UBMRT UHFVERSmr OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE 4-- /"5- "■ '. :, V . i^ LETTERS FROM EGYPT, ETHIOPIA, AND THE PENINSULA OF SINAI. EY DR. RICHARD LEPSIUS. WITH EXTRACTS FROM HIS CHEONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS, WITH REFERENCE TO THE EXODUS OF THE ISRAELITES. REVISED BY THE AUTHOR. TRANSLATED BY LEONORA AND JOANNA B. HORNER. LONDON : HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. MDCCCLIII. 1)JhU c TRA^sSLATORS' PREFACE. The first part of this volume consists of Letters from Eg^'pt, Etliiopia, and tlie Peninsula of Sinai, published in 1852. In addition to the Map of the jS'ile, published in the G-erman edition, and the view of Blount Earkal, we have been enabled, through the kindness of Dr. Lepsius, to give a Map of the Peninsula of Sinai, from an unpub- lished pamphlet, printed at Berlin in 1S4G {Reisc des Prof^ Lepsius von Tlieben nacli der Halhinsel des Sinai, vom 4 Mdrz his zum 14 April, 1845), which will be found to contribute much to the elucidation of the interesting Letter on Mount Sinai. In the Appendix we have inserted a geological paper, by Mr. Homer, from the " Edinburgh Philosophical Journal" for July, 1850, in which some doubts are thrown upon the theory of Dr. Lepsius concerning a supposed exca- vation of the bed of the Xile within the historical period. We have done this at the request of Dr. Lepsius, who is desirous to call more particular attention to the subject. The Letters are succeeded by extracts (chiefly relating to the Hebrew Chronology) from Dr. Lepsius's larger work (of which only one volume has yet been published), Die Chro- nolofjie der jEf^ypter, in which he states his conclusions respecting the date of the Exodus. "We have also obtained permission from Chevalier Eunsen to add a note (p. 475), pointing out how far he diflers from Dr. Lepsius respecting the period when the Israelites entered Egypt. It has been 6 AUTHOE S PREFACE TO THE LETTEES. thought desirable to omit those sections which enter into the subject more minutely than would interest the general reader. The whole of this portion of the translation has been revised by the author, and throughout the volume, what- ever alterations or additions have been suggested by him, are placed between brackets. A Table of the Egyptian Dynasties, drawn up by Mr. Horner, has been added, and, at his request, revised by Dr. Lepsius, who has inserted the results of his latest in- vestigations concerning the dates of the different Dynasties. "Wherever measurements by feet are mentioned, French feet are to be understood, unless it is otherwise specified. August, 1853. AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE LETTERS. The object of the Scientific Expedition which the King OF Prussia sent to Egypt in the year 1842, was to inves- tigate and collect, with an historical and antiquarian view, the ancient Egyptian monuments in the Xile valley, and upon the Peninsula of Sinai. It was fitted out and main- tained for more than three years by the munificence of the King, and enjoyed uninterruptedly his gracious favour and sympathy, as well as the most active and kind attention from Alexander y. Humboldt, and by a rare union of for- tunate circumstances, it attained the purposes they had in view, as completely as could be expected. A " Preliminary Account of the Expedition, its Kesults, and their Publica- tion" (Berlin, 1849 ; 4to), was issued at the same time with ATTnOR S PEEFACE TO THE LETTERS. 7 the first portion of the great work upon the Monuments, which will be publislied by desire of his Majesty, in a style corresponding with the magnificence of the treasures we brought away with us, and which will contain a concise survey of the principal results of the Expedition. In the work upon '■ the Monuments of Egj'pt and Ethi- opia," here announced, which will comprise more than 800 folio plates, half of which are already completed, and 240 published, these results will be fidly displayed, as far as regards Sculpture, Topography, and Architecture, and they will be considered more accurately in the accompanying text. Independently, however, of our strictly scientific labours, it appeared right to ofter a picture to a larger circle of inte- rested readers of the external features of the Expedition, the ;[>ersonal co-operation of the different members belonging to it, the obstacles, or the fortunate circumstances of the journey, the condition of the countries that we traversed, and the influence they exercised on the immediate objects of our undertaking ; finally, a series of remarks on the individual sites of the monuments in that most historical of all coun- tries, with all the meaning and completeness in which they appear to those travellers who, by their study of tliat most ancient history, are peculiarly prepared to understand them, but which may also excite an increased sympathy in others who have acknowledged the great importance of this newly- established science. If it should directly further a correct criticism of the scientific labours which have resulted from tliis journey, and which are being gradually published, to consult the circumstances under which the materials were collected, I believe that no farther justification is necessary for the publication of the fo^io^ving Letters, however little pretension they may have on the one side to the completeness and the literary charm of a regidar account of travels, or, on the other side, to the value of a strictly scientific work. a attthor's peeface to the lettees. The Letters have remained almost throughout in their original form ; some are respectfully addressed to his Ma- jesty the King, some to his Excellency Eichhorn, at that time Minister of Public Instruction, or to other distinguished patrons and honoured men, such as A. r. Humboldt, Bunsen, v. Olfers, Ehrenberg, and lastly, some to my father, who constantly preserved the liveliest interest in all tliat con- cerned me. Several letters, immediately upon their arrival in Europe, were printed in the newspapers, especially in the Prussian Gazette, and from that were received into other papers. The immaterial alterations in some of the details are, for the most part, only made for publication. All addi- tions or expansions are put in the form of notes. To this class belong the more detailed notes and the proofs given concerning the true position of Sinai, which, I believe,. is poiated out for the first time by me ; this has since been criticised from different quarters, and has been condemned by some, while it has met with approbation from others. The subject of the 36th Letter on the decoration of the Egyptian Museum in Berlin is certainly very different from the rest ; but as an exception it may be justified, since the point there considered is not only of local interest in Berlin, but is valuable in all cases of observation, where there are similar requirements, and where the subject treated about is a method of adjustment between ancient Egyptian and modem Art. Berlin, 2nd Jane, 1852. CONTENTS. PAGE Preliminary AccouxT OF THE Expedition AND ITS Rksults . . 12 Letter I. — On hoard the Oriental Steamer, bth September^ ISA'i . 35 Voyage to Alexandria. Letter II. — Alexandria, 23rd September, \ 842 38 Malta— Gobat — Isenberg — Krapt' — Alexandria — Mohammed Ali. Letter 111.— Cairo, Uth October, 1842 . 41 Alexandria — Pompey's Pillar — Cleopatra's Needle — Wernc's Collection of Natural History — Departure from Alexandria — Sais — Naliarich — Cairo — Heliopolis — The Celebration ot tiie King's Birthday at the Pyramids — Panoramic View from the Pyramid of Cheops. Letter IV. — At the foot of the largest Pyramid , 2nd January, 1843 . . 01 Pyramids of Gizeh — Tombs of Private Individuals — Sphinx — A Deluge of Rain — Celebration of Christmas — Life jn the Camp. Letter V. — Pyramids of Gizeh, 17th January, 1843 56 The Hieroglyphic Memorial tablet on the Pyramid of Cheops — What we gained in a Historical point of View. Letter VI. — Pyramids of Gizeh, 28th January, lS4o . . . .50 The most ancient Royal Dynasties — Tomb of Prince Merhet — Tombs of Private Individuals — Ravages committed by the Arabs — Most ancient Obelisk. Letter VIL—Saqara, 18th March, 1843 64 Pyramids of Meidiim— The Structure of Pyramids — Tlie Enigma of the Sphinx — Locusts — Comet. Lettkk \m.— Saqdra, 13th April, ISiS .60 Prince Albert of Prussia — Festivities in Cairo — Entrance of Pilgrims — Mulid e' Nebbi — Doseh — Visit of the Prince to the Pyramids — Most ancient Application of the Pointed Arch in Cairo — The most ancient Round Arch in Egvpt — Attack by Night in Saqara — Day of Trial. Lt^t^kk ]X.— Cairo, 22nd April, 1843 70 Plan of the Site of the Pyramid Fields — Cairo. Letter X. — Ruins of the' Labyrinth, o\st May, 1843 . . . .81 Departure for the Faium — Camels and Dromedaries — Lischt — Meidum — Illahun — Labyrinth — Arabic Song — Bedouins — Turkish Kawass. Lt^tter XI.— The Labyrinth, 2oth Jn7ie, 1843 80 The Ruins of the Labyrinth — Its First Builder— Its Pyramid— Lake JIffiris. Letter XIL— r^e Labyrinth, 18th July, 1843 . . . . . . 94 Journey round the Faium — The Dams of Moeris — Birket-el-Qorn — Diraeh — Qasr Qeriin. Letter XlU.-Cairo, 14tk Aiiyust, 1843 OS Departure of Frey — Ethiopian Manuscripts. LErrER XIV.— Thebes, 13th October, 1843 ... . . 100 Voyage on the Nile to Upper Egypt — Rock-Grotto of Surarieh — Tombs of the Sixth Dynasty, in Central Egypt; of the Twelfth, in Benihassan, Siut, Berscheh— Arrival in Thebes'— Climate— Journey onwards. B •^Q CO^"TE^"TS. PAGE Letter XV—Kornslv, 10th November, 1843 ....... 105 Greek Inscriptions— Benihassau—Berscheli— Tombs of the Sixth Dynasty —El Amarna—Siut— Alabaster Quarries of El Bosra— EehmnBCChem- niis)— Thebes— El Kab (Eileithyia)—Edfu—Ombos— Egyptian Canon of Proportions— Assuan—Philse— Hieroglyphic-Demotic Inscriptions- Succession of the Ptolemies— Entrance into Lower Nubia— Debot—Ger- tassi— Kalabscheh (Talmis) — Dendi'ir- Dakkeh (Pselchis)— Korte— Hierasykaminos—]\Iehencli—Sebuii—Korusko— Nubian Language. Letter XYl.—Koi^usJco, bth January, 184-4 130 Scarcity of Camels— Excursion to Wadi Haifa— Achmed Pascha Menekle and the newlv-named Pascha of the Sudan. Letter XVIL— £"' Darner, '2Uh January, 1844 133 Nubian Desert— Eoft I\Iountain Range— Wadi E' Suft— Wadi Murbad— Ababde Arabs— Abu Hammed— The Province of Berber — El Mecheref — :\Io2:i-an or Atbara (Astaboras)— E' Damer — j\Ianderal Letter XVII L-Ow the Blue River ^ Province of Senndr, 13? N, Lat, 2jid March, 1844 148 The borders of a Tropical Climate— Kawass — ^Ha^ Ibrahim— Meroe — Begerauieh — Pyramids— Ferlini — The Age of the Sfonuments — Schendi Ben Naga — Naga in the Desert — Mesaurat e' Sofra — Tamaniat — Chartum— Bahr el Abiat (the 'White River)— Dinka and Schilluk — goba — Kamliu — Bauer — Inscription on Marble — Baobab — Abu Harras — Rahad — Character of the Country — Dender — Dileb Palms — Sennar — Abdin — Romali — Sero — Return towards the North — Wed Medineh — goriba — Sultana Nasr — Gabre ^Mariam — Rebabi — Funeral Ceremony — The Military — Emin Pascha — Taiba — Messelemieh — Kamlin — Soba — Vase with an Inscription. Letter XIX.— C/irtr^MWi, 21s'TS. 11 PAGE Lettilr XXVlL—PJdlce, 1st September, ISU 241 Wadi Keniis — Bega Language of the Bischari — Talmis — Pliila3 — Meroitic- Etliiopian Inscriptions. LE.TrERXXViU.— T/iebes—Quma,'2itk November, ISiA. . . .243 Excavations in tlie Temple and in the Eock-Tombs of Ramses II. — Lan- guages of the Sudan — History and Civilisation of Ethiopia. Letter XXIX.— Thebes— Qurna, 8th January, 1845 . . . .245 Monuments and Plaster Casts we took away yn'Ja. us. Letter XXX.—Thtbes, 2hth February, 1845 246 Description of Thebes — The Temple of Karnac, and its History — Luqsor — El Asabif — Statue of Memnon — The r^Iemnonium — Temple of Ramses II. — Medinet Habu — The Royal Tombs — Tombs of Private Individuals from the Time of Psammeticus — Imperial Time — Coptic Convents and Churches — Copts of the present Day — Revenge for bloodshed among the Arabs — Our dwelling in Abd-el-Quruu— Visit from Travellers. LETiKYiXXXl.-Onthe Red Sea, 2\st March, WAh 274 Change of abode from Qurna to Karnac — Departure to the Peninsula of Sinai — Qenneh — Seid Hussen — Stone-Quarries and Inscriptions of Hamamat— Gebel Fatireh — Losing our Way — Porphyry t>uarries at Gebel Doclian — Gcbel Zcit. Letter XXXll.-Convent of Sinai, 2Ath March, 1845 . . . .290 Landing at Tor — Gebel Hammam — Wadi Hebran — Convent — Gebel Alusa — Gebel Sefsaf. Letter XXXUL-On the Red Sea, Gth April, 1845 293 Departure from the Convent — AVadi e' Seheikh — Ascent of Serbal — Wadi Firan — Wadi ]Mokatteb — Copper !Mines of Wadi !Maghdra — Rock-In- scriptijns of the Fourth Dynasty — Sarbut el Chadem — Mounds of Dross — Wadi Xasb — Harbour of Abu Zelimeli — The true Position of Sinai — Tradition of the Monks — Local and Historical Conditions — Elim at Abu Zelimeh — Mara in Wadi Gharandel — The Desert of Sin — Sinai, the Mount of Sin — The Mount of God — Subsistence of the Israelites — Eaphiuim at Pharan — Sinai-Choreb at Eaphidim — Review of the Question upon Sinai. Letter XXXIV .—Thebes— Karnac, Ath May, 1845 . . . .321 Return to Thebes — Revenge for bloodshed. LetterXXXV.— CozVo, 10?/<./?/(y, 1845 322 Dendera — El Amarna — Dr. Bethman — Removal of the Sepulchral Cham- bers at the Pyramids. Letter XXXVI.—CVnVo, 11^/i Jm/5/, 1845 . . . . . .323 The Egyptian Museum in Berlin — Pictures on the Walls. 'Letty.rXXXKH.- Jaffa, 1th October, l%Vo 332 Journey across the Delta — San (Tanis) — Arrival in Jaffa. Letter XXXXlll.-Sazareth, iHh November, 1845 . . . . .333 Jerusalem — Xablus (Sichem) — Tabor — Nazareth — Lake of Tiberias. Letter XXXIX.— Smyrna, 1th December, 1845 336 Carmel — Libanou — Beyrut — Departure to Damascus — Zahleh — Tomb of Koah — Barada — Tomb of Abel — Inscriptions at Barada — Tomb of Seth — Ealbec — Ibrahim — Cedars of Libanon — Egyptian and Assyrian Eock-Inscriptions at Nahr el Kelb. PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OP THE EXPEDITION AND ITS RESULTS. li\ tlie year 1842, in accordance with the proposal of Eichhorn, at that time Minister of Instruction, and at the recommendation of MM. Alexander v. Humboldt and Bun- sen, his Majesty King Frederic William IV. of Prussia de- termined to send a scientific expedition to investigate the remains of ancient Egyptian and Ethiopian civilisation stiU in preservation in the iS^ile valley and the adjacent countries. The dii'ection of the undertaking was entrusted to me, after the detailed plans of the proposed expedition had been mi- nutely examined by the Boyal Academy of Sciences, and in all points graciously approved by the King. The land-surveyor, Gr. Erbkam, from Berlin, and the draughtsmen and painters, Ernest and Max Weidenbach, from Naumburg, and J. Erey, from Basle, were appointed to make the drawings and coloured representations, as well as those architectonic plans, which had to be executed on the spot. AVhen J. Erey was obliged to return to Europe from Lower Egypt, on account of the injurious climate, he was replaced by the painter 0. Georgi, from Leipzig. Two English artists, also, J. Bonomi, who, from the interest he took in the journey, became attached to our party while we were in London, and the architect J. Wild, who joined us of his own accord, took an active part in the expedition as long as it remained in Lower Egypt. Lastly, during nearly the whole of the journey, we enjoyed the society of the present Counsellor of Legation, H. Abeken, who accompanied us voluntarily and on an independent footing, and who in various ways promoted the antiquarian objects of the journey. We were also provided with the means of obtaining plaster casts of those representations that were best qualified for the purpose, by the addition of Eranke the moulder. The different members of the expedition arriving by va- THE EXPEDITION AND ITS EESULTS. 13 rioiis roads, met m. Alexandria, outlie 18th September, 1812. On the 9th jS^ovember we encamped near the great Pyramids ot" GizeJi. What we obtained on that spot, as well as from the adjoining Pyramid fields of Abusir, Saqaj-a, and Daschur, which are situated to tlie south, occupied us exclusively and uninterruptedly for more than six months. The inex- haustible number of important and instructive monuments and representations, which we met with in these Necropoli, the most ancient that have existed in any country, surpassed every expectation we had been entitled to hold concerning them, and accounts for our long abode in this part of the country, which is the first approached and visited, but has, notwitlistanding, been very little investigated. If we except the celebrated and well-known examination of the Pyramids in the year 1837, by Colonel Howard Yyse, as- sisted by the accomplished architect Perring, little had been done to promote a more minute investigation of this re- markable spot ; the Prench-Tuscan expedition, in particular, did little more than pass through it. Xevertheless, the innumerable tombs of private individuals grouped about those royal Pyramids, partly constructed of massive square blocks, partly hewn into the living rock, contain, almost ex- clusively, representations belonging to the old Egyptian Monarchy, which terminated between two and three thou- sand years before Christ ; indeed, most of them belong to the fourth and fifth Manethonic Dynasties, therefore between three and four thousand years before Christ. The wonderful age of tliose Pyramids, and of the surrounding tombs, is no longer generally denied by intelligent inquirers, and in the first volume of my " Egyptian Chronology,"* which has lately appeared, I have endeavoured to furnish a critical proof of the certain foundations we possess for a more special deter- mination of time as far back as that period. But were any one only to believe in the lowest acceptation of modern scholars concerning the age of the first Egy^^tian Dynasties, he would still be compelled to yield priority to those monuments be- fore any other Egyptian remains of art, and generally before all artistic remains belonging to the whole race of man, to which we can historically refer. It is only to this that we can attri- bute the wonderful growth in the interest which we attach, * Chronologie der ^gypter. Vol. i. Berfin, 1849. 1^ PEELIMI^'ART ACCOTJXT OF THE .partly to the monuments themselves, as proofs of the earliest activity shown in art, partly to the various representations of the manner of living in those primitive times. On the western border of the Desert, which stretches from the most northerly groups of P^Ti-amids at Abu Eoasch, past the ruins of the old capital of Memphis, to the Oasis- peninsula of the " Faium," we discovered the remains of sixt3'-seven Pyramids, which, with a few exceptions, were only destined' for kings, and in the neighbourhood of the principal groups we investigated, still more minutely, 180 tombs of private individuals, which deserved to be more particularly recorded. A great many of these sepulchral chambers, richly adorned with representations and inscrip- tions, could only be reached by excavations. Most of them -belonged to the highest functionaries of those flourishing Dynasties, among whom there were also thirteen royal princes and seven princesses. After we liad taken the most careful topographical plans of all the fields of Pyramids, and had noted down the archi- tectonic ground plans, and sections of the most important tombs, and after we had, in the most complete manner, drawn or taken paper impressions of their pictures and inscriptions, as far as they were accessible to us, we had accomplished more completely than we ever hoped to do, the £rst and most important task of our journey, since we had ac- quired a basis for our knowledge concerning the monuments of the oldest Egyptian monarchy. On the 19th May, 1843, we proceeded still farther, and encamped on the 23rd in the Paium, upon the ruins of the LABYEiis'Tn. Its true position was long ago conjectured ; and our first view dissipated all our doubts concerning it. The interesting discovery of the actual site of the ^ancient Lake Moeris was made about the same time, by the distin- guished Prench architect Linant, which we had the oppor- tunity of confirming on the spot. This greatly facilitated the means of comprehending the topographical and historical conditions of this province, so remarkable in all its features. The magnificent schemes which converted this originally de- solate Oasis into one of the most productive parts of Egypt, were intimately connected with each other, and must have belonged, if not to a single king, still to one epoch of time. The most important result we obtained by our investigations EXPEDTTIOIS' A'SH ITS EESTJLTS. 15 of the Labyrinth and of the adjoining P\Tamids, was the de- termination of the historical position of the original founder ; this we obtained by excavations, which occupied a consider- able time. We discovered that the king, who was erro- neously called Moeris by the Greeks, from Lake jNIere — i. e. from tlie Lake of the ]Sile inundation — lived at the end of the 12th Manethonic Dynasty, shortly before the invasion of the Hyksos, and was called Amenemhe by Manetho 'Afiev^^rjs, the third of his name. His predecessors in the same Dynasty had already founded the town of Crocodilopolis, in the centre of the Faium, which is proved by some ruins that still exist belonging to that period ; and they probably conducted the ISile Canal, Bahr-.Jusef, which branches off from Derut-Scherif, into the basin of the Desert." That part of the basin which is most advanced, and situated highest, ter- minated in a lake formed by means of gigantic dams, many of which stiU exist ; and the connection of the canal was regu- lated by sluices in such a manner, that in the dry season the reserved water could flow back again into the valley of the jN'ile, and irrigate the country round the capital long after the Kile had retreated within its banks. Amenemhe built his Pyramid on the shore of the lake, and a splendid temple in front of it. It afterwards formed the centre of the Labyrinth, whose many hundred chambers, forming three regular masses of buildings, surrounded the oldest portion, and, according to Herodotus, were destined by the Dode- carchs for the general Diets. The ruins of the Labyrinth had never yet been correctly represented, not even in their general arrangement. An Arabian canal, which was carried through it at a later period, had dra^\Ti away the attention of passing travellers from that portion of the chambers which was in best preservation. "We have made the most exact ground plan, accompanied by sections and views. A journey round the province, as far as Birqet-el-Qorn, and beyond it, to • the ruins of JDimeli and Qasr Qerun, induced us to remain several months in this neighbourhood. On the 23rd August we embarked at Beni-suef, visited a small rock-temple of King SetJios I. at Surarieh, on the eastern shore, and farther on, the remains of later monu- ments in the neighbourhood of Tehieli. At Knm-ahnar, a little to the south of 2^auiet-el-meitin, we examined a series of nineteen rock-tombs belonging to the 6th Manethonic Dy- 16 PEELIMINAET ACCOUNT OP THE nastj. The groups of tombs which are scattered about a few days' journey to the south, at SchecJi-Said, El-Harih, Wadi-Selin, and still farther on, at Qasr-e'-Saidt, also be- longed to this period, which, in point of age, was immediately connected with the flourisliing time of the great builder of the P}Tamids. If we judge by the remains now extant, it ap- pears that there were, at that early period especially, in this portion of Central Egypt, a number of flourishing cities. Eoyal kindred are frequently met with among tiie ancient possessors of the tombs, but no sons or daughters of the king, because there was no royal residence in that neighbourhood. But we found the last flourishing period of the Old Monarchy — the 12th Manethonic Dynasty — represented in this part of Egypt by the most beautiful and most considerable re- mains. The rock-tombs of Beni Hassan, so remarkable for their architecture, as well as for the various paintings on their walls, peculiarly belong to this period. The town to w^hich they appertained, the residence of a governor of the eastern province of the country, has entirely disappeared, all except the name, which is preserved in the inscriptions. It appears that it only flourished a short time during this dynasty, and again declined at the invasion of the Hyksos. In the neighbouring Berscheli also, and farther on, among the Lybian rocks, behind the town of Slut, which was as im- portant 4000 years ago as it is at present, we again found the same plans of tombs on as magnificent a scale, whose period of erection might be recognised even at a distance. It is a singular fact, that in point of age the greater proportion of the remains of the Egyptian monuments be- come more modern the higher we ascend the Nile valley, the reverse of what might have been expected from a large view of the subject ; according to which the Egyptian civilisation of the aS'ile valley extended from south to north. While the Pyramids of Lower Egypt, with the monuments around them, had displayed the oldest civilisation of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Dynasties in such wonderful abundance, we found the 6th Dynasty, and the most flourishing period of the 12th, the last of the Old Monarchy, especially represented in Central Egypt. Thebes was the brilliant capital of the New Monarchy, especially of their first Dynasties, surpassing all other places in the number of its wonderful monuments ; and even now it ofl'ers us a reflection of the splendour of EXPEDITION AND ITS EESULTS. 17 Egypt in her greatest times. Art, which still created mag- nificent things even in its decline, under the Ptolemies and the Eoman emperors, has left considerable monuments be- hind it, consisting of a series of stately temples in Dendera, JErment, EsneJi, JEdfu, Kum-Gmho, Dehod, JvalahscJieJi, Dcii- cJur, Dakkeh, which are all, witli the exception of Dendera, in the southern part of the Thebaid, or in Lower Kubia. Lastly, those monuments of the Nile valley which are situated most to the south, especially those of tlie ''Island" of 3Ierde, are the latest of all, and most of them belong to the centuries after the Christian era. "We hastened immediately from the monuments of the Old Monarchy in Central Egypt to Thebes, and deferred till our return the examination of the well-preserved, but modern temple of Dendera, the ruins of Abydos, and several other places. But of Thebes, also, we took but a preliminary survey, for we onlv remained there twelve days, from the 6th to the 18th of October. "We were impatient to commence immediately our second fresh task, which consisted in the investigation of the Ethio- pian countries, situated higher up the river. The French- Tuscan expedition did not go beyond "Wadi Haifa ; "U^ilkin- son's careful description of the Nile land and its monuments, which contains so much information, only extends a little higher up, as far as Semneh. The most various conjectures were still entertained concerning the monuments of Gebel Earkal and Meroe, with reference to their age and their signification. It was necessary to obtain a general view of the true relation between the History and Civilisation of Egypt and Ethiopia, founded upon a complete examination of the remains which are still extant. Therefore, after a cursory visit to the temple ruins, as far up as "Wadi Haifa, we returned to Korusko, from which place we started on the 8th of January, 1844, through the G-reat Desert to Abu-Hammed, and the L^'pper Nile countries. On the 16th of January we arrived at Abu-Hammed, on the other side of the desert ; on the 28th, at Begerauieh, near to which the Pyramids of Meroe are situated. Erom Schendi, which lies more to the south, we visited the temple ruins of iVaya and Wadi e' Sofra, far on in the interior of the c 18 PKELIMIXAET ACCOUNT Or THE eastern desert. On the 5th of February we reached ChaHwm, at the couflneuce of the White and the Blue ]S'ile. From this place, accompanied by Abeken, I descende.d the Blue Eiver, passed the ruins of Sola and Senndr, as far as the 13° of K". lat. ; whilst the other members of the expedition re- turned from Chai-tiim to the Pyramids of Meroe, The tropical countries of the Nile, when contrasted with those northern ones, devoid of rain, extending south as far as the 17° ; and the plants and animals now almost exclusively confined to South Ethiopia, when compared with individual representa- tions of the ancient Egyptian monuments, were rendered still more interesting by the discovery of some monuments, with inscriptions upon them, near Soba, by which we obtained traces of the ancient vernacular language of those districts in a written character resembling the Coptic. I also made use of our residence in these districts to be instructed by the natives of the adjacent countries in the grammar and vocabulary of their languages. On the 5th of April I returned with Abeken to the other members of the expedition at Beg eraideh. After drawings had been made of all that still existed which peculiarly re- presented the state of civilisation in Ethiopia, and after we had taken the most exact plans of the localities, we proceeded in six days, by the desert Gilif, to Gehel BarJcal, where we arrived on the 6th of May. Here was the more northern, the more ancient, and, to judge by the remains, also the more important capital of the State of Meroe. At the foot of this single mass of rock, which rises in an imposing manner, and is called there, in the hieroglyphical inscriptions, " The Sacred Mountains," is situated Napata. The history of this place, which we may still derive from its ruins, gives us at once a key to the relations which subsisted in general between Ethiopia and Egypt, as regards the history of their civilisa- tion. AYe find that the most ancient epoch of art in Ethiopia was purely Egyptian. It is as early as the period of the great Eamses, who, of all the Pharaohs, extended his power farthest, not only towards the north, but also towards the south, and testified this by monuments. At an early period he built a great temple here. The second epoch begins with King Taliraha, also known as the ruler of Egypt, the TUrhaka of the Bible. This spot was adorned with several EXPEDITION AND ITS EESULTS. 19 magnificent monuments by liim and his immediate succes- sors, and though they "^ere built in a style no^y employed by natiye kings, it is, neyertheless, only a faithful copy of the Eg}'ptian style. Lastly, the third epoch is that of the kings of Merde, whose dominion extended as far as Philae, and was manifested also at Gebel Barkal by numerous monuments. On an intermediate journey into the Cataract country, situated farther up the riyer, which we had cut off by the Desert journey, I found only Middle-Age, but no ancient, Etliiopian remains of buildings. The fertile and extensiye proyince of Dongola, on the northern frontier, wliich we trayersed on the 4th of June, after our departure from Barkal, afforded us but fe^y re- markable ancient remains; we may, howeyer, mention among these the island of Argo, with its monuments, from the 13th Manethonic Dynasty. They became still more nume- rous in the northern borders of Dongola, from which a nearly continuous Cataract country extends as fiu* as "Wadi Haifa. Xear Tomhos we found traces of the Egyptian do- minion under the Pharaohs of the 17th and 18th Dmasties, rock-tablets with the shields of the two first Thuthmosis and of the third Amenophis. Earther on, at Sesehi, there were the remains of temples of the first Sethos of the 19feh Dynasty. The great Temple of Soleb, built by Amenophis III. and IV., detained us fiye days. The ruins of the Temple of Sedeinga, and those upon the island of Sai, belonged to the 18th and 19th Dynasties. Opposite this island stood the remarkable Temple of Amdra, which was built by the Kings of Meroe and Xaga, and is still an important proof of the extent of their dominion. Semneh was the next point we reached. The Nile is here compressed within a breadth of only about 1150 feet between high rocky shores. On both sides there are ruins of old temples of the ISth Dynasty. But tliese were not the earliest buildings which were erected here. We found a considerable number of inscriptions from the 12th and 13th Manethonic Dynasties, especially on the large founda- tions of the Temple of Kummeh, situated lower down, oppo- site Semneh on the eastern bank, as well as on the scattered rocks on both banks in the neighbourhood of that temple, Many of them were intended to indicate the highest risings c2 20 PKELIiII>'^ART ACCOUNT OF THE of the Xile during a series of years, especially in tlie reigns of tlie Kings Amenemhe III* and Sebekhotep I., and by comparing them, we obtained the remarkable result, that about 4000 years ago the Xile used to rise at that point, on an average, twenty-two feet higher than it does at present. Tliis, therefore, which we saw before us was the most ancient IN'ilometer ; and the earliest statements of the heights, and their greatest number, were recorded during the reign of the same king, the Moeris of the G-reeks, with whom we had already become acquainted in the Faium, as the great hydraulic architect. The strong fortifications on both banks of that narrow part of the river convinced us at once that, during the early times of the 12th D^masty, this remark- able point served as the boundary of the Egyptian domi- nion, against the Ethiopian nations who dwelt more to the south. At Wadi Haifa, on the 30th of July, we again left the Cata- ract country, remained from the 2nd to the 11th of August in Abu Simlel, examined until the end of the month the ruins of Ilrim, Anibe, Derr, Amada, Sebua, Daklceh, Kuban, Gerf-Hussen, Sabagura, Dendur, Kalabsclieli, Debot, and spent the whole of the following month in examining the monuments of the Island of Tliilce, and the islands of Sigeli, Konosso, Sehel, and JElepliantine, surrounding it, and of the stone quarries between Pliilce and Assuan. October was spent visiting Ombos, the two Silsilis, Edfu, the desert Tem- ple of Redesieh, El-Kcib, Esneli, Tod, and JErment. On the 2nd of November we again arrived on Theban ground, and first visited the rock-tombs of QurnaJi, on the west side, where we remained nearly four months, till the 20th of Eebruarj', 1845, when we encamped for three more months at Karnah, The number of monuments of all kinds, both above and below gi-oimd, at Thebes, is so great that they may be truly called inexhaustible, even for a combined power like ours, and for the limited portion of time which we were able to devote to their investigation. Eut the age of the monuments at Thebes is almost exclusively limited to the New Monarcliy ; and the most ancient we discovered, such as one might generally expect to find, are not earlier than the 11th Manethonic Dynasty, the last but one of the Old Monarchy ; for this simple reason, because it was in this ZXPEDITIOX AXD ITS KESULTS. 21 D\Tiasty that Thebes first became a royal residence, and hence the focus of Eg}^ptian splendour. The great break in the succession at the end of the 12th D^Tiasty, caused bv the invasion of the Hvksos, and their dominion, which lasted many centuries, first drove the Egyptian power back into Ethiopia, and at lengtli entirely destroyed it, till the power- ful Pharaohs of the 17th, 18th, and 19th Dvnasties again advanced from the south, drove back the Semitic intru- ders, and raised the power of the Egyptian empire to its summit. The greater proportion of Theban monuments date also from this period. As we may suppose they have been the principal object of investigation to all travellers, therefore our work liere had been for the most part anti- cipated. ]S'evertheless it was necessary to re-examine the whole ground most carefully, partly to complete the deficiencies left by our predecessors, partly to make a proper selection of those monuments which were of most importance for our particular purpose, and which we were anxious to insert among our collections, either in the shape of a drawing, or an impression upon paper, or even in the original itself. AVe directed our principal attention during the whole jour- ney, and especially here, to taking the most exact archi- tectonic plans of all the buildings and other localities which appeared to us to be of any consequence ; and for this pur- pose we did not hesitate to make extensive excavations. By this means we succeeded, amongst other things, in dis- covering, and recording for the first time, a perfect plan of the most beautiful of all the temple buildings, namely, the Ammon Temple, built by Eamses II., which is described by Diodorus under the name of the sepulchre of Osyman- dyas. We made several excavations also in the valleys of the royal tombs, and opened, for instance, the rock-tomb of the same Eamses II., one of the largest of those which have hitherto been accessible. Unfortunately, the interior cham- bers were so much destroyed by the dirt and rubbish that had fallen in, that we could make out little more from the representation upon the walls than the proprietor of the tomb. Accompanied by the artist Max Weidenbach, I made an intermediate journey from Karnak to the peninsula of Sinai. 22 PEELIMI^'AET ACCOi:>^T or THE "We went tliitlier bv the old road from Koptos to Aennum {Pliiloterci), now leading from Qeneh to Koser, which con- ducted us fii'st to the remarkable stone quarries oi Ham- mamcd, already worked out during the Old Xonarchj. The numerous rock-inscriptions, which date as far ba«k as the 6th Dynasty, occupied us here for five whole days. From this place we passed through the Arabian chain of moun- tains to the north, as far as Gehel Ze'it, where we embarked for Tor, situated opposite. AYe ascended through Wadi Hebran to the convent, and from thence through Wadi e' Schech, Wadi Fircin, W. Mokatteh, W. Maglidra, by Sarhut el CMdem, down again to Abu Zelimeli, where we got into our vessel, to return to Koser and Thehes. As early as the 4th Manethonic Dynasty, between three and four thousand years before Christ, this Desert Penin- sula was subject to Eg_\^t, and was principally colonised by the Egyptians on account of the Copper mines, which are there met with on the limits of the primitive mountain range, and the surrounding sandstone mountains. Upon several rock-tablets of Wadi Maglidra, the kings of those oldest Dynasties were represented fighting with the Semitic aborigines, and the inscriptions of Sarhd el Chddem were at least as early as the 12th Dynasty. We did not, also, lose sight of the great interest which is attached to these localities of the peninsula in connection with the Old Tes- tament. More especially, I believe, that I have succeeded for the fii'st time (nOt excepting Burckhardt) in determining the correct position of Sinai, since, contrary to the tradition of the convent, hitherto accepted, I did not recognise it in one of the southern mountains, but in Serial, which is situated several days' journey more to the north, at whose base lies the only fertile oasis of the whole peninsula. This opinion which has been ali-eady published in a preliminary account of the journey, addressed to the King of Prussia, has met with frequent oppositions, but has also latterly re- ceived much approbation, I believe, in a special treatise upon the question, by AY. Hogg, printed in the last half of the "Transactions for the Eoyal Societv of Literature" (1848). I have not hitherto been able to discover anv material coun- ter-arguments in the discussions which have' been held upon the subject, but, on the other hand, much stronger evidence EXPEDTTIO>' AXD ITS EESULTS. 23 that, contrary to the later Byzantine tradition, the more ancient Christian, and probably tlie Egyptian tradition itself, considered Serbal, at whose foot the oldest convent was situated, to be the true Sinai. On the 14:th of April we returned to Thebes, and finally left it on the 16th of May. On oiu' way back to Lower Egypt, we re-examined more minutely the monuments of SchenhuVy D end era, Hon, Ahyclos, Echnim, El Bosra, Tel el Amarna^ and El Hihe, and on the 27th of June, our party, wliich had been increased at the last stage by the addition of Dr. Beth- nmnn, again entered Cairo. I was detained there myself some months longer than the other members of the expedition, in order to direct the trans- portation of several sepulchral chambers in the neighboiur- liood of the Great Pyramids, and to superintend the em- barkation of the valuable blocks of stone, together with tlie other monuments, which we brought with us from Upper Egypt and Ethiopia, and which the Viceroy Mohammed Ali sent as a present to his Majesty the King of Prussia. In this troublesome as well as important affair, for the practical performance of which four experienced workmen had been expressly sent from BerHn to Egypt, I had only the kind assistance of Dr. Bethmann, who accompanied me on an independent footing during the remainder of the journey back. Atler a final visit to Alexandria, we embarked on the 25th of September at Cairo for Damietta, but on the way visited the ruins of Samanud, Behhet, and the Hamses-Temple of San (Tanis), and left Egypt on the 1st of October, in a vessel which toolv us to Jaffa. After we had traversed the whole length of Palestine, and from Jerusalem had visited the Dead Sea, and from Beyrout, Damascus, and Baalbec, at the mouth of the Nalir el Kelh, the ancient Lykos, we came upon the last Egyptian monuments in the north, namely, those celebrated memorial-tablets, which the great Eamses 11. engraved be- side the old military road, as a recollection of his warlike and victorious Asiatic campaigns in the fourteenth centuiy before Christ. After a period of more than 3000 years, neither the form, nor even the Xame-Shield of the powerful Pharaoh, at whose court Moses was educated, had been destroyed by the destructive sea-air. On one tablet, indeed. 24 PRELIMINAET ACCOUNT OF THE I was able to distinguisli the date of the fourth, on another that of the second year of his reign. According to the testimony of Herodotus, similar monu- ments of Sesostris are also found in Ionia, and some time ago, one which he describes as being there, was re-discovered. But an excursion from Smyrna to that spot soon convinced us that the rock-picture of Karabel was produced by an Asiatic and not by an Egyptian chisel. Lastly, we saw in the Hippodrome, at Constantinople, the obelisk of the third Tuthmosis, but, like others, sought in vain for the second, which earlier travellers would have us believe that they had seen. On the 24th December, I left Constantinople, and landed on the 5th January, 1846, in Trieste. The whole journey, of which this is a very hast)' sketch, was one of the most fortunate expeditions which has ever been undertaken for a similar purpose. None who partici- pated in it suffered from the climate or the accidental casualties of a journey, ^^e travelled under the powerful and, in every way efficient protection of the A^iceroy. AVe had an explicit and written permission to make excavations, wherever we should consider it desirable, and we employed it, to acquire a number of interesting monuments for the Eoyal Museum at Berlin, which would either have remained in Egypt as rubbish under the sandhills, or exposed, like so many others, to be destroyed, for all kinds of material pur- poses. The scientific results of the expedition have, in almost all respects, surpassed our own expectations. In confirma- tion of this it will be sufficient briefly to survey these results, which I shall do in the following pages, according to their principal objects, and by entering into some of the details. The plan of the journey, as a whole, and in its individual parts, was founded principally with a Historical purpose in view. The French-Tuscan expedition, compared with ours was a Journey of Discovery, with all the advantages, but also with all the disadvantages, connected with such an undertaking. "We were able from the commencement to aspire after a certain completeness, within the wide limits EXPEDITION AXD ITS EESULTS. 25 that were assigned us, not however failing in making new discoveries, which were as important as they were unex- pected. The investigation of the most ancient Egyptian times, namely, the epoch of the first Pharaonic Monarchy, from about 3900 to 1700 before Christ, extending the history of the world almost two thousand years farther back, was left entirely unfathomed by Champollion. He only ascended the Nile valley as far as the second Cataract, beyond which there existed a great number of Egyptian monuments of all kinds, wholly unexamined, in which we must seek for an explana- tion of all those Ethiopian antiquities which are inseparable from the Egyptian. The most important results we obtained, therefore, were in Chronology and History. The Pyramid-fields of Memphis gave us a notion of the Civilisation of Egypt in those primi- tive times, which is pictorially presented to us in 400 large drawings, and will be considered in future as the first section in that portion of the history of man, capable of investigation, and must be regarded with the greatest interest. Those earliest Dynasties of Egyptian dominion, now afford us more than a barren series of empty, lost, and doubtful names. They are not only free from every real doubt and arranged in the Order and the Epochs of time, which have been determined by a critical examination, but by showing us the flourishing condition of the people in those times, both in the afiairs of the State, Civil afiairs, and in the Arts, they have received an intellectual and frequently a very individual historical reality. We have already mentioned the discovery of five different burial-places of the 6th Dynasty in Central Egypt, and what we obtained from them. The prosperous times of the Xew Monarchy, namely, the period of splendour in the Thebaid, as well as the Dynasties which followed, were necessarily more or less completed and verified. Even the Ptolemies, with whom we appeared to be perfectly ac- quainted in the clear narratives of Grrecian history, have come forward in a new light through the Egyptian represen- tations and inscriptions, and their deficiencies have been filled up by persons who were hitherto considered doubtful, and were hardly mentioned by the Greeks. Lastly, on the Egyptian monuments we beheld the Eoman emperors in still 2S peelimh^art accou^tt of the greater and almost imbroken series, in their capacity of Eg^-ptian governors, and they have been earned down since Caracalla, who had hitherto been considered as the last name written in hieroglyphics, through two additional later em- perors, as far as Decius, by which means the whole Egyptian moniunental history has been extended for a series of years in the other direction. Eg^-ptian Philology has also made considerable progress by tliis journey. The lexicon has been increased by our becoming acquainted with several hundred signs, or groups, and the grammar has received a great many corrections. Such copious materials have also been acquired for these purposes, especially by the numerous paper impressions of the most important inscriptions, that Egyptian Philology must be essentially furthered by their being gradually adopted. Eor owing to the strict accuracy of these im- pressions, they are almost as valuable, in many investiga- tions, as an equally large collection of origiaal monuments. In addition to this, the history of the Egyptian language, which by the great age atti'ibuted to the earliest written monuments, embraces a period of time between five or sis: thousand years, becomes now of much greater importance in the universal history of the human language and writing. Among the individual discoveries we made, the one which attracted most attention, was that of the two decrees on the Island of Philse, which were bilingual, namely, written in hierogly- phics, and in the demotic character, — one of which contains the decree belonging to the Eosetta inscription, referring to the wife of Epiphaues. In spite of numerous writings upon Egyptian Mythology, it has nevertheless been hitherto deficient in a fixed monu- mental basip. In the Temple at Thebes we beheld a series of representations whose meaning had not hitherto been recog- nised, and which seem to me to afibrd entirely new conclu- vsions for the correct comprehension and development of Egyptian mythology. The series of the first arrangement of the gods mentioned by Herodotus and Manetho, which in modem investigations has been difi'erentlT arranged in its details by all scholars, is at length placed beyond all doubt,. and certainly difiers in all essential points from what has EXPEDITION AXD ITS EESTJLTS. 27 been hitlierto everywhere adopted. I will briefly allude here to another fact, important both in the history of mytho- lo|^^ as well as in a purely historical point of riew, and whicli was elicited by an attentive investigation of the monu- ments. The direct succession of the reigning royal family was interrupted, towards the end of the 18th D^iiasty. Through the monuments we became acquainted ^vith several kings of this period, who were not afterwards admitted in the legitimate lists, but were regarded as unauthorised co- temporary or intermediate kings. Among these Ameno- phis IV. is to be particularly noted, who, during a very active reign of twelve years, endeavoured to accomplish a complete reformation of all secular and spiritual institutions. He built a royal capital for himself in Central Egypt, near the present Tel-el- Am arna, introduced new offices and usages, and aimed at no less a thing than to abolish the whole reli- gious system of the Egyptians, which had hitherto subsisted, and to place in its stead the single worship of the Sun. In all the inscriptions composed during his reign, there is not one Egyptian god mentioned except the Sun ; even in other words the sacred symbols were avoided, e. g. the word muf, mother, Coptic mat, was no longer written as usual with the hawk V\ the spnbol of the goddess Hint, but c:, j ait, with the universal phonetic signs. Indeed, the former gods and their worship were persecuted to such an extent by this king, that he erased all the gods' names, with the single exception of the Sim-god Ba, from every monument that was accessible throughout the country, and because his own name, Amenophis, contained the name of Amnion, he changed it into Bech-en-aten, "AYorshipper of the Sun's disk." Therefore the fact, which has often been previously remarked, that at one particular period the name of Amnion was intentionally destroyed, forms only part of an event which had a much wider influence, and which unexpectedly reveals to us the religious movements of those times. The History of Art has never yet been considered in tlie point of view from which Egypt, and all that concerns it, is now regarded. This necessarily formed a particular object 28 PRELIMINAEY ACCOUNT OF THE of our expedition, and most directly gained by tlie in- creased chronological knowledge we obtained concerning the monuments. For tbe first time we were able to pursue all its branches during the old Egyptian Monarchy, pre- vious to the invasion of the Hyksos, and accordingly to extend both it and the history of Egypt about sixteen centuries farther back, and some tens of years lower down in time. The different epochs of Egyptian art now first appeared clear and distinct, each marked by its peculiar character, intimately connected with the general develop- ment of the people. They had so frequently been mis- understood, tliat no one believed in their existence ; they were lost in the general uniformity. I must mention, as one of the most important facts connected with this, that we found innumerable instances on unfinished monu- ments of three difierent canons of proportions of the human body; one belonging to the most ancient Pharaonic Mo- narchy, anotlier later than the 12th Dynasty, when Thebes first began to flourish ; a third, which appears at first in the time of the Psammetichi, with an entire alteration in the Principle of the division, and which remained un- altered till the time of the Roman emperors. The last is the same which Diodorus expressly mentions in his first book. Among the separate branches of Egyptian art, Archi- tecture, which was almost unnoticed by the Erench-Tuscan expedition, was with us peculiarly attended to, by the ex- tremely careful and circumspect laboiu's of our architect Erbkam. This was befitting the important position occupied by this particular branch, in which grandeur, that element of art, peculiarly belonging to the Egyptian beyond all other nations, was capable of being developed, and has developed itself to the utmost. The study of the sculpture and paint- ings devolved upon the other artists who accompanied us, and the ability and fidehty with which they fulfilled their task must be recognised by every one. The 'Egyptian style associated with the limited views characteristic of the infancy of art, nevertheless possesses a highly-cultivated ideal ele- ment, which must be acknowledged by every one. The genius of G-reece could never have bestowed on *art such a marked character, indicative of a period of prosperous liberty, if it EXPEDITION AND ITS RESULTS. 29 had not received it as a severe, chaste, and carefully niir- tured child from the Egyptians. The principal task of the history of Egyptian art is to point out wherein consisted this cultivation of art, peculiar to the Egyptians, above all the primitive nations of Asia. In the next place, Egyptian archaeology, in the widest sense of the word, claimed a large portion of our time and attention : an extensive field, already examined, both suc- cessfully and diligently, by AYilkinson and Eosellini, which they were enabled to do by means of tlie inexhaustible number of separate objects belonging to every-day life, still in preservation, and by the representations of them, which are found in all directions, far surpassing any other ancient remains. On that account it was still more necessary to make a stricter investigation, and to regard it from a liigher point of view, rather than accumulate a greater number of individual things, that notwithstanding obtruded themselves on all sides, and which, besides, we collected in large quantities, as material to work upon. Lastly, Geography and Chorography, which travellers are especially expected to promote, required to be more pecu- liarly prosecuted. We must particularly mention here, that besides the peculiar investigation of the Pyramid fields at Memphis, and in the Eaium, which have been already alluded to, our records of the ruins of towns, and ancient monu- ments in the 'Nile country, as far up as Sennar, are more perfect and exact than any hitherto made. "With regard to the modern geographical names, which must always be viewed in comparison with the ancient, I have been most particular in obtaining the Arabic names — at least, through- out the district we traversed — in order to counteract, as far as lay in my power, the insufferable confusion in the names which are marked down. During the journey, I made special maps for the individual portions of the eastern mountains of Egypt and the peninsula of Sinai, and I collected geogra- phical accounts from travellers concerning some remote dis- tricts, which we did not enter, and which are but little known ; and I had geographical drawings made of them. Our in- vestigations of the historical places in the peninsula of Sinai 30 PEELIMINAET ACCOUNT OP THE liave been already alluded to. Tlie diseoverj, mentioned above, of the most ancient kilometer at Semneh, lias added, in a remarkable degree, also to the history of the physical condition of the Nile valley ; since it is quite evident, from the -water just above the second Cataract, standing at that time twenty-two feet higher than at present, and the height of the water in the Thebaid being contemporaneously twelve to fifteen feet lower, that the fall of the Nile in the inter- mediate country was thirty-five feet greater in those times than it is now. But this gradual levelling of the bed of the river must have had the most decided influence on the his- tory of the cultivation of the valley, and of the whole popu- lation ; because the soil on the banks of the river in the district of JSTubia, more especially owing to the considerable sinking of the water, being inaccessible to the natural over- flowings, was laid dry, and could only be irrigated with great difficulty, and imperfectly, by means of artificial water- wheels. Considerable progress was made in the knowledge of the African languages, by the iuvestigation which I w^as princi- pally enabled to make in the southern part of our journey. I inquu^ed into and noted down as much of the grammar and vocabulary of three languages, as would enable me to give a distinct idea of them. Fii'st, Ivongiira, spoken at Dar-Eur and the adjacent countries, a Central African-Negro language. Secondly, the Nuba language, which is spoken in two chief dialects, in one part of the Nubian-Nile valley and in the neighbouring countries situated to the south- west, and also appears to be derived from the interior of Africa. It had hitherto never been a written language, and I collected together for the fixst time a piece of written Nubian literature, for I made a Nubian Sheikh, who was per- fectly familiar wiih. the Arabic language and \ATiting, trans- late the Fables of Locman, a portion of the Thousand and One Nights, and the Gospel of St. Mark, from the Arabian into the Nubian tongue, and write down besides nineteen Nubian songs, some of them in rhyme, some only rhythmical, and translate them into Arabic. Unfortunately, these pre- cious packets, all but the Nubian gospel, were lost in Europe, with little hope of recovery. The third language EXPEDITION AND ITS EESTJLTS. 31 investigated by me was the Beg'a, which is spoken by the Bischari nation, who dwell between the Eed Sea and the Nubian Nile. This language occupies an important posi- tion with reference to phLLolou:y, since it seems to be a branch of the original Asiatic stock, of which the African oftsets may be comprehended under the name of the Hamitic lan- guages ; and is, besides, particularly interesting in our study of the monuments, because, most probably, it was once the key to decipher the ancient Ethiopian inscriptions, num- bers of which were discovered by us upon the Island of Meroe, and from that place, in the IsHe valley, as far down as Philje. These inscriptions are "written in simple cha- racters, from right to left, and derive their origin from the powerful nation of the Meroitic Ethiopians, whose direct descendants we behold in the present Beg'a nations. By comparing those languages with the other languages of Africa, which are ah-eady better known, I thuik 1 sliall be able to separate, according to fixed principles, these " Ha- mitic languages" of north and north-east Ainca (which may still be referred to their native home in Asia) from the numerous other languages of this enigmatical continent ; and I am now engaged in preparing these philological investiga- tions for special publication. I must finally mention, among the results of our journey, two collections of inscriptions. In the first place, all the Greek inscriptions in the countries we travelled through were carefully sought out, and impressions of them were taken upon paper; by which G-rseco-Egyptian archcTology, and more particularly the learned collections of inscriptions which have lately excited such lively interest, will pro- bably be completed, confirmed, or justified in a satisfactory manner. Secondly, in the peninsula of Sinai we made as perfect a collection as was possible of the so-caUed Sinaitie Inscriptions, which are found engraved on the rocks in dif- ferent districts of the peninsula, but principally in the neigh- bourhood of the old town of Farau, at the foot of the moun- tain range of Serbalj and at a resting-place of the caravans in "Wadi Mokatteb, situated farther north, which is named after them. We were only able casually to turn our attention to 32 THE EXPEDITION AKD ITS EESULTS. objects of Natural Science ; nevertheless, I did not however neglect, especially during remote mountainous journeys, to collect specimens of stone and earth from the more re- markable localities. A¥e not only visited the celebrated stone quarries in the chalk mountains of Tura, in the sand- stone range of Selseleh, in the granite rocks of Assuan, and others situated in the Nile valley, but also those alabaster quarries of El Bosra, opposite Siut, which were discovered a few years ago by the Bedouins, in which last we found a rock-inscription from the commencement of the 17th Dy- nasty. They resemble those quarries of granite and breccia- verde at HAM:vrAMAT, upon the road leading from Qeneh to the Eed Sea, which have been worked from the earliest times, and also the porph}Ty and granite quarries at Grebel Patireh (Mons Claudianus), and at G-ebel Dochan (Mons Porphy rites), in the Arabian chain of mountains, celebrated in the Eoman period. I also had an opportunity of pur- chasing an interesting Ethnographical and Natural History collection in Alexandria, obtained by H. AVerne during ]\Io- hammed All's second expedition up the Nile, which pene- trated as far as the 4° N. lat., of which an account was published ; and I received a valuable collection of Eg)^ptian fishes for the Anatomical Museum in Berlin, from the cele- brated French physician Clot Bey. LETTERS FEOM EGYPT AND ETHIOPIA DKDICATED, WITH THE rnOFOUNDEST VENEPvATION AND GRATlTl'Dr, TO ALEXANDER VOX IIUiMBOLDT. PEEPAEATIO^'S lOT. JorK>'Er. 35 LETTEE I. On board the Oriental Steamer, the oth of September, 1842. All our efforts were taxed to enable us to depart on tiie 1st September ; the delay of one daj would have cost us a whole month, so it was necessary to be doubly active. A visit to Paris was indispensable, and I reached it in thirty-one hours from London ; but two days were all that could be spared to procure what was requisite in the way of pur- chases, letters, and notes. I returned richly laden from this city, ever rich to me in interest, information, and various proofs of kindness. In London, I acquired two additional excellent travelling companions — Bonomi and "V\^ild, who had lately determined to share in the expedition on an in- dependent footing. The former, abeady well known as a traveller in Egypt and Ethiopia, not only has a thorough prac- tical acquaintance with the mode of life in those parts, but also possesses a critical knowledge of Egyptian art, and is a master in Egyptian drawing ; the latter, a young architect, full of genius, seeks with enthusiasm in the East a new field for the exercise of the rich and various gifts with which he is endowed. At length, everything was purchased, provided, and packed, and we had bid farewell to our friends. Bunsen alone, with his usual kindness, and unwearied friendship, accompanied us as far as Southampton, the place of our embarkation, where we spent the evening together. As at other times, when landing from a stormy sea after days of rough tossicg, we suddenly enjoy an almost incon- ceivable degree of repose in the quiet harbour, although for a long time we still feel the ground tottering beneath us, and fancy we hear the sound of the breakers, so on this occa- sion I experienced the same, though the case was reversed ; when, after the whirl of the last days and weeks, and coming from the immense metropolis of the world, I reached the harbour, and entered the narrow, quickly traversed and sur- veyed, wooden house of the monotonous wilderness of the ocean. AH at once there was nothing more to provide and d2 36 DErAUTUEE niOM SOUTHAMPTON. to hasten ; the long row of more than thirty chests of our baggage had vanished piece by piece into the dark hold of the ship ; our cabins required no arrangement, for they could scarcely contain more than our o-rti persons. The absence of disturbance for some time caused a new and undefined kind of disturbance : anxiety, without anything to be anxious about. Among the passengers, I will only mention the missionary Lieder, a Grerman by birth, returning with his English wife to Cairo. Commissioned by the English Missionary Society, he has founded and conducted a boys' and girls' school there, which is now to be restricted exclusively to the chil- dren of the Coptic Christians. Lieder has introduced in- struction in the Coptic language into this school, and has thus restored to an honourable position that remarkable and most ancient language of the country, which, for many cen- turies past, has been entirely supplanted among the people by the Arabic tongue. It is true that the Holy Scriptures still exist in the country in the Coptic tongue, and are even used in public worship, but they are only chanted as psalms, and are no longer understood. We started from Southampton on the 1st September, about ten o'clock in the morning. The wind was against us, and therefore we did not reach Falmouth till twenty- four hours afterwards, where our ship waited for the London mail, to take in the letters. "We remained several hours at anchor there, in a charming bay ; an old castle is situated at the entrance on either side, while in the background the town forms an extremely picturesque group. About three o'clock we again put to sea, and as there was a side-wind, it caused much sea-sickness among our party. I consider my- self fortunate, that even on the most stormy voyages I have never been in this disagreeable condition, which neverthe- less has something comic in it for those who are not suffer- ing. It is a curious circumstance that the same motion which rocks the child into a sweet slumber, or which invites us to a pleasure-sail in the tossing boat, on shipboard owing to the slower time of the wide-swinging pendulum, becomes THE BAY OF BISCAY. 37 intolerable suifering, and prostrates the strongest heroes, without, however, being accompanied by any serious danger. The following day we reached the Bay of Biscay, and with difficulty cut through the long and deep waves, which rolled out from the distant coast. On the morning of the 4th instant, Sunday, very few appeared at breakfast. About eleven o'clock, in spite of the Aiolent motion, we assembled for divine service. The English flag, as the most sacred cloth in the ship, was spread over the pulpit desk ; Hen* Lieder preached, simply and well. About four o'clock we saw the Spanish coast for the first time, in faint, misty out- line. The nearer we approached it, the waves gradually fell, for the wind blew off shore. Air, sky, and sea were incom- parably beautiful. Cape Finisterre, and the adjoining head- lauds, became more clear. AVe descried several small sailing- vessels along the coast ; and all kinds of sea-fowl swarmed round the ship. By degrees, the whole company, even the ladies, collected on deck. The sea became as smooth as the clearest mirror, and we kept the Spanish coast in sight the whole afternoon. The sun descended magnificently intc the sea ; the evening star was soon followed by the whole host of the heavenly stars, and a glorious niglit wrapt around us. But now the most splendid spectacle presented itself tliat I have ever seen at sea. The ocean began to lighten up, all the crests of the breaking waves glowed with an emerald-green fire, and a brilliant greenish-white wat€rfall fell from the paddle- wheels of the vessel, which left in its long wake a broad, light streak in the dark sea. The sides of the vessel, and our downward gazing faces, were lighted up as bright as moon- light, and I was able to read print without any difficulty by this water-fire. When the illuminating matter, which, ac- cording to Elirenberg's researches, proceeds from infusorial animalcula), was most intense, we saw flames dancing over the sea, as far as the coast, so that it seemed as if we were sailing through a more richly-starred sky than tliat which was above us. I have frequently observed this illumination 38 iirtrtiYAL at malta. of the sea on the Mediterranean also, but never "with such extraordinary brilliancy as on this occasion. The spectacle was quite like enchantment. Suddenly I observed between the waves new living streaks of fire, which radiated from the vessel like two gigantic ser- pents, and, judging by the proportions of the ship, were at least from sixty to eighty feet long ; they moved in a deceptive manner, in large windings beside the vessel, crossed the waves, dipped into the foam of the paddle-wheels, re- appeared, retreated, hurried forward, and finally vanished in the distance. For a long time I could not explain this phe- nomenon. I thought of the old tales, so frequently re- peated, of the huge sea-serpents which have been seen from time to time. jN'othing could more closely resemble what was here before us. At length it occurred to me that it might however only be fishes running a race with the vessel, and, by their rapid movements, brushing the surface of the luminous sea, they might produce the long streaks of light behind them. J^evertheless, the ocular demonstra- tion remained as deceptive as before; I could discover nothing of the dark fishes, nor determine their size ; but I at length consoled myself by my own conjecture. LETTEE II. Alexandria, the 2Zrd of September, 1842. I PUT my last letter into the post in Gribraltar, on the 7th September, where we employed the few hours which were granted us in viewing the citadel. The African continent lay before us, a light streak on the horizon. Beneath me, apes were clambering on the rocks, the only ones in Europe which live in a wild state, and on that account they are left unmolested. In Malta, which we reached on the 11th Sep- tember, we found the painter Erey, from Basle, whom I had known at Eome. He told me first, by word of mouth, that he desired to join in the expedition, and had arrived some days before from Naples. "We were compelled to wait nearly MALTA AKD ALEXAJN'DEIA. 39 three days for the post from Marseilles. This gave us at least an opportunity to visit the wonders of the island; namely, the gigantic buildings discovered, a few years back, near La Yaletta, and to make some purchases. Through Lieder, I became acquainted with Grobat, who has hitherto managed the Maltese station of the English Missionary Society, but is now waiting for a new destination, as pecu- niary circumstances compel the society to give up this station entirely. It gave me great pleasure to make the acquaintance of this distinguished person.* From Malta we were accompanied by the missionary Isenberg, who, like Gobat, had lived for a long time in Abyssinia, and is also well known to linguists by his gram- mar of the Amharic language. A young girl from Basle was under his protection — Eosina Dietrich, the bride of the mis- sionary Krapf, who has married her here, and is now going to return with her and his* colleagues, Isenberg and Miihl- eisen, to the English missionary station in Schoa, by the next Indian steamer. He was married in the English chapel, and I was present as a witness at the ceremony, which was performed with simplicity and feeling. On our arrival, on the 18th September, we foimd Erbkam, Ernest Weidenbach, and Franke, already here. They had been waiting for us several days. Mohammed Ali had put to sea with the fleet, as he was impatiently expecting the arrival of Sami Bey, who was to bring him intelligence of the desired reduction of tribute ; in place of which, he had received the appointment of Grand Yizier. The Swedish Consul- General, d'Anastasi, who as the representative of our Consul- General Yon TTagner, still absent, manages the affairs of Prussia, and who enters with zeal into all our interests, presented us to-day to the Yiceroy, * On the sudden death of JBishop Alexander, which happened shortly after our departure from Palestine, Gobat, as is known, was selected by H. M. the King of Prussia to be Bishop of the Evangelical Bishopric of Jerusalem, which he has administered, by the blessing of God, eflS- caciously ever since 1846. 40 MOHAMMED ALL and we have just returned from tlie audience. He expressed himself much pleased with the vases, which I delivered to the Pascha in the name of our Sovereign, and he felt himself still more honoured by the King's letter, of which he imme- diately ordered a written translation to be made, and perused it with great attention in our presence, and desired that I should be informed that he would give me the answer when we should again leave the country. "We were received, and dismissed standing ; coffee was handed to us, and he showed us other attentions, some of which were afterwards care- fully explained to me by d'Anastasi. Boghos Bey, his confi- dential minister, was the only one present, and remained standing all the time. Mohammed Ali appeared to be cheerful, and youthful in his actions and conversation ; no debility was visible in the features and flashing eye of the old man of seventy-three. He spoke with interest of his expeditions up the JS'ile, and* assured us ho intended to repeat them, till he should have found the sources of the "Wkite Eiver. On my inquiring about his Museum in Cairo, he replied, that it certainly had not hitherto been very success- ful, but that frequently, when rapid progress was expected in his enterprises, unjust claims were made on him relative to these matters in Europe ; since he was compelled first to obtain a basis and foundation, which, with us, had long been prepared. I only cursorily alluded to our excavations ; and in the course of conversation assumed that he had granted us per- mission to make them ; this I am soon to receive in due form.* * Previous to my departure from Alexandria, the firman of the Viceroy was presented to me, with unlimited permission to make al. the excavations which I might think desirable, and Avith instructions to the local authorities to render me assistance. All the workmen and aid necessary for forming and transporting our collection of antiquities, ■were demanded in return for money, through virtue of our firman, from the Sheikhs of the neighbouring villages, or the Mudhirs of the provinces, by the Kawass, Avho had been given us by the government, and they were never refused. Tlie monuments from the southern regions were transported from IMount Barkal to Alexandria on govern- ment boats, and three sepulchral chambers near the great Pyramids of Gizeh were also added, which were carefully taken to pieces by the aid of four workmen, sent expressly for the purpose from Berlin, and ALEXA^•DRIA. 41 LETTEE III. Cairo, the \6th October, 1S42. We were detained almost fourteen days in Alexandria. The whole time was spent in preparations for our farther were put on board a vessel opposite Old Cairo. I also received, before my departure from Egypt, a written permit for the exportation of the collection ; and the objects themselves were presented from the Viceroy to H. M. the King of Prussia. These peculiar favours, at a time when all private travellers, anti- quarian speculators, and even diplomatic persons, were expressly forbid- den by the Egyptian Government to make any collection, or to export antiquities, have caused many unfavourable judgments to be passed on our expedition. We have been chiefly accused of a tliirst for de- struction, which, under the given circumstances, would presuppose a peculiarly barbarous feeling to have existed in our party; for as we did not, like many of our rivals, excavate and transport tlie monu- ments, the greater part of which had previously been invisible, hur- riedly and by night, and v/ith bribed assistance, but leisurely, and with ox)en aid from the authorities, and before the eyes of numerous travellers, all disregard in our treatment of tlie remaining monuments, of which perhaps they formed a part, would certainly have been so much the more blameable, since it was so easy to avoid it. "We might, however, trust to a more correct judgment than what is usually pos- sessed by the greater y»roportion of ordinary travellers or collectors, with regard to the value of the individual monuments; besides, we were not, after all, in danger of being deceived in this matter by per- sonal self-interest, as Ave made our selection of the monuments not for ourselves, but commissioned by our government, for the lioyal Museum in Berlin, therefore for the benefit of science, and a public eager after knowledge. The collection, which chiefly on account of its historical value, may be placed on an equal footing with the most important European museums, was incorporated immediately on its arrival with the Koyal collections, without my remaining myself officially connected with it ; and it is already arranged and exhibited to the public. A more accurate examination is best fitted to place the inconsiderate accu- sations of more recent, and even German tourists, in their proper light, some of whom have gone so far, for example, very recently, Herr Julius Braun, in the Algemeiner Augsburg Gazette, as to charge us with the mutilation of the gods, which happened more than 3000 years ago, in the temple of El Kab. Besides, it would prove an entire ignorance of Egyptian affairs at the present time, or of that which chiefly lends the monuments of antiquity their real interest to us, if all were not desirous to preserve in the public museums of Europe, as many as possible of the treasures of those countries, which are really as valuable, as they are undervalued in their own home, and number* of which are still daily destroyed. 42 ALEXANDRIA. journey. I saw the Pasclia several times again, and found liim always favourably inclined towards our expedition. But we had gained Kttle in a scientific point of view. We visited Pompey's Pillar, which has nevertheless no connection with Pompey, but, as we learn by the Grreek inscription on the base, was placed there by the Prefect Publius, in honour of the Emperor Diocletian. The blocks of the foundation are partly fragments of older buildings ; the Eoyal Eing of the second Psammeticus could still be recognised upon one of them. The two obelisks, of which the one still standing is called Cleopatra's Needle, are very much destroyed on the sides which are exposed to the weather, and in part have become totally illegible. They were erected by Thftmosis III., in the sixteenth century before Christ; at a later period Eamses Miamtjn has inscribed his name, and still later, on the outermost borders of the four sides, another king, who proved to be hitherto wholly unknown, and was therefore gladly greeted by me. I must also mention an interesting col- lection of objects of every sort connected with ethnography and natural history, which was made by Werne, a native of • Prussia, during the second expedition of the Pascha up the !N"ile, as far as the AVhite Eiver, in lands till then unknown, and which a few months previously had been conveyed to Alexandria.* It appeared to me of such value, and to be so unique in its kind, that I have purchased it for our Museums. "While we were still there, it was packed up, ready to be despatched. I think it will be welcome in Berlin. At length the Bujurldis (Firman) of the Pascha was ready, and we hastened to quit Alexandria. We embarked the same day that I received it (the 30th September), on the Mahmu- dieh canal. Darkness surprised us before we had accomplished this first difficult departure. It was nine o'clock before we * The journal of this expedition up the Nile has been since pub- lished under the title Expedition zur Entdeckung der Quellen des Weissen Nil, 1840—1841. By Ferd. VYerne. With a Preface by- Karl Ritter. A map and a table of figures. Berlin: G. Reimer 1848. 