FOLZSTHY LIBBASX 
 
FORESTRY 
 
 IK THE 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 W. SCHL1CH, PH.D., 
 
 C.I.E., F.R.S., F.L.S. 
 
 AUTHOR OF "A MANUAL OF FORESTRY," 
 
 LONDON: BRABBUKY, AGNEW, & CO. LD,, 
 10, BOUVEEIE STEEET, E.G. 
 
B1UDBU11Y, AGNEW, & CO. LlX, PltlNTERS, 
 LONDON AND TONBKIDGE. 
 
3$" 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAO B 
 
 INTEODUCTIOX 1 
 
 CHAPTER I. THE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY .... 4 
 
 1. The ^Esthetic Effect of Forests 4 
 
 2. Effect of Forests upon Climate ...... 5 
 
 3. Effect of Forests upon the Stability of the Soil . . 5 
 
 4. The Produce of Forests -6 
 
 a. Forests and Gaine . . . 6 
 
 b. Forests and the Supply of Timber . -. . . .8 
 f. Uncertainty of Future Supplies of Timber . . . . 10 
 
 5. Conclusions ' 15 
 
 CHAPTER II.- MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 17 
 
 1. Land available for Afforestation . . . . . . 17 
 
 2. Climate and Soil 18 
 
 3. Proprietorship of the Land 21 
 
 a-. Private Proprietors . . . . . . . .21 
 
 1. The State as Proprietor 23 
 
 c. Municipalities as Proprietors ...... 24 
 
 4. The Labour Question Generally . 27 
 
 5. Conclusion 28 
 
 CHAPTER III. THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND AND 
 NOTES ON THE TREATMENT OF SOME TYPES OF BRITISH 
 WOODLANDS .... 29 
 
 1. Soil and the Selection of Species . . . . 30 
 
 2. Pure Woods or Mixed Woods ? . . . 31 
 
 3. The Density of Forest Crops . . . . . . . 36 
 
 4. Yield and Financial Results . . v . . . .39 
 
 5. The Treatment of Game Preserves .51 
 
 6. Conversion of Coppice Woods into High Forests . . .61 
 
 7. The Production of High-class Oak, Ash, and Larch Timber . 63 
 
 8. The Forest of Dean : An Object. Lesaon 67 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 TEN PICTURES ILLUSTRATING THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF 
 
 BEECH, THE PRODUCTION OF HIGH-CLASS OAK TIMBER, 
 AND THE PROPER DENSITY OF SPRUCE WOODS . 72 
 
 M60828O 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 EXPERIENCE in India convinced me that, if systematic, 
 economic forestry were to become an enduring thing in India 
 and in the colonies, it would be necessary to make it so in the 
 mother country. When forestry in Britain has once become 
 an essential part of the industry based upon the soil, those 
 who go out to govern the British possessions beyond the seas 
 will be duly impressed by its importance. They will bring to 
 their spheres of action a sympathetic understanding of the 
 business, which will go a long way to prevent any oscillating 
 policy, that otherwise might threaten to interfere with the 
 progress of forest management. Continuity of action will then 
 become the order of the day, without which no industry can 
 nourish, whatever its name or nature may be ; and least of 
 all forestry, the produce of which frequently requires a century 
 and more to mature. 
 
 Thus it was in the interests of India that I first took up 
 the subject of British forestry, and it has occupied me ever 
 since I returned from India in 1885. I travelled over the 
 greater part of England, Scotland and Ireland, and soon 
 became aware of the great importance to this country of 
 extended afforestation and improved management of the 
 existing woods. Already in January, 1886, I submitted to 
 the Earl of Carnarvon, then Viceroy of Ireland, at his Lord- 
 ship's invitation, a pamphlet entitled "Afforestation in Great 
 Britain and Ireland." Before that pamphlet had left the 
 press, a change of Government took place, and my pamphlet 
 was, I presume, shelved. However, I went on, and at various 
 periods I published not only a Manual of Forestry, but various 
 articles and other papers. Of the latter I desire to draw 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 particular attention to two: (1) "The Timber Supply of the 
 British Empire," read at the Imperial Institute in March, 
 1897; and (2) " The Outlook of the World's Timber Supply," 
 read before the Society of Arts in March, 1901. During the 
 last seven years I had the pleasure of advising several landed 
 proprietors regarding the management of their woods, for 
 whom I drew up management schemes, or working plans as 
 foresters call them. In 1903 I prepared a working plan for 
 the Alice Holt woods, belonging to the Crown. These labours 
 brought me more and more into contact with British forestry. 
 
 On the 17th November, 1903, 1 gave a lecture on " Forestry " 
 at the lloyal Agricultural College, Cirencester, as Honorary 
 Professor of Forestry at that Institution. On the 25th 
 February, 1904, I delivered another lecture at Carpenters' 
 Hall, in the City of London, on " The Forestry Problem in 
 the United Kingdom." As various friends have taken an 
 interest in the matter, and asked for additional copies of my 
 last lecture, after the original stock had been exhausted, I 
 decided to publish the present essay. 
 
 I propose to examine the question, whether extended and 
 improved forestry is of such importance to this country 
 generally, as to justify any special measures to be taken 
 towards furthering it, and if so, what these measures should 
 be. Hence, I have brought together the remarks made in my 
 last two lectures, extracts from my other publications, and 
 additional matter, so as to represent a somewhat enlarged 
 statement of the problem ; I have added notes on the afforesta- 
 tion of mountain and heath land, a special section on the 
 financial aspect of the business, and notes on the management 
 of some types of existing woodlands. The latter were pub- 
 lished by me some years ago in the "Gardeners' Chronicle." 
 I have now somewhat altered them, so as to bring them 
 up to date. ^ 
 
 It will be understood, that I cannot give here a complete 
 treatise on the management of woodlands in the United King- 
 dom. I have only picked out some of the essential points : for 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 a complete statement of the principles of sylviculture and 
 forest management I must refer the reader to my Manual of 
 Forestry. 
 
 The subject may be divided into the following three 
 chapters: 
 
 1. The importance of the forestry problem to the nation. 
 
 2. The measures which should be taken in this country to 
 
 insure the benefits offered by forestry. 
 
 3. Notes on the afforestation of surplus land and the 
 
 treatment of some types of British woodlands. 
 I have added ten pictures, illustrating the natural regenera- 
 tion of beech, the production of high-class oak timber, and 
 the proper density of spruce woods. 
 
CHAPTEE I. 
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY, 
 
 FORESTS are, in the economy of man and of Nature, of direct 
 and indirect value ; the former through their products, and 
 the latter through the influence which they exercise upon 
 climate, the regulation of moisture, the stability of the soil, 
 the healthiness and, last but not least, the artistic beauty 
 of a country. I shall commence by offering a few remarks 
 upon the more important indirect effects. 
 
 1. The JEsthetic Effect of Forests. 
 
 This is an aspect which plays a great part in the case of 
 most of the woodlands at present existing in this country. 
 Just compare the difference of feeling created, even in the 
 mind of the most realistic person, on passing through a bare 
 country side, without a tree for miles around, and on wandering 
 through a country where fields and meadows alternate with 
 inviting woodlands, especially on a warm summer day. It 
 is no wonder, therefore, that we find in most parts of this 
 country fine parks and artistically placed woodlands, which 
 render Britain so beautiful and attractive. It is a subject 
 which has been repeatedly dealt with, and upon which a good 
 deal more can be said. On the present occasion only the 
 influence which forests have upon the physical and moral 
 development of the people shall be mentioned. By developing 
 a taste for the beauty of landscape, forests greatly contribute 
 towards the peace and contentment of mind of the dwellers 
 in the country, and help to counteract the unwholesome fever 
 of emigration to the big towns. 
 
EFFECT OF FORESTS UPON CLIMATE. 5 
 
 2. Effect of Forests upon Climate. 
 
 I shall draw attention only to a few points. It is well 
 known how beneficially woodlands act in giving protection 
 against strong winds. Indeed, many woods were created so 
 that they might act as shelter belts for the benefit of fields 
 and pastures, as well as to man and beast. An incidental 
 further benefit of such woods consists in the fact that they 
 act as breeding and resting places for useful birds, the 
 great insect destroyers in agricultural districts. I need 
 hardly point out that woods serve as excellent game coverts, 
 and it is chiefly for this purpose that a great portion of 
 the existing woodlands are maintained in this country. 
 As regards the effect of forests on rainfall we need not 
 trouble ourselves. In the first place that supposed effect 
 is as yet very doubtful, and, secondly, we have in this 
 country, I think, quite enough rain, and frequently a good 
 deal to spare. 
 
 3. Effect of Forests upon the Stability of the Soil. 
 
 Forests assist in preventing erosion, landslips, the silting up 
 of rivers and low lands, and they arrest shifting sands. The 
 rain water, which falls on bare hill sides, rushes down, 
 denuding the soil and carrying it into the water channels, 
 which generally deposit it on lower ground, and often on 
 fertile fields and meadows. This effect has not yet done 
 irretrievable damage in Britain, but the commencement of 
 such detrimental action can easily be seen. Anyone who has 
 travelled to Scotland must have seen dozens of places in 
 Northumberland where the water has cut into the hill 
 sides and produced indentations, which certainly will go on 
 increasing, if nothing is done to arrest such action. The 
 same may be seen, and in a more aggravated form, on 
 proceeding from Chester to Holy head. Unless such mischief 
 is stopped in time it may afterwards necessitate the construc- 
 tion of costly works, such as embankments, dams, and weirs. 
 
6 THE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY. 
 
 What this means will easily be seen by those who pay a visit 
 to the French Alps. 
 
 Again, there are unmistakable signs, in many parts of the 
 country, that peat bogs are increasing, owing to the un- 
 protected state of extensive waste lands. Indeed, in many 
 quarters the opinion is held that the extensive peat bogs of 
 Ireland came into existence since the original forests were 
 destroyed. At any rate, there can be no doubt that, year by 
 year, the bogginess of the open lands in the New Forest is 
 increasing. 
 
 These few instances will show that the indirect effects of 
 woodlands are of considerable importance. Those who desire 
 to follow up the subject further, will find a considerable 
 amount of information in Vol. I. of my "Manual of Forestry," 
 
 4, The Produce of Forests, 
 
 While the indirect effects of forests are sometimes difficult 
 to estimate, it is comparatively easy to assess the direct effects, 
 that is to say, the benefits which a nation derives from them 
 through the produce which they yield. Here, again, we have 
 to do with a great variety of things, such as timber, firewood, 
 fruits, leaves, flowers, bark, turpentine, fibres, grass, moss, peat, 
 game, and many other things. Some of these articles are of 
 importance in agriculture and estate management generally, 
 but on the present occasion I must restrict my remarks to the 
 most important items, namely, game and timber. 
 
 a. Forests and Game. 
 
 Unfortunately, the old taste for the chase has now changed 
 into the love of killing as many head of game as possible 
 within the shortest possible space of time. This holds good 
 especially with regard to red deer, grouse, pheasants, and 
 rabbits. Let us begin with red deer. These are chiefly 
 found in Scotland, where enormous areas are set aside for 
 the purpose of rearing them. Such areas contain either 
 no woods at all, or remnants of former forests. The object 
 
THE PRODUCE OF FORESTS. 7 
 
 is to procure as many stags as possible, so as to raise the 
 shooting rent to a maximum. But the animals shot on these 
 deer ranges are nothing like the fine beasts found in woodland 
 areas. I remember visiting a few years ago the shooting box 
 at Kranichstein, near Darmstadt, belonging to the Grand 
 Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, a nephew of our most gracious 
 King. Kranichstein has served as a grand-ducal shooting 
 box for many generations, and it contains a most interesting 
 collection of stags' heads. There are rooms filled with heads 
 of deer shot in the forests surrounding the box, and there is 
 one room filled with heads of deer shot mostly by the Grand 
 Duke's father during his frequent visits to Scotland. It is 
 a most interesting sight to see the difference between the 
 magnificent heads of deer which lived and developed in real 
 forests, and the inferior antlers of the deer shot in Scotland. 
 To my mind, the pleasure of stalking a king of the forest and 
 carrying home a fine trophy is far superior to bringing 
 home three or four heads, such as are now obtained in 
 Scotland. If a larger proportion of the Scotch forests were 
 once more brought under wood, we should, no doubt, improve 
 the breed, and at the same time increase the revenue from the 
 lands in question by the sale of timber. 
 
 The grouse, on the other hand, requires open lands, but 
 there is room enough in Scotland, with its 9 million acres of 
 waste land, for the rearing of grouse, even if a fair proportion 
 of the land were afforested, 
 
 As to pheasants, it is easy to show that they can be reared, 
 in great numbers, without interfering with the economic 
 management of the coverts. This subject will be dealt with 
 in Chapter III. 
 
 Babbits, however, are a plague, which more and more 
 endangers a rational utilisation of the soil. If a minute 
 investigation were made into the damage done by rabbits, 
 not only in forests but also on agricultural lands, people 
 would be astonished at the amount. In my opinion, if the 
 killing of large numbers of rabbits is desired by '*' chasseurs," 
 
8 THE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY. 
 
 well and good; let them establish rabbit warrens, and please 
 themselves to their hearts' content, but let us make an effort 
 to Jree, at any rate, agricultural lands from this plague, which 
 now seriously reduces agricultural crops and demands an 
 enormous outlay on wire-netting fences. 
 
 No doubt shooting rents give a convenient income to the 
 proprietor. If, however, the areas are compared with the 
 income, it will be found that the rent is not nearly so large as 
 is sometimes assumed. I have, for years past, taken advan- 
 tage of every opportunity to inquire into the matter, and I am 
 satisfied that, all round, shooting rents fall short of a shilling 
 an acre. There are occasional areas which give half-a-crown 
 and even more, but there are also immense areas which give 
 only a few pence per acre. On the other hand, much of the 
 land, if put under forest, can be made to give a considerably 
 higher revenue, even after allowing compound interest on all 
 outgoings. 
 
 1). Forests and the Supply of Timber. 
 
 The home production of timber probably does not exceed 
 2 million tons. Over and above that, we import rather 
 more than 10 million tons, so that only 16 per cent, of 
 all the necessary timber are produced in the country. The 
 increase in the annual imports between the years 1864 and 
 1899 amounted to 6f million tons, equal to an average 
 annual increase of 190,000 tons a year. The average 
 annual increase during the last five years amounted to 
 332,000 tons. 
 
 Of this timber, 87 per cent, are pine and fir. 
 
 3 ,, ,, oak. 
 
 10 ,, ,, ,, teak, mahogany, and 
 other furniture 
 woods. 
 
 Hence, 90 per cent., or 9 million tons, are material which 
 can be produced in this country by the afforestation of 6 or 7 
 million acres of land. 
 
THE PRODUCE OF FORESTS. 9 
 
 The timber imported in 1899 came from the following 
 countries : 
 
 From Canada . . . . = 1,897,000 tons. 
 
