IRLF ?TeL.*r LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Deceived IAN ...1.3 1893 .... 189 Accessions No. ^fn^S ..... Cla&sNo. HOW TO KNOW GRASSES BY THE LEAVES. BY A. N. M'ALPINE, B.Sc. (Lond.), BOTANIST TO THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND PROFESSOR OF BOTANY, NEW VETERINARY COLLEGE, EDINBURGH,' LECTURER ON BOTANY, EDINBURGH MEDICAL SCHOOL, ETC. J TRANSLATOR OF " STEHLER's BEST FORAGE PLANTS." PREFACE BY ROBERT WALLACE, F.L.S., F.R.S.E., &c., PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH; AUTHOR OF " INDIA IN 1887," " FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN," ETC. 1 8 PLATES CONTAINING 200 FIGURES. EDINBURGH : DAVID DOUGLAS, 10 CASTLE STREET. PRICE 35. 60. NET. PRINTED AT THE DARIEN PRESS, BRISTO PLACE, EDINBURGH. OF THE UNIVERSITY P R E F A C E. A WANT has long been felt of some simple and attractive guide to the identification of the common pasture grasses by their leaves. Mr M 'ALPINE has at length devised a means by Which they can be definitely classified and presented to the student of nature, in such a way that no doubt is left as to the identity of any of our common grasses, at any season of the year. In practical experience it has long been felt that in determining the quality of a pasture, a judgment formed from the appearance of a field, when the grasses are in flower, is most unsatisfactory. If land is grazed, stock naturally eat the grasses they prefer, so that the best grasses are rarely permitted to run to seed to any extent, and they are, con- sequently, liable to become less abundant, unless they are enabled to extend and perpetuate their species by lateral root budding. A tendency to this is fostered, even among annual grasses, when they are prevented from completing their natural cycle of life and coming to maturity in the one season. Inferior grasses, on the other hand, are neglected by stock, IV PREFACE. and allowed to mature their seeds. They therefore appear to the casual observer to be present in greater proportion than an examination and identification of the roots would bear out. It is clearly evident that a pasture known to be of good quality might, from its general appearance, mislead the inexperienced, unless it were one, such as is found in the fen country of Lincoln and Cambridge, eaten down uni- formly, and never permitted to run to seed. Recent discussions in the agricultural press, as to the quality and presence of ryegrass in old pastures, brought up the subject in full force, and showed how little was really known, even by the greatest authorities, about the nature and composition of our pastures, It therefore became a matter of necessity to find a key to the mysteries of the complex herbage in permanent pastures, whereby it could be readily analysed at any season of the year. Mr M' ALPINE has made the necessary discovery ; and, after all, it is a very simple matter, although a considerable amount of labour was involved, in work- ing out the details of the less important grasses, to make the work one of value alike to the scientific and to the practical man. The structural characters of many of the grasses had been studied in both Germany and Denmark, but where Mr M* ALPINE has touched upon the work of others, as he was bound to do in dealing with such PREFACE. V a subject, he has fully and gracefully acknowledged his indebtedness. One important feature of the work, which is quite new, and which alone could make a production of this kind of value to a student, is the method of grouping. This is done in such a way that should a first test fail to identify a grass in one group, it is certain to be discovered by referring to another group which also contains the grass. The keystone of success, however, lies in the simplification of the whole system, by the ease with which the five most common grasses in pastures Ryegrass, Fescue, Dogstail, Holcus, and Foxtail can with the greatest certainty be eliminated from the mass of herbage, and separated from one another, by the colours of the bases of their leaf sheaths. This, I believe, is what no one who before endeavoured to formulate a scheme for the identification of grasses by their foliage, has ever noticed, and no doubt is the main reason why all attempts have hitherto failed from a practical and useful point of view. The great bulk of the work of separation can be carried through by the aid of the naked eye, and simply at a glance. All grasses that remain, after the five coloured ones are removed, are but a trifle to treat critically, as com- pared with the whole bulk. I believe this work is one which will find its way into the hands of all teachers and students who are interested in the details of the composition of natural A VI PREFACE. pastures of European grasses, whether grown in our own country, our colonies, or without our Imperial boundaries. It will form one of the most complete guides to a system of object-lessons in country schools that has been offered to the public ; and I may be permitted to add, that arrangements have already been made to place it in the possession of the members of the Institute of Scottish Teachers of Agriculture, who during the current winter have over two thousand boys, and young men under instruction in the principles of agriculture in the rural districts of Scotland. ROBERT WALLACE. THE UNIVERSITY, EDINBURGH, Fcbmary 1890. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION 7 PART I. COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. CHAPTER I. DESCRIPTION. GROUP I. Characteristically Coloured Grasses 13 Red sheathed Ryegrasses and Meadow Fescue 13 Yellow sheathed Crested Dogstail 1 6 Dark- coloured sheath Meadow Foxtail 16 Hairy, with a white and red veined sheath York- shire Fog 17 GROUP II. Variegated Grasses. Tufted Hair Grass , 18 GROUP III. Bulbous and Flat-ribbed Grasses. Sheath without a keel Timothy 19 Sheath keeled False Oat 20 GROUP IV. Cord-rooted Grasses. Blade a thick, hard bristle Mat Grass 22 Blade a thin flat band Flying Bent 22 GROUP V. Acute sheathed Grasses. Blade without median lines Cocksfoot 23 Blade with median lines Rough-stalked Meadow Grass 24 GROUP VI. See Part II. GROUP VII. Bitter Tasted (from Cumarin). Sweet Vernal Grass 25 GROUP VIII. Bristle-bladed Grasses. Bristles very hard and horizontal Mat Grass 26 Bristles erect ; ligule apparently absent Sheep's Fescue and Varieties 27 PAGE GROUP IX. See Part II. GROUP X. Hairy Grasses. Yorkshire Fog, Flying Bent, Sweet Vernal, and False Oat 28 Yellow or Golden Oat 28 Couch Grass 28 GROUP XL See Part II. GROUP XII. Ribless Bladed Grasses with Median Lines Meadow Grass (Poa). Thick-bladed Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass 29 Distinction from Cocksfoot 30 Thin-bladed Annual Meadow Grass 31 .Roueh-stalked Meadow Grass 31 Note on Bent Grass (Agrostis) 32 CHAPTER II. CLASSIFICATION 33 PART II. GRASSES IN GENERAL. CHAPTER III. CHARACTERS OF THE GROUPS 43 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL GRASSES 48 GROUP I. Sheath Coloured 49 Red sheathed Lolium, Festuca. Yellow sheathed Cynosurus. Black sheathed Alopecurus. White sheathed, red veins Holcus. GROUP II. Variegated Aira, Dactylis, Phalaris 50 GROUP III. Bulbous 50 Ribs high Alopecurus. Ribs low Phleum, Avena. Ribs absent Poa. Notes on Groups II. and III 51 GROUP IV. Cord-rooted 5 2 Bristle-bladed Nardus. Flat-bladed Molinia. PAGE GROUP V. Acute Sheathed 52 Sheath two-edged Dactylis, Poa, Glyceria, Avena. Sheath quadrangular Melica. GROUP VI. Net Sheathed 53 Flat sheathed Catabrosa, Glyceria. Round sheathed Phalaris, Hierochloa. Notes 54 GROUP VII. Bitter Tasted Anthoxanthum, Milium, Hierochloa 55 GROUP VIII. Bristle Bladed Festuca, Aira 55 Blade concave Poa (Sclerochloa), Avena 56 Notes on Groups VII. and VIII 57 GROUP IX. Hard Bladed 58 Sandbinders Elymus, Psamma. Hill and Heath grasses Aira, Calamagrostis, Brachypodium. Other Hard grasses. GROUP X. Hairy 59 Sheath white, with red veins Holcus 59 Blade taper-based Molinia, Brachypodium, Koeleria 59 Blade eared Triticum, Bromus asper, Hordeum, Anthoxanthum 60 Bitter-tasted Anthoxanthum 6 1 Acute-ribbed Avena flavescens 61 Bulbous and flat-ribbed Avena elatior 61 Blade like Poa Avena pubescens, Triodia 6 1 Ribs prominent Koeleria, Festuca species 62 Sheath entire, and round Annual Brome Grasses... 62 Sheath entire, and quadrangular Melica 62 An aquatic reed Phragmites 62 Notes ,". 63 Digitaria, Setaria, and Echinochloa 64 GROUP XI. Eared 65 Ribs prominent Elymus, Lolium, Festuca 65 Ribs low, hairy grasses Bromus asper, Hordeum, Anthoxanthum, Triticum -. 66 Notes 67 PAGE GROUP XII. Blade Ribless, with Median Lines 68 Poa 68 Thick-bladed Pratensis, Compressa, Maritima, Alpina 68 Thin-bladed and flat-sheathed Annua, Trivialis, Bulbosa 68 Thin-bladed and round-sheathed Nemoralis, Fertilis 69 Net-sheathed aquatics Catabrosa, Glyceria 70 Dry-bladed Avena species 70 Notes 71 GROUP XIII. Hairless, with very low, flat ribs .. 72 Alopecurus, Phleum, Briza, Milium (ribless). 'Succulent-bladed Poa (or Sclerochloa). Note on hairy species Avena elatior, Triodia, Triticum 73 GROUP XIV. Ribs high (rounded or acute) and prominent 73 Hairless 73, Hard-bladed Psamma, Elymus, Aira 73 Firm-bladed, sheath coloured Lolium, Festuca, Cynosurus, Agrostis 74 Sheath not coloured Agrostis, Alopecurus 75 Hairy 76 Notes 76 INDEX OF COMMON NAMES 79 INDEX OF LATIN NAMES . 88- ALL agriculturists, and every one interested in the grass question, know that the value and habits of the various components of our pastures can be but imperfectly understood, if studied merely when the flowering stage is reached. To obtain full and satisfactory knowledge, knowledge applicable to various districts of our country, the species must be followed individually through their spring, summer, autumn, and winter life. In the case of pasture grasses, this is only possible when means other than the flower are used for purposes of recognition. The difficulties connected with the identification of grasses in the flowerless condition are not at all so great as usually supposed. Practical experience shows that leaf distinctions are more readily grasped and understood than the characters of the minute flowers. The object of this book is to classify those leaf characters which are most patent and most distinctive, so that, at any season of the year, a grass growing in a pasture may be readily determined on the spot, by the agriculturist himself, without the aid of a botanical expert. In the first part, the wants of the working farmer are steadily kept in view, and common pasture grasses 8 are alone dealt with. These are found everywhere, and the schoolboys of agricultural districts might readily be taught to identify these common species. The second part has a wider scope, and includes all the British grasses, except the rarest species, and a few annuals. If farmers, clergymen, schoolmasters, and botanists use this method of identification, a flood of light will be thrown upon many questions at present involved in obscurity, and the agricultural community will assuredly be greatly benefited. To obtain complete mastery of the subject, the farmer should commence with grasses which he already knows, follow the description in the first chapter, examine the corresponding figures, and then proceed to classify, as in the second chapter. This being done, it is advisable to study the plant in its entirety, as in Stebler's " Best Forage Plants." Hav- ing mastered five or six of the commonest grasses in this way, little difficulty need be experienced in follow- ing the subject to the extent necessary for making a complete investigation of any pasture, so far as grasses are concerned. Many agriculturists are already familiar with the properties of the important pasture plants of their districts, but cannot speak with authority on the matter, being ofttimes at a loss for the botanical names to be assigned. The knowledge of these ex- perienced men is the very thing which scientific agriculture is seeking after, and ought no longer to remain inaccessible and unutilised. To simplify matters as much as possible, all im- portant species are figured. Mr D. Nutt, the publisher of Stebler's "Best Forage Plants," has, with the greatest liberality, placed the excellent plates of that work at my disposal, and many of the figures are copied from it. I have also to acknowledge extreme indebtedness to the Danish " Landbrugets Kultur- planter." From Dr Samsoe Lund's article on grasses, in No. 3 of that Journal, many . other figures are copied. Jessen's " Deutschlands Graser," Vesque's "Traite de Eotanique," Sinclair's " Hortus gramineus Woburnensis," Parnell's "Grasses," Sowerby's "Gram- ina," &c., have all been laid under contribution. Many, who are already capable of recognising grasses by the flowers, may wish, on finding a known species, to refer to the distinctive features of the leaf. With this in view, and to facilitate reference, the Index of Common and Latin Names, as well as the Contents, have been made as complete as possible. It is necessary to bear clearly in mind that the characters mentioned relate exclusively to the radical leaves, and not to the culm leaves, which are usually referred to in works on grasses. The latter are often very different from the former, and this is specially the case with the ligule.. The group is referred to by a numeral, and the figure in the group, by a number. Thus X. 3, 4, 5, means group X., figures 3, 4, and 5. PART I. COMMON PASTURE GRASSES. CHAPTER I. DESCRIPTION OF THE COMMON GRASSES. Group I. Characteristically Coloured Grasses. RYEGRASSES AND MEADOW FESCUE. Select those shoots whose bases appear i. strikingly red. The underground part of the shoot is flat perennial ryegrass. The underground part is not flat, but perfectly round Italian ryegrass or meadow fescue. If the pasture is old, Italian must have died out, and the round-shooted grass is, in all probability, meadow fescue. Tall fescue has all the characters of meadow fescue, and, botanically, is merely a luxuri- ant variety of it. By the aid of a pocket lens, it is perfectly easy to distinguish between ryegrasses and fescue. Corre- sponding to each rib on the surface of the blade, there is a vein. The veins are either surrounded by the green tissue in which they are embedded, or they extend from the upper to the lower surface of the blade in the one case, dimly distinguished by the aid of the lens ; in the other, appearing as pure white lines. When, therefore, a leaf blade is held up to the light (the upper surface towards the 14 observer), it is quite a simple matter to determine to which category the veins belong. In ryegrass, the veins (except a few here and there) are dimly visible, whereas in fescue almost all stand out as sharply defined and pure white lines. This method of exam- ination by transmitted light often reveals characters by which grasses, externally very similar, may, at once, be distinguished. The student ought to examine the blades of all the grasses in this way. Perennial Ryegrass. xiv. 7 . The blade is rounded off at the base, and, usually, has a pair of acute ear-like processes. This is called an eared leaf base. The lower surface is always strongly shining. xiv. 6. The margins of the blade usually run parallel till past the middle, when they begin to converge, ultimately forming a tapered, somewhat acute point. xiv. 9. The ribs on the upper surface are prominent and rounded. The keel, that is the mid rib on the lower surface, is also prominent. The ligule a collar-like outgrowth at the junction of sheath and blade is remarkably short and in- conspicuous. xiv. s. The sheath is flat. Sheath flatness depends upon the arrangement of the contained leaf blades. If the blades are closely folded over one another, as is the case in this ryegrass, then the sheath is flat. Italian Ryegrass. XL 5, 6. This resembles the preceding in almost every leaf detail. The blades are, however, rolled, and the sheath accordingly round. Meadow Fescue. In this case, the leaves have all the characters of XL 5, 6. Italian. There are, however, two distinctive features : 1. The veins are conspicuous by transmitted light. 