8vo. EVIXS OF SAIS A^D XAHARIEH. 43 drove off from our hotel, on the extensive and beautiful Frank-square, in two carriages belonging to M. d'Anastasi, preceded by the customary runners with torches. The gate was opened at the watchword that had been given to us ; our baggage had already been conveyed to the boat some hours previously on camels, so that we were able to depart very soon after our entrance into the roomy vessel, which I had hired in the morning. The Nile, which we entered at Atfeh, had tolerably high waves, as the wind was strong and unfavourable. The usual mode of navigation here, is with two pointed sails, which rise upwards like the wings of a bee ; these are easily beaten down, by every violent gust of wind, not without danger, especially in the dark. I there- fore granted the sailors permission to stop every stormy night. The following day, the 2nd of October, we landed at Sa EL Hagee to visit the ruins of ancient Sais, the city of the Psammetici, famous by its temple to Minerva. The circular walls of the town, built of bricks of IN'ile earth, and the de- serted ruins of the houses, are alone extant ; there are no re- mains of stone buildings with inscriptions. We paced the circumference of the city, and made a simple plan of the loca- lity. The Acropolis was situated to the north-west of the town, which is even now marked by tolerably high mounds of rubbish. We spent the night at Nekleh. I have got the great maps of the " Description de I'Egypte" beside me, on which we were able to trace almost every step of our excur- sions. We have hitherto found it almost everywhere to be depended upon. The 3rd of October we landed on the western bank, to inspect the remains of the old Eosetta canal, and spent almost the whole afternoon till sunset in examining the ruins of an old town near Nahaeieh. No walls are now visible, only mounds of rubbish, yet we found in the houses of the modern town several stones with inscriptions, chiefly built into door-sills, which had originally belonged to a temple of King Psammeticus I. and Apries (Hophre). The next night we 44 AEEIVAL AT CAIHO. stopped on the western bank at Teirieh, and landed there the following morning to search for some ruins, an hour dis- tant from the bank, but from which we obtained nothing. The Libyan desert here for the first time advances quite close to the Nile, and presented us with a new and deeply impres sive sight. On the following morning, we first saw the Great Pyramids of Memphis, rising above the horizon ; I could not for a long time take my eyes off them. "We still continued to sail on the Eosetta arm ; about mid-day we reached the so-called Cowsbelly, where the Nile divides into its two principal arms. Now for the first time we were able to survey the noble, wonderful river in its whole magnitude, which with its fertilising and sweet-tasting water, influences the life and manners of the inhabitants on its banks like no other river in the world-. It usually attains its greatest height about the beginning of October. But this year an inundation has occurred, such as has not been remembered for genera- tions past. A breach in the dams is dreaded, which after the great murrain, that is said to have carried oif up to the last week forty thousand head of cattle, would cause Egypt to be afflicted a second time this year. About five o'clock in the evening we arrived at Bulaq, the harbour of Cairo. We rode at once from the harbour to the touii, and made arrangements for a considerable stay. By- the-by, when we say Cairo, and the Erencli La Caire, it pro- , ceeds from a pure error in language. The town is never called anything by the Arabs now, but Masr, and the country the same ; that is the old Semetic name, which is more easily pro- nounced by us in the dual termination Mis'raim. It was only in the tenth century, when the present city was founded, that the modern Masr, by the addition El Qahireh, that is " the victorious," was distinguished from the earlier Mass EL Atiqeh, the present Old Cairo. The Italians then omitted the k, which they could not pronounce, mistook the Arabic article el for their masculine il, and thus by its termination also, stamped the whole word as masculine. CAIRO. 45 It vras just the commencement of the Musuhnans' holy fksting month, the Eamadan. during which they neither take food, nor "drink smoke or water" the Avhole day, and receive no visits, but only begin the whole business of life after sunset ; thus completely changing day and night, which, on account of our Arabian servants, causes U3 much inconvenience. Our Kawass (the Pascha's guard of honour that had been given us), which had missed the time of our departure from Alexandria, established itself here, As our Prussian vice-consul is out of health, I applied to the Austrian consul, M. Champion, to whom I had been warmly recommended by Ehrenberg, with respect to our being pre- sented to the representatives of the Pascha at this place. He received us with the greatest politeness and anxiety to serve us, and has obtained for us everywhere a good reception. On my official visits, which, on account of the Eamadan, were necessarily made about eight o'clock in the evening, I was usually accompanied by Erbkam and Bonomi. Our torch- bearers ran before us, then followed on asses, first the Draofo- man of the consul, and our Pascha's Kawass, then we our- selves, in stately procession. "We rode almost across the whole town to the Citadel, through the narrow streets, which were filled with Arabs, and picturesquely illuminated by our torches, there we first paid a visit to Abbas Pascha,* a grand- son of Mehemet Ali. He is governor of Cairo, but rarely there. Prom him we went to Scherif Pascha, his representa- tive, and then to the minister of war, Ahmet Pascha. We were everywhere received with great courtesy. On the day after our arrival, I received a diploma as hono- rary member of the older Egyptian Society, from which tlie younger one, which had already forwarded to London the same invitation to me, has separated. Both held meetings during the first days after our arrival, but I was only able to attend one of them, in which an interesting paper was read by Krapf, on certain nations in Central Africa. The accounts * Abbas Pascha has been Viceroy of E^ypt since the death of Ibrahim Pascl)a= in 1S4S. 46 HELIOPOLIS. were given liim by a native of tlie coimtrj of Enarea, who had travelled into the country of the Doko on mercantile business, and describes the people there very much as Herodotus de- scribes the Libyan dwarf nation, according to the account of the Nasamonians, namely, as composed entirely of little people, about the size of children from ten to twelve years old. We might almost imagiae that they were speaking of apes. As the geographical notices of the hitherto wholly unknown land of the Doko are also interesting, I had the whole paper copied, in order to send it along with the small map which belongs to it, to our venerated Eitter.* On the 13th of October we made our first excursion from this place to the ruins of Heliopolis, the biblical On, whence Joseph took his wife Asnath, the daughter of a priest. Nothing remains of this highly-praised city, which prided itself in possessing, next to Thebes, the most learned body of priests, but the walls, which now resemble great ramparts of earth, and an obelisk still erect, and perhaps in its original site. The peculiar interest of this obelisk is, that it was erected by King Sesuetesen I. in the Old Monarchy, about B.C. 2300, and is by far the most ancient of all known obelisks ; for the broken one in the Fajoim at Crocodilopolis, which bears the name of the same king, is rather a lengthened stele, or tablet, in the form of an obelisk. Boghos Bey has received a present of the ground on which the obelisk stands, and has laid out a garden round it. The flowers of the garden have attracted a multitude of bees, and they have been unable to find a more commodious habitation than in the deep and sharply-cut hieroglyphics of the obelisk. Within the space of a twelvemonth, they have covered the inscriptions of the four sides to such a degi'ee, that a great portion of them have now become quite illegible. They had been, however, pre- * This paper — An account of the river Goschop, and of the countries of Enarea, Caffa, and Doko, given by a native of Enarea (with a map)— has been translated by Ritter, and was communicated to the Geographical Society at Berlin on the 7th January, 1843, and was printed in the monthly reports of this society in the latter part of the year. P. 172—188. riEST TI3IT TO THE PTEA.MIDS. 47 viously published, and we liad little difficulty in our exami- nation, because three sides bear the same inscription, and that on the fourth, also, differs but little. Yesterday, the loth October, was our king's birtliday, and I had selected this day for the first visit to the Great Pyra- mids. "VYe would there, vrHh a few friends, commemorate our King and our Fatherland in a joyous festival. We invited the Austrian consul, Champion ; the Prussian consul, Bokty ; our learned countryman, Dr. Pruner, and Messrs. Lieder, Isenberg, Miihleisen, and Krapf to join our party, some of whom however, were to our regret, prevented from at- tending. The morning was beautiful beyond description, fresh and festive. "We rode in a long procession through the yet quiet city, and through the green avenues and gardens which are now laid out before it. "Wherever, almost, that we met with new and well carried out works, Ibrahim Pascha was named to us as their originator. He seems to be doing much in all parts of Egypt for the embellishment and improvement of the country. It is impossible to describe the scene that met our view when we emerged from the avenues of date-trees and acacias ; the sun rose on the left behind the Moqattam hills, and illu- minated the summits of the Pyramids in front, which lay before us in the plain like gigantic rock crystals. All were overpowered, and felt the solemn influence of the splendour and grandeur of this morning scene. At Old Cairo we were transported across the Nile to the village of Gizeh, from which the largest Pyramids are called Haeam el Gizeh. Prom this spot, in the dry season, one may ride over to the Pyramids, by a straight road, in an hour, or little more. But as the inundation now stands at its highest point, we were compelled to make a great circuit on long dams ; we came nearly as far up as Saqara, and only reached the foot of the greatest Pyramid at the end of five hours and a half. The unexpected length of the ride gave us an appetite for the simple breakfast which, in order to strengthen us for the 48 TIEW FKOM PYKAMID OF CUEOrS. ascent of the greatest Pyramid, Ave partook forthwith in one of the old sepulchral chambers ; these had been here hewn in the rock, somewhere about five thousand years ago, and are now inhabited by some Bedouins. Meantime, a spacious tent, with decorations of various colours, which I hired in Cairo, had arrived. I had it pitched on the northern side of the Pyramid, and the great Prussian royal standard, the black eagle with the golden sceptre, the crown and the blue sword on a white ground, which our artists had themselves, during the last few days, sketched, stitched, and fastened to a high pole, was planted before the door of the tent. About thirty Bedouins had, in the meanwhile, gathered around us, and waited for the moment when we should ascend the Ppamids, in order to raise us, with their strong brown arms, up the steps, which are between three and four feet high. Scarcely had the signal for departure been given, than immediately each of us was surrounded by several Bedouins, who dragged us up the rough, steep path to the summit, as in a whirlwind. A few minutes later, and our flag was un- furled on the summit of the oldest and highest of human works that is known, and we greeted the Prussian eagle with three joyous cheers to our king. Flying towards the south, the eagle turned his crowned head towards our home in the north, from which a refreshing wind blew, and diverted the hot rays of the mid-day sun from ofi" us. We also looked homewards, and each one thought aloud, or silently in his heart, of those who losing, and beloved, he had left behind. The panoramic view of the landscape spread out at our feet next riveted our attention. On the one side the Nile valley, a wide sea of overflowed waters, intersected by long serpentine dams ; here and there broken by villages rising above its surface like islands, and by cultivated promontories filling the whole plain of the valley that extended to the op- posite Moqattam hills, on whose most northerly point the ci- tadel of Cairo rises above the town stretched out at their base. On the other side, the Libyan desert, a still more wonderful sea of sandy plains and barren rocky hills, boundless, colourless, TIEW rfiOil PYllAillD OF CHEOPS. 49 noiseless, enlivened by no creature, no plants, no trace of the presence of man, not even by tombs ; and between both, the ruined Necropolis, whose general position and simple outline lay spread out clearly and distinctly as on a map. What a spectacle, and what recollections did it caR forth ! When Abraham came to Egypt for the first time, he saw these very PjTamids, which had been already built many cen- turies before his coming. In the plain before us lay ancient Memphis, the residence of the kings on whose tombs we were then standing ; there dwelt Joseph, and ruled the land under one of the most powerful and wisest Pharaohs of the newly restored Monarchy. Farther away, to the left of the Moqattam hills, where the fruitful low ground extends on the eastern arm of theNile, beyond Heliopolis, distinguished by its Obelisk, begins the blest region of Groshen, out of which Moses led his people to the Syrian desert. It would not, indeed, be difB.cult from our position to recognise that ancient fig-tree on the road to Heliopolis, at Matarieh, under whose shade, according to the tradition of the country, Mary rested with the infant Christ. How many thousand pil- grims of all nations have since visited these wonders of the world down to ourselves, who, the youngest in time, are yet but the predecessors of many other thousands who will succeed us, ascend these Pyramids, and contemplate them with astonishment. I will not describe any further the thoughts and feelings which agitated me during these mo- ments. There, at the goal of the wishes of many years, and at the same time at the commencement of our expedi- tion ; there, at the summit of the Cheops-Pyramid, to which the first link of our whole monumental historical inquiry — not merely for the history of Egypt, but for that of the world — is immoveably attached ; there, where I looked down upon the wonderful field of tombs, from which the Moses'- wand of science now calls forth the shadows of the ancient dead, and causes them to pass before the mirror of history, in the order of their time and rank, with their names and titles, and with all their peculiarities, customs, and surround- ing accompaniments. E 50 EETTJEX TO CAIEO. After I had taken an exact survey of the neighbouring tombs, with a view to select some points for future excava- tions, we once more descended to the entrance of the P}Tamid, and, providing ourselves with lights, entered, like miners, the steeply sloping shaft with some guides, and reached the gallery, and so-called King's Chamber, by paths already familiar to me by drawings. "We admired the in finitely fine seams of the enormous blocks, and examined the quality of tho stones of the passages and chambers. In the spacious hall, whose floor, walls, and ceiling, are entirely built of granite, and, therefore, return a metallic-sounding echo, we sang our Prussian hymn, which sounded so powerful and so solemn that our guides afterwards told the remaining Bedouins that we had selected the innermost part of the Pyramid to per- form divine service and utter a loud general prayer. We now visited also the so-called Chamber of the Queen, and then quitted the Pyramid, reserving the view of the chambers which were more difficult of access for a future and longer visit. Meantime, our orientally-ornamented tent had been ar- ranged, and a dinner was prepared within it, seasoned by the importance of the festival, of which only Prussians par- took, with the exception of our two English companions. It need hardly be told that our first toast on this occasion, also, was to the king and his household, a.nd it required no great eloquence to inspire all hearts. The remainder of the day passed in cheerfiil, festive, and tender reminiscences and conversation, till the time for our departure had arrived. We were still obliged to wait a quarter of an hour after sunset to give our servants, our mule-drivers, and other Arabian attendants, time to eat their frugal meal, as, on account of the Eamadan, in spite of the heat and labours of the day, they had not yet tasted any- thing. Then the clear, full moon guided us in the cool and silent night across the sea of sand and waters, through vil- lages and palm-groves back to the city, which we did not reach before midnight. Tn£ PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH. 51 LETTER IV. At the foot of the largest Fyrarnid, the 2nd Jan., 1843. Still always here ! in full activity since the 9th Novem- ber, and perhaps for several vreeks longer in the new year. But yet, how could I suspect from the accounts that have hitherto been given by travellers what a harvest we had to gather on this spot ; here, on the oldest scene of all deter- 'minable chronological human history. It is strange how little this spot has been examined, though it has been the most frequently visited in Egypt. I will not, however, quarrel with our predecessors, as we reap the fruits of their neglect. I have rather been compelled to restrain our desire to see more of this land of wonders, as we shall perhaps have to discharge half of our whole task on this spot. Two tombs, besides the Pyramids, are conspicuously marked on the best of the earlier maps. Eosellini has only accurately examined one tomb ; and Champollion says, in his letters : " II y a peu a faire ici, et lorsqu'on aura copie des scenes de la vie domestique, sculptees dans un tombeau, je regagnerai nos embarcations." We have given forty-five tombs on our accurate topographical plan of the whole necropolis, whose occupants have become known to me by their inscriptions, and altogether I have recorded eighty-two, which seemed worthy of notice, by their inscriptions or by other pecu- liarities.* Eew of them belong to later times ; almost all of them were built during, or shortly after the erection of the great Pyramids, and therefore afibrd us an invaluable series of dates for the knowledge of the oldest determinable civili- sation of the human race. The architecture of that period, about which I formerly could only offer conjectures,t is now clearly developed before me. "We have thus early presented * On our departure for Upper Egypt, we had minutely examined 130 private tombs, and had discovered the remains of 67 Pyramids. t See my essay, Sur fordre des colonnes piliers en Egypte et ses rap- ports avec le second ordre Egyptien et la colonne Grecque (avec deux planches), in the ninth volume of the Anuales de I'lnstitut. de Cor- resp. Arche'ol. Rome, 1838. 52 THE PYEA^I^D3 OP GIZEH. to US almost all the different component parts of architec- ture ; sculptures of entire figures, of all sizes, in alto-relievo and basso-relievo, are presented in astonishing numbers. The style is verv marked, and beautifullv executed, but it is evident that the Egyptians of that time did not yet possess that canon of proportions which we find prevailing at a later period.* The painting on a very fine coating of lime is often beau- tiful beyond conception, and is sometimes preserved as fresh* and perfect as if it had been done yesterday. The repre- sentations on the walls chiefly contain scenes from the life of the deceased, and appear especially intended to place before the eyes of the spectator his wealth in cattle, fish, game, boats, domestics, &c. "We thus become familiar with all the details of his private life. The numerous inscriptions describe or designate these scenes, or they exhibit the often widely-branching family of the deceased, and all his titles and offices, so that I could almost compose a court and state calendar of King Cheops, or Chephren, The most splendid tombs or rock-sepulchres belonged principally to the princes, their relatives, or the highest official persons under the kings beside whose Pyramids they are laid ; and not unfre- quently, I have found the tombs of father, son, and grand- son, even great grandson, so that whole pedigrees of those distinguished families, who, above 5000 years ago, formed the nobility of the land, are brought to light. The most beautiful of the tombs, which, with many others, I myself discovered beneath the sand, which here buries all things, belongs to a prince of the ^mily of King Cheops, I am now employing daily from forty to sixty people in excavations and similar works. I have also made them dig in front of the great Sphinx, to disclose the small temple which is situated between its paws, and to expose the colossal stele of a single block of granite, eleven feet high and seven feet broad, which forms the back wall of the little temple, and which is still covered up with sand to nearly its entire *Seep. 115 A STonii- 03 height. It is one of the few monuments here from the times of the great Pharaohs of the Xew Monarchy, after the expulsion of the Hvksos : I have had a plaster cast taken of it. The Egyptian winter is not always so spring-like as is sometimes imagined in Europe. About sunrise, when all hasten to their work, we have already had it -j- o'^ B. (43^ Fahr.). so that the sketch ers could hardly use their fingers. The winter season began here with a scene which will always be vividly remembered by me. I had ridden out to the excavations, when seeing a large black cloud approach- ing, I sent a servant to the tents, to take care of them, but as it began to rain slightly, I soon rode after him myself. Shortly after my arrival a storm of wind began ; I therefore ordered the cords of the tents to be secured, but soon a violent shower of rain came in addition, which alarmed aU our Arabs, and drove them into the rock-tomb, in which is our kitchen. Erbkam and Franke were the only ones of our own party here. Suddenly the storm became a regular hurricane, such as I had never witnessed in Europe, and a hailstorm came down on us, which almost turned the day into night. I had the greatest trouble to drive our Arabs out of the grotto, that they might bring our things to the rock-tombs, where it was dry, as every moment we might expect the overthrow of the tents. And it was not long before first our common tent fell down, and when I had hastened from that into my own, in order to hold it from the inside, this also broke down above me. After I had crawled out, I found that my things were tolerably well covered by the tent, so that for the present I might leave them alone, to prevent a still greater danger. Our tents, protected from the worst winds, the north and west, lay in a depression of the valley, towards which the plateau of the Pyramids inclines. From that place I suddenly saw a rapid mountain torrent precipitating, like a gieantic serpent on its certain prey, upon our encampment, already hadi de- 04 A STOEM. stroyed and beaten into the sand. The principal stream first dashed towards the great tent ; another arm threatened mine, but did not however quite reach it. Everything, how- ever, which had been floated out of our tents by the heavy rain was carried off by both streams, which united below the tents, and was borne a hundred steps farther into a deep hollow behind the Sphinx, where a great lake, which fortu- nately had no outlet, formed itself in a moment. Now picture to yourself this scene ! Our tents shattered to the ground by the storms of rain and hail, between two mountain torrents, which at once dug out a channel for themselves in the sandy ground, in several places six feet deep, and carried down with them into the muddy, foam- covered, slimy lake, our books, drawings, sketches, linen, instruments of all kinds, even our levers and iron crows, in short ever}i:hing they laid hold on. In addition to this, we ourselves, with dripping clothes, without hats, securing the heavier articles, pursuing the lighter ones, wading up to the waist in the stream or lake, to fish out what the sand had not yet swallow^ed, and all this the work of a quarter of an hour, at whose expiration the sun forthwith shone again, and proclaimed the end of this deluge scene by a splendid and brilliant rainbow. It was difficult to see at once what we had lost, and where we had to begin, to bring things again into some order. Both the Weidenbachs and Trey had gazed, from the tombs where they were working, upon the whole scene, as a mag- nificent natural spectacle, not suspecting what we had ex- perienced here, till I sent for them to assist us immediately in preparing for the approaching night. For several days we continued to fish and dig for our things. Many were lost, much had become useless ; the greater part of what was not enclosed in chests and trunks bore more or less traces of this flood. After all, however, nothing essential was de- stroyed. I had flrst placed in safety the great portfolios, with my manuscripts and books ; in short, a few days after- CHRISTMAS AT THE PYRAMIDS. 55" death, the whole affair only seemed to me a remarkable pic- ture, which I should be sorry to forget, without leaving any disagreeable consequences behind it. Since then, we have often had to suffer from violent winds, which sometimes fill the air for several days together with sand, to such a degree, as to be annoying to the lungs ; it entirely prevents painting with colours, and covers the drawing and writing-paper incessantly with a most disagree- able and constantly renewed coat of dust. This fine sand penetrates all our clothes, enters every box, even those which close most perfectly, fills nose, ears, and hair, and is the unavoidable ingredient of all food, solid and liquid. 5th January. — On the evening of the first Christmas holiday, I surprised my companions by a great fire, which 1 had caused to be lighted on the summit of the highest Pyra- mid. The flame illuminated both the other Pyramids splen- didly, as well as the whole field of tombs, and shone quite across the valley as far as Cairo. That was indeed a Christmas Pyramid! I only let Abeken into the secret, who, with his constantly cheerful temper, and his intellectual and instructive conversation, had happily joined us on the 10th December. With his assistance I then prepared a special Christmas-tree for the following day, in the King's Chamber of the Great Pyramid. "We planted a young palm- tree in the sarcophagus of the ancient king, and adorned it with lights, and small presents, which I had ordered from the town for us children of the desert. St. Sylvester must have his share of honours also. At twelve o'clock on New-year's Eve immense flames rose simultaneously at midnight from the three great PjTamids, and proclaimed the changes of the Christian year, far and wide, to the Islamite provinces at their base. I consider it to be a useful mental regimen to our party that their tedious and monotonous labours, more especially those of our artists, should be relieved not by the weekly holiday of Sunday only, but also as often as there are oppor- tunities, by cheerful festiWties and agreeable diversions. Nor lo LIFE J-^ THE CAMP. lias the slightest discord hitherto disturbed the happj dis- position and the good-humour of our confederation, which dailj acquires fresh elasticity, both from the abundance of new impressions that we receive, and from the mutual re- ciprocation of the diflferent natures and talents, as by over- coming the manifold difficulties and hardships of this Bedouin life itself. Tou may judge of the variety of the elements of which our assembled party is composed, by the Babel of languages in which we continually move ; the English language is com- petently represented by our companions. Wild and Bonomi ; French and Itahan serve for our intercourse with the au- thorities, with strangers and Levantine interpreters. "We give orders, eat, and travel, in Arabic, and we reflect, talk, sing, and live, in good G-erman. But during the day we usually all live separate, and uninterruptedly each at his own work. We take our coff'ee before sunrise, and our dinner after sunset ; and breakfast during work. Thus our draughts- men have already been enabled to supply our swelling port- folios with a hundred great folio sheets, cleanly executed, partly in pencil, partly in colours. LETTER y. The Pyramids of Gizeh, llth Jamiary, 1843. - The inscription which was composed in celebration of the king's birthday has now become a stone monumental tablet, in the fashion of the old steles and Proskynemata,* and its contents are as follows ; the nearer, indeed, it approaches * Proskynemata. " Sometimes travellers who happened to pass by a temple inscribed a votive sentence on the walls, to indicate their re- spect for the deity, and solicit his protection during their journey, the complete formula of which contained the adoration (proskunema) of the writer, with the assurance that he had been mindful of his wife, his family, and friends; and the reader of the inscription was sometimes included in a share of the blessings it solicited. The date of the king's reign, and the day of the month, were also added, with the profession and parentage of the writer." — Wilkinson's Ancient Egypt, vol. iii., p. 395.— Tr. TABLET OS PYRAMID OF CHEOPS. 57 the manner of the Egyptians, tlie less appropriate is it in German : " Thus speak the servants of the King, whose name is the SuK AifD EocK or Prussia, Lepsius the scribe, Erbkam the architect, the Brothers Weidenbach the painters, Frey the painter, Franke the moulder, Bonomi the sculptor, "Wild the architect : All hail to the Eagle, the Peotector of the Cross, to the King the Suis' akd Eock of Prussia, to the Son of the Sun,* who freed his Eatherland, Frederick "Wil- liam the Fourth, the Philopator, the Father of his Country, the Gracious One, the Favourite of "Wisdom and History, the Guardian of the Ehine, whom Germany has chosen, the Dispenser of Life. May the Most high God grant the King, and his Consort, the Queen Elizabeth, the Eich in Life, the Philometor, the Mother of her Country, the Gra- cious One, an ever new and long Kfe on Earth, and a blessed habitation in Heaven through all Eternity. In the year of our Saviour, 1842, in the tenth month, on the fifteenth day, on the forty-seventh Birthday of his Majesty, on the Pyra- mid of King Cheops ; in the third year, in the fifth month, on the ninth day of the reign of his Majesty ; in the year 3164 from the commencement of the Sothis period under the King Menepthes." "We left behind us the hieroglyphic inscription engraved on stone and painted with oil colour, occupying a space five feet broad and four feet high. The stone, specially polished and prepared for the purpose, is placed at a considerable height near the entrance into the Pyramid of Cheops. It seemed to me fitting, that while the members of the Prus- sian expedition dedicated this tablet to the much-honoured Prince by whom they were sent hither, they should at the same time, for the sake of future travellers, leave behind them some traces of their activity on this field of Pyramids, where it was reserved for them to gather together the rich * " Every Pharaoh was the Sun of Egypt, and over his name bore ' Son of the Sun ;' and as the sun was Phra, so each king was called Phra. Each monarch by law inherited his father's throne in lineal succession, so that the incumbent was Phra son of Phra." — Gliddon's Ancient Egypt, p. 32. — Tk. 58 PTEAMIDS OF GIZEH. materials for tlie first chapter of the Scientific History of Nations. Do not, however, believe that these are the important works which detain us here so long. Our journej has this advantage over previous ones — that spots like this are en- titled to occupy us until they have been thoroughly ran- sacked. "We already know that even the gigantic and mag- nificent ruins of the Theban plain can reveal nothing which can equal in interest the Memphitic times of the Old Mo- narchy. We must, indeed, one day depart ; but it will even then be with the conviction that we leave an infinite amount of interesting materials behind, which might still be obtained. I had already resolved on our departure several days ago, when suddenly a series of tombs, different in architecture, and in the style of the figures and hieroglyphics, with other titles, and besides, as was to be expected, -with other Tcinqs* names, again disclosed a new epoch. It is still by no means conclusive how much has been gained in an historical point of view, or, at any rate, it is but dimly discerned. I was, however, in the right when, even in Europe, I proposed to reconstruct the 3rd Dynasty from the monuments. I have not yet found a single Shield which could be safely placed before the 4th Dynasty. It appears that the builders of the great Pyramids desired to assert their rights, to having formed the commencement of monumental history, although it is as clear as day that they were not the first to build and to inscribe their monuments. We have even now found many kings' names hitherto un- known, and variations of other names ; thus : KEKA. !<^ HEEAKir. USESKEF. ANA, PYEAMIDS or GIZEH. 59 The name which I had hitherto read Amchuea, in the detailed and painted inscriptions, which throw no incon- siderable light on the figurative meaning of the hieroglyphicai images, exhibits a decidedly different sign from the well- known group LJ J^ *^ p AMCHr, namely ^ about the pronunciation of which I am still in the dark. There is nothing to alter with respect to the assignment of the great Pyramids. It cannot be doubted, after our re- searches, that the second Pyramid really belongs to Schafra (more correctly Chafra, the Chephyren of Herodotus), as the first does to Chufu (Cheops), and the third to Menkera (Mykerinos, Mencherinos). I think I have now discovered the pathway up from the valley to the second Pyramid ; it led directly to its temple, past the Sphinx, but it was pro- bably destroyed at an early period. The number also of the PjTamids continues to increase. I have found three, in Abu Eoasch, in place of one hitherto known, and two fields of tombs. Two Pyramids once stood also at Zauiet EL Areian, a village which has now almost disappeared, and there is a great field of ruins adjoining to it. The careful researches, measurements, and notes of Perring, in his beau- tiful work on the Pyramids, save us much time and trouble. We are thus the more able to direct our attention to the private tombs, and their hieroglyphicai representations, such as are wholly wanting in the Pyramids. But nothing is yet determined, nothing is ripe for definitive arrangement, though wide prospects open before us. Our portfolios swell ; many things have been cast in plaster, and among them the great stele between the paws of the colossal Sphinx from the first year of Tuthmosis lY. LETTEE VI. TTie Pyramids of Gizeh, \1th January, 1843. I HAVE ordered ten camels to be here to-morrow evening, that we may start for Cairo the day after to-morrow, before sunrise, with the original monuments and plaster casts, of 60 PYRAMIDS OF CflZEH. wliicli we have already collected a considerable number, and we shall deposit them there, till our return from the South, This will be the commencement of our departure for Saqara. A series of tombs, only recently discovered, belonging to the Dynasties which immediately succeed that of Cheops, has already delayed our departure once. The 5th Dynasty, which in Africanus appears as the Elephantine Collateral Dynasty, and as such was not to be expected here, now lies complete before us, and in substance such as I already had constructed it in Europe. The gaps have been filled up with three kings, whose names were hitherto unknown. At the same time, several kings, who had hitherto been merely visionary, were added to the 7th and 8th Dynasties, from which we had hitherto obtained no monumental names. The reference to the 5th Dynasty as the immediate successor of the 4th, is of invaluable importance, and would in itself alone richly repay us for our residence of many months in this place. We are still always occupied with buildings, sculptures, and inscriptions, which by the Eoyal Eings being more exactly defined, will be placed in a flourishing epoch of civilisation, between three and four tliousand years before Christ. These numbers, hitherto so incredible, cannot be too frequently called to the remembrance of ourselves and others ; the more criticism is thereby challenged, and compelled to make earnest researches on the subject, so much the better for the cause. Conviction will immediately follow in the steps of stimulated criticism, and we shall then at length approach the results which are connected with it in all branches of antiquarian research. A roll of papers will be sent to you along with this letter, which contains several drawings, that we have taken from the sepulchral chambers in this place. They are excellent samples of the oldest Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting which the history of art can produce, and the most beautiful and best preserved that we have found on the whole field of tombs. I hope that we shall one day see these sepulchral chambers arranged in perfect order in the New Museum in TOMB OF PlilNCE MEEHET, 61 Berlin. That indeed would be the fairest trophj that we could carry out of Egypt. Their transport will certainly be attended with some difficulties, for you will easily see by their dimensions that ordinary means would not in this case be sufficient. I have, therefore, as a preliminary step, written a letter direct to his Majesty the King, and inquired whether it would not be possible to send a vessel here expressly for this purpose, either next year, or at the conclusion of our ex- pedition, with workmen and implements, to take these mo- numents to pieces in a inore skilful manner than we are capable of doing, and to bring them, with the other collec- tions, to Berlin. Six of the subjoined sheets contain drawings of a sepul- chral chamber, which I myself discovered beneath the sand, and whose colours are preserved almost as fresh and perfect as you see them in the drawing.* It belongs to a Prince Merhet, and as he was a priest of Chuff (Cheops), and as he had called one of his sons Chuff-mer-nuteeu, and pos- sessed eight \^llages, the names of which are combined with that of Chufu, and as the situation of the tomb is on the western side of the Pyramid of Chufu, and the style of the representations are in perfect keeping with it, it is more than probable that Merhet was a son of Chufu, from which circumstance all the representations become still more in- teresting. This prince was at the same time superintendent of all the royal buildings, therefore he filled the office of " Chief of the Board of Works" (Oberhofbaui-ath), a high and important position at that period of most magnificent buildings, which we have frequently seen occupied by princes and royal relatives. "We may therefore conjecture, that he also himself superintended the building of the largest Pyra- * The colours have now, alas! almost entirely disappeared. Owing to the unequal grain of the stone all the representations were pre- pared with a thin layer of lime for the groundwork, before they were painted; this lime has peeled off in the transport and by the action of the damp sea air, so that the rough sculpture alone remains. In the Work on the Monuments of the Prussian Expedition (Div. II., sheet 19 — 22), the colours have been given faithfully, as they were preserved in their original freshness when covered by the sand. 62 TOMB or PEINCE ilERHET. mid. Is not this aloue sufficient to justify tlie attempt to transfer the beautifully-constructed sepulchral chamber of this princely architect to Berlin, which otherwise will, sooner or later, be destroyed by the Arabs, and be used to build their ovens, or be burnt in their lime-kilns ? There, it would at least be preserved, and be accessible to the ad- miration or the study of those who are eager after know- ledge, so long as European art and science teach us to value such monuments. To reconstruct it, a space must be left perfectly free of 6 m. 30, (19 feet 8 inches) in breadth, 4 m. 60, (15 feet) in height, and 3 m. 80, (12 feet 5J inches) in depth, and this might siu'ely be reserved for it in the Kew Museum.* I observe, that such chambers form only a small portion of the entire structure of the tomb, and were not intended for the reception of the mummy. The tomb of Prince Merhet is above 70 feet long, 45 broad, and 15 high. It is solidly constructed of great square stones, with slanting outer surfaces. The chamber is alone left vacant, and one, or, as in this instance, two square shafts, leads from the flat roof through the building down to the living rock ; at the bottom of which, about 60 feet deep, rock-chambers open at the side, in wliich the sarcophagi were deposited. I have carefully preserved the venerable remains of the skull of the ancient prince of the house of Cheops, which I found in his mummy chamber. We found, alas ! little more, as this tomb also, like most of the others, had been long ago broken open. The entrance originally was closed by a slab of stone. The chamber above ground alone remained accessible at all times, and was therefore ornamented with representations and in- scriptions. Here the sacrifices ofiered to the dead were brought to the occupant of the tomb. It was generally dedi- cated to the worship of the deceased, and so far corresponded to the temple that was erected before every pyramid belong- * After our return from the south, two entire sepulchral chambers, besides the one here mentioned, -were taken to pieces and brought to Europe. All three are now reconstructed, with the other monuments, in the New Museum at Berlin. See Letter XXXV. TOMB OF PEINCE MEEHET. 63 ing to a king, for his worship. Like those temples, these chambers have also their entrance always from the east. The shafts, like thiS Pyramids, lie behind, to the west, because the deceased was believed to be in the west, whither he had gone with the setting sun, to the Osiris of Amente. The seventh sheet finally, contains two pillars, and their architrave, from the tomb of a royal relative, who was at the same time the prophet of four kings, and whose name was Ptah-nefru-be-u. The tomb was constructed later than that of Prince Merhet, in the fifth Manethonic D}'nasty. It belongs to an entire group of tombs, whose architectonic plan and connection with one another is very remarkable, and which I have, therefore, completely divested of sand, and brought to the light of day, while previously neither the en- trance, nor anything but the extreme summit of the outer- most encircling walls, were visible. I also send you the whole plan of this tomb, besides one of those contiguous to it, but I think I shall only bring away with me the architrave, and the beautifully painted pillars of the most southern chamber, which can be easily removed. On the architrave appears the name and titles of the deceased, who is also represented at full length on the four lateral faces of the pillars. Ami, the father of the deceased, appears on the front sides of the northern pillars ; AsESKEF-AifCH, his grandfather, on that of the southern. The pillars are twelve feet high, slender, and as usual, without capitals, but with the abacus. I have entirely isolated the whole chamber at the tomb of Prince Merhet ; but for the present I have relinquished the idea of taking it to pieces, as this is not the most favourable season for its removal. I have therefore caused this tomb, as well as the other, to be refilled with sand ; and when I arrive at Cairo to-morrow, I shall obtain an order, to prevent any of the tombs that have been opened by us, from being robbed of their stones. It is really revolting to see how long lines of camels from the neighbouring villages come here daily, and march off again, loaded with building 64 PYRAMID OF MEIDUM. stones. Fortunately — for is not everything for tlie best — the accommodating Pellahs are more attracted by the Psam- metic tombs, than by those belonging to the most ancient Dynasties, in which the great blocks are not sufficiently manageable. I begin, however, to have more serious fears for the tombs of the 5th and 7th Dynasties, which have been built with stones of a more moderate size. Yes- terday a beautiful standing pillar, covered with inscriptions, which was just going to be sketched, was overturned by the robbers behind our backs. They do not seem to have suc- ceeded in breaking it to pieces. The people here are so degenerate that their strength is quite insufficient, with all their assiduity, to destroy what their great predecessors have erected. A few days ago, we found a small obelisk erect, in its original position, in a tomb from the commencement of the 7th Dynasty. It is only a few feet high, but in good pre- servation, and with the name of the occupant of the tomb inscribed upon it. This form of monument, which is first conspicuous in the K'ew Monarchy, is thus removed several Dynasties farther back in the Old Monarchy, even than the Obelisk of Heliopolis. LETTEE YII. Saqara, the ISth March, 1843. A SHOET time ago, I made an excursion with Abeken and Bonomi to the more distant Pyramids of Lischt and Meidum. The last especially interested me extremely, as it has solved in a general manner some enigmas in the struc- ture of the Pyramids, which had long occupied my mind.* As an exception to the general rule, it lies almost in the lower plain, in the immediate neighbourhood of Bahr Jussuf, * A separate essay, Ueber den Bau der Pyramiden, was sent by me to the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1843, and it was printed in consequence of a resolution of the 3rd of August of that year. See the Monthly Report (Monat's Bericht) of the Academy-, 1843, p. 177—203, with three Plates. STEUCTUEE OF THE PTEAMIDS. 65 and is only just removed out of reacli of the inundation ; but it rises up so high and stately from the flat surface of the surrounding country, that it attracts notice even from a great distance. Its square, sharp-angled tower-like centre, which diminishes slightly at the summit, namely, at an angle of 74°, rises from an envelopment of rubbish, which surrounds it almost half-way up, to the height of 120 feet. Another hundred feet higher, there succeeds a platform, from which rises a more slender tower of moderate height, in the same angle, which again, in the centre of its flat upper surface, bears the remains of a third elevation. The walls of the principal tower are for the most part smoothl}'- polished, but have stripes at intervals that have been left rough, the cause of which afc first appeared almost inex- plicable ; but on more minute examination, I also found in the interior of the half-destroyed building which surrounds the base, some rising walls that were smooth, and having the same angle as the tower ; in front of these, again lay other walls, which followed one upon another like scales. At length it occurred to me that the whole building had pro- ceeded from a small Pyramid, which had been erected in stages of about forty feet high, and then first increased and heightened simultaneously on all sides, by superimposed coverings of stone, from fifteen to twenty feet in breadth, till at length the great steps were filled up so as to form one com- mon flat side, giving the usual pyramidal form to the whole. This gradual growth explains the enormous magnitude of particular Pyramids, beside so many other smaller ones. Each king began the building of his Pyramid as soon as he ascended the throne ; he only designed a small one, to ensure himself a complete tomb, even were he destined to be but a few years upon the throne. Put with the advancing years of his reign, he increased it by successive layers, till he thought that he was near the termination of his life. If he died during the erection, then the external covering was alone completed, and the monument of death finally re- mained proportionate to the duration of the life of the king. 66 THE SPHINX. It', in tlie course of centuries, all the other conditions which determine our calculations had equally remained, then, as bv the rings of a tree, we might even now have been able to calculate the years in the reigns of particular kings, by the coatings of the Pyramids. On the other hand, the great enigma of the bearded giant Sphinx still remains unsolved ! When, and by whom, was the colossal statue erected, and what was its significa- tion ? "We must leave the reply to more fortunate succes- sors. It is almost half-covered up with sand, and the granite stele, above eleven feet high, which stands between the paws, and which in itself forms the back wall of a small temple, which is here inserted, was totally invisible. Even the im- mense excavations made by Caviglia, in the year 1818, had long disappeared, so as not to leave a trace behind. By means of between sixty to eighty persons labouring for whole days together, we almost reached the base of the stele, a drawing of which I caused immediately to be made, as well as an impres- sion on paper, and also a plaster cast, in order to set it up one day in Berlin. Tliis stele, on which the Sphinx is itself repre- sented, was erected by Tuthmosis IY ., and dates from the first year of his reign. Thus, he must have found the Colossus already there. We are accustomed to regard the Sphinx, in Egypt, as a portrait of the king, and generally indeed, for that of a particular king, whose features it is said to represent ; therefore, with the single exception, as far as I am aware, of one female sphinx, which represents the wife of King Horus, they are always andro-sphinxes. In the hieroglyphic written character, the Sphinx is called Neb (the Lord), and forms e. g. the middle syllable in the name of the King JSTecta- NEBUS. But what king does our Colossus represent ? He stands in front of the second PjTamid, that of Schafra (Chephren), not exactly in the axis, yet parallel with the sides of the tem- ple, which stands before it, and in such a manner, as if the rock beside the Sphinx on the northern side was intended as its counterpart. Sphinxes, rams, statues, and obelisks, used be- THE SPHi:SX. 67 sides always to stand in former times in pairs before the en- trances of the temples. But what a powerful impression would have been made on the approaching worshipper by two such giant watchmen, between which the ancient path- way led up to the Temple of Chephren. They would have been worthy of that period of vast colossal monuments, and in due proportion with the Pyramid which rises up behind. I cannot deny that this connexion would be most satisfactory to me. What other motive would have induced the Theban kings of the ISth Dynasty, who are alone to be thought of in the New Monarchy, to adorn the Memphitic Field of Death with such a wonder of the world, if entirely uncon- nected with what surrounds it. In addition to this, upon the steles of Tuthmosis, the name of King Chepheen is inscribed in a line, which farther on is almost entirely broken away ; a portion of his Name-Shield, unfortunately quite isolated, has been still preserved, therefore undoubtedly it had some sort of reference to the builder of the Pyramid which is situated behind it. On the other hand, indeed, the question arises : If King Chephren was represented here, why does not the image bear his name ? It is rather designated as Haeem-chti (Horus in the Horizon), that is, as the image of the Sun-god, the emblem of all kings, and also Haemachis in one of the Greek inscriptions which have been found in front of the Sphinx. It does not appear to me altogether improbable that Pliny's fable is founded on this, who makes a King Amasis (Armasis) be buried in the Sphinx ;* for we surely cannot suppose it was a real sepulchre. Another considera- tion to be borne in mind is that I have not in general met with the image of the Sphinx in that oldest period of the builders of the Pyramids ; yet too much stress need not be laid on this ; the form of the Sphinx is not often found, even in inscriptions or representations, in the New Monarchy. In short, the true CEdipus is still wanting for this king of all * I liave spoken more at length on this in my Chronology of the Egyptians, vol. i., p. 294. e2 68 SWAEil OF LOCUSTS. spbinxes. He who can clear away the inexhaustible sand- flood which is again burying that very field of tombs, and who can expose to view the base of the Sphinx, the ancient path- way to the temple, and the surrounding hills, might soon venture to decide this question. The enigmas of history are in this land associated with many enigmas and wonders in nature, which I must not leave wholly unnoticed. I must at least describe to you the most recent. I had descended into a mummy-pit with Abeken, that we might open some sarcophagi we had discovered, and I was not a little astonished, on stepping out, to fijid myself in an actual snow-storm of locusts, which almost darkening the sky, moved above our heads in hundreds of thousands from the desert in the south-west towards the valley. I fancied it was a single flight, and in haste called the others out of the tombs, that they might witness the Egyptian wonder before it had passed away. But the flight continued, in- deed the workmen said, it had even begun an hour previously. We now observed for the first time, that the whole country, far and wide, was covered with locusts. I sent a servant into the desert to find out the breadth of the flight. He ran for about a quarter of an hour, then returned, and said that still as far as he had been able to see, he could discover no termination. I rode home, still in the midst of the storm of locusts. They fell down in heaps on the border of the fruitful plain ; and so it lasted the whole day through, till evening, and so on the next, from morning till night, to the third, indeed to the sixth day, and even longer, but in less numerous flights. The day before yesterday, a storm of rain seems for the first time to have beaten down the rear-guard, and destroyed them in the desert. The Arabs make great smoking fires in their fields, they rattle and scream all day long to protect their crops from the unex- pected invasion. But it will avail them little. These mil- lions of graminivorous winged insects cover even the ad- jacent sandy plain like a new living vegetation, to such a STTAEM or LOCUSTS. 69 degree, that scarcely anything is to be seen of tlie ground ; and when they swarm up from any point, they fall down again on whatever is in the immediate neighbourhood ; ex- hausted by their long journey, in their eagerness they fill their hollow stomachs, and, as if conscious of their enormous numbers, they appear to have lost even all fear of their natural enemies, man, animals, smoke, and noise. But what is most wonderful to me, is their origin from the naked desert, and the instinct which has led them from some oasis across the inhospitable sandy sea, to the rich pastures of the Nile valley. The last time that this land-plague of Egypt exhibited itself to a similar extent was above fourteen years ago. The people say that it is sent by the comet which we have observed in the south-west for the last twelve days, and which now, in the hours of evening, since it is no longer outshone by the moon, again stretches its magnificent tail of fire across the heavens. The zodiacal light, which is so rarely seen in the north, has also been visible of late almost every evening. I have only now been enabled completely to conclude my account with Gizeh, and to combine the historical results. I have every reason to rejoice over it; the 4th and 5th Dynasties are completed, with the exception of one king. I have just received the somewhat illegible drawing of a stone which has been bmlt into a wall in the village of Abusir, representing a series of kings of the 4th and 5th Dynas- ties upon their thrones, and, as it appears, in chronological order. I intend to ride there myself to see the original. LETTEE VIII. Saqdra, the \Sth April, 1843. I HASTEN to communicate to you an event which I should not like you to hear for the first time from other quarters, perhaps with alterations and exaggerations. Our camp, a few days ago, was attacked and plundered during tlie night by 70 FESTIVAL IIS" CATEO. an armed "band ; yet none of our party were seriously in- jured, and nothing that is irreparable was lost. The affair therefore, is over, and the consequences may only prove a useful lesson to us. But I must first go back several days in my journal. On the 3rd of April, his R.H. Prince Albert (of Prussia) returned to Cairo from Upper Egypt. The following day I visited the city, and laid before the prince a portion of our labours, in which he especially took a lively interest as he had abeady seen more of this land of wonders than we ourselves, and the field of Pyramids alone he had still left unvisited. On his first arrival in Cairo, I was absent on an excursion of several days to the Taium, with Abeken and Bonomi. The prince returned at the very time of the celebration of some of the chief festivals of the Mahometans, which, had he not been there, I should probably have neglected to attend. On the 6th, the entrance of the returning caravan of pilgrims from Mecca was welcomed by a solemn festival, and, some days later, the birthday of the Prophet, "Mulid e' ]N"ebbi," was celebrated, one of the most original feasts of the entire East. The principal actors in it are dervishes, who spend the day in processions, and perform their horribly extatic dances, called sikrs, in the evening, in tents illuminated by coloured lamps, which are erected in the avenues of the Ezbekieh. Between thirty and forty of this religious sect place themselves in a circle, and, keeping time, begin first slowly, then gradually more vehemently, to throw the upper part of their bodies, which are naked, backwards and forwards into the most violent distortions, like people who are pos- sessed. At the same time, they ejaculate in a rhythm, with a loud screaming voice, their Prophet's sajnug. La ilaha ill' Allah ("There is no Ood but Allah"), which, gra- dually stammered out lower and more feebly, is finally almost rattled in the throat, till at length, their strength being en- tirely exhausted, some fall down, others withdraw reeling, and the broken circle is, after a short pause, replaced by another. What a fearful, barbarous worship, which the astonished DOSEH, THE THAlirLI>'Q. 71 multitude, great and small, people of condition and those of inferior rank, contemplate with seriousness or in stupid veneration, and in which they themselves not unfrequently take an active part. The god who is appealed to is evi- dently much leas the object of adoration than the appeal- ing, raptured saints themselves ; for the crazy and the simple, or men and women who are physically disordered in other ways, are very generally held sacred by the Mahome- tans, and are treated with great reverence. It i^ the de- moniacal force in nature, acting without being comprehended, and therefore regarded with fear, which is worsliipped by the natural man wherever he perceives it, because he feels that it is connected with, yet not under the control of his mental faculties ; first, in the mighty elements, then in the wonder- ful instincts of animals — to us dark, yet subject to a law ; finally, in the still more exciting, extatic, or generally ab- normal psychological conditions of his own race. We must indeed, regai'd the Egyptian worship of animals — in as far as it was not merely a symbolic embodiment of deeper and more refined ideas — as resting on the same basis of a uni- versal worship of nature ; and the adoration paid to men with disordered intellects, which appears occasionally in other nations also, may be considered as a remarkable ofiset from that tendency. Whether such conditions really exist at the present time, or whether, as among the dervishes, it is pro- duced artificially, and is intentionally cherished, will not be detected by the multitude ; and besides, for the individual case, it is indiflerent. An uncomfortable feeling of fear creeps over us in such a neighbourhood, and we feel it necessary to avoid uttering any expressions, or even to give a sign of disgust, or to betray that we see through it, lest we should direct the brutal outbursts on ourselves. The festival, which lasts nine days, closes with a pecuHar ceremony called Doseh, the Trampling, but which I could not bear to look at. The sheikh of the Saadieh dervishes rides to the chief sheikh of all the dervishes in Egypt, El Bekri. On the way thither, a great number of these 72 YISIT TO PTEAMIDS A>T) SAQAEA. holy people, and others who do not consider themselves in- ferior to them in piety, throw themselves flat on the ground, face downwards, and in such a manner that the feet of one always lies close to the head of another. The sheikh then rides over this living carpet of human bodies, and his horse is obliged to be led on each side by a servant, to com- pel it to make this march, unnatural even to the animal. Each body receives two treads from the horse ; the greater number spring up again unhurt, but whoever comes away seriously, or, as sometimes occurs, mortally injured, has, be- sides, this disgrace, that it is believed that on the previous day he had either misunderstood or neglected to say the proper prayers and charm-formularies, which were alone able to protect him. On the 7th April, Erbkam and I accompanied the prince to the Pyramids, first of all to those of Gizeh. The Pyramid of Cheops was ascended, and the interior was visited. In order to exhibit the beautiful tomb of Prince Merhet, I caused it to be re-opened. We next proceeded to our camp at Saqara. Here we heard that during tlie previous night a daring robbery had been committed in Abeken's tent. He was sleeping in it, on his return from Cairo, beside a burning light, when his full portmanteau, pistols, and other objects lying near, were purloined. It was only whde the thief was making his retreat that a noise was heard by the slumbering guards, composing the night-watch, immediately behind the tent ; the darkness, however, hindered all pursuit. After the prince had also seen the most beautiful tomb of Saqara, we rode across the plain to Mitrahinneh, to \'isit the pounds of ruins at Memphis, and the half-buried colossal gra- nite statue of Eamses INIiamun (Sesostris)*, the face of which is still preserved almost without a blemish. It was late in the evening before we again reached Cairo, after a ♦ We have been told on good authority that this statue is not com- posed of granite, but of limestone from the neishbouring hills. — Tb. TUE POINTED ARCH. 73 day 'a journey ol' sixteen hours, hardly interrupted even by short pauses for repose ; but the unusual exertion seemed rather to heiijhten than to depress the priuee's cheerful cnjoyim-nt in irivilliug. i ' . ly we visited the mosques of the city, which are : . , irtly by their splendour, and in part, also, are peculiarly interesting for the history of architecture in the middle ages, as the earliest general application of the pointed an'h is here visible. The questions which relate to this most characteristic department of architecture, the so- called gothic style, interested me so deeply a few years ago, that even liere I could not forbear following my old pursuit. Tlic pointed arch is found in the oldest mosques, even as far back as the ninth century. Upon the conquest of Sicily by the Arabs, the new form of arch was transported to that island, where, in the eleventh century, it was found by the Normans, the next conquerors, and was still more ge- nerally adopted, Without entering into furtiier details, it seems to me scarcely possible to indicate any historical con- nexion of the Norman pointed arch of Palermo with our style of ix)inted arch of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The acceptance of such a connexion would be still more diffi- cult for the explanation of the rows of pointed arches to be found already much earlier in Germany, which are sporadic, but still according to rule; those, for example, in the cathe- dral of Naumburg as early as the eleventh century, and in Meraleben even in the tenth. Theorists do not indeed admit this yet, but 1 am still waiting for a refutation of the argu- ments 1 have brought forward.* The Nilometer on the island of Koda, which we visited • Compare my e.«say, Utber die ausgedehnte Anwendung des SpitZ' boqcns in I),ul.'Tn. that all form of the edifice itself had disappeared, and that an unshapely heap of ruins might deter us from making any ex- aminations. Instead of this, at the first superficial survey of the ground, a number of complicated spaces, of true laby- rinthine forms, immediately presented themselves, both above and below ground, and the eye could easily detect the prin- cipal buildings, more than a stadium (Strabo) in extent. "Where the French expedition had vainly sought for cham- bers, we literally at once find hundreds of them, both next to, and above one another, small, often diminutive ones, beside greater ones, and large ones, supported by small columns, with thresholds, and niches in the walls, with remains of columns, and single casing-stones, connected by corridors, without any regularity in the entrances and exits, so that the descriptions of Herodotus and Strabo, in this respect, are fully justified. But at the same time also, the opinion, which was never adopted by me, and is irreconcileable with any architectonic view, that there are serpentine, case-like wind- ings, in place of square rooms, is decidedly refuted. The whole is so arranged, that three immense masses of buildings, 300 feet broad, enclose a square place, which is 600 feet long and 500 feet wide. The fourth side, one of the narrow ones, is bounded by the P}Tamid, which lies behiad it ; it is 300 feet square, and therefore does not quite reach the side wings of the above-mentioned masses of bmldings. A canal of rather modern date, passing obliquely through the ruins, and which one can almost leap over, at least at the present season, cuts ofi" exactly the best preserved portion of the lab}Tinthian chambers, together with part of the great central square, which at one time was divided into courts. The travellers preferred not wetting their feet, and remained on this side, where the continuation of the wings of the build- ings is certainly more concealed beneath the rubbish. But the chambers lying on the farther side, especially their soutliern point, where the walls rise nearly ten feet above the rubbish, and about twenty feet above the base of the ruins, are to be seen very well even from this, the eastern side ; and viewed from the summit of the Pyramid, the regular plan of THE LABYHIXTH. '91 the whole desi^ lies before one as on a map. Erbkam has been occupied ever since our arrival, in making the special plan, on which even* chamber or wall, however small, will be noted down. The farther portion of the ruins is, therefore, by far the most difficult to record. On this side it is an easier task, but so much the more difficult to understand. Here the labyrinth of chambers passes on southwards. The courts were situated between this and the Pvramid Ivinsr opposite on the northern side. But almost all of these have disappeared. AVe have, therefore, nothing to guide us but the dimensions of the square, which lead us to suppose that it wa-s divided into two halves, by a long wall, against which the twelve courts (for we cannot, indeed, witli any certaintv, make out that there were more) abutted on both sides, so that their entrances turned towards opposite sides, and had immediately facing them the extensive mass of innumerable chambers. But who was the Maros, Mendes, Imandes, who, by the account of the Greeks, erected the Labyrinth, or rather the P\Tamid belonging to it, for his tomb ? In tlie Manethonic list of Kings, we find the builder of the LabjTinth introduced towards the end of the 12th Dynasty, the last of the Old Monarchy, shortly before the invasion of the Hyksos. The fragments of the mighty columns and architraves which we have dug up from the great square of the halls, exhibit the name-shields of the sixtli king of this same 12th Dynasty, Amenemha III. Thus the important question of its place in histor}' is answered,* AVe have also made excavations on the north side of the Pyramid, because it is here that we con- jecture the entrance must have been. But it has not been hitherto discovered. AVe have only as yet penetrated into a chamber which lay in front of the Pyramid, and which was covered by a great quantity of rubbish, and we have several times found the name of Amenemha here also. The builder and occupier of the P}Tamid is therefore determined. But this does not refute the statement of Herodotus, that the Dodecarchs, only 200 years before his time, had undertaken * Compare my Chronology of the Egyptians, i., p. 262, &c. 92 LAKE M(ERIS. the building of the Labyrinth. We have found no inscrip- tions in the ruins of the great masses of chambers which surround the central space. It may be easily proved by future excavations that this whole building, and probably also the disposition of the twelve courts, belong only, in fact, to the 26th Dynasty of Manetho, so that the original temple of Amenemha formed merely part of this gigantic ar- chitectural enclosure. So much for the Labyrinth and its Pyramid. The exact position which its biiilder occupies in history is by far the most important result that we could altogether hope to obtain here. I must now say a few words respecting the other world's wonder of this province, Lake Mceris. The obscurity which has hitherto hung over it seems at length to have been dispersed, by a beautiful discovery, which was made a short time ago by the excellent Linant, the director of the water-works of the Pascha. Hitherto there was only one point of agreement, that the lake was situated in the Paium. Now, as at the present day there is only one single lake in this remarkable semi-oasis, the Birqet-el-Qorn, which is situated in its most remote and lowest parts, this must be the Lake Moeris ; we have no other choice. Its celebrity, however, rested principally upon this, that it was an artificially designed (Herodotus says an excavated) and extremely profitable lake, which was filled by the Nile when it was high, and when the water was low, flowed off again by the connecting canal; and irrigating on the one side the grounds of tlie Faium, on the other, during its reflux, the adjacent tracts of the Memphitic district, at the same time yielded extremely rich fishing near the double sluices at the mouth of the Paium. To the annoyance of Antiquarians and Philologists, not one of all these peculiarities belonged to the Birqet-el-Qorn. This is not an artificial, but a natural lake, which is only in part fed by the water of the Jussuf canal. One of its useful quahties can be hardly said to exist, since no fishing-boat enlivens its surface, encircled by an arid desert, because the brackish water contains scarcely any fish, and is in no degree favourable to the vegetation on its LAKE M(EBIS. 9g^ shores. When the Nile is at its height, and there is a more abundant supply of water, it certainly rises; but it is situated at far too low a level to allow a di'op of the water with which it has been supplied, ever to flow back again. The whole province must be buried beneath the flood before the waters could find their way back into the valley, for the artificially lowered rocky channel through which "the Bahr. Jussuf id brought hither, branching oft' from the Nile about forty miles south, lies higher than the whole oasis. The surface of the Birqct-el-Qorn is now about seventy feet below the point where the canal flows in, and can never have risen to a much greater height,* which is proved by some remains of a temple upon its shores. As little does it agree with the statement, that the Labyrinth, and the capital Arsinoe, the present Medinet-el-Faium, were situated on its shores. Linant has now discovered huge dams, miles in length, of the most ancient solid construction, which separates the ujjpermost portion of the shell-like, convex-formed basin of the Faium from those parts which are situated lower and lie farther back, and, according to him, could only have been intended to retain artificially a great lake, which now, how- ever, since the dams have been long broken through, lies completely dry. This lake he holds to be that of Maoris. I must confess that the whole thing, when he first communi- cated it to me by word of mouth, impressed me with the idea that it was an extremely happy discovery, which will also spare us in future many fruitless researches. An inspection of the ground has now removed all my doubts as to the correct- ness of this view. I hold it to be an insubvertible fact. ♦ According to Linant, the diflFerence amounts to 22 metres, that is, 70 feet ]iheiulaud (72 English). In June, 1843, an engineer of the Viceroy, Nascimboni, who was engaged in making a new map, and levelling the P'aium, visited us in our camp, at the Pyramid of Moeris. lie had only found a descent of 2 metres (6 feet 6 inches English) from Illalum to Medinct, but from tlience to Birqet-el-Qorn, 75 metres (246 feet English). I am not aware that anything has been published about this considerable difference of measurements. Sir G. Wilkinson, in his Mod. Eg. and Thebes, vol. ii., 346, states the surface of the water to be about 125 English feet below the bank of the Nile at Beuisuef. 94. JOUEXET EOrXD THE PAIUM. Linant's treatise is now being printed, and I will send it to you as soon as it is to be had.* But finally, if you ask me wbat tbe name of Moeris has to do with that of Amenemha, I can only answer, nothing. The name Moeris neither appears on the monuments, nor in Manetho. I rather think that here again we find one of the numerous misunderstandings of the G-reeks. The Egyptians called the lake, Phiom en mere, the Lake of the Nile-inunda- tion (Copt. UHpe^ inundatio). The Greeks made out of mere^ the water which formed the lake, a "King Moeris who designed the lake, and then troubled themselves no further about the true originator, Amenemha. At a later period the whole province received the name c|)iou, Phiom, the Lake, from which the present name Paium has been derived. LETTER XII. The Labyrmth, the I8ih July, 1843. "We have accomplished our journey round that remarkable province, the Paium, very rarely visited by Europeans, which, on account of its fertility, may be named the Garden of Egypt ; and precisely because these parts are almost as un- known as the distant oases of Libya, you will, perhaps, be glad to hear some more details about them from me. I started with Erbkam, E. AYeidenbach, and Abeken, on the 3rd of July. We went from the Labpinth along the Bahr "Wardani, which skirts the eastern border of the desert, and forms the boundary, to which the shore of Lake Moeris at one time extended towards the East. The canal is now dry, and is replaced by the still more recent Bahr Scherkieh, which, as they say, was made by the Sultan Barquq, and is conducted through the middle of the Labyrinth ; it at first crosses the Wardani several times, but afterwards keeps more * Memoire sur le las Mceris, presente et lu a la Societe Egyptienne l9 5 Juillet, 1842, par Linant de Bellefonds, inspecteur-general des ponts, et chaussees, publie par la Societe Egyptienne. Alexandrie, 1843. 