 ,, Other British possessions . = 318,000 ,, 
 
 Total from British possessions = 2,215,000 
 
 From Kussia . = 2,242,000 
 
 Sweden . 2,396,000 
 
 Norway . = 863,000 
 
 France . = 825,000 
 
 ,, Germany . . . = 403,000 
 
 The United States . . = 992,000 
 
 Other foreign countries . = 168,000 ,, 
 
 Total from foreign countries . - 7,889,000 
 Grand total of imports . . =10,104,000 
 For these imports we paid : 
 
 To British possessions . . ' . 6,687,000 
 Foreign countries .... 18,990,000 
 
 Total . 25,677^000 
 
 Some 19 million pounds went to foreign countries, except 
 in so far as British ships brought the timber across the sea. 
 The 90 per cent, of timber, which could be grown in this 
 country, represent a value of 20,623,000. But this is not 
 all. Consider what industries, using wood as their raw 
 material, might not spring up, if the timber were produced 
 at home. In 1902 we imported 525,000 tons of wood pulp, 
 for which we paid 2,398,215. Surely, if we can grow any- 
 thing, we can grow timber fit for wood pulp ! Then, remember 
 the toys and games, of which we imported in 1902 to the value 
 of 1,240,840. Again, there are imports of t 
 
 Wood pulp boards .... value 256,903 
 Matches . . . . . 419,099 
 
 Brooms and brushes . . ,, 317,665 
 
 Baskets and basket ware . . ,, 262,116 
 Other sorts of wood, including wood 
 
 ware, etc 1,320,520 
 
10 THE IMPOKTANCE OF FOKESTKY. 
 
 If all these items are added up, we find that we now pay for 
 imports of timber and the above-mentioned articles the sum of 
 27 million pounds, all of which could be produced in this 
 country. Imagine for a moment what an amount of labour 
 it would require to produce these articles at home, and all 
 the time we do not know what to do witri our "Unemployed." 
 Is it not time to wake up and do something ? 
 
 We have, for instruction and as an example, only to glance 
 at the beech woods in the Chiltern Hills, whose existence 
 caused the development of an extensive chair industry. Tens 
 of thousands of workmen are employed in that industry, which 
 would never have seen the light of day without those forests. 
 The industry has now developed to such an extent that it 
 consumes the beech and other timber from the surrounding 
 counties, as well as large quantities imported from abroad. 
 There can be no doubt that similar industries will spring up 
 in other parts of the country, if we create the necessary wood- 
 lands, and thus produce the raw material. 
 
 c. Uncertainty of Future Supplies of Timber. 
 
 If we sit still and do nothing, can we rely for any length of 
 time on getting the necessary timber, in fact, as long as we 
 can pay for it? My reply is, " By no means." 
 
 To begin with, we are not the only importing country in 
 Europe. As a matter of fact most European countries import, 
 and only a few export timber. This fact is illustrated in the 
 statement on the opposite page. 
 
 It will be observed that the following countries import timber 
 (net) : Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, France, Belgium, 
 Denmark, Italy, Spain, Holland, Switzerland, Portugal, Bul- 
 garia, Greece, and Servia. The exporting countries are : 
 Eoumania, Norway, Austria-Hungary, Sweden, and Russia. 
 If we draw the balance for the whole of Europe, we find an 
 annual deficiency of 2,620,000 tons. For a good many years 
 past, Europe has not been able to supply, from within its own 
 
THE PRODUCE OF FORESTS. 
 
 11 
 
 limits, the timber required by the several nations. I may add, 
 that the deficiency is increasing. The total annual increase 
 in net imports of all European countries of late years 
 amounted to 600,000 tons. If the same rate of increase 
 
 NET IMPORTS AND EXPORTS 
 (Average Data, calculated from 
 
 OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. 
 the Returns of Five Years.) 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 ... 9,290,000 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 ... 4,600,000 
 
 
 France 
 
 ... 1,230,000 
 
 
 Belgium 
 
 ... 1,020,000 
 
 
 Denmark 
 
 470,000 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 420,000 
 
 
 Spain 
 
 210,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 180,000 
 
 
 Switzerland ... 
 
 170,000 
 
 
 Portugal 
 
 60,000 
 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 50,000 
 
 
 Greece 
 
 35,000 
 
 
 Servia 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 Eoumania 
 
 
 60,000 
 
 Norway 
 
 
 1,040,000 
 
 Austria-Hungary ... 
 
 
 3,670,000 
 
 Sweden 
 
 
 4,460,000 
 
 Eussia, with Finland 
 
 ... 
 
 5,900,000 
 
 Total ... 
 
 ... 17,750,000 
 
 15,130,000 
 
 Net imports into Europe 
 
 2,620,000 
 
 lasts for another 10 years, and there is every sign of it, an 
 additional 6 million tons a year will be required. 
 
 But it will be said, w 7 hy not work the forests in the exporting 
 countries more heavily? In reply, it must be pointed out 
 
12 THE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY. 
 
 that Norway is already working her forests with a heavy 
 deficit, by cutting more than grows annually, and this has 
 been known for some time past. Sweden was hitherto con- 
 sidered solvent in this respect, but official information lately 
 supplied by our representative at Stockholm, and published in 
 a Parliamentary paper, shows that, according to the statements 
 of the Swedish officials, the forests of that country are now 
 being worked with an annual deficit of 106 million cubic feet. 
 Here, then, is another of our most important sources of supply 
 also beginning to fail us. Of the Austria-Hungarian exports 
 only small quantities come to this country, because half of them 
 go to Germany and the rest to various other countries. The 
 exports from Eoumania are small and do not affect the question 
 under consideration. There remains, then, Russia with Finland. 
 That country has enormous areas of forest, but it has far 
 greater areas without it. Moreover, a large proportion of the 
 so-called forest area does not produce timber fit for export. 
 Eussia's population and industries are rapidly increasing. 
 Different views are taken of her capability to maintain her 
 export of timber. My personal opinion, having weighed the 
 evidence on both sides, is that Kussia is a doubtful factor. 
 At any rate, the authorities have already taken measures to 
 restrict the working of the forests, for fear that, some time 
 hence, the available out-turn of the forests might fall short 
 of the requirements of home consumption. 
 
 It has, more than once, been said that the forests of Siberia 
 are of sufficient extent to make good any deficiency which may 
 occur. How erroneous such views are will be seen from the 
 following extract from a recent report of the Eussian Finance 
 Minister. He says : " In dealing with the settlement of 
 immigrants in Siberia, it will be necessary to give special 
 attention to the forests, the actual condition of which 
 threatens Siberia with great perils in the future. Almost 
 everywhere the forests have either been totally destroyed, or 
 devastated by the local people, so that they have almost lost 
 their value. Absence of supervision, and the rise in the price of 
 
THE PRODUCE OF FORESTS. 13 
 
 forest produce, following the construction of the railway and 
 the development of steam navigation, are causes of the 
 exhaustion of Siberia's forest richness. The principal causes 
 of destruction are, however, forest fires. Year by year 
 enormous extents of the finest pine forests are ruined by fire. 
 In the arrondissement of Altai one can see every year tens of 
 thousands of acres of forest burnt, and these fires uncover the 
 sand, which has already commenced to become moving sand. 
 In consequence of this enormous destruction of forests, the 
 climate of Siberia is actually deteriorating, and this is probably 
 the cause of the famine which reigns since two years in the 
 Altai. For these reasons it is absolutely necessary to introduce 
 at once a proper forest organisation into Siberia." 
 
 After such testimony by the Kussian Finance Minister, 
 Siberia may just as well be struck off the list of countries 
 upon which those relied, who have as yet doubts regarding 
 the coming shortness of timber supplies. Let us hope 
 that matters are less serious in other parts of the Kussian 
 Empire. 
 
 On the whole, there can be no doubt that the pressure 
 in Europe is increasing and is likely to continue doing so 
 in the future. This is indicated by the course which the 
 average price of timber has followed. From about 1870 
 to 1888 the price of timber fell, chiefly owing to the great 
 development of the means of transport by sea ; from 1888 
 to 1894 prices were steady, but in the latter year a gradual 
 rise set in, which in 1899 amounted to 18 per cent. The 
 South African War brought some disturbance, but in 1902 
 a further advance occurred, so that the total rise during 
 the 8 years, 1894 to 1902, comes to 20 per cent. There 
 can be no doubt that we shall never again see the low 
 prices of 10 to 15 years ago, because the more accessible 
 forests in European exporting countries have been heavily 
 worked, if not exhausted, so that the timber for export has, 
 year by year, to be carried over longer distances before it 
 reaches the sea. 
 
 F. B 
 
14 THE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY. 
 
 But what about the non-European countries ? The following 
 table will illustrate the position of affairs : 
 
 NET IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF NON-EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. 
 
 Net Imports. Net Exports. 
 Country. Tons. Tons. 
 
 South America 330,000 
 
 Egypt 200,000 
 
 Australasia 160,000 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 150,000 
 
 Natal 50,000 
 
 China 50,000 
 
 Mauritius 20,000 
 
 Ceylon 10,000 
 
 Japan 5,000 
 
 "West India, Mexico, Honduras, 
 
 etc i. 13,000 
 
 West Coast of Africa 28,000 
 
 India 55,000 
 
 United States of America ... 1,020,000 
 
 Dominion of Canada and New- 
 foundland 2,144,000 
 
 Total 975,000 3,260,000 
 
 Net export of non-European 
 
 countries 2,285,000 
 
 The total net exports very nearly balance the net imports 
 of European countries ; the small difference could not be 
 traced. It will be observed that the only exporting countries 
 of importance are the United States of America and Canada. 
 
 Australasia has as yet large stores of timber, which consist, 
 however, chiefly of hardwoods. A certain quantity of it is 
 exported, but she imports so much pine and fir that a balance 
 is shown against her. 
 
 The United States are working with a heavy deficit as 
 compared with production, so that they have, in steadily 
 increasing quantities, to draw on Canada. The gravity of 
 
THE PRODUCE OF FORESTS. 15 
 
 the position has been recognised, and great efforts are being 
 made to guard against a future timber famine in that country. 
 Instruction in forestry is being given at three universities and 
 some forty other educational establishments ; State forests are 
 being created at a rapid rate, and even private forest lands 
 are brought under systematic forest management. The United 
 States have now at Washington a well organised " Bureau of 
 Forestry " presided over by Mr. Gifford Pinchot, a wealthy 
 American, who studied forestry chiefly in Germany, but also 
 in France and Switzerland. He is assisted by seven gentlemen 
 at headquarters, and some thirty field assistants. This staff 
 is busy in gradually introducing systematic management into 
 the State reserves and into private forests. Can we not learn 
 something from this ? 
 
 Canada has as yet great stores in her 266 million acres of 
 real timber lands, especially of coniferous timber. If the 
 authorities in these self-governing colonies could be induced 
 to introduce systematic management into the more important 
 forests, that country might for ever supply the rest of the 
 world with the necessary coniferous timber. Some mild efforts 
 have been made by the Governments, and even forestry 
 societies started, but the interests of the lumber trade are very 
 great and powerful, and in the meantime the destruction of 
 the forests by reckless cutting and fires goes on. Let us hope 
 that a thorough change may soon be effected. 
 
 5. Conclusions. 
 
 On the whole, then, the following conclusions seem 
 justified : 
 
 1. We require enormous and ever-increasing quantities 
 
 of timber. 
 
 2. Prices are likely to be higher in the future than they 
 
 were in the past. 
 
 3. Supplies from outside rest on a very unsafe basis. 
 
 4. An increase of the woodlands in this country, if brought 
 
 B2 
 
16 THE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY. 
 
 about by the afforestation of surplus land, will keep 
 a large amount of money in the country, and lead to an 
 increased demand for labour in the establishment and 
 management of such woodlands, and it is likely to cause 
 the development of additional industries which use wood 
 as their raw material. 
 
17 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, 
 
 1. Land available for Afforestation. 
 
 THE land in the United Kingdom, excluding water, is at 
 present used as follows : 
 
 UTILISATION OF THE LAND IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Area of Dry 
 Land. 
 
 Area under 
 Crops and 
 Grass. 
 
 Area of 
 Woodlands. 
 
 Mountain and 
 Heath Land. 
 
 Other 
 Lands. 
 
 England . 
 Wales . 
 Scotland . 
 Isle of Man, 
 Jersey . 
 Ireland . 
 
 Total . 
 Percentage 
 
 acres. 
 32,380,991 
 4,748,468 
 
 19.068,958 
 
 185,453 
 19,322.798 
 
 acres. 
 24,679,96*5 
 2,810.824 
 4,897,169 
 
 124,650 
 15,230,591 
 
 acres. 
 1.665,741 
 181,610 
 
 878,765 
 
 869 
 303,023 
 
 acres. 
 2,324,624 
 
 1,270,470 
 9,289,378 
 
 29,729 
 2,226,867 
 
 acres. 
 3,710,660 
 485,564 
 4,003,646 
 
 30,205 
 1,562,317 
 
 75,706,668 
 
 47,743,200 
 
 3,030,008 
 
 15,141,068 
 
 9,792,392 
 
 100 
 
 63 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 It will be observed that 63 per cent, are used for crops and 
 grass, 4 per cent, are woodlands, 20 per cent, mountain and 
 heath land, and 13 per cent, other lands. The latter include, 
 in the case of Ireland, 1,124,111 acres of turf bog and 428,662 
 acres of marsh. 
 
 The area of woodlands, 4 per cent, of the total area, is 
 smaller than that of any other European country except 
 Portugal. Again, only some 67,000 acres, equal to 2-J per cent, 
 of the British woodlands, belong to the State, or rather the 
 Crown, a percentage which is smaller than in the case of any 
 other European State. In France the percentage is 12, in 
 
18 MEASUKES TO BE TAKEN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 Norway 12, in Austria-Hungary 12, in Sweden 27, in Ger- 
 many 33, and in Eussia 61. The area under forest per head 
 of population is 
 
 In the United Kingdom . . . O'l acres. 
 
 In France 0'6 
 
 In Germany . . . . .07,, 
 
 In Austria-Hungary . . . . I'l ,, 
 
 In Russia 5*9 ,, 
 
 In Norway . . . . . 8*4 ,, 
 
 In Sweden . . . . . 8*9 ,, 
 
 Considering all these matters, I helieve I am justified in 
 saying that an effort must be made to increase the area under 
 timber in this country. Even apart from the 9J million 
 acres of so-called other lands, about which it is difficult to 
 obtain detailed information, we have over 15 million acres of 
 mountain and heath land to select from. A large proportion 
 of these lands are used for light grazing and as shooting grounds, 
 but I am satisfied that their average rental value is not more 
 than a shilling an acre. Even the best of them rarely give 
 more than half-a-crown, while there are millions of acres in 
 Scotland and Ireland which give only a few pence a year 
 per acre, or nothing at all. I hope to show further on 
 that a large proportion of these lands could be made more 
 remunerative than they are at present, even allowing com- 
 pound interest, at a reasonable rate, on all outlay. 
 
 2. Climate and Soil, 
 
 It is sometimes said that it is all very well to urge extended 
 forestry in the United Kingdom, but that home-grown timber 
 is of a quality inferior to that of the timber now imported from 
 abroad. This is to a very large extent a fallacy. The late 
 Forestry Committee had abundant evidence that we can, and 
 do, produce timber of a quality at least equal to that imported 
 in the case of oak, ash, and larch. As regards Scotch pine and 
 
CLIMATE AND SOIL. 19 
 
 spruce, frequently an inferior quality has been produced, 
 because the trees were given too much growing space, and 
 in consequence laid on too broad annual rings. Proper 
 sylviculture can remedy this. 
 
 On the other hand, the imported timber of nearly all 
 species comes to us in pieces which are straighter and more 
 free of knots than the ordinary home-grown timber. This is, 
 again, due to faulty sylviculture in our own woodlands. Too 
 heavy thinnings and too much growing space to the individual 
 tree while young account for this. If we treat our forests 
 in a more rational manner, we shall produce just as fine 
 timber as that now imported. 
 
 As regards the climate, there is practically nothing better to 
 be desired as far as the production of timber is concerned, 
 however unpleasant it may be in other respects. We have, 
 generally speaking, mild winters and cool summers. Of rain 
 we have plenty, often too much, while snow and ice are not 
 nearly so frequent as in other northern European countries. 
 Unfortunately, of gales and strong winds we have more than a 
 fair share, but, with proper management, their injurious effect 
 upon forest growth can be considerably reduced. Let foresters 
 commence cutting in the east and gradually proceed to the 
 west, and the damage by gales will be only a fraction of- what 
 it is, if the reverse direction is followed. On the whole, 
 our climate, at any rate up to the centre of Scotland, though 
 it may not be equal to that of a great portion of France, 
 compares favourably with that of Northern Germany, Norway, 
 Sweden, and Northern Russia, whence we import some six 
 million tons of timber a year. 
 