2. The basal margin is rough. The roughness is due to the presence of minute, tooth-like marginal processes. Though the teeth are often too small to be directly observed by the naked eye, their presence may be readily proved by drawing the margin of the leaf backwards and forwards along the tip of the tongue. The rough quality of leaf blades ought, in all cases, to be tested in this manner. In tall fescue, marginal teeth are usually very con- spicuous ; indeed, extra roughness of blade is the distinctive feature of this variety of meadow fescue. Classification of Red Sheathed Grasses. Blade shining on lower surface and eared ; ribs prominent ; ligule remarkably short. Sheath flat. Sheath round. Perennial ryegrass. Margin smooth. Veins indistinct by transmitted light. Italian ryegrass. Margin rough. Veins appear as pure white lines by transmitted light. Meadow fescue. i6 CRESTED DOGSTAIL. 1.2. Select those shoots in whose bases a characteristic yellow colouring matter is developed. As in red sheathed grasses so here the blade is strongly ribbed on the upper, and shining on the lower surface, but the base is never eared. xiv. 12. The sheath is not quite so flat as that of perennial ryegrass ; this is connected with the circumstance that the blades contained in the sheath are less closely folded, and thicker. Extra thickness makes the blade feel harder between the fingers. xiv. ii. The ligule has a minute character, quite unique among grasses ; the short collar-like structure is peaked, opposite the blade, into a pair of ear- like processes. This form of ligule is described as eared. In sheep's fescue, the ligule, though eared, is very different. Summary : a. Sheath yellow coloured and somewhat flat b. Ligule eared. MEADOW FOXTAIL. i- s Select those shoots whose bases are dark, almost black, in colour. .Meadow foxtail, to which these shoots belong, is one of the large grasses of our pastures. It is to be found on heavy soils. The black parts are old withered sheaths. On removing these, the young sheaths are laid bare, and the very distinctive violet colouring matter, which these contain, is readily noticed. The ribbing on the upper surface of the blade is very different from that of red sheathed grasses (rye- grasses and fescue). The difference may be tabulated thus : Ribs Ryegrass and Fescue. Meadow Foxtail. Prominent and rounded. Low and flat. Slender foxtail \ however, has the ribs rounded or acute, like the ryegrasses. The nature of the ribbing is best observed when the blade is cut across by a sharp knife, and the section examined by a lens. Without cutting, the height of the ribs may be approximately estimated. This is done by holding the blade up to the light : the degree of contrast between the thin furrows and the thick ribs evidently gives a fair idea of the relative thickness of the parts. Summary : a. Black or violet sheath. b. Ribs low, and flat. c. Blade dark green in colour. YORKSHIRE FOG. Select from the grass pulled up, those i. 4 . shoots which have white sheaths with red veins. The grass is hairy. Remove the white sheath, and hold it up to the x. 3 light in order to see more distinctly the red veins in the white ground. Observe also the well-marked keel on sheath and blade. B i8 The grass is Yorkshire fog, in Latin, Holcus lanatus, lanatus meaning woolly a very appropriate name, since sheath and blade are alike clothed with soft white wool-like hair. The plant grows so as to form large tufts rendered conspicuous among the surround- ing green vegetation by the light colour, due to the presence of wool-like hair. Between the fingers, the blades feel excessively soft hence the name woolly soft grass. Summary: a. White sheath with red veins. b. Blades very hairy, and soft. Group II. Variegated Grasses. TUFTED HAIR GRASS. n. 3, 4. This, like the common and well-known gardener's garter, has leaf blades composed of alternate strips of white and green tissue : the term variegated refers to this peculiarity. The thick and high ribs are dark green, and conceal the thin white strips of the furrows. When the blade is held up to the light, the white strips are seen, appearing as five or six snow-white lines ; they contrast very strongly with the dark, almost black background, formed by the thick ribs. xiv. 5 . No other grass has high acute ribs and bands of white tissue. The blades are remarkably rough on the upper surface, and in one direction, viz., from the apex towards the base. When examined by the lens, the roughness is perceived to be due to the presence of sharp tooth-like processes on the summits of the ribs. These teeth are composed mainly of silica, and, indeed, it may he said that the surface of the plant is a siliceous shell, comparable in many respects to the shell of a mussel or of a whelk, only much thinner. As the thermometer indicates temperature, so tufted hair grass shows the presence of soluble silica in the soil. The ligule is very long and acute. n. This grass is common on hill pastures and moor- lands ; it is usually very conspicuous, forming, as it does, remarkably large leafy tufts hence the term tufted. Summary : a. Five or six snow-white bands are seen when the blade is held up to the light. b. Blade very rough and hard ; ligule long and acute. c. The plant usually forms very large and con- spicuous leafy tufts. Group III. Bulbous Grasses, with Low, Flat Ribs. These are readily distinguished from other grasses by the bulb-like thickening at the base of each shoot. TIMOTHY. The leaves are light in colour, and often glaucous^ from the presence of a superficial waxy bloom, more especially on soils of a dry type. The blades are somewhat stiff, and do not spread out horizontally, but ascend obliquely into the air. in. 2, 4 . At the junction of sheath and blade, there is a conspicuous membrane, called ligule, from the re- semblance to a ligula or tongue. In ryegrasses, fescues, and dogstail, the ligule is excessively short, and, therefore, very inconspicuous ; whereas, in this case, it is a thin white membrane, nearly as long as broad, and with acute teeth at the apex. When the . apical margin of the blade is drawn along the tongue, it is immediately perceived to be rough from the apex towards the base (downwards rough) ; on the base of the blade, the roughness is in the opposite direction (upwards rough). When the margin is examined with a lens, this roughness is found to be due to the presence of minute tooth-like processes ; those directed upwards cause downward roughness, those pointing in. 5- downwards, upward roughness. The upper surface of the blade has very low ribs, usually flat, but, at times, somewhat rounded. There is little or no keel on the lower surface. Summary : a. Blade light-coloured, and ascending, often glaucous. b. Ligule a thin white membrane, longer than broad, with acute teeth. c. Basal margin upwards rough. d. Ribs very low ; keel practically absent. False Oat Grass. This is much more common in fields and on road- sides than in pastures, indeed, it can hardly occur in old pasture, as it dies out by the third or fourth 21 year. Pull some shoots for examination from the grass on the roadside. The blades have usually a dark green colour, and, being thin, have a tendency to hang down ; those of Timothy are much thicker, and are, therefore, capable of maintaining an erect or oblique position. The ligule is conspicuous, and has all the characters in. 7, 9. noticed in the case of Timothy. The difference con- sists in the presence of fine hair on the back ; to see the hair to advantage, a lens must be used. There is no upward roughness on the margin of the blade. On the upper surface of the blade, the ribs are very in. 10. low, and always very flat. On the lower surface, the mid rib projects and forms the keel, which is prolonged downwards as the keel on the sheath. In Timothy, the keel is very slight on the blade, and absent on the sheath. Hair is usually present, more especially on the upper surface of the blade ; often it is so fine and short that it readily escapes notice, if one simply looks down upon the surface. To see the short hair to advantage, bend the blade round the finger, and look along the surface. Summary : a. Blades usually dark green, very thin, dry, and hanging. b. Ligule conspicuous, and hairy on the back. c. No part of the margin upwards rough. d. Blade and sheath keeled ; upper surface with low flat ribs. e. Short hair often present on upper surface of blade, and on other parts as well. Group IV. Cord-rooted Grasses (in Hill Pastures). iv. i. With few exceptions, the true roots of grass plants are excessively fine fibres. So-called creeping roots are not roots at all, but underground stems. In the cord-rooted group, all the roots are not fine fibres, but some are thickened into cord-like structures very striking, when the plants which possess them are pulled out of the ground. MAT GRASS. iv. i, 2 . The blades are here remarkably hard bristles, very sharp and thorn-like at the apex. The base of the bristle is thick, and cartilaginous. The young blade is erect, but soon attains the horizontal position. The bristle blades of sheep's fescue are more or less erect, softer, and never spread out in a horizontal direction. FLYING BENT OR PURPLE MOLINIA. The former name refers to the circumstance that the old blades readily detach from the parent plant. Being very thin, dry, and light, they are readily carried along by the wind. The blades often accumulate in sheltered drains on the hills, in quantities sufficient to necessitate cleaning. iv. 3 , 4 . The shape of the blade is characteristic. Starting from the narrow base, the edges gradually diverge till near the middle, when they change their course, and gradually converge, ultimately forming the acute apex. The blade is, therefore, described as taper-based and acute-pointed. 23 The ligule is reduced in a very interesting, and iv. 3 . characteristic fashion. The membranous part is completely absent, and all that represents a ligule is the tuft of hair. A beginner might naturally suppose the ligule absent. The same ligular peculiarity is met with in decumbent heath grass and common reed. The blade is practically ribless. Summary : a. Blade flat, acute-pointed, taper-based, and practically ribless. b. Ligule a tuft of hairs. Group V. Acute Sheathed Grasses. When grass is pulled from a pasture, it is easy to v. i. identify the members of this group, in fact, the sharp (acute) edges may readily be felt by the fingers. The shoots are quite flat on the sides^ and the edges acute (not rounded off). Perennial ryegrass, &c., have flat shoots, but the edges are rounded off. The blades are acute, and ribless. COCKSFOOT. Among pasture grasses, this is most readily re- v. i. cognised by the extremely broad and very flat shoots. The blades are large and ribless, with a prominent v. 4, 3 . keel on the lower surface. The margins begin to converge beyond the middle, and ultimately form a very acute point. The ligule is a thin white membrane, longer than v. 2 . broad, and, therefore, very conspicuous. Summary : a. Sheath broad, and very flat, with two acute edges. b. Blade large, ribless, and acute-pointed ; keel very prominent. c. Ligule long, and conspicuous. NOTE. Two grasses are often confounded with cocksfoot, viz., smooth-stalked meadow, and reed canary grass. They are distinguished thus : Cocksfoot. Smooth Stalked Meadow. Reed Canary. Sheath Flat, with acute Flat, with round Round. edges. edges. VI. 17. V. I. Blade Acute pointed. Round pointed. Acute pointed. V.3- XII. I. VI. 15. Ligule Long. Short. Long. ROUGH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS. v. 5, 6. The sheath is flat and acute edged, but the breadth is much less than in cocksfoot. Compared with cocksfoot, the blades are small. The base of the blade is broadest ; convergence of the margins begins at the very base, and is continued uniformly, till the acute apex is formed, v. 7 . The upper surface is ribless, but, when carefully examined, a pair of parallel median lines is seen. Ribless blades with median lines are characteristic of the whole meadow grass genus (Poa). The lower surface is keeled, and always shining, as in ryegrasses. 25 The absence of ribbing immediately distinguishes meadow from ryegrass. Summary : a. Shoot narrow, flat, with two acute edges. b. Blade relatively small, acute, tapered from the base, ribless ; shining on lower surface. Group VI. (See Part 17.) Group VII. Bitter-tasted Grasses. Search among the bottom vegetation of the pasture for hairy grasses (not Yorkshire fog). Pull some, and chew the blades. A peculiar bitter taste, resembling the smell of new-mown hay or woodruff, indicates the group. This characteristic taste is due to the presence of cumarin. SWEET VERNAL GRASS. The hair varies very much ; sometimes it is present, vn 2. sometimes, absent. The top part of the sheath has often long spreading hair, but the most characteristic feature is the presence of a long beard at the base of the blade. The shape of the leaf blade is peculiar. The taper vn. i, 2 which forms the acute apex often commences quite near the point, and well beyond the middle. The base frequently shows two small rounded ears (seen by the lens), a peculiarity found in no other grass. 