 
 " The then commercial grandeur of England."— Burke. 
 
 - This is a Greek idiom, not an English, and its effect is un- 
 pleasant to the ear. 
 
 Mr. Piazzi Smith writes as follows : 
 
 "The interpretation of the admittedly on all hands most ancient Great 
 Pyramid." 
 
256 Elements of RJutoric, 
 
 And again : 
 
 " The eternity of dead matter philosophy." 
 
 Such construcrions are not in accordance with the genius of 
 the English language. 
 
 " The too great distance of the city prevented him from arriving on the 
 same day." 
 
 Better say : The distance of the city was too great, etc 
 
 " They have a by far larger population." 
 Better : A larger population by far. 
 
 § 277. IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 3d. Impersonal constructions are sometimes inelegant. 
 These, when properly used, are elegant and forcible : as — 
 
 " It is gone ! that sensibility of principle, that chastity of honor, which 
 felt a stain like a wound." — Burke. 
 
 But the following are very different : 
 
 " It is known to all persons, the great suffering that ensued immediately 
 after the declaration of war." 
 
 " It made great disturbance, that action of his, among the people of the 
 district" 
 
 § 278. APPENDED CLAUSES. 
 
 4th. Clauses inserted as an after-thought generally interfere 
 with the harmonious arrangement of sentences : as — 
 
 " Thus by this campaign, if by nothing else, he showed that in military 
 genius he was the greatest of men — that is, at least, of the men of his own 
 age." 
 
 " Under his reign England was more prosperous than at any other time 
 in the Saxon era, and this may even be favorably compared with later pe- 
 riods, making allowance, of course, for the inferiority of the world generally 
 — that is, in civilization." 
 
 In these sentences there is a natural end, after which some 
 additional thought is appended, which serves to give the whole 
 an air of incompleteness. 
 
 § 279. EXPLANATORY WORDS. 
 
 5th. Too many explanatory words are a fault, such as — 
 "of course," "that is," "as is natural." This gives an air of 
 dislocation to the whole sentence, and not unfrequently de- 
 stroys its effect. 
 
The Harmonious Arrangement of Words. 257 
 
 § 280. PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 6th. Prepositions are sometimes separated from the words 
 which they govern : 
 
 "This state of things could not continue long, for the people were both 
 disgusted with and enraged at his tyranny." 
 
 Better : Were both disgusted with his tyranny and enraged at it. 
 
 " If the boy had been less obstinate he might have escaped, for the judges 
 were pleased with and affected by his frankness and youth." 
 
 Better : Were pleased with his frankness and affected by his youth. 
 
 § 281. THE VARIATION OF CONNECTIVES. 
 
 2. There are many ways of joining words and clauses together. 
 Of these, the most common is the conjunction "and;" but 
 since the frequent repetition of this word is inelegant, it be- 
 comes necessary to vary the connectives as much as possible. 
 
 Languages differ in this respect. In Greek there are numer- 
 ous connectives, of which the particle Ik is used to an extent 
 not allowable in other languages, and not transferable to Eng- 
 lish. Latin, although possessing many conjunctions, does not 
 tolerate their undue repetition. The best writers seek other 
 modes of binding clauses and sentences together; and so ad- 
 mirable are their devices to this end with relatives, participles, 
 and adverbs, that the study of them is of great benefit to the 
 English writer. • In English, as in Latin, perpetual variety in 
 this respect is needed, and it should be the aim of every one to 
 find out and put in practice the different ways in which this 
 can be effected. Of these, the following are the most com- 
 mon : 
 
 "Now," for "and:" 
 
 " The nobility and the clergy were both opposed to his claims, and cre- 
 ated a strong opposition ; and he at first pretended to favor each, so as to 
 weaken the hostility against him, but he at length threw off the mask." 
 
 By putting a full stop after opposition, and changing the fol- 
 lowing "and" into "now," a great improvement will be made. 
 " Nor :" 
 
 " The prospects of Protestantism in France and Belgium are certainly 
 not flattering ; and in Italy the impartial mind cannot as yet find much en- 
 couragement." 
 
 Better : Nor in Italy can the impartial mind. 
 
258 Elements of RJutoric. 
 
 "With:" 
 
 " Austria and Prussia, and the whole body of the German states, precip- 
 itated themselves upon this feeble kingdom." 
 
 Better : Austria and Prussia, with the whole body of the German states, 
 etc 
 
 "While:" 
 
 " In Russia and Austria the military expenditure goes on as before ; and 
 in Italy the cost of armaments is destroying the country." 
 Better : while in Italy. 
 
 "Even:" 
 
 " In France and Italy water is often unwholesome, and wine is the only 
 beverage ; and in England beer and porter are the few luxuries of the farm- 
 ers and laborers." 
 
 Better : even in England. 
 
 The participial construction : 
 
 " The nation rose, and grew to wonderful power, and suddenly declined." 
 The participial construction may be substituted here ; thus : 
 The nation rose, and after growing to wonderful power suddenly declined. 
 
 § 282. VARIETY IN THE CLAUSES. 
 
 3. The clauses should not be of equal length; but long and 
 short should be intermingled, so as to follow in harmonious 
 succession. This is illustrated by the following passage : 
 
 " The course of history is like that of a great river wandering through va- 
 rious countries ; now, in the infancy of its current, collecting its waters from 
 obscure small springs in splashy meadows, and from unconsidered rivulets 
 which the neighboring rustics do not know the name of; now, in its boister- 
 ous youth, forcing its way through mountains ; now, in middle life, going 
 with equable current busily by great towns, its waters sullied yet enriched 
 wnth commerce ; and now, in its burdened old age, making its slow and dif- 
 ficult way, with great broad surface, over which the declining sun looms 
 grandly, to the sea." — Sir Arthur Helps. 
 
 A series of clauses of equal length tends to monotony; and 
 that variety which is an essential to harmonious diction can 
 only be found where the members of a sentence exhibit differ- 
 ent degrees of length and of rhythm. In the passage just 
 quoted this is very perceptible. 
 
The Harmonious Arrangement of Words, 259 
 
 § 283. CO-ORDINATION OF CLAUSES. 
 
 4. An elegant construction is often attained by the co-ordi- 
 nation of clauses. By this is meant the setting forth of several 
 statements, or the enumeration of several particulars, in such a 
 way that the construction of the clauses shall be similar : 
 
 " In this work, when it shall be found that the author has omitted much, 
 let it not be forgotten that much has been performed." 
 
 A more elegant construction would be as follows : 
 
 In this work, when it shall be found that much is omitted, let it not be 
 forgotten that much likewise is performed. 
 
 " The kingdom was at this time in a critical condition. The proud oli- 
 garchy defied the power of the king and popular rights, and set each at de- 
 fiance." 
 
 Better : 
 
 The power of the king was defied ; the rights of the people were ignored ; 
 and a proud oligarchy set each at defiance. 
 
 " Christianity teaches and commands us that we should moderate our 
 passions, and temper our affections for all things below, with thankfulness 
 for their possession, and the exhibition of patience when we experience loss, 
 whenever God shall take away the things that he gave us." 
 
 Better : 
 
 Christianity teaches and commands us to moderate our passions, to tem- 
 per our affections towards all things below ; to be thankful for the posses- 
 sion, and patient under the loss, whenever He who gave shall see fit to 
 take away. 
 
 § 284. THE CLOSE OF THE SENTENCE. 
 
 5. The close of the sentence requires care, since it is the last 
 thing upon which the ear rests. 
 
 A sonorous word at the end of a sentence is generally har- 
 monious. This is illustrated in the following passages : 
 
 " We must remember the unexampled abruptness of the Arabian Revo- 
 lution. The year 622, by its very name of Hegira, does not record a triumph, 
 but a humiliation." — De Quincey. 
 
 " Beyond our planetary system, now extended by the discovery of Nep- 
 tune to three thousand millions of miles from the sun, and throughout the 
 vast expanse of the universe, the telescope will exhibit to you new suns and 
 systems of worlds, infinite in number and variety, sustaining doubtless myr- 
 iads of living beings, and presenting new spheres for the exercise of divine 
 power and beneficence." — De Quincey. 
 
 M 
 
26o Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The undeniable beauty of such terminations has led some to 
 lay it down as a law that a sentence ought never to terminate 
 with a short word, especially if it be a preposition ; and for ex- 
 amples of faults in this respect they offer such sentences as the 
 following : 
 
 " It is a mystery we firmly believe the truth of, and humbly adore the 
 depth o£" 
 
 Some of the best English authors, however, do not at all ob- 
 ject to such terminations. The following are taken from Ad- 
 dison : 
 
 "They are very hardly brought to regard any truth, how important so- 
 ever it may be, when they know that there are several men of five hundred 
 a year who do not believe it" 
 
 " Great scholars that are forever near a right understanding, and vrill 
 never arrive at it." 
 
 " The sense of honor which he demonstrated in that action was worth all 
 the learning in the world without it." 
 
 " Alexander, being asked in his youth to contend for a prize in the 01)rm- 
 pic games, answered he would if he had kings to run against him." 
 
 The termination by a preposition is also common. 
 Fox says : 
 
 " That feeling which party cannot dispossess us of." 
 " Rivulets," says Helps, " which the neighboring rustics do not know the 
 name of." 
 " Such as few persons have a just idea of." — Bright. 
 "The indulgence which I began by thanking you for." — Erskine. 
 " He has no family to return to." — Erskine. 
 
 The truth is that the genius of the English language is in 
 favor of this construction. It may be found constantly in com- 
 mon conversation, when to adopt the other form would be con- 
 sidered pedantic. It is vigorous and idiomatic, and altogether 
 English. The other may be considered as due to Latin influ- 
 ence, and it prevails chiefly among those who use a Latinized 
 style. 
 
 Somerimes the little word is a very strong and emphatic one. 
 The English language is largely made up of such words, and 
 some of the smallest have the greatest force. 
 
 Nor is it in any way a violation of that euphony which is 
 sought after by the admirers of a Latinized style. When we 
 
Transitions. 261 
 
 judge not by the eye, but by the ear, we shall find that the 
 musical effect of one or two short unaccented words at the end 
 of a sentence is precisely the same as that of one or two un- 
 
 accented syllables. Thus : " on account of it " in euphony is 
 
 the same as "company;" "by means of it" has the same eu- 
 
 phonic effect as "tragedy," "beneficence," or any other dac- 
 
 / 
 tylic word ; " truth of," " depth of," are trochaic, and are equal 
 
 in tone to " virtue," " goodness." 
 
 In forming the conclusions of clauses or sentences, it would 
 be a great mistake to seek always for sonorous words. It 
 might be tolerable in oratory or elevated writing, but it would 
 be almost certain to be tedious. As in the course of the sen- 
 tence long and short clauses must be intermingled, so at the 
 close there should be such a rhythmical termination as may 
 best conduce to an elegant variety. This is essential to true 
 harmony, and after all it is better to be even rough and harsh 
 than effeminate, languid, or monotonous. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 TRANSITIONS. 
 § 285. HARMONY IN GENERAL. 
 
 Elegance of style refers not only to the choice and arrange- 
 ment of words, but also to the management of the work as a 
 whole, its introduction, the statement of the different arguments, 
 and the transition from one topic to another. 
 
 § 286. THE INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The introduction will be more fully considered under the 
 head of method, and needs but a brief notice in this place. 
 An elegant introduction is neither too abrupt nor too much 
 prolonged. It is managed in such a way that the reader is 
 drawn on gently and gradually towards the discussion of the 
 subject. The writer who is most conspicuous for easy grace in 
 this respect is Addison. 
 
262 Elements of RJutoric. 
 
 § 287. TRANSITIONS. 
 
 The same care must be exercised in the introduction of the 
 various divisions of arguments, and the writer must study the 
 best way by which the attention of the reader may be trans- 
 ferred from the conclusion of one topic to the beginning of 
 another. This is called transition. 
 
 In didactic or scientific works the chief and, indeed, the sole 
 consideration is perspicuity, and here the presentation of topics 
 should be as direct and strongly marked as possible. The di- 
 visions and subdivisions also should be made very prominent, 
 and every new argument should be distinctly and clearly stated. 
 But in those writings where the higher qualities of style are 
 sought after a different course must be adopted. In these the 
 argument must of course be carefully elaborated, and made as 
 effective as possible ; but the divisions of the subject must be 
 so managed that the reader may pass from one to another 
 without too much abruptness. 
 
 Abrupt transitions are found most frequently in sermons. It 
 once was the common fashion for the preacher to state the 
 whole argument at the outset by way of introduction, a course 
 that has been followed but seldom indeed in any other species 
 of composition. This practice is not so common now, but it 
 is by no means given up. Another fashion, equally inelegant, 
 still prevails : it is a transition to new topics by means of the 
 words " secondly," " thirdly," " fourthly," etc. The practice is 
 so common that objections are seldom or never made ; yet 
 no public lecturer or journalist or magazine writer or essayist 
 would think of adopting it as a rule, nor would any advocate 
 before a jury, or any Parliamentary orator. 
 
 § 288. THE FORMAL TRANSITION. 
 
 The transition may be considered as of two kinds : first, the 
 formal ; and, secondly, the elegant. 
 
 The formal transition is characterized by the employment of 
 certain words or forms of speech by which it is directly an- 
 nounced. These are appropriate to didactic, scientific, and 
 argumentative works, and consist of such terms as the follow- 
 ing : " First," " secondly," thirdly," etc. ; " again," "yea, more," 
 " once more," " moreover," " besides," " but this is not all," 
 " and further." 
 
Transitions, 263 
 
 : A good example of the formal transition is found in the fol- 
 lowing extract from De Quincey's essay on Homer and the 
 Homeridae : 
 
 " The first class of arguments, therefore, for the sanity of the existing 
 Homer, is derived from language. Our second argument we derive from 
 the ideality of Achilles." 
 
 § 289. THE ELEGANT TRANSITION. 
 
 In the elegant transition, on the contrary, such formal state- 
 ments are carefully avoided, and the writer seeks to transfer 
 the attention of the reader to a fresh topic in such a manner 
 that there shall be no abruptness, but that the new one shall 
 seem to grow out of the old. 
 
 An example of this may be found in De Quincey's essay on 
 Style, in which he proceeds to show the effect of the publication 
 of books upon general literature. The new topic is introduced 
 thus : 
 
 " Did the reader ever happen to reflect upon the idea of publication — an 
 idea we call it ; because, even in our own times, with all the mechanic aids 
 of steam-presses, etc., this object is most imperfectly approached, and is 
 destined, perhaps, forever to remain an unattainable ideal." 
 
 Another example of transition by the same author is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 " Such being the state of preparation, what was the result ? These were 
 the words which concluded our last essay. . . . We must acknowledge that 
 it had fallen far below the standard of our experience." 
 
 The following passage affords another example : 
 
 " Mutual service in endless gradation is clearly the world's great law. 
 In the natural grouping of human life the same rule is found. It is not 
 similarity, but dissimilarity that constitutes the qualification for heartfelt 
 union among mankind ; and the mental affinities resemble the electric, in 
 which like poles repel, while. the unlike attract," — Martineau. 
 
 The transition is here eloquently made from "mutual ser- 
 vice " in nature to the same thing among men. 
 
 The same thing may be seen in digressions, which, to be ef- 
 fective, should always be the outgrowth of the subject; and 
 more especially in the return to the subject which must follow 
 such digressions. 
 
 An example of the formal kind may be found in the follow- 
 ing from De Quincey : 
 
264 Elemcfits of Rhetoric. 
 
 " Here let us retrace the course of our speculations, lest the reader should 
 suppose us to be wandering/' 
 
 A more elegant example is furnished by the same author, 
 who, after a long digression upon German prose, Acts of Parlia- 
 ment, Mr. Pitt, Ariadne's clew, and the tricks of a funambulist, 
 returns at last to his proper subject with these words : 
 
 " We might have made our readers merry with the picture of German 
 prose, but we must not linger. It is enough to say that it offers the coun- 
 terpole to the French style. . . . But these faults — are they in practice so 
 wearisome and exhausting as we have described them .^" 
 
 § 290. PARAGRAPHS. 
 
 Paragraphs are the smaller portions into which composition 
 is divided, and each one is usually occupied with a subordinate 
 head of the argument. The whole subject of transition has 
 therefore an especial reference to these. 
 
 But the paragraph has also other uses, for it has grown of 
 late to be a distinct department of writing, and is now almost 
 as important to the newspaper as the leading article. It is 
 used chiefly for the following purposes : 
 
 To give intelligence. 
 
 To answer an opponent. 
 
 To give the essence of an argument 
 
 To attack. 
 
 To defend. 
 
 The importance which it has acquired causes it to receive 
 special attention, and the good " paragraphist" is as much ap- 
 preciated, and at the same time as rare, as the good essayist. 
 
 § 291. THE CONCLUSION. 
 
 From the examples above given, it will be seen that transi- 
 tions from one topic to another refer not only to the introduc- 
 tions of paragraphs, but also to their conclusions. In addi- 
 tion to these, attention must be paid to the general conclusion. 
 An elegant treatment of this requires that it should be neither 
 too formal, nor too abrupt, nor too greatly protracted. The 
 writer who aims to introduce his subject with an attractive 
 ease will seek also to withdraw it in such a way as to leave a 
 pleasing impression. 
 
Word Paintiyig and Onomatopoeia, 265 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 WORD PAINTING AND ONOMATOPOEIA. 
 § 292. WORD PAINTING. 
 
 Rhetoric, under its conception as belles-lettres, and as a fine 
 art, may be considered as analogous sometimes to painting, 
 and at other times to music. It assimilates itself with the art 
 of painting where a portrayal is made by vivid description, so 
 that the scene lives before the mind, and the artist can easily 
 reproduce it to the eye. The truth of this resemblance is ex- 
 pressed by the very term commonly applied to this kind of writ- 
 ing, "word painting." Sir Walter Scott's trial of Effie Deans 
 and Macaulay's trial of Warren Hastings are well-known ex- 
 amples. In the following passage this is well illustrated : 
 
 " The noonday sun came slanting down the rocky slopes of La Riccia. 
 . . . Purple and crimson and scarlet, like the curtains of God's tabernacle, the 
 rejoicing trees sank into the valley in showers of light, every separate leaf 
 quivering with buoyant and burning life ; each as it turned to reflect or 
 transmit the sunbeam, first a torch and then an emerald. Far up into the 
 recesses of the valley the green vistas arched like the hollows of mighty 
 waves of some crystalline sea, with the arbutus flowers dashed along their 
 flanks for foam, and silver flakes of orange spray tossed into the air around 
 them, breaking over the gray walls of rock into a thousand separate stars, 
 fading and kindling alternately as the weak wind let them fall. Every glade 
 of grass burned like the golden floor of heaven, opening in sudden gleams 
 as the foliage broke and closed above it, as sheet-lightning opens in a cloud 
 at sunset ; the motionless masses of dark rock — dark though flushed with 
 scarlet lichen — casting their quiet shadows across its restless radiance, the 
 fountain underneath them filling its marble hollow with blue mist and fitful 
 sound, and over all the multitudinous bars of amber and rose, the sacred 
 clouds that have no darkness, and only exist to illumine, were seen in fath- 
 omless intervals between the solemn and orbed repose of the stone-pines, 
 passing to lose themselves in the last, white, blinding lustre of the measure- 
 less line where the Campagna melted into the blaze of the sea." — Ruskin. 
 
 § 293. THE MUSIC OF WORDS. 
 
 Rhetoric presents an analogy not only to painting, but also 
 to music. This is brought about when the writer devotes 
 
266 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 much attention to the music of his words and the rhythmic flow 
 of his sentences ; so that in the very sound there is something 
 that affects the ear and helps the meaning by its suggestive- 
 ness. The appeal is thus made to the mind by the " harmony 
 of sweet sounds." Poetry has this to an eminent degree. In 
 the famous Bugle Song of Tennyson, there is in the very 
 sound of the words and movement of the metre a suggestive- 
 ness beyond the meaning that can be gathered from any gram- 
 matical analysis of the sentences : 
 
 •' The splendor falls on castle walls. 
 
 And snowy summits old in story; 
 The long light shakes along the lakes, 
 
 And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 
 Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying. 
 Blow, bugle : answer echoes, dying, dying, dying ! 
 
 " O hark ! O hear ! how thin and clear. 
 
 And thinner, clearer, farther going, 
 O sweet and far ! from cliff and scar. 
 
 The horns of elf-land faintly blowing. 
 Blow, let us hear the purple glens repljnng. 
 Blow, bugle : answer echoes, dying, dying, dying ! 
 
 " O love, they die in yon rich sky ; 
 
 They faint on hill, or field, or river ; 
 Our echoes roll from soul to soul. 
 
 And grow forever and forever. 
 Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying. 
 And answer, echoes, answer, dying, dying, dying !" 
 
 While poetry has this to an eminent degree, it is perceptible 
 and influential in prose ; and the critic must notice not only the 
 argument of a work, or its perspicuity, or its persuasiveness 
 or elegance, but also its general tone. 
 
 The subject of tone, or sound in style, has reference both to 
 the choice of words and their arrangement. In the former 
 case it is called onomatopoeia. In the latter, rhythmus or 
 rhythm. 
 
 § 294. ONOMATOPCEIA. 
 
 Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech, and consists in the use 
 of words the sound of which suggests the thing signified ; as, 
 "hum," ''hiss," "buzz," "crash," "roar," "boom," "smash." 
 
 All languages are full of such words, and their existence is 
 an important fact for which the philologist has to account. 
 
Word Painting and Onomatopoeia. 267 
 
 The origin of language itself is deduced by one school from 
 words of this class, which were first made use of in order to 
 represent external things by vocal sounds. To this first, fol- 
 lowed secondly by the use of tropes, and thirdly by the com- 
 position of words, they attribute the origin and development 
 of language. Our concern is with onomatopoeia as a rhetorical 
 figure, and as such it is immediately connected with euphony 
 and elegance in words. By means of this a resemblance is 
 established between the sound of the word and the thing sig- 
 nified, external objects are represented in the most vivid and 
 expressive manner, the qualities of things are unfolded ; even 
 abstract ideas are presented with unwonted clearness and dis- 
 tinctness. 
 
 § 295. ONOMATOPOEIA IN POETRY. 
 
 It is in poetry that the most extensive and most striking use 
 of this figure appears. Poets test to the uttermost the resources 
 of language; their art gives them greater liberty in the choice 
 and arrangement of words ; their aim is to convey to other 
 minds, with the utmost vividness, the thoughts, feelings, and 
 images that arise within themselves. Those poets who are 
 most conspicuous for their musical sensibility are also most 
 noted for their management of this figure. 
 
 Milton surpasses all other English poets in his exquisite 
 musical sensibility, and in the wonderful variety of his har- 
 mony. This ever-varying harmony is due, first, to the match- 
 less art which he displays in his versification, where, under the 
 form of iambic metre, he succeeds in exhibiting the effects of 
 all the other metres ; and, secondly, to his unequalled skill in 
 the use of onomatopoeia. Those passages in the Paradise Lost 
 which exhibit the resemblance between sound and sense have 
 been so often quoted as illustrations of this figure that they 
 have become hackneyed, yet some of them may be quoted 
 again from their very excellence. Of all these, none are so 
 well known as the famous descriptions of the opening of the 
 gates of hell and of heaven. 
 
 The opening of the gates of hell is described in a way which 
 suggests the utmost harshness : 
 
 "On a sudden open fly, 
 With impetuous recoil and jarring sound, 
 The infernal doors, and on their hinges grate 
 Harsh thunder." 
 
 M 2 
 
268 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The opening of the gates of heaven is represented as full 
 of heaven's own peace and harmony: 
 
 " Heaven opened wide 
 Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound. 
 On golden hinges turning." 
 
 This passage is an example of perfect euphony, from the 
 prevalence of smooth liquid sounds. 
 
 The uproar of a vast host is described in the following : 
 
 " Highly they raged 
 Against the Highest, and fierce, with grasped arms 
 Clashed on their sounding shields the din of war." 
 
 Or in the following : 
 
 "Arms on armor clashing bray'd 
 Horrible discord, and the madding wheels 
 Of brazen chariots rag'd ; dire was the noise 
 Of conflict ; overhead the dismal hiss 
 Of fiery darts in flaming volleys flew." 
 
 The sounds of the things described are indicated by the 
 words in the following lines from the same author : 
 
 " Brushed with the hiss of rustling wings." 
 
 "The warlike sound 
 Of trumpets loud and clarions." 
 
 " Sonorous metal blowing martial sounds : 
 At which the universal host up sent 
 A shout that tore hell's concave." 
 
 The following lines display the force and fury of a thunder- 
 storm : 
 
 "The thunder, 
 Winged with red lightning and impetuous rage, 
 Perhaps hath spent his shafts, and ceases now 
 To bellow through the vast and boundless deep." 
 
 This last line is like one in the ode on the Nativity: 
 
 " The wakeful trump of doom must thunder through the deep." 
 
 Many lines of Paradise Lost have their counterparts in this 
 sublime ode. Thus : 
 
 "And on the washy ooze deep channels wore." 
 In the ode we find : 
 
 " And bid the weltering waves their oozy channels keep." 
 
Word Painting and Onomatopoeia. 269 
 
 This ode is itself full of lines that afford examples of ono- 
 matopoeia : 
 
 " The winds in wonder wist." 
 
 " Divinely warbled voice." 
 
 " With such a horrid clang 
 As on Mount Sinai rang." 
 
 " Ring out, ye crystal spheres ! 
 Once bless our human ears. 
 
 If ye have power to touch our senses so ; 
 And let your silver chime 
 Move in melodious time; 
 
 And let the bass of heaven's deep organ blow; 
 And with your ninefold harmony 
 Make up full consort to the angelic symphony !" 
 
 Pope manages this figure with the utmost skill. The follow- 
 ing are well-known examples : 
 
 *' When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, 
 The line too labors, and the words move slow," 
 
 Here the combinations of consonants indicate difficulty and 
 effort. The aspirates serve the same purpose in the following : 
 
 "Up the high hill he heaves a huge round stone." 
 
 Dulness is indicated in the following : 
 
 "Just writes to make his barrenness appear, 
 And strains from hard-bound brains six lines a year." 
 
 The monosyllables, and the rhyming of "strains" with 
 "brains," give slowness to the movement, and suggest heavi- 
 ness and stupidity. 
 
 " While feeble expletives their aid do join. 
 And ten low words oft creep in one dull line." 
 
 Here " do " is a " feeble expletive," and " ten low words " are 
 introduced into the second line. 
 
 In the following line the noise made by a clock is suggested: 
 
 "The varnished clock that clicked behind the door." 
 
 — Goldsmith. 
 Gray's Elegy abounds in such lines : 
 
 " Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, 
 And drowsy tinklings lull the distant fold." 
 
 "The moping owl does to the moon complain." 
 
270 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Collins makes frequent use of this figure : 
 
 "Now air is hushed, save where the weak-e)'ed bat, 
 With short, shrill shriek, flits by on leathern wing; 
 Or where the beetle winds 
 His small, but sullen horn." 
 
 The ode on the Passions is one long exannple of onomato- 
 poeia. 
 
 Campbell's poems furnish many examples : 
 
 " Their shots along the deep slowly boom ; 
 Then ceased — and all is wail. . . . 
 With thunders from her native oak 
 She quells the floods below, 
 As they roar on the shore ..." 
 
 Byron does not exhibit this very frequently, but some of his 
 passages afford vigorous examples. 
 
 In the following lines there is the representation of a cataract: 
 
 " Rapid as the light. 
 The flashing mass foams, shaking the abyss. 
 The hell of waters ! how they howl and hiss, 
 And boil in endless torture!" 
 
 The alarm of battle, and the mingled sounds attendant upon 
 it, are described : 
 
 " Hark ! — that heavy sound breaks in once more 
 As if the clouds its echo would repeat ; 
 And nearer, clearer, deadlier than before ! 
 Arm ! arm ! it is — it is — the cannon's opening roar I 
 
 And the deep thunder peal on peal afar — 
 
 How in the noon of night that pibroch thrills 
 Savage and shrill." 
 
 In Southey's Falls of Lodore the whole poem consists of 
 onomatopoetic words ; but this is not so much poetry as a 
 tour deforce. 
 
 A better example is found in Poe's Song of the Bells. 
 
 Poe's poetry is full of words of this character. Thus, in the 
 Raven, the word " nevermore " is suggestive of melancholy and 
 despair. In the following lines the words imitate the sense ; 
 
 "A perfumed censer 
 Swung by seraphim whose footfalls tinkled on the tufted floor," 
 
 " The silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain." 
 
Word Painting and Onomatopoeia, 271 
 
 Mrs. Browning has a line like this in her Lady Geraldine, 
 a resemblance no doubt arising from unconscious imitation 
 rather than deliberate plagiarism. 
 
 • Tennyson's poetry stands next to that of Milton for the fre- 
 quency and variety of the use of this figure. This arises from 
 that delicate musical sense common to both, which leads each 
 poet to draw from individual words and from their collocation 
 all the harmony of which they are capable. The Bugle Song, 
 quoted elsewhere, is all onomatopoeia. 
 
 In the following the noise of the surf is imitated : 
 
 " And roar rock-thwarted under billowy^ caves 
 Beneath the windy fall." 
 
 The sound of trampling feet : 
 
 "Slippery crag that rang 
 Sharp-smitten with the dint of armed heels." 
 
 The confused and manifold noises of battle : 
 
 "The shattering trumpet shrilleth high, 
 The hard brands shiver on the steel, 
 
 The splintered spear -shafts crack and fly. 
 The horse and rider reel — 
 
 They reel, they roll in clanging lists." 
 
 The war-drum : 
 
 "Thy voice is heard through rolling drums 
 That beat to battle where he stands." 
 
 The myriad voices of nature are represented in the following 
 exquisite lines : 
 
 "Every sound is sweet — 
 Myriads of rivulets hurrying through the lawn, 
 The moan of doves in immemorial elms. 
 And murmur of innumerable bees." 
 
 The rapid movement of the second line is indicative of a 
 "hurrying" stream. 
 
 The effects of reverberated sound : 
 
 "Front to front in an hour we stood, 
 And a million horrible, bellowing echoes broke 
 From the red-ribbed hollow beyond the wood." 
 
2/2 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The confused noises of a city street : 
 
 " With never an end to the stream-of passing feet — 
 Driving, hurrj'ing, marrying, burying, 
 Clamor, and rumble, and ringing, and clatter." 
 
 The explosion of cannon : 
 " The rushing battle-bolt sang from the three-decker out of the foam." 
 
 The softer influences of peace : 
 
 " Peace 
 Pipe on her pastoral hillock a languid note." 
 
 The varying sounds of a flowing brook . r j suggested in a 
 well-known poem, from which the following is an extract : 
 
 "I chatter over stony ways 
 In little sharps and trebles; 
 I bubble into eddying bays, 
 I babble at the pebbles. 
 
 *' I chatter, chatter, as I go 
 
 To join the brimming river ; 
 For men may come, and men may go. 
 But I go on forever." 
 
 An imitation of the manner of a ranting preacher : 
 
 " Our Boanerges, with his threats of doom. 
 And loud-lunged anti-Babylonianisms." 
 
 § 296. ONOMATOPCEIA IN PROSE. 
 
 In prose it is not so frequent as in poetry. It is too arti- 
 ficial, and would be distasteful in the one, even when highly 
 beautiful in the other. This is seen in such phrases as, 
 "Tumble precipitate down dashed;" "The winds in wonder 
 wist ;" which, though effective in poetry, would not be tolerated 
 in prose. 
 
 There is, however, abundant room even in prose for the em- 
 ployment of onomatopoeia, and its chief use consists in the 
 selection of those words which afford the most vivid description 
 of any given thing. Thus it is better to say the "crash" of 
 falling timber than the " noise ;" and in the following cases 
 such a general term as "noise" is far inferior to the onomato- 
 poetic words: the "whistling" of the winds; the "boom" of 
 
Word Painting a?id Onomatopoeia. 273 
 
 cannon; the "shriek" of the blast; the "roar" of a tempest; 
 the "wail" of a child. 
 
 " The spray was hissing hot, and a huge jet of water burst up from its 
 midst." 
 
 This is much more vivid than if the following statement 
 were made : 
 
 The water was boiling, and threw up a great fountain from its midst. 
 
 He "plunged" into the river, is better than "he threw him- 
 self." The horse came "galloping" down the road, is better 
 than the horse came " quickly." 
 
 Such is the nature of language that, if the best possible word 
 be chosen, it will often prove to be one of this description. 
 This choice of the best word means precision, and hence the 
 effort to be precise will often lead to excellence of another and 
 very different kind. Pope, who is remarkable for precision, 
 abounds in onomatopoeia. 
 
 § 297. THE LATIN ELEMENT IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IS 
 INVALUABLE FOR PURPOSES OF HARMONY. 
 
 Reference has already been made to the combination of 
 Latin and Saxon in English, and it has been said that for pur- 
 poses of perspicuity the Saxon is superior. It now remains to 
 say that for purposes of harmony the Latin is invaluable, and 
 for high pomp and majesty it is superior to the Saxon. 
 
 The Latin language is superior to the Saxon, and all other 
 members of the Teutonic family, in point of euphony. In its 
 words we find vowels and consonants in equal number, a large 
 proportion of liquids, and a striking exhibition of sonorous 
 music and magnificence. If we examine the finest passages in 
 English literature, we shall find that the Latin words employed 
 confer indescribable beauty and splendor, which are heightened 
 by their contrast with the Saxon words. The character of the 
 Saxon is tenderness, earnestness, simplicity; that of the Latin 
 grandeur and stateliness. The value of the Latin element in 
 our language may be seen by examining familiar passages from 
 our chief poets. The following are from Shakespeare : 
 
 "Such harmony is in immortal souls." 
 "Fit for treasons stratagems and spoils.^'' 
 
274 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 " Pride, pomp^ and circumstance of glorious war." 
 
 "On horror's head horrors cucumulate,^* 
 
 " Counterfeit presentment of two brothers.** 
 
 " It will discourse most eloquent mitsu." 
 
 "Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased?" 
 
 " Sweet oblivious antidote^ 
 
 " Even-handed Justice 
 Commends the ingredients of our poisoned chalice 
 To our own lips." 
 
 " Vaulting ambition:' 
 
 " Her infinite TMiriety:' 
 
 "Whose conscience with injustice is corrupUd:^ 
 
 ''Uses oT adversity:' 
 
 " Of imagination all compact:' 
 
 " My hand will rather 
 The multitudinous seas incarnadine:' 
 
 Milton's style is far more Latinized than that of Shakes- 
 peare, and many of his most magnificent lines consist chiefly 
 of Latin words. The following are examples : 
 
 " Throne Sy dontinations, princedoms, virtues, powers:' 
 
 ''Sonorous metal blowing martial sounds:' 
 
 " Deep on his front engraven 
 Deliberation sat, and public care:' 
 
 " The palpable obscure:' 
 
 " Devil with devil damn'd. 
 Firm concord holds, men only disagree 
 Of creatures rational:' 
 
 "Ruin upon ruin, rout on ro$ttt 
 Confusion worse confounded,"" 
 
 " Vernal bloom.*' 
 
 "Human face divine:' 
 
 " Necessity, tht tyrant's plea:' 
 
 " Vacant interlunar cave:' 
 
Word Painting and Onomatopoeia, 275 
 
 ^^ Embattled armies^ 
 
 "Heaven opened wide 
 Her ^vtX'during gates, harmonious sounds 
 
 This subject may be further illustrated by examples from 
 other poets : 
 
 •'In those deep solitudes and awful cells, 
 Where heavenly pensive Contemplation dwells, 
 And ever-musing Melancholy reigns." — Pope. 
 
 "An elegant sufficiency, content, 
 Retirement, rural quiet, friendship, books. 
 Ease and alternate labor, useful life. 
 Progressive virtue and approving heaven." — Thomson. 
 
 "Superfluous lags the veteran on the stage." — Johnson. 
 
 "Storied urn or animated bust." — Gray. 
 
 "The intelligible forms of ancient poets. 
 The fair humanities of old religion. 
 The power, the beauty, and the majesty." — Coleridge. 
 
 "The vision and the faculty divine." — Wordsworth. 
 
 In a poem by William Wetmore Story on the English Lan- 
 guage there is a description of the various elements which 
 contribute towards its formation, while the poem itself is an 
 example of onomatopoeia : 
 
 " Give me of every language first my vigorous English, 
 Stored with imported wealth, rich in its natural mines. 
 Grand in its rhythmical cadence, simple for household employment, 
 Worthy the poet's song, fit for the speech of man. 
 
 Thou hast the sharp, clean edge and the downright blow of the Saxon ; 
 Thou the majestical march and the stately pomp of the Latin ; 
 Thou the euphonious swell, the rhythmical roll of the Greek ; 
 Thine is the elegant suavity caught from sonorous Italian ; 
 Thine the chivalric obeisance, the courteous grace of the Norman ; 
 Thine the Teutonic German's inborn guttural strength. 
 
 Now clear, pure, hard, bright, and one by one like to hailstones, 
 Short words fall from his lips fast as the first of a shower ; 
 Now in a twofold column, spondee, iamb, and trochee, 
 Unbroke, firm-set, advance, retreat, trampling along ; 
 Now with a sprightlier springiness bounding in triplicate syllables 
 Dance the elastic dactylics in musical cadences on ; 
 
276 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Now their voluminous coil intertangling like huge anacondas 
 Roll overwhelmingly onward the sesquipedalian words. 
 
 Therefore it is that I praise thee, and never can cease from rejoicing, 
 
 Thinking that good stout English is mine and my ancestor's tongue ; 
 
 Give me its varying music, the flow of its free modulation — 
 
 I will not covet the full roll of the glorious Greek, 
 
 Luscious and feeble Italian, Latin so formal and stately, 
 
 French with its nasal lisp, nor German inverted and harsh ; 
 
 Not while our organ can speak with its many and wonderful voices, 
 
 Play on the soft lute of love, blow the loud trumpet of war. 
 
 Sing with the high sesquialtro, or drawing its full diapason, 
 
 Shake all the air with the grand storm of its pedals and stops." 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 RHYTHM. 
 
 § 298. RHYTHM IN POETRY. 
 
 Tone or sound in style, when referring to the arrangement 
 of words, is called rhythmus or rhythm. 
 
 Rhythm means a recurrence of sound at regular intervals, 
 and was formerly applied to the movement of measured versi- 
 fication. The term has been extended in its meaning, so as to 
 include more than metre ; and it is frequently used to designate 
 such things as the roll of the surf, the rise and fall of the wind, 
 the reverberations of thunder, or the swell of tones from an 
 ^olian harp. In poetry the word now signifies something very 
 different from the formal divisions of lines into feet, and refers 
 to that harmony and cadence which arise from the general flow 
 of verses, and are marked by emphatic words and caesural 
 pauses. Thus Milton's Paradise Lost is written in the iambic 
 metre, but the rhythm of that poem is something quite distinct 
 from that metre, and is very different from the rhythm of any 
 other iambic poem. The truth of this may be illustrated by 
 the following passage : 
 
 ** If thou be'st he — but O, how fallen, how changed 
 From him who in the happy realms of light. 
 Clothed with transcendent brightness, didst outshine 
 Myriads, though bright 1 If he, whom mutual league, 
 
Rhythfu. 277 
 
 United thoughts and counsels, equal hope 
 
 And hazard in the glorious enterprise, 
 
 Joined with me once, now misery hath joined 
 
 In equal ruin : — into what pit thou seest, 
 
 From what height fallen :• — so much the stronger proved 
 
 He with his thunder ; and till then who knew 
 
 The force of those dire arms ?" 
 
 The difference between the rhythm and the metre is here 
 very strongly marked, especially in the last four lines. It is 
 also discernible in all good poetry, and to make this manifest 
 to the ear is the chief work of the elocutionist. 
 
 § 299. RHYTHM IN PROSE. 
 
 The greatest writers of ancient and modern times have 
 sought to infuse into their style something which should appeal 
 to the musical sensibility, and many noble passages in prose 
 literature exert an influence difficult to define, yet so powerful 
 that they affect the heart and cling to the memory. Their 
 meaning is in such cases enlarged and reinforced by the sub- 
 tle yet potent aid of harmony ; and while the thought affects 
 the mind, the music charms the ear. Two things are to be 
 observed in such writings : first, the sound of the individual 
 words; and, secondly, their arrangement, with the recurrence 
 of pauses at such intervals as shall produce a certain har- 
 monious rise and fall of tone. These constitute rhythm in 
 prose. 
 
 Many passages in the English Bible exhibit a matchless 
 beauty of rhythm : 
 
 *' Or ever the silver cord be loosed — or the golden bowl be broken — or 
 the pitcher be broken at the fountain — or the wheel broken at the cistern. 
 Then shall the dust return to the earth as it was — and the spirit shall re- 
 turn unto God who gave it." 
 
 " Lord — thou hast been our dwelling-place in all generations. 
 
 " Before the mountains were brought forth — or ever thou hadst formed 
 the earth and the world — even from everlasting to everlasting — thou art 
 God." 
 
 "These are they which came out of great tribulation — and have washed 
 their robes — and made them white in the blood of the Lamb." 
 
 If these passages be read with attention to the rhetorical 
 pauses, as marked, their euphonious flow and solemn and varied 
 rhythm will not fail to be apparent. It would be difficult to 
 
278 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 furnish any other translation from their originals which could 
 equal them in this respect. 
 
 Rhythm in prose may be defined as the alternate swelling 
 and lessening of sound at certain intervals. It refers tn the 
 general effect of sentences and paragraphs, where the words are 
 _chosen and arranged jo_as.,npt pnT> ^6~e~xpTessTHe meaning of 
 the \\ rite!, bul also to furpisb.a musi cal accompaniment which 
 shall at once delight the ear by its sop "*^, ^^d h^^p ^"* the 
 'sense bx ij? 'T'iuCP'iiT"^"^nffi 
 
 The magnificent and varied harmonies which Milton loved 
 are not more cons picuous in his poetry than in his prose. JThe 
 following passagejbias-- often -beeft-quoted- as an e xampl e of 
 this: 
 
 " Methinks I see in mv mind a noble an d j?uissant nation, rousing herself 
 like a str ode "'fln ''*^'"' '^''*'>pi «■»** nKnir;^^ K^r iavloclble locks : methinks I 
 see her as an eagle mewing her mighty youth, and kindling her undazzled 
 eyes at the full mid-day beam ; purging and unsealing her long-abused sight 
 at the fountain itself of heavenly radiance; while the whole noise of timor- 
 ous and flocking birds, with those also that love the twilight, flutter about, 
 amazed at what she means." 
 
 The following passage from De Quincey is both a criticism 
 and an illustration : 
 
 " Where out of Sir Thomas Browne shall we hope to find music so Mil- 
 tonic, an intonation of such solemn chords as are struck in the following 
 opening bar of a passage in the Urn Burial : 'Now since these bones have 
 rested quietly in the grave, under the drums and tramplings of three con- 
 quests,' etc What a melodious ascent as of a prelude to some impassion- 
 ed requiem breathing from the pomps of the earth and from the sanctities 
 of the grave ! What a fluctus decumanus of rhetoric ! Time expounded 
 not by generations or centuries, but by vast periods of conquests and dynas- 
 ties ; by cycles of Pharaohs and Ptolemies, Antiochi and Arsacides ! And 
 these vast successions of time distinguished and figured by the uproars which 
 revolve at their inaugurations — by the drums and tramplings rolling over- 
 head upon the chambers of forgotten dead — the trepidations of time and 
 mortality vexing, at secular intervals, the everlasting Sabbaths of the grave !" 
 
 Burke, when conversing about the literary value of his own 
 writings, declared that the particular passage which had cost 
 him the most labor, and upon which his labor seemed to him- 
 self to have been the most successful, was the following : 
 
 " Such are their ideas, such their religion, and such their law. But as to 
 our country and our race, as long as the well-compacted structure of our 
 
Rhythm. 279 
 
 church and state — the sanctuary, the holy of holies of the ancient law, defend- 
 ed by reverence, defended by power, a fortress at once and a temple — shall 
 stand inviolate on the brow of the British Sion ; as long as the British mon- 
 archy, not more limited than fenced by the orders of state, shall, like the 
 proud keep of Windsor rising in the majesty of proportion, and girt with 
 the double belt of its kindred and coeval towers ; as long as this awful 
 structure shall oversee and guard the subjected land, so long the mounds 
 and dikes of the low fat Bedford level will have nothing to fear from all the 
 pickaxes of all the levellers of France. As long as our sovereign lord the 
 king, and his faithful subjects, the lords and commons of this realm — the 
 triple cord which no man can break ; the solemn sworn constitutional frank- 
 pledge of this nation ; the firm guarantees of each other's being and each 
 other's rights ; the joint and several securities, each in its place and order 
 for every kind and every quality of property and dignity — as long as these 
 endure, so long the Duke of Bedford is safe ; and we are all safe together — 
 the high from the blights of envy and the spoliations of rapacity, the low 
 ,from the iron hand of oppression and the insolent spurn of contempt 
 Amen'! and so be it, and so it will be — 
 
 *Dum domus ^^neae CapitoH immobile saxum 
 Accolet, imperiumque pater Romanus habebit' " 
 
 In the style of Chalmers we find copiousness of thought and 
 affluence of diction with great attention to rhythmical effect. 
 This is shown in the following extract from his sermon on the 
 death of the Princess Charlotte : 
 
 " The nation has certainly not been wanting in the proper expression of 
 poignant regret at the sudden removal of this most lamented princess, nor 
 of their sympathy with the royal family deprived by this visitation of its 
 brightest ornament. Sorrow is painted on every countenance, the pursuits of 
 business and of pleasure have been suspended, and the kingdom is covered 
 with the signals of distress. But what, my friends (if it were lawful to in- 
 dulge such a thought), what would be the funeral obsequies of a lost soul } 
 Where shall we find tears fit to be wept at such a spectacle, or, could we re- 
 alize the calamity in all its extent, what tokens of commiseration and con- 
 cern would be deemed equal to the occasion ? Would it suffice for the sun 
 to veil his light and the moon her brightness ; to cover the ocean with 
 mourning and the heavens with sackcloth ; or, were the whole fabric of nat- 
 ure to become animated and vocal, would it be possible for her to utter a 
 groan too deep or a cry too piercing to express the magnitude and extent 
 of such a catastrophe ?" 
 
 The writings of Carlyle do not abound in rhythmical pas- 
 sages, yet sometimes, as in the following case, his power in this 
 way is very striking : 
 
 " Look there, O man, born of woman ! The bloom of that fair face is 
 wasted, the hair is gray with care ; the brightness of those eyes is quench- 
 
28o Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 ed, their lids hang drooping ; the face is stony pale, as of one living in death. 
 Mean weeds which her own hand has mended attire the queen of the world. 
 The death-hurdle where thou sittest, pale, motionless, which only curses en- 
 viron, has to stop ; a people drunk with vengeance will drink it again in full 
 draught looking at thee there. Far as the eye reaches a multitudinous sea 
 of maniac heads, the air deaf with their triumph yell I" 
 
 The simple structure of Macaulay's style and his love of 
 antitheses are not conducive to sustained harmony; yet this 
 quality is not unfrequently exhibited, and nowhere in his writ- 
 ings can richer or more varied rhythm be found than in his 
 famous description of the Puritans : 
 
 " If they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets, 
 they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their names were not found 
 in the registers of heralds, they felt assured that they were recorded in the 
 Book of Life. If their steps were not accompanied by a splendid train of 
 menials, legions of ministering angels had charge over them. Their palaces 
 were houses not made with hands, their diadems crowns of glory which 
 should never fade away. On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and 
 priests, they looked down with contempt ; for they esteemed themselves rich 
 in a more precious treasure, and eloquent in a more sublime language ; 
 nobles by the right of an earlier creation, and priests by the imposition of 
 a mightier hand. The very meanest of them was a being to whose fate a 
 mysterious and terrible importance belonged^-on whose slightest actions 
 the spirits of light and darkness looked with anxiety — who had been destined 
 before heaven and earth were created to enjoy a felicity which should con- 
 tinue when heaven and earth should have passed away. Events which 
 short-sighted politicians ascribed to earthly causes had been ordained on 
 his account. For his sake empires had risen and flourished and decayed. 
 For his sake the Almighty had proclaimed his will by the pen of the evan- 
 gelist and the harp of the prophet. He had been rescued by no common 
 deliverer from the grasp of no common foe. He had been ransomed by the 
 sweat of no vulgar agony, by the blood of no earthly sacrifice. It was for 
 him that the sun had been darkened, that the rocks had been rent, that the 
 dead had arisen, that all nature had shuddered at the sufferings of her ex- 
 piring God !" 
 
 Among the musical terms which are sometimes used by crit- 
 ics to designate qualities in style, the word "bravura" may be 
 mentioned as being closely connected with the present subject, 
 and as involving beyond everything else a sounding and varied 
 rhythm. In the following passage De Quincey has explained 
 and illustrated this term with unusual beauty and discrimina- 
 tion : 
 
 " In taking leave of a book and a subject so well fitted to draw out the 
 highest mode of that grandeur which can connect itself with the external 
 
Rhythtn. 281 
 
 world, I would wish to contribute my own brief word of homage to this 
 grandeur by recalling from a fading remembrance of twenty-five years back 
 a short bravura of Jean Paul Friedrich Richter. I call it a bravura, as be- 
 ing intentionally a passage of display and elaborate execution ; and in this 
 sense I may call it partly ' my own,' that at twenty-five years' distance, 
 after one single reading, it would not have been possible for any man to re- 
 port a passage of this length without greatly disturbing the texture of the 
 composition. By altering, one makes it partly one's own; but it is right to 
 mention that the sublime turn at the end belongs entirely to Jean Paul. 
 
 "'God called up from dreams a man into the vestibule of heaven, saying, 
 Come thou hither and see the glory of my house. And to the servants that 
 stood around his throne he said. Take him and undress him from his robes 
 of flesh ; cleanse his vision, and put a new breath into his nostrils ; only 
 touch not with any change his human heart — the heart that weeps and trem- 
 bles. It was done ; and with a mighty angel for his guide, the man stood 
 ready for his infinite voyage ; and from the terraces of heaven, without 
 sound or farewell, at once they wheeled away into endless space. Some- 
 times with the solemn flight of angel wing they fled through Zaarahs of 
 darkness, through wildernesses of death that divided the worlds of life ; 
 sometimes they swept over frontiers that were quickening under prophetic 
 motions from God. Then from a distance that is counted only in heaven 
 light dawned for a time through a sleepy film ; by unutterable pace the light 
 swept to them, they by unutterable pace to the light ; in a moment the rush- 
 ing of planets was upon them ; in a moment the blazing of suns was around 
 them. Then came eternities of twilight that revealed but were not reveal- 
 ed. To the right hand and to the left towered mighty constellations, that 
 by self-repetitions and answers from afar, that by counterpositions, built up 
 triumphal gates, whose architraves, whose archways — horizontal, upright — 
 rested, rose at altitudes, by spans that seemed ghostly from infinitude. With- 
 out measure were the architraves, past number were the archways, beyond 
 memory the gates. Within were stars that scaled the eternities above, 
 that descended to the eternities below ; above was below, below was above, 
 to the man stripped of gravitating body ; depth was swallowed up in height 
 unsurmountable, height was swallowed up in depth unfathomable. Sud- 
 denly, as thus they rode from infinite to infinite ; suddenly, as thus they tilt- 
 ed over abysmal worlds, a mighty cry arose that systems more mysterious, 
 that worlds more billowy — other heights and other depths — were coming, 
 were nearer, were at hand. Then the man sighed and stopped, shuddered 
 and wept. His overladen heart uttered itself in tears ; and he said. Angel, 
 I will go no farther, for the spirit of man aches with this infinity. Insuffer- 
 able is the glory of God. Let me lie down in the grave from the persecu- 
 tions of the Infinite, for end, I see, there is none. And from all the listen- 
 ing stars that shone around issued a choral voice. The man speaks truly ; 
 end there is none that ever yet we heard of End is there none } the angel 
 solemnly demanded. Is there indeed no end, and is this the sorrow that 
 kills you ? But no voice answered that he might answer himself Then 
 the angel threw up his glorious hands to the heaven of heavens, saying — 
 End is there none to the universe of God ! So, also, there is no begin- 
 ning !'" 
 
282 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The term "bravura" may also be applied with equal appro- 
 priateness to the following passage from De Quincey : 
 
 "The dream commenced with a music which now I often hear in dreams, 
 a music of preparation and of awakening suspense ; a music like the open- 
 ing of the coronation anthem, and which, like that, gave the feeling of a 
 vast march, of infinite cavalcades filing off, and the tread of innumerable 
 armies. . . . Then, like a chorus, the passion deepened. Then came sudden 
 alarms, hurryings to and fro, trepidations of innumerable fugitives, darkness 
 and lights, tempest and human faces ; and at last, with the sense that all was 
 lost, female forms, and the features that were worth all the world to me, and 
 but a moment allowed — and clasped hands, and heart-breaking partings, 
 and then — everlasting farewells ; and with a sigh such as the caves of hell 
 sighed when the incestuous mother uttered the abhorred name of Death, the 
 sound \i;is reverberated— everlasting farewells, and again and yet again re- 
 verberated — everlasting farewells !" 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 QUALITIES OF STYLE ASSOCIATED WITH HARMONY. 
 § 300. QUALITIES OF STYLE CONDUCIVE TO HARMONY. 
 
 A TRUE conception of rhetorical harmony shows that it is 
 associated with various qualities of style and forms of expres- 
 sion which deserve special notice. 
 
 1. Many of those which have already been considered under 
 the heads of perspicuity and persuasiveness are of great im- 
 portance here. Thus purity is essential ; for no one can pre- 
 tend to be an elegant writer who is guilty of barbarisms or 
 solecisms. Precision also is necessary; for the elegant writer 
 should select the word that is best able to convey the most 
 delicate shade of meaning. 
 
 § 301. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
 
 2. Figures of speech also have a close connection with har- 
 mony. It has already been shown that however they may be 
 classified, they nearly all tend to embellishment. They have 
 not only their own peculiar power, whether of enhancing the 
 importance of a subject, or of illustrating it, or of giving it 
 
Style Associated with Harmony. 283 
 
 greater emphasis ; but they also almost always confer uppn it 
 a certain charm which can be gained in no other way. 'The 
 plain statement of a thing is usually commonplace, and, while 
 sufficiently clear and intelligible, is nothing more; but when 
 the statement is made by means of figurative language, it may 
 be full of grace and elegance. ) 
 
 While nearly all the figures of speech have this effect, it is 
 chiefly manifested by the figures of relativity — comparison, allu- 
 sion, and the tropes. Here the law of association comes into 
 play ; and the presentation to the mind of some new and strik- 
 ing image, connected with the subject by the relation of sim- 
 ilarity or-^ontrast, seldom fails to excite the sense of the 
 beautiful. 1 
 
 This subject has already been so fully treated of that 
 nothing further need now be said ; but for illustrations of the 
 beauty of figures, reference may be made to the numerous 
 examples already given. 
 
 § 302. EASE OF STYLE. . 
 
 3. The name is its own definition, and it can only be ac- 
 quired by attention to those things in which elegance consists. 
 Some have by nature such fine perceptions that they seem to 
 write almost without effort in an easy and agreeable man- 
 ner. This is principally evident in letter-writing. De Quin- 
 cey attributes to cultivated women a peculiar talent, and 
 says: 
 
 " We are satisfied, from the many beautiful female letters which we have 
 heard upon chance occasions from every quarter of the empire, that they — 
 the educated women of Great Britain — are the true and best depositaries of 
 the old mother idiom. . . . Cicero and Quintilian, each for his own generation, 
 ascribed something of the same pre-eminence to the noble matrons of Rome; 
 and more than one writer of the Lower Empire has recorded of Byzantium 
 that in the nurseries of that city was found the last home for the purity of 
 the ancient Greek." 
 
 Ease of style is very different from easy writing. By the 
 latter term is meant nothing more than a careless and tedious 
 fluency, and this has led to the saying that easy writing is 
 hard reading. But ease of style includes gracefulness and 
 precision, careful finish, and various other qualities which are 
 worth enumerating. 
 
 N 
 
284 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 ist. Smoothness. By this is meant simple euphony, with- 
 out rising above the general level of harmonious expression, 01 
 falling below it. As a general thing it is associated with the 
 diffuse style. Among the poets it is illustrated by Beattie, 
 Shen stone, Cowper, Akenside, Rogers, and others. In prose 
 the chief examples are to be found in such sermons as those 
 of Blair and Boyd, the histories of Prescott, and the essays and 
 discourses of Edward Everett. 
 
 2d. Finish is the exhibition of great care in the choice and 
 arrangement of words, and the embellishment of style. 
 
 3d. Delicacy involves unusual discrimination in the applica- 
 tion of words. It is the union of precision with elegance. The 
 poetry of Pope exhibits this quality, as well as the preceding 
 one, in a remarkable degree. 
 
 4th. Grace refers to taste and discernment of the beautiful 
 in thought and expression, with finish and delicacy. This is 
 pre-eminent in the poetry of Keats, Shelley, and Tennyson. 
 ^ 5th. A correct style is composition in which attention is 
 paid to all the rules derived from authoritative usage, and 
 where the imagination and the emotions are in some measure 
 repressed. It indicates rather a freedom from fault than the 
 possession of positive attractiveness. In poetry it used to be 
 applied to writings after the model of Pope and Dryden, as 
 distinguished from the irregular construction of such poems as 
 Coleridge's Christabel. The style of Addison, Goldsmith, and 
 Irving is correct ; while the term would not be applied to that 
 of Carlyle. Macaulay inveighs against critics who stand up 
 for correctness, in a passage which is quoted elsewhere. 
 
 6th. Chaste. This term is applicable to style which is cor- 
 rect and accompanied by the display of imaginative power, yet 
 nowhere out of control of a cultivated taste, or rising to any- 
 thing like fervor. Thus Addison is chaste in style ; he satis- 
 fies the taste ; but he never rises to those exaltations of thought, 
 feeling, and expression which are so manifest in the writings 
 of Burke. 
 
 These qualities all contribute towards ease of style, yet they 
 may exist individually in a conspicuous way, and sometimes 
 without necessarily leading to it. In general, it may be said 
 that much care, together with much practice, is needed before 
 true ease of style can be attained. This is Pope's opinion: 
 
Style Associated with Harmony. 285 
 
 "For ease in writing comes by art, not chance, 
 As those move easiest who have learned to dance." 
 
 It is also expressed in the well-known saying : " Ars celare 
 artem." 
 
 § 303. ORNAMENT. 
 
 4. Ornament enters, to a certain extent, into the composition 
 of elegance. The term "ornate" is applied to style which is 
 characterized by unusual embellishment. It is closely allied 
 to the florid, and is liable to pass into it. Burke's writings 
 afford frequent examples of ornament carried as far as possible. 
 Thus in his panegyric on Sheridan the epithets are heaped 
 together in profusion, synonymous words are accumulated, and 
 there is a general air of exaggeration. His celebrated descrip- 
 tion of Marie Antoinette, though highly ornate and sometimes 
 extravagant, is yet so full of tenderness and deep emotion that 
 the reader has no other feeling than admiration and sympathy. 
 The language of eulogx is always apt to run to extravagance 
 and over-ornament, and the kind of composition called " pan- 
 egyric " is notoriously, from its very nature, excessively embel- 
 lished and florid. 
 
 Richness of style means something ornate, yet far more. It 
 involves copiousness of thought, excitement of imagination, and 
 often high emotion. The style of Ruskin is rich, as may be 
 seen in the following example : 
 
 " Not long ago I was slowly descending this very bit of carriage-road, the 
 first turn after you leave Albano. ... It had been wild weather when I left 
 Rome, and all across the Campagna the clouds were sweeping in sulphur- 
 ous blue, with a clap of thunder or two, and breaking gleams of sun along 
 the Claudian aqueduct, lighting up the infinity of its arches like the bridge 
 of chaos. But as I climbed the long slope of the Alban mount the storm 
 swept finally to the north, and the noble outline of the domes of Albano, 
 and the graceful darkness of its ilex grove, rose against pure streaks of al- 
 ternate blue and amber." 
 
 Elaboration. This term is applied to writings where the style 
 is carefully corrected, polished, and enriched with rhetorical 
 embellishment. Amplification and climax often present ex- 
 amples of this. 
 
 A gorgeous style is the exhibition of great pomp and splen- 
 dor, as in passages of Milton's prose works and the writings 
 of Jeremy Taylor. 
 
286 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 § 304. OFFENCES AGAINST LITERARY ELEGANCE. 
 
 There are many vicious qualities which are chiefly opposed 
 to literary elegance, and of these the most conspicuous will 
 now be considered. 
 
 § 305. CARELESSNESS. 
 
 I. Many faults in style arise from carelessness. These are 
 twofold : first, carelessness as to one's work ; and, secondly, 
 carelessness as to the readers to whom it is addressed. 
 
 I St. Carelessness as to one's work leads to incorrect and 
 slovenly composition, with obscurity, inelegance, redundant 
 words, and frequent repetitions. 
 
 A puerile style is often the result of this. The puerile is 
 marked by immaturity of thought, vague apprehension of the 
 subject, trite and commonplace expressions, tedious repetitions, 
 together with lavish use of epithets, exaggerated phraseology, 
 and entire absence of precision. 
 
 Abruptness of presentation is another result. This is found 
 chiefly in the introduction of topics which are carelessly thrust 
 forward when they might be brought on more gradually and 
 skilfully. This is destructive to anything like ease or elegance 
 of style. The most common form of abrupt transition is seen 
 in the preachers' " first," " secondly," " thirdly," used in pass- 
 ing from one head of a discourse to another. 
 
 2d. Carelessness as to the reader results in such faults as 
 those expressed by the words " stiflf," " harsh," " dr}'," and 
 "bald." These have much in common, yet each word has 
 some special signification. 
 
 " Stiff" implies awkwardness of expression, abruptness of 
 transition, and a general want of ease, elegance, and vivacity. 
 "Harshness" may coexist with great vigor and animation, as 
 in the case of Browning and Carlyle ; but in general it indi- 
 cates a style rough through carelessness, and without any at- 
 traction. 
 
 **Dry." A dry style is characterized by a total absence of 
 ornament. The writer seems indifferent to all the means of 
 persuasion, and exhibits, none of those qualities by which a 
 reader may be pleased. This style is common to didactic 
 writings, to sermons, and to scientific and philosophical works. 
 
Style Associated with Harmony. 287 
 
 These are often necessarily without ornament, and are there- 
 fore called " dry ;" but the word is more properly applied to 
 those branches of composition which are adapted to receive 
 rhetorical treatment, but are destitute of it, owing to the negli- 
 gence of the writer. 
 
 " Bald." This means the absence of ornament where orna- 
 ment is needed. Dryden says : 
 
 " Hobbes, in the preface to his own bald translation of Homer, begins 
 the praise of Homer where he should have ended it" 
 
 § 306. THE FLORID STYLE. 
 
 2. Numerous faults arise from the florid style. 
 
 The florid style resembles that which is characterized by 
 excessive diffuseness, yet is sufficiently different to be readily 
 defined. Excessive diffuseness means the superabundance of 
 words, while the florid style is a collection of verbose expres- 
 sions supposed by the writer to be beautiful. The florid writer 
 is always unduly diff'use ; but the most diff"use writer need not by 
 any means be florid. The florid style is characterized by mis- 
 placed and overwrought imagery, over-luxuriousness of expres- 
 sion, false excitement, and the affectation of enthusiasm. All 
 this is vicious, and is stigmatized by various epithets which 
 show how repugnant it is to good taste. 
 
 The chief characteristics of the florid style may be set down 
 as follows : 
 
 I St. The excessive use of words. 
 
 2d. Poetical words and idioms. 
 
 3d. An inverted order of words such as is allowed only in 
 poetry. 
 
 4th. Frequent exclamations* 
 
 5th. The affectation of enthusiasm. 
 
 With this style may be classified all those forms of expres- 
 sion which are marked by such terms as " stilted," " sentimen- 
 tal," " hysterical," " rhapsodical," " rant," " rhodomontade," and 
 the like. 
 
 It is found in many young and ardent writers who are car- 
 ried away by enthusiasm, among those who deal in sentiment, 
 and those who aim to excite the emotions. Writers upon relig- 
 ious and moral subjects often fall into this. A notorious ex- 
 
288 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 ample may be found in Hervey's Meditations. Dickens has 
 been blamed for many passages in which this vice of style 
 appears. Many French writers are too florid for English taste. 
 Victor Hugo in his later novels, e.g., *' L'homme qui rit," has 
 given great offence. Lamartine and Chateaubriand are open 
 to the same charge. In German literature Gesner is florid 
 and mawkish ; and even the genius of Goethe was not superior 
 to the temptation of this style in his Sorrows of Werther. 
 Headley's "Napoleon and his Marshals," George Gilfillan's 
 essays, and Swinburne's prose writings are all chargeable with 
 the same fault. 
 
 " Rhetorical " is sometimes used as a term of reproach, and is 
 applied to a florid style in which the ornament is too apparent. 
 iEschines attributes this to Demosthenes, in a phrase which 
 was meant to imply this fault : " His style smells of the lamp." 
 Many critics consider Macaulay's essay on Milton " rhetorical." 
 
 Brougham finds fault with the style of Cicero in the follow- 
 ing passage : 
 
 " The compositions of Cicero, exquisite as they are for beauty of diction, 
 often remarkable for ingenious argument and brilliant wit, not seldom ex- 
 celling in deep pathos, are nevertheless so extremely rhetorical, fashioned 
 by an art so little concealed, and sacrificing the subject to a display of the 
 author's powers, admirable as those are, that nothing can be less adapted 
 to the genius of modern elocution, which requires a constant and almost 
 exclusive attention to the business in hand. In all his orations which were 
 spoken, hardly two pages can be found which a modern assembly would 
 bear. . . . Now it is altogether otherwise with the Greek masters. Chang- 
 ing a few phrases, . . . moderating in some degree the virulence of invec- 
 tive, . . . there is hardly one of the political or forensic orations of the Greeks 
 that might not be delivered in similar circumstances before our senate and 
 tribunals ; while their funeral and other panegyrical discourses are much less 
 inflated and unsubstantial than those of the most approved masters of the 
 epideictic style — the French academicians and preachers." 
 
 " Sentimental " is the expression of weak and commonplace 
 sentiments in florid language : as — 
 
 " Though it be pleasant to revel amid the dreams of fancy, or soar aloft 
 amid scenes of ideal beauty, yet 'tis sweet, yes, sweeter far, to read in Nat- 
 ure's ov\-n book the page of living, eternal, undying truth." 
 
 "There is a sublimity in nature, and there is a sublimity in morals. As 
 we gaze upon the ocean in its wrath, as the forked lightnings play around, 
 as the billows bound and scatter their spray to the clouds, lofty emotions 
 crowd in upon the soul." 
 
Style Associated zvith Harmony. 289 
 
 " Stilted " is a term applied to writing which is forced and 
 unnatural. It is characterized by mock enthusiasm and ex- 
 travagant expressions. The word " hifalutin " has been coined 
 to stigmatize this fault. In the following passage Washington 
 is described : 
 
 ** Through every fibre of that herculean frame — standing six feet and six 
 inches, developed into matchless and symmetrical beauty — every passion, 
 thought, and feeling that belongs to earth or heaven went forever thrilling. 
 Not a nerve but waked like a sensitive plant to every zephyr breath ; not 
 a muscle of that grand frame but was as elastic, not a tendon that was not 
 as hard as steel. He was of all men perhaps gifted with the finest nervous 
 susceptibility and the mightiest power of will ; for over the broad expanse 
 of his nature, where the capabilities of terrific action lay reposing, they woke 
 to the summons of that all-controlling will, directed by supreme judgment, 
 and arrayed themselves for action as divisions of a great army answer the 
 signal to come into line of battle. . . . We can, indeed, say that in all feats 
 of agility and strength; in litheness and grace of form; in the ripened 
 beauty but half-revealed powet of the young Apollo ; in early training by 
 long exposure ; in climbing n.ountains, swimming winter rivers through 
 creaking iee-cakes ; working long days under the dissolving heat of a melt- 
 ing sun, and bound by the frozen chains of arctic cold, he grew into a strength 
 and power of endurance rarely seen even among the men of his time, who 
 had been spoiled by none of the enervating caresses of tender mothers, but 
 whom Nature claimed as her own hardy sons of the wilderness; whom she 
 cradles in storms and fondles in tempests, as she does the eagle and the 
 lion, whom she brings up to do her heavy work." 
 
 "Hysterical." This term is sometimes applied to a style 
 which is excessively sentimental, and fuller than usual of false 
 excitement and wild extravagance. The same style, when also 
 showing the addition of personal confidences and overstrained 
 feeling, is called *' gushing." 
 
 " Rhapsody " is used to designate overwrought fancies, and 
 a style largely made up of semi-poetical words and phrases. 
 
 "Rant" is unbridled extravagance of language with much 
 enthusiasm. 
 
 "Rhodomontade" means indulgence in vainglorious trifling. 
 
 § 307. THE PRETENTIOUS STYLE. 
 
 3. A pretentious style is the expression of plain facts or com- 
 monplace ideas in the longest possible words. Thus a certain 
 class of so-called "educationists" will define a "ball-frame" 
 as an " arithmeticon," and explain to a class of schoolboys 
 
290 Elefnents of Rhetoric. 
 
 that the ordinar)' stroke used in writing is " the resultant force 
 from the mean of the vertical and horizontal forces." The 
 chief characteristics of a pretentious style are: 
 
 I St. The use of words of Latin or Greek origin in preference 
 to those derived from Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 2d. The use of long and sonorous words in preference to 
 short and simple. 
 
 3d. The use of technical terms. 
 
 4th. The affectation of scientific treatment. 
 
 A pretentious style may often be found in writings which 
 deal with educational subjects, where, as above, the plainest 
 facts, which may be stated with simplicity, are expressed in the 
 ponderous technicalities of scientific nomenclature. Other 
 writings may be found on the same subject which are perfectly 
 clear and perfectly unpretending. This style is adopted under 
 the idea that it will convey the impression of superior knowl- 
 edge. In reality it often conceals real ignorance; for though 
 it is certainly possible that one who understands his subject 
 may be unfortunate and unintelligible in his exposition, yet as 
 a rule he will at least show that he is making an effort to be 
 understood. 
 
 It may often be found in sermons, where the preacher, in 
 reward for making himself thoroughly unintelligible, gains the 
 reputation of a "deep thinker." 
 
 But the greatest scientific writers are quite free from this 
 when addressing the general public. Hugh Miller, Darwin, 
 Huxley, Tyndall, Tate, John Stuart Mill, and others, have shown 
 that men can handle the most difficult subjects, and yet make 
 themselves not only intelligible, but even pleasing to readers 
 of average intelligence. 
 
 A pretentious style is often adopted by newspaper reporters, 
 whose peculiarities are amusingly exemplified by Professor 
 Lowell in the following manner : 
 
 PLAIN STYLE. PRETENTIOUS STYLE. 
 
 Was hanged. Was launched into eternity. 
 
 When the halter was put round his When the fatal noose was adjusted 
 neck. about the neck of the unfortunate vic- 
 
 tim of his own unbridled passion. 
 
 A great crowd came to see. A vast concourse was assembled to 
 
 witness. 
 
 Great fire. Disastrous conflagration. 
 
Style Associated with Harmony. 291 
 
 PLAIN STYLE. PRETENTIOUS STYLE. 
 
 The fire spread. The conflagration extended its de- 
 
 vastating career. 
 
 House burned. Edifice consumed. 
 
 The fire was got under. The progress of the devouring ele- 
 
 ment was arrested. 
 
 Man fell. The individual was precipitated. 
 
 A horse and wagon ran against. A valuable horse attached to a ve- 
 
 hicle driven by J. S., in the employ- 
 ment of J. B., collided with. 
 
 A bystander advised. One ofthose omnipresent characters 
 
 who, as if in pursuance of a previous 
 arrangement, are certain to be en- 
 countered in the vicinity when an ac- 
 cident occurs, ventured the sugges- 
 tion. 
 
 Other examples may be found in the following : " Recently 
 deceased," for " lately dead ;" " monumental marble," for 
 " tombstone ;" " residence," for " house ;" " paraphernalia," for 
 " clothes ;" " emporium," for " shop ;" " encomium," for "praise ;" 
 "location," for "place;" "locate," for "put;" "attired," for 
 "clad;" " individual," for " person ;" " window draperies," for 
 "curtains;" "entertainment," for "supper;" "sacred edifice," 
 for " church ;" "vociferation," for "cry;" " available resources," 
 for "income;" "lower limb," for "leg;" "peregrination," for 
 "walk ;" "asphyxiate," for "choke." 
 
 There are various modes of the pretentious style, some of 
 which are indicated by the following terms : 
 
 " Grandiloquent," a pompous style, consisting of a great dis- 
 play of ornate language. 
 
 "Profound;" "oracular;" trite and commonplace ideas ex- 
 pressed with the air of wisdom and originality; often put forth 
 after the fashion of maxims or apophthegms. Tupper's " Pro- 
 verbial Philosophy" is an example. 
 
 " Egotistic" is applied to style in which the writer is perpetu- 
 ally thrusting forward his own personality. A proper modesty 
 is always in good taste, and anything like self-conceit in speaker 
 or writer is repulsive. Egotism is only tolerable when accom- 
 panied by wit and humor, or at least sprightliness and vivacity. 
 
 The term "sesquipedalian" is applied to words of unusual 
 length ; and to any style in which they are abundant. 
 
 N 2 
 
292 Elements of Rlutoric, 
 
 § 308. OSTENTATION. 
 
 4. Another vice of style opposed to elegance is found in 
 various kinds of ostentation, of which the following are the 
 most prominent : 
 
 ist. Conceit. 
 
 This word formerly meant "concept," that is, a "conception," 
 and implied a sentiment, a striking thought. Thus Pope : 
 
 "Some to conceit alone their works confine. 
 And glittering thoughts struck out at every line." 
 
 At present it is used to signify sentiments that are strained 
 or far-fetched, especially when presented in the form of figures. 
 Thus Bulwer, in his attack on Tennyson, calls his poetry — 
 
 *'A jingling medley of purloined conceits, 
 Outbabying Wordsworth, and outglittering Keats." 
 
 A recent poem, A Riddle of Lovers, contains such conceits 
 as " her beautiful singing holy soul," " the shine of sharp soul 
 striking soul." 
 
 "There is no poet's poesy would not 
 When laid against the whiteness of her meek. 
 Proud, solemn face, make there a pitiful blot." 
 
 2d. Imitations of great writers. 
 
 Every great writer has hosts of admirers and imitators. 
 Johnson was followed by a school of writers who wrote John- 
 sonese. Carlyle had many imitators; but the race has nearly 
 died out. It is the same in poetry. The Byron mania is well 
 known. Tennyson has been imitated for the last thirty years; 
 and of late Swinburne has his followers, who, in the words of a 
 critic, laboriously search for alliterations to " fire" and "desire," 
 and painfully call upon our Lady of Pain to " come down and 
 redeem them from virtue." 
 
 3d. Another form is found in certain fashions of criticism that 
 arise from time to time. The latest display of this sort is the 
 application of musical terms to painting, and of the slang of 
 art to poetry. "Mr. Swinburne's brilliant flesh-tints;" "Mr. 
 Morris's low -toned colors;" "a most charming symphony in 
 red ;" " a perfect sonnet in oils," are phrases which represent 
 this newest fashion in the world of letters. 
 
Style Associated with Harmony, 293 
 
 § 309. VULGARITY. 
 
 5. Various faults of style arise through vulgarity. 
 
 There are some who try to leap at once into ease of writing. 
 They read the essays of an author like Thackeray, and make 
 the attempt to rival him, without being conscious of the differ- 
 ence between a great master and a young beginner. Unwilling 
 to go through the labor that is necessary to prepare them for 
 such a task, or ignorant that such labor is required, they rush 
 at once into as close an imitation of their model as they can 
 contrive. Any real imitation, under such circumstances, is not 
 generally effected. What is liveliness and sprightiiness in the 
 one, becomes in the other coarseness and sheer vulgarity. In 
 order to appear quite at their ease, they make free use of collo- 
 quialisms; and intending to be elegant, they are simply imper- 
 tinent. In writing, as in actual life, where one forces himself 
 to appear at ease, the result will be that he overdoes it, and 
 makes himself awkward and disagreeable. To this sort of vul- 
 garity may be applied the well-known saying, " The ass would 
 imitate the lapdog ;" or Burke's words, " It is the contortions 
 of the sibyl without the inspiration." 
 
 Another form of vulgarity is found where there is an appeal 
 to low motives, such as prejudice, local feeling, snobbishness; 
 together with low expressions — the slang of little cliques or so- 
 cieties and the like. 
 
 Sometimes the language is awkward. This is seen in the 
 use of words that are not expressive of one's meaning, and in 
 badly arranged phrases and sentences. 
 
 Buffoonery is a species of vulgarity. It is the lowest kind of 
 wit, if, indeed, it can be called wit. It is coarse and clownish 
 humor, the meanest exhibition of the sense of the ridiculous. 
 It is seen in "Joe Millerisms," coarse jokes, scurrilities, low 
 personalities, and also in vulgar jesting upon sacred themes. 
 

 PART IV. 
 
 METHOD. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER. 
 S 310. METHOD DEFINED. 
 
 Before entering upon the work of composition it is neces- 
 sary to gather up material, and arrange it into some kind of 
 order. This material is called subject-matter, that is, matter 
 relating to the subject under consideration. 
 
 Method may be defined as the choice and arrangement of 
 the subject-matter of composition, as distinguished from style, 
 which is the manner o^ its expression in words. 
 
 Various other terms are frequently applied. Thus in fiction, 
 whether narrative or dramatic, it is often called " plot ;" in es- 
 says, speeches, and many works aiming at persuasion, it is 
 called "analysis;" in sermons the word "skeleton" is popular- 
 ly used; and, finally, the word "argument" is of frequent ap- 
 plication. Method includes all these. 
 
 Method, according to the above definition, may be consid- 
 ered under two general divisions: First, the choice of subject- 
 matter, or invention; secondly, the arrangement of subject- 
 matter. 
 
 § 311. SUBJECT-MATTER. 
 
 Subject-matter maybe regarded from a twofold point of view : 
 first, with reference to the mode in which it is presented ; and, 
 secondly, with reference to its own character. 
 
 Subject matter, when considered with reference to the mode 
 
Subject-Matt er. 295 
 
 in which it is presented, assumes various forms, which consti- 
 tute the leading departments of literature. These may be set 
 down in the following order : 
 
 I. Description. 2. Narration. 3. Exposition. 4. Oratory. 
 5. Dialogue. 6. Drama. 7. Poetry. 
 
 Each of these departments of literature has its own charac- 
 t(5r, and for its successful treatment requires peculiar qualities 
 in the writer, who does not often attain to real excellence in 
 more than one. 
 
 Description is the representation of things observed at any 
 one point of time. 
 
 Narration is the report of a succession of events observed in 
 the order of time. 
 
 Exposition is that kind of composition which deals with its 
 subject-matter by a process of reasoning, so as to reach a cer- 
 tain conclusion through the discussion of facts or principles. 
 
 Oratory is a form of exposition tending to persuasion. 
 
 Dialogue is the consideration of a subject by more than 
 one. 
 
 Drama is the visible representation of the acts and passions 
 of men. 
 
 Poetry constitutes a literature in itself, with its own peculiar 
 characteristics. It is the expression of thought or feeling by 
 modes which imply an excited or elevated imagination. 
 
 In description, narration, and the drama, the subject-matter 
 refers chiefly to objects or events. 
 
 In exposition, oratory, and dialogue, the subject-matter refers 
 chiefly to theories or principles. 
 
 Poetry is more comprehensive than any other department of 
 literature. It may enter into description, narration, exposition, 
 dialogue, the drama, or even oratory, and may therefore have 
 the subject-matter peculiar to these. 
 
 Subject-matter, when considered with reference to its own 
 character, is divisible into two parts : 
 
 1. When it refers to facts which are to be described or nar- 
 rated. 
 
 2. When it refers to principles which are to be discussed. 
 
 It is evident that the same kind of subject-matter is required 
 for description and narration, whether these are set forth di- 
 rectly or indirectly, in prose or poetry, in dialogue or the drama; 
 
296 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 while for exposition, oratory, the expository parts of poetry, di- 
 alogue, or the drama, there is required that kind of subject- 
 matter which is adapted to exposition. The first of these 
 classes may therefore be called narrative subject-matter, and 
 the second expository. 
 
 Narrative subject-matter consists chiefly of facts and occur- 
 rences, and may be illustrated by such works as the Iliad of 
 Homer, the History of Herodotus, Shakespeare's Macbeth, and 
 Scott's Waverley Novels. 
 
 Expository subject-matter consists chiefly of theories or prin- 
 ciples, and may be illustrated by the works of Plato, Cicero. 
 Locke, and Berkeley'. y.ut»^«w^ >l- a^^^^^^-y juW^t^ZWci^^, 
 
 These two kinds of subject-matter are often found intermin- 
 gled, or side by side, as when a narrative of facts is associated 
 with the discussion of principles. Examples of this may be 
 found in Plato's Apology of Socrates, the oration of Demosthe- 
 nes on the Crown, and Burke's speech at the Bristol election. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 THE PURPOSE OF THE WRITER. 
 § 312. THE PURPOSE OF THE WRITER. 
 
 Invention, being, as we have seen, the selection and accu- 
 mulation of subject-matter, is also concerned with the purpose 
 of the writer. 
 
 Every kind of composition has some aim or purpose, and 
 these are numerous, but may be reduced to a few classes. 
 First, the aim of the writer may be to instruct; secondly, to 
 convince ; thirdly, to persuade ; and, fourthly, to please. 
 
 . § 313. the aim to instruct. 
 
 I. The aim of the writer may be to instruct. This presup- 
 poses more or less ignorance of the subject on the part of the 
 reader. 
 
 Under this class may be included all works in which any 
 kind of information is conveyed. These comprehend a large 
 
The Purpose of the Writer. 297 
 
 proportion of narrative and descriptive writing, such as histo- 
 ries, biographies, and books of travel. Prose fiction also will 
 frequently show the aim to instruct; more particularly the his- 
 torical novel, of which Quentin Durward may be taken as an 
 example. The tales of Louisa Miihlbach afford perhaps a bet- 
 ter instance, for in these the information which the author in- 
 tends to convey quite overshadows those minor details upon 
 which other writers of fiction are wont to enlarge. 
 