 In coming now to the question of soil, I may say we have it 
 of good, bad, and indifferent quality, just as in the above 
 mentioned countries. There is, however, one great draw- 
 back in the case of afforesting land which has been lying 
 waste for long periods of time, as it has suffered in yield 
 capacity, owing to continued exposure and the dissipation 
 of all organic matter. In such cases there will be some 
 
20 MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 difficulty in the beginning, and a start must be made with 
 species which are little exacting. When a suitable forest crop 
 has once more been established on the areas, the producing 
 power of the land will increase in the same degree as organic 
 matter accumulates in the soil, and then more exacting species 
 can be introduced as a second crop. The loss of increment in 
 the beginning is a penalty which we shall have to pay for 
 neglect in the past. 
 
 What we require are improved sylvicultural methods, and 
 the late Forestry Committee pleaded, in the first instance, 
 for improved instruction in forestry. I am happy to say that 
 this recommendation has already borne fruit. A special 
 forestry branch has just been added to the Eoyal Agricultural 
 College at Cirencester ; a similar branch is about to be added 
 to the Kent and Sussex Agricultural College at Wye ; both 
 institutions are for the instruction of landed proprietors or 
 their sons, or young men preparing for the position of estate 
 managers. A forest school for wqodmen has just been started 
 by the Commissioners of Woods in the Forest of Dean. This 
 step is likely to be of great importance. It provides for the 
 training of a class of men, who are wanted, not only for the 
 Crown Woods, but also by private proprietors who own a 
 limited area of woodlands. The instructor in charge, Mr. C. 0. 
 Hanson, one of my own pupils, has made a fair start under 
 the supervision of the Deputy Surveyor, Forest of Dean, and 
 it is to be hoped that the school will prosper. The students, 
 who are of the woodman class, have theoretical instruction on 
 two days a week, and they work in the forest the remaining 
 four days. 
 
 Instruction in forestry has for a series of years been given 
 at the University of Edinburgh, and there is every prospect 
 of its being considerably enlarged. Further measures in the 
 same direction will, no doubt, follow, especially if the State 
 authorities see their way towards helping a little more than 
 has been done in the past. I shall presently again refer to 
 this subject. 
 
PROPRIETORSHIP OF THE LAND. 21 
 
 3. Proprietorship of the Land. 
 
 There exists one great difficulty, inasmuch as the bulk of 
 the mountain and heath land is private property. In some 
 cases the proprietors are not inclined to plant, and in others 
 they are hard up, and cannot afford to meet the initial 
 expense of planting, or forego the present small income from 
 the land until the plantations commence to yield a return. The 
 question thus arises, what can be done to overcome the difficulty. 
 There are various ways of meeting the case : 
 
 1. The State may encourage afforestation by private pro- 
 
 prietors, by providing the means of education in rational, 
 economic forestry, and by making advances at a low 
 rate of interest to proprietors who are short of cash. 
 
 2. The State may acquire surplus lands and afforest them. 
 
 3. Municipalities may acquire surplus lands and convert them 
 
 into communal or corporation forests. 
 
 a. Private Proprietors. 
 
 All three agencies ought to be put into motion, but as matters 
 stand we must look chiefly to the first one. As far as educa- 
 tion in forestry goes, the State gives already small subsidies to 
 certain establishments ; but these might with advantage be 
 increased, so that landed proprietors, their sons, and land 
 agents may have an opportunity of becoming acquainted with 
 the principles of economic forestry at the establishments where 
 they go for their education that is to say, at the principal 
 universities and agricultural colleges. In addition, elementary 
 schools for working foresters should be established in various 
 parts of the country. The total expenditure under this head 
 need not frighten the tax-payer. 
 
 It seems of the utmost importance that arrangements 
 should be made to give advances to landed proprietors, who 
 are willing to plant but unable to meet the initial expenses, 
 at the rate of interest at which Government can borrow plus 
 
22 MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 a suitable addition by way of a sinking fund. Such advances 
 should cover the actual outlay for planting, and the plantation 
 would remain mortgaged to Government until the advance 
 has been paid back. Let us take an example : A proprietor 
 wishes to plant 1,000 acres at a cost of, say, 5 an acre. 
 This would involve an outlay of 5,000, a sum which he may 
 be unwilling, or unable to raise except at a high rate of 
 interest. Under the plan suggested above, he would have to 
 pay about 150 to 175 a year, which he may be able to 
 afford. After some twenty years (and frequently sooner) the 
 thinnings would commence, when he would be relieved of the 
 payment to the State, and from that time forward the planta- 
 tion would give him an increasing income. The State has 
 just agreed to pay a large sum of money for the benefit of the 
 Irish cultivators. Would it be too much to ask such a small 
 consideration as that just indicated for another set of loyal 
 subjects ? 
 
 Then, there is the manner in which rates and taxes are 
 assessed upon woodlands. The late Forestry Committee was 
 of opinion that it could be improved and made more just, but 
 it is a difficult subject, and I must refer those who are interested 
 in the matter to the report of the committee. 
 
 Another serious matter is the question of the rates charged 
 by railway companies for the carriage of British timber. These 
 rates are higher than those charged on foreign timber. The 
 Forestry Committee also dealt with this subject, and it is to be 
 hoped that the complaints of timber merchants may be taken 
 up at an early date. There is, however, one point to which 
 attention must be drawn. It was given in evidence before the 
 committee that in most cases the foreign timber was easier to 
 handle and packed better in the trucks, so that the railway 
 companies were bound to charge something for British timber 
 over and above the amount charged for foreign timber. This 
 drawback will disappear when we begin growing cleaner 
 timber. 
 
 Finally, it should be mentioned that some county councils 
 
PROPRIETORSHIP OF THE LAND. 23 
 
 have attempted to make timber merchants pay for damage 
 done to roads on account of specially heavy traffic. Such an 
 attempt is absolutely unfair, and, it is to be hoped, unlawful. 
 Planted land pays rates and taxes for a long series of years 
 during which it causes no traffic. If the proprietor, or timber 
 merchant, which comes to the same thing, is called upon 
 to pay extra for traffic when the crop becomes mature, he is 
 made to pay rates twice over. The matter must be fought out, 
 either in the law courts, or in Parliament. 
 
 ~b. The Slate as Proprietor. 
 
 It has often been urged that the State should acquire large 
 areas of surplus lands and put them under forest. Indeed, 
 an enthusiastic gentleman actually proposed that Parliament 
 should vote one million pounds a year for the next hundred 
 years, so as to purchase and afforest seven million acres of 
 land. I do not go as far as that, but I think that the State 
 could do something in that direction. From time to time 
 suitable tracts of land come into the market, and there is, in 
 my opinion, no reason why the State should not acquire such 
 land. On the whole, however, cases of that kind are com- 
 paratively rare in England, but probably more numerous 
 in Scotland. In Ireland the State could do something 
 substantial in connection with the carrying into effect the 
 latest Irish Land Act. Many of the estates, especially in 
 the congested districts, contain large areas of waste land 
 which are not required by the new proprietors. Such areas 
 might be acquired by the State and converted into State 
 forests. The price of such land would probably be less than 
 1 an acre. No doubt, such a procedure would be beset by 
 difficulties, especially in the beginning. It has been said that 
 the adjoining farmers would destroy the plantations, but the 
 difficulty can be overcome by making it the interest of the 
 surrounding population to preserve the woods. The forests 
 will provide additional work, and by and by tend to create 
 
24 MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 various local industries, all of which will, I feel sure, make 
 the people the friends of the forests, and not their enemies. 
 
 c. Municipalities as Proprietors. 
 
 What I am now about to place before the reader will, no 
 doubt, remind him of the controversy regarding municipal 
 trading. Whatever the ultimate result of that controversy 
 may be, I hope that an exception niay be made in the case of 
 municipal forests. I need scarcely remind you that the City 
 of London already possesses such a forest, the Epping Forest, 
 so that the ice is really broken. That forest is, no doubt, 
 managed .with a view to its serving as a recreation ground for 
 the inhabitants of London, and not for economic reasons. I 
 do not know how the finances of the forest stand, but from 
 what I have seen during various visits to the forest, I am 
 certain that it could continue to serve its present purpose, and 
 yet yield a revenue, provided excessive sentimentality were 
 somewhat curbed. 
 
 There is, however, another matter which, year by year, is 
 becoming of greater importance to all our large towns, and 
 that is the question of the " Unemployed." It is well known 
 how serious the matter becomes every winter, how special 
 efforts are made to deal with it, and yet how much remains 
 to be done. I maintain that afforestation offers one of the 
 means of solving the question. The bulk of forest work can 
 be done at those times of the year when the question of the 
 unemployed is most pressing, that is, in winter. Now I ask, 
 why should the great City of London, yea one or other of the 
 City Companies, not buy a few tracts of. mountain land, where 
 forest work could be given to the unemployed during winter ? 
 It is true that extensive tracts of surplus land cannot be found 
 in the immediate vicinity of London, but railway communica- 
 tion is so complete that a moderate distance does not make 
 much difference. I have gone over the agricultural returns 
 and picked out the following information as bearing specially 
 on the question under consideration, and showing that there is 
 
PROPRIETORSHIP OF THE LAND. 25 
 
 plenty of land to choose from for .all the large towns in 
 England and Wales : 
 
 Mountain and Heath Lands in England and Wales. 
 
 Acres. Acres. 
 
 In the county of Surrey = 13,136-1 
 
 Kent 6,636} = 36,502 
 
 Sussex = 16,730) 
 
 Suffolk = 30,732) 
 
 Norfolk = 44,101 J " 
 
 Yorkshire = 546,388 
 
 Northumberland = 471,303\ 
 
 Cumberland = 262,859 ( 
 
 Durham = 53,874 f 
 
 Westmorland = 208,832/ 
 
 ,, ,, Devonshire = 160,188 v 
 
 Cornwall = 56,715 1 
 
 Somerset = 51,031 f 
 
 Dorset = 27,326J 
 
 In other English counties = 374,773 
 
 Total in England = 2,324,624 
 
 In Wales = 1,270,470 
 
 I do not ask London, or any of the other large towns, to 
 launch out upon a big scheme at once, but I fail to see why an 
 experiment should not be made on a moderate scale. Let us 
 take Surrey, Kent, and Sussex. Out of the 36,502 acres of 
 mountain and heath land a few thousand acres might be 
 acquired. On this area I should start planting on a small 
 scale under an efficient superintendent, so as to train a small 
 establishment to the work. The men so trained would subse- 
 quently act as foremen. When pressure comes in winter-time 
 in London, the unemployed would be sent to the estate and 
 
26 MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 employed in preparing, the land for planting, by draining, 
 fencing, and digging planting holes, on such a scale that 
 sufficient work is provided for the men, until hard times 
 pass, and they can return to their ordinary occupation, a 
 certain number perhaps being retained to do the actual 
 planting. Towards spring the staff of workmen would be 
 reduced to its permanent strength, which would be busy with 
 nursery work during spring, summer and autumn. 
 
 A certain outlay for housing would, of course, have to be 
 incurred, but the work done on these plantations would lead 
 to some tangible results, and not to waste, as is so often the 
 case with relief works. 
 
 If the experiment turns out a success, and with proper 
 arrangements it should do so, further land might be acquired 
 in the above-mentioned three counties, or in Suffolk and 
 Norfolk, or even further north. 
 
 In many cases, operations of this class may be combined 
 with the utilisation of catchment areas for waterworks. The 
 Corporation of Liverpool has extensive gathering grounds 
 at Vyrnwy in North Wales, where plantations have already 
 been commenced. Here a line example of utilising moun- 
 tain lands can, and it is hoped will, be given, which I trust 
 will be imitated by other corporations. In spite of much 
 discussion as to the advisability of afforesting gathering 
 grounds, there can be no doubt that it is the best means 
 of keeping the water pure and of regulating its flow, a fact 
 which will be affirmed by those who have enquired into the 
 magnificent works carried out by the town of Verviers in 
 Belgium. Its gathering ground on the banks of the river 
 Gileppe is entirely under forest, and with the most satisfactory 
 results. 
 
 If London and other large cities embarked on an enterprise 
 like that sketched by me, a considerable area might gradually 
 be brought under forest ; it would help to overcome the 
 difficulty of the unemployed, and add considerably to the 
 quantity of timber produced in the country. Moreover, it 
 
THE LABOUR QUESTION GENERALLY. 27 
 
 would lessen the emigration from the country into the large 
 cities. This emigration has gradually developed, until it has 
 become a calamity ; it can only be cured gradually by providing 
 more work in the country. 
 
 4. The Labour Question Generally. 
 
 And this brings me to the labour question generally. If 
 afforestation were undertaken on a large scale, there is no 
 reason why five or six million acres should not gradually be 
 brought under wood, thus producing the bulk of the ordinary 
 timber required by the country. Every acre afforested would 
 require an expenditure on labour of, say, 2 for planting. After 
 the forests have been established, every acre would require 
 about five days labour a year, or a total of thirty million days 
 for the work in the forests. Then there is the large business 
 of transport and working up the timber, as well as the various 
 industries which would spring up. On the whole, I estimate 
 that not less than a population of two and a half million 
 people would find additional work in the country, counting 
 five members for each family. 
 
 There is yet another point of great importance. I have 
 already indicated that most forest work can be done in 
 winter, when agricultural work is slack ; hence, the two kinds 
 of work can be made to fit in with each other, and thus make 
 available more labour for agriculture during summer. This 
 would be an inestimable benefit for agriculture, which is at 
 present so short of labourers. 
 
 Nor must we overlook the beneficial effect which work in 
 the open country would have upon the physical condition of 
 the people. We have heard a good deal of late about physical 
 deterioration. Surely, a measure which enables a larger pro- 
 portion of the nation to live under the healthy conditions of a 
 country life must be welcomed by, and commend itself to, 
 all who would wish to improve the physical condition of the 
 people. 
 
28 MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 5. Conclusion, 
 
 It is not a fanciful problem which I have endeavoured to 
 indicate, but a scheme which is realisable if we really put our 
 shoulders to the wheel. Let us hope that the matter will not 
 be pushed aside with a light heart by those who can help to 
 realise it. 
 
 For a period of eighteen years I have urged the subject 
 upon public attention, and a slight movement to take it up is 
 now on foot. May that movement increase in vigour, so that 
 at last something substantial is done, which, I have no doubt, 
 will prove a lasting benefit to the United Kingdom and its 
 people. 
 
 A few weeks ago the subject was before the House of 
 Commons in connection with the question of the Unemployed. 
 Only a few days ago it came before the House of Lords, when 
 the Earl of Onslow spoke in a very sympathetic manner. He 
 announced "that the Treasury had promised assistance in the 
 foundation of at least two forest schools in England, one for 
 the instruction of young men who were likely to become land- 
 owners or land agents, and the other for woodmen. The 
 former he should prefer to see attached to one of the great 
 Universities. There was a strong feeling in the country that 
 we should not be behind foreign nations in our knowledge of 
 woodcraft, and that our resources ought to be made more use 
 of. This method of utilising the soil his Department was 
 most anxious to encourage, and by the training of young men 
 of both classes in the science of forestry they believed that by 
 making a small beginning now, they might be enabled to lead 
 up in the course of years to great results. The time might 
 come, therefore, when this country would be able far more 
 than at present or in the past to rely upon its own resources 
 for the production of forest timber." 
 