4to. Compare my Chronology, vol. i., p. 26ii &c. DAMS OF LAKE M(EEIS. 95 inland. In three hours we reached the point where the huge dam of Moeris projects from the middle of the Faium into the desert. It runs out in this spot for about one and a half geo- graphical miles as far as El Elam. In the middle of this tract it is intersected by Bahr-bela-ma, a deep bed of a stream, wliich now cuts througli the old lake-bottom, and is usually dry, but when there is a great supply of water, it is used as an outlet for the Buperlluity towards Tamieh, and into the Birqet-el- Qom. Tliis enabled us to examine the dam itself from a nearer point of view. The current, which at times is swollen and rapid, has scooped out a passage for itself since the de- struction of the lake, not only tlirough the alluvial soil that formed the bottom of the lake, but also through several other layers of earth, and even through the slightly indurated limestone lying undermost ; so that the water, at this season, reduced certainly to a minimum, flows about sixty feet lower than the present dry bottom of the lake. I measured accu- rately the separate layers of earth, and carried away with me a specimen of each. The breadth of the dam cannot be detenniued with certainty, but may, perhaps, have amounted to 150 feet. The height of the dam has probably become somewhat lower with time. I found it to be 1 m. 90 (6 feet ;3 inches Euglish) above the present bottom of the lake, and 5 m. GO (IS feet 4 inches English) above the opposite plain. If we suppose this last to be on a similar level with the original bottom of the lake (which was, however, probably lower, because the external ground was irrigated, and con- sequently became elevated), then the dam, apart from its gradual levelling from above downwards, must have been formerly as much as 5 m. GO, consequently 17 feet high, and the ground in the inner part of the lake, during its existence of more than two thousand years, must have risen by deposits of earth about 11 feet. But if we admit that the black earth also, from 11 to 12 feet thick, which is still to be found outside of the dams, was deposited within the historical times, then the above numbers would even require to be doubled. Thus we have some idea how its utility must have been much 96 MONUMENTS OF EIAHMU. diminished with time; for the lake (if we assume that its circumference is what Linant asserts), by the filling up of the 11 feet of earth, must have lost 13,000 millions of square feet of ^the water, which it might have formerly contained. An elevation of the dams could in no possible manner have prevented this, because they had been already placed in exact relation to the point of the influx of the Bahr Jussuf into the Eaium. This may have been one of the most substantial reasons why Lake Moeris was allowed at a later period to fall into decay; and even Linant's bold project to restore the lake could not wholly repair this loss, even if he were to make the Bahr Jussuf branch off from the Nile at a much higher point than was thought necessary by the old Pharaohs. In two hours and a half from this intersection, following the dam to El Elam, where it ceases, we reached the remark- able remains of the two monuments of Biahmu, which Linant considers to be the Pyramids of Moeris and his consort, which were seen by Herodotus in the lake. They were built out of great massive blocks ; the nucleus of each of them is still standing, but not in the centre of the almost square rect- angle, which, by their appearance, they seem to have originally occupied. They rose at an angle of 64°, therefore, with a much steeper inclination than Pyramids usually do. Their present height, which, however, seems to have been originally the same as it is now, only amounts to twenty-three feet, to which, nevertheless, must be added, a pecidiar and somewhat projecting base of seven feet. A small excavation convinced me that the lowest layer of stone, which only reaches four feet beneath the present ground, was founded neither on sand nor on rock, but upon Nile mud, which more especially render the great antiquity of these buildings very doubtful. At least it is to be inferred from this that they did not stand in the lake, which, if it encircled them, must have had a remarkable curve outwards to the north-west. "We had been riding hitherto on the line of separation between the ancient bottom of the lake and the adjacent BIEQET-EL-QOEK. 97 district. The former is bare and sterile, since the land, at the present day, lies so high that it cannot be overflowed. On the other hand, the broad tract of land enclosing the ancient lake, forms by far the most beautiful and most fertile part of the Faium. AVe now traversed this district, while we left the capital of the province, Medinet el Faium, with the mounds of the ancient Ceocodilopolis on our left, and rode by Selajin and Fidimin, to Agamieh, where we spent tlie night. The next morning, near Bischeh, we reached the limits of this continuous garden-land. Here we entered a new region, forming a striking contrast to the former, by its sterility and desolation, enriching it like a girdle, and separating it from the crescent-shaped Birqet-el-Qorn, situated in the lowest and most distant part. About mid- day we reached the lake. The only boat which was to be had, far and wide, conveyed us in an hour and a half across the expanse of water, encircled all around by the desert, to an island lying in the centre of the lake, called Geziret-el- Qorn. We, however, found nothing on it worthy of notice, not even a trace of a building, so towards the evening we returned. The next morning we re-crossed the lake in a more north- erly direction, and landed on a small peninsula of the oppo- site sliore, which rises at once 150 feet, to a plateau of the Libyan Desert, commanding the whole Oasis. AYe then ascended, and about an hour distant from the shore, in the midst of the inhospitable desert, devoid of water and vegeta- tion, we found the extensive ruins of an ancient town, which on earlier maps is named Medinet Nimrud. They were utterly unacquainted with this name here ; the place was only known by the designation of Dimeh. On the following day, the 7th July, the regular plan of these ruins, with the remains of its temple, was noted down by Erbkam, who had spent the night here with Abeken. There are no inscriptions on the temple, and whatever sculptures we found, were placed in this remarkable building at a late period. It was H VQ THE FAIUM. probably intended only as a military station, against in- vasions from Lybia into tbe rich country of the Eaium. On the 8th July we went in our boat to Qase Qeetjn, an old town on the southern end of the lake, with a temple of late date, and in excellenc preservation, but with no in- scriptions, the plan of which was taken on the following day. Prom this place we followed the southern frontier of the Oasis, by Neslet, as far as the ruins of Medinet Madi, on Lake Gthaeaq, near which the ancient dams of Lake Moeris projected from the north, and on the 11th July we again arrived at our camp on the ruins of the Labyrinth. "We found all well, including Frey, whom we had left indisposed, and whose repeated attacks of illness, probably produced by the climate, cause me some anxiety. To-morrow I am thinking of going to Cairo with Abeken and Bonomi, to hire a boat for our journey south, and to prepare everything that is requisite for our final departure from the neighbourhood of the capital. We shall take four camels with us for the transport of the monuments which we have collected in the Faium, and strike into the shortest road, namely, from here by Tamieh, which we did not touch at, on our journey round, and thence across the desert heights which separate this part of the Faium from the Nile valley ; we shall then descend into it by the Pyramids of Dahschur, and thus hope to reach Cairo in two days and a half. LETTEE XIII. Cairo, the Uth August, 1843. I EEGEET to say that I received such uncomfortable accounts of the state of Frey's health, soon after our arrival in Cairo, that Abeken and Bonomi at length determined to go to our camp, and to bring him in a litter which they took with them, from the Labyrinth to Zani on the Nile, and thence by water to this place. As soon as Br. ETHIOPIAN MiJNTSCRIPTS. 99 Pruner had seen him, he pronounced that the only advisable course was to let him immediately return to Europe. The liver complaint, under which he was found to be suffering, ijs incurable in Egypt, and as it had already made great pro- gress, he left us yesterday at mid-day. May the climate of home soon restore our friend's strength, who is both amiable and full of talent, and is a great loss to us all. A few days ago, I purchased some Ethiopian Manuscripts for the Library at Berlin, from a Basque, Domingo Lorda, who has lived a long time in Abyssinia, and accompanied D'Abadie on several journeys. He bought them, probably, for a small sum, in a convent situated on the island of Thana, near Gorata, one day's journey from the sources of the Blue Nile, whose inhabitants were brought to a state of great distress by locusts. The one contains the history of Abyssinia, from Solomon to Christ, and is said to come from Asum, and to be between five and six hundred years old. This first part of the Abyssinian history, called Kebre Negest, " the Fame of the Kings," is said to be far more rare than the second, Tarik Negest, " the History of the Kings ;" but this manuscript also contains at the end a list of the Ethiopian kings since the time of Christ. The largest manuscript, adorned with many great pictures in the By- zantine style, and by what I learn about it from Lieder, almost unique in its kind, contains chiefly the histories of saints. The third contains the still valid Canones of the Church, complete. I hope that it will be an acceptable pur- chase for our Library.* * The same Domenico Lorda again travelled that year to Abyssinia, . and sent six other Abyssinian manuscripts to Herr Lieder from thence, who showed them to me on my return to Cairo. These, also, on my suggestion, were afterwards obtained for the Koyal Library. By M. Lorda's account they contain : A. Abuscher — Almanacco perpetuo Civilc-Ecclesiastico-Storico. B. Sktta Negiiest— Codice dell' Imperadore Eeschias. C. JusEPH — Storia Civile, ed Ecclesiastica. (?) D. Beraan — Storia Civile, ed Ecclesiastica. E. Philkisius e Marisak— Due Opere, in un volume, che trat- tano della Storia Civile. F. SiNODDS — Dritto Canonico. h2 100 JOTJENEY TO UPPER EGYPT. The purchases for our journej are also now completed ; a convenient boat is hired, which will save us from the great difficulties of a land journey, since this, more especially during the impending season of inundation, could scarcely be accom- plished. LETTEE XIV. Thebes, the \Bth October, 1843. On the 16th August I went from Cairo to the Faium, from which our camp broke up on the 21st. Two days later we sailed away from Beni-suee, and, sending the camels back to Cairo, only took the asses with us in our boat, as, on considering the matter more attentively, we found that the land journey, originally contemplated by me along the range of the hdls some distance from the river on the western side, was quite impracticable during the inundation, and on the eastern bank would have been partly too fatiguing, and partly devoid of objects of interest to us on account of the proximity of the desert frontier on that side, beyond which there is nothing for us to explore. We have, therefore, only made excursions from the boat, sometimes on foot, some- times on asses, principally to the eastern hills, which are easily reached ; but on the western bank, also, we have visited the most important points. The very day after our departure from Beni-suef we found a small rock-temple in the neighbourhood of the village of SuRARiEH, unnoticed by earlier travellers, not even men- tioned by "Wilkinson, which, as early as the 19th Dynasty, was dedicated by Menephthes, the son of Eamses Miamun, to the Egyptian Yenus (Hathor). Farther on are several groups of tombs, which had also hitherto received scarcely any notice, although, from their extreme antiquity, they are peculiarly interesting. The whole of Middle Egypt, judging by the tombs which have been preserved, seems to have principally flourished during the Old Monarchy, before the SU-T. 101 invasion of the Ilyksos, not only during the 12tli Dynast^', to which the renowned tombs of Benihassan, Siut, and Berscheh belong, but even as early as the 6th. We have found groups of tombs, of considerable size, from this early period, which belonged to towns whose names even are no longer known in the later Egyptian geography, because they had probably been destroyed by the Hyksos. We remained the longest time in Benihassan, namely, sixteen days. Hence the season has now arrived, which we must not lose for our journey south. In the following places, therefore, notes alone were taken, and paper impressions of a most impor- tant kind ; for instance, in El Amarna, in Siut, in the vene- rable Abydos, and in the more recent, but not on that account less magnificent, Temple of Dendera, which is almost in perfect preservation. In Siut we visited the Governor of Upper Egypt, Selim Pascha, who for several months past has been working an ancient alabaster quarry, which had been re-discovered by the Bedouins, between Berscheh and Gauata. The town of Siut is beautifully built and in a charming situation, especially when viewed from the steep rock on the western bank of the valley close behind it. The view of the overflowed Xile valley from these heights is the most beauti- ful wliich we have yet seen, and, at the same time, extremely characteristic of the inundation season, in which we are now travelling. From the foot of the steep rock, a small dam over- grown with sont-trees,* and a bridge, leads across to the town, which lies like an island in the boundless sea of inundation. The gardens of Ibrahim Pascha, extending on the left, form another island, green and fresh, covered with trees and brush- wood. The town, with its fifteen minarets, rises high above the mounds of rubbish of the ancient Lycopolis. A still larger dam leads- from it to the Nile, and, towards the south, other long dams may be seen, like floating threads drawn across the mass of waters. On the other side the Arabian chain of mouu- * Sont, or Acacia, ^limosa Nilotica. — Sir G. Wilkinson. — Tr. 102 THEBES, tains approach tolerably near, by vrliich the valley becomes closed in, forming a picture which can be easily surveyed. "We have been in the royal city of Thebes since the 6th October, Our boat landed us first, under the walls of Luqsor, at the most southern point of the Theban ruins. The strong current of the river has here encroached to within such a short distance of the old temple that it is itself even in considerable danger. I endeavoured to obtain a view over the ruins of Thebes, from the summit of the temple, in order to compare it with the image that I had formed of it from maps and descriptions. The distances, however, are too great to make a good picture. You look upon a wide landscape, in which the scattered groups of temples stand forth as single points, and can only be recognised by one who has a previous knowledge of the subject. Towards the north, at the dis- tance of a short hour, rise the mighty Pylones of Kaenak, which of itself formed a town of temples altogether gigantic and astonishing. TTe spent the succeeding days in taking a cursory survey of them. On the other side of the river, at the foot of the Libyan range, are the Memnoxia, once an uninterrupted series of splendid buildings, unrivalled among the monuments of antiquity. Even now the temples of Medinet Habu, with their high mounds of rubbish, are distinguishable in the distance, at the southern end of this series, exactly opposite to Luqsor ; and at the northern end, an hour from that point dovrn the river, the temple of QuR^^AH, which is in good preservation ; between them both stands the temple of Eamses Miamun (Sesostris), abeady of gi-eat celebrity, from its description by Diodorus. Thus the four Arabian places, Karnak, and Luqsor on the eastern side of the river, Quruah, and IMediuet Habu on the western, form a great square, which measures on every side about half a geographical mile, and gives us some notion of the magnitude of the most splendid portion of ancient Thebes. How far the remaining inhabited portion of the City of a Hundred Gates extended towards the east, north, and south, it is difficult to discover now, because all that in the lapse of THEBES. 103 time has not maintained its origuial position, has gradually disappeared beneath the annually increasing rise of the soil of the lower plain by the inundation. No one ever inquires here about the weather, for one day- is exactly like the other, serene, clear, and hitherto not too hot. AVe have no momiag or evening red, as there are neither clouds nor vapours ; but the first ray of the morning calls forth a world of colours in the bare and rugged lime- stone mountains closing in around us, and in the brownish glitterinf^ desert, contrasted with the black, or green-clothed lower phiin, such as is never seen in northern countries. There is scarcely any twilight, as the sun sinks down at once. The separation of night and day is just as sudden as that between meadow and desert ; one step, one moment, dindes the one from the other. The sombre brilliancy of the moon and starlight nights is so much the more refreshing to the eye which has been dazzled by the ocean light of day. The air is so pure and dry, that except in the immediate vicinity of the river, in spite of the sudden change at sunset, there is no fall of dew. We have almost entirely forgotten what rain is, for it is above six months since it last rained with us in Saqiira. A few days ago we rejoiced, when, towards evening, we discovered some light clouds in the sky to the south-west, which reminded us of Europe. Nevertheless, we do not want coolness even in the daytime, for a light \vind is almost always blowing, which does not allow the heat to become too oppressive. Added to this, the Nile water is pleasant to the taste, and may be enjoyed in great abundance without any detriment. The clay water-bottles (Qulleh) are invaluable to us ; they are composed of fine, porous Nile mud, which allows the water to ooze through them continually ; the evaporation of this, as soon as it appears on the warm surface, as is well known, produces cold, and thus, by this simple process, the bottles are constantly kept cool in the hottest period of the day. The drinking-water, on that account, is usually cooler than it is in Europe during the summer. We princi- 104 LirE IN TUE EAST. pally live upon poultry, and, as a change, we occasionally kill a sheep. There are very few vegetables. Every meal is concluded by a dish of rice. For dessert we have the most beautiful yellow melons, or juicy red water-melons. The dates also are excellent, but not to be had everywhere. I have at length, to the great joy of my companions, learned to smoke a Turkish pipe, which keeps me a quarter of an hour in perfect Icef: by this word the Arabs designate their easy repose, their comfort; for as long as one '' drinks" the blue smoke of the long pipe from the shallow bowl, so easily overset, it is impossible to leave one's position, or to under- take anything else. AYe have a convenient costume — loose trousers of light cotton stuff, and over them a wide long tunic, with short wide sleeves. Besides this I wear a broad, turned-up, grey felt hat, as a European badge, which keeps the Arabs in proper respect. We eat, according to the custom of the country, on a low round table, not a foot high, sitting on cushions, with our legs folded under us. This position has become so convenient to me, that I even write in it, sitting on my couch, the letter portfolio on my knees, as a support. Above me is spread out a canopy of gauze to keep off the flies — this most shameless plague of Egypt during the day — and the gnats during the night. In other respects, we suffer fiir less from vermin here, than in Italy. "We have not yet been bit by scorpions and serpents, but in return there are very malignant wasps, which have frequently stung us. We shall only remain here till the day after to-morrow, and shall then travel towards the south without stopping. We shall wait for our return to devote as much time and labour as the treasures in this spot demand. At Assuan, on the frontiers of Egypt, we shall, for the first time, change our mode of transport, and send back oiu' great boat, in which we already feel quite at home. On the other side of the cataracts we shall take two smaller boats for our journey onwards. GEEEK INSCRIPTIONS. 105 LETTEE XY. Korusko, the 20th Aovember, 1843.* OuE joumej from the Faiura, through Eg}'pt, was neces- sarily very much hastened owing to the advanced season. "We have, therefore, rarely remained longer at a place than was requisite for a hasty survey, and have chiefly confined our- selves, during the past three months, to keeping an exact register of what exists, and to increasing our important col- lection of impressions upon paper of the most interesting inscriptions. On our rapid journey as far as Wadi Haifa, we have col- lected from three to four hundred impressions, or exact copies, of Greek inscriptions alone. They often confirm Le- tronne's acute conjectures, but also not unfrequently cor- rect the unavoidable mistakes of such a difficult work as his. In the inscription from which, without any foundation, it was proposed to settle the position of the town of Akoris, his conjecture, I2IAI AOXIAAI, is not verified : L'Ii6te had read MOXIAAI, but it is MQXIAAI, and before EPQEQS, not EPEEQ2. The dedicatory inscription of the Temple of Pselciiis (as it is given in the inscription, in accordance with Strabo, in- stead of Pselcis) is almost as long again as Letronne assumes it to be, and the first line does not end witli KAE0nATPA2, but with AAEAH2, so that we must probably restore it thus : 'Ynep QaaiXiCDS YlToXefiaiov /cat ^aa-iXia-crTjs KXeonaTpas Trjs dbeX(pT)s Oeiov Evfpy€To)v.f . . .4, * This letter, addressed to Alexander von Humboldt, has been already printed in the Prussian Gazette, Berlin, 9th Feb., 1844. t " Dedicated to King Ttolemy and Cleopatra, his sister, benevolent deities." — Tr. X The emendation, aStX^f)?, in this inscription, which dates from the thirty-fifth year of Euergetes (b.c. 136), is of importance in certain chronological determinations of that period. Letronne (Rec. 106 geeee: iirscEiPTioisrs. At the end of the second line TQIKAI, therefore, is con- firmed. The surname of Hermes, "^hich follows in the third line, however, has been nAOTnNOYa>l (ai) differing from the writing in other later inscriptions, where he is called nAYTN0Y$I2. The same surname is also not unfrequently found in hieroglyphics, and then sounds Tut en Pnuhs, that is to say, Thoth of, or Lord of Uvov.-^, a town, the site of which is still uncertain. I have already met with this Thoth in temples of earlier date, where he frequently appears beside the Tliotli of ScJwiun, i. e. Hermopolis Magna. In the po- pular language it was called Pet-Pnuls ; from this, it became Taot-F7iupMs. The interesting problem about the owner of the name, EvTrdifop, which Letronne endeavours to solve in a new manner, by means of the inscriptions on the obelisk of Philae, appears to be decided by tlie hieroglyphic inscriptions, where des Inscr., vol. i., p. 33 — 56) assumed that Cleopatra III., the niece and second wife of Euergetes II., was here meant. Hence alone he con- cluded that this king, in the oflScial documents written before his ex- pulsion, in the year 132 e.g., only joined the name of his wife, Cleopatra III., to his own, and therefore he fixed the date of all the inscriptions, in which both the Cleopatras, the sister, and the (second) wrfe are named after the king, in the period after the return of Euergetes (127 — 117), e.g. the inscriptions on the obelisk of Philffi (Rec, vol. 1., p. 333). In this determination of the time, he is followed by Franz (Corp. Inscr., vol. iii., p. 285), who, for the same reason, fixes the date of the inscriptions (c. i., no. 4841, 4860, 4895, 4896) between b.c. 127 and 117, although he was already aware of my correction of the inscription of Pselchis (c. i., no. 5073). It is indeed singular that only one Cleopatra is mentioned in the inscription of Pselchis; but as it is Cleopatra II., the first wife of the king, who he always distinguishes from his second wife by the appel- lation of sister; it cannot thence be concluded that from the very commencement of his second marriage he expressly excluded all men- tion of the latter in the documents. This also is confirmed in the most distinct manner by two Demotic Papyri belonging to the royal museum, in which both Cleopatras are mentioned, although the one papyrus is as early as the year b.c. 141, the other, a duplicate, is from the year b.c. 136. All inscriptions which, according to Letronne (Rec. des Inscr., tome i., no. 7, 26, 27, 30, 31) and Pranz (Corp. Inscr., vol. iii., no. 4841, 4860, 4895, 4896), from the reasons stated, date between the years b.c. 127 and 117, may, therefore, still be placed, with equal probability, in the years 145 to 132. GEEEK I>^SCHIPT10:!fS. 107 the same circumstances recur, but lead to other conjec- tures.* I have found several very perfect series of the Ptolemies, the longest down to Xeos Dionysos, and his con- * Compare Letronne, Recueil des Inscriptious Grecques de I'Egypte, tome i., p. 365, &c. Ptolemy Eupator is not mentioned by authors. He was introduced for the first time among the predecessors of Soter II., who were worshipped as divinities, in a Greek papyrus [in Leyden*], which was composed in the reign of Soter II., in the year b.c. 105, and he was inserted between Philometor and Euergetes. Bockh, who published the Papyrus (1821), referred the surname of Euergetes to Soter II. and his wife, and considered Eupator to be a siu*- name of the deified Ecergictes II. In the sameyear, ChanipoUion Figeac also wrote about this papyrus, and endeavoured to prove that Eupator was the son of Philometor, who was killed by Euergetes II., on his ascent to the throne. Tiiis view was assented to at a later period by St» Martin, Bockh, and Letronne (Rech. pour ser Ii I'Hist. dc I'Eg., p. 124). Meanwhile, the name of Eupator was discovered in a second papyrus from the reign of Soter II., as well as in the letter of Numenius on the Pliilensic obelisk of H. Bankes, from the time of Euergetes II. In both inscriptions the name of Eupator was mentioned; it did not, how- ever, follow, but preceded Philometor, and therefore could not signify his son. Letronne now conjectured (Recueil des Inscr., vol. i., p. 365) that Eupator was another surname of Philometor. But then it would not have been kol 6eov Evirdropos /cut 6eov ^^iXoixrjTopoSf but Koi 6(ov 'EvnaTopos tov kol ^tXofirjTopos. In a letter to Letronne, of the 1st Dec, 1844, from Thebes, which is printed in the Revue Archeol., vol. i., p. 678, &c., I communicated to him that I had also found the name of Eupator in several hieroglyphic inscriptions, and indeed always before Philometor. Tlie same reason which I had em- ployed against Letronne's explanation of the Greek name (the pas- sage is not printed along with it in the Revue), namely, the simple repetition of the Oeov, did not even permit us in the hieroglypliic list to consider Eupator another surname of Philopator. He nmst have been a Ptolemy who, for a short time at least, was acknowledged as king, but who is not mentioned by authors; and, indeed, according to Franz (Corp. Inscr., vol. iii., p. 285), and also by the acknowledg- ment of Letronne (Rec, vol. ii., p. 536), he must have been an elder brother of Philometor, who died in a few months, and therefore was omitted in the Ptolemaic canon. But the son of Philometor, and of his sister, Cleopatra IL, mentioned by Justinus and Josephus, who was formerly believed to have been re -discovered in the Eupator of the [Leyden] papyrus, is particularly mentioned in the hieroglyphic inscriptions among the other Ptolemies, in his place between Philometor and Euergetes, and we thence become acquainted with his name, which had not been added by the authors. He is sometimes named Philopator, sometimes Neos Philopator, * Note.— Leyden in place of Berlin, both here and below, is a correc- tion by the author, April, 1853.— Tr. 108 GEEEK INSCRIPTIONS. sort Cleopatra, wlio, according to the hieroglypliic inscrip- tions, was surnamed, by the Egyptians, TsTPHiENA.* A fact worthy of consideration is connected with this, namely, that in this Egyptian list of the Ptolemies, the first king is never Ptolemy Soter I., but Philadelphxjs. In Qurna, where Euergetes II. worships his predecessors, not alone Philometor, the brother of Euergetes is wanting, which is easily explained, but also Soter I., and Eosellini is mistaken when he regards the king who is worshipped under the title of Philadelphus, about whom Champollion was still doubtful, as Soter I. instead of Euergetes I. It appears that the son of Lagus, although he assumed the title of king from the year 305, was yet not acknowledged as such by the Egyptians, as and he must therefore also be placed in future as Philopator II. in the series of the reigning Ptolemies. Among fourteen hieroglyphic lists of the Ptolemies, which come down at least as far as the second Euergetes, seven of their number give Philopator II.; in four other lists, in which his name might appear, he is passed over, and these all seem to belong to the first years of Euergetes II., his murderer, when the omis- sion is easily explained. It is natural that he does not appear in the canon, because neither he nor Eupator lived to witness a change of the Egyptian year during his reign ; on the other hand, as was to be expected, he is also named in the protocol of the Demotic Papyrus, in which the Ptolemies who are worshipped as divinities are exliibited, and in which Young had also already correctly acknowledged Eupator. In fact, he is here cited in all the lists with which I am acquainted (five in Berlin, from the years 114, 103, 99, 89, one in Turin from the year 89), which are of more recent date than Euergetes II., as well as in a Berlin papyrus from the fifty-second year of Euergetes himself (b.c. 118). A comparison also of* the demotic lists shows finally that the transposition of the names Eupator and Philometor in the Greek papy- rus from the year b.c. 105 (not 106, as Franz writes — Corp. Inscr., p. 285) is not alone an error of the copyist in writing, as this, and other transpositions also, are not unfrequent in the Demotic Papyrus. The diflferent object of the hieroglyphic and the demotic lists makes it con- ceivable that such deviations were not admissible in the former, as in the latter lists. * Wilkinson (Mod. Eg. and Th., vol. ii., p. 275) considers this Cleopatra Tryph^na to be the celebrated Cleopatra, the daughter of Neos Dionysos; Champollion (Lettres d'Eg., p. 110) thinks she ia the wife of Philometor; but the Shields connected with her name belong neither to Ptolemy XIV., the elder son of Neos Dionysos, nor to Ptolemy VI. Philometor, but to Ptolemy XIII. Neos Dionysos, or Auletes, who is always called on the monuments Philopator Philadel- phus. Cleopatra Tryph^na was, consequently, the wife of Ptolemt AUL.KTES. GREEK iySCEIPTIO>'S. 109 ills shields do not appear on a single monument which was erected by him. So much the more do I rejoice that I have nevertheless found his name mentioned once, in an inscrip- tion of Philadelphus, as the father of Arsinoe II. But here, we must observe, Soter has, indeed, the royal ring round liis name, and also a peculiar Throne-shield name, but quite con- trary to the usual Egyptian custom, no king's title stands before either of the shields, although his daughter is called *• royal daughter" and " royal lady."* * The inscription alludecJ to is to be found in the rock-grotto of EcHMiM. and M-as undoubtedly first engraved before the reign of Ptolemy Philadclplius. He is also named with double shields and tlie usual royal titles, but without the surname of Soter upon a stele in Vienna, •which was erected in tlie reign of Phiiopator. Here, however, he bears a different Throne shield from that in Eclunim, and certainly, strange to say, it is the same which even before his time was borne by Philip Aridaius, and Alexander II., under whom Ptolemy, son of Lagus, was governor of Egypt. He is also mentioned upon a statue of the king in the ruins of Memphis, on which the Horus name of the king also ap- pears, and which probably might have been engraved during his reign. Finally, tlie Soters are also frequently mentioned by tlieir surnames alone at the head of the worshipped ancestors of later kings; as in the liosetta inscription, and in the bilinqual decrees of PhilsD (see below, p. 121), T* T* . while Soter II. is always written r-i ^ p. iiuter enti nehem, which would correspond to the Coptic n . flOTTOCiT- n(J^I_I,f/ews servator. In the demotic inscriptions, the first Soters are also designated by nehem, and in the singular by the Greek word, p. s>iter. Although, therefore, it cannot be doubted that the Soters who, ac- cording to the Demotic Papyrus, were especially worshipped along with the otiier Ptolemies, not only in Alexandria and Ptole3iais, but also in TiiKBEs, were regarded as the head of the Ptolemaic Dynasty, it is nevertheless so much the more remarkable, that hitherto not a single structure can be pointed out which was erected under Ptolemy Soter when king, although he ruled twenty years in this capacity. In addi- tion to this, the above-mentioned hieroglyphic lists of the Ptolemies commence the series without exception, not with the Soters, but with the Adelphes ; and, as was mentioned before, his shields in Echmim bear nn royal title; and in Karnak under Euergetes II., in one and the same representation, Philadelphus is designated as king, and the Soter, cor- responding to him in space, as 710 king. In the demotic series of kings, also, of the Papyrus, the Alexandrine series was wont to omit the Soters, till the reign of Philometor, and to make the Adelphes imme- diately succeed Alexander the Great. The earliest period that I have met with the Soters is in a Papyrus, from the 17th year of Phiiopator 110 TOMBS IN CENTEAL EGYPT. It is astonishing how little Champ ollion seems to have attended to the monuments of the Old Monarchy. During his whole journey through Central Egypt, as far as Dendera, he only found the rock-tombs of Benihassan worthy of notice, and these also, he considered to be works of the 16th and 17th Dynasties, therefore belonging to the New Mo- narchy. He also mentions Zauiet el Meitin and Siut, but hardly notices them. So little has been said by others, besides, on most of the monuments of Central Egypt, that almost everything that we here found was new to me. I, therefore, was not a little astonished when we discovered in Zauiet el Meitin a series of nineteen rock-tombs, all of them bearing inscriptions, which informed us who were their inhabitants, and belonging to the old time of the 6th Dynasty, therefore extending almost to the period of the great Pyramids. Eive among them con- tain, more than once, the Shield of Makrobioten Apappus Pepi, who is said to have lived to the age of a hundred and six years, and to have reigued a hundred years ; in another, Cheops is mentioned. Apart from these there is also a single grave from the period of Ramses. In Benihassan, I have had a complete drawing made of an entire rock-tomb ; it is to give a specimen of the magnifi- cent style of architecture and artistic skill, from the second (B.C. 210), the oldest of the Berlin collection; the Theban worship of the Ptolemies seems to have whuUy excluded the Soters. Although the commencement of the roy.d guvernment is therefore fixed in the year b.c. 305, as is specified in tlie canon, and most undeniably con- firmed by the above-mentioned liieroglyphic stele in Vienna, which has been already cited for that purpose by my friend, M. Pinder (Beitr. zur Aelterem Miinzkunde, vol. i., p. 201) in his instructive essay, On the Era of Phihp upon Coins, it appears, however, to have offered another legitimate opinion, by which not Ptolemy Lagus, but Phila- delphus, the first son of the king (if not Porphyrogenitus), was con- sidered the head of the Ptolemies. It may thence be also explained why we find an astronomical Era employed in the reign of Euergetes, that of the otherwise unknown Dionysius, which began from the year 285, the first year of the rei^in of Pliiladelphus, while the coins of Phi- ladelphus do not reckon as the cianmenceraent of a new era from the beginning of his own reign, nor from the year 305, but from the year of the death of Alexander the Great, or the commencement of the gover- norship of Ptolemy. (See Pinder, p. 205.) CENTEAL EGYPT. Ill flourisliing period of the Old Monarcliy, during the powerful 12th Dj-nasty.* I think it will excite some attention among the Eg}'ptologists, when they shortly learn from Bunsen's work, why I make a division in the tablet of Abydos, and why I ventured to transfer Sestjetesen and Amenemha, these well-known Pharaohs of Heliopolis, the Faiiim, Beni- hassan, Thebes, and as far as "Wadi Haifa, from the New, to the Old Monarchy. It must have been a brilliant period in Egypt at that time, which these magnificent halls for the dead alone testify. At the same time, among the rich re- presentations on the walls, which exhibit a high standard of the peaceful arts, as well as the refined luxury of the great at that period, it is interesting even then to meet with the prognostics of that great adverse destiny, which brought Egypt for several centuries under the power of her northern enemies. Gladiatorial games, which form a characteristic re- presentation of frequent recurrence, in many tombs occupy entire walls, by which we may conclude they were extensively practised at that period, but afterwards almost disappeared. Among these we frequently find amidst the red or dark- brown people of the Egyptian race, and of those races dwell- ing more to the south, a very light-coloured people, standing singly or in small divisions, who have usually a different costume, and most of them have the hair of the head and beard red, and have blue eyes. They also sometimes appear among the domestics of persons of rank, and are manifestly of northern, probably of Semetic, origin. "We find victories of the kings over the Ethiopians and Negroes mentioned on the monuments of that period ; therefore it is not surprising to see black slaves and attendants. We learn nothing of wars against the northern neighbours, but it appears that the migrations of people from the north-east had already begun at that time, and that many emigrants sought a home in the fruitful land of Egypt, in exchange for service, or other useful employments. * See Denkmaler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien, Abth. II., Bl. 123—133. 112 J3EKISASSAN. I here allude particularly to tlie remarkable scene in the tomb of the royal relative Neheea-si-Numhotep, the second tomb approaching from the north, which gives au animated idea of the entrance of Jacob with his family, and which might tempt us really to connect these circumstances, if Jacob had not come at a much later period, and if we were not compelled to acknowledge that such immigrations of single families could never have been a rare event. These, how- ever, were the predecessors of the Hyksos, and assuredly in many respects paved the way for them. As it is only painted, and is still in very good preservation, I have traced through the whole representation, which is about eight feet long, and one and a half high. The royal scribe Nefeuhotep, who introduces the company before the high official, to whom the tomb belongs, hands him a sheet of papyrus. Upon this, the sixth year of King Sesurtesen II. is mentioned, when that family of thirty-seven persons came to Egypt. Their chief, and lord, was called Abscha, they themselves Aamf, a popular name, which we meet with again associated with the same light- coloured race ; this, with three other races, is frequently represented in the royal tombs of the 19th Dynasty, and formed one of the four principal families of the human race known to the Egyptians. Champollion, when he was in Benihassan, regarded them as Greeks ; he was not then aware of the extreme age of the monuments which were before him. Wilkinson considers them to be prisoners ; this is contradicted by their appearing with weapons and lyres, with women, children, asses, and baggage. I view them as a migrating Hyksos family, who pray to be received into the blessed land, and whose descendants, per- haps, opened the gates of Egypt to the Semetic conquerors, aUied to them by race. The town, to which the rich rock-necropolis of Beni- hassan belonged, and which is named in the hieroglyphic inscriptions Nus, must have been of considerable size, and, doubtless, lay opposite, on the left bank of the Nile, where ancient mounds exist even at the present time, and are CENTRAL EGYPT. 113 marked upon the French maps. That no more of this town of ]N'us vras known in the geography of the Greeks and Eomans than of many other towns of the Old Monarchy, ought not to surj)rise us, if we consider that the dominion of the Hyksos intervened, which lasted five hundred years. It is thought that the sudden fall of the Monarchy, and of this flourishing town, may be ti-aced, even now, to have happened at the end of the 12t]i Dynasty by this circumstance — that only eleven of the numerous rock-tombs have inscriptions, and that among these, three alone were quite completed. Special roads of considerable width led to these last, ascend- ing direct from the bank of the river, which near the steep upper part ended in steps cut out of the rock. Benihassan, however, is not the only place where we became acquainted with the works of the 12th Dynasty. At Beescheh, a little to the south of the great plain, where the Emperor Hadrian, in honour of his favourite, who was there drowned, built the town of Antixoe, with its splendid streets, even now partly passable, and encompassed with hundreds of columns, a narrow valley opens to the east, where we again found a series of splendidly executed rock- tombs of the 12th Dynasty, most of which, unfortunately, were mutilated by recent quarrying. In the tomb of Ki-si- Tutliotep there is a representation of the transport of the great Colossus, which has been already published by EoseUini, but without the accompanpng inscriptions ; from these we perceive that it was formed of limestone (here, for the first time, I learned the hieroglyphic term for this), and that it was 13 Egyptian ells high, which is about 21 feet.* A series of still older tombs are hewn into the face of the rock on the southern side of the same valley, but with very few inscrip- tions ; to judge by the style of the hieroglj^Dhics, and the titles of the deceased, they belong to the 6th Dynasty. Some hours farther to the south there is another group of tombs, which also belong to the 6th Dynasty ; here, likewise, King Cheops is occasionally mentioned, whose name we * See Denkmal. Abth. n., Bl. 134. I 114 SITJT. several times met witli before, in a hieratic inscription in Benibassan. "We found tombs from the 6th Dynasty, though with few inscriptions, in two other places situated, between the valley El Amaexa, which contains the very remarkable tomb-grottoes of King Bech-en-Aten, and Siut. Perring, the measurer of the Pyramids, a short time ago seriously endea- voured, in an essay, to maintain the strange opinion, which, however, I also met with while in Cairo, that the monuments of El Amarna were derived from the Hyksos ; others, on ac- count of their striking, though not inexplicable peculiarities, would even carry them back to the time before Menes. While still in Europe I had recognised the builder of these monuments, and some other allied kings, to be antagonistic kings of the 18th Dynasty. Eock-tombs of vast size open on the side of the valley behind Siut, in which, even from a distance, we recognised the imposing style of the 12th Dynasty. Here also, un- fortunately, many of these splendid remains have been de- stroyed of late, as it was found more convenient to break away the walls and columns of the grottoes, than to hew out building stones from the rock itself. I learned from Selim Pascha, the Governor of Upper Egypt, who received us in a most friendly manner in Siut, that the Bedouins had a short time ago discovered some alabaster quarries in the eastern range of mountains, between two and three hours distant, the working of which had been committed to him by Mohammed Ali ; and I heard from his dragoman, that in that place also there was an inscription on the rock. I therefore determined to start the following day, accompanied by the two Weidenbachs, our dragoman and Kawass, on this hot ride, on the Pascha' s horses, which he had sent to El Bosra for the purpose. "We found there a little colony of eighteen labourers, thirty-one souls altogether, in the lonely, sultry, rocky defile, occupied in working the quarries. On the side of the rock, behind the tent of the overseer, the name and titles of the wife, so highly venerated by the Egyptians of the first Amasis, the head of the 18th PA>'OPOLIS. ABTDOS. 115 D}TiastT which expelled the Ilyksos, were preserved in dis- tinct, sharp-cut hieroglypliics, the remains of an inscription that had been formerly longer. These are the first alabaster quarries the age of which is proved by an inscription. Not far from that place there have been others also, which, how- ever, had been worked out in ancient times. Above three hundred blocks have been already obtained from the one now re-opened during the last four months, the largest of which are eight feet long and two feet thick. The Pascha informed me, through his dragoman, that on our return I should find a slab, whose size and form I might myself determine, of the best quality in the quarry, and which I might accept, as a token of the pleasure he had derived from our visit. The alabaster quarries which have hitherto been discovered in tills neighbourhood, are all between Berscheh and Gauata; we might be inclined, therefore, to view El Bosra as the ancient Alabastron, if the passage in Ptolemy could be recon- ciled with it. At any rate, Alabastron has certainly nothing to do with the ruins in the valley of El Amarna, for which it has hitherto been taken, which does not either agree with the statement of Ptolemy, and with which it appears to liave a totally difterent relation. The hieroglyphic name of these ruins frequently appears in the inscriptions. in the rocky chain of Gebel Selin" there are some more vor}^ early tombs belonging to the Old Monarchy, probably to the 6th Dynasty, but with few inscriptions. Opposite to old PA^fOPOLis, or Chemmis, we climbed up to the remarkable rock-grotto of Pan (Chem). It was founded by another rival kmg of the 18th Dynasty, whose tomb we have since visited in Thebes. The holy name of the city frequently appears in the inscriptions here — " The Habita- tion of Chem," i. c. Panopolis. Whether the popular name Chemmis, now Echmim, originated from this, is perhaps doubtful. I have always found two difterent names for Siut, Dendera, Abydos, and other towns ; the holy and the popular name. The first is taken from the chief god of the local temple ; the second has nothing to do with this. My hiero- I 2 116 THEBES. glyptic geograpby increases nearly witli every new monu- mental locality. In Abydos we came to tlie first of the larger temple structures. The last interesting tombs of the Old Monarchy we found at Qase e' Saiat ; they go as far back as the 6th Dynasty. In Dendeea we visited the imposing Temple of Hathor, perhaps the best preserved in all Egypt. "We spent twelve overwhelming and astounding days in Thebes, which were scarcely sufficient to enable us to thread our way among the palaces, temples, and tombs, whose royal gigantic splendour fills this wide plain. "We celebrated the birthday of our beloved king with a feu de joie, and waving of banners, with chorus songs and heartfelt toasts, which we pledged in a glass of genuine German Ehine wine, in the jewel of aU the splendid buildings of Egypt — the palace of Eamses-Sesostris : it was erected by this greatest of the Pharaohs to "Ammon-Ea, the "King of the Gods," the tutelar patron of the royal city of Amnion, situated on a terrace of gentle elevation, calculated to command the wide plain on both sides of the majestic river, and was worthy of himself and of the god. I need scarcely say that on such an occasion we also thought of you with a full heart. "When night came, we kindled a kettle of pitch above the outer entrance between the Pylones, on both sides of which our banners were planted, and then made a great fire flame up from the flat roof of the Pronaos (or vestibule), which ex- hibited the beautiful proportions of the hall of columns in splendid relief; for the first time since thousands of years we again restored this to its original destination as a festive hall — the saloon of " panegyrics."* The two mighty Memnon Colossi, calmly reposing on their thrones, were also magically lighted up in the distance. We have reserved all great undertakings for our return ; but it will be difficult to select from the inexhaustible mate- rials for our particular object, and with reference to what * Panegyrics: public religious assemblies which were periodically held in Egypt.— Kenrick's Ancient Egypt.— Tb. TEMPLE OF EDFU. 117 has been already communicated in other works. On the 10th of October we quitted Thebes. HEEiioifTHis we saw in passing. The great hall of Esxeh was several years ago excavated down to the foundation by order of the Pascha, and afforded us a magnificent spectacle. We remained three days in El Kab, the ancient Eileithyia, Still more won- derful than the different temples of this once mighty place, are its rock-tombs, most of which date from the commence- ment of the EgyjDtian War of Freedom against the Hyksos, and throw much light on the relations between the D>Tiasties of that period. Several distinguished persons, buried there, bear the strange title of Masculine K'urse of a Eoyal Prince, by the well-known group mena, and the determinative of the female breast, in the Coptic tongue expressed uoni. The deceased is represented with the prince upon his lap. The Temple of Enrr is also among those which are in best preservation ; it was dedicated to Horus and to Hathor, the Egyptian Venus, who is here in one place called " The Queen of Men and Women." Horus, as a child, is repre- sented naked, as are all children on the monuments, and with his finger on his mouth. I had before explained the name of Harpokeates from it, which now I have found represented and written here complete, as Hae-pe-cheoti, i.e. "Horus the child." The Eomans misunderstood the Egyptian gesture of the finger, and out of the child who cannot yet speak, they made the Grod of Silence who will not speak. The most interesting inscription, hitherto neither noticed nor mentioned by any one, is on the outer eastern wall of the temple built by Ptolemy Alexander I. It contains several dates, of the kings Darius, JS'ectanebus, and of the falsely so-called Amyrtseus, and refers to the landed estates which belonged to the temple. The intense heat of the day we spent there caused me to postpone, till our return, a closer examination, and taking the paper impression of this wall.* Gebel Silsilis is one of the places most abundant * See Denkmiil. Abth. IV., Bl. 38, 39.— A special essay on these inscriptions is prepared. 118 CAXON OF PKOPORTIOl^S. in historical inscriptions, •vrhicli are cTiieflj connected with the vast workings of the sandstone quarries. I was rejoiced to find a third canon of tlie proportioiis of the human body, in Ombos, differing very distinctly from both the older Egj^ptian canons which I had before met with in many examples. The second canon is closely con- nected with the first, and oldest, of the time of the Pyra- mids, from which it difiers only in being brought to greater perfection, and being difi'erently applied. The foot, as the unit, is the foundation of both, this taken six times, cor- responded to the height of the body when upright ; but it must be observed, from the sole of the foot, not as far as the crown of the head, but only to the top of the forehead. That portion from where the hair begins to grow on the upper part of the forehead, to the crown of the head, did not come into the calculation at all, and occupies sometimes three- quarters, sometimes the half, sometimes still less of a fresh square. The difference between the first and the second canon chiefly rests on the position of the knee. In the Ptolemaic canon, however, the division has itself been altered. The body was no longer divided into 18 parts, as in the second canon, but into 21^ parts, to the top of the forehead, or into 23 parts, up to the crown of the head. This is the division which Diodorus gives, in the last chapter of his first book. In the lower part of the body the proportions of the second and third canon remain the same ; on the other hand, those of the upper part of the body are essentially altered, the contours become altogether more extravagant, and the previous beautiful simplicity and chasteness of the forms, in which consisted both its grand and peculiarly Egyptian character, yielded to the imperfect imitation of an uncomprehended foreign style of art. The proportion of the foot to the length of the body remains the same, but the foot is no longer placed for the basis as unit. At AssuAN we were obliged to change our boat, on ac- count of the Cataracts, and for the first time for six months PlIILAE. 119 past, or longer, we bad the home enjoyment of heavy rain, and a violent thunderstorm, which gathered on the fartlier side of the Cataracts, crossed -with a mighty force the granite girdle, and then, amidst the most violent explosions, rolled down the valley as far as Cairo, and (as we have since heard) covered it with floods of water, such as had been scarcely remembered before. So we may say, with Strabo and Champollion, " In our time it rained in Upper Egypt." Eain is, indeed, so rare here, that our guards never remem- bered to have beheld such a spectacle, and our Turkish Kawass, who is in all respects perfectly acquainted with the country, continued to leave his own tilings untouched ; while we long before had been carrying our chests into the tents, and having them better secured, he quietly repeated ahaden moie, "never rain," a word which since then he has often been compelled to hear, as he was thoroughly drenched, and caught a violent, feverish cold, for which he was obliged to wait patiently in Philae. The situation of Philae is as charming as it is interesting Dy its monuments. Some of the most delightful recollections of our journey are associated with our eight days' residence on this holy island. "We used to assemble before dinner, after tlie scattered work of the day, on the elevated temple terrace, which rises abruptly from the river, on the eastern shore of the island ; we there watched the shadow of the temple (which is in good preservation, and built of sharply cut, deep-coloured glowing blocks of sandstone) steal over the river, and mingle with the black volcanic masses of rock, towering above each other, between which the golden yellow sand pours into the valley like streams of fire. The island appears only to have become holy to the Egyptians at a late period, for the first time under the Ptolemies. Herodotus, who during the rule of the Persians ascended as far as the Cataracts, does not mention Philae at all ; it was at that time inhabited by the Ethiopians, who were also in possession of half of the island of Elephantine. The oldest buildings now to be found upon the island were erected on 120 INSCEIPTIONS AT PHILAE. the soutliern point by N^ectanebus, tbe last king but two of Egyptian origin, almost a hundred years after the journey of Herodotus. There are no traces of earlier remains, not even of any that were destroyed or built up into other build- ings. Many older inscriptions are to be found upon the large neighbouring island of Bigeh, named in hieroglyphics Senmtjt. As early as the Old Monarchy, it was adorned with Egyptian monuments ; for we have found a granite statue of King Sesurtesen III. from the 12th Dynasty. The little rocky island KoNOSSO, named in hieroglyphics Kekes, also contains very old inscriptions, engraved upon the rock, in which a new and hitherto wholly unknown King of the Hyksos period is also named. Hitherto the hieroglyphic name of the island of Philae was read Manlak. I have found the name undoubtedly more than once written Hak ; hence with the article, Philak became in the mouth of the Greeks Philai. The sign which Champollion read " man,'* in other groups changes into i, thence the expression I-lak, P-i-lak, Memphitic Ph-i-lak, is now established. We have made a valuable discovery in the court of the great Temple of Isis, of two lilingual decrees of the Egyp- tian priests, that is to say, drawn up in the Hieroglyphic and Demotic characters ; they are tolerably rich in words, and one of them contains the same text as the decree of the E^tsetta stone. I have, at least, up to the present moment, compared the last seven lines, which correspond with the inscription of Eosetta, not only in their contents, but also in the length of each single line ; the inscription must be copied before I can say more about it ; at all events, it is no inconsiderable advantage to Egj^tian pliilology, if only a portion of the fragmentary decree of Eosetta can, through this, be completed. The whole of the first portion of the Eosetta inscription which precedes the decree, is here want- ing. Instead of this, there is a second decree beside it, which refers to the same Ptolemy Epiphanes ; in the intro- duction, the " Portress of Alexander," i. e. the town of AJsxandria, is mentioned for the first time, on the menu- I>'SCEirTIOJ^S AT PnilAE. 121 ments which have hitherto become known. Both decrees conclude, like the Eosetta inscription, with the intention to set up the inscription in Hieroglyphic, Demotic, and Greek characters. Nevertheless, the Greek is wanting here ; un- less, perhaps, it was \\Titten down in red, and rubbed out when Ptolemy Lathyrus cut his hieroglyphic inscriptions over the earlier ones.* The hierogl}^hic succession of the Ptolemies, which ap- pears here, begins again with Philadelphus ; whereas, in the Greek text of the Eosetta inscription, it begins with Soter. Another very remarkable fact is, that Epiphanes is here called, the son of Ptolemy Philopator and Cleopatra, while, by the historical accounts, the only wife of Philopator was Arsinoe, and she is besides so named iu the Eosetta inscrip- tion, and on other monuments. She is also certainly called Cleopatra in one passage of Pliny, but this might have been considered a mistake of the author, or of the manuscript, if a hieroglyphic, and, indeed, an official document did not even now present the same change of names. There are now, therefore, no longer any grounds to place the mission by the Eoman Senate of Marcus Atilius, and Marcus Acilius to Egypt, to negotiate a new alliance on account of the Queen Cleopatra, who is mentioned by Livy, under Ptolemy Epiphanes, as is done by Champollion Pigeac, instead of under ♦ The first news of the discovery of these important inscriptions, which had not been noticed by tlie French-Tuscan expedition, excited some surprise. Simultaneously with the more exact description of them in the Prussian Gazette, a short English notice of them appeared, in which the discovery of a second copy of the Eosetta inscription was mentioned, and, indeed, in Meroe. More recently, when M. Ampere had brought an impression of the inscription to Paris, the learned academician, M. de Saulcy, denied that the decree had anything to do with the Rosetta mscription, and felt himself obliged to ascribe it to Ptolemy Philometor, I therefore took an opportunity to point out more accurately, in two letters to H. Letronne (Rev. Archeol., vol. iv., p. i., &c., and p. 240, &c.), as well as in an essay, in the Papers of the German Oriental Society (vol. i., p. 264, &c.), that the document in question had been drawn up in the 21st year of Ptolemy Epiphanes, and that it contained a repetition of the actual decree of the Rosetta inscription, which referred to Cleopatra, who had meanwhile been elevated to the throne. 122 PHILAE. Ptolemy Philopator as other authors relate. We must rather assume now, either that the wife and sister of Philo- pator bore both names, which, indeed, even then would not quite remove the difficulties ; or that the project mentioned by Appian, of a marriage between Philopator and the Syrian Cleopatra, who afterwards became the wife of Epiphanes, was carried into effect after the murder of Arsinoe, though the authors give us no account of it. Here, naturally, I am without the means of making this point perfectly clear.* The multitude of Greek inscriptions in Philae is incalculable, and it will interest Letronne to hear, that on the base of the second obelisk, which still exists in its original place and posi- tion, of which only a portion has travelled with the other obelisk to England, I have found the remains of a Greek inscription, written in red, difficult indeed to decipher, which, perhaps, was at one time also gilt, similar to the two last discovered upon the base in England. I have already written to Letronne, that the hieroglyphic inscriptions of the obelisk, which, together with the Greek one of the base, I myself copied in Dorset- shire, and which I afterwards published in my " Egyptian Atlas," have nothing to do with the Greek inscription, and were not even set up simultaneously ; but it still remains a question, whether the inscription of the second base was not in connexion with that of the first ; the correspondence of the three known inscriptions certainly appears exclusively confined to themselves. The chief temple of the island was dedicated to Isis. She is called by preference " The Lady of Philek." Osiris was only debs (Tvuvaos, which has its peculiar hieroglyphic expres- sion, and he is only sometimes exceptionally called " Lord of Philek ;" on the other hand, he was " Lord of Ph-i-ueb, i. e. Abaton, and Isis, who was there o-vwaos, is only exceptionally * The name Cleopatra, instead of Arsinoe, in the hieroglyphic in- scription, appears solely to rest on an error of the writer, which was avoided in the demotic inscription, for here Arsinoe stands correctly. The hieroglyphic text of the inscription of Rosetta is also less correct than the demotic. EXniOriAK JOUENEY. 123 called "The Lady of Ph-i-ueb." Even from this, we may infer, that the famous tomb of Gsiris, on his own island of Phiueb, was not upon Philek. Both places were expressly designated by their determinatives as Islands. There is, therefore, no question that the Abaton of inscriptions and authors was not a particular place upon the island of Philae ; it was itself an iiland. Diodorus and Plutarch both say so, in distinct terms, as they place it irpbs ^ikais. Diodorus ex- pressly designates the island with the tomb of Osiris, as a peculiar island, which, on account of this tomb, was called Upuv nediov, '* the sacred plain." This is a translation of Pn-i-UEB, or Ph-ih-ueb (for the h is also found in the hieroglyphics), in the Coptic tongue c|)-iA2-oVHii, Ph-iah- T7EB, " the sacred field." This sacred plain was an Abaton^ inaccessible except to the priests. On the Gth of November we left tlie enchanting island, and began our Etiiiopian journey. Even in Debod, the next temple we came to towards the south, in hieroglyphics called Tahet (in Coptic, perhaps, TA ABHT), we found the sculp- tures of an Ethiopian king, Aekamen the Eegamenes, of the authors, wlio reigned at the same time as Ptolemy Phila- delphus, and probably was in very friendly relations with Egypt. There is great confusion in the French work on Champollion's expedition (I have not got Eosellini at hand). Many sheets which belong to Dakkeh are attributed to Debod, and vice versa : we collected nearly sixty Grreek in- scriptions in GrERTASSi. Letronne, who knew them, through Gau, has perhaps already published them ; I am eager to learn what he has made out of yojuoi, whose priests play an important part in these inscriptions, as also out of the new gods, ^povTTTi^is and HovpaeTrpovj/is. The Inscriptions of Talmis offer a new instance how in- correctly the Egyptian names were often comprehended by the G-reeks, who name the same god Mandiilis, who in the hieroglyphic language was distinctly called Meeuli, and was the local god of Talmis. It is striking that the name of Talmis, which is frequently found in this temple, never ap- 124 TEMPLES IN NTJBIA. pears in the rock-temple of Bet el TJalli, certainly of much older date, which is situated in its immediate neighbourhood. Dekdite, also had a peculiar protecting patron, the god Petisi, who never appears anywhere else, and has also the surname of Peschir Tenthur ; Champollion's sheets are here, also, in wonderful disorder, since the representations and in- scriptions are erroneously combined. * The Temples of Gteep Hussen and Sebua are especially worthy of notice, because Eamses Sesostris, by whom they were built, appears here both as a contemplative divinity and worshipping himself as such, with Phtha and Ammon, the two chief divinities of this temple. In the first, he is even one time called " Euler of the Grods." Champollion has already remarked, with justice, that in- deed all the temples of the Ptolemies, and of the Eoman emperors in jS'ubia, were only restorations of former sanc- tuaries, which, in more ancient times, had been erected by the Pharaohs of the 18th and 19th Dynasties, and had been destroyed by the Persians. Thus also the Temple of Psel- OHis was first built by Tuthmosis III. Besides the scat- tered fragments of stone belonging to this first building, which, however, was not dedicated to Thoth, as Champollion believes, but to Horns, and thus at a later period altered its destination; we have found others, like^vise, of Sethos I. and Menephthes. It also appears that the axis of the first plan wa« not parallel with the river, like the later one, but similar to almost all other temples, its entrance was towards the river. At the Temple of Koete the entrance door alone is in- scribed with hieroglyphics, and those of the worst style. Tet even this small amount was sufficient to inform us that the sanctuary was dedicated to Isis, who is named " The Lady of Kerte." Here also we discovered some blocks that had been used in later buildings, which had escaped the notice of former travellers; they belonged to an ancient temple, erected by Tuthmosis III., and the foundation waUs may still be recognised. MEHENDI. 126 lu HiEEASTKAMiNos we reaped the last harvest of Greek inscriptionB. As far as this place Greek and Eoman tra- vellers were protected by the garrison of Pselchis, and by another strong position Mehendi, which is not given on the maps, but was situated some hours to the south of Hier- asykarainos. Peimis seems only to have had a temporary garriflon after the campaign of Petronius. Mehekdi, whose name, indeed, seems only to designate in Arabic the build- ings, the fortress, is the best preserved Eoman camp that I have ever seen. It lies upon a tolerably steep eminence, and from that commands the river, and a small valley, which passes upwards from the river, to the south side of the fortress ; the car»avan road, also, here branches off into the desert, and does not redescend to the river till near Medik. The wall of the town encloses a square, which, towards the east, passes down the hill a short way, and measures 175 paces from north to south, and 125 from east to west. Four comer towers, and four central towers, spring up at regular intervals from the walls ; among the last, those lying to the north and south were also the gates, which, for greater security, did not lead straight into the town, but with a bend. Tlie southern gate, and all the southern portion of the fortress, which encompassed about 120 houses, are in excellent preservation. Immediately behind the gate you enter a straight street, sixty-seven paces long, which, with but little interruption, is still completely arched over ; several narrow side streets lead off on both sides, and are also, as well as aU the houses of that whole portion of the town, covered over ^yiih. arched roofs, made of Nile bricks. The street leads to a somewhat large open place in the middle of the town, near to which was situated, upon the highest point of the ridge of the rock, the largest, and best built house, doubtless that of the commander, with a semi-circular niche at the eastern end. The walls of the town are built out of unhewn stones; the gate alone, which supports a well- constructed Eoman arch, is built of sharply-cut square stones, amongst which several built into it, have sculptures 126 TEMPLE IN WADI SEBTJA. of the genuine Egyptian style, although of late date; a proof that before the erection of the fortress, there was an Egyptian or Ethiopian sanctuary, probably a chapel to Isis. We discovered a head of Osiris, and two heads of Isis, in one of which we could still recognise the red-marked proportion square of the third canon. The last monument that we visited, before our arrival in Korusko, was the Temple of Ammon in AVadi Sebua (the Lion Valley), so called from the row of Sphinxes, which are now scarcely visible above the sea of sand which has buried nearly the whole temple, as far as it stood out alone. Even the western portion of the temple, hewn in the rock, is fiUed up high with sand, and we were compelled to summon the whole crew of our boat to open an entrance into this part of it. "We here encountered a new and very peculiar com- bination of divine and human nature, in a group of four divinities. The first of which was called " Phtha of Eamses, in the house of Ammon;" the second, Phtha, with other customary surnames ; the third, Eamses, in the house of Ammon; the fourth, Hathoe. In another inscription, "Ammon of Eamses, in the house of Ammon," was named. It is difficult to explain this combination.* I was no less astonished to find a posterity of King Eamses-Miamun in the outer court of this Temple of * Such designations appear eren at an earlier period. Thus, in Thebes, an " Ammon of Tuthmosis (III.)" is mentioned. It thereby appears tliat one of the kings named was designated for the newly- established worship of these gods. Ramses II. dedicated three great rock-temples in Lower Nubia, at Derr^ Gerf Hussen, and Sebua, to the three greatest gods of Egypt, Ra, Phtha, and Ammon (See my Memoir on the earliest Cycle of the Egyptian Gods, in the papers of the Academy of Berlin, 1851), and named the places founded there simultaneously after the same gods, accordingly in Greek Heliopolis, Hephaistopolis, and Diospolis. The same Eamses founded a fourth powerful and fortified position, Abusimbel, and called it after himself Eamessopolis, or the Fortress of Ramessopolis, as he also founded two towns in the Delta, and called them after his own name. Now it is, undoubtedl}-, with reference to these new worships, that the gods there adored were named Ammon of Ramses, and Phtha of Ramses. The king himself was Avorshipped along with those gods, in these par- ticular rock-temples, especially in that of Abusimbel. KonrsKO. 127 Ammon, consisting of a hundred and sixty-two cliildren, represented with their names and titles, most of which, indeed, were scarcely legible, as they are very much de- stroyed; others are covered with rubbish, and at present could only be estimated by the distances of the spaces. Hitherto, only twenty-five sons and ten daughters of this great king were known. He did not take the two legiti- mate wives which appear upon the monuments simulta- neously, but the one after the death of the other. To-day we had a visit from the old, blind, but powerful and rich Hassan Kaschef, of Derr, who formerly was independent regent of Lower Nubia; he had no less than sixty-foiu* wives, of whom forty-two still remain ; twenty-nine sons and seventeen daughters are still living. He has, probably, never taken the trouble to reckon how many of them he has lost, but by the usual proportion here, he must have had about four times the number of those living, therefore about two hundred children. KoEUSKO is an Arabian place, in the centre of the land of the Nubians, or Barabra (plural of Berberi), which includes the Nile valley from Assuau to beyond Dongola. They are an intelligent and honest race ; peaceful, but of a disposition anything but slavish, with well-formed bodies, and a skin of a light, reddish-brown colour. The occupation of Korusko by the Arabs of the race of the Ababde, who inhabit the whole of the eastern desert from Assuan as far as Abu Hammed, is explained by tlie important situation of the place, being the commencement of the great caravan road, which leads direct to the province of Berber, and cuts off the great- western curvatiire of the Nile. The Arabic tongue — in which we have now learnt, at least to give orders and to ask questions, indeed, also to carry on a little conversation of civilities, or on the news of the day — had become so familiar to our ears in Egypt, that the Nubian language attracted us, even by its novelty. It is divided, as far as I have been hitherto able to learn, into 128 NUBIAIf LANGITAaE. a northern and a southern dialect, which meet near Ko- rusko.* The language has a distinct character from the Arabic, even in its first elements in the system of conso- nants and vowels. It is much more euphonous, as it has hardly any accumulation of consonants, no hard guttural sounds ; it has little sibilance, and many simple vowels, dif- ferinof more distinctlv from one another than in the Arabic, and generally parted by a consonant, thus again avoiding an efieminate accumulation of vowels. It has no accordance, either with the Semitic languages or with the Egyptian, in any part of the grammatical forms, or the radical words, much less with our own, and therefore surely belongs to the original African tongue, without any immediate connexion with the present language of the Ethiopian-Egj-ptian race, although the people may have been often comprehended by the ancients under the name of Ethiopians, and were, per- haps, less strangers to them by descent. They are not a trading people, and therefore can only reckon up to twenty in their own language ; they borrow the higher decades from the Arabic language, yet they use a peculiar word for one hundred — vmil. The grammatical distinction between the genders exists almost solely throughout the language in the personal pronouns when they stand alone ; they make a distinction be- tween " he" and " she," but not between " he gives" and " she gives." They conjugate more by additional actual flexions, as in our languages, than by alteration of accent, and change of vowel, as in the Semitic. They form the ordinals by the addi- tion of ^V^ ; the plural, by igi ; they do not possess a dual. The connexion of the pronouns with the verb is both prefix and afilx, but it is simple and natural ; they distinguish between the present and the preterite ; they express the future by a particle; they have also a peculiar form for the passive voice. The root of the negation is m, usually succeeded by * Compare passages in Letters XXIV., XXVI., XX VIII. A grammar and vocabulary of the Nuba language, as well as a translation of the Gospel of St. Mark into the Nubian tongue, is ready for publication. yrBlAX LAXGFAGE. 129 an n; perhaps tlie only agreement more than accidental with the roots of most other languages. Their original wealth of ideas is very limited. They have, indeed, peculiar words for the sun, the moon, and the stars ; but they borrow terms from the Arabic for time, year, month, day, and hour ; water, sea, and river, are all essi ; but it is remarkable that they designate the Nile by a particular word — Tossi. They have peculiar words for all native animals, tame and wild ; Arabic words for everything connected with house-building, and even navigation ; it is only the boat they themselves call Icuh, which, most likely, has nothing to do with the Arabic inerkab. They have only one word — heti (fenti) — for the date-fruit and the date-tree, which are expressed by different terms in Arabic — hellah and nacliele. The sycamore-tree they call by an Arabic name; but it is remarkable, that they designate the sont (acacia) tree by the same word as tree generally — g'uui. Spirit, God, slave, the ideas of relation- ship, the different parts of the body, weapons, the produce of the field, and all that belongs to the preparation of bread, have Nubian names ; on the other hand, servant, friend, enemy, temple, to pray, believe, read, is Arabic. It is striking that they have special words for writing, and book ; but not for style, ink, paper, letter. They call aU the metals by Arabic names, with the exception of iron. Tliey are rich, in the Berber tongue ; jooor, in Arabic ; and, in fact, they are all rich in their miserable home, which they cling to like the Swiss, and, devoid of wants, they despise the Arabic gold, which they might earn in Egypt, where their services are much sought for, as bouse watchmen, and in all confidential posts. We are now waiting for the arrival of the camels, to com- mence our desert journey. TiU we reach Abu Hammed, eight days hence, we shall only once find water fit to drink. We shall travel four days longer on camels, as far as Berber ; there, by the arrangement of Achmed Pascha, we shaU. find boats ready for us. We must go to Kartum, to supply ourselves again with provisions ; if we may believe Linant, to 130 LOWEE yUBIA. go still higlier up as far as Abu Haras, and thence to Han- dera, in the eastern desert, will scarcely repay us; but Achmed Pasclia has promised to send an officer to Maudera, to test once more the statements of the natives. I shall send this report, with other letters, by an express messenger to Qeneh. LETTEE XYI. Korusko, the 5th January, 1844. It is with no small regret that I have to inform you that we shall, perhaps, be compelled to give up our Ethiopian journey, the second principal task of our expedition, and return to the north from this spot. "We have waited, in vain, since the 17th November for the camels, always pro- mised, but never appearing, that were to take us to Berber, and we have still no more prospect of seeing them than at the beginning. I am sorry to say that what we heard on our arrival is confirmed ; the Arab tribes, who alone manage the transport, are discontented with Mohammed All's re- duction of the charge from eighty to sixty piastres for each camel from hence to Berber ; they have agreed among each other to send no more camels here, and no Eirman, no pro- mises, no thi-eats, are of any avail. A great number of chests, with ammunition, destined for Chartum, have been lying here these ten months past, and they are unable to convey them any farther. We had hoped for the assistance of Achmed Pascha Menekle, the new governor of the Southern Provinces, as he had been most friendly and unbounded in his promises. The officer, who remained behind here with the ammunition, received a direct order from him to detain the first camels that should arrive, for our use ; nevertheless, we are not at all nearer to our object. The Pascha himself had scarcely means to pursue his journey onward, although he required but few camels. He had brought some of them LOAVEil >UEIA. 131 with him from tlie north, and he caused some to be foreiblv driven together here. Notwithstanding this, he was verv ill-provided on liis departure, and it is said that hall' of his beasts either died, or fell sick in the desert. On the 3rd December, as no camels had yet come, thougli the Pascha must have passed the province of Berber, from whence he was to send us the requisite number, I sent our own excellent and trustworthy Kawass, Ibrahim Aga, with Mohammed Ali's Firman, across the desert of nine days' journey, to Berber. Meanwhile, we went up as far as "Wadi Haifa, to the second Cataract, and visited the numerous monuments which are to be found in this region, returning here, three weeks afterwards, with a rich harvest. It is now thirty-one days since our Kawass set out on his journey, and a few days ago I received a letter from the Mudhir of Berber, by w^hich I learn that he was still unable to furnish me with camels, although, after the amval of our Kawass, and the reception of the letter of the Mudhir in this place, he had immediately despatched soldiers, in order to collect the necessary number of sixty camels. Thus they are in the same situation there, as we here ; the authorities can do nothing in opposition to the ill-will of the Arabs. Since the sudden death by poison, at Chartum, of Achmcd Pascha, who had been placed at the head of the whole Sudan, and wlio, as it is asserted, has for some time past been en- gaged in a conspiracy, in order to make himself independent of Mohammed Ali, the Southern Kingdom has been divided into five provinces, and placed under five Paschas, who are to be installed in their several offices by Achmed Pascha Menekle. One of their number. Emir Pascha, has been hitherto Bey at Chartum, under Achmed Pascha, who, it appears, he iDetrayed. Three others arrived at Korusko soon after Achmed Pascha Menekle. The most powerful of them, Hassan Pascha, went to his province of Dongola by water, as far as Wadi Haifa ; he had scarcely any attendants, and wanted but few camels to proceed on his journey. The Second, Mustafla Pascha, who is destined for Kordofan, has K 2 132 LOAVEE ^'l7BIA. seized bj force a mercantile caravan returning from Berber. However, hj the Arabs' report, some of the wearied beasts became unserviceable when they reached the well, which is situated about four days' joiumey in the desert; there he found some merchants, whom he robbed of eight camels ; the rest of this caravan did not make its appearance here, fearing probably that it would be again detained, it has taken another route to Egypt. The third Pascha, Ferhat, is still waiting here with us, and uses all the means in his power to collect some camels from the north or the south for himself. Hence our last hope has vanished with respect to this province, as we are less capable than he to arouse the small force of the authorities ; and at this moment we have neither Firman nor'Kawass with us. Every one, and the Paschas more than all, endeavour to console us in the most friendly manner from day to day ; but meanwhile the winter is passing away, the only season when we can work in the upper country. In addition to this, the Mudhir, till now of Lower Nubia, with whom we were on friendly terms, has been complained of by the Xubian Sheikh of his province to Mohammed Ali, and has just been recalled by him. This part of the country has, therefore, been temporarily placed under the Mudhir of Esneh, whose deputy is a young, but otherwise well-disposed man, not however yet acquainted with the province, so we must expect still less from him. I have, therefore, at length made up my mind for the last course which remains open to me. I shall, myself, go to Berber with Abekeu, and a very few camels, and leave Erbkam here, with the rest of our party, and all the baggage. There I shall be better able to see the state of affairs on the spot, and, by aid of the Eii-man and the Kawass, whose autho- rity I am much in want of here, I shall try what can be done. "We were received here, by Achmed Pascha Menekle, ■with the greatest courtesy, and are already assured of his most efficient support, through the interposition of his bod}-- physician, our countryman and personal friend, Dr. Koch. Perhaps money and threats, even though late in the day. TUE ^'UBIAX DESEET. 