 Expository writings often have this for a prominent aim, for 
 instruction is largely communicated in this way, although their 
 chief purpose is most frequently to convince or persuade. 
 Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity and Bacon's Advancement of 
 Learning are conspicuous examples, for although the polemical 
 spirit is visible, yet the purpose of instruction is certainly in. 
 the ascendant. To these may be added that vast body of 
 scientific literature, whether didactic, moral, or religious, where 
 the aim is to enlarge the sum of human knowledge. 
 
 Poetry often exhibits the same purpose, as, for example, Vir- 
 gil's Georgics; Horace's Ars Poetica; Pope's Essay on Criti- 
 cism. 
 
 § 314. THE AIM TO CONVINCE. 
 
 2. The aim may be to convince. Here the writer presup- 
 poses in the reader not ignorance, but a difference of opinion ; 
 and his aim is to effect a change in that opinion towards his 
 own point of view. 
 
 This is chiefly confined to expository writings. It may be 
 seen in philosophical works, such as those of Locke, Berkeley, 
 Hume, Reid, and others; while in theological works it is equal- 
 ly prevalent, especially in those of a polemical character. It 
 is sometimes found in oratory, which is almost always designed 
 either to convince or persuade, although the latter purpose is 
 more frequent than the former. 
 
 This purpose — to convince — may be found in departments 
 of literature where it is least expected. It might be shown 
 that the aim of such a work as Uncle Tom's Cabin is to display 
 the evils of American slavery, and thus by means of highly col- 
 ored facts to convince the reader of the necessity of the over- 
 throw of that institution. 
 
 It may also be observed in that large class of works of fic- 
 tion known as religious novels, which are a characteristic of the 
 
298 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 present day, of which a well-known example is the Schonberg- 
 Cotta Family. In all of these, the effort of the author to con- 
 vince the reader of the truth of his own views is as evident as 
 that of the writer who puts forth his opinions in expository 
 works. 
 
 § 315. THE AIM TO PERSUADE. 
 
 3. The aim may be to persuade. Here, as in the previous 
 case, the writer seeks to bring over the reader to his own point 
 of view. He does not, however, presuppose any difference of 
 opinion, but may regard the reader as ignorant or indifferent ; 
 or he may even conceive of him as already on his own side, but 
 waiting for further stimulus to approach nearer. 
 
 Conviction refers chiefly to the understanding, which it affects 
 by arguments; persuasion, on the other hand, while it also ap- 
 peals to the understanding, goes beyond it, and appeals still 
 farther to the will. It seeks to attain its purpose, first, by 
 showing that the thing in question is right or wrong; and, sec- 
 ondly, that it is desirable or otherwise. It therefore makes use 
 not only of those arguments that are addressed to the reason, 
 but also of those which appeal to the passions. 
 
 Persuasion is more powerful than conviction, first, because 
 men are always moved more readily, and at the same time 
 more forcibly, by their feelings than by their reason ; secondly, 
 because even when the reason is convinced, men are not al- 
 ways ready to follow out their convictions. This is a well- 
 known fact in human nature, and it has given rise to familiar 
 maxims and proverbs, such as : 
 
 " Silenced, but not convinced." 
 
 " Video meliora proboque deteriora sequor." 
 
 " He that complies against hb will, is of the same opinion still." 
 
 This purpose enters so largely into literature that, as we 
 have seen, rhetoric has been defined as the " art of persua- 
 sion." 
 
 Narrative works exhibit it in those histories which are writ- 
 ten with a bias, where the author endeavors to inculcate his 
 own sentiments; in biographies, where the writer endeavors to 
 win over the reader to his own view of the subject by present- 
 ing it in the most attractive manner. It also appears in prose 
 fiction, in all those works which are composed for (he purpose 
 
The Purpose of the Writer. 299 
 
 of inculcating some lesson. Thus the Pilgrim's Progress seeks 
 to draw man to a religious life; Johnson's Rasselas recom- 
 mends high morals and integrity; The Vicar of Wakefield al- 
 lures by its display of the simple virtues of humble piety. AH 
 fables, parables, and allegories have the same purpose. 
 
 In expository writings the aim is more directly stated, though 
 not with greater power. Within this class are included all 
 those works which are written for the purpose of recommend- 
 ing virtue and religion, or for inculcating truth, or for dissemi- 
 nating new doctrines. Examples of this may be found in near- 
 ly all the leading essayists — Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, Addi- 
 son, Steele, Johnson, Macaulay, De Quincey, Carlyle, Emerson, 
 and many others. 
 
 Oratory is pre-eminently the art of persuasion, having thus 
 gained <he title which was once applied to rhetoric. For the 
 orator by his very attitude finds it his best interest to conciliate 
 the audience, and he does this in many ways, among which the 
 most inrtuential is to assume that they are not altogether op- 
 posed to him, or that at least they are impartial. Hence he 
 aims not so much at conviction, for that is directed to those 
 who are acknowledged as opposed, as at persuasion, which is 
 directed towards those who are supposed to be at least ready 
 lo listen. Thus, in all his efforts to conciliate, to find some 
 common ground for himself and for his audience, he seeks to 
 identify himself as far as possible with them, so that he is forced 
 by the exigency of the case to draw them by persuasion rather 
 than compel them by conviction. And so, even where there is 
 the most vehement antagonism to others, as that of Demosthe- 
 nes and rEschines against one another, or that of Cicero against 
 Catiline, or Burke against Hastings, or Webster against Hayne, 
 the orator never loses sight of the aim to persuade his hearers. 
 Of this nature was the fervid oratory of St. Paul, which led 
 Agrippa to exclaim, " Almost thou persuadest me to be a 
 Christian" — words which, in whatever way we may interpret 
 them, testify to the earnest purpose of the apostle. 
 
 We may perceive the same thing in poetry, but nowhere 
 more strikingly displayed than in the lyrical department. Here 
 the appeal is uniformly to the passions. In all the various 
 kinds of lyric poems, secular or sacred, the effect is strong, and 
 sometimes irresistible; and it is this truth that gives point to 
 
300 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 the celebrated saying of Fletcher of Saltoun : " I knew a very 
 wise man who believed that, if a man were permitted to make 
 all the ballads, he need not care who should make the laws of 
 a nation." 
 
 Didactic poetry shows the same purpose ; as in Young's Night 
 Thoughts, Thomson's Seasons, Cowper's Task, and others. 
 
 § 316. THE AIM TO PLEASE. 
 
 4. The aim of the writer may be to please. Here the inten- 
 tion is to impart gratification or pleasure without any direct ef- 
 fort to instruct or to persuade, although this also may be the 
 result. This will be found the animating principle of a large 
 proportion of the works of the imagination, both in prose and 
 poetry. 
 
 This was manifestly the first aim of the Iliad and the Odys- 
 sey, and the vast body of epic song belonging to the Trojan 
 epopoeia. In these we find much to instruct and persuade, but 
 these are all subordinate to the main purpose, which is to 
 please, for the very exercise of the imagination which gives 
 pleasure to the author is presented to others, so that they shall 
 have the same pleasure; and all the artifices of poetry — its 
 euphony, its measures, its diction, and its figures — tend to this. 
 Homer has been called the father of "story-tellers," and after 
 him have come his descendants, the "story-tellers" of all ages, 
 who are content with the simple aim of giving delight to those 
 who may choose to listen. 
 
 In the Middle Ages the Arabians turned aside from scientific 
 pursuits to revel in the charms of that prose fiction which we 
 know so well under the name of the "Thousand and One 
 Nights." The literature of Christendom arose out of the met- 
 rical romance, in which was included all that vast body of po- 
 etry belonging to the Carlovingian and Arthurian epopoeias. 
 Chaucer was a story-teller, and Spenser also ; while Sir Walter 
 Scott, who revived the metrical romance, had the same aim in 
 poems and novels. 
 
 In prose fiction this is still more evident, for this is the first 
 aim of the modern novel. Among novelists there are many 
 who have attained to the highest places of literature : Walter 
 Scott, who in creative genius stands next to Shakespeare ; 
 Thackeray, who in purity of English may stand beside Addi- 
 
The Purpose of the Writer. 301 
 
 son ; George Eliot, who shows a Baconian capacity for max- 
 ims; Dickens, who draws all the world after him. Such wri- 
 ters as these have set out first with the design to please, but 
 they have added more to this ; and by their genius they 
 have raised the novel to the place which once was held by 
 the drama. 
 
 In dramatic literature the author's first purpose is also to 
 please. The drama may be defined as a story told by dialogue 
 and by action. It is essential to its success, nay, even to its 
 very existence, that the spectator be entertained; and even 
 when the writer has a higher motive than mere pleasure, he 
 must keep this steadily in view. Hence, while tragedy may be 
 created from various motives, and may show the aim to please 
 only in an inferior way, comedy elevates it to the chief posi- 
 tion. 
 
 In expository writings, the aim to please is chiefly seen 
 in essays, such as those of Addison, Lamb, and Thackeray. 
 These often belong in part to humorous composition, but the 
 humorous itself may be called an effort to please in a peculiar 
 direction. 
 
 § 317. THE UNION OF DIFFERENT AIMS. 
 
 These various purposes have been considered separately for 
 the sake of convenience, but in reality they do not often exist 
 separately, being generally found in union with one another. 
 This is particularly the case with conviction and persuasion, 
 which are united so frequently that many rhetoricians regard 
 them as inseparable. In order to have a complete view of this 
 subject, it will now be necessary to notice the chief cases in 
 which they are thus united. 
 
 I. Where the chief purpose is to instruct, and the subordi- 
 nate to convince or persuade. 
 
 This is most visible in historical works. Every historian 
 has certain views of his own which appear in his writings, and 
 are often urged upon the reader. Thus, while the first aim of 
 history is generally to instruct, there is the subsidiary aim to 
 persuade the reader to adopt the writer's own opinions. In 
 Clarendon's history, the instruction imparted is associated with 
 the author's evident devotion to the Stuart cause. In Gibbon's 
 great work, the information conveyed is often modified and 
 
302 Elements of Rhetork. 
 
 colored by insinuations against Christianity, made by a writer 
 who has been described by Byron as — 
 
 "Sapping a solemn creed with solemn sneer» 
 The lord of irony." 
 
 Macaulay, while he instructs us in English history, exhibits 
 his strong \Vhig s\nnpathies; and Lingard shows his Roman 
 Catholic proclivities while treating of the same subject. Among 
 the numerous histories of Greece, some advocate monarchy, 
 others republicanism. This is the meaning of one-sidedness or 
 partiality in the historian. In the generality of cases he must 
 show this, for an author must needs feel some deep interest in 
 his subject in order to write well, and this interest naturally 
 shows itself in a partisan spirit It is not every one who can 
 write like Thucydides, and give instruction for all time in such 
 a way that his own personalit)" is sunk, and his personal feel- 
 ings or sympathies shall be a matter of dispute or conjecture. 
 The bitterness of Tacitus is so intense that he has been charged 
 with exaggeration, and Josephus is accused by De Quincey of 
 treason to his people, and corrupt subser\nency to Roman in- 
 terests. 
 
 > The same union of purposes may be found in oratory, for the 
 speaker often has occasion to indulge in narration or descrip- 
 tion which is made use of to advocate his own views. Thus 
 Demosthenes, in his oration on the Crown already alluded to, 
 gives ver\' valuable instruction where he goes over the history 
 of his life and policy, while in addition to this he maintains that 
 his policy was right and honorable. In the greater part of 
 Burke's speeches, apart from the argument, there will be found 
 the most valuable information on many subjects. 
 
 In science, philosophy, and theology, instruction is given by 
 the statement of the leading truths, doctrines, or facts, while the 
 effort to persuade or convince is seen in the author's advocacy 
 of his own views or theories. 
 
 2. Where the chief purpose is to instruct, and the subordinate 
 to please. 
 
 These are blended, as a popular way of conveying informa- 
 tion. Thus in books of travel we find the narrative of impor- 
 tant facts combined with amusing adventures. To this class 
 belong those histories which are told in a lively style and filled 
 
The Purpose of the Writer, 303 
 
 with entertaining anecdotes. Suetonius affords an example of 
 tiiis, and Boswell's Life of Johnson shows the same inter- 
 mixture of instruction and amusement. 
 
 In oratory the modern lecture may be mentioned, if, indeed, 
 it be proper to consider this as oratory. Here knowledge is 
 often imparted, while the aim to please is manifest by the ef- 
 forts which the lecturer makes to attract and retain the atten- 
 tion of his hearers. 
 
 Modern science resorts largely to this as a means of com- 
 mending itself to the public, and illustrations might be drawn 
 from numerous works with which all are familiar. The lead- 
 ing savans do not disdain the work of giving pleasure, and the 
 writings of Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall, Proctor, and others, may 
 be mentioned as conspicuous examples of works which please 
 while they instruct. 
 
 3. Where the chief aim is to convince or persuade, and the 
 subordinate to please. 
 
 In nearly all the narrative works already mentioned, as ex- 
 hibiting a desire to persuade, an effort to please is also percep- 
 tible. For the historian or biographer is generally desirous of 
 affording entertainment to his reader, so as to lead him with 
 him. 
 
 In controversial writings the effort to convince or persuade 
 is often associated with entertainment in the shape of ridicule 
 directed against the adversary. To anything like this men 
 always listen with pleasure, and are insensibly affected by it. 
 For ridicule is a potent weapon of offence, and affects the will 
 instantaneously, and often permanently. 
 
 4. Where the chief aim is to please, and the subordinate to 
 instruct. 
 
 Examples of this are to be found in the works of the imagi- 
 nation. Thus in such poems as the Iliad the first aim is un- 
 doubtedly to please ; but the poet brings forward so many ad- 
 mirable scenes and characters, and gives utterance to so many 
 pregnant sayings, that no one can avoid receiving valuable les- 
 sons. This is also visible in dramatic literature and in prose 
 fiction, in fables, parables, and allegories. 
 
 5. Where the chief purpose is to please, and the subordinate 
 to convince or persuade. 
 
 This is found in those works of fiction which are designed to 
 
304 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 affect the opinions of the reader. In some of these the first aim 
 is mani^Stly to convince or persuade, and the effort to please 
 is but faint; but in the majority of them the higher purpose is 
 veiled, or kept in a subordinate position. Religious novels, and 
 other stories written, as the saying is, " with a purpose," afford 
 examples. Thus Thackeray makes war on the shams and con- 
 ventionalisms of modern society ; Dickens in his various nov- 
 els seeks to overthrow some conspicuous abuse; the later works 
 of Lord Lytton show the same tendency; and at the present 
 day a large proportion of works of fiction display an attempt 
 to inculcate certain views of the author. 
 
 This is very evident in lyrical poetry. Great songs, such as 
 those of Burns, or the Marseillaise, please by their music, their 
 rhythm, their imagery, yet sway the feelings with irresistible 
 power, and thus exhibit the most effective kind of persuasion. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 MODES OF INVENTION. 
 
 § 318. INVENTION IS OF TWO KINDS. 
 
 Invention, or the finding of subject-matter, is of two kinds. 
 The first is where the writer gathers the subject-matter from 
 external sources. This may be called accumulative invention. 
 The second is where the writer supplies the subject-matter by 
 the creative faculty of his own mind. This may be called 
 creative invention. 
 
 These kinds of invention are quite distinct, and require sep- 
 arate consideration. 
 
 § 319. accumulative invention. 
 
 By accumulative invention is meant the finding of subject- 
 matter by study, research, testimony, or observation. The 
 subject-matter of the earlier historians, Herodotus and Thucyd- 
 ides, arose from observation and testimony ; those of Gibbon 
 and Macaulay from study and research. 
 
 Accumulative invention may also be seen in other narra- 
 
Modes of Invention. 305 
 
 tives, whether poetry or prose, where the writer lacks originality. 
 Roman writers are conspicuous for this. Plautus and Terence 
 adapted Greek plays, or translated them. Virgil did not cre- 
 ate the materials for the ^^neid, but took them from existing 
 sources, and presented them with but little change. 
 
 Accumulative invention is found, first, in narratives made 
 up of fiicts of actual occurrence, with which the writer has be- 
 come acquainted in any way ; secondly, in all works of the 
 imagination, where the incidents have not been originated by 
 the writer, but drawn from other sources. 
 
 Accumulative invention may also be seen in expository sub- 
 ject-matter. 
 
 ist. In writing intended to instruct, where the subject-matter 
 is the result of research, as in Quintilian's Institutes of Oratory. 
 
 2d. Where the reasoning is based upon facts of actual oc- 
 currence, as in Burke's speech on the Nabob of Arcot, or 
 Sheridan's speech on Warren Hastings. 
 
 In accumulative invention the subject-matter may be imme- 
 diately furnished by the memory, so that no preliminary labor 
 may be needed ; but it is evident that this labor has already 
 taken place in some way from the existence of those very 
 things with which the memory has been supplied. 
 
 In accumulative invention the faculties of the mind chiefly 
 employed are reason and memory. 
 
 § 320. CREATIVE INVENTION. 
 
 By this is meant the finding qf .subject-matter by means of 
 the inventive powers of the mind. The writer does not gather 
 his material from external sources, but supplies it from within. 
 
 In narrative, creative invention is found in all works of the 
 imagination where the things described have been produced 
 by the author's own conception. For example, Dante's Divina 
 Commedia describes a vast succession of scenes, with a multi- 
 tude of characters, all of which have been created by the 
 powerful genius of the author. In Milton's Paradise Lost we 
 are introduced to supernatural scenes and superhuman char- 
 acters, with mould and temper transcending anything that has 
 ever existed in real life. Homer intermingles the natural with 
 the supernatural, and blends his own creations with history or 
 legend. Creative invention may also be shown where real 
 
3o6 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 facts and the characters of real life are represented, but where 
 the particular characters are actual creations, or are endowed 
 with a life and individuality of their own. This is illustrated 
 in modern novels. 
 
 In exposition, creative invention may be seen where the 
 writer sets forth to establish theories, to reason from new com- 
 binations of principles, or to reach new conclusions. Here 
 facts may, and, indeed, must form the foundation ; but the 
 creative invention of the writer is seen in his power of com- 
 bination, analysis, synthesis, and generalization, and in his 
 ability to pass from the known to the unknown. This is ex- 
 emplified in Burke's speech on Conciliation with America, or 
 in Erskine's speech on Hardy. 
 
 The faculties of the mind employed in creative invention are 
 chiefly imagination and reason. 
 
 § 321. THE REAL AND THE IDEAL. 
 
 The chief field of creative invention is fiction, which has 
 three distinct modes of presentation — poetry, prose, and the 
 drama. Among these two classes are to be noted — the real 
 and the ideal. 
 
 The Real. — Where the writer represents the scenes and 
 delineates the characters of real life. 
 
 The Ideal. — Where the writer describes characters and scenes 
 that are elevated beyond real life. The ideal must rise from 
 the real. The writer takes striking circumstances, as in human 
 life, and builds up an ideal world therefrom. 
 
 The same thing may be observed in art. A portrait repre- 
 sents the real, and may be compared with an original concep- 
 tion of the artist — a bust of Julius Caesar with the Apollo Belve- 
 dere. The one is imitation, the other creation ; the former is 
 fact, the latter imagination. 
 
 § 322. POETIC FICTION. 
 
 The ideal enters largely into poetic fiction. Realistic 
 poetr}', as a distinct class, is quite modern, and is found ex- 
 emplified by Cowper, Crabbe, and Wordsworth. Passages of 
 this sort may, however, be found in all poetry, and not the least 
 in Homer. Dante in conception is intensely ideal, yet, in 
 execution, is intensely real. Like Swedenborg, he combines 
 
Modes of Invention. 307 
 
 the most amazing grandeur and subtlety of design with micro- 
 scropic minuteness of detail. 
 
 In the drama the real is chiefly found in comedy, and the 
 ideal in tragedy ; the nearest approach to the real being in 
 such historical plays as those of Shakespeare \ yet this is only 
 apparent, for the poet idealizes all his characters, and, like the 
 portraits of Vandyke, these living historical personages have 
 the stamp of the artist upon them. The highest examples of 
 the ideal in dramatic writing are the Prometheus Bound, of 
 w^fCschylus ; Shakespeare's Midsummer-Night's Dream, Tempest, 
 and Hamlet; Shelley's Prometheus Unbound; and Goethe's 
 Faust. 
 
 § 323. PROSE FICTION. 
 
 The modern novel comprises both the real and the ideal. 
 Fielding, Thackeray, and Dickens aim after the real, but in 
 this they are surpassed by Trollope and others, who go so far 
 as to produce what has been called " photographic fiction," 
 from their attention to the pettiest facts of real life, and their 
 exact reproduction of commonplace. 
 
 The ideal has many followers, the chief of whom are Rich- 
 ardson, Miss Burney, Sir Walter Scott, Fouqu^, George Sand, 
 and Victor Hugo, 
 
 The modern novel has attained to the largest place in the 
 literature of the imagination, being to us what epic poetry was 
 to the ancient Greeks or the drama to the Elizabethan age. 
 Its sphere is of the broadest possible kind, and its character 
 illimitable, ranging all the way from the lowest to the highest. 
 
 In modern prose fiction there are three things to be con- 
 sidered : 
 
 1. The plot. 
 ,2. The characters. 
 
 ;. The scenery. 
 
 'i. The Plot. — This will be considered elsewhere in connec- 
 tion with the subject of order of thought. 
 
 2. Character. — According to a recent writer in Blackwood's 
 Magazine, this is the dominant force in fiction, and influences 
 not only the plot, but also the scenery. The leading characters 
 should always receive the most careful attention, and stand as 
 studies of human nature. The minor ones serve chiefly to set 
 off the greater. Original creations cannot be expected except 
 
 O 
 
 I 
 
3o8 Elemeftts of EJietoric, 
 
 from writers of the highest genius ; yet common characters may 
 be placed in novel situations, and thereby acquire much inter- 
 est. Some authors love to delineate a leading character of 
 ideal perfection, to whom is opposed another of commensurate 
 baseness. The former is popularly termed the " hero " or 
 " heroine," and the latter the " villain." Thackeray professed 
 to disbelieve in " heroes ;" but even in Vanity Fair he intro- 
 duces the true and noble-hearted though somewhat stupid 
 Dobbin, and in the Newcomes he has portrayed one of the 
 most striking and best-beloved characters in modern fiction. 
 
 3. Scenery. — This may be either subjective or objective; the 
 former referring to the display of human emotion, as in the 
 banquet of Macbeth or the ghost-scene of Hamlet, the latter 
 to natural objects. In the one case the description is gener- 
 ally in close connection with the progress of the story — rising 
 out of it and flowing along with it ; but in the other this con- 
 nection is by no means so frequent. And yet in material 
 scenes, no less than in moral, a close relation to the subject 
 should be maintained ; and all that which may be called the 
 "scenery" should have its own meaning, which should assist 
 the action. 
 
 § 324. THE TWO KINDS OF INVENTION INTERMINGLED. 
 
 Although for the sake of convenience these two kinds of 
 invention have been considered separately, yet in literature 
 they are generally intermingled ; for the creative sort is never 
 found separated from a basis of real occurrence, except per- 
 haps in such rare instances as Shelley's Prometheus Unbound, 
 or Mrs. Browning's Drama of Exile. Thus Homer had the 
 Trojan traditions; the Greek dramatists those of Troy or 
 Thebes. Legends which form the substratum of epic or dra- 
 matic poetry are called epopoeia, the chief of which are in an- 
 cient times the Trojan and the Theban ; in modern times the 
 Carlovingian and the Arthurian. The Elizabethan dramatists 
 based their works upon legends, tales, and history; Chaucer 
 upon stories which were current in his day; Spenser upon the 
 Arthurian epopoeia ; Milton upon that mythology which had 
 grown up outside of the Bible ; Scott upon national tradition ; 
 and the Idylls of the King rose from the same source as the 
 Faerie Queene. 
 
The Status. 
 
 309 
 
 § 325. OF THE TWO KINDS, THE CREATIVE IS THE GREATER. 
 
 Of the two kinds of invention, the creative is the greater. 
 
 It may, indeed, be considered as the highest power which is 
 possessed by the human mind. This creative faculty has been 
 regarded in all ages as the distinguishing mark of the greatest 
 poets, and constitutes the chief difference between them and 
 their lesser brethren. Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, and Mil- 
 ton are the supreme lords of literature. It is in this respect 
 that Virgil is inferior to Homer ; '1 asso to Dante ; Ben Jonson 
 to Shakespeare; Spenser to Milton. For this reason the great- 
 est works of creative invention are regarded as superior to the 
 greatest works of accumulative invention — Homer to Thucyd- 
 ides; Milton to Gibbon; Dickens and Thackeray to Macaulay 
 and Froude ; Tennyson to Grote ; Longfellow and Bryant to 
 Prescott and Motley. In short, the very best history does not 
 offer so broad a field for the exercise of genius as the very best 
 fiction. In history the materials are accumulated, the multi- 
 tudinous details are acquired by study, treasured up in the 
 memory, and then narrated. In fiction these are all created; 
 the portrayals of characters, their passions, words, acts ; the 
 scenery and surroundings. Sometimes beings full of life are 
 brought before us, unlike anything in common experience, 
 speaking words that last forever ; and the speaker and the 
 words are all created by the author's own mind. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE STATUS. 
 
 § 326. ARRANGEMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER. 
 
 Having thus far treated of the finding of subject-matter, we 
 have now to consider its arrangement, and under this head 
 the following topics are included : 
 
 1. Status. 4. Argument. 
 
 2. Classification. 5. Introduction. 
 
 3. Order of thought. 6. Conclusion. 
 
3IO Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 327. STATUS. 
 
 The first requisite in the arrangement of subject-matter is 
 that the writer have a perfectly clear idea of the purpose before 
 him. He must make up his mind positively as to the exact 
 end at which he shall aim, and so arrange the whole of the 
 subject-matter that it shall tend towards the establishment of 
 this end. This is called the status. Other names are com- 
 monly employed, such as " ground," " position," " point of 
 view," "standpoint," "central thought," "proposition." The 
 term "status" is used by Quintilian as equivalent to the Greek 
 word <n-afftc, which he says was first employed by Isocrates, and 
 afterwards by others in this sense. Although there is good 
 authority for the use of any other of the words above men- 
 tioned, yet, for the sake of technical accuracy as well as 
 comprehensiveness, the term " status " seems to be the most 
 suitable. 
 
 The status may be defined as the point of view from which 
 a writer regards his subject. 
 
 A careful distinction must be made between the "status," 
 the "question," and the "subject." The subject is the thing 
 itself to be treated of. The question is the particular way in 
 which the subject is presented for treatment. The status means 
 the particular view which may be taken of the subject. Thus, 
 let the subject be " war." The question should be : " Is war 
 right or wrong ?" The status : " War is right," or " War is 
 wrong." 
 
 The status has received great attention from rhetoricians, 
 who have most carefully elaborated it, but to an unprofitable 
 extent. Cicero admitted three general divisions of this subject, 
 each of which has subdivisions. Quintilian at first admitted 
 four general divisions, but afterwards three. The following 
 may be laid down as a sufficiently extensive analysis of the 
 status, though it has nothing in common with that of the an- 
 cient writers. 
 
 § 328. THE STATUS WHERE THE AIM IS TO INSTRUCT. 
 
 The status may be considered in a threefold way, in accord- 
 ance with the ends and aims of composition. 
 
 I. W^here the aim is to instruct. The best examples of this 
 
The Stattis. 311 
 
 are found in historical and scientific writings. It appears 
 generally as a bias, or coloring of the facts mentioned. Thus 
 the historian, whether Catholic or Protestant, Whig or Tory, 
 colors his facts so as to convey his own bias. This is seen 
 in the works of Hume and Lingard, Clarendon and Macaulay. 
 Herodotus has for his central thought the glory of the Gre- 
 cians; Livy, the glory of the Romans; Gibbon, the life of 
 mankind in the Middle Ages. The same thing is exhibited 
 by scientific writers, who, in treating of purely material things, 
 so color the facts as to inculcate opinions with reference to 
 the totally different subject of religion. 
 
 In writings of this sort the status may be called the " point 
 of view." 
 
 § 329. THE STATUS WHERE THE AIM IS TO CONVINCE OR 
 PERSUADE. 
 
 2. Where the aim is to convince or persuade. Here the 
 status i^ very clear, and is held prominently forward as the 
 point to which arguments tend. It is especially manifest in 
 oratory. 
 
 Thus in the great struggle between ^schines and Demos- 
 thenes, the status of each was the direct opposite of that of his 
 opponent. 
 
 The subject was the past policy of Demosthenes. 
 
 The question was: Shall Demosthenes receive the honor of 
 a crown ? 
 
 The status of ^schines was : The policy of Demosthenes 
 has been ruinous. 
 
 The status of Demosthenes was : That his policy has been 
 the only one worthy of Athens. 
 
 In the following speeches, the status in each case is worthy 
 of notice : 
 
 Burke on American Taxation : 
 
 '* That the tax ought to be repealed, and the poliqr of taxation aban- 
 doned." 
 
 Burke on Conciliation with America : 
 
 . "That the people of the American colonies should be admitted into an-^ 
 interest in the constitution, and allowed the rights of Englishmen." 
 
3 1 2 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Grattan on moving a Declaration of Irish Right : 
 
 "That Ireland has the right of making her own laws." 
 
 Erskine on the Rights of Jurors : 
 
 " That the jury is supreme in deciding the guilt or innocence of the 
 accused." 
 
 Sir James Mackintosh on behalf of Jean Peltier: 
 
 " That the freedom of the press should not be restricted out of regard for 
 foreign rulers." 
 
 In many cases the titles of speeches suggest the status. 
 Thus one of Lord Chatham's speeches is entitled "On the Right 
 of Taxing America," and the status is — that there is no such 
 right. Another is entitled "On the Removal of the Troops 
 from Boston," and the status is — that the troops ought to be 
 removed. Lord Brougham delivered a speech on parliamentary 
 reform, and the status is — that such reform is necessary. In 
 Sheridan's speech against Warren Hastings, the title and the 
 status are the same. 
 
 The status is often set forth as the main proposition. Thus, 
 in the letter of Junius to the printer of the Public Advertiser^ 
 it is given in the following words : 
 
 "111 usage may rouse their indignation and hurry them into excesses, but 
 the original fault is in the government" 
 
 In Burke's speech on Conciliation with America it is given 
 in the same way : 
 
 " The proposition is peace. ... I propose by removing the ground of the 
 difference, and by restoring the former unsuspecting confidence of the col- 
 onies in the mother country, to give permanent satisfaction to your people." 
 
 In pulpit oratory the status is often contained in the text 
 of Scripture which precedes the sermon. 
 
 Where the aim is to convince or persuade, the status is the 
 thing to be established, and the establishment of the status is 
 called proof. 
 
 § 330. LEADING STAGES OF ORATORY. 
 
 The leading stages of oratory may be summed up and illus- 
 trated as follows : 
 
The Status. 313 
 
 Is war an evil or not ? 
 
 The subject is the thing to be discussed : as, War. 
 
 The question is the enunciation of the sub- 
 ject : 
 
 The status is the view of the subject, or the 
 
 thing to be established : That war is an evil. 
 
 The proof is the establishment of the status : War is an evil. 
 
 The refutation is the establishment of the 
 
 opposite status : • War is a good. 
 
 The disproof is the overthrow of the status : War is not an evil. 
 
 Under certain circumstances the orator is at liberty to de- 
 cline proof, and throw the burden of it upon the other side. 
 This is the " onus probandi," or " burden of proof." 
 
 1. Where existing truths or institutions are assailed, the 
 onus probandi devolves upon the assailant. 
 
 2. Where the rights of man are at stake, the onus probandi 
 devolves upon those who may be shown to infringe them. 
 
 3. The onus probandi is upon those who seek to establish a 
 positive principle, and not upon those who dissent. 
 
 4. In general, where an attack is made, the assailant as- 
 sumes the onus probandi, and the defendant contents himself 
 with refutation. 
 
 § 331. THE STATUS WHERE THE AIM IS TO PLEASE. 
 
 3. Where the aim is to please. 
 
 This includes a large portion of narrative in prose and 
 poetry, as well as dramatic composition, although, as has been 
 said before, the more important part of fiction has also an 
 associated aim to instruct or persuade. The following is a list 
 of representative works of fiction, with the status in each case : 
 
 Homer's Iliad : The fame of heroes in the Trojan 
 
 war. 
 " Odyssey : A description of the world of that 
 
 age through the wanderings of 
 
 Ulysses. 
 Dante's Divina Commedia : The progress of the soul through 
 
 scenes of sin and punishment up to 
 
 the rest of heaven. 
 Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress : The same. 
 
 Don Quixote : This is more than a satire, for its 
 
 true aim is the portrayal of a simple, 
 
 high - minded, chivalrous man, who 
 
314 
 
 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The Pickwick Papers : 
 
 creates laughter by his absurdities, 
 but wins aflfection by the pathos of 
 his nature. 
 
 The same. The central figure here 
 is Pickwick, who creates laughter, 
 but wins affection. He is the Don 
 Quixote of the nineteenth century. 
 
 In modern novels the status is generally love, but in some 
 of them it is different: 
 
 Oliver Twist, Bleak House, and 
 
 others of Dickens : 
 Thackeray's Vanity Fair, and most 
 
 of his novels : 
 The Wandering Jew : 
 The Count of Monte Christo : 
 Les Miserables : 
 
 The religious novels of the age, 
 which are very numerous : 
 
 The Prometheus of itschylus and 
 The (Edipus of Sophocles : 
 Macbeth : 
 
 Hamlet : 
 
 Reform of public abuses. 
 Denunciation of shams. 
 
 The effort to win a vast treasure. 
 
 Revenge, 
 
 The development of a human char- 
 acter from the lowest vice to the 
 highest virtue. 
 
 A certain religious view inculcated 
 by the writer — High-Church, Low- 
 Church, Protestant, Catholic, or Anti- 
 christian. 
 
 The mystery of unmerited suffer- 
 ing. 
 
 The progress of an upright man 
 to sin and destruction. 
 
 The struggle of an irresolute and 
 meditative nature with a situation 
 that requires prompt and vigorous 
 action. 
 
 The status in fiction is called " motif." This is a term 
 which has been derived from the vocabulary of art, where it 
 refers to the purpose, intent, or meaning of the artist's work. 
 As the work of the imaginative writer is analogous to that of 
 the artist, the term " motif" will serve equally well for each. 
 
 From the foregoing remarks it will be evident that the status 
 is of the highest importance, and stands at the threshold of all 
 writing. From this the writer has one fixed and well-defined 
 idea of the work before him, and develops his plan according- 
 ly; nor is it possible for any work, either in literature or in 
 art, to be well done unless this is attained. 
 
Classification, 3 1 5 
 
 § 332. THE TITLE. 
 
 The title is generally a condensation of the whole argument, 
 to which it bears the same relation that the argument bears to 
 the complete work. 
 
 Sometimes it expresses the subject, as, " War ;" " The His- 
 tory of England." 
 
 Sometimes it expresses the question, as, "Demosthenes on the 
 Crown;" />., whether the crown shall be given to him or not. 
 
 Sometimes it expresses the status, as, " Sheridan against 
 Warren Hastings." 
 
 Sometimes it has no connection either with subject, ques- 
 tion, or status ; as, Dante's Divina Commedia, which indi- 
 cates nothing that is to be found in the book, the author's 
 purpose being to fathom the mystery of life, to exhibit the con- 
 sequences of sin, to show the progress of a soul, guided by 
 earthly and celestial wisdom, through all these scenes of sin 
 and suffering, to a final rest. 
 
 In Milton's Paradise Lost the title but suggests the subject, 
 which is the struggle of good and evil. He indicates the status 
 in the opening lines, " Of man's first disobedience ;" but this 
 is insufficient, since the true motif of the poem is the display 
 of towering pride of intellect as unfolded in the central figure — 
 Satan — around whom all the action revolves. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION. 
 § 333. CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 After the subject-matter has been collected, either by ac- 
 cumulation from without or by creation from within, it is nec- 
 essary, before any use can be made of it, to arrange all in 
 regular divisions according to the character that may belong 
 to each. This is called classification, the general law of which 
 is to determine the general heads, and to arrange the special 
 under them. 
 
 Classification may be considered with reference to the sub- 
 ject-matter, i.e.^ whether narrative or expository. 
 
 O2 
 
3i6 Elemeftts of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 334. CLASSIFICATION WHERE THE SUBJECT-MATTER IS NAR- 
 RATIVE. 
 
 I. Classification where the subject-matter is narrative. 
 
 In whatever way narrative may be set forth, the subject-mat- 
 ter must be classified. There are always great characters, great 
 events, or leading incidents, which serve as centres around 
 which all minor movements may be gathered. Thus in prose 
 narrative the divisions are always plainly marked. An example 
 of this may be found in Gibbon's History. Here there are nu- 
 merous events, which are narrated in the following divisions ; 
 
 The Decline of the Western Empire. 
 
 The Rise of Christianity. 
 
 The Northern Races. 
 
 The Rise of Mohammedanism. 
 
 The Mongol Conquests. 
 
 The Crusades. 
 
 The Turkish Conquests. 
 
 The internal history of Constantinople. 
 
 Western European history. 
 
 Fiction, whether in prose or poetry, must exhibit the same 
 principle at work. The Iliad is made up of several leading 
 divisions, which consist of acts in connection with Achilles, 
 Diomede, and Hector. Milton's Paradise Lost consists of 
 scenes in hell, scenes in heaven, and scenes on earth. Dante's 
 Divina Commedia exhibits remarkably minute classification. 
 The Inferno, for instance, is divided into cantos, which refer 
 to the classes of sins apportioned to successive circles in 
 hell. 
 
 In the drama, which, as we have seen, is another form of 
 narrative, classification is indicated by acts and scenes, and in 
 the judicious arrangement of these the dramatist shows his 
 constructive skill. The most effective thing in the drama is a 
 striking scene, with an important incident, to which the previous 
 action leads up, and from which others are deduced. This is 
 called a " situation." The same thing may be found in narra- 
 tive, prose or poetry, but it is most perceptible and effective in 
 the drama. 
 
 Thus in Macbeth the leading situations are the interviews 
 with the witches, upon which the other acts depend. 
 
Classification. 3 1 7 
 
 The classification of Hamlet is as follows : 
 The scenes which depend upon the visitations of the Ghost. 
 " " " " the Play of Gonzago. 
 
 " Ophelia. 
 " " " " Hamlet's wavering purpose. 
 
 " " " " the King and Queen, as the 
 
 evil-doers. 
 The classification of the Merchant of Venice is peculiar. 
 There are two different sets of incidents, each with its own 
 action and its own situations. These are : 
 I St. The incidents of the Three Caskets. 
 2d. " " " Shylock, 
 
 § 335. CLASSIFICATION IN DESCRIPTION. 
 
 2. Classification in description. 
 
 There are two modes of description. 
 
 I St. Where objects are described in detail, as the description 
 by a traveller of countries through which he has passed. This 
 may be called panoramic. It is found in books of travel, geo- 
 graphical works, histories which contain descriptions of coun- 
 tries, cities, monuments, galleries, etc. The best panoramic 
 descriptions are characterized by great vivacity. Good news- 
 paper correspondence often assumes this form, and may be 
 seen in Russell's Crimean letters, or in those of the corre- 
 spondent of the London Daily Ntws during the Franco-Prus- 
 sian War. 
 
 2d. Where objects are described as surrounding some centre 
 to which they all stand in subordination, as branches to a tree, 
 or tributaries to a river. This is called scenic description. 
 
 This is the more artistic mode. 
 
 Examples are to be found in the novels of Sir Walter Scott, 
 as in the trial of Effie Deans ; and in Milton's Paradise Lost, 
 where he describes the fallen angels, " All these and more 
 came flocking;" "He above the rest . . . stood proudly emi- 
 nent;" or the description of Eden, ending with, "Two of far 
 nobler shape." 
 
 § 336. GROUPING. 
 
 Classification is seen in description, in the effective way in 
 which the writer gathers together the things which are to be 
 named, so that they' shall be. assembled arqund some common 
 
3 1 8 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 centre, with a view to artistic effect. This is called group- 
 ing. 
 
 An admirable example of this is to be found in Macaulay's 
 essay on Warren Hastings, in which there occurs a description 
 of his trial. From this the two following passages are taken, 
 the first referring to external scenes, the second to internal : 
 
 " The place was worthy of such a trial. It was the great hall of William 
 Rufus — the hall which had resounded with acclamations at the inauguration 
 of thirty kings ; the hall which had witnessed the just sentence of Bacon and 
 the just absolution of Somers ; the hall where the eloquence of Strafford ^d 
 for a moment awed and melted a victorious party inflamed with just resent- 
 ment ; the hall where Charles had confronted the High Court of Justice with 
 the placid courage which has half redeemed his fame. Neither military nor 
 civil pomp was wanting. The avenues were lined with grenadiers. The 
 streets were kept clear by cavalry. The peers, robed in gold and ermine, 
 were marshalled by the heralds under Garter King at Arms. The judges, 
 in their vestments of state, attended to give advice on points of law. Near 
 a hundred and seventy lords, three fourths of the Upper House — as the 
 Upper House then was — walked in solemn order from their usual place of 
 assembling to the tribunal. The junior baron led the way, Lord Heath- 
 field, recently ennobled for his memorable defence of Gibraltar against the 
 fleets and armies of France and Spain. The long procession was closed by 
 the Duke of Norfolk, Earl Marshal of the realm ; by the great dignitaries, 
 and by the brothers and sons of the king. Last of all came the Prince of 
 Wales, conspicuous by his fine person and noble bearing." 
 
 The centre of this scene is Westminster Hall as contem- 
 plated from an external point of view. Around this are gather- 
 ed two distinct sets of incidents. The first consists of the as- 
 sociations of the past as illustrated by the enumeration of the 
 crowned kings, Bacon, Somers, Strafford, and King Charles. 
 The second brings before the mind a splendid throng of nobles, 
 warriors, and statesmen. 
 
 " The gray old walls were hung with scarlet. The long galleries were 
 crowded by an audience such as has rarely excited the fears or the emula- 
 tion of an orator. There were gathered together from all parts of a great, 
 free, enlightened, and prosperous realm grace and female loveliness, wit 
 and learning, the representatives of every science and of every art. There 
 were seated around the queen the fair-haired young daughters of the house 
 of Brunswick. There the ambassadors of great kings and commonwealths 
 gazed with admiration on a spectacle which no other country in the world 
 could present. There Siddons, in the prime of her majestic beauty, looked 
 with emotion on a scene surpassing all the imitations of the stage. There 
 the historian of the Roman Empire thought of the days when Cicero plead- 
 ed the cause of Sicily against Verres, and when, before a senate which still 
 
Classification. 319 
 
 retained some show of freedom, Tacitus thundered against the oppressor of 
 Africa. There were seen side by side the greatest painter and the greatest 
 scholar of the age. The spectacle had allured Reynolds from that easel 
 which has preserved to us the thoughtful foreheads of so many writers and 
 statesmen, and the sweet smiles of so many noble matrons. It had induced 
 Parr to suspend his labors on that dark and profound mine from which he 
 had extracted a vast treasure of erudition — a treasure too often buried in the 
 earth, too often paraded with injudicious and inelegant ostentation, but still 
 precious, massive, and splendid. There appeared the voluptuous charms 
 of her to whom the heir of the throne had in secret plighted his faith. 
 There, too, was she, the beautiful mother of a beautiful race, the Saint Ce- 
 cilia, whose delicate features lighted up by love and music, art has rescued 
 from the common decay. There were the members of that brilliant society 
 which quoted, criticised, and exchanged repartees under the rich peacock 
 hanging of Mrs. Montague ; and there the ladies whose lips, more persua- 
 sive than those of Fox himself, had carried the Westminster election against 
 palace and treasury, shone around Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire." 
 
 We are now transferred to the interior. The author de- 
 scribes that splendid assemblage in a characteristic way ; first 
 by stating its character in general terms, and then by enumer- 
 ating individuals in such a fashion that the interest increases 
 continually, while all the time the centre of this brilliant throng 
 is the subject of his essay — the accused Warren Hastings. 
 
 § 337. CLASSIFICATION IN EXPOSITION. 
 
 3. Classification in exposition. 
 
 In narrative subject-matter, classification depends upon the 
 taste and imagination. In expository subject-matter it de- 
 pends upon the reason. It is necessary to see what really are 
 the general heads, and what are not. These general heads 
 must be chosen with discrimination, and the subordinate heads 
 arranged under them. 
 
 § 2>2>^' ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 
 
 Two processes are observable here — analysis and synthesis. 
 Analysis is the separation of the subject-matter into its subor- 
 dinate parts; synthesis is the reconstruction of these, by which 
 they are put together and built up into a new and orderly form. 
 
 § 339. GENERAL AND PARTICULAR PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 A difficulty sometimes arises in cases where there are sub- 
 ordinate notions which are equally assignable to any one of 
 
320 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 two or more general heads. Thus in a classification of the 
 figures of speech, parallel may be assigned to antithesis as part 
 of that figure ; or it may be considered as one of the figures of 
 similarity; or, again, it may be associated with the iterative fig- 
 ures. In such a case the writer must be guided to a decision, 
 first, by what seems most fitting; and, secondly, by the neces- 
 sities of the general order of thought, which is an important 
 guide, not only to the arrangement of arguments, but also to 
 the classification of particulars. 
 
 In the arrangement of the general and subordinate divisions 
 of argument, attention must be paid to propositions, which are 
 the enunciations of things to be proved, or of things contrib- 
 uting to proof. 
 
 These are general and particular. 
 
 The most important of the former is called the main propo- 
 sition. This is often identical with the status, though in most 
 cases the two are different. General propositions are usually 
 the enunciations of the general heads of arguments. Partic- 
 ular propositions are the enunciations of minor statements. 
 These include examples, illustrations, corollaries, deductions, 
 etc 
 
 The following example is taken from Erskine's speech on 
 the Rights of Jurors: 
 
 First proposition (general) : 
 
 " I begin by saying . . . that when a bill of indictment is found, or an in- 
 formation filed, charging any crime or misdemeanor known to the law of 
 England, and the party accused puts himself upon the country by pleading 
 the general issue — not guilty — the jury are generally charged with his de- 
 liverance from the crime ; and not specially from the fact or facts, in the 
 commission of which the indictment or information charges the crime to 
 consist, much less from any single fact to the exclusion of others charged 
 upon the same record." 
 
 Second proposition (general) : 
 
 " That no act which the law in its general theory holds to be criminal 
 constitutes in itself a crime, abstracted from the mischievous intention of 
 the actor ; and that the intention (even when it becomes a simple inference 
 of legal reasons from the fact or fects established) may and ought to be col- 
 lected by the jury without the judge's assistance." 
 
 Upon these two general propositions the whole argument is 
 based. 
 
Classification. 321 
 
 The following are short examples of the general and par- 
 ticular divisions in classification : 
 
 Cicero's second oration against Catiline. 
 Exordium. 
 
 First general division : Cicero's defence. 
 Particular divisions : 
 
 1. Defence against the charge of too great leniency in 
 
 allowing Catiline to leave the city. 
 
 2. Defence against the charge of too great severity in 
 
 driving Catiline into exile. 
 Second general division : The forces of Catiline. 
 Third general division : The forces of the republic. 
 Peroration. 
 
 Sermon by the Rev. F. W. Robertson : 
 
 Text: "And you that were sometimes alienated and enemies in your 
 minds by wicked works, yet now hath he reconciled." 
 
 Two general classes are suggested — those who are alienated 
 and those who are reconciled. Under these the subordinate 
 divisions are gathered, and the classification assumes the fol- 
 lowing form : 
 
 First general division : Alienation. 
 Particular divisions : 
 
 1. God from man. 
 
 2. Man from God. 
 
 Second general division : Reconciliation. 
 Particular divisions: 
 
 1. Man to God. 
 
 2. Man to man. 
 
 3. Man to himself 
 
 4. Man to his duty. 
 
 Burke was accustomed to pay extraordinary attention to 
 method, and nowhere can the study of classification be more 
 profitably applied than to some of his great speeches. 
 
 The following extract from his speech on the East India Bill 
 of Fox will exhibit his manner : 
 
 " My second condition necessary to justify me in touching the charter is — 
 Whether the Company's abuse of their trust in regard to this great object be 
 an abuse of great atrocity. I shall beg your permission to consider their 
 
322 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 conduct in two lights : first, the political, and then the commercial. Their 
 political conduct, for distinctness, I divide again into two heads — the ex- 
 ternal, in which I mean to comprehend their conduct in their federal ca- 
 pacity as it relates to powers and states independent ; the other internal, 
 namely, their conduct to the countries either immediately subject to the 
 Company, or to those who, under the apparent government of native sover- 
 eigns, are in a state much lower and more miserable than conunon sub- 
 jection. 
 
 "The attention, sir, which I wish to preserve to method, will not be 
 considered as unnecessary or aflFected Nothing else can help me to se- 
 lection out of the infinite mass of materials which have passed under my 
 eye, or can keep my mind steady to the great leading points I have in 
 view." 
 
 The subject of classification is well presented in the follow- 
 ing outline, which deserves careful study. 
 
 OUTLINE OF BURKE'S SPEECH ON CONCILIATION WITH AMERICA. 
 
 Exordium. 
 
 Preliminary remarks. 
 
 Announcement of status. 
 
 Announcement of main divisions. 
 I. Main division : Whether concessions should be made. 
 
 1. General division : 
 
 State and circumstances of the American colonies. 
 Particular divisions : 
 
 A. Population. 
 
 B. Commerce. 
 
 C. Agriculture. 
 
 D. Fisheries. 
 
 2. General division : 
 
 Force ought not to be used in such a case. 
 Particular divisions : 
 
 A. Its use is temporary. 
 
 B. Its use is uncertain. 
 
 C. The object contended for is impaired. 
 
 D. There is no experience in favor of the effect of 
 
 force as instrumental in the rule of British 
 colonies. 
 
 3. General division : 
 
 The temper and character of the American colonists. 
 
Classification. 323 
 
 Particular divisions : 
 
 A. Origin. 
 
 B. Government. 
 
 C. Religion. 
 
 D. Domestic institutions. 
 
 E. Education. 
 
 F. Remoteness. 
 
 4. General division : 
 
 Only three modes are possible in dealing with the spirit 
 of the colonies ; the first mode being to change it by 
 removing the causes of their firmness and intracta- 
 bility. 
 Particular divisions : 
 
 A. By stopping land grants. 
 
 B. By impoverishing them. 
 
 C. By breaking up their republican institutions. 
 
 D. By the emancipation of their slaves. 
 
 E. By the barrier of remoteness. 
 
 5. General division : 
 
 The second mode — to prosecute this spirit as criminal. 
 Particular divisions : 
 
 A. The difficulty of treating states like individuals. 
 
 B. Difference between an empire and a kingdom. 
 
 C. A perilous thing to be judge in one's own cause. 
 
 6. General division : 
 
 The third mode— to comply with the American spirit. 
 Out of this is evolved the second main division. 
 II. Main division. What the concessions should be. 
 I. General division : 
 Taxation. 
 
 Particular divisions : 
 
 A. The speaker declines to discuss the abstract right. 
 
 B. Admission of Americans to the rights of English- 
 
 men. 
 
 C. Taxation should be given up. 
 
 D. Inconsistency of those who insist upon taxation. 
 
 E. The public and avowed origin of the quarrel 
 
 was taxation. 
 
 F. Answer to the objection that the colonies will 
 
 make greater demands if this is conceded. 
 
324 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 G. The history of the British Constitution a safe 
 guide. 
 Special divisions : 
 
 a. Ireland. 
 
 b. Wales. 
 
 c. Chester. 
 
 d. Durham. 
 
 2. General division : 
 
 America not to be represented in Parliament, but to 
 aid the mother country by grants from provincial 
 assemblies. 
 
 3. General division : 
 
 Explanation of the orator's own measures. 
 Particular divisions : 
 
 A. Purport of the resolutions. 
 Special : 
 
 a. The colonies have not been represented in 
 
 Parliament. 
 
 b. They have been liable to taxation without 
 
 representation. 
 
 c. No method has been devised for procuring 
 
 their representation. 
 
 d. Each of the colonies has a Parliament of its 
 
 own. 
 
 e. These provincial assemblies have frequently 
 
 granted aid for military service, and their 
 right to do so has been acknowledged by 
 Parliament. 
 / This way of granting supplies has been 
 more beneficial than the direct levy of 
 taxes by Parliament. 
 
 B. Establishment of a fair and unbiassed judicature. 
 
 C. Courts of Admiralty. 
 
 D. Objections refuted. 
 
 E. Lord North's scheme examined. 
 
 F. Comparison between Lord North's scheme and 
 
 the present one. 
 
 G. No direct revenue can be expected from America. 
 Peroration. 
 
The Order of Thought, 325 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE ORDER OF THOUGHT. 
 
 § 340. THE ORDER OF THOUGHT. 
 
 After the classification of arguments, the most important 
 thing is their disposition in an effective order. Excellence in 
 the one is usually associated with excellence in the other, 
 though by no means always; for the writer who is good at 
 analysis and synthesis may not understand how to arrange 
 his divisions so as to give them their utmost force. Of the 
 two, an effective order is the better. The orations of Fox do 
 not exhibit much method, nor are his classifications carefully 
 or accurately made, but his principal propositions are always 
 so disposed as to accomplish the greatest result. The speeches 
 of the Earl of Chatham exhibit even less attention to classifica- 
 tion, but the general order of thought is in the highest degree 
 effective. Without this, even the best classification may be of 
 little value. The writer has been likened to a general with 
 well-drilled troops and excellent material, which, however, lose 
 all their force unless well marshalled as a whole, and properly 
 set in battle array. 
 
 Failure often arises from want of care in this respect. Even 
 after the subject-matter has been accumulated and duly classi- 
 fied, there may be an utter want of order in the general arrange- 
 ment. 'One paragraph or section will treat of one thing; the 
 next will take up something that should be relegated to an- 
 other part of the work; the effect of one argument is spoiled 
 by that which follows; elegant description is succeeded by dry 
 statistics, and the discussion of lofty principles by tedious com- 
 hionplace ; the force of an unanswerable argument is frittered 
 away by presenting it in a wrong place, or by diverting the 
 reader from this to a crowd of feeble ones.^ In this way the 
 attention is distracted, the interest is lost, and the general 
 effect is at best but confused. 
 
326 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The order of thought may be carried out in several different 
 ways. 
 
 § 341. CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF THOUGHT. 
 
 1. Chronological order. 
 
 By this is meant the statement of circumstances in the order 
 of their occurrence. 
 
 This is often the most convenient, and at the same time the 
 best. For example, in any historical work the writer may have 
 occasion to enumerate the great wars of the past, and in such 
 a case it is generally convenient to mention them in the order 
 of their occurrence. Again, if it were necessary to mention 
 the leading philosophers, the following would be but a con- 
 fused array of names : Locke, Abelard, Hamilton, Socrates, 
 Cicero, Plato, Kant, Aristotle. It is but natural to name them 
 in chronological order : as, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, 
 Abelard, Locke, Kant, Hamilton. The same thing may be 
 carried out in the mention of events. Thus, in speaking of the 
 unification of Italy, the topics would be arranged as follows: 
 The desire for union, Piedmont, Cavour, the French alliance, 
 the Lombard War, Garibaldi in Sicily, the annexation of Naples, 
 the acquisition of Rome. 
 
 § 342. LOGICAL ORDER OF THOUGHT. 
 
 2. Logical order. 
 
 The logical order is the order of importance. In this the 
 divisions are so arranged that they increase in importance 
 until the end. It is largely employed both in narration and 
 exposition, and must receive special consideration with refer- 
 ence to each of these. 
 
 § 343. IN NARRATION. 
 
 In the first place, we have to consider the logical order of 
 thought in narration. 
 
 The chronological and the logical order are both used ex- 
 tensively in history, and may be illustrated in "chronicles," 
 " annals," and " history " proper. The former— chronicles and 
 annals — give a narrative of events in the order of their occur- 
 rence, one by one, and year by year. History gives a narra- 
 tive of events, in which the order of time is only generally fol- 
 lowed, and logical sequence is principally considered. The 
 
The Order of Thought. 327 
 
 chronological order is followed by Thucydides, by Tacitus in 
 his Annals, by Josephus, and by the great body of the mediaeval 
 chroniclers. The logical order is adopted by Herodotus, in 
 ancient times, and by Gibbon and most other historians in 
 modern times. 
 
 The chronological order can only be used where the history 
 is simple. Thus Thucydides had for his subject one of the 
 utmost unity, namely, the struggle between Athens and Sparta; 
 in which, notwithstanding the immensity of the stake, the mul- 
 titude of characters introduced, and the vast extent of such a 
 war by land and sea, there was nevertheless nothing to divert 
 the mind from the two leading powers, or to prevent the narra- 
 tive from being detailed as it went on from year to year. When 
 history becomes complicated, however, another plan must be 
 adopted. The work of Herodotus, the first great monumental 
 history, traverses the known world of his day; it deals with all 
 the great nations; their history, their legends, their civilization, 
 their geography. In such a case it is necessary to leave one 
 subject and take up another, going back in order to do so, and 
 breaking in wherever necessary upon the order of time. 
 
 § 344. CONCURRENT STREAMS. 
 
 In history generally the logical order is carried out by treat- 
 ing events by means of what are called concurrent streams. 
 
 Thus in Gibbon's history the writer has to deal with the 
 course of human action for a thousand years; and different 
 movements have to be narrated in such a way that the mind 
 of the reader may be able to grasp several sets of events which 
 were simultaneous in time. These simultaneous movements 
 or sets of events are called concurrent streams, and the narra- 
 tion of these requires that the author describe one until he 
 shall find a convenient stopping- place, after which he can 
 make a retrogression to take up the others one by one. 
 
 The same thing is necessary in writing the history of Greece. 
 The concurrent streams here are the histories of Athens, Spar- 
 ta, Thebes, Persia, the Greek colonies, etc. 
 
 In writing the history of a great country, it is necessary not 
 only to handle concurrent streams, but to find suitable resting- 
 places, at which one may make a retrogression for the sake 
 of bringing them all up to one point. For this purpose it is 
 
328 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 necessary to divide it into periods, and such periods may be 
 decided by the author. Thus in the history of England there 
 is the Roman period, the Anglo-Saxon period, after which fol- 
 lows the Norman period, etc. Now in the Anglo-Saxon period 
 the concurrent streams are : The settlement of the Anglo-Sax- 
 ons, their institutions, the states of the Heptarchy, their con- 
 version to Christianity, literature, the Danes, etc. 
 
 Sometimes the concurrent streams are too numerous ; some- 
 limes they are too divergent. This is the case with the history 
 of the world, which cannot be satisfactorily written so as to be 
 anything of the nature of literature, or better than a school 
 manual. This is true also of the history of Italy, where the 
 following must be taken up and narrated : 
 
 1. Rome — ancient, mediaeval, modern, papal, municipal, 
 
 political, artistic. 
 
 2. Naples, ancient and modern. 
 
 3. Sicily. 
 
 4. Tuscany — Florence, Pisa, etc. 
 
 5. Genoa. 
 
 6. Lombardy — Milan, Verona, etc 
 
 7. Venice. 
 
 To these may be added Ravenna, Bologna, Ferrara, and 
 others, each of which might well require an entire history to 
 itself For this reason no satisfactory "history of Italy" can 
 possibly be written. 
 
 In addition to this, there are also various departments in the 
 history of a nation which must be considered — as, politics; 
 literature ; learning ; religion ; science ; the useful arts and 
 inventions ; institutions, and the progress of constitutional his- 
 tory generally. Modern historians having discarded the " drum 
 and trumpet style," and feeling it incumbent upon them to dis- 
 cuss the general life and progress of a nation, thus find their 
 task growing every day more complicated and difficult. In 
 order to carry on such a work as this various subsidiary modes 
 are employed, such as the following : 
 
 § 345. RETROGRESSION. 
 
 Retrogression consists in leaving one subject to go back in 
 the order of time and take up another. Thus Gibbon, after 
 narrating the rise of Mohammedanism, returns to the history 
 of the Eastern Empire and Constantinople. 
 
The Order of Thought. 329 
 
 § 346. EXPLANATORY NARRATIVE. 
 
 Explanatory narrative is introduced in order to make the 
 subject in hand more intelligible to the reader. It is often 
 the history of another country, or the same country in another 
 period. Thus, to explain the interference of England in Con- 
 tinental affairs during the time of Napoleon, a brief survey of 
 the history of France and the Revolution is necessary. To 
 explain the history of England during the American War of the 
 Revolution, it is necessary to give an account of the American 
 colonies. 
 
 § 347. SUMMARY. 
 
 Summary is often identical with the foregoing. It is some- 
 times used at the commencement of a history, in order to 
 give a general account of the country treated of. This is ad- 
 mirably done by Macaulay and Froude. It is also extensively 
 used at the close of any period, when the writer finds a halting- 
 place where he can pause for the sake of presenting valuable 
 conclusions before setting forth on another part of the work. 
 
 § 348. LOGICAL ORDER OF THOUGHT IN EXPOSITION. 
 
 Having thus briefly considered the logical order of thought 
 in narration, we have now to observe its use in exposition. 
 
 The nature of the logical order is that the ideas be arranged 
 according to their importance; but in exposition there is a va- 
 riation in this order according to the importance which the 
 writer himself may attach to the different ideas, or the mode 
 of their presentation. 
 
 Various modes of presentation may be observed, especially 
 in proof and in refutation. 
 
 § "k^ IN PROOF. 
 
 In proof there are two chief modes. 
 
 I. The ideas are sometimes arranged in an ascending series, 
 and go on increasing in strength until the end. The first argu- 
 ment is the weakest, and from this they grow successively more 
 forcible until the last, which is the greatest of all. 
 
 An example of this may be found in the following from the 
 letter of Junius to the printer of the Public Advertiser: 
 
 " I. The finances of a nation sinking under its debts and expenses are 
 
330 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 committed to a young nobleman (the Duke of Grafton, First Lord of the 
 Treasury), already ruined by play. 
 
 " 2. A series of inconsistent measures have alienated the colonies from 
 their duty as subjects, and from their natural affection to their common 
 country (the American Revolution), 
 
 " 3. Drawing lots would be a prudent and reasonable method of appoint- 
 ing the officers of state, compared with a late disposition of the secretary's 
 office (changes in the Cabinet), 
 
 "4, The Commander-in-chief (Marquis of Granby) and his corruption. 
 
 " 5. The Navy, 
 
 "6. The Judiciary." 
 
 After which comes the following summing up : 
 
 "This, sir, is the detail. In one view behold a nation overwhelmed 
 with debt ; her revenues wasted her trade declining ; the affections of her 
 colonies alienated ; the duty of the magistrate transferred to the soldiery ; a 
 gallant army, which never fought unwillingly but against their fellow-sub- 
 jects, mouldering away for want of the direction of a man of common abilities 
 and spirit ; and, in the last instance, the administration of justice become 
 odious and suspected to the whole body of the people. This deplorable 
 scene admits but of one addition, that we are governed by councils from 
 which a reasonable man can expect no remedy but poison, no relief but 
 death." 
 
 2. Where the strongest argument is still reserved till the 
 last, but the first one presented is of great weight and force, 
 and the weaker ones are introduced in the middle. Here the 
 forcible opening argument is adapted to arrest the attention 
 and impress the mind of the reader or hearer at the outset, 
 and then, after the weaker ones have followed, the strongest 
 of all concludes. 
 
 An example of this is found in Sheridan's speech against 
 Warren Hastings, in which his greatest argument is the hor- 
 rors committed in Oude. This is brought forward at the out- 
 set in a most impressive manner by the reading of a letter 
 from Lord Cornwallis, Governor of India, upon which he makes 
 striking comments. Then follows the discussion of the evi- 
 dence, after which he returns to the great point of the horrors 
 of Oude, making of this his most forcible argument, and urging 
 it with the most vehement oratory. 
 
 § 350. IN REFUTATION. 
 
 In refutation an opposite mode is often adopted — where 
 the strongest argument of the opponent is grappled with at 
 
The Order of Thought. 331 
 
 the outset, after which the weaker ones are disposed of with 
 the greater ease, and the general result is more forcible. Quin- 
 tilian recommends this, urging the refutation of the strongest 
 firsts " lest if this is in the mind of the hearers, they may think 
 it unanswerable until it is answered." When minor points are 
 first dealt with, it should be in cases where they stand in the 
 way that leads to the consideration of the stronger arguments, 
 and this should be distinctly stated. 
 
 An example of this may be found in Burke's speech on 
 Fox's East India Bill. The objections to the bill are an- 
 swered in order, and the strongest one is answered first, as 
 follows : 
 
 ist objection : That the bill is an attack on chartered rights. 
 
 2d " That it increases the influence of the Crown. 
 
 3d " That it does not increase but diminishes the 
 
 influence of the Crown, in order to promote 
 the interests of certain ministers. 
 
 4th " That it deeply affects the national credit. 
 
 The first objection is considered by the speaker as the 
 strongest. It is accordingly grappled with at the outset, and 
 the arguments brought forward in answer to it comprise nearly 
 the whole of the speech. 
 
 § 351. EXAMPLES. 
 
 No better field for an enlarged study of this subject can be 
 found than the speeches which arose out of the memorable 
 contest between vEschines and Demosthenes. An analysis 
 of each oration is given below. 
 
 The occasion of this contest was the proposal by Ctesiphon 
 to bestow an honorary crown on Demosthenes for his public 
 services, upon which ^schines prosecuted Ctesiphon on the 
 ground of the illegality of the measure, and Demosthenes came 
 forward to defend himself. 
 
 THE ORATION OF ^ESCHINES AGAINST CTESIPHON. 
 
 Exordium. 
 
 The prevalence of factious proceedings had led to illegal 
 measures, which should be stopped. 
 I. The proceedings of Ctesiphon were illegal. 
 
 P 
 
333 'Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 1. Because the law forbade a magistrate to be crowned 
 
 before the accounts of his office had been ac- 
 cepted. 
 
 2. The fact that Demosthenes had expended his own 
 
 money in the public service did not clear him from 
 responsibility. 
 
 3. Demosthenes held two offices at the time that Ctesiphon 
 
 proposed to crown him. 
 
 4. In addition to this, Ctesiphon had proposed the coro- 
 
 nation in an illegal place. 
 
 II. Demosthenes did not deserve this honor. 
 
 1. On account of his private character. 
 
 2. On account of his public character, which ^schines 
 
 severely criticises. 
 
 A. Demosthenes acted against the interests of his coun- 
 
 try in making peace with Philip in the first period 
 of his career, and in exhibiting a servile spirit to- 
 wards him. 
 
 B. After Philip had passed Thermopylae, Demosthenes 
 
 suddenly changed his policy, blamed his fellow- 
 ambassadors for the peace, instigated war against 
 Philip, made disadvantageous alliances, and was 
 guilty of the grossest corruption. 
 
 C. He then brought disgrace on himself and ruin on 
 
 his country by upholding the Amphissians in their 
 sacrilege, and by the alliance with Thebes. 
 
 D. After the battle of Chaeronea Demosthenes fled from 
 
 Athens, and upon his return took no part in public 
 affairs until the death of Philip, when he suddenly 
 assumed courage, procured the passage of decrees 
 honoring Philip's murderer, ridiculed Alexander at 
 a distance, but quailed when he was near, and, 
 finally, sold himself to him. 
 
 E. Demosthenes was not a friend to true liberty. 
 
 III. There was a necessity of greater strictness in conferring 
 public honors, and in confining speakers to their subject. 
 
 IV. He compared himself with Demosthenes. 
 
 V. Reiterated the illegality of the decree, and the unworthi- 
 ness of Demosthenes. 
 
 VI. And warned the judges to be on their guard against the 
 
The Order of ThougJiT. 333 
 
 eloquence of Demosthenes, or the influence of personal 
 friendship for him. 
 Peroratijon. 
 
 THE ORATION OF DEMOSTHENES ON THE CROWN. 
 
 Exordium. 
 
 1. Appeal to the gods. 
 
 2. Claim of right to his own order of thought. (For 
 
 ^schines had been anxious that the judges should 
 confine Demosthenes to the same order of thought 
 which he himself had used, or otherwise restrict 
 him, and Demosthenes protested against this at the 
 outset.) 
 
 3. He had a greater stake in this trial. 
 
 I. Refutation of charges foreign to the indictment. 
 
 1. He would not refute the charges against his private life, 
 
 but he would leave the judges to decide from their 
 knowledge of him. 
 
 2. As to the charges against his public life, they were ob- 
 
 viously dictated by malice, and were therefore false, 
 as could be shown in one instance, viz., the peace 
 with Philip. For this peace had been proposed, not 
 by himself, but by yEschines, who with his friends had 
 been bribed by Philip, after which Philip gained other 
 traitors like ^schines everywhere. 
 
 II. Refutation of charges in the indictment. 
 
 I. A review of his public life and measures. 
 
 A. Philip had been taking advantage of the corrupt and 
 
 divided state of Greece to gain dominion over her. 
 
 B. Athens could not, consistently with her honor, take 
 
 any other course than resistance. 
 
 C. Philip had violated the peace by seizing certain 
 
 allied cities of Athens. 
 
 D. And by seizing certain vessels of Athens. 
 
 E. Philip had acquitted him of any blame in a letter to 
 
 the Athenians. 
 
 F. His first measures of hostility to Philip had been in 
 
 resisting his unjust encroachments. 
 
 G. The succor sent to Byzantium and the Perinthians 
 
 had been of the same nature. 
 
334 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 H. It was no objection to the policy of assistance that 
 these states had formerly been hostile. 
 
 I. In addition to this, he had introduced valuable re- 
 forms into the navy. 
 2. The legality of the proposal of Ctesiphon to crown him. 
 
 A. He was not responsible for his accounts. 
 
 B. This had been acknowledged by ^^schines. 
 
 C. The place named was in accordance with the law. 
 III. Strictures upon the character and policy of ^schines 
 
 as compared with his own. 
 
 1. The character and course of ^schines : 
 
 A. His low origin and early life in low pursuits. 
 
 B. His late appearance in public life. 
 
 C. Numerous proofs of his treasonable connection with 
 
 Philip. 
 
 D. He continued to act in the interest of Philip after 
 
 the designs of the latter were known, especially in 
 the Amphictyonic War. 
 R ^schines had assisted Philip, and was therefore the 
 guilty cause of all the evils which had befallen his 
 country. 
 
 2. His own policy. 
 
 A. The Theban alliance, to which ^schines had not 
 
 objected at the time when it was his duty to do so. 
 
 B. Athens could not have taken any other course con- 
 
 sistent with honor. 
 
 C. Further remarks on the Theban alliance, and events 
 
 immediately subsequent. 
 
 D. Through all these measures he had enjoyed the con- 
 
 fidence of the people. 
 
 3. Further comparison between himself and ^schines. 
 
 4. His answer to the warning of ^schines as to his ora- 
 
 tory. 
 
 5. Final reasons for being crowned. 
 
 A. Because he had never taken bribes. 
 
 B. Because of his policy. 
 
 C Because of his patriotism. 
 Peroration. 
 
 Another example well worthy of study may be found in the 
 
The Order of Thought. 335 
 
 speeches which arose out of the contest between Pitt and Fox 
 on the subject of Napoleon's overtures for peace. 
 
 THE ORATION OF PITT ON THE REFUSAL TO NEGOTIATE WITH 
 BONAPARTE. 
 
 The following is a full analysis of the speech of Pitt on the 
 refusal to negotiate with Bonaparte : 
 Status. 
 That the war had arisen through the perfidy of France, 
 and should not be ended unless there were adequate 
 securities for peace. 
 Exordium. 
 
 It is impossible to separate the present discussion from 
 the former crimes and atrocities of the French revolution. 
 Introduction leading up to the discussion. 
 Those in favor of negotiation must hold one of three opin- 
 ions : 
 
 1. That the French revolutionary system does not in- 
 
 volve any insecurity in negotiation ; or, 
 
 2. That the recent changes have given that security 
 
 which was formerly wanting; or, 
 
 3. That this insecurity exists, but that even under 
 
 these circumstances peace is better than the 
 continuation of war. 
 Discussion. 
 I. Origin of the war. 
 
 1. The dismissal of M. Chauvelin was not the cause of the 
 
 war. 
 
 2. Nor is that cause to be found in the refusal to negotiate 
 
 with the revolutionary government. 
 
 3. The true cause is to be found in the aggressions of 
 
 France in the annexation of Belgium and Savoy, 
 and the declaration of war against all the thrones of 
 Europe. 
 
 4. The explanations offered by France were inadmissible, 
 
 and the effect of admitting them would have been to 
 encourage revolution everywhere. 
 
 5. These aggressions were followed by the more violent 
 
 decree of December 15, 1792, which amounted to a 
 declaration of war against all civilized governments. 
 
33^ Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 6. This was designed to apply to all nations, and to Eng- 
 
 land particularly. 
 
 7. Their armies were prepared, and their generals were 
 
 instructed to carry out a system of universal aggres- 
 sion. 
 
 8. It was after these events that M. Chauvelin was required 
 
 to depart. 
 
 9. An insinuation is contained in the note from France 
 
 that England had, previous to the above transactions, 
 supported the combinations of other powers against 
 that country. 
 
 10. The proofs which contradict this are innumerable. 
 
 11. A large number of facts go to show the hostility of 
 
 France towards England. 
 
 12. England had no connection with Austria and Prussia 
 
 in their first attack on France. 
 
 13. In a despatch to Russia and Prussia, the ground taken 
 
 by England indicated moderation, forbearance, and 
 sincerity. 
 \\. The French revolutionary system has resulted in a series 
 
 of unexampled atrocities. 
 
 Before the war with England the French seized Avignon 
 and other places, and declared war against Austria, 
 Prussia, and the Empire. For this they seek to justify 
 themselves on the ground of a league of sovereigns for 
 the dismemberment of France at the treaty of Pilnitz. 
 But this treaty referred only to the deliverance of Louis 
 XVI., and might have been amicably explained had 
 not the policy of the violent party in France made war 
 inevitable. 
 
 After the war with England, other aggressions followed — 
 against Spain, Holland, Portugal, Naples, and the Italian 
 states, culminating in the extinction of Venice. 
 
 The acceptance of Venice by Austria may have been crim- 
 inal on the part of that power, but it does not afford an 
 argument to lessen the crime of France as the aggressor. 
 
 It has been said that the French, being assailed on all 
 sides, made these conquests in self-defence. On the 
 contrary, according to the French note, France, when 
 attacked, considered herself justified in attacking in her 
 
The Order of Thought, 337 
 
 turn those with whom she was at peace, and from whom 
 she had received no provocation, and in finding means 
 of increasing her strength no matter where. 
 
 In 1796, when the Italian invasion was beginning, England 
 proposed a general peace on fair conditions, but the 
 proposition was rejected by France. 
 
 The causes which terminated these negotiations were the 
 excessive demands of France. 
 
 In the following year, after the other powers had made 
 peace, England made another offer, which was proudly 
 refused. 
 
 After this the aggressions of France went on as before — 
 against Switzerland, America, Malta, Egypt, the domin- 
 ions of the Sultan ; the only plea for this last invasion 
 being that it was the road to attack the British power 
 in India. 
 
 III. The nature of the French revolutionary system. 
 
 It is animated by the most abhorrent principles — an insa- 
 tiable love of aggrandizement and an implacable spirit 
 of destruction, which principles it carries out by the 
 most abominable means, from Brissot and Robespierre 
 to Bonaparte. It is animated by a passion for indis- 
 criminate plunder at home and abroad; accompanied 
 by an unwearied spirit of proselytism, and characterized 
 by a perfidy which no treaties can bind. Thus quali- 
 fied and armed for destruction, the French Revolution 
 marches forth the terror and dismay of the world. 
 
 IV. One striking characteristic of the French Revolution is 
 the instability of its governments. Successive adminis- 
 trations have appeared with incredible rapidity. Under 
 such a system, with incessant changes, no security has 
 hitherto existed, and none is now offered. According 
 to the speech of one of the Council of the Five Hundred, 
 "the French government must be considered as exhibit- 
 ing nothing fixed, either in men or in things." 
 
 V. The French revolutionary system under Bonaparte. 
 France is now under a military despotism, with its power 
 
 in the hands of one man — Bonaparte — whose personal 
 character is an important subject for consideration. 
 He has already shown hostility to England. 
 
338 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 He has violated his oaths to preceding governments. 
 
 He swore fidelity to the constitution of the Directory, then 
 overthrew it, and finally destroyed the Directory it- 
 self. 
 
 Bonaparte is distinguished for perfidy and cruelty more 
 than any other man — e. g.^\x\ Lombardy, Modena, Tus- 
 cany, Genoa, Rome, Venice, Egypt. 
 
 He has now an interest in negotiating, but none in mak- 
 ing peace. 
 
 If peace were made, he would be sure to break it when- 
 ever he could take us at a disadvantage. 
 
 In addition to this, his power is of uncertain duration, for 
 it is a military despotism, which is the most unstable of 
 all forms of government. 
 
 It is therefore necessary to wait for experience and the 
 evidence of facts before we are convinced that a treaty 
 is admissible; and no definite period can be assigned 
 for the continuance of the war. 
 
 VI. That the war ought to go on. 
 
 The object of the war is not to force the Bourbons on 
 France, but to weaken the military despotism, so that 
 the French people may be freed from bondage, and 
 give expression to their own desires as to government. 
 
 The changes of property in France may prove a difficulty 
 to the restoration of the Bourbons, but not an insuper- 
 able one. 
 
 The low state of public credit is a further element of weak- 
 ness to the revolutionary system. 
 
 The restoration of the Bourbons is desirable for France, 
 and also for the rest of Europe. 
 
 VII. That peace is dangerous. 
 
 If peace is made, and the confederacy of Europe dissolved, 
 the revolutionary power, in the hands of one like Bona- 
 parte, will continue its aggressive and perfidious career. 
 Peace now is unreliable, dangerous, and impossible. 
 
 The speaker makes a frank statement to this effect : The 
 negotiations of 1796-97 were begun, not in the hope 
 of peace, but in order to satisfy the country by the 
 strongest proofs that peace was unattainable, and thus 
 gain the concurrence of the nation in the strong and 
 
The Order of Thought. 339 
 
 vigorous measures which were necessary in order to 
 
 carry on the war. 
 Peroration. 
 
 The resources of England. 
 Recent victories. 
 
 The valor and efficiency of the allies. 
 The exhaustion of France. 
 
 The following is an analysis of the speech of Fox. 
 
 THE ORATION OF FOX ON THE REJECTION OF NAPOLEON'S 
 OVERTURES. 
 
 Status. 
 That peace is the natural state of human society, and 
 ought therefore to be made, unless there is evidence 
 that the securities for its existence are inadequate. 
 
 Exordium. 
 
 1. After seven years' conflict we are come to but a new era 
 
 of the war, in which all the old arguments are brought 
 forward to induce us to persevere, and conduct it 
 upon principles which may make it eternal. 
 
 2. In the rejection of the overtures for peace the ministers 
 
 have made use of harsh and insulting language, which 
 should never be used in treating with a hostile na- 
 tion. 
 
 3. The examination into the early history of the war with 
 
 such severe and minute investigation is injurious and 
 ineffective. 
 I. The French are not the originators of the war. 
 Austria and Prussia were virtually the aggressors. 
 The declaration at Pilnitz was a menace and an insult to 
 
 France. 
 The decree of the 19th of November was explained by the 
 French government ; and as England made no objection 
 to that explanation, this country had now no right to 
 consider it as an act of aggression. 
 The plan to unite with Russia in joint mediation was not 
 
 carried out. 
 England was the aggressor in dismissing M. Chauvelin. 
 The aggressions of Austria and Prussia referred not only 
 P 2 
 
340 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 to the external measures of France, but to her internal 
 affairs. 
 
 II. No sincere efforts were made for peace. 
 
 However bad the rulers of the French revolutionary sys- 
 tem may have been, they are no worse than their pred- 
 ecessors, for their measures have been carried out upon 
 Bourbon principles and after the Bourbon manner. Yet, 
 as we never scrupled to treat with the Bourbons on ac- 
 count of their rapacity, so we ought not to refuse to 
 treat with their republican imitators. 
 
 The seizure of Savoy met with no remonstrance at the 
 time, and should not now be put forward as ground for 
 the war. 
 
 England was requested to mediate between France and 
 Austria and Prussia, but refused, though the opportunity 
 was presented for preventing the calamities of war with 
 which Europe was threatened. 
 
 III. Recrimination useless. Though the acts of the French 
 may be unjustifiable, recrimination would only serve 
 to prolong the war perpetually. The French can also 
 complain of us, and with equal reason, in the following 
 matters : 
 
 1. That our allies were the partitioners of Poland. 
 
 2. England invited Switzerland to abandon her neutrality. 
 
 3. Tuscany and Genoa were coerced into hostility against 
 
 France. 
 
 4. In the case of Venice, the conduct of Austria is as bad 
 
 as that of France. 
 
 IV. The hostility of Europe to France was not caused by 
 
 French atrocities alone, but by the policy and manage- 
 ment of the British and their allies. Of these, the Em- 
 peror Paul of Russia is especially guilty. 
 
 V. The enormities that France has committed cannot be 
 
 urged as an argument against peace, for negotiations 
 have already been made (in 1796 and 1797). The 
 statements made as to the failures of these negotiations 
 are inconsistent. Peace should not be made condition- 
 al upon the restoration of the house of Bourbon, since 
 the French should be left to the management of their 
 own internal affairs. 
 
The Order of Thought. 341 
 
 The case of William III., who was supported by his Par- 
 liament in his struggle with Louis XIV., is not a paral- 
 lel one or a model for imitation. 
 
 The publication of the intercepted French correspondence 
 has been defended by Mr. Canning, but the offensive 
 ribaldry with which that publication is accompanied is 
 deserving of the utmost reprobation. 
 
 VI. Former negotiations. Mr. Pitt's negotiations in 1797 
 were characterized by insincerity, for he was neither 
 honest to this House nor to the people of this country. 
 He ought now to treat upon the same principle upon 
 which he treated in 1797. 
 