26 The ribs are quite low and fine. vii. 4 5. The ligule is thick, white or brown in colour, and much broader than long. Summary : a. Tastes of cumarin. b. A characteristic beard of hair at the base of the blade. c. Blade often with a pair of minute round ears at base (distinction from every other grass). d. Ribs low, and inconspicuous. e. Ligule thick, shorter than broad. Group VIII. Bristle-bladed Grasses. MOOR MAT GRASS OR MAT GRASS. vin. i. The bristle-like blades are spread out horizontally, unless when quite young. Excessive hardness, thick cartilaginous base, and thorn-like apex, are the distinctive features of this bristle blade. The ligule is conspicuous, and, like the blade, thick and stiff. When the plant is pulled up, the cord-like roots, and the fan-shaped form of the tuft, are the striking features. A fan-shaped tuft also occurs in cocksfoot. Summary : a. Bristle thick, hard, and horizontal (when old). b. Ligule thick, and fairly conspicuous. c. Tuft fan-like. d. Roots cord-like. 27 SHEEP'S FESCUE (HARD FESCUE). For the many varieties of this grass consult Stebler's " Best Forage Plants." The bristle blades are more or less erect. When vm. 5. cut, the bristle is seen to be merely a very narrow blade folded along the median line. So long as the fold persists, the bristle character is maintained. The ligule is not seen ; nevertheless a very short and characteristic ligule is present, but the base of the blade covers it over, concealing it from view. The point of union between sheath and blade vm. 4. should be examined by the lens. The rounding and thickening, at this spot, are very characteristic features. The sheath is often rough from short stiff hair, and, in this respect, resembles the inner surface of the bristle blade. Summary : a. Bristles slender and erect. b. Ligule inconspicuous, apparently absent. c. Sheath characteristically rounded, and thickened at apex. d. Roots fibrous, not cord-like. Group IX. (See Part II.) 28 Group X. Hairy Grasses. YORKSHIRE FOG, FLYING BENT, SWEET VERNAL, AND FALSE OAT. These have been already considered, and may be distinguished thus : Sheath white and red veined. L 4 . Blade tastes of cumarin. Ligule a tuft of hair. IV. 4. Base of shoot bulbous. Yorkshire Fog. Sweet Vernal. Flying Bent. False Oat. YELLOW OR GOLDEN OAT GRASS. x. 2, i. The blade has twenty or more fine, but distinct ribs, which are acute. The acute summit of each rib has a single row of hair. The sheath is completely clothed with hair. The ligule is quite conspicuous, and has a hairy back. Summary : a. Ribs low, and acute. b. Hair abundant on sheath, arranged in single rows along each rib. c. Ligule conspicuous, apex toothed, back hairy. COUCH GRASS. x. 14, 12. The hair is sparse, and, at times, quite short or even absent. The ribs on the blade are very low and flat, often indistinct. The most conspicuous and distinctive feature is seen at the base of the blade : there, a pair of pointed ears are readily observed by the naked eye. The very low ribs, and the ears, distinguish this from Agrostis. 2 9 The ligule is also unique. At a first glance, it might x. i 3 . be supposed absent ; closer inspection might lead one to imagine that it was reduced to a tuft of very short hair ; accurate observation, however, shows that it is, in reality, a remarkably short membrane with an apical fringe of fine, short, hair-like teeth. Summary : a. Hair often sparse, and ribs faint. b. Base of blade with acute ears. c. Ligule unique, remarkably short, with a fringe of hair-like teeth. Group XL (See Part II.) Group XII. Ribless-bladed Grasses with Median Lines. These, like perennial ryegrass and cocksfoot, are xn. 4, 5. fiat sheathed. The blades are at once distinguished from those of other grasses by the absence of ribbing (except the mid-rib), and from ribless forms like cocksfoot, by the median lines. SMOOTH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS. Search ^mong uneaten clumps of grass, for firm^ xii. i, 2 . hairless ', and ribless blades, wit/i a pair of parallel lines along the middle of the blade. Pull a few shoots, and examine. The edges of the blade are parallel ; at the very apex they come together as a round point. xii. xii. . Bend the blade round the finger, and examine the upper surface. A pair of parallel lines run along the middle, from base to apex: these, from their situation, are termed median lines. When the blade is held up to the light, and examined (preferably with the lens), the thin parts, corresponding to the parallel depres- sions, stand out as yellow lines, contrasting strongly with the dark background formed by the remainder of the thick blade. When faint, median lines are most readily detected by this method of examination. . The ligule is quite short and inconspicuous. Summary : a. Blade with parallel edges, a rounded apex, and firm between the fingers. b. The blade is ribless, with a pair of median lines. By transmitted light, the median lines appear as a pair of yellow lines. The rest of the blade, being thick, is dark green. c. Ligule short. NOTE. On some soils, where this grass is not readily eaten, smooth-stalked meadow becomes very luxuriant, and, in this condition, is often confounded with cocksfoot. The following are the most obvious distinctions : Apex of Blade I Median lines . Ligule . Cocksfoot. Smooth-stalked Meadow. Tapered and acute. V. 3- Absent. V. 4. Long. V. 2. Parallel edged and rounded off. XII. I. Present & conspicuous. XII. 4. Short. XII. 2. ANNUAL MEADOW GRASS. Being an annual, this cannot occur in old pasture, xn. 6, 7 . It may, however, be found in lowland pastures, occupying ground which has recently been bare. Search for thin (soft), hairless, ribless, round-pointed blades, with median lines. Select shoots for ex- amination. Near the apex, the edges are not parallel, but xn. 6. convergent. Between the fingers, the blade feels very soft, and often shows transverse wrinkles. When held up to the light, the median lines of the blade appear as a pair of yellow bands in a light green ground. A light ground indicates a thin blade. The ligule is long, conspicuous, and blunt pointed, xn. 7. Summary : a. Blade thin and soft, with convergent apical edges, and rounded apex. b. The median lines appear, by transmitted light, as yellow bands in a light green ground. c. The ligule is conspicuous. ROUGH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS. The blade is quite thin and soft. It commences xn. 9. to taper at the very base, and continues to do so till the acute point is formed at the apex. The lower surface is always shining. This is sometimes the case with smooth-stalked meadow grass, but very rarely with the annual species. When examined by transmitted light, the appearance is similar to that presented by annual meadow grass. The sheath has a pair of acute edges. The v. 5. other species have flat sheaths with rounded edges. 32 Summary : a. Blade tapered from the base, ending in an acute point, and always shining on lower surface. b. A pair of yellow lines in a light ground. c. Sheath with acute edges. The thin bladed meadow grasses may be readily distinguished thus : Apex of Blade . Sheath . Annual Meadow Grass. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass. Rounded. XII. 6. Round edged. Acute. XII. 9. Acute edged. v. 5. Bent grass (Agrostis). For the characters of this very variable grass, see Group XIV., Part II. 33 CHAPTER II. CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMMON GRASSES. GROUP I. Sheath characteristically coloured. Page 35- II. Variegated. Page 36. III. Bulbous, with very low flat ribs. Page 36. ,, IV. Cord rooted. Page 37. V. Acute sheathed. Page 37. VI. See Part II. VII. Bitter tasted (from Cumarin). Page 38. VIII. Bristle bladed. Page 38. IX. See Part II. X. Hairy. Page 39. XL See Part II. XII. Blade ribless with median lines. Page 40. Bent grass (Agrostis). See page 77. UNIVERSITY 35 Group I. Sheath characteristically Coloured. Blade shining on lower surface; ribs prominent; sheath red and flat Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne]. Fig. i. Base of shoot, shewing colour. Sheath red and round. Italian Ryegrass (Lolittm Italictim}. Veins indistinct when the leaf is held up to the light ; basal margin of blade smooth. Meadow and Tall Fescues (Festuca pratensis}. The veins appear as white lines by transmitted light ; basal margin of blade rough. Sheath yellow, but not so flat as that of perennial rye- grass. Crested Dogstail (Cynosurus cristattts). Fig. 2. Base of shoot, shewing colour. Sheath dark brown, or with a tinge of violet ; ribs low and flat. Meadow Foxtail (Aloptcurus fratcnsis). Fig. 3. Base of shoot, shewing colour. Hairy ; red veins in white sheath. Yorkshire Fog (Holcus lanatus). Fig. 4. Base of shoot, shewing red veins. Note. Perennial Ryegrass and Crested Dogstail are the only flat-sheathed grasses in this group. Group II. Blade Variegated. The narrow white strips are only seen when the blade is held up to the light (fig. 4). Tufted Hair Grass (Aira cccspitosd], Fig. J. Base of blade and long acute ligule. Fig. 2. Acute apex of blade. Fig. 3. Portion of blade (magnified). Observe the very high acute ribs, the summits of each with teeth, which give the file-like roughness to the blades. C ~i Fig. 4. Portion of blade as it appears by transmitted light (magnified). The six white lines are seen. Fig. 5 Transverse section of young blade (magni- fied). After Lund. Group III. Bulbous Grasses. Ribs low and flat ; the ligule has no hair on its back (fig- 4)- Timothy (Phleitm pratense]. The basal margin is upwards rough. Fig. I. Apex of blade. Fig. 2. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 3. Section of sheath ; no keel. Fig. 4. Back of ligule without hair (magnified). Fig. 5. Transverse section of blade, shewing low ribs, and absence of keel (magnified). The ligule has hair on the back (fig. 9). False Oat (Avena elatior}. The basal margin is not up- wards rough. Fig. 6. Apex of blade. Fig. 7. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 8. Section of keeled sheath. Fig. 9. The hairy ligule (magnified). Fig. 10. Transverse section of blade, shewing the low, flat ribs, and the keel (magnified). After Stebler. Grou JL. GroupUL o OF THE tflRSZTT Group IF. GrouplT. 37 Group IV. Cord-rooted Grasses. Leaf a hard bristle ; ligule conspicuous, and thick. Moor Mat Grass (Nardus stricta). Fig. I. Base of shoot with the cord-like roots. Observe the scale leaves at base ; the base of the old foliage leaf horizontal ; the base of the young leaf is vertical. Fig. 2. Apex of blade. Leaf flat and taper -based ; ligule reduced to a tuft of hairs. Flying Bent or Molinia (Molinia ccerulea). Fig. 3. Tapered base of blade, and hairs representing the ligule. Fig. 4. Acute apex of blade. Group V. Acute sheathed Grasses. Large ribless blades, tapered from about the middle to the acute apex. Not shining on lower surface. Rough Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomeratd). Fig. i. Section of shoot, shewing the flat two-edged sheath (magnified). Fig. 2. Base of blade and prominent obtuse ligule. Fig. 3. Acute apex of blade. Fig. 4. Transverse section of blade (magnified). Ob- serve the absence of ribs and the very pro- minent keel. Comparatively small and ribless blades, the taper commencing at the very base. Shining on lower surface. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass ( Poa trivialis). Fig. 5. Section of shoot, shewing the flat two-edged sheath (magnified). Fig. 6. Acute apex of blade. Fig. 7. Section of blade, shewing median lines and keel (magnified). After Stebler. Group VI. (See Part 77) Group VII. Bitter-tasted Grasses. Sweet Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthttfn odoratum). Fig. i. A small blade, shewing the shape. Fig. 2. Base of blade. Observe the small round ears and the beard of hair. Fig, 3. The same ; ears absent. Fig. 4. The ligule (magnified). Teeth very fine. Fig. 5. The ligule (magnified). Teeth coarser. Group VIII. Bristle-bladed Grasses (fig. 2). Cord-rooted ; ligule distinctly visible, and thick. Moor Mat Grass (Nardus stricta). Old bristle hard, and horizontal. Fig. I. Base of shoot. Observe the roots, ligule, and blades. Fibrous-rooted : ligule not noticeable. Sheep's Fescue and its many Varieties (Fetfuca ovind]. Bristle softer and vertical. Fig. 2. Portion of bristle-like blade. Fig. 3. Base of culm leaf blade, shewing the ear-like ligule (magnified). Fig. 4. Base of radical leaf blade. Observe the thick- ening where the blade joins the sheath, and the apparent absence of the ligule (magnified). Fig. 5. Section of shoot (magnified). The folded rib- less blade is surrounded by a sheath. After Stabler. Fig. 6. Section of shoot (magnified). In this case the folded blade is ribbed. After Lund. Fig. 7. Portion of an open ribbed blade (magnified). After Lund. Group IX. (See Part //.) Group JH. GroupWE. ftSIVSRSITT] f&> 14 39 Group X. Hairy Grasses. White sheathed and red veined (I., 4). Yorkshire Fog (Holcus lanatus} Blades very soft. Fig. 3. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 4. Section of the keeled sheath, the keel to the right. Fig. 5. Hairy back of ligule. Fig. 6. Hairless inner surface of ligule. Fig. 7. Transverse section of blade (magnified). Ob- serve the abundant hair on the low flat ribs, and also on lower surface. After Stebler. Blade taper-based ; ligule reduced to hairs. Flying Bent (Molinia ccerulea}. The thin blade soon withers, and is carried off by the wind hence the name " Flying bent." Blade very thin and dry. Fig. 8. Tapered base of blade, and ligule of hairs. Fig. 9. Acute apex of blade. Blade bitter-tasted. Sweet Vernal (Anthoxanthum odoratum). Fig. 10. Base of blade with small round ears, and beard of hair. See also VII., I, 2, 3, 4, 5. Blade with low acute ribs ; a single row of hair along each rib (fig. 2) ; ligule hairy on the back. Golden Oat Grass (Avenaflavescens}. Blade soft. Fig. I. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 2. Transverse section of blade (magnified). Ob- serve the acute ribs and the hair. Blade with low flat ribs ; ligule prominent. False Oat (fig. 15) is distinguished from golden oat by the low flat ribs, and the bulbous base of the shoot. Blades thin and dry. Base of blade eared (fig. 12). Couch Grass ( Triticum repens}. Blades very thin, dry, and rough. Fig. ii. Base of blade, with ears very short. Fig. 12. Base of blade, the ears long, curved, and acute. Fig. 13. The ligule (magnified). A mere margin fringed with hair-like teeth. Fig. 14. Transverse section of the blade magnified. After Lund. Note. The low ribs distinguish this from Ryegrass, and the ears from Agrostis. Bristle-bladed. Sheep's Fescue. The sheath is often clothed with very short, hard hair, and is, therefore, very rough. (The same is the case with the upper surface of the blade.) Group XL (See Part IL) Group XII. Ribless-bladed Grasses, with Median Lines. Blade relatively thick, and hard or fleshy, therefore dark-coloured when held up to the light. Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass (Poa pratensis}. Fig. I. Rounded apex of blade. Observe the parallel edges. Fig. 2. Rounded base of blade. Fig. 3. The extremely short ligule spread out and mag- nified. The transverse line marks off the ligule from the sheath. After Lund. Fig. 4. Transverse section of blade (magnified). Ob- serve the relative thickness of the blade, and the thin part on each side of the middle, cor- responding to a median line. After Stebler, Fig. 5. Portion of blade as it appears by transmitted light (magnified). The light band on each side of the dark mid-rib is a median line. The six black lines represent six veins, which are seen (as white lines) by transmitted light. Blade soft and thin, therefore light-coloured when held up to the light. Annual Meadow Grass (Poa annua}. Blade round- pointed, often transversely wrinkled. Fig. 6. Rounded apex of blade. Observe the edges, which are not parallel. Fig. 7. Base of blade and ligule. The prominent blunt ligule suffices to identify this species. Fig. 8. Transverse section of blade (magnified). Ob- serve the relative thinness of the blade and the median lines (the thin parts). After Lund. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass (Poa trivialis}. Blade tapered from the very base to the acute apex. Always shining on lower surface. Acute keel on sheath. Fig. 9. Acute apex of blade. Fig. 10. Portion of culm with long knot. Observe the base of a culm leaf with a long acute ligule ; the ligule of the radical leaf is short and blunt. Fig. II. Transverse section of blade (magnified). After Stebler. Group Xff . UHI7BESIT7 PART IT. GRASSES IN GENERAL. 43 CHAPTER III. CHARACTERS OF THE GROUPS. WitriRSXT Group I. Sheath Characteristically Coloured. Page 49. The colouring matter is formed in the basal parts of the underground sheaths. Group II. Variegated Grasses. Page 50. Ribbon grass or gardener's garter is the most n. familiar example. It is a variety of reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinaced) with a leaf blade composed of alternating strips of green and white tissue. The term variegated refers to the presence of these colour- less strips in the green blade. Group III. Bulbous Grasses. Page 50. The bulb is the thickened base of the shoot not at all a root as commonly stated in books. Group IV. Cord-rooted Grasses. Page 52. Normally, the roots of grasses are exceedingly fine IV - fibres, whose purpose it is to absorb from the soil the mineral matter necessary for the sustenance of the plant. So-called creeping roots are not roots in the botanical sense, but underground stems. The grasses included in this group have thick and cord-like roots, in addition to the fine fibres. 44 Group V. Acute-sheathed Grasses. Page 52. The sheaths of most grasses are round. In a few species, however, the blades are folded and the sheaths are more or less flattened. If the flat (or angular) sheath has acute edges, the grass belongs to this group. All have entire sheaths and folded blades, except Melica. Group VI. Net-sheathed Grasses. Page 53. vi. 15 In the blades, and more especially in the sheaths of certain grasses, mainly aquatics , large chambers con- taining air are present. The presence of these chambers gives a netted appearance, by transmitted light, to the part in which they are present. This netted structure is the characteristic of the group. Group VII. Bitter-tasted Grasses. Page 55. Cumarin is the principle which gives the char- acteristic taste. It is volatile, and odoriferous ; the odour of new mown hay, woodruff, &c., depends on its presence. Other grasses, such as false oat, may have a bitter taste ; this is not due to cumarin, but to some other substance. Grasses which contain curnurin are alone included in this group ; its presence is recog- nised by chewing the blade. Group VIII. Bristle-bladed Grasses. Page 55. vni. 2 . The bristle-like (setaceous) blade is a leaf adaptation for reducing the evaporative surface of the plant. Hairiness, hardness, and wax-coxered surfaces (glaucous) are other contrivances for the same purpose, 45 and, either separately or combined, are frequent accompaniments of this characteristic form of leaf blade. Soils which are dry or liable to drought, such as sands or windy hillsides, are the natural habitats of these species. Some hardy plants can adapt them- selves to conditions of extreme dryness by adopting the bristle form of blade ; such are crested dogstail and smooth-stalked meadow grass. In Poa maritima the bristle-like (concave) blades serve partly as water stores, and are, accordingly, soft and succulent. Group IX. Hard-bladed Grasses. Page 58. Hard grasses are either bristle or broad bladed ; the former belong to Group VIII., the latter are alone included here. Poor and dry soils, or those liable to drought, are the natural habitats of these grasses. The blade is rarely flat, usually concave, or rolled up. The apex is excessively hard and sharp a thorn to all intents and purposes. The surface is often covered with wax (glaucous), which gives a peculiar colour to the foliage. Group X. Hairy Grasses (including those species in which the ligule is a tuft of hair}. Page 59. Hair, like hardness (Group IX.) and diminution of leaf surface (Group VIII.), is associated with grasses adapted for growth on dry and poor land. As moisture and richness of soil increase, the hair becomes- diminished or short, and, at times, disappears ; thus it happens that hairy and hairless varieties of the same species may be found. The sheath part of the leaf 4 6 retains hair with great pertinacity, and ought, in all cases, to be examined in order to determine whether the grass belongs to this group or not. If the hair is so short that it escapes the eye, and merely causes roughness, the grass will be more conveniently found in some other group. In Phragmites Molinia^ and Triodia the ligule is reduced to a tuft of hair, and these genera are included here for convenience. Group XL Eared Grasses. Page 65. Ears are tooth-like appendages at the base of the blade merely diminutive representatives of the large ear-like processes which occur at the base of arrow- shaped blades, such as sorrel. Examples of grasses easily distinguished by the ears are : Eared. Couch grass (Triticum). Barley (Hordeum). Sand lyme grass (Elymus). Rye grass (Lolium). Not Eared. Bent grass (Agrostis). Brome grass (except Bromus asper). Sand mat grass (Psamma). Crested dogstail (Cynosurus). Group XI L Ribless Grasses with Median Lines, Page 68. xii. 4, 5. Simple inspection of the upper surface of the leaf blade usually suffices to identify the members of this group. It is often advantageous to roll the blade round the finger before examining the surface. In 47 Poa nemoralis the median lines are most noticeable near the apex of the blade. The median lines are a pair of furrows which mark off a flat mid-rib. Cocks- foot, though a ribless bladed grass, does not belong to this group, because the median lines are wanting. Triodia, at first sight, seems to belong to this group, but close inspection shews that the blade has low, flat, and very broad ribs. It is, therefore, assigned to the next group. Group XI I L Low (Flat) Ribbed Hairless Grasses, Page 72. As a rule, the members of this group are immedi- xm. 10. ately identified by a naked-eye examination of the upper surface of the blade. At times Phleum has rounded, rather than flat, ribs. The sheath should be noted to see that hair is absent. Short hair is most readily detected by looking along, not at the surface. Group XIV, High (Acute or Round) Ribbed Grasses. Page 73. This group includes the species with prominent ribs ; in Agrostis, the ribs are least prominent. Although well-marked ribs are usually acute, they may at times be even rounded or decidedly flat at the summit. To determine this point, the blade ought to be cut across, midway between apex and base, and the section examined by a lens. 4 8 Annual and Perennial Grasses. In many cases, it is important to be able, from direct examination of a species, to determine whether it is annual or not. When a grass, pulled up by the roots, shows a creeping underground stem, that is a certain indication of a perennial plant. Again, when relics of the preceding year's vegetation still persist in connection with the parent, a persistent plant is before us. Perhaps the most satisfactory procedure, is to tease asunder the leaves of the component shoots. If the grass is an annual, flowers will be found in all the shoots, i.e., all the shoots are fertile. If the plant is destined to persist for a longer period than a year, shoots will be found with no flowers laid down in their interior ; these barren shoots, as they are called, are another certain sign of a persistent grass ; if all the shoots are barren, the grass is biennial, and in the first year of its growth ; in the second year, all the shoots are fertile. See Stebler's "Best Forage Plants." 49 Group I.- Characteristically Coloured Grasses. Blade shining on lower surface ; ribs prominent ; ligule remarkably short. Red sheathed ; shoot flat, because the blades are folded. Lolium Perenne, L. (Perennial ryegrass). Fig. I. Base of shoot shewing colour. Red sheathed, shoot round, because the blades are rolled (I. i). Lolium Italicum, Braun (Italian ryegrass). The veins do not appear as white lines when the blade is held up to the light and examined by a lens ; basal margins smooth. Lolium temulentum, L. (Darnel). An annual, very like L. Italicum. Reputed poisonous. Festuca elatior, L. (Meadow and tall fescues). The veins appear as white lines by transmitted light ; basal margin rough. Old sheaths yellow. Cynosurus cristatus, L. (Crested dogstail). Blades earless, thicker than perennial ryegrass and less closely folded, hence the shoot is more rounded. Ligule eared (XIV. n). Fig. 2. Base of shoot shewing colour. Sheath dark brown or violet ; ribs low and flat. Alopecurus pratensis, L. (Meadow foxtail). Fig. 3. Base of shoot shewing colour. (Alopecurus agrestis, L. (Slender foxtail). Annual. Ribs acute. ) Hairy ; red veins in white sheath (fig. 4). Holcus lanatus, L. j Holcus mollis, L. (Yorkshire fog.) (deeping soft grass.) Growth I Tufted Creeping. Shoot 'Contracted JLengthened, with two rows of leaves. Nodes Hair little or none With a downward sloping ring of hair. Group II. Variegated Grasses. White strips narrow, only seen when the blade is held up to the light (fig. 4). Aira caespitosa, L. (Tufted hair grass). The snow-white strips are six (sometimes five) in number. Fig. i. Base of blade and long acute ligule. Fig. 2. Acute apex of blade. Fig. 3. Portion of blade magnified. Observe the very high acute ribs, the summit of each with teeth giving the excessive roughness to the blade. Fig, 4. Portion of blade, magnified, as it appears by transmitted light. Observe six snow-white bands. Fig. 5. Section of young blade, magnified. After Lund. White strips broad, and seen without holding the blade up to the light. These are cultivated for ornament. Dactylis glomerata, var. picta (Variegated cocksfoot). Sheath flat (V. i). Phalaris arundinacea, var. picta (Ribbon grass). Sheath round (VI. 17). Group III. Bulbous Grasses. Ribs very high (twice as high as broad) and very acute. Alopecurus bulbosus, L. (Bulbous foxtail). Ribs very low and flat. Sheath not keeled (fig. 3). Phleum pratense, L. (Timothy or catstail). Basal margin of blade with teeth directed downwards, therefore up^vards rotigh. Ligule not hairy on the back. Fig. i. Apex of blade. Fig, 2. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 3. Transverse section of round, keelless sheath (diagram). Fig. 4. Ligule, magnified, without hair. Fig. 5. Section of blade with low ribs. After Stebler. Phleum Boehmeri. Schrad. Ligule shorter than broad. Very rare. GroupE. GrovpHL. Q OF THE UHJ7BESIT7 Ribs very low and flat. Sheath keeled (fig. 8). Avena elatior, L. (P'alse oat grass). Often hairy (see Group X.). Blades thin and dry. Ligule hairy on the back. Margin never upwards rough. Fig. 6. Apex of blade. Fig. 7. Base of blade and hairy ligule. Fig. 8. Transverse section of round, keeled sheath (diagram). Fig. 9. The ligule, magnified. After Lund. Fig. 10. Section of the blade shewing the keel, and low flat ribs. After Stebler. Blades ribless, with median lines. Poa bulbosa, L. (Bulbous meadow grass). A thin and narrow-bladed, taper pointed, and long liguled Alpine Poa. NOTES ON GROUP II. ' Air a. The other Aira species are bristle-bladed. Alpine forms of A. caespitosa have shorter, and narrower (almost bristle-like) blades, but in all cases the white strips mark the species. Variegated cocksfoot is now very commonly cultivated. All the members of the group are long liguled. The blades are folded in Aira and Dactylis. The sheath is entire in cocksfoot. NOTES ON GROUP III. Note i. Phleum. The other species of this genus, viz., P. aspetuni) Vill., and .P. arenarium, L., are never bulbous. P. arenarium is distinguished from all the other species by the folded blades \ Note 2. Poa. P. Alpina, L., is a very near ally of P. bulbosa. This somewhat bulbous species is thick and broad bladed : the point of the blade is abrupt, not tapered. All Poas have ribless, keeled blades, with median lines. P. maritima has no keel. *~ Group IV. Cord-rooted Grasses. Blade a hard bristle Nardusstricta^ L.(Moormatgrass). Blade a very thin, dry, flat band Molinia cctrulea, Moench. (Flying bent). Group V. Acute-sheathed Grasses. Sheath flat, with two acute edges (fig. i). Blade ribless, without median lines. Dactylis glomerata, L. (Cocksfoot). Fig. i. Section of shoot shewing the two-edged sheath (magnified). After Stebler. 2. Base of blade and pro- minent obtuse ligule. 3. Acute apex of blade. 4. Transverse section of blade (magnified). Ribless with a prominent keel. Blade ribless, with median lines Poa, Glyceria, and Avena species. Poa trivialis, L. (Rough-stalked meadow grass). Shoot flat, but much narrower than that of cocksfoot : the blade tapered from the very base to the acute apex, shining on the lower surface, and thin. Fig. 5. Section of shoot shewing the two-edged sheath (magnified). 6. Acute apex of blade. 7. Transverse section of blade (magnified) shewing the median lines and keel. Glyceria aquatica, Sm. (Reed sweet grass). An aqtiatic ; blade rounded at apex and remarkably thick, con- taining large air cavities: sheath netted (VI. n, 12, 13, 14, 15). Avena pubescens, L. (Downy oat). See Group X. con- tinued. Blade with median lines like Poa, and rib- less. Hairy. Sheath with four angles (fig. n). Thin bladed. Melica uniflora, L. (Wood melic). An awl-shaped process cf the ligule opposite the blade (figs. 9 and 10). Fig. 8. Tapered base of blade. 9. Entire sheath and awl-shaped process of the ligule. 10. The ligule spread out ; the awl-shaped. process is split (magnified). After Lund. II. Transverse section of the entire sheath : two angles are acute, and two obtuse (magnified). 12. Transverse section of the flatly rolled blade (magnified). 13. Transverse section of mature blade (magnified). Observe the fine ribs on lower surface. After Lund. Melica nutans, L. (Nodding melic). Rare. Fig. 14. Tapered base of blade and ligtde without the awl-shaped process. After Lund. Fig. 15. The ligule spread out. After Lund. 53 Group VI. Net-sheathed Grasses. (Fig. 14.) Sheath flat, and blade folded in bud ; aquatics ; blade blunt pointed. Catabrosa. Glyceria. Catabrosa aquatica, Beauv. (Water whorl grass). Ligule rounded ; blade like Poa. Fig. I. Rounded apex of blade. Fig. 2. Rounded base of blade and ligule. Fig. 3. Transverse section shewing the air cavities in the folded blade (magnified). After Lund. Fig. 4. Transverse section of mature blade ribless, and with median lines like Poa (magnified \. After Lund. j Glyceria fluitans, M. &K. (Floating sweet grass): Base of blade With a yellow triangular spot on each side . . . Sheath ! With a prominent keel and a rounded edge Ribs ; Acute on upper and lower Glyceria aquatica, Sm, (Reed sweet grass). With a brown triangu- lar spot on each side. With two acute edges. Absent. surface of blade /Fig. 5. Apex of blades. Fig. 6. The hooded apex flattened and split. Fig. 7. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 8. Section of sheath (magnified). Observe keel rounded edge, and ribs. After Lund. Fig. 9. Transverse section of blade (magnified). Observe the acute ribs on upper and lower surface. After Lund. Fig. 10. Apex of blade. Fig. ii. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 12. Section of sheath. Observe the acute edges. Fig. 13. Part of blade (magnified). Observe the air cavities in the cut end. After Lund. Fig. 14. The ligule with an actite point, and the netted sheath spread out. After Lund. Sheath round, and blade rolled in bud ; apex of blade acute. Phalaris arundinacea, L. (Reed canary grass). Often confounded with cocksfoot. Fig. 15. Apex of blade. Fig. 16. Base of blade. Fig. 1 7. Section of shoot. Observe the rolled blade. Hierochloa borealis, R. & S. (Northern holy grass). Bitter tasted, like sweet vernal. Blade thin, flaccid, and taper based. Very rare. 3 54 NOTES ON GROUP VI. 1. Reed grasses. The largest are : Glyceria aquatica, Phalaris arundinacea, and Phragmites communis. Flat sheathed Glyceria aquatica. Round sheathed : Long liguled Phalaris arundinacea. Ligule a hair tuft Phragmites communis. The small reed grasses are : Molinia and Cala- magrostis. Ligule a long membrane Calamagrostis. Ligule a hair tuft Molinia. 2. An aquatic not included in this group is Alopecurus geniculatus. It is distinguished by the very high (about twice as high as broad) and very acute ribs. GroupTE. QroupTHL 55 Group VII. Bitter-tasted Grasses (con- taining Cumarin). Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. (Sweet vernal). Fig. i. A small blade shewing the shape. Fig. 2. Base of blade with small round ears and beard of hair. Fig. 3. The same, but ears absent. Fig. 4 and 5. The ligule spread out (magnified). After Lund. Milium effusum, L. (Wood millet). Blade taper based, very thin, with a prominent keel ; practically ribless ; basal margin upwards rough. This grass has a tendency to hairiness. Fig. 6. Tapered base of blade, and quadrate ligule. After Lund. Hierochloa borealis, R. & S. (Northern holy grass). Very rare. Sheath and blade netted ; the netting is very conspicuous in withered blades. Group VIII. Bristle-bladed Grasses. Cord rooted. Bristle very hard and stiff. Nardus stricta, L. (Moor mat grass). Base of blade thick and cartilaginous; ligule prominent and thick; young blades erect ; old, spread out horizontally. Fig. i. Base of shoot. Observe the cord roots, pro- tective scales, old horizontal blade, young erect blade, and ligule. Ligule inconspicuous. Festuca ovina and its allies. Festuca ovina, L. (Sheep's fescue), and its varieties. Fig. 2. Portion of bristle-like blade. Fig. 3. Base of culm leaf shewing the ear-like igule (magnified). After Stebler. Fig. 4. Base of radical leaf, shewing the cartilaginous thickening at junction of sheath and blade ; no ligule is seen (magnified). Fig. 5 and 6. Transverse section of shoot (magnified). After Stebler and Lund. Fig. 7. Portion of an open ribbed blade (magnified). After Lund. Festuca sciuroides, Koth. (Barren fescue). This is an annual species. The blade has prominent acute ribs clothed with prominent hair. The ears of the ligule are more conspicuous in this species. 56 Ligule conspicuous. Bristle very hard and very stiff. Nardus stricta, L. (Moor mat grass), Ligule thick and obtuse. See commencement of group. Bristle solid (fig. 9). A transverse section immedi- ately determines whether the bristle is solid or not. Aira flexuosa, L. (Wavy hair grass). Section of bristle heart-shaped. Fig. 8. Blade, sheath, and ligule. After Lund. Fig. 9 and 10. Transverse section of the bristle (magnified). After Lund. NOTE. In other Aira species the bristle is formed by folding or inrolling of the blade. Bristle covered with short, stiff, grey hair. Aira canescens, L. (Grey hair grass). 'Bristle very glaucous ; sheath very flat and broad. Aira uliginosa, Weihe. (Bog hair grass). Bristle very blunt pointed. Aira prsecox, L. (Early hair grass). An annual. Blade soft and succulent ', concave and bristle like. Poa maritima, Huds. L (Creeping sea meadow grass). The succulent blades have all the characters of Poa (except the keel], i.e. they are ribless with median lines. Ligule obtuse. Fig. II. A shoot with the bristle-like blades. Fig. 12. Side view of base of blade and ligule (mag- nified). After Lund. Fig 13. Front view of the same (magnified). After Lund. Fig. 14. Apex of blade (magnified). Fig. 15. Transverse section of blade (magnified). Observe the thickness, absence of ribs and keel, and the median lines. Fig. 16. Portion of blade (magnified) viewed from the upper surface, shewing the median lines. Fig. 17. Transverse section of folded blade (magnified). After Lund. Fig. 18. Portion of mature blade (highly magnified). After Lund. Blade comparatively thin, dry, and keeled. Avena pratensis, L. (Glabrous oat grass). The dry blades have all the characters of Poa, i.e., they are ribless, have median lines, and a prominent keel Ligule with an abrupt ^ acute point. Group V11L conbfr 15 10 [UHI7ERSITT] %im^ 57 NOTES ON GROUP VII. Milium effusum. The amount of cumarin is less in this than in the other species. NOTES ON GROUP VIII. Festuca ovina and its allies. The ligule is remark- ably short much shorter than in Cynosurus and has a pair of ears. The ears are not seen, because the base of the blade is erect, and conceals them. This and Cynosurus are the only grasses with the eared ligule. Festuca sciuroides differs from ovina and its allies in the following respects : 1. All the shoots are fertile. 2. The hair on the acute ribs is as long as the ribs are deep ; in Festuca ovina, the corre- sponding hair is so short that it merely causes roughness. Narrow-leaved varieties (var. angustifolia) of the following species occur : f Easily recognised by the Poa pratensis, median lines and rib- Poa nemoralis, ( kss blade> Blade very thin ; ligule long, and hairy on the back. The bristle-like Agrostis canina, radical leaves dis- tinguish this from other Agrostis species. /Yellow sheath, and eared Cynosurus cnstatus^ 1 ... I ligule. Group IX. Hard-bladed Grasses. Sandbinders Elymus, Psamma. The creeping underground stems bind the sand. Blade-eared Elymus. Elymus arenarius, L. (Sand lyme grass). Ribs very prominent, uniform, and flat on the summit. Ligule a mere margin, with a fringe of hair-like teeth, as in Triticum. (XIV. 3, 4.) Triticum (Sea-side species). The ribs are less pro- minent than those of Elymus. Blade earless Psamma. Psamma arenaria, R. & S. (Sea-mat grass). Ribs very prominent and mixed (i.e., of different shapes and sizes). Ligule very long. (XIV. I, 2.) Hill and Heath Grasses Aim, Calamagrostis, Brachy- podium pinnatum. Aira csespitosa, L. (Tufted hair grass). Blade with five or six snow-white lines between the very high acute ribs. Tufts of grass very large and conspicuous. (II. 1,2, 3,4,50 Calamagrostis (Small reed). Very rare. The ribs are less prominent. Blade usually taper-based. Ligule long and thickened. Brachypodium pinnatum, Beauv. (Heath false brome). Hairy ; ribs very low. (X. 19.) e. The following grasses, with median lines, are some- what hard or succulent : Poa pratensis and compressa ribless. Sclerochloa low, flat, and very broad ribs. Avena pratensis Ligule with an abrupt point. (XII. contd. 17.) Triodia ligitle a hair tuft. ^" 0? THE "^ TNTI7BESIT7 Groupj:. I r I 59 Group X. Hairy Sheath white, with red veins (I. Holcus lanatus, L. ( Yorkshire fog.} Hair Grasses. 4)- Holcus mollis, L. | ( Creeping soft grass. ) on blade an'd sheath ... Growth Shoot Figures tufted 3. Base of blade and ligule. 4. Section of the keeled sheath. 5. Hairy back of ligule (magnified). 6. Hairless inner sur- face of ligule (mag- nified). 7. Transverse section of blade (magni- fied). After Stebler. shorter ; often little or none on sheath. Nodes with a down- ward sloping ring of hair. creeping. with two rows of leaves. Blades taper-based ; taper commencing near middle (fig. 8). Blades remarkably thin and dry; practically rib! ess. Molinia ccerulea, Moench. (Flying bent.} Brachypodium sylva- ticum, R. & S. ( Wood false brome. } Ligule Habitat Figs a hair tuft j long and conspicuous (at least as long as broad) ; apex toothed, woods. 18. (X. contd.) Base of blade, and con- spicuous toothed ligule. hills 8. Tapered base of blade, and ligule of hairs 9. Acute apex of blade. (Koeleria cristata, Pers. (Crested Koeleria). Blades firm; ribs prominent and mixed.) 6o Base of blade with pointed ears (fig. 12). Ligule remarkably short, with a fringe of very short hair-like teeth. Blades very thin, and dry. Hair on sheath sparse or absent. Triticum repens, L. (Common couch). Lower sur- face of blade comparatively smooth. Only a few veins appear (under the lens) as white lines by transmitted light. Growth creeping. Fig. ii. Base of blade, with ears rudimentary. Fig. 12. Base of blade, with the long, curved, and acute ears. Fig. 13. The ligule (magnified). Fig. 14. Transverse section of blade (magnified), shewing the low inconspicuous ribs. After Lund. Triticum caninum, Huds. (Wood couch). Lower surface of blade quite rough. Most of the veins appear as white lines by transmitted light. Growth tufted. Sheath clothed with downward sloping hair. Blade firm (but long and hanging), and taper- based ; its keel a white line. Perennial species. Bromus asper, Murr. (Rough brome). Fig. 1 6. Eared base of blade and ligule. Hordeum (Barley : the perennial species). Very like Bromus asper. (See Notes.) As before, but annual, with blades remarkably dry and thin. Hordeum murinum, L. (Wall barley). 6i Blade bitter-tasted (from cum arm). Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. (Sweet-scented vernal). No other grass has small, round ears (seen by the lens) at the base of the blade. Fig. 10. Base of blade with small, round ears, and a beard of hair. Ribs low and acute ; a single row of hair along the summit of each rib (fig. 2). Avena flavescens, L. (Golden or yellow oat). No keel on sheath (distinction from Bromus\ and very little on the blade. Fig. i. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 2. Transverse section of blade (magnified). After Stebler. Blade with low flat ribs (fig. 15). Avena elatior, L. (False oat). Hair sparse, sometimes absent. Base of shoot bulbous. Sheath keeled. Pig. 15. Transverse section of blade (magnified). After Stebler. (See III. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10). Ribs absent ; ligule a membrane. Avena pubescens, L. (Downy oat). Dry, and thin-bladed. Fig. 20. Base of blade and ligule ; blade parallel-edged. Fig. 21. Transverse section of blade, shewing absence of ribs and presence of median lines (magn - fied). After Lund. Ribs very low, broad, and quite flat ; ligule a hair tuft. Triodia decumbens, Beauv. (Decumbent heath grass). The only grass with ligule a tuft of hairs, and flat sheath. Fig. 27. Rounded base of blade, and ligule a tuft of hair. Fig. 28. Transverse section of the folded blade (magni- fied). After Lund. Fig. 29. Transverse section of mature blade, shewing the ribs (magnified). After Lund. 62 Blade taper-based, with very prominent mixed ribs. Koeleria cristata, Pers. (Crested Koeleria). Fig. 22. Acute apex of blade. Fig. 23. Tapered base of blade. Fig. 24. Transverse section of blade, shewing the prominent and mixed ribs (magnified). After Lund. Ribs prominent and acute. Ligule with two ears. Festuca sciuroides, Roth. (Barren fescue). Hair on ribs as high as the ribs are deep. An annual. Sheath entire^ round, and keeled. Annual Brome Grasses. The blades remarkably thin, and soft or dry. (See Note 7.) Fig. 1 8. Bromtts Mollis. The earless base of blade, entire sheath, and short ligule. Sheath entire and quadrangular. Blades remarkably thin and dry. Hair sparse or absent. Melica nutans, L. (Nodding Melic. ) Melica uniflora, L. (Wood Melic.) Ligule.. With an awl-shaped pro- Awl - shaped process cess opposite the blade (V. 9) ; this is the only grass with this peculi- arity. absent (V. 14). An aquatic reed-grass, the giant of the group. A crown of hair instead of a membranous ligule. Phragmites communis, Trin. (Common reed). Shoots as thick as the finger, perfectly round, and hairless. Fig. 25. Rounded base of blade, and ligule. Fig. 26. Acute apex of blade. NOTES ON GROUP X. 1. Wood Grasses. These are distinguished thus : Eared. Blades firm. Blade taper-based : keel white and prominent Bromus asper. Blade not taper-based Hordeum sylvaticum. See Note 4, Group XI. Blades remarkably thin and dry, hair sparse. Triticum caninum. Not Eared. Sheath round. Ligule long- toothed Brachypodium sylvaticum. Ligule remarkably short Triticum caninum. Sheath entire Annual bromes. Sheath quadrangular Melica. 2. Brachypodium. sylvaticum. pinnatum. Ligule Toothed (X. 1 8). With a fringe of hair ^ (X. 19). Blade Remarkably thin and dry, Firm, and erect. hanging. Habitat Woods. Heaths. 3. Koeleria. Glaucous and hairless varieties may occur. 4. Triticum. Sea-shore varieties and species have firm blades, and the ribs more prominent. 5. Hordeum. Perennial. Annual. Blade Firm . Very thin and dry. Shoots Some barren, some fertile. All fertile. Perennial Species. Hordeum sylvaticum. I Hordeum pratense. Habitat Woods. I Meadows. Annual Species. Hordeum murinum. Hordeum maritimum. Blade Very thin and dry, Narrower, thicker, and firmer. Habitat... .i Roadsides and fields. Sea-shore. 6 4 6. Annual Hordeum and Annual Bromes. Hordeum. Eared. Split. Annual Bromes. Earless. Entire. Blade Sheath 7. Bromus. Perennial. Asper^ gigametis, erectus. Annual or Biennial Arvensis, mollis, racemostts^ secalimis, sterilis, c. Bromus giganteus, L., can scarcely be distinguished from meadow fescue by its leaves. Bromus erectus, Huds., has, like annual bromes, an entire sheath, and an earless blade. It is the only brome specie? with a folded bldde. Annual bromes can scarcely be distinguished from one another by the leaves. When annual, all the shoots are fertile ; in the first year of biennial species, all the shoots are barren : in the second year, all are fertile. 8. The blades are folded in Koeleria, Avena pube- scens, Triodia decumbens, Festuca sciuroides, and Bromus erectus. 9. The ribs are very prominent in Koeleria and Festuca species. 10. The ligule is a tuft of hair in Phragmites^ Molinia, and Triodia. 11. The rare annual genus Digitaria belongs to this group. The base of the blade has a tuft of long hair which is continued as a row along each margin of the reddish-coloured and ribless blade. 12. The ligule is a tuft of hair in the rare genus Setaria. The blades are keeled, and when held up to the light a white strip is seen along the median line. 13. The ligule is entirely absentia Echinochloa ; other- wise this grass resembles Setaria. GroupJI. Group XL Eared Grasses. Ribs prominent; ligule remarkably short; a hard- bladed, sand-binding grass. Elymus. Elymus arenarius, L. (Sand lyme grass). Blade large, apex permanently rolled up, forming practically an apical thorn. Fig. I. Eared base of blade. After Lund. Fig. 2. Section of blade with prominent ribs (magni- fied). After Lund. Red-sheathed meadow grass (I. i). The blade, though firm, is comparatively soft and hairless. Lolium, Festuca. Lolium perenne, L. (Perennial rvegrass). Sheath flat M\<\ blade folded. All other members of Group XL have round sheaths and rolled blades. Fig. 3. Eared base of blade. Fig. 4. Section of blade with prominent ribs. After Stebler. Lolium Italicum, Braun. (Italian ryegrass). Sheath round ; basal margin of blade smooth. Lolium temulentum, L. (Darnel). An annual very like L. Italicum. Reputed poisonous ! Festuca elatior, Z. (Tall and meadow fescues). Sheath round ; basal margin of blade rough ; veins appear as pure white lines by transmitted light. Fig. 5. Eared base of blade. After Stebler. Fig. 6. Section of rolled blade with prominent ribs (magnified). After Stebler. 