133 maj carry our point. By mere chance I have myself been able to procure six camels. Two more are still absolutely necessary for the completion of our little caravan ; but the deputy of the Mudhir, with the best will towards us, cannot even procure these two camels. We have already been waiting three days for them, and still do not know whether we shall receive them. LETTER XYII. E' Ddmcr, the 24th Januan/, 1844. Our difficulties, though at a late hour, are terminated. I arrived here yesterday with Abeken, still two days' journey from the Pyramids of ^leroe, and probably the whole of our camp also arrived yesterday at the southern extremity of the Great Desert at Abu Hammed. After my last discouraging account from Berber, I set out on the 8th January, about mid-day, with Abeken, the dragoman Jussuf Scherebieh, a cook, and our little Kubian boy Auad. We had eight camels, two of them, however, scarcely in a fit state to make the journey, and two asses. As the promised guide was not at hand, I compelled the Sheikh of the camels, Achmed, to accompany us himself, as he might be of service to us, on account of his reputation among the tribes of the Ababde Arabs dwelling here. We had besides these, another guide, Adar, who had been given us instead of the promised one, and five camel-drivers ; and soon after our departure several other foot-passengers joined our party, besides two people Avith asses, who availed themselves of this opportunity to return to Berber. AVe took with us ten water-skins, some stores of rice, macaroni, biscuit, and cold meat, besides a light tent, our coverlets on which to ride and sleep, the requisite changes of linen, and a few books ; and, in addition, a proper .supply of good courage, of which I scarcely ever feel the want 134 SHEIXH ACnilED. in starting on a jonrney. Our friends accompanied us a short way into tlie rocky valley, which very soon entirely concealed the neighbouring banks of the river, and its pleasant palm-trees. The valley ^Yas both wild and monotonous, nothing but sandstone rock, the surface of which was burnt as black as coal, but in every quarry, and every hollow, this changed into a brilliant golden yellow ; from these a multitude of streams of sand, like streams of fire out of black dross, trickled down, and filled the valleys. AYe were preceded by the guides ; they had simple folds of drapery round their shoulders and hips ; in their hands were either one or two spears, made of firm, but light wood, provided with iron points and shafts ; a round, or lightly carved shield, with a very prominent boss made of giraffe skin covered their naked backs ; their other shields were oblong in form, and usually made of hippopotamus skin, or of the dorsal hide of the crocodile. During the night, and often in the daytime also, they bound sandals under their feet, the thongs of which, not unfrequently cut out of one piece with the sole, are drawn between the great toe and the second toe, and then surround the foot in the manner of a skate. Sheikh Achmed was a magnificent man, youthful, but tall and noble in stature ; he had extremely supple limbs, of a brilliant brown-black colour, his features were very expres- sive of emotion, a brilliant dark eye, which had both a gentle and sly look, and his mode of speech was so incomparably beautiful, with such harmonious expression, that I liked to have him constantly beside me, although we had a continual contest with him in Korusko, as he was bound to furnish the camels and all appurtenances, and on account of circum- stances he neither would nor could procure them. He gave us a proof in the desert of his agility and the elasticity of his limbs, for taking a long run on the sandy ground, peculiarly unfavourable for leaping, he made a bound of 14-^ feet in width ; I measured the distance between the footmarks with his lance, which was rather more than two metres long THE XUBIAJS" DESEET. 135 (G feet 7 inches English), Adar. our second guide, alone \entured to make the leap after him, but he did not nearly reacli the same distance. The first day we had started early, about eleven o'clock in the morning, and wc rode on till about five ; we then stopped lor an hour and a half, and went on again till about half-past twelve. "We then pitched our tents on the hard ground, and laid down to sleep, after a march of twelve hours. The liiost refreshing thing, after these hot and fatiguing days' journeys, was our tea in the evening; we were, however, »»bliged to habituate ourselves to the leathery taste of the \sat»T, which we perceived even through the tea and cofiee. The second day we were fourteen hours on our camels ; starting about eight in the morning, we halted about four o'clock in the afternoon to eat something, proceeded on our journey about half-past five, and about half-past twelve we struck our encampment for the night, having left the hills, and about ten o'clock, with the rising moon, descended into a vast plain. Hitherto we had not seen a tree, nor a blade uf grass, not even a creature, except some white eagles and ravens, who fed upon the carrion of the camels which had iiillcn. On the third day, after setting off early in the morn- ing, we met a troop of one hundred and fifty camels, which had been purchased by the Government, to be sent into Egj'pt. The Pascha is anxious to import several thousand camels from Berber, that he may thereby, in some measure, repair the consequences of the cattle-disease of last year. A great number had already passed through Korusko, without our venturing to make use of them, as they are the private property of the Pascha ; we could not have mounted them besides, as they had no saddles. The guide o*f the troop, whom we met to-day, brought us at last the long desired intelligence that our Kawass, Ibrahim Aga, had left Berber with sixty camels, and was already marching quite close to us, but on another route, which led across the desert a little more to the west. Sheikh Achmed was sent after him, that he might bring us three good camels, 136 THE NTJBIAK DESERT. in place of our feeble ones ; and also to gain some further intelligence about bim. He said that be sbould overtake us the following nigbt, or at latest the second. I sent a couple of lines to Erbkam, by tbe Cbabir (guide) of the troop. "We baited about balf-past five, and remained all nigbt, boping to see Sbeikb Acbmed arrive sooner. Towards evening we saw tbe first scanty vegetation of tbe desert ; tbe yellowisb- grey dry blades of grass, wbicb were bardly visible wben near, in tbe distance gave a pale greenisb-yellowisb colour to tbe ground, wbicb alone called my attention to it. We ougbt to bave arrived tbe fourtb day at tbe well of brackisb water, fit bowever for tbe camels to drink ; but tbat we migbt not basten on too quickly before Sbeikb Acbmed, we terminated our day's journey as early as four o'clock, about four bours distant from tbe well. At lengtb, about mid-day, we left tbe great plain Bahb bela Ma (tbe River wdtbout Water), wbicb unites witb tbe mountain cbain of El Bab, two days' journey in lengtb, and wbicb we bad entered coming out of Korusko, and we now approacbed otber cbains. Hitberto we bad seen notbing but sandstone rocks, both be- neatb and around us ; it was therefore really a joyful event, wben looking down from my tall camel upon tbe sand, I saw tbe first Plutonic Eock. I immediately glided down from my saddle, and broke off a fragment ; it was a greyisb green stone of very fine grain, and undoubtedly of tbe nature of granite. Tbe preceding cbains of mountains were also cbiefly composed of species of porphyry and granite of different colours, not unfrequently associated witli broad veins of red syenite, such as appears so abundantly on the surface at Assuan, and which was so extensively worked by tbe ancient Egyptians. Far- ther in tbe mountains, quartz was sometimes very prevalent, and tbe appearance was very singular wben, here and there at different heights, tbe snow-white silicious veins appeared on tbe surface of the black mountains issuing like a spring from a point in tbe mountain, and flowing into tbe valley, where its white rolled fragments spread out like a lake. I carried away witb me some small specimens of tbe different THE yUBIA>- DESERT. 137 kinds of rocks. After we had passed beliind a low mouutaiQ defile and a small valley, Bahr' Hatab (the Wood Eiver, on account of the wood, -^hicli is said to grow somewhat farther away on some neighbouring mountains), and another valley, AVadi Delah, inclining to the northern side of the principal mountain which succeeds it, we reached the rocky hollow, E' SuFR, wliere we expected to find rain water, and to re-fill our slirunkcn water-skins {girle,pl. r/erah). During one month of the year, about May, there is usually some rain in this high mountaiu of primitive rock. The huge granite basins in the hollow valleys are then filled, and retain the water throughout the entire year. Some vegetation was to be seen on this Plutonic Rock, resulting from the rain, and because the granite itself seems to contain more fertilising matter than the barren loose sand, almost wholly composed of small grains of quartz. In Wadi Delah, which evidently has water in the rainy season, we came to a loug continuous row of Doum Palms ; the circular form of their leaves, and tlieir bushy growth, has a less bare appearance than the long slender-leaved date palm ; the latter cannot stand the rain, and therefore cannot live in Berber, while the Doum Palm appears in Upper Egypt for the first time, quite isolated, and the farther we travel south, we see them in greater numbers, larger in size, and of more luxuriant growth. If their fruit drop ofi" when lunupe and dry, the small portion of pulp round the stony kernel tastes like a coating of sugar ; if they ripen, the yellowish woody pulp may be chewed; it has a good taste, and some of their fruit had an aroma almost simi- lar to the pine-apple. They are sometimes as large as the largest apples. About four o'clock we pitched our camp, the camels were sent into the hollow, situated behind, to the rain water, and Abeken and I got upon our asses, to accompany them to these natural reservoirs. Hiding over coarse gravel and sharp stones we penetrated deeper and deeper into the ascending defile ; the first large basins were empty, we left our asses and camels behind, clambered up the smooth granite sides of 138 THE NXJBIAX DESEET. the rock, and stepped from one basin to anotlier amidst these huge masses of rock. All were empty ; the guide said there must be water in the fissure which ]aj farthest back, that there it was never exhausted ; but even in that spot not a drop was to be found, so we were obliged to return without any success, as dry as we came. The numerous herds of cattle, which during the past year had been driven out of the Sudan into Egypt, had consumed it all. Only three skins of water had remained over for our party, and we were therefore compelled to find out some means to procure more. Other cisterns were said to exist higher up in the mountains behind this defile. I was anxious to climb up the rocks with the guide, but he considered it too dangerous an undertaking. "We turned round, rode back to the en- campment, and with the setting sun, the camels were forced to start once more in search of water among the hills lying to the north, about an horn' distant from this spot. They returned at a late hour with four skins fidl ; the water was good, and pleasant to the taste. Sheikh Aclimed, however, did not either return this night, and we now hoped to find him at the well, whither he might have preceded us by the southern road. "We started soon after sunrise, on the fifth day, and pene- trated deeper into the great mountain chain of Eoft, which always exhibited tlie same rock, at first slaty in texture, then more in the form of blocks, afterwards abounding in quartz. The heat of the day was more oppressive in the mountains than in the plains, where the north wind blowing almost continuously, produces greater coolness. "With the exception of the diiferent kinds of rock, there was little around to attract our notice. I met with a great ant-hill in the middle of the barren desert, and I looked at it for a long time ; there were smaller and larger bright black ants, who were carrying all the small pieces of earth which they were able to lift out of their building, so that the coarser little stones alone re- mained, and formed solid walls ; the larger ants were distin- guished by their heads being in proportion to their size, THE IsTEIAX DESERT. 139 twice as thick as the others, and they did not themselves work, but led the regiment, and gave a push to each of the fimaller ants, who were carrying nothing, drove them for- wards, and kept them more diligently at work. The difficulty to converse when riding on the hard-pacing camel is so much the greater because it is not easy to make them keep the step beside each other, as with the horse or ass. When upon a good dromedary (Heggin), and travelling without, or with but very little baggage, the creature keeps iu a trot. This is an easy pace, and is not very fatiguing, l)ut it is difficult to get accustomed to the long step of the ordinary baggage-camel, which throws the high load back- \\ards and forwards. Yet even this was alleviated by our being sometimes able to dismount from our camels and get upon our asses, and we often went on foot for a considerable distance botli early in the morning and in the evening. I now return to the fifth day of our desert journey. "We started about eight o'clock in the morning from the little valley of E' Sufr, where we had encamped under some gum, or sont-trees, and about half-past twelve, after turning to our left into a flat valley for the distance of about half an hour from our road among the hills, we reached the brackish well in AVadi IMurhad. Here we had accomplished about half our desert journey. AYe saw^ some huts built of small stones and reeds, and near them a couple of starved goats Avere fruitlessly searching for some pasture ; our black host led us into a reed arbour, where we made ourselves as com- fortable as we could in the shade. In this rocky valley we had been struck for some time by tiie snow-white crust of IN'atron, frequently appearing above tlie sand which makes the water of the well brackish. Towards the end of the valley, where it divides into two branches, the water is to be found between five and six feet beneath the surface, and has been discovered by digging eight wells. The water in the wells which lie farthest back, is greenish, rather salt, and has a bad taste, which, however, satisfies the camels ; the three in front, on the contrary, yield 140 AEAEDE AEAES. clear water, wlilcli might very well liave been drank by us in a case of necessity. There is a government station here, usually inhabited by six persons, but at the present moment four of them had been sent out on an excursion, and only two remained behind. From this spot there are two roads to Korusko, a western and an eastern one. Ibrahim Aga had chosen the former road, we the latter, and we had, therefore, unfortunately missed each other. Sheikh Achmed was also not to be found here ; probably he had not overtaken our camels before the second day, and we were compelled to pro- ceed on our journey without him. The Aeabde Arabs, with whom we have now everywhere to deal, are an honest and trustworthy people, from whom we have less to fear than from the crafty and thievish Fellahs in Egypt. To the north-east of their territory, the races of the BiscHAEi are spread over the country, who have a pecu- liar language, and are now in bitter enmity vdth. the Ababde Arabs, because more than two years ago when they had at- tacked and murdered some Turkish soldiers in the little valley where we had spent the night, Hassan Cbalif, the superior Sheikh of the Ababdes, to whose protection the road of com- munication between Berber and Korusko had been confided, caused forty of the Bischaris to be put to death. Besides, by aid of the Ababdes, more than four-and-twenty years ago, Ismael Pascha succeeded in bringing his army across the desert, and taking possession of the Sudan. It is only upon the road that we are now pursuing that guides are main- tained by government ; there are none on the longer road, from Berber to Assuan, which is, however, better supplied with water, though now but little used. About half-past four we rode away from the well, after we had inspected some Jia(/}' melctub (stones with inscriptions) for which we inquii'e everywhere, viz., some rocks in the neighbourhood, on which, in somewhat modern times, a number of horses, camels, and other creatures have been roughly scratched, similar to what we had already often seen in I^ubia. About half-past nine we halted for the night, after having quitted the high THE yUBIAX DESEKT. 141 cliaiu of mountains an hour and a half previously. On the morning of the sixth day, vre crossed the -wide plain Mir^- DEBA, to which another lofty chain, Abu Sihha, is attached, at the farther side ; the southern frontier of this plain, where it inclines towards that chain, is called Abdebab ; the southern portion of the large chain of Eoft lying behind us is called Abu Se>'ejat. About three o'clock we left the plain behind us, and again entered the mountain range, which, like the others, is com- posed of granite. Half an hour afterwards, we halted for our mid-day's repose. In a couple of hours we rode on larther, and encamped towards midnight, after we had tra- versed another small plain, and from the 'stony range Adar AriB which succeeds it, entered a new plain, comprehended under the same appellation, which extends as for as the last chain of mountains belonging to this desert of Gebel G-RAIBAT. On the following day, the seventh of our journey, wo started about half-past seven in the mornuig, and at length, beyond Gebel Graibat, we reached the great boundless plain of Adeheuat, which we did not quit again till we arrived at Abu Hammei). To the south-west we now kept in view llie small hill El Faeut and the larger range of Mogead ; to the east, far distant, another mountain chain, Abu Nugaea. joins that of Adar Aiub. Then to the south-east there were other Bischari chains of mountains, whose names were un- Ivnown to our Ababde guides. The commencement of the c^reat plain of Adererat was covered for whole hours together with beautiful, pvu-e quartz, sometimes rising up out of the f^and in the form of solid rock, although the predominant kind of rock continued to be black granite, which towards the south was traversed by a broad vein of red granite. Early in the day a small caravan of merchants passed us at some little distance. At a very early hour in the day we saw the most beautiful mirages, both near us and at a distance, exhibiting a very deceptive resemblance to lakes and rivers, in which 142 LIFE IN THE DESEET. the mountains, blocks of stone, and everything around is reflected, as if in clear water. They form a strange con- trast with the hard arid desert, and, as it is related, must have often bitterly deceived many a poor wanderer. When we are not aware that no water can be there, it is often totally impossible to distinguish the semblance from the reality. Only a few days ago, in the neighbourhood of El Mecheeef, I felt perfectly certain that I saw either Nile water which had overflowed, or a branch of the river, and I rode up, but only found Bahr Scheita??, " The water of Satan," as it is called by the Arabs. Even though the sand may have obliterated all traces of the caravan road, it cannot easily be missed daring the day, as it is sufliciently marked by innumerable skeletons of camels, several of which are always in view ; yesterday I counted forty-one, which we passed during the last half hour before sunset. We did not lose one of our own camels, although they had not rested long in Korusko, and had had scarcely anything to eat or drink on the road. My own camel, into whose mouth I had sometimes put a piece of biscuit, used to look round in the middle of the march when it heard me biting, or twist round its long neck, till it laid its head, with its soft large eyes on ray lap, to get something more. About four o'clock in the afternoon we stopped for about two hours, and then went on again till about eleven o'clock, when we went in search of a place for our night's encampment in the great plain. The wind however blew so violently that it was impossible to secure our tent. In spite of the ten iron pegs which fasten it all the way round, it was three times overthrown, before it was completely pitched ; we allowed it therefore to remain as it was, and laid ourselves down behind a little wall, which the guide had made out of the saddles of the camels, to protect us from the wind, and we slept a la helle etoile. On the eighth day we might have arrived at Abu Hammed late that evening, but determined to halt for the night, one hour sooner, that we might reach the Nile by daylight. The THE >frBIAX DESERT. 143 birds of prey increased iu number as we approached the river; we frightened away about thirty vultures from the fresh carcase of a camel, and only the day before I had shot a white eagle in the desert, as well as some desert par- tridges, that were in search of stray grains of Durra* on the caravan road. We only saw the footsteps of beasts of prey, round the skeletons of the camels ; they did not disturb us in tlie night, as they did in the camp at Korusko, where we killed a hyaena, besides several jackals. Towards mid- day we met a caravan of slaves. The last encampment for the night before we reached Abu Hammed was iu a less windy position, yet our supply of charcoal was exhausted, and our people had forgotten to collect camels' dung on the road for fuel ; therefore, to appease our thirst, we were obliged to be contented to drink the last brown water of the skins unboiled. We could give no more to the asses. On the 16th January we mounted our camels about lialf-past seven in the morning, and looked forth from our high thrones towards the Xile. It was, however, only visible a very short time before we reached it. The river does not cut through any broad valley at this spot, but flows in a bare, rocky channel, passing almost unperceived through the slightly elevated and wide rocky plain. On the farther side of the river the ground had more the character of a plain, and some Doum Palms grew upon an island that had formed there. Shortly before we reached tlie bank, we met a troop of 150 camels, which had just started from Abu Hammed. A great circular embankment of earth then became visible with some towers upon it like a fortress, which had been erected by the great Arab Sheikh Hassan Chalif, for the government stores. A small hollow con- tains five huts, one made of stones and earth, another of trunks of trees, two of mats, one of bus, or durra-straw ; a more open space then spread before us surrounded by several wretched houses, one of which was prepared for our reception. A brother of Hassan Chalif who lives here came out to meet us ; he led us into the house, and proflered his services. * Bhorra. Bolcus sorghum. Kenrick, Anc. Eg. — Tr. 144 ABU HAMMED. Some anqarebs (reed bedsteads), which on account of the creeping vermin are much in use here, were brought within doors, and we settled ourselves for the day, and the following night, for we were obliged to allow the camels at least so much time for repose. We were surrounded by a great square space, thirty feet wide on every side, the walls were made of stone and earth, two thick trunks of trees, branching like a fork, supported a large architrave, above which the other joists were placed, which were covered and joined together by mats and wickerwork. It strongly reminded me of some very ancient architecture which we had seen represented in the rock-grottoes of Beni- hassan; the columns, the network of the ceiling, through which as in that instance the only light except what was ad- mitted by the door entered by a square opening in the centre, there was no window. The door was composed of four short trunks of trees, of which the uppermost one was exactly like the ornamented door-posts in the tombs of the time of the Pyramids. We hung a canvas curtain before the door to protect us from the -wind and dust ; another door led at the opposite corner into a side-room, which was arranged for the kitchen. It was a windy day, and the wind was dis- agreeably charged with sand, so that we went very little out of doors. But we refreshed ourselves with some pure and fresh Nile water, and a meal of well-dressed mutton. The G-reat Desert lay behind us ; and we were only four days' joui'uey from El Mecheref, the capital of Berber, during which time we should follow the course of the river. "We learned that Achmed Pascha Menekle was in our neighbour- ]iood, or that he would soon arrive, in order to lead a military expedition from Darner, a short day's journey beyond El Mecheref, up the Atbara to the province of Taka, where some of the tribes of the Bischaris had revolted. "When we stepped out of doors the following morning, our Arabs had all anointed themselves most beautifully, and had put on clean clothes ; but what most astonished us, was the appearance of their magnificent white powdered wigs, which PE0T1^'CE OF BEEBER. 145 gave quite a venerable appearance to their faces. To make their toilet complete, they are in the habit of combing up their great heads of hair into a high toupie, which is spriukled over with fine, flaky, shining, white butter, like powder, expressly prepared for this purpose. But in a short time, when the sun rises higher, this greasy snow melts, and the hair seems then as if it was covered with innumerable pearls of dew, till even these gradually dis- appear, and dripping over the neck and shoulders, spread a gloss over the pliant darlc brown skin, which gives their well-built figures the appearance of antique bronze statues. We started the next morning, about eight o'clock, with a. fresh camel, which we had had an opportunity of obtaining in exchange for a tired one. The nearer we approach the island of Meroe, the valley becomes so much the wider, and more fertile, and the desert even becomes more like a steppe. The first station was Geg, where we passed the night in an open space of ground ; the air is very warm ; about half-past five in the afternoon it was still 25^ E. (87° Fahr.). The second night we halted beyond Abu IlAscnix, close to a village, which in fact is not really a station, as we were anxious to get through the five ordinary stations in tlio space of four days ; the third night we halted in the open air, near a cataract of the JS'ile. On the fourth day from Abu Hammed we removed somewhat farther from the river into the desert, yet we always remained on the soil of the ancient valley, if I may so designate a yellowish earth which is now no longer overflowed by the river, but which was turned up by the inhabitants of the village directly from beneath the sand ; that they might improve their fields with it. AVe stopped in the evening at the village of El Choe, one hour distant from El Mecheref, and the fifth day we arrived at an early hour at the capital of the province of Berber. I sent the dragoman forward to announce our arrival, and to ask for a house, which was given up to us, and we took possession of it immediately. The Mudhir of Berber was in L 146 PEOTINCE OF BEREEE. Darner, but his Wakil, or representative, visited us, and soon after Hassan Clialif, the principal Arab Sheikh, who promised us better camels to take us to Damer ; he was re- joiced to hear some tidings of his and our friends, Linant and Bonomi, and was much pleased in looking over our picture books, among which he found likenesses of some of his own relations and ancestors. We had scarcely arrived, before we received news that Hassan Pascha had arrived at the same time as ourselves, from a different quarter. He had travelled from Korusko to his province of Dongola, and now came from Edabbe, on the southern frontier of Dongola, right across the desert to El Mecheref, whither Em in, the new Pascha of Chartum, had gone to meet him. This meet- ing caused us some inconvenience with respect to the arrangements of our journey ; nevertheless, we so far ad- vanced our object, that on the following morning, the 22nd of January, soon after Hassan Pascha had again set out on his journey, we were also enabled to depart for the south, leaving two camels behind, which we did not require any longer as water-carriers, and exchanging three others for better ones. "We rode away about mid-day, and stopped in the evening at the last village before reaching the river Mogran, the ancient Astaboeas, which we had to cross before getting to Damee. It is called on the maps Atbaea, which is evi- dently derived from Astaboras; yet this name does not appear now to be used for the lower, but for the upper river, beginning from the place of the same name. On the follow- ing morning we crossed the river close to its mouth. Even at this point it was now very narrow in its great bed, which in the rainy season is entirely filled, and two months hence it is only prevented from being wholly dried up by a little stagnant water. On the farther side of the river we entered the (Strabonic) island of Meeoe, by which appellation the land between the Nile and the Astaboras was designated. Two hours more and we arrived at Damer. The houses were too wretched to receive us. I despatched e' da:mee. 147 Jussuf to Emin Pasclia, in whose province we row are, and who has encamped in tents with Hassan Pascha on the bank of the river. He sent a Kawass to meet us, and invited us to dismount and to dine with them. I however preferred to haye our tent pitched at some little distance, and first of all to change our travelling costume. The Mudhir of Berber immediately visited us to ask what we might require, and soon after Emin Pascha sent a sumptuous dinner for us to our tent : four well cooked dishes, and, besides, a whole sheep stuifed with rice and roasted on the spit, with a flat cake of puff paste stuffed with meat. About three o'clock in the afternoon, about tlie time of Asser, we announced that we were going to pay our visit ; just as we were making our arrangements to set out we heard some sailors' songs, and saw two boats with red flags, and the crescent, floating down the river ; it was Achmed Pascha Menekle, who was returning from Chartum. The Paschas and the Mudhir immediately repaired to his boat, and it was late before they separated ; our friend, Dr. Koch, unfortunately, was not expected to arrive from Chartiini for two days later. I had received a letter from Erbkam very soon after our arrival, in which he announced to me, through a passing Kawass, that he had left Korusko on the 15th January with Ibrahim Aga ; he wrote from their first night's encampment. The Kawass had ridden with incredible speed in fourteen days from Cairo to Berber, and he brought Achmed Pascha the permission which had been earnestly re- quested, to raise the government charge for the camels be- tween Korusko and Berber from sixty to ninety piastres above what it was before. 26fh January. — The day before yesterday we paid an early visit to Achmed Pascha, which he returned yesterday. He will do aU in his power to accelerate our journey on- wards. He communicated to us that, as he had before pro- mised, he had sent an officer from Abu Haras to Mandera, three days into the desert, and had heard it reported by him that some great ruins were still extant on that spot. A letter l2 148 JO■UE^'EY 0^'^VAEDS. from Cbartum, wliich we received yesterday from Dr. KocL, mentioned the same thing, and it was verbally confirmed by himself this morning. After dinner he is going to introduce US to Musa Bey, who has been on the spot. At the same time he informed us that he had received some letters addressed to us, and that they were left in Chartum ; also that the draughtsman who had been engaged from Bome had arrived in Cairo. A boat is ready in El Mecheref for our travelling com- panions. I myself, however, intend to ride on before with Abekeu. Achmed Pascha has sent me word that in an hour's time a courier departs for Cairo, who will take this letter with him. Postscript. — The glowing accounts about Mandera, upon closer inquiry, seem to want confirmation . It will hardly be worth our while to go there. LETTEE XYIII. On the Blue Eiver, Province of Senndr, Lat. 13<>, 2nd March, 1844. To-DAT we reach the most southern limit of our African journey. To-morrow we again turn towards the north and homewards. We shall go as far as the neighbourhood of Seeo — a place on the boundary between the provinces of Sennar and Fasokl, for our time will not allow us to do more. Prom Chartum I have ascended the river as far as tliis spot, with Abeken alone. "We relinquished the desert journey to Mandera, the rather as the eastern territories are at present insecure from the war in Taka ; and we now employ the time, in travelling several days farther across Sennar, to gain some information about the character of the river and the adjacent country. This journey is worth the trouble, for, from Abu Haras, situated at the influx of the Eahad, between Chartum and Sennar, the character of the JOUEyEY TO chaetum:. 149 whole country is completely altered in its soil, vegetation, and animals. I then thought I should like to obtain a view of the Xile valley itself, as far up the river as possible, as the character of this narrow strip of countrj^ has had a greater influence on the course of history than any other epot in the whole world. It is impossible, witliout incurring danger, or making pe- culiar preparations, to travel up the White Eiver beyond a few days' journey, as far as the boundaries of Mohamed All's conquests. After this, there are the ScniLLi'KS on the western bank, the Dinkas on the eastern, both native negro nations, who are not ver}' friendly to Xorthern guests. Tiie Blue Eiver is navigable still farther up, and in historical times, as well as at the present day, was of much greater importance than the White Eiver, as it was the means of communication between the Xorth, and Abyssinia. I sliould have liked to have penetrated as far as the province of Pasokl, tlie last under Egyptian rule ; but it cannot be com- bined with the calculation of our time. This evening, there- fore, we shall terminate our southern journey. But I must go back in my reports to Damer, where, on the 27th January, I embarked with Abcken npon a boat belong- ing to ^lusa Bey, the first adjutant of Achmed Pascha, who politely placed it at our disposal. About eight o'clock in the evening we halted for the night at the island of Dal Haul AV^e had received a Kawass from Emin Pascha, who came here with Ismael Pascha at the time of the conquest of the countrv, went with Defterdar Bey to Kordofan (or, as ho expresses it, Kordifal), then accompanied him on his avenging march to JSchendi, in consequence of the murder of Ismael, and since that time has, for three-and-twenty years, roamed over the whole of the Sudan in all directions. He carries in his head the most complete map of these countries, and has a marvellous memory for names, direc- tions, and distances ; so tliat I have drawn two maps accord- ing to his statements, particular parts of which may not be without geographical interest. He has also been in Mecca, 150 PYRAMIDS OF MEEOE. and therefore likes to be called Haggi Ibrahim (The Pilgrim Ibrahim). He has great experience in other matters also, and will be extremely useful to us from his long and exten- sive knowledge of the country. On the 28th January we halted about mid-day at an island called GrOiiEA, as we heard that there were some ruins in the vicinity which we were anxious to see, "We were obliged to go through a shallow arm of the Nile, and to ride back an hour northwards on the eastern bank. At length, after passing the villages of Motmar and El Akarid, between a third village, Sagadi, and a fourth, GEy:s-A, we found the in- significant ruins of an ancient place, constructed of bricks and strewed over with potsherds. We returned in the mid-day heat, not in the very best humour, and did not reach Begeeatjieh in our boat before sunset, near which the Pyramids of Meroe arc situated. It is singular that Cailliaud does not mention tliis spot ; he only speaks of the Pyramids of Asstje, i. e. Sue, or e' Sue. This is the name of the whole plain in which the ruins of the town and Pyramids are situated, and also a single portion of Beg'erauieh, which last, by wrong spelling, is called, in Hos- kins, Begeomi. Although it was already dark, I nevertheless rode to the Pyramids with Abeken. They are situated a short hour inland, on the first elevation of the low hills which run along in an easterly direction. The moon, which was in its first quarter, feebly illuminated the plain, covered with stones, low bushes, and clumps of reeds. After a rapid ride, we at length reached the foot of a row of Pyramids, closely crowded together, which rose before us in a crescent, as the form of the narrow elevation rendered necessary. To the right, a little behind, another group of Pyramids joined these ; a thh'd lies more to the south, and rather more forward in the plain, but too distant to be seen by half moonlight. I fastened the bridle of my donkey-steed to a block of stone, and clambered up the first mound of ruins. Although the individual Pyramids are not accurately PYEAMIDS OF ilEKOE. 151 placed according to the quarters of the heavens, as they are in Egypt, nevertheless all the ante-chambers here attached to the Pyramids themselves are turned away from the river, towards the east, doubtless on the same religious grounds which induced the Egyptians to place the unattached temples standing in front of their Pyramids also towards the east ; therefore, in Gizeh and Sagara, towards the river, while their sepulchral chambers are towards the west. Half looking, half feeling, I found some sculptures on the outer walls of the small sepulchral temple, and I also felt figures and writing on the inner walls. It occurred to me that I had the end of a candle in my saddle-pocket ; I lighted this, and then examined several ante-chambers. There I immediately encountered the Egyptian gods, Osiris, Isis, Nephthys, Atmu, &c., with their names in the known hiero- glyphic character. I also found the name of a king in the first chamber. One of the two Rings contained the emblems of a great Pharaoh of the Old Monarchy, Sesurtesen I., the same which had been adopted by two later Egyptian mo- narchs, and I here found them, for the fourth time, as the Throne-Name of an Ethiopian king. The sculptures on the remainino^ sides were not completed. I found some Royal Shields this evening also in another ante-chamber, but not very legible. The inscriptions and representations had alto- gether been much damaged. The Pyramids have also all of them lost their summits, as in Egypt, and many have been destroyed down to the ground. Our new Kawass, who did not like to leave us alone in the night time, had immediately followed us. He had a perfect knowledge of the locality, as he had been here a long time with Ferlixi, and had assisted him in his researches among the Pyramids. He showed us the spot in which Eerlini, in 1834, had found immured the rich treasure of gold and silver rings. I also discovered, the same evening, a cased Pyramid, ac- cording to the principle of the Egyptian Pyramids, which were afterwards enlarged by superimposed layers of stone. lOZ PYRAMIDS OF MEEOE. According to the inscriptions and representations of the ante- chambers, these Pyramids were most of them built solely for kings, some of them, perhaps, for their wives and children. Therefore,' their great number indicates a tolerably long succession of kings, and a well-established Monarchy, which probably must have remained in a state of tranquillity for a series of centuries. The event of m.ost importance in this moon and torchlight survey, was not, however, exactly the most cheering. I was unavoidably convinced that on this most renowned spot of ancient Ethiopia, I had nothing before me but the remains, proportionately speaking, of a very late period of art. Even earlier than this, the drawings of Eerlini's monuments, which I saw for the first time in Eome, and the monuments them- selves, which I had just seen in London, impressed me with the opinion that they had been, indeed, sculptured in Ethiopia, but certainly not previous to the first century before the birth of Christ, tlierefore about the same period to which certain genuine Greek and Eoman works belong, which were discovered simultaneously with the Ethiopian treasure. I must now make the same remark upon the monuments in general, which are found not only here but throughout the wliole island of Meroe, as well as of all the Pyramids at Beg'erauich, and of the temples of Ben jN'aga, of Naga, and in the AVadi e' Sofra (the Mesaurat of Cailliaud), which we have since then seen. The representations and inscriptions do not leave the smallest doubt of this, and it will in future be a fruitless task to endeavour to support the favourite supposition of an ancient, brilliant, and renowned Meroe, whose inhabitants were at one time the predecessors and the instructors of the Egyptians in civilisation, by the demonstration of monumental remains from that old period. This conviction is besides of no small scientific value, and seems even now to throw some light on the historical con- nection between Egypt and Ethiopia, the importance of which can be only thoroughly demonstrated by the monuments of Barkal. There, I have no doubt, will be found the oldest JOL'EyET TO CHAETUM. 153 Ethiopian monuments, although, perhaps, not earlier than the period of Tahraka, who reigned simultaneously over Egypt and Ethiopia in the seventh century before Christ. The next morning at sunrise "we rode back to the Pyramids, and discovered fifteen different kings' names, some of them, however, in very bad preservation. AVe had just completed our survey of the two groups of Pyramids lying to the north-east, and were riding on to the third, wliich is situated in the plain, not far from the ruins of the town, and is, perhaps, the oldest Necropolis, when we heard shots from the bank, and saw white sails fluttering over the river. Soon afterwards Erbkam, the two "Weidenbachs, and Franke, came walking across the plain, and hailed us from a great distance. AYe had not expected them to arrive so soon, and, therefore, rejoiced still more to sec tliem again. We could now pursue our journey to Chartum together. We sailed away about two in the afternoon, and the next morning about ten o'clock reached Schendi. AVe pro- ceeded in the afternoon, spent the night on the island of HoBi, and the following morning arrived at Be"N" Naga. Here, we first visited the ruins of two small temples ; the one lying towards the west, had Typhonic pillars, instead of columns, but no inscription was to be found on the few remains; in the other temple to the east, some sculptures were preserved on the low remains of the walls of the temple ; and also some writing on several circular fragments of columns, but too little to take away any connected ideas from them. Had w^e made some excavations, we might pro- bably have discovered some kings' names, but it was impos- sible to make such an experiment till our return. We procured some camels for the following day, and about nine o'clock in the morning I started with Abeken, Erbkam, and Max AVeidenbach, for Xaga. Such is the name given to the ruins of a town and several temples, which are situated in the eastern desert, between seven and eight hours distant from the Nile. Prom our landing-place in the vicinity of the only group of palm-trees in the surrounding country, it was 154 JOUENEY TO CHAETUM. only one half hour to the village of Ben j^'aga, which is in "Wadi Teeesib. One hour eastward down the river (for it here flows in a direction from west to east) are the above- mentioned ruins, in Wadi el Kiebegax, near to which we had disembarked the previous day; we left them now on our left hand, and rode in a south-easterly direction into the desert, having here and there some parched bushes ; we trar versed the valley of El Kirbegan, which, as far as this point, runs outwards from the river, in which we found an encamp- ment of the Ababde Arabs. Four hours and a half from Ben JN'aga we came to a single hill in the desert called Bueeib. It was on the water-shed between the smaller south-western Wadis (so even the flat- test depressions of the ground are called, in which the water runs ofl", and which we should scarcely call valleys) and the great, broad AYadi Atjateb, which we were now descending, after having left Buerib at a short distance on our left. In three hours and three-quarters from Buerib we arrived at the ruins of Naga. It was not till we approached tlie temple that I solved the enigma, which I had hitherto sought in vain to interpret, and on which neither Cailliaud nor Hoskins could offer any ex- planation ; namely, how had it been possible to found and to maintain a large city in the midst of the desert, so far re- moved from the river. The whole valley of Auateb is even now cultivated land. We found it far and wide covered with the stubble of Durra. The inhabitants of Schendi, Ben Naga, Fadnie, Selama, Metamme, consequently of both banks of the ^ile, come as far as this to cultivate the land and to gather in the Durra. The water of the tropical rains suffices to fertilise this flat but extensive tract of low ground, and in ancient times, when more care was bestowed upon it, a still greater profit must liave been derived from this region. During the dry season of the year they must undoubtedly have had large artificial reservoirs, such as we found even now, though without water, near the more remote ruins to the north-west of iN'aga. TEilPLES OF XAGA. 155 The ruins stand on a projection of a mountain range several hours long, which from them has taken the name of Gebel e' Xaga, and stretches out from the south, north- wards, AVadi Auateb passes along its western side towards the river. We arrived ahout half-past five o'clock, after an uninterrupted ride. On the road we saw the path covered with the marks of gazelles, wild asses, foxes, jackals, ostriches. Lions are also met with here, but we did not see any of their tracks. I visited the three principal temples before nightfall, all of which belong to a xery late period, and do not suggest the ideas of very ancient art, as Cailliaud and Hoskins thought they could recognise. There is, besides, a fourtli temple by the side of the tliree principal temples, of EgA-ptian architec- ture, whose well-joined arches, not unpleasantly combined with Egyptian ornaments, not only pre-supposes them to have been erected when the Boman dominion extended over the world, but even that Eoman architects were on the spot. This last temple has no inscriptions. "With respect to the three others, the two lying to the south were built by one and the same king ; in the representations in both temples he is accompanied by the same queen. But a third royal per- sonage appears behind them having a different name in the two temples. The Tlu'one-Shield of Sesurtesen I. is again at- tached to the name of the king, although he does not appear to be the same as the King of the Pyramids of Sur. Besides, both those other personages have assumed old Egyptian Throne-Shields, which might easily mislead us. The third most northern temple has sustained much injury, and very little wTitiug remains upon it, yet a king is men- tioned on the door-posts who differs from the builder of both the other temples. The figures of the gods are almost wholly Egyptian, but on the southern temple there is a figure unknown in Egypt, with three lions' heads (a fourth may perhaps be supposed behind) and four arms. This may be the barbaric god spe- 156 JOUR>'ET TO CHAETUIil. ciallj mentioned by Strabo, whom the Meroites worshipped besides Hercules, Pan, and Isis. The next morning, the 2nd of February, we again visited the three temples, took some impressions on paper, and then started for the third group of monuments, named by Cailliaud Mesatjeat. This, however, is a term which is here employed to designate all the three groups of ruins, and which only means pictures, or walls furnished with pictures. The ruins of Ben ]S'aga are called Mesatjeat el Kiebeqax, because they are situated in "Wad i el Kiebegais"; it appears that the second group only has retained its old name of Naga, or Mesaueat e' Kaga ; the third group situated towards Schendi is called jMesaueat e' Sofea from the mountain basin in which it lies, which is called e' Sofea, the table. TVe first pursued, for tlie space of two hours, in a north- erly direction the mountain chain of Gebel e' Naga, in the valley of Auateb. Then, about half-past twelve, we as- cended through the first defile which opens to the right, into a valley situated somewhat higher, e' Seleha ; it becomes broader behind the first low fore-range, and is luxuriantly overgrown with grass and shrubs ; after extending for an hour and a quarter in the direction of S.S.A\^. to jS'.N.E., it opens on the left hand into the valley of Auateb, and straight on into another smaller valley, from which it is separated by Gebel Lagar. It is this small valley, which from its circular form is called e' Sofea ; here are the ruins which were also seen by Hoskins, who did not, however, advance as far as jS'aga. We arrived about a quarter past two, and had not, therefore, been quite four hours coming from Naga to this spot. As we only wished to take a passing hasty survey, we walked through the -R-idely-scattered ruins of the principal building, which Cailliaud held to be a great school, and Hoskins an hospital; and we saw in the few sculptures, which are unaccompanied by inscriptions, that here also we had before us monuments of a late period, pro- bably still more recent than those in Sur and Xaga. "We ASSES. LlOyS. 157 then went to a small temple in the neiglibourhood, with pillars on which are represented riders upon elephants, lions, and other strange barbarous scenes. TTe looked at the huge artificial cisterns, now called Wot Mahemur, which in the dry season must have compensated the inhabitants for the want of the river ; and about four o'clock we returned to Ben Naga. As we emerged from the hills, we met great troops of wild asses, which always kept at a little distance from us, as if they would invite us to hunt them. They are of a grey or greyish- red colour, with white bellies ; they all have a black stripe drawn distinctly across the back, and the tip of the tail is also generally black. Many of them are caught when young, but they cannot then even be used for riding or carrying burdens. It is only the next generation which can be employed in tliat manner. Almost all the tame asses in the south, which come from the Ass Cataract (Schellal homar) in Berber, are got from this wild breed, and have the same colour and similar marks. "VVe encamped soon after sunset in a plain, overgrown with bushes. The camel-drivers and our Kawass were in great terror of lions in this desert till a large fire was kindled, which they kept most carefully alive throughout the night. If a lion only lets his voice be heard near a caravan, which really does sound deep and awful across the wide desert, all the camels run away on every side as if they were mad, and it is difficult to catch them again, frequently not before they have sustained and done much injury. Human beings are not, however, easily attacked. A few days ago a camel was strangled by a lion in our neighbourhood, but on the farther side of the river. A man who was present saved himself on the nearest tree. On the 3rd of February we again set out about seven in the morning ; we left the two Bueribs, the great " blue" and the little '• red," at a considerable distance on our left hand, and shortly before nine o'clock arrived in the valley of El lurbegan, which we followed for half an hour in the direc- 158 TAMAJflAT. CHAETUM. tion of the river. 'We saw tlie Mesaurafc el Kirbegan iu its whole extent on our right, but kept upon the hills till a little after eleven, when we arrived at Ben JN'aga, and half an hour afterwards once more at our landing-place. Two hours afterwards we continued our journey in our boat. "We made, however, little progress with a strong adverse wind, and saw nothing new, except for the first time a hippopotamus swimming in the water. The next morning we disembarked on the western bank, opposite the village of Gos Basabie, to see the ruins of the walls of an old fortress, with towers of defence, which surrounded the summit of a hill. The space enclosed was about 300 paces in diameter. In the afternoon we approached the Schellal (the Cataract) of GrEEASCHAB, the higher mountain ranges lying before us, closed in upon each other, and at length formed a mountain hollow, seemingly without any outlet ; this was, however, to our surprise, near at hand, for we turned to our left into a nar- row defile, which widened into a liigh and wild rocky valley ; we followed it for nearly an hour before again emerging on the other side into another plain. The eruptive granite ranges of Qieee pass on the eastern side of the river into Eauian, "the thirsty quenched;" while to the west, some distance from the river, there is Atschax "the thirsty," also rising up in a detached form. The 5th February we landed about eleven in the morn- ing at Tamaniat. Mohammed Said, the former treasurer of the late Achmed Pascha, whose acquaintance we had made in Damer, had given us a letter to one of the sub-officials there, which contained instructions to him to deliver to us the fragment of an inscription which had been found in Soba. It belonged to the centre of a marble table, which was inscribed on both sides with Grreek or Coptic letters of a late period. The signs, which were not difficult to read, neither contained Greek nor Coptic words ; only the name retoprio . . could be deciphered. The same evening we arrived in Chaetum. This name signifies an elephant's trunk, and probably was derived from the form of the nar- TUEKISn EEPAST. 159 row tongue of land on whicli the town is situated, between the two Nile rivers which unite at this spot. My first visit with Abeken was to Einiu Pa«c-ha, who had reached Chartum before us. He received us in a very friendly manner^ and would not allow us to leave him the whole morning. A magnificent breakfast, consisting of thirty dishes, which we partook of at liis house, gave us a most curious insight into the secrets of the Turkish culinary art ; as I learned from our highly-fed Pascha, it resembles the most accom- plished systems of the latest French kitchens, in obeying the refined regulations of a fastidious taste in the prepara- tion and arrangement of food. Soon after the first dishes, mutton, roasted on the spit, is brought in, which cannot be dispensed with at any Turkish meal. Then follow various courses of dishes of meats and vegetables, solid and liquid, sour and sweet, and a certain repetition of changes is ob- served in the successive dishes, in order to keep up the keenness of the appetite. Pillau, boiled rice, always forms the conclusion. The external preparations for such an entertainment are somewhat as follows. A great, round, metal tray, with a flat border, about three feet in diameter, is placed on a low frame, and senses as a table, round which five or six persons seat themselves on cushions or coverlets ; the legs vanish beneath the body, in the ample folds of the dress ; as to the hands, the left must be invisible, it would be quite improper to let it ever be seen during meals. The right hand must alone be active. No such thing as a plate is to be seen, no more than knives and forks. The table is covered with deeper or shallower, covered or uncovered dishes, which are con- stantly changed, so that but a very few morsels can be taken from each. Particular dishes, however, such as roast meat, cold milk with cucumbers, &c., remain longer on the table, and one returns to them more frequently. Both before and after dinner, the hands are of course washed. A servant, or slave, kneeling, holds in one hand a metal basin, in the 160 CHAETUir. middle of which lies a piece of soap, in a little projecting saucer, expressly iised for the purpose ; with the other he pours water from a metal pitcher over the hands, and a fine, ornamentally embroidered towel hangs over his arm for drying them. After dinner the pipe is immediately presented, coffee handed round, and then one may retire. The Turks are in the habit of making this the period of their mid-day repose, till Asser. But before we parted from our host, a number of weapons were brought, belonging to the savage nations living farther up the country, lances, bows, arrows, clubs, and a king's sceptre, which he sent to the boat for me, as a present to his guest. We afterwards visited our countrjanan, jSTeuba-UEe, the apothecary of the province, who has been very unfortunate : a short time since, he was removed from his post by the late Achmed Pascha ; but he has now been again appointed apothecary by Achmed Pascha Menekle, through the inter- cession of Dr. Koch. We then went to a Pole who has settled here — Hermanovich, the head-physician of the province, who, in consequence of an order from the Pascha, offered us his house, to which we went the following day ; it had lately been newly fitted up ; there was a garden be- side it, and a great court-yard, which was very useful for unpacking and repairing our chests and tents. The next day the Pascha returned our visit. He came on horseback. We handed him coftee, pipes, sherbet, and showed him some drawings and pictures from Egypt, in which he was interested merely from curiosity. He is a large, corpulent man, a Circassian by birth, and therefore, like most of his countrymen, better informed than the Turks in general I saw a rich collection of all kinds of birds of the Sudan, at the house of a Syrian, Ibeahim Chee ; there were about 300 different species, and between twenty and thirty choice specimens of each. On one of the following days, I took a walk with Abeken and Erbkam to the opposite bank of our tongue of land on ' THE WHITE EtTEfi. 161 tlie "White Ettee, vrhich we then followed up to its junc- tion ^vith tlie Blue ; its waters are in fact whiter, and have a less pleasant taste than those of the Blue, because at a higher point it flows slowly through several lakes, the stand- ing water of which imparts an earthy and less pure taste to it. I have filled some bottles with the water of the Blue, and White Eivers, which I shall take away with me sealed up. On the occasion of a more recent and friendly visit of the Pascha, we met the brother of the former Sultan of Kor- dofan (who was himself also called Mak or Melek) and the Vizier of the Sultan Xime (Tiger) of Schendi. The latter still lives in Abyssinia, whither he fled, after having, in the year 1822, burned the conqueror of his country, Ismael Pascha, a son of Mohammed Ali, and all his officers, after a nocturnal banquet which he had prepared for him in a somewhat lonely house. On the 14th, we made an excursion up the White Ettee, but were soon obliged to turn back, because it has so little current, that, on account of the north wind which of late has constantly been blowing, our return threatened to be tedious. The banks of the White Eiver are barren, and the few trees which formerly stood in the neighbourhood of Chartimi are now cut down, and have been used for building or fuel. There is a larger mass of water in the White Eiver than in the Blue, and even after its junction it preserves its course, 80 that the Blue Eiver must be viewed as the secondary river, but the White as the true Nile. Their different waters can be distinguished beside each other for a long time after their junction. On the 16th February, I sent for some Dinka slaves, to interrogate them about their language. They were, however, so dull of apprehension, that I could only with difficulty get out of them the words for numbers up to a liundred, and a few separate pronouns. The languages of the Dinkas and the Schilluks, who dwell several days' journey distant up the White Eiver, the former on the eastern bank, M 162 JOrElH"EY ON BLUE BITEE. tlie latter on the western, are as little known grammatically as most of the other languages of Central Africa ; I therefore requested the Pascha to procure me some intelligent persons who were well acquainted with those languages. This was impossible for the present, but we shall attend to it on our return. Meanwhile our purchases and repaii's being completed, I hurried on the departure as much as possible. The house of Hermanovich will also be at our disposal on our return ; it is built in a convenient manner, and is very airy. I had a prospect of the oldest house in the town from my window, whose pointed straw roof peeped over our wall. These pointed straw huts, called Tukele, are the characteristic buildings of this country, and are found almost exclusively in the south. But as Chartum is a new to-svn, the small number of old huts have disappeared, with the exception of this one, and all the houses are built of unburnt bricks. About mid-day, on the 17th February, we embarked on board our boats. I sailed to the south with Abeken up the Blue River, partly to become acquainted with its natural character, partly to view the ruins of Soba and Mandera ; oiu" other travelling companions, who had nothing to occupy them farther up, sailed northwards back to Meroe, in order to sketch the monuments there. The following day we landed on the eastern bank, where great heaps of red bricks, destined for exportation, proclaimed the vicinity of the ruins of Soba. At the present day, un- burnt bricks alone are made throughout the country, there- fore all the ruins of burnt stones must have belonged to an earlier period. This material for building is transported in great quantities from Soba as far as Chartum, and beyond it. We disembarked, and had scarcely got beyond the thorny bushes nearest to the bank, when we perceived the over- turned mounds of bricks, covering a large plain, possibly an hour in circumference. Some larger heaps might be the remains of the Christian churches which are described by Selim of Assuan (in Macrizi), in the tenth century, as mag- SOBA. KAMLIX. 163 nificentlv decorated with gold, when Soba was still the capital of the kingdom of Aloa. We were shown the spot where some time ago a stone lion is said to have been dis- covered, which is now in the possession of Churshid Pascha, in Cairo. Xo where could walls, nor the form of buildings, be recognised ; it was only on the mound to the south, at a little distance off, that we found some hewn yellow blocks of sand- stone, and a low wall ; on another heap lay several rough slabs of a black slaty stone. Tlie country round Soba, like this, is flat both far and wide to the base of the hills in front of the Abyssinian range, and the ground, especially at this season, is arid and black ; the denser vegetation is confined to the bank of the river ; fiir- ther off tliere are nothing but single trees, now in greater, now in fewer numbers. I promised the sailors a sheep, on condition that we should reach Kamlin betimes, for there was a strong wind, which made us very slow in our progress ; our boat, besides, is not a fast one, the sailors are inexperienced, and from the low state of the water, the boat easily sticks fast in the sand ; we sailed on almost the whole night through, and reached Kamliu about eight in the morning. The ancient place of the same name lies one half-hour farther up the river, and is composed of a few huts. The houses near which we landed belong to a number of factories, which Nurcddin Effendi, a Coptic Catholic Egyptian, who went over to Islam, established, in common with the late Achmed Pascha, more than four years ago, and which yield a rich profit. A simple, homely German, who has never given way to the bad customs of the East, bom in the neighbour- hood of Wiirzburg, by name Bauer, has established a Soap and Brandy Manufactory, of which he takes the management himself. A Sugar and Indigo Factory is conducted by an Arab. Bauer has settled farther to the south than any European we have ever met with in Mohammed All's domi- nions, and we were rejoiced to find such a good termination to the long but not very agreeable chain of Europeans, most m2 164 KAMLI>'. of tliem degenerated in civilisation, who have preferred the Turkish government to that of their Fatherland.* He has an old Grerman housekeeper with him, Ursula, a comical, good-natured soul, to whom it was no less a holiday to receive G-erman guests again, than it was to himself With joyful alacrity she rummaged out some European utensils, and the only fork that was still in preservation, and served up fried chickens, saurkraut, and some small sausages, with excellent wheaten bread; at last actually a cherry cake, of baked European cherries (for our fruits do not gi-ow in Egypt), in short, a home repast such as we never ex- pected to see in this Ultima Thule. On a pedestal in front of Bauer's house we found the most southern Egyptian sculpture which we have met with : a sitting statue of Osiris, with the usual attributes, carved out of black granite ; a portion of it is mutilated, and it is of a late style, about 2^ feet high ; it had been found in Soba, and is not devoid of interest, being the only monument of Egyptian art from this town. The European arrangement of Bauer's rooms made a strange impression on us, here in the midst of the black population in the south. A wooden Black Eorest house- clock, with weights, beat in regular time ; some half-broken European chairs stood round the fixed table, a small book- shelf was placed behind it, with a selection of the Grer- man classics and historical works ; in the corner the Turkish divan, which could not be dispensed with even here. Above the great table, and beside the canopied bed in the opposite corner, hung bell-pulls, which communicated with the kitchen. An inquisitive Xesnas ape looked in at the grated window next the door ; and across the little court-yard we saw the busy Ursula, in a crimson-flowered gown, tripping hither and thither among little naked black slave-boys and girls, order- ing them to do this and that with a somewhat scolding voice, * I have since then received intelligence of the death of Herr Bauer, which happened onlv the following year. KAMLIX. 165 and peeping into the steaming-pots in tlie adjoining kitchen. "We saw nothing of her the whole morning ; not even during the excellent and savour}- repast which she had prepared for us ; it was only after dinner that she presented herself, with many curtseys, to receive our commendations. She lamented over the insufficiency of her cooking apparatus, and vehe- mently reproached Herr Bauer because he had no intentions of leaving this detestable, dirty, hot country, although he had promised her to do so from one year to the other. She came hither with Bauer, and has been eleven years in the country, and four years in Kamlin. He intends to return to Germany in another year, to settle in Styria or Thuringia with his savings, and, like his father, to be a peasant again. After rising from table, the son of Xureddin Effendi also sent us a Turkish dinner, ready cooked, of twelve to fifteen dishes, which however, alter our European repast, we left to the servants, ^'e had also seen the factories that morning, and had tasted the fine brandy (called Marienbad), which Bauer prepares chiefly from sugar-cane and dates. The business seemed to be in the best order, and even the cleanli- ness, so unusual in this country, of the rooms, the vessels, and utensils, were proofs of the soHd basis upon which this factory, worked by slaves 9,lone, is conducted. The pleasant impression made upon us by this visit was also considerably increased by discovering that Bauer possessed a second piece of the above-mentioned marble inscription, which had been discovered in the ruins of Soba. He presented me with the Iragment, whicli was easily joined with the other piece, though we had still not got the complete inscription. The fragment shows the traces of twelve lines on the one side, and of nine on the other. The characters can be distinctly read here also ; but the name iakcjub is alone intelligible. It is either very barbarous Greek, or a peculiar language formerly spoken in Soba. In fact, we know, through Selim, that the inhabitants of Soba had their sacred books in the Greek language, but translated them also into their own. After we had also paid a visit to the son of Xureddin 166 THE BAOBAB. Effendi, we started with the promise to call upon him again on our return. From Kamlin the banks continue at an equal elevation. The character of a river valley is lost. There is no longer a deposit of black earth ; the precipitous and high banks con- sist of a primitive soil, and a calcareous conglomerate, which, by Bauer's account, can be easily burnt into plaster. On the morning of the 21st we came to a considerable bend of the river towards the east ; the Mind became, on that account, so unfavourable, that our Kawass disembarked, to press into our service people from the neighbourhood to draw our boat along. I walked for several hours along the western bank, as far as Aebagi, a deserted village, built of black bricks, but on the remains of a still older place, as I discovered from the walls of burnt bricks. This place was formerly the chief centre of the commerce of the Sudan, which, at a later period, was transferred to Messelemieh. Soon after this we saw the two most northerly growing Baobabs, which here are called Homaea. These giant trees of the creation (Adansonia digitata) become more and more frequent, south of this spot, and at Sero they are among the common trees of the country. One of the stems which I paced round, measured above 60 feet in circumference, and was certainly not one of the largest of its kind, as they are still not numerous here. At this season they were leafless, and stretched out their bare branches far above the surrounding gi^een trees, which looked like low bushes beside them. I found their fruit, which is called Gungules,* here and there among the Arabs ; they resemble smaU gourds, in the form of pears, and have a light hairy surface. If the hard, tough shell is broken, a number of kernels are found inside, which are surrounded by a dry, sweetish, sourish pulp, which is nevertheless pleasant to the taste. The leaves are digitate. * Russeger (Reise, 2 Bd., 2 Thl., S. 125) found one specimen of this tree, 95 feet in circumference. He is mistaken when he calls it Gan- GLEs; the tree is called Homara, and the fruit Gckgules. ABr HAEA8. THE EAHAD. 167 On the 22nd of February we arrived on the western bank, at a small \Tllage, whose inhabitants, men, women, and children, fled with terror at our approach across the sandy plain to the wood, probably because they were afraid of being, pressed to draw the boat on farther. On the opposite bank there was another village, and from it we saw a mag- nificent procession of men, dressed out in the Arabian and Turkish costume, march down to the river ^dth some beau- tifully bridled horses. It was the Kaschef, and the principal Sheikh of Abu Haras, who had heard about us from Achmed Pascha, as we had intended to go from this spot into the desert to Mandera with camels and guides. The horses were intended for us, and we therefore rode to the house of the Kaschef, to make some more inquiries about the antiquities of Mandera and Qala. As the desert road to the shore of the Ked Sea leads from here by that place, we found several people who had passed near it. However, by what I gathered from all the accounts, tliere seem to be only some hiUs in the form of a kind of fortress at both these places, or, at the most, some roughly -built walls, intended to protect the caravans, but no ancient buildings or hieroglyphic inscrip- tions. In Qala there might be some camels and horses, also, scratched into the rock by Arabs or other people, such as we have frequently seen in the Great Desert near the well of Mui'had, and in other places. "VVe therefore determined to relinquish tliis desert journey, and to go farther up the river instead, that we might become acquainted, as far as our time permitted, with the natural character of tlic Nile river, its banks, and neighbouring in- habitants. After a short quarter of an hour from Abu Haras, we came to the mouth of the Eahad, which, in the rainy sea- son, conveys a considerable mass of water into the Nile, but was now nearly dry, and had only a little stagnant water, which next month may perhaps also disappear. I left the boat as often as possible, to get acquainted with the banlis. To go farther inland was of itself interdicted 168 TEEES AND BIEDS ON BLUE HITEE. cWefly by the wood, wLicli clothes botli sides of the rivers and is nearly impenetrable. There, in luxuriant splendour, grow the shady, high-domed tamarind-tree, the tower-like h6mara' (Baobab), the many-branched gemus (sycamore-tree), and the various kinds of the brittle, gum-yielding sont-trees. Creeping plants, often the thickness of a man's body, climb up their branches like gigantic serpents, in innumerable windings, to their very summits, and down again to the ground, where, along with the low shrubs, they fill up every gap between the huge stems. In addition to this, scarcely one of ten among the trees or shrubs has not thorns, which renders any attempt to penetrate the close thicket not only dangerous, but impossible. Several among them — for in- stance, the sittere-tree — have thorns placed together in pairs, and in such a manner, that one thorn bends forwards, the other back ; if any one, therefore, approaches the branches carelessly, he may be sure tliat his clothes will carry away with them some unavoidable signs, not to be obliterated here without difficulty, and then imperfectly. Some other thorny trees look extremely ornamental, and growing in more open situations, they rise like slender young birches. "We dis- tinguished two species which are usually joined together, and can only be known from one another because the bark of the one stem is of a brilliant red colour up to the outermost little branches, like a growth of blood-vessels, while that of the other is of a dark black colour. Both of them have glistening long white thorns, which, with the little green leaves, rise up with a sharp outline, as if they had been painted with the brush. Scarcely one of the birds, which frequently hovered around us in large nuilibers, were known to me, even in Egypt. I shot many of them, and had them stuffed by our cook, Sirian. Among them were some beautiful silver-grey falcons (suqr schikl), guinea-fowls (gedad el wadi), with knobs of horn on the nose, and blue lappets on both sides of the head ; black and white rhinoceros birds (abu tuko) with huge beaks ; some birds quite black, with a bright crimson breast MOXKETS. CEOCODILES. 160 (abu labba) ; large brown and white eagles (abn tok), one of which, with outspread wings, measured six feet ; smaller brown eagles, the heddja, and black and white ones, whicli are called rdcliama. These last, which are much more numerous towards Eg^^t, are the same which we are in the habit of seeing among the hieroglyphics. On the bank there are also great numbers of black and white plovers, furnished with black curved spines on their wing-joints, and the long- legged, completely white, ahc iaqr (cow-birds), who are in the habit of grazing on the backs of the buffaloes and cows. "We saw great bats frequently flying about in broad day- light ; their long golden-brown wings look briglit through the branches, and suddenly they hang head downwards on the branches like great yellow pears, and can then easily be shot. They have long ears, and a strange tnunpet-like nose. We also hunted the Monkeys, but from their agility they were very difiicult to reach. One day we found an immense tree, quite full of monkeys; some of them hastily came down on our approach, and fled to a distant thicket ; others hid themselves among the foliage, quite at the top ; but some of them who considered both methods of escape dangerous, sprang with inconceivably bold leaps from the uppermost branches of the tall tree, Avhich might have been about 100 feet high, to the smaller trees standing near, whose thorny branches bent down beneath their weight without letting them fall ; they thus gained their end, and escaped my gun. The Ceocodiles become more numerous the farther south we go. The tongues of the sandy islands are often covered with them. They generally lie in the sun, close to the edge of the water, open their mouths, and seem to sleep, but do not allow any one to approach them ; but even if they are hit by the shot they immediately dive into the river. It is therefore very difficult to obtain one. Our Kawass only once made such a good shot at a young crocodile, about three feet lonor, that it was unable to get back to the water. It was brought to the boat, where it lived for several days after- wards, to the terror of our little Nesnas monkey, Bachit. 