 VII. The conditions of peace. 
 
 1. The overthrow of Bonaparte and the restoration of the 
 
 Bourbons are made by the ministry a sine qua nan. 
 Yet they put forward other cases, in the event of 
 which peace may be made. These are as follows : 
 
 A. If Bonaparte shall conduct himself satisfactorily. 
 
 B. If France shall acquiesce in his government. 
 
 C. If the allies shall be unsuccessful. 
 
 D. If the war shall be oppressive beyond our power to 
 
 bear. 
 He appeals to the House, if the question had been an 
 address to thank his Majesty for opening negotiations 
 for peace, would they not all have voted ? 
 
 2. Answer to the charges against Bonaparte. 
 
 The military despotism of Bonaparte has its counter- 
 part in Ireland. 
 
 Bonaparte's violation of oaths to successive governments. 
 
 This must always take place in a revolutionary state 
 of society. 
 
 Bonaparte said that the French and English govern- 
 ments could not exist together. Mr. Pitt has fre- 
 quently said the same thing. This temper is diabol- 
 ical, and would protract the war indefinitely. 
 
 Bonaparte is charged with desiring war, but there is 
 good reason to suppose that he desires peace. 
 
 3. The return of the Bourbons. 
 
 The changes of property in France form an insurmount- 
 able barrier to this; and this difficulty has been in- 
 creased by the manifesto of Louis XVIII. 
 
342 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 VIII. The atrocities perpetrated by the French have been 
 equalled, particularly in Naples, and by the British. 
 
 Peroration. 
 
 An eloquent portrayal of the horrors of war, and the 
 absence of purpose which marks them on the present 
 occasion. 
 
 THE SPEECHES OF HAYNE AND WEBSTER. 
 
 The following is a general outline of the order of thought in 
 the speeches of Hayne and Webster. In 1829 a debate arose 
 on public lands, upon which many days were spent, and in 
 which most members participated. The chief interest was felt 
 in the speeches of two leading debaters — Robert Hayne and 
 Daniel Webster. Two speeches were delivered by each, the 
 final speech of each having become famous. 
 
 Outline of the speech of Hayne : 
 
 1. Webster has changed the subject of debate, and has 
 
 made false charges against the South. 
 
 2. His present doctrine is inconsistent with his former 
 
 one, and inconsistent with his former acts and meas- 
 ures. 
 
 3. The friendliness of the North with the West is a result 
 
 of a corrupt political bargain. 
 
 4. The South has been unjustly traduced. 
 
 5. South Carolina has shown great devotion to the Union, 
 
 while Massachusetts has plotted against it. 
 
 6. These doctrines now proclaimed by him (Hayne) were 
 
 advocated by the founders of the Union. 
 
 Outline of the speech of Webster : 
 
 1. He asserts that the main subject has been neglected by 
 
 his opponent. 
 
 2. Repels personalities. 
 
 3. Vindicates the North from the charges made against it. 
 
 4. Repels and disproves the charge of a corrupt political 
 
 bargain. 
 
 5. Denies any unfairness towards the South. 
 
 6. Advocates his policy towards new states. 
 
 7. Peroration. 
 
 Plea for the permanency of the Union. 
 
The Order of Thought. 343 
 
 § 352. DRAMATIC ORDER OF THOUGHT. 
 
 3. The third kind of order of thought is called the dramatic, 
 because this is the order usually followed in dramatic compo- 
 sition. It is sometimes imitated in narrative fiction. The 
 peculiarity of this is that the whole disposition of the events is 
 made for the sake of dramatic effect. The order of thought or 
 circumstances depends neither upon time nor upon the degree 
 of importance, but is chosen for the sake of stimulating the 
 curiosity and arousing the feelings. 
 
 In the drama the opening must be startling; it must take 
 the spectator into the midst of the action, and be sufficient 
 to rouse his interest to the utmost. Thus in the Agamemnon 
 of ^schylus this is effected by the signal-fires ; in the Prome- 
 theus, by the nailing of the victim to the rock; in Macbeth, by 
 the witches ; in Hamlet, by the ghost. 
 
 In dramatic literature, any incident of an important charac- 
 ter upon which others depend is called a crisis. 
 
 The leading incident which terminates a play is called the 
 catastrophe. 
 
 Successive crises terminated by the catastrophe correspond 
 with the successive divisions in other branches of composition, 
 terminated by that which is of the chief importance. 
 
 After the first crisis others may follow, and these are to be 
 arranged in such a way as to keep the interest to the utmost 
 height. Thus, in Hamlet, the crisis of the first appearance of 
 the ghost is followed by other crises — such as other appear- 
 ances of the ghost ; Ophelia ; the play of Gonzago ; the death 
 of Polonius; the madness of Ophelia; the churchyard scene. 
 
 These must be arranged in such a way as to lead up to the 
 catastrophe. Here, as in the logical order, the most important 
 thing is preserved until the last; as in Hamlet, where the ca- 
 tastrophe involves the death of the chief characters. 
 
 It is therefore a law in dramatic arrangement that the inter- 
 est be maintained till the end. This is accomplished in vari- 
 ous ways: 
 
 By suspense — as in Hamlet, where the injured seeks ven- 
 geance; or, as in Romeo, where lovers seek one another; or, 
 as in Othello, where an evil-doer seeks his victim; or, as in 
 Macbeth, where an evil-doer follows a course of crime until its 
 final retribution. 
 
344 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 By the working out of destiny. This is the chief device 
 made use of in the Greek drama, and is most strikingly man- 
 ifest in those plays founded upon the epopceia of CEdipus. 
 
 By the use of a secret or a mystery. This is a favorite 
 device of the modern novelist, who is thus able to keep his 
 reader in a constant state of interest arising from curiosity. 
 
 § 353. SCENIC ORDER OF THOUGHT. 
 
 4. The fourth kind of order of thought is called scenic. This 
 arises where the order is of such a nature that isolated scenes 
 or detached thoughts have the • utmost effect It is used 
 chiefly, if not exclusively, in narrative. The only case where 
 it is used in exposition is in certain sermons and speeches of 
 the popular kind, where the arguments are intermingled with 
 abundant anecdote, and, though filled with disconnected as- 
 sertions, are yet made striking and effective by means of illus- 
 trations and examples. "Revival" preaching and "temper- 
 ance " oratory will often exhibit this. 
 
 This form of order of thought is largely used in narrative, 
 and especially by writers of prose fiction. 
 
 Novelists may be divided into two general classes with re- 
 gard to order of thought. 
 
 1. Those who follow the logical order. These writers lay 
 chief stress upon the plot. Characters are of inferior impor- 
 tance ; incidents are everything; and these incidents are so 
 arranged as to excite the reader to the utmost. His attention 
 is roused at the outset by some startling occurrence, and then 
 consequences are deduced from this in such a way that his 
 interest is incessantly stimulated until the close is reached. 
 Here it is the series of events succeeding one another in log- 
 ical order by which the reader is attracted. This is signally 
 illustrated in the "Arabian Nights* Entertainments;" by many 
 French novelists, especially Alexander Dumas and Eugene Sue ; 
 and by writers of so-called "sensation novels." 
 
 2. The second class is made up of those who attach slight 
 importance to the plot, but regard their characters as of su- 
 preme importance. Upon these all the interest of the story is 
 made to depend — their lifelike portrayal, their acts, their words, 
 their thoughts. Dickens and Thackeray belong to this second 
 class. They were both greater in the delineation of character 
 
The Order of Thought, 345 
 
 than in the construction of plot. The Pickwick Papers has 
 scarcely any plot at all, but owes its unity to the characters. 
 In Vanity Fair the plot is more visible, but the characters have 
 an interest in themselves quite independent of their fortunes. 
 Balzac may also be mentioned as another conspicuous ex- 
 ample of this class. 
 
 Some writers unite both. Sir Walter Scott gives an elabo- 
 rate plot, and his characters are all portrayed with lifelike 
 fidelity. Victor Hugo rivals Dumas in his love of exciting in- 
 cident, yet his characters are strongly marked; and Jean Val- 
 jean is one of the greatest creations of modern genius. George 
 Eliot (Mrs. Lewes) and George Sand (Madame Dudevant) are 
 writers as wide as the poles asunder, yet they have this in com- 
 mon, that they can construct a plot of intense interest, and 
 create characters that live in the memory of the world. 
 
 Thus in the modern novel where the Io,2;ical order is adopt- 
 ed, the story is connected by the framework of the plot ; but 
 where the scenic order is used, the story is connected by the 
 characters. 
 
 § 354. ORDER OF THOUGHT IN DRAMATIC AND NARRATIVE 
 
 WRITING. 
 
 Dramatic and narrative writing require respectively a differ- 
 ent order of thought. 
 
 The narrative, whether of the scenic or logical order, has 
 this in common, that it is always the telling of a story. The 
 characters are regularly introduced, and the reader is made 
 acquainted with them. The opening is explanatory, and the 
 narrative leads to some crisis. 
 
 In dramatic writing the characters are presented abruptly in 
 the midst of some crisis. 
 
 In narrative the crisis is brought forward gradually, after 
 due preparation and explanation. 
 
 In dramatic writing the crisis comes on at once, with all the 
 characters in full action, leaving the spectator to gather from 
 their words and deeds who and what they are. 
 
 In narrative the writer tells all about his characters. 
 
 In the drama the writer leaves his characters to tell all 
 about themselves. 
 
 The drama opens the situation at once, and explanation fol- 
 
34^ Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 lows after. The narrative follows the course of events, but in 
 both cases the catastrophe is reserved till the last. 
 
 Illustrations of the dramatic opening may be found in Rich- 
 ard the Third, Julius Caesar, and Hamlet. 
 
 There are exceptions to this. 
 
 Sometimes in the drama there is a preliminary narrative. 
 This is frequent in the plays of Euripides. The narrative is, 
 however, but brief, and the moment it is ended the action be- 
 gins with dramatic abruptness. 
 
 Sometimes the drama follows the narrative order, as in some 
 of Shakespeare's historical plays. 
 
 ' Sometimes narrative follows the dramatic order. This, how- 
 ever, is a mere device or artifice of the writer, and the reader 
 always feels that it " reads like a play." 
 
 Examples of the difference between narrative and dramatic 
 writing in this respect may be seen by comparing any of 
 Shakespeare's plays with one of the same plays turned into 
 narrative, as in the "Tales from Shakespeare." It may also 
 be seen by witnessing the dramatic representation of some 
 popular novel. The characters remain but in part; many are 
 left out; those which remain are modified strangely; and the 
 order of thought is totally changed. This change is so great 
 that it seems like another work altogether. 
 
 § 355- GENERAL RULE FOR THE ORDER OF THOUGHT. 
 
 Finally, in all kinds of composition there is one rule for the 
 order of thought, which is almost invariable. This is, that the 
 most important thing must be reserved until the last. 
 
 Thus, in prose, poetic fiction, and the drama, the catas- 
 trophe must be in the last place, and all the rest must lead 
 up to it. 
 
 In exposition the strongest argument must be kept till the 
 last, and all the other arguments must lead up to it. 
 
Arguments, 347 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ARGUMENTS. 
 
 § 356. ARGUMENTS. 
 
 The term argument is susceptible of various applications. 
 Sometimes it means merely the arrangement of subject-matter 
 — as the argument of a poem. At other times it is used as 
 synonymous with method. It is employed here in its stricter 
 signification, and means the use of one or more facts or state- 
 ments as evidence of some other fact or statement. 
 
 § 357. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RHETORIC AND LOGIC WITH 
 REGARD TO ARGUMENT. 
 
 There is a difference to be observed between rhetoric and 
 logic with regard to arguments. 
 
 The province of rhetoric is the finding of suitable arguments 
 and the proper arrangement of them to prove a given point. 
 The province of logic, on the other hand, is not to invent, but 
 to judge of such arguments. Thus rhetoric has reference to 
 the formation of the "plot" of a novel, the "outline" of an 
 essay, the "skeleton" of a sermon, or the "argument" of an 
 oration. Logic, on the other hand, has reference to the critical 
 examination of these. Rhetoric is thus concerned with com- 
 position. Logic with criticism. 
 
 § 358. LOGIC DEFINED. 
 
 Logic is defined as the science as well as the art of reason- 
 ing, and comprehends, first, the analysis of the mental process 
 which takes place whenever we reason ; and, secondly, the 
 rules grounded on that analysis for conducting the process 
 correctly. 
 
 § 359. REASONING. 
 
 Before entering upon the consideration of arguments, it will 
 be necessary to devote a few remarks to the subject of reason- 
 ing in general. 
 
348 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Reasoning comprises various constituent elements, tiie chief 
 of which are: i. Terms; 2. Propositions; 3. Definitions; 4. 
 Proof. 
 
 § 360. TERMS. 
 
 1. Terms. The operation of reasoning is generally per- 
 formed by means of words, and a thorough insight into the 
 meaning and purposes of these is essential. All words may 
 be divided into four classes: first, names descriptive of things 
 or acts; secondly, words qualifying names; thirdly, words as- 
 serting acts or qualities ; fourthly, words qualifying assertions. 
 
 § 361. PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 2. Propositions. A proposition is usually defined as a por- 
 tion of discourse in which a predicate is affirmed or denied 
 of a subject. In rhetorical arguments the word has a wider 
 meaning, and comprehends all statements or affirmations which 
 are supported or enforced by proofs or arguments. These, as 
 we have already seen, are general and particular; the former 
 referring to the leading heads of classification, and the latter 
 to the subordinate. It is very important that these should be 
 put forth in a clear and unmistakable manner. The main 
 proposition should receive special attention, and stand forth 
 with the utmost prominence. An example of this may be found 
 in Sir James Mackintosh's speech on Jean Peltier, where the 
 main proposition is that a writer in England should not be 
 punished in order to avert the resentment of the government 
 of France. So also in the letter of Junius already quoted, the 
 chief proposition is put forth so clearly that it leaves the strong- 
 est possible impression on the mind. "The multitude in all 
 countries," he says, " are patient to a certain point. ^ III usage 
 may rouse their indignation and hurry them into excesses, but 
 the original fault is in the government." These last words 
 contain the main proposition, which is never lost sight of 
 
 Counter proposition. A common way of establishing a given 
 principle is by answering and refuting its opposite ; as when, 
 in advocating free trade, a writer assails protection, or vice 
 versa. This is merely the proposition in another form. 
 
 § 362. DEFINITIONS. 
 
 3. Definitions. A definition is the statement of the meaning 
 
Arguments. 349 
 
 of a word. This is one of the chief requisites to clearness of 
 reasoning, and from its neglect great misapprehension will not 
 unfrequently arise. Important controversies have not seldom 
 been carried on by those who do not really differ very greatly 
 in opinion, but who are misled by their respective interpreta- 
 tions of a given term. 
 
 There are various modes of definition. 
 
 I St. The formal definition in set terms, such as those that 
 are found in dictionaries and scientific works. 
 
 2d. Definition by contrast, as when heat is defined as the 
 absence of cold, or darkness as the absence of light, or sin as 
 the absence of holiness. 
 
 3d. Definition by example or illustration. The drawing of a 
 triangle, the picture of an eagle or a giraffe, are the simplest 
 and clearest ways of conveying an idea of the things in ques- 
 tion. For this reason modern dictionaries often supplement 
 their formal definitions with illustrations. But examples and 
 illustrations have a much wider application. By an example 
 is meant a particular instance, as when the case of the rise and 
 fall of mercury in the thermometer is adduced to explain the 
 statement, " heat expands bodies." By illustration is meant an 
 associated fact — a similar or analogous case. These are often 
 made by means of figurative language. 
 
 A good example of the definition in oratory is to be found 
 in Burke's speech on the East India Bill of Fox. In the open- 
 ing of his argument he considers the objection that the bill 
 is an attack on the "chartered rights of men," and before 
 answering it he introduces an explanation of the phrase. 
 
 § 363. PROOF. 
 
 4. Proof. 
 
 Proof is based upon two principles — deduction and induc- 
 tion. 
 
 § 364. DEDUCTION. 
 
 ist. Deduction. 
 
 By deduction is meant a proof arising from the application 
 of some general law, as when the proposition, "We shall all 
 die," is proved from the general law, " All men are mortal." 
 Deduction is thus the particular application of a more general 
 proposition already established, and it always implies the thing 
 to be proved. 
 
350 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 365. INDUCTION. 
 
 2d. Induction- 
 Induction is a process of inference by which, from the ob- 
 servation of particulars, we prove other particulars hitherto 
 unknown or unadmitted ; or show that what is true of certain 
 individuals of a class is true of a whole class. Thus from the 
 fact that the Earth, Venus, Mercury, and Mars revolve around 
 the sun in an elliptical orbit, we may infer that all the planets 
 of the solar system revolve in the same way. 
 
 It has been shown by John Stuart Mill, in his treatise on 
 Logic, that there are four modes of induction by which facts 
 are brought to bear upon the proof of a general proposition. 
 He calls these the four experimental methods. 
 
 § 366. mill's four experimental methods of inquiry. 
 
 1. Method of agreement. 
 
 If two or more instances of the phenomenon under inves- 
 tigation have only one circumstance in common, the circum- 
 stance in which alone all the instances agree is the cause (or 
 the effect) of the phenomenon. 
 
 From this we are to understand that when two facts are 
 uniformly associated under many and varied circumstances, 
 they may be regarded as cause and effect. Thus, in comparing 
 cases in which bodies are known to assume crystalline struct- 
 ure, but which have no other point of agreement, we find them 
 to have only one antecedent in common — the deposition of 
 solid matter from a liquid state; from which we conclude that 
 the solidification of a substance from a liquid state is an in- 
 variable antecedent of its crystallization. In the same way we 
 observe that the prevalence of immorality is associated with 
 the decline of the human race, in all countries and in all ages, 
 and we consider the one as the cause of the other. 
 
 2. Method of difference. 
 
 If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation 
 occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have every 
 circumstance in common, save one, that one occurring only in 
 the former, the circumstance in which the two instances differ 
 is the effect or the cause, or an indispensable part of the cause, 
 of the phenomenon. From this we see that when two facts 
 
Arguments, 351 
 
 constitute the sole difference between two sets of circumstances, 
 by being present in the one and absent from the other, they 
 are to be regarded as cause and effect. For example, when a 
 man is shot through the heart, it is by this method that we 
 know the cause of his death to be the gunshot ; for he was in 
 the fulness of life immediately before, and all the circumstances 
 were the same except the wound. Again, when a people like 
 the Arabians suddenly emerge from obscurity and enter upon 
 a career of conquest, under such a leader as Mohammed, with- 
 out the intervention of any other circumstance, we conclude 
 that he is the cause of this great revolution. 
 
 3. Method of residues. 
 
 Subduct from any phenomenon such part as is known by 
 previous inductions to be the effect of certain antecedents, and 
 the residue of the phenomenon is the effect of the remaining 
 antecedents. 
 
 Here in a given case we set aside the effects of known causes, 
 and ascribe a remaining effect to a remaining cause. 
 
 Thus, while many elements of modern civilization may be 
 regarded as due to such causes as Greece, rRome, the Celts, 
 Teutons, and Arabians; there would still remain the modern 
 characteristic of humanity, which must be ascribed to the re- 
 maining cause — Christianity. 
 
 4. Method of concomitant variations.' 
 
 When a phenomenon varies in any manner according as an- 
 other phenomenon varies in some particular manner it is either 
 a cause or an effect of that phenomenon, or is connected with 
 it through some fact of causation. 
 
 According to this we infer cause and effect from the propor- 
 tionate rise or fall of two accompanying facts. It is an argu- 
 ment in favor of the doctrine of the immortality of the soul 
 that the belief in it has increased, both in refinement and in- 
 tensity, along with the advance of the human race to higher 
 degrees of moral and intellectual life. 
 
 It is an argument against the principle of arbitrary govern- 
 ment that it falls into disrepute as nations increase in knowl- 
 edge and civilization. 
 
352 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 367. ENTHYMEME. 
 
 All truths are either necessary or contingent. An example 
 of the former may be found in mathematics, where the conclu- 
 sions are either absolutely true or manifestly false. But in 
 human affairs this " mathematical " certainty is not attainable, 
 and we must be satisfied with something less. With necessary 
 truths rhetoric has little or nothing to do, for these admit of no 
 dispute. Its sphere comprises that wide extent of probabilities 
 upon which the human intellect is continually exercising its 
 powers. 
 
 There is an important difference between rhetoric and logic 
 as to the form of reasoning respectively employed. Logic 
 exhibits proof by means of a certain form called syllogism ; 
 rhetoric attains to proof by means of the enthymeme. 
 
 Two essential characteristics belong to the enthymeme. 
 The first of these is that it deals with probable, not necessary 
 truth. The arguments which are made up in the various de- 
 partments of literature are not like those which are made up in 
 the various departments of science; and the enthymeme, as 
 the basis of rhetorical argument, has this characteristic. 
 
 Secondly, it is a form of argument with one premise suf>- 
 pressed. The enthymeme is sometimes called a rhetorical 
 syllogism, because it holds the same relation to rhetoric which 
 the syllogism holds to logic. The syllogism has always its regu- 
 lar proposition and conclusion, and establishes by means of all 
 its parts that which it has proposed. The enthymeme is satis- 
 fied if merely what is stated in it be understood. The follow- 
 ing is the form of the syllogism : 
 
 That only is good of which none can make an ill use. 
 None can make an ill use of virtue. 
 Therefore virtue is the only good. 
 
 The following is the form of the enthymeme : 
 Virtue is the only good, because none can make an ill use of it. 
 
 Here one of the premises is omitted, as being understood. 
 This is the invariable mode in which rhetorical argument is 
 stated, and it is also the mode employed in ordinary speech — 
 ^.^., War is an evil, because it produces human misery. 
 
Arguments. 353 
 
 § 368. ARGUMENTS. 
 
 Arguments may be divided into three general classes : 
 I. Causative; 2. Illustrative; 3. Exemplative. 
 
 § 369. CAUSATIVE ARGUMENTS. 
 
 I. Causative. 
 
 This class includes those arguments in which the relation 
 of the premise to the conclusion is that of cause and effect ; or 
 where the premise would account for the conclusion if the lat- 
 ter were granted. Thus, in the event of one being accused of 
 murder, it might be accounted for by showing that the accused 
 had been animated by feelings of hatred against the deceased. 
 The freezing of a river or a lake could be foreseen from the 
 existence of intense cold. Upon the finding of the body of a 
 missing man, the theory that he committed suicide might be 
 sustained by showing that he had met with ruinous losses, or 
 that he was insane. 
 
 This is often useful in judicial cases, and is employed to 
 show that some justifiable cause has existed for an alleged 
 offence, the cause being a provocation of some sort. Thus 
 Lord Erskine, in his speech on behalf of Stockdale, on the 
 charge of a libellous publication, before taking up the charac- 
 ter of the libel itself, introduces preliminary matter, in order 
 to show that the House of Commons had prosecuted Hastings 
 with unparalleled violence, and by allowing the charges to be 
 published had provoked the publication of the book in ques- 
 tion. Another example may be found in Burke's speech on 
 conciliation with America. In this he proceeds to show the 
 causes which impel him to advocate peace, which are, first, the 
 state and circumstances of America; secondly, the evil of re- 
 sorting to force ; thirdly, the spirit of the Americans. In his 
 speech on the Bristol election, the same orator, while defend- 
 ing his course, replies to four charges by means of this kind 
 of argument. In answer to the charge that he had neglected 
 his constituents, he brings forward as the cause of his absence 
 the claims of the higher work which he had done for them in 
 London. The second charge, of giving free trade to Ireland, 
 he meets by showing that it was necessary to the pacification 
 of that country. The third and fourth charges, on the relief 
 
354 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 of insolvent debtors and Roman Catholics, he answers by 
 showing that these measures were required by justice. In 
 Grattan's speech on the declaration of Irish right, most of the 
 arguments are of this nature. He shows that the declaration 
 is required from the following causes : The discontent of the 
 Irish; their spirit; their demands; the hostility of English 
 legislation; the principles of 1688. 
 
 Dr. Whately, in his remarks on this subject, says that as 
 far as anything stated as a cause has a tendency to produce 
 any given effect, it is an argument for that effect. 
 
 In narrative writing, particularly in fiction, this is known as 
 " verisimilitude," " vraisemblance," or " lifelike portrayal." The 
 more clear this is, and the more skilfully it is worked out, the 
 more apparent is the genius of the writer. Given such char- 
 acters and such situations, they would probably act like Mac- 
 beth, Lear, and Othello. 
 
 Two things are necessary to be observed here: first, the 
 sequence of events ; and, secondly, the propriety of character. 
 
 The introduction of purely imaginary circumstances does 
 not affect verisimilitude. A certain amount of concession is 
 expected from the reader or spectator. Thus in Hamlet the 
 appearance of the spectre implies the possibility of ghosts; and 
 in Macbeth the existence of witches is taken for granted. Nor 
 is verisimilitude affected, even when all the circumstances are 
 imaginary, as in Gulliver's Travels. Here the reader concedes 
 the existence of an entire world of small folk or of big folk. 
 Upon this the author shows verisimilitude by making all the 
 particulars correspond, and by carefully adjusting all the pro- 
 portions: 
 
 " His Majesty is taller than the rest of his courtiers by the breadth of my 
 thumb-nail, which alone is sufficient to strike awe into the beholder." 
 
 In such writings as the Arabian Nights the reader concedes 
 the existence of a world of magic, yet even here verisimilitude 
 must be observed; and although Aladdin's palace may start 
 up in a night, yet Aladdin himself must be bound and limited 
 by the passions and frailties of humanity. 
 
 § 370. ILLUSTRATIVE ARGUMENTS. 
 
 2. Illustrative. 
 
 This class includes those arguments in which the relation 
 
Arguments, 355 
 
 of the premise to the conclusion is that of association, or sim- 
 ilarity, as antecedent and consequent, sign and thing signified. 
 Thus, in the event of any one being accused of murder, the 
 fact of blood on his clothes would be an argument of this nat- 
 ure. The freezing of a river or a lake could be predicted from 
 the low stage of the thermometer. Suicide could be argued 
 from the surroundings of the deceased. 
 
 This kind of argument enters more largely than any other 
 into the inferences which are drawn from the facts of common 
 life. The savage trains his senses to observe all the signs of 
 nature, and draws conclusions from them which enable him to 
 support himself and his dependents. In civilized society a 
 large proportion of the judgments of men are based upon the 
 observation of significant facts. 
 
 To this class belong many of the arguments of the courts 
 of law. The proof which is afforded in this way is known as 
 *' circumstantial evidence," and the value attached to it is seen 
 in the saying, " Circumstantial evidence is the strongest kind 
 of evidence." 
 
 It also enters into general literature, particularly works of 
 the imagination. In the modern novel the whole interest of 
 the story is often made to turn upon a multitude of significant 
 circumstances, which all lead onward to the catastrophe ; such 
 as the unravelling of a secret, the disclosure of a mystery, the 
 revelation of a crime, the discovery of a criminal. An exam- 
 ple of this may be found in the Bleak House of Dickens, 
 
 Illustrative arguments are direct and indirect. In the for- 
 mer case we judge for ourselves; in the latter we make use of 
 the statements of others, and this includes all kinds of testi- 
 mony. 
 
 Testimony enters into the other classes of arguments also. 
 Its most familiar form is to be found in judicial oratory, which 
 consists to a great extent of induction from evidence. An ex- 
 ample may be found in Erskine's speech on behalf of Lord 
 George Gordon; which consists, first, of arguments from the 
 evidence of the crown ; and, secondly, of arguments from the 
 evidence of the prisoner. In the same orator's speech on be- 
 half of Hardy, the third general division is an argument from 
 testimony. Fox's speech on the Westminster Scrutiny also 
 contains an argument of the same kind, in which he shows 
 
 Q 
 
356 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 that the high-bailiff had not sufficient evidence to warrant his 
 granting a scrutiny. 
 
 § 371. EXEMPLATIVE ARGUMENTS^ 
 
 3. Exemplative. 
 
 This division includes those arguments in which from exam- 
 ples of a certain class known and understood we reason con- 
 cerning others of the same class which are less known. Thus, 
 if the ancient Roman Empire be taken as an example of mili- 
 tary monarchies, we may reason from this concerning the char- 
 acter and tendencies of other military monarchies. 
 
 Various arguments are included in this division, the chief 
 of which are those which are based upon (i) Experience, (2) 
 Analogy, (3) Contrast. 
 
 § 372. EXPERIENCE. 
 
 (i) Experience. 
 
 This is a kind of argument which is based upon facts in our 
 own experience, or that of other men. In this way are formed 
 many of the opinions of common life, such as those which re- 
 late to the order of nature, the seasons, tides, day and night, 
 the weather, etc. The same method is applied to historical and 
 political events; and whatever men have done in the past, we 
 expect them to do, under similar circumstances, in the future. 
 
 An example of this kind of argument is to be found in 
 Burke's speech on American Taxation, where, by referring to 
 past experience in the histor}' of the empire, he proves, ist, that 
 if the tax be repealed the Americans will not demand more 
 concessions; 2d, that such repeal is quite consistent with the 
 policy of the empire ; and, 3d, that it will not derogate from 
 the dignity of the nation. Erskine, in his speech on behalf 
 of Hardy, maintains the truth of his definition of the law of 
 treason by examples from the State trials. 
 
 § 373. ANALOGY. 
 
 (2) Analogy. 
 
 This is that kind of argument in which, from the facts in one 
 case judgment is made concerning the facts in another analo- 
 gous case. 
 
 Analogy is different from similarity. In similarity the two 
 
Arguments. 357 
 
 things brought into comparison are alike ; in analogy they are 
 not alike, but stand in similar relations to other things. Thus 
 the course of history is not similar to a river, nor is eternity 
 similar to an ocean, but the two cases are respectively analo- 
 gous; that is, the course of history stands in the same relation 
 to humanity which a river holds to the water which composes 
 it. Analogy is a more fruitful source of figurative expression 
 than similarity, and we see it constantly employed in tropes 
 of all kinds, in allegories, fables, etc. 
 
 An example of this may be found in Fox's speech on the 
 East India Bill, in which he shows that the charter of the East 
 India Company might be set aside, because they had abused 
 their trust, from the analogous case of King James, who had 
 been deposed for the same cause. Grattan also argues in 
 favor of the rights of the Irish people from the analogous case 
 of the Americans. 
 
 Lord Mansfield, in tbe case of Evans, a Dissenter prose- 
 cuted by the city of London, prepares the way for a severe 
 denunciation of the prosecution by dwelling upon the persecu- 
 tion of the Huguenots in France, which he makes use of as a 
 case analogous to the persecution of Dissenters in England. 
 
 § 374. CONTRAST. 
 
 {3) Contrast. 
 
 This is that kind of argument by which, from the facts in 
 one case, we judge concerning another contrary case. Things 
 contrary must be distinguished from things dissimilar. Dis- 
 similarity may be predicated of any two things which are un- 
 like, as a man and a book ; but contrariety is predicated of two 
 opposite things of the same class, as virtue and vice, black and 
 white, north and south. 
 
 Illustrations of this form of argument maybe found in many 
 of the judgments of common life, in proverbs, maxims, and 
 current sayings, especially those which assume the form of 
 antithesis; as, "A wise son maketh a glad father, but a fool- 
 ish son is a heaviness to his mother." " Penny wise, pound 
 foolish." " Man proposes, God disposes." In this way we 
 may argue in favor of the continued progress of modern civil- 
 ization, since it is based upon freedom, from the fact of the 
 decline of ancient civilization, which was based upon slavery. 
 
358 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Fox, in his speech on the Russian Armament, employs this 
 argument by means of a contrast between Louis XIV. and 
 Pitt. After describing the misery to which Louis was reduced, 
 he points out his constancy, which enabled him to struggle on 
 until he had attained to the honorable peace of Utrecht. " And 
 shall we, sir," he says, " the pride of our age and the terror 
 of Europe, submit to this humiliating sacrifice of our honor? 
 Have we suffered a defeat at Blenheim V 
 
 Lord Erskine, in his speech on behalf of Hadfield, on a 
 charge of high-treason for firing a pistol at the king, considers 
 the cases mentioned by the opposite counsel, after which he 
 turns to the case of the prisoner, and shows that it is altogether 
 of a contrary nature. 
 
 § 375- APPLICATION OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF 
 ARGUMENTS. 
 
 Causative arguments are associated chiefly with deduction ; 
 illustrative and exemplative with induction ; and they all follow 
 the laws of reasoning which are respectively applicable to these 
 processes. If a further distinction be made, it may be said 
 that the first is chiefly concerned with matters of opinion, the 
 second with matters of fact, while the third has a more appro- 
 priate reference to the future. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE PRESENTATION OF ARGUMENTS. 
 
 § 376. PRESENTATION OF ARGUMENTS. 
 
 In the presentation of arguments there are various ways by 
 which their effectiveness may be increased. These refer chiefly 
 to clearness of statement, strengthening of argument, and em- 
 phasis of propositions. 
 
 § 377. CLEARNESS OF STATEMENT AND STRENGTHENING OF 
 ARGUMENT. 
 
 I. In method, as in style, the first requisite is clearness; for 
 in order that we shall follow the writer's train of thought, or 
 
The Presentation of Arguments, 359 
 
 appreciate the force of his argument, each successive step 
 must be readily and fully comprehended. 
 
 ist. This is attained, in the first place, by definitions, exam- 
 ples, and illustrations, which have already been sufficiently 
 considered. - 
 
 2d. Explanations of important points often serve as a valu- 
 able introduction to the main argument. Thus Fox, in his 
 speech on the Westminster Scrutiny, prepares for his discussion 
 of the case by a brief statement of four different ways through 
 which, in case of doubt, the law may be discovered. 
 
 3d. Analysis and synthesis are of great value. 
 
 By analysis is meant the explication of the topics of classified 
 arguments, and their enumeration in detail. Synthesis is the 
 converse of analysis, and means the combination of all the 
 particular topics of argument, and their presentation in clas- 
 sified order. Where these are united the argument gains un- 
 usual clearness. In this way the writer leads up from a lower 
 fact to a higher law, and shows how the former is contained in 
 the latter. At the same time the reader or hearer has a feel- 
 ing of pleasure from being made to share the confidence of the 
 writer, and as he follows him in his investigation step by step the 
 argument appears clearer and the conclusion more convincing. 
 
 § 378. TRANSITION. 
 
 2. Transition has already been noticed under the head of har- 
 mony; but further consideration is needed to show its connec- 
 tion with argument. Transitions may be so managed as to be 
 of great service in strengthening the argument; and that ar- 
 rangement of the general divisions is the best where they are 
 so made that one appears to grow out of another. 
 
 An example of this is found in the first part of Burke's speech 
 on American Taxation, where the transitions are the following : 
 
 That the repeal of the tax on tea would not lead to a de- 
 mand for further concessions. 
 
 That the repeal of the other taxes has paved the way for the 
 repeal of this. 
 
 That the exigencies of the East India Company make the 
 repeal necessary. 
 
 That the tax, though small, is still unjust; and foolish from 
 the very fact of being small. 
 
360 Elements of Rhetorie. 
 
 That its repeal is not inconsistent with the dignity of the 
 government, since a repeal of other taxes has taken place un- 
 der the same circumstances. 
 
 Another example is found in the speech of Lord Erskine, in 
 behalf of Lord George Gordon, when indicted for high-treason : 
 
 After the exordium, he begins by reflecting upon the attor- 
 ney-general for his obscure introduction. 
 
 But agrees with him in his estimate of the greatness of the 
 crime of high-treason. 
 
 On account of this, the definition of high-treason is most 
 rigidly and explicitly made by the law. 
 
 But if this definition be overstrained, the liberty of the sub- 
 ject would be endangered. 
 
 From which he proceeds to give a definition of high-treason, 
 and lays down a criterion by which it may be tested, showing 
 that all departures from this have been prudently checked. 
 
 The definition is then applied to the present case, and the 
 argument is brought to bear more directly upon the charge, 
 exhibiting the same characteristic of close connection and out- 
 growth of one argument from another. This is the chief feat- 
 ure of Lord Erskine's style, and distinguishes him beyond 
 others. 
 
 § 379. AMPLIFICATION. 
 
 3. Amplification has been already considered as one of the 
 figures of gradation in its connection with style ; but it deserves 
 a fuller notice as to its importance in argument. Here it is 
 of great value by dwelling upon any important proposition, and 
 thereby giving it greater prominence. Burke is distinguished 
 by his frequent and successful use of this. In the speeches 
 of Pitt there are also frequent examples; but one of the best 
 is the following, from Lord Erskine's speech in behalf of Stock- 
 dale. The proposition is that a free press is a good thing, and 
 that excessive restrictions are an evil : 
 
 " It is the nature of everything that is great and useful, both in the ani- 
 mate and inanimate world, to be wild and irregular, and we must be con- 
 tent to take them with the alloys that belong to them. Genius breaks from 
 the fetters of criticism, but its wanderings are sanctioned by its majesty and 
 wisdom when it advances on its path ; subject it to the critic, and you tame 
 it into dulness. Mighty rivers break down their banks in the winter, 
 sweeping away to death the flocks which are fattened on the soil that they 
 fertilize in the summer ; the few may be saved by the embankments from 
 
The Presentation of Arguments. 361 
 
 drowning, but the flock noust perish from hunger. Tempests occasionally 
 shake our dwellings and dissipate our commerce ; but they scourge before 
 them the lazy elements which without them would stagnate into pestilence. 
 In like manner liberty herself, the last and best gift of God to his creatures, 
 must be taken just as she is— you might pare her down into bashful regu- 
 larity, and shape her into a perfect model of severe scrupulous law, but she 
 would then be liberty no longer ; and you must be content to die under the 
 lash of this inexorable justice which you had exchanged for the banners of 
 freedom." 
 
 § 380. DIMINUTION. 
 
 4. Diminution is closely associated with amplification, and, 
 like it, has already been considered. Its importance in ar- 
 gument is equally great : 
 
 " Along with its natural protectors and guardians, learning will be cast 
 into the mire, and trodden down under the hoofs of a swinish multitude.''^ — 
 Burke. 
 
 The lower orders have in all ages been stigmatized by con- 
 temptuous epithets, such as " ignobile vulgus," " profanum vul- 
 gus," "sans -culottes," "canaille," "mob," "the unwashed," 
 but none of these terms have more depreciative force than 
 Burke's "swinish multitude." 
 
 In the following passages the same subject, namely, the in- 
 crease of population in the American colonies, is treated with 
 amplification and diminution. The first passage is from Burke's 
 speech on Conciliation with America : 
 
 " But whether I put the present numbers too high or too low is a matter 
 of little moment. Such is the strength with which population shoots in that 
 part of the world that, state the numbers as high as we will, while the dis- 
 pute continues the exaggeration ends. While we are discussing any given 
 magnitude, they are growing to it. While we spend our time in deliberat- 
 ing on the mode of governing two millions, we shall find that we have two 
 millions more to manage. Your children do not grow faster from infancy 
 to manhood than they spread from families to communities, and from villages 
 to nations." 
 
 Johnson, in Taxation no Tyranny, treats the same proposi- 
 tion with depreciation : 
 
 " We are told that the continent of North America contains three mill- 
 ions, not only of men, but of Whigs^-of Whigs fierce for liberty and disdain- 
 ful of dominion ; that they multiply with the fecundity of their rattlesnakes, 
 so that every quarter of a century they double their numbers." 
 
362 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 § 381. CONDENSATION. 
 
 5. Instead of amplifying propositions, it is sometimes neces- 
 sary to condense them, so as to present one or more in a com- 
 pact mass. 
 
 An example of this may be found in the speech of Burke, 
 just quoted. He shows that force ought not to be used against 
 the colonists, and gathers into a brief compass four propositions 
 of great weight : 
 
 I St. That the use of force alone is but temporary. 
 
 2d. That it is uncertain. 
 
 3d. That it impairs the object aimed at. 
 
 4th. That there is no experience in favor of force in the rule 
 of the colonies. 
 
 § 382. COMPREHENSIVENESS. 
 
 6. By comprehensiveness is meant the exhibition of a com- 
 plete mastery of the subject, both in itself and in relation to 
 others. This was a marked characteristic of Burke, whose 
 mind was always full of his theme ; who was always ready not 
 only to reply to objections that had been made, but also to 
 answer all others by anticipation; and whose delight it was 
 to pour forth from the fulness of his knowledge a copious 
 stream of examples, illustrations, and analogies, by which his 
 argument was enriched and enforced. The same quality is 
 also very manifest in the writings of Macaulay. A recent 
 writer says of him : " He always seems to make us travel on 
 a high causeway, from which the country to right and left, 
 the Jjrospect behind and that in front, lie visibly stretched 
 beneath us, like a plain from a mountain-ridge." 
 
 § 383. GENERALIZATION. 
 
 7. Generalization is the application of the principle of in- 
 duction, so as to rise from particular instances to general 
 laws. It is effective in oratory, as enabling the speaker to 
 deduce from certain facts, or truths, conclusions of the most 
 weighty character. This habit of generalization is a charac- 
 teristic of Burke more than of any other orator, and some of 
 his most memorable passages are presented in this form. 
 
 In his speech on American Taxation, he says : 
 
\ 
 
 The Presentation of Argtimcnts. 363 
 
 "Nothing in the world can read so awful and so instructive a lesson as 
 the conduct of the ministry in this business, upon the mischief of not having 
 large and liberal ideas in the management of affairs." 
 
 The following is an example from his speech on the East 
 India Bill : * 
 
 " This bill, and those connected with it, are intended to form the Magna 
 Charta of Hindostan. Whatever the Treaty of Westphalia is to the liberty 
 of the princes and free cities of the empire, and to the three religions there 
 professed ; whatever the Great Charter, the Statute of Tallage, the Petition 
 of Right, and the Declaration of Right are to Great Britain, these bills are 
 to the people of India." 
 
 On the Nabob of Arcot's Debts : 
 
 " I think T can trace all the calamities of this country to the single source 
 of our not having had steadily before our eyes a general, comprehensive, 
 well-connected and well-proportioned view of the whole of our dominions, 
 and a just sense of their true bearings and relations. ... If we make our- 
 selves too little for the sphere of our duty, if we do not stretch and expand 
 our minds to the compass of their object, be well assured that everything 
 about us will dwindle by degrees, until at length our concerns are shrunk to 
 the dimensions of our minds. It is not a predilection to mean sordid cares 
 that will avert the consequences of a false estimate of our interest, or pre- 
 vent the shameful dilapidation into which a great empire must fall by mean 
 reparations upon migtty ruins." 
 
 § 384. THE DEFINITE. 
 
 8. It has already been shown that the definite is more forcible 
 than the indefinite, the concrete than the abstract. In the case 
 of oratory, abstract discussions are listened to With impatience 
 or indifference; the preacher who expounds dogmatic theology 
 may be orthodox, but he is not persuasive. The great orators 
 deal directly with facts, and only discuss principles when it is 
 forced upon them. This preference for the concrete is very 
 remarkable in Burke, who himself makes no secret of it. In 
 his speech on the East India Bill of Fox, he says : 
 
 •' I do not presume to condemn those who argue h priori against the pro- 
 priety of leaving such extensive political powers in the hands of a company 
 of merchants. I know much is, and much more may be said against such 
 a system ; but, with my particular ideas and sentiments, I cannot go that 
 way to work. I feel an insuperable objection in giving my hand to destroy 
 any established principle of government upon a theory, however plausible 
 that theory may be." 
 
 He then goes on to give facts as reasons. 
 
 Q2 
 
364 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The same preference for the concrete and depreciation of 
 the abstract may be found in the following passage from his 
 speech on Conciliation with America : 
 
 " They are therefore not only devoted to liberty, but to liberty according 
 to Englisn ideas and principles. Abstract liberty, like other mere abstrac- 
 tions, is not to be found. Liberty inheres in some sensible object, and 
 every nation has formed to itself some favorite point which by way of emi- 
 nence becomes the criterion of their happiness. It happened, you know, 
 sir, that the great contests for freedom in this country were from the earliest 
 times chiefly upon the question of taxation." 
 
 § 385. DESCRIPTION IN ORATORY. 
 
 9. Description is very effective in orator}'. It deals with that 
 which is definite and concrete; enlarges upon it, and presents 
 a scene to the imagination of the hearer. 
 
 Famous examples occur in the speeches of all great orators. 
 The description by Demosthenes of the panic in Athens after 
 the capture of Elateia ; by Sheridan, of the horrors perpetrated 
 in Oude ; by Brougham, of the French Revolution, are well- 
 known instances. No one, however, can surpass the descrip- 
 tion given by Burke of the descent of Hyder Ali upon the Car- 
 natic, of which the following is a portion : 
 
 " While the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing upon 
 this menacing meteor, which blackened all their horizon, it suddenly burst, 
 and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of the Carnatic 
 Then ensued a scene of woe the like of which no eye had seen, no heart 
 conceived, and which no tongue can adequately tell. All the horrors of 
 war before known or heard of were mercy to that new havoc. A storm 
 of universal fire blasted every field, consumed every house, destroyed every 
 temple. The miserable inhabitants, flying from their flaming villages, in 
 part were slaughtered ; others, without regard to age, to sex, to the respect 
 of rank, or sacredness of function ; fathers torn from their children, hus- 
 bands from wives» enveloped in a whirlwind of cavalry, and, amid the goad- 
 ing spears of drivers and the trampling of pursuing horses, were swept into 
 captivity in an unknown and hostile land. Those who were able to evade 
 this tempest fled to the walled cities ; but, escaping from fire, sword, or 
 exile, they fell into the jaws of famine." 
 
 § 386. EMPHASIS OF PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 The subject of emphasis has already been considered with 
 reference to words. When applied to propositions it gives them 
 greater force, and not only calls attention to them, but also 
 
The Presentation of Arguments, 365 
 
 makes them of more importance in the argument. There are 
 various ways of emphasizing propositions, the chief of which 
 are the following: 
 
 § 387. ASSERTION. 
 
 1. Strong emphasis is laid upon propositions when they 
 are put forth with a positive declaration of their truth ; for 
 then the speaker assumes that from his assertion there can 
 be no appeal : 
 
 " Besides, sir, we have no election. If we were base enough to desire it, 
 it is now too late to retire (torn the contest. There is no retreat but in 
 submission or slavery." — P. Henry. 
 
 " This embargo must be repealed. You cannot enforce it for any impor- 
 tant period of time longer."— Josiah Quincey. 
 
 § 388. DENIAL. 
 
 2. Denial is merely another form of assertion, the negative 
 being employed instead of the positive : as — 
 
 "It was not I who inspired the Hungarian people. No. It was the 
 Hungarian people who inspired me." — Kossuth. 
 
 § 389. APOPHTHEGM. 
 
 3. Sometimes a proposition is summed up in the form of 
 an apophthegm, and is thereby rendered more impre^ive and 
 emphatic. Burke's speeches and writings abound in this : 
 
 " The blood of man should never be shed but to redeem the blood of 
 man." 
 
 '* Magnanimity in politics is not seldom the truest wisdom, and a great 
 empire and little minds go ill together." 
 
 " Slavery they can have anywhere. It is a weed that grows in every 
 soil." 
 
 " My hold of the colonies is in the close affection that grows from com- 
 mon names, from kindred blood, from similar privileges, and equal protec- 
 tion. These are ties which, though light as air, are strong as links of 
 iron." 
 
 " Parsimony is not economy." 
 
 " Nothing turns out to be so oppressive and unjust as a feeble govern- 
 ment." 
 
 § 390. DIGRESSION. 
 
 4. Digression is often useful. This has already been suf- 
 ficiently illustrated. Sometimes it is made not so much for 
 
366 Elements of RJietoric, 
 
 itself as for the purpose of corning back with renewed force ; 
 and this is so frequently done that it was formerly set down as 
 a figure of speech under the name of " reditus," or " retro- 
 gressio." 
 
 Fox, in his speech on the Russian Armament, alludes to 
 Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, and his doctrine of the 
 division of labor, of which he makes a scornful application 
 to the ministry, and then proceeds to a new attack. 
 
 Erskine, in his speech on behalf of Hardy, digresses to con- 
 sider the effect of the accession of Henry IV. on the law of 
 treason, and indulges in a brief summary of the histor\' of the 
 constitution up to that time, after which he returns with fresh 
 vigor to the case in question. 
 
 Sir James Mackintosh also, in the case of Jean Peltier, di- 
 gresses to consider the state of things on the continent of Eu- 
 rope, and then returns to England as the only country where 
 the press is free. 
 
 § 391. REPETITION OF PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 5. The importance of repetition has already been considered 
 with reference to words. It also serves to give emphasis to 
 propositions by impressing them upon the mind with renewed 
 force. 
 
 Fox, in his speech on the Westminster Scrutiny, gives a 
 remarkable example. In the course of his exordium he 
 said : 
 
 •* But, sir, I have no reason to expect indulgence, nor do I know that I 
 shall meet with bare justice in this House." 
 
 Upon this there arose expressions of disapprobation, where- 
 upon he repeated this with greater emphasis : 
 
 *' Sir, I have no reason to expect indulgence, nor do I know that I shall 
 meet with bare justice in this House." 
 
 He then went on to show that he was warranted in using 
 these words, and repeated them twice again with additional 
 and increasing emphasis, after which he proceeded in the dis- 
 cussion. 
 
 This was a peculiarity of the style of Fox, and many other 
 examples may be found in bis orations. In the same speech 
 
The Presentation of Arguments. 367 
 
 there occurs the following, which is a repetition of his charge 
 against the high-bailiff, in different words, with greater effect : 
 
 *' If he has spoken truth in the vestry, he is an arrant liar before the 
 House ; or if he vindicated himself before you upon pure principles, he 
 has grossly and wickedly deceived me and all who heard the contempt he 
 expressed in the vestry for that information upon which he expatiated at 
 the bar of this House with such extraordinary reverence." 
 
 § 392. RECAPITULATION. 
 
 6. Recapitulation has all the force of repetition. It re- 
 freshes the memory of the hearer, brings up once more those 
 propositions which might be forgotten, and enables the speaker 
 to proceed with renewed force upon the continuation of his 
 argument. 
 
 Fox, on the Westminster Scrutiny, makes use of the follow- 
 ing recapitulation : 
 
 *• Having now, Mr. Speaker, gone through the various depositions that 
 have been made before you ; having from the evidence shown that the al- 
 leged grounds of the high-bailiflf's motives were the direct reverse of those 
 he declares to this House to have been his motives — having shown that he 
 was in habits of clandestine intercourse with my opponents — having shown 
 that he was in the constant course of receiving ex parte information in an 
 illicit and shameful secrecy — having shown that he positively and solemnly 
 denied the series of iniquitous proceedings in the vestry which he boldly 
 avows at your bar — having shown that the poll was as much a scrutiny as 
 any poll can possibly be — having explained my views in the event of any 
 demand of a scrutiny — having described the species of intimidation used to 
 this man, and confirmed that, so far from exculpating, it tends greatly to 
 criminate him — having shown this, sir, and shown it by the evidence which 
 you have heard at your bar, I shall conclude this part of my evidence with 
 submitting to every man of honor and candor who hears me, whether he 
 really thinks that the high-bailiff of Westminster exercised a sound and 
 honest discretion in granting a scrutiny, supposing for argument's sake that 
 he actually possessed the power to grant it." 
 
368 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE INTRODUCTION. 
 § 393. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The object of the introduction is to prepare the way for the 
 presentation of a work, either by general remarks in order to 
 avoid abruptness, or by particular statements which may have 
 reference to the work itself. The introduction is of many dif- 
 ferent sorts, and these may be classified, either according to 
 the kind of composition to which they belong, or according to 
 the nature of the introduction itself. 
 
 Of these let us first consider the introduction in different 
 kinds of composition. 
 
 § 394. IN NARRATIVE. 
 
 In most of the great narrative poems, such as the Iliad, the 
 ^neid, and other epics, the introduction consists of an invoca- 
 tion of the muse. In Dante's Divina Commedia the opening 
 is abrupt. This is the case with many metrical romances, as 
 the Lay of the Last Minstrel, and ballads. A piece of de- 
 scription is sometimes made use of, as in the Lady of the 
 Lake, and again a preliminary reflection, as in the Siege of 
 Corinth. 
 
 The opening in history is generally explanatory. In He- 
 rodotus the introduction proper is remarkably simple: "This 
 is an exposition of the historical researches of Herodotus the 
 Halicarnassian." In Thucydides there is a survey of Greece 
 down to the time of the Peloponnesian War, and a statement 
 of the aim and scope of the work. In Gibbon's History 
 the introduction takes up three chapters, and consists of a 
 comprehensive survey of the Roman world in the age of the 
 Antonines. 
 
 In prose fiction the varieties are numerous, but they may be 
 
The Introduction. 369 
 
 reduced to three grand classes, referring to action, character, 
 or scenery. 
 
 ist Action. This forms a direct opening, where the author 
 plunges at once into the midst of his story. 
 
 2d. Character. Here the story opens with a conversation 
 between some of the characters. It is an imitation of the 
 dramatic mode of treatment, and is more abrupt than the 
 others. 
 
 3d. Description. This opening is made up of a description 
 of scenery. 
 
 § 395. IN THE DRAMA. 
 
 The work of the drama may be introduced in various ways, 
 of which the following is a classification : 
 
 ist. Narrative or descriptive. In the ancient plays this was 
 very generally adopted. This is commonly called the prologue, 
 a term which, however, in some cases is applied to preliminary 
 remarks that have nothing to do with the play which they pre- 
 cede. 
 
 2d. Characters. Here characters are introduced abruptly, 
 engaged in conversation, as in Hamlet. 
 
 3d. Lyric. An opening is sometimes furnished by lyric 
 poetry. The Supplices of ^schylus opens in this way. Mac- 
 beth opens with the chorus of the witches. Schiller's Wilhelm 
 Tell is preceded by a song. 
 
 § 396. IN ORATORY. 
 
 The introduction in oratory is called the exordium. It is 
 of more importance here than in any branch of composition, 
 and requires more careful handling. Its object may be stated 
 as follows : To prepare the hearer to listen readily to what is 
 to be said by seeking to gain his good-will, his attention, and 
 the desire for further information. 
 
 The following are the chief characteristics of the exordium : 
 
 ist. A tone of modesty. Insolence, vanity, self-conceit, or 
 self-assertion excite repugnance, and turn the audience against 
 the speaker at the outset ; while an air of self-depreciation will 
 have the opposite effect. Thus Erskine says: "Alas, gentle- 
 men, who am I ? A young man of little experience," etc. 
 
 2d. Conciliation of the hearers by compliment. This is done 
 
370 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 by referring to some quality upon which they pride themselves. 
 Demosthenes, in his exordium to the speech on the Crown, al- 
 ludes to the good feeling of the Athenians towards himself, and 
 their piety towards the gods. St. Paul, in his address to the 
 Athenians, conciliates them by referring to their general re- 
 ligious feeling. 
 
 Erskine, in his speech on Hardy, thanks the court for in- 
 dulgence shown him ; and in his speech on Stockdale com- 
 pliments the jury for their impartiality. This course is es- 
 pecially valuable when the cause is unpopular and the major- 
 ity are hostile. 
 
 3. Sometimes the opposite course is employed, and the audi- 
 ence is boldly defied. This, however, is but rare, and can only 
 be done by a speaker of acknowledged superiority. The best 
 example of this is the exordium of Fox, in his speech on the 
 Westminster Scrutiny. The majority is against him ; they are 
 trying to crush him; conciliation is usele.ss; he therefore de- 
 fies them ; he tells them that he expects no indulgence or even 
 justice; he is interrupted, but only reiterates it with greater 
 vehemence ; and at length, after repeating it four times, he 
 proceeds with the discussion, having reduced them to silence 
 by his very boldness, and forced them to listen. 
 
 4. The presentation of an important point. Demosthenes, 
 in his speech on the Crown, lays stress upon the importance to 
 himself of liberty in the arrangement of his topics, affirming 
 that the adversary should not decide as to the order of thought 
 to be adopted in the defence. 
 
 Sheridan, in his speech against Warren Hastings, disclaims 
 any vindictive feeling, and reminds the court that the prosecu- 
 tion does not endanger the life of the accused. 
 
 5. A reference is made to something in the occasion or in 
 the course of the previous debate, from which by an easy and 
 natural transition the speaker passes on to his discussion. 
 
 Burke, in his speech on Conciliation with America, states 
 that a favorable juncture has arisen in which to review the 
 subject with an unusual degree of care and calmness. The 
 same orator opens his speech on the Nabob of Arcot's Debts 
 with severe strictures upon Mr. Dundas. 
 
 Fox is usually very short in the exordium. Thus he opens 
 his speech on the rejection of Bonaparte's Overtures in this 
 
The Introduction. 371 
 
 simple way : '''■At so late an hour, I am sure you will do me the 
 justice to believe that I do not mean to go at length into the 
 discussion of this great question." Again, in his speech on the 
 Russian Armament, he begins by simply giving his reasons for 
 not speaking before. 
 
 Pitt, in his speech on Bonaparte's Overtures, opens by say- 
 ing that the question has been placed by previous speakers on 
 the very ground on which he desires to discuss it. 
 
 6. Brevity and directness. These qualities are generally ex- 
 hibited by Fox, who opens his speeches in a brief and business- 
 like manner. The same may be seen in the speeches of Chat- 
 ham, who plunges at once into his subject with but few prelim- 
 inary words. Thus the latter opens his speech on Removing 
 the Troops from Boston in the following way : 
 
 " My lords, after more than six weeks' possession of the papers now be- 
 fore you on a subject so momentous, at a time when the fate of the nation 
 hangs on every hour, the ministry have at length condescended to submit 
 to the consideration of this House intelligence from America, with which 
 your lordships and the public have been long and fully acquainted." 
 
 With this introduction, ha passes on at once to criticise the 
 measures of the ministry, and the progress of affairs in America. 
 
 The greatest speech of the Earl of Chatham has an exordium 
 which is marked by the same brevity and directness : 
 
 " I rise, my lords, to declare my sentiments on this most solemn and 
 serious subject. It has imposed a load upon my mind which, I fear, noth- 
 ing can remove, but which impels me to endeavor its alleviation by a free 
 and unreserved communication of my sentiments." 
 
 This is the exordium. He now proceeds to criticise the ad- 
 dress to the throne in that wonderful speech whose fiery and 
 vehement language is familiar to every schoolboy in England 
 and America. 
 
 7. Sometimes there is no exordium. 
 
 Cicero's first oration against Catiline is an example : 
 
 " Quousque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra." 
 
 § 397. THE INTRODUCTION CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO 
 ITS OWN CHARACTER. 
 
 In the next place, the introduction may be considered with 
 reference to its own character, and the various kinds may be 
 
3/2 Elements of Rhetorie. 
 
 classified according as they involve explanation, preparatioii, 
 persuasion, or directness. 
 
 1. Explanation. In history and fiction the introduction may 
 give explanation by means of narrative or description. In ex- 
 position it may furnish the cause why the work has been put 
 forth, or present an analogy, an example, or an illustration, or 
 it may correct some prevalent error. 
 
 2. Preparation. The introduction may serve to prepare the 
 mind for that which is to follow. In poetry, this may be done 
 by an invocation to the muses, lyrical preludes, general reflec- 
 tions, descriptions, and the like. In oratory the preparatory 
 introduction may be of a general character, made use of merely 
 to furnish an easy passage to the discussion. In the drama 
 it will comprehend those preliminary scenes which lead the 
 way to the action of the piece. 
 
 3. Persuasion. This includes those introductions in all nar- 
 rative which stimulate the attention, rouse curiosity, and thus 
 draw the reader on to read further. In oratory it mcludes all 
 forms of conciliation, compliment, praise, etc., by which the 
 hearer is induced to listen with greater readiness. 
 
 4. Directness. This includes all those introductions which 
 are characterized by brevity, or even abruptness, in which the 
 writer or speaker appears anxious to lose no time, but to hurry 
 on to the discussion as soon as possible. 
 
 § 398. GENERAL NATURE OF THE INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The introduction is designed to prepare the way for that 
 which is to follow, either in narration or exposition. 
 
 Remarks have already been made, in connection with the 
 order of thought, upon the importance of reserving the strongest 
 topic until the last place. In some cases the argument grows 
 steadily in force; in other cases, while the strongest is reserved 
 for the close, an important point is presented at the outset; 
 but the introduction should always be regarded as something 
 standing apart from the discussion, and should not interfere 
 with the order of thought which is there carried out. It should 
 not promise or announce too much. It should not anticipate 
 any of those more important arguments which have already 
 been allotted to their own place, and which would lose their 
 effectiveness if stated prematurely; and as a general thing it 
 
The Conclusion 
 
 should be presented in simple language 
 Many good introductions are quite colorless, and the best end 
 which they can attain to is to afford an easy and attractive 
 entrance to the discussion. 
 
 Cicero recommends in his De Oratore that it be not written 
 until the work itself is finished, when it may suggest the fitting 
 introduction, which shall possess the precise character which 
 the writer may wish it to have. 
 
 § 399. THE PREFACE. 
 
 The preface is a species of introduction, but differs from it 
 in character as well as in name. The introduction belongs to 
 the discussion itself, and is inseparable from it. The preface 
 belongs rather to the writer, and is intended to convey a gen- 
 eral statement of his own personal aims. The preface stands 
 apart from the work, and may refer to anything whatever, but 
 the introduction must refer more or less to the subject-matter. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 THE CONCLUSION. 
 
 § 400. THE CONCLUSION. 
 
 The conclusion, like the introduction, deserves special Con- 
 sideration. As the latter prepares the way for entering upon 
 the discussion, so the former furnishes the proper means of 
 retiring from it. 
 
 The conclusion may be considered both with reference to 
 the different kinds of composition in which it is used and also 
 with reference to its own character. 
 
 In the first place let us consider the conclusion in the differ- 
 ent kinds of composition. 
 
 § 401. IN NARRATIVE FICTION. 
 
 I. In all works of the imagination, whether in prose or poetry, 
 the story reaches a natural end in some event of conspicuous 
 interest. This is generally not the catastrophe, but something 
 
374 Elements of RJutoric. 
 
 of a less exciting character. Thus in the Iliad the catastrophe 
 is the death of Hector and the vengeance of Achilles ; but the 
 conclusion consists of the milder scenes connected with the 
 obsequies of the Trojan hero. In the Odyssey the catastrophe 
 is found in the triumph of Ulysses ; but the conclusion is con- 
 cerned with the restoration of peace in Ithaca. In the yEneid 
 we have an exceptional case, in which the catastrophe, the 
 death of Turnus, is also the conclusion. 
 
 In prose fiction the same thing may be seen, and most fre- 
 quently the conclusion follows the catastrophe, and consists of 
 milder subjects. In this department of literature there are 
 three leading classes, which may be set down thus : 
 
 I St. Where the story reaches its end in the attainment of the 
 purpose of the leading character, whether of love, vengeance, 
 or successful effort. This is the class that is most frequently 
 met with. 
 
 2d. Where the story ends with a general review of the mi- 
 nor characters, and a statement of their fortunes in life. This 
 is met with in various novels of Scott, Bulwer, Dickens, and 
 others, but is not much used by the novelists of the present 
 day. 
 
 3d. Where the action terminates in favor of the chief char- 
 acters, and the author stops abruptly, leaving the rest to the 
 imagination. 
 
 § 402. IN HISTORY. 
 
 2. In historical works there are two kinds of conclusion : 
 ist. Where the story comes to a natural end at the period 
 selected ; 2d. Where the historian closes with a general survey 
 of his subject, such as the conclusion of Gibbon's History, 
 which is given in the following manner : 
 
 "Of these pilgrims, and of every reader, the attention will be excited by 
 a History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ; the greatest, per- 
 haps, and most awful scene in the history of mankind. The various causes 
 and progressive effects are connected with many of the events most inter- 
 esting in human annals — the artful policy of the Caesars, who long maintain- 
 ed the name and image of a free republic ; the disorder of military despot- 
 ism ; the rise, establishment, and sects of Christianity ; the foundation of 
 Constantinople ; the division of the monarchy ; the invasion and settle- 
 ments of the barbarians of Germany and Scythia ; the institutions of the civil 
 law \ the character and religion of Mohammed ; the temporal sovereignty 
 
The Conclusion. 375 
 
 of the popes ; the restoration and decay of the Western Empire of Charle- 
 magne ; the Crusades of the Latins in the East ; the conquests of the Sar- 
 acens and Turks ; the ruin of the Greek Empire ; the state and revolutions 
 of Rome in the Middle Ages. The historian may applaud the importance 
 and variety of his subject ; but while he is conscious of his own imperfec- 
 tions, he must often accuse the deficiency of his materials. It was among 
 the ruins of the Capitol that I first conceived the idea of a work which has 
 amused and exercised near twenty years of my life, and which, however in- 
 adequate to my own wishes, I finally deliver to the curiosity and candor 
 of the public." 
 
 § 403. IN BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 3. In biography three principal kinds of conclusion may be 
 seen : 
 
 I St. The death of the subject. 
 2d. A discussion of the character of the subject. 
 3d. Reflections suggested by the subject. 
 The best example of this last is in the noble passage with 
 which Tacitus concludes his life of Agricola : 
 
 "If there be any mansion for the souls of the righteous; if, as wise 
 men think, great souls be not extinguished with the body, mayest thou rest 
 in peace ; and summon us, thy family, from unavailing regret and effemi- 
 nate lamentations to the contemplation of those virtues of thine upon which 
 it is not right to bestow either grief or tears. Let us honor thee rather with 
 our admiration than with short-lived encomiums, and, if nature allow it, 
 with our imitation. This is true respect, this is the pious duty of all who 
 are most intimately connected with thee. To thy daughter also and to thy 
 wife I should enjoin this, so to revere the memory of the father and of the 
 husband that they may cherish within their hearts all his words and deeds, 
 and retain the form and features of his mind rather than of his person. 
 This I say, not because I think that any restriction should be put upon 
 statues which are formed out of marble or brass, but because the represen- 
 tations of the face, like the human face itself, are frail and perishable, while 
 the form of the mind is eternal ; it cannot be seized and expressed by for- 
 eign substance or artistic skill, only in character can this be done. All 
 that we have loved in Agricola, all that we have admired, still remains, and 
 will continue to remain preserved in the minds of men in the succession of 
 ages and in the records of fame. For while oblivion shall overwhelm many 
 ancient heroes as if they were inglorious and unknown, Agricola shall still 
 survive delineated with truth and handed down to posterity." 
 
 § 404. IN THE DRAMA. 
 
 4. In tragedy the catastrophe sometimes forms the conclusion, 
 as in the Prometheus of ^schylus, where the chief character 
 is left nailed to his rock, hurling defiance at his enemy, and 
 
376 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 invoking all nature. But in the majority of cases there are 
 some after-scenes designed to bring the audience down from 
 the excitement of the play to the calm of common life. The 
 taste of the present day, however, seems opposed to this ; for 
 in stage representations of Shakespeare's plays his final scenes 
 are generally omitted, and the piece ends abruptly with the 
 catastrophe. 
 
 In comedy the conclusion often consists of a little tableau, 
 with by-play and reference to the audience. This, however, is 
 a modern device, and the action of such pieces generally ter- 
 minates in the attainment of the wishes of the principal char- 
 acters. 
 
 § 405. IN ORATORY. 
 
 In oratory the conclusion is called the peroration. Its im- 
 portance here is greater than in any other department of 
 literature. 
 
 The following are the leading characteristics : 
 
 ist. A brief summing up of the heads of arguments. 
 
 2d. The speaker enlarges upon some topic that has already 
 been brought forward; or some general proposition; or the 
 status itself. 
 
 3d. An appeal, exhortation, or other expression of emotion. 
 
 4th. Description. 
 
 ist. The first of these is not often made use of in oratory. 
 
 2d. The conclusion is often an enforcement of some promi- 
 nent topic. 
 
 Chatham concludes his speech on the Removal of Troops 
 from Boston in this way : 
 
 " To conclude, my lords, if the ministers thus persevere in misadvising 
 and misleading the king, I will not say that they can alienate the affections 
 of his subjects from the crown, but I will affirm that they will make the 
 crown not worth his wearing ; I will not say that the king is betrayed, but 
 I will pronounce that the kingdom is undone." 
 
 Burke concludes his speech on Conciliation with America in 
 a w-ell-known passage, of which the following are the opening 
 sentences : 
 
 " For that service, for all services, my trust is in her interest in the Brit- 
 ish Constitution, my hold of the colonies is in the close affection which 
 grows from common names, from kindred blood, from similar privileges, 
 and from equal protection. These are the ties which, though light as air, 
 are as strong as links of iron." 
 
The Conclusion. 377 
 
 The peroration of the same orator's speech against Warren 
 Hastings ends with a series of sentences containing reiterated 
 charges of impeachment. 
 
 In the speech on the Nabob of Arcot's Debts the peroration 
 affirms that India, though a distasteful subject to some, is 
 closely connected with the public interest and national repu- 
 tation. 
 
 The peroration of Fox's speech on the East India Bill be- 
 gins as follows : 
 
 " I shall now, sir, conclude my speech with a few words upon the opinion 
 of the right honorable gentleman (Pitt). He says ' he will stake his char- 
 acter upon the danger of this bill.' I meet him in his own phrase, and op- 
 pose him character to character. I risk my all upon the excellence of this 
 bill. I risk upon it whatever is most dear to me, whatever men most value 
 — the character of integrity, of talents, of honor, of present reputation and 
 future fame," etc. 
 
 Pitt closes his speech on Napoleon's Overtures by showing 
 the reasons that exist to hope for success in the war. 
 
 Sir James Mackintosh, in his speech on Peltier, concludes 
 by showing that as English juries had formerly done their 
 duty in spite of the wishes of Cromwell, so now the jury 
 should do justice, even if they should arouse the wrath of 
 Napoleon. 
 
 3d. The peroration is sometimes directly expressive of emo- 
 tion. Among the more striking characteristics of this class 
 are the following : 
 
 A personal reference. 
 
 Erskine, in his speech on Gordon, takes it for granted that 
 his cause is gained, makes a reference to himself, and accounts 
 for his zeal on the ground of his sincerity. 
 
 An appeal. 
 
 Demosthenes concludes his speech on the Crown with a 
 prayer to the gods to dispose the enemies of their country to 
 better things, or, if they are incurable, to pursue them with 
 destruction over sea and land. 
 
 Brougham concludes his speech on Parliamentary Reform in 
 the same way. He warns the lords of the danger of delay, and 
 implores them on bended knee not to reject the bill. His 
 speech in behalf of Queen Caroline also concludes in this 
 way. 
 
378 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 A warning. 
 
 Fox, in his speech on the Westminster Scrutiny, concludes 
 with a warning to his enemies. 
 
 Defiance. 
 
 Cicero's second Philippic concludes with a strain of defiance 
 which is summed up in the words 
 
 " Contempsi Catilinae gladios, non pertimescam tuos." 
 
 Trust. 
 
 Sheridan on Warren Hastings terminates his speech with an 
 expression of reliance upon the court and its justice. 
 
 Eulogy. 
 
 Burke concludes his speech on the East India Bill with a 
 eulogy on Fox, which is strengthened by these words : 
 
 "An honorable friend of mine, speaking of his merits, was charged with 
 having made a studied panegyric. I don't know what his was. Mine, I'm 
 sure, is a studied panegyric, the fruit of much meditation, the result of the 
 observation of nearly twenty years." 
 
 Exhortation. 
 
 This is common in sermons and in addresses to the jury. 
 
 4th. Description. The peroration frequently consists of some 
 kind of description. 
 
 Fox concludes his speech on Napoleon's Overtures by a vivid 
 description of the horrors of war, 
 
 Webster concludes his speech against Hayne by a descrip- 
 tive passage anticipative of the horrors of civil war. 
 
 § 406. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF CONCLUSION. 
 
 In the next place, the conclusion is to be considered with 
 reference to its own character, and may be analyzed into the 
 following classes : 
 
 1. Those which refer to success or failure. 
 
 This is found in very many works of fiction, whether in prose, 
 poetry, or the drama. It includes all those which end at the 
 moment when success has been achieved in the accomplish- 
 ment of desire, or ruin has fallen in the inevitable catastrophe. 
 
 2. Where emphasis is laid upgn important propositions. This 
 is found in many orations, and has been fully illustrated. It 
 may also include abrupt or startling denouements in works of 
 fiction. 
 
The Conclusion. 379 
 
 3. Retrospective. This is chiefly found in history. It in- 
 cludes all which consist of a summing up— as in oratory; and 
 also those conclusions in fiction where the characters are all 
 recalled for a final appearance or final mention. 
 
 4. Emotional. Under this class are comprehended many 
 perorations, such as those above mentioned. It is also found 
 not unfrequently in works of fiction, as when a novel, written 
 to further some cause, terminates with an appeal in favor of 
 such cause. 
 
 5. Descriptive. This is found in narrative writing of all 
 kinds, and sometimes in oratory, as above illustrated. 
 
 R 
 
PART V. 
 
 THE EMOTIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE BEAUTIFUL. 
 
 § 407. THE INFLUENCE OF THE EMOTIONS IN LITERATURE. 
 
 The influence of the emotions is as powerful in literature as 
 in life. Men are guided not so much by reason as by passions, 
 desires, or prejudices, and it is to these that the writer makes 
 his most frequent and effective appeals. From these we may 
 deduce the very origin of literature, which is supposed to ap- 
 pear at first as poetry in the form of religious hymns, inspired 
 by such feelings as fear, veneration, or affection. Then follows 
 narrative poetry, which displays the emotions in full force, as 
 affecting the character and acts of men. Thus the intention 
 of the Iliad is stated at the outset to be the wrath of Achilles; 
 and that of the Odyssey is the return of Ulysses. In these 
 poems there is the perpetual representation of human passion 
 suited to every variety of character; the poet himself'is sub- 
 ject to the power of the very feelings which he portrays; the 
 hearer owns their sway; and both are swept onward by one 
 common sympathy. Oratory arises at an early period, and 
 in its origin and all its course is largely connected with the 
 emotions. The speaker who should content himself with mere 
 reasoning would find his argument as ineffective over a general 
 audience as a mathematical proposition ; it is only when he 
 comes to his hearers with a glowing heart that he can properly 
 affect them. Narrative in prose has the same connection with 
 
The Beautiful. 381 
 
 the feelings. In history it is the display of human action in- 
 termingled with human passion that excites the reader's inter- 
 est. Herodotus held his audience spell-bound at the Olympic 
 games. Thucydides is unrivalled for impartiality ; but the sym- 
 pathy of the reader, not restricted to one side, turns with equal 
 intensity to each of the contending parties. The modern his- 
 torian has given up the exclusive treatment of battles and 
 dynasties, and has taken up the wider theme of the growth of 
 man ; but in doing this the feelings are called into play as 
 much as ever, and the interest, instead of being confined to 
 kings and heroes, is spread over the humbler classes who form 
 the people. 
 
 In the emotions may be found the true source of most of the 
 higher qualities of style. Nearly all the figures' of speech are 
 associated with them to a greater or less extent. Vivacity in- 
 dicates animation. Energy implies strength of feeling. The 
 orator cannot be eloquent whose own heart is not stirred. It 
 is by the power of the emotions that the imagination is stimu- 
 lated, and is enabled to create the brightest forms of the beau- 
 tiful or the loftiest conceptions of the sublime, 
 
 § 408. CLASSIFICATION OF THE EMOTIONS. 
 
 The emotions comprehend all those sensations and feelings 
 which are excited within the mind by certain causes peculiar 
 to each, without the influence of the will. 
 
 They include the following : 
 
 1. The aesthetic emotions, or those which are subordinate to 
 the taste: as. The beautiful; the sublime; the ridiculous; the 
 fantastic. 
 
 2. The desires. Love of self ; love of life; love of wealth, 
 or avarice; love of knowledge; love of fame; love of power; 
 love of pre-eminence. 
 
 3. The affections. The family affections : Parental, frater- 
 nal, filial, conjugal; friendship; esteem; veneration; gratitude; 
 patriotism ; philanthropy ; esprit de corps. The moral and 
 religious affections. 
 
 4. The passions. These are twofold, involving attraction 
 and repulsion : as, Love and hate ; desire and aversion ; hap- 
 piness and misery; hope and fear. 
 
 These interchange so that it is difficult to draw the line be- 
 
382 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 tween desires, affections, and passions ; but though a different 
 classification might be preferable in a philosophical treatise, 
 yet this is the most convenient for the purpose of considering 
 their relations to literature. 
 
 § 409. LITERARY iESTHETICS. 
 
 The term aesthetics is derived from attr^rjtrtcy perception, 
 and is used to designate the science of the beautiful. By 
 literary aesthetics is meant the examination of the beautiful in 
 literalure. 
 
 § 410. THE BEAUTIFUL — THEORIES WITH REGARD TO IT. 
 
 The beautiful has had many definitions, which vary in ac- 
 CQrdance with the theory held respecting it. The chief of these 
 theories are as follows : 
 
 1. The objective. This theory ascribes the beautiful to cer- 
 tain qualities in the external world which affect the mind with 
 pleasing emotions. Among the advocates of this may be men- 
 tioned Addison, Hogarth, Burke, Voltaire, D'Alembert, Mon- 
 tesquieu, Reid, Brown. 
 
 2. The subjective. This theory ascribes the beautiful to the 
 action of the mind itself, and to no other cause. This is stated 
 by Hume, who says, " Beauty is no quality in things themselves ; 
 it exists merely in the mind which contemplates them, and each 
 mind perceives a different beauty." Among the advocates of 
 this may be enumerated Hume, Schelling, Eastlake, Ruskin, 
 Coleridge. 
 
 3. Objecto-subjective. This theory, as the name implies, is 
 a compound of the two preceding. It asserts that there is in 
 the mind an ideal notion of the beautiful, which is awakened to 
 action by certain qualities in the external world. Among the 
 supporters of this may be named Akenside, Reynolds, Winck- 
 elmann, Diderot, Cousin. 
 
 4. Associative. This theory teaches that external things 
 have not the beautiful existing in them, but that they may pro- 
 duce within us various agreeable emotions, such as love, joy, 
 peace, cheerfulness, satisfaction, and the like, which result in 
 the emotion of the beautiful. This theory is sustained by Ali- 
 son, Jeffrey, and others. 
 
 Various modifications of the above theories are to be found, 
 
The Beautiful. 383 
 
 but all may be classified without much violence under one or 
 another of them. 
 
 § 411. DEFINITION OF THE BEAUTIFUL. 
 
 The definition of the beautiful which is most commonly re- 
 ceived is in substance as follows : 
 
 The beautiful is an emotion of pleasure which is awakened 
 in the mind by the perception of certain qualities in external 
 things. 
 
 The beautiful is a compound emotion, including the absolute 
 and the relative. 
 
 By the absolute beautiful is meant the ideal existing in the 
 mind. 
 
 By the relative, the beautiful which is visible in external 
 things. 
 
 Where the ideal is worked out, so as to become perceptible 
 to the senses, there results the beautiful in art and in literature. 
 
 There is a certain sensibility of the mind by which we cog- 
 nize the beautiful, and this is called taste. 
 
 § 412. TASTE. 
 
 Taste is possessed by all men, in all nations, races, and ages. 
 It is shown by the savage in his love of personal decoration ; 
 by the civilized man in his love of art; and every age of the 
 world has left monuments which testify to this. 
 
 While it is thus universal, it is, however, as different among 
 men as their faces, complexions, characters, or languages. 
 
 Races differ — the Oriental from the European, the savage 
 from the civilized. One loves what is rich and profuse in 
 ornament, the other what is chaste and refined. The savage 
 loves gaudy beads, and decorations of paint and feathers, while 
 the civilized man is content with simpler attire. The universal 
 love of ornament shows the universal existence of taste, and 
 the fashions of these show its variation. 
 
 The Frenchman and the Englishman, the German and the 
 Italian, the Russian and the Spaniard, have manifestations of 
 taste peculiar to each nation, different each from the other. 
 Each nation again shows variations among the different orders 
 of society; the taste of the boor, the refined, the rustic, and 
 the noble being quite distinct. Another illustration is afforded 
 
384 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 by each age of life— the child, the youth, the middle-aged, the 
 old. Nowhere is this more manifest than in literature. A man 
 can look back and measure his life by the successive changes 
 in his taste for poetry. The same country shows differences in 
 this respect, and the whole story of a nation's career may be 
 indicated by the changes that have taken place in its literary 
 taste. 
 
 These varieties of taste might seem to indicate its suscepti- 
 bilities to change and improvement. No quality is more so. 
 A whole class, or even a whole nation, may be brought to per- 
 ceive the beautiful where they once saw it not. While there 
 are great differences of taste in every nation, there are also 
 great concords; whole communities show agreement in one 
 thing; children are trained to love what their elders love. The 
 study of the works of the great masters can elevate the taste 
 in painting; familiarity with the works of the great composers 
 can elevate the taste in music; and in every age the mighty 
 legacies of Attic genius have tended to purify, chasten, and 
 enlighten the taste in literature. 
 
 § 413. THE BEAX7TIFUL IN NATURE. 
 
 While the nature of the beautiful may be a matter of doubt, 
 there is less difficulty as to its sources. These areof two gen- 
 eral kinds : first, the beautiful in nature ; and, second, the 
 beautiful in morals. 
 
 In the first place we have to consider natural beauty. 
 
 Natural beauty arises from the following sources : Color, 
 form, motion, sound, proportion, variety, design. 
 
 § 414. COLOR. 
 
 I. The first example of this is seen in nature, where all colors 
 are visible, the softer being spread over great spaces, the more 
 brilliant over smaller surfaces. The fields and forests display 
 green; the sky and water blue; the distant hills purple; gold- 
 en, orange, yellow, appear in the heavens at sunset and sun- 
 rise; and endless variations of tints in the flowers and in the 
 plumage of birds. Colors individually are beautiful, but when 
 seen together, or well harmonized, the pleasure is far greater. 
 In a landscape all colors may be seen at once — the sky, the 
 plain, the waters and forests, the birds and the flowers, all offer- 
 
The Beautiful. 385 
 
 ing a delightful variety. A painting when compared with an 
 engraving, a landscape in autumn and the same scene in win- 
 ter, will exhibit the charm of coloring. New tints are continu- 
 ally being devised by the skill of man, and added to the old 
 ones. The Tyrian dye of the ancients and the Magenta of our 
 own day are examples. Upon color are based, to a certain ex- 
 tent, the decorative arts and the art of painting. 
 
 § 415. FORM OR FIGURE. 
 