 These are comforting words to me, after having struggled 
 for many years against adverse conditions. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND, AND NOTES 
 ON THE TREATMENT OF SOME TYPES OF BRITISH 
 WOODLANDS, 
 
 THE treatment of forests depends on the objects which it 
 is proposed to realise. It rests with the proprietor, in so 
 far as his choice is not limited by the laws of the country, to 
 determine in each case what these objects shall be, and then 
 it becomes the duty of the forester to see that they are realised 
 to the fullest extent and in the most economic manner. This 
 fundamental principle should never be lost sight of. In these 
 islands nearly the whole of the existing woodlands belong to 
 private proprietors. They desire, in the majority of cases, to 
 have the woods so managed that they lend themselves either 
 to landscape beauty, or the rearing of game, or the produc- 
 tion of a particular kind of produce required in the manage- 
 ment of estates. In such cases economic working is beset by 
 considerable difficulties. And yet, even under such conditions, 
 the objects of the proprietors may be realised, and the woods 
 be made to yield, if not a full, at any rate a fair return, while 
 the proprietor must put down any deficiency in the income 
 against his pleasure, or against shooting rents, or the benefits 
 derived by the rest of the estate. 
 
 Where the manager is not hampered in this way, and 
 where economic forestry is aimed at, as it would generally be 
 in the case of extended afforestation of mountain, heath and 
 other waste lands, the question of finance would be of the first 
 importance. The forester must decide what and how to 
 plant, and how to treat his woods, so as to realise the highest 
 possible net returns. The answers to these and other ques- 
 tions practically require a treatise on sylviculture and forest 
 
 F. C 
 
30 THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND. 
 
 management, for which I must refer the reader to my "Manual 
 of Forestry," especially Volumes II. and III. On this occasion 
 I can offer only short remarks on the afforestation of mountain, 
 heath and other waste lands, and on a few selected types of 
 woods as they now exist in the country. 
 
 1. Soil and the Selection of Species, 
 
 Many varieties and qualities of soil are found on the 
 mountain and heath lands ; hence the selection of the proper 
 species to plant, in the first instance, is of the highest import- 
 ance. No general rule can be laid down, and the selection 
 must be made on the spot in each case. There is, however, 
 a fundamental rule which runs thus : "Never attempt to plant 
 a species which is not thoroughly suited to the locality, in other 
 words, which is not likely to thrive in it" 
 
 Every disregard of this rule is likely to lead to financial 
 loss. It is quite astonishing how often the rule is sinned 
 against* Sometimes the planter has not a sufficient under- 
 standing of what species is most likely to thrive best in a 
 given case. This shortcoming must be met by proper instruc- 
 tion. In other cases the planter has developed a fancy for 
 a certain species, and proceeds to plant it under all conditions. 
 This is a most disastrous failing, which the forester must 
 combat with all his might. The subject of selection must be 
 approached with an open mind, and all personal fancies must 
 absolutely be put on one side. 
 
 Different species make different demands on the locality, 
 not only as regards the chemical, but also, and chiefly so, 
 the physical conditions of the soil. Hence, foresters divide 
 the species according to their demands on the fertility of the 
 soil. Some species, such as sycamore, ash, oak and elm, to 
 do really well, require a fertile soil ; others, such as chestnut, 
 beech and silver fir, are somewhat less exacting ; next come 
 Norway maple, lime, alder, larch and spruce; less exacting 
 again are willow, poplars, birch, Weymouth, Scotch and 
 Austrian pine. As a general proposition it may be said, that 
 
SOIL AND THE SELECTION OF SPECIES. 31 
 
 heavy soils are better adapted for broad-leaved species, and 
 lighter soils for conifers. There are, however, exceptions ; 
 spruce, for instance, does well on heavy soils. A medium 
 class of soils, called loam, practically suits all species ; in the 
 same degree as the soil becomes heavier, broad-leaved species 
 should prevail, and rice versa. The final selection of the 
 right species is a difficult task, and the subject must be studied 
 in detail. 
 
 Amongst the mountain and heath land of this country areas 
 are, no doubt, found, which can at once be planted with the 
 more exacting species, but as the greater part of it has 
 deteriorated in consequence of long exposure, it will, in the 
 majority of cases, be advisable to let the first crop be a non- 
 exacting conifer, such as Scotch, Weymouth and Corsican 
 pine, and, in suitable localities, larch. These species will 
 gradually improve the land, so that they can be followed by 
 more exacting species. 
 
 2. Pure Woods or Mixed Woods ? * 
 
 The question whether to grow woods consisting of one 
 species only, or woods containing two or more species 
 intermixed, presents itself to every proprietor and forester 
 in this country. Taste, as well as considerations based on 
 economic grounds, differ much on this subject, and it seems 
 worth while enquiring in which cases and under what conditions 
 the one or other class of wood is indicated. 
 
 As to the question of taste, it is impossible to evolve any 
 rule. Some proprietors prefer pure, others mixed woods. If 
 we ask Nature, the answer no doubt will be, that in by far the 
 majority of cases mixed woods are the rule, though the species 
 may be arranged in groups of greater or smaller extent, accord- 
 ing to the character of the locality, and the requirements of 
 the several species. Many people think, that the old woods 
 here and there found in this country are natural woods, but 
 
 * See pages 08 to 88 of "Scklich's Manual of Forestry," Vol. II., third 
 edition. 
 
 c 2 
 
32 THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND. 
 
 there can be no doubt that many of them are nothing of the 
 kind. Indeed, there is, perhaps, not a single wood in England 
 which does not owe its present condition to interference by the 
 act of man, not even the so-called natural woods in the New 
 Forest and in Epping Forest, about which so much has been 
 written/ As they appear to us now, they are the result, if 
 not of actual sowing or planting, of the cutting-out of certain 
 species which Nature had introduced, of coppicing, pollarding, 
 and other violent interference, not to omit the effects of cattle- 
 grazing and fire. 
 
 Proceeding now to the economic aspect of the matter under 
 consideration, the case may shortly be stated thus : The 
 object in view should be to manage woodlands so as to 
 secure, permanently, the best possible results, whether 
 measured by quantity and quality of produce, or by net 
 cash receipts, or the interest which the invested capital 
 yields. Stress is laid on the word " permanently." No doubt 
 a proprietor can, for a certain period of time, realise large 
 returns from his woods ; but in doing so he may seriously 
 injure the future yield-capacity of the land. Eeturns are 
 legitimate only if by their realisation the property is not 
 reduced in value, as measured by its yield-capacity. On 
 thoroughly fertile soil, and under a favourable climate, the 
 danger is, perhaps, not great; but where such conditions do 
 not exist, and this occurs in the majority of cases, at any rate 
 so far as the soil is concerned, woodlands should be stocked 
 with such species, and treated in such a manner that the 
 yield-capacity of the locality is not reduced. On the con- 
 trary, it should in many cases be improved. And thus we 
 arrive at the question whether pure or mixed woods are 
 indicated, and in the latter case, how they should be 
 arranged. 
 
 The beneficial effects of a full crop of trees upon the soil 
 are brought about chiefly by the following two agencies : 
 
 (1.) The trees form a dense leaf- canopy, which protects the 
 soil against the effects of the sun and air currents. 
 
PUBE WOODS OR MIXED WOODS ? 33 
 
 (2.) The fallen leaves, and certain plants which grow in the 
 shade of trees, such as mosses, form a layer of humus, which 
 covers the mineral soil, and produces a suitable proportion of 
 organic matter. 
 
 These two agencies secure to the soil fertility, and above 
 all, a permanent supply of moisture, without which no crop 
 of trees can thoroughly flourish. Whenever the above two 
 conditions are fully secured, the yield-capacity of the soil is 
 maintained, and in many cases improved. Hence, the answer 
 to the question before us runs thus : 
 
 " Only trees which hare a fairly full foliage, and preserve a 
 good leaf-canopy to an advanced age, are fit to be raised in pure 
 woods. Species which do not possess these qualities should be 
 mixed with trees of the former kind." 
 
 Accordingly, foresters arrange the trees grown for economic 
 purposes into two classes. To the first class of trees fit to be 
 grown in pure woods belong the beech, hornbeam, silver fir, 
 spruce, and in a less degree sycamore, Weyrnouth pine, and 
 Douglas fir. To the second class of trees belong larch, birch, 
 poplar, ash, oak, and sweet chestnut. Half-way between the 
 two classes stand Scotch, Austrian, and Corsican pine, inas- 
 much as they benefit the soil up to a certain age, say to forty 
 or fifty years, after which they begin to thin out and join the 
 second class. As a rule, the trees of the first class are shade- 
 bearing, whereas those of the second are light-demanding, in 
 addition to being thin-crowned. It so happens, however, 
 that the second class comprises the most valuable timber trees, 
 more particularly oak, ash, and larch ; hence, mixed woods in 
 which these species form a prominent feature, are indicated in 
 Britain, in preference to pure woods. 
 
 The next question is, how should such mixtures be arranged ? 
 Unfortunately no rational answer has been given to it by many 
 British foresters during the last two generations. Instead of 
 following the good old plan and the ordinary laws of nature, 
 as exhibited by older woodlands, modern foresters conceived 
 the idea of cramming together on the same area about as 
 
34 THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND. 
 
 many species as they could think of. Light-demanding and 
 shade-bearing, quick-growing and slow-growing, spreading and 
 conically-shaped, tender and hardy, conifers and hardwood, 
 have been mixed together anyhow, without any reference to 
 the habits and requirements of the several species in mixture. 
 The natural consequence has been, that the more aggressive 
 species, especially conifers, such as larch, Scotch pine, and 
 spruce, took the lead, and, being frequently unchecked by the 
 hand of the forester, ousted the better kinds of hardwood, and 
 more particularly the oak. Only too many plantations of this 
 kind can be seen in the south of England, as well as in the 
 Midland counties, where the trees, which were originally 
 meant to serve as nurses for valuable hardwoods, have 
 actually killed the latter, or crippled them to such an 
 extent that they have become useless. " The nurse has 
 devoured the baby." It is indeed time that we return to 
 more simple methods, that is to say, to mix only species 
 which are in every way suited to each other, and to mix and 
 treat them so that each has a chance of fulfilling the object for 
 which it is reared. 
 
 If one species is merely to serve as a nurse for the other, the 
 former must be cut out just at the moment when the welfare 
 of the permanent species demands it. This rule is simple 
 enough ; but there is another point to which special attention 
 must be drawn namely, the permanent species must be suffi- 
 ciently numerous to form a full crop when the nurses have 
 been removed. Many instances can be seen where the former 
 only represents from 10 to 15 per cent, of the total number of 
 plants, whereas the nurses amount to 85 or 90 per cent. What 
 is the result ? When the nurses are cut out, there remains a 
 thin, straggling crop of hardwoods, not sufficient to make a 
 wood by themselves, and they are generally cut away with the 
 nurses, to make room for a new crop. Such a procedure is 
 without sense, and involves useless expenditure. In these 
 mixtures, the principal species should represent not less than 
 half the crop from the commencement. 
 
PURE WOODS OR MIXED WOODS ? 85 
 
 The arrangement of more permanent mixtures requires still 
 more care, since it depends on the relative height growth, the 
 light requirement, and shape of the species in mixtures, Hence, 
 it is of the utmost importance to restrict mixtures to as few 
 species as possible. Pure woods are easier to manage than 
 mixed woods ; mixtures of two easier than mixtures of three 
 or more. It is far better to mix two species on half the area, 
 and two others on the second half, than to mix four species 
 over the whole area. 
 
 In summing up, we arrive at the following simple rules : 
 
 (1.) Only species which are capable of preserving the yield- 
 capacity of the locality may be raised in pure woods. 
 
 (2.) In the case of mixed woods, at any rate one of the 
 species in mixture must be soil-improving, and it should be 
 more numerous than the others. 
 
 (3.) As a rule, not more than two, and certainly not more 
 than three, species should be mixed on the same area, unless 
 each species is placed into separate groups, representing a series 
 of small pure woods. 
 
 (4.) Shade-bearing species may be mixed with each other, 
 provided their rate of height growth is the same, or the slower- 
 growing can be effectually protected against the other, either 
 by giving it a start, or cutting away the threatening individuals 
 of the faster growing species. 
 
 (5.) Shade-bearing and light-demanding species may be 
 mixed, if the latter are faster growing, or given a start. 
 
 (6.) Light- demanding species should not be mixed with 
 each other, except under exceptional conditions, such as the 
 following : 
 
 (a) In very fertile localities. 
 
 (b) In very inferior localities where nothing else will grow, 
 
 (c) If the mixture is a temporary one, as in the case of nurses 
 
 grown to protect a tender species during early youth ; 
 or if the wood is treated under a very short rotation, as, 
 for instance, where only pit timber is grown. 
 (7.) Whether the mixture should be arranged by single trees, 
 
36 THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND. 
 
 in alternate lines, or whether each species is to form separate 
 groups, depends on circumstances, especially the relative height 
 growth, and the shapes of the species in mixture. Where these 
 differ, groups are indicated, a system which has of late years 
 much grown in favour with foresters. At any rate, the species 
 should be placed into alternate lines, so that one can he 
 protected against the other, 
 
 8. The Density of Forest Crops.* 
 
 In the previous section special attention has been drawn to 
 the necessity of growing a forest crop so that the fertility of 
 the soil is preserved, if not increased, and that the most valu- 
 able class of timber is produced. The question may therefore 
 be asked, " What is the proper density of a forest crop ? " or 
 to put it differently, " What is the most suitable growing space 
 to be given to each tree? " 
 
 The theory of the case is simple enough, and it runs as 
 follows :- " The density of a forest crop should be such that the 
 objects which the proprietor has in view are most fully realised." 
 Hence, if the object is to produce landscape beauty, it is in 
 some cases desirable to give to each individual tree sufficient 
 space to grow and spread in a natural way, while in others a 
 group of massed trees may be desirable ; no special law can be 
 laid down in this case. 
 
 When trees are grown for economic purposes, matters are 
 different. Here a balance must be struck between the preser- 
 vation of the fertility of the soil and the production of high- 
 class timber. For the former purpose it is best to keep the 
 crop as dense as possible from start to finish ; but such a pro- 
 cedure may seriously interfere with the second object, and it 
 may involve heavy additional expenditure at starting. 
 
 In the case of natural regeneration, successfully carried 
 through, as many as 50,000 or 100,000 seedlings may be found 
 on an acre, and these are, after a comparatively short space of 
 
 * See " Manual of Forestry," Vol, II., third edition, pages 1J9, 174, and 289, 
 
THE DENSITY OF FOREST CROPS. 
 
 37 
 
 time, reduced to a limited number, the strongest taking the 
 lead, and suppressing the others. In this case, ordinarily no 
 extra expenditure is incurred, and the bountiful regeneration 
 provided by Nature causes the surviving plants to be pushed 
 up by their less-favoured companions, which are destined to 
 die an early death. Similar effects may be produced by sowing 
 large quantities of seed to the acre, but this causes additional 
 expenditure. The latter is further increased if dense planting 
 is attempted ; and it is a question for serious consideration, up 
 to what extent dense planting is financially justified. 
 
 The question can be answered only through statistical data 
 based upon numerous measurements and countings. Such data 
 are not available in this country ; hence we must have 
 recourse to those collected in Germany and France, especially 
 in the former country. Investigations have been going on 
 now for a considerable number of years, so that we have data 
 based upon many thousands of measurements. I have com- 
 pared them with measurements made by me in this country, 
 and I am of opinion, that, on average land, the following are 
 the most suitable numbers of trees at various ages, whenever 
 the production of dean timber is aimed at. 
 
 NUMBER OF TREES, PER ACRE. 
 
 Age of Wood. 
 
 Spruce. 
 
 Beech. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Scotch Pine. 
 