66 Ribs low and inconspicuous. Hairy grasses : Bromus asper, Hordeum, Anthoxanthum, TritLum (may be hairless). Bromus asper, Murr. (Rough brome). Sheath clothed with long, downward sloping hair. Blade taper- based ; keel white and prominent ; compared with other bromes the leaf is thick and firm. Fig. 7. Eared base of blade. Fig. 8. Ligule spread out and magnified ; observe that it is rounded off. After Lund. Very like B. asper. Blade firm ; sheath clothed with long hair. Hordeum sylvaticum, Huds. (Wood barley). In WOOdS. Hordeum pratense, Huds. (Meadow barley). In meadows. Blade remarkably thin and broader. Hordeum murinum, L. (Wall barley). The hair on the sheath is either comparatively sparse and stiff, or, if abundant, it is short, soft, and downy. An annua f t the flowers to be found in all the shoots. Base of blade with small round ears (fig. 9). Anthoxanthum. Anthoxanthuin odoratum, L. (Sweet vernal). Bitter- tasted (from cumarin). Hair often localised as a beard at top of sheath and base of blade. Fig. 9. Base of blade with small round ears. Fig. 10. Apex of blade. Fig. ii. The ligule spread out and magnified. After Lund. Ligule a mere margin, with a fringe of very fine, hairlike teeth. The hair on the sheath is sparse or absent. (Elymus], Triticum. ( Ely mus. Ribs prominent. See beginning of G roup. ) Triticum. Ribs low and flat, or inconspicuous; blade remarkably thin and dry. Triticum repens, L. (Common couch). Blade rough mainly on upper surface. Fig. 12. Eared base of blade. Fig. 13. The ligule (magnified). Fig. 14. Section of rolled blade, with low, flat ribs (magnified). After Lund. Triticum caninum, Huds. (Wood couch). Blade rough on lower and upper surfaces ; veins appear as wJiite lines by transmitted light. 6 7 NOTES ON GROUP XL 1. Annual species. Harden, in murinum, and Lolium temulentum. These are recognised as annuals, by pulling plants, and teasing asunder the leaves of the component shoots. All the shoots are fertile, therefore the plants are annuals. See page 48. 2. Hordeum maritimum, With. This is practically a sea-side variety of Hordeum murinum, with nar- rower, thicker, and firmer blades. 3. Sea-side allies of Triticum repens. Triticum junceum, L. (Sand couch). The blades are thicker and firmer. With the thickening of the blade, the ribs become more prominent. 4. Distinction between Hordeum sylvaticum and Bromus asper. These wood species are most readily distinguished by examining the inter- spaces between the veins of the apex of the sheath. This is done by holding the sheath up to the light, and observing the veins under a lens. I i Hordeum sylvaticum. \ Brotmis asper. Width of inter- space . * As broad as the vein. | Two or threee times ! as broad as the vein. 68 Group XII. Ribless-bladed Grasses with Median Lines. SOFT OR SUCCULENT BLADED MEADOW GRASSES, NEVER HAIRY Poa. Thick-bladed Poas. The sheaths flat, with rounded edges ; blades parallel-edged and round-pointed : hard rather than succulent. Poa pratensis, L. Poa compressa, L. (Smooth-stalked meadow! (Flat-stemmed meadow grass.) grass.) Sheath Ligule Nodes Growth Figures Elliptical in section Very short and thick . . . Light coloured Creepingimderground . . . Flatter. Longer and thin. Dark coloured. Before flowering the shoots bend down, run along the ground, and strike root. 1 . Rounded apex of blade. 2. Rounded base of blade! and parallel edges. ! 3. The short ligulespreadj out (magnified). 4. Transverse section of the relatively thick blade (magnified). After Lund. 5. Portion of blade as it appears by trans- j mitted light (mag- \ nified). | Poa maritima, Huds. (See Group VIII.) occurs here. Blade bristle-like, or concave ; succulent. The absence of a keel on the blade distinguishes this from all other Poas. Poa alpina, L. Blade flat, almost succulent ; base of tuft almost bulbous. See Group III. UNITBRSITT Group XH. I Thin-bladed Poas, with flat sheaths. Poa annua, L. (Annual meadow grass.) Poa trivialis, L. (Rough-stalked meadow grass.) Blade Apex rounded, lower Apex acute lower sur- surface dull or slightly shining face strongly shining. Duration ... Annual Perennial. Figures 6. Rounded apex of blade (the edges are not parallel like those of P. pratensis) 7. Base of blade and prominent ligule 8. Transverse section of blade (magnified). After Lund. 9. Acute apex of blade. 10. Portion of a culm with a long knot and the base of a culm leaf with a long acute ligule. 1 1 . Transverse section of blade (magnified). After Stabler. Poa bulbosa, L. See Group III. Thin-bladed Poas^ with round sheaths. Poa nemoralis, L. (Wood meadow grass.) Poa fertilis, Host. (Fertile meadow grass.) Ligule Short and blunt Longer than broad Nodes Short and black rounded or acute. Short and black Blade Figures . . . (XH.Cont.) Smooth, apex acute ... I. Acuteapex of blade. 2. Base of blade, and a portion of the culm with a short black knot. 5. Section of blade (magnified). After Lund. 4. Section of sheath (magnified). Somewhat rough ; apex acute. Net sheathed aquatics Catabrosa^ Glyceria. (See VI.) Catabrosa aquatica, Beauv. (Water- whorl grass). Ligule with a rounded apex. Fig. 5. Apex of blade. Fig. 6. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 7. Transverse section of folded blade (magnified). Glyceria aquatica, Sm. (Reed sweet grass). Ligule with an abrupt, acute point. Fig. 8. Apex of blade. Fig. 9. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 10. Transverse section of blade. Fig. 1 1 . Transverse section of two-edged sheath. Dry-bladed grasses Avena species. Avena pubescens, L. (Downy oat grass). Sheath clothed with conspicuous downy hair; its edges acute. Fig. 12. Apex of blade. Fig. 13. Hairy sheath, base of blade, and ligule. Fig. 14. Transverse section of blade (magnified). After Lund. Fig. 15. Transverse section of two-edged sheath (mag- nified). After Lund. Avena pratensis (Glabrous oat grass). -Ligule with an abrupt acute point. Margins of blade thorny. Sheath stiff and elastic. Fig. 16. Apex of blade. After Lund. Fig. 17. Base of blade. Observe the rough margins and apex of ligule. After Lund. Fig. 18. Transverse section of blade (magnified). Ob- serve the thickness. After Lund. Fig. 19. Transverse section of sheath (magnified). After Lund. [TJNIVEKSIT7] ^/POE^ NOTES ON GROUP XII. 1. Thick-bladed Poas. The blade may be recog- nised as thick by holding it up to the light ; a dark green appearance means thickness ; a light green, thin- ness. Thickness may also be recognised by the firm feel between the fingers. 2. Thin-bladed Poas. Recognised by the light- green colour of the blade, when held up to the light, and by the softness between the fingers. ou ^u a 4. f Edges rounded annua. Sheath flat, < T?J * ' i- ' ( Edges acute tnviahs. This character is best observed by cutting a shoot and examining the section under the lens. Poa annua. This is recognised as annual by teasing out the shoots, and observing that they all contain flowers. Poafertilis. Is being introduced into cultiva- tion, and for this reason it is included. Poa bulbosa. Is dry rather than soft-bladed. Among bulbous grasses, and those with ex- tensively creeping underground stems, the blades tend to thinness and dryness, or hard- ness e.g., Avena elatior, Triticum repens, Poa pratensis, &c. 3. Dry-b laded Avena species. Avena elatior has also dry blades ; the ribs are low and very flat ; there are no median lines. Avcnaflavescens\&& thin and softer blades ; the ribs, thoughlow,areacute; there are no median lines. 4. Triodia decumbens. Superficially examined, the blade might be regarded as that of a thick-bladed Poa, inasmuch as the median lines are very conspicuous. The pressure of low and very flat ribs suffice to dis- tinguish it. This is the only grass with a flat sheath, and ligule a tuft of hair. 5. All Poas have keeled blades, except maritima. (VIII. contd., 15.) Group XIII. - Hairless Grasses, with very Low and Flat Ribs. Sheath dark in colour (I. 3). Alopecurus pratensis, L. (Meadow foxtail). Ligule shorter than broad, thick, usually coloured, hairy on the back, and apparently entire. (Alopecurus agrestis, L. (Slender foxtail). Has rounded or acute ribs, and is annual.) Sheath not coloured, basal or whole margin upwards rough. Phleum, Briza. Phleum pratense, L. (Timothy or Catstail). Margin upwards rough on basal portion, downwards rough on apical portion. Ligule longer than broad, thin, and toothed ; not hairy on the back. Fig. i. Apex of blade. Fig. 2. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 3. Section of sheath ; no keel. Fig. 4. Back of ligule (magnified) ; no hair. Fig. 5. Transverse section of blade shewing the low ribs and absence of keel. After Stebler. Note. For other species, see Group III. Briza media, L. (Quaking grass). Whole margin upwards rough. Ligule shorter than broad, entire. Sheaths entire, except the three or four lowest. Fig. ii. Entire sheath. After Lund. P'ig. 12. Base of blade and ligule. Fig. 13. Margin of blade with teeth directed down- wards, therefore upwards rough. Fig. 14. Portion of transverse section of blade (mag- nified). After Lund. Milium effusum, L. (Spreading millet). Ribs practically absent ; blade taper-based. Group VII. 6. Blade with median lines, like Poa. Glyceria distans, Wahl. (Reflexed sweet grass). Ribs very low, very broad, and very flat. (Poa maritima is bristle or concave bladed and ribless. ) Fig. 15. Apex of blade. After Lund. Fig. 16. Base of blade and ligule. After Lund. Fig. 17. Portion of transverse section of blade shewing the ribs (magnified). After Lund. OroupJUL o 12 UHIVBRSJT7 73 Note i. Many hairy grasses have low flat ribs, for example : Avena elatior. Ligule conspicuous, blade thin and dry. Triodia. Ligule a hair tuft ; blade with median lines like Poa. Triticum. Blade eared, thin and dry. Ligule inconspicuous. Note 2. The marginal roughness of the blade is im- portant in this group; it is detected by running the margin along the tip of the tongue. Upward rough- ness; marginal teeth directed downwards. Down- ward roughness; marginal teeth directed upwards. Group XIV. Ribs High and Prominent, Rounded, or Acute. NOTE. The ribs of Agrostis are lowest of all. Hairless. Extremely hard bladed. Elymus, Psamma, Air a. Ligule very short. Elymus arenarius, L. (Sand lyme grass). Blade eared. Ligule very inconspicuous, like that of Triticum. A sandbinder. Fig. 3. Eared base of blade ; ligule inconspicuous. Fig. 4. Transverse section of rolled blade, shewing the prominent ribs flattened on the summit (magnified). After Lund. Ligule very long. Psamma arenaria, R. & S. (Sand mat grass). Blade earless. Ribs mixed (uniform in Elymus). A sand- binder. Fig. I. Earless base of blade and long ligule. Fig. 2. Transverse section of rolled blade, shewing the prominent and mixed ribs (magnified). After Lund. Aira caespitosa, L. (Tuftecl hair grass). When held up to the light the spaces between the ribs appear as siioiv-white lines (II. 4). Fig. 5. Transverse section of blade, shewing the very high and very acute ribs (magnified). 74 Blades not extremely hard, but firm. Sheath character- istically coloured. The ligule is extremely short, and the lower surface of the blade very strongly shining. Lolhim, Cynosurus, Festuca elatior. Sheath flat and blade folded. Lolium perenne, L. (Perennial ryegrass). Sheath red at base, and entire. Base of blade often eared. Sheath entire. Fig. 6. Apex of blade. Fig. 7. Eared base of blade, extremely short ligule. Fig. 8. Transverse section of folded blade shewing the ribs (magnified). After Lund. Fig. 9. Transverse section of mature blades shewing prominent ribs and keel (mag. ). Observe that the mid -rib is not flat. After Stebler. Cynosurus cristatus, L. (Crested dogstail). Sheath yellow at base (I. 2.), and split. Blade always 'earless, and ligule eared (the ears to be observed by the lens). The blade thicker and firmer between the fingers of perennial ryegrass. Fig. 10. Apex of blade. Fig. ii. Earless base of blade, and extremely short eared ligule. Fig. 12. Section of the folded blade (magnified). After Lund. Sometimes the blade is slightly rolled, then the sheath is approxi- mately round. (See Stebler's " Best Forage Plants.") Sheath round, red at base, and blade rolled. Lolium Italicum, Braun. (Italian ryegrass). Basal margin of blade smooth. The veins (under the lens) are indistinct by transmitted light. Blade usually eared ; sheath entire. Fig. 13. Apex of blade. Lolium temulentum, L. (Common darnel). Annual. Blades very similar to the preceding. Festuca elatior, L. (Meadow and late fescues). Basal margin of blade rough. The veins (under the lens) appear zspure wJiite lines by transmitted light. Blade eared ; sheath split. Fig. 14. Apex of blade. Fig. 15. Transverse section of rolled blade shewing the ribs (magnified). After Stebler. Fig. 16. Transverse section of mature blade (mag. ). Observe theyfotf mid-rib. After Stebler. 75 No special colouring matter developed in the sheath. The genus is thin and rough bladed, and long liguled. The ribs are acute or rounded, and about as high as broad. The ligule is white, thin, and hairy on the back. Agrostis. Ligule . . . Blade.... Figures.. Agrostis Stolonifera, L. (Fiorin.) Agrostis canina, L. (Brown bent.) Agrostis vulgaris, With. (Common bent. ) Length equal to breadth, margin entire, apex ob- tuse. Rolled 19. Apex of blade. 20. Base of blade. Much longer than broad, margin usually toothed, apex somewhat acute. Rolled . Similar. Usually folded. Radical leaves bristle-like. 17. Complete blade. Observe the taper com- mencing at the base. 18. Transverse section shewing the acute promin- ent ribs, as high as broad. After Stebler. Ribs very acute, about titnce as high as bi'oad, otherwise very similar to Agrostis. Alopecurus. Alopecurus geniculatus, L. (Bent-stemmed foxtail). An aquatic. (Alopecurus agrestis, L. (Slender foxtail). A denizen of dry soils, with a thick, usually coloured, ligule. Ribs very similar to Agrostis. An annual or biennial. ) 7 6 Hairy ; blades small and narrow ; ligule very short ; eared in Festur,a. Blade taper-based. Koeleria cristata, Pers. (Crested koeleria). Ribs mixed (X. contd., 22, 23, 24.) Glaucous varieties occur. No hair on lower surface of blade ; ligule eared. Festuca sciuroides, Roth. (Barren fescue). Ribs uniform and acute, covered by hair, which is as long as the ribs are high. An annual species. (In varieties of Festuca ovina, the hair on the ribs is quite short, and merely causes roughness.) NOTES ON GROUP XIV. 1. Hard-bladed sandbinders. Elymus. Eared blade. Psamma. Earless blade ; common. 2. Loliu/n, Cy no sums, Festuca. Ligule extremely short ; lower surface of blade keeled, very smooth, and strongly shining. Lolinm perenm and Italicum f In the first year of growth, the blades of L. perenne may be rolled, like those of Italicum. The mid-rib, in such a case, distinguishes the species. Mid-rib L. perenne. Rounded. L. Italicum. Quite flat. Allies of Festuca elatior. Broums giganteus, L. The leaves of this species are very similar to those of F. elatior. The blades are broader, and the marginal teeth at the base are often prolonged into bristle hairs. Bromus erectus^ Huds., is distinguished thus : F. elatior. B. erectus. Sheath Blade.. Split ; never hairy. .Entire, except at apex usually hairy. Rolled ; usually eared. | Folded ; never eared. 