170 THE DENDEE. It is no less difficult to approach tlie Hippopotami, wliich we have sometimes seen in great numbers, but with their heads alone above the water. Once only a young hippopotamus stood quite clear out of the water on a sandy island ; it allowed us to come unusually near. The Kawass shot, and hit it, natu- rally without the ball penetrating the thick hide, whereupon the clumsy creature, with its unshapely head, its fat belly, and short elephant legs, galloped oif in a most comical manner to reach the water close beside him, and immediately disap- peared. They generally are in the habit of coming on land only in the night, and they do much injury in the fields of Durra and other plantations, by treading down and devour- ing. It is not known that a hippopotamus was ever caught alive here. We saw no lions, but we heard their roaring in the dis- tance throughout the starlight night; there is something very solemn in the deep and sonorous voice of this royal beast. The 24th of February we came to a second tributary river of the Nile, the Dender, which is larger than the Eahad. I went up part of it to see (which was impossible at its mouth) whether the water was still flowing, and farther up I disco- vered that, where the still water had collected into small canals, certainly a very feeble current yet existed ; in the rainy season the Dender must rise more than twenty feet, as may be seen by its bed ; I found its banks were cultivated with cotton bushes, gourds, and other useful plants. The heat is not excessive, in the morning about eight o'clock it is usually 23° E. ; about mid-day till about five o'clock, 29°; and about eleven o'clock at night it is 22° (83|°, 97i°, 81i° Fahr.). We spend our evenings in our boat ; here I make our Ka- wass, Hagi Ibrahim, inform us about the geography ; or I take some Nubian sailors into my cabin to learn their language. I have already made a long vocabulary in the Nubian lan- guage ; comparing it with other lists in Euppel and Cailliaud, I found many words in the Koldagi language spoken in the southern territories of Kordofan which agree with them ; DILEB PALMS. l7l tliis proves there is an intimate connection between the two languages. The Arabs are in the habit of calling the N'ubiaii language lisdn rotdna, which I at first supposed to be its actual name ; but it only means a foreign tongue different from the Arabic. They do not, therefore, only speak of a Rotdna Keniis, Mahass, Donqolaui, when they mean to designate the three Xubian dialects, but also of a Rotdna Dinkaui, Scliilluk — even of a Eotana turhi andfranki, thus likewise of Turkish and French ; i. e. of European gibberish. The same error is the cause of the now received designation of the Xubian as the Berber, and of their language as the Berber language ; fojo this is not the name of the people, nor of their language, as is generally thought, but originally means only the people speaking a foreign tongue, the Rar- haros. On the 25th of February we disembarked at Saba Doleb ; I searched for ruins, but only found high domes in the form of bee-hives, built well and solidly of bricks, about 20 feet higl), and closel}' resembling the Greek Thesauri, constructed of liorizontal layers, lapping over inwardly. They are tombs of lioly Ai'ab Sheikhs of a late period ; the inhabitants of the village could not tell us the date of their erection. Beneath the cupola, and in the centre of the building, which is be- tween 15 and IS feet wide, there is the long narrow tomb of tlie saint, surrounded with larger stones, and covered with a number of small stones, which, according to a superstition, must necessarily amount to a thousand ; I found six domes similar to these, most of them half, some wholly fallen to pieces ; two, however, in very good preservation, which are even still visited ; a seventh, probably the most recent, was built of unburnt bricks. At Wad Negudi, a village situated to the west of the Nile, we found the first Dileb Palms, with slender naked stems and small bushy crowns, resembling, at a distance, the Date Palm, but when near, from their leaves, like the Doura Palm. Their fruit is round, like that of the Doum Palm, but of a larger size. These trees are said to be very 172 CTXOCEPnALUS. abundant on the tributary rivers towards the east ; but liere, on the Nile, they are only to be found within a very small tract of land. The leaves are regularly divided like a fan into a great number of connected folds, and the leaf-stalk has strong serrated notches. The Eais of our boat, who was with me, sawed off another leaf with one of these leaf-stalks ; I had it brought to the boat, to take it away with us. It is divided iuto sixty-nine points, and is five feet and a quarter long, from that part of the stalk where the fan begins, al- though it is still young, and therefore its fan is still com- pletely closed. Another larger one, which had just unfolded itself, we set up in the boat as an umbrella, and sat beneath its shade. "We were obliged to make a path to those palm- trees through gigantic woods of grass, which shoot up stiff and thick like corn-fields, and cover large plains. The points of the blades towered up five or six feet above our heads, and even the tall camels, which are bred here, could hardly look over it. On the 26th February we arrived at the village of Abu EL Abas, on the eastern bank. It is a chief town of this district, and the Kaschef who lives here is placed over 112 villages. I there purchased a dog-ape from a Turkish Ivawass for a few piastres. This is the holy ape of the ancient Egyptians, the Cynocephalus, which was dedicated to Thoth and the Moon, and appears as the second among the four Grods of Death. It is interesting to me to have a creature about me for some little time, which I have seen innumerable times upon the monuments, and thereby to observe the faithful appreliension and representation of its essential and characteristic appearances in the ancient Egyp- tian sculpture. It is remarkable that this ape, so peculiar to Egypt in ancient times, is now only found in the south, and even there, it is not very common. How many species of animals and plants, even manners and customs of men, with which we become acquainted through the monuments of EgA^pt, can only now be found in the most southern parts of ancient Ethiopia, so that now many representations, for SEXXAE. 173 instance in the tombs of Beniliassan, seem to delineate scenes in this country rather than in Egypt. There is no special name here for the Cynocephalus, only the general one, qird (large monkey). Its head, hair, and colour, are not unlike those of a dog, and hence its Greek name. Sometimes also it barks and snarls like a dog. It is still young, and very good-natured, but far more intelligent than Abeken's pretty little Nesnas ape. It is extremely ludicrous when it wishes to get something good to eat, which we have in om' hands ; it then lays back its ears on its head, and knows how to express the utmost deliglit, but remains sitting quiet like a good child, only chattering with the lips, like an old wine- bibber. At the siglit of the crocodile, however, all the hair of its body bristled up ; it uttered piercing shrieks, and could scarcely be held down from terror. On the 27th February we reached Sennae, the celebrated ancient capital of the Sudan, whose king, before the con- quest of the country by Ismael Pascha, had dominion as far as Wadi Haifa, and ruled over a number of smaller kings who paid him tribute. One would not suspect, from the present aspect of the place, that only a short time since it was such a powerful royal residence. Between six and seven hundred pointed straw liuts, Tukele, surroimded the piles of red-brick ruins, where formerly the royal mansion stood. These bricks are now employed for building an abode for Soli- man Pascha, who is to reside in Sennar ; it was already so far complete that the AVakil* of the absent Pascha was able to hold his divan within it. We found him there, just as ho was sitting in judgment. Many other people. Sheikhs and Turks, were present ; among them the Sheikh Sandaloba, the chief of the Arabian merchants, and a relative of the Sultana Nasr, whose acquaintance we afterwards made in the village of Soriba, which she makes her royal residence. We paid a visit to this distinguished man in his own house, with which honour lie seemed much gratified. His principal apartment is a dark, lofty hall, with a roof resting on two * TFa^i?, or deputy.— Tr. 174 ABDI^'. pillars and four pilasters, upon whicli we mounted to obtain a view over the town. Meanwhile an anqareb was prepared for us, to sit upon in the court-yard; they brought us mead (honey with water), and led a hysena out of the stable, here called Marafil, and two young lions, the largest of which, belonging to Soliman Pascha, and two wethers, were taken to the boat, as a present from his Wakil. I had the creature fastened down in the hold, and as a welcome immediately received a violent scratch on my hand from his sharp claws. His body is now above two feet long, and his voice has already become a strong tenor. There is a most tumultuous scene now every morning on our, not very large boat, when we drink our tea at an early hour in front of the cabin ; on each side of the door, a monkey is making its merry leaps, and when the lion is released from the hold of the vessel, and on the deck, which is given to him during the day, we are obliged to place our cups and pitchers in safety, as he endeavours to reach them with his clumsy, but already strong claws. On the 29th of February, about nine in the morning, we arrived at Abdin. The 1st of March the wind was un- favourable to us, and we made very little progress, so tliat we had plenty of time at our disposal for shooting birds. Towards evening I came to a village romantically situated in a creek formed by the river, spreading out at this point. Many huts, built of straw, extended their pointed roofs up- wards between the branches and thick foliage of the trees. ^Narrow crooked paths, forming a real labyrinth, led from one hut to the other, between thorns and trunks of trees ; within the huts, and in front of them, the black famihes were lying, the children playing by a feeble lamp-light, I asked for some millr, but was told to apply at an Arab village in the neighboiu-hood, to which I was led by a man armed with a spear, the universal weapon of the country. Making our way through thin shrubs and tall grass, we reached the large troops of cattle belonging to the Arabs, who had raised their mat huts round the pasture ground. The Fellahs who CEOCODILE EGGS. 175 have settled here are much browner than the wandering Arabs, though they are not negroes, but they appear by race to be connected with the ]^subian stock. The 2nd of ^larcli we landed on an island close to the eastern bank. At a short distance from the landing-place the Kais discovered a broken crocodile egg, at a spot where there was some newly turned up ground. He dug down with his hands, and found forty-four eggs lying beside each other three feet deep in the sand. They were still covered with a slimy ooat, as they had been only laid the previous day or during the night. Crocodiles prefer coming out of the river on a windy uight, they bury their eggs in the ground, cover tliem over, and the wind soon disperses all traces of the disturbed earth. A few mouths afterwards the young ones creep out. The eggs are like large goose's eggs, but as much rounded off at both ends as these are only at the blunt end. I had some of them boiled, they are eatable, but have a disagreeable taste ; therefore I willingly left them to the sailors, who devoured them with a hearty appetite. We lauded at the forsaken village of Dakela on the eastern bank, from which I proceeded alone a distance of about tlu-ee- quarters of an hour inland. The character of the vegetation continues the same. The ground is dry and level, the small hills and valleys which intersect it are not the original forms of the ground, but seem only to have been produced by rain. The larthest point I aimed at was a great tamarind-tree which towered up splendidly from the lower trees and bushes, and roimd which were fluttering a number of green and red birds hitherto unknown to me. On my road, I hrst came to a settlement, Kumr beta Dahela, where the inhabitants of the vill.ige I mentioned above are accustomed to keep their villeggiatura. They only remain here during the dry montlis, and wander back in the begin- ning of the rainy season to their more solidly built village on the bank of the river. The last village that I reached is called KoMALi, a httle above the place which is marked Seeo 176 SULTANA NASE. on the map, and which is situated at the 13^ of north latitude. On the hot and fatiguing road back, I was present at a burial: silent and serious, without sound or lamentation, two corpses wrapped in white cloths were borne by men on anqarebs, and were laid in a grave several feet deep, in the wood, close to the passing road. Perhaps they had died of the cholera-like plague, which we hear has broken out with virulence in these southern parts. We would willingly have gone up, as far as Fazoql, into the last province in Mohammed All's dominions, to become ac- quainted vdth. the complete change in the character of the country, which then again occurs, beginning at Eoseres, and exhibiting so many phenomena, plants and animals, peculiar to the tropics ; but our time had come to an end. The Eais received orders to lower the sails and masts ; by which the boat at once lost its dignified appearance,, and it iloated down with the current of the river like a wreck. Soon the agreeable silence in the vessel, which had hitherto hastened on as if of its o^vn accord, was interrupted by the shrill and discordant singing of the rowers, struggling against the wind. On the 4th of March we again arrived at Sennar, and on the morning of the 8th reached Wed Medineh. This place is almost as important as Sennar. A regiment of sol- diers is here in garrison with the only band of music in the Sudan, and with two cannons. "We were immediately visited by the chief clerk of the regiment, Seid Haschim, one of the most distinguished people of the place, with whom we had formerly become acquainted in Chartiim. We determined to go from this on a visit to the Sultana Xasr (Victoria) in Soeiba, which is about an hour and a half inland, partly to learn something of the character of the country farther removed from the river, partly to gain some notion of the court of an Ethiopian princess. Seid Haschim offered his dromedaries and asses, and to accompany us him- self on this expedition. We therefore set out with him in SULTANA >'ASB. 177 the afternoon over the hot, black plain, ^\here only a few trees were scattered here and there, and soon got over the uninteresting ground on our active animals. Nask is the sister of the most powerful and the richest King (Melek) in the Sudan, the Ideis Wed (z. e. Welled, the son or descendant of) Adlax, who now indeed is under the supremacy of Mohammed Ali, but yet rules over several hundred villages in the province of El Fungi ; his title is 31ak el Qulle, King of the Qulle Mountains. One of his ancestors was called Adlan, and the whole family at present is named after him ; his father was the same Mohammed (Wed) Adlan, who at the period of the victorious campaign of Ismael Pascha, appropriated to himself the greater part of the power belonging to the legitimate but feeble Badi, King of Sennar, but who afterwards, at the instigation of a second Pretender, Eeg'eb, was murdered. When Ismael approached, and Eeg'eb had fled with his adherents into the Abyssinian mountains. King Badi joined the children and the party of Moliainined Adlan, and submitted to the Pascha, who made him a JSlieikh over the country, had the murderers of Mo- hammed Adlan empaled, and bestowed great power and riches on his children Eeg'eb and Idris Adlan. Their sister oSasr was also treated with great respect, which was still more increased because she was descended, on the mother's side, from the legitimate royal house itself. On that ac- count slie is also called Sultana, Queen. Ker first husband was Mohammed Sandaloba, a brother of Hassan Sandaloba, whom we had visited in Sennar. He died a long time ago, but by him she had a daughter, Dauer (the Light), who married a great Slieikh, Abd el Qader, but she was after- wards separated from him, and now always resides with her mother in Soriba. The second husband of Nasr is Mohammed Defalla, the son of one of her father's viziers. He was just then with Ahmed Pascha Menekle, on the campaign ( Ghazua, out of which the French have made Razzia) in Taka. But even when he is at home, on account of her noble birth, she continues mistress in the house. 178 SOEIEA. SULTANA XASK. A great preference for the female sex seems to have been a very universal custom since ancient times in these southern countries. We must recollect how frequently we find reign- ing Queens of Ethiopia mentioned. In the campaigns of Petronius, Candace is well known, a name which, according to Pliny, was given to all the Ethiopian Queens ; according to others, only to the mother of the King. In the pictures at Meroe, also, we sometimes see very warlike, and doubtless reigning, Queens represented. According to Makrizi, the genealogies of the Beg'as, who I consider to be the direct descendants of the Meroitish Ethiopians, and the ancestors of the present Bischaris, were not counted by the men, but by the women ; and the inheritance did not go to the son of the deceased, but to the son of the sister, or of the daughter of the deceased. In like manner, according to Abu-Sela, among the Nubians, the sister's son always had the preference of his own sou in the succession to tlie throne ; and, according to Ibn Batuta, the same custom existed among the Messofites, a negro people lying to the west. Even now the household and chief offices belonging to the courts of several southern princes are wholly filled by women. Ladies of distinction are in the habit of allowing their nails to grow an inch long, as a sign that their duty consists in commanding, and not in working ; a custom we have lately seen in the representations of the unshapely and corpulent Queens of Meroe. When we arrived in Soeiba, we stepped through a pecu- liar gate-house into the great square court-yard, which passes round the principal building, and then into an open lofty hall, the roof of which rested on four pillars, and four pilasters. The narrow beams of the ceiling jut out several feet above the simple architrave, and form the immediate support of the flat roof; the whole entrance reminded me much of the open fa9ades of the tombs of Beni- hassan. In the hall there stood some beautiful furniture of Indian work in ebony, some broad anqarebs, with frames for the fly-nets. Magnificent coverlets were immediately brought in, and sherbet, cofiee, and pipes handed round ; the S^LTA^'^A XASE. 179 vessels were made of gold and silver. Black slave girls in light white dresses, which are fastened round the hips, and drawn over the bosom and shoulders, handed the refresh- ments, and looked most strange with their half-braided, half- combed wigs. The Queen did not however appear ; perhaps she shrank from showing herself to Christians ; we were only able to see some women who were standing behind a half- opened door, which re-closed, and to whom we ourselves might have been an object of curiosity. I therefore sent word to the Sultana, through Seid Haschim, that we had come to pay a yisit to herself, and we now begged we might be permitted to pay our respects to her. Upon which, soon afterwards, a strong wooden door, cased with metal, which led from the inner chambers to the hall, opened wide, and Nasr, with free and dignified steps, walked in. She was wrapped in long, finely-woven linen, with coloured borders, and underneath she wore -wide, party-coloured trousers of a darker hue. Tlie female household followed her, eight or ten girls in white dresses, bordered with red, and ornamented sandals. Nasr sat down before us in a friendly and natural manner ; she only sometimes drew her dress before her mouth and the lower part of her face, an Oriental custom which is universal in Egvpt among women, but which is less practised in this countrv. She replied to the salutations which I addressed to her through the Dragoman, with an agreeable voice, but only remained a short time with us, and then again retired through the same door. We were now permitted to see the interior of the house, with the exception of her own apartments, which were in a small adjoining house ; and we got upon the roof to have a view over the village. We afterwards took a walk through the place, saw the well, which is lined w^ith bricks to the depth of 60 feet, and supplies a lukewarm water, which is more insipid than that of the Nile, from which Nasr always has her own drinking water fetched. We then turned back, intending to start, but Nasr invited us to spend the night in Soriba, as it was already too late to return to Wed Medineh n2 180 WED MEDIXEH. bj daylight. "We accepted the invitatiou, and immediately a repast of cooked food was brought in, which was only a preparation for the magnificent supper. The Sultana, how- ever, did not allow herself to be seen again the whole evening. "We remained in the hall, and slept on the same cool cushions which had served us during the day as a divan. The next morning, however, we were invited to \dsit her in her own rooms. She was more willing to talk to-day than yesterday, had European chairs placed for us, while her attendants and slave girls squatted down round us. "We told her about her name-sister, the Sultana Nasr of England, and exhibited her portrait to her on an English gold coin, which she regarded with much curiosity. Nevertheless, she showed very little desire to see with her own eyes that distant world beyond the northern ocean. About eight o'clock we rode back to "Wed Medineh. Soon after our arrival Se'id Haschim received a letter from Kasr, in which she asked him confidentially whether I would accept a little slave girl from her, as a gift to the stranger. I sent a message to inform her that this was contrary to our customs, but that there would be no difiiculty if, instead of a slave girl, she would select a slave boy ; and, after the re- moval of some scruples, as this seemed to her less becoming, she really sent a little slave boy, who was brought to me in our boat. He had been the playmate of the Sultana's little grandson, the son of her daughter Dauer, and was handed over to me with the name of Eehan (the Arabic designation for the sweet-scented basilicum) . I was also informed that he was born in the district of Makadi, on the frontier of Abyssinia, which generally furnishes the most intelligent and faithful slaves. This district is imder Christian domination, and is inhabited both by Christians and Mohammedans, who are separated into difierent villages. The former call themselves jS'azara (Nazarenes), or Amhara (Amharic Christians) ; the latter Giberta. Amongst the latter, children of their own race, or that of their neighbours, are frequently stolen and TVED MEDINEH. 181 sold to Arabian slave-dealers; for in the central parts of Abyssinia the slave trade is strictly interdicted. However, this account of the boy has since proved incorrect, and per- haps was only meant to remove the obstacle which some might find in offering me a Christian boy, while on the other hand it would appear still more doubtful to hand over to me a native Mohammedan. The boy himself first communicated to our Christian cook, and afterwards to myself, that he was born of Christian parents, that he had here for the first time received the name of Eehan, and that his real name was Gabre Mariam, i. e. in Abyssinian, " the slave of Mary." He was bom near Gondar, the capital of Amhara. He ap- pears to have belonged to a family of some distinction, for the place called Bamba, which is stated by Bruce to be in the neighbourhood of Lake Tzana, by his accounts belonged to his grandfather ; and his father, who now is dead, pos- sessed many herds, which the boy often drove, mth others, to the pasture. One day, above three or four years ago, when on such an expedition, at a considerable distance from his dwelling-place, he was stolen by some mounted Bedouins, carried oft* to the village of Waldakarel, and then sold to King Idris Adlan ; by him he was afterwards presented to his sister IVasr. He is a pretty boy, very dark, and may be now between eight and nine years old ; but much more advanced than a child of this age would be with us. The girls here marry from eight years old upwards. He wears his hair in a peculiar manner, in innumerable little braids ; these must, at least once every month, be re-braided and daubed with grease, by a woman skilled in the art ; and his body also must from time to time be well rubbed with grease. His entire clothing consists in a great white cloth, w^hich he binds round his hips, and throws upwards over the shoulders. I call him now by his Christian name, and shall take him to Europe with me. Seid Haschim did all in his power to keep us some days longer in AVed Medineh. The first evening he invited us to his house, with the Turks of most distinction, and had a 182 THE EABABA. number of dancing-girls to show us tlie national dances in these parts ; they chiefly consist in contortions of the upper part of the body and the arms, similar to what are repre- sented on the Egyptian monuments ; but differ from the Egyptian dances of the present day, which are chiefly limited to very ungraceful gestures. A good-natured and very comical old man led on the dances, while he at the same time sang some Arabic songs, with a piercing but not disagreeable voice, which had refer- ence to the assembled company, or to persons of repute, such as Nasr, Idris iVdlan, Mak (i. e. Melek), Badi, &c. ; and with his left hand touched the chords of a five-stringed lyre, passing the plectrum over them in time with his right. His instrument only embraced six tones of the octave. The first string on the right hand had the highest tone, C, to be struck with the thumb, the string immediately succeeding, the lowest tone, E; then followed the third, F ; the fourth, A; the fifth, B. The instrument is called Eababa, and the per- former on it Eebabi. This man had been instructed by an old celebrated Eebabi in Schendi ; he had made his instru- ment himself, after the model of that belonging to his master, and had also acquired from him his talent for making verses, and tluis became the favourite black bard of AVed Medineh. All the poetry of his songs had been composed by himself; they were sometimes improvised, and whoever disobliged him or his patrons, would probably be made the object of his satire. I made him come to me the following morning, and, through Jussuf, write down four of his poems in Arabic : one on Mohammed, the son of Mak Mesa'd, who resides in Metammeh ; one upon King Nimr, who burnt Ismael Pascha, and is still living in Abyssinia ; a third on jN"asr ; and lastly, a song of homage to pretty girls.* It is impos- sible to render these melodies in our notes. I have only * The pnems contain many unusual grammatical forms and ex- pressions, and are composed in a very free, and, as it appears, in some measure, incorrect style. J:U>£EAL CEfiEMOXY. 183 written down a small portion of tliem, which in some mea- sure approaches our mode of singing. They are generally half recited, half carried do^vn, with qiiivering tones, from the highest notes to a deep and long-sustained tone. These are their most peculiar characteristics, but they are quite incapable of being noted down. Each verse contains four rhymes ; the voice is retained lightly on each of them, on the second more than on the first and third ; but longest on the last rhyme. The music always sinks at this point, and the same deep tone recurs, wliich gives a certain character to the progress- ing soDg. A particular recurrence of the melody may, in- deed, also be noticed, but this is impossible for a European ear to remember. I purchased the instrument from the good-natured old man. He gave it unwillingly, although I let him name his own price ; and several times after he had taken the money, and had laid down his instrument for it, an air of anxious sorrow came over his expressive countenance. The following day I bid him come to me again. He was de- pressed, and told me his wife had given him a sound beating for having given his instrument away. Here it is no dis- grace for a man to be beaten by his wife, but it is so perhaps in the reverse case. A woman who has been beaten goes at once to the Cadi to complain ; she then generally obtains justice, and the husband is punished. In Wed Medinch we were also present at a funeral cere- mony, which seemed a strange enough one to us. A woman liad died three days before ; the day succeeding her death, the third, the seventh, and several days afterwards are pecu- liarly solemnised. In front of the house, an hour before sun- set, above a hundred women and children had collected, and more were constantlv coming in, and cowered down beside the others. Two daughters of the deceased were present, whose richly ornamented and grease-hesm eared heads they had already strewed with ashes, and had rubbed the whole of the upper part of their bodies white with them, so that their eyes and mouths alone shone forth clean, and, as it were, set into the white mask. The women wore long cloths round 184 WED :medixeh. their Lips ; the young girls and children the Eahat, a girdle composed of five strips of leather, hanging down close to- gether ; this is usually bound round the loins by a cord, prettily ornamented with shells and pearls, and it falls half- way do^vn the leg. There was a great wooden bowl with ashes, which was repeatedly filled again with fresh ones. Female musicians cowered down close on either side of the door uttering shrill screams, which pierced our ears ; they now clapped their hands together in time ; now struck the sounding DAEA-srKA (a kind of hand kettle-drum, called here in the Sudan Daluka) ; and now beat with sticks on some hollow gourds floating in tubs of water. The two daughters, about eighteen or twenty years of age, and the nearest relations, began, two and two, to move at first slowly towards the door in a narrow passage between the constantly increasing crowds ; then suddenly shrill screams, clapping of hands, and loud shrieks burst from them all at once ; whereupon they turned round, and began their fearfully contorted dancing. Bending the upper part of their body in convulsive and strained twistings and turnings, and slowly balancing themselves, they moved their feet for- wards, then suddenly threw their breasts upwards with vio- lence and their heads back on their shoulders, which they stretched out in all directions, and thus, with half-closed eyes, gradually glided forwards. In this manner they went down a slight incline of fifteen and twenty paces, where they threw themselves on the ground, covered themselves with dust and earth, and tui'ned back again to re-commence the same dance. The younger of the two daughters had a beau- tiful slight figure, with wonderful elasticity, and when she stood quietly erect, or was lying on the ground with her sunken head, her regular and gentle, though inanimate fea- tures, even during the dance, and the classical form of her body, was exactly like an antique statue. This dancing pro- cession was repeated over and over again. Each of the moiuners is compelled at least to go through this once, and the nearer the relationship so much the more frequently is it ruNEEAL cere:m:o:>'y. 185 repeated. Wlioever cannot immediately force her way up to the vessel of ashes, takes them from the head of her neighbour to strew it on her own head. In front of this squatting assembly some women are cowering, who under- stand how to sob loudly and to shed profuse tears, which leave long black streaks on their white-rubbed cheeks. The most striking, and the most repelling, part of this spectacle is, that nothing is done from unrestrained sorrow, but all with deliberation, with a degree of pathos, and evidently studied; children as young as four and five years old are placed in the procession, and if they perfonn the difficult and unnatural movements well, their mothers, who are cowering behind, call out to them taih, taih — i. e. bravo ! well done ! In the second act, however, of this ceremony, rendered pecu- liarly stunning by its continual clapping, screaming, and shrieking, all the dancers throw themselves into the dust, and tumble down the hill ; but this they also do slowly, and with deliberation, carefully drawing up their knees to their bodies, to hold their dresses with them, and also crossing their arms ; they then roll down, over knees and back. This ceremony begins one hour before sunset, and lasts till night. The unnatural feeling pervading the whole proceeding makes an indescribable impression, which is rendered still more disagreeable by seeing nothing in all of it but an in- herited and perverted custom, an empty spectacle ; not a trace of individual truth and natural sentiment can be per- ceived in the persons who participate; and yet the com- parison between this and certain descriptions and repre- sentations of similar festivals among the ancients, teaches us to understand much, of which judging by our own manner of life, we can never form a correct notion, till we have once seen with our eyes such caricatures of metamorphoses as are here and there exhibited in the East. The following day we visited the hospital, which we found very cleanly, and in good order ; it holds a hundred patients, but there were then only eight-and-twenty within it. "We then went to the barracks, in the large court-yard of which 186 WAE IK TAKA. the men are exercised. The commanding officer ordered out the band of music, and they played several pieces before us. The first was the Parisienne, which sounded most strangely in this country, as well as the succeeding pieces, most of them French, and known to me ; they were, however, tolerably well executed. The musicians performed almost solely on European instruments, and have also admitted the name of our trumpet into their Arabic musical language, but have transferred it to the drum, which they call trumheta^ while for the trumpet they have a peculiar name of their own, nafir ; they call their great flute siimdra, the small one sufdra, and the great drum tabli. There were only twelve hundred soldiers present belonging to the regiment, which consists of four thousand men, almost all negroes, whose black faces staring out of their white linen uniform and red-tasselled caps, made them look like dressed-up monkeys, only much more unhappy aud oppressed. The negroes are incapable of any military discipline and regular exertion, and generally sink beneath the imposed yoke. "NYe did not, however, suspect that these same people would two days afterwards rebel in a body, and set off to their hills. Emin Pascha was expected hourly. But on the 13th I received in the morning a letter from him, from Messeleraieh, between four and five hours distant from this place, in which he wrote that he should not come to Wed Medineh before the following day, and hoped to find us still there. He at the same time informed me that the war in Taka was over, and that all had submitted. Several hundred natives had been killed in skirmishes ; the morning before the chief battle, all the Sheikhs of the tribes from Taka had come to the Pascha to sue for pardon, which he had granted them, on condition that no fugitive should venture to remain in the great wood, which was their chief place of refuge. The following morning he had the wood searched, and as nobody was discovered in it, he had it set on fire, and entirely burnt to the ground. On his journey back, he intends to pa&s through the eastern districts to Katarif, on the Abyssinian TAEJE TILLAGE. 187 frontier, and thence to go to tlie Blue Eiver. We had scarcely read this news from Taka, when we heard the sound of cannon in front of tlie barracks announcing the victorious message to tlie population round. In another letter, which had gone to Emin Pascha instead of me, Herr von ^^agner gave me the pleasing intelligence that our new companion, the painter Georgi, had arrived from Italv, and had already started for Dougola, where he waits for further orders. I shall wi'ite to him to come as far as Barkal to meet us. As we were certain by this letter of finding the Pascha still in Messelemieh, we started for that place about mid-day ; and as the town is situated an hour and a half distant from the Nile, we made the journey by land. The boat, meanwhile, was to follow us to the harbour of Messelemieh, that is to say, to the nearest landing-place of this most important of the commercial towns of the whole Sudan. Besides Jussuf, we took with us the Kawass and Grab re Mariam, who sat behind me on the dromedary, where there is always left a small place for a servant, like a coach- box behind the carriage ; he sits on the narrow hinder part of the animal, and holds on to the saddle with both his hands. It was hot, and the ground was parched up. The few birds which I saw were difi'erent from those which habitually in- herit the banks of the river. Half-way we came to Taiba, a village which is only in- habited by FuKAEA (plur. of Fakie). These are the sages, the holy men of the people, a kiud of priest, without however having priestly functions to perform ; they can read and write ; they do not permit any music, dancing, or festivals among them, and therefore have a great reputation for sanc- tity. The chief of this village is the greatest Fakir of the whole surrounding neighbourhood. Every one believes in him like a prophet; whatever he predicts, happens. The late Achmed Pascha, one month before his death, caused him to be imprisoned. " God will punish you for this," was his answer to the order, and one month afterwards the Pascha 188 HELLET e' SOLIMAiN-. died. He is a very rich man, and possesses several villages. We went in quest of him, and found liim in his house at dinner ; about twenty people were sitting round a colossal wooden bowl, which was filled with a gruel of boiled Durra and milk. The bowl was pushed in front of us, but we could not eat any of this food. We amused ourselves with the old Takir, who joined in our conversation with easy, friendly, and pleasing manners, and then inquired our names, and the object of our journey. Every one who entered, our servants among the number, approached him reverently, and touched his hand with their mouth and forehead. The dignity of Sheikh is hereditary in his family ; his son is looked up to almost as much as himself, and in this way we can understand how a village like this, when the Sheikh has once been himself a Fakir, can become altogether a priest-village. E' Damer, on the island of Meroe, was formerly a Fakir place similar to this. The inhabitants of Taiba, probably of Arabic race, call themselves Aeakin. There are a number of such local names here, whose origin it is difficult to make out. When we had smoked out our pipes, we left the congre- gation of holy men, and rode away. One half hour before we reached Messelemieh, we came to a second village called Hellet e' Soliman, where we dismounted at a house which had been built by the late Mak, or Melek Kambal, of Halfai, when he married the daughter of Defalla, to whom the village belonged; it now belongs to his brother's son, Mahmud welled Schauisch, who has besides the title of Melek, but is really only the guardian of Kambal' s little son, Melek Beshir. It is easy to see what is now thought here of the old re- verential title of Melek, or King. Mahmut was not at home, as he had accompanied Ahmed Pascha on his campaign. Nevertheless, we were entertained in his house according to the hospitable custom of this country. Coverlets were spread out, milk and fresh baked Durra bread in thin slices, which has by no means a bad taste, was brought in ; added to this, another simple, but refreshing beverage, aht^eq, fer- mented sourish Durra water. Soon after Asser we reached VASE AT SOBA. 189 Messelemieh. Emin Pasclia received us very kindly, and com- municated to us the intelligence tliat Mohammed All's first minister, Boghos Bey, whom I had visited in Alexandria, was dead, and that Artim Bey, a man of elegant manners, and a shrewd politician, had been appointed in his place. AVe declined the Pascha's invitation to supper, and offer of a night's lodging, and soon rode away towards the river, where we hoped to find our boat. As it had not yet arrived^ we spent the night on anqarebs in the open air. We were not able to start for Kamlin till the following morning, the loth March, and reached it towards evening. The next day we spent agreeably with our countryman, Herr Bauer. On the 17th, having paid a visit to Nureddin Eftendi, in Wad Eraue, several hours distant from Kamlin, we arrived on the following day at Soba, where I immediately sent for one of the vases which had been found in the ruins of the ancient city, and which was said to be kept by the brother of the Sheikh. After waiting a long time, it was brought to us. It was an ancient vessel for incense, made of bronze in filigree work. The sides of the vessel, which was of a roundish form, and about nine inches high, and of similar width, consisted solely of open-work Arabesques ; the swings ing chains had been fastened to the upper border by three little hooks, one of which, however, has broken away, so that the most interesting part of the whole, an inscription running round beneath the border, and like the Arabesques carved a jour, in rather large letters, thereby is unfortunately in- complete. This is of peculiar importance, as the writing is again in the Greek, or rather in the. Coptic character, as on the stone-tablet ; but the language is neither of these, but doubtless the ancient vernacular tongue of Soba, the capital of the mighty Kingdom of Aloa. Short as it is, it is distin- guished from the stone inscription by containing the Coptic signs ^ (sch) and 'V (ti), which are not to be found in the latter. I purchased the vessel for a few piastres. This is now the third monument of Soba which we take away with us, for I must mention, in addition, that at the house of Seid 190 SLAVE EEYOLT. HascMm, in "Wed Medineb, we also saw a small Yenus "of Grreek workmansbip, carved in pure style, and about a foot bigb, wbicb had likewise been found in Soba, and was pre- sented to me by its owner. At lengtli, on the 19th March, we again entered the house of HeiT Hermanovich, in Chartum, later than our original calculations had led us to expect, for which reason I had already communicated our delay to Erbkam, in a letter from Wed Medineh. LETTEE XIX. Chartum, the 2\st March, 1844. Heee, for the first time, we received more exact intel- ligence of the military revolt in Wed Medineh, which was of a most serious nature, ^nd would have infallibly thrown us into the greatest danger had we remained two days longer in that town. All the black soldiers revolted while Emiu Pascha was residing there. The drill-sergeant and seven white soldiers were killed immediately ; the Pascha was besieged in his own house, which was briskly fired into ; his negotiators were repelled, and the powder magazine seized. All the arms and ammunition, with the two cannons, fell into the hands of the negroes, who then selected six leaders for them- selves, and set out in six divisions on the road to Pazoql to take refuge in their mountains. The regiment in this place, which has about 1500 blacks in it, was at once disarmed, and will be kept within the barracks. The most serious conse- quences are dreaded, as. Ahmed Pascha Menekle has been so inconsiderate as to take almost all the white troops along wir.h him to Taka ; otherwise I should rejoice at the desertion of the blacks, as they are treated in the most revolting manner by their Turkish masters. Yet the insurrection may easily bring the whole country into a state of disorder, and then, also, have an injurious influence on our expedition. The blacks will undoubtedly endeavour on their road to draw over to their own party whatever country people they CHJLETriT. 191 meet, especially the troops of Soliman Pascha in Sennar, and of Selim Pascha in Pazoql. The whites are far too few to offer them effectual resistance. Xews has just arrived that between five and six hundred slaves of the late Ahmed Pascha, belonsr- ing to the indigo factory at Tamaniat, a little to the north of this, have fled with their wives and children to the Sudan, and intend to join the soldiers ; the same is reported of the factory at Kamlin, so that we necessarily feel anxious about our friend Bauer, who was not, indeed, cruel as the Turks are, but yet was a strict master. 2^tli March. — The news is spread that the troops in Sennar and the people belonging to Melek Idris Adlaa, have put the negroes to the sword. It is also said, that the slaves of Tamaniat have been overtaken by the Arnauts, and mur- dered or dragged back, and that the revolt in Kamlin has been suppressed. Still we cannot build much on this, as the intelligence reached me through our Kawass from the people belonging to the Pascha, and the desire was also expressed that I should spread the news still farther, and write about it to Cairo, Yesterday, as we were walking in the dusk of the evening, in the large and beautiful garden belonging to Ibrahim Cher, in whose cheerful and pleasantly-situated house I write this letter, we saw tall dark clouds of sand rise like a wall on the horizon. A ^-iolent east wind has also been blowing to-night ever since, and still blows, enveloping all the trees and build- ings in a disagreeable sandy atmosphere, which almost takes away our breath. I have closed the window-shutters firmly, and barricaded the door with stones, to be in some measure secured from the first assault ; nevertheless, I am constantly obliged to cleanse the sheet of letter paper from the covering of sand which is incessantly thrown down on it. I returned in such a tattered condition from my hunting excursion to Sennar, that I was at length obliged to as- sume the Turkish costume, which I cannot now soon ex- change again. It has its advantages for the customs of this country, especially for sitting on coverlets, or low cushions ; 192 SLATE EEYOLT. but the Tarbusch, which lies so flat upon the head, is very ill-adapted to this sunny sky, and the fastening of the innu- merable buttons and hooks is daily a most wearisome trial of patience. 30^^ March. — We intend to leave Chartum as soon as this packet of letters is handed over to the Pascha. The revolu- tion is now completely suppressed in all parts. It would doubtless have had a far worse result had it not, from a particular cause, broken out in Wed Medineh several days too soon. It had been planned and secretly arranged for a long time past in the whole of the south, and was not to have broken out before tlie 19th of this month simultaneously in Sennar, Wed Medineh, Kamlin, Chartum, and Tamaniat. The precipitate movement in Wed Medineh had, however, disarranged the whole plan, and had especially given time to Emin Pascha to send messengers to Chartum, by which means the negro soldiers here were consigned and disarmed before news of the outbreak had reached their ears. Emin Pascha, however, seems himself to have been totally helpless. The victory is said to be solely due to the courage and presence of mind of a certain Eustan Effendi, who with 150 devoted soldiers, chiefly whites, pursued the negroes, who were 600 strong, overtook them beyond Sennar, and after attacking them three times, defeated them, with great loss of life. Above a hundred of the fugitives have surrendered, and have been taken to Sennar in irons ; the remaining number were killed in the action, or leapt into the river and were drowned there. But the news arrived here at the same time, that an insur- rection had also broken out on account of the taxes in Lower JN'ubia, in Kalabsche, and another village, that both villages had on that account been immediately destroyed by Hassan Pascha, who is to come to Chartum in place of Emin Pascha, and that the inhabitants had been killed or driven away. TAMA>-IAT. QIKEE EAXGE. 193 LETTEE XX. The Pyramids o/Merue, 22nd April, 1844. We quitted Chartum on the 30tli March, towards evening, and proceeded half the night by moonlight. The following day we arrived at Tamaniat. Almost the whole of the large village had disappeared, and only one vast burning plain was to be seen. The slaves in their revolt had laid everytliiug in ashes, the walls of the factory are alone left standing. As I had quitted the boat and arrived on foot, I was unexpectedly startled near the still smoking ruins by a liorrible spectacle, for I suddenly found myself in an open piece of garden, which was completely covered by the muti- lated corpses of blacks. The greatest proportion of the slaves who had been recaptured were here shot down in masses. We stopped at sunset in Surie Abu Eamle, before a cata- ract, which we were unable to pass during the night. The 1st of April we again started long before daybrealv, and thought we should make a good step in advance. But the wind rose with the sun, and as the boat could not be towed at this point on account of the rocky banks, a few hours afterwards we were compelled to halt again, and to lie quiet in the heavy, dense atmosphere of sand. In front of us lay the insulated range of Qirre, detached from whicli, Aschtan (the Tliirsty) on our left hand, Eauian (the Thirsty assuaged) on our right, stand forth from the plain like watch- posts ; the former, however, at a greater distance from the river. Eauian was only about three-quarters of an hour distant from our boat. I set out with my gun, traversed the bare stony plain, and climbed the mountain, during the inun- dation season almost entirely surrounded by water, for wliich reason we were always told that it stood upon an island. The rock of which it is composed is granite, of a mixed coarse and fine grain, w^ith much quartz. On the road back, I passed the village of Melah, the huts of which lie o IM BEN yxG\. hidden behind large mounds of upturned earth, formed bj the inhabitants when they dig for salt (malh). A great deal of it is found in the surrounding countr}' (thus Melah is the Arabic translation of salt-work, or Suiza). Towards eveiiing we sailed on a little farther, in the midst of the range, and lay to, in a little rocky creek. The following day, also, we made but little progress. We saw some black slaves wander- ing about like chamois, on the eastern summits of the wild granitic rocks, who have perhaps escaped from Tamaniat, but their miserable life will not probably be much longer prolonged. They disappeared immediately again behind the jagged sum- mits, our Kawass having indulged in the brutal jest of firing at them in the air. I climbed up the western mountains with Abeken ; they rise precipitously for about 200 or 300 feet from the bank. It is evident here, by the natural waUs of rock, to what height the river rises and deposits its mud at high- water. I measured nearly 8 metres (26 feet English) from that point to the surface of the water at the present moment, and the river will continue to sink about 2 feet more. From the summit of the mountain we saw the wide desert extending behind the farthest eminences, and soon after pass- ing Meraui, we shall be wandering across it. We quitted the picturesque range of mountains with regret, which form such an agreeable interruption to the flat banks of this far and wide level country. On the morning of the 4th April, we at length reached our group of palm-trees at Ben Naga, and immediately went to the ruins in the Wadi el Kirbegan, where we found a portion of a pillar, and several altars in the south-eastern temple which had been newly- excavated by Erbkam; the same Eoyal Shields were upon them as upon the principal temples of Naga in the desert, besides several others which had not previously appeared. Of the three altars that had been excavated, the central one, of very hard sandstone, was in excellent preservation. On the western side there was a representation of the King, on the eastern, of the Queen, with SCHENDI. 195 their names, and on both the other sides were two goddesses. On the northern side the hieroglyphic group of the North was also inscribed, and on the southern that of the South. Both the other altars exhibited the same figures. All three were still standing on their original site, and w^re let into a smooth floor, which was composed of square slabs of stone covered with plaster. Unfortunately I had not then the means of carrying away the best of these altars, which weighed at least 50 cwt., and I had, therefore, to plan a special excursion from Meroe for the purpose. On G-ood Friday, the 5th April, we arrived at Schendi. We entered the widely- scattered but depopulated town, saw the ruins of the palace of King Nimr, in which he had burnt Ismael Pascha, after a nocturnal festival which he had prepared for him, and many houses which still bore traces of the balls of Defterdar Bey, who was sent by Mohammed Ali to revenge the death of his son. The dwelling of King Nimr, which now also lay in ruins, used to stand in the centre of the town on an artificial emi- nence. The suburb, built for the present military garrison, is at a little distance up the river, and separated from the town. We then returned to the boat, which had put in near the fortress-like house of Churshid Pascha, where the mili- tary commander now resides. On the same day we arrived, shortly before sunset, at Beg'e- rameh, and immediately rode to the Pyramids, where we once more found Erbkam and the remainder of the party safe and sound. They have been diligently drawing in Naga and Wadi Sofra, and the rich costume of the kings and gods, as well as the representations belonging to these Ethiopian temples in general, devoid of style indeed, but ornamental, look very well on paper, and will make a splendid show in our sketch- books. Much had been done in this spot also, and many new things had come to light in clearing out the ante- chambers, which had been full of rubbish. Abeken thought, even during our first visit, that he had found the name of o2 196 CANDACE. OSMAN BET. the Queen Kentaki (Candace). tlie Shield is not written Xow, indeed, we see that k< but whicli would read Kentahebi ; nevertheless it seems to nie to have meant that famous name, and that the question- able sign merely has been changed by the ignorant scribes. The determinative signs ^'^ prove, at least, that it is the name of a Queen. The name of Candace was known even at an earlier period as that of a private person. The name of Eegamenes is likewise found, and this also written sometimes correctly, sometimes with mistaken variation. We kindled Easter bonfires on the evenings of the suc- ceeding holidays. Our tents are situated between two groups of Pyramids in a small hollow of the vallej^, which is everywhere covered with dry tufts of a woody grass. "We lighted this all about us ; it blazed up high, and flung the whirling flames upwards into the dark starry night. The spectacle of fifty or sixty such fires burning at once in the valley was beautiful ; they threw a ghost-like light on the half-crumbled Pyramids of the old kings ranged on the emi- nences round, and on our airy tent-pyramids rising in the foreground. We were surprised on the 8th of April by seeing a mag- nificent cavalcade of horses and camels, which appeared within our camp. It was Osman Bet, who, as the chief in command, is leading back the army of 5000 men from Taka. The French military surgeon, Peney, was in his suite, besides the Chief Sheikh Ahmed welled 'Auad. The troops had encamped near Gabuschie, one hour farther up the river, and were to pass through Beg'erauieh in the evening. The visit OSMAN EET. 197 to our camp had, however, another object, which was soon disclosed in the course of conversation. Osman Bey was desirous of making treasure-diggers out of his pioneers, and of ordering some battalions to come hither, to pull down a number of Pyramids. The discovery of Terlim is still re- membered by most people, and has since that time caused the ruin of many Pyramids. They were also full of it at Chartum, and more than one European, besides the Pascha himself, imagined they might still find treasures there. I constantly endeavoured to prove to them all, that the dis- covery of Ferlini was pure chance, that he had not found tlie gold rings in the sepulchral chambers with the mummies, where they alone might reasonably have been searched for with any hope of success, but walled up in the stone, in which place they had been concealed by a whim of the owner. I endeavoured to convince Osman Bey of this also, who even offered me the aid of his companies of soldiers to conduct the work of destruction. I naturally declined this, though perhaps I should have accepted it for the sake of laying open to view the sepulchral chambers, which necessarily must have their entrance in front of the P3'ramids in the natural rock, had I not feared that here also we might not arrive at any brilliant result, and even if our own expectations were not so, yet those of the credulous general might be bitterly disappointed. I succeeded in diverting him from his idea, and thus for the present, at least, the existing Pyramids have been saved. The soldiers have departed without having made war on the Pyramids. I invited the three gentlemen to dine with us, which placed the old Sheikh in some embarrassment, for he was always trying to cut the meat with the back of his knife, till at length I myself laid aside the European implements, and began to eat in good Turkish fashion ; my example was soon followed willingly by the rest of the company, especially by our excellent dark-skinned guest, who did not foil to observe my polite attention. After dinner they again mounted 198 TURKISH AEMT. their sumptuously-caparisoned animals, and the procession hastened towards the river. On the 9th of April, I sent Franke and Ibrahim Aga to Ben Naga, with stone-saws, hammers, and ropes, to trans- port the great altar to this spot. I myself rode with Jussuf to Gabuschie, partly to return the visit of Osman Bey, who had intended to give the soldiers a day of rest in our neigh- bourhood, partly to take advantage of the presence of the dis- tinguished Sheikh Ahmed, through whose interest I hoped to procure boats to carry us across the river, and camels for the desert journey that we had in prospect. The army had, however, already decamped, and had passed the first places on the road. I therefore rode after them with Jussuf in a brisk trot, and soon overtook the 400 Aruauts who formed the rear. They were not, however, able to inform us how far Osman Bey was in advance. The Arnauts are the soldiers most dreaded in the whole country for brutality and cruelty, who at the same time are treated with most indulgence by their leaders, because they are the only troops who serve voluntarily, and the only foreigners taken into pay. It is but a few months ago since they were sent to the late Ahmed Pascha by Mohammed Ali, under an ofiicer who was peculiarly feared, with the order, as it is said, to bring the Pascha, dead or alive, to Cairo. The sud- den death of the Pascha at all events released him from his commission. The name of that officer is Omar Aga, but he is kno 7^n througli the whole country by the not very flattering appellation of Tomus Aga (Commandant Cochon) which was once given him by Ibrahim Pascha, and which, since that time, he liimself thinks it an honour to bear. His own attendants, w^hen we overtook his horses and baggage, and inquired after their master, called him by this name. After riding briskly for about five or six hours in the most op- pressive heat, we at length reached the camp at the village of Beida. We had by degrees gone more than half-way to Schendi, WAE AVITH TAKA. 199 and were rejoiced at the near prospect of finding some re- freshment, after the exhaustion of the hot ride ; for we had iibeady made up our minds to fast, till our return in the evening, as there was absolutely nothing that we could eat in the villages between ; there was not even milk to be had. Osman Bey and Hakim Peney were as much surprised a& delighted at my visit ; some bowls of Suri were immediately brought for our refreshment — a beverage which undergoes a slow and troublesome process of preparation, from half- fermented Durra ; it is an agreeable acid, and, especially with sugar, has a most excellent and refreshing taste. After our breakfiist, I went through the camp with Peney. The tents were pitched along the river in the most picturesque variety of groups, on a great space of ground here and there scat- tered over with trees and thicket, and completely sur- rounded by it. An Egyptian army, composed half of blacks and half of whites, most of them in tatters, returning in forced marches from a depredatory expedition against the poor natives, presents, indeed, a verj' different aspect from what we are accustomed to witness at home. Although the intimidated population of Taka, for the most part innocent of individual revolt, had already sent messengers to the Pascha, to avert his vengeance, and moreover, on the ap- proach of the troops, had not offered the slightest resistance, nevertheless, several hundred unarmed men and women, who either would not, or could not fly, were murdered by that notorious troop of Arnauts ; and Ahmed Pascha caused a number of other men, who were believed to have been con- cerned in the insm-rcctiou, as they were each led before him, to be beheaded in front of his tent. Then, after aU the conditions that were imposed had been fulfilled, and the heavy contributions which had been required from them under every variety of pretext had been also correctly paid, the Pascha caused all the Sheikhs to assemble at once, as if for a fresh conference, but forthwith had them all put in fetters, together with 120 other people, and led away as prisoners. The young and strong men were to be placed 200 PEISONEES TEOM TAKA. among the troops, tlie women handed over to the soldiers as slaves ; the Sheikhs were reserved for punishment till a later day. This was the glorious history of the Turkish campaign against Taka, as it was related to me by the European eye- witnesses. Already twelve among the forty-one Sheikhs who were carried away, and were nearly sinking under the fatigue of the marches, have been shot on the road. The others were exhibited to me singly. Each of them carried before him the stem of a tree as thick as a man's arm, about five or six feet long, which terminated in a fork, into which the neck was fixed. The prongs of the fork were bound together by a cross-piece of wood, fastened with a strap. Some of their hands, also, were tied fast to the handle of the fork, and in this condition they remain day and night. During the march, the soldier who is specially appointed to overlook the prisoner, carries the end of the pole : in the night most of them have their feet also pinioned together. All of them had had their black curls shaven off. The Sheikhs alone still wore their large head-dress of braids or curls. Most of them looked very depressed and miserable ; they had been the most distinguished of their nation, and had been accustomed to be treated by those they com- manded, with the greatest reverence. They almost all spoke Arabic, beside their own language, and mentioned to me the tribes to which they severally belonged. But the most distin- guished of all of them was a Eakir, who was held sacred ; his word had been regarded like that of a prophet through- out the whole land, and, by his oracular sayings and ex- hortations, he had been chiefly instrumental in causing the whole revolution. He was called Sheikh Musa el Eakib, and was of the tribe of the Mitkenabs. I found him an old, blind, broken-down, hoary man, with a few snow-white hairs ; his body was already more like a skeleton ; he was obliged to be raised up by others, and was scarcely able to hear and answer the questions which were addressed to him. His little, shrivelled face, was incapable of any new ex- LANGUAGE OF TAKA. 201 pression corresponding to the present circumstances. He looked forwards with a fixed and indiiFerent stare, and I was surprised how such a shadow could have still exercised so much influence on the minds of his fellow-countrymen as to excite a revolution. Yet it is remarkable that, both in Egypt and everywhere about here, blind people have an especial reputation for sanctity, and are held in great re- spect as Prophets. After breakfast I had one of the captured Sheikhs, Mo- hammed welled Hammed, brought to the tent of Osman, that I might question him about his language, of which I was still perfectly ignorant. He was an intelligent, well- spoken man, who at once took advantage of the opportunity which I readily granted him, to relate his history to Osman Bey and Sheikh Ahmed, and to assure them of his innocence of the revolutionary events. He belonged to the tribe of the Halenka, from the village of Kassala. I made him give me the lists of the forty-one Sheikhs and their tribes, and liad them written down. Six tribes had taken part in tlie insurrection — the Mitkenab, Halenka, Keluli, Mohammedin, Sobeh, Sikulab, and Hadenduwa (plur. from Henduwa). All the tribes of Taka speak the same language; but only a few of them also understand the Arabic. I suspect that it is the same as that of the Bischari tribes. It has many, and well-distributed vowels, and is very euphonous, as it is with- out the hard guttural sound of the Arabs. On the other hand, it has a pecidiar alphabetical letter, which to our ear seems to stand between r, I, and d ; 2. cerebral d, which, like the Sanscrit, is pronounced by throwing back the point of the tongue upwards. After our examination of the Sheikh it had become too late to set out again ; night would have overtaken me, and especially on camel-back, it is impossible to avoid the dan- gerous branches of the thorny trees. I therefore complied with the invitation to spend the night in the camp, till the rising of the moon ; Osmnn Bey would then at the same time start in the opposite direction with the army. A 202 CUSTOMS IN SOUTHEEIf PEOYINCES. whole sheep was roasted on the spit, which we eat with a hearty appetite. I learnt from Osman Bey about many interesting customs of the most southern provinces, as for the last sixteen years he has been living here in the south, and has an accurate knowledge of the country, to the extreme limits of Mo- hammed All's government. It is still the custom in Fazoql to hang a king who is no longer beloved, which occurred only a few years ago to the father of the present reigning monarch. His relatives and ministers assemble round him, and announce to liim that as he no longer pleases the men and women of the country, the oxen, asses, and fowls, &c., &c., but is detested by all, it is better that he should die. Once upon a time, when a king did not wish to submit to this practice, his own wife and mother made the most press- ing remonstrances to him, not to load himself with still greater disgrace, upon which he yielded to his fate. Dio- dorus narrates exactly the same resignation to death in those who in Ethiopia were to die by judicial verdict ; a person who had been condemned, and who had at first intended to save himself by flight, had nevertheless allowed himself to be strangled without resistance by his mother, who had obstructed him in his design. Osman Bey has only lately, he assures me himself, abolished the custom there of burying old people alive, when they become feeble. A pit used to be dug and a horizontal passage at the end of it, and the body laid within, like that of a dead person, firmly swathed in cloths ; by his side they placed a bowl with merisa, fermented Durra water, a pipe, and a hoe, to cultivate the land ; also, according to the wealth of the individual, one or two ounces of gold, to pay the ferryman who must convey the deceased across the great river which flows between heaven and hell. The entrance is then filled up with rubbish. Indeed, ac- cording to Osman, the whole legend of Charon, even with a Cerberus, appears still to exist here. This custom of burying old people alive also exists, as I afterwards heard, among the negro tribes to the south of CUSTOMS IX SOL'THEEX PEOYIilfCES. 203 Kordofan. Invalids and cripples, those especially who have an infectious malady, are there also put to death in a similar manner. The family complains to the sick man, that be- cause of him, no one will come near them any longer ; that he himself is wretclied, and death would be only a gain for him; that he would again find his relations in the other world, and would be in health and happiness there. They charge him with kind messages to all the deceased, and then hwry him either as they do in Fazoql, or standing upright in a pit. Besides merisa, bread, a hoe, and a pipe, he is there given a sword and two pairs of sandals, for the deceased live in the otlier world just as they do here on earth, only in greater happiness. The dead are buried with loud lamentations, while their iictions and good qualities are extolled. Nothing is there known of a river and ferryman of the lower world, but tliey are acquainted A\-ith the old Mohammedan legend of the invisible angel Asrael, or as he was here called Osrain. He is commissioned by Grod, as they say, to receive the souls of the dead, and to conduct the good to the place of reward, the bad to that of punishment. He dwells upon a tree, el Segerat JMohana (the Tree of Completion), which has as many leaves as there are living men. There is a name upon every leaf, and a new one grows whenever a child is born. If any one sickens, his leaf fades, and should he die, Osrain breaks it off. In former times he used to come in a visible form to those whom he was going to carry away from the earth, and thereby put them in a great fright. Since the days of the Prophet he has been invisible, for when he came to fetch the soul of Mohammed, the latter told him that it was not good that he should terrify mankind by his visible appearance ; they might then easily die of fright without having previously prayed; for he himself, although very courageous, and a man of enlarged mind, had been terrified by his appearance. The Prophet, therefore, prayed to God that he would make Osrain invisible, and the prayer was heard. 204< OSMAN EEY. Osman Bey told me that among some otber tribes in Fazoql, the king was obliged to administer justice daily be- neath a certain tree. If on account of sickness, or from any other mishap, which renders him unfit, he does not make his appearance for three whole days, he is hung up. Two razors are placed in the noose, and when this is draAvn tight, they cut the throat across. The meaning of another of their customs is quite obscure. At a certain time of the year they have a kind of car- nival, where every one does what he likes best. Four minis- ters of the king then bear him on an anqareb out of his house to an open space of ground ; a dog is fastened by a long cord to one of the feet of the anqareb. The whole popula- tion collects round the place, streaming in on every side. They then throw darts and stones at the dog, till he is killed, after which the king is again borne into his house. Amidst these and other tales and accounts of those tribes, which were besides confirmed by the old Chief Sheikh Ahmed, we feasted on the roasted sheep in the open air in front of the tent. [N'ight was somewhat advanced, and the near and distant camp-fires, with the people busy around them, either squatting about, or walking up and down between groups of trees, had an extremely picturesque and unique efiect. Gradually they all became extinguished, with the exception of the watch-fire ; the poor prisoners scattered here and there, had their legs fastened still more tightly together, and it became quieter in the camp. Osman Bey is a strong, cheerful man, with natural man- ners, and at the same time a strict and valued ofiicer. He promised to give me a slight proof of the discipline and good order among his soldiers, whose external appearance did not prejudice me very much in their favour by an unexpected reveille. I was sleeping on an anqareb in the open tent, covered with a soldier's cloak. About three o'clock in the morning I was awoke by a slight noise ; Osman Bey, who lay beside me on the ground, got up, and ordered the nearest drummer of the chief watch to beat the reveille. He made DEPAETUEE TEOiT CAMP. 205 a few, short, interrupted beats of the drum, quickly sinkiug again into silence. These were immediately repeated at the post of the next regiment, then at the third, fourth, and fifth, in various, always more distant, positions of the camp ; and sud- denly the whole mass of 5000 men rose up and stood to their arms. Nothing was to be heard but a soft whispering and rust- ling of the soldiers, who were rousing each otlier, and the faint clank of the weapons, which were cautiously separated from one another. I went through the camp with Dr. Peney, who came across to me from the adjoining tent, and in a verv few minutes we found the whole army under arms, arranged in ranks, tlie officers marching up and down in front. On our return, after we had related to Osman Bey the wonder- fully punctual execution of his commands, he allowed the soldiers to separate again, and did not give the signal for the breaking up of the camp before four o'clock. That pro- duced a very different efiect : all were quiclily in movement and activity ; the abominable gurgling and miserable roar- ing of the camels was heard above everything during the packing up ; the tents were taken down, and in less than half an hour the army marched southwards with pipe and drum. I started in an opposite direction. The early morning with the briglit moonlight was very refreshing ; the birds awoke with the dawn of day, a cool wind rose, and we trotted quickly through the thorny sont-trees. Soon after sunrise we met a magnificent procession of well-dressed men, and attendants, on camels and asses. It was the King Mahmud welled Schauisch, whose father, the warlike Schauisch, King of the Schaiqies, is well known in the conquering expedition oi Ismael Pascha, to whom he did not submit for a long time, and at whose house in Hellet e' Solimau, near Messele- mieh, we had stopped a few weeks ago. He had gone with Ahmed Pascha Menekle to Taka, and followed the army to Halfai, where he now usually resides. About half-past nine we again reached the Pyramids. My camel, a young one, and very difficult to manage, shortly before, took fright in the plain, and ran round in a circle with me as if it was mad; at 206 PTEAMIDS OF MEEOE. length, stumbUng over a tall bunch of grass, it fell on one knee, and hurled me far over its head, happily without doing me any serious injury. On my return I occupied myself, without interruption, with the Pyramids and their inscriptions. I had several more chambers excavated, and made an exact description of each individual Pyramid. Altogether, I have found about thirty different names of Ethiopian kings and queens. I have certainly not yet been able to bring them into any chronological order, but from a comparison of the different inscriptions, I have learnt much about the manner of the suc- cession, and form of government. The King of Meeoe (whose name in one of the most southern Pyramids is written Meetj, or Meetja,) was at the same time first Priest of Amnion ; if his consort survived him, she succeeded him in the govern- ment, and the male heirs to the throne only took the second place beside her ; if the reverse happened, the son, as it appears, succeeded, who, even in the lifetime of his father, bore the royal shields and titles, and was second Priest of Ammon. Thus we still see here the domination of the priests, which is spoken of by Diodorus and Strabo, and the pre-eminence of the worship of Ammon, which is even men- tioned by Herodotus. The inscriptions on the P>Tamids show that, at the period of their erection, the hieroglyphic writing was no longer perfectly understood, and that the hieroglyphic signs were often only added as a customary ornament, without wishing to express anything by them. Even the kings' names are thereby rendered uncertain, and this for a long time pre- vented me from recognising the three royal personages who built the chief temples in Naga, Ben Naga, and in "Wadi Temed, and who undoubtedly belonged to one of the most brilliant periods of the Merbitic Monarchy. I am now con- vinced that the Pyramids with Eoman arched ante-chambers, in the brick- work of which Eerlini found the treasure con- cealed, in spite of slight alterations in the name, belonged to the same mighty and warlike queen who appears in Naga ETHIOPIAX lySCEIPTIOXS. 207 with her rich decorations, and her pointed nails almost an inch long. By the circumstance of their liaving belonged to a well-known, and, as it appears, the greatest of all the queens of Meroe, who built almost all the temples still in tolerable preservation on the island, Ferlini's jewels become infinitely more valuable for the history of Ethiopian art, in which they now occupy a fixed position. The purchase of that remarkable discovery is a most important acquisition to our museum. An Etldopian-demotic writing was more in use at that period, and more generally understood than hieroglyphics. It was similar to the Eg}'ptian-demotic in its characters, although consisting of a very limited alphabet of between twenty-five and thirty signs. The writing, like the latter, is read from right to left, but is distinguished by a constant separation of the words by two strongly-marked points. I have already found six-and-twenty similar demotic inscrip- tions ; some of them on steles and libation-tablets ; some of them in the ante-chambers of the Pyramids, over the persons belonging to the processions, who usually go to meet the deceased king with palm-branches; some of them on the smooth surfaces of the Pyramids ; and indeed always in such a state, that they are clearly proved to have belonged ori- ginally to the representations, and not to have been added at a later period. On a closer examination of this writing, it will not perhaps be difficidt to decipher, and we should then obtain the first certain sounds of the Ethiopian language spoken here at that period, and could decide on its true relation to the Egyptian language, while the almost perfect agreement between the Ethiopian and Egyptian hierogly- phics have hitherto yielded no conclusive evidence that there is an equal accordance between the two languages. It seems, on the contrary, and with respect to the later Meroitic period may be safelv affirmed, that the hieroglyphics, as the sacred monumental writing, were adopted from Egypt without altera- tion, but also without being perfectly understood. The few signs which constantly recur, prove that the Ethiopian-demotic 208 ETHI0PIA>'S or MEEOE. writing is purely alphabetic, wliich must very much facilitate the deciphering of it. The separation in the words has per- haps been borrowed from the Eoman writing. But its analogy with the Egyptian development of writing went still further; for next to this Ethiopian-demotic writing there is an EtJiiopian- Greek, at a later period, which may be per- fectly compared with the Coptic, and it has borrowed certain letters directly from it. It is found in the inscriptions of Soba, and in some others on the walls of the temple-ruins of "Wadi e' Sofra. We have therefore now, as in the case in Egypt, two modes of writing, which no doubt sprang up one after the other, and really cojitain the actual Ethiopian dialect of the country. It is now usual to call the ancient Abys- sinian Geez language the Ethiopian, which, with the charac- teristics of a Semetic language that has immigrated from Arabia, has only a local, but no ethnographic claim on our attention. A Geez inscription, which 1 have found in the chamber of a Pyramid, htis evidently been written down at a later period. I hope that we shall obtain many important results from studying the native inscriptions, as well as the present living languages. The Ethiopian name comprehended much that was dissimilar among the ancients. The ancient population of the whole Nile valley as far as Chartum, and perhaps, also, along the Blue River, as well as the tribes of the desert to tiie east of the Nile, and the Abyssinian nations, were in former times probably more distinctly separated from the Negroes than now, and belonged to the Caucasian race. The Ethiopians of Meroe (according to Herodotus, the parent- state of all Ethiopia) were a red-brown people, similar to the Egyptians, but darker, as they are at the present day. The monuments also prove this, on which 1 have more than once found the red colour of the skin in the kings and queens pre- served. In Egypt, especially in the Old Monarchy, before the mixture with the Ethiopian race, at the period of the llvksos, the women were always painted yellow; and the Egyptian women even now, who are blanched in the harem, MARtJGA. 