 40 
 
 1,100 
 
 950 
 
 850 
 
 750 
 
 50 
 
 700 
 
 600 
 
 550 
 
 500 
 
 60 
 
 500 
 
 420 
 
 370 
 
 400 
 
 70 
 
 400 
 
 320 
 
 270 
 
 300 
 
 80 
 
 300 
 
 250 
 
 220 
 
 250 
 
 90 
 
 260 
 
 200 
 
 180 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 220 
 
 180 
 
 140 
 
 170 
 
 110 
 
 200 
 
 170 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 120 
 
 190 
 
 160 
 
 100 
 
 140 
 
 The numbers in the above table refer only to soil of 
 average quality. On first class soil the numbers are smaller, 
 and on inferior soil, larger. Figures for larch are not avail- 
 able at present, as, owing to the larch disease, that species is 
 
38 THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND. 
 
 in Germany now-a-days grown only in mixture with other 
 species, especially beech. In the meantime, the figures given 
 for Scotch pine apply, approximately, also to larch. 
 
 The matter, then, stands thus : We require at the age of 
 40 years the above-mentioned numbers of clean stems, and 
 the question is, how many plants should be put in, to produce 
 them, and at the same time shelter the ground sufficiently. 
 Here several matters must be considered. Spruce, though at 
 first somewhat slow, does not develop very strong side branches, 
 while the early thinnings are practically of no value, except where 
 Christmas trees are saleable ; hence 2,700 plants (4 ft. x 4 ft.) 
 are sufficient to produce 1,100 clean stems at the age of 40, 
 provided the thinnings are done sparingly up to that age. 
 The same holds good for Douglas fir and even ash. Closer 
 planting increases the cost considerably, and does not lead to 
 appreciably better results. For lurch a planting distance of 
 4 ft. X 4 ft. is quite sufficient, and the thinnings can be 
 fairly heavy, even below the age of 40 years, because that tree 
 wants a good deal of growing space, without developing 
 strong side branches. Beech requires somewhat more pushing, 
 and 4,000 plants to the acre are indicated, when that tree 
 is not regenerated naturally or by sowing the beech nuts in 
 situ. Oak and Scotch Pine have a tendency to develop strong 
 side branches ; hence they must be kept dense during youth ; 
 not less than 4,000 plants to the acre are required, and 
 thinnings must be very sparingly carried out up to the age of 
 35 or 40 years. In order to reduce the expenditure, the best 
 plan is to sow the seed of both species in situ, or, if this is 
 not possible, to plant one or two years old seedlings. In the 
 case of oak, there should be 8,000 one year old seedlings to the 
 acre, and they can be planted with a planting peg or the 
 vertical notching spade. (See figures 65, 70 and 71, at 
 pages 215 and 217 of Volume II. of my Manual, third edition.) 
 I am of opinion that most, if not all, of the old oaks (say more 
 than a hundred years old) in this country have been raised 
 either from naturally fallen acorns, or from acorns sown in 
 
THE DENSITY OF FOREST CROPS. 39 
 
 situ. This is, without doubt, the best way of starting oak 
 woods, but where the acorns are likely to suffer severely from 
 mice, the next best thing is to plant one year old seedlings. 
 Such plants invariably develop better leaders than plants 
 put out when three or more years old. Corsican and 
 Austrian pines may be treated as Scotch pine. Of Wey- 
 month pine not more than 2,700 to 3,000 plants need be put 
 to the acre. 
 
 The above remarks refer to the rearing of fine timber trees. 
 Where only poles or pit timber are grown, the thinnings before 
 the age of 40 are somewhat heavier, so as to produce a certain 
 diameter at an earlier age than is the case when working for 
 timber trees with clean boles. 
 
 4. Yield and Financial Results. 
 
 In attempting to answer the question, what will be the 
 yield and financial results produced by afforesting mountain 
 and heath lands in this country, we meet with great difficul- 
 ties. The most natural way would be to inquire what the 
 results of forestry on similar lands have been in the past. 
 That attempt would lead to disappointment, because, in the 
 first place, it is almost impossible at present to obtain in this 
 country data which would conclusively show what yield to 
 expect, and, secondly, the 'few data available as to receipts 
 and expenses are almost invariably rendered useless by the 
 fact that many items are included under expenses which 
 have little or nothing to do with forestry by itself. Again, 
 I have no hesitation in saying, that the returns hitherto 
 yielded by British woodlands might in many, if not in most, 
 cases be doubled by following the rules of rational sylvi- 
 culture and by systematic management. An example will 
 best illustrate this : 
 
 There is probably no country in the world which has such 
 complete records of the past management of woods as the 
 
40 THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND. 
 
 kingdom of Saxony. That country possesses 428,000 acres 
 of State forests, which occupy good, bad, and indifferent land, 
 less of the first and more of the others. The forests are 
 chiefly found in the hills, where they go up to 3,000 feet above 
 sea level. The systematic management of the forests was 
 commenced rather more than 100 years ago, and authentic 
 records are available from the year 1817 up to the present. 
 They show that the outturn in 1817 was 61 cubic feet of wood 
 (timber and firewood) per acre, and 92 cubic feet in 1893, 
 representing an increase of 50 per cent. The average stock 
 per acre standing in the forests rose from 2,173 cubic feet in 
 1844 to 2,658 cubic feet in 1893, or an increase of 22 per 
 cent. This shows that the forests were worked in a con- 
 servative mariner. The net returns, after paying for all 
 possible items of expenditure, were as follows : 
 
 s. 
 
 During the period 1817 26 = 4 per acre and year. 
 
 182736 = 4-2 
 
 M 1837-46 = 4-7 
 
 184756 = 6-8 ' 
 
 185763 = 10-0 
 
 ,, ,, ,, 1864 73 = 14'8 ,, ,, ,, ,, 
 
 187483 = 17'5 
 
 188493 - 18-5 M 
 
 In the year . . 1900 = 22'5 ,, 
 
 This represents an increase of 463 per cent, in the net receipts 
 per acre. No doubt the price of wood also rose, from 2*1 pence 
 in 1817 to 4*5 pence in 1900, equal to an increase of 114 per 
 cent., or about one-fourth of the increase of the net receipts, 
 which is thus due chiefly to improved management. These 
 are .-data referring to the whole of the Saxon State forests, 
 and not to any case specially picked out. There are 
 forests in the Saxon hills which give double the above- 
 mentioned net revenue, growing on land which is not worth 
 
YIELD AND FINANCIAL RESULTS. 41 
 
 five shillings for agricultural purposes. The bulk of the 
 Saxon State forests are stocked with spruce, a species at 
 present so much despised in this country. Surely 
 similar results would be obtained in this country if we 
 managed our woodlands as carefully as is the case in 
 Saxony ! 
 
 After this digression we must return to the subject under 
 consideration. I have before me tables showing the yield of 
 forests in Germany, based upon thousands of measurements, 
 and referring to various species, such as beech, Scotch pine, 
 spruce, and silver fir ; also provisional tables for oak, larch, 
 and other trees. I have also on numerous occasions measured 
 British woods, and compared the results with those given in the 
 tables. In this manner I have estimated the yield which may 
 be expected from British woodlands if treated systematically 
 and according to correct sylvicultural methods. That yield 
 depends, of course, on the particular class of timber which it 
 is proposed to grow and on the method of treatment, but it 
 would lead too far to give here all possible cases. Hence, I 
 have selected the simple method of high forest as applied to 
 larch, ash, Scotch pine, spruce, beech, and oak, and deter- 
 mined the returns which they are likely to give if planted on 
 average forest land. 
 
 I have assumed that timber of some size is wanted, and 
 that the woods are finally cut over : 
 
 In the case of larch at the age of 70 years. 
 
 ash ,, ,, 70 ,, 
 
 ,, Scotch pine 80 ,, 
 
 ,, spruce ,, 90 ,, 
 
 beech ,, 120 ,, 
 
 ,, oak 130 
 
 These rotations are about the most profitable in the case of 
 high forest. As firewood is at present of little value, I have 
 left it altogether out of the account. 
 
42 THE AFFOKESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND. 
 
 The following returns may safely be counted on : 
 
 Returns of one Acre oj Larch Wood. 
 Thinning at the age of 
 
 20 years = 20 cubic feet quarter 
 girth measure- 
 
 
 
 ment at 
 
 6d.= 
 
 10 
 
 Ditto, 30 
 
 = 130 
 
 ditto 
 
 7d.= 
 
 76 
 
 Ditto, 40 
 
 = 330 
 
 ditto 
 
 3d.= 
 
 220 
 
 Ditto, 50 
 
 = 360 
 
 ditto 
 
 9d. = 
 
 270 
 
 Ditto, 60 
 
 - 360 
 
 ditto 
 
 Wd. = 
 
 300 
 
 lal yield, 70 
 
 - 3,900 
 
 ditto 
 
 Is. = 
 
 3,900 
 
 Returns of one Acre of Ash Wood. 
 
 Thinning at the age of Shillings. 
 
 30 years = 60 cubic feet at IQd. = 50 
 
 Ditto, 40 = 150 Is. Od. = 150 
 
 Ditto, 50 = 220 Is. M. = 257 
 
 Ditto,* 60 = 270 ., Is. M. = 360 
 
 Final yield, 70 = 2,100 Is. Gd. = 3,150 
 
 Returns of one Acre of Scotch Pine Wood. 
 Thinning at the age of shillings. 
 
 30 years = 40 cubic feet at 3d. = 10 
 
 4d. = 50 
 5d. = 137 
 6d. = 190 
 Id. = 233 
 3d. = 2,866 
 
 Returns of one Acre of Spruce Wood. 
 
 Thinning at the age of Shillings. 
 
 40 years = 40 cubic feet at 3d. 10 
 
 Ditto, 50 = 160 4d. = 53 
 
 Ditto, 60 ,, = 300 5d. = 125 
 
 Ditto, 70 = 400 Qd. = 200 
 
 Ditto, 80 = 400 Id. = 233 
 
 Final yield, 90 ,, = 6,300 3d. = 4,200 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 40 
 
 = 150 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 50 
 
 - 330 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 60 
 
 = 380 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 70 
 
 = 400 
 
 Final yield, 
 
 80 
 
 J3 - 4,300 
 
YIELD AND FINANCIAL RESULTS. 
 
 Returns of one Acre of Beech Wood. 
 
 43 
 
 Thinning at 
 
 the age of 
 
 
 
 
 Shillings. 
 
 
 40 } 7 ears 
 
 50 cubic 
 
 feet at 6d. 
 
 25 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 50 
 
 = 100 
 
 5 ? 
 
 Id. 
 
 58 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 60 
 
 - 280 
 
 > j 
 
 Sd. 
 
 187 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 70 
 
 = 350 ,, 
 
 M 
 
 9d. 
 
 = 262 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 80 
 
 = 400 
 
 5 5 
 
 lOd. 
 
 = 333 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 90 
 
 = 460 ,, 
 
 5 > 
 
 lid. 
 
 = 422 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 100 
 
 = 560 
 
 5 > 
 
 Is. 
 
 - 560 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 no 
 
 = 600 ,, 
 
 } 5 
 
 Is. 
 
 = 600 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 120 
 
 = 4,000 
 
 r j 
 
 Is. 
 
 = 4,000 
 
 Returns of one Acre of Oak 
 
 Wood 
 
 . 
 
 
 Thinning at 
 
 the age of 
 
 
 
 
 Shillings. 
 
 
 40 years = 
 
 60 cubic feet 
 
 at 
 
 9d. 
 
 45 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 50 - 
 
 150 
 
 
 lOd. 
 
 = 125 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 60 = 
 
 200 
 
 
 lid. 
 
 = 192 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 70 = 
 
 230 
 
 Is. 
 
 Qcl 
 
 = 230 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 80 = 
 
 240 
 
 Is. 
 
 Id. 
 
 = 260 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 90 = 
 
 250 
 
 Is. 
 
 Zd. 
 
 = 292 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 100 = 
 
 260 
 
 Is. 
 
 3d, 
 
 - 325 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 no = 
 
 270 
 
 Is. 
 
 4rf. 
 
 = 360 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 120 ,, = 
 
 270 
 
 Is. 
 
 5^. 
 
 = 381 
 
 Final yield, 
 
 130 - 
 
 4,070 ,. 
 
 Is. 
 
 6c/. 
 
 = 6,105 
 
 These data must be considered as very moderate in amount. 
 More especially the early thinnings are likely to yield more 
 than I have estimated. However, my object was to keep on 
 the safe side, and to introduce into the amount the minima of 
 returns which may be expected from average land. 
 
 I must next deal with the expenses. They are the cost of 
 planting, looking after the plantations, rates and taxes, etc. 
 These items must be estimated on the supposition that a con- 
 siderable area is planted, say 1,000 acres. I have raised my 
 own plants during the last sixteen years, planted during the 
 same period some 2,000 acres under varying conditions, and 
 
44 THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND. 
 
 found that the planting of mountain and heath land, including 
 the cost of the plants, can, on an average, be done at the 
 following rates : 
 
 .<?. d. 
 
 Planting an acre with spruce for . 3 10 
 
 ,, ,, ,, Scotch pine ,, .400 
 
 larch . ,, . 4 10 
 
 ,, beech . . 5 
 
 ash . .600 
 
 oak .;. .600 
 
 The cost of looking after the plantations, including rates 
 and taxes, may be put down at 4s. an acre per year all round, 
 up to the time when the crop is cut over. Eates and taxes 
 on mountain and heath land, such as is here under considera- 
 tion, cannot be high, since its letting value is small. I have 
 shown above that the average return from such land cannot 
 be placed at more than Is. an acre all round. Not all the 
 15 million acres of such land are suitable for successful 
 afforestation ; but I may safely say that the suitable part of 
 the land cannot be placed at a higher rental than half-a-crown 
 an acre. At 32 years' purchase such land would fetch 4 an 
 acre. If regular fencing is wanted extra expenditure would 
 be necessary, but on the other hand the plantations would 
 yield an annual shooting rent, and I have placed one against 
 the other by leaving both out of the amount. 
 
 And here I may draw attention to the fact that in operations 
 on a fairly large scale fencing is not nearly so expensive as is 
 sometimes supposed. Assuming that 
 
 .<?. d. 
 
 To fence 1 acre costs . . .900 
 
 ,, 4 acres in one block costs . 4 10 an acre. 
 16 ,,.250 
 
 64 ,, ,, ,,.126 ,, 
 
 256 . 11 3 
 
 and so on. 
 
YIELD AND FINANCIAL RESULTS. 
 
 45 
 
 To fence small areas here and there, where a considerable 
 extent of land in large blocks is available, means to waste a 
 great deal of money. 
 
 Basing the calculation on the data given above, it will be 
 found that a proprietor will get confound interest on his outlay 
 at the following rates : 
 
 Value of Land. 
 
 Per cent, in case the land is planted with 
 
 Larch. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Scotch Pine. 
 
 Spruce. 
 