 2. Two kinds of form may be observed; first, that which is in- 
 dicated by the straight line ; and, secondly, that which is char- 
 acterized by the curve. The former is most visible in archi- 
 tecture; the latter in sculpture and painting. The straight 
 line is seen in angles and squares, the curve in circles, spirals, 
 and waving lines. Each has its own peculiar beauty, but that 
 of the curve is superior, and is everywhere visible in nature 
 and art. The straight line leads to monotony; the curve to 
 endless variety. This is illustrated in old-fashioned gardens, 
 especially in those which were prevalent on the continent of 
 Europe, where the predominance of straight walks and beds, or 
 bushes cut into straight -line forms, gave an air of intolerable 
 stiffness; while in English parks or landscape gardening Nat- 
 ure herself was imitated in wandering walks and irregular out- 
 lines. 
 
 Architecture necessarily has more to do with straight lines. 
 The Hindoo and Egyptian had this especial characteristic. 
 The Greek, though using it to a great extent, admitted a slight 
 curve in the outline of columns. The Roman made an exten- 
 sive use of the arch, which was more fully developed in the 
 Byzantine and Saracenic. In the Gothic the straight lines are 
 perpetually broken up by towering arches, intricate tracery, and 
 innumerable ornaments. 
 
 Hogarth, in his Analysis of Beauty, finds all its elements 
 meeting in a curved line. He says that beauty is constituted 
 by fitness, simplicity, uniformity, variety, and a certain amount 
 of intricacy ; and that these all meet in a certain waving line, 
 essential to all beautiful forms, which he calls the " line of 
 beauty." 
 
 Figure is the basis of the arts of sculpture, architecture, and 
 drawing. 
 
386 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 416. MOTION. 
 
 3. Much of the beauty of nature arises from the life and move- 
 ment of natural objects — the rolling of waves, the flow of rivers, 
 the swaying of grass or trees, the flight of birds. Motion is 
 always in curved lines, and of these the most pleasing is the 
 undulatory line of movement as seen in waves or fields of ripen- 
 ing grain. 
 
 All these beauties receive their highest example in the hu- 
 man countenance. Color is there in the varying tints of com- 
 plexion, eyes, lips, hair; figure is exhibited in the exquisite out- 
 line — the oval of the face, the curves of nostril or eye, the bow 
 shape of the lips ; while motion is seen in the play of the feat- 
 ures. The portrayal of the human face affords opportunity for 
 displaying the highest genius of the artist; and if motion is not 
 given, there is at least the suggestion of it in the subtle ex- 
 pression which may be caught and retained. 
 
 § 417. SOUND. 
 
 4. Nature reveals to us the beauty of sound in the babble of 
 brooks, the murmur of rivers, the roll of the surf, the sighing of 
 the wind, the rustle of leaves, the song of birds, the hum of 
 universal life. Above all, the human voice is most delight- 
 ful, and may have in it more of the beautiful than any other 
 sound. 
 
 Upon sound is based the art of music. From this also arise 
 all those beauties of literature that belong to rhetorical har- 
 mony — the euphonious flow of verse, the rhythm of noble prose, 
 the infinite glorifes of poetry. 
 
 § 418. PROPORTION. 
 
 5. The emotion of the beautiful is felt at the perception of the 
 proportion of different parts to a whole. This is very manifest 
 in sculpture and architecture. The Greeks excelled in this; 
 and when art declined in the Roman days, that decline was 
 first manifest in neglect of the laws of proportion. It is this 
 that may make the whole difference between a beautiful statue 
 and an ugly one. A Roman temple shows no such exquisite 
 grace of proportion as an Athenian, while a modern imitation 
 fails more lamentably. 
 
The Beautiful. 387 
 
 This perfect proportion is called symmetry, and was the lead- 
 ing characteristic of Grecian art. 
 
 § 419. VARIETY. 
 
 6. In the productions of nature the classes are the same, but 
 the individuals are different. They are alike, yet unlike, being 
 similar as to genus, but different as to species. Men are alike 
 as men, but different as individuals. No two faces are alike. 
 In art the same thing is visible. Edifices are built in a given 
 style, and so far are alike, yet individually they differ. Perpet- 
 ual sameness leads to monotony; variety, however, is pleasing, 
 and when arising out of uniformity it is beautiful. This sort 
 of variety may be termed the picturesque. 
 
 § 420. DESIGN. 
 
 7. The beautiful may be seen in the adaptation of means to 
 an end — design and execution. In nature this may arise from 
 the contemplation of a tree, with its leaves, root, bark; the 
 planets, with their movements; among the works of man there 
 is a certain kind of beauty in the mechanism of a watch or 
 steam-engine, in the construction of a ship or of a balloon. 
 It may also be found in mathematical demonstration, or in 
 well-conceived argument. 
 
 § 421. THE BEAUTIFUL IN MORALS. 
 
 In the second place we have to consider moral beauty. 
 
 This includes the beautiful in sentiment, words, and actions; 
 and consists generally of the display of the milder qualities and 
 virtues. 
 
 The milder qualities are, for example, joy, happiness, meek- 
 ness, gracefulness, chastity, purity, refinement, peace, truth; 
 the gentler virtues — love, gentleness, goodness, forbearance, 
 temperance, and the like. These may be seen exhibited in 
 thought, word, and action ; and may be found penetrating the 
 works of art and literature, giving a hidden meaning and a 
 subtle beauty. 
 
 Among the Greeks this term, the Beautiful, to KaXoy, was used 
 to indicate something of broader significance than is common 
 with us. It represented the high ideal of human good in char- 
 acter, action, and attainment. We possess a still higher term 
 
 R 2 
 
388 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 gained from Christianity, namely, " holiness ;" and the beautiful 
 takes with us a narrower ground. But with the Greek to koKov 
 was the highest good, the summum boniim; and when added 
 to another word, the result was a term which became elevated 
 to the highest — ro kuXov KixyaQdv — the perfect good, and per- 
 fect fair, the highest object of human desire and aspiration. It 
 is in this sense that the beautiful is accepted by Keats, whose 
 soul was enkindled with its charms, whose poetry was thus in- 
 spired, and who taught this in his ode to a Grecian Urn, whea 
 he said : 
 
 " Beauty is Truth, Truth Beauty— that is all 
 
 Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know." 
 
 § 422. THE BEAUTIFUL IN LITERATURE. 
 
 Literature has already been shown to be under certain as- 
 pects a branch of art, and this conception of it has given rise 
 to the term belles-lettres. In poetry this artistic character is 
 pre-eminent. Now the end of all art is the beautiful. 
 
 By art is meant the effort to bring into sensible form the 
 ideal that is in the mind, and this ideal is the absolute beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 This effort is perceptible in architecture, sculpture, painting, 
 and music, where the artist works by means of form, color, or 
 tone. The poet works by means of language ; his field is far 
 wider, his meaning more direct, and his expression more clear 
 and profound. 
 
 This subject will be found illustrated in the following pas- 
 sages. 
 
 The beauty of these lines of Shakespeare consists in the ex- 
 quisite grace of the conception : 
 
 " Nothing of him that doth fade 
 But doth suffer a sea-change 
 Into something rich and strange." 
 
 No passage in Shakespeare's works has a higher and more 
 radiant beauty than this : 
 
 " How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 
 Here will we sit, and let the sounds of music 
 Creep in our ears : soft stillness and the night 
 Become the touches of sweet harmony. 
 
The Beautiful. 389 
 
 Sit, Jessica. Look Iiow the floor of heaven 
 Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold : 
 There's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st 
 But in his motion like an angel sings, 
 Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubims ; 
 Such harmony is in immortal souls." 
 
 The following lines from Milton's Comus possess a beauty 
 of a similar nature : 
 
 " Can any mortal mixture of earth's mould 
 Breathe such divine enchanting ravishment? 
 Sure something holy lodges in that breast, 
 And with these raptures moves the vocal air 
 To testify his hidden residence. 
 How sweetly did they float upon the wings 
 Of silence, through the empty-vaulted night, 
 At every fall smoothing the raven down 
 Of darkness till it smiled." 
 
 Rogers's poem, " A Wish," expresses a soft and gentle re- 
 pose: 
 
 " Mine be a cot beside a hill ; 
 
 A beehive's hum shall soothe my ear; 
 A willowy bryok, that turns a mill. 
 With many a fall, shall linger near." 
 
 It bears a close resemblance to Marlowe's poem, "The 
 Passionate Shepherd to his Love," by which it was probably 
 suggested : 
 
 " Come, live with me, and be my love, 
 And we will all the pleasures prove 
 That hills and valleys, dale and field, 
 Woods or steepy mountains, yield." 
 
 The following lines from Byron are not in his usual vein, but 
 have so much tender and delicate grace that they might have 
 been written by Shelley : 
 
 " There be none of Beauty's daughters 
 
 With a magic like thee ; 
 And like music on the .waters 
 
 Is thy sweet voice to me; 
 When, as if its sound were causing 
 The charmed ocean's pausing. 
 The waves lie still and gleaming, 
 And the lull'd winds seem dreaming." 
 
390 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Shelley is pre-eminently the poet of the beautiful. The ode 
 on the Skylark is penetrated through and through with this 
 spirit, and has more of high and pure poetic rapture than any 
 other in existence. 
 
 To the Moon : 
 
 "Art thou pale for weariness 
 
 Of climbing heaven, and gazing upon earth, 
 Wandering companionless 
 
 Among the stars, that have a different birth; 
 And ever changing, like a joyless eye 
 That finds no object worth its constancy V 
 
 The same exquisite grace of conception and execution may 
 be found in the following lines from a poem written on the 
 Euganean Hills : 
 
 " With folding wings they waiting sit 
 For my bark, to pilot it 
 To some calm and blooming cove. 
 Where for me and those I love 
 
 May a windless bower be built, ! 
 
 Free from passion, pain, and guilt. 
 In a dell 'mid lawny hills, 
 Which the wild sea-muynur fills. 
 And soft sunshine, and the sound 
 Of old forests echoing round ; 
 And the light and smell divine 
 Of all flowers that breathe and shine." 
 
 The following possesses all of Shelley's characteristic grace 
 and delicacy : 
 
 "Music, when soft voices die. 
 Vibrates in the memory — 
 Odors, when sweet violets sicken. 
 Live within the sense they quickeiL 
 
 " Rose leaves, when the rose is dead, 
 Are heap'd for the beloved's bed. 
 And so thy thoughts, when thou art gone, 
 Love itself shall slumber on." 
 
 Keats rivals Shelley in his deep love of the beautiful, as also 
 in his rare and delicate conception and expression. His ode 
 to a Nightingale is in his best manner, and may be compared 
 to Shelley's Skylark, which it resembles in general conception. 
 The manner of the two is, however, widely different ; Shelley's 
 
The Beautiful. 391 
 
 ode being full of ecstatic joy, and that of Keats evincing sad- 
 ness and gloom : 
 
 " Thou wast not born for death, immortal bird ! 
 No hungry generations tread thee down ; 
 The voice I hear this passing night was heard 
 
 In ancient days by emperor and clown. 
 Perhaps the self-same song that found a path 
 Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home, 
 She stood in tears amid the alien corn ; 
 The same that ofttimes hath 
 Charmed magic casements, opening on the foam 
 Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn." 
 
 From Hyperion : 
 
 "As when upon a tranced summer night 
 Those green-robed senators of mighty woods, 
 Tall oaks, branch-charmed by the earnest stars. 
 Dream, and so dream all night without a stir. 
 Save from one gradual solitary gust 
 Which comes upon the silence, and dies oflf 
 As if the ebbing air had but one wave." 
 
 § 423. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ANCIENT AND MODERN 
 IDEA OF THE BEAUTIFUL. 
 
 There is a difference between the ancient and modern idea 
 of the beautiful which is observable in art and literature. 
 
 The Greek idea of the beautiful was closely associated with 
 the principle of order, proportion, fitness, and design. In archi- 
 tecture it received its exponent in the Greek temple, the most 
 perfect type of proportion that can be adduced. The leading 
 idea of Greek architecture is above all things symmetry. The 
 same thing may be found in their matchless sculpture, which 
 modern art may imitate, but never rival; and it is also man- 
 ifest, so far as the few remains will allow of a judgment, in 
 Greek painting. It is impossible to say how far the ancients 
 may have carried this art, but from the remains that have been 
 handed down we can perceive the same love of perfection in 
 form and symmetry. The specimens that survive on vases and 
 Pompeian walls show that the ancient artist loved to portray a 
 temple, a vase, a nymph gracefully poised on nothing, the 
 form of gods or heroes grandly idealized — everywhere a love 
 
392 Elemefits of Rhetoric. 
 
 of order, proportion, elegance, and a determination to depict 
 superhuman beauty. 
 
 Turning to literature we perceive the san e tendency. The 
 beautiful which inspires the writer is the same which inspires 
 the artist. It is the beauty of order, law, proportion— in short, 
 symmetry. The lyric poets, with all their varied metres, were 
 bound to a rigid law in each metre. The epic poets followed 
 rules deduced from the Iliad and the Odyssey, which poems, 
 though originally written in the free ardor of genius, served as 
 the source of laws that were to bind the poets of future ages. 
 But it is in the drama that this principle is most clearly seen. 
 This department of literature had grown up around the lyric 
 poetry of the Chorus. This Chorus had its own part in every 
 performance, they were virtually actors, and always remained 
 visible to the spectators. According to the Greek conception, 
 while the Chorus remained it was impossible to allow of any 
 violent change of scene, or any great lapse of time. Hence 
 the drama followed what was afterwards called the law of the 
 three unities. 
 
 The three unities are the following : 
 
 First, the unity of action ; which means that the business of 
 a piece be connected with one leading subject, and that the 
 interest be not dispersed among several. 
 
 Secondly, the unity of place; which means that the action 
 must be confined to the one place in which it begins. 
 
 Thirdly, the unity of time ; which means that the action be 
 limited in duration to a period not very much greater than the 
 time actually taken up in representing it on the stage. 
 
 Here, then, in the Greek drama may be seen the same pre- 
 dominance of that idea of symmetr}' which prevailed in Greek 
 art. 
 
 In the period of the revival of letters the classical influence 
 was strong both in art and literature. In the one it led to that 
 epoch known as the Renaissance; in the other it led to the 
 attempt at the revival of the laws of the three unities, and an 
 extension throughout literature generally of the Greek princi- 
 ple of symmetry and subordination to law. The style that 
 resulted, both in the drama and in other departments of letters, 
 is known as the classical. 
 
 The modern idea of the beautiful differs from this. 
 
The Beautiful. 393 
 
 We may see it, in the first place, in art. In sculpture, which 
 depends entirely upon symmetry, there is no comparison be- 
 tween modern works and those of the Greeks. But in the 
 other departments of art it is different. In architecture the 
 modern world finds its chief glory in the Gothic cathedral, 
 which is the best representative of the sum total of the differ- 
 ence between the modern and ancient idea of the beautiful. 
 Here, though there is a dominant law to which all is subor- 
 dinate, yet that law is hidden by the grandeur of the result. 
 The character of the edifice is infinite, all-embracing, rejecting 
 nothing that can heighten the general effect. The Greek tem- 
 ple is white, pure, clean, symmetrical ; the Gothic cathedral is 
 dark, tempest-worn, perhaps overgrown in part with moss or ivy, 
 a mountain-mass of stone, whose proportions, though exquisite, 
 do not readily strike the eye. In this glorious yet apparently 
 disordered mass of building and carving everything is assem- 
 bled ; statues are there — stiff, rigid, rather architecture than 
 sculpture, yet lost in the effect of the whole ; saints, angels, 
 devils, all are there; the beautiful, the sublime, the horrible, 
 even the grotesque. Here the dominant idea is not. the sym- 
 metrical, but something broader ; illimitable variety bound to- 
 gether by a real uniformity, which may most fittingly be termed 
 the picturesque. 
 
 It is the same in modern painting, which is characterized bj 
 the same tendency, from the Transfiguration of Raffaelle to 
 the Beggar Boys of Murillo ; from the Last Judgment of 
 Michael Angelo to the Blind Fiddler of Wilkie. It is not the 
 pure, cold, clear elegance of the Greek. It is something wider, 
 more comprehensive, embracing everything in its scope, and 
 shunning nothing; seeking and finding the beautiful in forms 
 and guises where the Greek would never have suspected it or 
 understood it — not in the floating nymph, the forms of deities 
 or heroes, the fair, white temple, or other highly idealized sub- 
 jects, but in the tumble-down bridge, the rustic cottage, the 
 old mill. Painting now seeks after variety. It has been said 
 "to revel in dirt." Its beauty is the picturesque. 
 
 If now we turn to literature the parallel will be complete. 
 
 Law exists; it compels uniformity ,^but this uniformity has an 
 
 ^ endless variety.^ The ballad or the metrical romance was the 
 
 earliest production of modern literature, and this earliest pro- 
 
394 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 duction was characterized by illimitable freedom in subject 
 and in treatment. This word " romance," which first indicated 
 the languages derived from the Roman, /.^., Latin, was after- 
 wards applied to the works of the imagination which arose in 
 the "Romance" languages; and from this usage the term "ro- 
 mantic " was derived, to denote that freedom from the restraint 
 of the classical school which marked this new literature. These 
 two principles have been the great rivals in modern letters; 
 they have formed parties, which have divided epochs and na- 
 tions, under the names of the classical and romantic schools. 
 
 Dante, the father of modern poetr}', followed this new im- 
 pulse. He imitated no classical model; he was a law unto 
 himself; and in his sublime poetry he struck the key-note of 
 modern literature. Chaucer, unlike him in everything else, 
 resembled him in this, that he followed no classical model, 
 but wrote from himself for the men of his generation, and be- 
 came the father of his national poetry. Spenser pursued the 
 same course; and Shakespeare came next to show that the 
 modern world had surpassed the ancient, and that in himself 
 and Dante Homer and Sophocles had been outdone. Hence- 
 forth there were other lawgivers and other models than those 
 of Greece, and the modern literature might take its stand, not on 
 the old law of restriction, but on the new law of liberty. Dante 
 and Shakespeare are thus the great names of the romantic 
 school. Wherever this school and its spirit has prevailed, 
 there literature is greatest. In the ages of English literature 
 the spirit of each has been in the ascendency; and the classical 
 spirit dominated in our Augustan age, the age of Anne; but 
 this Augustan age is inferior to the Elizabethan, as the poetry 
 of France is inferior to that of England ; Corneille and Racine 
 to Shakespeare and Goethe ; or Voltaire's Henriade to Milton's 
 Paradise Lost 
 
The Sublime. 395 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE SUBLIMK 
 § 424. THE SUBLIME. 
 
 The sublime is closely connected with the beautiful. It is 
 apprehended by the same sensibility — the taste. The theory 
 of its origin is the same. It differs from it not in kind, but in 
 degree, as the lofty mountain from the gentle hill; the light 
 flame from a great conflagration ; or the love of a mother for a 
 child from the love of the same mother risking her life or lay- 
 ing it down for the sake of her offspring. Thus the one may 
 change insensibly into the other, as the rippling stream grows 
 into the majestic river, or the gentle breeze into the tremendous 
 hurricane. 
 
 The emotion of the sublime is an internal elevation of mind 
 produced by wonder, awe, or terror. 
 
 The sublime may be considered, first, in nature; secondly, 
 in morals ; and the sources of this emotion may be considered 
 under the head of each. 
 
 § 425. THE SUBLIME IN NATURE — THE VAST AND BOUNDLESS. 
 
 In the first place we have to consider the sources of the 
 sublime in nature. 
 
 The chief of these may be found in the vast and boundless, 
 and may refer to space, duration, power, or sound. 
 
 In space the sublime arises from the contemplation of height, 
 as a lofty cliff or high mountain, the firmament of heaven ; from 
 depth, as a deep abyss, the crater of a volcano; from extent, 
 as a great plain, the expanse of ocean. Finally, when all bounds- 
 are removed, there arises the sublime idea of infinitude. 
 
 In duration the sublime may arise from the thought of the 
 lapse of centuries in human history, the passage of time in the 
 geological ages, or the inconceivable progress of astronomical 
 cycles. Here, too, as with space, if all bounds be removed, 
 
39^ Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 the result is the sublime idea of the infinite in duration, which 
 is eternity. 
 
 The exhibition of vast power has the same effect upon the 
 mind. It may be human power, as that of a great king or a 
 great conqueror. On the other hand, it may be the power of 
 a great legislator or benefactor. It may be the power of nature, 
 as exhibited in the rolling waters of the ocean, the progress of 
 a mighty conflagration, the might of an earthquake, or the fury 
 of a storm. 
 
 In sound, vastness may suggest the idea of power, as in the 
 roar of cataracts, the peal of thunder, or the volleying of a 
 cannonade; but there is also the sublime in sound which has 
 no such accessory notion, as the toll of a midnight bell, or the 
 knocking at the gates in Macbeth. 
 
 § 426. AWE. 
 
 The sublime is also produced by the sensation of awe. 
 
 Religious awe and veneration is a fruitful source, and may 
 be illustrated by many passages in the Sacred Scriptures, espe- 
 cially the visions of Isaiah, Ezekiel, and in the Apocalypse. 
 The sublime effect of the interior of a Gothic cathedral affords 
 a familiar example. 
 
 Silence is another cause. " There was silence in heaven for 
 the space of half an hour," is the sublime language of the Apoc- 
 alypse, which thus introduces an abrupt cessation to the tre- 
 mendous movement of the vision. " Be still, and know that I 
 am God," says the Psalmist. 
 
 The same thing may be seen in Campbell's ode : 
 
 " There was silence still as death, 
 And the boldest held his breath 
 For a time." 
 
 Darkness produces the same effect, whether it be encounter- 
 ed by night, or in a gloomy gorge, or in the recesses of moun- 
 tains or caverns. *' O night !" exclaims Byron, "and storm 
 and darkness, ye are wondrous strong.'* The representations 
 of the Deity have additional sublimity when this is added. 
 "Clouds and darkness," says the Psalmist, "are round about 
 him." This has been repeated by Milton, who says : 
 
 " How oft amid 
 Thick clouds and dark does heaven's all-ruling Sire 
 Choose to reside." 
 
The Sublime. 397 
 
 To these must be added the supernatural. Here awe is 
 associated with terror, and the human mind shrinks back from 
 its own fancies. Many of the most subHme passages in litera- 
 ture have this as their basis, and among them may be men- 
 tioned as pre-eminent the iiltaXov of Darius in the Persae, the 
 ghost of Hamlet's father, and the apparition of Banquo. 
 
 § 427. THE MORAL SUBLIME. 
 
 In the second place we have to consider the moral sublime. 
 This is the sublime as displayed in sentiments, words, or ac- 
 tions; and may be said to arise from anything in these that 
 transcends ordinary human capacity. 
 
 Sublimity is recognized in those actions or sufferings which 
 exhibit the heroic virtues. History and literature are full of 
 such instances, which, whether authentic or imagined, are 
 known to all, and have become the subjects of perpetual ref- 
 erence. 
 
 The display of extraordinary courage has this effect, as when 
 Satan, in Paradise Lost, offers to go first in search of the world 
 of man : 
 
 •• Who shall tempt with wandering feet 
 The dark, unfathomed, infinite abyss ?" 
 
 Connected with this is an indomitable will, an invincible 
 spirit which is seen most strikingly in the same character, who, 
 though delivered over to infinite wrath and infinite despair, 
 disdains submission. 
 
 Where a conflict is carried on against great odds the effect is 
 still grander. It is this that gives such magic influence to the 
 names of Marathon and Morgarten ; Salamis and Sempach; 
 to the story of Horatius and his two friends keeping the bridge 
 against an army; or the conquest of Mexico by a handful of 
 Spaniards. Devotion and self-sacrifice carry us even beyond 
 this, as in the case of Scaevola or Curtius or Constantine Palae- 
 ologus. The virtues of fidelity and endurance are akin to 
 these, and inspire Regulus in Roman legend and Prometheus 
 in Greek poetry ; while even these are surpassed in Christian 
 story by the sublime constancy of martyr, virgin, and confessor. 
 There is sublimity also in pride, as in the case of Cleopatra, 
 who died rather than submit to humiliation; and in ambition, 
 as in the case of Napoleon. 
 
398 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The sublime may be seen in words as well as in actions. 
 The sayings of great men which have been handed down in 
 history are generally of this description. Many are attributed 
 to the heroes of classical story, and these have their counter- 
 part in the words of the men of later times. Of such a char- 
 acter are the words of Hildebrand, who, dying at Salerno 
 after a long and bitter struggle, said, " I have loved righteous- 
 ness and hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile ;" or 
 those of Luther on entering Worms, to confront a hostile 
 world, " Though there were as many devils in Worms as tiles 
 on the house-tops, still I would enter;" or of Francis I., after 
 the battle of Pavia, " I have lost all but honor ;" or of Sir Wal- 
 ter Raleigh, as he felt the edge of the axe before laying his 
 head on the block, " It is a sharp remedy, but will cure all dis- 
 eases ;" of Sir Philip Sydney, as he motioned away the water 
 to the dying soldier, "Thy necessity is greater than mine;" or 
 of Sir Humphrey Gilbert going down at sea, " Never mind, we 
 are as near heaven at sea as ashore ;" of Nelson, " England 
 expects every man to do his duty ;" of Napoleon, " Soldiers, 
 from the summit of yonder pyramids forty centuries look down 
 upon you." These and many more are but the verbal expres- 
 sion of the same lofty virtues which constitute the sublime in 
 action. They show unflinching courage, invincible resolution, 
 faith stronger than death, the victory over self, the sacrifice of 
 life itself, or lofty resignation when that life is demanded by 
 necessity. 
 
 § 428. THE SUBLIME IN LITERATURE. 
 
 We have next to consider the sublime in writing. 
 
 The treatise of Longinus is one of the most valuable of the 
 ancient rhetorical writings, and also one of the best upon the 
 sublime. Although his view of the subject is wider than would 
 at present be allowed, yet many of his remarks are most just 
 and important : 
 
 *' The sublime,'' says Longinus, " is a certain excellence and perfection 
 of language, and the greatest writers, both in prose and poetry, have by this 
 alone obtained the prize of glory and clothed their renown with immortal- 
 ity. The sublime not only persuades, but transports an audience. By its 
 astounding effects it is always more powerful than that which merely per- 
 suades or delights ; for in most cases it rests wholly with ourselves either 
 to resist or to yield to persuasion. But the sublime, by the application of 
 
The Sublime. 399 
 
 sovereign power and irresistible might, gets the ascendency over every 
 hearer ; . . . when uttered in due season it scatters all before it in an instant 
 with the lightning's force, and shows at once the might of genius in a 
 single stroke. . . . The soul is naturally elevated by the true sublime, and, 
 lifted up with exultation, is filled with transport and inward pride, as if what 
 was only heard had been the product of its own invention." 
 
 Another definition of the sublime is by the French critic, 
 Boileau : 
 
 " The sublime is a certain force in discourse proper to elevate and trans- 
 port the soul, which proceeds either from grandeur of thought and noble- 
 ness of sentiment, or from magnificence of words, or an harmonious, ani- 
 mated, and lively turn of expression — that is to say, from any one of these 
 particulars regarded separately ; or, which makes the perfect sublime, from 
 these three particulars joined together." 
 
 § 429. FIVE SOURCES OF THE SUBLIME ACCORDING TO 
 LONGINUS. 
 
 Longinus lays down five sources of the sublime in writing : 
 
 1. A felicitous boldness in the thoughts. 
 
 2. A capacity of intense and enthusiastic passion. 
 
 These two constituents of the sublime are, for the most part, 
 the gift of nature, whereas the remaining three depend also 
 upon art. 
 
 3. A skilful moulding of figures. 
 
 4. A noble and graceful manner of expression, which is not 
 only to select significant and elegant words, but also to adorn 
 the style, and embellish it with the assistance of tropes. 
 
 5. The construction of the periods with all possible dignity 
 and grandeur. 
 
 Of the examples given by Longinus, there are some which 
 would not be considered appropriate ; while others are of the 
 highest excellence. The best are the following : From Homer, 
 the description of Rumor; the progress of Neptune; the nod 
 of Jove; the interposition of the gods in the fight; the prayer 
 of Ajax for light; from Demosthenes, the celebrated oath by 
 those who died at. Marathon; from the Bible, the creation 
 of light. 
 
 § 430. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SUBLIME. 
 
 Nowhere can such a number of sublime passages be found 
 as in the Sacred Scriptures. The fervid and intense feeling 
 
4CX) Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 of the writers, the subjects upon which they wrote, the circum- 
 stances under which they were written, formed a combination 
 of causes which has never elsewhere existed. The descrip- 
 tions of the Deity are always of overwhelming splendor and 
 sublimit}' : 
 
 " He stood, and measured the earth ; 
 He beheld, and drove asunder the nations ; 
 The everlasting hills were scattered. 
 The perpetual hills did bow. 
 The mountains saw thee, and they trembled ; 
 The overflowing of the waters passed by ; 
 The deep uttered his voice, and lifted up his hands on high." 
 
 — Habbakuk. 
 
 The Trisagion, or Song of the Seraphim, in Isaiah, is another 
 example ; and another of equal grandeur is to be found in the 
 passage of the Apocalypse beginning, *' And I saw a great 
 white throne." Other passages, though less ecstatic, have equal 
 majesty. The 90th Psalm is one of these. Another is the 
 words of the Saviour — " I am the Resurrection and the Life." 
 
 In the services of the Christian Church there are numerous 
 cases in which the sublime spirit of the Bible has been caught 
 and illustrated afresh, especially in the Gloria in Excelsis and 
 the Te Deum. These, which were the earliest hymns of the 
 Church, have been succeeded by thousands of others, among 
 which the most sublime is the Dies Irae. 
 
 The Bible has acted with direct influence upon two great 
 English poets, whose works are full of noble passages. These 
 are Caedmon and Milton. The Anglo-Saxon poet Caedmon 
 wrote a paraphrase of Scripture, and thus expressed in his own 
 language the thoughts of the great original. Some of these 
 are not unworthy of that name which he bears, the Anglo- 
 Saxon Milton : 
 
 "Nought here as yet save cavern gloom 
 Had been, but this wide abyss 
 Stood deep and dim, strange to the Lord, 
 Idle and useless. On this with his eyes looked 
 The firm-souled King, and beheld the regions 
 Void of joys — saw dark clouds 
 
 Lower with perpetual night, gloomy under the skies, 
 Wan and waste, until this world's creation 
 Arose thiou-h the word of the King of glory." 
 
The Sublime, 401 
 
 Of Milton, De Quincey says that he is not a poet among 
 poets, but a power among powers ; and that he alone exhibits 
 the sublime not fitfully and at intervals, but in a sustained and 
 unintermittent manner. The subject of Paradise Lost is of it- 
 self of this description. The characters are God, angels, dev- 
 ils, and new-made man. The scenes are heaven, hell, and 
 paradise. The angelic beings are created by the poet's own 
 invention ; even their language has to be created, and the dia- 
 lect which they speak has a grand cadence of the true Miltonic 
 character. The first, second, and third books contain a sus- 
 tained flight into the loftiest regions of imagination, where all 
 is sublime, and where it is difficult to select any one example 
 in preference to any other : 
 
 " Him the Almighty Power 
 Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky, 
 With hideous ruin and combustion, down 
 To bottomless perdition, there to dwell 
 In adamantine chains and penal fire, 
 Who durst defy the Omnipotent to arms." 
 
 " The thunder, 
 Winged with red lightning and impetuous rage, 
 Perhaps hath spent his shafts, and ceases now 
 To bellow through the vast and boundless deep." 
 
 " To be no more : sad cure. For who would lose, 
 Though full of pain, this intellectual being, 
 Those thoughts that wander through eternity, 
 To perish rather, swallowed up and lost 
 In the, wide womb of uncreated night, 
 Devoid of sense and motion ?" 
 
 "Black it stood as night. 
 Fierce as ten furies, terrible as hell. 
 And shook a dreadful dart : what seemed his head 
 The likeness of a kingly crown had on." 
 
 " Hail, holy light ! offspring of heaven first-bom, 
 Or of the Eternal co-eternal beam." 
 
 " Lowly reverent 
 Towards either throne they bow, and to the ground. 
 With solemn adoration, down they cast 
 Their crowns inwove with amarant and gold. 
 Immortal amarant, a flower which once 
 In Paradise, fast by the Tree of Life, 
 
402 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Began to bloom ; but soon for man's offence 
 
 To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows 
 
 And flowers aloft shading the Tree of Life ; 
 
 And where the River of Bliss through midst of heaven 
 
 Rolls o'er Elysian flowers her amber stream, 
 
 With these, that never fade, the spirits elect 
 
 Bind their resplendent locks inwreathed with gems." 
 
 " Thee, Father, first they sung. Omnipotent, 
 Immutable, Immortal, Infinite, 
 Eternal King; the Author of all being; 
 Fountain of light, Thyself invisible 
 Amid the glorious brightness where Thou sittest, 
 Throned inaccessible ; but when Thou shadest 
 The full blaze of Thy beams, and through a cloud 
 Drawn round about Thee like a radiant shrine. 
 Dark with excessive bright Thy skirts appear." 
 
 Among other English poets examples abound. Gray, in the 
 following, seems to have caught Milton's own inspiration : 
 
 " Nor second he that rode sublime 
 Upon the seraph wings of Ecstasy, 
 The secrets of the abyss to spy. 
 
 He passed the flaming bounds of space and time : 
 The living throne, the sapphire blaze, 
 Where angels tremble while they gaze. 
 He saw ; but, blasted with excess of light, 
 Closed his eyes in endless night." 
 
 Byron affords more passages of this lofty and thrilling kind 
 than any other poet since Milton. His impetuous and vehe- 
 ment spirit is always ready to rise to the level of the highest 
 themes, and the vigor of his language never fails. His Thun- 
 der-storm on Jura, Battle of Waterloo, and Address to the Ocean 
 may be cited as examples. 
 
 Wordsworth is too philosophical and contemplative to ex- 
 hibit much of so fervid a quality ; but, in spite of this, in his 
 Ode on Immortality he has risen to a height of grandeur at- 
 tainable but by few. 
 
 Campbell's vigorous muse frequently rises to the sublime, 
 and perhaps attains its highest power in Hohenlinden. 
 
 Great sublimity of conception and expression is exhibited 
 by Shelley in the first canto of the Revolt of Islam, and in the 
 Prometheus Unbound. Mrs. Browning's Seraphim, and Drama 
 of Exile, which are due to the influence of Shelley's poetry, 
 
The Sublime. 403 
 
 though often overwrought and strained, nevertheless rise to 
 very lofty heights of thought. 
 
 The following lines exhibit the power of Keats to attain to 
 the utmost grandeur of conception : 
 
 "Oft of one wide expanse had I been told 
 That deep-biovved Homer ruled as his demesne; 
 Yet never did I breathe its pure serene, 
 Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold. 
 Then felt I like some watcher of the skies, 
 When a new planet swims into his ken. 
 Or like stout Cortez — when with eagle eyes 
 He stared at the Pacific, and all his men 
 Looked at each other with a wild surmise — 
 Silent upon a peak in Darien." 
 
 § 431. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SUBLIME AND BEAUTIFUL. 
 
 The difference between the sublime and the beautiful is seen 
 in Milton, and is described and illustrated in Tennyson's ode: 
 
 " O mighty-mouthed inventor of harmonies, 
 O skilled to sing of Time or Eternity, 
 God-gifted organ-voice of England, 
 Milton, a name to resound for ages ; 
 Whose Titan angels, Gabriel, Abdiel, 
 Starr'd from Jehovah's gorgeous armories, 
 Tower, as the deep-domed empyrean 
 Rings to the roar of an angel onset — 
 Me rather all that bowery loneliness, 
 The brooks of Eden mazily murmuring, 
 And bloom profuse and cedar arches 
 Charm, as a wanderer out in ocean. 
 Where some refulcjent sunset of India 
 Streams o'er a rich ambrosial ocean isle. 
 And crimson-hued the stately palm-woods 
 Whisper in odorous heights of even." 
 
 The sublime is intense, and therefore short-lived, and often 
 but momentary. The beautiful is prolonged, and may be per- 
 petual. As Shakespeare says in Antony and Cleopatra : 
 
 "Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale 
 Her infinite variety." 
 
 Or in the words of Keats's Endymion : 
 
 " A thing of beauty is a joy forever ; 
 Its loveliness increases ; it will never 
 Pass into nothingness." 
 
 s 
 
404 Elements of EJietoric, 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE RIDICULOUS. 
 
 § 432. THE RIDICULOUS. 
 
 The ridiculous has reference to those things which conduce 
 to niirthfulness, laughter, or derision. The term "ludicrous" 
 is often used as interchangeable with it. 
 
 There are some who distinguish between the two, associat- 
 ing the former with contempt, and the latter with mirthfulness ; 
 but this is a distinction which cannot be insisted on, and the 
 term ridiculous may be considered as the more comprehensive 
 of the two. 
 
 The source of the ridiculous lies in the perception of incon- 
 gruity. The laws of mind and experience lead us to anticipate 
 a regular order in ideas or in events, such as the logical se- 
 quence of cause and effect, antecedent and consequent; the 
 proper classification of genus and species ; the subordination 
 of a part to the whole, the less to the greater, and the like. 
 By incongruity is meant the violation of this order, and the 
 effect of this is to excite within the mind a sense of the ludi- 
 crous. This is illustrated in the following cases. 
 
 1. Cause and effect. Where there is a great parade of prep- 
 aration without any result whatever: as — 
 
 •' The king of France, with twice ten thousand men, 
 Marched up the hill — and then marched down again.'* 
 
 2. Antecedent and consequent. Where there is an inconse- 
 quential statement, that is, where one statement follows an- 
 other without any connection between them : as — 
 
 "To whom the knight, with comely grace, 
 Put off his hat, to put his case." 
 
 " His head was turned, and so he chewed 
 His pigtail till he died." 
 
The Ridiculous. 405 
 
 3. Classification. Where discordant things are jumbled to- 
 gether: as— 
 
 •' Not louder shrieks to pitying heaven are cast, 
 When husbands or when lapdogs breathe their last." 
 
 4. Comparison. Where the resemblance is affirmed between 
 two totally incongruous objects, which, however, are said to 
 have one thing in common : as — 
 
 "Like a lobster boiled the morn, 
 From black to red began to turn." 
 
 5. Contrast. Where an unexpected and violent contrast is 
 presented : 
 
 •' I really take it very kind, 
 This visit, Mrs. Skinner. 
 I have not seen you such an age — 
 Aside. (The wretch has come to dinner)." 
 
 The sense of the ridiculous is as widely diffused as the sense 
 of the beautiful, and differs according to the taste in the same 
 way. The clown enjoys coarse jokes, while the man of culture 
 can only appreciate refined wit, and is disgusted by that which 
 is amusing to the other, while to the other the light and grace- 
 ful raillery of the educated man seems unintelligible. 
 
 § 433. WIT. 
 
 The chief elements of the ridiculous are two, namely, wit 
 and humor. 
 
 I. Wit. 
 
 Wit is a certain quickness of fancy, by which ideas, seemingly 
 incongruous, are associated in a pointed and amusing manner. 
 
 It may also be defined as a sudden association of incongru- 
 ous things, expressed in brief and striking language. 
 
 In wit there are three requisites : 
 
 ist. Pointed expression, such as antithesis, which is often 
 used ; or any other form which may serve this purpose. 
 
 2d. Brevity. "Brevity is the soul of wit." 
 
 3d. The association of incongruities : as — 
 
 " The general is a great taker of snufT as well as of towns." 
 
 " Beneath this stone my wife doth lie ; 
 She's now at rest — and so am I." 
 
4o6 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Sydney Smith's wish " to take off his flesh and sit in his 
 bones" is a well-known example. 
 
 Wit is associated with pointed language. It makes use of 
 artificial forms of expression, which are sometimes classed 
 among the figures of speech. Antithesis is very largely em- 
 ployed for purposes of this kind ; and there are other figures 
 which are used exclusively in this wa)*, such as paronomasia, 
 and all plays on words. Wit is employed in the following: 
 The bon-mot, the double-entendre, epigram,. innuendo, irony, 
 lampoon, pasquinade, repartee, sarcasm, sneer. 
 
 Wit is elaborately defined by Dr. Isaac Barrow : 
 
 " It is a thing so versatile and multiform, appearing in so many shapes, 
 so many postures, so many garbs, so variously apprehended by several eyes 
 and judgments, that it seemeth no less hard to settle a clear and certain 
 notion thereof than to make a portrait of Proteus, or to define the figure of 
 the fleeting air. Sometimes it lieth in pat allusion to a known story, or in 
 seasonable application of a trivial saying, or in forging an apposite tale ; 
 sometimes it playeth on words and phrases, taking advantage from the am- 
 biguity of their sense or the affinity of their sound. Sometimes it is wrapped 
 in a dress of humorous expression ; sometimes it lurketh under an odd si- 
 militude ; sometimes it is lodged in a sly question, in a smart answer, in a 
 quirkish reason, in a shrewd intimation, in cunningly diverting or cleverly 
 retorting an objection ; sometimes it is couched in a bold scheme of speech, 
 in a tart irony, in a lusty hyperbole, in a startling metaphor, in a plausible 
 reconciling of contradictions, or in acute nonsense ; sometimes a scenical 
 representation of persons or things, a counterfeit s|)eech, a mimical look or 
 gesture passeth for it ; sometimes an affected simplicity, sometimes a pre- 
 sumptuous bluntness giveth it being ; sometimes it riseth only upon a lucky 
 hitting upon what is strange ; sometimes from a crafty twisting obvious 
 matter to the purpose ; often it consists in one knows not what, and spring- 
 eth up one can hardly tell how. Its ways are unaccountable and inexpli- 
 cable, being answerable to the numberless rovings of fancy and windings of 
 language. It is, in short, a manner of sf)eaking out of the simple and plain 
 way — such as reason teacheth and proveth things by — which by a pretty sur- 
 prising uncouthness in conceit or expression doth affect and amuse the fancy, 
 stirring in it some wonder, and breeding some delight thereto." 
 
 § 434. HUMOR. 
 
 Humor may be defined as the quality of fancy which gives 
 to things a ridiculous turn and evokes mirthfulness. 
 
 Humor is more prolonged in duration than wit, which is fit- 
 ful, short-lived, and associated with brevity and point of ex- 
 pression, and great artificiality in the structure of sentences. 
 
The Ridiculotis, 407 
 
 In humor the sense of the ridiculous is maintained at greater 
 length, and it is a general element pervading a whole compo- 
 sition. 
 
 In the following passage, De Quincey distinguishes between 
 wit and humor : 
 
 " While wit is a purely intellectual thing, into every act of the humorous 
 mind there is an influx of the fnonil nature : rays, direct or refracted, from 
 the will and the affections, from the disposition and the temperament, enter 
 into all humor ; and thence it is that humor is of a diffusive quality, pervad- 
 ing an entire course of thoughts ; while wit — because it has no existence apart 
 from certain logical relations of a thought which are definitely assignable, 
 and can be counted even — is always punctually concentrated within the 
 circle of a few words." 
 
 The general characteristics of humor are illustrated in the 
 following passages. 
 
 The first is from Charles Lamb's Dissertation on Roast Pig : 
 
 *' The judge, who was a shrewd fellow, winked at the manifest iniquity of 
 the decision ; and when the court was dismissed, went privily, and bought up 
 all the pigs that could be had for love or money. In a few days his lord- 
 ship's town-house was observed to be on fire. The thing took wing, and 
 now there was nothing to be seen but fire in every direction. Fuel and pigs 
 grew enormously dear all over the district. The insurance-offices one and 
 all shut up shop. People built slighter and slighter every day, until it was 
 feared that the very science of architecture would in no long time be lost to 
 the world. Thus this custom of firing houses continued, till, in process of 
 time, says my manuscript, a sage arose, like our Locke, who made a dis- 
 covery that the flesh of swine, or indeed of any other animal, might be cook- 
 ed (burned, as they called it) without the necessity of consuming a whole 
 house to dress it. Then first began the rude form of a gridiron. Roasting 
 by the string or spit came in a century or two later ; I forget in whose dy- 
 nasty. By such slow degrees, concludes the manuscript, do the most use- 
 ful and seemingly the most obvious arts make their way among mankind." 
 
 The next is from the same writer's " Letter to B. F., at Syd- 
 ney, New South Wales." The humor is based upon the fact 
 that at that time this was a penal colony : 
 
 " I cannot imagine to myself whereabout you are. When I try to fix it, 
 Peter Wilkins's island comes across me. Sometimes you seem to be in the 
 Hades of Thieves. I see Diogenes prying about among you with his perpet- 
 ual, fruitless lantern. What must you be willing to give by this time for the 
 sight of an honest man. You must almost have forgotten how we look. 
 And tell me what you Sydneyites do ? Are they th . . v . ng all day long .-* 
 Merciful heaven ! what property can stand against such depredation ! . . . 
 
4o8 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 We hear the most improbable tales at this distance. Pray, is it true that 
 the young Spartans among you are born with six fingers, which spoils their 
 scanning ? It must look very odd, but use reconciles. For their scansion 
 it is less to be regretted, for if they take it into their heads to be poets, it is 
 odds but they turn out, the greater part of them, vile plagiarists. Is there 
 much difference to see, too, between the son of a th . . f and the grandson, 
 or where does the taint stop ? Do you bleach in three or in four genera- 
 tions } . . . Do you grow your own hemp? What is your staple trade, ex- 
 clusive of the national profession, I mean } Your locksmiths, I take it, are 
 some of your great capitalists." 
 
 § 435- WJT AND HUMOR IN ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 It has often been remarked that the French are more given 
 to wit, and the English to humor. This is due in part to na- 
 tional characteristics, but it is also due to the difference between 
 the French and English languages. The former has greater 
 precision and nicety of expression than the latter, and a larger 
 supply of the very qualities which best serve the purpose of 
 wit. Thus the whole genius of the people and of the language 
 turns to delicacy and subtlety of expression, antithetic point, 
 and sparkling epigram. 
 
 English literature is, however, sufficiently rich in examples 
 of wit, and writers equal to the very best of the French have 
 flourished in every age, from Lord Bacon to Matthew Arnold. 
 Not a few of the English wits have enlarged their vocabulary 
 and sharpened their epigrammatic point by a close study of 
 French models. It was the prevailing French taste that may 
 be said to have influenced the greatest of all English wits — 
 Alexander Pope. 
 
 Humor, however, is rather peculiar to the English genius. 
 No other nation has so entirely appropriated it, nor can any 
 other show such a body of humorous literature which is so 
 truly great. Indeed, the very word "humor" can scarcely be 
 translated. It is, as has been shown, more prolonged and 
 sustained than wit; it is associated with simplicity, naivete, 
 even homeliness of expression ; and is adapted to the plain, 
 straightforward, and unpretending nature of the Anglo-Saxon 
 race and speech. With these it also blends kindliness, genial- 
 ity, and sympathy. 
 
 In character it differs altogether from wit. For wit is keen 
 and pitiless, but humor is mild and gentle ; wit is for enemies, 
 
The Ridiculous. 409 
 
 humor for friends ; the one is an ally to mockery, sarcasm, and 
 malignity; the other is closely associated with pathos, and the 
 laughter that it awakens is often near akin to tears. 
 
 Wit in English literature has been illustrated by such names 
 as Lord Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, Jeremy Taylor, Dryden, 
 Pope, Butler, Sheridan, Jerrold, Sydney Smith, Matthew Arnold. 
 
 Humor by Chaucer, Shakespeare, who also exhibits wit in 
 equal measure, Addison, Steele, Swift, Goldsmith, Sterne, Field- 
 ing, Thackeray, Dickens. 
 
 Humor has also been exhibited in art by Hogarth, Cruik- 
 shank, Leech, Tenniel, Du Maurier. 
 
 Among the peoples who form the great English-speaking 
 race there is a difference to be observed in regard to the liter- 
 ature of the ridiculous. The English proper, though exhibit- 
 ing a sufficient amount of wit, leans rather to humor, the char- 
 acteristics of which are drollery, sly suggestiveness, delicate 
 insinuations, and often something that is not far removed from 
 pathos. Scottish humor is at once dry and sly. Aytoun's 
 Fairshon affords a good example : 
 
 "Fairshon swore a feud 
 
 Against ta clan Mac Tafish, 
 Marched into his lands 
 
 Ta plunder an ta rafish ; 
 For he did resolve 
 
 Ta extirpate ta vipers, 
 With four an twenty men. 
 
 An fife an thirty pipers." 
 
 The Irish are characterized by wit, quick repartee, and keen 
 insight. Their humor exhibits broad fun and joyousness, as 
 suggested in the works of Lover and Lever. One kind of hu- 
 mor is peculiar to them, and is known as the Irish Bull. An 
 example of this may be found in the following : 
 
 " Ladies and gentlemen," said an Irish manager to his audience of three, 
 "as there is nobody here, I'll dismiss you all ; the performance of this night 
 will not be performed, but will be repeated to-morrow evening." 
 
 American humor is characterized by extravagance, and is 
 illustrated by the works of Artemus Ward and others who have 
 a world-wide popularity. 
 
4IO Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 § 436. THE RIDICULOUS IN LITERATURE. 
 
 This may be considered under two divisions : 
 
 1. Where the ridiculous appears as used for itself only, and 
 without any ulterior purpose, but wholly for the sake of excit- 
 ing laughter or affording amusement. Here the ridiculous it- 
 self is the end proposed. 
 
 2. Where the ridiculous is used with a purpose. 
 
 By a purpose is meant some aim beyond mere laughter or 
 mirthfulness, to attain which the ridiculous is made use of. 
 Here it is used as a means, not as an end. 
 
 § 437. THE RIDICULOUS WITHOUT A PURPOSE. 
 
 I. The ridiculous without a purpose comprehends all that is 
 generally understood under the term burlesque, which may be 
 classified as follows : 
 
 I St. Poetry. To this class belongs the poetr}" known as 
 mock heroic. Although this is sometimes satirical, as the 
 Rape of the Lock, yet it is in its origin merely burlesque. Its 
 popularity in ancient times is attested by the Batrachomyo- 
 machia, falsely assigned to Homer. Modern burlesque poetry 
 includes the Ingoldsby Legends, Thackeray's ballads, Bon Gual- 
 tier's poems. 
 
 2d. Prose. Lover's Handy Andy and Thackeray's O'Ga- 
 hagan are among the best examples of prose burlesque. These 
 books afford perfect representations of the ridiculous, pure 
 and simple ; the atmosphere is one of broad fun, and the 
 object for which they were written is simply the excitement 
 of laughter. 
 
 3d. Dramatic. Under this head are included the farce, the 
 comic melodrama, Christmas pieces, and extravaganzas, such 
 as Aladdin the Wonderful Scamp, etc. 
 
 4th. Social. This comprises all those modes of the bur- 
 lesque which are included in literature, and belong to social life 
 — such as jests, enigmas, conundrums, drolleries, humorous an- 
 ecdotes, and the like. 
 
 The burlesque has its own uses, which are not unimportant. 
 It tends to promote cheerfulness. To those who are engaged 
 in severe intellectual pursuits it affords an agreeable and bene- 
 ficial reaction. Physically it is as valuable as bodily exercise. 
 
The Ridiculous. 411 
 
 A hearty laugh is equal to a long walk, and it acts with ad- 
 ditional benefit upon the mind by throwing it into another 
 
 groove : 
 
 *' A little nonsense now :(nd then 
 Is relished by the wisest men." 
 
 Mirthfulness revives the spirit, and enables one to undertake 
 in a fresher mood the serious business of life. From this it will 
 be seen that the humblest form of burlesque need not be ex- 
 cluded from a survey of literature, since it has a legitimate use. 
 
 § 438. THE RIDICULOUS WITH A PURPOSE. 
 
 2. The purpose for which the ridiculous is made use of is 
 exclusively satirical. 
 
 Satirical writing includes all kinds of composition in which 
 men and things are made the subjects of contemptuous or 
 sportive ridicule. These are numerous, and will be considered 
 in order. 
 
 § 439. THE EPIGRAM. 
 
 The word epigram has the same literal meaning as inscrip- 
 tion. Originating among the Greeks, it was at first devoted to 
 that purpose, but afterwards grew to have a more extended ap- 
 plication. At the present day it is most frequently associated 
 with wit and satire, though it may also have a serious and ele- 
 vated, or even religious character. 
 
 The modern epigram is at once defined and illustrated in 
 the following lines : 
 
 "Omne epigramma sit instar apis, sit aculeus illi, 
 Sint sua mella, sit et corporis exigui." 
 
 "An epigram is, like a bee, 
 A lively little thing ; 
 Its body small, its honey sweet, 
 And in its tail a sting." 
 
 Many ancient epigrams are apophthegms : 
 
 "Please your own taste. In passion or from pique, 
 Some good of you, and some will evil speak." — Theognis. 
 
 " From vain rash speech thy tongue let silence hold. 
 A watch o'er words is better than o'er gold." — Lucian. 
 S 2 
 
412 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Some express a sentiment or aspiration : 
 
 •' Praying or prayerless, give us good things, Zeus ! 
 And, e'en though prayed for, evil things refuse." — Plato. 
 
 Some are eulogistic : 
 
 " Heliodorus' voice, by all that's dear. 
 Is sweeter than Apollo's lute to hear." — MELEA.GEIL 
 
 Some are pathetic : 
 
 "When Arria to her Paetus gave the steel 
 
 Which from her bleeding side did newly part. 
 For my own wound, she said, no pain I feel, 
 And yet thy wound will stab me to the heart" — Martiau 
 
 On Dido : 
 
 " Poor queen, twice doomed disastrous love to try. 
 You fly the dying, for the flying die." — AusoNius. 
 
 Among the ancient epigrams, however, there may be found 
 every degree of satire, from the lightest raillery to the fiercest 
 abuse. The following are distinctively satirical : 
 
 "The dying miser wept, not life to end. 
 But on his funeral so much to spend." — Nicarchus. 
 
 "Ten pounds I begged, with half thou bidd'st me speed; 
 Next time I'll ask thee twice what I have need." — Martial. 
 
 "You ask me why I have no verses sent, — 
 For fear you should return the compliment." — Martial. 
 
 "A doctor lately was a captain made; 
 It is a change of title, not of trade." — Martiau 
 
 "Thou art so tame and simple in thy life, 
 I wonder how thou e'er couldst court a wife." — Martial. 
 
 "The golden hair that Galla wears 
 
 Is hers, who would have thought it ! 
 She swears 'tis hers, and true she swears, 
 For I know where she bought it." — Martial. 
 
 "'Tis said that certain death awaits 
 The raven's nightly cry; 
 But at the sound of Cymon's voice 
 The very ravens die." — Nicarchus. 
 
 "A viper stung a Cappadocian's hide, 
 And poisoned by his blood that instant died." 
 
 — Demodocus. 
 
The Ridiculous. 413 
 
 Modern epigrams are chiefly of a satirical character. 
 The following well-known epigram on Wolsey is remarkable 
 for its alliteration : 
 
 " Begot by butcher, but by bishop bred, 
 How high his highness holds his haughty head !" — Heywood. 
 
 On Pope's translation of Homer : 
 
 " Pope came off clean with Homer ; but they say 
 Broome went before and kindly swept the way." — Henly. 
 
 A repartee at the expense of the clergy: 
 
 "Said Celia to a reverend dean, 
 ' What reason can be given. 
 Since marriage is a holy thing, 
 That they have none in heaven?' 
 
 * They have,' says he, * no women there.* 
 
 She quick returns the jest, 
 
 * Women there are, but I'm afraid 
 
 They cannot find a priest' "— SwiFT. 
 
 A Jacobite epigram : 
 
 " God bless the King ! God bless the faith's defender, 
 The devil take the Pope and the Pretender, 
 Who the Pretender is and who the King — 
 God bless us all ! is quite another thing." — Dr. Byrom. 
 
 Unexpected kindness: 
 
 " ' O spare me, dear angel, one lock of your hair,* 
 A bashful young lover took courage and sighed. 
 ' 'Twere a sin to refuse you so modest a prayer, 
 So take my whole wig,' the sweet creature replied." 
 
 On the setting-up Butler's monument in Westminster Abbey: 
 
 " Whilst Butler, needy wretch, was yet alive, 
 No generous patron would a dinner give ; 
 See him, when starved to death and turned to dust, 
 Presented with a monumental bust. 
 The poet's fate is here in emblem shown — 
 He asked for bread, and he received a stone." — S. Wesley: 
 
 " ' Harry, I cannot think,' says Dick, 
 
 * What makes my ankles grow so thick.* 
 *You do not recollect,' says Harry, 
 
 * How great a calf they have to carry.' " 
 
414 Elements of R/ietoric. 
 
 Advice to a dramatist : 
 
 " Your comedy I've read, my friend. 
 And like the half you pilfered best; 
 But sure the drama you might mend — 
 Take courage, man, and steal the rest.*' 
 
 On a parson who had lost his portmanteau: 
 
 "Tve lost my portmanteau.' 
 'I pity your grief 
 •All my sermons were in it' 
 ' I pity the thief " 
 
 Written on a looking-glass : 
 
 **I change, and so do women, too; 
 But I reflect, which women never do." 
 
 On hearing a debate in the House of Commons: 
 
 "To wonder, now, at Balaam's ass were weak; 
 Is there a night that asses do not speak?" 
 
 On a bankrupt lately turned preacher : 
 
 "No more by creditors perplexed. 
 Or ruined tradesmen's angry din; 
 He boldly preaches from the text, 
 ' A stranger, and I took him in.' " 
 
 A French epigram addressed to Monsieur M on his 
 
 nomination to the Legion of Honor: 
 
 "In ancient times — 'twas no great loss — 
 They hung a thief upon the cross; 
 But now, alas ! I say 't with grief, 
 They hang the cross upon the thiefc" 
 
 On Prince Talleyrand : 
 
 " Seven cities boasted Homer's birth, 'tis true ; 
 But twenty boast of not producing you." 
 
 Modern epigrams are not always satirical, and many of the 
 most beautiful are full of elevated sentiment. 
 A literary epigram : 
 
 "Three poets, in three distant ages born, 
 Greece, Italy, and England did adorn; 
 The first in loftiness of thought surpassea, 
 The next in majesty, in both the last. 
 The force of Nature could no farther go; 
 To make a third she joined the former two." — Dryden. 
 
The Ridiculous. 415 
 
 A religious epigram. Dr. Doddridge on his family motto, 
 " Dum vivimus vivamus :" 
 
 "Live while you live, the epicure would say, 
 And seize the pleasures of the present day; 
 Live while you live, the sacred preacher cries, 
 And give to God each moment as it flies. 
 Lord, in my views let both united be; 
 I live in pleasure when I live to thee." 
 
 " On parent knees, a naked new-born child, 
 Weeping thou sat'st while all around thee smile^; 
 So live that, sinking in thy last long sleep, 
 Calm thou mayst smile while all around thee weep." 
 
 — Sir Wm. Jones. 
 
 Epigrams often assume the form of epitaphs, and are both 
 satirical and serious. The following by Ben Jonson on the 
 Countess of Pembroke is full of pathetic beauty: 
 
 " Underneath this sable hearse 
 Lies the subject of all verse — 
 Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother. 
 Death ! ere thou hast slain another. 
 Learned and fair and good as she. 
 Time shall throw a dart at thee." 
 
 § 440. SQUIB. 
 The squib is a light and playful epigram. 
 On Lord Palmerston and the Earl of Derby being confined 
 at the same time with gout : 
 
 "The Premier in, the Premier out. 
 Are both laid up with pedal gout. 
 
 And no place can they go to. 
 Hence it ensues that, though of old 
 Their differences were manifold, 
 
 They now agree in toto." 
 
 Porson on his academic visits to the Continent: 
 
 " I went to Frankfort, and got drunk 
 With that most learned Professor Brunck; 
 I went to Worts, and got more drunken 
 With that more learned Professor Ruhncken." 
 
 § 441. PASQUINADE. 
 
 The pasquinade is like the squib, being an epigram either in 
 poetry or prose, and in character either personal or political. 
 
41 6 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The term is derived from the Roman fashion of fixing placards 
 inscribed with satirical epigrams on the mutilated statue of 
 Pasquin. 
 
 Brag and Grab : 
 
 " The initials of Brougham, Russell, Althorp, and Grey, 
 If rightly disposed the word Brag will display ; 
 Transpose them and Grab will appear to the view, 
 Which hints at what many assert to be true — 
 That they, like former statesmen, still follow the plan 
 First to brag what they'll do, and then grab all they can." 
 
 The following by Landor is more bitter : 
 
 "George the First was reckoned vile, 
 Viler George the Second; 
 And what mortal ever heard 
 Any good of George the Third? 
 When from earth the Fourth ascended, 
 God be praised, the Georges ended !" 
 
 § 442. LAMPOON. 
 
 The lampoon is abusive satire, chiefly in the epigrammatic 
 form. It is personal and scurrilous. A well-known example 
 may be found in Byron's verses, beginning " Born in a garret, 
 in a kitchen bred." 
 
 § 443. BON-MOT. 
 
 By the bon-mot is meant a happy saying characterized by 
 wit, acuteness, and epigrammatic terseness. 
 
 " Speech was given to man to conceal his thoughts." — Attributed to 
 Talleyrand. 
 
 " Orthodoxy is my doxy. Heterodoxy is another man's doxy." — Bishop 
 Warburton. 
 
 "No man is a hero to his valet." — Madame de S6vign6. 
 
 •'Dogmatism is the maturity of puppyism." — Douglas Jerrold. 
 
 "Boston State-House is the hub of the solar system." — O. W. HoLMES. 
 
 "No man was ever written out of reputation but by himself" — Bentley. 
 
 "God helps them that help themselves."— Benjamin Franklin. 
 
 § 444. PARODY. 
 The parody is the adoption of the words of a well-known 
 author which are diverted so as to give a different meaning of 
 a ludicrous character. 
 
The Ridiculous. 417 
 
 " O, ever thus, from childhood's hour, 
 I've seen my fondest hopes decay; 
 I never loved a tree or flower, 
 But 'twas the first to fade away." 
 
 "O, ever thus, from childhood's hour 
 This cruel fate on me hath fell; 
 There always comes a soaking shower 
 When I've forgot my umberell." 
 
 Parody was largely employed by Aristophanes for the pur- 
 pose of turning into ridicule those against whom he directed it. 
 Socrates and Euripides were in particular the objects of his 
 fierce attacks. At the present day it is but seldom used, 
 except for literary satire. One of the best examples may be 
 found in Canning's Knife-grinder, in which he parodies the 
 metre, the sentiments, and the style, but not the words of 
 Southey. The Rejected Addresses of James and Horace 
 Smith, Punch's Prize Novelists, by Thackeray, and other sim- 
 ilar productions, may all be regarded as parodies. 
 
 The following are parodies on Tennyson and Browning : 
 
 "From where the river chafes and whirls, 
 Mixed with the murmur of the breeze, 
 In ouzel-haunted willow-trees, 
 The laugh of silver-throated girls 
 
 "Comes rippling light; and crystal keen, 
 The mellow clink of plate and spoon 
 Throbs through the golden afternoon, 
 With round suggestive cloops between. 
 
 "They hold a picnic on the lawn, 
 With pie, and round a very dream 
 Of succulence ; and from the stream 
 Cool claret-flasks are dripping drawn 
 
 "For such, unwarped of icHe fears, 
 As dare of countenance to scant 
 Teetotalism ululant, 
 The snub-nosed priest of latter years." 
 
 — Alfr — D T — NN — s — N. 
 
 "The youngest there 
 Night-hawk i' the gutter hatched, true Whitechapel, 
 Lost to Colenso, dead to hie and haec. 
 As likewise to • vengeance of Jenny's case,' 
 Extravasated juvenility, 
 
41 8 Elements of RJutoric. 
 
 Live offering to the London Juggernaut, 
 
 Yet none the less a soul, that Heaven, once sent, 
 
 Asks and expects account of — mark you that ! 
 
 Wink-tipped, snout-tapped, and hand spread in fanwise, 
 
 Right thumb on coal -grimed snub, and left thumb jerked 
 
 Over sinister clavicle, shot away 
 
 Like wild for Tottenham Corner, squeaking shrill 
 
 As dormouse, dodging where yon high-lows tramp 
 
 Over the exquisite wee nest of her ; 
 
 D'ye twig, my blowen ? 
 
 Then the slavey, 
 
 ' Lawks !' " R. B. 
 
 § 445. SATIRICAL POETRY IN GENERAL. 
 
 Satirical poetry may be found existing in every nation, and 
 probably arises at an early period. This was the case in 
 Greece, where the names of Archilochus and Simonides are 
 associated with this kind of composition. But the works of 
 Aristophanes present the most extensive, the most elaborate, 
 the most vehement, and the most unscrupulous satire that can 
 be found. The resources of the drama enabled him to carry 
 personality farther than can be possible now; for the Socrates, 
 the Euripides, or the Cleon of his plays was represented before 
 the people endowed, by means of a mask, with the familiar feat- 
 ures of the original. In English the earliest specimen may be 
 found in Langland's " Vision concerning Piers the Plowman." 
 Skelton's Colin Clout comes next in order of time. The great- 
 est poem of this kind in English is Butler's Hudibras, which 
 is aimed at the Puritan part)', but more particularly at the hy- 
 pocrisy which it concealed. It is full of the most brilliant wit 
 and keenest sarcasm ; and though the obscurity of many of 
 the allusions prevents it from being appreciated at the present 
 day by the general reader, its best passages are so well known 
 and widely quoted that they are as " familiar in our mouths as 
 household words." 
 
 The Romans had an original kind of poetry known as the 
 "Satire." This is a poem written in heroic metre, varying in 
 length from a few score of lines to a few hundred. Those of 
 Horace and Juvenal are well-known examples, which have ex- 
 erted a great influence in modern literature. Boileau among 
 the French cultivated this form of satirical poetry with success, 
 while among the English Dryden, Pope, and Johnson are most 
 
The Ridiculous. 419 
 
 conspicuous. The best works of Dryden are his " Absalom 
 and Achitophel" and "The Hind and the Panther;" of Pope, 
 the " Rape of the Lock" and the " Dunciad." These four 
 poems, though based upon the plan of the Roman satire, go 
 somewhat beyond it, and constitute a class of poetry which is 
 not unUke the Hudibras. Byron's " English Bards and Scotch 
 Reviewers" is one of the most vigorous ever written on the 
 Roman model, and Bulwer's "New Timon" is the last of any 
 note. In this poem there occurred an attack upon Tennyson, 
 which was promptly met by that poet. The attack and rejoinder 
 produced a great sensation in the world of letters, and the fol- 
 lowing extracts will serve as examples of this kind of poetry : 
 
 "NEW TIMON." 
 
 " Not mine, not mine (O Muse, forbid !) the boon 
 Of borrowed notes, the mockbird's modish tune ; 
 The jingling medley of purloined conceits, 
 Outbabying Wordsworth, and outglittering Keats; 
 Where all the airs of patchwork-pastoral chime 
 To drowsy ears in Tennysonian rhyme. 
 
 Let School-miss Alfred vent her chaste delight 
 On 'darling little rooms so warm and bright* 
 Chant, * I'm aweary,' in infectious strain, 
 And catch her 'blue-fly singing i' the pane.'" 
 
 TENNYSON— "THE NEW TIMON AND THE POETS." 
 
 " We know him, out of Shakespeare's art, 
 
 And those fine curses which he spoke; 
 The old Timon, with his noble heart. 
 
 That, strongly loathing, greatly broke. 
 So died the Old : here comes the New : 
 
 Regard him : a familiar face : 
 I thought we knew him : What, it's you, 
 
 The padded man — that wears the stays; 
 Who killed the girls and thrilled the boys 
 
 With dandy pathos when you wrote ! 
 A Lion, you, that made a noise. 
 
 And shook a mane en papillotes. 
 
 A Timon you ! Nay, nay, for shame 1 
 
 It looks too arrogant a jest — 
 The fierce old man — to take his name. 
 
 You bandbox. Oflf, and let him rest." 
 
420 Elemefits of RJietoric. 
 
 § 446. SATIRICAL WRITINGS IN TROSE. 
 
 Prose satire is not of frequent occurrence in ancient litera- 
 ture, Lucian's " Dialogues of the Dead" being the most conspic- 
 uous example; but in modern times it has assumed a more 
 prominent position, many of the greatest works of genius in 
 different countries of Europe having been put forth in this 
 form. The field here is indeed immeasurable, embracing all 
 that Juvenal mentions as included in his own survey : Quid- 
 quid agunt homines. 
 
 Rabelais has been called the " father of modern satire." 
 " Don Quixote" was directed against the romantic fiction of the 
 age, and is said to have put an end to it — " Cervantes laughed 
 Spain's chivalry away." "Gulliver's Travels" begins with satir- 
 izing national politics, and ends with a satire on humanity itself. 
 In this may be seen the progress of Swift's own mind, from 
 morbid melancholy to mental disease, beginning as it does 
 with keen sarcasm, which deepens into savage gloom and 
 madness. " The Adventures of Baron Munchausen " was in- 
 tended to satirize travellers' tales. Whately's " Historic Doubts 
 relative to Napoleon Bonaparte " is a satire on Hume's argu- 
 ment against miracles. 
 
 Satire, which has thus entered into works of fiction, has taken 
 a place in many of the best of the modern novels. Dickens 
 is a satirist. In "Oliver Twist" his satire is directed against 
 the workhouses; in "Nicholas Nickleby" against the country 
 schools; in "Martin Chuzzlewit" against the United States; 
 in "Bleak House" against the Court of Chancery. In all of 
 Thackeray's novels the satire is directed against the hollow- 
 ness and insincerity of modern society. His motto is. Vanity 
 of vanities; and he attacks everything as a huge sham. 
 
 Carlyle attacks shams, but in a different way; and thus he 
 and Thackeray have this one thing in common, though they are 
 as wide as the poles asunder in everything else. 
 
 § 447. SPECIAL FORMS OF THE RIDICULOUS. 
 
 The ridiculous exists in literature in many special forms of 
 composition, which are sometimes called figures of wit and hu- 
 mor. Without applying this name to every case, it may be 
 well to consider them in order. 
 
The Ridiculous. 421 
 
 § 448. BANTER. 
 
 Banter is a species of light and delicate raillery, which, 
 though consistent with good feeling among friends, is also an 
 effective weapon against enemies. The following is an excel- 
 lent example by the Rev. Sydney Smith, whose satire generally 
 assumed this playful form : 
 
 " I do not mean to be disrespectful ; but the attempt of the Lords to stop 
 the progress of reform reminds me very forcibly of the great storm of Sid- 
 mouth, and of the conduct of the excellent Mrs. Partington on that occasion. 
 In the winter of 1824 there set in a great flood upon that town. The tide 
 rose to an incredible height ; the waves rushed in upon the houses, and 
 everything was threatened with destruction. In the midst of this sublime 
 and terrible storm, Dame Partington, who lived upon the beach, was seen 
 at the door of her house, with mop and pattens, trundling her mop, squeez- 
 ing out ^the sea-water, and vigorously pushing away the Atlantic Ocean. 
 The Atlantic was roused ; Mrs. Partington's spirit was up ; but I need not 
 tell you that the contest was unequal. The Atlantic Ocean beat Mrs. Par- 
 tington. She was excellent at a slop or a puddle, but she should not have 
 meddled with a tempest. Gentlemen, be at your ease. Be quiet and steady. 
 You-will beat Mrs. i*arti«gton." 
 
 § 449. CHAFF. 
 
 By "chaff" is meant a trifling and teasing pleasantry, where 
 one rallies another generally by means of personalities. The 
 word "quiz" is used in very much the same sense. "Bad- 
 inage" is another term of similar signification, derived from the 
 French. All of these are synonymous with banter. An ex- 
 ample may be found in Sydney Smith's impromptu on Jeffrey : 
 
 " Short, but not so fat as Bacchus, 
 Witty as Horatius Flaccus, 
 As great a Jacobin as Gracchus, 
 Riding on a little jackass." 
 
 § 450. PARONOMASIA. 
 
 Wit is associated, as we have seen, with pointed language. 
 It plays with words, and one form of such play is called paro- 
 nomasia, which by some is classed among the figures of rela- 
 tivity. Two forms of this may be noticed : first, where it is 
 made use of in a serious way; and, secondly, where the aim is 
 the ridiculous. 
 
 I. The serious use. 
 
422 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 This is common in all ages. Names were often given in this 
 way. The figure is used in our Lord's words, " Thou art Peter," 
 etc. Milton has an example of it in the words — 
 
 " To begirt the Almighty's throne. 
 Beseeching or besieging." 
 
 The conversation between Gregory the Great and the slave- 
 merchants at Rome is a well-known case of the paronomasia, 
 being more perceptible in the Latin than in the translation. 
 The Puritans loved it, and their works abound in examples. 
 
 § 451. THE PUN. 
 
 2. The ridiculous use of the play upon words is more familiar. 
 
 The name antanaclasiswas often given to this in ancient times. 
 In English it is known by the name of the pun. Aristophanes 
 affords many examples in Greek, and Plautus and Terence in 
 Latin. Thus Plautus plays on '^medicus" and ^^mendicus,'' Ter- 
 ence on '^ amentium'^ and ^'' amantium.'" Cicero was partial to 
 its use. In our own literature Shakespeare exhibits partiality 
 to it, but with him it is invariably bad. Dr. Johnson rightly 
 condemns his love of " quibbles ;" and as all puns down to his 
 day were almost invariably weak and bad, he is justified in the 
 detestation which he expressed against them. Thomas Hood 
 gave a new departure to this species of wit. Hitherto they had 
 consisted of plays on the sound; with him there was a play on 
 the spirit as well as on the letter. This is the nature of most 
 of those that abound in his writings : 
 
 " His death, which happened in his berth, 
 At forty odd befell ; 
 They went and told the sexton, and 
 The sexton toll'd the bell." 
 
 On the closed establishments of Moses and Son, tailors : 
 
 " Half Hebrew, half English, the slopseller Moses 
 Cries clo'es all the week, but on Saturday closes." 
 
 — R. Simpson. 
 
 Composed when Soyer went to join his august fellow-artists 
 in Elysium : 
 
 " Soyer is gone ! Then be it said — 
 Alas ! alas ! — great Pan is dead." 
 
The Ridiculous, 423 
 
 On reading the fulsome inscription which Soyer had placed 
 over his wife's grave, Douglas Jerrold shook his head, and said 
 — " Mock Turtle !" 
 
 § 452. RETORT. 
 
 Retort is an effective and striking mode of displaying wit. 
 It is a powerful weapon in debate, where its use has been al- 
 ready sufficiently illustrated. Examples abound in the plays 
 of Shakespeare ; as in Hamlet : 
 
 " Queen. Hamlet, you have your father much offended. 
 Hamlet. Madam, you have my father much offended." 
 
 A Dutch diplomatist, being jocularly asked by Prince Bis- 
 marck " why Holland showed itself so strongly anti-German, 
 when it was, after all, but a corner of Germany," replied that 
 " Holland had a literature before Germany had a grammar." 
 
 § 453. REPARTEE. 
 
 Repartee is the witty retort in conversation. 
 
 A fop, who was seated between Madame de Stael and an- 
 other lady, said : " How happy I am to be seated between a 
 wit and a beauty." " Yes," said Madame de Stael, " and with- 
 out possessing either." 
 
 In Sheridan's great speech on Warren Hastings he had made 
 an allusion to the "luminous pages of Gibbon." On being 
 afterwards taxed with this he laughed, and replied, " I said vo- 
 luminous." 
 
 Jerrold was famous for his repartee. Once a member of his 
 club, praising a certain tune, said, " That always carries me 
 away when I hear it." " Can nobody whistle it ?" exclaimed 
 Jerrold. 
 
 " Call that a kind man," said another, speaking of an absent 
 friend ; " a man wlio is away from his family, and never sends 
 them a farthing. Call that kindness !" " Yes," replied Jerrold, 
 " unremitting kindness." 
 
 § 454. DOUBLE-ENTENDRE. 
 
 This is a species of innuendo, where a statement contains a 
 hidden meaning, which is suggested or implied. This was the 
 characteristic of the ambiguous prophecies of the witches to 
 Macbeth, of which he says : 
 
424 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 " Be these juggling fiends no more believed, 
 That palter with us in a double sense ; 
 That keep the word of promise to our ear, 
 And break" it to our hope." 
 
 The following is an example. It is called "The Double- 
 faced Creed :" 
 
 " I hold for sound faith What England's Church allows. 
 
 What Rome's faith says My conscience disavows. 
 
 Where the king's head The flock can take no shame. 
 
 The flock's misled Who hold the Pope supreme. 
 
 Where th' altar's dressed The worship's scarce divine. 
 
 The people's blessed Whose table's bread and wine. 
 
 He's but an ass Who then communion flies. 
 
 Who shuns the mass Is catholic and wise." 
 
 The double -entendre enters largely into puns and other 
 witticisms; but the popular application of this term is to those 
 expressions in which the veiled meaning is unfit to be expressed. 
 
 § 455. BUFFOONERY. 
 
 This is the lowest exhibition of the vulgar sense of the ridic- 
 ulous: a clown's jest, the broad, licentious foolery of the slums, 
 with coarse chaff, horse-play, or low familiarities. 
 
 § 456. IRONY. 
 
 Irony is classed among the figures of relativity. It is gener- 
 ally associated with the ridiculous, and is a powerful aid to 
 satire. 
 
 Quintilian defines it as a kind of allegory, in which what is 
 expressed is quite different from what is meant. It may be 
 defined as a form of expression in which the real meaning is 
 different from the apparent, as in Elijah's " Cry aloud, for he 
 is a god;" Marc Antony's "Brutus is an honorable man." 
 
 § 457. INNUENDO. 
 
 Here the meaning is insinuated or implied instead of being 
 directly asserted : 
 
 " We do not deny that he enjoyed the peace that passeth understanding, 
 but the fact that he also enjoyed a living of over /"looo a year will not be 
 without its significance in some minds." 
 
The Ridiculous. 425 
 
 " The fact that this book has reached its thirtieth edition might lead one 
 to suppose that the Great Tribulation may be regarded by its author with 
 something like complacency." 
 
 Fuller says of Camden, the antiquarian, who was said to be 
 avaricious, " He had a number of coins of the early Roman 
 emperors, and a good many more of the later English kings." 
 
 Innuendo is the basis of a new kind of witticism which has 
 had some popularity of late, as — 
 
 *' A man attempted to kindle a fire with a keg of gunpowder. His fu- 
 neral was very largely attended." 
 
 § 458. SARCASM. 
 
 Sarcasm may be defined as vituperation softened and ex- 
 pressed by means of irony and innuendo : 
 
 " I ask this House, Is there no control to its authority ? I hope I shall 
 offend no man when I intimate that two limits exist — nature and the Con- 
 stitution. Should this House undertake to declare that this atmosphere 
 should no longer surround us, that water should cease to flow, that gravity 
 should not hereafter operate, ... I think I may venture to affirm that, such 
 a law to the contrary notwithstanding, the air would continue to circulate, 
 the Mississippi, the Hudson, and the Potomac would hurl their floods to 
 the ocean."— Josi AH Quincey. 
 
 § 459. SNEER. 
 This involves contemptuous depreciation, sometimes express- 
 ed directly, and sometimes indirectly, by means of irony or 
 innuendo. The more effective is the latter kind, which is 
 described and applied by Pope in the following lines : 
 
 "Damn with faint praise, assent with civil leer. 
 And without sneering teach the rest to sneer." 
 
 There is also a milder sort, which may be observed in an 
 affected indifference to the most important causes. This is 
 called the nil admirari sentiment, and its purpose is to lead to 
 the conclusion that because the one who exhibits it can admire 
 nothing, therefore that nothing is worthy of admiration. 
 
 § 460. THE POWER OF THE RIDICULOUS. 
 
 The ridiculous is a formidable weapon of attack, the power 
 of which may be seen in the history of literature and in the 
 
426 EU^nents of Rhetoric. 
 
 events of the past. Men can endure hatred better than laugh- 
 ter. When a government or an institution is only odious it 
 may be safe, but when it becomes ridiculous, then the hour of 
 its fall is near. Nowhere is the truth of this so strikingly shown 
 as in France. The government of Louis XV. was called a 
 despotism tempered by epigrams; the mockers and sneerers 
 of the salon were set against the soldiers and courtiers of the 
 palace ; and the wits and satirists proved to be the forerunners, 
 if not the framers, of the Revolution. Louis XVL, derided 
 through life, could only atone for living feebly by dying bravely. 
 Napoleon dreaded the terrors of wit more than those of war ; 
 and strove to supplement his victories abroad by silencing the 
 press at home, and stilling the voice of society. But such sub- 
 tle enemies were not so easily overcome; they were active 
 under the Empire, and still more so under the Restoration, 
 when they made the name of Bourbon a byword for incurable 
 stupidity. Louis Philippe, who began to reign amid the accla- 
 mations of all, quickly gained the sobriquet of the " Bourgeois 
 King," and his very face was laughed at in the innumerable 
 caricatures of the " pear." Louis Napoleon's triumphant am- 
 bition was assailed by the scornful epithets of Victor Hugo, 
 and he was finally goaded to ruin by the fierce sarcasms of 
 Rochefort and the irreconcilables. 
 
 § 461. THE LEGITIMATE USE OF THE RIDICULOUS. 
 
 The legitimate use of the ridiculous may be seen when it is 
 directed against acknowledged evils. Of this we have exam- 
 ples in all ages. The keen wit of Horace was levelled at the 
 weaknesses of one period, while the vices of another were as- 
 sailed by the fiery satire of Juvenal. Carlyle and Thackeray 
 in our own days have made war upon the follies and hypocrisies 
 of modern social life. In every age there have been those who 
 with this weapon have successfully attacked abuses in philoso- 
 phy, literature, religion, and politics which would have been 
 impregnable to any other assailants. 
 
 § 462. ABUSE OF THE RIDICULOUS. 
 
 The abuse of the ridiculous may be seen where it is directed 
 against that which is good. It then becomes the greatest of 
 evils, since it perverts the judgment and confuses distinctions 
 
The Ridiculous. 427 
 
 of right and wrong. Ridicule is so powerful, and at the same 
 time so insinuating, that it carries the hearer away in spite 
 of himself; and a sneer may sometimes destroy the effect of 
 the soundest reasoning. There is nothing so good, so pure, or 
 so holy as to be beyond the reach of its attack. The sneer 
 may be directed against virtue, honor, chivalry, chastity, relig- 
 ion, and all that is most precious to man. It may be aimed 
 at the loftiest of truths, the most sublime of scenes, the most 
 beautiful works of art, or the noblest writings. In such cases 
 the sneer will ultimately recoil upon the one who uses it, yet, 
 nevertheless, its immediate effect may be powerful. 
 