77 3- Agrostis. This genus is extremely liable to variation, and accordingly is very difficult to define. The following are the most distinctive features. The blade is rough on both surfaces and on margin ; thinner and drier than in ryegrasses, fescues, and dogstails. In these characters it resembles Triticum. Agrostis canina has bristle-like blades. The ribs are prominent, acute, or rounded. The margins begin to converge very near the base of the blade, giving a characteristic form. The base is never eared. The ligule is a long, white, thin membrane, hairy on the back. At its shortest, in Agrostis vulgaris, it is almost as long as broad the distinctive feature of this species. The blade is rolled. In Agrostis canina, however, the blade is folded ; accordingly, a long liguled Agrostis with folded blades is the species canina. To determine the point, the shoot is cut transversely, 'and the section examined under a lens. Summary. a. No characteristic colouring matter is developed in the base of the sheath. b. The blades are rough on margin and surfaces, earless, and tapered from the base. c. The ligule is long, thin, white, and hairy on the back. d. The blades are rolled, but folded in canina. Agrostis. Triticum. Ribs Prominent Very low. Hair Absent. Often present. Ligule Blade Long. Never eared. Remarkably short and quite inconspicuous. Eared. Agrostis Lolium, Festuca, and Cynosurus. Blade Sheath Thin and dry. Not coloured. Firm and comparatively thick ; lower surface strongly shining. Characteristically coloured. 78 Agrostis. |Alopecurus geniculatus Ribs i . ' As high as broad. About twice as hiijh as Blade by transmitted light ! Little contrast between rib and furrow. broad, and very acute. Strong contrast between rib and furrow. - Note 4. The height of the ribs may be roughly deter- mined by holding the blade up to the light ; the amount of contrast between rib and furrow measures the height of rib. For example : Aira. Ribs dark, furrows pure white. Alopecwus geniculatus . Ribs dark, furrows yellow. The contrast is strong, and the ribs therefore very high. Agrostis. Little contrast between rib and furrow, therefore the ribs are comparatively low. Note 5. On the same blade the mid-rib may be different from the lateral ribs ; Festuca elatior (XIV. 15) for example, has a flat mid-rib. In Psamma^ adjoining lateral ribs differ in height and shape ; these are described as mixed ribs (XIV. 2). The same condition is a striking feature of the hairy Koeleria. INDEX I. COMMON NAMES. SYNONYMS AND VARIETIES IN ITALICS. GROUPS AND FIGURES. Annual (duration). - brome grasses .......................................... X. contd. 17 - meadow grass ........................................... XII. 6, 7, 8 Alpine (habitat). - hair grass a variety of tufted hair grass with involute leaves. - meadow grass ................................. See III. and XII. Barley, meadow ......................................................... XI. -wall ............................................................ X.,XI. - wood .................. . ..................................... X. , XI. Barren /#& Decumbent heath grass X. contd. 27, 28, 29 ; See IX., XII., and XIII. Dog (eaten by dogs). bent brown bent. 8i GROUPS AND FIGURES. Dog couch wood couch. Dogstail crested dogstail. Downy (the sheaths with soft hair). oat grass V., X. contd. 20, 21 ; XII. contd. 12, 13, 14, 15 Early (season of growth). hair grass VIII. False brome (the spikelets resembling those of brome grass). barren heath. heath IX., X. contd. 19 sand heath. s -lender = wood 1 wood } X - contd ' l8 False oat (the spikelets resembling those of true oat grass). bulbous 1 -common} III. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 ; X. 15 Fertile (referring to the productions of an extra number of shoots). meadow grass XII. Fescue, barren VIII., X., XIV. note creeping=2ii\ ally of sheep's fescue. fine leaved variety of sheep's fescue. hard variety of sheep's fescue. meadow I. I ; XI. 5, 6 ; XIV. 14, 15, 16 ratstail barren fescue. red creeping fescue. sheep's VIII. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ; XIV. note squirrel's tail= barren. -tall I. i ; XL 5, 6; XIV. 14, 15, 16 various leaved an ally of sheep's fescue. viviparous variety of sheep's fescue. Finger grass (the spikes arranged like the fingers on the hand) X. note Fiorin XIV. 17, 18 Fog (soft like moss). Yorkshire 1-4; X. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Flat stemmed (culm and sheaths flat = com pressed stemmed). meadow grass XII. ; See IX. Floating (applied to aquatics with leaves floating in nater) sweet grass VI. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Flying bent IV. 3, 4 ; X. 8, 9 F 82 GROUPS AND FIGURES. Foxtail (named from the spike). bent-stemmed XIV., See VI. bulbous III. common meadow. marsh = bent-stemmed. meadow I. 3 ; XIII. slender I., XIV. ; See XIII. tuberous = bulbous. water bent-stemmed. Gardener's garter = variegated reed canary grass II. Glabrous (without hair). oat grass... VIII. contd.,XII. contd. 16, 17, 18, 19; See IX. Golden (colour of spikelets). oatgrass = yellow oat X. I, 2 Grey (covered with grey hair). hair grass VIII. Hair grass (branches of the panicle very thin and hair-like). alpine variety of tufted hair grass with the leaves rolled up. - bog VIII. - early VIII. - grey VIII. heath wavy hair grass. short-leaved variety of tufted hair grass. - tufted II. i, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; XIV. 5 wavy VIII. contd. 8, 9, 10 Hairy. brome rough brome. Hard (referring to the leaves). fescue = an ally of sheep's fescue. Heath (the habitat). false brome grass IX., X. contd. 19 hair grass wavy hair grass. Heath grass. decumbent X. contd. 27, 28, 29; See IX., XII., and XIII. Holcus. creeping^ creeping soft grass. woolly Yorkshire fog. Holy grass (used in religious ceremonies). northern VI., VII. GROUPS AND FIGURES. Italian. - ryegrass ..... . .................................... I., XL, XIV. 13 Koeleria (named after the botanist Koeler). crested ........................ X. contd. 22, 23, 24; XIV. note Lyme grass. -sand or sea ................. . ........ IX., XL 1,2; XIV. 3, 4 Maram (a sandbinder). - sea = sea. mat grass. Marsh (habitat). - foxtail bent-stemmed foxtail. Millet grass. > ............ ...VII. 6; XIII. - ivooa = spreading ) Mat grass (matting sand together, or for forming mats). - moor ............................................. IV. I, 2; VIII. I sand or sea .......................................... IX., XIV. i, 2 Meadow (indicates the habitat, except of meadow oat). - fescue ........................ I. i; XI. 5, 6; XIV. 14, 15, 16 -- foxtail ................................................... I. 3; XIII. - oat grass glabrous oat. Meadow grass (applied to Poa, Glyceria, and Sclerochloa). - annual ................................................... XII. 6, 7, 8 - bulbous ................................................... III., XII. - creeping sea ...VIII. contd. n, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 - fertile ............................................................ XII. - flat-stemmed compressed stemmed ......... XII. ; See IX. - rm/=reed sweet grass. - reflexed .......................................... XIII. 15, 16, 17 - rough or rough-stalked ............ V. 5, 6, 7 ; XII. 9, ic, II - smooth or smooth-stalked ....... XII. I, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; See IX. - wood ....................................... XII. contd. I, 2, 3, 4 Melic grass (from mel, honey, referring to the sweet taste. - mou ntain nodding \ -- nodding ............... L ........................ V. 14, 15; X. - purple nodding ...... J - wood .............................. V. 8, 9, 10, n, 12, 13; X. Molinia (named after the Italian botanist Molina}. -- purple flying bent. 8 4 GROUPS AND FlGURKS. Mountain (habitat). melic nodding melic. Murram (a sandbinder; see Maram). sand or sea sea mat gras. Narrow-leaved '(the Latin term is angustifolia}. oat glabrous oat. smooth-stalked meadow grass VIII. contd. wood meadow grass VIII. contd. Nodding (refers to the panicle). false brome=\vood false brome. melic V. 14, 15; X. Northern (found only in northern counties). holy grass VI., VII. Oat grass. bulbous = false. downy V., X. contd. 20, 21 ; XII. contd. 12, 13, 14, 15 glabrous VIII. contd.; XII. contd. 16, 17, 18, 19 ; See IX. golden = yellow X. I, 2 meadow ~\ narrow- leaved ... !- glabrous. perennial J yellow X. I, 2 Perennial (duration). oat grass glabrous. ryegrass I. I ; XI. 3, 4 ; XIV. 6, 7, 8, 4 Purple (colour of spikelets). melic nodding melic grass. - Molinia flying bent. Quaking grass (refers to the tremulous movements of the spike- lets when shaken). common XIII. n, 12, 13, 16 Quitch^ couch. Ratstail (the form of inflorescence). grass barren fescue. Reed. canary grass II., VI. 15, 16, 17 meadow grass = reed sweet grassy V., VI. 10, II, 12, 13, 14; sweet grass j XII. contd. 8, 9, 10, II j" variety of reed canary grass 8 5 GROUPS AND FIGURES. Reed grass, common X. contd. 25, 26 Reflexed (branches of panicle). meadow grass 1 sweet grass / ' XIIL l $> l6 > '7 Ribbon (blade variegated with strips of green and white). (v grass -\ . . c i r . (variety of cocksfoot ) Rough brome X. contd. 16; XI. 7,8 cocksfoot II., V. I, 2, 3, 4 stalked meadow V. 5, 6, 7 ; XII. 9, 10, II Ryegrass, common perennial. - darnel ...........I. I ; XL, XIV. - Italian I. I ; XL, XIV. 13 perennial I. i ; XL 3, 4; XIV. 6, 7, 8, 9 Sand (habitat) = Sea. lyme grass IX., XL I, 2 ; XIV. 3, 4 mat grass IX., XIV. I, 2 Sea (dwellers on sea-shores). lyme grass IX., XL 1,2; XIV. 3, 4 inaram sea mat grass \ mat grass [~ IX., XIV. I, 2 murrain ) meadow grass VIII. contd. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18; XII. ; See XIII. Sheep's fescue IVIII. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 , fine leaved variety of sheep's fescue ) J; XIV. note. Short leaved (Latin, brevifolius). hair grass variety of tufted hair grass. Slender (referring to spike = nodding). false brome wood false brome. foxtail L, XIV.; See XIL Small reed grass IX. Smooth-stalked meadow grass XII. I, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; See IX. Soft (having soft downy hairs). brome ..'....X. contd. 17 grass = Holcus. Spreading (branches of panicle). - millet grass VII. 6; XIIL Squirrel's tail= barren fescue. 86 GROUPS AND FIGURES. Squitch = couch. Stoloniferous (having stems creeping and rooting along the surface of the ground). bent florin. meadow grass = rough-stalked. Sweet grass (stems sweet tasted). floating VI. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 reed...V., VI. n, 12, 13, 14, 15; XII. contd. 8, 9, 10, II reflexed XIII. 15, 16, 17 Sweet (smell when dry). Scented vernal \ vernal } VII. i, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; X. 10 ; XI. 9, 10, n Tall (referring to size). fescue Li; XI. 5, 6 ; XIV. 14,15,16 oat false oat. Timothy (after Timothy Hansen) III. i, 2, 3, 4, 5; XIII. i, 2, 3, 4, 5 Tuberous (base of shoot specially thickened ) = bulbous. foxtail^ bulbous foxtail. meadow grass bulbous meadow grass. oat grass false oat. Tufted (mode of growth). hair grass 11.1,2,3,4,5; IX., XII. 5 Twitch couch. Various-leaved (radical and cauline leaves differ in form). fescue an ally of sheep's fescue. Vernal (early spring growth). grass = sweet vernal. Water (habitat). foxtail bent stemmed foxtail. whorl grass Yl. i, 2, 3, 4 ; XII. contd. 5, 6, 7 Wavy (branches of panicle). hair grass VIII. contd. 8, 9, 10 Whorl grass (branches of panicle in whorls). water VI. I, 2, 3, 4 ; XII. contd. 5, 6, 7 Wood (habitat). couch X., XL false brome X. contd. 18 meadow grass XII. contd. i, 2, 3, 4 87 GROUPS AND FIGURES. Woodmelic V. 9, 10, u, 12, 13; X. millet spreading millet. Variegated (leaves with alternate white and green strips \ canary grass I ... II- cocksfoot J Woolly (with abundant woolly hair). soft grass = Yorkshire fog. Yellow (golden colour of ripe spikelets). oat grass X. I, 2 Yorkshire fog I. 4 J X. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 88 INDEX II. LATIN NAMES. SYNONYMS AND VARIETIES IN ITALICS. GROUPS AND FIGURES. Agropyrum. See Triticum. Agrostis (bent grass). alba stolonifera. canina, L. (dog's brown) XIV.; See VIII. notes. stolonifera, L. (stolon bearing fiorin) XIV. 17, 1 8 vulgaris With, (common) XIV. 19, 20 Ana (hair grass). alpina, L. variety of csespitosa. aquatica^ L. = Catabrosa aquatica. ccerulea, L. ( purple) = Molinia coerulea. oespitosa, L. (tufted) II. i, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; IX., XIV. 5 canescens, L. (grey) VIII. cristata, L. (crested) = Koeleria cristata. flexuosa, L. (wavy) VIII. contd. 8, 9, 10 prsecox, L. (early) VIII. - uliginosa, Weihe. (bog) VIII. Airopsis (like aira). Applied by Fries to Aira proecox, and caryophyllea. Alopecurus (foxtail). - agrestis, L. (field) L, XIV.; See XIII. bulbosus, L. (bulbous) III. geniculatus, L. (bent-stemmed) XIV.; See VI. - pratensis, L. (meadow) I. 3; XIII. Ammophila (sand loving). arundinacea, Beauv. = Psamma arenaria. Anthoxanthum (yellow-flowered vernal grass). odoratum, L. (sweet scented) VII. i, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; X. 10 ; XL 9, 10, n A rrhenatherum. 8 9 GROUPS AND FlGUKES avenaceum. Beauv. ... 1 . , . ' \ = Avena elatior. elahtis, M. & K J Arundo (reed). arenaria, L. = Psamma arenaria. colorata. Wild. Phalaris arundinacea. phragmites, L. = Phragmites communis. Avena (oat grass). - elatior, L. (tall false) III. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; X. 15; XIII. note I. - flavescens, L. (yellow) X., i, 2 fiexuosa, M. & K. =Aira flexuosa ...VIII. contd. 8, 9, 10 lanata, Koel. = Holcus lanatus. niollis, Koel. = Holcus mollis. - pratensis, L. (meadow, a misnomer) VIII. contd., XII. contd. 16, 17, 18, 19; See IX. - pubescens, L. (downy) IX. contd. 20, 21 ; XII. contd. 12, 13, 14, 15 Baldingera. See Phalaris. Brachypoclium (false brome, having a very short pedicel for each spikelet). - pinnatum, Beauv. (feather-like heath) X. contd. 19 - sylvaticum, R. & S. (wood) X. contd. 18 Briza (quaking grass). media, L. (medium sized spikelets) ...XIII. n, 12, 13, 14 Bromus (brome grass). - asper, Murr. (rough) X. contd. 16 ; XI. 7, 8 - mollis, L. (soft) X. contd. 17 pinnatiiS) L. = Brachypodium pinnatum. $ylvaticus t Sm. = Brachypodium sylvaticum. Bucetum, of Parnell. See Festuca. Calamagrostis (small reed ) IX. Catabrosa (whorl grass). aquatica, Beauv. (water). VI. i, 2, 3, 4 ; XII. contd. 5, 6, 7. Corynephorus. See Aira canescens. Cynosurus (dogstail). cristatus, L I. 2; XIV. 10, 11, 12; See VIII. contd. Dactylis (cocksfoot). 9 o GROUPS AND FIGURES. Dactylis glomerata L. fspikelets in tufts) II., V. i, 2, 3, 4 Digraphis. See Phalaris arundinacea. Deschampsia. See Aira. Digitaria (finger grass) X. note 1 1 Echinochloa (bristle grass) X. note 13 Elymus (lyme grass). arenarius, L. (sand) IX., XI. I, 2; XIV. 3, 4 caninus, L. = Triticum caninum. J?n?