 Beech. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 5-2 
 
 4-6 
 
 3-9 
 
 3-7 
 
 3-3 
 
 3-3 
 
 2 
 
 5:1 
 
 4-5 
 
 3-8 
 
 3-6 
 
 3'2 
 
 3-2 
 
 4 
 
 4-8 
 
 4-2 
 
 3-5 
 
 3-4 
 
 3-0 
 
 3-0 
 
 6 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-0 
 
 3-3 
 
 3-2 
 
 2-9 
 
 2-9 
 
 8 
 
 4-3 
 
 3-8 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-1 
 
 2-8 
 
 2-8 
 
 10 
 
 4-1 
 
 3-6 
 
 3-0 
 
 3-0 
 
 2-6 
 
 2-6 
 
 15 
 
 3-7 
 
 3-3 
 
 2-8 
 
 2-7 
 
 2-4 
 
 2-4 
 
 20 
 
 3-4 
 
 3-0 
 
 2-6 
 
 2-5 
 
 2-2 
 
 2-2 
 
 25 
 
 3-2 
 
 2-8 
 
 2-4 
 
 2-3 
 
 2-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 30 
 
 3-0 
 
 2'6 
 
 2-1 
 
 2-1 
 
 1-8 
 
 T8 
 
 35 
 
 2-8 
 
 2-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 2-6 
 
 2-2 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 2-5 
 
 2'1 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 2-4 
 
 1-9 
 
 
 
 
 
 It has been said in public, " that no British landowner 
 will invest money in forestry unless he is assured 4 per cent, 
 on his money." But, I ask, is this reasonable? What 
 other investment of equal security gives 4 per cent, in these 
 days? Does agriculture proper give 4 per cent.? Why 
 should forestry be expected to give a higher per cent, than 
 agriculture? Take for a moment the case of British 
 consols ; they give, nominally, 2J per cent., but look at 
 the ups and downs which they undergo ! A few years ago 
 they stood at 112, a few days ago they were quoted at 85, a 
 
 F, D 
 
46 THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND. 
 
 fall of 26 10s. on every hundred, representing more than 
 ten years' interest. Imagine what they would fall to, if 
 we were to be involved in another big war, say in con- 
 nection with the trouble in the Far East ! Such fluctuations 
 do not occur in systematic forestry. Once that industry 
 has been established in an orderly manner, it yields a steady 
 income year after year, and the capital is safe from any- 
 thing like the fluctuations to which consols are subject. 
 In my opinion, forestry conducted on proper lines offers 
 an investment at least as safe as consols, and it seems to 
 me unreasonable to expect more than 2J per cent, from it. 
 There are millions of acres in these islands fit for planting, 
 which are valued at such a low rate that they can be made, 
 if put under forest, to yield steadily a good deal more than 
 2J per cent. At the same time I must lay stress on the 
 fact that all forest operations must be conducted in a truly 
 economic manner. Extravagance has no place in forestry, or 
 in agriculture either. 
 
 The above table shows that under the given conditions it 
 pays, as compared with consols, to grow : 
 
 Larch, if soil of average yield capacity 
 
 does not cost more than . I . . 45 
 
 Ash, ditto, . . . 32 
 
 Scotch pine, ditto, ... 22 
 
 Spruce, ditto, . ... 20 
 
 Beech, ditto, ... 12 
 
 Oak, ditto, ... 12 
 
 For ordinary mountain and heath land, valued at 4 an 
 acre, the money invested in forestry would yield compound 
 interest in the case of : 
 
 Larch = 4*8 per cent. 
 
 Ash . . . .-. . = 4-2 
 
 Scotch pine = 3*5 ,, ,, 
 
 Spruce = 3*4 ,, 
 
 Beech and oak , = 3'0 , 
 
YIELD AND FINANCIAL RESULTS. 47 
 
 It will be observed, that it pays to grow on such land larch, 
 ash (if the soil is otherwise suitable), Scotch pine and even- 
 spruce. As regards beech and oak the margin is small ; hence 
 I shall give some further information regarding oak. Sup- 
 posing we grow oak on land of the first yield capacity : in 
 that case the following returns may be expected : 
 
 Shillings. 
 
 Thinning at the age of 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 years 
 
 = 70 
 
 cubic 
 
 feet at Sd. = 
 
 47 
 
 Ditto, 40 
 
 = 200 
 
 ,, 
 
 9d. = 
 
 150 
 
 Ditto, 50 
 
 = 250 
 
 5 5 
 
 Wd. = 
 
 208 
 
 Ditto, 60 ,, 
 
 = 300 
 
 5) 
 
 lid. = 
 
 275 
 
 Ditto, 70 ,, 
 
 = 320 
 
 ? J 
 
 Is. Od. = 
 
 320 
 
 Ditto, 80 ,, 
 
 = 330 
 
 5 ) 
 
 Is. Id. = 
 
 357 
 
 Ditto, 90 ,, 
 
 = 330 
 
 J) 
 
 Is. 2c?. = 
 
 385 
 
 Ditto, 100 
 
 = 330 
 
 J J 
 
 Is. 8^. = 
 
 412 
 
 Ditto, 110 
 
 = 330 
 
 J 5 
 
 Is. 4d. = 
 
 440 
 
 Ditto, 120 
 
 = 330 
 
 J J 
 
 Is. 5d. = 
 
 467 
 
 Finalyield=130 
 
 - 6,400 
 
 5 .1 
 
 Is. Qd. = 
 
 9,600 
 
 If we make the calculations as before we obtain the following 
 results : 
 
 Value of Land. Per cent. 
 
 
 
 5 3-5 
 
 10 3-2 
 
 15 2-9 
 
 20 2-7 
 
 25 2-6 
 
 30 2-5 
 
 This shows that it pays to grow oak on really good land 
 valued up to 30 an acre (on average land up to i'12). 
 In other words, land of good quality which lets for more than 
 15s. net an acre if used for agriculture, will lead to loss if 
 put under oak. 
 
 Before I leave this subject, it will be as well if I show the 
 financial results in case not large timber but only poles are 
 
 D 2 
 
48 THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND. 
 
 wanted, for instance, for fencing or pit props. In these cases 
 the treatment differs considerably. Let us suppose we grow 
 larch, or Scotch pine, or spruce under a rotation of forty years. 
 In that case we should probably make two thinnings, say at 
 the age of fifteen and twenty-five years in the case of larch, 
 and at twenty and thirty years in the case of Scotch pine and 
 spruce. These thinnings would be heavier than when large 
 clean timber is to be produced. 
 
 Supposing we have planted larch on fairly good land and 
 remove the original 2,700 plants as follows : 
 
 Number of poles removed at the age of 15 years = 1,400 
 
 25 - 600 
 40 - 700 
 
 Total .... 2,700 
 Then we can count on the following receipts : 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Thinning in the year 15 say . . 10 
 
 25 . . 30 
 
 Final cutting in the year 40 ,, . . 70 
 
 The per cent, on the investment comes out as follows, if 
 the other data remain as before : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Cost price of land = 5, interest . . =9 
 
 ,, ,, = 10 ,, . . =7 
 
 = 15 5-6 
 
 = 20 4-8 
 
 = 25 . . - -4-8 
 
 - 30 3'9 
 
 - 35 . . 3'6 
 
 - 40 . 3-4 
 
 - 45 3-1 
 
 50 2'9 
 
YIELD AND FINANCIAL RESULTS. 49 
 
 Supposing now that the cultivation of larch is undesirable 
 on account of the larch disease, and that Scotch pine and 
 spruce are planted for pit timber. Assuming further that we 
 get altogether 3,000 cubic feet of timber at the end of forty 
 years, valued at 6d. a cubic foot, and that the thinnings are 
 left out of account, we obtain the following results : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Cost price of land = .1, interest . . = 5*7 
 
 ,5 55 A 55 . 5*d 
 
 = 4- 4.-Q 
 
 5 > 5 J? ' *X V 
 
 - 6 4-5 
 
 = 8 = 4-2 
 
 = 10 3-9 
 
 = 15 3-4 
 
 ,, = 20 3-0 
 
 = 25 . . = 2-7 
 
 = 30 2-5 
 
 Even in that case the operation pays well, as such land is 
 not likely to cost more than ,10 an acre, and probably not 
 more than 4 to <6. 
 
 I could give many other examples, but those already given 
 will show that, on financial ground, the afforestation of 
 mountain and heath land rests on a safe basis. 
 
 As I received several enquiries regarding the manner of 
 making calculations like those given above, I shall here add, as 
 an example, the details for larch under a rotation of 70 years. 
 
 All calculations must be made with compound interest. 
 Taking the returns for larch given above, as well as the cost 
 of planting '4 10s., and annual expenses 4s., a number of 
 trial calculations are made with, say, 2J, 3, 3J, 4, 4J, and 5 
 per cent., so as to ascertain the value of the land for larch 
 planting. The formula for doing these calculations will be 
 found in Volume III. of my " Manual of Forestry," p. 126, 
 seventh line from bottom. One example will show how this 
 formula works, say by calculating with 3 per cent., which 
 
50 
 
 THE AFFORESTATION OF SURPLUS LAND. 
 
 means that all money is taken out of an investment which 
 gives 3 per cent. : 
 
 Value of soil = 
 
 3900 + 10 x (1-03) 50 + 76 x (1'03) 10 
 + 220 x (1-08) 80 + 270 x (1'03) 20 + 
 
 300 x (1-03) 10 - 90 x (1-03) 70 4 
 
 (1-03) 70 - 1 
 
 OB 
 
 If this calculation is carried out, we obtain 
 
 Value of soil = 576s. = 28 16s. 
 
THE TREATMENT OF GAME PRESERVES. 5L 
 
 If the calculations with the other per cents, are carried out, 
 
 we obtain the following : 
 
 & .<?. d. 
 
 Value of soil calculated with 2J per cent. = 45 10 
 
 3 = 28 16 
 
 3J - 18 4 
 
 5 J )) ) J )) ^ 
 
 4J -630 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, 5 ,, = 2 15 
 
 These values are now plotted with the per cents, as 
 abscissae and the soil values as ordinates, and a curve drawn 
 through them, when the diagram on page 50 is obtained. 
 
 From this diagram the per cents, yielded under different 
 soil values were read off and entered in the above table for 
 larch. The per cents, for other species were ascertained in 
 the same way. 
 
 5. The Treatment of Game Preserves. 
 
 In the previous pages I have dealt chiefly with the afforesta- 
 tion of additional areas, and, I trust, shown that a fair interest 
 on the invested capital may safely be expected. I cannot close 
 this essay without offering a few remarks on the subject of 
 improving the returns from some of the existing woodlands. 
 As already stated, the management of these woods is subject 
 to special demands on the part of the proprietor, which 
 frequently reduce the income ; nevertheless, I believe that 
 the latter can be considerably increased, if the management 
 is more systematised in the manner now to be indicated. 
 
 British woods consisting of broad-leaved species are used as 
 game preserves, especially for the rearing of pheasants, and 
 the latter object is, in the majority of cases, paramount. On 
 most estates the gamekeeper's duties are entirely separate from 
 those of the woodman, and in only too many cases the two men 
 prosecute different objects. 
 
 If antagonism has hitherto existed between the two officials 
 of an estate, it is, at any rate in many cases, just as much the 
 
52 SOME TYPES OF BRITISH WOODLANDS. 
 
 fault of the forester as of the gamekeeper, because the former 
 has not succeeded in managing the woods in such a manner 
 that they lend themselves to the preservation of game, and yet 
 yield an adequate revenue from timber and firewood. As 
 matters are in Britain, it is no use crying out against game, 
 because proprietors, rare cases excepted, will not adopt an 
 economic management of their woods, if game is interfered 
 with to any considerable extent. It is the business of the 
 forester to manage the woodlands in such manner that they 
 meet the objects which the proprietor has in view to the 
 fullest extent, and in the most economic manner. The 
 preservation of game being in most cases an important object, 
 the forester must set to work and meet it, without reducing 
 the yield of the woods more than is absolutely unavoidable. 
 There is no reason whatever why both objects should not be 
 obtained, without perpetual warfare between the gamekeeper 
 and the forester. Indeed, there are good reasons why the 
 two offices should be in one hand, since it rests at all times 
 with the proprietor to decide whether the one or other object 
 shall take precedence. What the exact method of treatment 
 should be, cannot be laid down in a general way ; it depends 
 on local conditions, the kind of game to be preserved, and on 
 the extent to which one object is to be sacrificed to the other. 
 Hence, only concrete examples can illustrate how such cases 
 should be dealt with. On this occasion I propose to deal with 
 the sylvicultural treatment of pheasant preserves. 
 
 Pheasants can be reared in woods managed under any 
 sylvicultural system, but it is generally recognised that those 
 systems are best adapted which provide an underwood worked 
 as coppice, and an overwood worked as high forest. The 
 question then is, how should such woods be managed, so that 
 they favour a plentiful and healthy stock of pheasants, and 
 yet yield a commensurate income by the sale of timber and 
 other wood. Both objects can be obtained by treating such 
 woods under the system known as ''coppice with standards," 
 according to an orderly and systematically-arranged plan of 
 
THE TREATMENT OF GAME PRESERVES. 53 
 
 operations, or, as foresters call it, working plan. The necessary 
 conditions may shortly be indicated as follows : 
 
 (1.) A full and dense underwood is essential, at any rate 
 over the greater part of the area. This can only be main- 
 tained by cutting it over periodically, and protecting the new 
 shoots for some years against ground game. If the under- 
 wood is allowed to grow too old, it becomes thin below, and no 
 longer fulfils its purpose as regards the game. Again, if not 
 protected against ground game, the new shoots are cut back, or 
 seriously injured, and they become weak and are deficient in 
 giving shelter. Again, if the stools are too old, they will not 
 send forth vigorous fresh shoots when cut over. 
 
 (2.) The overwood must be sufficiently thin to admit the 
 required amount of light to the underwood, without which the 
 latter cannot thrive. To meet this requirement, it is necessary 
 that the overwood should consist of thin-crowned species, such 
 as ash, oak, larch, birch, poplar, and perhaps pines, and the 
 underwood of species which are either shade-bearers, or which 
 at any rate can stand a moderate amount of shade. Of broad- 
 leaved shade-bearers, which alone can come under considera- 
 tion in the case of coppice, beech stands first, and hornbeam 
 next. These species, however, are not very remunerative, and 
 in the majority of cases, others, which are more so, must be 
 chosen. Among these, ash stands first, and hazel perhaps 
 next. Ash demands a fair amount of light, but it is well 
 known that it will thrive, provided the overwood is constituted 
 as indicated above. Alder is useful in wet places, and chest- 
 nut on sandy soils. Other species may be added to the 
 underwood to meet special requirements. 
 
 (3.) The third essential condition is that game preserves 
 should be disturbed as little as possible. If forest operations 
 are conducted in them, it must be done at a certain season of 
 the year, say before March, and if possible at a few years 
 interval. 
 
 The question then arises, how can all these requirements be 
 made to fit in ? This it is proposed to show on an example. 
 
54 SOME TYPES OF BKITISH WOODLANDS. 
 
 Let it be assumed that a proprietor has an area of 200 acres 
 in one block, or in a number of blocks, say four of fifty acres 
 each, or one of 100 acres and two of fifty acres each, or any 
 other combination, the soil and situation being suitable for 
 the growth of oak, ash, and larch. 
 
 Determination of the Rotation of the Underwood. The first 
 point to decide is what age the underwood is to reach. The 
 answer depends, of course, on local conditions. In some cases 
 the underwood is cut at the age of 10 years, in others at 12, 
 15, 20, or more years. In the High Meadow woods it has 
 been decided to cut it at 35 years. This is a somewhat high 
 age, but it has been adopted chiefly because at that age the 
 underwood yields material fit for pit-timber. Short rotations 
 of the underwood have the important disadvantage that the 
 overwood will develop strong branches low down, and yield 
 stems clear of branches only to a moderate height, but the 
 advantage that stools will send up vigorous coppice shoots. 
 Long rotations of the underwood have the advantage that the 
 overwood or standards will have boles clear of branches to a 
 considerable height, and thus yield timber of high value, but 
 the disadvantage that a certain portion of the stools will send 
 up either feeble shoots or none at all. A middle course is 
 probably best. If the underwood consists chiefly of ash, with 
 an admixture of hazel, the rotation of it might be fixed, on 
 fairly good land, at 20 to 25 years, according to local con- 
 ditions. In this way the standards of oak and ash can be kept 
 clear of branches to a height of about 30 feet. Let us say, for 
 the sake of illustration, that 20 years has been chosen. 
 