 In order to avoid the disastrous influence that may be ex- 
 erted in this way, it is important for every one to distiiiguish 
 between the use and the abuse of the ridiculous, and above 
 all to learn to put a proper estimate upon the sneer. With 
 this we must learn to deal as with an argument, not indeed to 
 answer it at length, but at least to see whether it be just or 
 not. A saying is current to the effect that a sneer is an argu- 
 ment that cannot be answered, but this is not true. A sneer 
 can be answered, but it takes time and labor, and these cannot 
 always be available. 
 
 To one who wishes to be fully equipped for every form of 
 hostile attack, nothing is more important than a knowledge 
 of the history of the ridiculous. In such a history not the least 
 important part would be that which would be devoted to the 
 sneerers of all ages. We should find that nearly everything 
 which we now most revere has at one time been an object 
 of these malignant assaults. We should see Socrates carica- 
 tured by Aristophanes; St. Paul mocked at by the Athenians; 
 Columbus ridiculed by navigators; Galileo by philosophers; 
 Milton by courtiers ; Harvey and Jenner by physicians; George 
 Peabody by brokers. We should find the steamboat, the rail- 
 road, and the electric telegraph assailed in their infancy by 
 the same class of enemies. But Time comes forward at length 
 to vindicate the great teacher or the great inventor; and the 
 shafts thus misdirected recoil with fearful effect upon those 
 who sent them forth. 
 
 The language used by Byron with reference to Tasso and 
 the Duke of Ferrara may be applied to the great man and 
 his detractors : 
 
 T . 
 
428 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 "Glory without end 
 Scattered the clouds away — and on that name attend 
 The tears and praises of all time ; while thine 
 Would rot in its oblivion — in the sink 
 Of worthless dust." 
 
 In view of the abuse of the ridiculous, we perceive the truth 
 of the saying, " A sneer is a fool's argument." 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE FANTASTIC. 
 
 § 463. THE FANTASTIC. 
 
 The fantastic in literature came into being during the Mid- 
 dle Ages. The conversion of the northern nations of Europe 
 destroyed the supremacy of their gods, but did not remove 
 them from the thoughts, fears, and affections of the people. 
 These mythological beings lived anew in the common life of 
 men ; driven out from religion, they took up their abode in 
 superstition ; and inspired legends, traditions, and the great 
 body of that humble literature known as Folk lore. The rich- 
 est and most varied store of such productions of the fancy have 
 been derived from the Teutonic nations. The Celts have con- 
 tributed largely to the common stock, and much is also due 
 to the Arabians. From the first of these sources we have re- 
 ceived sylphs, gnomes, salamanders, sprites, elves, trolls, fairies, 
 witches, goblins, and many others of a similar kind. From the 
 Celts have been drawn all those wonderful beings which form 
 the machinery of the Arthurian legends. From the Arabians 
 we have obtained enchanters, djinns, afrits, peris, and the like. 
 All these, combined and fused together, blended with Christian 
 legends, and out of the union there arose new beings, such as 
 the mediaeval devil, with characteristics of horns, tail, and cloven 
 hoof; the mediaeval ghost, appearing at midnight and vanish- 
 ing at cockcrow; the saint, with his power over demons; and 
 all the world of the supernatural. 
 
 The result was a new element, which entered into modern 
 
The Fantastic. 429 
 
 literature, and inspired it from the very first. We see its in- 
 fluence in the metrical romance, in Dante, Chaucer, Spenser, 
 and Shakespeare, in Tasso and Ariosto; but its full presence 
 and power can best be seen in works that are based altogether 
 upon this element, such as the Thousand and One Nights, and 
 all those fairy tales which have been for ages the delight of 
 young and old, and have exerted no small influence upon liter- 
 ature. This influence shows itself in the effort made by some 
 imaginative writers to form for themselves new scenes and 
 characters which shall rival these time-honored creations of 
 the past. Some of their works do not rise above the level 
 of the common ghost-story ; but others are of a far higher or- 
 der, and may be illustrated in prose by Schiller's Ghost Seer 
 and Bulwer's Strange Story, and in poetry by Goethe's Faust 
 and Coleridge's Ancient Mariner. 
 
 The fantastic in literature may be defined as the unrestrained 
 exercise of fancy, where the writer ventures into regions of wild 
 ■ and unbridled speculation, and creates new scenes and new 
 characters, which present a strange compound of the natural 
 and supernatural. Here the beautiful and the sublime are in- 
 termingled with the ridiculous, and there result two distinct 
 elements, the first of which may be called the grotesque, and 
 the second the horrible. 
 
 1. The grotesque. 
 
 The grotesque may be defined as the caricature of the beau- 
 tiful, or, in other words, as the union of the beautiful with the 
 ridiculous. Thus, in art, a carved face may have well-formed 
 features, but if these are distorted by an exaggerated grimace 
 it becomes grotesque. This is not to be confounded with the 
 ugly, which is simply repulsive; whereas in this case there is 
 no repulsiveness. In literature it is found wherever sentiments 
 and language, pleasing in themselves, are distorted and per- 
 verted in a ridiculous fashion. Examples may be found in 
 the Ingoldsby Legends, and in many of the German stories of 
 Zschokke and E. T. A. Hoff'mann. 
 
 2. The horrible. 
 
 While the grotesque represents one side of the fantastic, the 
 other may be found in the horrible. This may be considered 
 as the caricature of the sublime, or the association of the sub- 
 lime with the ridiculous. The horrible is never far removed 
 
430 Elements of Rhetorie. 
 
 from the grotesque; and even where the ridiculous is not at 
 all visible, there is often an undercurrent of grim and ghastly 
 humor. Examples may be found in many of the tales of 
 Edgar A. Poe, especially the "Murder in the Rue Morgue" 
 and " Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar ;" in De Quincey's 
 "Avenger" and "Murder one of the Fine Arts;" in Lewis's 
 "Monk;" Mrs. Radcliffe's "Mysteries of Udolpho;" and Mrs. 
 Shelley's " Frankenstein." 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE DESIRES. 
 § 464. THE DESIRES. 
 
 Desires are twofold, animal and mental. The animal de-- 
 sires are called appetites, and include hunger, thirst, sleepiness, 
 etc. The mental desires belong to the emotions, and include 
 chiefly the following, from which again many subordinate de- 
 sires arise: i. Self preservation; 2. self-esteem; 3. ambition; 
 4. avarice; 5. the desire for knowledge. 
 
 § 465. self-preservation. 
 I. The love of life is a necessity of our nature, and insepara- 
 ble from our constitution. It forms the motive for actions that 
 may be either good or evil, noble or base. As it is common 
 to all mankind, it is illustrated in all literature. Its results 
 are twofold: first, good, when it leads to strenuous endeavor; 
 and, secondly, evil, when it tends to cowardice or baseness. 
 History and fiction are full of examples of each. The Odyssey 
 presents the long struggle for life carried on by Ulysses against 
 many perils. The Anabasis describes the struggle of the ten 
 thousand Greeks, who pursue their march amid innumerable 
 dangers, and toil on with unsurpassed heroism. Still more 
 striking is the result when this feeling, which is the strongest 
 in man, is cast aside, and deeds of valor are done in contempt 
 of death. This has been felt by poets of every age and nation 
 to be the highest and most ennobling theme. 
 
The Desires. 431 
 
 § 466. SELF-ESTEEM. 
 
 2. Self-esteem leads to the loftier feeling of pride, or the 
 lesser one of vanity and self-conceit. The former is often the 
 mark of the greatest characters, and is associated with many 
 high qualities. In itself it may be a most powerful aid to hu- 
 man effort. Vanity, on the other hand, is a petty feeling which 
 is an element of weakness. There is what is called a proper 
 pride, which saves from baseness or dishonor; and there is a 
 lofty pride which sometimes arises from conscious superiority. 
 It is this which history mentions in connection with Alexander, 
 who, when Parmenio says that he would accept the offer of 
 Darius, replies — "So would I were I Parmenio." It also is 
 illustrated in Caesar's " Aut Caesar aut nullus.'' And again in 
 his words to the terrified boatman — "Quid times, Caesarem 
 vehis?" The greatest conception of human genius — the Satan 
 of Milton — owes his greatness to pride, which is visible in all 
 his words and actions. 
 
 § 467. AMBITION. 
 
 3. Ambition may be the love of fame, power, or pre-eminence. 
 It is closely associated with pride, though it frequently exists 
 without it. 
 
 The desire for fame has its noble as well as its ignoble side. 
 Poets hope for immortality. " Exegi," says Horace, " monu- 
 mentum aere perennius." Kings aspire to found a dynasty; 
 lesser mortals to establish a family, or in some other way to 
 perpetuate their memory. The desire to have a good name 
 among men, which is one form of this feeling, is laudable and 
 beneficial. To be indifferent to this would be taken as the 
 mark of a grovelling mind. No one of good character would 
 be content to bear an evil reputation. 
 
 There is a morbid love of notoriety which prefers even 
 infamy to obscurity, and marks the evil side of this desire. 
 Empedocles jumped into Etna for this; and for this Eratos- 
 thenes set fire to the temple of Diana. Of this class also are 
 those conceited mortals who attitudinize, pose for effect, and 
 appear always to be talking to imaginary audiences. But the 
 love of fame is so strong that some philosophers consider it a 
 fair substitute for the Christian immortality. 
 
43- Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The desire for power is another form of ambition. Some 
 value this for itself, others care nothing for it unless it is ac- 
 companied with all its trappings and decorations. Even Crom- 
 well was not altogether satisfied with the solid reality, but 
 sighed in secret for that unattainable "bauble" — the crown. 
 Power was never held more modestly than by the great Hilde- 
 brand, when he stood behind the throne through several suc- 
 cessive papacies, and brought forward measures the effect of 
 which are still felt 
 
 Power is wielded by men as kings, ministers, generals, re- 
 formers, philosophers, statesmen, orators. Some men, like 
 Julius Caesar, Charlemagne, Alfred the Great, represent nearly 
 all these at the same time. The visit of Milton to Galileo has 
 often been described as an interview of two supreme powers in 
 different departments, the one of poetry, the other of science. 
 
 Power is also wielded by women. There is the power of 
 wit or brilliant social attraction, such as was exercised by 
 Lady Mar)' Wortley Montague, Madame de R^musat, Lady 
 Holland ; of great artistic talent, like that of Siddons, Lind, 
 Grisi ; of literary genius, like that of George Sand or George 
 Eliot ; and, above all, the irresistible power of beauty, like that 
 of Helen or Cleopatra, which, after living its life in the real 
 world, rises to an immortal life in the world of literature. 
 
 This desire for power of some kind is universal and ever ac- 
 tive. There is a deep truth in the words which Milton puts 
 into the mouth of Satan : 
 
 " Fallen cherub, to be weak is miserable. 
 Doing or suffering." 
 
 In literature nothing is more impressive than the display of 
 power. Achilles puts armies to flight; Alexander sighs for 
 more worlds to conquer; Hannibal thunders at the gates of 
 Rome. These and others remain as great monumental figures 
 arising out of the past, to which successive ages look back in 
 wonder and admiration. 
 
 The desire for pre-eminence constitutes another force in life 
 and literature. The remote cause of the whole " tale of Troy 
 divine" was a struggle for this on the part of the three goddesses ; 
 and the judgment of Paris wrapped a world in flames. Like the 
 struggle for power, this has filled the pages of history and fiction. 
 
The Desires. 433 
 
 It is conspicuous in the Iliad, where Agamemnon chooses to 
 assert his dignity too offensively by the unpardonable insult to 
 Achilles; and it is shown still more strongly in Paradise Lost, 
 where Satan contended with 
 
 " Heaven's perpetual King, 
 And put to proof his high supremacy ;" 
 
 and still after his overthrow decides that it is 
 
 " Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven." 
 
 In modern fiction this feeling has a prominent place, being 
 exhibited in such fruitful themes as the struggle for a rise in 
 life and social advancement. 
 
 § 468. AVARICE. 
 
 4. The Crcesuses and Crassuses — the millionaires of the past 
 and of the present — have no direct influence on literature; but 
 the feeling of avarice is widespread, and, together with the 
 love which all possess for whatever is rich and splendid, may 
 be shown to have an indirect effect. 
 
 I St. The workings of this feeling may be made use of to point 
 a moral, as when the man who has sacrificed all for wealth 
 is represented as being more miserable than his neighbors. 
 
 2d. Appeals may be made to the love of what is rich and 
 splendid, as in Milton's description of the throne of Satan. 
 Such passages act as a stimulus to the mind. This love 
 of barbaric pearl and gold is very visible in the Arabian 
 Nights. 
 
 3d. It serves as a motif iw works of fiction. Thus the " Count 
 of Monte Christo" turns upon the discovery of an enormous 
 treasure, and the use that is made of it. The "Wandering 
 Jew" of Eugene Sue has for its motif the effort to acquire 
 possession of an incalculable sum of money that has been 
 accumulating for many years. 
 
 § 469. THE DESIRE FOR KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 5. This is the purest and noblest of all, and serves as the ulti- 
 mate cause and also as the animating force of the highest de- 
 partments of literature. History records the struggles after 
 knowledge of those ancient philosophers of China, India, 
 
434 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Greece, and Italy, who lived lives which were more admirable 
 than those of the kings and conquerors who were their con- 
 temporaries. The men of knowledge and wisdom are always 
 rivals in fame of the men of prowess and action ; nor is it easy 
 to decide who is the greater when we compare such men as 
 Aristotle and Alexander, Cicero and Caesar; when we estimate 
 the separate renown of Milton and Cromwell, Goethe and Na- 
 poleon. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 THE AFFECTIONS. 
 
 § 470. THE AFFECTIONS. 
 
 The affections and passions have much in common, and 
 differ from one another not so much in kind as in degree. 
 By the afTections is generally meant a calm and settled state 
 of mind, whether it be swayed by attraction or repulsion. By 
 the passions is meant a vehement and agitated feeling. Thus 
 the feelings of parental or fraternal love are called affections, 
 while the state of mind that exists between two lovers is called 
 the love passion. 
 
 The affections are chiefly the following : Parental, filial, 
 fraternal, conjugal ; friendship, esteem, veneration, gratitude, 
 patriotism, philanthropy; the moral affections; the religious 
 affections. 
 
 The affections hold an equally prominent place in narrative 
 and expository literature, since in the former they are the sub- 
 jects of portrayal, and in the latter means of persuasion. 
 
 Great stress is laid upon parental affection in the Sacred 
 Scriptures. A large portion of the book of Genesis is taken up 
 with the fatherly love of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Homer 
 presents us with the piteous figure of the aged Priam ; Euripides 
 with the sorrowful Hecuba; Shakespeare delineates the stricken 
 father in Lear and the despairing mother in Constance. 
 
 Filial affection is associated with paternal, as in Shake- 
 speare's Cordelia; but sometimes it receives chief stress, as in 
 the Antigone of Sophocles. 
 
The Affections. 435 
 
 The fraternal has not proved so effective for literary handling 
 as other affections, but the great figure of Antigone is a case 
 where this is made the all-ruling motive, upon which turns the 
 whole action of a play. Byron's lines to his sister, inspired by 
 this feeling, are full of tender pathos. 
 
 The Alcestis of Euripides affords the greatest example in 
 literature of the display of conjugal affection; for here it is 
 made stronger than any other, and the devoted wife sacri- 
 fices all other feelings to her love for her husband. Tenny- 
 son's "Miller's Daughter" celebrates this feehng in exquisite 
 verse. 
 
 Ancient literature abounds in passages illustrative of friend- 
 ship. Damon and Pythias, Orestes and Pylades, have become 
 household words. It has received many beautiful commemora- 
 tions in modern literature, of which Milton's "Lycidas" and 
 Tennyson's "In Memoriam" are chief But never has friend- 
 ship been so strongly expressed, nowhere has it risen to such 
 a height or exhibited such tenderness, as in the song of lamen- 
 tation which David poured forth over Jonathan. 
 
 To the milder sentiment of esteem literature owes much. 
 It is the foundation of all expressions of approval, of praise, 
 eulogy, panegyric, and the like, to which may be added much 
 of the language of benediction. 
 
 Veneration rises higher than esteem, and is exhibited towards 
 any great and noble character, especially among those who have 
 lived in the past. Ben Jonson's lines on Shakespeare may not, 
 perhaps, rise beyond the language of high eulogy, but Milton's 
 lines on the same subject show profound veneration : 
 
 "What needs my Shakespeare for his honored bones?" 
 
 Wordsworth's lines on Milton afford another example : 
 
 " His soul was like a star, and dwelt apart." 
 
 Gratitude is especially powerful in religious themes. It is 
 usually intermingled with the sentiments of friendship, esteem, 
 or veneration, and other affections, but especially the filial. 
 
 Patriotism has exerted a wide influence over classical and 
 modern European literature. It is found in many works, like 
 a widely diffused and all-pervading influence. In the histories 
 of Herodotus and Livy its power never slackens. Among dra- 
 
 T 2 
 
436 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 matic works it is conspicuous in the CEdipus at Colonus, espe- 
 cially in the enthusiastic choral song in praise of Athens. All 
 departments of literature are full of its presence, but perhaps it 
 is in oratory that it is most manifest. 
 
 Philanthropy is a modern sentiment, and owes its origin to 
 Christianity, and the spread of the more humane and kindly 
 feelings. The writings of Thomas Hood are full of this spirit 
 in its best form, as the Song of the Shirt, and the Bridge of 
 Sighs. Mrs. Browning's Cry of the Children, and other poems, 
 exhibit the same, and it may be considered the chief element 
 in the works of Dickens. 
 
 Esprit de corps is the attachment which one naturally con- 
 ceives for his own immediate associates in any order, society, 
 or class, and this feeling exercises an important influence over 
 his life. The army, the navy, and the church form societies 
 which possess strongly marked characteristics, not the least of 
 which is the attachment of each individual to the community 
 or to its subdivisions. In the army it is often as powerful 
 as patriotism, in the church as religion. Noblesse oblige is 
 the proud motto of an order which would do for itself what it 
 would not do for its country. What is called Chauvinism is the 
 manifestation of this feeling. The influence of esprit de corps 
 in literature is extended, but neither powerful nor elevated. 
 
 Moral sentiments may be ranged under two grand classes — 
 first, those which have to do with the sense of duty, including 
 all those acts which are right or wrong ; and, secondly, those 
 which have to do with the sense of honor, including all those 
 acts which are becoming or otherwise. The moral sentiments 
 are perpetually active in all literature, in one way or another, 
 whenever we are called upon to approve acts or to condemn 
 them, as right or wrong. The standard of honor is above the 
 standard of duty. It impels a man to do many things which 
 are neither in the strict line of duty, nor amenable to classifica- 
 tions of right and wrong. Of such a nature was the act of 
 Sydney in motioning away the cup of water. In the Idyls 
 of the King, the characters, who are supposed to have lived 
 in the sixth century, are represented as influenced by the law 
 of chivalry, which law is expounded and illustrated in their 
 persons, but especially in the loftily idealized Arthur. 
 
 Religious sentiments open a new world before us, in which 
 
The Passions. 437 
 
 nearly all affections may be found. Their direct action may 
 be seen described in the Sacred Scriptures, in the stories 
 of the martyrs, religious biographies, and in the hymns and 
 psalms of all ages. In another way the religious sentiments 
 have so influenced man that they have given rise to a whole 
 literature, with its own thoughts, aspirations, laws, vocabulary, 
 and dialect — a literature which embraces poetry and prose, 
 narrative and exposition ; and which, though standing apart 
 from secular literature, in many cases borders upon it, and 
 at other times intermingles with it. In some nations, as the 
 Hebrews, the whole literature is religious. In some ages, 
 as in mediaeval times, all thought is more or less tinctured 
 with religious sentiment. At the present day religious lit- 
 erature forms a vast and ever-increasing mass, including epic 
 and lyric poetry, history and biography, prose fiction, dramatic 
 writing, and oratory. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE PASSIONS. 
 
 §471. THE PASSIONS. 
 
 The passions comprehend all those vehement and agitated 
 feelings which are associated with love and aversion, joy and 
 sorrow. 
 
 § 472. LOVE. 
 
 The passion of love is restricted to that phase of feeling 
 arising between the sexes known as the amatory passion. It 
 is the most popular of all the motive powers in literature at the 
 present day. Rising but gradually into prominence, it has 
 been growing in importance from age to age, until it has be- 
 come the never-ending theme of poetry, song, and story. 
 
 Its first appearance as an animating power in literature may 
 be found in Greek lyrical poetry, such as the songs of Sappho ; 
 after this in the New Comedy, as it is called, when Menander 
 made use of it instead of the satirical themes of his predeces- 
 sors. Plautus and Terence translated or transferred these com- 
 
4}S Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 edies to Latin. Virgil made use of the love passion in the 
 ^neid. Ovid gave it greater prominence. The first "love 
 story," in prose, which is at all like the modern novel, was the 
 ^thiopics of Heliodorus. At the rise of modern literature 
 amatory themes became pre-eminent alike with the Troubadours 
 and Trouveres. Petrarch in lyric themes, Chaucer in narrative 
 poetry, developed its influence still further; Shakespeare gave 
 it prominence; and thus it rose until it became the chief theme 
 of modern fiction in the poems of Scott, Byron, Tennyson, or 
 still more in the writings of the great novelists. 
 
 The history of the rise and progress of the theme of amatory 
 passion would include the writings of the Arabians, the metrical 
 romance, the Arthurian and Carlovingian epopoeias, the modern 
 drama, the modern novel, from Richardson and Fielding down 
 to the present day, and a large portion of narrative poetry and 
 of the drama. 
 
 § 473. AVERSION. 
 
 This is the opposite of affection and of love, and ranges 
 through every degree of feeling, from the mildest dislike to the 
 most furious hate. It is sufficient in itself to be the animating 
 principle of a great body of literature. The Iliad sings the 
 wrath of Achilles. The Greek plays describe in various ways 
 the anger of the gods. This feeling is particularly visible in the 
 plays on the subject of CEdipus and Agamemnon. The ^neid 
 attributes the struggles and sufferings of ^neas to the impla- 
 cable wrath of cruel Juno. This divine anger is prominent 
 among all the themes of ancient literature. History, again, de- 
 scribes the hate of peoples, their fury in battles, the encounter 
 of foes, the ever-varying progress of wrong and of vengeance. 
 
 The expression of the passions, as found in literature, is a 
 profitable study, but nowhere is there such variety as where 
 the different degrees of aversion are to be unfolded. Some 
 of these may be found in the following examples. 
 
 Dislike. Caesar expresses his dislike of Cassius in the well- 
 known words to Antony : 
 
 " Yond' Cassius has a lean and hungry look ; 
 He thinks too much : such men are dangerous." 
 
 Blame. The language of blame is similar; as when Cassius 
 says : 
 
 " Vou wrong me every way, you wrong me, Brutus." 
 
The Passions. 439 
 
 Wrath. The scene between Satan and Death exhibits this 
 passion in an intense degree : 
 
 "Art thou that traitor angel — art thou he 
 That first broke peace in heaven?" 
 
 Hate. Milton has endowed Satan with invincible resolution 
 and implacable hate : 
 
 " What though the field be lost 1 
 All is not lost — the unconquerable will 
 And study of revenge, immortal "hate. 
 And what is else not to be overcome, 
 All these remain." 
 
 Denunciation. This is common in oratory. The vehement 
 onset of Chatham on Lord Suffolk is a memorable example : 
 
 ♦' These abominable principles, and this more abominable avowal of them, 
 demand the most decisive indignation." 
 
 The war passion. This is akin to wrath and hate. It is 
 found in many war songs, particularly the Marseillaise. 
 Scorn : 
 
 " Know ye not me ? Ye knew me once no mate 
 For you, there sitting where ye durst not soar ; 
 Not to know me argues yourselves unknown, 
 The lowest of your throng." 
 
 Defiance : 
 
 '• Come one, come all ; this rock shall fly 
 From its firm base as soon as I." 
 
 Menace — cataplexis : 
 
 "Back to thy punishment, 
 False fugitive, and to thy speed add wings, 
 Lest with a whip of scorpions I pursue 
 Thy lingering, or with one stroke of this dart 
 Strange horror seize thee, and pangs unfelt before." 
 
 Execration — anathema : 
 
 "Be then His love accursed, since love or hate, 
 To me alike, it deals eternal woe : 
 Nay, cursed be thou ; since against His thy will 
 Chose freely what it now so justly rues." 
 
440 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Jealousy : 
 
 " But oh ! what damned minutes tells he o'er. 
 Who dotes, yet doubts ; suspects, yet strongly loves." 
 
 Revenge : 
 
 •' I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear hira." 
 
 § 474. PASSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH HAPPINESS. 
 
 Joy is most commonly found in amatory- poetry, where the 
 theme is such as leads to joyous anticipations, or joy in the 
 possession of the object. In Tennyson's" Maud there are very 
 vivid expressions of this nature : 
 
 " She is coming, my own, my sweet" 
 
 Delight is a keener and livelier joy, with greater extrava- 
 gance of expression. A passionate delight often marks Moore's 
 amatory effusions : as — 
 
 *• And oh ! if there be an elysium on earth, 
 It is this— it is this." • 
 
 Enthusiasm is a high elevation of feeling, which, when united 
 with true poetic genius, gives rise to the noblest lyric poetry, 
 such as Coleridge's Chamouni and Shelley's Skylark ; while in 
 orations it leads to that fine fer\'or and headlong impetuosity 
 which mark the most powerful eloquence. 
 
 Triumph is visible in many national songs, in the battle- 
 pieces of Campbell, and in many poems of all ages. An ex- 
 ample is found in the song of Miriam : 
 
 " Sound the loud timbrel o'er Egypt's dark sea, 
 Jehovah hath triumphed, his people are free." 
 
 Revelry is chiefly the characteristic of Bacchanalian songs, 
 and is best illustrated by those of Moore : 
 
 "Fill the bowl with flowers of soul." 
 § 475. PASSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH SORROW. 
 
 The expression of the passions in cases of sorrow is more 
 diversified than in cases of happiness, and as a theme it is 
 more widely extended. 
 
 The tenderest expressions of grief are those of a parent. 
 
The Passions. 441 
 
 Moir's Casa Wappy and Mrs. Browning's De Profundis are 
 memorable examples. 
 
 A fine melancholy pervades all the writings of some poets, 
 and sometimes the chief portion of a national literature will 
 have this characteristic. This has been remarked in the 
 Scottish ballads, such as Lochaber, Bonnie Doon, and " I'm 
 wearin' awa, Jean." 
 
 Pity for the sufferings of others is as effective in literature 
 as when" the poet bewails his own sufferings : 
 
 " O, it was pitiful, 
 Near a whole city full, 
 Home she had none !" 
 
 Sympathy is closely allied to pity. Nowhere is this more 
 tenderly expressed than in the lines of the Stabat Mater : 
 
 " Who, on Christ's dear mother gazing, 
 Bowed with sorrow so amazing, 
 Born of woman, would not weep ?" 
 
 Expressions of fear, dismay, or similar feelings abound in 
 poetry and oratory. Jefferson says : 
 
 " I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just." 
 
 This is the burden of the Dies Irae : 
 
 " O that day, that day of mourning ! 
 Day when from the dust returning 
 Man for judgment shall prepare him. 
 Spare, O God, in mercy spare him !" 
 
 Dejection maybe associated with melancholy, but is stronger, 
 and may be found deepening into extreme gloom, as in Gray's 
 Ode on Eton College. 
 
 Regret for past actions is associated with dejection, and 
 goes beyond it : 
 
 " O had his powerful destiny ordained 
 Me some inferior angel. I had stood 
 Then happy : no unbounded hope had raised 
 Ambition !" 
 
 Repentance is associated with regret, but also with self- 
 reproach. It is most commonly seen in religious hymns : 
 
 " Depth of mercy, can there be 
 Mercy still resolved for me !" 
 
442 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Remorse is repentance with such strong self-reproach as to 
 be almost without hope : 
 
 " O my offence is rank, it smells to heaven." 
 
 Despair often accompanies remorse. Poe's Raven is in- 
 spired by both of these : 
 
 " And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor 
 Shall be lifted nevermore." 
 
 Sometimes despair arises from suffering without any re- 
 morse. So in Prometheus : 
 
 •• For this wandering, ever longer, evermore, 
 Hath o'erworn me ; 
 And I know not on what shore 
 I can rest from my despair." 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE LITERATURE OF THE DESIRES, AFFECTIONS, AND 
 PASSIONS. 
 
 § 476. THE LITERATURE OF THE DESIRES, AFFECTIONS, 
 AND PASSIONS. 
 
 The literature of the desires, affections, and passions may 
 be divided into two classes, according as it is concerned with 
 the state of happiness or that of sorrow. 
 
 The state of happiness belongs to the indulgence of the de- 
 sires, affections, or passions. This indulgence may take place 
 in two ways : 
 
 ist. By hope, which is the anticipation or expectation of such 
 indulgence. 
 
 2d. By the actual possession of the objects of such feelings. 
 
 The state of sorrow belongs to the non-indulgence of these 
 feelings. Indulgence may be prevented in two ways: 
 
 I St. By being baffled or disappointed in them, or wounded 
 in any way in the possession of them. 
 
Literature of Desires, Affections, a7id Passions. 443 
 
 2d. By being in a condition in which the satisfaction in such 
 feelings is unattainable. 
 
 By means of sympathy, happiness or sorrow may arise under 
 another form through the power which we have of identifying 
 ourselves with the feelings of others, so that we rejoice or suffer 
 along with them. It is through this feeling of sympathy that 
 the literature of the desires, affections, or passions exerts its 
 power. 
 
 § 477. LITERATURE CONNECTED WITH THE STATE OF 
 HAPPINESS. 
 
 1. Literature connected with the state of happiness. 
 
 This includes literature in all its brighter aspects : narra- 
 tive, which deals with the progress of men towards the attain- 
 ment of hope ; and exposition, which deals with encouragement 
 and gratification of feeling. This has already been sufficiently 
 illustrated. 
 
 § 478. LITERATURE CONNECTED WITH THE STATE OF SORROW. 
 
 2. Literature connected with the state of sorrow. 
 
 The pathetic is of every conceivable degree, from the lowest 
 to the loftiest; sometimes rising so high as to equal the sub- 
 lime, or even surpass it ; at other times blending itself with 
 the beautiful ; while in every case it preserves its own char- 
 acteristics. 
 
 The pathetic is the purest of all influences which can affect 
 us. It is lofty, tender, holy ; it is felt most deeply ; and while 
 it is most profound in its effects, it is also most enduring. The 
 most earnest books are the most pathetic ; for in the most 
 earnest natures human sorrow is always felt the most strongly, 
 and this feeling is reproduced in their words. 
 
 The pathetic is associated equally with the most simple ex- 
 pressions and the most elaborate. From extreme simplicity 
 it gains, perhaps, its greatest power; for the works which in 
 all ages have most moved the heart and excited warm human 
 sympathy have been those which are distinguished for unpre- 
 tending simplicity of diction, such as old ballads, songs, and 
 unaffected narrative. Yet it would be a mistake to confine the 
 expression of this quality to simple words, for there are de- 
 partments of literature which are at once most musical, most 
 
444 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 melancholy; and the pathetic is so rich and so many-sided 
 that it may well claim the exercise of the utmost resources of 
 language. 
 
 § 479. THE PATHETIC IN THE SACRED SCRIPTURES. 
 
 The sphere of the pathetic is commensurate with liier.iture 
 itself, and nowhere does it appear more strikingly displayed 
 than in the oldest writings with which we are familiar, namely, 
 those of the Hebrews. Apart from any other deeper cause, this 
 may be accounted for in the same way that the predominance 
 of the sublime in the same literature is accounted for. It is 
 due to the character of the race, and also to the nature of the 
 subjects treated of. These Scriptures treat of the emotional 
 nature of man, his relations with God ; of sin, remorse, re- 
 pentance, sorrow, grief, and suffering. The pathetic is prom- 
 inent through all the book of Genesis, especially in the lives 
 of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, and constantly reap- 
 pears in the other narrative books. It animates most of the 
 Psalms, particularly the penitential ones ; it is visible through 
 all the writings of the prophets; while in the New Testament 
 the Apocalypse presents us with sublimity and pathos inter- 
 mingled. But it is in the Gospels that we are to look for the 
 highest examples. Here all pathos finds its consummation; 
 it becomes sublime; it goes beyond the sublime — it is divine. 
 
 § 480. IN CLASSICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 Turning to classical antiquity, we find not much in the my- 
 tholog)% but much in the literature. The simple pathos of some 
 of Homer's descriptions resembles that of the book of Genesis. 
 Hector with his wife and child ; the sorrow-stricken Priam ; the 
 recognition of Ulysses by his faithful dog, are among those 
 touches of nature by which the heart is moved. In tragedy 
 the pathetic holds a foremost place, since it deals with sorrow; 
 and though the woes are sometimes too colossal for human 
 interest, yet there are not wanting instances of a kind which 
 awakens a fellow-feeling. Euripides has been called the poet 
 of pathos, and through many of his plays there prevails the 
 central figure of a sorrowing woman — the Alcestis, dying for 
 her husband and parting with her children ; Medea, the injured 
 wife, struggling with a mother's love ; the Electra, mourning 
 
Literature of Desires, Affections, and Passions, 445 
 
 for mother and brother ; the Hecuba, reft of all her children, 
 and standing alone, a stricken mother — the Mater Dolorosa 
 of Greek literature. 
 
 In Latin there is less of this, for the Roman nature was 
 more stern and practical; and the Roman literature was imi- 
 tative and artificial. 
 
 § 481. IN MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE. 
 
 Mediaeval literature shows still more of this. A deeper and 
 tenderer spirit had been introduced by Christianity. There 
 are three great instances in which the pathetic exerted an ex- 
 traordinary power. 
 
 1. The Latin hymns of the Church. These reflected the 
 sentiments of religion, and while strains of rejoicing arose at 
 times in view of the heavenly Jerusalem, the strains of sadness, 
 enforced by the presence of sin, prevailed. Of all these, two 
 stand pre-eminent— the Stabat Mater, which unfolds in immor- 
 tal verse the woes of the Mater Dolorosa; and the Dies Irae, 
 which blends with the sublimest imagery the most mournful 
 accents of sadness. 
 
 2. The metrical romance and ballad literature. These com- 
 positions blend love and war, and unite with them an inde- 
 scribable pathos ; valor is now united with tenderness ; the 
 hero is no longer a stoic, he is a man, and is not ashamed of 
 tears. Woman, too, comes forward to take up a place in liter- 
 ature, side by side with man. Chivalry has given her a dignity 
 unknown before. The Arthurian and Carlovingian epopoeias 
 are full of the new gospel of chivalry, and intermingle war, 
 love, religion. 
 
 3. Dante, the great overshadowing figure of the Middle Ages, 
 was the poet of woe. In the Inferno and Purgatorio there is 
 scarcely a ray of light to relieve the darkness of that gloom 
 through which his spirit wandered; and even the Paradiso 
 could not dissipate its shadow. The pathos of the Inferno is 
 overpowering. It is not his enemies only whom Dante finds 
 there ; but his friends, loved in former days, and now recog- 
 nized in torment. The father of Cavalcanti, his teacher, Bru- 
 netto Latini, are those whose appearance wrings the poet's soul 
 with anguish ; while the sight of others, and the recital of their 
 story, make him fall down senseless with horror and compassion. 
 
44^ Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 482. IN MODERN LITERATURE. 
 
 In modern literature the pathetic has always held, and con- 
 tinues to hold, a position of supreme influence. Chaucer, the 
 father of English literature, unites it with his playful mirth, his 
 fine delineations of character, his vigorous description. The 
 Knightes Tale and the Man of Lawes Tale are full of passages 
 of tender pathos ; while the Clerkes Tale belongs altogether to 
 this class. Shakespeare gives us the great characters of the 
 despairing Ophelia ; the injured Catharine ; the wronged Des- 
 demona; the fallen Wolsey; with a host of others, among 
 whom stands prominent the figure of King Lear. In the midst 
 of the sublimity and beauty of Paradise Lost, th^ tender sad- 
 ness of Eve's farewell to Paradise is not the least memorable. 
 The poetry of Collins and Gray is deeply tiuged with this. 
 Addison intermingles it with his easy grace; and by this Gold- 
 smith has made the Vicar of Wakefield immortal. Cowper, 
 whose life was so full of melancholy, has communicated this 
 feeling to his poetry; and Burns gives vocal expression to the 
 sadness of Scottish music. Byron's poetrj' is full of gloom ; 
 Keats shows the melancholy that consumed him ; but Thomas 
 Hood used this power with greater effect, and the poet of wit 
 and humor showed himself the poet of pathos, when his Bridge 
 of Sighs drew tears from all England. Tennyson's In Memo- 
 riam affords an example of a great collection of poems devoted 
 to this one theme ; in Dickens and Thackeray, as in Thomas 
 Hood, laughter is found near akin to tears ; but, of all writers, 
 no one except Dante has so uniformly and persistently made 
 use of the pathetic as Mrs. Browning. 
 
 The pathetic is also a pervading element in that great body 
 of writing known as religious literature. For the religion to 
 which it is devoted is directed to all who " labor and are heavy 
 laden;" and while the prosperous, the joyous, and the self- 
 satisfied may turn away from it, the poor, the weak, the afflict- 
 ed, and the mourner find in it a never-ending source of con- 
 solation. 
 
 § 483. THE PATHETIC AN ANIMATING ELEMENT IN LITERATURE. 
 
 Looking back over the great animating elements of litera- 
 ture, we can see how the pathetic differs from them all. 
 
Literature of Desires^ Affectiofis, and Passions, 447 
 
 The beautiful forms the broad and general basis of literature, 
 as it does also of the fine arts. The sublime produces the 
 highest manifestation of human genius. The ridiculous is a 
 tremendous weapon of attack. 
 
 From all these the pathetic differs, as they all differ from 
 one another. It rivals the beautiful in the breadth and com- 
 prehensiveness of its scope. It rivals the sublime in its lofty 
 reach. From the ridiculous it stands apart, having nothing in 
 common with it, yet in its power of assailing the feelings of 
 man it is far superior. The ridiculous may excite fear, and 
 terrify into submission ; but the pathetic softens the heart, 
 and draws it into willing obedience. As the love of Christ 
 surpasses satire, as St. John transcends Voltaire, so does the 
 pathetic surpass and transcend the ridiculous. The one may 
 show its power by undermining the strength of dynasties and 
 overthrowing governments; but the other is the central and 
 animating principle of that kingdom of heaven which shall one 
 day reign supreme, when all the kingdoms of this world shall 
 be brought into subjection to him who is called the " Man of 
 Sorrows." 
 
 It is an old saying, " Better is the house of mourning than the 
 house of mirth." Of all the qualities of literature, none equals 
 the pathetic for purity and elevation. "A thing of beauty is a 
 joy forever ;" but the pathetic is even more enduring. The joy 
 that arises from the beautiful is after all a selfish joy; the 
 pathetic leads a man away from himself to his fellow-man and 
 to his God. And, therefore, it may be said that for mingled 
 loftiness and sweetness — for its power to excite the holiest 
 emotions — for its purifying effect on the heart and its elevating 
 effect on the soul— for the living warmth and matchless human 
 interest which it throws around that literature in which it may 
 be present — for all these things, and for the reason that it is 
 the strongest ally of Christianity itself, the highest place -in 
 literature must be given to the pathetic. 
 
448 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 FORMS OF EXPRESSION ASSOCIATED WITH THE EMO- 
 TIONS AND PASSIONS. 
 
 § 484. FORMS OF EXPRESSION ASSOCIATED WITH THE EMOTIONS. 
 
 It has already been shown that the figures of speech are 
 closely associated with the emotions. Of some in particular 
 this association is very evident ; for instance, climax, personifi- 
 cation, apostrophe, vision, hyperbole, etc. The application of 
 these, however, to purposes of ornament or illustration is so 
 marked that their true nature may be seen without reference to 
 any display of feeling. But one figure — exclamation — has a 
 different character, and is so closely associated with emotion 
 that it might be regarded as possessing this for its character- 
 istic rather than any other. 
 
 By the elder rhetoricians a large number of forms of ex- 
 pression were laid down as figures of speech, and were called 
 figures of emotion. According to the definition of figures here 
 adopted, these can scarcely be considered as properly assign- 
 able to any such class. To accept them as such would lead to 
 an indefinite multiplication of figures of speech, which might 
 finally include every expression of human thought. Yet some 
 of these are interesting and valuable, as serving to show the 
 mode in which an utterance may be given to strong feeling, 
 and therefore, in concluding this subject, it will not be deemed 
 irrelevant if some space is devoted to such forms of expres- 
 sion. 
 
 Nearly all of these, if not all of them, may in fact be con- 
 sidered as different forms of exclamation, and may be classified 
 as follows : 
 
 1. Where superiority is implied on the part of the speaker. 
 
 2. Where inferiority is implied on the part of the speaker. 
 
 3. Where equality is implied between speaker and hearer. 
 
Expressions Denoting Emotions and Passions. 449 
 
 4. Where a personal reference is made by the speaker to 
 himself. 
 
 § 485. WHERE SUPERIORITY IS IMPLIED ON THE PART OF THE 
 
 SPEAKER. 
 
 I. Where superiority is implied on the part of the speaker. 
 
 Here the speaker assumes to some extent the tone of au- 
 thority, and addresses the audience from a superior level. 
 This class includes : ist, command ; 2d, prohibition ; 3d, ad- 
 monition ; 4th, reproach ; 5th, reproof; 6th, invitation. 
 
 ist. Command. Intense emotion may be expressed in this 
 way, as in Satan's call to his followers : 
 
 " Awake, arise, or be forever fallen !" 
 
 And in that cry which bursts in upon Byron's description of 
 the festivities at Brussels previous to Waterloo : 
 
 " Arm, arm — it is — it is the cannon's opening roar !" 
 
 But commands may be milder, and may serve to indicate 
 merely an expression of the speaker's feeling, as in Lalla 
 Rookh : 
 
 "Go, wing thy flight from star to star, 
 
 Take all the pleasures of all the spheres, 
 And multiply each through endless years. 
 One moment in heaven is worth them all." 
 
 Or Tennyson : 
 
 "O hark! O hear! how thin and clear!" 
 
 2d. Prohibition is negative command, and shows the same 
 variation from calmness up to intense feeling, "Tell me not 
 of rights," cries Lord Brougham, " talk not of the property of 
 the planter in his slaves." "Go home, if you dare," exclaims 
 Clay ; " go home, if you can, to your constituents, and tell them 
 that you voted it down." " Is it that insidious smile," says 
 Patrick Henry, "with which our petition has been lately re- 
 ceived? Trust it not, sir; it will prove a snare to your feet. 
 Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss." 
 
 3d. Admonition — warning. This implies stronger emotion 
 than usual, with something of anxiety. It prevails in sermons, 
 
450 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 but is also not unfrequent in oratory generally. " You are stand- 
 ing on the brink of a precipice," says Lord Brougham to the 
 House of Lords in his defence of Queen Caroline; "beware! 
 It will go forth your judgment, if sentence shall go against the 
 queen. But it will be the only judgment you ever pronounced 
 which, instead of reaching its object, will return, and bound back 
 upon those who gave it." Again in his speech on negro slavery 
 he utters this warning, " Now, then, let the planters beware — let 
 their assemblies beware — let the government at home beware — 
 let the Parliament beware." 
 
 4th. Reproach. This involves a still higher degree of emo- 
 tion, and it implies an accusation against the hearers : 
 
 " O you hard hearts, you cruel men of Rome ! 
 Knew ye not Pompey V 
 
 5th. Reproof— reprehension. This ascends still higher in 
 feeling, and the speaker no longer implies an accusation, but 
 makes it : " Arrogant mortal !" cried Kossuth. " Thou dust 
 before God !" 
 
 6th. Invitation. This involves kindly feeling; as, "Ho, every 
 one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters !" It is most common 
 in religious poetry and oratory. 
 
 § 486. WHERE INFERIORITY IS IMPLIED ON THE PART OF THE 
 
 SPEAKER. 
 
 2. Where inferiority is implied on the part of the speaker. 
 
 Here the speaker regards the audience as in some sort 
 placed above him. This class includes: ist, appeal; 2d, in- 
 vocation ; 3d, entreaty ; 4th, adoration ; 5th, desire ; 6th, ad- 
 juration. 
 
 I St. Appeal. An appeal may be either general or particular. 
 The general appeal is made to the whole community of read- 
 ers, or to the whole audience of an orator, as in Curran's 
 speech in behalf of Rowan. 
 
 " I put it to your oaths— do you think that a blessing of that kind — that 
 a victory obtained by justice over bigotry and oppression — should have 
 a stigma cast upon it by an ignominious sentence ?" 
 
 The particular appeal may be made to a class of men, as in 
 Chatham's speech on the .Address to the Throne : 
 
Expressions Denoting Emotions and Passions, 451 
 
 " I call upon that right reverend and this most learned bench to vindi- 
 cate the religion of their God, to support the justice of their country. I call 
 upon the bishops to interpose the unsullied sanctity of their lawn, upon the 
 judges to interpose the purity of their ermine, to save us from this pollution. 
 I call upon the honor of your lordships to reverence the dignity of your an- 
 cestors, and to maintain your own. I call upon the spirit and humanity of 
 my country to vindicate the national character." 
 
 The particular appeal is also made to individuals, as in 
 Shell's reply to Lord Lyndhurst, where he makes a direct ad- 
 dress to Sir Henry Hardinge : 
 
 " Tell me, for you were there — I appeal to the gallant soldier before me, 
 from whose opinions I differ, but who bears, I know, a generous heart in an 
 intrepid breast, . . . tell me if for an instant, when to hesitate for that instant 
 was to be lost, the 'aliens' blanched?" 
 
 2d. Invocation. This is similar to appeal, and is closely asso- 
 ciated with it, as in Chatham's speech, where, after the passage 
 above quoted, he adds, " I invoke the genius of the Constitu- 
 tion." Invocation often assumes the character of apostrophe : 
 
 as — 
 
 "Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour, 
 
 England hath need of thee." 
 
 A well-known form is found in the invocation of the Muse 
 at the beginning of epic poems. It is very frequent in relig- 
 ious hymns, and is associated with prayer. 
 
 3d. Entreaty. In this there is implied a greater humiliation 
 on the part of the speaker. Brougham, with all his rude energy, 
 his vehemence, and his sarcasm, was by no means averse to 
 this, for the most striking examples of entreaty are to be found 
 in his orations. In his speech on Reform, he went so far as to 
 drop on one knee while imploring the House not to refuse the 
 bill. While defending Queen Caroline, he cries out : 
 
 " My Lords, I pray you to pause, I do earnestly beseech you to take heed. 
 . . . Save the country, my Lords, from the horrors of this catastrophe ; save 
 yourselves from this peril ; rescue that country of which you are the orna- 
 ments. . . . Save that country, that you may continue to adorn it ; save the 
 crown, which is in jeopardy ; the aristocracy, which is shaken ; save the al- 
 tar, which must stagger with the blow that rends the kindred throne." 
 
 When entreaty is addressed to a higher than human power 
 it becomes supplication or prayer, of which there is an example 
 in the same speech, and following the passage just quoted : 
 
 U 
 
452 Elements of Rfietoric. 
 
 ** She wants no prayers of mine. But I do here pour forth my humble 
 supplications at the Throne of Mercy that that mercy may be poured dowa 
 upon the people in a larger measure than the merits of their rulers may de- 
 serve, and that your hearts may be turned to justice." 
 
 4th. Adoration. This belongs to the religious emotions, and 
 is generally confined to their expression. In all religious lit- 
 erature, in hymns, sermons, and narrative writings, the language 
 of praise arises naturally and spontaneously. It may also be 
 found in works that belong to general literature, when the 
 theme is closely connected with religion. The hymn of Adam 
 and Eve in Paradise Lost is an example : 
 
 ** These are thy glorious works. Parent of good ! 
 
 Almighty, this thy universal frame.'* 
 
 In Thomson's Seasons, the concluding hymn affords another 
 example of the same kind : 
 
 "These, as they change, Almighty Father, these 
 Are but the varied God. The rolling year 
 Is full of thee." 
 
 5th. Desire. In this class may be included expressions of 
 desire, wishes, aspirations, which form some of the noblest 
 passages of literature. All men feel the pathos of David's 
 exclamation : 
 
 *' Oh ! that I had wings like a dove. 
 For then would I fly away and be at rest ; 
 I would hasten my escape 
 From the windy storm and tempest." 
 
 The choral song in the CEdipus Tyrannus of Sophocles af- 
 fords a sublime example : 
 
 "O that it were my lot 
 To attain to perfect holiness in every word and deed, 
 For which there are laid down laws sublime 
 Which have their origin in highest heaven, 
 Of which God is the father only. 
 Which perishable human nature has not produced. 
 Great is the Divinity within them, 
 Nor ever waxeth old." 
 
 6th. Adjuration — oath. Under this head may also be in- 
 cluded all forms of oath and adjuration. These are associated 
 with strong emotion, and are not uncommon in poetry and 
 
Expressions Denoting Emotions and Passions, 453 
 
 oratory. The most famous example is the Oath of Demos- 
 thenes by those who fought at Marathon, quoted elsewhere. 
 
 § 487. WHERE EQUALITY IS IMPLIED BETWEEN SPEAKER AND 
 
 HEARER. 
 
 3. Where equality is implied between speaker and hearer. 
 
 This class includes: ist, exhortation ; 2d, assertion ; 3d, de- 
 nial ; 4th, remonstrance ; 5th, protest. 
 
 I St. Exhortation. This is common in oratory, particularly 
 in sermons. In gemeral literature it is also found, but es- 
 pecially in poetry. Of this kind are many lyrical poems, 
 among which may be mentioned the thrilling song of Burns, 
 " Scots wha hae." It is common in dramatic literature, of 
 which Shakespeare's Henry the Fifth may afford an exam- 
 ple : 
 
 " Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more — 
 Or close the wall up with our English dead !" 
 
 2d. Assertion. This is an accompaniment of emotion, and 
 assumes many forms, among which the general character is the 
 same. An example of this may be found in Patrick Henry's 
 emphatic words : 
 
 " We must fight — I repeat it, sir, we must fight ! This war is inevitable, 
 and let it come. I repeat it, sir — let it come." 
 
 3d. Denial is another form of assertion : 
 
 "Sir, we are not weak," cries Patrick Henry, "if we make a proper use 
 of those means which the God of nature hath placed in our power." 
 
 Another example may be found in a speech of Kossuth on 
 the Hungarian Revolution : 
 
 " They say it is I who have inspired them. No ! a thousand times no ! 
 It is they who have inspired me." 
 
 "Talk not of the property of the planter in his slaves," says Lord 
 Brougham, " I deny his right, I acknowledge not the property." 
 
 4th. Remonstrance : 
 
 " Our brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here idle ? What 
 is it that gentlemen wish ? What would they have t Is life so dear or 
 peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? For- 
 bid it. Almighty Power !"— Patrick Henry. 
 
454 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 5 th. Protest : 
 
 ♦' Against the bill I protest in the name of the Irish people and in the face 
 of heaven. I protest against the power granted to the Lord-lieutenant to 
 prevent meetings, no matter for what purpose they might be convened. 
 All I ask for my country is justice." — Daniel O'Connell. 
 
 § 488. WHERE A REFERENCE IS MADE BY THE SPEAKER TO 
 
 HIMSELF. 
 
 4. Where a reference is made by a speaker to himself. 
 
 In writing or speaking, additional force is often given by 
 unusual and emphatic assertion of personal belief, opinion, or 
 feeling. 
 
 ist. Direct assertion. This is the plainest form of personal 
 reference, and abounds in oratory. A well-known example 
 may be found in Chatham's fine outburst of feeling: 
 
 " If I were an American as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop 
 was landed in my country, I would never lay down my arms — never ! never ! 
 never !" 
 
 " As for me," cries Patrick Henry, •' give me liberty or give me death !" 
 " As for myself," says Kossuth, " it was my duty to speak, but the gran- 
 deur of the moment and the rushing waves of sentiment benumbed my 
 tongue." 
 
 2d. Excuse — vindication. When a writer or speaker is in 
 any way set on his defence, a personal allusion takes this form. 
 A passage of this character is found in St. Paul's Second Epistle 
 to the Corinthians: 
 
 "Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am I. . . . 
 Are they ministers of Christ .> ... I am more ; in labors more abundant." 
 
 Byron also gives utterance to the same in passionate lines : 
 
 " Hear me, my mother earth, behold me, heaven. 
 Have I not had to wrestle with my lot? 
 Have I not suffered things to be forgiven ? 
 Have I not had my brain seared, my heart riven ? 
 Hopes sapped, name blighted, life's life lied away ?" 
 
 3d. Apology. This is closely associated with the preceding. 
 It is often used for the sake of giving emphasis. Thus, in 
 Kossuth's speech on the Hungarian Revolution, he says : 
 
Expressions Denoting Emotions and Passions. 455 
 
 " Pardon me my emotion — the shadows of our martyrs passed before my 
 eyes ; I heard the millions of my native land once more shouting — liberty 
 or death !" 
 
 4th. Disclaimer. Another form of reference to one's self is 
 in disclaimer : 
 
 " Perhaps," says Kossuth, " there might be some glory in inspiring such 
 a nation, and to such a degree. But I cannot accept the praise. No ; it is 
 not I who inspired the Hungarian people ; it was the Hungarian people who 
 inspired me." 
 
PART VI. 
 
 THE GENERAL DEPARTMENTS 
 OF LITERATURE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 DESCRIPTION. 
 
 § 489. LITERATURE DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED. 
 
 Literature in its most general signification means all the 
 written productions of a nation ; but in its stricter sense it 
 comprehends only those writings which come within the sphere 
 of rhetoric, excluding works devoted to learning and science. 
 It is sometimes specified by the terms "elegant" or "polite" 
 literature, or " letters." 
 
 A fully equipped literature has various departments, which 
 differ from each other in important respects, and are marked 
 by distinct peculiarities of form and treatment. These will 
 now be considered in the following order: i. Description; 2. 
 Narration; 3. Exposition; 4. Oratory; 5. Dialogue; 6. Drama; 
 7. Poetry. 
 
 § 490. OBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Description is of two kinds, referring, first, to objects per- 
 ceptible to the senses; and, secondly, to subjects cognizable by 
 the mind. To these the names objective and subjective have 
 respectively been given. Although such an application of 
 these terms may be regarded as not philosophically accurate, 
 yet it may be defended, first, because it is sanctioned by the 
 best authority ; and, secondly, because there is no other way 
 by which the two kinds of description can be so well designated. 
 
Description . 457 
 
 Of these, objective description will be first considered. This 
 refers, in the first place, to objects in a state of rest, including 
 the works of nature and the works of man. 
 
 The description of natural objects is most conspicuous in 
 books of travel or adventure. Thus in Kane's voyages to the 
 Arctic regions a large portion is necessarily devoted to the 
 physical features of the places visited^the fields of ice, the 
 vast bergs, the rugged shores, and the celestial phenomena. 
 Livingstone's travels in Africa present the reader with strik- 
 ing and novel scenes encountered there. Into most narrative 
 works description enters largely, and many narrative writers 
 have excelled in this respect. This was the case with Sir Wal- 
 ter Scott, who intermingles these two kinds of composition in 
 nearly all his works, whether prose or poetry. In William 
 Black's Strange Adventures of a Phaeton the descriptions form 
 the greater, if not the more important part of the book. The 
 same thing may be found even in scientific writings, especially 
 those which, like the works of Nichol or Proctor, appeal to the 
 popular taste. The astronomer or the geologist may describe 
 the phenomena of the heavens or the earth, and be enabled in 
 this way to make his writing more agreeable, if not more per- 
 spicuous. 
 
 The works of man afford a wider field for description, and 
 are dealt with in all writings which give an account of cities 
 or civilized countries, for here they are necessarily more im- 
 portant than those of nature. In general, the two — natural 
 scenery and human handiwork — are equally regarded, and 
 both forms of description are found to an almost equal de- 
 gree in narrative writing. Thus Kinglake's Eothen refers to 
 the works of nature and of man. In history it is often nec- 
 essary to give an account of the natural features of a country, 
 or of the scene of any event, or of the appearance of a city 
 with whose fortunes the writer is concerned. Thus Gibbon 
 pauses in his narrative to give an animated account of the 
 place chosen by Constantine for his new capital, and in Pres- 
 cott's histories the descriptions of the wonders of Mexico and 
 Peru are among the most captivating, if not the most meritori- 
 ous passages. Beckford's Vathek is a narrative work, in which 
 the best parts are descriptions, such as that of the Hall of 
 Eblis. 
 
458 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Works of art form an excellent means for the display of 
 descriptive power. To the sympathetic mind there is in them 
 a suggestiveness which is greater than that of other works of 
 man. For the artist has already endowed his work with his 
 own conception, and the writer has but to seize this and put it 
 into expression. Ruskin's glowing descriptions of the pictures 
 of Turner may serve to illustrate the inspiration which may 
 be drawn from painting; the suggestive power of architecture 
 maybe seen in the description of St. Peter's in Childe Harold; 
 while the same poem shows the influence of sculpture upon 
 one who can apprehend its meaning in the fervid descriptions 
 of the Venus de' Medici, the Apollo Belvedere, the Laocoon, 
 and the Dying Gladiator. 
 
 Objective description refers in the second place to objects 
 in a state of motion or action. 
 
 This is of a higher order than the preceding kind, since it 
 approaches to the life and activity of narrative, is more stimulat- 
 ing to the writer, and more influential over the reader. Under 
 this head is comprised all movement, whether in inanimate 
 nature or among living beings. 
 
 The flow of rivers, the rush of cataracts, the struggle of 
 ocean-billows, the war of the elements, the eruption of volca- 
 noes, and all similar movements of natural objects form sub- 
 ject-matter for this kind of description. Illustrations may be 
 found in Byron's Thunder-storm among the Alps, Coleridge's 
 Hymn in the Vale of Chamouni, but the most sublime example 
 is Goethe's Song of the Angels in Faust : 
 
 "The sun in wonted wise is sounding 
 
 With brother spheres a rival song; 
 And on his destined circuit bounding, 
 
 With thunder-steps he speeds along. 
 The sight gives angels strength, though greater 
 
 Than angels' utmost thoughts sublime ; 
 And all thy wondrpus works. Creator, 
 
 Still bloom as in creation's prime. 
 
 "And fleetly, thought surpassing fleetly 
 
 The earth's green pomp is spinning round; 
 There Paradise alternates sweetly 
 With night terrific and profound ; 
 
Description. 459 
 
 There foams the sea, with broad wave beating 
 
 Against the deep cliff's rocky base ; 
 And rock and sea away are fleeting 
 
 In never-ending spheral chase. 
 
 MICHAEL. 
 
 "And storms with rival fury heaving 
 
 From land to sea, from sea to land ; 
 Still, as they rave, a chain are weaving 
 
 Of linked efficacy grand. 
 There burning Desolation blazes, 
 
 Precursor of the Thunder's way ; 
 But, Lord, thy servants own with praises 
 
 The gentle movement of thy day. 
 
 THE THREE. 
 
 " The sight gives angels strength, though greater 
 Than angels' utmost thoughts sublime ; 
 And all thy wondrous works, Creator, 
 Still bloom as in creation's prime." 
 
 The actions of man are more inspiring than his works, or 
 at least more exciting. A shipwreck, as in Falconer's poem ; 
 a battle, as in Campbell's Hohenlinden ; a tumultuous assem- 
 bly, as in Demosthenes's account of the. panic at Athens after 
 Elatea, have formed themes for description of surpassing ex- 
 cellence. 
 
 Milton's ode on the Nativity begins with narrative and ends 
 with description, under the figure of vision, where the pagan 
 deities are represented as taking their flight at the approach 
 of the Babe of Bethlehem. Gray's Elegy begins with action, 
 which at the close deepens into universal calm. 
 
 § 491. SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION. 
 
 This is of a higher order than the preceding one, and is 
 more difficult of successful accomplishment. It includes the 
 following : 
 
 I. All descriptions of emotions or feelings, as exhibited in 
 the expression of the face. Thus in the case of the Apollo 
 Belvedere, and others already mentioned, subjective description 
 
 arises out of the objective : 
 
 " In his eye 
 And nostril beautiful disdain, and might 
 And majesty flash their full lightnings by." 
 U 2 
 
460 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The same is true with Byron's description of the Laocoon : 
 
 "A father's love and mortal's agony 
 With an immortal's patience blending." 
 
 Or the Venus de' Medici : 
 
 "We inhale 
 The ambrosial aspect, which, beheld, instils 
 Part of its immortality." 
 
 Or the Gladiator : 
 
 *• He heard it, but he heeded not — his eyes 
 Were with his heart, and that was far away." 
 
 A description of character, as seen in the face, may be found 
 in Carlyle's representation of Cromwell and Frederick the 
 Great. This is also a favorite practice with novelists and 
 narrative poets. 
 
 2. The display of emotions in action forms another class, 
 and includes the struggle of conflicting feelings in the heart; as 
 courage against panic, love against hate, hope against despair, 
 and the like. Satan's soliloquy in the Paradise Lost affords a 
 representation of the struggle of remorse with hate and intel- 
 lectual pride. The soliloquy of the Medea of Euripides ex- 
 hibits the conflict between maternal love and an injured wife's 
 thirst for vengeance. In that of Hamlet there is the conflict 
 between a desire to avenge the dead and native irresolution. 
 
 3. Another class is made up of descriptions of character. 
 These abound in biographies, but especially in autobiographies, 
 in connection with the narrative. John Stuart Mill's auto- 
 biography is full of analytical descriptions of his varying states 
 of mind. 
 
 4. Scientific writings afford another class in the descriptions 
 of the various moral and intellectual qualities. 
 
 § 492. OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION BLENDED 
 TOGETHER. 
 
 Although these various kinds of description have been ana- 
 lyzed and considered separately, yet in general they are found 
 existing together, and are sometimes inseparably connected. 
 
 I. Language has often an implied or suggested meaning, 
 which of itself is equivalent to description. Thus the words 
 
Narration. 461 
 
 of Macbeth, Hamlet, or Othello are virtual descriptions of their 
 states of mind; and in many of the famous sayings of great 
 men there is something which is more significant than in pages 
 of ordinary explanation. 
 
 2. A great action has often this suggested meaning. The 
 account of Leonidas at Sparta has a deep significance, involv- 
 ing a description of the Spartan character. The account of 
 the death of Polycarp, by Eusebius, unfolds the whole state 
 of mind of a Christian martyr. 
 
 3. The subjective thus intermingles with the objective. Yet 
 there is a tendency to the one or the other, and writers who 
 are famous for descriptive power will differ in this respect. A 
 remarkable example is seen in the case of Scott and Byron. 
 Both belonged to the same school of literature; both chose 
 kindred themes, and wrote poems of the same class, often in 
 the same metre, with versification and vocabularies that were 
 in many cases alike, yet the difference between them in the 
 character of their descriptions is very strongly marked. Scott 
 was objective and Byron subjective ; Scott detailed all his 
 scenes down to the minutest point, and was content with the 
 object itself, without seeking to go very far beneath the surface ; 
 Byron, on the other hand, loved to seize the striking features 
 in his scenes, and, after mentioning these in a bold and graphic 
 manner, to dwell upon their hidden meaning. The battle-scene 
 in Marmion may be compared with that of Waterloo in Childe 
 Harold. The former is full of action— the strife of men, their 
 suffering, their wild excitement, or wilder despair; the latter is 
 full of the poet's thoughts, and is profoundly meditative. 
 
 4. Sometimes subjective description is introduced by the law 
 of association. This is the case in Macaulay's description of 
 the trial of Warren Hastings. 
 
462 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 NARRATION. 
 § 493. NARRATION. 
 
 In most cases narration is connected with description, which 
 it so much resembles that it has been defined as "prolonged 
 description," or a "series of descriptions." The difference be- 
 tween them is, however, a real one, and is plainly marked. 
 
 Description refers to the point of time at which the scene is 
 observed. 
 
 Narration refers to a succession of events detailed in the 
 order of time. 
 
 Narration includes within itself more departments of litera- 
 ture than any other kind of composition, and, like description, 
 may be divided into objective and subjective. 
 
 § 494. OBJECTIVE NARRATION. 
 
 This includes all narration of external events. 
 
 1. This is the essential character of history, which must give 
 an account of the succession of events in the life of a nation. 
 The ancient historians concerned themselves chiefly with ex- 
 ternal or objective occurrences. Nearly all of the great monu- 
 mental histories are of this class; for example: Herodotus, 
 Thucydides, Livy, in ancient times ; and in modern times, Clar- 
 endon, Hume, Gibbon, Prescott. 
 
 2. Biography belongs to this class when the external life of 
 the subject is narrated. Thus an ordinary biography of Alex- 
 ander the Great would be a narrative of the objective kind, 
 since it would have to do chiefly with his career as a conqueror 
 and ruler. 
 
 3. At the present day prose fiction occupies an in..nense de- 
 partment of literature, the greater portion of which belongs to 
 the division of the objective. 
 
 4. Epic poetry includes the classical epic, and also all 
 
Narration. 463 
 
 the longer narrative poems, such as ballads and metrical 
 romances. 
 
 5. Narration often enters into dramatic literature. It was a 
 favorite device of Euripides to explain the situation to the audi- 
 ence by a narrative put into the mouth of the first speaker, after 
 which the business of the piece went on as usual. As a gen- 
 eral thing, it is made use of in order to acquaint the spectator 
 with the course of events at a distance which have an important 
 bearing upon the action. 
 
 6. Lyric poetry often consists of narrative; as Hohenlinden, 
 the Burial of Sir John Moore, the Charge of the Light Brigade. 
 
 7. In scientific writings it occurs whenever it is found neces- 
 sary to give an account, as in geology, of the past ages of the 
 earth; in philology, of the progress of language; or in astron- 
 omy, of the past of the universe. 
 
 8. In exposition it appears whenever the writer deals with 
 the record of events, either for the purpose of information, ex- 
 planation, or illustration. 
 
 § 495. SUBJECTIVE NARRATION, 
 
 Subjective narrative is the account of the progress of events 
 which have to do chiefly with abstract qualities. 
 
 I. It appears in history when the writer deals with human 
 character, human motives, or the display of moral qualities in 
 action. Xenophon's Cyropaedia may be considered as con- 
 taining narrative of this sort, since it shows the moral develop- 
 ment of one whom he means to represent as a model man. 
 Plutarch exhibits the contrast of characters presented in par- 
 allels. Tacitus affords memorable examples. It was his habit 
 to devote much space to the dissection of character; and even 
 in his narrative of external events there is an undercurrent of 
 meaning, as if he intends to convey a moral. His Germania 
 may be taken as one chooses, either as a literal account of the 
 Germans or as a satire on the Romans; his Agricola as a real 
 biography or as the account of an ideal hero. 
 
 In modern times the whole purpose and scope of history have 
 undergone a change. The historian now writes with a moral 
 purpose ; and, not content with the narrative of external events, 
 he seeks to show the progress of principles, of some one of 
 which he considers himself bound to be the advocate. The 
 
464 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 "drum and trumpet history," as it is called, has passed out of 
 fashion; the modern historian seeks not so much to "tell a 
 story," as to advocate some view, or deal with the philosophy 
 of history. In general, those histories may be said to exhibit 
 subjective narration which aim to unfold the growth and de- 
 velopment of principles, rather than to relate the story of wars 
 and exploits. Guizot's History of Civilization gives an account 
 of the rise and progress of principles which go towards the ele- 
 vation of modern society. The constitutional histories of Hal- 
 lam and Stubbs are records of the rise and progress of the ele- 
 ments of civil and religious liberty. In political histories, like 
 those of Macaulay, Froude, Freeman, Motley, and others, the 
 progress of principles is noted side by side with the march 
 of events. 
 
 2. Examples may be found in those biographies which dwell 
 upon the character, as well as the action of the subject, par- 
 ticularly where it is regarded in its progress and development. 
 This is especially visible in autobiographies, like the Confes- 
 sions of St Augustine ; Bunyan's Grace Abounding ; the too 
 candid Confessions of Rousseau ; in De Quincey's Opium 
 Eater ; Newman's Apologia ; the Eclipse of Faith ; and the 
 autobiography of John Stuart Mill. 
 
 3. Works of the imagination may be divided into two classes, 
 according as they refer to the progress of incident or the de- 
 velopment of character. Of these two, the latter affords exam- 
 ples of subjective narration. This class is at the present day an 
 increasing one, and the greatest novelists are those who love 
 to exhibit the workings of the human mind, and display the 
 emotions of the humar> heart. Lord Lytton in his later novels 
 gives frequent examples. Dickens, especially in his semi-auto- 
 biographical David Copperfield, deals more with the course of 
 feeling than with the progress of incident. Thackeray is always 
 turning aside from the narrative of things to show, with Hora- 
 tian worldly wisdom mingled with mild cynicism, the undercur- 
 rent of selfishness, craft, folly, or simplicity that bears his story 
 onward. George Eliot frequently allows events to drag, from her 
 love of searching out the hidden springs of human action, and 
 is greatest when she lays bare motives and dissects character. 
 
 4. All this is seen more strikingly in poetry. If the great 
 ancient epics are objective, the great modern ones are sub- 
 
Narration. 465 
 
 jective. Chief among these is Dante's Divine Comedy. It is 
 not the place here to discuss how far narrative in allegory is 
 subjective; yet certainly when the meaning is manifestly figura- 
 tive, it is proper to regard it in that light. The whole scope 
 of Dante's poem is figurative. It is an allegory, where the 
 characters have names of well-known persons, yet represent 
 qualities. Spenser's Faerie Queene is of the same order. Mil- 
 ton's Paradise Lost, on the contrary, is not at all allegorical ; 
 but is a work of the imagination, representing what is conceiv- 
 ably an actual occurrence, from which a conclusion is to be 
 drawn, as from any other story, /fennyson's Idyls of the King 
 are largely subjective. They berfong to a quasi-allegorical order 
 of literature. They unfold the Arthurian legends, where the 
 knights of the Arthurian epopoeia are endowed with modern 
 modes of thought, and teach the high gospel of chivalry to the 
 men of the nineteenth century. The key-note to them all was 
 struck in the Sir Galahad, which is an allegory in itself 
 
 5. Narrative passages occur in dramatic literature, and when 
 the play is of a subjective character, as Hamlet or Faust, there 
 are corresponding portions of narration. Shelley's Prometheus 
 Unbound is entirely subjective, and the passages of narrative 
 that occur are of the same character.. 
 
 6. Lyric poetry is highly diversified in its themes, and ex- 
 hibits subjective narrative as much as other kinds of literature. 
 Wherever the poet holds communion with his own heart, or re- 
 lates his personal experience, this is to be found. Tennyson's 
 In Memoriam is a series of lyrical poems of this kind. 
 
 Religious hymns are conspicuous for this. The Psalms of 
 David are full of narratives of the experience of the soul, and 
 these have been imitated in all ages. 
 
 7. Subjective narration may be found in exposition where it 
 is necessary to give an account of the progress of principles. 
 A writer on political economy may narrate the effect of free- 
 trade doctrines. A writer on metaphysics may relate the course 
 of any given system of philosophy. In a history of philosophy 
 we have narration combined with exposition, as in the works 
 of Tennemann, Cousin, Lewes, and others. In Church His- 
 tories the same thing occurs. 
 
 The most remarkable example of the difference between the 
 subjective and the objective in narration is seen in the Gospels. 
 
466 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Matthew, Mark, and Luke, commonly called the Synoptic Gos- 
 pels, refer chiefly to the external life and actions of the Saviour, 
 and even the discourses have a practical character. The fourth 
 Gospel is subjective. Here we observe chiefly the mind of 
 Christ, and the whole narrative tends to enforce the loftiest 
 and most spiritual teachings. 
 
 The same difference is to be observed between Xenophon 
 and Plato in their accounts of the Socratic teaching. In the 
 former it relates to practical life and every-day morality; in the 
 latter the dialogue rises to the greatest heights in the discus- 
 sion of abstract truth. 
 
 Other examples may be found in the poets who deal chiefly 
 in narration, the objective being presented by Scott, Crabbe, 
 Southey, Campbell ; while the subjective is illustrated by Byron, 
 Coleridge, Shelley, Wordsworth, Tennyson, the Brownings. The 
 subjective has predominated until recently, when the advent of 
 Swinburne, Morris, Rosetti, and others, has led to a reaction. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 EXPOSITION. 
 § 496. EXPOSITION. 
 
 Exposition is that kind of composition which deals with its 
 subject-matter by a process of reasoning, so as to reach a cer- 
 tain conclusion, through the discussion of facts or principles. 
 
 § 497. OUTLINE OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 Exposition refers to all the departments of human thought, 
 knowledge, or inquiry. The following is a general outline of 
 these : 
 
 I. Science. This is the investigation of positive knowledge. 
 Under this class are included the following: 
 
 1. Mathematical science. 
 
 2. The physical sciences, as chemistry, geology, miner- 
 alogy, botany, zoology, etc. 
 
 3. The sciences which have to do wiih man in commu- 
 
Exposition. 467 
 
 nities — political, ethnical, social, historical, archaeolog- 
 ical, philological, etc. 
 4. The sciences which have to do with the nature of man 
 as an individual being, as metaphysics, psychology, 
 logic, aesthetics, ethics, etc. 
 
 II. Philosophy. This is the investigation of the unknown. 
 It differs from science ; as the latter deals with the known, 
 the positive, the concrete; the former with the unknown, 
 the immaterial, and the abstract. Philosophy treats of 
 such subjects as existence, substance, essence, causation, 
 the absolute, the conditioned and the unconditioned, space, 
 eternity. 
 
 III. Theology. This stands apart by itself, with a wider 
 field of survey than any other branch of human inquiry; 
 for while one school seeks to reduce it to a science, an- 
 other persists in elevating it to the loftiest heights of phi- 
 losophy ; and a third, going yet farther, calls in the aid 
 of the supernatural. 
 
 IV. Literature. This includes the expression of all the 
 thoughts of man — description, narration, exposition, ora- 
 tory, dialogue, the drama, and poetry. 
 
 V. Art. This is the revelation of the ideal to the senses, 
 and includes painting, sculpture, architecture, music, en- 
 graving, ceramics, etc. 
 
 VI. Technical and professional sciences, embracing all the 
 occupations of man in daily life; as law, medicine, war, 
 navigation, engineering, agriculture, etc. 
 
 VII. Manufactures and inventions. 
 
 VIII. Education. This is a department at first technical 
 and professional, but which, by handling the difficult prob- 
 lem of the human mind, together with its disciplinary char- 
 acter, enters into the regions of science, literature, and art. 
 
 Of writings in the above departments many do not belong 
 to general literature, but are characterized by the use of words 
 unknown outside the limits of those branches of learning or 
 science to which they refer. Every science, art, and philosophy 
 has its own nomenclature, which is intelligible only to the few 
 who have been trained to understand them ; the books written 
 upon them owe entirely to their vocabulary whether they shall 
 
46^ Elemefits of Rhetoric. 
 
 be purely technical, and therefore utterly obscure to the gen- 
 eral reader, or literary, and open to all. 
 
 Even among scientific writers, however, many of the highest 
 class are free from any considerable difficulties in this respect, 
 and have taken a place in general literature. The great phi- 
 losophers of Greece and Rome, as well as those of modern 
 limes, belong no less to literature than to philosophy; and at 
 the present day there is an increasing number of those writers 
 on science who address themselves, not to a circle of scientific 
 readers, but to the world. 
 
 § 498. CLASSIFICATION OF EXPOSITORY WRITINGS. 
 
 Expository writings may be classified as follows : 
 
 1. The treatise. This means the full discussion of a subject. 
 The most familiar examples of this are to be found in the works 
 of the great philosophers of ancient and modern times — Plato, 
 Aristotle, Cicero, Bacon, Locke, Hume, etc. The writings of 
 these, and others like them, have taken a place as classics in 
 general literature. 
 
 2. The essay. This is a shorter exposition of a subject, and 
 is generally confined to one aspect of it. Cicero's De Senec- 
 tute and De Amicitia are familiar examples. Of this character 
 are the essays of Bacon, Addison, Steele, Johnson, Macaulay, 
 De Quincey, and others. The essay often exhibits masterly 
 exposition, joined with consummate ability and finished style. 
 
 3. The epistle. This was formerly a favorite mode of com- 
 position. The most famous are those of Cicero, Pliny, Madame 
 de Sdvign^, Lady Mary Wortley Montague, Pope, Cowper. At 
 the present day this form of writing has lost its importance in 
 a literary sense. 
 
 4. The editorial article. This is the production of an age 
 of newspapers. The necessity of the case compels it to be 
 of restricted length. At its best, it is a concise and vigorous 
 treatment of some one aspect of a subject. It bears the 
 same relation to an essay which is borne by an essay to a 
 treatise. 
 
 5. The paragraph. This is a short exposition of some indi- 
 vidual point on a subject of interest. It has been greatly en- 
 larged in importance by the newspaper, and bears the same 
 relation to the editorial_whi^h the latter bears to an essay. 
 
Oratory. 469 
 
 6. Poetry. Poetry which deals in exposition is commonly 
 called didactic, and sometimes philosophic. 
 
 Lucretius's De Rerum Natura is philosophic in its charac- 
 ter. Horace's De Arte Poetica is concerned with rhetoric. In 
 English poetry the chief examples are Pope's poetical essays 
 and epistles; Young's Night Thoughts; Darwin's Botanic Gar- 
 den ; Thomson's Seasons; Cowper's Task ; Wordsworth's Ex- 
 cursion ; Browning's Christmas, Easter, and Bishop Biougram's 
 Apology. 
 
 Exposition is seen in lyric poetry also, as in some of the 
 sonnets of Milton, e.g.^ " When I consider how my life is spent ;" 
 and in many hymns, as, for example, Cowper's " God moves 
 in a mysterious way;" Montgomery's " Prayer is the soul's sin- 
 cere desire." 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ORATORY. 
 
 § 499. ORATORY. 
 
 According to Aristotle the divisions of oratory are threefold, 
 and his classification may be.taken as sufficiently complete : 
 
 I. Deliberative. 2. Judicial. 3. Demonstrative. 
 
 Deliberative oratory is sometimes styled political, as it pre- 
 vails chiefly in parliamentary bodies. Judicial is also called 
 forensic, and prevails in courts of law. Demonstrative is also 
 styled moral, as it has to do with human motives and actions. 
 
 Aristotle is very full in his treatment of these divisions of 
 oratory. According to him the subjects of deliberative oratory 
 are war, supplies, finance, etc., in view of which he shows the 
 necessity of extensive knowledge on the part of the orator of 
 such things as history, geography, the resources of nations, and 
 of whatever else may conduce to an enlightened opinion on 
 political matters. He shows that the principles from which 
 proofs are to be drawn are the common opinions of what is 
 good and evil, and that the aim of the orator is to persuade to 
 the one and dissuade from the other. 
 
470 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The subject of judicial oratory he shows to be accusation and 
 defence ; the proof that an injury has been done, or its disproof. 
 He gives an analysis of injury, motive, artificial and inartificial 
 proofs. 
 
 The subject of demonstrative oratory he shows to be praise 
 and blame; the arguments for which are to be drawn from the, 
 elements of the honorable or the dishonorable. 
 
 The examination of Aristotle extends into subjects which at 
 the present day would not be touched upon in a treatise on 
 rhetoric, but relegated to the moral philosopher, the historian, 
 the political economist, or other specialists. According to his 
 definition, rhetoric has to do with every subject ; but it does not 
 therefore follow that the rhetorician should discuss all subjects, 
 for that would be to make a treatise on rhetoric an encyclopae- 
 dic work on every possible branch of human knowledge. 
 
 The following is a summary of his statements as to the three 
 divisions of oratory: 
 
 The business of each : 
 
 1. Deliberative; exhortation and dissuasion. 
 
 2. Judicial; accusation and defence. 
 
 3. Demonstrative ; praise and blame. 
 The time proper to each : 
 
 1. Deliberative ; the future, for in exhortation or dissuasion 
 the speaker advises respecting things future. 
 
 2. Judicial; the past, for here the subject consists of actions 
 already performed. 
 
 3. Demonstrative ; the present, for here the subject is one 
 which is actually before the audience for present discus- 
 sion. 
 
 The objects of each : 
 
 1. Deliberative; the expedient or inexpedient. 
 
 2. Judicial; justice or injustice. 
 
 3. Demonstrative; right and wrong, true and false, in the 
 subject-matter, which may be science, philosophy, re- 
 ligion, or any other branch of human knowledge. 
 
 Oratory employs different kinds of composition, such as ex- 
 position, description, narration, dialogue, and approximates to 
 the fervor and imaginative richness of poetry. 
 
 Oratory also makes use of all the resources of rhetoric. Of 
 all the embellishments of style or the forces of argument, of all 
 
Oratory. 47 1 
 
 the modes of expression that may influence the taste or sway 
 the passions, it leaves not one unemployed. In boldness of 
 figurative expression, in richness of imagery, in the strain which 
 it imposes upon the utmost capacity of language, it surpasses 
 all other prose, and frequently rivals even poetry itself. 
 
 § 500. DEBATE. 
 
 This may be defined as compound oratory. 
 
 Oratory is the discussion of a subject by one; debate is the 
 discussion of a subject by more than one. 
 
 Oratory considers the subject from one point of view; debate 
 considers the subject from two or more opposed points of view. 
 
 There are two classes of debate : 
 
 I. Controversial. 2. Parliamentary. 
 
 § 501. CONTROVERSIAL DEBATE. 
 
 I. This is the most ancient form of debate of which there 
 are any remains. It is found in the Book of Job, which some 
 consider the oldest book in existence. Plato's writings give 
 other examples, of which the Gorgias may be mentioned in par- 
 ticular. During the revival of learning it was a favorite form 
 of debate, and was fostered by university life and tradition. The 
 "Admirable Crichton" is a type of the accomplished debater 
 of that age ; in him we see an eminent scholar and disputant 
 making the tour of the universities of Europe, and conducting 
 arguments on scholastic subjects. The controversy between 
 Luther and Eck is more famous than any other, since it was 
 the turning-point in the great movement of the German Refor- 
 mation. In recent times the taste for this has greatly lessened; 
 yet it still exists, but such debates when now carried on are 
 chiefly of a religious character. The controversy between 
 Pope and Maguire is an example, but this has become famous 
 chiefly from the witty satire, " Father Tom and the Pope." In 
 many a quiet village the champions of opposite faiths still meet, 
 and combat in defence of their respective creeds. Religion, tem- 
 perance, politics, are, next to religion, the most common themes. 
 