^w=Hordeum sylvaticum. Enodium. See Molinia. Festuca (fescue grass). - elatior, L. (tall) I., XL 5, 6 ; XIV. 14, 15, 16 ovina, L. (sheep's) VIII. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ; XIV. note Its allies are duriuscula (hard), fallax (deceitful), hetero- phylla (various leaved), rubra (red or creeping), tenui- folia (fine leaved). See Stebler's " Best Forage Plants." pratensis, Huds. (meadow) \I. l; XL 5, 6; XIV. part of F. elatior } 14, 15, 16 sciuroides, Roth, (squirrel tail barren) VIIL, X., XIV. note. Note. Molinia, Triodia, Koeleria, Sclerochloa, Glyceria, and Brachypodium, were regarded by old writers as parts of the genus Festuca. Glyceria (sweet grass). aquatica, Sm. ...V., VI. 10, II, 12, 13, 14,; XII. contd. 8, 9, 10, n - distans, Wahl. (reflexed) XIII. 15, 16, 17 - fluitans, M. & K. (floating) VI. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 maritima, M. & K. (sea) VIIL contd. n, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 plicata. Fries, (folded-leaved) variety of fluitans - spectabiliS) M. & K. = aquatica NOTE. Catabrosa is sometimes regarded as part of this genus. Hierochloe or Hierochloa (Holy grass) - borealis, R. & S. (northern) VI., VII. odorata, Wahl. borealis. Holcus avenacenS) Scop. = Avena elatior. - lanatus, L. (woolly) L 4 X. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 GROUPS AND FIGURES. Holcus mollis, L. (soft) I. 4; X. odoratus, L. (sweet smelling) =Hierochloe borealis. Hordeum (barley). murinum, L. (wall) X. XL pratense, Huds. (meadow) XI. sylvaticum, Huds. (wood) X., XL Koeleria cristata, Pers X. contd. 22, 23, 24 ; XIV. note Lolium (ryegrass). Italicum, Braun. (Italian) L I ; XL, XIV. 13 perenne, L. (perennial)...!. I ; XL 3, 4 ; XIV. 6, 7, 8, 9,. temuleutum, L, (darnel) L I ; XL, XIV. Melica (Melic grass). nutans, L. (nodding) V. 14, 15 ; X, uniflora, L. (one-flowered spikelets wood) V. 8, 9, 10, n r 12, 13, X, Milium (Millet grass). effusum, L. (spreading branches of pannile wood) VII. 6 r XIII. Molinia coerulea, Moench. (purple) IV. 3, 4 ; X. 8, 9 Nardus (mat grass). stricta, L. (narrow leaves and spike) IV. I, 2 ; VIII. i Phleum (catstail). arenarium, L. (sand) \ ,,. . ... See III. and XIII. asperum, \ ill. (rough) ) - Boehmeri, schrad (Boehmer's) III. ; See XIII. pratense, L. (meadow)... III. i, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; XIII. I, 2, 3, 4,5 Phalaris (canary grass). arundinacea, L. (sand reed) II., VI. 16, 17, 18 Phragmites (reed grass). communis. Trin. (common) X. contd. 25, 26 Poa (ineadow grass). alpina, L. (alpine) See III. and XIL annua, L. (annual) XIL 6, 7, 8- Balfou-rii) Bab. (Balfour's) variety of nemoralis. - bulbosa, L. (bulbous) III., XIL compressa, L. (compressed stemmed) XII. ; See IX. cccsia, L. variety of nemoralis. fertilis, Host, (fertile) XIL 9 2 GROUPS AND FIGURES. Poa glauca, Sm. variety of nemoralis. maritima, Huds. (sea) ...VIII. contd. II, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18; XII. ; See XIII. nemoralis, L. (wood) ' XII. contd. I, 2, 3, 4 Parnellii) Bab. ( Parnell's) variety of nemoralis. pratensis, L. (meadow smooth-stalked) ...XII. I, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; See IX. serotina, Ehr. ferlilis trivialis, L. (trivial rough-stalked) V. 5, 6, 7 ; XII. 9, 10, II Note. This genus sometimes includes Glyceria and Sclerochloa. Psamma (mat grass). arenaria, R. & S. (sand) IX., XIV. I, 2 Schedonorus. See Bromus and Festuca. Sclerochloa (Hard grass.) The leaves are succulent rather than hard). distorts, Bab = Glyceria distans. maritima^ Lind = Poa maritima. Serrafalcus. See Bromus. Setaria (bristle grass) X. note 12 Triodia (pale, with three teeth heath grass). decumbens, Beauv. (decumbent) X. contd. 27, 28, 29; See IX., XII., and XIII. Trisetum (pale, with three bristles, two are teeth, and one, the dorsal awn). See Avena. Triticum (couch). caninum, Huds. (dog's wood) X., XL - - repens, L. (creeping common). ..VII., X. n, 12, 13, 14; XI. 12, 13, 14 ~ pinnatuni) Moench. = Brachypodium pinnatum. Vulpia. See Festuca sciuroides. Second Edition, greatly enlarged and Illustrated by WO Phototypes, Maps, dc. Price 7s. 6d. FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN. BY ROBERT WALLACE, F.L.S., F.R.S.E., &c. PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY" OF EDINBURGH; AUTHOR OF ''INDIA IN 1887." SOME OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. " Few country gentlemen who take up this book will care to put it down again until they have looked at its hundred phototypes of prize cattle, sheep, pigs, and! horses, . . . the very best collection of pictures of prize stock that we have ever seen. Nor must we forget to say a word in praise of the four maps, showing the OrographicaL Features, the Distribution of Cattle, the Distribution of .Sheep, and the Distribution of Agricultural Population in the British Isles. It must not be supposed that the illustrations are the only things of value in Mr Wallace's book. It contains useful chapters on the principles of breeding in general, the breeding, management, and grazing of cattle, the house-feeding of cattle, dairying, horse-breeding, horse-break- ing, the management of farm horses, the management of sheep and pigs, and the stocking of farms. But to our mind the best and most typical chapters of the work are those which describe the origin and leading characteristics of the various breeds. Those who wish to learn all about the various breeds, and improved breeds, must read for themselves in this capital book." Saturday Review. "The second edition of this work by Professor Wallace lies before us, and, alike in fulness of detail, in scientific accuracy, clearness and lucidity of style, copiousness of illustration, and carefulness of finish and get-up, leaves nothing to be desired. . . . The illustrations alone are of such a character as to render the work a valuable, if not an indispensable, addition to every agricultural library worthy of the name, and an excellent gift-book to all who are, or are likely to become, concerned in the care and management of live stock in any position. . . . Altogether, this- work is deserving of high commendation." The Agricultural Economist. "It is a decided improvement upon the first edition, and is a substantial, well- brought-out volume." The Farming World. "This new edition is as different from the first as the finished linen is from the unscutched flax. It is thoroughly revised, the information being brought well up to date. ' North British Agriculturist. '* The work is already in high repute as a text-book, and the improvements and additions in the new edition will doubtless add much to its reputation, as they cer- tainly add to its usefulness." Scotsman. " To the stock-keeper not the least important part of the book deals with the origin and treatment of disease." Newcastle Courant. "Almost all imaginable information about ' Farm Live Stock of Great Britain ' is to be found in Professor Wallace's exhaustive book. He is a thorough guide not only to the various breeds and their relative excellences, but also to matters of diet and physic, and to the pests (the warble fly, for instance) which so often thwart the breeder." The Graphic. "This is not only an eminently practical work, but even an entertaining one." The Westmorland Gazette. " We cannot suppose anything better in the way of a text-book for students and a practical guide." The Liverpool Mercury. " Of great interest and value, . . . It is so well written that the reader who knows practically nothing of the subject can understand and enjoy it." Bristol Mercury. " Mr Wallace has done his work with great care. . . . The book cannot fail to be interesting and helpful to the practical agriculturist. To the student it will be an invaluable text-book." Dumfries and Gallcnvay Standard. " It ought to be in the hands of every farmer, and there are few agriculturists probably who would not find in it some useful hint or some fresh information." Peterhead Sentinel. " Professor Wallace has succeeded in cramming a vast amount of valuable infor- mation into his book." Literary World. EDINBURGH : OLIVER & BOYD. LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & Co, With 3 Maps and 80 Illustrations, 8vo, 21s. INDIA IN 1887. BY ROBERT WALLACE, PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH ; AUTHOR OF "FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN." SOME OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. "This work, giving the views of a scientific and able observer of the present con- dition of agriculture in India, is of great value. . . . A great deal of valuable information is very clearly set forth in the chapters on different varieties of Indian cattle, the principles of breeding, their characteristics, and the possibility of improving the breeds by selection and crossing." Bombay Gazette. " An attractive, readable, and suggestive work, which embraces the whole field of modern agriculture." The Englishman, Calcutta. " A work of wide interest and exceptional value. It is the work of a skilled ob- server with an extensive knowledge of agricultural science, giving bold and unre- served utterance to the thoughts that were suggested by his Indian surroundings Professor Wallace deals in a masterly way with all general questions of agricultural improvement." The Englishman, Calcutta. "We cannot speak too highly of its usefulness and interest to those who have at heart the promotion in this country of agriculture on scientific principles." O. Anglo- Lusitano, Bombay. " Professor Wallace has rendered an invaluable service both to India and to Eng- land, by his intelligent observations and the free expression of his views." Indian Daily News. " Should be studied by every one who has the development of the resources of the country at heart." Times of India. " Professor Wallace's work on India ... is generally admitted to be the best and most comprehensive of its kind yet published." Colonies and India, London. " All interested in Indian agriculture will find in this work a surprisingly large amount of the most valuable information given by one who is most capable of giving it in the very best way." Civil Service Gazette, London. " English statesmen, and all who are interested in our Eastern Empire, will find much fresh and original information in Professor Wallace's instructive volume." Daily Chronicle, London. " The book is an important contribution to our knowledge of the subject, and its appearance may be expected to mark the dawn of a new era : for the inquiry has "been systematic, and the facts noted in every branch of the subject are eminently practical and suggestive." Daily News, London. "Containing a vast amount of information of an entirely novel character, and of some facts that may be of utility to agriculturists of this country as well as of India." Standard, London. "A work of conspicuous merit and ability, and one calculated to throw an alto- gether new light upon the whole subject of Indian agriculture." Morning Post, London. " The volume contains the results of an immense amount of labour, both physical and mental. Professor Wallace is to be congratulated on providing for his country- men so graphic a picture of Indian agriculture." Bell's Weekly Messenger, London. "No unbiassed reader can examine this book without feeling that it is un- doubtedly the work of an intrepid, original, and far-seeing mind." North British Agriculturist, Edinburgh. " The book must be ranked among the most exhaustive and practical treatises on Indian agriculture yet produced in our own or any other language ; and it is cer- tainly a monument of the industry, perseverance, and activity of observation of the author." Scottish Leader, Edinburgh. EDINBURGH : OLIVER & BOYD. LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & Co. M'LAREN'S PATENT SEED GERMINATOR. MANUFACTURED BY DUNCAN M'LAREN, A i> s T FS E: E: T, EJ NO FUNGUS! RAPID RESULTS! SIMPLE-ALMOST AUTOMATIC ACTION! TESTIMONIALS. From PROFESSOR M'ALPINE, Botanist to Highland and Agricultural Society. \st January 1889. The Seed Germinator which you have made for me suits the purpose perfectly. It is the best form of apparatus that I know, and meets all requirements. The ventilation is so satisfactory that it is almost impossible for fungus to grow in the case. I have now discarded all other Seed Germinators, and use only this one, which I can confidently recommend. A. N. M'ALPINE. From Messrs BELL & BIEBERSTEDT, Wholesale Seed Merchants, Leith. DEAR SIR, We have had the Seed Germinator which you supplied to us in constant use for some time, with the most satisfactory results. The difficulty of getting an air current in the Tester is overcome, so that there is no growth of fungus to interfere with the germination of the seeds being tested, the mportance of which is obvious. At all points the working of the Tester is admirable, and we can confidently recommend it as the best apparatus of the kind we have ever seen. Yours truly, BELL & BIEBERSTEDT. From Messrs R. CARMICHAEL & SONS, Seedsmen, Coldstream. gthjamtary 1889. DEAR SIR, The Germinator we had from you does its work admirably. The variations of temperature are very slight ; the ventilation seems perfect : it requires very little attention ; and is altogether the best apparatus for the purpose that we have tried or seen. Yours truly, R. CARMICHAEL & SONS. From Messrs CROSS & DONALDSON, Seed Merchants, Edinburgh and Belfast. Mr Duncan M'Laren. DEAR SIR, The Seed Tester supplied to us is more perfect in its arrangements than any we have yet seen. The principle of ventilation has received special attention, and the result is satisfactory, the fresh air admitted below producing that moist atmosphere which is most conducing to ventilation. We are sure any one using your Tester will have great satisfaction with it. Yours truly, CROSS & DONALDSON. From Messrs ROUGHEAD & PARK, Seed Merchants, Haddington. Haddington, -2nd January 1890. Mr Duncan M'Laren. DEAR SIR, We have much pleasure in testifying to the success of the Seed Germinator you supplied to us. In many appliances of this kind we have found fungus to be a source; of great annoyance, but the system of ventilation adopted by you has quite removed all trace of this, and the results we now obtain are entirely satisfactory. We think every one using this Tester will acknowledge that you are entitled to their thanks for your endeavours to perfect an apparatus which is of so much importance to agriculturists and the seed trade generally. We are, yours faithfully, ROUGHEAD & PARK. Usual size, 3 feet long by 2 feet broad. Price 6 cash. A ny other sizes can be made to suit Buyers. Full particulars on application to the Manufacturer, D. M'LAREN, Bread Street, Edinburgh. D. NUTT* 270 & 271 STRAND, LONDON. THE BEST FORAGE PLANTS. FuQy Described and Figured, with a Complete Account of their Cultivation, Economic Value, Impurities and Adul- terants, BY DR F. G. STEBLER, DIRECTOR OF THE SEED CONTROL STATION. ZURICH ; AND DR C. SCHROTER, PROFESSOR OF BOTANY, ZURICH. TRANSLATED BY A. N^ M'ALPIKE, B.Sc. LOND., CONSULTING BOTANIST TO THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETT OF SCOTLAND. Quarto, 171 pages, with 30 full-page chromo-lithographs, and numerous woodcuts of Impurities and Adulterants. Strongly bound in boards. 125. 6