 Division of Area into Annual Coupes. The second step is to 
 arrange the woods into twenty coupes, or cutting areas, of 
 approximately equal extent, and to deal with one coupe in each 
 year. In our example that coupe would be equal to 200 -=-20 = 10 
 acres. If more convenient, the area may be divided into forty 
 coupes of five acres each, of which two are dealt with in 
 each year. If the total area of woods is very large, there 
 would be two, three, or more series, each containing twenty 
 
THE TREATMENT OF GAME PRESERVES. 55 
 
 coupes. The important point is the distribution of the coupes 
 in each series of twenty, which requires to be explained. Let 
 us assume a simple case, say there are four blocks of 50 acres 
 each, so that there would be five coupes in each block. At the 
 outset, the stocking in already existing woods, in all proba- 
 bility, would be more or less irregular, but it should be laid 
 down as a rule that cuttings in each block should be made 
 only once in every four years. In this way each block will 
 enjoy absolute rest for three years, and at the end of the first 
 twenty years the ages of the underwood should be as follows : 
 
 BLOCK I. 
 Coupe 1 should have underwood = 20 years old. 
 
 55 ^ ?5 55 55 - -*-t) ,, ,, 
 
 9-19 
 55 55 55 -"-^ 55 55 
 
 -10 Q 
 
 55 -"-^ 55 55, 55 O ,, , , 
 
 n d. 
 5> 55 55 ^ 55 55 
 
 BLOCK II. 
 Coupe 2 should have underwood = 19 years old. 
 
 55 ^ 55 55 ?5 *-*) 55 >5 
 
 55 lU 55 55 55 -- * 55 55 
 
 14 7 
 
 55 55 55 ' 55 5 > 
 
 ># - Ao , , , , , , d . , , , 
 
 BLOCK III. 
 
 Coupe 3 should have underwood = 13 years old. 
 7 - 1J. 
 
 " ' 55 5J 5) ** 55 55 
 
 " ** ?> 55 55 10 ,, ,, 
 
 >' 1^ " 55 55 := O ,, ,, 
 
 1 q f) 
 
 ))*-" 55 55 55 "I 55 55 
 
 BLOCK IV. 
 Coupe 4 should have underwood =17 years old. 
 
 O 
 
 55 55 55 5 5 
 
 12 
 
 55 *** 55 55 55 
 
 in 
 
 55 - LV -' 55 55 55 
 
 9O 
 
 J) ^^ 55 55 55 
 
56 
 
 SOME TYPES OF BRITISH WOODLANDS. 
 
 The following diagram will further illustrate this : 
 
 NUMBER OF COUPE, OR YEAR WHEN IT WILL BE CUT IN EACH 
 ROTATION or 20 YEARS. 
 
 No. 
 
 WEST. 
 
 Age. 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 ;lock 
 
 I. 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 B 
 
 lock 1 
 
 1. 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 EAST. 
 
 No. 
 WEST. 
 
 Age. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 
 Bl 
 
 ockl 
 
 I. 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 B 
 
 ock 1 
 
 Y. 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 EAST 
 
 Age of Wood at the Commencement of each Rotation. 
 
 In this way each block of the wood will contain young, 
 middle-aged and old coppice, and have three years' complete 
 rest. Whenever it is practicable, the coupes should be so 
 arranged that the cuttings proceed against the prevailing 
 wind direction, leaving a shelter-belt on the east and north 
 edges of the wood against cold winds. 
 
 Number and Distribution of Standards. The third question 
 to be decided is the number and distribution of the standards. 
 The number depends, of course, on the quality of the locality, 
 the species, and the size of timber which it is proposed to 
 grow. Under any circumstances, the ages of the standards 
 must be multiples of the rotation of the underwood whenever 
 cutting comes round ; that is to say, in our example, coupe 
 No. 1 would contain standards aged 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 ... 
 years old, of which the youngest form part of the underwood, 
 until cutting has actually taken place. 
 
 The number of standards in the several age-classes must 
 form a falling series, in other words there must be more 
 standards in the 20 years old class than in the 40 years class, 
 
THE TREATMENT OF GAME PRESERVES. 
 
 57 
 
 and so on to the oldest class, which would contain only a few 
 trees per acre. It is, of course, out of the question to work up 
 exactly to the theoretically determined number in each class. 
 Hence, such figures can only serve as a general guide. By 
 way of illustration, the following example will show the 
 numbers before and after cutting, and the difference, repre- 
 senting the number of trees removed at each cutting, assuming 
 that the oldest trees shall reach the age of 100 years. 
 
 NUMBER OP STANDARDS IMMEDIATELY BEFORE CUTTING. 
 
 Age of Trees. 
 
 Oak 
 
 Ash, Larch, 
 &c. 
 
 Total. 
 
 New standards, still forming part of the 
 
 
 
 
 underwood, say ..... 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 Standards 40 years old . 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 ,, (50 years old .... 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 ,, 80 years old .... 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 100 years old .... 
 
 o 
 
 ... 
 
 5 
 
 Total 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 150 
 
 NUMBER OF STANDARDS IMMEDIATELY AFTER CUTTING. 
 
 AgS of Trees. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Ash, Larch, 
 &c. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Standards just selected from underwood. 
 
 
 
 
 20 years old 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 Standards 40 years old .... 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 60 years old .... 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 80 years old .... 
 
 5 
 
 ... 
 
 5 
 
 Total 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 STANDARDS CUT. 
 
 
 Age of Trees. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Ash, Larch, 
 &c. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Standards 
 
 !5 
 
 40 years old .... 
 60 years old . . 
 80 years old . ' . 
 100 years old .... 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 5 
 10 
 
 20 
 15 
 10 
 5 
 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
58 SOME TYPES OF BRITISH WOODLANDS. 
 
 In this example it has been assumed that ash, larch, &c., 
 disappear at the age of 80 years, oak only being allowed to 
 reach a higher age. Any other suitable combination may, of 
 course, be adopted ; for instance, some of the 80-year-old oaks 
 may be cut out, or specially fine oaks may be allowed to grow 
 beyond the age of 100 years. In such cases, the other figures 
 must be modified accordingly. It is, under any circumstances, 
 necessary to begin with a large number of young standards 
 per acre, to guard against accidents, and because not all will 
 develop into fine timber trees. In selecting the 20-year-old 
 standards, or tellers, the finest specimens are chosen, and 
 these reduced step by step, allowing only the most promising 
 trees to reach maturity. In this way timber of various dimen- 
 sions is obtained at every cutting. It goes without saying, 
 that in addition to oak, ash, and larch, any other suitable 
 species may be introduced, as, for' instance, spruce, a few 
 specimens of which are very desirable in pheasant preserves. 
 The distribution of the standards over the area should be so 
 that each coupe contains about the same number, with the 
 proper proportion in the age classes. In some cases the 
 standards are arranged by single trees, each separated from its 
 neighbour; in others they stand in small groups. 
 
 The system of placing the standards into moderate sized 
 groups can be specially recommended, because : 
 
 (1) far more valuable timber trees are produced, as the 
 
 standards push each other up; and, 
 
 (2) woods so arranged are just what pheasants like ; a 
 
 dense underwood, over which groups of trees (standards) 
 are scattered. In this case the age classes of the 
 standards are placed into separate groups. The area 
 occupied by the underwood on the one hand, and the 
 standards (or patches of high forest) on the other 
 depends on circumstances, and more particularly on 
 the objects which the proprietor has in view. 
 Procedure to be folloiced at each Cutting. When the under- 
 wood has reached the desired age, in our case 20 years, the 
 
THE TREATMENT OF GAME PRESERVES. 59 
 
 first business to be attended to is the selection of the new 
 standards, in our example twenty-five oaks and twenty-five ash 
 and larch, or any other species which may be desired. It is 
 essential to select in the first instance more than this number, 
 as some may be injured by the subsequent fall of the standards. 
 Then the rest of the underwood is cut. The next step is to 
 cut the standards which are to come down. As soon as the 
 material has been removed, the area must be examined for 
 seedling plants of the desired species. If a sufficient number 
 is found no planting will be required ; but if this is not the 
 case, all vacant spaces must be filled up with healthy, vigor- 
 ous plants, or new groups of standards started. It is 
 impossible to say how many plants may be required, but in 
 the majority of cases, 400 per acre will suffice, even if no 
 natural seedlings at all are found. Of these, about 100 should 
 be oak, and 300 chiefly ash, with a moderate number of larch 
 and other desirable kinds. These will grow for 20 years, 
 when the fifty best will be left as new standards, and the 
 others, oak, ash, and other hardwoods, are cut over to produce 
 new stools for coppice in the place of those which have died, 
 or are too old to produce vigorous shoots. The final step is 
 to go over the coupes cut 4, 8, 12, and 16 years ago, to free 
 the plants from threatening stool-shoots, and perhaps thin out 
 the shoots where there are too many on one stool. 
 
 In order to give sufficient time for all these operations, it 
 should be arranged that the wood, or block (in our example 
 one out of four), where forest work is to be done in any 
 one year, should be shot over early in the season, so that the 
 work may be commenced not later than December 1st, and be 
 completed by March. In this way the forest operations will 
 not interfere with the shooting, so that both objects can be 
 fully realised. 
 
 Financial Results. It is impossible to say what the receipts 
 at each cutting would be during the first and perhaps second 
 rotation of 20 years, as they depend on the stock of timber 
 existing on the area at starting. When, however, the system 
 
60 SOME TYPES OF BRITISH WOODLANDS. 
 
 as sketched above has been introduced, the following estimate 
 of receipts and expenses per acre, on land suitable for this 
 method of treatment, will not be far out, calculating with 
 prices as they now exist in the Midland counties, and taking 
 the cuttings as indicated above : 
 
 KECEIPTS. 
 
 25 oaks yielding, say, 500 cubic feet s. d. 
 
 of timber, at Is. Qd. each . . - 37 10 
 25 ash, larch, and other trees, say, 
 
 500 cubic feet of timber, at 
 
 Is. 3d - 31 5 
 
 Underwood, prepared for sale, say . 10 
 
 Total per acre . . - 78 15 
 Total for 10 acres . . . - 787 10 
 
 EXPENSES. 
 
 These can only be indicated in a very approximate manner, 
 somewhat as follows : 
 
 Felling and preparing timber and s. d. 
 
 underwood for sale, &c. . . = 170 
 Price of 4,000 plants, with planting, 
 
 at 50s. per 1,000 . . . - 10 
 Going over the four older coupes, 
 
 say, 10s. an acre, 40 acres . = 20 
 Taxes, tithes, rates, say 3s. an acre, 
 
 on 200 acres . . . . = 30 
 Fencing with wire netting and one 
 
 or two top wires, average annual 
 
 expenditure, say . . = 40 
 
 Part salary of forester, say 4s. an 
 
 acre = 40 
 
 Total annual expenses . = 310 
 
 Annual net receipts . . = 477 10 
 
 Or per acre . . . . .= 279 
 
CONVERSION OF COPPICE WOODS INTO HIGH FORESTS. 61 
 
 I am satisfied that such an average annual income can be 
 derived from fairly good soil, fit to produce oak, ash, and 
 larch, such as is devoted to pheasant coverts in the Midland 
 counties. First-class soil will, doubtless, give higher returns, 
 without in any way interfering with the rearing of pheasants. 
 
 6. Conversion of Coppice Woods into High Forests. 
 
 There was a time, when coppice woods yielded such high 
 returns, that this method of treatment was doubtless the most 
 profitable which could be adopted. Now, however, matters 
 have changed. Oak bark has fallen in value to such an 
 extent, that the surplus of the sale value over the cost of 
 peeling and preparing the bark has become very small. Not 
 long ago the author had to do with an extensive area of oak 
 coppice woods in the south of England, which had given of 
 late years, after deducting the cost of cutting, peeling, etc., an 
 income of about four shillings an acre annually. Taking into 
 consideration the cost of administration, rates, taxes, etc., 
 these lands give practically no income at all. Nor is oak 
 bark likely to rise again in price. There is not only an ever 
 increasing import of foreign tanning materials, but it is almost 
 certain that before long tanning will be done chiefly with 
 artificially prepared agents. Hence, one group of coppice 
 woods is financially lost. Matters are even worse as regards 
 other coppice woods. Where ash can be grown, fair financial 
 results may still be obtained, and in certain localities hazel 
 and chestnut sell as yet ; but taking coppice woods as a whole, 
 their value has fallen so much that in many cases the produce 
 is actually unsaleable ; hence the time has arrived to consider 
 their position in rural economy. In some cases, as in game 
 preserves, coppice in combination with standards may still be 
 indicated, but in all other cases, coppice woods should be con- 
 verted into high forests, whenever the proprietor looks forward 
 to the realisation of reasonable returns from his woodlands. 
 
 When conversion has been decided on, the simplest plan is 
 to carry it through step by step as the coppice in each section 
 
 F. E 
 
62 SOME TYPES OF BRITISH WOODLANDS. 
 
 of the wood reaches the most profitable age. As soon as the 
 coppice has been cut, it should be interplanted with suitable 
 timber trees, the plant-s being placed between the stools. 
 They will grow up with the fresh stool-shoots, the latter 
 providing shelter to the soil, and driving the seedling plants 
 up. As the shoots are likely to grow at first quicker than the 
 seedling plants, the area must be gone over repeatedly, and 
 the plants freed from interfering stool-shoots. During these 
 operations only so much of the shoots should be cut away as 
 is absolutely necessary for the benefit of the plants, the rest 
 being left to protect the soil. Subsequently, one of two plans 
 may be followed : if the height-growth of the seedling plants 
 is sufficiently rapid to outstrip the coppice shoots after some 
 time, the two may be allowed to grow on together. If, on the 
 other hand, the coppice outstrips the seedling trees for a 
 lengthened period of time, then it may be cut over once more, 
 and the subsequent shoots will assume the shape of an 
 underwood. 
 
 The question, what trees to plant, is of the first importance. 
 The selection depends, as in all such cases, on the special 
 conditions of each locality ; but the following remarks may 
 prove useful. In the majority of cases, fast-growing species 
 are indicated, such as larch, ash, Douglas fir, and various 
 pines, say Scotch, Corsican, and Wey mouth. The first three 
 should be planted only on fairly good soil, and in otherwise 
 suitable localities. Larch, particularly, should not be planted 
 if the disease is prevalent in the locality, and under any 
 circumstances only on cool aspects. Ash requires a sufficient 
 quantity of moisture in the soil, while Douglas fir is partial to 
 sheltered positions. In warm localities and on indifferent 
 soils the three pines are indicated. As regards oak, sycamore, 
 and similar timber trees, they can be recommended only in 
 the case of really fertile lands, and then the stool-shoots must 
 be periodically reduced in size and height, until the seedling 
 plants, especially the oak, can hold their own against the 
 coppice. 
 
CONVERSION OF COPPICE WOODS INTO HIGH FORESTS. 63 
 
 When interplanting coppice woods, it is essential that the 
 plants should be given the best possible chance of holding 
 their own against the stool shoots, hence vigorous plants with 
 a well-developed natural root system should be chosen, and 
 they should be placed into pits. None of that barbarous 
 system called notching, under which the roots are all pushed 
 to one side. 
 
 A few words about silver fir and spruce. In many cases 
 these species may be planted into coppice .woods. They stand 
 much shade, especially the silver fir, and when they have 
 once commenced to go ahead, they will speedily overtop the 
 coppice shoots. The author has, since 1894, planted spruce 
 into coppice, on an area of 1,700 acres, so far with complete 
 success. He has found the cost of going over the areas, to 
 help the spruce against the coppice shoots, very small, and in 
 plantations, seven years old, the spruce does not require any 
 further help. The value of spruce timber in Britain is at 
 present small, but if the trees are grown in fully stocked 
 woods, they will produce timber of a higher quality, because 
 the annual rings will be narrower, and the stems free of 
 branches to a good height. As to quantity, spruce is a good 
 producer ; on soil of fair quality 100 cubic feet, according to 
 quarter-girth measurement, per acre and year may safely be 
 relied on. The author has a spruce wood forty years old, 
 situated on a rather steep south-eastern slope, the under- 
 lying rock being clay- slate, at an elevation of 1,100 feet above 
 the sea, which has produced 127 cubic feet, quarter-girth 
 measurement, per acre and year. Such woods will pay a fail- 
 rate of interest on the capital invested in them, apart from 
 any rise in the price of timber in the future. 
 