 Controversial writing is written debate, and has no connec- 
 tion with oratory. It has existed in ancient and modern times. 
 Of ancient controversy, the work of Josephus against Apion, 
 and the works of the Christian Apologists, are the most mem- 
 
472 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 orable examples. During the revival of learning controversy 
 flourished, and lasted until the time of the Parliamentary wars. 
 That was the age of ponderous tomes, which, however, in the 
 stormy period of the war between king and Parliament, was 
 quickly succeeded by an age of controversial pamphlets. Our 
 own age confines controversy to newspapers and periodicals; 
 yet books are still composed, such as Dr. Newman's Apologia, 
 aiul the literature that rose up round the Colenso controversy. 
 Controversy still flourishes, and must continue to do so 
 while the human mind is active and energetic. Science affords 
 as great a field for this as religion ; and the disputes that rage 
 about the one are as eager, as bitter, and as uncompromising 
 as those of the other. In politics is found the most familiar 
 sphere of controversy, for every country has its political parties, 
 who contend through the medium of the press. These show 
 that the odium theologicum which was once supposed peculiar 
 to religion, is merely that odium which belongs to human nat- 
 ure, and is felt against all who differ in opinion on any point 
 from ourselves. 
 
 § 502. PARLIAMENTARY DEBATE. 
 
 2. This has grown up in the free representative assemblies of 
 the English-speaking race, and has been developed by them to 
 its present state. For ordinary purposes it has altogether sup- 
 planted the controversial debate, since it is far broader in its 
 scope and more thorough in its treatment of the subject. 
 
 The peculiarity of parliamentary debate is that the subject 
 to be examined is presented in a formal statement, called a res- 
 olution, or question, to which alone the discussion must refer. 
 
 The principle of parliamentary debate is as old as the hu- 
 man race ; and Milton would have it older still, since he carries 
 it back to the fallen angels in Pandemonium. Homer intro- 
 duces us to the debates of the Grecian chiefs before Troy ; but 
 these are irregular and unsystematic. The debates at Athens 
 and Rome were probably of the same kind. The form of par- 
 liamentary debate is modern. It was created and developed 
 in England. It was born in the English Parliament, and has 
 spread thence to other parliaments, and also to other public 
 assemblies which have no connection with politics. So useful 
 is it that it is employed even where there is no debate proper. 
 
Oratory. 473 
 
 but only discussion ; where speakers agree upon the question, 
 and consider it, not from contrary, but from different points of 
 view. This is illustrated by the " speeches to the question " at 
 the meeting of any society. 
 
 The aim of parliamentary debate is to investigate the sub- 
 ject from many points of view which are presented from two 
 contrary sides. In no other way can a subject be so exhaust- 
 ively considered. 
 
 Free debate may be called the greatest blessing which a 
 nation can enjoy, for in this way it can best win and maintain 
 its liberties. 
 
 A parliamentary debate, when carried on by able men, is one 
 of the finest exhibitions of the powers of the human mind that 
 can be witnessed. We see well-informed and well-trained in- 
 tellects turning all their powers to the discussion of a subject 
 from many points of view, in which two opposite forces struggle 
 for the victory. In such a struggle all the highest intellectual 
 forces are put forth. We encounter broad and deep knowl- 
 edge, quick apprehension, argumentative power, great com- 
 mand of language, together with all the resources of wit, hu- 
 mor, and pathos; the sharpness of epigrammatic statement, 
 the vehemence of denunciation, the keenness of the quick re- 
 tort, sharp repartee, or biting sarcasm. 
 
 Debate is of more importance than formerly, since there is a 
 larger audience. This is the result of a free Parliament and 
 press. The members of Parliament represent the people to 
 discuss; but the reporters of the press represent the people 
 to listen. Thus the whole nation is present to debate and to 
 hearken by proxy. 
 
 Reporting, like parliamentary debate itself, has grown but 
 slowly. At first the reports of debates were only general. 
 Samuel Johnson is a type of the reporter of his age. He used 
 to listen, and write out from memory; with this peculiar cir- 
 cumstance, that he reconstructed the speeches in his own style. 
 The next stage was verbatim short-hand reporting, which now 
 exists. The two stages are seen in the speeches of Chatham. 
 His reply to Walpole was written by Johnson in Johnsonian 
 antitheses; his famous speech on a motion for an address to 
 the throne was taken down by Hugh Boyd, Esq., and revised by 
 the orator himself. It bears all the marks of a verbatim report. 
 
474 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE TACTICS OF ORATORY. 
 § 503. TACTICS OF ORATORY. 
 
 The tactics of oratory may be defined as special devices 
 employed by orators for the sake of persuading their hearers. 
 They include all the different means which have been invented 
 for making opinions acceptable, encountering opposition, and 
 influencing feeling. Some of these are of high importance; 
 others are exhibitions of mere artifice, and, though once used 
 with success by great orators, and pre-eminently by Cicero, are 
 now considered as too rhetorical and disingenuous for modern 
 taste. 
 
 Some of the ancient rhetoricians set down all these as regu- 
 lar figures, calling them " figures of argument," or " figures of 
 oratory;" but according to the definition here adopted this 
 term is not applicable to them. In the enumeration which 
 follows, most of the ancient names are given, not because they 
 have any practical utility at the present day, but rather on 
 account of their interest and value from an historical point of 
 view. 
 
 The present subject includes the following : 
 
 I. Conciliation ; 2. Emphasis ; 3. Explanation ; 4. Answers 
 to objections ; 5. Artifices ; 6. Attack ; 7. Defence ; 8. Dis- 
 play of feeling. 
 
 § 504. CONCILIATION. 
 
 I. Among the tactics of oratory, none are more important or 
 more widely employed than a conciliatory style and demeanor. 
 For persuasion can best be effected over those who are dis- 
 posed to regard the speaker with kindly feelings, and who are 
 inclined to give to his arguments the most friendly considera- 
 tion. 
 
The Tactics of Oratory. 475 
 
 . § 505. SELF-DEPRECIATION. 
 
 Conciliation is exhibited in the first place by a modest self- 
 depreciation. Arrogance, self-conceit, self-assertion, and the 
 like, are always offensive and irritating; but self-depreciation 
 is grateful, because it implies the superiority of the audience, 
 and is, in fact, a species of subtle flattery. 
 
 The following is an example from Erskine's speech in behalf 
 of Lord George Gordon : 
 
 " Gentlemen, I feel entitled to expect both from you and the court the 
 greatest indulgence and attention. I am indeed a greater object of your 
 compassion than even my noble friend whom I am defending. He rests 
 secure in conscious innocence and in well-placed confidence that it can suffer 
 no stain in your hands. Not so with me. I stand before you a troubled 
 and, I am afraid, a guilty man, in having presumed to accept the awful task 
 which I am now called upon to perform — a task which my learned friend 
 who spoke before me, though he has justly risen by extraordinary capacity 
 and experience to the highest rank in his profession, has spoken of with that 
 distrust and diffidence which becomes every Christian in a cause of blood. 
 If Mr. Kenyon has such feelings, what must mine be ! Alas, gentlemen, 
 who am I? A young man of little experience, unused to the bar of crimi- 
 nal courts, and sinking under the dreadful consciousness of my defects. I 
 have, however, this consolation, that no ignorance nor inattention on my 
 part can possibly prevent you from seeing, under the direction of the judges, 
 that the crown has established no case of treason." 
 
 A milder kind of self-depreciation is very common, and leads 
 to such phrases as, " my humble self," " my feeble powers," 
 "with what little ability I possess." 
 
 Such phrases as these are the simple promptings of good 
 taste and right feeling. The following is an example : 
 
 " When he brought it forward first in a time of war and calamity, I gave 
 to the proposition my feeble support." — Fox. 
 
 § 506. COMPLIMENT OR PRAISE. 
 
 Another and similar form of conciliation is found in compli- 
 ment or praise directed to the adversary or the hearers. What 
 was only implied in the previous one is now more directly 
 stated : 
 
 " Happy indeed is it for this country that, whatever interested divisions 
 may characterize other places, they never enter these walls to disturb the 
 administration of justice. . . . If this be the character even of the bar of an 
 
 X 
 
47^ Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 English court of justice, what sacred impartiality may not every man expect 
 from its jurors and its bench." — Erskine for St<x:kd\le. 
 
 In this, as also in the following passage, the praise is applied 
 to the judges, and attributes to them that quality which they 
 would be most inclined to claim as their characteristic. 
 
 " But be that as it may, gentlemen, he now comes before you perfectly 
 satisfied that an English jury is the most refreshing prospect that the eye 
 of accused innocence ever met in a human tribunal." — Mackintosh for 
 Peltier- 
 
 In the following passage the praise is applied to the adver- 
 sary : 
 
 " One noble lord there is whose judgment we are called pn implicitly to 
 trust, and who expressed himself with much indignation, and yet with en- 
 tire honesty of purpose, against this measure. No man is in my opinion 
 more single-hearted, no man more incorruptible." — Brougham on Re- 
 form. 
 
 This language of praise may be as strong and as sincere as 
 possible, and sometimes the speaker gives to it an additional 
 force by asserting his own implicit belief in the truth of his 
 words. 
 
 "Is this a reality, or is your Christianity a romance.' is your profession 
 a dream } No, I am sure that your Christianity is not a romance, and I am 
 equally sure that your profession is not a dream. It is because I believe 
 this that I appeal to you with confidence, and that I have faith and hope in 
 the future." — ^John Bright. 
 
 § 507. THANKS. 
 
 Sometimes it assumes the form of thanks for benefits which 
 have arisen from motives of high virtue and generosity : as — 
 
 " I would thank you, gentlemen, for the generous sympathy with which in 
 my undeserving person you have honored the bleeding, the oppressed, but 
 TiO\ broken Hungary. I would thank you for the ray of hope which the 
 sympathy of the English people casts on the night of our fate." — Kossuth. 
 
 § 508. CONCESSION. 
 
 Concessions are very often used with good effect. By these 
 the speaker admits to a certain extent the arguments of his 
 opponent, but the admission is only made in order that he may 
 bring forward his own with greater force. While they thus 
 
The Tactics of Oratory. 477 
 
 tend in general towards conciliation, they serve to bring out the 
 speaker's arguments in stronger relief: 
 
 " Well, if you go to war now you will have more banners to decorate your 
 cathedrals and your churches. You may raise up great generals ; you may 
 have another Wellington and another Nelson too, for this country can grow 
 men capable for every enterprise. Then there may be titles and pensions, 
 and marble monuments to eternize the men who have thus become great ; 
 but what becomes of you, and your country, and your children ?" — ^John 
 Bright. 
 
 The last clause, which contains the point of the argument, 
 receives additional force from the previous concession. 
 
 "But, sir, let us admit the fact and the whole force of the argument — I 
 ask, whose is the fault ? Who has been a member for many years past, 
 and seen the defenceless state of his country even near him, under his own 
 eyes, without a single endeavor to remedy so serious an evil V — John C. 
 Calhoun. 
 
 The concession which is here made is immediately followed 
 by a vigorous retort. 
 
 § 509. CONFESSION. 
 
 Sometimes the concession is more strongly put forward and 
 assumes the character of a confession, as in the following ex- 
 amples : 
 
 *• I feel in the strongest manner how very formidable an adversary I have 
 to encounter in the right honorable gentleman opposite — formidable from 
 his talents, formidable from the influence of his situation ; but still more 
 formidable from having once been friendly to the cause, and, becoming its 
 determined opponent, drawing off others from the standard." — Lord Grey. 
 
 In this, as in the following, there is the confession of feeling 
 or intention personal to the speaker. 
 
 " I come forward on the present occasion, actuated solely by a sense of 
 duty, to make a serious and important motion, which I am ready fairly to 
 admit involves no less a consideration than a fundamental change in govern- 
 ment"— Lord Grey. 
 
 Confession, like concession, is made use of as a preliminary 
 towards introducing the speaker's own arguments with greater 
 force. 
 
478 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 510. PERMISSION. 
 
 Somewhat similar to this is another device of the orator 
 by which a thing is left to the decision or action of others, 
 whether the judges, the audience, or the opponent. This is 
 called permission. The decision or action which is thus per- 
 mitted may either agree or disagree with the views of the 
 speaker. 
 
 In the following example the speaker anticipates a decision 
 in accordance with his own sentiments : 
 
 "Tell me, then, if it do not add as much to the perfection as to the be- 
 nevolence of God that, while it is expatiating over the vast field of created 
 things, there is not one portion of the field overlooked by it." — Dr. Chal- 
 mers. 
 
 In other cases the speaker anticipates a course contrary to 
 his own : 
 
 " Let the house of Austria trust to the Czar. The people of Hungary 
 and myself, we trust to God." — Kossuth. 
 
 Sometimes this is done with greater formality and emphasis : 
 
 " I grudge not to other nations the share of liberty which they may acquire. 
 In the name of Heaven, let them enjoy it" — Grattan. 
 
 § 511. CONSULTATION WITH THE AUDIENCE (aNACCENOSIS). 
 
 Closely connected with this is another device, consisting of 
 a consultation with the audience, or confidential remarks. 
 
 " I put it to your oaths ; do you think that a blessing of that kind — that 
 a victory obtained by justice over bigotry and oppression — should have a 
 stigma cast upon it by an ignominious sentence of men bold enough and 
 honest enough to propose that measure ?" — Curran. 
 
 In this passage the orator refers the question to the jur}', and 
 calls for their decision upon it. 
 
 " Shall we try argument ? Sir, we have been trying that for the last ten 
 years. Have we anything new to offer on the subject ? Nothing." — Pat- 
 rick Henry. 
 
 Here the orator appeals to his audience, but answers his own 
 question. 
 
The Tactics of Oratory, 479 
 
 § 512. EMPHASIS. 
 
 2. The tactics of oratory also include the various modes by 
 which emphasis is given to propositions or arguments. 
 
 § 513. statement of the necessity of a case 
 (anangc^um). 
 In the first place great force is given to the advocacy of 
 certain acts or measures by urging their necessity. 
 This is illustrated in the following passages : 
 
 " We must fight — I repeat it, sir — we must fight. An appeal to arms 
 and to the God of hosts is all that is left us." — Patrick Henry. 
 
 " It is now necessary to instruct the throne in the language of truth. We 
 must, if possible, dispel the delusion and darkness that envelop it, and dis- 
 play in its full danger and true colors the ruin that is brought to our doors." 
 — Chatham. 
 
 § 514. STATEMENT OF A FUTURE OCCURRENCE (PROMISSIO). 
 
 Again, the assertion refers to some future occurrence which 
 is represented as quite certain, and sometimes inevitable. 
 
 " Woman, too, is now an author ; and I undertake to say that the liter- 
 ature of the next century will be richer than the classic epochs for that 
 cause." — Wendell Phillips. 
 
 In this passage certain results are represented as certain; 
 in the following it is asserted that they are inevitable. 
 
 " Let them not rely on their Czar. His hour will also come. The mill- 
 ions of Russia cannot be doomed to be nothing else than the blind instru- 
 ments of a single mortal's despotic whims. Humanity has a nobler destiny 
 than to be the footstool to the ambition of some families. The destiny of 
 mankind is freedom, sir, and the sun of freedom will rise over Russia also ; 
 and in the number of liberated nations who will raise the song of thanks- 
 giving to God, not even the Russ will fail." — Kossuth. 
 
 § 515. DWELLING UPON A PROPOSITION (COMMORATIO). 
 
 Emphasis is given by dwelling upon any important proposi- 
 tion or any single circumstance. 
 
 "A proposition was made in the Congress of the United States — almost 
 the sole, the last, the greatest repository of human hope and of human free- 
 dom — the representative of a nation capable of bringing into the field a mill- 
 ion of bayonets." — Henry Clay. 
 
480 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 Here the attention is made to dwell upon the "Congress of 
 the United States " by the mention of various circumstances 
 which the speaker affirms to be its distinguishing features. In 
 the following passage attention is drawn in a similar manner 
 to the theme "society." 
 
 " Society — the only field where the sexes have ever met on terms of equal- 
 ity, the arena where character is formed and studied, the cradle and the 
 realm of public opinion, the crucible of ideas, the world's university, at once 
 a school and a theatre, the spur and the crown of ambition, the tribunal 
 which unmasks pretension and stamps real merit, the power that gives gov- 
 ernment leave to be and outruns the lazy Church in fixing the moral sense 
 of the age — who shall fully describe the lofty place of this element in the 
 history of the last two centuries .>" — Wendell Phillips. 
 
 § 516. RAPID MENTION (PRiECURSIo). 
 
 On the other hand, circumstances may receive emphasis by 
 being mentioned with great rapidity. 
 
 "The head is on the block — the axe rushes — dumb lies the world; that 
 wild, yelling world with all its madness is behind thee.""— Carlyle. 
 
 In this case the rapidity of the words seems to arise from 
 the vehement emotion of the writer, which is communicated 
 to the reader. 
 
 § 517. HOLDING THE AUDIENCE IN SUSPENSE (SUSTENTATIO). 
 
 Emphasis is often given to a topic by holding the mind in 
 suspense, and dwelling upon something else before introducing 
 it. 
 
 •* What appearance, sir, on the page of history would a record like this 
 make ? In the month of January, in the year of our Lord and Saviour 
 1824, while all European Christendom beheld with cold, unfeeling apathy 
 the unexpected wrongs and inexpressible misery of Christian Greece, a 
 proposition was made in the Congress of the United States — almost the 
 sole, the last repository of human hope and of human freedom — the repre- 
 sentative of a nation capable of bringing into the field a million of bay- 
 onets ; while the freemen of that nation were spontaneously expressing its 
 deep-toned feeling, its fervent prayer for Grecian success ; while the whole 
 continent was rising by one simultaneous motion, solemnly and anxiously 
 supplicating and invoking the aid of Heaven to spare Greece and to invig- 
 orate her arms ; while temples and senate-houses were all resounding with 
 one burst of generous sympathy ; in the year of our Lord and Saviour — that 
 Saviour alike of Christian Greece and of us — a proposition was offered in 
 the American Congress to send a messenger to Greece to inquire into her 
 
The Tactics of Oratory. 481 
 
 state and condition, with an expression of our good wishes and our sympa- 
 thies — and it was rejected." — Henry Clay. 
 
 Here the point of the passage lies in the statement that the 
 bill was rejected ; but this being held in suspense throughout 
 the whole of a long sentence, is at length put forth with the 
 greatest possible force and effect. 
 
 A famous example is found in Sheridan's description of the 
 horrors perpetrated in Oude, in his speech against Warren 
 Hastings. 
 
 § 518. PREPARATION FOR WHAT IS TO FOLLOW (PRiEMUNITIo). 
 
 Sometimes the speaker introduces statements in order to 
 prepare the minds of his hearers for what he is going to say. 
 This is often found in the exordium, and may be illustrated by 
 the opening of Sir James Mackintosh's speech on behalf of 
 Jean Peltier, where he states that no disrespect is intended 
 towards the government of France, but yet that the accused 
 requires a faithful, zealous, and fearless defence. 
 
 It is also used to introduce important points with unusual 
 emphasis, as in the speech of Marc Antony : 
 
 " If you have tears, prepare to shed them now." 
 § 519. UNEXPECTED OR SURPRISING STATEMENT (pARADOXUM). 
 
 Great emphasis is sometimes given to any topic by introduc- 
 ing it as something unexpected or surprising. 
 
 This is illustrated in the speech of Marc Antony : 
 
 " Look you here. 
 Here is himself, marred, as you see, with traitors !" 
 
 Burke's description of Marie Antoinette affords another ex- 
 ample : 
 
 " Little did I think that such disasters could have fallen upon her in a 
 nation of gallant men !" 
 
 The following example is somewhat fuller : 
 
 " At the time I departed for Massachusetts, if there was an impression 
 which I thought universal, it was that at the commencement of this session 
 an end would be put to this measure. . . . With these impressions I arrive 
 in this city, . . . The scene opens, and I am commanded to forget all my 
 recollections, to disbelieve the evidence of my senses, to contradict what 
 I have seen and felt." — ^Josiah Quincey. 
 
482 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 § 520. REFERENCE TO PAST EVENTS (aNAMNESIS). 
 
 Reference is made to the past so as to bring up old associa- 
 tions, and thus give greater effect by a contrast, stated or im- 
 plied, with the present. 
 
 "You who have lived during the period from 1815 to 1822 may remem- 
 ber that this country was never in a more uneasy position. The sufferings 
 of the working-classes were beyond description; aiKi the difficulties and 
 struggles and bankruptcies of the middle*classes were such as few persons 
 have a just idea of."— John Bright. 
 
 The force of the following passage consists in the appeal 
 which is made to the remembrance of the past : 
 
 *• That my sketch is no fancy picture every one of you know. Every one 
 of you can glance back over their own path, and count many and many a 
 one among those who started from the goal at their side, with equal energy 
 and perhaps greater promise, who has found a drunkard's grave long before 
 this — the brightness of the bar, the ornament of the pulpit, the hope, the 
 blessing, and stay of many a family. You know, every one of you who has 
 reached middle life, how often on your path you set up the warning — 
 * Fallen before the temptations of the streets.' " — Wendell Philups. 
 
 § 521. POSSIBILITY CONTRASTED WITH REALITY (PROECTHESIS). 
 
 Sometimes possibility is contrasted with reality by stating 
 what might have been done and what has been done. 
 This is illustrated in the following passages : 
 
 " I believe that if this country seventy years ago had adopted the prin- 
 ciple of non-intervention in every case in which her interests were not di- 
 rectly or obviously assailed, that she would have been saved from much of 
 the pauperism and brutal crimes by which our government and people have 
 alike been disgraced. This country might have been a garden ; every 
 dwelling might have been of marble ; and every person who treads its soil 
 might have been sufficiently educated. We should, indeed, have had less 
 of military glory. We might have had neither a Trafalgar nor a Waterloo; 
 but we should have set the high example of a Christian nation, free in its 
 institutions, courteous and just in its conduct towards all foreign states, and 
 resting its policy on the unchanging foundation of Christian morality." — 
 John Bright. 
 
 " Had I served a weak or wicked master, and implicitly obeyed his dic- 
 tates, obedience to his commands might have been my only justification. 
 But as it has been my good fortune to serve a master who wants no bad 
 ministers, and woiild have hearkened to none, my defence must rest on my 
 own conduct" — Sir Robert Walpole. 
 
The Tactics of Oratory. 483 
 
 § 522. EXPLANATION. 
 
 3. The force of an argument depends upon its clearness, 
 and this is greatly assisted by frequent explanations. 
 
 In the following passage the explanation is at once full and 
 forcible : 
 
 ** The senator from Delaware calls this metaphysical reasoning which he 
 cannot comprehend. If by metaphysical reasoning he means the scholastic 
 refinement which makes distinctions without a difference, no one can hold 
 it in more utter contempt than I do ; but if, on the contrary, he means the 
 power of analysis and combination — that power which reduces the most 
 complex idea into its elements — which traces causes to their first principles, 
 and by the power of generalization and combination unites the whole in a 
 harmonious system — then, so far from deserving contempt, it is the highest 
 attribute of the human mind. It is the power which raises man above the 
 brute, or which distinguishes his faculties from mere sagacity which he holds 
 in common with inferior animals. It is this power which has raised the 
 astronomer from being a mere gazer at the stars to the high intellectual 
 eminence of a Newton or a Laplace, and astronomy itself from a mere obf 
 servation of insulated facts into that noble science which displays to our 
 admiration the system of the universe." — Calhoun. 
 
 § 523. STATEMENT OF THE REASON FOR A THING (aITIOLOGIa). 
 
 Another kind of explanation consists in the statement of a 
 reason for a thing. 
 
 " As Caesar loved me, I weep for him ; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at 
 it ; as he was valiant, I honor him ; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him." 
 
 § 524. ANSWERS TO OBJECTIONS (aNTERRESIS). 
 
 4. In the course of arguments advocating any cause, it is 
 common to reply to objections, and refute them, if possible. 
 
 The following are examples : 
 
 "The boy emperor of Austria, expelled from his most important terri- 
 tory, has the right, it is said, to call in the Cossacks to cut the throats of 
 his own subjects. If this be admitted, there is an end to all responsibility 
 of governments to their people." — Cobden. 
 
 In this passage, as in the following, the objection is stated, 
 and met by an instantaneous refutation. 
 
 " Another gentleman has said the Catholics have got much, and ought to 
 be content. Why have they got that much ? Is it from the minister ? Is 
 it from the Parliament, who threw their petition over the bar ? No ; they 
 got it by the great revolution of human aflfairs, by the astonishing march 
 
 X 2 
 
484 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 of the human mind — a march that has collected too much momentum in its 
 advance to be now stopped in its progress." — Curran. 
 
 In the following passage the objection is answered with 
 great dexterity and fulness : 
 
 " The first argument of the gentleman that I shall notice is the unpre- 
 pared state of the country. Whatever weight this argument might have in 
 a question of immediate war, surely it has little in that of preparation for 
 it." — Calhoun. 
 
 The argument of weakness is thus disposed of by Patrick 
 Henry: 
 
 "They tell us, sir, that we are weak — but when shall we be stronger.?" — 
 Patrick Henry. 
 
 Lord Chatham meets the objection of Lord Suffolk with an 
 outburst of indignation : 
 
 " It is perfectly allowable, says Lord Suflfolk, to use all the means which 
 God and nature have put into our hands. ... I am astonished, I am shocked 
 to hear such sentiments avowed." — Chatham. 
 
 Fox, in his speech on the Russian Armament, turns aside to 
 answer the arguments for continuing the armament, which are, 
 ist, that the emperor might insist on better terms from the 
 Turks ; 2d, that Russia might have insisted on harder terms ; 
 3d, that the armament could not be discontinued till the senti- 
 ments of Prussia were known. These are all answered with 
 that orator's usual vigor and completeness. 
 
 § 525. ANTICIPATION OF OBJECTIONS (PROLEPSIS, ANTHYPOPH- 
 
 ora). 
 
 Objections are often anticipated and answered. This case 
 differs from the preceding one in this, that the speaker does 
 not wait for the objections of his opponent, but brings them 
 forward of his own accord, with the express purpose of re- 
 plying to them by anticipation. 
 
 This is illustrated in the following passage : 
 
 " I am aware of the difficulties I have to encounter in bringing forward 
 this business ; I am aware how ungracious it would be for this House to 
 show that they are not the real representatives of the people ; I am aware 
 that the question has been formerly agitated on different occasions by great 
 and able characters, who have deserted the cause from despair of success ; 
 and I am aware that I must necessarily go into what may, perhaps, be sup- 
 posed trite and worn-out arguments." — Lord Grey. 
 
The Artifices of Oratory. 485 
 
 In this case the objections are all stated before the reply 
 is given; in the following each objection is answered as it is 
 stated : 
 
 "Tell me not of the honor of belonging to a free country. I ask, does 
 our liberty bear generous fruits? Does it exalt us in manly spirit, in public 
 virtue, above countries trodden under foot by despotism ? Tell me not of 
 the extent of our country. I care not how large it is if it multiply degener- 
 ate men. Speak not of prosperity. Better be one of a poor people, plain 
 in manners, reverencing God, and respecting themselves, than belong to a 
 rich country which knows no higher good than riches." — VVm. Ellery 
 Channing. 
 
 The next example is of a somewhat different kind, and an- 
 ticipates a question rather than an objection : 
 
 " And now, if it be asked why, in considering the true grandeur of na- 
 tions, I dwell thus singly and exclusively on war, it is because war is utterly 
 and irreconcilably inconsistent with true greatness." — Charles Sumner. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE ARTIFICES OF ORATORY. 
 § 526. ARTIFICES OF ORATORY. 
 
 5. Many modes of statement are devised by the speaker for 
 the purpose of gaining an ascendency over his opponent or 
 his auditors. These are distinguished by the term artifices. 
 
 § 527. EXPRESSION OF DOUBT OR IGNORANCE (dUBITATIO, 
 
 aporia). 
 
 In the first place, there is that kind of artifice by which the 
 speaker represents himself as in a state of doubt, ignorance, 
 hesitation, or the like. 
 
 The expression of doubt or of ignorance is generally made 
 use of in order to introduce statements with greater emphasis : 
 
 " I know not how it has happened, but it really seems that while his 
 Grace was meditating his well-considered censure upon me, he fell into a 
 sort of sleep." — Burke. 
 
486 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 The following passage is of a similar nature : 
 
 " I really am at a loss to draw any sort of a parallel between the public 
 merits of his Grace by which he justifies the grants he holds, and these ser- 
 vices of mine, on the favorable construction of which I have obtained what 
 his Grace so much disapproved." — Burke, 
 
 ,Here the words, " I really am at a loss," etc., form but a 
 more emphatic way of saying that " no parallel can be drawn." 
 
 " The right honorable gentleman must have felt the whole time while he 
 was affecting to vindicate the freedom of speech necessary at meetings of 
 Englishmen — he must have felt that it was not the boisterous festivity of 
 the East Retford assembly that has led to these painful inquiries ; but that 
 it was the circumstance that a politician, and a politician of a distinguished 
 character, who had held high and responsible office, should have, while the 
 country was interested in the discussion of a great public question, taken 
 the opportunity of making statements which were monstrous if they were 
 true ; but if they were not true must be described by an epithet which I can- 
 not find in my own vocabulary." — Disraeli. 
 
 In these last words the hesitation and doubt of the speaker 
 serve to suggest the worst term possible to stigmatize the of- 
 fence alluded to. 
 
 § 528. INTENTIONAL OMISSION OF WORDS (PARALEIPSIS). 
 
 Closely associated with the preceding is another, in which 
 by a profession or simulation of silence the speaker will appear 
 to pass by a thing while verbally mentioning it, and that, too, 
 in the most striking manner. 
 
 " Let me ask you honestly, what do you feel when in my hearing, when in 
 the face of this audience, you are called upon to give a verdict that every 
 man of us and every man of you knows by the testimony of his own eyes to 
 be utterly and absolutely false. I speak not now of the public proclamation 
 of informers, with a promise of secrecy and of extravagant reward. I speak 
 not of the fate of those horrid wretches who have been so often transferred 
 from the table to the dock, and from the dock to the pillory. I speak of 
 what your own eyes have seen day after day." — Curran for Finnerty. 
 
 Here the speaker, while affirminj; that he does not speak of 
 certain things, is actually describing them, and that, too, in the 
 most concise and forcible way, 
 
 **I pass over all considerations of the written treasures of antiquity which 
 have survived the wreck of empires and of dynasties, of monumental tro- 
 
The Artifices of Oratory. 487 
 
 phies, of triumphal arches, of palaces of princes and temples of gods. I 
 pass over all considerations of those admired compositions in which wisdom 
 speaks as with a voice from heaven ; of those sublime efforts of political 
 genius which still freshen as they pass from age to age in undying vigor ; 
 of those finished histories which still enlighten and instruct governments in 
 their duty and their destiny ; of those matchless orations which roused na- 
 tions to arms, and chained senates to the chariot-wheels of all-conquering 
 eloquence." — Joseph Story. 
 
 While thus declaring that he " passes over " certain topics, 
 the writer is actually describing them with fulness and effect. 
 
 Similar to these is another artifice by which a statement is 
 apparently retracted, as if from reluctance to maintain it : 
 
 " Suppose the Duke of Wellington (we beg pardon for making such a 
 supposition, even for the sake of argument)." 
 
 In this case it will be seen that the apparent retraction only 
 serves to give emphasis to the statement. 
 
 § 529. WITHDRAWAL OF AN EXPRESSION (ePANORTHOSIS). 
 
 Again, an e.xpression is sometimes withdrawn for the pur- 
 pose of substituting something stronger. This may be seen 
 in the words ascribed to Apollonius of Tyana: 
 
 " Rejoice, my friends, the tyrant dies this day ! This day, do I say ? The 
 very moment in which I kept silence he suffered for his crimes — he dies !" 
 
 § 530. APPARENT INTENT. 
 
 The apparent meaning is sometimes different from that 
 which is implied. This artifice is called "apparent intent." 
 
 This is often associated with irony, as in the following pas- 
 sage from Junius : 
 
 "You have nice feelings, my lord, if we may judge by your resentments. 
 Cautious, therefore, of giving offence, I shall leave the illustration of your 
 virtues to other hands." 
 
 At Other times it is not connected with irony, but appears as 
 a mere artifice, used in order to work more effectually upon the 
 hearers. Excellent examples may be found in the speech of 
 Marc Antony on Julius Caesar: 
 
 " Yet Brutus says he was ambitious ; 
 And, sure, he is an honorable man. 
 
488 Eiemefits of Rhetoric. 
 
 I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, 
 But here I am to speak what I do know. 
 
 O, masters ! if I were dispos'd to stir 
 
 Your hearts and minds to mutiny and rage, 
 
 I should do Brutus wrong, and Cassius wrong, 
 
 Who, you all know, are honorable men : 
 
 I will not do them wrong ; I rather choose 
 
 To wrong the dead, to wrong myself, and you, 
 
 Than I will wrong such honorable men. 
 
 But here's a parchment with the seal of Caesar, 
 
 I found it in his closet, 'tis his will : 
 
 Let but the commons hear his testament, 
 
 (Which, pardon me, I do not mean to read). 
 
 And they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds. 
 
 And dip their napkins in his sacred blood. 
 
 *Tis good you know not that you are his heirs ; 
 For if you should, O, what would come of it !" 
 
 All this affords a matchless example of pure artifice on the 
 part of the orator. 
 
 § 531. SUPPOSED CASE. 
 
 Arguments are sometimes presented in the most vivid and 
 memorable way by an imaginary representation of facts as an 
 example or illustration. This is called a "supposed case." It 
 may be used in many ways, and may give greater effect to 
 statements; or bring back the past; or anticipate the future; 
 or allow the use of language that could not be employed under 
 any other circumstances. 
 
 The following is from Burke's speech on Conciliation with 
 America : 
 
 " My Lord Bathurst might remember all the stages of the progress (of the 
 prosperity of the British empire). He was in 1704 of an age at least to be 
 made to comprehend such things. Suppose, sir, that the angel of this au- 
 spicious youth . . . had ojjened to him in vision . . . and unfolded the rising 
 glories of his country, and while he was then gazing in admiration on the 
 then commercial grandeur of England, the genius should point out to him 
 a little speck, scarce visible in the mass of the national interest, and should 
 tell him — Young man, there is America," etc 
 
 In this passage Burke makes use of a supposed case to pre- 
 sent the rapid progress of the American colonies in a new and 
 more impressive light. 
 
The Artifices of Oratory. 489 
 
 It may also be used as a medium for the conve3'ance of 
 charges that could not very well be slated in another manner. 
 Such charges, if put forward directly, might seem exaggerated, 
 and sound like mere vituperation; but in this form the greatest 
 liberty is allowed to the speaker, while at the same time the 
 attack, from being a covert one, is all the more stinging. 
 
 Grattan opens his invective against Flood in this way : 
 
 " It is not the slander of an evil tongue that can defame me ; no man who 
 has not a bad character can ever say that I deceived ; no country can call 
 me cheat. But I will suppose such a public character ; I will suppose such 
 a man to have existence ; I will begin with his character in its political 
 cradle, and I will follow him to the last state of political dissolution." 
 
 Then follows the elaborate portrayal of a character designed 
 to represent Flood, but which, being put forth as a supposed 
 case, is described with an exaggerated bitterness that would 
 not have been allowed in direct statement. 
 
 The famous letter of Junius to the King is based upon this. 
 It is addressed to the printer of the Public Advertiser, and a 
 few introductory sentences are taken up with a supposed case : 
 
 "There is a moment of difficulty and danger at which flattery and false- 
 hood can no longer deceive, and simplicity itself can no longer be misled. 
 Let us suppose it arrived. Let us suppose a gracious, well-intentioned 
 prince made sensible at last of the great duty he owes to his people, and of 
 his own disgraceful situation ; that he looks around him for assistance, and 
 asks for no advice but how to gratify the wishes and secure the happiness 
 of his subjects. In these circumstances it may be a matter for curious spec- 
 ulation to consider, if an honest man were permitted to approach a king, in 
 what terms he would address himself to his sovereign; . . . unacquainted with 
 the vain impertinence of forms, he would deliver his sentiments with dignity 
 and firmness, but not without respect . . . Sir, it is the misfortune of your 
 life," etc. 
 
 What follows is thus put forth, not as the letter of Junius him- 
 self, but rather as the language which might be used by the 
 supposed " honest man." Had the letter been directly written, 
 its keen sarcasm and incisive utterance of unpleasant truths 
 would have been there, but the general force would certainly 
 have been weakened by the abrupt insolence and virulence of 
 the writer. Against this, however, the introduction guards. 
 The letter is not from Junius — it is from an imaginary patriot, 
 who is addressing the king under purely imaginary circum- 
 
490 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 stances, and thus, amid all its bitterness and malignant force, 
 there is preserved at least the show of respect. 
 
 The peroration of Fox's speech on the Rejection of Bona- 
 parte's Overtures is made up of a supposed case, in which a 
 spectator is imagined to be present at a battle-field, and ask- 
 ing why they are fighting. This form of statement is here 
 employed to bring before the minds of the hearers a vivid 
 picture of the horrible realities of war, and at the same time to 
 represent to them the irrational character of the particular war 
 in which they were then engaged. 
 
 A very powerful instance of this may be found in Curran's 
 speech against the Marquis of Headfort, who had eloped with 
 the wife of the Rev. Charles Massey : 
 
 " O, how happy had it been, when he arrived at the bank of the river with 
 the ill-fated fugitive, ere yet he had committed her to that boat, of which, 
 like the fabled bark of the Styx, the exile was eternal ; how happy, at that 
 moment, so teeming with misery and with shame, if you, my lord, had met 
 him, and could have accosted him in the character of that good genius 
 which had abandoned him. How impressively might you have pleaded the 
 cause of the father, of the child, of the mother, and even of the worthless 
 defendant himself. You would have said — Is this the requital that you are 
 about to make for the respect and kindness and confidence in your honor .>" 
 
 Then follows a long, eloquent, and most pathetic statement 
 of the arguments and remonstrances which might have been 
 used in such a case. 
 
 This supposed case is carried out with great fulness and 
 effectiveness. The orator uses it to display in the most strik- 
 ing manner the villany and cruelty of the man, together with 
 the treachery and mad infatuation of the woman. In no other 
 way could so powerful a representation be made. 
 
 § 532. OTHER FORMS OF ARTIFICE. 
 
 The forms of artifice thus.far set forth comprise all that are 
 of any value. In ancient oratory this subject was of more im- 
 portance than in modern, and received an attention which at 
 this day would be deemed excessive. The following passage 
 from Quintilian will serve to illustrate the mode of treatment 
 adopted by this author, while at the same time it will supply 
 all that remains to be said on this topic : 
 
 " There are other artifices, too, which are not only pleasing, but are of 
 
Attack and Defence. 491 
 
 great service in securing favorable attention to our arguments, as well by 
 the variety which they give as by their own nature ; for by making our 
 speech ajjpear plain and unstudied, they render us objects of less suspicion 
 to the judge. One of these is a repenting, as it were, of what we have said, 
 as in the speech for Caelius, 'But why did I introduce so grave a charac- 
 ter ?' Of a similar nature, also, are the expressions which we daily use, 
 such as, * I have hit upon the matter unawares ;' or, as we say when we 
 pretend to be at a loss, ' What comes next ?' or, * Have I not omitted some- 
 thing ?' or when we pretend to find something suggested to us by the mat- 
 ter of which we are speaking. Thus Cicero says, ' One charge of this sort 
 remains for me to notice ;' and, * One thing is suggested to me by another.' 
 By such means likewise graceful transitions are effected, as Cicero, after re- 
 lating the story of Piso, who had given orders, while he was sitting on his 
 judgment-seat, for a ring to be made for him by a goldsmith, adds, as if re- 
 minded by the circumstance, ' This ring of Piso's has just put me in mind 
 of something that had entirely escaped me. From how many honest men's 
 fingers do you think that he has taken away gold rings?' Sometimes we 
 affect ignorance of some particular, as, * But the artificer of those statues — 
 whom did they say it was } whom .-* You prompt me correctly — they said it 
 was Polycletus.' ... It gives agreeableness to a speech, moreover, to defer 
 the discussion of some points, laying them up, as it were, in the memory of 
 the judge, and afterwards to reclaim what we have deposited ; to separate 
 certain particulars by some figure ; to bring others prominently forward ; 
 and to exhibit the subjects of our speech under various aspects ; for elo- 
 quence delights in variety ; and as the eyes are more attracted by the con- 
 templation of diversified objects, so that is always more gratifying to the 
 mind to which it directs itself with the expectation of novelty." 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ATTACK AND DEFENCE. 
 
 ATTACK AND DEFENCE. 
 
 6. In attack and defence the orator makes use of all the 
 means of influencing the hearer which have thus far been no- 
 ticed; and, in addition to these, he resorts to modes of treat- 
 ment which are peculiar to these departments of oratory, and 
 deserve special consideration. 
 
 § 534. ATTACK. 
 
 The leading quality here is vehemence, and, whatever form 
 the attack may assume, this quality will serve as a great central 
 
49- Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 force to give it a resistless impetus, ^schines named this as 
 the great characteristic of the oratory of Demosthenes. Lon- 
 ginus afterwards, speaking as a critic, gave the same opinion ; 
 and the best modern counterpart of this is found in the ora- 
 tory of Chatham. Nowhere is this vehemence more impos- 
 ingly displayed than in invective. The passage in which 
 Lord Chatham denounces the Earl of Suffolk is a well-known 
 example. It begins : 
 
 " I am astonished — shocked — to hear such principles confessed, to hear 
 them avowed in this House or in this country ; principles equally unconsti- 
 tutional, inhuman, and unchristian." 
 
 Vehemence is also essential in all cases of menace. 
 
 Sometimes the menace is implied, as when Curran, speaking 
 in behalf of Finnerty, utters words in which there is a covert 
 threat : 
 
 " Upright and honest jurors, find a civil and obliging verdict against the 
 printer, and, when you have done so, march through the ranks of your fel- 
 low-citizens to your homes, and bear their looks as you pass along." 
 
 It is also needed in cases of defiance, and may be observed 
 in the following from Grattan's speech against Corry : 
 
 " Here I stand ready for impeachment or trial, I dare accusation. I . 
 defy the honorable gentleman. I defy the government. I defy the whole 
 phalanx. Let them come forth. I tell the ministers I will neither give 
 them quarter nor take it" 
 
 § 535. PERSONAL ATTACK. 
 
 The fiercest and most violent form of attack is that which 
 is directed against individuals. The object of the assault being 
 a personal enemy, arouses the strongest passions, and calls 
 forth the bitterest language. 
 
 The following attack was made on Lord Auckland by Fox, 
 in his speech on the Russian Armament : 
 
 " As there was honor to be sacrificed, a stain to be fixed on the national 
 character, engagements to be retracted, and a friend to be abandoned, did 
 it never occur to them that there was one man upon their diplomatic list who 
 would have been pronounced by general acclamation thoroughly qualified 
 in soul and qualities for this service? Such a person they might have 
 found, and not so occupied as to make it inconvenient for them to employ 
 him. They would have found him absent from his station, under the pre- 
 tence of attending to his duty in this House, though he does not choose 
 often to make his appearance here." 
 
Attack and Defence. 493 
 
 Another example will be found in Fox's speech on the West- 
 minster Election, where he denounces the high-bailiff in lan- 
 guage full of the keenest and most stinging reproof: 
 
 " There are feelings which even party prejudice cannot dispossess us of. 
 We owe to each other a certain candor ; and I am sure I should be thor- 
 oughly satisfied to put this matter to the private answer of any man who 
 hears me, if I were only to ask him upon his honor as a gentleman, whether 
 he really believes the return of this high-bailiff is an act of conscience, and 
 whether he thinks that if I stood in Sir Cecil Wray's place, and he had my 
 majority, we should ever have heard of this man's difficulty in giving judg- 
 ment, or ever been insulted with this mockery of his scruples ?" 
 
 A great effect is sometimes produced by a pretended repre- 
 sentation of the words of an adversary : 
 
 " Will the minister say, • I travelled to Norwich, to York, to Manchester, 
 to Wakefield, for opinions ; I listened to the minority ; I looked to Lord 
 Stormont, to the Earl of Guilford ; but as to you, my trus»v majority, I 
 neglected you !' I had other business for you ! It is not your office to give 
 opinions ; your business is to confide !" — Fox, Russian Armament. 
 
 Certain words are here attributed by the orator to his op- 
 ponent, and artfully introduced by the interrogative form, 
 "Will the minister say?" The language thus reported implies 
 conduct which is at once base in itself, and treacherous and 
 insulting to the ministerial supporters. 
 
 § 536. INCIDENTAL REFERENCE. 
 
 An attack of the same kind sometimes assumes the form of 
 an incidental reference. Thus in the same speech Fox accuses 
 Pilt of false shame : 
 
 " The right honorable gentleman cannot argue that he kept up the arma- 
 ment in compliance with his engagements with Prussia, when the armament 
 in fact did not exist, and when it had been begun but four or five days pre- 
 vious to his renouncing the objects of it. That could not have been his 
 motive. What, then, was his motive ? Why, that he was too proud to own 
 his error, and valued less the money and tranquillity of the people than the 
 appearance of firmness when he had renounced the reality. False shame 
 is the parent of many crimes. By false shame a man may be tempted to 
 commit a murder to conceal a robbery. Influenced by this false shame, 
 the ministers robbed the people of their money, the seamen of their liberty, 
 their families of sujiport and protection, and all this to conceal that they 
 had undertaken a system which was not fit to be pursued." 
 
 Here the speaker charges his opponent with " false shame," 
 
494 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 and gives emphasis to the charge by a minute statement of the 
 wrongs and evils resulting from it. 
 
 § 537. SIDE-THRUST. 
 
 A blow is sometimes aimed at an adversary in the coursa 
 of debate. Here there is no sustained attack, but merely a 
 side-thrust in passing. Fox is particularly characterized by 
 this. The following passages are from his speech on the West- 
 minster Scrutiny : 
 
 "This person, sir [Lx)rd Kenyon], has upon this day professed and pa- 
 raded much upon the impartiality with which he should discharge his con- 
 science in his judicial capacity as a member of Parliament in my cause ; yet 
 this very person, insensible to the rank he maintains or should maintain 
 in this country, abandoning the gravity of his character as a member of the 
 Senate, and losing sight of the sanctity of his station both in the Mouse and 
 out of it, even in ihe very act of delivering a judicial sentence descends to 
 minute and mean allusions to former politics — comes here stored with the 
 intrigues of past times, and, instead of the venerable language of a good 
 judge and a great lawyer, attempts to entertain the House by quoting or by 
 misquoting words supposed to have been spoken by me in the heat of 
 former debates, and in the violence of contending parties when my noble 
 friend [Lord North] and I opposed each other." 
 
 In this case the speaker turns aside from the discussion of 
 the main argument to attack Lord Kenyon, who had sneered 
 at him for entering into friendly relations with an old enemy, 
 Lord North. This blow is at once unexpected and vigorous. 
 Of the same character is the following : 
 
 " An honorable gentleman whom I see in his place, but who, I believe, 
 neither hears nor sees me at this moment [Mr. Jenkinson, who was fast 
 asleep on the Treasury Bench], knows full well that all I am sa}'ing is 
 strictly true. . . . That honorable gentleman can attest the veracity of this 
 recital ; but it were vain flattery, I fear, to hope that he will rise up to- 
 night and vindicate by his voice and hb vote the principles of the cause 
 he then supported." 
 
 § 538. DEFENCE. 
 
 7. Defence may be characterized by all the tactics of ora- 
 tory exhibited in attack. As a general thing, the speaker who 
 stands simply on the defence employs more of the language 
 of conciliation ; he is less vehement, but more firm; and from 
 the nature of the case he is bound to be apologetic, and there- 
 fore modest. But the best kind of defence is that which, by 
 the genius of the orator, is gradually made .to quit a defensive 
 
Attack and Defefice. 495 
 
 position and resolve itself into attack ; in which case it may 
 become as vehement and as bitter as the original aggression 
 which it is designed to repel. 
 
 § 539. STRICT DEFENCE. 
 
 Examples of this may be found in most forensic oratory, 
 where the advocate defends his client; and also sometimes 
 in deliberative oratory, when a statesman defends his policy, 
 especially when a government resists the attacks of the oppo- 
 sition. 
 
 § 540. INDIRECT REPLY. 
 
 Sometimes it is necessary to make an indirect reply. An 
 example may be found in the speech of Sir James Mackintosh 
 in behalf of Jean Peltier. 
 
 Jean Peltier published a French newspaper in London, in 
 which there appeared articles that gave offence to Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, who demanded that he should be sent out of the 
 kingdom, and, when this was refused, insisted that he should 
 be tried for libel on a friendly government. It was felt that 
 the acquittal of Peltier might lead to war, and, since a direct 
 consideration of this on a trial would be considered injudicious, 
 the reply was made in an indirect way. The following is a 
 brief summary of the defence : 
 
 ist. It shows that the security of Great Britain requires 
 nothing on the Continent but just dealing between dif- 
 ferent powers, and maintenance of peace so far as pos- 
 sible. 
 2d. That the prosperity of England depends upon the pros- 
 
 •perity of other nations. 
 3d. A free press is needed to expose the ambitious or unjust 
 designs of foreign rulers, and to forewarn her and forearm 
 her against them. 
 4th. England has always cherished this freedom, and never 
 thought it good policy to avert the resentment of foreign 
 tyrants by limiting the liberty of the press. 
 5th. Though valuing peace, she has never tried to gain it by 
 
 silencing the press and breaking the spirit of the people. 
 6th. For public spirit is the chief source of national strength; 
 and of all stimulants which arouse it into action, a free 
 press is the greatest. 
 
^9^ Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 In this way an indirect reply is given to the objection, always 
 present in the minds of a timid jury, that the acquittal of Pel- 
 tier might lead to war. 
 
 § 541. DEFENCE TURNED INTO ATTACK. 
 
 A more energetic and effective kind is that in which de- 
 fence is turned into attack. 
 
 The greatest example of this is found in the oration of De- 
 mosthenes on the Crown. Here the speaker, who is set upon 
 his own defence, conducts it in a manner that has never been 
 surpassed; but the vindication of his own life and policy is 
 inseparably connected with accusations against his adversary. 
 The same arguments which show the one to be a patriot 
 prove the other to be a traitor. Demosthenes clears himself 
 of charges only to fix them with more damning effect upon 
 ^schines, whom he denounces as the guilty cause of all the 
 calamities of Athens. 
 
 The active genius of Fox rendered him impatient of a defen- 
 sive attitude, and in those speeches where this is forced upon 
 him he is perpetually rushing forth against the enemy, and be- 
 coming the assailant in turn. In the defence of his East India 
 Bill he exemplifies this by the following attack upon the com- 
 pany and his own assailants : 
 
 *' I am at a loss to reconcile the conduct of men who approve that re- 
 sumption of violated trust [the deposition of King James II.] which rescued 
 and re-established our unparalleled and admirable constitution, with a thou- 
 sand valuable improvements and advantages, at the Revolution, and who 
 at this moment rise up the champions of the East India Company's char- 
 ter, although the incapacity and incompetence of that company to a due 
 and adequate discharge of the trust deposited in them by that charter are 
 themes of ridicule and contempt to all the world ; and although, in conse- 
 quence of their mismanagement, connivance, and imbecility, combined with 
 the wickedness of their servants, the very name of an Englishman is de- 
 tested, even to a proverb, throughout all Asia, and the national character 
 is become degraded and dishonored." 
 
 While defending himself in his speech on the Westminster 
 Scrutiny, he makes an attack in the following manner: 
 
 "A noble lord [Lord Mulgrave], in his zeal to exculpate the high-bailiff, 
 charges me with having intimidated him, and charges it upon the evidence 
 of Mr. Grojan. . . . Grojan tells you that he believes these threats some- 
 times induced the high-bailiflf to make decisions in my favor contrary to his 
 
((tjitiveesit's 
 
 Attack and ^<A^£|g^^ 
 
 judgment. Yet this is the man whose firmness and intre^lWlfilllPiiSWIelord 
 commends so much, and whom the government of this country is straining 
 every nerve to bear harmless through this unprecedented business. An 
 officer, whose deputy, as a palliation of greater guilt, defends by saying that 
 he committed a palpable breach of duty, and only because he is threatened 
 with legal punishment if he acts against law." 
 
 § 542. THE TESTIMONY OF AN ADVERSARY TURNED AGAINST 
 HIMSELF. 
 
 Nothing is more effective than the employment of ilie testi- 
 mony of an adversary against himself. This also was largely 
 resorted to by Fox, and always urged with force and success. 
 
 In his speech on the Russian Armament there is the follow- 
 ing passage : 
 
 " I hold it to be now acknowledged that it was not the public opinion, 
 but that of the minority of this House, which compelled the ministers to 
 relinquish their ill-advised projects ; for a right honorable gentleman who 
 spoke last night confessed the truth in his own frank way. ' We certainly,' 
 said he, 'do not know that the opinion of the public was against us; we 
 only know that a great party in this country was against us, and therefore 
 we apprehended that, though one campaign might have been got through 
 at the beginning of the next session, they would have interrupted us in pro- 
 curing the supplies.' I believe I quote the right honorable gentleman cor- 
 rectly. And here, sir, let me pause and thank him for the praise which he 
 gives the gentlemen on this side of the House — let me indulge the satisfac- 
 tion of reflecting that, though we have not the emoluments of office nor the 
 patronage of power, yet we are not excluded from great influence on the 
 measures of government. We take pride to ourselves at this moment that 
 we are not sitting on a committee of supply, voting enormous fleets and 
 armies to carry into execution this calanntous measure. To us he honestly 
 declares this credit to be due ; and this country will no doubt feel the grati- 
 tude they owe us for having saved them from the miseries of war." 
 
 Dundas having admitted that the ministry desisted from the 
 Russian war through the dread of the opposition, Fox at once 
 uses this admission against the ministry, and converts it into 
 an acknowledgment that the opposition had saved the country 
 from war. 
 
 The following passage from the same speech affords an ad- 
 ditional illustration : 
 
 " He acknowledges another fact, that we are not what another honorable 
 gentleman chose to represent us — a faction that indiscriminately approves 
 of everything, right or wrong. This is clearly manifest from his own ad- 
 mission, for, giving up where he found we condemned, he must have begun 
 in the idea that we should approve.'' 
 
498 Elements of EJietoric, 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 DISPLAY OF FEELING IN ORATORY. 
 § 543. DISPLAY OF FEELING. 
 
 8. The exhibition of feeling on the part of the orator is of 
 immense assistance towards commending his arguments and 
 swaying his audience. Passion is stronger than fluency, ear- 
 nestness is better than rhetoric; and when the hearers believe 
 that the speaker is moved, they share his feelings by a natural 
 sympathy. As the subject of the literature of the emotions 
 has been more fully considered elsewhere, it will only be nec- 
 essary to notice in this place some of the more striking displays 
 of feeling which may be classed among the tactics of oratory. 
 
 § 544. SUDDEN OUTBURST OF FEELING. 
 
 One of the highest displays of emotion is seen in what may 
 be called a sudden outburst of feeling; the most famous of 
 which is to be found in the speech of Demosthenes on the 
 Crown. The following is the criticism of Longinus on this 
 passage : 
 
 ♦' Demosthenes is producing proofs of his upright behavior as a public 
 servant Now what was the most natural method of doing this ? ' You 
 were not in the wrong, Athenians, when you bravely risked your lives in 
 fighting for the liberty and safety of Greece ; and of this you have domestic 
 examples. For neither were they in the wrong who fought at Marathon, 
 who fought at Salamis, who fought at Plataea,' But when filled, as it were, 
 with sudden inspiration of the Deity, and like one possessed he thunders 
 out that oath — by the champions of Greece : * You were not in the wrong, no, 
 you could not be ; I swear by those that risked their lives for their country 
 on the field of Marathon' — he seems by this one figure of swearing to have 
 enrolled their ancestors among the gods, while suggesting to them that thev 
 ought to swear by those who fell so gloriously as by so many gods ; to have 
 inspired his judges with the exalted sentiments of those devoted patriots ; 
 to have changed, what was naturally a proof, into an appeal transcendently 
 sublime and affecting, aided by the powerful evidence of oaths of a novel 
 and most sublime character ; and at the same time to have instilled a balm 
 
Display of Feeling in Oratory. 499 
 
 into their minds which heals every painful reflection and assuages the 
 smart of misfortune ; so that, inspirited by his encomiums, they begin to 
 think with no less pride of the engagement with Philip than of the trophies 
 earned at Marathon and Salamis." 
 
 Such outbursts of feeling are not infrequent in the speeches 
 of Erskine. Thus, while speaking in behalf of Lord George 
 Gordon, he seems in one place to lose all self-control, and 
 exclaims : 
 
 " I say, by God ! that man is a ruffian who shall after this presume to 
 build upon such honest, artless conduct as an evidence of guilt." 
 
 Again, in the same orator's speech in behalf of Hardy, full 
 of impatience at the nature of the evidence brought against his 
 client, he says : 
 
 *• The unfortunate man whose innocence I am defending is arraigned be- 
 fore you of high-treason upon evidence not only wholly repugnant to this 
 particular statute, but such as never yet was heard of in England upon any 
 capital trial, . . . which has filled my mind with unremitting distress and 
 agitation, and which, from its discordant, unconnected nature, has suffered 
 me to reap no advantage from the indulgence which I began by thanking 
 you for ; but which, on the contrary, has almost set my brain on fire with 
 the vain endeavor of collecting my thoughts upon a subject never designed 
 for any rational course of thinking." 
 
 In both of these examples we see how the orator strives by 
 means of passionate affirmation to give additional force to his 
 arguments. In the first instance he contends that the de- 
 meanor of the prisoner is no proof of his guilt; in the sec- 
 ond, that the evidence brought against his client is unfair. 
 To each of these he gives the greatest possible emphasis by 
 the vehemence of his declarations. 
 
 Another example occurs in the same speech : 
 
 " The question must return at last to what you, and you only, can resolve. 
 Is he guilty of that base and detestable intention to destroy the king ? . . . 
 If you can say this upon the evidence, it is your duty to say so, and you 
 may with a tranquil conscience return to your families ; though by your 
 judgment the unhappy object of it must no more return to his. Alas ! 
 gentlemen, what do I say ! He has no family to return to. The affectionate 
 partner of his life has already fallen a victim to the surprise and horror 
 which attends the scene now transacting. But let that melancholy reflec- 
 tion pass." 
 
 Here the display of feeling consists of a sudden outburst of 
 
 Y 
 
50O Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 sympathy for the accused, accompanied by a brief statement 
 of his most piteous condition. 
 
 § 545. EXTRAVAGANCE OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 Extravagance of expression is freely indulged in by orators 
 when under the influence of strong emotion, and the statement 
 which in ordinary composition would seem exaggerated, and 
 therefore absurd, becomes most effective as a sign of the pas- 
 sion of the speaker. Thus Sir James Mackintosh, in behalf 
 of Peltier, says of the French government : 
 
 " They are banded together by the despair of forgiveness, by the unani- 
 mous detestation of mankind" 
 
 This language goes beyond the actual truth, yet is not 
 stronger than is warranted by the feeling of the speaker. 
 
 § 546. CONTROL OF EMOTION. 
 
 However strong the passion of the orator may be, it should 
 always be under control, so that after any outburst he may re- 
 turn to his argument, and make even his passion conduce to its 
 enforcement Lord Brougham, in his admirable Inaugural Dis- 
 course, praises the manly severity of Greek oratory, and espe- 
 cially the self-control which never allowed the speaker to go 
 too far, but even after the boldest outbursts of feeling drew him 
 back to his subject. 
 
 A good example may be found in Erskine's speech on Stock- 
 dale. He is alluding to the trial of Warren Hastings: 
 
 " Shall it be endured that a subject of this country may be impeached for 
 the transactions of twenty years ; that the accusation shall spread as wide as 
 the region of letters ; that the accused shall stand day after day and year 
 after year as a spectacle before the public, which shall be kept in a state of 
 perpetual inflammation against him ; that he shall not, without the severest 
 penalties, be f>ermitted to submit anything to the judgment of mankind in 
 his defence ? If this be the law (which it is for you to decide), such a man 
 has no trial. That great hall built by our fathers for English justice is no 
 longer a court but an altar, and an Englishman, instead of being judged in 
 it by God and his country, is a victim and a sacrifice." 
 
 After this he at once returns to severe argument with the 
 words : 
 
 " You will carefully remember that I am not presuming to question the 
 right or the duty of the Commons of England to impeach," etc. 
 
Display of Feeling in Oratory, 501 
 
 § 547. EULOGY. 
 
 Eulogy, which is the language of praise, is prompted by emo- 
 tions of love, admiration, and the like, and forms an important 
 part of oratory. It sometimes appears in the form of praise 
 addressed to the auditory or judges, which has already been 
 considered; but its more appropriate application is to those 
 persons or subjects which are connected with the orator's dis- 
 course. 
 
 Many examples are to be found in the speeches of Burke. 
 Thus in his speech on the East India Bill the peroration con- 
 sists of a eulogy on Fox, which is presented in glowing lan- 
 guage, and serves as an admirable close to the argument : 
 
 " And now, having done my duty to the bill, let me say a word to the au- 
 thor. I should leave him to his own noble sentiments if the unworthy and 
 illiberal language with which he has been treated beyond all example of par- 
 liamentary liberty did not make a few words necessary, not so much in jus- 
 tice to him as to my own feelings. ... He has put to her hazard his ease, 
 his security, his interest, even his darling popularity, for the benefit of a 
 people whom he has never seen. This is the road that all heroes have trod 
 before him. ... He is now on a great eminence where the eyes of mankind 
 are turned upon him. He may live long ; he may do much. But here is 
 the summit He never can exceed what he does this day." 
 
 Eulogy is sometimes made use of for the sake of emphasis. 
 Thus Sheridan, in his speech against Warren Hastings, men- 
 tions a doctrine of Burke's, indulges in a eulogy of that ora- 
 tor, and then proceeds to state a different view : 
 
 " This is the sentiment of my noble and exalted friend, whose name I can 
 never mention but with respect and admiration due to his virtue and talents ; 
 whose proud disdain of vice can only be equalled by the ability with which 
 he exposes and controls it ; to whom I look up with homage ; whose genius 
 is commensurate with philanthropy ; whose memory will stretch itself be- 
 yond the fleeting objects of any little partial shuffling — through the whole 
 wide range of human knowledge and honorable aspiration after good — as 
 large as the system which forms life, as lasting as those sentiments which 
 adorn it ; but in this sentiment, so honorable to my friend, I cannot im- 
 plicitly agree." 
 
 The effect of this eulogy is to call attention in the most 
 pointed manner, not merely to Burke's sentiment, but rather 
 to the orator's own view, which differs from it. 
 
502 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 § 548. PANEGYRIC. 
 
 Panegyric is a term applied to orations which set forth the 
 praise of some eminent person. It is distinguished by great 
 pomp and splendor of style and exaggeration of sentiment. 
 Cicero's speech in behalf of Marcellus is an example, of which 
 De Quincey says that " the whole purpose, being a festal and 
 ceremonial one, thanksgiving its sole burden from first to last, 
 it is marked by the most elaborate stateliness." 
 
 They were frequent in ancient times. In modern times they 
 consist chiefly of funeral orations, which are always more or 
 less laudatory. The most celebrated of this class are those of 
 Bossuet. 
 
 The terms panegyric and eulogy are often interchanged at 
 the present day. Thus Burke calls his eulogy of Fox a pane- 
 gyric. If a distinction be sought for between the two, it may 
 be stated thus — that a eulogy refers to passages occurring in 
 the course of a speech or argument, while a panegyric compre- 
 hends the whole speech. 
 
 • The term panegj'ric is sometimes applied to Grattan's well- 
 known portrayal of Lord Chatham, and to Burke's equally 
 well-known description of Sheridan's eloquence. 
 
 § 549. THE RETORT. 
 
 A very 'effective mode of meeting a charge is by means of 
 the retort. Fox abounds in this, and a good example is found 
 in the following passage from his speech on the East India 
 Bill: 
 
 " After pronouncing a brilliant eulogy upon me and my capacity to serve 
 the countrj-, the honorable gentleman considers me at the same time the 
 most dangerous man in the kingdom. [Pitt said across the House, "dan- 
 gerous only from this measure ;" to which Fox instantly made this reply :] I 
 call upon the House to attend to the honorable gentleman. He thinks me 
 dangerous only from this measure, and confesses that hitherto he has seen 
 nothing in my conduct to obliterate his good opinion. Compare this with 
 his opposition during the last and the present session. Let every man re- 
 flect that up to this moment the honorable gentleman deemed me worthy 
 of his confidence, and competent to my situation in the state. I thank him 
 for the support he has afforded to the minister he thus esteemed, and shall 
 not press the advantage he has given me further than leaving to himself to 
 reconcile his practice and doctrine in the best manner he can." 
 
Display of Feeling in Oratory. 503 
 
 Another form of the retort consists in repelling the charge 
 of an opponent and applying it to himself. This is called the 
 " tu quoque " retort. 
 
 Pitt had charged Fox with weakening the British Constitu- 
 tion through his sympathy with the French Revolution. Fox 
 retorts by throwing the same charge back upon Pitt : 
 
 " That the pride, the folly, the presumption of a single person shall be 
 able to involve a whole people in wretchedness and disgrace is more than 
 philosophy can teach mortal patience to endure. Here are the true weap- 
 ons of the enemies of our constitution. Here may we search for the source 
 of these seditious writings meant either to weaken our attachment to the 
 constitution by depreciating its value, or which loudJy tells us that we have 
 no constitution at all." 
 
 § 550. SARCASM. 
 
 Sarcasm is a powerful weapon in the hands of some orators, 
 and sometimes this mode of attack is more dreaded than any 
 other. It formed the chief characteristic of Junius. Chatham 
 used it with resistless effect. Brougham's speech against the 
 Durham clergy affords perhaps the most striking instance of 
 sustained sarcasm that can be found in oratory. For vigor, 
 however, and variety, together with swift and ready application, 
 no one has ever surpassed Fox. 
 
 His speech on the East India Bill affords an example : 
 
 "But the learned gentleman wishes the appointment of an Indian secre- 
 tary in preference to this commission. In all the learned gentleman's ideas 
 on the government of India the notion of a new secretary of state for the 
 Indian department springs up, and seems to be cherished with the fondness 
 of consanguinity. . . . The learned gentleman has been for some years con- 
 versant with ministers, but his experience has taught him, it seems, to con- 
 sider secretaries not only untainted and immaculate, but innocent, harmless, 
 and incapable. In his time secretaries were all purity, with every power of 
 corruption in their hands, but so rigidly attached to rectitude that no temp- 
 tation could seduce them. . . . This erroneous humanity of opinion arises 
 from the learned gentleman's unsuspecting, unsullied nature, as well as from 
 a commerce with only the best and purest ministers of this country, which 
 has given him so favorable an impression of the secretary of state that he 
 thinks this patronage, so dangerous in the hands of the commission, perfectly 
 safe in his hands." 
 
 The sarcasm was directed against Lord Shelburne, and is 
 full of bitter force. 
 
 By directing irony or sarcasm against one subject, another 
 
504 Elements of Rhetor ie, 
 
 may be introduced with great emphasis and effect. Thus 
 Lord Erskine sneers at Paine in order to exalt Newton : 
 
 " In running the mind along the long list of sincere and devout Christians, 
 I cannot help lamenting that Newton had not lived to this day, to have had 
 his shallowness filled up with this new flood of light poured upon the world 
 by Mr. Thomas Paine. But the subject is too awful for irony. I will speak 
 plainly and directly. Newton was a Christian." 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE QUALIFICATIONS FOR AN ORATOR. 
 § 551- QUALIFICATIONS FOR AN ORATOR. 
 
 Of these some are general, and attainable by all who set 
 forth to acquire them ; others are special, the peculiarities of 
 gifted persons, and scarcely attainable by others under any 
 circumstances. In the first place we have to consider the 
 general qualifications : 
 
 § 552. COMMAND OF THE SUBJECT. 
 
 I. The importance of this is self-evident. The lawyer, the 
 divine, the parliamentary orator, all find it necessary to suc- 
 cess. In parliamentary debate, the speaker who fails in this 
 must fail utterly. Burke was distinguished for his immense 
 learning, for his profound and solid acquirements, and for the 
 thorough mastery which he exhibited of every subject to which 
 he devoted himself. It was said of him that he knew more of 
 India than any other living man ; and in his speeches on Indian 
 affairs he exhibited a knowledge which was far different from 
 the hasty "cram" of the superficial Sheridan. Fox showed the 
 same command of his subject, though in a different way; for 
 in his case it arose from long training and experience. His 
 great rival, Pitt, was equally distinguished. This is a striking 
 characteristic of the orations of antiquity; for in these, espe- 
 cially in those of Demosthenes, may be found a vivid repre- 
 sentation of all contemporary history. 
 
The Qualifications for an Orator. 505 
 
 § 553. FERTILITY IN RESOURCES. 
 
 2. This is chiefly of value in parliamentary debate, since it in- 
 volves readiness in reply and quickness to take advantage of an 
 opponent or to rally from a dangerous attack. No orator ever 
 surpassed Fox in this respect. In his speeches we encounter 
 constantly those sudden hits, thrusts, and side-blows ; those 
 rapid questions and answers, that dexterity in evading difficul- 
 ties, that unfailing readiness in retort, and that lightning-like 
 rapidity in seizing upon hasty admissions and using them 
 against his opponents, which gained for him the title of the 
 greatest living debater. This quality is also of use in courts 
 of law, to enable the advocate to counteract the effect of sud- 
 den disclosures, or to take instant advantage of an unexpected 
 turn in the proceedings. 
 
 § 554. A CONCILIATORY DEMEANOR. 
 
 3. A conciliatory demeanor is of great advantage. This in- 
 cludes the tone and manner of the speaker, which may be 
 made very persuasive by a becoming modesty and a respectful 
 deference to the audience; and also the expressions, which 
 may exhibit a friendly consideration or esteem for the judges, 
 the hearers, and sometimes even for the adversary. 
 
 If the audience be friendly, this is necessary in order to re- 
 tain their good-will ; if hostile, it is likewise necessary in order 
 to disarm their hostility. In attack, the speaker ought, if pos- 
 sible, to make a distinction between the opponent and the 
 audience, separating one from the other ; so that, while the for- 
 mer is assailed, the latter may be conciliated. In many cases 
 even the opponent may be praised for certain qualities, if only 
 for the sake of giving greater emphasis to blame. In defence 
 the necessity of conciliation is more evident, for here all who 
 are not with the speaker are against him ; men are always more 
 ready to condemn than to absolve; and the speaker's first aim 
 should be to win over the audience to his own side. Nowhere 
 is there a more instructive example than the speech of De- 
 mosthenes on the Crown. The orator here begins by winning 
 over the audience to himself, and completely carrying them 
 with him; he separates them from his adversary by the most 
 subtle distinction; for the one he has nothing but esteem and 
 
5o6 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 affection, for the other nothing but scorn and contempt ; the 
 defence is constantly turned into attack; the hearers are forced 
 to give all their sympathy to the speaker, who never fails to 
 retain their good feeling by appealing to the most lofty prin- 
 ciples of human conduct, and taking it for granted that they 
 must all be so high-minded as to be animated by no motives 
 of a lower order. 
 
 Among modern orators the arts of conciliation have never 
 been more effectively exerted than by Erskine. Judge, jury, 
 the opposite counsel, all were included in those kindly and 
 respectful sentiments to which the orator knew how to give an 
 air of candor and sincerity by his own modest deference and 
 implied self-depreciation. 
 
 § 555. A KNOWLEDGE OF THE PERSONS ADDRESSED. 
 
 4. Audiences differ like individuals; and if the orator would 
 persuade them, he must study them. National differences are 
 very marked. An Irish and an English audience have a dis- 
 similarity which is visible in Irish and English oratory. This 
 will be perceived in comparing the style of Curran and Grattan 
 with that of Fox and Pitt. The Irish taste leans to rhetorical 
 display; the English is sober and more chastened. Sheridan 
 indulged to excess in ornament, and even Burke was not un- 
 frequently carried away by his love of imagery. The great 
 American orators bear a closer resemblance to the Irish than 
 to the English. Webster, who rivals Burke in his method and 
 compass, resembles him also in his imaginative power and love 
 of splendid diction. The sonorous periods of Choate and the 
 epigrammatic sentences of Wendell Phillips exhibit a love of 
 rhetoric on the part of speaker and audience which cannot be 
 found in any of their English contemporaries. English audi- 
 ences are business-like, and so are English orators, such as 
 Bright, Gladstone, and Disraeli. It does not follow that Eng- 
 lish oratory is the best, in spite of the complacency of English 
 critics; for there is a danger that oratory may die out altogether 
 and resolve itself into mere "business-talk." After all, there 
 should be some room left for that noble diction which gives 
 forth such magnificent music in the great writers and speakers 
 of the past; which filled with rapturous delight the hearers of 
 Webster and still charms the readers of De Quincey. 
 
The Qualifications for an Orator. 507 
 
 The audiences of every community have their own peculiar- 
 ities, and these must be regarded. Respect must be shown to 
 passions, to prejudices, to local feelings, to religious sentiments, 
 and the like; so that these may not be needlessly oftended. 
 By neglect or indifference, or through pure arrogance, an orator 
 may give mortal offence, and ruin his own cause. 
 
 It may be supposed that the preacher is an exception, but 
 this is only apparently the case. It is true that the preacher 
 is bound to declare the whole truth, and reason of temperance, 
 righteousness, and judgment to come, in spite of the pride or 
 prejudice of man; but in this case he has a power on his side 
 which is felt by all to be superior to pride and prejudice, and 
 that is the human conscience. The faithful preacher, there- 
 fore, even when he is denouncing darling sins, may be sure 
 that he has on his side the approval of the conscience of 
 his hearers ; and in this way he is able to carry them all with 
 him. 
 
 The time-server of the pulpit, who flatters his hearers, is 
 therefore not only faithless to his duty and to the laws of God, 
 but even from a rhetorical point of view he commits an error, 
 since he dwells upon lower motives, when he may safely and 
 triumphantly appeal to others of a higher and transcendent 
 character. Thus St. Paul could exhibit all the conciliatory arts 
 of a skilled orator, and yet go on to denounce sin and preach 
 righteousness till Felix trembled, and Agrippa exclaimed — 
 " Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian." 
 
 § 556. THE SPEAKER MUST ADAPT HIMSELF TO THE INTELLI- 
 GENCE OF THE AUDIENCE. 
 
 5. The speaker must adapt himself to the intelligence of 
 the audience, neither rising too far above it nor sinking too far 
 beneath it. 
 
 Sometimes the speech is above the level of the audience. 
 This fault has been charged upon Burke, whose most magnifi- 
 cent orations had not that effect upon the House which might 
 have been expected, for the reason that it was his fashion to 
 enter upon flights where his hearers could not follow. His 
 audience not seldom found themselves surfeited with the sweets 
 of imagery, and the reasonings of the orator dark with excess 
 of light. For Burke loved to search after the causes of things; 
 
 Y 2 
 
5o8 Elancnts of Rhetoric. 
 
 to indulge in broad generalizations; to pursue affairs to their 
 logical results; to define where no definitions were necessary; 
 to be elaborate when simplicity was desired, and lengthy in 
 cases which demanded brevity. Thus in many conspicuous 
 instances the great orator showed a lack of savoir /aire which 
 marred his chances of success. In the words of Goldsmith — 
 
 •*He went on refining, 
 And thought of convincing, while they thought of dining." 
 
 It has been said that Burke's oratory would not be tolerated 
 at the present day in the British Parliament. It may be added 
 that even in his own day it was often a failure; and chiefly 
 from inability to appreciate the temper of his audience. This 
 was especially the case at the close of his career. And yet, 
 for the student of the present day, the speeches of Burke have 
 a power and interest that are surpassed by none of modern 
 times, if they are even equalled by any. 
 
 Milton's Areopagitica, that noble example of close reasoning 
 and splendid rhetoric, had little or no effect at the time, chiefly 
 because the arguments were above the intellectual and moral 
 level of those to whom they were addressed. More familiar 
 examples of this fault may be found in the case of preachers 
 who deliver learned discourses to illiterate congregations. The 
 speaker who addresses an average audience of plain people 
 will fail if he pitches his note too high, if he appeals to motives 
 that are too lofty and too much idealized, if he theorizes about 
 principles which they do not understand. A mixed audience 
 will generally prefer plain facts in plain language, the concrete 
 rather than the abstract. 
 
 To go below the level of the intelligence of an audience is 
 even worse. Many so-called "popular" orators, when brought 
 before a cultivated assembly, turn out failures. Revival preach- 
 ers, who have exercised unbounded sway over ignorant masses, 
 are sometimes brought to city churches, and find that they can 
 do nothing with their critical, fastidious, and exacting hearers. 
 
 § 557- A JUDICIOUS SELECTION OF THE OCCASION FOR 
 SPEAKING. 
 
 6. A judicious selection of the occasion for speaking is a 
 matter of much importance, and is closely connected with the 
 
The Qualifications for an Orator. 509 
 
 above. The value of this may be seen from one conspicuous 
 example — Burke's speech on the Nabob of xArcot's Debts. 
 This has been called by Brougham the best by far of all Burke's 
 orations. It was delivered, however, upon a most unfortunate 
 occasion. It was late, the House was weary from a prolonged 
 debate, and the speech was five hours in length. .Under such 
 circumstances they listened with impatience and indifference, 
 if not hostility; and at its close Pitt said that it had not made 
 the slightest impression. " The speech," he added, " may with 
 perfect safety be passed over in silence." 
 
 § 558. THE ORATOR SHOULD NOT AIM AFTER TOO MUCH. 
 
 7. It is often well not to aim after too much. When an 
 audience is hostile, the object to be attained should be set as 
 low as possible, consistent with the orator's own cause. To 
 aim at the whole would be to lose all. 
 
 We have to consider in the next place the qualities which 
 are peculiar to the individual. These form part of the equip- 
 ment received from nature, and cannot be acquired by art. 
 They may be classified as physical, moral, and intellectual. 
 
 § 559. PHYSICAL ADVANTAGES. 
 
 Orators are often endowed by nature with personal advan- 
 tages of face, voice, gesture, bearing, which have not a little to 
 do with their success. The efforts of Demosthenes to over- 
 come physical difficulties are known to all. The face, figure, 
 bearing, and voice of Cicero were all in keeping with his ora- 
 tory, and contributed to its effect. The presence and the voice 
 of Chatham were irresistible ; and the anecdotes that are told 
 of the power of a glance, a gesture, and a word, all serve to 
 show what advantage the orator may derive from these. The 
 majestic attitude of Daniel Webster, his towering forehead, 
 piercing eye, and reverberating tones have been described by 
 his friends in language full of wonder; there seemed some- 
 thing superhuman in the man ; and this feeling was expressed 
 in the sobriquet which was often familiarly applied to him, 
 which indicated the extraordinary personal ascendency that he 
 gained over all with whom he came in contact — the "god- 
 like Dan." On the other hand, orators have struggled suc- 
 cessfully against personal disadvantages of a serious kind, and 
 
5IO Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 have asserted their power in spite of these. St. Paul alludes 
 in depreciating terms to his personal presence, which he calls 
 "contemptible." It is but fair, however, to add that this may 
 be understood in a diflferent way. Mirabeau and Wilkes were 
 notorious for their personal defects. Burke's appearance was 
 ungainly, and his voice was bad ; he also had an Irish accent, 
 which was distasteful to English ears. Grattan was unprepos- 
 sessing in appearance and awkward in manner; Brougham 
 was repulsive in features, harsh in voice, slovenly in dress, and 
 uncouth in his general demeanor. The success of these last- 
 named orators, in spite of their physical disadvantages, should 
 serve as an encouragement to all who seek after excellence in 
 speaking, and should teach them that however desirable it may 
 be to have a superior voice and presence, yet that even with- 
 out these an orator may be truly great by force of language, 
 reason, and feeling. 
 
 § 560. MORAL QUALITIES. 
 
 Courage and self-confidence. 
 
 Without these no orator can hope to attain to high excel- 
 lence. Demosthenes and Cicero exhibited them in a great de- 
 gree. Cowardice has indeed been charged upon both of them ; 
 .^schines accuses Demosthenes of quailing before Philip and 
 cringing to Alexander; Cicero is also frequently spoken of as 
 a timid man. The only answer to this is that if these men 
 were not courageous, they certainly were able to simulate cour- 
 age in a way that is unintelligible to the ordinary mind. De- 
 mosthenes showed his courage in having led a great party in 
 times of the utmost peril, and in having over and over again 
 risked his life. Cicero may have had his moments of weak- 
 ness, but in general he exhibits the utmost boldness, daring, 
 and defiance. His character may be summed up in the words, 
 "Contempsi Catilinae gladios, non pertimescam tuos;" and yet 
 his death came from the very swords which he defied. Like 
 Demosthenes, he perished because he had braved the fury of 
 the victorious party. Both of these men, if they had been 
 really timid, would have chosen a safe obscurity, and would 
 have contrived somehow to make their peace with the triumph- 
 ant party. 
 
 The same may be seen in the great modern orators. Chat- 
 
The Qualifications for an Orator. 5 1 1 
 
 ham began by defying Walpole, and ended by fighting against 
 a great majority. Burke, during the greater part of his career, 
 fought courageously against almost hopeless odds. Fox was 
 never greater than when, after the Westminster election, he 
 stood almost single-handed confronting a host of foes. Pitt's 
 courage and constancy enabled him to maintain his place 
 against an immense majority, and ultimately gain the victory., 
 Brougham's best speeches are monuments of his unflinching 
 courage. Wendell Phillips, Charles Sumner, and William 
 Lloyd Garrison are examples of great orators who have liter- 
 ally held their lives in their hands while contending against a 
 great and unscrupulous enemy. 
 
 Self-confidence is identical with courage, and means that 
 faith which one has in his own cause and his own measures. 
 Yet sometimes orators may seem to fail in this from that trepi- 
 dation which they feel in the presence of an audience. There 
 is a feeling from which even great orators are not exempt akin 
 to that which among actors is known as "stage fright." It 
 arises from oversensitiveness, a feeling of responsibility, a per- 
 ception of the ludicrous, und other causes. The very things 
 that lead to stage fright may be the requisites to success in 
 oratory. 
 