209 incline to the same colour. But red women appear even after the 18th Dynasty, and the Ethiopian women were always so represented. It appears that much Ethiopian blood is mingled with the nation of the so-called Barabras, so widely distributed at the present day, and this perhaps will also one day appear still more distinctly from their lan- guage. This, no doubt, is the ancient Nubian, and has been still retained in somewhat distant regions to the south-west under tliis name; for the Nuba languages in and round Kordofan, as can be proved, are partly related to the Berber language. I have also found indications in the local names that this last, which is only now spoken from Assuan to Dar Schaiqieh, south of Dongola, in the Nile valley, predomi- nated for a long while also in the province of Berber, and still higher up. Maruga, Danqeleh, and e' Sue, are close to the ruins of the city of Meroe, and are situated along the river from south to north ; all three are comprehended under the name of Begerauieh, so that we scarcely ever hear anything but this last name mentioned. Five minutes to the north of e' Sur lies the village of Qala, and ten minutes farther on El Gues, both of which are comprehended under the name of Gliabine. One hour down the river there are two other villages, not far apart, called Maruga, which were deserted even before the conquest of the country ; and still more to the north, close to the Omarab Mountains, which project towards the river on the eastern bank, there is a third village called Gebel (mountain village) inhabited only by Fukaras. Cailliaud knew only the most southern of the three Marugas, situated near the largest temple-ruins. He was struck by the name, on account of its similarity with that of Meroe. The similarity becomes still more evident when it is known that the real name is Maru, since -ga is only the universal termination to names, and is always either added or omitted, according to the grammatical combination, for it does not belong to the root of the word. In the dialect of Ken us and Dongola this termination is -Gi; in the dialect of Mahass P 210 2fAGA. and Sukkot it is -ga. When I ran over the different Local names of the upper countries with one of our Berber servants, I learnt that in one dialect maro or marogi, in tlie other maru or maruga, means "mounds of ruins," "destroyed temples ;" thus, for example, the ruins of ancient Syene, or those on the island of Philse, are called marogi. There is another Berber word quite distinct from this, merua, which is also pronounced meraui, by which all white rocks, white stones, are designated ; as, for example, such a rock as occurs in the neighbourhood of Assuan, on the eastern side of the Nile, at the village of El Gezii-et. By this it is evident that the apellation Maruga has nothing to do with the name of Meroe, as a town would not be called when first founded " ruin city." On the other hand, the name of Merua, Meraui (in German, Weissenfels, white rock), would be very appropriate for a towTi, if its local position gave occasion to it, as at Mount Barkal, but which, again, is not really the case here. LETTEE XXI. Keli, opposite Meroe, the 29th April. Ebanke did not return from his expedition to Ben Naga before the 23rd instant. He brought the altar here, on a boat, in sixteen blocks. All the stones taken together, which we must carry along with us on the difficult journey of six or seven days across the desert, form a load for about twenty camels, so that our train will be considerably longer than before. Unfortunately, on account of the difficulty of the means of transport, we have been unable to take anything away with us from Naga in the desert, except a Eoman in- scription, mentioned above, and a great Clavis Nilotiea, peculiarly carved. Some very strange representations are to be seen there ; among others, a figure sitting frontways, a crown of rays over the floating hair, the left arm raised at a right angle, and the fore-finger and middle-finger of the hand FUXEEAL IN KELI. 211 stretching upwards, as is represented in the old Byzantine figures of Christ. The right hand holds a long staff resting on the ground, as John the Baptist usually holds it. This figure is totally different from the Egyptian representations, and no doubt is borrowed elsewhere, as well as another god who frequently appears, also represented frontwise, with a richly curling beard ; he might at first sight be compared to a Jupiter, or Serapis, in bearing and appearance. The mixture of the religions had made great progress at that period, evi- dently of very late date, and it would not surprise me if it should be proved by later researches that the Ethiopian kings had adopted Christ and Jupiter also, among their various kinds of gods. The god with the three or four lions' heads is probably not a native invention, but obtained from some other quarter. On the 25th we crossed the Nile in boats, in order to set out on the left bank, on our road across the desert to Gebel Barkal. There seemed to be difficulties again about pro- curing camels, but my threat, that if they would not come to a private agreement I should, on the ground of my Firman, settle the matter, not with the Sheikh but with the Govern- ment, had such a rapid effect, that, even the following morn- ing, we were enabled to set out with eighty camels from Gos Burri in the immediate neighbourhood, across the desert. Here, in Keli, I had again an opportunity of witnessing a funeral ceremony — this time, for a deceased Pellah — for which purpose about two hundred people had collected, the men separate from the women. The men were seated, two and two opposite, embracing each other; they laid their heads on their shoulders, raised them up again, beat them- selves, clapped their hands, and wept as much as they were able. The women moaned, sang songs of lamentation, strewed themselves with ashes, walked about in procession, and threw themselves on the ground ; everything very similar to what we saw in Wed Medineh, except that their dance more resembled, in its violent movements, that of the Dervishes. The remainder of the inhabitants of Keli sat p2 212 TOMES. round in groups under tlie shade of the trees, sighing and lamenting, with their heads hent down. As we were obliged to wait for the camels, I once more crossed over to Beg'erauieh, to search for certain ruins, which were said to be situated somewhat more to the north. Starting from El Gues, I arrived in three-quarters of an hour, upon my ass, at the two villages of Maruga, not far removed from each other. To the eastward of the first, on the low eminences running along in that direction, there are a num- ber of mounds of tombs, which from a little distance looked like a group of Pyramids standing out from the sky. The elevation turns backwards, in the form of a crescent, towards the south, and is covered with these circular-thrown-up mounds, composed of black desert stone ; standing on a large mound in the centre I counted fifty-six of them. rive minutes farther on in the desert there is a second group of similar mounds, twenty-one in number ; but many others lie near it, scattered on single small pieces of ground. Situated in a still lower position, and even within the limit of the thicket, I discovered a third group, to the south of the two former ones, containing about forty tombs, in some of which we could still clearly recognise their original square form. The tomb in best preservation was between 15 and 18 feet wide on every side ; like many others, it had been excavated in the centre, and had been filled up with mud deposited by the raio, in which a tree was growing ; a great square wall of 24 paces enclosing it on every side, was still remaining of another tomb, the lowest layers were built up solidly of small black stones, and a mound seemed to have been erected within, but not in the centre. Another still stronger circumvallation, in good preservation, was not much smaller in circumference, but appeared to have been com- pletely filled up with a Pyramid. JSTothing was to be seen of an actual casing. The mounds continued still more to the south amidst the thicket, and altogether there might be about two hundred which could be distinguished. Perhaps, also, they continue still farther on the border of the desert, deseut of gilif. 2L3 in the direction of Meroe, whither I would have ridden back liad I not sent the boat too far down the river, in quest of which I now was obliged to hasten. It appears, therefore, that this was the actual cemetery of Merbe, and that pyra- midal, or, in default of smooth sides, conical mounds of stones, were the usual forms of tlie tombs, even of private indi- viduals, at that period. LETTEE XXII. Barkal, the 9tk May, 1844. The desert of Gilif, which we traversed on our road hither, to cut off tlie great eastern bend of the Nile, derives its name from the principal mountain range which lies in the centre of it. On the maps it is confounded with the desert Bauiuda, which bounds it to the south-east, and across which runs the road from Chartum to Ambukol and Barkal. Our direction was first due east as far as a well, afterwards to the north-west, and in the midst of the Gilif range to the great AVadi Abu Dom, wliich then led us across in the same direction to the western bend of the Xile. Tlie general character of the country here, is not so much that of a desert as between Ivorusko and Abu Hammed, but more that of a sandy steppe. It is almost everywhere covered with Gesch (tufts of reed-grass), and not unfre- quently with low trees, chiefly Sont-trees. The rains which fall here at certain seasons of the year, have deposited con- siderable masses of earth on the low grounds, which might be profitably cultivated, and this is sometimes traversed, to the depth of three or four feet, by torrents occasioned by the rain. The soil is yellow, and composed of a clayey sand. The rock forming the subsoil, and the whole of the mountains, with the exception of the lofty Gilif range, is a sandstone. The ground is covered to a considerable extent with hard, black blocks of sandstone, the road is generally uneven, and 214 JOUEXET THROUGH DESERT. undulating. Numerous gazelles, and large white antelopes with only a browu stripe down their backs, are to be found on these plains, which are also frequented in the rainy season by herds of camels and of goats, on account of the plentiful supply of pasture. On the 29th April we left the river, but, as is very custo- mary in caravans of any considerable size, this was only a first start — a trial of our travelling powers, such as birds of passage make before their long migration. We had only been two hours on the road when the guide allowed the restless swarm to encamp again, just beyond Gros Burei, at a little distance from the river ; the camel-drivers were with- out their provisions ; some single beasts were still procured, others were exchanged. It was not before the following day at twelve o'clock that we got into perfect order and in full march. We spent the niglit in the Wadi Abu Hammed, at which point Gebel Omarda was on our right liand. The third day we started very early ; passed GtEBEL Qee- MANA, and arrived at the well of Abu Tleh, which took us far to the east, and detained us several hours after mid-day. From this point we were seven hours traversing a wide plain, and encamped about ten at night near Gebel Sergen. The 2nd May, after proceeding four hours, we reached a district well supplied with trees, to the right of Gebel JSTusf, the " Mountain of the Half," which is situated half-way between the well of Abu Tleh and Gaqedul, as on all these journeys the wells are the real indicators of the hour in the desert- clock. The Arabs from the district of Gos Burri, who are our guides, belong to the tribe of the 'Auadieh ; they are not nearly as res})ectable as the Ababde Arabs, have a rapid and indistinct mode of speech, and altogether seem to have very little capacity. They may have already intermingled much with the Fellahiu of the country, who here call themselves Qaleab, Homerab, Gaalin. There are also some Schaiqieh Arabs here, probably only from the time of the conquest of the country by the Egyptians ; they carry shields and spears EL GOS. 215 like the Ababde Arabs. The wealthy Sheikh, Emin, of Gos Burri, had given us his brother, the Fakii- Fadl Allah, as our guide, and his own son, Fadl Allah, as overseer to his camels ; but even the best among these people make but a miserable and starved appearance in comparison with our desert com- panions of Korusko. The order of the day here was as fol- lows : that in general we should start about six in the morning, and keep monng till ten o'clock ; after that, the caravan rested during the mid- day heat till about three o'clock, and we then proceeded again till about ten or eleven at night. We rode across the large plain of El Gos the whole after- noon, so called, probably, from the great sand dunes, which are characteristic of this part of the country, and which, more especially towards the south, assume a peculiar form. They are almost all in the shape of a crescent, which opens towards the south-west, so that from the road on our right hand we look into a number of tunnels, or semi-theatres, whose pre- cipitous walls of sand rise nearly ten feet from the ground, while the north wind, passing over the field within, clears it completely fi-om the sand, wliich would gradually fill up the cavity. But the rapidity with which this moveable sand- architecture alters its position is manifested by the single tracks on the caravan-road, which are frequently lost under the very centre of the highest sand-hills. About eight o'clock in the evening we left Gebel Baeqtjgees on our left hand, and halted for the night, about ten o'clock, at a short dis- tance from tlie Gilif range. The 3rd May we marched through the AYadi Guah el 'alem, which is covered with a great many trees, into the heart of the mountains, which are chiefly composed of porphyritic rock, and like all primitive mountains, on account of their longer retention of the precipitated humidity and the small amount of rain, are more covered with vegetation than the sandy plains. In three hours we reached the "Wadi Gaqedul, thickly covered with Gesch and thorny trees of every description, Sent, Somra, and Serha. We met some herds of camels and goats grazing here, especially near the 216 DESEET OF GILIF. water, whicli had also attracted numerous birds, among others ravens and pigeons. The water is said to be retained for the space of three years, without any fresh accession in this broad, low- situated grotto, about 300 feet in diameter, surrounded, and for the most part covered in, by lofty walls of granite. It was, however, so dirty, and had such an abominable smell, that it was even despised by my thirsty ass. The drinkable water is situated higher up in the mountains, and is difficult of access. We here quitted the northerly direction into which we had been led by the well, since leaving Gebel jS'usf, and continued for several hours very much to the west along the Gilif range, into the Wadi el Mehet, then traversing the perfectly dry bed of the valley (Chor) of El Ammee, from which the road to Ambukol diverges, we halted past ten o'clock at night in tlie "Wadi el Uee, which was named by others the Wadi Abu Haeod. From this point, the Gilif range retreated for some distance farther towards the east, and only left a succes- sion of sandstone hills in the foreground, along which we rode the following morning. In the W.N.W. we saw other moun- tain ranges, which are no longer called Gilif ; one single two- pointed mountain among them, which stood out from the rest, was called Miglik. The great inlet of the Gilif chain, filled with sandstone rock, is two hours broad ;* the road then continues to lead in a more northerly direction, into the midst of the range itself, which is here called Gebel el Mageqa, after the well of Mageqa. Before entering this mountain range, we came to a place covered with heaps of stones, which might be supposed to be barrows, though no one lies bui'ied beneath them. When- ever the date merchants come this road, many of whom we met the following morning, with their large round plaited straw baskets, their camel-drivers at this spot demand a trifle from them. He who will give nothing, has a cenotaph such as this erected to him, out of the surrounding stones, as a bad omen for his hard-heartedness. We met with a similar assem- * About six English miles. — Te. TVADI KALAS. 217 blage of tombs in tbe desert of Korusko. "We reached this Well soon after nine o'clock, but without halting ascended a wild valley to a considerable height, where we encamped about mid-day. The whole road was amply supplied with trees, and thereby offered an agreeable variety. The Sont, or gum-trees, were rare here ; the Somra appeared most frequently, which begins to spread out directly from the ground in several strong branches, and terminates with a flat covering of thinly-scat- tered boughs and small green leaves, so that it often forms a completely regular inverted cone, which at this spot some- times attains to about the height of fifteen feet. JSTear it grows the Heglik, with irregular boughs round the stem, and single tufts of leaves and twigs, like the pear-tree. The thornless Serha, on the other hand, has all tlie branches sur- rounded with quite small green leaves, like moss, and the ToNDUB has no leaves at all, but in their place only small green little twigs, growing zig-zag, and almost as close as foliage, while the Salame shrub . consists of long flexible twigs covered with green leaves and long green thorns. About four o'clock we set out, and descended very gradu- ally from the heights. There are also a number of wells in the Wadi Kalas, with very good rain water, about twenty feet in depth; we pitched our encampment for the night at this spot, although we arrived there soon after sunset. The animals were watered, and the skins filled. The whole of the plateau is well supplied with trees and shrubs, and in- habited by men and animals. Our road on the following day preserved the same cha- racter, as long as we were wandering between the beautiful and rugged escarpments of porphyry. After proceeding a couple of hours farther, we came to two other Wells, also called Kalas, with little, but good water= Prom this spot, a road diverged in a uortli-easterly direction to the well of Mekoe, in the Wadi Abu Dom, probably so called also from a white rock. Three hours farther, having passed Gebel Abeak, we 218 WADI QAZAL. entered the great Wadi Abu Dom, whicli we now pursued in a west north-west direction. This remarkable valley passes uninterruptedlj by the side of a long mountain chain from the Nile at El Mecheref to the village of xlbu Dom, which is situated obliquely opposite Mount Barkal. When we con- sider that the upper north-eastern opening of this valley, which traverses the whole Peninsula and its mountain ranges, lies nearly opposite the mouth of the Atbara, which flows into the Nile in the same direction above Mecheref, we can- not help suspecting that once, though perhaps not in histo- rical times, there must have been a connection by water, which cut off the largest portion of the great eastern bend of the Nile, now formed by the rocky elevated plateau at Abu Hammed, driving back the stream above a degree and a half towards the south, contrary to its common direction. The name of the valley is derived from the single Dom Palms, which are here and there found in it. The mountain chain, which passes along the north of the valley, is completely separated from the range, through which we had hitherto come. At the entrance of this valley we left the solid ground of which the mountain is composed, and the loose sands again prevailed, without however overpowering the stiU far from scanty vegetation. In the afternoon, after leaving on our left hand a side valley. Oil Schebak, which contains well-water, we encamped for the night as early as nine o'clock. The following morn- ing we came to the deep well of Hanik, and halted about mid-day at a second well, which was called Oil Saiale, after the tree of that name. At this spot, I left the caravan with Jussuf, to reach Barkal by a circuitous road by Nuei, situated on this side of the river somewhat higher up. In an hour and a half we arrived at some considerable ruins of a large Christian con- vent in the AVadi G-azal, so called from the gazelles, which dig in great numbers for water here in the Chor (bed of the valley). The church was built as high as the windows of white, well-hewn sandstone, and above that of unbumt cb:ristia.x COy\ElST. 219 bricks. The walls are covered with a strong coating of plaster, and are painted in the interior. The vaulted apse of the three-naved Basilica is situated, as usual, towards the east, the entrances behind the western transept are towards the north and south ; all the arches of the doors, the win- dows, and between the pillars, are round : above the doors, Coptic crosses are frequently exhibited, more or less orna- mented, whose most simple form |||l maj' be compared with the ancient Egvptian symbol of Life. The whole church is a genuine type of all the Coptic churches which I have seen in ruins, and I therefore add the small ground plan just as Erbkam took it down. The building is above eighty feet long, and exactly half as broad. The outer wall to the north has fallen in. The cliurch is surrounded by a great court, whose walls of enclo- sure, as well as the numerous convent cells, some of which have vaulted roofs, are built of rough blocks, and are in good preservation ; the largest of them, a dwelling forty-six feet long, is situated in front of the western side of the church, and is only separated from it by a small narrow court ; no doubt it belonged to the prior, and a special side-entrance led from it into the church. Two churchyards are situated on the southern side of the convent ; that to the Avest, about forty paces removed from the church, contained a number of tombs, which consisted simply of a collection of black stones heaped up together. The eastern churchyard was situated nearer to the buildings, and was remarkable from possessing 220 GREEK A-SH COPTIC INSCE1PTI0N3. a considerable amount of tombstones with inscriptions, partly in Greek, partly in Coptic, which will induce me to pay a second visit to this remarkable convent before we leave Barkal. I counted more than twenty stones with inscrip- tions, some of which had sustained much injury, and about as many tablets in burnt earth, with iuscriptions scratched into them, though most of them were broken to pieces. They contain the most southern Grreek inscriptions which have been hitherto known in the Nile region, with the exception of those of Adulis and Axum in Abyssinia. There is no doubt that the Greek language following in the wake of Christianity, and the traces of which we might have ourselves pursued in structural remains even beyond Soba, was at one time employed and understood, at least for reli- gious objects, by the natives in the flourishing districts, even as far as the interior of Abyssinia ; nevertheless these monu- mental inscriptions (none of them, as far as I could see in a hasty survey, in the Ethiopian language) allow us to infer that the inhabitants of the convent were Greek Coptics who had immigrated. About five o'clock I left my companions, who went direct to Abu Dom, and I immediately set out for Nuei. "We soon saw Mount Baekal shining blue in tlie distance ; it rises singl}^ and precipitously from the surrounding plain, and has a broad platform, and, by its peculiar form and position, at once attracts attention ; about six o'clock the Nile vallev, which is here of considerable breadth, lay spread out before us, a sight always longed for after the desert journey, and which, like the approaching misty coast after a sea voyage, keeps the attention of the traveller in a state of joyful expectation. Our road, however, now turned towards the right, and led among the mountains, which stretch out into the plain, and are still composed of masses of porphyry. "When we stood directly in front of Barkal, I observed on our left hand a great number of black barrows, either round, or pyramidal in form, similar to those I previously saw at Meroe. It was probably the general cemetery of Napata, which even in the time of Herodotus was the royal residence of the Ethio- PTllAMIDS OF XUEI. 221 pian kings, and was situated on the farther bank; a con- siderable town must therefore at one time have been placed on the left bank of the Nile, which would also explain the position of the Pyramids of jS'uki on the same side of the river. Nevertheless, I have not been able to discover any mound of ruins in accordance with this surmise. I only saw some similar to these, though not of considerable extent, behind the village of Duem and at Abu Dom, whicli were called Sanab. It was not before half-past seven that we arrived in the neighbourhood of this considerable group of Pyramids, and we quartered ourselves for the night in the house of the Sheikh of the village. Before sunrise I was already at the Pyramids, of which I counted twenty-five. They are some of them grander than those at Meroe, but are built of soft sandstone, and, therefore, have sufiiered much from exposure to the weather ; only very few of them had a portion of the smooth casing preserved. The largest shows, again, the same structure in the interior which I have referred to in the Pyramids of Lower Egypt ; a smaller internal Pyramid was enlarged in all its dimensions by a superimposed stone casing. In one place, on the west side, the smoothed upper surface of the internal structure was most clearly disclosed beneath the well-joined external covering, which is eight feet thick. Little is to be seen here of ante-chambers such as there are in Meroe and at the Pyramids of Barkal ; I think I have only found the remains of two ; the rest, if they ever existed, must have been com- pletely demolished, or buried beneath the rubbish. Some of the Pyramids, however, stand so immediately against each other, that, on that account alone, an ante-chamber, at least on the last side where it might have been expected, could not have existed. Besides this, the Pyramids are generally built quite massively of square blocks ; I could only perceive, on the one situated most to the east, that it was filled up with black unhe\vn stones. There is also a truncated Pyramid like that of Dahschur ; but here the lower, and not, as in that instance, the upper angle of inclination, must have 222 MOUNT BAEKAL. been the one originally intended, as tlie former is scarcely sufficient for a series of steps. Although, unfortunately, I had been unable to discover any inscriptions, with the exception of one single small fragment of granite, yet much seems to favour the idea that this group of Pyramids is of an older date, while those of Barkal are more recent. Soon after ten o'clock I reached Abu Dom, where I found my companions already arrived. The w^hole of the next day was occupied in crossing the Nile, and we did not reach Barkal before sunset. Greorgi, to my delight, had arrived here some days previously from Dongola. We now more than ever require his assistance, because drawings must be made of whatever we meet with here. The Ethio- pian royal residence of King Taheaka, who reigned at the same time in Egypt, and left buildings behind him, the same who in the time of Hezekiah marched to Palestine against Sennacherib, is too important for us not to exhaust it, if pos- sible, of its treasures. LETTEE XXIII. Mount Barkal, the 28th May, 1844. DuEiNG the next few days I expect the arrival of the transport boats which I begged of Hassan Pascha, and which set off eleven days ago ; they are to receive our Ethiopian treasures, and to convey us to Dongola. The results of our researches here are not without importance. Upon the whole, they are quite confirmatory of the opinion that Ethiopian art is only a late offshoot from the Egyptian. It does not commence under native rulers before the time of Tahraka. The little which is extant from a still earlier period belongs to the Egyptian conquerors and their artists. Here, at least, it is confined solely to one temple, which Eamses the Great erected to Amen-Ea. It is true that the name of Amenophis III. has been discovered on several NAPATA. 223 of the granite Earns, as well as on Lord Prudhoe's Lion in London, but there are good grounds to suppose that these magnificent Colossi did not originally belong to a temple here. They were only brought here at a later period, it appears, from Soleb, probably by the Ethiopian king whose name is found engraved on the breast of the above-mentioned lion, and which, from the incorrect omission of a sign, has been hitherto read Amejt Aseu in place of Mi Amen Asrtj. Nevertheless, I consider these Earns so remarkable, espe- cially on account of their inscriptions, that I have determined to carry away the best of them. The fat wether probably weighs nearly 150 cwt. However, in the space of three sultry days, it has been safely dragged on rollers to the river bank by ninety-two Fellahs, and it there waits for embarkation. Several other monuments besides are to accompany us from this spot, as we need no longer fear their weight since the desert is behind us. I will only mention an Ethiopian altar, four feet high, with the Shields of the king who erected it ; a statue of Isis, on whose plinth there is an Ethiopian-demotic inscription of eighteen lines ; another also fi'om Meraui ; as well as the peculiar monument bearing the name of Amenophis III., which was copied by Cailliaud, and was thought to be a foot, but, in truth, is the lower por- tion of the sacred sparrow-hawk. All these monuments are of black granite.* The town of Napata, the name of which I have now fre- quently found in hieroglyphics, and even on the monuments of Tahraka, was situated, no doubt, somewhat farther down the river, near the present town of Meeaui, where considerable mounds of ruins still testify to this. The Temples and Pyra- mids were alone situated near the mountain. This remark- able mass of rock bears the name of the " Sacred Mount" "^ (] . in the hieroglyphic inscriptions. The god who was peculiarly worshipped here was Ammon-Ea. * These raonuments are now placed in the Egyptian Museum (Berlin)- See the ram and sparrow-hawk in the Denkindler aus E'ec-ma (Amenophis).* The rich represen- tations belonging to tliis temple — the same to which once also belonged our own Eam from Barkal, and Lord Prudhoe's Lion — gave us materials for almost five days' work. We did not again set ofl" before the 11th July. Scarcely one hour to the north of this is situated Gebel DoscHE, a sandstone rock, projecting into the river, in which," on the river side, a grotto is cut, which contains re- presentations of the third Tuthmosis. * The expression is, that he has built the Temple W ^ -^ _ w ^ O y] '• to his living image on earth Ra-xeb-ma." The word chent no longer exists in the Coptic language, but is always translated in the Rosetta inscription by eiKcoj/. The temple, and the locality belonging to it, was also named after the king, but after his Horus name, " The Dwelling of Scha-em-ma." From this we may trace the origin of the Ram of Barkal and the Lion in the British Museum. SULPHUR SPRI>'G. 237 The ven' same evening we arrived at SEDEii^aA, where Amexophis III. erected a small temple to his own wife, Tii. In the midst of the picturesque heap of ruins, thrown one above another, rises one single column, which has re- mained standing. A great necropolis stretches out towards the west. On the 13th of July we halted near a Schona (such is the name given to the station store-houses maintained by government), opposite Mount Abie or Qabie, a little below the northern point of the island of Sai. On the other side of the river, not exactly opposite, stands the village of Amaea, and near it the ruins of a temple. I was not a little surprised to recognise directly on the columns (six of which are still preserved) the fat Queen of Naga and Meeoe, with her husband. This temple was built by them, an important testimony to the widely- extended dominion of that Ethiopian Dynasty. In the necropolis to the south of the temple I also observ^ed fragments of inscriptions in the above-men- tioned demotic Ethiopian alphabetic -writing, such as I had also found near Sedeinga. The following day, after having visited the island of Sai, where we had found the scanty remains of a temple with inr scriptions of Tuthmosis III. and Amenophis II., besides the remains of a town and a Coptic church, we proceeded farther, and on the 15th of July reached Dal, which forms the fron- tier between the provinces of Sukkot and Batn el hager (Stone-belly) ; at night we encamped at the Cataract of Kalfa. From this point our road passed near the hot sulphur spring of Okmeh, to which I turned off from our caravan road with Abeken. It led us from the Schona, where we separated, along the rocky bank, above an hour backwards to a square tower, whicli has been erected over the spring, and which is now called after its builder, Hammam seidna Soliman. The tower, which is 9 feet in diameter, and in the inside 4 feet wide, is now half filled with sand and earth ; the stream of water, about the thickness of a man's wrist, issues from the 238 TEMPLE OF SEMNEH. eastern side of the tower ; on the other side, within the space of a square foot, sixteen little whirlpools rise out of tlie sand, and here, where the water is hottest, it is not quite 44° H. (131° Fahr.). It tastes sulphureous, and a white substance is deposited on the earth round the spring. Every year the river rises above it, and even over the tower, which stands half-way up the river bank. The surface of the water had now only risen to about the height of a man, and had not yet reached the spring. A rough hole is dug into the rubbish for the sick who come here, and is covered with branches to keep back the stream. Somewhat farther down the river another small spring of water appears, which has a tempera- ture of 40° E. (122° Fahr.) when it issues from the ground. The saying goes, that Okasche, a friend of the Prophets, was killed in a campaign in the south, his corpse floated down hither, and then disappeared in the rock on the opposite bank ; there, even now, at some distance up the river, his grave is shown ; a tree marks the spot. On the 17th July we encamped at the temple of Semneh. The village consists only of a few straw huts, which are shaded by some date palms, but the number of potsherds in the neighbourhood prove that a place of some importance stood here formerly. The temple is surrounded with very ancient fortifications, of immense dimensions ; its erection dates even as far back as the Old Monarchy under Sesur- tesen III., a king of the 12th Dynasty. It appears that this king first enlarged the limits of the Egyptian Monarchy as far as this point ; indeed it has been found that at a later period he was himself worshipped in these districts as a divinity of the country. The temple which Tuthmosis III. erected here in the New Monarchy, is also dedicated to him, and to the god Tetun. On the right bank, also, at the village of Kummeh, there are still some old fortifications, and within them a stiU larger temple, which was even begun by Tuthmosis II. The most important discovery which we made here, and ■which I shall ^ only mention briefly, because I am at this CASTLE JLT ABKE. 239 moment sending a more detailed account of it to Ehrenbero-, is a number of short rock inscriptions which mark the highest rises of the Nile during a series of years under the govern- ment of Amenemha III. (McEKis), and of his immediate suc- cessors. These statements have in some measure a historical value, as they decidedly confirm my supposition that the Se- bekhoteps followed immediately after the 12th Dynasty, and they arc in some measure peculiarly interesting for the geo- logical history of the Nile valley ; because they prove that the river, above 4000 years ago, rose more than 24 feet higher than now, and thereby must have produced totally different conditions in the inundation and in the whole surface of the ground both above and below this spot. Our examination of this remarkable locality, with its temples and roek-iuscrip- tions, occupied us twelve whole days.* On the 29th July we went from Semneh to Abke, and the following day visited the old castle situated to the north of it, which is called el Kenissa, the church, and formerly there- fore probably contained one. From the top of this castle we had the most magnificent prospect of the chief cataracts of the whole country. Three great fiills could be distin- guished from the smaller ones in the broad, rocky island valley, and the eye passed over several hundred islands, as far as the black mountain range on the opposite bank. But towardcs the north the wide plain spread out, whicli extends from "VVadi Haifa to Phila?. The succession of the different kinds of rock was most distinctly visible as we descended from tlie last ridge of the rocks on the banks into the great plain, from which some single cones of sandstone alone pro- truded, as if from the bed of a primitive ocean. Here un- doubtedly are the sources of the everlasting sand, which, * This theory of Dr. Lepsius, of the bed of the Nile having been ex- cavated to a depth of 25 feet in 4000 years, has been examined by Leonard Horner, Esq., F.R.S., in a paper published in the Edinburgh PliUosophioal Journal for July, 1850. Dr. Lepsius having in a letter, dated 12th April, 1853, addressed to Mr, Horner, expressed a wish that that paper should be reprinted in the present volume, it will be found accordingly in the Appendix. — Tr. 240 ABTJ SIMBEL. IBRIM. driven by the northern wind among the primitive mountains, rendered our road to Semneh very difficult. On the 1st of August we left "Wadi Halfa in three boats, and from this point again sailed through a country with which we were already acquainted. The following morning we came to Abf Simbel, where we spent nine days, in order to become perfectly acquainted with the copious representations on both the rock-temples. I long searched in vain for the remarkable G-reek inscription which Leake had found on one of the four great Ramses Colossi, till I fortunately re-discovered it, buried tolerably deep, on the left leg of the second Colossus from the south. I was obliged to make a great excavation to obtain a perfect im- pression of it on paper. I see no reason why we should not take this antique inscription for what it states itself to be, namely, memoranda of the Greek mercenaries, who came hither with Psammeticus I. in pursuit of the re- bellious warriors. Beneath the other inscriptions on the Colossus, I also found some Phcenician inscriptions. After we had visited from this point some other rock- monuments on the opposite bank at Abahuda and Scha- TAUi, we quitted Abu Simbel on the 11th of July, and next halted on the right bank near Ibrim, ancient Peimis, the name of which I have also found in hieroglyphics written P.R.M. Ibrim is situated on the left bank opposite Anibe, near which we discovered, and made a drawing of, only one private tomb from the period of the 20th Dynasty, but it was in good preservation. Thence we proceeded to Deee, where we got the largest despatch of letters we have yet received, so that it was a real holiday for us. With these treasures we hastened past Am ad a to this spot Koetjsko, whose de- lightful group of palms had won our hearts during our long, though involuntary, detention there last year. "We have fixed upon the present Sunday to celebrate with pleasant recollections the happy termination of our southern journey. Our boats lie quietly beside the bank. GIS.M II ALFA. 241 LETTEE XXYII. PJdlce, the \st September, 1844. I AM only now able to finish my journal from Koruskoy whence we set sail on the evening of the 18th August for Sebua. Erom this point, as far as Philae, the valley is called Wadi Kenus, "the valley of the Beni Ket^si," a tribe of which we read much in the Arabic accounts. The upper valley of Korusko, as far as Wadi Haifa, is called on all the maps Wadi Nuba, a name which has indeed been already used by Burckhardt, but which must originate in some mistake. Neither our Nubian servant, Ahmed, a native of the district of Derr, nor the people who are settled in the country, are acquainted with this name ; and even Hassan Kaschef, above seventy years of age, who governed the country before the Egyptian conquest, could give no answers to my particular inquiries about this name. They all agree in stating that the lower district has always been called "Wadi Kexus. Afterwards, near Korusko, follows the Wadi el Arab, so called from the Arabs of the desert, w^ho have encroached as far as this spot ; then Wadi Ibrim ; and lastly, AYadi Half A. But since the conquest the official name for the whole province between the two cataracts is GriSM Halfa, the province of Haifa. In Korusko I found a Bischari, by name Ali, whose ani- mated and pleasant deportment determined me at once to make him my instructor in this important language. He was quite satisfied with my invitation for him to accompany us, and now every moment that is at liberty is employed in preparing a grammar and vocabulary of this language. He comes from the interior of the country, from Beled Ellaqi, \\hich is eight days distant from the Nile, and twenty from the Eed Sea, and gives a name to the remarkable Wadi Ellaqi, which extends, without interruption, through the R 242 KALABSCHEH. very midst of the extensive range of country between the Nile and the Eed Sea. He calls the country of the Bischari tribes Edbat, and their language, Middh to Beg'auie, the Beo-'a language, from which may be traced its identity with the language of the mighty Beg'a nations, so often men- tioned in the middle ages. Prom Korusko we next sailed to Sebita, where we spent four davs ; then by Dakke (Pselchis) and Kuban (Contra Pselchis) to G'eef Htjssek, with its rock-temple dedicated by Eamses to Ptah. This place is frequently called by earlier travellers Giesche, a confusion with the village situated on the farther eastern bank, which is called by the Arabs Qiesch, by the ]S'ubians Kisch or Kischiga, and which is situated near some considerable ruins of an ancient city which bear the name of Sabaguea. The 25th August we spent in the temple of Dendue, first built under the Eoman dominion ; and the following day in Kalabscheh, the ancient Talmis, whose temple likewise contains only the Shields of Caesar (Augustus). Talmis was for a long time a capital of the Blemtes, whose inroads into Egypt gave the Eomans plenty of employment. On one of the columns of the great outer court there is engraved the interesting in- scription of Silco, who calls himself a ^aaCkldKos Nov/3a5wi/ Koi 6'Xcov TQ)v Ai^ioTTcov.* In it he boasts of his victories over the Blemyes, who I hold to be a branch of the Meroitic Ethio- pians, the Bischari of the present day. It seems that the demotic Ethiopian inscriptions, one of which is remarkable by its length, and perhaps forms a counterpart to the G-reek inscription of the Nubian King, can only be ascribed to these Blemyes. I have discovered another very late in- scription on the wall to the back of the temple, but in such barbarous Greek that it is almost inexplicable. I send it to Bockh for him to decipher. On the 30th August we reached Debot, and the following day Phil^, where we immediately took possession of the * King of the Noubadoe and the Ethiopians.— Te. THEBES. 243 enchanting temple-terrace, which, since that time, has been our chief quarters, and will remain so for several weeks longer. The great temple -buildings, although the most ancient of them date only as far back as Nectanebus, pre- sent an unusual number of hieroglyphic, demotic,' and Greek inscriptions, and, to my surprise, I have also found here a whole chamber in one of the pylones which contains nothing but Ethiopian representations and inscriptions. LETTEE XXYIII. Thebes^ Qurna, 24th November, 1844. On the 4th of jS'ovember we reached this last great station of our journey, and feel that we have again reached much nearer home. We have selected a charming castle on a rock for our residence here, which will certainly be protracted for several months. It is situated on a hill called Abd el Qfrna, and is an ancient tomb enlarged by brick buildings, from which we overlook the whole Theban plain at one view. I should be afraid of being almost oppressed by the overwhelm- ing number of monuments, if the mighty character of the ruins of this most royal city of all antiquity did not maintain, and daily renew, our interest to the highest possible degree. While our investigations of the numerous temples, from the Ptolemaic and the Eoman period, immediately preceding that, had in fact become almost fatiguing, here, where the Homeric forms of the mighty Pharaohs of the 18th and 19th Dynas- ties stand out before me in their dignity and splendour, I feel as fresh again as at the commencement of our journey. I first had excavations made in the renowned temple of Eamses Miamun, lying at our feet, which have led to unex- pected results. Erbkam has superintended the work with the greatest care, and his ground plan which is now finished of this most beautiful building of the Pharaonic times, described by Diodonis as the tomb of OSymandyas, is the first which e2 244 ETHIOPIAN LAJ^-^GUAGES. can be called perfect, as it no longer rests on arbitrary resto- rations, which are too long in the French descriptions and too short in those of Wilkinson. I have also had excavations made in the rock-tomb of the same Eamses in Bab el Meluk, which was covered over with rubbish, and which Eosellini was mistaken in thinking un- finished ; several chambers have already been opened, and if fortune favours us we shall also still find the sarcophagus, not indeed unopened — the Persians had already taken care of that — but perhaps less mutilated than others, as the tomb has been closed up by the river mud from very ancient times. On our journey from Korusko hither, besides our anti- quarian labours, I was engaged with the languages of the southern countries, still so little known. Amidst these, three may be selected as being the most widely-distributed ; the Nuba language, that of the Nuba or Berber nation ; the Kuif- GAEA language, of the negroes of Dae, Fue ; and the Bega language, that of the Bischaeibas inhabiting the eastern portion of the Sudan. I have prepared the grammar and vocabulary of all three, so fully, that whenever they are published some notion of these languages may be obtained. The most important of them is the one last mentioned, be- cause, both with reference to its grammatical construction and by its position in the development of languages, it proves itself to be a very remarkable member of the Cauca- sian stock. It is spoken by the people, for which reason I think I can perceive that they were once the inhabitants of the flourishing city of Meroe, and thus have a peculiar claim, to be called in a more exact sense the Ethiopian people. It has furthermore been proved, that nothing can be dis- covered of a primitive Ethiopian civilisation, or indeed of an ancient Ethiopian national civilisation, which is so much held up by modern erudition ; indeed, we have every reason to deny this completely. "Whatever in the accounts of the ancients does not rest on total misapprehension, only refers to Egyptian civilisation and art, which had fled in the time of the Hyksos rule to Ethiopia. The irruption of Egyptian THEBES. 245 power from Ethiopia, at the foundation of the new Egyptian Monarchy, and its progress even far into Asia, was mentioned in the Asiatic, and afterwards in the Grreek traditions, as an event which was transferred from the Ethiopian country to the Ethiopian nation^ for no knowledge of a still older Egyp- tian Monarchy, and of its high but peaceful state of civilisa- tion, had penetrated to the northern nations. I have sent an account of the results of our Ethiopian journey to the Academy, and in it I give a cursory survey of the history of Ethiopia from the first conquest of the country by Sesur- tesen III. in the 12th Manethonic Dynasty down to the most flourishing period of the Meroitic Monarchy in the first centuries of our era, and then through the middle ages down to the Bischaribas of the present day, whose Sheikhs we saw in chains marching over the ruins of what was once their capital, and passing in front of the Pyramids of their ancient kings. LETTEE XXIX. Thehes, Qurna, 8th January, 1845. A snoTiT time ago we received the joyful intelligence that our colossal Eam and the other Ethiopian monuments had arrived safely in Alexandria. We shall also bring away some valuable monuments from this spot, among them a beautiful sarcophagus of fine white limestone, on parts of which are some painted inscriptions, which go back as far as the Old Monarchy in the first period of the increasing great- ness of Thebes.* I have made another conquest to-day, which gives me double pleasure, as it was only effected with indescribable difficulty, and has brought out a monument in the most per- fect preservation, which will hardly find its equal in our museums. A sepulchral chamber with interesting represen- tations of kings of which we have made drawings, opens out * Denkmal., Abth. II., Bl. 245, 246. 246 PAINTIKG rN" EOCK-TOME. of a deep pit which was excavated a short time ago ; from this a narrow passage leads still deeper into a second chamber, which is painted all over, just like the other. The chambers are hewn out of an extremely friable rock, which loosens from the ceiling in large fragments at the slightest touch ; the rock-caves were therefore vaulted in a circular form, with Nile bricks, which were covered vrith stucco, and then painted. At the side of the inner door, on the right hand, King Amenophis I. is represented, and on the left, his mother Aahmes-nufee-aei, who even in later times was much worshipped. Both are about four feet high, painted on the stucco, and the colours preserved as fresh as possible. I was anxious to detach these figures fi'oui the wall, which they entirely covered ; but for this purpose I was compelled to break through the brick walls all round, and afterwards also to take out the bricks singly from behind the stucco with the greatest care. This at length we have accomplished after great labour, We have taken out the whole stucco, which is only the thickness of a finger, with the figures com- pletely uninjured, and, placing it on two slabs composed of smooth boards covered with skins, lipen, and paper, we raised it from the narrow sepulchral cave, which is still half filled with rubbish. "We have also, to my great delight, got a fresh supply for our plaster casts. A short time ago 5 cwt. of plaster ar- rived, forwarded to us by M. Clot Bey, for which we had sent an order to France, and I have found an Arab here, and immediately taken him into my service, who has at least suf- ficient knowledge to prepare the plaster and to make casts from bas-reliefs. LETTEE XXX. Thehes, the 25th February , 1845. "We have now been inhabiting our Theban Acropolis, on the hill of Quma, above a quarter of a year, every one THEBES. 247 busily employed ia his own way from moruing to evening, in investigating, describing, and drawing the most valuable monuments, taking paper impressions of the inscriptions, and in making plans of the buildings ; we have not yet been able to complete the Libyan side alone, where there are at least twelve temples, five-and-twenty tombs of kings, fifteen belonging to the royal wives or daughters, and a countless number belonging to private persons, still to be examined. Tlie eastern side, with its six-and-twenty sanctu- aries, in a certain degree of preservation, will however de- mand no less time, and yet, more has been done by previous travellers and expeditions in Thebes itself, especially by the French-Tuscan expedition, than in any other spot, and we have everywhere only compared and completed their labours, and not repeated them. "We are also far from imagining that we have now by any means exhausted the infinite number of monuments; whoever follows us with new information, and with the results of more advanced science, will also find fresh treasures, and gain fresh instruction from the same monuments. I have always had a historical aim in view, and this has especially determined my selection of the monu- ments. Whenever I believed that I had attained what was most essential for this end I was satisfied. The river here divides the broad valley into two unequal halves. On the west side it approaches close to the precipi- tous Libyan range, which there projects ; on the eastern side it bounds a wide fruitful plain, extending as far as Me- damot, a spot situated on the border of the Arabian desert, several hours distant. On this side stood the actual town of Thebes, which seems to have been chiefly grouped round the two great temples of Kaenae and Ltjqsoe, situated above half an hour apart. Karnak lies more to the north, and farther removed from the Nile; Luqsor is now actually washed by the waves of the river, and may even formerly have been the harbour of the city. The west side of the river contained the necropolis of Thebes, and all the temples which stood here referred more or less to the worship of the 248 KAENAK. dead ; indeed, all the inbabitants of tbis part, wbicb was afterwards comprebended bj tbe Greeks under tbe name of Me3j:noxia, seem to bave been principally occupied with tbe care of tbe dead and tbeir tombs. Tbe former extent of tbe Memnonia may be now distinguisbed by Qurna and Medinet Habu, places situated at tbe nortbern and soutbern extremities. A survey of tbe Tbeban monuments naturally begins witb tbe ruins of Kaet^ak. Here stood tbe great royal temple of tbe bundred-gated Thebes, which was dedicated to Ammon-Ea, tbe King of tbe Grods, and to tbe peculiar local god of the city of Amnion, so called after him (No-Ammon, Diospolis). Ap, along with the feminine article Tap, from which tbe Greeks made These, was the name of one par- ticular sanctuary of Ammon. It is also often employed in hieroglyphics in the singular, or still more frequently in tbe plural (^'apu), as tbe name of tbe town; for which reason the Greeks naturally, without changing tbe article along witb it, generally used the plural e^^m. Tbe whole history of tbe Egyptian Monarchy, after tbe city of Ammon was raised to be one of the two royal residences in tbe land, is connected witb this temple. All Dynasties emulated in tbe glory of having contributed their share to the enlargement, embellishment, or restoration of this national sanctuary. It was founded by their first king, tbe mighty SesuetesenI., under the 1st Tbeban Eoyal Dynasty, the 12th of Manetho, between 2600 and 2700 B.C., and even now exhibits some ruins in the centre of the building from that period, bearing the name of this king. During the Dynasties immediately succeeding, which for several centuries groaned under the yoke of the victorious hereditary enemy, this sanctuary no doubt was also deserted, and nothing has been preserved which belonged to that period. But after tbe first king of the 17th Dynasty, Amosis, in the I7th century B.C., had suc- ceeded in his first war against tbe Hyksos, his two successors, Amenophis I. and Tuthmosis I., built round the remains of the most ancient sanctuary a magnificent temple, witb a TEMPLE OF KAEKAK. 249 great many chambers round tlie cella, and with a broad court, and pylones appertaining to it, in front of which Tut- mosis I. erected two obelisks. Two other pylones, with con- tiguous court-walls, were built by the same king, at a right angle with the temple in the direction of Luqsor. Tut- mosis III. and his sister enlarged this temple to the back by a hall resting on fifty-six columns, besides many other chambers, which surrounded it on three sides, and were en- circled by one common outer wall. The succeeding kings partly closed the temple more perfectly in front, partly built new independent temples near it, and also placed two more large pylones towards the south-west, in front of those erected by Tuthmosis I., so that now four lofty pylones formed the magnificent entrance to the principal temple on this side. But a far more splendid enlargement of the temple was executed in the fifteenth and fourteenth centuries B.C. by the great Pharaohs of the 19th Dynasty ; for Sethos I., the father of Eamses Miamun, added in the original axis of the temple the most magnificent hall of pillars that was ever seen in Egypt or elsewhere. The stone roof, supported by 134 columns, covers a space of 164 feet in depth, and 320 feet in breadth. Each of the twelve central columns is 36 feet in circumference, and 66 feet high beneath the archi- trave ; the other columns, 40 feet high, are 27 feet in circum- ference. It is impossible to describe the overwhelming im- pression which is experienced upon entering for the first time into this forest of columns, and wandering from one range into the other, between the lofty figures of ^ gods and kings on every side represented on them, projecting some- times entirely, sometimes only in part. Every surface, is covered Avith various sculptures, now in relief, now sunk, which were, however, only completed under the succes- sors of the builder; most of them, indeed, by his son Eamses Miamun. In front of this hypostyle hall was placed, at a later period, a great hyp^thral court, 270 by 320 feet in extent, decorated on the sides only with colon- nades, and entered by a magnificent pylon. 250 THEBES. The principal part of the temple terminated here, com- prising a length of 1170 feet, not including the row of Sphinxes in front of its external pylon, nor the peculiar sanctuary which was placed by Eamses Miamun directly beside the wall farthest back in the temple, and with the same axis, but turned in such a manner that its entrance was on the opposite side. Including these enlargements, the entire length must have amounted to nearly 2000 feet, reckoning to the most southern gate of the external wall, which surrounded the whole space, which was of nearl^y equal breadth. Tlie later Dynasties, who now found the principal temples completed on all sides, but who also were desirous of contributing their share to the embellishment of this centre of the Theban worship, began partly to erect separate small temples on the large level space which was surrounded by the above-mentioned enclosure-wall, partly to extend these temples also externally. The head of the 20th Dynasty, Eamses III., whose cam- paigns in Asia, in the fifteenth century before Christ, were scarcely inferior to those of his renowned ancestors, Sethos I. and Kamses II., built a special temple, with a court of columns and a hypostyle hall, above 200 feet long, which now intersects, in a rather unsymmetrical manner, the enclo- sure-wall of the external court in front ; and he founded, at a little distance from it, a still larger sanctuary for the third person of the Theban Triad, Chensu, the son of Ammon. This last was completed by the succeeding kings of his Dynasty, and the priest-kings of the 21st Dynasty, who added to it a magnificent court of columns, with a pylon in front. In the 22nd Dynasty we recognise Scheschenk I., the war- like King Shishak of the Bible, who, about 970 B.C., con- quered Jerusalem. His Asiatic campaigns are celebrated on the southern external wall of the great temple, where, in the symbolic form of prisoners, he leads 140 vanquished towns and countries before Ammon. Among their names there is one whicli, not without reason, is considered to be a designa- tion for the kingdom of Judaea, as well as the names of several well-known towns in Palestine. TEMPLE OF KARKAK. 251 The two priests' Dynasties mentioned above, which fol- lowed immediately after the Eamessides, were no longer of the Theban race, but proceeded from towns in Lower Eg}-pt. The power of the Monarchy sank with this change ; and after the short 23rd Dynasty, from which period there are still some remains in Karnak, a revolution seems to have occurred. The present lists of authors name only one king of the 24th Dynasty, who has not yet been re-discovered on the Egyptian monuments. In his reign the invasion of the Ethiopians occurred, who, from the 25th Dynasty, Schabak and Tah- EAKA (the So and Tirhaka of the Bible), reigned in Egypt at the commencement of the seventh century B.C. These kings came, indeed, from Ethiopia, but governed completely in the Egyptian manner, and they did not neglect to worship the Egyptian god-kings. Their names are found on several smaller temples of Karnak, and on a splendid colonnade in the great court in front, which seems to have been first placed there by Tahraka. According to historical accounts, this last king returned of his own accord to Ethiopia, and left the Egyptian kingdom to its native rulers. The dispossessed Saitic Dynasty now returned to the throne, and once more, in the seventh and sixth centuries, developed all the splendour of which this country, as rich in internal resources as in external power, was capable of producing under a powerful and wise sceptre. It opened for the first time a peaceful intercourse between foreign countries and Egypt ; Greeks settled amongst them, com- merce flourished, and a new and enormous amount of wealth was accumulated, such as before had only been attained by the spoils of war and tribute. But this was only an artificial height of glory ; for the pristine vigour of the nation had long been broken, and even art gave more signs of luxury than of intrinsic value. The last flourishing period of the nation soon passed away. The country could not withstand the advancing storm of the Persians. In the year 525 it was conquered by Cambvses, and trodden down with barbaric fanaticism. Many monuments were destroyed, and not a 252 THEBES. single sanctuary nor wall was erected during this period; nothing at least has been preserved to our time, not even from the long and milder government of Daeius ; one temple only in the Oasis of Kargeh, or at least sculptures with his name, having been discovered from that period. Under Darius II., exactly one hundred years after the commence- ment of the Persian rule, Egypt became, indeed, once more independent, and we then again find the names of the native kings in the temples of Karnak ; but after three Dynasties had succeeded each other in rapid succession, during the space of sixty-four years, it feU a second time under the dominion of the Persians, who soon afterwards, in the year 332, lost it by the conquest of Alexander of Macedon. Since then the country was reduced to the necessity of getting habituated to foreign rulers, it had lost its independence jfor ever, and passed from one hand to another, the succeeding ruler always worse than the preceding, down to the present day. Under the Macedonians and G-reeks, Egypt still possessed sufl&cient vigour to retain its religion and institutions in the manner that had been carried down from ancient times. The foreign princes in all respects took the place, and fol- lowed in the footsteps of the ancient Pharaohs. Karnak bears testimony to this. 'W^'e here find the names of Alexak"dee and Philip AEiDyEus, who preceded the Ptolemies in re- storing that which had been destroyed by the Persians. Alexander rebuilt the sanctuary behind the great temple ; Philip that to the front : the Ptolemies added sculptures to it — restored other parts, and even erected entirely new sanctuaries, at no inconsiderable expense, though no longer, indeed, on the grand scale of the Eg}'ptian classic style of the olden times. Even the last epoch of declining Eg}^t, that of the Soman dominion, is still represented in Karnak by a series of representations which were executed under C^SAE Augustus. Thus this remarkable spot, which, in the course of twenty- five hundred years, had increased from the small sanctuary in the centre of the large temple to a complete city of temples, LUQSOE. 253 situated on a level space a quarter of a geographical mile in length, and above 2000 feet in breadth, presents both an almost uninterrupted thread of events, and an interesting scale of measurement for the history of the whole of the !N'ew Egj-ptian Monarchy, from its origin in the Old Mo- narchy down to its decline under the Eoman dominion. The appearance[or non-appearance of the Dynasties and individual kings in Eg)'ptian history is almost uniform with the repre- sentation of them in and round the temple of Karnak. Higher up the river than Karnak, where the stream, which has been divided by the fertile island of Gredideh, re- unites, rises even now to view a second bright point of the ancient city, the temple of Luqsoe. One of the most powerful Pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty, Amenophis III., who had only built a side temple in Karnak, and had added but very little to the principal temple, here erected a so much the more splendid sanctuary to Ammon, which the great Eamses enlarged still more by a second magni- Hcent court in front, in the direction of Karnak. Por, although a good half hour distant from it, this temple must also be regarded as belonging to the space dedicated, from ancient times, to the great national sanctuary. This is proved by a circumstance which otherwise would be difficult to explain : that the temple, though situated close to the bank, has its entrance, contrary to custom, away from the river, and directed towards Karnak, with which it was, besides, imme- diately connected by colonnades, series of rams, and artifi- cially-constructed roads. The ruins on the eastern bank terminate with Luqsor, The moEuments of icestern Thebes offer still greater variety, as here the subterranean dwellings and palaces of the dead are added to those above ground. At one time an uninter- rupted series of the most splendid temples extended from Qurna as far as Medinet Habu, which nearly occupied the whole of the narrow strip of desert between the cultivated land watered by the Nile and the foot of the mountain range. The immense field of the dead spreads out immediately 254 THEBES. behind tbese temples, where the sepulchral caves, like the cells of bees, close beside each other, are either dug in the rock of the plain, or hewn in the adjacent hills. Qurna is situated on the angle of the Ljbian range, pro- jecting farther forward towards the river. As the moun- tains here suddenly retreat towards the west, they form a great mountain caiildron, the front part of which, where it is separated by low hills from the valley, is called El Asasif. Be- hind, it is closed in by lofty, steep escarpments of rock, which display their beautiful stone to the mid-day and morning sun. These precipitous declivities of the limestone range, which, owing to their solid and uniform texture, are particularly adapted for the finest sculptures of the rock-tombs, seem to have been produced by the gradual removal of a bed of clay beneath them, from the wearing effects of exposure to the weather, and thus the overhanging masses are deprived of their foundation. In this rock-creek are situated the onost ancient tombs, and they belong to the Old Monarchy. Their entrances may be seen from a distance, high up in the rocks lying to the north, exactly beneath the vertical precipice which rises from the steep hills of rubbish to the summit of the mountain ridge. Their external site, and the road up, bounded by low- stone walls leading to the entrances in a steep and straight line of several hundred feet from the valley, reminded me directly of the tombs of Benihassan, which belong to the same period. They date from between 2500 and 3000 B.C., under the kings of the 11th and 12th Manethonic Dynasties, the first of which laid the foundation of the mighty power of Thebes, and made the to^vn the seat of the government they had rendered independent of Memphis ; the second elevated it to be the capital of the Monarchy of the whole country. These grottoes, of which there are some of a similar age in the adjacent hills in the foreground, generally descend, in an oblique angle, deep into the rock, but they have neither paintings nor inscriptions; it was only the stone sarco- phagi on which peculiar diligence was bestowed. These are TEMPLE OF ^'UMT AMEN. 255 usually formed of the finest limestone, and are sometimes above nine feet long; they have inscriptions, and are de- corated with colours, both internally and externally, in the elaborate and pure style of that period, very elegantly, though with a certain degree of parsimony. We are bring- ing away with us one of these sarcophagi, as I mentioned once before. A few days ago it was safely carried down into the plain, after the pit, which had long been com- pletely filled with rubbish, had been cleared, and part of the solid rock itself had been cut through, to obtain a shorter exit for it. The occupant of the tomb was the son of a prince, and himself bore the dynastic appellation of the 11th Eoyal Dynasty, namely, Xentef. In the outermost angle of this rock-cove is situated the most ancient temple-building of "Western Thebes, which be- longs to the period of the New Egyptian Monarchy, at the commencement of its glory. One street, above 1600 feet long, adorned on either side with colossal rams and sphinxes, led from the valley in a straight line to an outer court, then, by means of a flight of steps to another, whose front wall was adorned with sculpture, and had a colonnade before it, and finally, beyond, by a second flight of steps to a granite gate in good preservation, and to the last temple court, which was surrounded on both sides with beautifully decorated halls and chambers, and terminated behind with a broad fa9ade, placed along the precipitous rock. Another granite gate, in the centre of this fa9ade, leads at length to the innermost temple-chamber, which was hewn into the rock, and had a lofty, stone-vaulted roof, out of which again opened several smaller niches and chambers, at the sides and the back. All these chambers were covered with the most beautiful sculp- tures, with variegated colours on a grey ground, executed in the finished style of that period. This grand structure, be- side which stood other series of buildings, now destroyed, seems to have been originally connected with the river, by a street intersecting the whole valley, and beyond, with the great temple of Karnak, which lies exactly in the same 256 TKEBES. direction ; I liave no doubt that it was witH this object that the narrow rock-gate was first artificially cut through the hills in front, across which the temple-street enters into the lower plain. It was a Queen, Numt Amen, the elder sister of Tuthmosis III., who accomplished this bold plan of a structural connection between the two sides of the valley, the same who had erected the two greatest obelisks in front of the temple of Karnak. She never appears on her monu- ments as a woman, but in male attire ; we ouly find out her sex by the inscriptions. No doubt at that period it was illegal for a woman to govern; for that reason, also, her brother, probably still a minor, appears at a later period as ruler along witli her. After her death, her Shields were everywhere converted into Tuthmosis Shields, the femiuine forms of speech in the inscription were changed, and her names were never adopted in the later lists along with the legitimate kings. There are two peculiar temples, both erected on the border of the desert by Tuthmosis III., who completed the work of his royal sister during the long period that he sat alone upon the throne. Of these, the northern one can now only be recognised by its ground plan, and by the re- mains of its brick pylon ; the southern one, on the other hand, at Medinet Habu, is still in good preservation; and judging by some sculptures, the oldest part of the building might perhaps have belonged to an earlier Tuthmosis, and have only been completed by him. His second successor, Tuthmosis IV., also built a temple, which has now almost disappeared. He was followed by Amenophis III., in whose brilliant and long reign the temple of Luqsor was built. To him are inscribed the two giant Colossi, far out in the fertile plain, near Medinet Habu, which once stood at the gates of a great temple-building, but whose remains are now for the most part buried beneath the crops of the annually accumu- lating soil of the valley. Perhaps, also, a connecting street, corresponding with that to the north, once led from this MEMNON STATUE. 257 point across the valley to Luqsor, on the opposite side. Of the two Colossi, the one situated to the north-east was the cele- brated sounding statue, which the G-reeks connected with their charming legend of the beautiful Memnon, who every morning at sunrise greeted his mother, Aurora, while she moistened him with her tears of dew for his early heroic death. This myth, as Letronne has shown, was only composed at a late period ; because the actual phenomenon of clear tremulous tones produced by the springing of small particles of the stone when it became rapidly warm after being cooled during the night, did not become strikingly evident till fragments of the statue had partly fallen inwards upon itself, having been previously split by an earthquake which happened in the year B.C. 27. The phenomenon of cracking and sounding stones in the desert and among great fields of ruins, is not unfrequent in Egypt ; but the nature of the hard flinty conglomerate of which this statue is composed, is peculiarly favourable to it, as is further proved by the innumerable large and small cracks now penetrating in all directions portions of the statue, which were described even as late as the Grreek period, and consequently were then uninjured. It is also remarkable how, even now, several of the pieces that have split off, and are only hanging loose, sound as clear as metal if they are struck, while others beside them remain perfectly dumb and without sound, according as they are more or less moistened by their reciprocal positions. The numerous Greek and Eoman inscriptions which are engraved upon the statue, and which intimate the visits of strangers, especially if they have been so fortunate as to hear the morning greeting, first commence in the time of Nero, and extend down to the time of Septimius Severus, from which period we may probably date the restoration of the original monolithic statue. Since this restoration of the upper por- tion in single blocks, the phenomenon of the sounding tones seems, if not to have entirely ceased, yet to have become less frequent and less striking. The change of Amenophis (who even then, as the inscriptions inform us, was not forgotten) s ^58 THEBES. into Memnon was probably chiefly occasioned by tbe name of this entire western portion of Thebes, Memnonia, which the Greeks seem to have explained by the " palaces of Memnon," while the name in hieroglyphics, Mennu, meant, speaking generally, " splendid buildings, palaces." At the present day the statues are called by the Arabs Schama and Tama, or, both together, the Sanamat, i. e. the "idols " (not Salamat).* A\^hen we came here in tlie beginning of November, the whole plain, as far as the eye could reach, was overflowed, and formed one entire sea, from which the Sanamat rose up still more strangely and more solitary than from the green but yet accessible corn-fields. A few days ago I measured the Colossi and the elevation to which the soil of the Nile had risen upon their thrones. The height of the Memnon statue, calculated from head to foot, not including the tall ornament on the head which it once bore, amounted to about 14 metres 28', or 45 feet and a half, in addition to which the base separated from it, a block by itself, measured 4 metres 25', or 13' 7", of which 3 feet were covered by steps placed round. Thus the statues were originally nearly 60 feet in height, including the Pschent, perhaps 70 feet above the ground on which the temple stood. Now the surface of tlie valley is already 8 feet above that level, and the inundation * They are called Salamat, " the Salutations," by earlier travellers. My attention was called to the correct pronunciation of this word by our old intelligent guide, 'Auad. The alteration is very great to the i, ^^ Arabs, because ^ salam^ solus, is pronounced with the dental sin, 5^^ V . ^ s'anam, idolum, with the lingual s'dd. The plural, which usually 1 s ^(.j * ^^^ is expressed by UJ as'ndm, here assumes the feminine form /"jt^^. s'anamat. It is impossible now to see by the mutilated heads whether they were masculine figures. The stone of which the statues are composed is a particularly hard quartzose friable sandstone conglo- merate, which looks as if it was glazed, and had innumerable cracks. The frequent crackling of small particles of stone at sunrise, when the change of temperature is greatest, in my opinion produced the tones of Memnon, far-famed in song, which were compared to the breaking of a musical string. TEilPLES OF SETHOS AXD EAAISES. 259 sometimes rises as far as the upper edge of the base, there- fore 14 feet higher than it could ever have risen, at the period of their erection, without reaching the temple itself. Now, if we compare this fact with our discovery at Semneh, where the surface of the Nile during historical times has sunk above 23 feet, it is proved, by simple addition, that the Nile at the Cataracts fell from a greater height by at least 37 feet between this and Semneh than it does at present.