 7. The Production of High-Class Oak, Ash, and Larch 
 
 Timber. 
 
 Firewood being of small value in Britain, timber trees should 
 be reared in such a manner that they yield the highest pos- 
 sible percentage of high-class timber, and a correspondingly 
 
64 SOME TYPES OF BKITISH WOODLANDS. 
 
 small quantity of wood which is only fit for fuel. In this 
 respect the above-mentioned three species differ very con- 
 siderably. Larch produces naturally a high percentage of 
 timber ; oak, on the other hand, will spread out horizontally, 
 if not prevented from doing so, producing a short stem and 
 large head, and yield only a poor percentage of timber, accom- 
 panied by a high proportion of firewood. Ash stands between 
 larch and oak in this respect ; and yet the rearing of these 
 three species has much in common. All are light-demanding, 
 especially the larch ; all are thin-crowned, and none of them 
 improves the yield capacity of the locality if raised in pure 
 woods. The best way of rearing them is to mix them into a 
 shade-bearing, full-crowned species. Of these, beech is the 
 best. In mixture with beech, the above-mentioned three 
 timber trees find all the advantages of a permanent and 
 complete shading of the ground, a heavy fall of leaves, 
 followed by a thick layer of humus, and freshness of the soil 
 throughout summer. The competing beech forces the other 
 species to push upwards, kills off their lower branches, and 
 causes them to produce long, straight, clean boles of high 
 value. Woods of this kind require, however, the careful 
 attention of the forester, especially in the case of the oak. 
 
 Oak and leech stand sufficiently near each other as regards 
 their demands on the locality. No doubt oak prefers a some- 
 what moister soil than beech, but the latter accommodates 
 itself to the former ; as a matter of fact they are growing 
 and thriving together over extensive areas. The principal 
 difficulty to contend with is their relative height-growth. In 
 some localities the oak keeps pace with the beech, but in the 
 majority of cases the latter is faster growing after the first few 
 years, and, if unchecked, kills out the oak. In the former 
 case, the oak can be mixed singly into beech woods, care being 
 taken in the thinnings to help the oak whenever necessary. 
 In the second and much more frequent case, the oak must 
 either be given a considerable start of the beech or placed into 
 groups, or both. 
 
THE PRODUCTION OF HIGH-CLASS OAK, ASH AND LARCH. 65 
 
 For the purpose of giving the oak a start, it may be grown 
 pure in the first instance. It will fairly shelter the ground 
 until it begins to thin out, which generally occurs according to 
 local conditions between the age of thirty to sixty years. Up 
 to that age the wood should be kept dense, so that tall, clean 
 stems may be produced. About the age of forty somewhat 
 heavier thinnings should commence, giving to the more 
 promising oaks gradually more growing space. Then a 
 specially heavy thinning is made, and the area under-planted 
 or sown with beech. The young beech are very grateful for 
 the shelter of the oaks during several years. Then more 
 thinnings may take place, leaving the most promising oaks in 
 such numbers that the beech below them has sufficient light 
 to come up. Both crops are then allowed to run through a 
 full rotation, favouring at all future thinnings the develop- 
 ment of the oak. In this way a crop of mature oak and beech 
 is obtained, the age of the former being some fifty years more 
 than that of the beech. This method of growing mixed oak 
 and beech is shown in the illustrations Nos. 5 to 8 of the 
 Appendix. 
 
 The second method of rearing oak with beech is to place 
 the former into groups, surrounded by a sea of beech. 
 For the oak, the most favourable spots should be selected, 
 where the soil is deep, and the aspect favourable, especially 
 south-east or south. These spots should be sown with acorns, 
 or densely planted with young oak plants one year old about 
 8,000 to the acre. As soon as they are well established, the 
 remaining parts of the wood should be stocked with young 
 beech, either naturally or artificially, according to circum- 
 stances. The size of the oak groups varies much. If they are 
 too small, the beech does much damage along the edges ; if 
 too large, the advantages of the admixture of beech are con- 
 siderably reduced. Hence the area of the oak groups should 
 lie between one-quarter and one acre. In the natural course 
 of events the beech will commence to intrude itself into the 
 oak groups as soon as they begin to thin out above, thus 
 
66 SOME TYPES OF BRITISH WOODLANDS. 
 
 establishing an underwood of beech in them. In this way, 
 again, fine oak can be produced, and the increment per acre 
 can be kept at the highest possible rate. 
 
 Instead of beech, the silver fir has been used for under- 
 planting oak woods, a method which has given very good 
 results. In somewhat moist places, hornbeam has taken the 
 place of the beech. Spruce has also been used, but it is not so 
 good as the others, as the oak is liable to become stag-headed ; 
 the mixture is admissible under favourable conditions, or 
 where the spruce is to be cut out at a comparatively early age. 
 Oak has also been underplanted with Weymouth pine, and 
 with fairly good results. 
 
 The rearing of ash and beech in mixture can be done as in 
 the case of oak and beech. The ash is either grown pure and 
 subsequently, at the age of twenty to thirty years, under- 
 planted with beech ; or the two are started at the same time. 
 In the subsequent thinnings, the ash is duly protected against 
 any attacks on the part of the beech. Frequently ash and oak 
 are planted together, mixed, and subsequently underplanted 
 with beech or silver fir. 
 
 The rearing of larch in beech is of special importance, now 
 that the larch disease has spread over the length and breadth 
 of Britain. Whatever the cause of the disease may be, suffice 
 it to say that its rapid spreading is due to the indiscriminate 
 planting of pure larch, especially in localities which are not 
 thoroughly suited to the species. It is now recognised in 
 Britain that larch should only be planted in favourable 
 localities ; that is to say, in a fairly rich soil, and on cool 
 aspects. Even then the formation of pure larch woods is 
 dangerous, because, if the disease breaks out, it will rapidly 
 spread over the whole wood. Hence, larch should be mixed 
 in moderate quantity with another species, which, as it were, 
 separates the individual larch trees. None is better than 
 beech. Here the larch has its best chance. The procedure 
 is to plant a limited number of vigorous larch plants into 
 beech, and let them grow up together, protecting the former 
 
THE PRODUCTION OF HIGH-CLASS OAK, ASH AND LARCH. 67 
 
 sufficiently during the thinnings, as it requires to have its 
 head freely exposed to sun and air. 
 
 Another method is to grow larch pure, to thin it out heavily 
 between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five years, and to under- 
 plant it with beech. Of the larch only the best stems are left 
 to grow into timber trees. 
 
 Unfortunately very extensive areas of young pure larch 
 woods are found in Britain. Only the other day, the forester 
 of a large landed proprietor in the Midlands appealed to me 
 for advice, what to do with some 2,000 acres of young larch, 
 frightfully diseased. Cases like this are very sad, and I 
 believe the only chance of saving some of the trees as yet 
 unattacked is to cut out as quickly as possible all diseased 
 larches, and to under-plant with beech, thus preserving 
 healthy conditions for the further development of the remain- 
 ing trees. Instead of beech, such woods may be under- 
 planted with silver fir, whenever the latter is likely to give 
 better financial result. Douglas fir may also be tried, and 
 ought to do well, since the remaining larches will give it just 
 that shelter which the leading shoots of the Douglas fir so 
 much require. Even Weymouth pine may be used for this 
 purpose. The author has under-planted Scotch pine with 
 that tree, and the results are everything that can be desired. 
 If the Weymouth pine does well under Scotch pine, it will do 
 still better under larch, as that tree gives a lighter cover than 
 the Scotch pine. 
 
 8. The Forest of Dean : An Object Lesson. 
 
 In the previous section on " The Production of High-class 
 Oak, Ash, and Larch Timber," special attention has been 
 drawn to the importance of raising these light-demanding 
 and thin-crowned timber-trees in mixture with a full-crowned, 
 shade-bearing species, such as beech or silver fir. This 
 method of rearing our valuable trees has for its principal 
 object to secure a continued fertility of the soil. As some 
 
68 SOME TYPES OF BKITISH WOODLANDS. 
 
 readers may raise the cry of "theoretical speculation" a 
 cry so frequently heard when people do not understand a 
 subject, or do not care to face the inconvenience of a new 
 departure it will be useful to fortify what has been said 
 by producing an example in point. It is, alas ! a negative 
 example, but it will serve its purpose. The example is the 
 " Forest of Dean." 
 
 Any person with a pair of eyes, who visited the Dean eight 
 or ten years ago, and made his way across the several woods, 
 found on by far the greater part of the area a thin crop of 
 oaks from eighty to ninety years old, of poor height growth, 
 with rounded or flat tops, and the branches coming down low, 
 so that only clear boles of small length were formed. Looking 
 down on the ground, our observer would see the soil covered 
 with a matting of grass and weeds, overrun with brambles, 
 etc. Presently the wanderer would probably come across a 
 solitary old oak or two of magnificent dimensions, towering 
 high over the eighty to ninety years old crop ; the idea would 
 at once cross his mind that the flat-topped younger generation 
 could never grow to the height of the few remaining old trees, 
 and he would be sure to ask, " What has brought about this 
 change ? " The answer is, " The nineteenth-century foresters 
 in charge of the Dean have ruined the former fertility of the 
 soil by trying to grow oak pure beyond youth, by excessive 
 thinning, and by unrestricted grazing." 
 
 An enquiry into the past history of the forest has revealed the 
 fact that, up to the end of the eighteenth century, the Dean carried 
 a mixed crop of oak and beech in the proportion of one oak to 
 about two beeches ; under these conditions the fine oaks of 
 enormous size were produced which made the forest renowned, 
 and provided large quantities of first-class timber for the " walls 
 of oak " of Old England. 
 
 This fine crop of timber was cut early in the nineteenth 
 century, with the exception of about 500 acres, which were 
 cut in 1852 1853, yielding an average of 154 cubic feet 
 of timber per tree, according to quarter-girth measurement. 
 
THE FOREST OF DEAN '. AN OBJECT LESSON. 69 
 
 The cleared areas were replanted, so that most of these 
 woods are now about ninety years old, and the rest forty to 
 fifty years. As far as is known, oak was planted with nurses, 
 the latter having been cut out subsequently. And then the 
 disastrous treatment commenced. When the woods had 
 reached the age of thirty or forty years, they were con- 
 sidered safe against cattle, and the greater part of the 
 enclosures were thrown open, especially to extensive sheep 
 grazing. About the same time it was considered the correct 
 thing to thin heavily, and this was done during a number of 
 years, until the trees were practically isolated. What the 
 result of these operations is, has already been indicated. 
 The soil, exposed to the unrestricted action of sun and air 
 currents, became in most parts practically unproductive, the 
 result being a very inferior crop of unpromising oaks, short in 
 height, and branched low down. How different might have 
 been the results, if, instead of throwing open the enclosures 
 and making senseless thinnings, the oak had been under- 
 planted with beech at the age of thirty to fifty years, thus 
 keeping the soil under constant protection, and causing a 
 gradual accumulation of fertile leaf-mould on the soil. 
 
 It is due to Mr. Stafford Howard, Commissioner of Woods, 
 and Mr. P. Baylis, Deputy Surveyor, Forest of Dean, to say 
 that they recognised the unsatisfactory state of things, and 
 set to work some ten years ago to mend matters. There were, 
 however, great difficulties in the way. In the first place the 
 areas, so ruthlessly thrown open, had to be re-enclosed, and this 
 can only be done gradually ; however, good progress has already 
 been made, as several thousand acres have been fenced, and 
 others will follow, until the whole area of 11,000 acres allowed 
 by law has once more been brought under proper control. 
 In the second place, the authorities had to consider what to do 
 with the existing woods. In consultation with the late Mr. Hill, 
 of the Indian Forest Department, they decided to underplant 
 with beech the limited area of woods under fifty years old, 
 where the mischief could still be remedied, as quickly as the 
 
70 SOME TYPES OF BRITISH WOODLANDS. 
 
 occurrence of beechmast years permits. The older oak woods, 
 about ninety years old, demand a somewhat different treat- 
 ment, and this was commenced by Mr. Baylis about ten years 
 ago. In these woods, only oaks of some promise are left, all 
 others being cut out ; then all blanks are filled up, chiefly with 
 larch, oak, and other trees, such as sycamore and ash, and in 
 suitable places spruce and Douglas fir. As soon as these young 
 plantations have made a fair start, beech will be brought in 
 over the whole area, so as to return to a state of affairs similar 
 to that which existed a hundred years ago. 
 
 Some wiseacres have of late been writing about " The New 
 Forestry." Alas ! it seems to me what is really wanted is to 
 return to " The Old Forestry," and to eliminate as quickly as 
 possible the errors introduced into British forestry by the 
 nineteenth century forest experts. These gentlemen were in 
 too much of a hurry. " Quick returns regardless of conse- 
 quences " was their maxim, and now they have almost ruined 
 national property of an enormous value, inasmuch as they 
 have considerably reduced the fertility, or yield capacity, of 
 the soil. It may indeed be said that the competency of a 
 forester can be judged by examining the soil in his forests : 
 if there is a good layer of leaf-mould on the ground, the 
 management is sure to have been good ; if not, undoubted 
 mistakes have been made, which should be eliminated as 
 quickly as possible. 
 
 No doubt, some readers will say, This is all very well, but 
 what are we to do with so much beech, which fetches only a 
 small price per cubic foot ? The answer may be given by 
 another question : What is done with beech in Bucking- 
 hamshire and adjoining counties? Why, it is made into 
 chairs and other articles of furniture, and it fetches at least a 
 shilling a foot all round. In other words, provide the raw 
 material, and industries to utilise it will soon spring up. They 
 follow the raw material. Beechwood is coming into use more 
 and more every year, for casks for dry goods, railway sleepers, 
 pattens, heels for ladies' boots, and what not. Besides, the 
 
THE FOREST OF DEAN I AN OBJECT LESSON. 71 
 
 beech need not occupy more than half the crop, or it may be 
 kept almost altogether below the oak. 
 
 Let us hope that the twentieth century foresters will profit 
 by the lesson, and revert to methods of treatment which will 
 secure the continued yield capacity of the soil, and thus lead 
 to returns far higher than those which have been obtained of 
 late from extensive woodlands in these islands. 
 
72 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 TEN PICTURES ILLUSTRATING THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF 
 BEECH, THE PRODUCTION OF HIGH-CLASS OAK TIMBER, AND THE 
 PROPER DENSITY OF SPRUCE WOODS. 
 
No. 1. Beech Wood in Buckinghamshire. 
 J 
 
No. 4. Old Style Oak Wood (Spessart), Exposed to Unrestricted Cattle 
 
 Grazing. 
 
^ Regeneration 3 Years Old, Started by Sowing Acorns under 
 a Thin Shelter-wood, 
 
Oak. Oalf. 
 
 Xo. 8. Oak Woud, 110 Years Old, with Beech Underwood, 53 Years 
 Old (Spessart). 
 
 Number of oaks per acre = 24U. 
 
 Total production of oak timber, quarter girth measurement = 5,670 cubic feet. 
 
 Production per acre and year = 52 cubic feet, valued at 4. apart from the 
 
 beech. 
 Soil a sandy loam of only middling quality, overlying old red sandstone. 
 
 Oaks clear of branches for 50 feet. 
 
No. 9. Spruce. Wood (Nassau), 60 Years Old. 
 
 Total production of timber, quarter girth measurement = 9,310 cubic feet. 
 Production per acre and year = 155 cubic feet, valued at 3 \ls. 6d. 
 
 F. 
 
M608280 
 
 SD179 
 S35 
 
 Forestry