 Vehemence. This includes intense feeling, fiery energy, and 
 fervid eloquence. It is the chief characteristic of Demosthenes, 
 and is celebrated in Milton's well-known lines : 
 
 "Thence to the famous orators repair, 
 Those ancient, whose resistless eloquence 
 Wielded at will that fierce democratic, 
 Shook the arsenal, and fulmin'd over Greece 
 To Macedon, and Artaxerxes' throne." 
 
 Among modern orators, Chatham exhibits most of this. 
 
 Elevation. Demosthenes and Chatham resemble each other 
 in this also ; they everywhere exhibit generous sentiments, com- 
 prehensive statesmanship, grand conceptions of the position 
 and duty of their respective countries, a lofty regard for her 
 honor and glory, an intense spirit of liberty, and a high per- 
 sonal sense of honor. 
 
 Sincerity. It is one of the highest essentials to success- 
 ful oratory that the hearers believe in the sincerity of the 
 speaker. No preacher can be successful whose piety is doubt- 
 
5 1 2 Elemoits of Rhetoric. 
 
 ed \ no statesman whose patriotism is suspected, or whose pro- 
 fessions of lofty principles are taken for a cloak to self-seeking. 
 That advocate labors under a terrible disadvantage who does 
 not believe in the justice of his cause. Insincerity, disingenu- 
 ousness, affectation, all serve to ruin a cause, and the finest 
 language is taken for nothing better than an empty sound. 
 
 § 561. INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES. 
 
 Logical power. Reasoning, method, analysis and synthesis, 
 abstraction and generalization — all these are essentials, and 
 exist in different degrees. Burke is said by De Quincey to 
 have had of all men of that age the finest understanding. He 
 shows always a comprehensive grasp of his subject, close and 
 continuous logic, and a constant effort to trace out things to 
 their causes. Chatham is irregular in his method ; he shows 
 less of reason than of feeling; he is impatient of slow logical 
 processes, and deals in vehement assertion or denial. Pitt is 
 logical and argumentative, with admirable method ; Erskine is 
 like him in this, but is fuller of illustration, and also of warmth 
 of feeling; Fox is irregular in method, but full offeree; Chat- 
 ham, Burke, and Fox all alike shun abstractions, and however 
 else they may differ, they resemble one another in their prefer- 
 ence for the concrete. 
 
 Versatility. Subtlety of thought, affluence of expression, 
 wide command of subjects for illustration, extensive attain- 
 ments — all these are included under this term, and are chiefly 
 exhibited by Burke. 
 
 Imagination. That of Chatham is vigorous, lofty, and com- 
 prehensive. By this he gained that skill in making inferences 
 and deductions which, whether we call it sagacity or forecast, 
 placed him above all other statesmen. Burke's imagination is 
 conspicuous everywhere — in his imagery, in his descriptions, in 
 his keen perception of hidden causes of things lying in the 
 past, and in his forecast of the future. 
 
 Command of language. Orators differ greatly in this re- 
 spect, the vocabulary of some being as limited as that of others 
 is unlimited. In affluence and rhetorical power, Burke sur- 
 passed all other English orators. In readiness, aptitude, and 
 quickness of extempore effort, Chatham was without an equal. 
 His denunciation of Lord Suffolk, one of the most vehement 
 
Dialogue. 513 
 
 strains of indignant eloquence in English oratory, was made 
 without premeditation, and remains without any equal as an 
 example at once of vehement emotion and readiness and rich- 
 ness of expression. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 DIALOGUE. 
 
 § 562. DIALOGUE. 
 
 In other kinds of composition the subject is treated by one, 
 viz., the author, whether writer or speaker. This is the case in 
 description, narration, and exposition. Even in debate, which is 
 most nearly akin to dialogue, this holds good, since each speech 
 in a debate is by itself, a single consideration of the subject by 
 one individual — the speaker. 
 
 Dialogue is different. It is the consideration of a subject by 
 more than one. Here the interlocutors and their arguments 
 must be regarded as inseparable. 
 
 Dialogue is an imitation of the conversation of real life, and 
 differs from other kinds of literature as conversation differs 
 from individual discussion, soliloquy, or monologue. 
 
 Dialogue is very ancient in literature. There are indications 
 of it in the Song of Solomon ; the Book of Job is of this char- 
 acter. Yet it may be considered as having derived its real 
 origin among the Greeks. 
 
 The fact has already been noted that Greek literature ap- 
 pealed to the ear, and was the property of the outside world 
 rather than of the recluse. Epic and lyric poetry were sung; 
 the drama was for the ear and eye ; the Athenians were a com- 
 munity of talkers, not readers. Philosophers talked familiarly 
 with their disciples or opponents. Their doctrines were con- 
 veyed by word of mouth rather than by writing. Socrates 
 never wrote a line, and others, like him, restricted themselves 
 to viva voce discussions. The method was that of simple dia- 
 logue. It was his custom to traverse the streets, and enter 
 into conversation with individuals. His disciples adopted not 
 
514 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 only his sentiments, but his m.inner; and in their philosophical 
 writings employed the Socratic method of dialogue. The chief 
 of these were Plato and Xenophon, the former of whom wrote 
 in dialogue exclusively. 
 
 Two kinds of dialogue may be observed : 
 I. Didactic dialogue. 2. Dramatic dialogue. 
 
 § 563. DIDACTIC DIALOGUE. 
 
 1. Dialogue is didactic when it is used for the purpose of ex- 
 position. The most important are the works of Plato, of which 
 the best known is the Phsedo, where he argues in favor of 
 the immortality of the soul. Socrates is introduced as chief 
 speaker, and with the discussion is given an account of the last 
 moments of the great teacher's life. Plato's method here, as 
 elsewhere, is to use Socrates as the exponent of his own views. 
 Some of the works of Xenophon are of the same class; as 
 the Memorabilia, which purports to be an account of the teach- 
 ings of Socrates. 
 
 Cicero wrote several treatises in the same style, e. g.^ the 
 Tusculan Questions, though his dialogue is but partial, and 
 soon becomes lost sight of in the reasonings of the chief speak- 
 er. Lucian affords a better example of this mode of compo- 
 sition. In modern times the dialogue has been used for im- 
 portant purposes. The idealism of Berkeley is put forth in a 
 dialogue between Philonus and Hylas ; and Walter Savage 
 Landor's most valuable contributions to literature have this 
 form. 
 
 The dialogue as a means of exposition is limited in its scope. 
 Even at its best, as employed by Plato, it does not admit of 
 full argumentative treatment, or of any general discussion in- 
 volving minor arguments of a cumulative character, or contain- 
 ing syllogistic processes, with major and minor premises. 
 
 § 564. DRAMATIC DIALOGUE. 
 
 2. This is used for the purpose of narration, 
 ist. In the drama. 
 
 This will be considered under the head of dramatic litera- 
 ture. 
 
 2d. In prose fiction. 
 
 Prose fiction has had a great development in our day. It has 
 
The Drama. 5^5 
 
 taken the prominent place which once was held by dramatic 
 literature, and attracted writers of the greatest genius, who 
 might once have written for the stage. It is many-sided, and 
 is used for all subjects in all possible ways. It is as compre- 
 hensive as literature itself, ranging in its aim throughout all 
 the world of things that are of human interest, from the pettiest 
 details of social life to the principles of religion, national wel- 
 fare, morals, civilization, reform. 
 
 The greatest novelists are those who use the dialogue to the 
 best advantage. They use it for two leading purposes : ist, 
 to delineate character; 2d, to narrate the action. 
 
 The dialogue is particularly successful in the hands of Scott, 
 Dickens, and Thackeray. With them the whole story unfolds 
 itself in this way. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE DRAMA. 
 
 § 565. THE DRAMA. 
 
 Dramatic literature has to do with the visible representation 
 of the acts of men. It involves two necessary elements — ist, 
 narration ; 2d, action. 
 
 The narration is produced by means of dialogue. The action 
 accompanies the spoken words. 
 
 § 566. THE DIVISIONS OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE. 
 
 The chief divisions of dramatic literature are the following: 
 Tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, burlesque, masque, opera 
 (musical drama). 
 
 Tragedy is the representation of grave and serious subjects. 
 
 Comedy is the representation of the subjects of common 
 life. 
 
 Melodrama is the representation of scenes that partake of 
 tragedy and comedy, and approach the extravagant. 
 
 Farce is the representation of scenes that are broadly humor- 
 ous. 
 
5 1 6 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Burlesque is the representation of scenes that are absurd 
 and extravagantly ridiculous. 
 
 Masque — a play, now out €rf fashion, representing pieces of 
 a mythological or allegorical character. 
 
 Opera — a play written chiefly for accompaniment to music. 
 
 § 567. ORIGIN OF THE DRAMA. 
 
 Dramatic literature may be either in prose or poetry. It 
 grew up first as a dialogue around choral songs, ^schylus, 
 who brought tragedy to its first stage of development, may be 
 regarded as virtually its creator. From the Supplices to the 
 Prometheus Bound a regular stage of growth and progression 
 may be seen. The former is chiefly made up of choral parts, 
 and represents the early style, while the latter is chiefly made 
 up of dialogue, and belongs to a more advanced period. The 
 invention of comedy is attributed to Thespis, whose rude be- 
 ginning was soon developed into the great works of Aris- 
 tophanes and Menander. 
 
 § 568. MYSTERY AND MORALITY PLAYS. 
 
 The modern drama, like the ancient, had a religious origin. 
 Its first appearance is in the mystery plays, which were repre- 
 sented in connection with religious service — ministerium — from 
 which word "mysterj-" is derived. The subject of these was 
 something taken from sacred history or legend ; the place the 
 open air near the cathedral; the stage was in three depart- 
 ments, representing heaven and earth, with a trap-door leading 
 below into the infernal regions. In these comedy and tragedy 
 were combined. The morality plays arose during the period 
 of the Reformation ; they were of an allegorical nature, and 
 were used by each party to satirize or attack the other, and 
 as a means of political and religious controversy. After this 
 arose the regular drama; comedy first in Ralph Roister Doister, 
 155 1, and Gammer Gurton's Needle, 1565 ; tragedy in Gorboduc, 
 1562; followed immediately by the advent of Marlowe, Shake- 
 speare, and the Elizabethan dramatists. 
 
 § 569. THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 The drama has the widest possible field of action. Its origin 
 was in connection with religion, to which at first it did good 
 
The Drama. 517 
 
 service. The moral and religious teachings of Greek tragedy 
 surpass those of Greek philosophy. 
 
 ^schylus in the Prometheus grapples with the most difficult 
 problems of unmerited suffering ; and the invincible resolve of 
 the suffering friend of man produces the sublimest creation of 
 ancient genius, that was never equalled till Milton came. 
 
 Sophocles also grapples with the mystery of unmerited suf- 
 fering in his GEdipus. He gives utterance to the loftiest max- 
 ims, which correspond in some cases to the highest and noblest 
 in the modern sentiment of honor; and everywhere loves to 
 display the proudest virtue of manhood with the most tender 
 grace of womanhood. He is deeply religious, and some of his 
 choral songs have a liturgical power and elevation. 
 
 Euripides makes his deities odious, and thus utters a protest 
 against the corrupt mythology of the day, which was re-echoed 
 with fiercer scorn by his great enemy Aristophanes, and after- 
 wards repeated by Plato. On the other hand, his human be- 
 ings display great variety; his men are not equal to those of 
 Sophocles, but his women exhibit the most heroic power of 
 clinging love and self-abnegation. In her whom De Quincey 
 calls "the holy Antigone," woman's love and self-sacrifice 
 reach their highest point; while in his Hecuba we have a Greek 
 conception of all that is most moving in a Mater Dolorosa. 
 The Medea and Alcestis, standing at two opposite poles, dis- 
 play at once the immense variety which Euripides could com- 
 pass in the delineation of female character. 
 
 § 570. THE MODERN DRAMA. 
 
 No rivals of these great masters appeared until the rise of 
 the English drama. Shakespeare is a world in himself. He 
 has written English history once for all ; and from him there 
 will probably never be any appeal. His writings are a store- 
 house of maxims and apophthegms in worldly wisdom. His 
 characters are living flesh and blood. Above all, his women 
 have a variety and verisimilitude never witnessed before. He 
 can also handle the deepest mysteries, and his Hamlet still 
 remains to baffle the most earnest student. 
 
 The drama arose in Spain under Calderon and Lope de Vega; 
 in France, under Corneille, Racine, and Moli^re; in Italy, Al- 
 fieri and Goldoni are best known to foreigners; but none of 
 
5i8 EUfnents of Rhetoric. 
 
 these have been so acceptable to English taste as the German 
 drama, the last, but not the least, which Goethe and Schiller 
 have elevated lo the highest class. 
 
 The English drama lost its pre-eminence long ago; yet great 
 works have never ceased to be produced from age to age, and 
 tragedy has an irresistible charm for men of genius. Not to 
 speak of Byron's plays, or the " Cenci" of Shelley — which many 
 think the best English tragedy since Shakespeare — the number 
 of important works of this description produced in our own day 
 is surprising. Browning has written tragedies which never have 
 been acted, and never can be. Charles Kingsley regarded his 
 "Saint's Tragedy" as his best work. Longfellow's "Spanish 
 Student," Poe's fragment, " Politian," Bailey's " Festus," the 
 "Life Drama" of Alexander Smith, are all familiar examples; 
 while the popularity of Swinburne, and the latest efforts of 
 Tennyson in the same direction, show the attraction of the 
 drama over the mind of the poet. 
 
 CHAPTER XIL 
 
 POETRY. 
 
 § 571. POETRY. 
 
 Poetry is a term of the widest comprehensiveness, being 
 almost commensurate with literature itself. Its aim may be 
 to instruct, to convince, to persuade, or to please; it may em- 
 brace all kinds of composition, description, narration, exposi- 
 tion, dialogue or dramatic writing; and it also assumes many 
 forms of its own, which are subject to distinct and definite 
 classification. 
 
 § 572. POETRY DIFFERS FROM PROSE AS TO THE SENTIMENT. 
 
 _R)etry_^iff£j:sJj:QilLprosejn certajn xrc^ 
 
 I. It differ?^ j p the seniim pnt, whirh is alw ays more elevated, 
 
 moreTmpassioned, and more purely imaginative. It treaty of 
 
 "subjects whi^h nn by no p<;>sfiibl]Hy l^^/'^nsid^^rgfMn jro'ip 
 
 Horner'^ 41iad,-Bante*S'DmrTg- €in i!ei ly, and Milton's Paradise 
 
Poetry, 519 
 
 j Lost are ex arri p1p«i nf fhpmpg ^irhirh , from th e ir lQft y^ima|3[ma- 
 tive character, are essentially poetic , "fhis evnltntion ol^^njjb. 
 
 j ppnt is the first and highest characteristic ofjaaetry, and may 
 J^^Hf^pllffr^m its snle constituent plempnt, and thus the poetic 
 thoughtTeven when arrayed in th e garb of prose, is properly 
 takfitt-a&- poetry. 
 
 § 573. .POETRY^ PJJEFF.B.S gRQM ,P«QSE AS TQ THE,FORM. 
 
 I St. It Hify^'-'^ '^'^ ^" ^^^ wnrdg f>mp]n3rpd I]]L£_i:flcak"lary 
 
 of poetry -is. largervrteher, and iiua:a_S2U2iessiYe .tiuU-tbat of 
 prose- It admits new words more readily j it retains those 
 which have become obsolete in general literature ; it also em- 
 
 plnyc m-any wnrH^ nnH fprmi pationS whi rh flrp pprillJir tn Ifnol^- 
 
 and all th£se_combine to form a j)ojitijC; dialecLjdlich-.&tands 
 apart from the common speech as something q^uiifijlisUDCt. 
 
 2 d. It differ ^'ng IP tKf^fyrrflrrgPmPnf ^f wnr<^|f; ^.QSXx^ has 
 
 ifli'nm*^ c\^ its <^^^" ; it allows great lil>erty of inversioQ j^nd 
 admits of grammatical-construcliuns which arc net lu be found 
 ejsevvlifii^. 
 
 3d. It permits the largest poss i ble use of figjures of speep h. 
 Many of these are peculiar to poetry; and others which may 
 be used in prose have their highest effectiveness here. The 
 imaginative character of figurative language renders it pre- 
 eminently poetical. 
 
 4th . Finally, poetry has grenerally a certain mode of pres en- 
 tati on pecuhar to jt^ftlf v^^^^ w^'^h th*^ wnrdft ar? t^''?^y"ii '^^'*^ 
 • is called ve rsification. 
 
 § 574. POETRY EXHIBITS THE HIGHEST POWER OF THOUGHT 
 AND THE LARGEST RESOURCES OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Poetry affords the best example of the power of thought and 
 the resources of language. It deals with the real and the ideal, 
 and is the product both of reason and fancy. But the poet is 
 impatient of the restraints of mere reasoning; he prefers the 
 larger field of action which is presented by the imagination. 
 He leaps at conclusions, and affirms directly that which cannot 
 be reached by logical processes. He expresses himself by in- 
 tuition, and announces truths which no other can discover; 
 and so it is that many writings are weak as arguments or as 
 
520 Elements of RJictoric. 
 
 narratives, but all-powerful as poetry. His highest office is 
 to unfold spiritual truths; to present us with lofty standards 
 of action ; to bring before us the ideal. Imagination calls into 
 exercise the best faculties of man, and the greatest productions 
 of human genius are the works of the poets. Plato is the sub- 
 limest of philosophers because he is in soul a poet, but he 
 is surpassed by -^schylus and Sophocles, who are poets and 
 nothing else. And thus the world places Homer above Aris- 
 totle, Shakespeare above Bacon, Milton above Locke, Goethe 
 above Kant. 
 
 § 575. POETRY AFFORDS THE STRONGEST EXPRESSION FOR 
 EMOTION. 
 
 Poetry affords the strongest expression for human emotions, 
 and its power can be estimated by its effects. It is not neces- 
 sary to quote the saying of Fletcher of Saltoun as to the rela- 
 tive influence of a people's ballads and a people's laws ; but it 
 may be affirmed that the purest and tenderest and manliest 
 sentiments of the human heart are founded upon the poetic 
 instinct. This is the secret of chivalry, of knightly gallantry, 
 and gentle courtesy. This underlies all refined taste, all deli- 
 cate sentiment, all high devotion. What Shakespeare says of 
 music may be said of poetry, and it may be added that the man 
 who loves it not lives but half a life. 
 
 Poetry adapts itself to all the wants of the heart, and has an 
 expression for every passion. Here we find that indescribable 
 blending of sound and sense, of varying words and ringing 
 metre, joined with changing thought, which so affects the feel- 
 ings and clings so closely to the memory. At its bidding we 
 laugh or weep, we are enraged or at peace. It heightens the 
 ridiculous or deepens the pathetic; it satirizes, it ennobles, it 
 mocks, it inspires, it plays upon all passions, it adjusts itself to 
 all moods, and — 
 
 "Now melts into sorrow, now maddens to crime." 
 
 § 576. POETRY DEFINED. 
 
 — Eoetrymay be d efined as the expression of though t or 
 feeling by modes which imp ly an excited~br elevated , im- 
 ^agination. ' 
 
 It may be regarded as one of the fine arts. As sculpture 
 
Poetry, 521 
 
 expresses its meaning by fornij pajntingjjy color, music by 
 sound, so poetry a ftain^ its end by means of language. 
 
 § 577. VERSIFICATION — PARALLELISM. 
 
 The outward form of poetry has differed in different nations. 
 The chief of these will now be enumerated. 
 
 1. Parallelism was the form of versification adopted by the 
 Hebrews, and it is of high antiquity. It consists in the ex- 
 pression of a thought which is immediately repeated in mod- 
 ified terms. For this reason it has been called the rhyme of 
 ideas. The following is an example : 
 
 "The heavens declare the glory of God, 
 And the firmament shevveth his handiwork j 
 Day unto day uttereth speech, 
 And night unto night sheweth knowledge." 
 
 Here the thought expressed in the first line is repeated in 
 the second, and that of the third in the fourth. 
 
 § 578. QUANTITY. 
 
 2. This consists in the arrangement of syllables according 
 to the time taken in pronouncing them. It is closely associated 
 with music, and may be perceived whenever we sing any piece 
 of poetry. The modern fashion of reading classical poetry is 
 probably quite unlike the ancient, and indicates nothing more 
 than a stress of voice on long syllables; but there are certain 
 of the Gregorian chants which correspond with the hexameter 
 measure, and by singing to one of these a line of Virgil's ^neid 
 the quantity of the syllables may be made apparent. 
 
 § 579. ALLITERATION. 
 
 3. This was used by the Teutonic nations in their early 
 poetry. Similar initial sounds were given to emphatic words 
 or syllables, two of which were generally in one line, and one 
 in the line which followed. This is the versification of the old 
 English poem, The Vision of Piers Plowman, from which the 
 following is an extract : 
 
 "Barouns and Burgeis, 
 and Bondemen also, 
 I sau in that Semble, 
 as ve shul heren hereafter. 
 
522 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 Bakers, Bochers, 
 and Breusters monye. 
 Wollene websteris 
 and weveris of linen. 
 Taillours, tanneris, 
 and tokkeris bothe. 
 Masons, Minours, 
 and mony other craftes." 
 
 § 580. SEQUENCES. 
 
 4. These arose in the early ages of the Christian Church. 
 The sentiments are exalted and poetic, but the form is that of 
 prose, and the rhythm is apparent only in the singing. The 
 most familiar examples are the Te Deum and the Gloria in 
 Excelsis. These were originally framed upon the model of 
 Hebrew poetry, but in process of time they lost the parallelism 
 which formed its chief characteristic. 
 
 § 581. GREEK ECCLESIASTICAL METRES. 
 
 5. These arose in the Eastern Church, and consist of a series 
 of sentences containing the same number of syllables: 
 
 " With my lips have I been telling : of all the judgments of Thy mouth. 
 Let us break their bands asunder : and cast away their cords from us. 
 I am weary of my groaning : and every night I wash my bed. 
 I am poured out like water : and all my bones are out of joint. 
 For he licth waiting secret : -ly as a lion in his den." 
 
 § 582. ACCENTUATED METRES. 
 
 6. In these the measure is indicated by the regular recur- 
 rence of accented syllables : as — . 
 
 " The curfew t611s the kn^U of parting day." 
 
 Accentuated metres are more widely diffused than any other, 
 and are found in the most ancient as well as in the most mod- 
 ern poetry. They exist in Indian, Persian, and Arabian liter- 
 ature. Even Latin verse was originally formed on this prin- 
 ciple; and although quantity was introduced from an endeavor 
 to imitate Grecian models, yet the influence of accent was re- 
 stored in the poetry which was afterwards created by the Chris- 
 tian Church. Upon this is based the versification of all the 
 civilized nations of modern times. It is susceptible of the 
 
Poetry. 523 
 
 most varied development, and may give rise to the most sim- 
 ple measures or the most elaborate; so that, while on the one 
 hand it may lend itself to the nursery ditty, on the other hand 
 it may rival the involved constructions and manifold effects of 
 a Greek chorus, 
 
 § 583. ENGLISH VERSIFICATION. 
 
 Versification in English jx)etry depends upon feet and metres. 
 A foot is a collection of syllables, one of which is accented. A 
 metre is an assemblage of feet. 
 
 Feet differ from one another according to the position of 
 the accented syllable. 
 
 Metres differ from one another according to the number of 
 feet. 
 
 The feet in English poetry are four in number — the iambus, 
 the trochee, the anapaest, and the dactyl. 
 
 These names have been taken from the classical quantitative 
 metres to which they were first applied ; but it cannot be too 
 carefully remembered that these modern feet are very different 
 from their ancient namesakes. The relation between them is 
 not that of similarity, but analogy. The ancient iambus, for 
 instance, consists of a half note followed by a whole one, and 
 may be represented by * 1^, whereas the modern iambus con- 
 sists of an unaccented syllable followed by one which is ac- 
 cented. Accent and quantity are quite independent o{ each 
 other, and between the two there is no resemblance. 
 
 § 584. IAMBIC METRES. 
 
 Iambic metres are those in which iambic feet predominate. 
 
 The iambic foot consists of an unaccented syllable followed 
 by one which is accented, as prepare, convey. The following 
 are examples of iambic metres : 
 
 One foot. 
 
 This is found chiefly in lyric poetry or in humorous verse. 
 It consists of a single word occupying a line by itself: as — 
 
 " She sleeps, 
 My lady sleeps." 
 
 " Love, rest, and home, 
 Sweet hope ! 
 LoVd, tarry' not, but come !" 
 Z 
 
524 Elemefits of Rhetoric. 
 
 One foot and a hal£ 
 
 This is employed under the same circumstances as the pre- 
 ceding : 
 
 "And oa/my cheek sweet kisses pressed, 
 My mother." 
 Two feet 
 
 This, like the preceding, is generally intermingled with longer 
 lines, but some lyrical metres consist wholly of this : 
 
 "Days come and go 
 In joy or woe; 
 Days go and come 
 In endless sum." 
 
 Two feet and a half 
 
 This forms a beautiful lyrical measure, whether used by 
 itself or with the line of two feet : 
 
 *' What will you do, love, 
 When I am going, 
 "With white sail flowing. 
 The seas beyond." 
 
 "No shadows yonder, 
 All light and song; . 
 Each day I wonder 
 
 And sigh ' How long 
 Shall time me sunder 
 
 From that dear throng!"' 
 Three feet. 
 This is of very common occurrence : 
 
 **The king was on his throne. 
 
 The satraps thronged the hall; 
 A thousand bright lamps shone 
 O'er that high festival." 
 
 Three feet and a half. 
 
 This is almost always found alternating with lines of three 
 
 feet: 
 
 " Jerusalemy'^the golden. 
 
 With milk/and honey blest, 
 Beneath thy^ contemplation 
 
 Sink heart and voice opprest" 
 Four feet. 
 
 This is used very largely in narrative poetry, such as the 
 metrical romance, and also for lyric purposes ; 
 
 "The war that for a space did fail, 
 Now trebly thundering swelled the gale." 
 
Poetry. 525 
 
 Four feet and a half. 
 
 This is not very common, and is only used when alternating 
 with the line of four feet : 
 
 " Ah me, how quick the days are flitting ! 
 I mind me of a time that's gone, 
 When here I'd sit as I am sitting 
 In this same place, but not alone." 
 
 Five feet. 
 
 This is called the " heroic metre," because it is employed 
 for lofty and important subjects in epic or dramatic poetry : 
 
 "Or view the lord. of the unerring bow, 
 The God of life and poetry and light." 
 
 Five feet and a half. 
 
 This metre is very largely used in dramatic poetry, where it 
 intermingles with that of five feet : 
 
 " To be, or not to be, that is the question." 
 
 "I come to bury Casar, not to praise him." 
 Six feet 
 
 This is called the Alexandrine verse. It is used in ballad 
 poetry, and also in connection with the two preceding metres : 
 
 "A world is at our feet as fragile as our clay." 
 
 " It was the wild midnight, a storm was in the sky." 
 
 The Alexandrine line in ballads is often divided into two 
 short lines of three feet each. 
 Six feet and a half. 
 This is constantly used with the preceding : 
 
 " A mirror and a bath for Beauty's youngest daughters." 
 
 Seven feet. 
 
 This is a well-known metre, being used for ballads and also 
 for songs and hymns. It is called the " common metre," and is 
 generally divided into two shorter parts, one of four feet and 
 the other of three : 
 
 " The melancholy days have come, the saddest of the year." 
 
 "The king has come to marshal us in a^l his armor drest" 
 
 "John Gilpin was a citizen 
 Of credit and renown." 
 
526 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 Seven feet and a half: 
 
 "A captain bold of Halifax, who lived in country quarters." 
 
 «^This metre, like the preceding, is generally divided into two 
 portions. 
 
 Eight feet. 
 
 This is called the " long metre," and is divided into halves 
 of four feet each. 
 
 "Aloft upon a hillock green, the lion king enthroned is seen." 
 § 585. TROCHAIC METRES. 
 
 Trochaic metres are those which are composed principally 
 of trochees. 
 
 The trochee consists of an accented syllable followed by one 
 which is unaccented, as gl6ry, hdnor. It is thus the opposite 
 of the iambus. 
 
 The following are examples of trochaic metres: 
 
 One foot. 
 
 In the more irregular metres a single line may consist of 
 
 one foot : 
 
 " Sighing, 
 Dying, 
 Dying on the wide and wasteful deep." 
 
 One foot and a half. 
 
 This may be seen in the second, fourth, and fifth lines of the 
 following : 
 
 " God help you, sailors, at your need — 
 Spare the curse; 
 For some ships safe in port, indeed, 
 Rot and rust. 
 Run to dust." 
 Two feet. 
 This is found in combination with longer measures: as — 
 
 ** Deeply wailing 
 Shall the true Messiah see." 
 
 •* Strong Deliverer, 
 Be thou still my strength and stay." 
 
 Two feet and a half. 
 
 This metre is capable of being used by itself: 
 
Poetry. 527 
 
 " Go not, happy day, 
 From the shining fields; 
 Go not, happy day. 
 Till the maiden yields." 
 Three feet. 
 
 This is generally found alternating with the measure imme- 
 diately preceding : 
 
 "Now the day is over, 
 Night is drawing nigh, 
 Shadows of the even 
 Fall across the sky." 
 
 Three feet and a half 
 
 This is a beautiful lyrical measure, and is used in many 
 favorite hymns: 
 
 " Rock of Ages, cleft for me, 
 Let me hide myself in thee." 
 Four feet. 
 
 This is another well-known metre, and when alternating with 
 the line of three and a half feet forms the most popular of the 
 trochaic class: 
 
 "Come, thou fount of every blessing. 
 Tune my heart to sing thy praise." 
 
 Longfellow has used this metre of four feet for prolonged 
 narrative purposes in Hiawatha. 
 Four feet and a half: 
 
 " Emblems of the bright and better land." 
 
 Five feet. 
 
 This is generally used to alternate with the preceding : 
 
 " Wondrous truths, and manifold as wondrous, 
 God hath written in those stars above." 
 
 Five feet and a half: 
 
 "Those eternal bowers man hath never trod." 
 Six feet : 
 
 "Obviously reading something very funny." 
 Six feet and a half: 
 
 "Over every mountain-top and down in every glen." 
 
528 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 Seven feet : 
 
 " Early in the morning-time, when cloudy was the weather." 
 
 Seven feet and a half: 
 
 "Thick with towns and hamlets studded, and with streams and vapors 
 gray." 
 
 Eight feet : 
 
 " Once upon a midnight dreary, as I pondered, weak and weary." 
 
 § 586. ANAPiESTIC METRES. 
 
 Anapaestic metres are those in which anapaestic feet pre- 
 dominate. 
 
 The anapaest consists of two unaccented syllables followed 
 by one which is accented : as, appreh<fnd. 
 
 The following are examples of anapaestic metres : 
 
 One foot : 
 
 "The towering trunk, in the pride of its place, 
 Overthrown." 
 
 One foot and a half: 
 
 "There sits a bird on every tree. 
 With a heigh-ho !" 
 
 Two feet : 
 
 "Then a light, then thy breast, 
 And with God be the rest." 
 
 Two feet and a half: 
 
 He is gone from the mountain, 
 He is lost to the forest" 
 
 Three feet 
 
 " I am monarch of all I su'rvey, 
 
 My right there is none to dispute ; 
 From the centre all round to the sea 
 I am lord of the fowl and the brute." 
 
 Three feet and a half: 
 
 "Thou hast wounded the spirit that loved thee.* 
 
 Four feet : 
 
 " Not a drum was heard, nor a funeral note." 
 
Poetry. 529 
 
 Four feet and a half: 
 
 " Thou art gone to the grave, but we will not deplore thee." 
 
 Five feet : 
 
 " In the gathered intensity brought to the gray of the hills." 
 
 Five feet and a half: 
 " He hath flown on his steed to the hills in the dusk of the morning." 
 
 Six feet : 
 
 " And the bees keep their tiresome whine round the resinous firs on the 
 
 hill." 
 
 Six feet and a half: 
 
 **And the duke's guard brings up the rear for the better prevention of 
 scandals." 
 
 § 587. DACTYLIC METRES. 
 
 Dactylic metres are those in which the dactyl predominates. 
 The dactyl consists of one accented syllable followed by two 
 which are unaccented : as, vanity. 
 
 The following are examples of the dactylic metres : "~ 
 
 One foot. 
 
 Here, as in other metres, a single line may consist of one 
 
 foot: 
 
 " Cheerily, 
 Merrily, 
 Fill up your glasses and sing." 
 
 One foot and a half : 
 Two feet : 
 
 - -^ o / — 
 
 "Lift her witl) care." 
 
 "One more unfortunate." 
 
 Two feet and a half: 
 
 " Rivulet crossing my ground." 
 Three feet : 
 
 " Still lay the ranks of the enemy." 
 
 Three feet and a half : 
 
 "Gayly the troubadour touched his guitar." 
 
530 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 Four feet : 
 
 " We that had loved him so, followed him, honored him." 
 Four feet and a half: 
 
 "Pipe on her pastoral hillock a languid note.** 
 Five feet : 
 
 "Sweetest and best of the rivers that water the valley." 
 Five feet and a half : 
 
 " Perfectly beautiful, let it be granted her where is the fault** 
 Six feet : 
 
 "In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas." 
 
 § 588. NOMENCLATURE OF METRES. 
 
 Various systems of nomenclature are applied to modern 
 metres. The one adopted above is plain and simple. Some 
 writers prefer the classical nomenclature with slight modifica- 
 tions. The following table will explain its nature : 
 
 Metre of one foot Monometer. 
 
 " one foot and a half Monometer hypermeter. 
 
 " two feet Dimeter. 
 
 " two feet and a half Dimeter hypermeter. 
 
 " three feet Trimeter. 
 
 " three feet and a half Trimeter hypermeter. 
 
 " four feet Tetrameter. 
 
 " four feet and a half. Tetrameter hypermeter. 
 
 ** five feet Pentameter. 
 
 " five feet and a half. . Pentameter hypermeter. 
 
 " six feet Hexameter. 
 
 " six feet and a half Hexameter hypermeter. 
 
 " seven feet Heptameter. 
 
 " seven feet and a half Heptameter hypermeter. 
 
 " eight feet Octometer. 
 
 In addition to this, another system is in popular use, and 
 may be found in many hymn-books. The iambic metres are 
 marked L. M., or long metre, which is the line of four feet ; 
 CM., common metre, which is the line of four feet followed 
 by another of three feet; S. M., short metre, two lines of three 
 feet each, followed by a third line of four feet, and a fourth of 
 
Poetry. 53 1 
 
 three. Trochaic, anapaestic, and dactylic metres are indicated 
 by numerals which represent the number of syllables in a line. 
 Thus, "6's," "7's," and " 8's " indicate lines of three, three 
 and a half, and four trochaic feet ; " 9's," anapaestic lines of 
 three feet; "lo's," anapaestic and dactylic lines of three and a 
 half feet; " i I's," dactylic lines of three and a half feet ; " 12's" 
 and " 13's," anapaestic lines of four and four and a half feet. 
 
 § 589. INTERCHANGE OF FEET. 
 
 The feet above mentioned interchange with one another 
 under certain circumstances, and in this way great variety is 
 given to the flow of the verse. The chief modes of interchange 
 are the following: 
 
 The trochee takes the place of the iambus. This occurs 
 most frequently in the first foot of the line : 
 
 " High on a throne of royal state." 
 
 "Arms and the man I sing." 
 
 " Father of all ! in every age." 
 
 Sometimes it is introduced into other places. In the third 
 foot: as — 
 
 "To do aught good never will be our task." 
 
 In the first and second foot : as — 
 
 " Universal reproach, far worse to bear." 
 In the first and third foot : as — 
 
 " Stood by their cars, waiting the throned morn." 
 In the second foot : as — 
 
 " I love — oh, how I love to ride !" 
 The anapaest may interchange with the iambus : 
 " Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit" 
 "From their foundations loosening to and fro." 
 
 "Above the Aonian mount." 
 
 "Created hugest that swim the ocean stream." 
 
 "Before all temples the upright heart and pure." 
 
 This is very common in ballad poetry : 
 
 Z 2 
 
532 Elements of Rhetoric, 
 
 "Across the Ocean's troubled breast. 
 The base-born Norman came, 
 To win for his helm a kingly crest, 
 For his sons a kingly name." 
 
 The trochaic metre admits dactyls : 
 
 " As the many-wintered crow that leads the clanging rookery home." 
 
 The anapaestic metre admits the iambus. This is so com- 
 mon that it is not easy to find anapaestic lines without such 
 feet : 
 
 " We buried him darkly, at dead of night. 
 The sods with our bayonets turning." 
 
 The dactylic metre admits the trochee : 
 
 '* Distant, secluded still, the little village of Grand Pr^." 
 
 § 590. THE LONG CATALECTIC SYLLABLE. 
 
 Sometimes a single syllable is used in the place of a whole 
 foot. This is called catalectic, from the long syllable of that 
 name in classical poetry, and may interchange with feet of 
 three syllables as well as with those of two. 
 
 In the following passages it is found substituted for iambic 
 and trochaic feet : 
 
 " Weep, weep, weep, and weep 
 For pauper, dolt, and slave." 
 
 " Wild, wild wind, wilt thou never cease thy sighing ; 
 Dark, dark night, wilt thou never pass away ; 
 Cold, cold church, in thy death-sleep lying, 
 Thy Lent is past, thy Passion here, but not thine Easter-day." 
 
 In the following passages it is found substituted for ana- 
 paestic and dactylic feet : 
 
 " Stitch, stitch, stitch, 
 
 In poverty, hunger, and dirt" 
 
 *' Work, work, work, 
 
 When the cock is crowing aloof" 
 
 " Break, break, break, 
 
 On thy cold gray stones, O sea ! 
 And I would that my tongue could utter 
 The thoughts that arise in me." 
 
 « March, march, Ettrick and Teviotdale." 
 
Poetry. 533 
 
 § 591. INTERCHANGE OF METRES. 
 
 Metres also interchange with one another. The chief modes 
 are the following: 
 
 Iambic and trochaic. These intermingle readily in measures 
 of four feet : 
 
 " Come, and trip it as you go, 
 On the light fantastic toe ; 
 And in thy right hand bring with thee 
 The mountain nymph, sweet Liberty." 
 
 "But thou, O Hope, with eyes so fair, 
 What was thy delighted measure? 
 Still it whispered promised pleasure. 
 And bade the lovely scene at distance hail." 
 
 Anapaestic and iambic metres : 
 
 " The' doutle, double, double beat 
 OY thV thundering drum." 
 
 "Now strike the golden lyre again. 
 Break his bonds of sleep asunder. 
 And rouse him like a rattling peal of thunder. 
 * Revenge ! Revenge !' Timotheus cries. 
 See the Furies arise ; 
 See the snakes that they rear, 
 How they hiss in the air !" 
 
 Dactylic and anapaestic metres : 
 
 " Wearily, wearily, all that night, 
 
 That live-long night, did the hours go by." 
 
 "Lightly they'll talk of the spirit that's gone, 
 And o'er his cold ashes upbraid him." 
 
 "Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 
 
 From the field of his fame fresh and gory." 
 
 The addition of a syllable can transform a trochaic to an 
 iambic metre, or a dactylic to an anapaestic : 
 
 "On a mountain, 
 By a fountain." 
 
 By a slight change this becomes iambic : 
 
 . " Upon a mountain, 
 Beside a fountain." 
 
 "Hail to the chief who in triumph advances.' 
 
534 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 In the same way this becomes anapaestic : 
 
 " All hail to the chief who in triumph advances." 
 
 § 592. OTHER FEET. 
 
 In addition to the feet above mentioned, there are others 
 which are sometimes enumerated. In some treatises on Eng- 
 lish prosody the entire list of quantitative feet is adopted ; in 
 others, however, only a few of these are selected, and these are 
 chiefly the spondee, the amphibrach, the cretic, and the cho- 
 riambus. 
 
 The spondee in quantitative metres consists of two long 
 syllables, and in the accentuated metres it ought to consist of 
 two accented syllables. Although there may be an occasional 
 foot formed of two important words which may have this char- 
 acter, yet the whole genius of accentuated verse is opposed to 
 such a foot, and by far the greater number of so-called spon- 
 dees are either trochees or iambuses. Thus the classical dac- 
 tylic hexameter is composed of dactyls and spondees, while 
 the accentuated dactylic hexameter is composed of dactyls 
 and trochees. In the classical metres the anapaests are as- 
 sociated with spondees, in the modern with iambuses. The 
 nearest approach to a true spondee is in such a line as — 
 
 "The force of those dire arms." 
 
 There is no such thing as a spondaic line in accentuated 
 verse. 
 
 The amphibrach is a name given by some to a foot with an 
 accented syllable between two which are unaccented. The 
 following is set down as a metre composed of such feet : 
 " How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood" 
 
 This, however, is merely an anapaestic line of four feet and 
 a half, and is constantly found in all anapaestic systems. The 
 following is an example : 
 
 "Thou art gone to the grave, but we will not deplore thee, 
 Though sorrow and darkness encompass the tomb : 
 The Saviour has passed through its portals before thee, 
 And the lamp of his love is thy guide through the gloom." 
 
 It is evident that the second and third lines of this stanza 
 have the same anapaestic metre as the first and fourth. To 
 
Poetry. 535 
 
 call them by another name would be merely to multiply feet 
 and metres, when those already existing are sufficient. 
 
 The cretic, or amphimacer. These terms are used to des- 
 ignate feet composed of two accented syllables, separated by 
 one which is unaccented : as — 
 
 " Side by side." 
 
 "Fly no more." 
 
 This, however, is generally nothing else than a trochaic line 
 of one foot and a half, or one foot and a catalectic syllable. 
 
 The choriambus. This consists of a trochee followed by an 
 iambus : as — / , 
 
 "Arms and the man." 
 
 Sometimes the so-called choriambus is a dactylic line of one 
 foot and a half, as in the second line of the following : 
 
 "One more unfortunate, 
 Weary of breath." 
 
 § 593. THE CiESURAL PAUSE, 
 
 The caesural pause is a rest in some part of the longer lines. 
 It is of most importance in the heroic metre, or in the iambic 
 line of five and five and a half feet. By its proper treatment 
 the poet is able to give a varied music to his verse which can 
 be attained in no other way. When the pause falls always in 
 the same place it leads to monotony, and it is therefore neces- 
 sary to vary its position as much as possible. 
 
 In the heroic line the caesural pause occurs most frequently 
 in the middle of the third foot : 
 
 "No more shall nation against nation rise, 
 Nor ardent warriors meet with baleful eyes, 
 Nor fields with gleaming steel be covered o'er; 
 The brazen trumpets kindle rage no more. 
 But useless lances into scythes shall bend, 
 And the broad falchion in a ploughshare end." 
 
 It occurs frequently at the end of the second foot : 
 
 "Glows in the stars, refreshes in the breeze." 
 
 "Achilles' wrath to Greece the direful spring." 
 
 " For forms of faith let senseless bigots fight, 
 He can't be wrong whose life is in the right." 
 
53^ Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 It also occurs at the end of the third foot : 
 
 "Arms and the man I sing, who forced by fate." 
 "She fed within her veins a flame unseen." 
 
 In the poetry of Pope the caesural pause occurs most fre- 
 quently in these places, and by skilful interchange he secures 
 variety. 
 
 In the poetry of Milton the pause is varied more than in 
 that of any other English poet, and by perpetually changing it 
 he is able to obtain the most felicitous metrical effects. The 
 following lines will exhibit his manner in this respect : 
 
 "At once, as far as angel's ken he views 
 The dismal situation, waste and wild, 
 A dungeon horrible, on all sides round 
 As one great furnace flamed, yet from those flames 
 No light, but rather darkness visible 
 Served only to discover sights of woe, 
 Regions of sorrow, doleful shades, where peace 
 And rest can never dwell, hope never comes 
 That comes to all, but torture without end 
 Still urges, and a fiery deluge fed 
 With ever-burning sulphur unconsumed." 
 
 In iambic and trochaic measures of six feet and upwards 
 the pause falls almost invariably in one place, and this has led 
 to the division of such lines into shorter ones. Even here the 
 pause may be varied, and with the most pleasing effect. 
 
 In the longer anapjEStic and dactylic metres the variation of 
 the caesural pause must be attended to, especially where there 
 is protracted narrative. This may be observed in portions of 
 Tennyson's Maud, in the Saul of Browning, and in Longfel- 
 low's Evangeline. 
 
 § 594. RHYME. 
 
 The word rhyme is derived from the Anglo-Saxon rim^ and 
 is often more correctly spelled rime. It means the concord of 
 sounds in words at the ends of lines. 
 
 There are two kinds of rhyme — assonant and consonant. 
 Assonant rhymes are those in which the vowels only are in 
 concord, as, " hat," " man." These prevail very extensively in 
 Spanish poetry, and also in Irish and Scottish songs : 
 
 " The groves of Blarney 
 They are so charming." 
 
Poetry, 537 
 
 " Ye banks and braes, and streams around 
 The castle o' Montgomery ; 
 Green be your woods and fair your flowers, 
 Your waters ever drumlie." 
 
 Assonant rhymes may be found in English poetry. The two 
 Brownings show a tendency to make use of it on a larger scale 
 than was formerly allowed. Tennyson also admits them in 
 his Charge of the Light Brigade : 
 
 " Half a league, half a league, 
 Half a league onward, 
 All in the valley of death 
 Rode the Six Hundred." 
 
 Many so-called "imperfect" or "faulty" rhymes are justifi- 
 able on the principle of assonance. 
 
 Consonant rhymes are those in which both vowels and con- 
 sonants are in concord, as, "man," "ran." 
 
 This is the form of rhyme which prevails in English verse. 
 In order to give variety, certain rhymes are called allowable, 
 as "cry," "victory" — "join," "shine" — "wind," "mind"— 
 "sound," "wound." In English poetry a syllable is not allow- 
 ed to rhyme with itself, as, "receive," "conceive." 
 
 Rhymes are single, double, and triple, as, "all," "call" — 
 "glory," "story" — "vanity," "humanity." Single and double 
 rhymes are also called respectively male and female. 
 
 § 595. BLANK VERSE. 
 
 The name blank verse is applied to the iambic metre of 
 five or five and a half feet, without rhyme. 
 
 Although well-chosen rhymes confer an exquisite beauty, 
 yet they are by no means essential to the highest versificfation, 
 and they are even detrimental in epic and dramatic composi- 
 tion. The iambic measure is capable of so much variety that 
 it may be made to exhibit the highest kind of harmony. When 
 rhyme is not used, the poet is forced to bring out those more 
 subtle effects which depend upon rhythm. 
 
 The chief ways in which the poetical rhythm may be varied 
 are as follows : 
 
 I. By the proper choice of words and verbal terminations. 
 A large number of terms have a poetical value on account of 
 
538 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 their sound, meaning, or association, and the demand for them 
 is more imperative in blank verse than elsewhere. 
 
 2. By the interchange of feet. The laws of English verse 
 are liberal, and all the poetic feet may be made use of in the 
 iambic metre. 
 
 3. By the caesural pause. The effect of this is more striking 
 in blank verse than in other, kinds, for by the omission of 
 rhymes the lines may be made to run into one another; and 
 by varying the pause new rhythms may arise with new metrical 
 effects. This is continually e.xhibited by Milton, and may be 
 seen in the following passage, in which, by arranging the lines 
 according to the pauses, the rhythmical effect is suggestive of 
 metrical combinations far more varied and harmonious than 
 the normal iambic : 
 
 " If thou be'st he, 
 But oh ! how fallen, 
 How changed from him 
 Who in the happy realms of light, 
 Clothed with transcendent brightness, 
 Didst outshine myriads though bright 
 If he whom mutual league, 
 United thoughts and counsels. 
 Equal hope and hazard, 
 In the glorious enterprise 
 Joined with me once, 
 Now misery hath joined in equal ruin. 
 Into what pit thou seest, 
 From what height fallen, 
 So much the stronger proved 
 He with his thunder. 
 And till then who knew 
 The force of those dire arms." 
 
 § 596. NOMENCLATURE OF VERSES. 
 
 We have next to consider the nomenclature of verses. 
 
 A verse is a single line of poetry. 
 
 Couplet By this is meant two consecutive lines rhyming 
 together. 
 
 Triplet. This consists of three consecutive lines rhyming 
 together. 
 
 Stanza. By this is meant a group of several verses, from 
 three upwards. The chief stanzas are the following : 
 
Poetry, 539 
 
 The stanza of three lines. The best example of this is the 
 Dies Irae. 
 
 The stanza of four lines. This is the most common of all, 
 and familiar examples may be found in hymns of common and 
 long metre. 
 
 The stanza of five lines. This is of uncommon occurrence. 
 The best example is Shelley's Ode to a Skylark. 
 
 The stanza of six lines. This is very common. An exam- 
 ple may be found in Byron's Isles of Greece. 
 
 The stanza of seven lines. This is uncommon. It is used 
 in Chaucer's Man of Lawes Tale. 
 
 The stanza of eight lines. This is very common, and is em- 
 ployed in lengthened narrative. It is a favorite with the Italian, 
 Spanish, and Portuguese poets. It is used by Byron in his 
 Beppo and Don Juan. 
 
 The stanza of nine lines. This appears under various forms, 
 the best of which is that which is called the Spenserian, from 
 the fact that it was used by Spenser in his Faerie Queene. 
 
 Stanzas may be found of greater length, but they are of 
 rare occurrence, and are used chiefly in lyrical poetry. 
 
 Strophe. This is a system of verses in lyrical poetry, to 
 which there is another system, called antistrophe, correspond- 
 ing in metre and in length. Examples may be found in Gray's 
 Bard. 
 
 Canto. This is a division of a narrative poem. 
 
 Chorus. This is the part of a song in which the company 
 join with the singer. 
 
 Refrain. This term is applied to words repeated at the end 
 of stanzas, as in Longfellow's Excelsior. 
 
 § 597. SPECIES OF POETRY. 
 
 Poetry is divided into the following species : Narrative, lyric, 
 dramatic, descriptive, didactic, pastoral, satirical, humorous. 
 
 § 598. NARRATIVE. 
 
 Narrative poetry includes all narratives in verse. These are 
 of various kinds, which will be considered in order. 
 
 I. Epic poetry. The epic poem is devoted to some elevated 
 theme in history, legend, mythology, or religion, and has been 
 called the concentrated story of an age or generation. It em- 
 
£40 Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 ploys a metre which, when used in prolonged narrative, may 
 exhibit the greatest variety. The chief examples of the epic 
 poem are the Iliad and Odyssey, the -^neid, the Divina Com- 
 media, Gerusalemme Liberata, the Lusiad, and Paradise Lost. 
 To these may be added the Indian Mahabharata, the Spanish 
 Cid, the German Nibelungen-Lied, and the Anglo-Saxon (or 
 Danish) Beowulf. 
 
 2. The metrical romance. This includes narratives of he- 
 roic enterprise, chivalry, and love. The prevailing metre is 
 the iambic line of four feet. The metrical romance of the 
 Normans gave the key-note to this class of poems. The most 
 familiar examples in English literature are those of Scott and 
 Byron. 
 
 3. The ballad. Like the metrical romance, this is devoted 
 to the exploits of war and the display of the tender affections; 
 but it is much shorter, and at the same time of simpler con- 
 struction. The chief ballad metres are iambic lines of six and 
 seven feet, and trochaic lines of seven and a half. Chevy 
 Chase, the Babes in the Wood, Macaulay's Lays of Ancient 
 Rome, and Aytoun's Lays of the Cavaliers may be cited as 
 examples. 
 
 4. The tale. This includes such narratives in poetry as can- 
 not be classified under any of the above; such as Longfellow's 
 Evangeline, Montgomery's World before the Flood, or Tenny- 
 son's Princess. This group is a miscellaneous one, and has 
 no distinctive characteristics. 
 
 5. Historic narrative. This class includes chiefly the rhym- 
 ing chronicles, such as that of Robert of Gloucester. Very few 
 examples are to be found in later poetry. 
 
 § 599. LYRIC POETRY. 
 
 Lyric poetry is the utterance of excited imagination or ele- 
 vated feeling. It has been called the expression of a single 
 jet of feeling, or the embodiment of one passion. It is always 
 brief in its treatment, but employs a larger variety of metre 
 than any other kind of poetry. 
 
 The following are the chief forms of lyric poetry . 
 
 I. The song. This name is given to those lyrical poems 
 which are intended to be sung. Of these there are two classes 
 — secular and religious. 
 
Poetry. 541 
 
 The secular class includes the following : 
 
 Amatory songs. One of the best examples of these is Ben 
 Jonson's " Drink to me only with thine eyes." 
 
 One kind of amatory song is called the madrigal, which is 
 always short and in the iambic metre. 
 
 War songs, as, " Scots wha hae wi' Wallace bled." 
 
 National songs, as, " God save the Queen." 
 
 Political songs, as the "Marseillaise." 
 
 Convivial songs, as, " Sparkling and bright." 
 
 Domestic songs, as, "John Anderson, my Jo." 
 
 To these may be added satirical and humorous songs. 
 
 The religious class includes hymns, psalms, and canticles. 
 
 The hymn is a religious song. 
 
 The psalm is a hymn, but the term is restricted to those of 
 the Bible, as the Psalms of David. 
 
 The canticle is a religious song without metre, including es- 
 pecially those of the New Testament, such as the " Magnificat." 
 
 2. The ode. This is a lyric poem, not designed for singing. 
 It may express quiet thought or the most impassioned feeling ; 
 and while its structure is often simple, at other times it em- 
 ploys the most elaborate versification. Wordsworth's Cuckoo 
 and Ode on Immortality exhibit the two extremes, both of form 
 and sentiment. 
 
 3. The elegy. This is a poem devoted to mournful sub- 
 jects, and has been called a memorial song of regret or lam- 
 entation. Milton's Lycidas and Gray's Elegy are well known 
 examples. Tennyson's In Memoriam is a collection of elegiac 
 poems. 
 
 4. The sonnet. This is a poem of fourteen lines, in the 
 iambic metre of five or five and a half feet, containing the un- 
 folding of one thought or idea. 
 
 § 600. DRAMATIC POETRY. 
 
 Dramatic poetry is devoted to tragedy and comedy. 
 
 Tragedy has been called the struggle of individuals against 
 destiny; comedy, the portrayal of the ludicrous elements which 
 enter into existence. These have already been considered at 
 sufficient lengthy 
 
 The metre of dramatic poetry in English is the same as that 
 which is employed in epic, namely, the heroic line, or the 
 
542 Elements of RJietoric. 
 
 iambic line of five or five and a half feet. Lyrical poetry 
 enters largely into the drama, and tragedy and comedy are 
 often intermingled. The lyrical drama is that kind of dra- 
 matic poetry which is designed to be sung with 'a musical 
 accompaniment, as the Italian opera. 
 
 § 60 1. DESCRIPTIVE POETRY. 
 
 Descriptive poetry consists chiefly of description, although 
 narrative may be intermingled. Examples of this may be found 
 in Thomson's Seasons, Cowper's Task, and Byron's Childe 
 Harold. 
 
 § 602. DIDACTIC POETRY. 
 
 Didactic poetry comprehends that which is written for the 
 purpose of conveying instruction. It may be scientific, as the 
 De Rerum Natura of Lucretius; philosophical, as the Excur- 
 sion of Wordsworth; critical, as Pope's Essay on Criticism; 
 moral or religious, as Young's Night Thoughts and Tennyson's 
 In Memoriam. 
 
 § 603. PASTORAL POETRY. 
 
 Pastoral poetry is devoted to the expression of tender senti- 
 ments, especially the amatory passion, intermingled with pas- 
 sages of description. These most frequently assume the form 
 of dialogue. Theocritus is the father of pastoral poetry. The 
 Bucolics of Virgil are familiar to every schoolboy. The best 
 example in English literature is Allan Ramsay's Gentle Shep- 
 herd. The taste for this class of poetry is extinct at the pres- 
 ent day. 
 
 § 604. SATIRICAL POETRY. 
 
 Satirical poetry includes all which is devoted to purposes of 
 satire, and has already been suflficiently discussed. 
 
 § 605. HUMOROUS POETRY. 
 
 Humorous poetry includes all which is devoted to the ridic- 
 ulous without satire. 
 
 § 606. MANY POEMS SHARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SEVERAL 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 There are many poems which cannot be assigned strictly to 
 
Poetry, 543 
 
 any one of the above classes, but share the characteristics of 
 several. Thus Childe Harold is descriptive and didactic, with 
 a slight thread of narrative. In Memoriam is didactic and 
 lyrical. The Princess is narrative and didactic. Maud is 
 narrative and lyrical. 
 
 § 607. NEW DEVELOPMENT IN VERSIFICATION. 
 
 The present age of English poetry has been distinguished 
 for the development of its versification. Several metres, for- 
 merly used for lyrical purposes only, have been successfully 
 applied to long narrative themes, such as the dactylic and 
 trochaic by Longfellow in his Evangeline and Hiawatha, and 
 the anapajstic by Tennyson in his Maud. In addition to this, 
 new rhythmical effects have been introduced into lyrical poetry, 
 with greater freedom and flexibility in the manipulation of syl- 
 lables. In this pursuit Tennyson has led the way, and Swin- 
 burne has carried it farther than any other. These and others 
 have disclosed fresh resources in our language, and their works 
 indicate an advance into new departments of metrical harmony 
 by which the poetry of the future will be enriched. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abandon in style, 239. 
 
 Abruptness of transition, 305. 
 
 Absolute beautiful, 411. 
 
 Abstract put for concrete, 128. 
 
 Accent in English, 263. 
 
 Accentuated metres, 582. 
 
 Accumulation, 149. 
 
 Accumulative invention, 319. 
 
 Action, in introductions, 394 ; unity in, 423. 
 
 Adaptation of speech to audience, 556. 
 
 Addison, style of, 4 ; perspicuity of, 7 ; sim- 
 plicity of, ID ; quoted, 147, 266, 275, 284 ; 
 classical English of, 256; elegant intro- 
 duction of, 286 ; persuasion of, 315. 
 
 Adjective, position of, 50. 
 
 Adjuration, 486. 
 
 Admonition, 485. 
 
 Adoration, 486. 
 
 Advancement of Learning, Bacon's. 
 313- 
 
 Adverb, position of, 50. 
 
 iEneid, conclusion of, 401. 
 
 iEschines, status of, 329 ; charges Demos- 
 thenes with being too rhetorical, 306 ; or- 
 der of thought in speech against Ctesi- 
 phon, 350. 
 
 iEschylus, metaphor of, 108; quoted, 140: 
 origin of drama, 567 ; aim of, 569. 
 
 ^sop's fables, 114. 
 
 iEsthetic emotions, 408. 
 
 ^Esthetics, 409. 
 
 iEthiopics of Heliodorus, 472. 
 
 Affectation, 268. 
 
 AflFections, enumerated, 408 ; influence on 
 literature of the, 470; literature of the, 
 476. 
 
 Affluence of style, 59. 
 
 [The figures denote sections.] 
 
 I Aims of composition, to instruct, 313 ; to con- 
 vince, 314; to persuade, 315; to please, 
 316; union of different aims, 317. 
 
 Aitiologia, 523. 
 
 Allegory, 112. 
 
 Allison, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Alliteration, a figure o( 186 ; inversification, 
 579- 
 
 Allusion, 118: historical, 119; literary, 120; 
 distinguished from quotation, 121 ; in il- 
 lustrative style, 249. 
 
 Amatory songs, 599. 
 
 Ambition, 467. 
 
 American humor, 435. 
 
 American oratory, 555. 
 
 American Taxation, speech by Burke on, 
 status of, 329 ; generalization of, 383 ; 
 argument from experience against, 37a ; 
 transition in speech on, 378. 
 
 Americanisms, 41. 
 
 Ames Fisher, quoted, 164. 
 
 Amphibrach, 592. 
 
 Amplification — one of the augumentative fig- 
 ures, 144 ; defined, 145 ; by dwelling on 
 details, 146 ; by direct statement, 147 ; by 
 comparison, 148; by accumulation, 149; 
 coUectio, aggregatio, 150; synathroismus, 
 151; diasceue, 152; synezeugmenon, 153; 
 epexergasia, 154; dinumeratio, 155; de- 
 scription, 156; ecloge, 157; hypotyposis, 
 158; metastasis, 159; in argument, 379. 
 
 Anacoenosis, 511. 
 
 Anacoluthon, 211. 
 
 Ahadiplosis, i8o. 
 
 Analepsis, 219. 
 
 Analogy, Butler's, style of, 235. 
 
 of. 
 
 Affluent style distinguished from fluent, 258. 373- 
 
 I Analogy, comparison of, 93 ; argument from. 
 
 Agamemnon of iEschylus, dramatic order of 
 
 thought in, 352. 
 Ages of literature, 4. 
 Aggregatio, 150. 
 
 Agreement, method of, J. S. Mill's, 366. 
 Agricola of Tacitus, conclusion of, 403. 
 Aim of oraior, 55S. 
 
 Analysis and synthesis, 338 ; for clearness of 
 
 statement, 377. 
 Anamnesis, 520. 
 Anangc*eum, 513. 
 Anapaestic metre, 586. 
 Anastrophe, 191. 
 Anathema, 473. 
 
546 
 
 Index, 
 
 "And" repeated, 364. 
 
 Anecdotes, a source of allusion, lao; used in 
 illustrative style, 251. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon words conducive to simplicity, 
 12 ; percentage of, in different authors, 13 ; 
 the essential element in the Elnglish lan- 
 guage, 14 ; predominates in the roost pop- 
 ular books, 15 ; power of compounding 
 words, 4S : excess of metaphors in poetry, 
 to8 ; excess of epithets, 140 ; alliterative 
 verse in, 186. 
 
 Animation of style, 239. 
 
 Annals, order of thought in, 343. 
 
 Annominatio, 173. 
 
 Answers to objections in oratory, s>4- 
 
 Antanaclasis, 123, 451- 
 
 Antecedent and consequent, incongruity m, 
 432. 
 
 Anterresis, 524. 
 
 Anth>'pophora. 525. 
 
 Anticipation of objections in oratory, 525. 
 
 Anticlimax, 168. 
 
 Antimeria, 123. 
 
 Antimetaboie, 79. 
 
 Antistropbe, 178, 596. 
 
 Antithesis — definition ai, 74 ; utility tt, 75 ; 
 efiecthreDCM of. 76 ; oompucd with plain 
 ■Utement, 77 ; various form* of. 78 ; anti- 
 metaboie, 7^ paradtastole, 80: synoe- 
 ceosis or enantiosis, 81 ; osyimn-on, 82 ; 
 parison, isocdon, 83 ; prosapodosta, 84. 
 
 Antooomasia. 128. 
 
 Apollonius of Tyana, quoted, 212, 529. 
 
 Apology of Socrates, 311. 
 
 Apophthegm, 76, 224, 389. 
 
 Aporia, 527. 
 
 Aposiopesis, 212. 
 
 Apostrophe, 1 16 ; with exclamation, 197. 
 
 Apparent intent, in oratory, 530. 
 
 Appeal, 486. 
 
 Appended clauses, 278. 
 
 Appositio, 296. 
 
 Arabian m>thology, 463. 
 
 Arabian Nights' Entertainments, a source of 
 allusion, 120; aim ot, 316; plot of, 353; 
 verisimilitude in, 369 ; love of splendor in 
 descriptions in, 468. 
 
 Archaism, 37. 
 
 Architecture, Greek and Gothic compared, 
 423 
 
 Areopagitica, Milton's, 556. 
 
 Arguments — difference between rhetoric 
 and logic with reference to argument, 
 357; logic defined, 358; reasoning, 359; 
 terms, 360 ; propositions, 361 ; definition, 
 362 ; proof, 363 ; deduction, 364 ; induc- 
 tion, 365 : Mill's four experimental meth- 
 ods of inquiry, 366 ; enthymeme, 367 ; 
 kinds of arguments, 368 ; causative, 369 ; 
 illustrative, 370; exemplative, 371; from 
 
 experience, 372 ; from analogy, 373 ; 
 from contrast, 374 ; application of the 
 different kinds of, 375 ; presenution of, 
 37^392- 
 
 Aristophanes, parody by, 444 ; satirical poet- 
 ry of, 445. 
 
 Aristotle, definition of rhetoric by, i ; classi- 
 fication of oratory by, 499, 
 
 Arrangement of words in a sentence, general 
 rule for the, 50 ; limitations of rule for, 5r, ' 
 for purposes of harmony, 274- 
 
 Ars Poetica, Horace's, 313. 
 
 Art, a source of new words, 41 ; terms ot, 
 transferred to poetry, 308 ; in description, 
 490 -, in classification of knowledge, 497. 
 
 Arthurian epopoeia, 324. 
 
 Artifices of oratory, definition of, 526; ex- 
 pression of doubt or ignorance, 527 ; in- 
 tentional omission of words, 528 ; withdraw- 
 al of expression, 529 ; apparent intent, 530 ; 
 supposed case, 531 ; other forms, 532. 
 
 Asiatic oratory, 4. 
 
 Assertion, for emphasis, 170 ; for strengthen- 
 ing argument, 387, 487- 
 
 Associative theory of the beautiful, 410. 
 
 Assonant rhymes 594. 
 
 As3mdeton, ai6 ; oJmpared with polysyn- 
 deton, 217. 
 
 Attack, in oratory, 534; personal, 535; in- 
 cidental reference, 536; side thrust, 537; 
 defence turned into attack, 54 1 : testi- 
 mony of adversary turned against himself^ 
 54a 
 
 Attic oratory, 4. 
 
 Attributive terms, 51 ; epithets, 137. 
 
 Augmenutive figures, 144 ; amplification, 
 145*159; climax, 160-162; h>'perbole, 
 163, 164. 
 
 Augustus, Pope's Epistle to, vocabulary of^ 
 i3- 
 
 Ausonius quoted. 439. 
 
 Authority defined, 43. 
 
 Avarice, 468. 
 
 Aversion, 473. 
 ' Awe, a source of the sublime, 426. 
 
 Aytoun, quoted, 435. 
 
 Bacon, style of, 4 ; Pope on, 19 ; Landor on, 
 ao ; on new words, 39 ; conciseness of, 58 ; 
 quoted, 75, 77, 83, 224; epigrammatic 
 style of, 253 ; persuasion of, 315. 
 . Badinage, 449- 
 ' Baldness in style, 246, 305. 
 
 Ballad, simplicity in, 10; quaintness in, 258; 
 pathetic, 481 ; definition of, 598. 
 
 Banter, 449. 
 
 Barbarism, 39. 
 
 Baron Munchausen, satire of, 446. 
 
 Barrow, Dr Isaac, quoted, 303, 433. 
 
 Bathos, 246. 
 
Index. 
 
 547 
 
 Batrachomyomachia, 437. 
 
 Beattie, quoted, 105. 
 
 Beautiful, theories concerning the, 410 ; defi- 
 nition of, 411 ; taste, 4 '2; in nature, 4'3 : 
 color,4i4; form, 415; motion, 416; sound, 
 417; proportion, 418; variety, 419; de- 
 sign, 420; in morals, 421 ; in literature, 
 422 ; difference between ancient and mod- 
 em idea of, 423. 
 
 Beauty, power of, 467. 
 
 Beckford, description by, 490. 
 
 Bedford, Burke's letter to Duke of, 19. 
 
 Belles-lettres, 292; analogous to painting, , 
 292 ; to music, 293. 
 
 Bentley, quoted, 443. 
 
 Beranger, quoted, 249. 
 
 Berkeley, aim of, 314. 
 
 Bias, on part of writer, 315 ; status, 328. 
 
 Bible, vocabulary of, 13 ; source of figurative 
 language, 1 10 ; source of allusion, lao. 
 See Scriptures. 
 
 Biography, conclusion in, 403 ; narrative in, 
 494- 
 
 Bismarck, quoted, 139, 227. 
 
 Black, William, description by, 490. 
 
 Blackwood's Magazine, 323. 
 
 Blair, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Blame, 473. 
 
 Blank verse, 595. 
 
 Bleak House, Dickens's, 331 ; illtistntive ar- 
 gument in, 370. 
 
 Boccaccio, 10. 
 
 Boileau, quoted, 428. 
 
 Bolingbroke, quoted, 59, 245. 
 
 Bombast, 246. 
 
 Bonar, Horatio, quoted, 584. 
 
 Bon Gualtier, burlesque by, 437. 
 
 Bon-mot, 443. 
 
 Book of Common Prayer, vocabulary of, 13 ; 
 effect on English langtiage, 34; quoted, 
 .85. 
 
 Boswell, life of Johnson by, 317. 
 
 Bravura, 299. 
 
 Brevity, in style,' 58 ; in ezordiiun, 396 : in 
 wit, 433- 
 
 Bride of Lammermoor, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Brilliancy, 243. 
 
 Bristol Election, Burke's speech on, example 
 of narrative and expository subject-matter, 
 
 3"- 
 
 Brougham, Lord, vocabulary of, 13; quoted, 
 89, 148, 161, 180, 185, 264, 306, 485, 486, 
 487, 506 ; status of, 329 ; description by, 
 385 : on Greek oratory, 546 ; sarcasm of, 
 550 ; physical disadvantages as an orator, 
 559- 
 
 Browne, Sir Thomas, quoted, 58, 75, 224; 
 epigrammatic style of, 253 ; criticised by 
 De Quincey, 299 ; persuasion of, 315. 
 
 Browning, Mrs., vocabulary of, 13 ; imiu- 
 
 A A 
 
 tion of Poe by, 295 ; invention of, 324 ; sub- 
 limity of, 430 ; pathetic, 482. 
 
 Browning, Robert, vocabulary of, 13; quoted, 
 171.212, 214, 586, 587 ; mannerism of, 269; 
 parody on, 444; subjective narration of, 
 495 ; expository poetry, 498. 
 
 Bryant, quoted, 116, 130, 585; invention of, 
 325- 
 
 Buffoonery, 309, 455. 
 
 Building of the Ship, Longfellow's, vocab- 
 ulary of, 13. 
 
 Bull, Irish, 435. 
 
 Bulwer. See Lytton. 
 
 Buncombe, 246. 
 
 Bunyan, style of, 4; simplicity of, 10; vo- 
 cabulary of, 13 ; compared with Spencer, 
 112; quaintness of, 258 ; Grace Abounding 
 of, 495- 
 
 Burden of proof, 33a 
 
 Burke, vocabulary of, 13 ; Latin style of, 15 ; 
 quoted, 19, ao, 81, 83, 88, 94, 109, 120, 132, 
 141, 146, 149, 163, 171, 183, 227, 245. 254i 
 256, 269, 270, 273. 276, 277, 309, 380, 381, 
 383, 384. 385. 389. 4o5» 5»9. 527. 53', 547 ! 
 conciseness of, 58; anaphora, 176; sug- 
 gestive style of, 257 ; affluence of, 258 ; per- 
 suasion of, 315 ; invention of, 319 ; status of, 
 329; attention to method by, 339; order of 
 thought in, 350; definition of, 362 ; causa- 
 tive argument of, 369 ; comprehensiveness 
 of, 382 ; exordium of, 396; amplification of, 
 379 ; panegyric of, 548 ; command of sub- 
 ject by, 552 ; love of imagery by, 555 ; 
 faults of, as an orator, 556, 557 ; physical 
 disadvantages of, as an orator, 559; m- 
 tellectual qualities, 561. 
 
 Burlesque, 437, 566. 
 
 Bumey, Miss, 323. 
 
 Bums, Robert, simplicity of, 10; quoted, 
 186, 595 ; effect of his poetry on feelings, 
 317; pathetic 482. 
 
 "But" repeated too frequently, 264. 
 
 Butler, Bishop, vocabulary of, 13 ; style of, 
 
 235- 
 
 Byrom. Dr., quoted, 439, 485, 488. 
 
 Byron, Lord, vocabulary of, 13; quoted, 19, 
 20, 25, 35- 92, 117, 120, 131, 132, 137, i66, 
 174, 178, 180, 183, 186, 197, 206, 219, 227, 
 233, 236, 245, 260, 295, 317, 422, 462, 584; 
 epithets of, 140 ; mannerism of, 269 ; sub- 
 limity of, 430 ; lampoon of, 442 ; pathetic, 
 482; description by, 490; subjective de- 
 scription by, 491 ; compared with Scott, 
 492 ; subjective narration of, 495. 
 
 Caedmon, quoted, 430. 
 Caesural pause, 593. 
 Calhoun, J. C., quoted, 508, 522, 524. 
 Campbell, Dr., vocabulary of, 13 ; vivacity 
 defined by, 64, 238. 
 
548 
 
 Index. 
 
 Campbell, Thomas, vbcabulary of, 13 ; quoted, 
 130, 174, 186, 236, 262, 295; sublimity ot 
 430. 
 
 Cannii^, quoted, 170, 180, 245. 
 
 Cant, 272. 
 
 Canticle, 599. 
 
 Canto, 596. 
 
 Care in use of words, 23. 
 
 Carelessness, 305. 
 
 Carlovingian epopoeia, 324. 
 
 Carlyle, Thomas, style of, 4 ; quoted, 94, 96, 
 loi, 103, 116, 141, 152, 163, 197, 208, 211, 
 235, 299. 516 ; compared with De Quincey, 
 256; mannerism of, 269; persuasion of, 
 315 ; satire of, 446 ; description by, 491. 
 
 Catacbresis, iii. 
 
 Catalectic s>-llable, 59a 
 
 Cataplexis, 473. 
 
 Catastrophe, 352. 
 
 Causative argiunents, 369. 
 
 Cause, put for effect, 130; argument from, 
 to effect, 369; incongruity in, and effect, 
 432. 
 
 Celtic mythology, 463. 
 
 Centennial ode, quoted, 108. 
 
 Central thought, 327. 
 
 Chaff; 449. 
 
 Chalmers, Dr. Thomas, quoted, 49, 52, 160, 
 166, 299, 510. 
 
 Chamisso, Shadowless Man by, 112. 
 
 Channing, William K., quoted, 595. 
 
 Character, in fiction, 323 : compared with 
 pl<^t, 353 ; in introduction, 394, 395. 
 
 Charles the Fifth, opinion of, on languages, 
 260. 
 
 Chaste style, 302. 
 
 Chatham, Elarl of. %-ocabiilary of, 13 ; quoted, 
 88, 91, 172, 174. 185, 235. 405, 473, 486, 488, 
 511, 524, 534; status of, 329; order of 
 thought in, 340 ; exordium of, 396 ; sar- 
 casm of, 550 ; physical advantages of, as an 
 orator, 559 ; courage of, 560 ; intellectual 
 qualities of, 561. 
 
 Chaucer, vocabulary of, 13; House of Fame 
 by, 112; style of, 258; aim of, 316; in- 
 vention of, 324 ; pathetic, 48X 
 
 Chauvinism, 470. 
 
 Childe Harold, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Choate, Rufus, 158 ; style of, 555. 
 
 Choice of Hercules, 112. 
 
 Chorianibus, 592. 
 
 Chorus, nature of, in Greek play, 423 ; in 
 songs 596. 
 
 Christian apologists, 501. j 
 
 Christian Year, Keble's, vocabulary of, 13. ' 
 
 Christmas Eve, Browning's, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Chronicles, order of thousht in, 343. 
 
 Chronological order of thought, 341. 
 
 Cicero, 59 ; figures of speech in. 67 ; quoted. 
 84, 91, 117, 158, 1S5, 405 ; interrogation by, I 
 
 200 ; affluent style of, 258, 364 ; aim of, 
 315; status of, 327; analysis of second 
 oration against Catiline, 339 ; exordium of, 
 396 ; introduction of, 398 ; quoted by Quin- 
 tilian, 532 ; panegyric of, 548 ; physical ad- 
 vantages of, as an orator, 559 ; courage of, 
 560. 
 
 Cid, 10. 
 
 Circumlocution, 29; compared with peri- 
 phrasis, 132. 
 
 Circumstantial evidence, 370. 
 
 Cities, epithets applied to, 139. 
 
 Clarendon, quoted, 50. 53, 54 ; faults of, 55, 
 56; affluent style of, 59; aim of, 317; 
 bias of, 328. 
 
 Classical style, 256 ; school in literature, 
 423- 
 
 Classification, defined, 333 ; of narrative, 334 ; 
 of description, 335 ; of grouping, 336; in 
 exposition, 337; analysis and synthesis of, 
 338; general and particular propositions, 
 339 ; incongruity in, 432. 
 
 Clauses, improper position of, 50 ; appended, 
 54 ; variety in, 282 ; co-o<-dination of, 283. 
 
 Clay, Henry, quoted, 485, 5«5i 5i7- 
 
 Clearness, of conception necessary to pwe- 
 cision, 22; in method, 57; in arguments, 
 
 377- 
 
 Climax, defined, 160; incrementum with, 
 i6t : progressio with, i6a. 
 
 Close of sentence, 284- 
 
 Cobden, quoted, $24- 
 
 Coleridge, S. T., quoted, 115, 191, 297 ; sub- 
 jective narrative by, 495. 
 
 Colin Clout, a satire, 44$* 
 
 Collectio, 150. 
 
 Collins, quoted, 79, 115, 189, 191, 295, 591 ; 
 epithets of, 140. 
 
 Colloquialisms, 270. 
 
 Colonizing movements, a source of new 
 words, 41. 
 
 Color, a source of beauty, 414- 
 
 Comedy, conclusion in, 404 ; defined, 566. 
 
 Command, 485. 
 
 Command of subject in oratory, 552; of 
 language, 561. 
 
 Commentum, 205. 
 
 Commoratio, 515. 
 
 Comparison, 93 ; of degree, 94 ; of analogy, 
 95 ; of similarity. 96 ; for ornament, 97 ; 
 for explanation and illustration, 98 : faults 
 in, 99; in illustrative style, 250; incon- 
 gruity in, 432. 
 
 Complex sentence, 52. 
 
 Compliment, in oratory, 506. 
 
 Composition in English and other languages, 
 
 45- 
 Compound sentences, 52. 
 Compound words, 45 ; faults in use of, 46. 
 Comprehensiveness, 38a. 
 
Index, 
 
 549 
 
 
 Conceit, 307. 
 
 Concession in oratory, 508. 
 
 Conciliation in oraior>', in exordium, 396 ; in 
 language, 504 ; in demeanor, 554. 
 
 Conciliation with America, speech of Burke 
 on, status of, 329 ; outline of speech on, 
 339 ; causative argument in speech on, 
 369; diminution in, 380; condensation>in, 
 381 ; definition of, 384 ; exordiuai in, 396 ; 
 conclusion of, 405. 
 
 Conciseness, tends to perspicuity, 58 ; to 
 energy, 228. 
 
 Conclusion, elegance in, 291 : explained, 
 400 ; in narrative fiction, 401 ; in history, 
 402 ; in biography, 403 ; in drama, 404 ; in 
 oratory, 405 ; different kinds of, 406. 
 
 Concomitant variations, Mill's method of, 
 366. 
 
 Concrete terms, tend to clearness, 10 ; used 
 for abstract, 128 ; tend to energy, 232. 
 
 Concurrent streams, 344. 
 
 Condensation, 381. 
 
 Confession in oratory, 509. 
 
 Conjugal affection, 470. 
 
 Connectives, variation of, 281. 
 
 Consonant rhymes, 594. 
 
 Consonants, too many together, 263. 
 
 Consultation with audience, 511. 
 
 Container for contained, 130. 
 
 Contiguity, figures arising from idea of, de- 
 fined, 127; synecdoche, 128; antimeria, 
 enallage, 129; metonymy, 130; metalepsis, 
 131; periphrasis, 132; euphemism, 133; 
 hyixxorisma, 134 ; litotes, 135 ; exemplum, 
 136; epithets, 137-142. 
 
 Contrast, figures based upon idea of, defined, 
 73 ; antithetical forms of, 74-84 ; definition 
 by, 362; argument t'rom, 374; iiKongruity 
 in, 43»- 
 
 Control of emotion, 546. 
 
 Controversial debate, 501. 
 
 Conviction an aim of composition, 314, 317. 
 
 Convivial songs, 599. 
 
 Co-ordination of clauses, 283. 
 
 Copiousness, 241. 
 
 Cornwall, Barry, vocabulary of, 13. 
 !orrect style, 307. 
 ounter proposition, 361. 
 
 Countries, epithets applied to, 139. 
 
 Couplet, 596. 
 
 Cowper, simplicity of, 10 ; vocabulary of, 
 13; quoted, 92, 129, 171, 186, 585,586; in- 
 vention of, 322 ; pathetic, 482 ; expository 
 poetry, 498. 
 
 Crabbe, invention of, 322 ; objective narra- 
 tion of, 495. 
 
 Creative invention, 320, 325. 
 
 Cretic, 592. 
 
 Crisis in fiction, 352. 
 
 Criticism, Essay on. Pope's, 313. 
 
 Crown, Demosthenes's oration on the, exposi- \ 
 tory and narrative subject-matter in, 311 ; 
 aim of, 317; status of, 329; order of 
 thought in, 351; exordium in, 396; con- 
 clusion of, 4o5>; defence turned to attack 
 in, 541 ; outburst of fe«ling in, 544 ; concil- 
 iation in, 554. 
 
 Cry of the Children, Mrs. Browning's, 470. 
 
 Ctesiphon, vEschines against, order of 
 thought in, 351. 
 
 Cumming, 288. 
 
 Curran, quoted, 243, 486, 511, 524, 528, 532, 
 534- 
 
 Current sayings, 76. 
 
 Cursor Mundi, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Dactylic metres, 587. 
 
 Dante, quoted, 228 ; invention of, 320, 325, 
 332 ; introduction of, 394 ; pathetic, 4S1 ; 
 subjective narration by, 495. 
 
 Darkness a source of the sublime, 425. 
 
 Darwin, Erasmus, 246 ; expository poetry of, 
 498. 
 
 Debate, $00 ; controversial, 501 ; parliamen- 
 tary, 502. 
 
 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 
 classification in, 334. 
 
 Decrementive figures, classified, 143 ; de- 
 fined, 165; diminution in, 166; depreciar 
 tion uf, 167 ; anticlimax in, 168. 
 
 Deduction, 364. 
 