* Horus, the last King of that great 18th Dynasty, had also erected a temple near Medinet Habu, which has now, how- ever, disappeared in rubbish. The fragment of a colossal statue of the King, of hard limestone, almost like marble, seems to point out the position of what was once the en- trance to the temple, the bust carved in the most finished style, weighing several hundred-weight, is intended for our Museum, A large portion of two temples still exist from the suc- ceeding Dynasty ; they were built by the two greatest and most renowned of all the Pharaohs — Sethos I. and his son Eamses II. The temple belonging to the first is the most northern in the series, and is usually called the temple of QuENA, because the old village of Qurna was grouped round a Coptic church at this spot, and was principally situated in the interior of the great outer courts of the temple, but which was afterwards deserted by the inhabitants, and exchanged for the rock-tombs in the angle of the moun- tain situated very near at hand. Farther towards the south, between the temples of TuTHMOSis III. and lY., now totally destroyed, stands the temple of Eamses II. (Miamtjk), in its structural arrange- ment, and in all its parts, perhaps the most beautiful in Egypt, though inferior in grandeur of scale, and in variety of inte- rest, to the temple of Karnak. That portion of the tempk to the back as well as the lateral halls, belonging to the hypostyle hall, have disappeared, and their original plan could only be explained by the aid of careful, protracted ex- cavations, under the direction of Erbkam. All round this * See note, p. 239. s2 260 THEBES. destroyed portion of tlie temple tlie extensive brick lialls are visible, wbich are everywhere covered with regular and neatly-built waggon-vaulted roofs, some of them 12 feet wide, which belong to the period of the erection of the temple itself. This is indisputably proved by the stamps, which were im- pressed on every brick in the royal factory, and which contain the JSTame-Shields of King Eamses. That this temple, even in ancient times, attracted much notice, we learn from the particular description of it, under the name of the Tomb OF OsxMANDYAS, giveu by Diodorus Siculus, according to Hecatseus. Directly to the right of the temple, one of the few indus- trious Fellahs has laid out a small vegetable garden, which affords us some variety for our table, and for that reason, yielding to the intercessions of our good-natured dark-skinned gardener, as was but just, it was spared in our excavations, which threatened to extend towards that side, although it is over the foundations of a side temple hitherto unnoticed, whose entrance I found opening into the outer court of the temple of Eamses. The southernmost, and best preserved of all the splendid! buildings in the long series, is situated in the midst of the ruins of the houses of Medi^et Habtt, a Coptic town, now totally forsaken, but once of no small importance. It was founded by Eamses III., the first KiDg of the 20th Dynasty, the rich Ehampsinitus of Herodotus, in the thirteenth century- before Christ, and on its walls extols the great campaigns of this King, by land and by sea, which might rival those of the great Eamses. In the interior of the second outer court a great church was built by the Copts, the monolithic granite columns of which are still scattered about. The chambers to the back are for the most part in a heap of rubbish. But the far projecting sort of pylon building, in front of the temple, is of peculiar interest ; it contained the private apart- ments of the King, in four stories, placed one above the other. The Prince is represented on the walls, in the midst of his family, conversing with his daughters, who are recog- nised to be Princesses by the side-plait of their hair; he TOMBS OF THE KINGS. 261 is playing at drafts, and receiving fruits and flowers from them. This building terminates the series of large splendid temples known under the peculiar appellation of Memkonia. They comprise the really flourishing period of the New Monarchy, for after Eamses III., the external power, as well as the internal greatness of the Monarchy again declined. It is only from this, and the immediately succeeding period, that we find the tombs of the Kings in the rock-Yalleys of the mountain range. The entrance to these is situated on the farther side of the promontory of Qurna. The escarpments of the rock there rise rugged and barren on either side, rounding off above to bare summits, and their golden brows are partly covered with coal black stones, as if they had been burnt by the sun. The peculiarly solemn and gloomy character of this country always struck me most vividly when I was riding back after sunset over the endless heaps of stony rubbish covering the bottom of the valley to a considerable height, and only furrowed by broad chasms, formed in the course of thousands of years, by sudden torrents of rain, which, though of rare occurrence, are not entirely unknown, as we ourselves have witnessed. All is mute and dead around ; the rapid tramps of my little ass being only interrupted occa- sionally by the dull barks of the jackals, or the gloomy hooting of the night-owls. After long windings, which lead by circuitous paths almost immediately behind the lofty mountain sides of the Asasif valley described above, the valley divides into two branches, the one on the right hand conducting to the most ancient of those tombs. Only two of these are opened, both belonging to the 18th Dynasty: the one dedicated to Amenophis III., the Memnon of the G-reeks, the other to a rival King Ai, coming very soon after him, who was not admitted into the monumental lists of the legitimate kings.* * This King Ai was previously a private individual, and afterwards assumed the priest's title into his Koyal Shield. He not unfrequently 262 THEBES. The last is situated at the extreme end of the slowly- ascending cleft in the rock ; the gi'anite sarcophagus of the Eing, in the small sepulchral chamber, has been destroyed, and his name is ever}'where studiously erased, with the ex- ception of a few traces on the walls, as well as upon the sar- cophagus. The other lies farther forward in the valley, is of greater extent, and covered with beautiful sculptures, though, alas! much mutilated by time and human hands. Besides these two tombs, there are several more here incomplete, with- out sculptures ; others, no doubt, are concealed beneath the high mounds of rubbish, which to clear away would have occu- pied more of our time and means than, after mature conside- ration, we thought right to bestow on it. In one place where I made them dig, following tolerably certain signs, we found, indeed, about ten feet beneath the rubbish, a door and chamber, but these also without sculpture. Some remains of earthen vases were, however, brought to light at the same time, which contained the name of a king hitherto un- known. The left branch of the principal valley, which contains the tombs of almost all the Kings of the 19th and 20th Dy- nasties, seems to have been originally closed by an elevation of the bottom of the valley, and to have been first opened artificially, by a paved ascent to the spot. Here we find pits with wide openings not far above the bottom of the valley, on the descending slope of the moun- tain, which pass doT\^l wards at a somewhat oblique angle. Where the overhanging rock has a perpendicular height of 12 to 15 feet, the sharply-carved door-posts of the first entrance appear, which was once provided with one or two great folding-doors to close it. There also the painted sculptures generally commence, which, on suddenly ap- proaching, strike one by the wonderful contrast between their sharp lines, brilliant surfaces, and fresh vivid colours, appears with his wife in tlie tombs of Araarna, as a distinguished and peculiarly highly venerated officer of King Amenophis IV., that puri- tanical worshipper of the Sun, who changed his name into that of Bech-en-aten. TOMBS OF THE KINGS. 263 aud the jagged rock and rugged rolled stones scattered around, among which they are placed. Long corridors of imposing height and width now lead always deeper into the rocky mountain range ; the sculptures on the sides, and the ceiling also, continue in single subdivisions, which are formed by the contraction of the passages and by additional doors. The King is represented worshipping before different gods, and directs his prayers and justifications for his earthly life to them ; the peaceful occupations of the justified spirits are represented on one side, the punishments of Hell for the wicked on the other ; the Groddess of Heaven is represented eitended lengthways on the ceiling, as well as the hours of the day and night, with their influences on mankind, and their astrological signification, all accompanied by explana- tory inscriptions. Lastly, we arrive at a great vaulted hall of pillars, whose walls generally exhibit the representations on a golden yellow ground, for which reason it also bore the name of the G-olden Hall. This was intended for the royal sarcophagus, which stood in the centre, and was from six to ten feet high. But often if the King, after the completion of tlie tomb, in its first and most necessary extent, felt his vigour still unimpaired, and promised himself a prolonged life, the central passage of this hall of pillars was cut out in a still more steep descent, for the commencement of a new hall ; new corridors and lateral chambers were attached, sometimes they deviated from the first direction into another, till the King, for the second time, fixed npon a goal, and ter- minated the building with a second hall of pillars, almost more spacious and splendid than the first ; smaller chambers on both sides were then added to this, if the time still allowed, destined for particular sacrifices for the dead, till at length the last hour struck, and the royal corpse, having undergone the process of embalming for seventy days, was entombed in the sarcophagus. It was then closed up, in such an artificial manner that the colossal granite tomb, as the cover could not be raised, was always obliged to be de- 264 THEBES. stroyed by the plunderers of the corpses, who, at a later period, penetrated into every spot. The tombs of the Princesses also, which are collected together in a smaller valley behind Medinet Habu, at the southern end of the Memnonia, belong exclusively to the period from the 18th to the 20th Dynasties, as well as the most important of the innumerable tombs of private indi- viduals, which extend over hill and valley, from beyond Me- dinet Habu to the entrance of the King's valley. The priests of rank, and the great officers, liked to have represented on the walls of their tombs their whole wealth in horses and carriages, herds, boats, and implements, as well as their hunting-ground and fish-ponds, their gardens and hall, for company, even the artists and artisans they employed, ac- tively engaged in various ways ; all this renders these tombs much more interesting than those of the Kings, where the re- presentations almost exclusively refer to the life after death. Among the later monuments, the tombs from the 26th Dynasty of the seventh and sixth centuries before Christ are especially worthy of notice. The greatest proportion of these are dug in the flat ground, in the front part of the rocky creek between Qurna and the hill of Abd el Qurna, where we reside, and they are called specially El Asasif. The rocky plain alone afforded room at that time for sepulchral buildings of any considerable size, and was therefore employed for that purpose on a vast scale. Even in the distance a number of lofty gates and walls built of black bricks are seen. These enclosed great sunken courts within an oblong, to Avhich the entrance led by im- mense arched pylon gates, resembling at a little distance lioman triumphal arches. Stepping through this within the enclosure wall, we look directly into a court cut 12 or 15 feet deep into the rock, into which we descended by a stair- case. This uncovered coui-t belongs to the largest sepul- chral building now accessible ; it was built for a royal scribe, Petamenap; is 100 feet long, and 74 broad. Prom this TOMBS or PEIYATE PEESOlfS. 265 we stepped througli an outer hall into a great rock-chamber, having an extent of from 65 to 52 feet, supported by two rows of pillars, with some lateral chambers and corridors on either side ; then through an arched entrance into a second hall, from 52 to 36 feet large, with eight pillars ; and into a third, 31 feet both ways, with four pillars ; and lastly, into a chamber from 20 to 12 feet large, terminating with a niche. From this chamber, at the head of the first series of rooms, a door on the left liand leads into an immense cham- ber ; and on the right, another to a continuous series of six corridors, with two staircases of nine to twenty-three steps, and a chamber in which a perpendicular pit, 44 feet deep, led at the bottom to a small lateral chamber. This second range of chambers and passages which run at right angles with the first, amounted in its whole length to 172 feet, while the first, including the external court, amounted to 311 feet. Finally, from the chamber with the well, a corridor turns off again to the right, which leads to a diagonal cham- ber, extending altogether 58 feet in this third direction. Eut before arriving at the two staircases in the second range, a fourth line of passages again opened to the right, running on 122 feet in one and the same direction, to which, on the left hand, is attached a great passage running round in a square 60 feet long on every side, along with other lateral chambers ; the central part of which is decorated on its four sides like a huge sarcophagus. The sarcophagus of the deceased rests also, in fact, in the centre beneath the great square, which, however, can only be reached by means of a vertical pit 18 feet deep, opening into a fourth range, which conducts to a horizontal passage 58 feet long ; then to a third pit, through this to more chambers; and lastly, through the ceiling of the last to a chamber placed above it, which contains the sarcophagus, and which is situated exactly beneath the centre of the above-mentioned square. The whole of the ground covered by this tomb, that of a private individual, amounts accordingly to 21,600 square feet, and calculated with the pit chambers, to 23,148 square 266 THEBES. feet.* This enormous work appears still more colossal if we consider that all the surface of the walls, the pillars, and the doors are covered from above downwards with innumerable representations and inscriptions, which astonish us still more bj the care, sharpness, and elegance with which they are exe- cuted. The few remains which are found from the period of the later foreign dominion are far less important. We can only mention two small temples near Medinet Habu among those erected under the Ptolemies, and a third at the end of the great Lake circumvallation, which extends from Medinet Habu towards the south. The oldest sculptures in this last are from the time of C^sae Augtjstus, yet the Cella, now the only part in good preservation, was built by Antoninus Pius. The outermost gate of the temple district contains the only representations found in Egypt of the Emperor Otho, the discovery of which was once a most joyful event to ChampoUion and Eosellini. They had, however, overlooked the circumstance that on the opposite side the name of the Emperor Galea, hitherto equally unknown in Egypt, was also to be found. Even in Strabo's time ancient Thebes had crumbled into several villages, and Germanicus 'S'isited it, as we are doing, from a thirst for knowledge, and with reverence for the great antiquity of its monuments, cognoscendce antiquitatis, as Tacitus informs us. The latest hieroglyphic imperial name that I have found in all Egypt, is that of Decitjs (a.d. 250) ; it appears in a representation on the temple of Esneh. A hundred years later the holy Athaxasius retires to the Theban desert among the Christian hermits there resident. The edict of Theodosius against Paganism (391) divested the Egyptian temples of their last authority, and greatly favoured the development of monkish and recluse habits, to wliich Egj^tian Christianity was always peculiarly inclined. * The dimensions here stated have been taken from Wilkinson, Mod. Eg. and Thebes, vol. ii., p. 220. CnillSTIAX CKTJECHES AJsD C02sTEIsTS. 267 After that period numerous cliurclies and convents spring up throughout the country, even in the upper districts of the Nile ; and the sepulchral caves of the desert become troglo- dytic habitations for an ascetic hermit population. The The- baic necropolis, above all other places, presented the greatest variety of means to satisfy these new wants. Both the kings' tombs, as well as the tombs of private individuals, were very much employed for Christian cells, and still bear traces on their walls of this new purpose to which they were applied. A letter of the holy Athanasius, the archbishop of Alexandria, to the orthodox monks of Thebes, still exists in a tomb at Qurna, in beautiful untial characters on the white stucco, but unfortunately in a very fragmentary" condition. It was a favourite practice to convert ancient temples into Coptic churches or convents. The largest church seems to have been erected in the temple of MedinetHabu (town of Habu). Monolithic granite columns of considerable size still cover the ground in great numbers, in the second outer court at this spot ; in order to obtain room for the niches in the choir, an ancient Egyptian pillar was taken away on the northern side, and a series of doors from the chambers which were aiTanged for the priests' cells were broken through the external wall of the temple to the back. The convent appertaining to it, called the Deb el Medinet — "belonging to a town" — was placed in the Ptolemaic temple behind the hill of Qurnet Murrai, situated close at hand. Another chui'ch stood in the temple of Old Qurna, and the convent of Deb el Bachit, situated on the heights of Qurna, probably belonged to it. The ruins of a third con- vent occupy the chambers of the temple of the Queen Numt- amen, in the angle of the Asasif valley, and bear the name of Deb el Eahbi, the northern convent. Such transformations of the ancient magnificent buildings were partly against, and partly in favour of, their preser- vation. Single walls were frequently demolished, or broken through, to enable them to make new arrangements ; upon others the heathen images were destroyed to obtain bare walls, or at least, the human figures and even those of 2G8 THEBES. animals in the inscriptions, especially the heads, were studiously picked out, and mutilated, as high up as the loftiest ceilings. Not unfrequently, however, the same zealous, pious hands also served to preserve the ancient splendour in a most successful manner, for sometimes, instead of laboriously destroying the representations with a hammer, they preferred covering them over from the top to the bottom with Nile mud, which had generally afterwards an additional white coating, in order to receive the Christian paintings. In time this Coptic loam again fell off, and the ancient paintings came out once more, with a brilliancy and surprising freshness, which they could hardly have retained on uncovered walls, exposed to the air and sun. In the niche of an ancient ceUa I found St. Peter, in the ancient Byzantine style, holding the key, and raising his finger, but beneath the half-decayed Christian casing, the cow's horns of the goddess Hathor, the Egyptian Venus, peeped forth from behind the glory ; to her, originally was given the incense and sacrifice of the king who is standing by her side, which now are off"ered to the venerable apostle. I have often with my own hands assisted time in the work of restoration, and still further loosened the stucco, which is generally covered over with totally uuinterestiug Coptic paintings, tliat I might restore the splendid sculptures of the Egyptian gods and kings concealed beneath them once more to their older and greater claims on our attention. A great part of the population of Thebes on both sides of the Nile is still Coptic ; our Christian cook Sirian was born here, and a Coptic woman of good means, Mustafieh, who lives at a short distance from us, supplies us daily with excel- lent wheaten bread. Eor a long time past, however, the Arabic Mohammedan population has gained the upper hand here, as throughout the country, and the Copts can only oppose tliis by the influence derived from ancient days, by their know- ledge of arithmetic, and their privilege of filling the most important financial offices in the country. The small church in which the Theban Christians are now in the habit of assembling every Sundav. is situated alone in CHURCH AT MEDINET HABU. 2G9 the great ^avelly plain to the south of Medinet Habu. It has an Arabic cupola, and is surrounded by the wall of a court. I entered it a few days ago from noticing that the black turbans, which are only worn by Copts, were proceed- ing in greater numbers than usual to the chapel. It was the feast of the holy Donadeos, who had founded the church. The service was over. I only found the old priest, who inhabits and takes charge of the church, inside with his numerous family. The compartments were covered with mats ; I was shown the division for the men and women, the small chapels decorated with variegated carved work attached to it, the square cistern for baptisms and holy water. A large old Coptic book still lay open on the reading-desk, with extracts from the Psalms and Gospels, and an Arabic trans- ktion beside it. I asked the old man whether he could read Coptic ; he answered in the affirmative, but thought that his children could read better than himself, his eyes had already become feeble. I sat myself down upon the mat, and the whole troop of great and smaU yeUow-brown children and grandchildren of the old priest squatted down around me. I asked the eldest lad to read a little, and he imme- diately began not to read, but to sing with the greatest fluency — that is to say, to chant in rough grumbling tones. I interrupted him, and asked him now to read slowly in his usual voice; he did it with far greater difficulty, and with many mistakes, which his younger brother sometimes corrected over his shoulder; but when I went so far as to inquire the meaning of the individual words, he pointed coolly to the Arabic translation, and thought it was ex- plained there, and wanted to read this aloud to me; he could tell me nothing as to the single words, not even about the value of the single letters over the paragraphs, nor, indeed, could the old man have done that at any time. Aftenvards I made them show me the other treasures in the way of books belonging to the church, which were immediately brought in a great cloth tied together at the four corners, containing some prayer-books very much worn. 270 THE COPTS. some of them in Coptic, some in Arabic. I left a small present behind for the good of the church, and had rode on a little farther, when one of the boys overtook me, bring- ing me breathless a small consecrated kind of biscuit cake, stamped with a Coptic cross and a Greek inscription, which gift I was obliged to repay by a second bakscJiisch. These are the Epigoni, the most genuine, unmixed descen- dants of the old Pbaraonic nation that once conquered Asia and Ethiopia, and led its prisoners from the north and south into the great hall of Karnak before Ammon ; in wliose wisdom Moses was educated, and with whose priesthood the Greek sages went to school. Aegypte, Aegypte ! religioniim tuarum soJce supererv/nt fahulcB, (sque incredihiles posteris,- solaque supererunt verba lapidihus incisa tua pui facta narrantihus, et inhahitahit Aegyp- tum, Scythes, aut Indus, aut aliquis talis, id est vicina har- haria* AV^e now know the meaning of this aliquis which Hermes Trismegistus then knew not how to explain ; it is the Turks, who at present dwell in the fields of Osiris, At the foot of our hill, in the direction of the green plain, stands a single group of Sont-trees. which overshadow a pleasant reservoir nicely lined witli stones ; here the sheep and goats are daily brought to water, and every evening and morning the dark girls and veiled women descend from their rock- caves, returning afterwards with a slow step, thieir tall water-jugs on their heads ; a lovely picture from the patriarchal times. But close to where the refreshing element is found there is a bare white spot in the middle of the fertile plain: on this, two limekilns are erected, in which, as often as they are wanted, the very best blocks of the ancient temples and rock-grottoes, with their images and * Apuleii Asclepius sive dlahgus Hermetis Trismegisti, c. 24. — (" Oh Egypt I Egypt! fables alone of thy religion will survive, equally in- comprehensible to thy descendants; and words cut into stone will alone remain telling of thy pious deeds, and the Scythian, or one from the Indus, or some such neighbouring barbarian, will inhabit Egypt.") AUABIC TEXGEAITCE. 27l inscriptions, are pounded and burnt into lime, that tliey may again cement together other blocks, which are extracted from these convenient and inexhaustible stone-quarries, for some cattle-btaU or other structure for government purposes. The same day that I visited the Coptic church, I was deairouis of riding from that spot to the village of Kom el BiBAT, which is situated on the other side of the great lake of llabu, now drv. To my no small surprise, my guide, the excellent old 'Auad, who I have engaged to be my servant while here, on account of his great knowledge of the locality, informed me that he could not accompany me thither, he even almost alirank from pronouncing the name of the village, and could not be persuaded to give me any information about it, and about his strange behaviour. It was only when I got home that I learnt the ground of his refusal from others, and afterwards also from himself. Above seven or eight years ago a man was killed in the house of the Sheikh of Quma, to whose household 'Auad then belonged; how it happened is not yet made out. In consequence of this cir- cumstance, the whole family of the murdered man emigrated from this place, and settled in Kom el Birat. Ever since the law of vengeance for blood has hung over the two families. Not a single member of that family has from that time trod the ground of Qurna; and if 'Auad, or any other individual from the Sheikh's house were to be seen in that village, any one of the injured family would be justified in killing him openly. This is the ancient Arabic custom.* I turn from my wanderings through the ruins of the great royal city, and through the changes of thousands of years which have passed over them, to our castle on the detached hill of Abd el Qurna. Wilkinson and Hay have rendered an essential service to later travellers by building up the habitable rooms, which, from our being desirous of spending a long time in Thebes, we have profited by. A broad, con- venient road leads by windings from the plain to a spacious * I did not imagrino, when I wrote this down, that this crime of blood would so speedily be avenged. See Letter XXXIV, 272 ABD EL QTJENA. court, the left side of which (the mountain side) is formed by a long shady colonnade ; beyond this there are several habitable rooms. At the end of the court stands a single watch-tower, on which the Prussian flag waves, and beside it a small house with two rooms, one above the other, the lowest of which I occupy myself. There is no want of accommodation either for the kitchen department, the ser- vants, and the asses. The wide, boundless prospect across the Theban plain over the wall of the court, low on the inner side, but with a deep fall externally, is most beautiful and enchanting. The eye from this point, and still more perfectly from the sum- mit of the tower, or from the top of the hill rising directly behind our dwelling, commands all, that still remains of Ancient Thebes. In front of us the splendid ruins of the Memnonia, from the angle of the hills at Quma on our left, to the lofty Pylones, whicli tower up above the mounds of ruins of Medinet Habu on our right; then the green meadow encircled by the broad Nile, from which the solitary Colossi of Amenophis rise on the right hand, and beyond the river the groups of temples at Karnak and Luqsor, behind which tlie lower plain extends several hours farther to the clear outline of the sliglitly undulating Arabic ranges, which every morning were lit up by the first rays of the sun casting a wonderful richness of colouring over the valley and rocky desert all around us. There is no other spectacle in the world that I can compare with this, a scene which daily im- presses us with fresh wonders and delight ; but it reminds me perhaps of the view, for two years before my window, looking down from the Tarpeian Eock, which comprised the whole of Ancient Eome from the Aventine, with the Tiber at its foot, to the Quirinal, and beyond that the undulating Campagna, with the beautiful profile of the Alban hills (strikingly like those we now behold) in the background. We never, however, look out into the distant country without being peculiarly attracted to the silvery water-high- way, and without our eyes following the pointed sails, which VISIT rilOM TRATELLEES. 273 may bring us letters or travellers from the Xortli. "U^inter licre, as iu all other places, is the season of sociability. Xot a week passes that we do not see several guests among us. A stranger's book, which I have placed here for future tra- vellers, and furnished with an introduction, was inaugurated (ju New Year's Day by our own signatures. Since then above thirty names have been added, although the book has hitherto been kept exclusively iu our castle, and will only be handed over to our faithful castellan 'Auad on our de- parture. On Christmas Eve we for the third time selected a palm for our Christmas-tree. This sjTubol, still more beauti- ful than our fir-tree, was decorated with lights and small irifts. Our artists celebrated the cheerlul festival in other iiaginative ways, and an illuminated Christmas crib, exe- cuted in the t}-]^)ical manner, and placed at the end of the long rock-passage, was most successful. As it is natural to expect, England is by far the most numerously represented among travellers; the French are lOre rarely seen, but among their numbers I must mention I he well-known and amiable savant Ampere, who, as he told lue, intends to spend several months in this country, in order lo make some solid progress in his Egyptian studies.* "We are not, however, without some of oiu' Grerman countrymen, and one beautiful Sunday morning, at the close of the year, we had the pleasure of seeing Lie. Strauss, the son of the iourt chaplain iu Berlin, and his cousin Dr. EJrafft. We were just about to begin our simple Sunday service, which ever siuce Abeken, our dear friend and former preacher of the desert, has quitled us, 1 have been in the habit of conducting * I have since been informed (7?^y. Arch., vol. iv. p. 82) that M AmpL-re ha.i U-cn expressly sent to Egypt by the Paris Academy, for the purpose of cupviii}; tlic bilingual inscription atPhilae, which 1 have noticed in mv letters. i>ec above, p. 121. The exceedingly abridged representation of the Demotic text, which was communicated by M, de Pauley in the Jit cue ArchtuUHjique, is borrowed from the copy which was taken back to I'aris, in wliich, however, the commencement ot tlie Demotic lines, and along with them the date of the decree, arc wanting. T 274 DEPAETUEE TOE PE>'iySULA OF SI>'AI. myself. I therefore immediately resigned my place to one of these two rev. gentlemen, which more befitted them than me ; and as it happened that we had with us the very ser- mons written by the two fathers of our dear guests, one of these was selected for a discourse. Messrs. Seuffeeheld and Dr. Bagge, from Frankfort, visited us almost simultaneously with them, and soon after- wards our friend Dr. Sciiledehatjs from Alexandria, with the Austrian painter Sattlee, and when Messrs. Strauss and Krafft called on us a second time, on their journey back, they met some other guests here, Messrs. TA^nt, Stamm, Schwab, and the Assessor von Rohe, from Berlin. This very day twelve Germans (nine of them Prussians) sat down to dinner with us. LETTEE XXXI. On the Retl Sea, hetici en Gebcl ZcU and Tor. GT:n. SEID HrssE>-. 275 Weideiibach accompanied me, iu order to give me some aasiiJtance in the drawings, which would be absolutely re- quired; besides him, I took our Dragoman Jussuf along with me, the Kawai^s Ibraliim Aga, Gabre Mariam, and two additional servants. AVe first went down the Nile as &r a» Qeneh. After it became dark and the stars had Bsen, the conversation, which had hitherto been animated, ceased, and, Ipug on the deck, I watched the star of Isis,' the sparkling Sothis (Sirius), this Polar star of Egy23tian chronok>gy, aa it gradually ascended over our heads. Our two oarsmen were only too musically inclined, and went tbrough their whole stock of songs, quivering them with imiumenible repetitions, sometimes interrupted by the short cry of >Scherk, Gharh (East, West), which was softly answered by the feeble and obedient boy's voice of our little steersman. Half waking, half dreaming, we then glided down the river till about midnight, when the Arab quivering also ceased; the strokes of the oar became fainter, and at length the boat was left entirely to the waves. The rising of the moon in her K'ust quarter, and dawning day, first aroused them to reneweil activity. We arrived early in Qeneh, where we were very kindly received in the house of the illustrious Se'id Hussen. He is the important man through whose hands all our letters pass, both going and coming, and Avho is thus highly deserving of our gratitude. He and his two sons were of great assistance to ua in obtaining the innumerable things which were re- quisite for our departure for the desert, which we were desirous of accelerating as much as possible. Meanwhile, I was delighted with the patriarchal manners which prevailed iu this most estimable Arabian family. All business was carried on there, as it is throughout the East, in public, and most commonly in the street. In front of each house there is a long divan, another in the room ; friends come in, make a short salutation, sit down almost unnoticed, and business goes on as usual. Guests of higher rank are offered coffee, or the long pipe. Slaves stand round, ready at the slightest t2 276 MA>>EES or AEA.EIA>' rAMILT. sign. Acquaintance of inferior rank kiss the hand of the master of the house, even if they are only passers by ; they do it all seriously and quietly, without the least demonstra- tion of feeling, but with the usual greetings, frequently murmured for a long time from one to another. If there is no more space left on the divan, or if it is occupied by per- sons of higher rank, the new comer squats down on the ground beside it. Every one rises and goes at his pleasure, and, what strikes us as very singular, without any parting words, though the forms of greeting are so long. The master of the house, also, quits his guests without any salu- tation, if the visitor is not a person of distinction ; wlien sucl» is the case, he is frequently detained for a long while by the monotonous, and almost always empty, conversation. This domestic life in the street, sucli as prevailed more or less among the ancient Greeks and ]{omans, and which is so fundamentally difterent from the life in our studies and oiHces, is closely uuited with the Eastern character in gene- ral. Individuals always deport themselves with propriety and reserve, but they are compliant, and ready for anything that occurs. In respectable fandlies, such as this, there also exists an amiable ri'ligious feeling, originating in a true and kindly disj)osition. Old llussen is above seventy, with a white beard, but, in spite of his age, taking a lively interest in all that occurs, and meeting ever}' one in a friendly man- ner. The two sons, who are nearly fifty, carry on the business. They treat the old man with extreme reverence. Both are great smokers, but they never smoke in the pre- sence of their father ; this would be regarded as a want of tlie respect which is due to him ; they immediately lay aside their pipes when he enters. In the evening after supper, when it would have been too great a privation to resign them, the sons sit in front of the thresliold to smoke ; while we, as the guests, sit with the old man in the room, they only take part in the conversation through the open door. The evening before our departure we visited a manufac- toiy of the celebrated Qulleh (cooling vessels), 200,000 of ARABIAN HOSPITALITY. 277 which are annually made ; and also the field from ^vhIch the cUv of which they are made is taken. It is only one Eeddan (160 sijiiare roods) in extent. After spendin^^ a couple of days at Qeneh, we quitted it, on the 6th March, with fifteen camels. The first day we only rode three hours, as far as the copious spring of Bib AifBAK, charminijly situated between Palms and Nebek- trces.* and provided by Ibrahim Pascha with a dome-shaped buildini^ for tlu* caravans. AVe also reached early on the followinpf day the second night-encampment, at the station of Leqeta. Tlie ancient road to Kosser from Koptos, the prcRont Quft, the mounds of which we saw in the distance on our riE:ht hand, leads immediately to the projecting moun- tains of Kl (^orn (the Horns). AVe did not descend into the broad Kosser road until we approached these mountains, and arter a march of six hours arrived at Leqeta at the junc- tion of the roads from Qeneh, Quft (Koptos), Qiis (the ancient Kcoc or ApoUinopoJis parva), and a fourth road, also, lead- int; direct Irom Luqsor hither. Five wells furnisli here a supply of tolerably c:ood water; two buildings, with domes lialf fallen down, are destined for the reception of travellers, I here noticed a trait of Arabian hospitality which I must also mention. At our last repast at Qeneh a fresh draught of the delicious Nile water was brought me in an orna- mental izilt cup, decorated with pious sayings from the Koran. 1 was pleased with its simple and yet agreeable form, the segment of a sphere, and expressed this to old Uus94*n, without anticipating the answer I immediately re- ceivod :— " The cup belongs to you." As I had nothing about me which I could give in return for the gift, I went away shortly after, declining the civility, and left the cup standing unnoticed. That night, when I went to rest, I found it placed beside my bed, but the following morning I gave express orders that it should not be packed up. We started on our journey, and in Leqeta, where for the Hrat time 1 opened my trav*elling-bag, my surprise was great • lifiamnus nabeca, Wilkinson, Mod. Eg. and Thebes— Te. 278 HAMAMAT. when the first thing I beheld was the cup carefully placed withm it. Gabre Mariam had closed mj baggage, and in reply to my almost angry inquiry how it was that the cup was here, contrary to my order, he confessed that he had been obliged to place it at the top, by the express wish of old Seid Hussen. I was now, indeed, compelled to yield, and to think of some present for him, on my return. We again started from Leqeta the same evening, and rode three hours farther to an old station, at the Gebel Maauad, very little used now, and deficient in water. Our Arabs, from the tribe of the Ag'aize, are not so animated as the Ababde, or Bischariin, and their camels are also inferior. After Gebel Maauad, we entered the hilly, sandy plain of QsuE EL Benat, and after another pass, the plain of Kesch- EAScni. At the end of this, Gebel .Abu Gueii rises on the left, upon wliich we turned our backs and went to the right, round an angle of rock, on the precipitous sides of which, composed of sandstone, 1 found engraved the Shields of the sun-worshipper Amenophis IV,, along with his consort, and over it the Sun, with rays spread out like hands around it. Their names, as everywliere else, were partly erased, although tlie King had not yet altered his name into that of Bech-en-atex. Towards mid-day we entered the primitive mountain range, and in tluve-quarters of au hour arrived at the well of Hamamat. There appears to have been an ancient Coptic settlement here, and the broad well, about 80 feet deep, lined with stones, into whieh there is a descent by a winding staircase, is even now ascribed by the Arabs to the Xazarenes (the Christians). The ancient stone-quarries, which were onr most immediate object, were situated another half hour from the well. I pitched my head-quarters here, in a spacious grotto covered with Egyptian and Greek inscriptions, as, by a hasty survey, we easily perceived that we should find work which would occupy us for several days. The ancient Egyptians, who were great lovers and eminent connoisseurs of remark- IIAMAMAT. 279 able kinds of stone, had here found a bed of precious green breccia, and beside it, also, some beautiful dark-coloured veins of granite, which were worked as early as the 6tli Dynasty, rather more than B.C. 2000. There are numerous menjurial uiscriptious en^aved on the surrounding rocks binet' lluit perittd. Among them there are several especially deseniDg notice, from the time of the Persian Government. The hiero^lypliic shields of Cambyses, Darius, Xerxes, Arta- xerxea, are indeed abnost alone known in this spot ; and a ro\u architect from the Dynasty of the Psammeteci, ha.> < his whole pedigree, no less than twenty-three I'amuiee, wiiu, without one exception, held this important post, and some of them also, in connection with high priestly hoQours. An ancestral mother stands at the bead of the long series, who must have lived nearly 700 years before the la^t link of the chain. A groat number of Greek Proscyne- mata, allow us to infer that the stuue-quarries were still used in the time of the Greeks aud Komans. For five whole days we were occupied from morning to night with copying and taking impressions, to the continual wonder of the small caruNans which we saw almost daily pass before us, as the principal road by wliich the pilgrims of Upper Egypt, and a greal pari of the Sudan, pass to Kosser and Mecca, leads through this valley. My original phui had been to go from Qeneli to Kosser, and to embark thence for Tor. As the voyage, however, i»ccupies a great deal of time, I was very glad to learn in C^eueli that there is also a road from Ilamamat, across the mountain eliain to Gebel Zeit, nearly opposite Tor. I there- fore determined to take that road, difficult, indeed, but in- teresting, and far shorter. At the same time I sent a mes- ^e^g^•r in advance to Kosser to give orders that a vessel should start for Gebel Zeit without delay, and await us there. In Damamal 1 had also a severe contest with the Arabs, who suddenly became apprehensive of the long road, but little known luid almost devoid of water, and who wanted 280 GEBEL rATIRLH. rather to guide us by Kosser along the coast. But as luv principal object was to visit certain ancient stone-quarries in the lofty mountain range, I threatened, if they did not keep their word, to write to the Pascha, and I made them respon- sible for all the consequences. Thus after long capitulations I accomplished my plan. Nevertheless, it was still very nearly upset, as, on the evening before our departure, we were almost poisoned by the carelessness of our cook, who had allowed some vinegar to stand in copper vessels. How- ever, we recovered happily after a night of great sufieriug, and on the 13th INIarch started from Hamamat. "We had brought with us six barrels full of water from Qeneh ; the camel-drivers were worse provided, and must consequently have suftered much from thirst. l^esides SeUm, our old trustworthy guide of the caravan, 1 had brought with me in addition a special guide from Qeneh, Selim, who was said to bo well acquainted with the moun- tainous district between Hamamat and Gebel Ze'it, although he had only made the journey once before, above twelve years ago; and under his guidance, we got in two days as far as GrEBEL Fatireh. After great labour and long searching, we re-discovered the remains of the ancient colony of workmen, who quarried here a beautiful black and white granite. From this point, however, the ignorance of the guide was mani- fested in many ways. On the evening of the 15th of March we arrived at a high water-shed, and were compelled to pass the night on the hard rocky ground, there being no possi- bility of pitching a tent. The following day, Palm Sunday, we suddenly came early in the morning upon a steep preci- pice, which descends about SOO feet between the two chains of the MuNFiEii mountain range. It seemed impossible to pass the steep and dangerous path with a caravan. The Arabs one and all protested in the most decided manner against attempting it, and poured forth the most violent curses upon Selim. He was in a difficult position. He had evidently not known the difficulties of this pass ; the roads that are passable, though it is true they are very circuitous, SFARCII FOR AVATEK. 281 lead either by Xecuel Delfa, eastward, or by Schaib el Benat, westward of this spot. To strike iuto one of these two roads now, would liave at least cost us two more days, and ha we had already lost a great deal of time at Gebel Fatlreh, we sliould have run iuto still greater danger of a deficiency of water, as our supply had been calculated very exactly, and between Hamamat and Gebel Zeit we had ouly the prospect of one single spring, which was said to be eitunti'd lu-ar Gebel Dochan. I tlierefore gave orders, and carried my point in spite of the most violent protestations to the contrary, that all the camels should be unloaded on the height, and that the whole of the baggage should be carried down on tlie shoulders of the Arabs. My own ser- vants had to bfgin, and we all set to work together. Chests and trunks were taken singly from one point of rock to another; wo had most difiicidty in managing the great water-casks, which could only be moved by three or four people at once'. The unloaded beasts were then carefully led down, and thus the bold enterprise terminated success- fidlv witlunit any accident or injury, amid loud and fervent apiH-als to Abd el Qader, the sacred patron of the camel. After tliree toilsome hours, all was over, and the beasts were again loaded. Sotni after, liowever, we were to encounter a far more serious danger. 1 was as usual riding in advance with Max and some of the servants, and liad charged the caravan to follow the footmarks of my ass in the sand. Towards mid- day we .saw Gkuel DocuAy, "the Smoking Mountain," on our left hand, rising deep blue beyond the Munfieh chain, and several hours afterwanls, when we emerged from the higher mountains into an undulating and more open country, on the farther side (d* the wiilc plain, and beyond the sea, we, for the first time, saw the distant mountains of Tor, like rising mist, situateTi:D mountains, stretchiug"aloDg the sea-coast, which we traversed GEBEI zt:iT. 289 by a valley nmninnj diagonally across them. An abimdnat Bpring hen' came to the surface, whose rippling waters ac- companied us for a long T while. It might be considered the Fons Tadnos of Pliny, as its water has only recently be- come brackish and undrinkable, from the bed of natron on the surface. We left the ruins of Abu Schae, the ancient My 08 hormos or Philofei'as partus, on our right, and en- camped on the peninsula of (ttmscheh, which is called by the Arabs, Ki:nBTT, from the sulphur which is there obtained. Yesterday morning we rode to the Bay of Gebel Ze'it, be- tween the Enned mountains and the sea-shore. The Eange of Tor, which floated before sunrise in a milky blue colour over the surface of the sea, stood out faintly from the sky ; its outline only disappeared with the rising sun. After mid-day we arrived at Gebel Zeit, the oil moun- tain. Our vessel, which had been appointed to meet us from Kosser, made the voyage from thence in six days, and had already waited four days for our arrival. The camels were dismissed here, and returned the same evening. One quarter of an hour north of our anchorage were the Zeitieh ; such is the name given to five or six pits, hollowed out in the sandy shore, or in the rock, and which fill with blackish-brown naphtha, like syrup. A few years ago re- searches were set on foot by Em Bey, who was in hopes of finding coal beneath, though hitherto they have had no suc- cess. Yesterday evening it was a perfect calm. It was only during the night that a light wind rose from the north, which wo immediately availed ourselves of, for setting sail. "With the wind in our lavour we might have accomplished the pas- sage across in one night ; but now the day is again drawing to a close, and we have not yet reached the port. The ship of burden scarcely stirs, though the long oars have been at length set in motion. The sailors of this sea are very different from those on the Kile. Their deportment is more reserved, less sly and sub- u 290 TOE. servient. Their songs, which commence at the first stroke of the oar, consist of fragmentary short lines, which are sung first by one, and are taken up by another, while the re- mainder utter short and deep grunting sounds, as an accom- paniment, at equal intervals. The Rais, on an elevated seat, rows along with the others. He is a negro, as well as several others among the sailors, but one of the handsomest and strongest Moors that I ever saw — a real Othello ; when making his athletic movements, he rolls his yellow-white eyes, shows his dazzling teeth, and gives the tone to the song, leading it for a length of time, with a shriD, piercing, but sldlful voice. LETTEE XXXII. Convent on Mount Sinai, the 24ih March, 1845. Easter Monday. On the evening of Good Friday we landed in Tor by moonlight. The harbour is now so much sanded up, that our vessel was obliged to lie off several hundred paces, and we were landed in a boat. We were met on shore by the old Greek Nicola Janni, who had before received Eheen- BERGf, Leon de Laborde, Euppell Isenbeeg, and other well-known travellers ; and he had favourable testimonials to produce of the reception they had met with from him. After long negotiations TN-ith the insolent Arabs, who, when they discovered we were in a hurry, and that they were indis- pensable to us, endeavoured in all ways to overreach us, we started early the day before yesterday from Tor, limiting ourselves to what was absolutely necessary for the land journey ; and we sent the vessel to await us at Cape Abtj Zelimeh. Our road led in a due northerly direction to the mouth of Wadi Hebean, across the plain of El G'e'ah, which, being five or six hours broad, is situated between the sea 1 WADI HEBRAX. CONVENT. 291 aud mountain. On first starting, however, I made a digres- sion to the hot springs of Gebel Hammam. They are situated at tlie southern end of the isolated line of moun- tains, which, commencing one hour to the north of T6r, extends to the sea-shore. I again met the caravan at the well of El Hai, which is pleasantly situated, on the direct road, between gardens of palm-trees. The ground gradually rises from the sea-coast to beyond this well. As soon as we got an open prospect over the whole plain, and to the lofty range which descends towards the south-west in a steep and regularly declining chain to the extremity of the Peninsula, I took the points of the compass, with reference to all the places of any note, the mouths of valleys, and summits of mountains, which the guides were able to name. About half-past five I reached the foot of the mountain range. Here already, at the entrance of the valley, I observed the first SiNAiTic Inscription on the black blocks of stone. A little farther on we came to the small piece of water shaded by some palm-trees, where we spent the night. Yesterday we traversed the AYadi Heeran, which sepa- rates the group of Serbal from the principal range of Gebel Musa, crossed over Nakb el Egatji, which forms the water-shed between the west and east, and turning from this point southwards, over Nakb el Hatji, the wind-saddle, we reached the Convent on Easter Sunday, as the sun was setting. AYe were drawn, like other travellers, up the high wall of the fortification, to the entrance, although there is another entrance through the convent garden, or more level ground, but which they are only in the habit of using from within. The ao;ed and worthy prior, who is mentioned by Kobinson, had died that year in Cairo, and had been replaced by another, Demetrius Nicodemus, who is said to hold the rank of a bishop. As it is a Greek convent, instead of Easter rejoicings we came to a strict season of fasting. But independently of that, the whole life and habits of the four priests and twenty- one lay brothers made by no means such an edifying im- u 2 292 GEBEL MUSA. pression as "we might have expected to witness in this spot. A gloomy spirit of wearisome sloth and ignorance hangs like a cloud of mist over their discontented countenances. Yet these fugitives from this world of cares are wandering beneath an ever cheerful sky of moderate temperature, are alone able, of all the inhabitants of this sultry wilderness, to refresh themselves beneath the dark shade of the cypress, palm, and olive-tree, and have besides in their possession a library of 1500 volumes, not in the smallest degree consider- ing the best purpose for which they are intended — viz., a larpciov \//'ux^?-* To-day we ascended Gebel Musa. In my own imagina- tion, and by the descriptions of former travellers, it formed the actual centre of the whole range ; but this is not the case. Both in elevation and in the planimetrical projection of the whole mass of the primitive range, it forms part of the north-eastern slope. The convent in a direct line is three times as near the eastern border of the range as the western. Even Gebel Katherin, situated immediately to the south, is loftier than the almost concealed summit of Gebel Musa, which is invisible to tlie whole of the surrounding country. Still higher mountains rise on the farther side of Katherin, but in steps, as for example, TJm Eiolin, Abu ScHEGERE, Qettae, &c., as far as Um Schomae, which towers up over all the others, and stands in the centre of the eastern and western slope of the whole elevation, forming the principal and most northern vertebre of the long backbone of the range, which passes down to the south, and determines the direction of the whole Peninsula. All the way up Gebel Musa, along with the various spots which are connected with holy legends, was a walk amidst the wildest and grandest natural features ; it reminded me of being led through a castle of historical renown, where the places of rest and study, &c., of some great king are exhibited. On our return from Gebel Miisa, we ascended the actual * " Medicine for the soul." — Tb. IIOREB. 293 brow of the so-called Horeb, which Eobinsou regards as the TRUE Sinai instead of Gebel Musa, which has hitherto been viewed as such. "We passed several hermit's huts and chapels, till we at length reached one, situated in a rocky basin, behind which the principal mass of Horeb rises up abruptly and grandly. There is no accessible road to it. We clambered up, first through a precipitous cleft in the rock, then over the brows of the rock towards the south. About half-past five we reached the summit, just above tlie great plain of Eaha, on the immense round-formed mountain top, which has such a grand appearance from the plain. Eobinson seems to have attempted this road at first, but to have given it up afterwards, and mounted to the top of Sessaf, which certainly is loftier, but situated a little to the westward, and does not project into the plain as the actual central point, like the knob which we ascended.* Our com- panions, with the exception of one active Arab boy, had remained behind, as it was, in fact, a dangerous ascent. Even this site did not allow me to entertain the view that Moses ever stood upon a rock that was visible from this valley, if the narrative is to be understood in so literal a manner. AVe did not ascend Gebel Katherin, as it has fewer historical claims even than Gebel Musa. LETTER XXXIII. On tlie Fed Sea, the eth April, 1845. I SHALL employ our tranquil sea voyage, which will last for several days longer, in arranging the various materials I ♦ These are the exact words of ray journal, and as they were under- stood by Hitter, p. 578. In the printed report, p. S, it might appear as if Robinson had relinquished the ascent of the whole of this part of the mountain; in the memoir of the Bibliotheca Sacra, this is mentioned as a mistake. But I was only speaking of the actual brow of the mountain which projects into the plain, contrasted with ^the loftier point, though situated on one side, which was ascended by llobmson. 29i WADI e' scheikh. have coDected on the Peninsula, and combining the principal events of this episode in our journey. I shall send a more detailed account of it from Thebes.* These lines, however, shall be handed over to Seid Hussen in Qeneh, and shall be forwarded to the north by the first opportunity. AVe left the convent on the 25th March, towards evening, and passed downwards through the broad ^"adi e' Scheikh. I selected this roundabout way, as formerly, before the wild defile of Xakb el Haul was rendered passable, this valley was the only way by which the Israelites, if they were desirous of marching to the plains of Eaha, could have reached that spot.f We spent the night in the upper part of the valley, near the tomb of the holy Sheikh Salih, from whom it re- ceives the name of Wadi e' Scheikh. In the lower portion of the valley we first meet with the manna-yielding shrubs of Tarfa.j and the Sinaitic inscriptions on the sides of the valley become more frequent. But before reaching the outlet of the valley, we quitted it and climbed over to our * This account, -which I addressed to H.M. the King of Prussia, vas printed while I was still absent in 1S46, under the title of ^ lieise cles Pro/. Lepsius von Thtben nach der Halbinsel de^ SinaL, vom 4 Mdrz bis zuvi 14 April, 1845," Btrlin, with two maps — a general map of the Peninsula, and a special map of Serbul and Wadi Firan, which Avas drawn by G. Erbkam, from mv notes, or statements. This printed pamphlet has not been published, but only distributed to a few persons. Its contents, however, have become better known, by a translation into English by Ch. H. Cottrell ("A Tour from Thebes to the Peninsula of Sinai," kc. London, 1S46), and into French by F. Pergameni (" Voyage dans la Presq'ile du Sinai, etc., lu a la SociCte' de Geogra- phie, seances du 21 Avril et du 21 MaL Extrait du Bulletin de la Soc. Geogr., Juin, 1847." Paris). t The Xakb el Haui. '-the Saddle of Wind," is an extremely wild and narrow mountain ravine, the depths of which are impassable, on account of its steep precipices. The road must have been (.'onstructed with great skill along the western mountain precipice, and is in many places hewn out of the rock; in others, the crumbling ground has been paved with great flat stones. There can be no doubt that this daring path was only made after the erection of the convent, to maintain closer connection with the town of Pharan, which, till that time, could only be reached by the long circuitous route through the Wadi e' Scheikh. i The Taviarlx Gallica manvifera of Ehrenberg. See Wilkinson, Alod. Eg. and Thebes, ii., 401.— Tk. ASCENT OF SEEBAL. 295 left into the Wjldi Selaf, wliich lower down joins the Wadi e' Scheikh, in order to reach the foot of Sekbal, hj the shortest road from this. "We had abeadj frequently seen at every opening on the road the huge rocky summit rising above the surrounding mountainous district, and the accounts ^ven us by the Arabs, of the fertile and irrigated "Wadi I^'lrax at its base, had long made me desirous of becoming better acquainted with it. I had resolved to ascend the mountain, and therefore made them lead us into the "Wadi ItiM, that runs down from the mountain into the Wadi Selaf, which passes along Serbal. After riding upwards of an hour in this vaUey, we came to an old stone hut, which might have once sheltered a hermit ; soon afterwards we found fiome Arab tents, and at a short distance beyond these, several Sittere-trees, which we selected for our place of encampment. On the 27th March we rose early to ascend the mountain Derb e' Serbal. The true road to Serbal leads from "Wadi l^'iEAN through "Wadi Aleyat to the mountain. "We were forced to go round its south-eastern extremity, and ascend behind from the south, as it would have been far beyond our powers to clamber up the heights through the Eim ravine, which descends precipitously, and in a direct line between the two eastern summits. One quarter of an hour above our encampment we came to a sprmg, shaded by ISTebek, ilamada, and Palm-trees, whose fresh, pure water, was walled rouiid to tlie depth of several feet. "We then climbed over a small rib of the mountain, on which there again stood several ancient stone houses, down into another branch of the Kim valley (Rim el mehasni), and in an hour and a half reached the south-eastern angle of the mountain. Prom this point we pursued a paved road of rock, which was even sometimes supported by masonry work. This led us to an artificial terrace and a wall the remains, as it appeared, of a house that had been destroyed, and to a cool spring, shaded by taU reeds, a palm-tree, and several Jassur bushes* (from • The Mori„ya uptera. See Wilkinson's Mod. Eg. and Thebes, ii., 404.— Tk. 296 ASCENT or SEESiX. ■which the Moses rods are cut) ; the whole mountain is here overgrown with Habak, and other sweet-smelling herbs. Some minutes farther on we came to several caves in the rock, which once served as hermit's cells ; and after wandering for almost four hours we reached a small plateau spreading out between the summits, where we again found a house with two rooms. A road led over this level ground to the edge of the western side of the mountain, which sinks at first steep and rugged, then in more gentlj-inclined wide ribs, to the sandy plain of El G'e'ah, and here disclosed to me across the sea a glorious prospect of the opposite coast, and the Egyptian chaiu of mountains bounding it. From this point the rock-path suddenly descended along the ragged mountain declivity into a wild, deep basin, round which the five sum- mits of Serb^l meet in a semicircle, forming one mighty crown. In the middle of this basin, called Wadi Si'qelji, are the ruins of an old convent, to which the mountain path leads, which unfortunately we had not time to visit.* I therefore returned across the level space, and then began to ascend the most southern of the summits of Serbal. When I had almost got to the top of the precipitous height, I thought I observed that the second summit was somewhat higher, and therefore hastened down again, and sought out a way to reach this. We passed a small piece of water, and were obliged to go almost round the whole basin, till we at length succeeded in clambering up it, from the north-east side. Here, to my astonishment, between the two points into which the summit is divided, I found a small level valley, plenti- fully supplied with shrubs and herbs, and from this I first ascended the one, then the other point, and by the assistance of my guide, who was conversant with the spot, I took the * It seems that this convent has not been visited by any very recent travellers. Even Burckhardt, who calls it Sigillye, did not descend to it, but heard that it was well built, spacious, and also provided with a well, plentifully supplied with water. (Trav. in Syria, p. 610.) It is much to be desired that more exact accounts could be obtained of this convent, situated in the middle of the basin of Serbal, as it probably is one of the oldest, at any rate one of the most important in the Penin- sula, as is proved by the rock-road to it from Pharan, constructed with much skiU and difficulty. WADi riEAX. 297 points of the compass with reference to all the places of note which might liere be surveyed in the wide horizon. For instance, I could clearly perceive how the mountain summits beyond Gebel Musa continue to rise higher, and that the distant Um Schomae rose above all the others. "We did not set out on our return tiU four o'clock, so that we were obliged to avoid the circuitous road by which we had ascended, unless we were desirous of being overtaken by dark- ness. ^,Ve therefore determined to leap down, from block to block like chamois, and foUow the precipitous rocky ravine, which led almost in a straight line to our camp in Wadi 3iim, and in two hours and a half, with trembling knees, we reached our tent by this impracticable path, the most diffi- cult and the most fatiguing that I ever trod in the whole course of my life. The following day we proceeded farther, and passing through Wadi Selaf, and the lowest part of Wadi e' Scheikh, we reached the Wadi Fieajk — this most precious jewel of the Peninsula, with its Palms and groves of Tarfa, on the banks of a lovely rushing stream, which, winding among shrubs and flowers, conducted us to the old convent moun- tain of the town of Puaran, the Piean of the present day. Everything that we had hitherto seen, and what we after- wards saw, was naked, stony desert compared to this fertile oasis, abounding in wood and water. For the first time since we had left the Nile vaUey, we once more walked un soft black earth, obliged to defend ourselves with our arms from the overhanging leafy branches, and we heard singing birds warbling in the thick foliage. At the point where the broad AV'adi Aleyat, descending from Serbal, enters W^adi Piran, and where the valley spreads out into a spacious level tract, there rises in the centre of it a rocky hill called Hereeat, on the summit of Vv'hich are the ruins of an ancient convent building. At its foot stood once a magnifi- cent church, constructed of well-hewn blocks of sandstone, the ruins of which are built into the houses of the town situated on the slope of the opposite mountain. 298 WADI FIEAN. The same evening I Trent up Wadi Aleyat, passing innu- merable rock-inscriptions, to a well, surrounded by Palm and jS'ebek trees, where I enjoyed the entire prospect of the majestic mountain chain. Apart from all the other moun- tains, and united into one single mass, Serbal rises, at first 'in a slope of moderate inclination, afterwards in steep preci- pices, with chasms, to the height of 6000 feet (above the sea) . Nothing could equal the scene when the valleys and low mountains around were already veiled in the shadows of night, and the summits of the mountain still glowed above •the colourless grey, like a fiery cloud in tlie sinking sun. The following morning I repeated my visit to Wadi Aleyat, and completed my observations of the whole of this remarkable district, the principal features of which I had already noted down from the summit of Serbal. The most fertile district of Wadi Firan is enclosed be- tween two hills which rise from tlie centre of the valley ; the upper one of these two is called El Bleb, the lower, situated at the outlet of Wadi Aleyat, ^lEiiAiiiiLT or Heke- EAT. In very ancient times the valley appears to have been closed in here, and the waters rushing down from all sides, even from Gebel Musa, into this basin, appear to have united into a lake. It is only in this manner that we can explain the very remarlvable deposit of earth, wliicli extends along the sides of the valley to between eiglity and a hundred feet high, and no doubt it is this remarkable position of Firan, as the lowest point of a large mountainous district, which occasions the imusual supply of water that issues forth at this point. Pirectly behind the convent hill we found the narrow bed of the valley as stony and barren as the more elevated valleys, although the brook was still visible by our side for half an hour. The violent irruption of those primitive waters permitted no more deposits of earth in this spot. It was only at the next still more decided bend of the valley, called Eij Hessue, that a few more groups of palm-trees appeared. Here the brook disappeared in a cleft of the rock, as sud- WADI MOKATTEB. 299 denly as it had bur>t forth beliind Bueb, and we did not see It ai^ain. Alter being five hours on the road, we quitted "Wadi Firan, that here turned otito the left hand towards the sea, and we emerged from the primitive mountains into a more level rt^gion of sandstone. The loftier range retreated towards the north-west, and encircled in a great bow the hilly, sandy district that we traversed. We next came to the Wadi MoK'ATTKU, the "valley with inscriptions," which derives its name from the immense numbers of inscriptions which lire to be found here in several places. It is easy to per- ceive, that it is those places sheltered from the mid-day sun, which invited passing travellers on the road to Firan to engrave their names and short mottoes in the soft rock. A\'e took impressions on paper of as many of them as we could obtain, or copied with the pen those which were less adapted for an impression. We found these inscriptions >cattered singly, in the most various, andj frequently very remote places of the Peninsula, and taking them altogether, 1 have no doubt whatever that they were engraved by the inhabitants of the country during the first centuries before and after Christ. I sometimes found them cut oA^er more ancient (J reek names, and not unfrequently Christian crosses are connected with them. These inscriptions are habitually called SiXAiTic, which would not be inappropriate, if thereby the wliolc Peninsula of ISinai was intended to be designated as the ppot where they are found. But we must observe, that on Gebel Miisa itself, which is regarded as Sinai, very few single and short inscriptions of this kind have been found, such as those which, after careful observation, are to be met with in almost all spots adapted to them, but that, on the contrary, their actual centre was rather Phaka?.', at the foot ofSERBAL. On the 31st of IMarch we again reached the lotty chain which turns back from the east, and marched through ■\\'adi Qeneh into the small Wadi Maghaka,. which branches 300 WADI MAGHAEA. off from it, and in whicli the sandstone and primitive rock border on one another. Here we found, high up in the northern sandstone precipices, the remarkable Egyptian rock stele belonging to the earliest monuments generally known to us among Egyptian antiquities.* As early as the 4th Manethonic Dynasty, the same which built the great Pyra- mids of Gizeh, in Egypt, more than 3000 years before our era, copper mines were discovered in this wilderness, which were worked by a colony of labourers. Even then the Penin- sula was inhabited by Asiatic, probably Semetic races, for which reason we frequently see the Pharaoh represented in those rock-images as conqueror over the enemies of Egypt. Almost all the inscriptions belong to the Old Monarchy ; we only found one from the period when King Tnthmosis III. and his sister reigned together. Erom this point I was anxious to take the shortest road to the second place in the Peninsula, where there are ancient Egyptian monuments, Saebut el Chadem. But there was no direct road over this lofty range to its slope on the other and north-easterly side, so we were obliged to return to "Wadi Mokatteb, and get across the mountains by a very circuitous route through "Wadi Sitteee and AVadi Sich. As we again emerged, we had the immeasurable plateau in front of us, which includes the whole of the north of the Peninsula, and consists of one single vast bed of sandstone. This, however, descends towards the south by two steps, so that the prospect seems as if it were bounded by two lofty mountain precipices retreating at about equal distances into the far distance. The descent nearest to the south, called e' Tih, sinks to a flat, broad sandy valley, Debbet e' Eam- LEH, while the masses of sandstone rock, on this side, seem to be as high as the general plateau. On a terrace protruding far into the broad valley, which we climbed with great difficulty, are the wonderful monuments of Saebut EL Chadejj:, which appear no less so, even to those * Denkmal., Abth. 11., Bl. 2, 116, 137, 140, 152 ; III., 28. SABBUT EL CHADEM. 301 who are prepared to behold them. The oldest representations led us also here into the Old Monarchy, but only as far back as its last dynasty, the twelfth of the Manethonic list. In this period, under Amenemiia III., a small rock-grotto was excavated, and furnished witli an ante-chamber ; lofty steles were erected outside, at different distances, and without any determined arrangement, the one lying most remote being a short quarter of an hour distant on the highest point of the plateau. During the Xew Monarchy, Tuthmosis III. enlarged the building towards the west, and added a small pylon witli an outer court. The later kings had built an additional long series of chambers, one in front of the other, in the same direction, solely, as it appears, for the purpose of protecting the memorial stele erected upon them from the weather, especially from the sharp wind, often loaded with sand, which has now almost totally destroyed the ancient steles, which were even at that time unpro- tected. The latest stele exhibits the Shields of the last kin'. .307 eight and nine hours distant from the port, a long day's journey, therefore useless for tlie supply of that important spot. It is not easy to perceive what could have occasioned twelve wells to be made precisely in Wadi Gharandel, where even now the brackish water of that whole district appears on the siu-face in somewhat greater abundance than else- where. In addition to this, we should further be compelled to transfer the station of Maea, which immediately pre- ceded it, to an insignificant spring not more than an hour and a half, or two hours distant from "Wadi Gharandel, while the succeeding station is assumed to be at the distance of eight hours. To me, it seems scarcely possible to doubt that the first three desert marches conducted as far as Wadi Gha- EANDEL, i. e. Maea, the fourth, to the harbour station of Abu Zelimeh, i. e. Elim. It is only in this manner that we can understand their progress, when it is said, "And they took their journey from Elim — and came unto the wilderness of Sin, which is between JElim and Sinai''* The boundary of two provinces at Wadi Gharandel would geographically be just as inconceivable, as it is natural at Abu Zelimeh. The liarbour, with its small plain situated between the Xochol rock and Gebel Hammam i'araun, forms in fact, by the rock protruding into the sea, the most important geographical section of the whole coast.f The northern plateau sinking uniformly towards the sea was called the AYilderness of Sue ; the southern mountainous district rising higher, and soon passing into the primitive ♦ Exodus xvi. 1. — Te. f These hot springs do not seem to have been originally named Hammam Farauk, of Pharaoh, but Faran, from Pharan. For Edrisi names those places on the coast Farax Ahrun, and Istachri Taran, which no doubt ought to be called Farak. (See Kitter, Asien, vol. viii., p. 170, &c.) Macrizi also calls the same spot BirketFaran. (Ritter, Sinai-halbins, p. 64.) The harbour district of Pharan was probably called after the town itself, though distant, and the tradition of Pharaoh's destruction, so inapplicable to this spot, was perhaps only connected -with the alteration of the name of Faran into Faraiin. It remains a striking fact that the Arabian chroniclers, among whom Macrizi himself visited the spot, speak of the town of Far^n as of a town on the coast. x2 308 MOUNT SIIfAI. rock, totally different in character, is called the "Wilderness of Sin. There would be no meaning in the remark that this last was situated heticeen EHm and Sinai, if by this it were not meant that the AVilderness of Sin extended as far as Sinai, or even farther. The next departure, therefore, from the "Wilderness of Sin to Eaphidim, is not to be understood as if they had quitted this wilderness ; on the contrary, they remained in it till they reached Sinai, whose name SiNi, i. e. "the Mount of Sin," was evidently first derived from this district, and for this very reason should not be sought for beyond its limits. The same conclusion may be deduced from the account about the Manna which was given to the Israelites in the "Wilderness of Sin ; for this is first met with in the valleys in the vicinity of Firan, and appears as little in the sandy districts near- the sea, as in the more elevated regions of Gebel Musa.* Now, if we already here put the preliminary question, which of the two mounts, Serbal or Gebel Musa, was so situated as to be peculiarly designated as Sini, the " Sinic," " the Mount of the "Wilderness of Sin," there cannot be a moment's doubt which to select. Gebel Musa, invisible from every quarter, almost concealed and buried,t neither distin- guished by height, form, position, nor any other peculiarity, presented nothing which could have induced the native tribes, or the Egyptians who had settled there, to give it the pecu- liar designation of the " Mount of Sin," while Serbal, attract- * That portion of the sandy sea-shore which Robinson regards as the Wilderness of Sin, produces no Tarfa shrubs, much less manna. Compare Ritter, p. 665, &c., with respect to the tracts of country where manna is found. It has been already mentioned that Ecsebil'S maintains that the Wilderness of Sin extended as far as Sinai. (Sti/, eprjfios rj ^era^v napaTeivovda r^s- 'Epvdpas 6aXd(T(Tr]s kol ttjs eprjpov 2tm.) t Robinson, i., p. 173 — 196. In opposition to what Wilson adduces with respect to the wide prospect from Gebel Musa, we must consider that necessarily a great many places may be seen from a point so little elevated above the immediately surroimding country; from which points, however, the mountain cannot be traced independently and distinctly by the eye. MOUNT srN'Ai. 309 ing the eve to itself from all sides, and from a great distance, unequivocally commanding the whole of the northern portion of the primitive range, has always been the central point for the widely-scattered inhabitants of the country, and the goal of travellers, not only from its external aspect, but also on account of AVadi Firan, situated at its base; therefore it might very appropriately be designated the " Mount of Sin." But if any one were to conclude from the expression the departure from the Wilderness of Sin to Raphidim, that the broad tract of sea-shore to the south of Abu Zelimeh, which the Israelites were obliged to traverse, was alone called the Wilderness of Sin, which is Eobinson's view of the question,* Serbal, which commands and also comes into immediate con- tact with this district, and is accessible from this point by the old convent of Si'qelji, might even then have been de- signated ISIount Sin, for instance by the sailors on the Red Sea ; but Gebel Musa, situated exactly on the opposite and eastern side of the great range, could not possibly have been named after the western Wilderness of Sin, nor have given the smallest ground for the statement that the Wilderness of Sin was situated between Abu Zelimeh and Grobel Miisa. One other view might still be adopted : for instance, that the whole of the primitive mountain range — that is to say, the whole of the Peninsula to the south of Abu Zelimeh — was called the " Wilderness of Sin," and consequently in- cluded Gebel Musa. Even tliis would not necessarily pre- vent our assuming that Serbfd, as the mountain best Ivuowii, and nearest at hand, must especially have appeared of more importance to the Egyptian colonists than the southern range, and might have been distinguished by that name ; whilst in the principal southern range Um Schomar, as the loftiest central point, would have alone justified such a distinction, and not the entirely subordinate Gebel Musa, still less the insulated rock Sefsaf, which is regarded as such by Robinson. ♦ See Robinson, i.,p. 118—196. 3.10 ilOTJNT SINAI. All 'that has been here said about Slitai as the " Mount- of THE Wilderness of Sin," is also applicable to the still more remote question, which of the two mountains, Serbal, or G-ebel Musa, possessed such qualifications as to have been regarded by- the native tribes of the Peninsula, even before the great event of the Law-giving, as a " Holt Mount," a Mount of God.* For Moses drove the sheep of Jethro from Midian beyond the wilderness to the " Mount or God, CH0EEB,"t and Aaron met him, on his return to Egypt, at the Mount of God.J If we maintain that the necessary centre of the Sinaitic population must have been, at all events, the Oasis of PiEAN, we may also suppose that those tribes founded a sanctuary, a common place of woeship, in the vicinity of that spot, either at the base, or, still more naturally, on the summit of the mountain which rises up from that valley. § This also was the most appropriate place for the meeting * Ewald— Gesch. des Volkes Israel, ii., p. 86— also assumes that Sinai was held sacred " even before the time of Moses, as a place of oracles, and the seat of the gods." Ritter (see Appendix B) considered this to be incompatible. f Exodus iii. 1. — Tr. i Exodus iv. 27.