 Defence in oratory, 538; strict, 539; indi- 
 rect reply, 540; turned into attack, 541; 
 testimony of adversary turned against 
 himself, 254. 
 
 Defiance in oratory, 396 ; language of emo- 
 tions, 473. 
 
 Definite in style, 128; tending to energy, 
 231 : in argument, 384. 
 
 Definition explained, 362 ; tends to clearness 
 in argument, 377. 
 
 Defoe, style of, 4 ; simplicity of^ to ; vocab- 
 ulary oi, 13. 
 
 Degree, comparison ofi 93. 
 
 Dejection in emotions, 475. 
 
 Deliberative oratory, 499. 
 
 Delicacy in style, 302. 
 
 Delight, 474. 
 
 Demodocus, quoted, 439. 
 
 Demonstrative terms, in style, 233 ; in ora- 
 tory, 499. 
 
 Demosthenes, quoted, 157, 200, 201, 544; hy- 
 perbaton of, 194 ; description by, 385 ; adju- 
 ration of, 486 ; attack of, 534 ; command of 
 subject by, 552 ; conciliation of, 554 ; physical 
 advantages of, as an orator, 559 ; courage 
 of, 560. 
 
 Denial, in arguments, 388 ; in emotions, 487. 
 
 Denunciation, 473. 
 
 Depreciation, 167. 
 
550 
 
 Index. 
 
 De Quincey. quoted, 4, 49. 5$. 60, 6i. ia6» 
 j66. 1^7. x<^. 202. 212, 223. 229, 284, 288, 
 28>% 2^> 302. 434, 548 ; vocabu l a r y of. 13 : 
 criiicu<«d, 55 ; style ol, 227 : cxxnpared with 
 Carlyle, 2$6: persoasion oC, 315: cfaaiige 
 «<,a|^iiiat J— ephw, 317: oo Milton, 490; 
 Opimm Eater bjr, 495; 
 
 Dc9tnptMis« MtfkAcMtion in, 1^ ; d c finfd , 
 jii ; fiatrifiratiw i in, J35 : >«» oratory, 185; 
 >4r 395; "> 
 »; stibfective, 491 
 
 ! poctty, 6ot. 
 
 Design, a Moce of the bcBalifid, 4aoL 
 
 Desire, 486. 
 
 Desires, emuoerated, 408 : defined, 464 ; for 
 •df-jxcaef valion, 465 ; of ■eKotec■^4^' 
 of aanbitkni, 467 ; -of avariee. 468 ; for 
 kBO«rledge,469; litemiire of, 476. 
 
 Dei|nir,475. 
 
 Desmy.ssa- 
 
 De Vere, Aobrey, quoted. 1 xx 
 
 lefined, 311, ste; didactic, 563; 
 J64. 
 isa. 
 
 DuMBi, <|ooied, tsB. 
 
 voakialafy of; 13 : a «wfee of d- 
 tao; ooBpared with Thadceray, 
 aSfS; nanaerinB «£. 369; florid style ml, 
 306 : attractrrencas oC 316; aim of. 317: 
 realistic style eC 323, 325; characters in, 
 3S3; satire o<; 446 ; pauhetic. 482; sob- 
 jective narratioo by. 495. 
 
 Dictiooaries, vocabolary of, 13. 
 
 EKdactic, dialogue, 563 ; poetry, 60a. 
 
 Dies Ine, 481. 
 
 Dtetedas, 87. 
 
 Dtfierenoe. MOTs Method of 3^6 
 
 Diffbse style, 59: cootiasted with florid, 
 306. 
 
 D%nity ofttyle,235. 
 
 Dtgrentoo, 6t,aob; in argument, 390^ 
 
 I^Bumition. in style, >66 ; in aigam eut, 380. 
 
 Dinoneratio, 155. 
 
 Direct iatrodnctioB, 397. 
 
 Direct stateaMBt, 16& 
 
 Direct stress on words, by s as t i tiu n, 170 ; by 
 negatioQ, 171. 
 
 Diacjuwery, a souroe of new words, 4t< 
 
 Dislike, 473. 
 
 DiaBay,475- 
 
 Display of feefiog in oratory, 543 ; sadden 
 outburst, 544 ; estravagaaoe of expreasion, 
 545 : cxntTol of emotion, 546 : eology, S47 ; 
 panegyric, 548; retort, 549 ; sarcasm, 550- 
 
 Disproof,330' 
 
 Divaeii, i9»: muaerism o^ 269; qnoAed, 
 527 : biiiiiiCM lilrr oratory of. 555. 
 
 Dissimilarity distinsuisbed from cooftast, 374. 
 
 ! Dirina Commedia, 35; allegory of^ 112; 
 suttts oC 33>; title of. 332; classification 
 o^ 334 : introduction of, 394. 
 
 Doddridge, quoted, 439. 
 
 Domestic soQgs, 599. 
 
 Don Qmma^ 331, 446. 
 ! Donay BSde, 15- 
 
 Doabl e e nten d re , 454. 
 
 Do«Ue-6M»d cieed, 454- 
 
 Doubt, sutement oC in oratory, 5x7. 
 
 Diama, defined, 311, 316, 565: order of 
 tbottght, 354*. introduction. 395; condu- 
 aien, 404 ; nanative, 494 ; subjective nar- 
 ratioo, 495 ; dialogue, 564 ; divisions of 
 dramatic litoature, 566; origin <£, 567; 
 mystery and morality i^ys, 568: Greek, 
 369: modem, 570L 
 
 Dramatic order of thought, 352 : compared 
 yrhh narrattre order, 334 ; dialogue, 564 ; 
 jHjetry, 60a 
 
 L>raper. Dr., vocabulary oC, 13. 
 
 Draper. Sir William. J uniu&'s letter to,TOCab- 
 ular)- of, 13. 
 
 Dry style, 305. 
 
 Drjrden, itew wonis «^ 40; quoted, 76, 140^ 
 175. '9b, i89» 264, 439, 589, 591, 593 : ep>> 
 thctso<; 140W 
 
 Dubitatio, 527. 
 
 Doderant, Madame. See George Sand. 
 
 Doma», 258 : plat oC'363- 
 Divafticn, the a u bKme in, 425- 
 Durward, Qacntin, 313. 
 Dwelling on a proposition, 515. 
 
 Ease of style, 302. 
 
 East India Bill, Burke's oration on, general- 
 ixation oi, 383 ; definiteness of, 384 ; con- 
 clusion of, 405 : Fox's oration on, analogy 
 of, 373 ; defence turned to attack io, 541 ; 
 retort in, 549 ; sarcasm in, 550. 
 
 Easy writing di&rs from ease of style. 302. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Polity, Hooker' s,Tocabulary of; 
 13; aim of, 3r3. 
 
 Eclipse of Faith, 495. 
 
 Ecloge, 157- 
 
 Edinburgb'ReTiew, quoted, s<* 
 
 Editorial article, 49S. 
 
 Education, 497. 
 
 style, 237. 
 33S- 
 
 Egotistic style, 307. 
 
 Ejaculation, 26ft. 
 
 Elaboratioo of style, 303. 
 
 gi«y»«r>, defined and illustrated, 266 ; viola- 
 tions of, 267 ; by aflkctatioo, 268 ; by nuo- 
 nerism, 269; by colloquialisms, 270: by 
 slangs 271 ; by cant, 272 : by vulgarism, 273. 
 
 Elegy. 599- 
 
 Elevatioo, 560. 
 
Index. 
 
 551 
 
 Elia, 358. I 
 
 Eliot, George, vocabulary of, 13 ; quoted, 
 156 ; maxims of, 316 ; order of thought of, 
 353 ; subjective narration of, 495. 
 Elizabethan dramatists, 324. 
 Ellipse, 208. 
 
 Elliptical figures, defined, 207 ; ellipse, 208 : 
 zeugma, 209: synesis, 210; anacoluthon, 
 211; aposiopesis, 212; epanorthosis, 213; 
 interruptio, 214; suppressio, 215; asyn- 
 deton, 216. 
 Eloquence, vivacity rising to, 239. 
 Elyot, Sir Thomas, new words by, 40. 
 Emerson, style of, 4 ; vocabulary of; 13 ; 
 quoted, 58, 75, 80, 81, 82, 115, 119, 'S^, 
 163, 164, 166, 177, 183, 226, 231, 233. '35. 
 254 ; mannerism of, 269 ; aim oi, 3is> 
 Emotional co;iclusion, 406. 
 Emotions, literature of, a part of rhetoric, 2 ; 
 concrete terms to expres.% 11; influence 
 of, on literature, 407 ; classificai ion of, 40S; 
 the beautiful and sublime, 4io-43< '> tl>c 
 ridiculous, 432-461 ; the fantastic, 463 ; 
 desires, 464-469 ; affections, 470 ; passions, 
 47 1-475 ". literature of the desires, a£Eectioas, 
 and iiassions, 476-488. 
 Eniplusis, effect on arrangement of words, 
 51; in parenthesis, 55; basis of figurative 
 language, 71; figures of, 169; emphatic 
 assertion, 170; negation, 171: iteration, 
 172-187; inversion, j88-i9$ : unusual or 
 striking presentation, 196-225; in proposi- 
 tions, 286 ; in oratory, 512. 
 Emphatic conclusion, 406. 
 Enallage, 129. 
 Enantiosis 81. 
 
 Energ)-, in concrete terms, 11; Whatel/s 
 view of, 64 ; among the general divisions 
 of the subject of persuasiveness, 66 ; de- 
 fined, 226; simplicity as tending to, 227; 
 conciseness, 228 ; retrenchment of words, 
 229 ; precision, 230 ; the definite more en- 
 ergetic than the indefinite, 231; concrete 
 more energetic than abstract, 232 ; demon- 
 strative words, 233; proper terms, 234; 
 other qualities of style that tend to, 235 ; 
 illustrations from various authors, 336; 
 faults of style as opposed to, 237. 
 England, concurrent streams in history ofi 
 
 344 ; explanatory narrative of, 346. 
 English Bible, effect <5n literature and lan- 
 guage, 34 ; rhythm in, 299. 
 English language, component parts of, 12 ; 
 grammar of, 14; chief elements of, 17; 
 synonymous words in, 24 ; new w ords ad- 
 mitted into, 40 ; little power of compound- 
 ing words, 43 ; euphony, 260. 
 English literature, style of, 4 ; prose, 49 ; ad- 
 mits of inversion, 190 ; humor, 435 ; ora- 
 tory, 555 ; drama, 570. 
 
 Entertainment, an aim of composition, 316, 
 
 3«7- 
 Enthusiasm, vivacity rising to, 339 ; emotion 
 
 of, 474- 
 Entreaty, 486. 
 bpanalepsis, 182. 
 bpanaphora, 179. 
 Epanodos, 181. 
 Epanorthosis, 213, 529. 
 Kpexergasia, 154. , 
 
 Epic poetry, narration, 493; subjective nar- 
 ration, 494 ; definition, 598. 
 Epigram, antithesis. 76 ; a figure, 225 ; illus- 
 
 txated, 251 : defined and illustrated, 439. 
 Epigrammatic style, 252 ; in poetry, 253 ; 
 
 in prose, 354 ; faults in, 25 s. 
 Epiphonema, 199. 
 Epistle, 49& 
 Epistrophe, 177. 
 
 Epithets, precision in, ao; defined, 137; im> 
 portance of, 138; popularity of; 139; i» 
 poetry, 140: id prose, 141 ; faults in, 142. 
 Epixeuxis, 174. 
 Epopceia, 324. 
 
 Eiskine, Lord, vocabulary of; 13; quoted, 
 339, 284, 379, 505. 544' 546. 550 ; invention 
 of; 320; sutus of, 329; digression of, 390; 
 causative argument of; 369: exordium of; 
 396 : conclusion of, 554. 
 Esprit de corps, 470. 
 
 Essays, vocabulary of, 13 ; exposition, 498. 
 Esteem, 470. 
 Eulogy, 547- 
 Euphemism, 133. 
 
 Euphony, in different languages, 260 ; in dif- 
 ferent kinds of composition, 261 ; examples 
 of, 262; violations of, in letters and sylla- 
 bles 263 ; repetitions of words, 264, 265 ; 
 arrangement of words, 274. 
 Euripides, introduction of, 354 : pathetic, 
 
 480; characters of, 569- 
 European literature, 4. 
 Evans, Lord Mansfield on, 373. 
 " Even" changing with "and," 281. 
 Everett, Edward, 2n. 
 Evidence, 370. 
 Example, illustrative style, 248 ; definition 
 
 by, 362 ; clearness in argument by, 377. 
 Exclamation, figures of, definition of, 197 ; 
 
 salutation, 198 ; epiphonema, 199. 
 Execration, 473. 
 
 Exemplative arguments, defined, 371 ; from 
 experience, 372; from analogy, 373; from 
 contrast, 374. 
 Exemplum, 136, 248. 
 Exergasia, 91. 
 Exhortation, 487. 
 Experience, argument from, 372. 
 Experimental methods of inquiry. Mill's, 
 366. 
 
552 
 
 Index. 
 
 Explanation, in style, 206 ; in argiunent, 377 ; 
 in oraton', 522. 
 
 Explanatory words, 279 ; narrative, 346 ; in- 
 troduction, 397. 
 
 Expositio, 202. 
 
 Exposition, defined, 311 ; classification in, 
 337 ; order of thought, 348 ; nanai 
 494 : subjective narration, 495 ; defi^ 
 
 of, 496 ; rla<t»W^^tinn c\ f^i^j^gemaMyry writ 
 
 ings,'498. 
 
 Expository writings. Vocabulary of, x^ sub- 
 ject matter of, 311. ' ' 
 
 £xtra\'agance of language, 545. 
 
 Fable, 114. 
 
 Faerie Queene, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Fairy tales, source of allusion, lao. 
 
 Fame, 467. 
 
 Familiar essays, 271. 
 
 Fantastic, 463. 
 
 Farce, 566. 
 
 Fashion, a source of new words, 41. 
 
 Fashion's of criticism, rrS,. 
 
 Y' ■■■ ■ • •■ ;oi. 
 
 i ruess, 24-30, 44. 
 
 ■i . - 7 i vivacity, 246 ; 
 
 euphony, 263, 264 ; elegance in words, 267- 
 273 ; elegance in style, 304-309. 
 
 Faust, allegor}' in, 1 12 ; ideal in, 322 ; quoted, 
 490 ; subjective narration io, 495. 
 
 Fear, 475- 
 
 Feet, in poetry, iambic, 584 : trochaic, 585 ; 
 anajwestic, 586 : dactylic, 5S7 ; interchange 
 of, 589 ; other feet, 592. 
 
 Felicity of style, 245. 
 
 Female rhymes, 594. 
 
 Fertility of resources in oratory, 553. 
 
 Fiction, admits obsolete words, 36; conclu- 
 sion of, 401 : dialogue in, 564. 
 
 Fielding, realistic in, 323. 
 
 Figure, a source of the beautiful, 415. 
 
 Figures of speech, definition of, 67 ; impor- 
 Unce of, 68 ; tropes, 69 ; classification, 70, 
 71 ; arising from idea of contrast, 72-84 ; 
 fix)m perception of resemblance, 85-126: 
 from idea of contiguity. 127-142; figures 
 of gradation, 143-168 ; of iteration, 169- 
 187: from inversion <^ words, 188-195; 
 from unusual or striking presentation, 196- 
 225 ; harmony and embellishment, 301 ; 
 argument, 503 ; wit and humor, 439-443, 
 447-459 ; emotion^ 484-488 ; oratory, 507- 
 532 ; poetry, 573. 
 
 Filial affection, 470b 
 
 Fine writing, 268. 
 
 Finish of style, 302, 
 
 Fletcher of Saltoun, quoted, 315. 
 
 Florid style, 306. 
 
 Fluent style, 25S 
 
 Foot in poetrj-, 583- 
 
 Foreign intercourse, a source of new words, 
 41. 
 
 Form, a source of the beautiful, 415. 
 
 Forms of expression, connected with the 
 emotions, implying superiority, 485 ; in- 
 feriority, 486; equality, 487; reference to 
 self, 488. 
 
 Fouch^, quoted, 245. 
 
 Fouqu^, De la Motte, allegory by, 112; 
 ideal of, 323. 
 
 Fox, Charles James, quoted, 270, 284, 374, 
 405t 505. 535f 536, 537. 54». 549, 55© 5 order 
 of thought in, 340; outline of oration on 
 the rejection of Napoleon's overtures, 351 ; 
 digression of, 390 ; exordium of, 396 ; per- 
 oration, 405 ; answers to objections, 524 ; 
 command of subject, 552 ; fertility in re- 
 sources, 553 ; courage of, 559 ; intelleaual 
 qualities of, 561. 
 
 Frank style, 258. 
 
 Franklin, quoted, 440. 
 
 Fraternal affection, 470. 
 
 Freeman, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 F: .ii;e, a source of new words, 43 ; 
 
 l' -ure, style of, 4; characteristics 
 
 of. 49 ; i^erspicuous, 57 ; antithetical, 75 ; 
 
 ^t,435 : drama, 57a 
 Friendship, 470. 
 Frigidtty in style, 246. 
 Fmissart, 10. 
 Froude, vocabulary of, 13 ; summary of, 
 
 347- 
 Fulke, new vtords by, 40. 
 Fuller, Thomas, new words by, 40 ; quoted, 
 
 250. 457 ; s-tyle of, 258. 
 Fustian, 246. 
 Future occurrence, sutement of, in oratory, 
 
 514- 
 
 Garrison, W. L. 560. 
 
 Generalization, 383. 
 
 Georgics, Virgil, 313. 
 
 German language, power of compounding 
 words, 45 ; influence on English, 46 ; eu» 
 phony, 260. 
 
 German literature, style of, 4 ; character of, 
 45, 49 ; drama, 570. 
 
 Gesner, 306. 
 
 Gibbon, style of, 4 : vocabulary of, 13 : 
 quoted, 49, 402 ; dignity of, 235 ; suggest- 
 ive style of, 257; aim of history, 317; in- 
 vention of, 318: status of, 328; classifica- 
 tion of, 334 : order of thought in, 343 ; 
 concurrent streams, 344 ; retrogression of, 
 345; introduction of, 394; description d, 
 490. 
 
 Gilfillan, 306. 
 
 Gladstone, 555. 
 
 Gliick, Elizabeth, quoted, 10. 
 
Index. 
 
 553 
 
 Goethe's Faust, 112; Sorrows of Werther, 
 306 : quoted, 490. 
 
 Goldsmith, style of, 4; simplicity of, 10; 
 quoted, 183; classical English, 256; pa- 
 thetic, 482. 
 
 Gordon, Lord George, Erskine's speech on, 
 illustrative argument in, 370 ; transition, 
 378 ; conclusion, 405 ; self-depreciation of, 
 505 ; outburst of feeling by, 544. 
 
 Gorgeous style, 303. 
 
 Gorgias, definition of rhetoric by, 1. 
 
 Gospels, pathetic, 479 ; subjective narrarion 
 of, 495. 
 
 Gothic architecture, 423. 
 
 Grace of style, 302. 
 
 Gradation, figures of, augmentative, 144-164 ; 
 decrementive, 165-168. 
 
 Grafton, letter of Junius to, quoted, 19. 
 
 Grammar, English, 48. 
 
 Grammarians formerly investigated style, x. 
 
 Grandiloquence, 307. 
 
 Gratitude, 470. 
 
 Gratlan, vocabulary of, 13 : quoted, 116, 162, 
 178, 179, 202, 510, 531, 534 ; status of, 329 ; 
 panegyric of, 548; physical disadvantages 
 of, 559. 
 
 Gray, quoted, 79, loi, 120, 128, 130, 153, 189, 
 200, 295, 297, 430 ; epithets, 137, 140 ; de- 
 scription, 490. 
 
 Greece, history of, concurrent streams, 344. 
 
 Greek art, 423. 
 
 Greek language, a source of new words, 12, 
 41 ; power of compounding words, 45 ; 
 conjunctions, -sSi. 
 
 Greek literature, figures of speech, 69 : 
 drama, 324 ; idea of beautiful, 423 ; dia- 
 logue. 562 ; ecclesiastical metres, 581. 
 
 Grey, Lord, quoted, 509, 52$. 
 
 Grief, 475- 
 
 Grote, invention of, 325. 
 
 Grotesque, 463. 
 
 Ground of argument, 327. 
 
 Grouping, in description, 336. 
 
 Guizot, 495. 
 
 Gulliver's Travels, popularity of, 15: source 
 of allusion, 123 ; verisimilitude, 369 ; satire 
 of, 446. 
 
 Gushing style, 246, 306. 
 
 Habbakuk, quoted, 76, 430. 
 
 Hadfield, Erskine's speech on, argxunent 
 
 from contrast in, 374. 
 Hall, Robert, 205. 
 Hallam, vocabulary of, 13 ; conciseness of, 
 
 59 ; Constitutional History. 495. 
 Halleck, quoted, 116. 
 Hamerton, vocabulary of, 13. 
 Hamlet, scenery in, 323 ; status of. 331 ; 
 
 classification of, 334 ; order of thought in, 
 
 352; introduction 10,354; verisimilitude, 
 
 369 ; subjective description in, 491 ; sub- 
 jecti\e narration in, 495. 
 
 Handy Andy, a burlesque, 437. 
 
 Hardy, Erskine's speech on, illustrative ar- 
 gument in, 370; argument from experience, 
 372 ; outburst of feeling, 544. 
 
 Harmonious arrangement of words, euphony 
 and elegance required, 274; successions, 
 27s ; modifying words, 276 ; impersonal 
 construction, 277; appended clauses, 278; 
 explanatory words. 279 ; prepositions, 280 ; 
 variation of connectives, 281 ; variety in 
 clauses, 282 ; co-ordination of clauses, 283 ; 
 close of sentence, 284. 
 
 Harmony, defined, 259 ; euphony, 260-265 ; 
 elegance, 266-573 ; arrangement of words, 
 274-284 ; transition, 285-291 : word-paint- 
 ing and onomatopoeia, 292-297; rhythm, 
 298, 299 ; qualities of style associated with, 
 300-309. 
 
 Haroun-al-Raschid, letter of, to Emperor 
 Nicephorus, 235. 
 
 Hastings, Warren, Macaula/s Essay on, 
 grouping in description, 336. 
 
 Hate, 473- 
 
 Hayne, outline of oration on Public Lands, 
 
 35>- 
 Hazlitt, brilliancy of, 243 ; classical English, 
 
 256. 
 Headley, J. T., 306. 
 Heavy style. 246. 
 Heber, Bishop, quoted. 586, 592. 
 Hebrew literature, figures of speech, 69 ; an- 
 tithesis and parallel, 75 ; poetry, 86. 
 Hedge, Dr. F. H., quoted, 121, 249. 
 Helps, Sir Arthur, quoted, 282, 284. 
 Henly, quoted, 439. 
 Henry, Patrick, quoted, 181, 182, 206, 214, 
 
 387, 485, 487. 488, 5". 5 '3. 524- 
 Herald, New York, vocabulary of, 13. 
 Herbert, George, quoted, 102, 115. 
 Hero in fiction, 323. 
 Herodotus, simplicity of, 10 ; introduction 
 
 of, 318; status of, 328; order of thought 
 
 in, 343 ; introduction of, 394. 
 Heroine in fiction, 323. 
 Herrick, Robert, quoted, 115. 
 Hervey, Meditations of, 306. 
 Heylin's Observations on L' Estrange, 40. 
 Heywood, Thomas, quoted, 115, 439. 
 " Hifalutin," 246, 306. 
 Historical narrative in poetry, 598. 
 Historic Doubts, Whately*s satire of, 446. 
 History, order of thought in, 343 ; modem, 
 
 344 ; conclusion of, 402 ; narrative, 494 ; 
 
 difference between ancient and modern, 
 
 495- 
 Hoffmann, 463. 
 Hogarth, quoted, 415. 
 Holland, Philemond, 40. 
 
554 
 
 Index. 
 
 Holmes, O. W., quoted, 250, 254, 443. 
 Homer, a source of allusion, 120 : epithets of, 
 
 140; aim of, 316; invention of, 320, 324, 
 
 325 ; pathetic, 480. 
 Homceoteleuton, 187. 
 Hood, Thomas, quoted, 76, 451, 482, 587, 
 
 59CS 592 ; philanthropy of, 470 ; pathetic, 
 
 482. 
 Hooker, styltf of, 4 ; vocabulary of, 13. 
 Horace, a source of allusion, 120 ; quoted, 
 
 467 ; expository poetry, 498. 
 Horrible, 463, 464. 
 Howe, Julia Ward, quoted, 107. 
 •' However " repeated too often, 264. 
 Hudibras, vocabulary of, 13 : a satire, 445. 
 Hugo, Victor, extra\*agant style, 255: florid, 
 
 306 ; ideal of, 323 ; order of thought in, 
 
 353- 
 Human action in description, 490. 
 Hume, quoted, 53, 410 ; bias of, 328. 
 Humor, defined, 434 ; in literature, 435- 
 Humorous literature, slang in, 271 ; songs, 
 
 599 ; poetry, 605. 
 Hunt, Leigh, quoted, 81, 121 ; brilliancy of^ 
 
 243; aim of, 314. 
 Hymn, 599. 
 Hypcrbaton, 194. 
 H>'perboIe, 144, 163. 
 Hypercritiasm, 51. 
 Hypocorisma. 134. 
 H>'pot>'posis, 158. 
 Hysterical style, 306. 
 Hysteron proteron, 195. 
 
 Iambic metres, 584. 
 
 Icelandic poetry, 108. 
 
 Ideal, 322. 411. 
 
 Ideas, new, a source of new words, 41. 
 ^^#dyls of the King, 470. 
 
 Ignorance, affectation of, in oratory, 527. 
 
 Iliad, simplicity of, 10 ; aim of, 316; status 
 of, 331; classification of, 334; conclusion 
 of, 401 ; debate, 402. 
 
 Illustration, definition by, 36a ; clearness in 
 argument, 377. .... 
 
 Illustrative arguments, 370. ^ 
 
 Illustrative style, 247 ; by example, 248 ; al- 
 lusion and quotation, 249 : comparison 
 and metaphor, 250: antcdole, 251. 
 
 Imagination in oratory, 561. 
 
 Imitations of great writers, 308. 
 
 Imitators of Emerson, 255. 
 
 Impersonal construction, 277. 
 
 Important point in exordium, 396. 
 
 Impropriety. 25. 
 
 Inanimate nature in description, 49a 
 
 Incidental reference in oratory, 536. 
 
 Incisive style, 235. 
 
 Incongruity, the ridiculous, 432 ; wit, 433. 
 
 Incrementum, 161. 
 
 I Indefinite for definite, 128. 
 
 Indirect reply in oratory, 540. 
 
 Induction, 365. 
 : Ingenuous style, 258. 
 i Ingoldsby Legends, 437, 463. 
 
 In Memoriam, 495. 
 
 Innuendo, 126, 135, 457. 
 1 Instruction, an aim of composition, 313, 317. 
 I Instrument put for agent, 130. 
 
 Intellectual qualities of an orator, 561. 
 
 Intentional omission ot words, 528. 
 
 Interchange of feet, 589; of metres, 591. 
 
 Interesting style, 258. 
 
 Interrogation, figures of, 200 ; sermodnatio, 
 201 : peroontatio and expositio, 202 ; re- 
 sponsio sibi ipsi, 203. 
 
 Interruptio, 214. 
 
 Introduction, elegance in, 286: explained, 
 393 ; narration, 394 ; drama, 395 ; oratory, 
 396 ; considered with reference to its own 
 character, 397 ; general nature of, 398 ; 
 preface, 399. 
 
 Invention, a source of new words, 41 ; in 
 rhetoric, a division of method, 310; its 
 scope, 312: defined, 318; accumulative, 
 319; creative, 320; two kinds intermin- 
 gled, 324 : creative, the greater, 325. 
 
 Inventions, 497. 
 
 Inversion, figures of, defined, 188; in poetry, 
 189; prose, 190; anastrophe, 191 ; synche- 
 sis, 192 : tmesis, 193 ; hypcrbaton, 194 ; 
 hysteron proteron, 195. 
 
 Invitation, 485. 
 
 Invocation, 486. 
 
 Irish humor, 435. 
 
 Irish oratory, 555. 
 
 Irish Right, Grattan's speech on, status of, 
 329. 373- 
 
 Irony, 124, 456. 
 
 Irving, Washington, style o^ 2$^ 
 
 Isocolon, 83. 
 
 I Socrates, definition of rhetoric by, i ; status 
 of. 327. 
 
 Italian style, 4 ; language, 43 ; euphony, 
 -26©. 
 
 Italy, topics in history of, 341 ; concurrent 
 streams, 344. 
 
 Iterative figures, defined, 173 ; epizeuxis, 
 174 ; repetitio crebra, 175 ; anaphora, 
 176; epistrophe, 177; antistrophe, 178; 
 epanaphora, 179; anadiplosis, 180; epano- 
 dos, 181; epanalepsis, 182; ploce, 183; 
 symploce, 184 ; synonymia, 185 ; allitera- 
 tion, x86 ; homceoteleuton, 187. 
 
 Jealousy, 473. 
 
 Jefferson, quoted, 135. 
 
 Jejune style, 246. 
 
 Jerrold, Douglas, quoted, 443, 45») 453- 
 
 Job, Book of, 501. 
 
Index. 
 
 555 
 
 Joe Millerisms, 309. 
 
 Johnson, style of, 4 ; elaborate, 10 : verbose, 
 28 ; quoted, 49, 148, 229, 297, 383 ; Ras- 
 selas, 112 ; dignity of style, 235 ; aim of, 
 315 ; reports of debates, 502. 
 
 Jonah, Book of, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Jones, Sir William, quoted, 140, 439. 
 
 Jonson, Ben, invention of, 325 ; quoted, 439, 
 470. 
 
 Josephus, De Quincey's charge against, 317 ; 
 against Apion, 501. 
 
 Joy, 474- 
 
 Judicial oratory, 499. 
 
 Julius Cassar, dramatic opening of, 354. 
 
 Junius, vocabulary of, 13 ; quoted, 19, 31, 
 130, 200, 349, 530, 531; status of, 329; 
 proposition, 361 ; supposed case, 532 ; sar- 
 casm, 550. 
 
 Juvenal, quoted, 264. 
 
 Kane's Voyages, 490. 
 
 Keats, quoted, 20, 226, 421, 422, 431 ; style of, 
 258 ; pathetic, 482. 
 
 King John, Shakespeare's, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Kinglake, quoted, 117, 121, 274, 590 ; descrip- 
 tion of, 490. 
 
 Kingsley, Charles, quoted, 174, 180, 257, 586. 
 
 Knowledge, desire for, 469 ; outline of, 497 ; 
 of persons addressed by the orator, 555. 
 
 Kossuth, quoted, 171, 485, 487, 488, 507, 510, 
 S94- 
 
 Laconic speech, 228. 
 
 Lady of the Lake, 394. 
 
 Lafayette, quoted, 21. 
 
 Lamb, Charles, brilliancy of, 243 ; racy, 258 : 
 quoted, 434. 
 
 Lampoon, 442. 
 
 Landor, quoted, 19, 441; copiousness 6i, 
 241. 
 
 Languid style, 237. 
 
 Latin language, contributes elements to 
 English, 12; many simple words of Latin 
 origin, 16 ; importance of Latin element, 
 17 ; a source of new words, 41 ; objection- 
 able words from, 43 ; euphony, 260 : har- 
 mony, 297. 
 
 Latin literature, figures of speech, 69; varia- 
 tion of connectives, 281 ; pathetic, 480; 
 mediaeval hymns, 481. 
 
 Lay of the Last Minstrel, vocabulary of, 13 ; 
 introduction to, 394. 
 
 Lecky, quoted, 98. 
 
 Lecture, the modem, its aim, 317. 
 
 Lee, Henry, 245. 
 
 Les Miserables, 331. 
 
 Lingard, history by, 317 ; bias of, 328. 
 
 Literary aesthetics, 409 ; genius, 467. 
 
 Literature, general departments of, descrip- 
 tion, 489-492 ; narration, 493-495 ; exposi- 
 A A 2 
 
 tion, 496-498; oratory, 499-561 ; dialogue, 
 562-564 ; drama, 5t>5-S73 \ poetry, 571- 
 607. 
 
 Litotes, 135. 
 
 Livingstone's Travels, 490. 
 
 Livy, affluence of style of, 59 ; quoted, 212 ; 
 status of, 328. 
 
 Locke, aim of, 314- 
 
 Logic, differs from rhetoric in respect of argu- 
 ment, 357 ; definition of, 358. 
 
 Logical order of thought, defined, 342 ; in 
 narration, 343 ; concurrent streams, 344 ; 
 retrogression, 345 ; explanatory narrative, 
 346 ; summary, 347 ; exposition, 348 ; 
 proof, 349 ; refutation, 350 ; speeches ana- 
 lyzed, 351 ; logical power in oratory, 561. 
 
 Longfellow, vocabulary of, 13 ; epithets of, 
 137; suggestive style of, 257, 262; inven- 
 tion of, 325 ; quoted, 585, 587, 589, 590. 
 
 Longinus, treatise on the sublime by, 64; defi- 
 nition of amplification by, 145; quoted, 157, 
 >94t 544 ; sources of the sublime in, 429. 
 
 Love, in literature, 472. 
 
 Lowell, J. K., quoted, 107, 119. 
 
 Lucian, quoted, 439 ; dialogues of, 446. 
 
 Lucretius, expository poetry of, 498, 
 
 Luther, 501. 
 
 Lycidas, Milton's, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Lyrical introduction in drama, 395. 
 
 Lyric poetry, objective narration, 494 ; sub- 
 jective narration, 495 ; definition of^ 599. 
 
 Lytton, Lord, vocabulary of, 13; versatility <^ 
 242 ; mannerism of, 269 ; quoted, 299, 308 ; 
 aim of, 317 ; subjective narration by, 495. 
 
 Macaulay, style of, 4; vocabulary of, 13; 
 quoted, 35, 49, 55, 59, 76. 95, 96, no, 112, 
 120, 136, 157, 160, 170, 176, 190, 231, 234, 
 248, 254, 585 ; affluence of style of, 59 : brill- 
 iancy of, 243 ; mannerism of, 269 ; word- 
 painting of, 292, 299 ; aim of, 315; Whig 
 sy-mpathies of, 317 ; invention ofi 318, 325 ; 
 bias of, 328 ; summary ofi 347 ; compre- 
 hensiveness o^ 382 ; description by, 492. 
 
 Macbeth, scenery in, 323; status of, 331; 
 classification o^ 334 ; order of thought in, 
 352; verisimilitude, 369; introduction to, 
 395- 
 
 Mackintosh, Sir James, 245 ; status of, 329; 
 proposition of, 361 ; digression of, 390 ; 
 quoted, 390, 506, 518, 545. 
 
 Madrigal, 599. 
 
 Malachi, Book of, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Malapropism, 25. 
 
 Male rhymes, 594. 
 
 Man of Lawes Tale, Chaucer's, vocabulary 
 of, 13. 
 
 Mandeville, 10, 258. 
 
 Manner, 269. 
 
 Mannerism, 269. 
 
556 
 
 Ifidex. 
 
 Manufactures, 497. 
 
 Marlowe, quoted, 186, 422. 
 
 Marseillaise, 3S» 3'7- 
 
 Marsh. G. P., analysis of English by, 12. 
 
 Martial, quoted, 439. 
 
 Martineau, James, quoted, 52, 239, 289. 
 
 Masculine style, 235. 
 
 Masque, 566. 
 
 Massi\-e style, 235. 
 
 Mathematics, 497. 
 
 Maxim, 75. 
 
 Meagre style, 246^ 
 
 Mean style, 309. 
 
 Medea of Euripides, 491. 
 
 Melancholy, 475. 
 
 Meleager, quoted, 439. 
 
 Melodrama, 566. 
 
 Melvill, Rev. Henry, quoted, 86. 
 
 Menace, 473. 
 
 Menander, 472. 
 
 Merchant of Venice, classification of, 334. 
 
 Metabole, 90. 
 
 Metalepsis, 131. 
 
 Metaphor, 100; one living thing for another, 
 lot ; one inanimate thing for another, 102 ; 
 inanimate for li\'ing things, 103 ; inanimate 
 things endowed with life, 104 ; ornament- 
 al. 105 ; explanatory, 106, 107 ; faults in 
 use of, loS ; mixed, 109 ; mixed, not al- 
 ways objectionable, 1 10 ; catachresis, 1 1 1 ; 
 allegory, 112 ; in illustrative style. 250; in 
 epigrammatic style, 2 ; 
 
 Metastasis, 159. 
 
 Method, defined, 310; invention, 318-325; 
 point of view. 326-332; classification, 333- 
 339 ; order of thought, 340-355 ; finding of 
 arguments and presentation, 356-392 ; in- 
 troduction and conclusion, 393-406. 
 
 Methods of experimental inquiry, Mdl's, 366 
 
 Metonymy, 130. 
 
 Metre, effect on language, 35 ; quantitative, 
 578 : accentuated, 582 ; iambic, 584 ; tnv 
 chaic. 5S5 ; anapxstic, 586 ; dactylic, 587 ; 
 interchange of, 591. 
 
 Metrical romance, simplicity of, 10; pathetic, 
 481 ; definition of, 598. 
 
 Middlemarch, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Midsummer-Night's Dream, vocabulary of, 
 13 ; ideal of, 322. 
 
 Mill, J. S., style ol, 307; four experimental 
 methods of inquiry by, 366 ; autobiography 
 of, 491 ; stibjective narration by, 495. 
 
 Miller, Hugh, perspicuity of, 7. 
 
 M ilman, quoted, 53 ; compared with Macau- 
 lay» 59- 
 
 Milton, quoted, i, 20, 21, 35, 61, 94, 102, no, 
 115, 116, 120, 136, 140, 141, 148, 150. »5». 
 '55. 157. »6o, 163, 166, 180, 189. 197. '98, 
 200, 208. 211. 224, 235. 236, 262, 297, 298, 
 299, 422, 426, 427, 430, 467. 473. 475. 485. 
 
 486, 589, 591, 593, 595 ; vocabulary of, 13 ; 
 a source of allusion, 120 ; epithets of, 137 ; 
 alliteration in, 186 ; harmony, 295 ; inven- 
 tion of, 320, 324, 325 ; description by, 490 ; 
 subjective narration by, 495 ; expository 
 poetry by, 498. 
 
 Mirabeau, 559. 
 
 Mock heroic, 437. 
 
 Modem drama. 570. 
 
 Modem idea of beautiful, 423. 
 
 Modesty in orator, 396. 
 
 Modifying words, 276. 
 
 Monotony, 246. 
 
 Montagu, Lady M. W., 197. 
 
 Montgomery, James, quoted, 178, 584 ; ex- 
 pository poetry by, 498. 
 
 Moore, Thomas, quoted, 94, 105, 474, 485, 
 584,586. 
 
 Moral affections, 470. 
 
 Morality plays, 112, 232, 568. 
 
 Moral qualities of an orator, 56a 
 
 Moral sublime, 427. 
 
 Morris, Gouvemeur, quoted, 21. 
 
 Morris, William, quoted, 157; narrative po- 
 etry by, 495. 
 
 Motif in literature, 331. 
 
 Motion, a source of the beautiful, 416 ; in de- 
 scription of objects, 490. 
 
 Motley, vocabulary of, 13 ; invention of, 325. 
 
 Mottoes, antithetical, 75. 
 
 Miihlbach, Louisa, 313. 
 
 Murchison, Sir Roderick, 7. 
 
 Muse in poetry, 116. 
 
 Music in wor^ 293. 
 
 Musical terms applied to poetr>', 308. 
 
 Mystery, use of^ in fiction, 352 , plays, 112, 
 232, s6& 
 
 Nabob of Arcot's Debts, Burke's speech on, 
 
 geireralization of, 383 ; exordium of, 396. 
 Naivete, 258. 
 
 Names of men a source of new words, 41. 
 Napoleon's Overtures, Fox on Rejeaion of, 
 
 351- 
 Narrative, subject-matter defined. 311 ; clas- 
 sification, 334 ; order of thought, 343 ; ex- 
 planation, 346 ; order of thought compared 
 with dramatic 354 ; introduction in, 394 ; 
 definition of, 493 ; objective narration, 494 ; 
 subjective narration, 495 ; poetry, 598. 
 National movements a source of new words, 
 I 41 ; songs, 599. 
 Natural objects in description, 49a 
 Neale, Dr., quoted, 584, 585. 
 ! Necessity of the case, in oratory, 513. 
 I Negation, r7i. 
 
 I New compound words. 45 ; faulty use of, 46. 
 j New ideas a source of new words, 41. 
 
 New Timon, quoted, 445. 
 I New verbs, 41. 
 
Index. 
 
 557 
 
 New words, numerous, 39 ; absorbed into the 
 language in the past, 40 ; sources of, 41 ; 
 rapid increase of, 42 ; objectionable use of, 
 
 43, 44- 
 
 Newcomes, 323. 
 
 Newman's Apologia, 495, 501. 
 
 Newspapers, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Nibelungenlied, 10. 
 
 Nicarchus, quoted, 439. 
 
 Nichol, 490. 
 
 Nicholas, Czar, quoted, 139. 
 
 Night Thoughts, Young's, quoted, 315. 
 
 Nomenclature of metres, 588 ; of verses, 596. 
 
 *' Nor" changed for "and," 281. 
 
 Norman conquest, effect of, on English, 12. 
 
 Norman French superimposed on Anglo- 
 Saxon, 24. 
 
 Novel, the, with a purpose, 317; defined, 
 323 ; status of, 331 ; plot of, 353 ; sources 
 of interest in, 370. 
 
 Novelists classified, 353. 
 
 "Now" changed for "and," 281. 
 
 Oath, 486. 
 
 Obsolete, words, 32 ; terminations and mean- 
 ings, 33 ; in religious literature, 34 ; in po- 
 etry, 35 ; in fiction, 36 ; return of, to gener- 
 al use, 38. 
 
 Occasion for speaking, judicious selection of, 
 557- 
 
 O'Connell, Daniel, quoted, 149, 487. 
 
 Ode, 599 ; on Immortality, Wordsworth's, 
 vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Odyssey, simplicity of, 10 ; aim of, 316: sta- 
 tus of, 331 ; conclusion of, 401. 
 
 CEdipus Tyrannus, 331 : dramatic order of 
 thought in, 352 ; at Colonus, 47a 
 
 O'Gahagan, a burlesque, 437. 
 
 Oliver Twist, 231. 
 
 Onomatopoeia, 294 ; poetry, 295 ; prose, 396. 
 
 Onus probandi, 330. 
 
 Open style, 258. 
 
 Opera, 566. 
 
 Oracular style, 307. 
 
 Orator, qualifications for, 551-561. 
 
 Oratory, chief study of ancient rhetoricians, 
 4 ; Quintilian's classification of, 4 ; defini- 
 tion of, 311; art of persuasion in, 315; 
 stages of, 330 ; introduction in, 396 ; 
 conclusion of, 405 ; explanation of, 499 ; 
 tactics of, 503-525; artifices of, 526-532; 
 attack and defence in, 533-542 ; display of 
 feeling in, 543-550; qualifications for, 551- 
 561. 
 
 Order of thought, defined, 340 ; chronolog- 
 ical, 341 ; logical, 342 ; in narrative, 343 ; 
 concurrent streams in, 344 ; in retrogres- 
 sion, 345 ; in explanatory narrative, 346 ; 
 in svunmary, 347 ; in exposition, 348 ; in 
 proof^ 349 ; in refutation, 350 ; examples, 
 
 351 ; dramatic, 352; scenic, 353 ; in narra- 
 tive and dramatic writing, 354 ; general 
 rule for, 355. 
 
 Order of words, 1 88. 
 
 Oriental literature, style of, 4 ; imagery in, 
 loS ; allegory in, 1 12. 
 
 Orientalisms, 41, 43. 
 
 Origin of language, 294. 
 
 Ornament, 303. 
 
 Ornamental composition, i. 
 
 Ornate style, 303. 
 
 Ostentation, 308. 
 
 Outburst of feeling in oratory, 544. 
 
 Oxymoron, 83. 
 
 Padding, 246. 
 
 Paine, Robert Treat, quoted, 246. 
 
 Paine, I'homas, quoted, 245. 
 
 Painting, analogous to Belles-lettres, 292 ; 
 
 ancient and modem, 423. 
 Pall Mall Gazette, vocabulary of, 13 ; quoted, 
 
 135, 181, 271. 
 Panegyric, 548. 
 Panoramic description, 335. 
 Parable, 113. 
 Paradiastole. 80, 92. 
 Paradise Lost, status of, 332; classification 
 
 of, 334. 33 s; characters in, 430; pathetic, 
 
 482 ; description in, 491 ; debates in, 503. 
 Paradoxum, 519. 
 Paragraph, 290, 498. 
 Paraleipsis, 528. 
 Parallel, figures of, 86 ; diexodus, 87 ; tricola, 
 
 88 ; diallage, 89 ; metabole, 90 ; exergasia, 
 
 91 ; paradiastole, 92. 
 Parallelism, 577. 
 Paregmenon, 183. 
 Parental affection, 470. 
 Parenthesis, 55, 204. 
 Parenthetical, clauses, 51 ; unity, 55 ; figures, 
 
 defined, 204 ; commentum, 205 ; appositio 
 
 et explanatio, 206. 
 Parison, 83. 
 Parker, Theodore, 154. 
 Parliamentary debate, 502 ; conclusion of 
 
 Brougham's speech on Parliamentary Re- 
 form, 405 ; compliment in, 506. 
 Parody, 444. 
 Paronomasia, 123, 450. 
 Parcemiac figures, defined, 222 ; proverb, 223 ; 
 
 apophthegm, 224. 
 Part for the whole, 128. 
 Partiality in historians, 317. 
 Pasquinade, 441. 
 Passions, defined, 471 ; love, 472 ; aversion, 
 
 473 ; happiness, 474 ; sorrow, 475. 
 Past events, mention of, in oratory, 520. 
 Pastoral poetry, 603. 
 Paternal aflfection, 470. 
 Pathetic, defined, 478 ; in Sacred Scriptures, 
 
558 
 
 Index. 
 
 479 ; in classical literature, 480 ; in medi- 
 x\'al literature, 481 ; in modem literature, 
 483 ; an animating element in literature, 
 483. 
 
 Patriotism, 470. 
 
 Paul, St., climax of, 160, t6i ; quoted, 216, 
 220, 233 ; exordium of, 396 ; physical dis- 
 advantages of; as an orator, 559. 
 
 Peel, Sir Robert, quoted, 170, 176, 206. 
 
 Peltier, Jean, Sir James Mackintosh's speech 
 on, status of, 329 : proposition in, 361 ; 
 conclusion of, 405 ; compliment in, 506 ; 
 indirect reply in, S40 ; extravagance of ex- 
 pression in, 54S. 
 
 Percontatio, 202. 
 
 Periodic structure, 49. 
 
 Periphrasis, 29, 132. 
 
 Permission in oratory, 510. 
 
 Persian literature, 140. 
 
 Personification, 115; with exclamation, 197. 
 
 Perspicuit)', de6ned, 7 ; divisions of, 8 ; 
 sources of, 9; in words, simplicity, 10-17; 
 precision, 18-26; purity, 31-48; in sen- 
 tences, arrangement of words, 50, 51 ; 
 unity. 52-56 ; clearness of conception, 57 ; 
 conciseness, 58 ; diffiiseness, 59 ; repe- 
 tition. 60 ; digression, 61 ; loose style, 63 ; 
 sometimes not aimed at, 63. 
 
 Pemosion, rhetoric the art of^ i ; an aim of 
 composition, 3>5. 3'7- 
 
 Persuasive introduction, 397. 
 
 Persuasiveness, in style, 64 ; definition of, 65 : 
 general divisions of; 66 ; figures of speech 
 in, 67, 225 ; energy, 226-237 ; vivacity, 238- 
 246 ; different styles associated with, 247- 
 258. 
 
 Phantasia, tio. 
 
 Philanthropy, 470. 
 
 Philips, Ambrose, 157. 
 
 Phillips, Charles, quoted, 147, 150, 151, 170, 
 254- 
 
 Phillips, Wendell, quoted, 514, 515, 530: 
 epigrammatic style of, 555 ; courage of, 
 560. 
 
 Philosophy, 497. 
 
 Photographic fiction, 323. 
 
 Physical advantages in oratory, 559. 
 
 Physical science, 497. 
 
 Pickwick Papers, vocabulary of, 13 ; aim of, 
 331 : Order of thought in, 353. 
 
 Picturesque, 423. 
 
 Piers Plowman, vision of, vocabulary of, 13 ; 
 allegory of, 112; quoted, 186, 579 » ^tire 
 of, 445- 
 
 Pilgrim's Progress, vocabulary of, 13; popu- 
 larity of, 15 ; a source of allusion, 120 ; aim 
 of, 315 ; status of, 331. 
 
 Pitt, anal>^b of oration on refusal to nego- 
 tiate with Napoleon, 351 ; exordium of, 
 396 ; amplification in, 379 ; command of 
 
 subject by, 552 ; courage of; 560 ; intellec- 
 tual qualities of, 561. 
 
 Pity, 475- 
 
 Place, unity of, 423. 
 
 Plagiarism, 122. 
 
 Plato, definition of rhetoric by, i ; quoted, 
 ^39 : compared with Xenophon, 495. 
 
 Plautus, invention of, 319 ; puns of; 451. 
 
 Please, the aim to, 316, 3x7. 
 
 Pleonasm, 218. 
 
 Pleonastic figiu^s, defined, 217; pleonasm, 
 218; analepsis, 319 ; polysyndeton, 220. 
 
 Ploce, 183. 
 
 Plot, 333 ; importance as compared with 
 character, 353. 
 
 Plutarch, 495. 
 
 Poe, vocabulary of, 13; allegory by, 112; 
 repetition of words by, 175 ; suggestive 
 style of, 257 ; mannerism of, 269 ; onoma- 
 topoeia, 295 ; quoted, 585. 
 
 Poetry, vocabulary of, 13 ; effert on lan- 
 guage, 35; order of words in, 189; eu- 
 phony, 261; defined, 311; exposition in, 
 498 ; discussed, 571 ; diflfers from prose in 
 sentiment, 572 ; in form, 573 ; exhibits 
 highest power of language, 574 ; expres- 
 sion for emotions, 575 ; defined, 576 ; ver- 
 sification, 577-583 ; metres and feet, 584- 
 592 ; oesural pause, 593 ; rhyme, 594 ; 
 blank verse, 595 ; nomenclature of verses, 
 596 ; species of, 597 ; narrative, 598 ; lyric, 
 599 ; dramatic 600 ; descriptive, 601 ; di- 
 dactic, 602 ; pastoral, 603 ; satirical, 604 ; 
 humorous, 605 ; many poems share the 
 characteristics of several classes, 606 ; new 
 development in versification, 607. 
 
 Poet's Vow, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Point of view, 327. 
 
 Pointed expression for wit, 433. 
 
 Political songs, 599. 
 
 Polj-ptoton, 183. 
 
 Polysyndeton, 320 ; compared with asynde- 
 ton, 231- 
 
 Pope, vocabulary of, 13 ; quoted, 18, 19, 21, 
 47. 76, 79» 81, 83, 129, 176, 183, 227, 253, 
 262, 295, 397. 302, 308, 459, 589, 593 : a source 
 of allusion, iso ; epithets of, 140; apoph- 
 thegms of, 234 ; expository poetry by, 498. 
 
 Popular books, 15 ; style, 258. 
 
 Porson, quoted, 440. 
 
 Portrayal of character by antithesis, 76. 
 
 Portuguese language, 260. 
 
 Possibility contrasted with reality, 521. 
 
 Power, sublime in, 425 ; love of, 467. 
 
 Pnecursio, 516. 
 
 Praemunitio, 518. 
 
 Praise in oratory, 506, 
 
 Prayer, 116. 
 
 Preacher, attitude of, towards audience, 555. 
 
 Precision, defined, x8 ; substantive terms. 
 
Index. 
 
 559 
 
 19 ; attributive terms, 20 ; predicative 
 terms, 21 ; clearness of conception, 22 ; 
 care in use of words, 23 ; synonymous 
 words, 24 ; impropriety, 25 ; vague words, 
 26 ; verbosity, 27-30 ; antithesis, 76 ; con- 
 ducive to energy, 230 ; united with onoma- 
 topoeia, 296 ; harmony, 300. 
 
 Pre-eminence, 467. 
 
 Preface, 399. 
 
 Preparation for what is to follow, 518. 
 
 Preparatory introduction, 397. 
 
 Prepositions, 280. 
 
 Prescott, 325. 
 
 Present time in narration, 117. 
 
 Presentation of arguments, 376 ; clearness 
 of statement and strengthening of ai^gu- 
 ments, 377 ; transition in, 378 ; amplifica- 
 tion in, 379 ; diminution in, 380 ; conden- 
 sation in, 381 ; comprehensiveness in, 382 ; 
 generalization in, 383 ; defiuileness in, 
 384 ; description in oratory, 385 ; em- 
 phasis of propositions, 386 ; assertion, 
 387 ; denial, 388 ; apophthegm, 389 ; di- 
 gression, 390 : repetition of propositions, 
 ^01 ; recapitulation, 392. 
 
 Press, the, 30. 
 
 Pretentious style, 307. 
 
 Pricke of Conscience, quoted, 176. 
 
 Prisoner of Chillon, vocabulary oi, 13. 
 
 Proctor, description by, 490. 
 
 Proecthesis. 521. 
 
 Professional science, 497. 
 
 Profound style, 307. 
 
 Progressio, 162. 
 
 Prohibition, 485. 
 
 Prolepsis, 525. 
 
 Promissio, 514. 
 
 Prometheus Bound, ideal in, 322 ; status of, 
 331 ; order of thought in, 352 ; conclusion 
 of, 404 ; Unbound, ideal in, 322. 
 
 Pronouns, 52. 
 
 Proof. 330 ; order of thous^t in, 349 ; expla- 
 nation, 363. 
 
 Prop)er names, to designate a class, 138 : 
 tend to energy, 234. 
 
 Proportion, a source of the beautiful, 418. 
 
 Proposition, sometimes identical with status, 
 327 ; general and particular for classifica- 
 tion, 339 ; defined, 361. 
 
 Prosapodosis, 84. 
 
 Pros- fiction, vocabulary of, 13 ; conclusion 
 in, 401 ; narrative, 494 ; subjective narra- 
 tion in, 495. 
 
 Protest, 487. 
 
 Proverbs, antithesis in, 76 ; alliteration in, 
 1 86 ; defined, 223 ; explicit, 231. 
 
 Psalm, 599. 
 
 Puerile style, 304. 
 
 Pulpit, verbosity in, 30 ; status and text in 
 oratory, 329. 
 
 Pun, 451. 
 
 Purity, defined, 31; obsolete words^ 32-39; 
 I new words, 39-46 ; general remarks on, 
 j 47 ; in grammar and idiom, 48. 
 I Purpose of writer, to instruct, 313 ; to con- 
 vince, 314; to persuade, 315; to please, 
 316; union of different aims, 317. 
 Puttenham on new words, 40. 
 Pym, quoted, 149, 177. 
 
 Quaintness, 258. 
 
 Quantity in metre, 518. 
 
 Qualifications for an orator, 551 ; command 
 of subject, 552 ; fertility in resources, 553 ; 
 conciliatory demeanor, 554 ; knowledge of 
 persons addressed, 555 ; adaptation of 
 self to intelligence of audience, 556 ; ju- 
 dicious selection of occasion for si)eaking, 
 557 ; should not aim at too much, 558 ; 
 physical advantages, 559 ; moral qualities, 
 560 ; intellectual qualities, 561. 
 
 Quarles, quoted, 79 ; quaintness of, 358. 
 
 Question, 327, 330. 
 
 Quincey, Josiah. quoted, 387, 458, 519. 
 
 Quintilian, definition of rhetoric by, t ; 
 quoted, 4, 5, 67, 84, 91, 131, 229, 241, 532 ; 
 classification of metaphors in, 100, 115; defi- 
 nition of climax by, 160 ; hyi>erbole of, 163 ; 
 invention in, 319; status defined by, 337; 
 refutation by, 350; irony defined by, 456. 
 
 Quiz, 449. 
 
 Quotation, defined, 121 *, in illustrative style, 
 349. 
 
 Rabelais, satire of^ 446. 
 
 Racy style, 358. 
 
 Raleigh, Sir W,, quoted, 76, 167. 
 
 Rant, 306. 
 
 Rape of the Lock, 437. 
 
 Rapid mention, 516. 
 
 Rasselas, 315. 
 
 Raven, Poe's, vocabulary of, 13 ; allegory in, 
 
 112. 
 Raw-son, George, quoted, 1 16. 
 Real, the, 321. 
 Reason assigned, 523. 
 Reasoning, 359. 
 
 Recapitulation in arguments, 392. 
 Reditus, 390. 
 
 Reference to previous matter, 396. 
 Refrain, 596. 
 Refusal to negotiate with Napoleon, Pitt's 
 
 oration on, analyzed. 351. 
 Refutation, 330 ; order of thought in, 350. 
 Regressio, 181. 
 Regret, 476. 
 Reid, Dr., aim of, 314. 
 Rejection of Bonaparte's overtures, oration 
 
 by Fox, analyzed, 351 ; conclusion oi, 405 ; 
 
 supposed case, 532. 
 
560 
 
 Index. 
 
 Relative, beautiful, 411 ; pronoun, 50. ' 
 
 Relati\'ity, figures of, definition, 72 ; arising ' 
 from idea of contrast, 73-84 ; from percep- , 
 tion of resemblance, 85-126 ; from idea of j 
 contiguity, 127-142. ' 
 
 Religio Laid, vocabulary' of, 13. j 
 
 Religion, epithets in, different forms of, 
 «39- i 
 
 Religious affections, 470 ; literature, admits 
 obsolete words, 34-38 : hymns, 1 16 ; pa- 
 thetic, 482 ; subjeaive narration in, 495 ; 
 songs, 599. 
 
 Remonstrance, 487. 
 
 Remorse, 475. 
 
 Removal of troops from Boston, Chatham's 
 speech on, conclusion of, 405. 
 
 Renaissance, 423. 
 
 Repartee, 453- 
 
 Repentance, 475. 
 
 Repenting, in oratory, 529, 53a. 
 
 Repetitio creba, 175. 
 
 Repetition, 60 ; emphatic, 172 ; of words, a 
 violation of euphony, 264 ; sometimes 
 necessary, 365; of propositioiu in argu- 
 ment, 39. 
 
 Reportiog, 502. 
 
 Rqirebeiision, 485. 
 
 Reproach, 485. 
 
 Reproof, 485. 
 
 Resemblance, figares of^ definition of, 85; 
 parallel. 86-92 ; comparison, 93-99 ; meta- 
 phor, 100- 1 10; catachresis, iii ; allegoiy, 
 112 ; parable, 113 ; fable, 114 ; personifica- 
 tion, 115; apostrophe, 116; vision, 117; 
 allusion, 118-120; quotation, tai ; plagia- 
 rism, 122 ; other figures, 123-126. 
 
 Residues, Mill's method of, 366. 
 
 Responsio sibi ipsi, 203. 
 
 Retort, 452, 549- 
 
 Retrenchment of words, 239. 
 
 Retrogression, 345, 390. 
 
 Retrospective conclusion, 406. 
 
 Revelry. 474. 
 
 Revenge, 473- 
 
 Revival of letters, 423 : preaching, order of 
 thought in, 353. 
 
 Rh.ipsody, 306. 
 
 Rhetonc, definition and derivation of term, 
 I ; main di\'isions of subject, 2 ; vocabulary 
 of treatises on, 13; difference from logic 
 with regard to argument, 351 ; style, 3- 
 309 ; method, 310-406 ; emotions, 407- 
 488 : departments of literature, 489-607. 
 
 Rhetorical style as a fault, 306. 
 
 Rhetoricians formerly discussed oratory only, 
 
 Rhodian oratory, 4. 
 Rhodomontade, 306. 
 
 Rhyme, effect of, on language, 35 ; verse, 
 594- i 
 
 Rhjrthm in poetry, 298 ; in prose, 299 ; in 
 verse, 595- 
 
 Richard the Third, Shakespeare's, dramatic 
 opening of, 354. 
 
 Richardson, Samuel, 323. 
 
 Richness of style, 303. 
 
 Richter, quoted by De Quincey, 299. 
 
 Ridiculous, defined, 432; wit, 433 ; humor, 
 434 ; wit and humor in English literature, ' 
 435 ; the ridiculous in literature, 436 ; with- 
 out a purpose, 437 ; with a purpose, 438 ; 
 epigram, 439 ; squib, 440 ; pasquinade, 
 441 : lampoon, 442 ; bon mot, 443 ; parody, 
 444 ; satirical poetry in general, 445 ; satir- 
 ical prose, 446 : special forms of, 447 ; ban- 
 ter, 448 ; chafi^ 449 ; paronomasia, 450 ; 
 pun, 451 ; retort, 452 ; repartee, 453 ; 
 double - entendre, 454 ; buffoonery, 455 ; 
 irony, 456 ; innuendo, 457 ; sarcasm, 458 ; 
 sneer, 459 ; j)ower of ridiculous, 460 ; 
 legitimate use of. 461 ; abuse of, 462. 
 
 Rienzi, Lord Lytton's, vocabulary' of, 13. 
 
 Rights of Jurors, Erskine's, status of, 329. 
 
 Rivers, epithets applied to, 139. 
 
 Robertson, Dr. W., style of, 235. 
 
 Robertson, Rev. F. W., vocabulary of, 13 ; 
 quoted, 60, 80 ; outline of sermon by, 339. 
 
 Robinaon Crusoe, vocabulary of, 13 ; popu- 
 larity of, IS ; a source of allusion, 120. 
 
 Rock of Ages, a hymn, 1 10. 
 
 Rogers, S., vocabulary of, 13 ; quoted, 14, 
 422. 
 
 Rolle, Richard, de Hampole, quoted, 55, 
 176. 
 
 Roman satire, 445 : writers, invention of, 3 19. 
 
 Romance, 423. 
 
 Romantic school in literature, 433. 
 
 Rosetti, 495. 
 
 Rousseau's Confessions, 495. 
 
 Rules, how far useful, 5. 
 
 Ruskin, copiousness of, 241 ; description by, 
 490. 
 
 Russell, Lord John, quoted, 223; W. H., 
 quoted, 117 ; classification by, 335. 
 
 Russian Armament, speech by Fox, contrast 
 in, 374 ; personal attack by, 535 ; testimony 
 of adversary turned against himself, 542. 
 
 Ruth, book of, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 *' S" sound in English, 261, 263. 
 
 Salutation, 198. 
 
 Sand, George, ideal of, 323 ; order of thought 
 
 in, 353- 
 Sappho, quoted, 157. 
 Sarcasm. 125, 45S, SSo- 
 Satire, 445- 
 Satirical poetry, 445, 604 ; prose, 446 ; songs, 
 
 599- 
 Savannah la Mar, De Quince/s, vocabulary 
 of, 13. 
 
Index. 
 
 561 
 
 Saxe, John G., quoted, 585. 
 
 Sayings, current, 139. 
 
 Scandinavian poetry, 186. 
 
 Scenery in fiction, 323. 
 
 Scenic description, 335 ; order of thought 
 in, 353- 
 
 Schonberg-Cotta Family, 314- 
 
 Science, a source of new words, 41 ; place in 
 classification of knowledge for, 497 ; con- 
 troversies in, 501. 
 
 Scientific writings, 494. 
 
 Scorn, 473. 
 
 Scott, Sir Walter, vocabulary of, 13 ; quoted, 
 • 120, 174. »78» 198. 200. 236. 473. 584* 586; 
 epithets of, 137 ; versatility of, 242 ; word 
 painting of, 292; aim of, 316; creative 
 genius of, 316 ; ideal of, 323 ; invention of, 
 324 ; character and plot united by, 353 ; 
 description by. 490 ; compared with Byron, 
 492 : objective narration by, 495. 
 
 Scottish humor, 435. 
 
 Scriptures, simplicity of, 10 : figures of 
 speech in, 68, 86, 114; allusion in, 120; 
 quoted, 160, 161, 216, 220, 223, 430, 486, 
 488, 577 ; inversion in, 196; pleonastic fig- 
 ures in, 218 ; energy, 236. 
 
 Seasons, Thomson's, 315. 
 
 Secret, use made of, in fiction, 352. 
 
 Self-depreciation in oratory, 505. 
 
 Self-esteem, 466. 
 
 Self-preservation, 465. 
 
 Sensation novels, plot in, 353. 
 
 Sentence, short and long, 49 ; arrangement 
 of words in, 50, 51, 54 ; unity in, 52, 53, 54; 
 close of, 284. 
 
 Sentimental style, 306. 
 
 Sequence, 580. 
 
 Sermocinatio, 201. 
 
 Sesquipedalian style, 307. 
 
 Severity of style, 235. 
 
 S^vign^, Madame de, 443. 
 
 Seward, William H., quoted, 139. 
 
 Shakespeare, vocabulary of, 13 ; quoted, 19, 
 21, 82, 87, 94, 95, 130, 133, 151, i6o, 186, 
 189, 194, 200, 224, 227, 297, 422, 431, 452, 
 454. 473. 475. 485. 487. 5»8, 519, 523, 530, 
 584 ; new words, 40 ; mixed metaphors in, 
 109, no; a source of allusion, 120; epi- 
 thets of, 140 ; energy of, 236 ; versatility of, 
 242 ; invention of, 325 ; order of thought 
 in, 354 ; pathetic in, 482. 
 
 Sheil, quoted. 155, 486. 
 
 Shelley, vocabulary of, 13 ; quoted, 13, 19, 
 86, 97, no, i86, 200. 239, 257, 266, 422 ; epi- 
 thets of, 140 ; spirituelle in, 258 ; invention 
 of, 324 ; sublimity of, 430 ; subjective nar- 
 ration by, 495. 
 
 Sheridan, quoted, 149, 153, 547 ; invention 
 of, 319 ; status of, 329 ; proof by, 349 ; de- 
 
 scription by, 385 ; exordium of, 396 : pero- 
 ration of, 405 ; repartee of, 453 ; suspense 
 of, 517 ; superficial attainments of, 552 ; 
 florid passages in, 555. 
 I Side thrust, in oratory, 537. 
 ! Siege of Corinth, introduction of, 394. 
 ' Sign for thing signified, 130. 
 
 Significatio, 131. 
 ! silence, a source of the sublime, 425. 
 
 Silver age, 4. 
 
 Similarity compared with analogy, 373. 
 
 Simile, 93-96- 
 
 Simple structure in sentences, 49-52. 
 1 Simplicity, 9 ; defined and illustrated, 10 ; 
 I concrete more simple than abstract, \ i ; 
 produced by words of Anglo-Saxon origin, 
 I 12-15; by many Latin words, 16, 17; con- 
 ducive to energy, 227. 
 
 Simpson, R., quoted, 451. 
 ' Sincerity, 560. 
 ' Sintram and his Companions, allegory of, 112. 
 
 Skinner's Etymologicon, 40. 
 
 Slang, a source of new words, 41 ; nature of, 
 371. 
 
 Smith, Alexander, quoted, 1x5 ; Piazzi, 
 quoted, 276 ; Sydney, quoted, 107, 235, 433, 
 448, 449; brilliancy of, 243. 
 
 Smoothness of style, 302. 
 
 Sneer, 459. 
 
 Soberness of style, 235. 
 
 Social attraction, power of, 467 ; science, 497. 
 
 Solecism, 48. 
 
 Solomon's Song, quoted, 136. 
 
 Song, 599. 
 
 Sonnet, 599. 
 
 Sophocles, 486 ; characters of, 569. 
 
 Sound, resemblance to thing signified, 295, 
 296; a source of the beautiful, 417 ; of the 
 sublime, 425. 
 
 South, Dr. R., 166. 
 
 Southey, onomatopoeia, 295; objective de- 
 scription by, 495. 
 
 Space, sublime in, 425. 
 
 Spanish, style, 4; language, 260; drama, 57a 
 
 Spartan brevity, 228. 
 
 Species put for genus, 128. 
 
 Spectre of the Brocken, De Quincey's, vo- 
 cabulary of, 13. 
 
 Spence, Sir Patrick, 131. 
 
 Spenser, vocabulary of, 13; Faerie Queene, 
 allegory of, 112 ; aim of, 316 ; invention 
 of. 324, 325 ; subjective narration by, 495. 
 
 Spirituelle style, 258. 
 
 Spondee, 592. 
 
 Squib, 440. 
 
 Stabat Mater, 481. 
 
 Stage fright, 566. 
 
 Stanza, 596. 
 
 Status, definition of, 327; where the aim is 
 
562 
 
 Index. 
 
 to instruct, 328; to convince or persuade, 
 329; leading stages of oratory, 330; where 
 the aim is to please, 331 ; title, 332. 
 
 Steele, simplicity of, 10; aim of^ 315. 
 
 Sterne, style of, 4; simplicity of, 10; quoted, 
 212 ; open style of, 258. 
 
 Stiff style, 305. 
 
 Stilted style, 306. 
 
 Stockdale, £rskine*s speech for, causative 
 argument in, 369 ; amplification in, 379 ; 
 control of emotion by, 546. 
 
 Story, Joseph, quoted, 528; William Wet- 
 more, 297. 
 
 Stnflord, quoted, 81. 
 
 Strengthening of arguments, 377. 
 
 Strong expressions, 268. 
 
 Strophe. 596. 
 
 Stubbs. Constitutional History by, 495. 
 
 Style, definition of, 3; differences in, 4; gen- 
 eral divisions of, 6; perspicuity in. 7-13; 
 persuasiveness in, 64-25!^ ; harmony in, 
 259-309; periodique and coup^. 49; qual- 
 ities that tend to energy, 235; felicity of. 
 245; illustrative, 247-251; epigrammatic. 
 252-255 ; classical, 256 ; suggestive. 257 : 
 terms applied to 25S ; ease of, 302 ; faults 
 in. 62, 63. 237, 246. 255. 25S, 305. 309- 
 
 Subject. 327. 330; matter. 311 ; choice of, 318- 
 325 ; arrangement of. 326-335. 
 
 Subjective description. 491 ; narration, 495. 
 
 Sublime, defined. 424 ; in nature, the vast 
 and boundless, 425 : awe, 426 ; in morals. 
 427 , in literature, 428 ; sources of. accords 
 ing to Longinus. 429; Ulustrations of. 430; 
 difference between sublime and beautiful, 
 43« 
 
 Substantive epithets. 137. 
 
 Success or failure, conclusion referring to, 
 406. 
 
 Sue. Eugene, plot by. 353. 
 
 Suetcmius, 317. 
 
 Suggested meaning. 492. 
 
 Suggestive style. 257. 
 
 Summary. 347. 
 
 Sumner, quoted. 525 ; courage of. 56a 
 
 Sun, New York, vocabulary of. 13. 
 
 Supplices of itschylus. 395. 
 
 Supposed case. 531. 
 
 Suppressio. 215. 
 
 Suspense, in narrative, 352 ; in oratory, 
 517- 
 
 Sostentatio, 517. 
 
 Swedenborg. 322. 
 
 Swift. 167. 221 ; quoted. 439. 
 
 Swinburne, style in prose. 306 ; narrative by, 
 495- 
 
 Syllable, repetition of, 263. 
 
 Syllepsis, 123. 
 
 Syllogism, 367. 
 
 I Sjrmmetry in Greek art, 423. 
 Sympathy. 475. 
 Syniploce. 184. 
 Synathroismus, 151. 
 Synchesis, 192. 
 
 iSjmecdoche. 128. 
 Synesis, 210. 
 Syoexeogmenon, 153. 
 j Synoeceosis, 81. 
 I Synonymia. 185. 
 j Synonymous words, 34. 
 j Synthesis, 338, 377- 
 
 Table of percentage of Anglo-Saxon words in 
 English. 13. 
 
 Tacitus, conciseness of. 58. 59; antithesis of, 
 I 75; energy of, 228; bitterness of. 317; or- 
 der of thought in, 343; quoted, 403; de- 
 scription of chaiacter by, 495. 
 
 Tactics of oiatory, defined, 503 ; conciliation, 
 504; sell'-depieciaticn, 505; compliment or 
 praise, 506; thanks. J07; concession, 508; 
 confession, 509; p>crmission, 510; consulta- 
 tion with the audience, 511 ; emplias)s.5i2; 
 statement oi the necessity of the ca?e, 513; 
 statement of a future occurrence, 514 ; 
 dwelling upon a pioposition, 515; rapid 
 mention, 516; holding the audience in sns- 
 pense, 517; preparation for what is to fol- 
 low, 518; unexpected statement, 519; refer- 
 ence to the past. 520; possibility contrasted 
 with reality, 521; explanation, 522; state- 
 ment of tlie reason of a thing. 523 ; answers 
 to objections, 524; anticipation of objec- 
 tions, 525. 
 
 Tale, in ix>etry, 598. 
 
 Tales from Shakespeare, 354. 
 
 Talleyrand, quoted, 443. 
 
 Tame style. 237. 
 
 Task. Cowper's, vocabidary of, 13; aim ofi 
 
 3«5 
 Tassu, invention of, 325. 
 Taste. 412. 
 
 Tautology. 28. 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy, afflueiKe of, 59; copiottsness 
 of. 241. 
 
 I'axation no tyranny. 380. 
 
 Technical science, 497. 
 
 Telegraph, London, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Temperance, 353. 
 
 Tempest. Shakespeare's, 322. 
 
 Tennyson, vocabulary of. 13 ; apostrophe in, 
 116; epithets of. 140; quoted. 175. 176,181, 
 186, 211, 228, 262, 293. 295. 431. 474. 485. 
 585. 586, 587. 589- 590. 594; versatility of. 
 242 ; music in words in, 293 ", invention 
 of. 325; parody on, 444; against Bulwer, 
 445; pathetic, 482 ; subjective narration by, 
 495- 
 
Index. 
 
 563 
 
 Terence, quoted, 195 ; invention of, 319 ; 
 puns, 451. 
 
 Terms, defined, 360. 
 
 Terse style, 235. 
 
 Testimony, in argument, 370 > of adversary 
 turned against himself, 542. 
 
 Teutonic iauguages, 260; mythology, 463. 
 . Thackeray, style of, 10; quoted 21, 156, 239, 
 249, 251, 257, 584; a source of allusion, 120; 
 classical English of 256; open style of, 
 258; purity of English in, 316; aim of, 
 317; realistic in, 323, 325; characieis of, 
 353; satire of, 446; patlietic in, 482; sub- 
 jective narration by, 495- 
 
 Thanks in oratory. 507. 
 
 '"Ihat," repetition of, 264. 
 
 Tlieban epopoeia, 324. 
 
 Theognis, quoted, 439. 
 
 Theology, 497. 
 
 Thompson, Darcy Wentworth, quoted, 95. 
 
 Thomson's, James, Castle of Indolence, iia; 
 quoted, 112, 297, 486; expository poetry, 
 
 Thucydides. conciseness of, 59 ; antithesis in, 
 75; criticised by Longinus, 194; energy of, 
 228; impartiality of, 317; invention of, 318, 
 325; order of thought in, 343; introduction 
 of, 394- 
 
 Time, unity in, 423. 
 
 Times, London, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Title, the. 332- 
 
 Titles of books, alliterative, 186. 
 
 Tmesis, 193. 
 
 Tone in style, 293. 298, 
 
 Topiady, quoted, 585. 
 
 Tragedy, conclusion in, 404; defined, 566. 
 
 Transgressio, 164. 
 
 Transition, in style, 287; formal, 288; ele- 
 gant, 289; paragraphs, 290; in argument, 
 378, in oratory, 532. 
 
 Treatise, 498. 
 
 Trench's analysis of the English language, 12. 
 
 Tribune. New York, vocabulary of, 13. 
 
 Triplet, 596. 
 
 Trite style, 246. 
 
 Triumph, 474. 
 
 Trochaic metre, 585. 
 
 Trojan epoi)CEia, 324. 
 
 Trollope, 323. 
 
 Trope, 69. 
 
 Tu quoque, in debate, 549. 
 
 Tupper. M.F., 258. 
 
 Turner, Sharon, 12. 
 
 Tyndall, John, quoted, 59; style of, 307. 
 
 Uhland. style of, 357. 
 Undine, 112. 
 
 Unexpected statement in oratory, 519. 
 Uniformity in variety, a source ot the beau- 
 tiful, 419. 
 
 Unities, the three, 423. 
 
 Unity, defined, 52; prominence of the princi- 
 pal subject, S3 ; appended clause, 54 ; the 
 parenthesis, 55; long and short sentences, 
 
 56- 
 
 Universities, influence on development of 
 language, 12. 
 
 Unusual or striking presentation, figures aris- 
 ing from, exclamatory, 197-199 ; interroga- 
 tive, 200-203 ; parenthetical, 204-206 ; el- 
 liptical, 207-216; pleonastic, 217-221; pa- 
 roemiac, 222-224; epigram,' 225. 
 
 Vague words, 26. 
 
 Vandyke. 322- 
 
 Vanity Fair, Thackeray's, characters in, 323 ; 
 status of, 331 ; order of thought in. 353. 
 
 Variety, a source of the beautiful. 419. 
 
 Vastnes.s, a source of the sublime. 425. 
 
 Veliemence. in style, 235; in oratory, 56a 
 
 Veneration, 470. 
 
 Verbosity, defined, 27; tautology, 28 ; circum- 
 locution, 29; in (he pulpit and in the press, 
 
 30. 
 
 Verbs, new, 41. 
 
 Verisimilitude, 369. 
 
 Versatility, in st^e, 34a ; in oratory, 561. 
 
 Verse, 596. 
 
 Versification — parallelism, 577 ; quantity, 
 578 ; alliteration, 579 ; sequence, 580 ; 
 Greek ecclesiastical metres. 581 ; accentu- 
 ated metres, 582 ; English. 583 ; nomencla- 
 ture, 596; new development, 607. 
 
 Vicar of Wakefield, aim of, 315. 
 
 Villain, in fiction, 373. 
 
 Virgil, a source of allusion, 120; quoted, 256, 
 269; invention of 319. 
 
 Vision, 117; of William concerning Piers the 
 Plowman, 112. 
 
 Vivacity. Campbell on, 64; general divisions 
 of the subject of persuasiveness, 66; defini- 
 tion of, 238; as it refers to the thought. 239; 
 to expression. 240; to copiousness, 241; to 
 versatility, 242 ; to brilliancy, 243 ; to vivid- 
 ness. 244; to felicity of style, 245; faults 
 of style opposed to, 246. 
 
 Vividness. 244. 
 
 Vivien, Tennyson's, vocabtJary of, 13. 
 
 Voltaire, 242. 
 
 Vraisemblance. 369. 
 
 Vulgarism, 273. 
 
 Vulgarity, 309. 
 
 Waller, quoted, 115, 130. 
 
 Walpole. Horace, quoted, 49, 205 ; Sir 
 i Robert, quoted. 167, 245, 521. 
 
 Wandering Jew, Sue's, status of, 331. 
 
 War passion. 473 ; songs. 599. 
 
 Warburton, Bishop, quoted, 443. 
 I Warning, 485. 
 
564 
 
 Index, 
 
 Wayland, quoted, 176, 214. 
 
 Weak style, 237. 
 
 Wealth. 468. 
 
 Webster, Daniel, quoted. 158. 254; aim of, 
 
 315; outline of speech against Hayne. 351 ; 
 
 resembles Burke, 55s ; physical advanuges 
 
 of- 559- 
 
 Wellington, 81. 
 
 Wesley, C, quoted, 586. 589. 591. 
 
 Wesley, is., quoted, 439. 
 
 Westminster Scrutiny, Fox's speech on. rep- 
 etition in, 391; recapitulation in. 392; il- 
 lustrative argument in. 370; clearness of 
 statement in, 377 ; conclusion of. 405 ; f>er- 
 •onal attack in, 535; defence turned to at- 
 tack in, 54 1. 
 
 Whately. vocabulary of, 13; on energy. 64. 
 226; quoted, 264; on causative argument 
 369. 
 
 Wheeler, History of North Carolina by, 
 quoted, 246. 
 
 " Which "* repeated. 264. 
 
 "While" changed for "and," 281. 
 
 Whole for a part, 128. 
 
 WUhelm Teli, Schiller's, introduction of, 
 
 395- 
 Wilkes, physical disadvantages (^ 559. 
 
 Wilson, Professor, 128. 
 
 Wit, antithesis in, 76 ; definition of. 433 ; in 
 literature. 435. 
 
 "With" for '•and,"2Si. 
 
 Withdrawal of expression, 529. 
 
 Wolfe. C, quoted. 35. 586, 589, 591. 
 
 Word painting. 292. 
 
 Words, obsolete, 32-38 ; new, 39-44 ; new 
 compounds. 45. 46. 
 
 Wordsworth, simplicity of 10; vocabulary' of, 
 13; quoted, 20, 86, 88. 106, 116, 131, 198, 
 245i 297, 470. 486 ; mannerism of, 269 ; in- 
 vention of 322; sublimity of, 430; subjec- 
 tive narration by, 495; expository poetry 
 of. 498- 
 
 Works of art in description, 490; of man in 
 description, 490. 
 
 Wrath, 473- 
 
 Xenophon. quoted, 50; affluence of style in, 
 59 ; compared with Plato, 495. 
 
 Young, Dr. Edward, quoted, 79, 82, 87; ex- 
 pository poetry uf, 498. 
 
 Zeugma, 309. 
 Zschokke, 463. 
 
 
 THE END. 
 
i^ 
 
14 DAY USE 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
 LOAN DEPT. 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recalL 
 
 3^ug'54WD■ 
 
 MAY "« 1991 
 
 ^ -,.v ... 
 
 R^..' 
 
 ^=& 
 
 mt&4- 
 
 ^^r r 
 
 MTFR-Ll 
 
 LOAN 
 
 DEC 1 6 1964 
 
 
 l»n-ER-l IBRARY 
 
 LOAN 
 
 t , mR 1 fi ir . ss 
 
 ■ |gBg4 1 9 7016 
 
 ,„i3;iijj5. j^ 
 
 AU T O DI S C APR 13 '91 
 
 5T6B 
 
 Uaivenity of California 
 Berkeley 
 
YB ^2182 
 
 U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES 
 
 I 
 
 CD5E7aDMM3