— Tr. § This is even proved to exist now by Riippell, who holds Gebel Ka- therin to be Sinai. On his journey to Abyssinia (vol. i., p. 127) he relates, in the account of his ascent of Serbal in the year 1831, as fol- lows: — " On the summit of Serbal the Bedouins have collected small stones, and placed them in the form of a circular enclosure, and other stones are placed outside on the shelving rock-precipice, like steps, to facilitate the ascent. "SMien we arrived at the stony circle my guide drew off his sandals, and approached it ivith religious veneration ; he then recited a prayer within it, and told me afterwards that he had already slaughtered two sheep here as a thank-offering, one of them on the oc- casion of the birth of a son, the other on regaining his health after an illness. Prom a belief that Mount Serbal is connected with such things, it is said to have been held in great reverence hy the Arabs of the sur- rounding districts since time immemorial; and it must also at" one time have been regarded as holy in certain respects by the Christians, as, in the valley on the south-western side, there are the ruins of a great convent, and of a great many small hermit's cells. At all events, the wild jagged masses of rock 'in Serbal, and the isolated position of the mountain, 2s far more striking, and in a certain degree more imposing, than any other mountain group in Arabia Petrcea, and for that reason was pecu- liarly calculated to be the object of religious pilgrimages. The highest point of the mountain, or the second pinnacle of rock, proceeding from MOUNT SINAI. Ml between Moses, who came from Midiau iu tlie East, and Aaron, who came from Egypt. In such a barren and un- inliabited country there was no occasion to searcli for any peculiarly secret and remote corner among the mountains for such an interview. In addition to this, the Sinaitic inscriptions, which, as mentioned above, are found in the greatest numbers, espe- cially on the roads to "W^adi Eiran, and in Wadi Aleyat, which leads up to Serbal, seem to indicate that in much later times also considerable pilgrimages were undertaken thither to solemnise religious festivals.* If we now pass at once to the principal point, which must appear as most decisive to those who look attentively at the general conditions connected with the march of the Israelites, it must be allowed that if Moses desired to lead his numerous people to the Peninsula, tlie first and chief task he had to ))erform, in accordance with his wisdom, and his knowledge of the countr)-, was to maintain them. Eor however we may explain the given numbers of the emigrants, which according to Eobinson amounted to two millions, by Lane's account equal to the present population of Egypt, we must always admit that there was a very considerable mass of people who were suddenly to be maintained in the Sinaitic wilderness without any importation of provisions. How tlio west, on which the Arabs are in the habit of sacrificing, by my ba- rometrical measurements is 6342 French feet above the level of the sea." * "With reference to this, compare particularly the admirable pam- phlet by Tuch: Em uiul Zwanzig Sinaitische Inschrlften. Leipzig, 1849. Tliis scholar endeavours to prove from the names of the pilgrims that have been deciphered, that the authors of the inscriptions were native heatlien Arabs, who wandered to Serbal to some religious festivals. And he is of opinion that pilgrimages ceased in the course of the third century at latest. We may also mention that the name itself of Serbrd, wliich 'Rudiger (in Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, vol. ii., last page) derives, no doubt correctly from the Arabic ^-';<«» serb, palmarum copia, and Baal, ** the Palm-grove {^oivLXiov) of Baal," refers to its heathen worship. 312 JOTJRNET OF THE ISRAELITES. then can we imagine tliat Moses would not have kept in view, above all other places, the onlj spot in the Peninsula that was fertile and amply supplied with water; and that he would not have endeavoured to reach it by the shortest path ; but that in place of this, a remote nook in the mountains should have been sought out, which at that time could not possibly have supplied the daily necessity of water and other nourishment, even for only 2000 emigrants and their belong- ings — I mention a high number intentionally. Moses would have been wrong to have trusted here to miraculous aid from Grod ; for this is never manifested until human wisdom and human counsel, which is not intended to be rendered super- fluous through it, can go no further. It appears to me that we should not relinquish this in- evitable opinion respecting the position of Sinai, which is opposed to the view hitherto entertained, and becomes stronger the longer we reflect upon it, and we ought not to disclaim any more particular historical consideration of this wonderful occurrence, unless other grounds, as urgent, should afford proofs against our mode of acceptation. Let us there- fore pursue the narrative still further. Erom Elim, Moses reached Eaphidim in a march of three days. Modern scholars generally agree that the march from Abu Zelimeh did not pass again through the same Wadi Schebekeh or Taibeh through which they had de- scended, back to the eastern sandy plain of E' Eaml, but followed the customary caravan road which leads to AYadi Eiran. How should Moses then have selected the far longer upper road devoid of water, or even the still longer, and still more arid, circuitous route along the sea-coast by Tor and TVadi Hebran, instead of at once entering the less arid valleys of the primitive range which abounded in manna ? He was obliged therefore to go to "Wadi Eiran ; no third way was possible. This is the urgent reason why Eaphidim (except by Eobinson*) has almost as unanimously been * Vol. i., p. 193. See Appendix B. JOURNEY OF THE ISBAELITES. 313 transferred to Fiean. It seems, however, impossible that this oasis, if it was traversed, should not have been once mentioned ; therefore even Joscphus,* Eusebius,t Jerome,{ and, as it appears, all the older authors and travellcrs,§ place Eaphidim near the town of Phaean. jS'o spot in the whole land could have been of greater value for the native tribes who were menaced by Moses than these orchards of Pha- ran. We may, therefore, perfectly conceive that Moses was attacked at this very spot in Eaphidim by the Amalekites, who were about to lose their most precious possession. He repulsed them, and Moses could now first say that he had * I thought I might have been able to deduce this indirectly from his narrative, Antiqu., iii., 2. Now it seems to me that there is nothing that we can extract about his views from this ; for which reason the above name should be effaced. Abstractedly considered, it is verv probable that he entertained the same views us Eusebius and Jerome. Compare note, p. 316, and Appendix G. f Eusebius, Hfpt rZiv tottlkwv ovo^i, etc., s. v. 'Pa(/)i5t'/x, tottos TTJi cprjixov napa to XcopfjlB opos, iv g) ex r^9 nerpas ippvrjcre to. vhara Kai ^kKt^Ot] 6 tottos neipaap-os. evda Kal TroXe^e? ^It}(tovs tov ApaXrjK iyyvi ^apciv. X Ilieronymus, de situ et nomin, etc., s. v. Raphidim, locus in dcserto juxta montem Choreb, in quo de petra fluxere aqua?, cogno- nimatusque est tentatio, ubi et Jesus adversus Amalec dimicat prope Pharan. § Among the older authors, Cosmasi Inclicopleuslea must be especially named here (about a.d. 535). (Topogr. Christ., lib. v., in the Coll. nov. patr. ed. Montfaucon, torn, ii., fol. 195.) E?ra ttoKlv nap€vi- ^akov fty ^Pa(l)idiv (Is ttjv vvv Xeyopevrju ^apdv. Antoninus Placcn- tinus, who is placed about the year GOO (while the learned Papebroc/i, who published his Itinemrium in the Acta SS., month of May, vol. ii., p. X. — xviii., does not place him earlier than the eleventh or twelfth century), came, as he says, in civitatem (which can only be Pharan) in qua pugnavit Moyscs cum Amulech : iibi est allure positum super lapides illos (juos posuerunt Moyse orante. That the town was enclosed by a brick wall and valde sterilis, instead of which Tuch (Sinait Inschr., p. 38) proposes to reixd/ertilis. If Pharan is called an Amakkitish town by Macrizi (Gesch. der Kopten, uebers. v. \Vustenfeld, p. 116), then this can only indicate the same view that Moses was attacked near Phakan by the Amalekites, to whom this district belonged. Among more recent scholars we must especially mention Bitter, as is men- tioned in Appendix B. 814 JOURNEY OF THE ISRAELITES. got possession of tlie Peninsula. His nearest object was attained. What could have attracted hiin still farther from this point ? It is also said, however, in distinct terms, that the people had arrived here at the Mount oe God ; consequently at the Mount of the Law. For it is said, after the victory at Eaphidim, that Jethro,the father-in-law of MosesinMidian, heard of all that had happened. " And Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, came with his sons and his wife unto Moses into the Wilderness, where he encamped at the Mount OF God."* And even before that, the Lord had said to Moses, " Behold, I will stand before thee there upon the rock in Choree ; and thou shalt smite the rock, and there shall come water out of it, that the people may drink, "f words which could only have alluded to the wonderful spring of Firan, as has been already supposed long before my time.J It may still further be deduced, that Moses really found repose here in Eaphidim, because now, by the advice of Jethro, he orga- nises the hitherto disorderly mass of people to enable him to govern them.§ He selects tlie best qualified men, and places them over a thousand, over a hundred, over fifty, and over ten ; these are appointed judges of smaller matters while he only retains the most important for himself. All this evidently indicates that the journey was past, and the period of repose had commenced. The beginning of the following chapter (Exodus xix. 1 — 3) certainly seems to contradict this, for it is said, " In the third month, when the children of Israel were gone forth out of the land of Egypt, the same day|| came they into the wilderness of Sinai. For they were departed from Eaphi- dim, and were come to the desert of Sinai, and had pitched * Exodus xviii. 5. — Tr. t Exodus xvii. 6.— Tr. I See below, the complete passage by Cosmas. See Appendix G. § Even the name itself, Raphidim, /. e. the places of repose, indicate that the place was adapted for rest of some duration. II See Appendix B. MOUNT SINAI. 315 in the wilderness; and there Israel camped before the MouyT, and Closes went up unto God, and the Lord called unto him out of the Mountain," &c. According to this, they decamped between Eaphidim and Sinai. This favoured the tradition whicli believed that the Mount of the Law might be re-discovered in Gebel Miisa be- yond Firan. At the same time, however, it was not con- sidered that by admitting this we encounter much greater contradictions with the text. In the first place, the words mention no more than one day's journey,* not even in the Book of Xumbers,t where, nevertheless, between Elim and Kaphidim, not only Alus and Daphka, but the Eed Sea (though tliis last was near Elim) are particularly men- tioned. Erom Eiran to Gebel INIusa tliere were, however, at least two long days' journeys, if not more. The '• ]Mount OK God" has likewise been already mentioned in Eaphi- dim, it was there called a rock in Ciioeeb ; and it is there- fore impossible to understand by the Mount of God any other than " the !Mount of God" to which Moses drives the sheep of Jethro. AVe should, thus, be obliged to admit that there were two " ^founts of God ;" one, the " Mount of God, Choeeb," in Kaphidim, which would be Sebbal, and a " Mount of God, Sinai," on whicli the law was given, which woul'd be Gebel MusA.iJ: To admit this would, however, in itself not only be scarcely * For that reason Robinson and others, vho do not allow that any positions of tlio encampments were omitted, place Kaphidim beyond FruAN; and although they make the march through the latter place, tliey leave it either totally unmentioned, or place Alus there. We have already mentioned above the objections to this opinion, which have been partly proved by Ritter. On the other hand, Ritter, to re- move the difficuitv, distinctly admits of an omission in our present text. (P. 742.) t Numbers xxxiii. 10 — 14. — ^Tr. X Ritter (see Appendix B) is consequently compelled to draw this conclusion ; which, in lact, seems to me the most doubtful of all. The present tradition diffl-rs from this in holding Horeb and Sinai to be two mounts, situated immediately beside each other but yet apart. 316 MOUKT SINAI. conceivable, but most distinctly self-contradictory, inasmuch as it maintains that the Mount of God, Choeeb, where God first appears to Moses, is even in anticipation desig- nated as the Mount of the Law (Exodus iii. 1 — 12) ; that further, the general designation, the " Mount of God," which appears so frequently without a name being appended (Exodus iv. 27, xviii. 5, xxiv. 13 ; Numbers x. 33), could only have been employed if there were no more than one such Mount ; and, finally, because the name of Sinai, or Mount Sinai, and Choeeb, or Mount Choeeb, are continually mentioned with exactly the same meaning as Mount of the Law-giving. This evident difficulty has indeed been felt strongly at all times.* Josephus (xint. iii. 2, 3) forwarded his view by transposing the doubtful commencement of the xix chapter from its present position after the visit of Jethro, to hefore it, so that Moses does not receive his family in Eaphidim, but in Sinai. By this means certainly the double difficulty is avoided ; on the one hand, because two Mounts of God do not appear, on the other, that the organisation of the people does not occur during the journey. He also deliberately omits the statement that in Choeeb was situated the rock which Moses strikes for the spring of water. Modern scholars have, on the contrary, proposed either to make Sinai the general name for the whole of the range, and Choreb the individual Mount of the Law-giving, or vice versa, Choreb for the more extended, and Sinai for the limited designation,t while the tradition of the monks * The three possible ■ways of removing this diflBculty have been tried by Robinson, Ritter, and Josephus. The first, places Raphi- dim. near Gebel Musa; the second, assumes there is an omission between Raphidim and Sinai, and retains two Mounts of God; the third, transposes the separating passage, and does not mention Horeb at all, only Sinai. ^ t See the manner in which Robinson combines, and weighs both views, i., p. 197, &.C. All those passages where precisely the same is said concerning Horeb, as about Sinai, are opposed to the more recent opinion that Horeb was the general designation for the mountain range, or for the district, and that Sinai was the individual Mount, M0U2?T SINAI. 317 refer both names to diflerent mountams situated immediately beside each other.* It seems to me that the comparison of the individual passages admits of none of these \'iews ; in my opinion it is rather clearly proved, by the names of Choreb and Sinai being used alternately, but with perfect equality, that loth designated one and the same mountain together with the district immediately surrounding it,t so while not a single passage requires us to think of a large extent of ground. No mention is ever made of a " Wilderness of Horeb," as of the Wildernesses of Slr, Sin, Paran, and otliers. We might also cite in favour of the opposite opinion Acts vii. 30 compared with Exodus iii. 1. * This view is found already in the above-mentioned (note, p. 313) Itineraricm of Antoninus, who places the convent between Sinai and Horeb. The monks' tradition of the present day, that the rock pro- jecting into the plain of liaha was Horeb, is well known. The arbitrary character of such assumptions is evident; nevertheless, the latter opinion is maintained by Gesenius (Thesaur, p. 517, Wiener, and others). t St. Jerome expressly says the same thing, since he adds to the words of Eusebius s. v. Choreb : Mihi autem videtur quod duplici nomine idem mons nunc <"^7na, nunc Choreb vocetur. Even Josephus evidently considered both mountains to be one, for wherever Choreu is mentioned in the Bible, he placed Sinai instead ; the same is done by the author of the Acts of the Apostles (vii. 30), and also by Syn- ccUus (Ciiron., p. 190), who says of Elijah, inopeveTo ev X(op^^ rd op(i TjToi 2ivai(o. (The following passage within brackets added by the author, April, 1853. — Tr.) [There has been an attempt to prove, from the Greek termination livaito, that Choreb is only meant to designate here part of the range of Sinai. However, the word cannot be understood thus in the sense of an adjective, as there was no other but the Sinaitic Choreb. To opoy ^lvolov (Syncell., p. 122; Cosraas, p. 195; ava peaov EXet^ Ka\ rov llvaiov opovs. Joseph. Ant. Jud. 3, 5: avftai (Mcov t See Appendix B. MOUNT SI>'AI. 319 only be ttatiafied by comprehending it in this manner. He will not be able to blind himself to the conviction that Serbal, on account of the oasis at its base, must have been the necessary object and centre for the pouring in of the new people, and that the wise Man of God, so well acquainted with the country, could never have intended to lead the multitude into a mountain enclosure like the plain at Gebel Musa, where they would find no water, no trees bearing fruit, nor manna, and where they would have been more easily cut oft* from all connection with the other parts of the Peninsula than anywhere else. lie will be compelled to acknowledge that the designation of Sinai as the chief mountain of the Wilderness of Sin, and the sanctity with which it was re- garded, not merely by the Israelites, but by the native tribes of the country, decidedly points to Serbal ; further, tliat the Haphidim defended by the Amalekites was undoubtedly situated, together with the spring of Moses in Choreb, in the AVadi Firan ; that consequently the Mount of God at Choreb, where God appeared to Moses, and the Mount of God at llaphidim, where Moses is visited by Jethro, and organises the people, could also be no other than Serbal, from which, finallv, we must as necessarily deduce that unless wo admit that there were two Mounts of God, the Mount of the Law was also near Eaphidim, and is recognisable in Serbal, not in Gebel Musa. In conclusion, if we now once more look back and observe how the present tradition bears on our account of the event, -we perceive that it refers at once to the foundation of the convent, by Justinian, in the sixth century.* This, however, was by no means the first church of the Peninsula. At a far earlier period we already find a bishopric in the town of Pharan, at the foot of Serbal.t Here was the first Christian centre of the Peninsula, and the church founded by Justinian also remained dependent on this for the space of several centuries. The question therefore is, whether the tradition * See Appendix E. t See Appendix F; 320 MOUNT SI>^AI. wMcli regards the present Gebel Musa as Sinai can be re- ferred to a time prior to Justinian.* The remoteness of that district, and its distance from frequented roads of communi- cation, though from its position in the lofty range offering sufficient subsistence for the trifling necessities of the single, scattered monks, rendered it peculiarly applicable for indivi- dual hermits, but for the same reason inapplicable for a large people, ruling the laud for a certain period of time, and ex- hausting all its resources. The gradually increasing hermit population might have drawn the attention of the Byzantine emperors to that particular district, and, as it appears, have fixed the previously wavering tradition to that spot for future times, t I have, indeed, been in need of a learned foundation for what I have here said about the position of Elim, Eaphidim, and Mount Choreb or Sinai, but this I shall not be able to sup- ply even in Thebes ; it would, however, chiefly refer to the history of the earliest tradition before Justinian, which, even were it to agree in all its parts with tlie tradition of the pre- sent day, would still hardly suffice to decide anything con- clusively. It seems to me that these questions will always remain unsolved, if the elements which were at my com- mand — namely, the Mosaic account, a personal view of the locality, and acquaintance with the history of that period — should not be considered sufficient to explain tliem. "We shall only obtain a correct idea of the whole of the external character of the event, by simultaneously observing these * See Appendix G. t Ritter (p. 31), Avhen he mentions tliat Sinai was almost simul- taneously regarded by tlie Egyptian, Cosmas, to be Serbal ; and by the Byzantine, Procopius to be Gebel Musa; adds another supposition, which I will mention here. " Might there not," he says, " hare, per- haps, existed a different tradition or party-view on this matter in con- vents, and among the monks at Constantixople and Alexandria, Avhich might proceed from a jealous feeling to vindicate the superior sanctity of one or the other locality ? It is remarkable that such different views of the matter should be held simultaneously by the most learned theologians of their day." 1 3§ \ WWWa A- J^^=Sii '^aC 13 KETURX TO THEBES. 321 three most essential sides of the investigation, while, on the other hand, an endeavour to obtain an indifferent and equal confirmation of each individual feature in the account now under our consideration, must necessarily lead to the wide road of false criticism, which always sacrifices the compre- hension of the wliole, to the comprehension of the individual part. LETTEE XXXIY. Thebes, Karnak, the Ath of May. On the 6th of April we quitted Tor, where we had only spent one night. During our farther voyage we landed every evening on the shelly and coralline coast of Africa, till, on the 10th, we arrived at Kosser, where ex- cellent Se'id Mohammed of Qeneh was waiting to furnish us with camels for our return to Thebes. In four days we passed over the broad Eossafa road, crossing the mountain range, passed Hamamat, and on the 14th of April once more reached our Theban head-quarters. AVe found ever>'thing in the most desirable order and activity ; but our old and faithful castellan, 'Auad, met me with a bandaged head, and saluted me in a feeble voice. A short time previously he had a narrow escape from death. I mentioned in a former letter that many years ago he, together with tlie whole house of the Sheikh of Qurna, burdened themselves with a crime of blood, which had not yet been expiated. The family of the man who had been killed in Kom el Birat, had, soon after our departure, seized an opportunity when 'Auad was returning home from Luqsor one evening with a relation, to fall upon the two unsus- picious wanderers. The attack was more aimed at the com- panion of 'Auad than at himself, they therefore called out to him to go away; however, as he did not do this, but vigorously defended his relation, he received an almost deadly blow on his head from a sharp weapon, which stretched him T 322 JOTJENEY TEOM THEBES TO CAIEO. insensible on tlie ground ; the other man was murdered and thrown into the Nile, sacrificed to the revenge for bloodshed, which had remained unsatisfied seven years. Since that time there has been peace between the families. A longer account of our Sinai journey will be despatched to-day, to which I have also added two maps of the Penin- sula, by Erbkam, drawn from my notes. I now contemplate the difficult task of finishing my account with Thebes, which, however, I hope to accomplish in about ten or twelve days. LETTEE XXXV. Cairo, the lOth of July, 1845. The first place we halted at after we left Thebes on the 16th of May, was Dendeea, whose magnificent temple is the last towards the North, and although of later date, almost confined to the Eoman period, it yet presented an unusual amount of subjects for our portfolios and note-books. We then spent nine additional whole days upon the remarkable rock-tombs of AMAE^'■A, from the time of the fourth Ameno- phis, that royal Puritan who persecuted all the gods of Egypt, and would only permit the worship of the sun's disc. As we approached Beni-suef, we saw a magnificent steamer of Ibrahim Pascha's hastening towards us. We hoisted our flag, and immediately the red Turkish flag, with the Crescent, appeared on board the steam-boat in return for our salute. It then altered its course, steered directly towards us, and stopped. We were eager for the news which we were about to hear : a boat pushed off", and pulled to beside our ship. It was, indeed, a joyful surprise when I recognised my old imiversity friend. Dr. Bethmann, in the fair Frank who came on board, and who had come hither from Italy to accompany me on my journey back by Palestine and Con- stantinople. Ali Bey, the right hand of Ibrahim Pascha, BEMOYAL OF THE TOMBS. 323 who was steaming to l^pper Eg)-pt, had kindly taken him into his vessel, and told me he unwillingly parted with his agreeable travelling eompaDion, to whom he had become much attached even in their short acquaintance. His presence, and the assistance he affords me, have be- come still more valuable since my other travelling com- panions have left me beliind alone. They started from hence yesterday. "Willingly indeed I would have accompanied them, as to-day is the third anniversary of my depai'tiu-e from Berlin, but the taking to pieces of the P}Tamid tombs still detains us. The four workmen, able young men, who were sent to assist me from Berlin, have arrived, and I im- mediately took them with me to the Pyramids. We made ourselves a lodging in a tomb which was in a convenient situation. A travelling blacksmith's forge was constructed, some scaffolding was raised for the windlass, and we set to work vigorously. The difficulties of the whole affair, however, rest still more in the petty jealousies, by which we are here surrounded on every side, and in the different diplomatic influences, which are not unfrequently rendered abortive by Mohammed Ali's dis- tinct orders. Herr von AVagner therefore considered it abso- lutely necessary that I should by no means quit Egypt be- fore the transport and embarkation of the monuments was completed, and I therefore sliall be obliged to wait here patiently for several weeks longer. LETTEE XXXVI. Cairo, the l\tk July, 1845. Will you permit me to communicate briefly some ideas which have of late considerably occupied my attention.* * This letter, which I have had printed here verbatim, was addressed to the General Director of the Royal Trussian Museum, Privy Coun- sellor of Legation von Olfers. This communication may perhaps serve to spread a correct estimation of the fundamental principles A- o 324 EGYPTIAN MUSEUM. I have never lost sight of your wish to decorate the New Museum in harmony with the monuments which it contains, and I hope that you continue to entertain these views. I liave had great pleasure in the account Herr Hertel has given me respecting the arrangement of the Egyptian saloons, and ■have heard from him that the facing of the columns is still ill suspenso. It is very improbable that such a favourable opportunity will ever recur of having such means at our disposal on the first formation of a museum as we have in the arrangement of this Egyptian one, when we shall be able to furnish a complete whole, and at the same time offer to ■the public so much that is new and important in plan, materials, and arrangement. If I remember rightly, you have expressed a desire to form an historical museum, such, in fact, as all such museums should be, in conformity with their purpose and idea, and yet such as nowhere exists. This view, however, in an Egyptian museum, is at all events attainable in a degree which, even under the most favourable circumstances, can be but remotely approached in all other museums, because in no other nation can the date of each individual monument be so precisely and surely presented as in this, and because no other collection is distributed throughout so long a period of time (above 3000 years). I therefore presume that, as a whole, you wish to arrange the principal saloons historically, so far as this can be accom- plished, and by some method to combine what belongs to the Old, what to the iSew, and what to the Greek-Eoman Monarchy, in such a manner at least, that each chamber of any size should have a definite historical character. I have always borne this in view in forming the collection, although I by no means believe that this principle should be carried out pedantically in details. With respect to the plaster casts which you will probably wish to incorporate as a whole with the existing collection of casts, it would be very de- which has guided the arrangement and decoration of the Egyptian Museum, one of the grandest and latest works that have been executed in Berlin, and which has just been rendered accessible to the public. EGYPTIAX MUSEUM. 325 sirable to bave a lew duplicates made of these for the Egyp- tian saloons, for the sake of rendering them complete. But what especially induces me to write from hence on such matters, is the notion that even now, or perhaps very soon, you may have made such progress in the edifice as to be desirous of coming to a decision with reference to the archi- tectonic and pictorial decoration of the saloons, and in that case a few observations may not perhaps be unacceptable from me. You will, no doubt, select Egyptian architecture for the Egyptian saloons ; this sliould by all means be carried out in every part, and by what I hear from Hertel, there is still ample time for this. I think, for instance, that to produce a general harmonious impression the architectural style of ranges of columns, which is characteristic of difi'erent periods, should be retained in their historical succession of series, as well as with all their rich decoration of colouring. The coloured paintings on the walls are, however, tlien in- dispensable. Every temple, every tomb, every wall in the palaces of the Egyptians was decorated from top to bottom with painted sculptures or paintings. The first inquiry must be, in what style these paintings should be executed. They might either be free compositions in the Greek style, or strictly Egyptian representations, avoiding, however, Egyp- tian perspective, therefore a kind of translation, some- what in the manner of the frieze on the wall in the Musee Charles X ; or, lastly, they might be simple copies of genuine Egyptian representations drawn by us, and only adapted for this particular purpose. With respect to the first view, I think that a man like Cornelius, if he chose to enter on such a completely new field, would be capable of forming a beautiful and great work out of such a task ; but then, the public would most likely be much more interested in the master than in the subject of the representation derived from a history of which they are still so ignorant. The second method would perhaps deserve a trial it might succeed once, in a single case, and would certainly then not be devoid of interest. But I am firmly persuaded that a series of any length of such bastard representations would not fulfil the 326 EGYPTIAN MUSEUir. requisite demands, presupposing, as they would, a double mastery of two artistic languages, and that tliey would also be decidedly contrary to the taste of the public. All attempts of this nature that I have occasionally seen have, in my opinion, been completely unsuccessful, and have appeared ridiculous to connoisseurs ; although, as I have already said, I do not believe that such an attempt might not succeed in an individual case, if the subject were carefully selected. It therefore appears to me, that the third method is the only one left, although it has least pretension ; but it unites so many advantages, that I believe, indeed, it will also meet with your approval. There can scarcely be any doubt witb respect to the sub- ject of the representations. They ought to place before us in characteristic features the highest point of Egyptian history, civilisation, and art, and I was even astonished at the great number of most suitable subjects which immediately present themselves, if we allow all that has been hitherto disclosed of Egyptian history to pass before us. Merely to give you a hasty notion of this, I will communicate the individual points, which I wrote down when I was still doubtful whether one of the two first modes of representation might not be executed. A more diffuse commentary than I can now give ought indeed to be appended to this, but it only refers to a very preliminary notion. The names within brackets indicate where materials could be found for single compo- sitions. Pee-histoeical. The elevation of the god Horus upon Osieis' gods' throne. (Dendera.) To be placed with reference to the last number. Old MoirAECHT. Dyn. I. The removal of Menes from This, the city of Osiris. Eoundation of Memphis, the town of Phthah by Meues. Dyn. ly. The Pyramids built by Cheops and Chepheen. Dyn. YI. The union of the two crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt during the reign of Apappus, which lasted a hundred years. EGYPTIAy MUSEUM. 327 Dyn. XII. The Temple of Ammon in Thebes, the city of Ammon, founded by Sesuetesen I. in the 12th Dynasty, Immigrating Hi'KSOs. (Benihassan.) The Labteinth and Lake M(eeis, the works of Amenemha lU. of the 12th Dynasty. Dyn. XIII. The Invasion of the Htksos into Lower Egypt, occurring shortly after. Expulsion of the Egyptian rulers to Ethiopia. The rule of the Hyksos. New Monaecht. Dyn. XYII. — XYIII. Amenophis I. and the black Queen Aahmesnefruari. Tuthmosis III. expels the Htksos from Abaris. Jeeu- SALEM founded by them. Amenophis III. Memnon and the sounding statue. Persecution of the Egyptian gods, and introduction of the worship of the sun, under Bech en Aten. (Amarna.) King HoEUS, the Eevenger. Dyn. XIX. Sethos I. (Sethosis, Sesostris.) Conquest of Canaan. (Karnak.) Joseph and his brethren. Eamses II. the Great. Miamun. War against the Cheta. (Eamesseum.) The (brick-making) Israelites (Thebes) build Pithom and Eamses, under Eamses II. Colonisation of Geeece from Eg}^t. Menepthes. Exodus of the Iseaelites to Sinai. Moses before Pharaoh, Commencement of the new Sieius peeiod, B.C. 1322. Dyn. XX. Eamses III. A battle from Medinet Habu. The king among his daughters. The riches and luxury of Ehampsinitus. (Medinet Habu.) Dyn. XXII. Scheschenk I. (Shishak) takes possession of Jerusalem. (Thebes.) Dyn. XXV. Sabako, the Ethiopian, rules in Egypt. Dyn. XXYI. Psammeticus, the friend of the Greeks, ele- vates art. Eemoval of the warrior caste to Ethiopia. 328 EGYPTIAN MUSEUM. Dyn. XXYII. Cambtses rages ; he destroys temples and statues. Dyn. XXX. jS'ectanebus. (Philae.) Alexandee, tlie son of Ammon, conquers Egypt ; builds Alexandria. Ptolemy Philadelphus founds the library. Cleopatea and Cjesaeion. (Dendera.) Coronation of C^sae Augustus. (Philae.) Cheist at Heliopolis. This selection would not, indeed, be so great, if we had only to deal with existing representations. The Old Monarchy would first commence with the 4th Dynasty, and would en- tirely omit the Hyksos period, since nothing has been pre- served before the former period, or from the time of the Hyksos. On the other hand, the Egjrptian conceptions of art might be more completely represented, and each single representa- tion would at the same time have a scientific interest. The following provisional selection which occurred to me might, liowever, be increased, and altered in all its parts from the ample supply of subjects in our drawings, which are 1300 in number. Mythology. 1. The great and minor gods ; the 1st and 2nd Dynasty of the gods. (Karnak.) 2. OsiEis undertakes the government of the lower world. HoEUS that of the upper. (Dendera.) 3. Triad of the gods from This and Abydos. Osiris, Isis, Horus. 4. Triad of the gods from Memphis. Phtha, Pasht, Im- hotep. 5 . Triad of the gods from Thebe s . Ammon Ea, Mut, Chensu . Old Monaechy. King Chufu (Cheops) beheading his enemies. (Peninsula of Sinai.) EGYPTIAN MUSEUM. 329 Scenes from private life of the 4tli and 5tli Dynasties. (Giseh and Saqara.) Apappus unites the two crowns. (Kosser road.) Sesurtesen I., of the 12th Dynasty, beats the Ethiopians. (Florence.) Scenes from private life of the peaceful flourishing period of the 12th Dynasty. Asiatic attendants. Precursors of the Hyksos ; wrestlers, games, a hunt, &c. (Benihassan.) The Colossus dragged by men. (Berscheh.) Immigrating Hyksos who seek for protection. (Benihassan.) New Monaecht. The working of the stone quarries of Memphis. (Tura.) Amenophis I. and Aahmesnefruari. (Thebes.) TuTHMOSis III. and his sister. (Thebes ; Eome.) TuTHMOSis III. Tribute. Erection of obelisks. (Thebes.) Amenopkis III. (]Memnon) and his consort Tii before Am- mou Ea. (Thebes.) March of an Ethiopian queen to Egypt under Amentuanch. (Thebes.) Amenophis IV. (Bechenaten), the Sun-woeshippee. His procession with the queen and four princesses drawn in a chariot to the Temple of the Sun in Amarna. (Grot- toes of Amarna.) A favourite is borne on the shoulders of the people before Amenophis IV. Distribution of wreaths of honour among the w4iole of the royal family. HoEUS running to Ammon. (Karnak.) Sethos I. makes war upon Canaan. (Karnak.) Eamses II. Battle against the Asiatic Cheta. (Eamesseum.) The same in the Tree of Life. (Eamesseum.) The same triumphant. Eoyal procession. (Eamesseum.) Eamses III. Battle against the Enbu. (Medinet Habu.) The same among his daughters ; he plays with them. (Me- dinet Habu.) Eamses XII. Procession ofgreat pomp to Ammon. (Qurna.) PiscHEM, the Priest King. (Karnak.) 330 EGYPTIAN MITSEITM. ScHESCHENK I. (SKishak) brings the prisoners from Pales- tine before Ammon (Karnak), King of Judajh. Sabako, the Ethiopian. (Thebes.) Tahraka, the Ethiopian. (Barkal.) PsAMMETicus, Amasis. (Thebes.) Nectanebus. (Thebes.) Alexakdee. Philip Aetd^tjs. (Thebes.) Ptolemy Philadelphus. (Thebes.) Cleopatra and C^esarion. (Dendera.) Coronation of C^sar Augustus. (Philae.) Ethiopian subjects from Merge. This selection of representations, or one similar to this, as large as the partitions in the walls permit, executed in the strict Egyptian classic style, with the full, splendid colouring of the original, would have the great advantage, beyond all other methods, of giving the spectator some idea on a great scale of Egyptian art ; the subjects would force themselves on his criticism, and the study of them, in conjunction with the smaller and isolated original monuments, would be more complete. Eor, with the exception of the tombs which we are now taking to pieces, and which only offer the most simple subjects, no monument is of sufficient size to give a notion of Egyptian temples, and of wall decoration in general, in which grandeur of idea and dexterity of compo- sition is frequently displayed with a feeling for general harmony in the distribution and arrangement of the whole, most astonishing to the attentive observer. Such a selection, of what is most beautiful and characteristic, in large repre- sentations, capable of being easily surveyed, would perhaps be of more service than any other thing in imparting Egyptian science to a larger proportion of the public, and at the same time offers the advantage, which is hardly sufficiently con- sidered at the present day, of averting all invidious criticisms of the representations regarded as modern works. All hast}- critics would, by this method, be referred to the original, which cannot be robbed of its most important position in the EGYPTIAN MUSEUM. 331 artistic history of the human race, by a miserable journalist. They would all learn that before venturing to criticise the faithful copy, they must first study the original, for if we can turn the attention of those young artists who have studied for three years to record these things, I am certain that the classic purity of their style will not easily be attacked. The novelty of the idea, and the effect on a large scale, and as a whole, could not fail to make a considerable impression on the learned and unlearned public, and the series of sub- jects mentioned above, independent of their execution, would afibrd satisfaction to intellectual men, and more especially to the King. Lastly, in addition to this, it might be exe- cuted at a comparatively small expense, on account of the perfect simplicity of the design and colouring, and because all expenditure on the artistic composition has been pre- viously borne by the ancient Egyptians themselves. The representations should only commence at a certain height, according to the manners of the Egyptians, and as is most convenient to our own purpose, and should rest on a deep band below, the colour of which ought to be an imita- tion of wood or stone. The lofty walls should probably be partly divided one above the other into several sections, and perhaps the whole series of the Egyptian Pharaohs, or their Name- Shields only, might be introduced in the frieze. The ceilings in the ante-chambers might be blue, with gold stars, the usual representation of the Egyptian heavens ; and in the historical saloons there might be the long series of ^'ultures, with outspread wings, the symbol of victory, with which most of the ceilings of the temples and palaces are decorated, in an incomparably splendid manner. Finally, a certain amount of hieroglyphic inscriptions must not be absent, which are so essentially connected with all Egyptian representations, and make a splendid impression in variegated colours. Modern hieroglyphic inscriptions might be easily composed for the doors, and the central stripes of the ceil- ings, which would refer in the ancient Egyptian fashion to the munificence of the king, the locality, the period, and the 332 EGTPTIA^^ MUSEUM. purpose of the building. How magnificent the two Egyptian rows of columns would then look in the centre of all, with their simplicity and rich colouring ! Finally, another idea might be carried out, perhaps, in the ante-chambers. Yiews of the Egyptian localities at the present day might be introduced upon the walls, to give a notion of the country to a person on first entering, and of the state of the buildings from which the ancient monu- ments, by which they are surrounded, are taken. These views might be also arranged historically, according to the principal places in the different epochs of time. But here we must presume that the spectator possesses some of the historical knowledge which we may hope to see generally diftused. On that account it would be more useful to attempt a geographical sequence, and we might embrace the views of Alexandria, Cairo, the Pyramids of Giseh, Siut, Benihassan, Abydos, Karnak, Qurna, the Cataracts of As- suan, Korusko, Wadi Haifa, Sedeinga, Semneh, Dougola, Barkal, Meroe, Chartum, Sennar, and Sai'but el Chadem, iu Arabia Petrea. Besides all this, a most rich, interesting, and at the same time useful, selection of the subjects and occupations of private life might be introduced in the lateral chambers, all of them copied from the original, on a large scale, by which means we might facilitate and excite botli an inviting and effective mode of comprehending that portion of the col- lection of antiquities which refer to private life. LETTEE XXXVII. Jaffa, :th October, 1845. We proceeded rapidly in taking the tombs to pieces ; nevertheless, as was to be expected, the most manifold ob- stacles were thrown in the way of the transport and em- barkation. The export of the whole collection of monuments jomyEr xnr.ouGn the delta. 333 even then required a special permit from tlie Viceroy ; I therefore set out on the '29th of August for Alexandria, in order to take leave of Mohammed Ali, and availed myself of this opportunity to give an official termination to our mission. The Pascha received me with his former kindness, and im- mediately issued the most distinct commands with respect to the export of the collection, which he presented to H.M. our King in a special letter, which was handed to me. As soon as all the preparations were accomplished I returned to Cairo, and there made tlie last arrangements respecting the trans- port of the stone-boat to Alexandria, and then, on the 25th September, started ^^'ith Bethmann for Damietta. On the road thither I visited several ruins of towns in the eastern part of the Delta, such as those of Ateib (Athribis), Sajia- NTJD (Sebennytos), Behcet el hager (Iseum), but except the high mounds of rubbish, composed of Nile mud and pots- herds, which generally indicate liistorical sites, we everywhere found only a few blocks, all that remained of the ancient temples. In San, the ancient renowned Tanis, whither I made a last excursion from Damietta across Lake Menzaleh, the foundation of a temple of Ramses II. alone remains, and about twelve or fourteen small granite obelisks, belonging to the same king, are preserved, some entire and some in frag- ments. On the 1st of October we went from Damietta, and em- barking in the roads of Ezbc, the following morning set sail for the Syrian coast. We had an almost incessant contrary wind, and cruised for a wliole day in front of Ascalon, situated picturesquely on lofty sea clijSs ; we only landed yesterday in the Holy Land, on the beach of Joppa. LETTEE XXXYIII. Nazareth, 9th November, 1845. You will not, I am sorry to say, receive my last letter of the 26th October from Jerusalem, as the courier of our consul, 334 JEEUSALEM. Dr. Schulz, Iq whose cTiarge I gave it, with five other letters, was attacked by robbers at Caesarea, on the road to Berut, maltreated, and robbed of all the despatches, as well as of a small amount of money which he had on his person. There is great disorganisation in this country. The Turkish autho- rities, to whom the land has been again handed over by Christian valour, are both lazy, malevolent, and impotent, while Ibrahim Pascha knew at least how to preserve order and security, so far as his own government extended. "We spent nearly three weeks in Jerusalem, part of which time I passed in becoming better acquainted with the state of religious matters at the present day, a subject daily be- coming of greater importance ; partly in makiug some antiqua- rian and topographical researches. These delightful days were rendered peculiarly valuable and instructive by the ex- treme amiability of Bishop Alexander, who overtook us with Abeken from Jaffa, and was willing to impart all that he knew ; and by tlie scientific abihty of Dr. Schulz, with whom I had been on terms of friendship since our mutual re- sidence in Paris, in the years 1834 and 1835. An excur- sion to Jericho, the Jordan, and the Dead Sea, and back by San Saba, formed an interesting episode. My journal of this expedition, which I wrote very fully, was, however, contained in that letter, and will probably never reappear, so that I can but imperfectly restore it now. The 4.th of November we left the Holy City. We had some difficulty in procuring horses or mules on account of the war the Pascha of Jerusalem was carrying on with Hebron, which was assuming a more serious aspect. We spent the first night after leaving Jerusalem in a tent in BiKEH. The second day we proceeded byBEXHiN (Bethel), 'AiN EL HAEAMIEH (the Eobbers' spring), and Selun (Silo) to jN'ablus (Sichem, Neapolis), and the same evening ascended Gtaeizim, the holy mount of the Samaritans, whose remaining population (about 70 men, or 150 souls) we be- came somewhat better acquainted with the following morn- ing. They still continue to be shunned by the Jews, and XAZiJlETH. 335 have as little communication with the Christians and Moham- medans. On Garizim we saw the bare rocky surface, surrounded by some remains of an ancient wall, where these Samaei still, as in past ages, annually offer up the sacrifice of sheep to their God. The following morning, after we had visited the Samaritan place of worship, in which we were shown the old Samaritan manuscript of the Pentateuch, and had seen Jacob's well, and Joseph's tomb surrounded by vine branches, we rode on farther, with an armed attendant of Soliman Bey's, in whose house we were lodging, and proceeded first to Se- BASTiEH (Sebaste, the ancient Samaria), where we saw the ruins of the beautiful old church from the period of the Cru- saders, said to be built over the tomb of John the Baptist. We spent the night in the woody Gennin (Egennin). Tlience our road led through the wide and fertile, but never- theless barren, plain of Jesreel (Esdraelon), the great bloody plain of Palestine, to Zekin and the beautiful spring (Ain GuLUT, Goliath's spring), where Naboth's vineyard was situated, and where the whole house of Ahab was murdered ; then to Gebel Dah'i, little Heemox, beyond which Taboe (Gebel e' Tub), distinguished by its cupola-like form and isolated position, rose up and arrested our attention, until we once more rode into the mountains to Nazaeeth, beautifully situat'SCEIPTIOyS. 345 we again crossed over the old pointed arch bridge, which, like most earlj structures in this country, is said to have been built by the Empress Helena; and this time we ex- amined the ancient rock-tombs somewhat more accurately. We reached them by a difficult path, partly by an ancient aqueduct hewn in the rock. Some of these tombs were planned in a singular manner, and appeared to be very old ; farther on followed several from the Greek period, with bas- reliefs and gable-ends, and some steles upon the rock, on which we were still able to decipher some G-reek words. jN'ot far from this, up the river, we found a mighty Eoman work, the great, ancient, now deserted high-road hewn for a considerable distance through the living rock, and two Roman inscriptions, each in two copies, on the flat lofty wall behind. The longer one ran as follows : — iMPerator CAEsar Marcus AYEELiuS A>'TONINVS | AVGUStuS AEMENIACYS ET IMPCrator CAESar Lucius AVEElIus YEEVS AYGUStuS AE I MENIACYS VIAM FLYMINIS | YI ABEYPTAM INTEECISO | MONTE EES- TITYEEYNT PEE | lYLium YEEYM LEGatum PEO PEactore PEOYiNciae | STEisa et amicym syym | impendiis abile- NOEYM. The other : — peo salyte iMPeratoris AYGusti ANTONI I NI et YEEI Marcus YO I LYSIYS MAXIMYS | 1 (ceuturio) LEGionis xyi Flaviae Firmae | qyi opeei in | STiTiT Yota suscepto.* Since that time the rock has no doubt been twice hollowed out and broken away by the torrent, which has certainly c^reat force every spring ; for, in the immediate neighbour- hood of the second copy of the two inscriptions, the rock- road is terminated by a sudden precipice. By four o'clock we had mounted Anti-Libanon, and at Nebbi Schit, that is Seth, we again entered the great plain of the Leontes. We immediately went in search of the tomb of Nebbi Schit, and were not a little surprised to find here also, as at Nebbi Xoeh, a solid ancient Arabian building, with a small cupola * Compare Krafft, Topographie Jerusalems. Bonn, 1846. P. 269, and Plate II., No. 33. 34)6 BALBECK. standing beside it, and within, a tomb forty ells long. It was even broader than that of Noah, because three steps led up to the height of the monument on either side, the whole way along, which in the former case were wanting. By bestowing on [them such an unusual size of body, the legend evidently wished to distinguish these two patriarchs as haviug lived before the Flood, and the number 40, which is used so frequently both in the Old and New Testament as an undetermined sacred number, has not, as is here exempli- fied, lost its application among the Arabs. The same evening we rode on two hours farther, to Beitan ; and the following morning we started before sun- rise for Balbeck, the ancient Heliopolis, with its celebrated ruins of the temple of the Sun. I lingered first at the ancient stone-quarries, in front of which the road passed, and there measui'ed a block of building-stone, which was not quite separated from tlie rock ; it was 67 feet long, 14 feet broad, and 13 feet 5 inches thick. Many of the walls in the temple ruins in Balbeck are composed of similar, or not much smaller blocks. One which I measured on the spot, and in its original position, "«-ithout making any particular selection, was 65 feet 4 inches by 12 feet 3 inches and 9 feet 9 inches large. They are, indeed, grand ruins, but the orna- mental part of the architecture is heavy, overloaded, and some in a very barbarous taste. Balbeck is associated with a sad recollection. As I ap- proached the scattered houses of the village, immediately adjoining the ancient temple ruins, my faithful servant Ibra- him, who had arrived here before us, met me with the joy- ful intelligence that Abeken, from whom we had separated in Jerusalem, had just arrived. I found him, in fact, in the house of the venerable Bishop Athanasius situated close at hand; but we had scarcety greeted each other, when I was informed that Ibrahim was lying in the road dying. I hastened out, and found him almost in the very spot where he had shortly before saluted me in so friendly a DEE EL ah:\iae. SisT manner, lying extended with the rattle in his throat ; his ejes were already dim. It was in vain that a priest of the neighbouring convent endeavoured to give assistance; in a few minutes he died before my face. His death seems to have been occasioned by a chill. He was a thoroughly excellent man, with a natural nobleness of character not often found among the Arabs. I had taken him with me on my journey to Nubia from Assuan ; he wished of his own accord, and from his attachment to me, to accompany me to Europe, and by his knowledge of the Nubian dialect, would have been very useful to me in my studies of the languages of the Sudan. I was anxious to place a tombstone to his memory at the foot of Anti-Libanon, where he was buried on the declivity of the hill, beside a tree, but we found no stone- mason who could execute it. I therefore sent one to Balbeck from Berut, with an inscription as follows : — Ibeahimo Hassan Stene Oeiyndo seeyo bene meeenti P. E.. Lepsius. D. XXI. Novemb. mdcccxly. This news made a great impression on Grabre Mariam when I communicated it to liim in Berut ; he wept bitterly, for they had been excellent friends. Before we left Balbeck, the bishop advised us to take a diiferent road from what we intended, as intelligence had been received that there was much disturbance on the other side of Libanon, and that the population had revolted. But, in fact, as the whole country was in a state of great excite- ment, and we had notwithstanding found no difficulty, we paid little regard to his recommendation, and told him we should only pass through Christian districts, whose in- habitants would look upon us as friends. AVe quitted Bal- beck shortly before sunset, and traversed the narrow plain, in order to spend the night in Dee el Ahmae, the "Eed Convent," and the following day, witli renewed strength, ascend Libanon almost to its highest point, so that we might again descend by the famous cedar forest. Hitherto we had been favoured, during our whole journey in Palestine 348 DER EL AHMAE. and Syria, with tlie most beautiful weather. From day to day we had been expecting increasing rain, according to the calendar of the weather on other years, and up to the present time had only once been drenched — on our return from the Dead Sea to Jerusalem. The wide plain of Beqa'a, which we now traversed for the second time, is quite impassable after rain at this season of the year, and the numerous mountain streams of Libanon, so abounding in springs, generally swell these to such a degree that, with the frequent absence of bridges, they can only be crossed with extreme danger. The sky clouded over in a threatening manner this evening, the obscurity of the night was impenetrable, and at length, after we had already seen some of the lights of Dee el Ahmar in the distance, we lost our way on a barren piece of ground rent by rugged clefts. At length, we had hardly arrived, when the rain poured down in torrents. Here again we shared a large room with the whole of a Christian peasant family, but we spent a most restless night. There were constant groans and lamentations among the women and children, who appeared to be sick. In a short time the incessant rain had soaked through the flat roof of the house, and trickled upon the beds ; people were now sent up to throw fresh sand upon the roof, and to ram it firm with pieces of stone pillars, which are ready for this purpose on the top of all the houses ; but this operation sent down so much lime and dirt upon us, that we were at length com- pelled to request they would discontinue this well-intentioned repair. In a small shed near the door lay a dog with a numerous progeny, whose bed seemed also to have been in- vaded by the rain, for they began to whine and yelp in the most wretched manner. At length our hosts were roused by repeated loud knocks, to furnish a horse for a soldier, who was carrying letters farther on at the utmost speed for the Pascha. Thus we got no rest the whole night through ; and if an Arabian proverb says, that the king of the fleas keeps his court in Tiberias, the holy city of the Jews, I have now LIBAXOX. 349 every reason to suppose that he has since then transferred his residence hither from that spot, where we had found good and undisturbed lodf]:infr. The rain subsided towards morning, and gave place to a thick mist wliich, continuing still in single large clouds, seemed sometimes wholly to cut off the ascent to the mountain fronting the lofty ridge of Libanon, but also often charmed us by its magic play with the penetrating light of the cool morning sun round the nearer and the more distant wooded hills and points of rock. When we reached the first eleva- tions, which are separated from the principal chain by a level valley, we suddenly burst upon an indescribably beautiful and astounding prospect. The sight of the chain of Libanon, covered in its wliole extent and far down with fresh dazzlinjr snow, was a real Alpine landscape on the grandest scale, rising majestically above the eternal spring of this blessed land, though now indeed so miserably trodden down by the here- ditary enemy the Turk. I thoroughly enjoyed this unusual spectacle, which roused a true home-like joy in my heart, and I endeavoured to imbibe all that I could of the clear, white, quiet light. I drove my little Egyptian horse in front of me, which had lost its rider in Balbeck, and now bore on its back the small possessions he had left behind him. I tliought how, a few days previously, I had been enjoying the thoughts of seeing my good Ibrahim's surprise when he should pass through the snowy region of Libanon along with us. The deep parts of the snow wliich soon after we were obliged to ride through, did not seem to annoy the ass ; it frequently stood still astonished in the midst of the snow, and no doubt viewed it all as salt, soft white fields of which it had known near the Eed Sea and elsewhere. "We rode zig-zag up the extremely steep mountain precipice between seven and eight thousand feet high. It is not rocky at this point, but covered with earth, and terminates in a sharp ridge. " El hamdu I'illah," exclaimed the old guide when he had attained the summit, and " Salam, salam," resounded in one chorus of voices. "We had almost ascended the highest 350 BSCHEEEEH. point of Libanon, but the prospect over land and sea was un- fortunately hidden from us by clouds and layers of mist, although we had blue sky above us. After a short ride downwards from the summit, our guide pointed out the ancient venerable forest of cedars at our feet in a great level bay of the mountain range, from which King Hiram had sent the huge stems to Solomon for the building of the Temple ; it looked as small as a garden from this lofty point. Por a long while it was considered the only remains of those ancient forests, till, in recent times, several more tracts of cedar forest have been discovered in some of the northern parts of Libanon. We soon again lost sight of the cedars as we descended deeper among the layers of cloud, which ex- cluded all prospect. Suddenly the dark shade of these gigantic trees rose like mountain spirits, close beside us, out of the grey mass of mist. We rode to the chapel of the hermit, who usually presents the stranger here, with a good glass of wine of Libanon, but we found it closed ; just then the clouds dissolved into a most prosaic rain, from which we were scarcely able to shelter ourselves beneath the wide roof of needles of the noble cedars. I foimd a beautiful cedar cone hanging down sufficiently low for me to break it off and take it away with me as a keepsake. Single stems of these cedars are 40 feet in circumference, and 90 feet high ; and as one cedar, which they pretend they know to be 100 years old, is only half a foot in diameter, the largest cedars are stated to be 3000 years old, which would go back as far as the time of Solomon. The rain increased, and we had still several thousand feet to descend before reaching the nearest village, Bscheeeeh. The lower we came, so much the more slippery and dangerous grew the narrow, some- times rocky, sometimes soaked footpath, which led along the precipitous side of the valley with an abrupt precipice to our right. Turning an angle of rock, we at length gained sight of the night quarters we so longed to reach. The wealthy, inviting, and important village of Bscherreh, which gives a name to the whole district, is well known from BSCHEEEEH. 361 its powerful and influential, but ^\M, uncontrolled, and often cruel iuhabitants. The rain had abated, the white houses, with their terrace roofs, between whicli a number of silver poplars, plane-trees, and c^-presses, rise up singly, or in rows, were placed one above the other in a semicircle, on a hill projecting from the right side of the ^-alley, and shining after the rain, they looked as if they had just emerged from a bath. Nothing was stirring in the village ; it seemed as if it were perfectly dead. I rode in advance of the rest of our party, with our old guide, up a narrow path beside vineyard walls, when sud- denly, at a bend lq the road, a strong voice called out to me, and when I looked up, over the terrace of the vineyard, which was about a man's height, to my no small surprise I saw about twenty muskets pointed at me and the guide. He let go the bridle of his horse, stretched out his hands towards heaven, and shouted out to the people. I hastily threw back the cape of my cloak, in order to show the people my European hat, and let them see who we w^ere. When they perceived that we were but a small party, and that we did not put ourselves in any attitude of defence, they came out in hundreds from behind the trees, surrounded us with loud yells, and for a long time would not believe but that we were soldiers in disguise. Some even struck at our horses with staves, downwards from the terrace, while I was endeavouring to explain to those nearest to us who we were. Others liad more quickly perceived their error ; they came down to the street, and took my horse by the bridle. One especially, an animated boy of about fourteen, with a clear eye, beautiful forehead, and ruddy, fresh cheeks, pressed forwards towards me, calling out in Italian, that we should fear nothing, it was all a mistake, we were their friends, that I had only to ride on and dismount at the house of his brother. Some vehement people continued to accompany us, and called out to us from the wall, with the most angry gesticulations, while the great mass were already satisfied, and uttered a deafening cry of joy ; they fired off muskets 352 BSCHEEEEH. in the air, and now conducted us in triumph to the vil- lage. All were on foot in Bscherreh, which contains between 1200 and 1500 inhabitants, and there was pressing and pusliing to kiss our hands and clothes ; the women began their piercing shrieks, clapped their hands, and danced ; my honest youth remained constantly by my side, and thus step by step we made our way through the dense crowd, whom we now also greeted as friends, till we arrived in front of the Sheikh's house, whose youngest brother was my companion and guide. We were led up the stone staircase, and the open hall in front, to the spacious saloon which was to shelter us. I conversed almost the whole evening with the Sheikh of the village, Jusef Haxna. Dauie, a young and handsome man, with a serious, gentle countenance, inspiring confidence. His father had fallen in the war, under Ibrahim Pascha, who will soon be invested here with an odour of sanctity, should the present abominations of the Turks last much longer. Sheikh Jusef was the eldest son of this numerous and ancient family, in which the dignity of Sheikh is hereditary. He related to me with perfect frankness, composure, and intelligence, what was now going on among them, how they had resolved to supply the weapons which were required, but had retracted this determination when they heard of the disgraceful manner in which the Turkish military had be- haved in the southern districts ; thirty-four villages had now combined, and sworn in their churches not to furnish the weapons, but to use them against the Turkish dogs. "When I asked him if they had any prospect of being able to defend themselves successfully against a disciplined army, especially since the death of their common leader, Emir Beschir, he told me that in Bscherreh alone there were 3000, and in the whole of the district which had formed a combination 13,000 armed men — as large a number as the Turkish military in the country. Besides this, they had their mountains, their snow and rain, their passes and lurking holes, which would render WAR ly LIB AXON. 353 all the Tnrkisli cavalry and artillery useless. I uevertlieless advised them to apply to a consul at Berut, who was friendly to their cause, to solicit some mediation, and to avoid the last extremity. As I afterwards heard, this has taken place. The French consul-general, Bourre, has treated with the Pascha on their behalf But all may have been too late, and I fear that the storm of war has long since broken over my excellent hosts in Bscherreh, and that their wives and children have been even less spared than those of their weaker neighbours. I was rejoiced to be of some service that evening to the young JSheikh, whose pleasing and composed deportment pre- possessed me much in his favour. I bound up a wound for him better than was possible with the means he had at hand, and provided him with linen and lint. He told me tliat we could not set out next day, for he must prepare a feast for us, roast a sheep, and show us that he was our friend ; but I declined the invitation, which was made with all sincerity. The following morning we took a servant of the Sheikh with us as far as the next village, Ehden, which we also found in great excitement, but not inimical to us. Outposts had been stationed, and the variegated costume of the popu- lation, tlieir bright red and yellow dresses, looked at a dis- tance like a spring flower-garden among the green trees ; they surrounded and questioned us, and even here there seemed to be divided opinions as to what we were. One young Amazon ran for a considerable distance beside us, raised her finger in a menacing manner, and upbraided us that we Franks did not openly and vigorously side with them. "We here dismissed our companion from Bscherreh ; in his place, a rider, on a magnificent fiery horse, unasked, attached himself to our party ; he politely saluted us, and keeping at a certain distance never lost sight of us. In about a couple of hours afterAvards, at a more gentle inclination of the mountain, we perceived a troop of armed people in the field, who had planted the red banner of blood to preach war and revolt far 2 a 354 TEIPOLIS. away over the plain. The patrol advanced to meet us, and absolutely refused our proceeding any farther. It was only after long negotiations that, by means of a gold piece and the intercession of our companion, who seemed to be the Sheikh of a neighbouring village, we were granted free passage, but the whole troop accompanied us down the hill. When we had passed the next and last village, Zaheea, our attendant Sheikh was obliged to employ serious threats to get us safe across the frontiers of the revolted district ; he then accompanied us still farther down a valley, as far as a turn of the rock, and then saluting us shortly, rode merrily back among his mountains. "We were but a few hours dis- tant from Teipolis, which we reached shortly after sunset ; passing the grave Turkish guards, who may have possibly lost some of their stupid indolence, with the prospect of a near and desperate contest with the courageous inhabitants of the mountains. In Tkipolis, now called Tauabltjs, we stayed in the Latin convent, which is inhabited and taken care of by only two monks. They related to us that the Christians of Libanon had come to them a short time ago, and asked for their spiritual intercessions, whereupon they had not scrupled to dispense the holy sacrament for the space of three days. Unfortunately, the Maronites fail much less in such spiritual intercessions and good wishes than in the corporal provi- sions of bread and powder, for the Turks cut off their supply. The following morning we visited the Prussian American consul, who inhabits a handsome house, fitted up in the Oriental style, and afterwards went to the Bazar. Just then a large division of Turkish horsemen, on their road to Libanon, passed over a beautiful old bridge in the centre of the town, dressed in their party-coloured, streaked, dirty uniforms, with their lances ten feet long adorned with black bunches of ostrich feathers, their small war kettle-drums in full beat. Towards noon we again departed, just as the new Turkish general entered by the same gate from Berut, through which BAS-EELIEFS OT EAMSE3 II. 355 Tve had ridden out. On the road we met the divisions of the troops which had been ordered hither from Zachleh. From this point our road lav along the sea-coast, and almost the whole day we heard the thunder of the artillery in the ad- jacent mountains. "We spent the night in a Khan on this side of the promon- tory of Eas e' Schekab, named after the ancient Seov 7rp6ao)7rov ; no doubt because the black mountain, which here projects into the sea, assumes the exact form of a bust to those coming from the north. The following day we came to ancient Btbltjs (Gebel), and then crossed over the Adonis river, which still, after violent rain, is occa- sionally the colour of blood, mourning over the wounded favourite of Aphrodite. Passing Guneh, generally proceed- ing along the sea, sometimes even in it, we arrived at jN^ahe EL Kelb, the ancient Ltcus, to the south of which the cele- brated bas-reliefs of Ramses-Sesostris, and of a later Assyrian king^, are engraved upon a rock projecting into the sea. In spite of our rapid ride we did not reach the rock-tablets till shortly after sunset, and we spent the night in the Khan beyond. The following morning I investigated the sculpture more accurately, close to which passed the very ancient, artificial road, which is now destroyed, and I was rejoiced to make an important acquisition, for I was enabled to decipher a date in the hieroglyphic inscriptions. Among the three Egyptian representations, which all bear the Shields of Eamses IL, the central one is dedicated to the chief god of the Egyptians, Ea (Helios), the southern one to the Theban or Upper Egyp- tian Ammon, and the northern to the Memphitic or Lower * The king here represented is explained by Eawlinson to be the son of the builder of Khorsabad, Bel-Adonimseha. {A Commentary on the Cuneiform Inscr. of Babylonia and Assyria. London, 1850, p. 70.) According to Layard, the same king is found on the buildings of Kuyung'ik, Nebbi Yunas, and Mossul (Nineveh, Lond., 1849, p. 142 — 144); who (p. 400) supposes that the cypress monument now to be seen in Berlin belongs to him. (Compare Bonomi, Nineveh and its Palaces. London, 1852, p. 127.) 356 BEEUT. Egyptian Phtha ; this Eamses had also dedicated to tliese same gods the three remarkable rock-temples in Nubia, at Gerf HussEif, Sebua, and Deee, no doubt because they were viewed by him as the three chief representatives of Egypt. On the central stele, the inscription begins below the representation, with the date of the 2nd Choiak of the 4th teae of the eeign of King Eamses ; the Ammon stele, on the other hand, was dated from the second, or (if the two strokes above were connected) from the tenth year ; at all events, not the same year as the central stele, from which we might conclude that all three representations referred to different campaigns. "VVe did not leave the tomb of St. George unvisited, and the church dedicated to him near Nahr el Kelb ; and as we entered Beeut towards evening, we deviated from our path to visit the well where the dragon whicli he slew was in the habit of drinking. Thus, on the 26th of November, we ended our excursion to, and over the mountain range of, Libanon ; justly lauded from its numerous historical recol- lections, and its rare natural beauties, of which the poet says, " that it bears winter on its head, spring upon its shoulders, autumn in its lap, but that summer slumbers at its feet on the Mediterranean." EXTEACTS FROM THE WOPvK OF DR. LEPSIUS ENTITLED THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS. BERLIN, 1849. WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE EXODUS OF THE ISEAELITES. REVISED BY THE AUTHOR. EXTEACTS rKO:\I THE AUTHOE'S DEDICATION TO THE CHEVALIER BUNSEK My clironological work (the first volume of which is now before you), starting from a far more limited point of view, has a less remote aim than your history^, and will be at most but a supplemental elaboration of the ideas originally laid down in your more comprehensive plan. It is not my task to indicate the position Egypt occupies in the IIistoet of THE AVoELD, but only in its external form in the History of Time ; it is tlierefore chronological, not historical. But to obtain the chronological basis was, with reason in your opinion also, the first and most important point of your inquiry, be- cause upon this must depend every extensive development of history. You derived your information directly from those authors from whom we learn the connection of events, as a whole, and in detail. I obtained mine from the monuments, which establish the authenticity of the Greek account, fre- quently disclose their meaning, and necessarily correct, com- plete, and confirm their separate statements. The mutual interchanjre was intended to have led to a common result. If formerly this was not always tlie case, the interruption of our intercourse could not but lead us in many points still farther apart. I have never hesitated to express myself freely when I have differed from you, because I well know that, like me, you alone regard the subject before you, and are convinced that truth is finally elicited only by a distinct presentation of opposing possibilities. In the present investigations, also, I ' JEgjiptens Slelle in der Weltgeschichie. (Egypt's Place in Universal History. Trans, by C. H. Cottrell.) 360 THE authoe's dedication have yielded to this conviction, but on that account have felt it still more obligatory to lay them first of all before you, and fulfilling an agreeable duty, dedicate them to you as a public testimony of my gratitude. In this work I have touched upon the most various pro- vinces of archaeology, and have frequently been obliged to oppose, in essential points, the views of men whom I honour and admire as the heroes of science, and as unsurpassed models in criticism and true inquiry. This opposition would be presumptuous were it not that these contested points are mere specialities in the wide domain over which those men rule, to refute which, even successfully, could not abate from their just fame ; while, on the other hand, most of them are vital questions in the solution of the present undertaking, and closely connected with the very substance of those in- vestigations, with which I have especially endeavoured to render myself familiar. Had my vocation placed me in a pohtical position, my motto would have been Eeyerence and Freedom, and with EEVEEENCE and FREEDOM (those are your words) science must also be pursued. Eeverence, for everything that is venerable, sacred, noble, great, and approved ; freedom, wher- ever truth and a conviction of it are to be obtained and expressed. AVhere the latter is wanting, there fear and hypocrisy will exist; where the former, insolence and pre- sumption will luxuriate in science as in life. The investigation of Egyptian history will gradually exer- cise an extensive influence upon all branches of archaeology — upon our whole conception of the past history of man. We must therefore expect a reaction from all these sides. Some of these influential points have been already vindicated, partly by you and partly in the investigations now before us. They will not fail to call forth an animated opposition, and at best elicit discussion, going to tlie root of the question, and emendation on the part of the learned, to whose opinion I attach the greatest weight. That section of my volume which endeavours to establish TO THE CHEYALIEE BUNSEN. 361 the relation of the Egyptian to the Old Hebrew Chronology, will meet with most opposition. Considering the intimate connection that necessarily subsists between the philological and dogmatical method of examining the Biblical Eecords, it is perfectly natural, that whenever a step in advance, or an error, strives to obtain a place on the philological side, theological interest, so much more universally distributed, takes a part either for, or against it. "Whoever would dispute its right to do this, must deny to theolog}^ in general its cha- racter as a science. Tlie Christianity, which derives its origin and its sustenance from the Bible, is essentially and intrinsi- cally wholly independent of all learned confirmation. But it is the duty of theology, whose task it is to fathom Christianity in a rational manner, and prove its results, to decide scientifically what are the essential points in the holy Scriptures on which it founds its system of Christian belief. Should its true sup- ports not be recognised, but imaginary ones placed in their stead, it will not injure Christianity, but the theological sys- tem, or that portion of it which was built on unstable ground. That truth which is discerned by the sound progress of any science whatsoever, cannot be hostile to Christian truth, but must promote it ; for all truths, from the very beginning, have formed a compact league against everything that is false and erroneous. Theology, however, possesses no other means than every other science to distinguish scientifically, in any department, between truth and error, namely, only a reason- able and circumspect criticism. AVhatever is brought forward according to this method, can only be corrected, or entirely refuted, by a still better and more circumspect criticism. I believe that you, my honoured friend, and myself, have only one opinion on these points, I have therefore ventured to refer, at the conclusion of this section, to your excellent words, written on an occasion snnilar to the present. It seems to me, also, that the practical religious meaning, which the Old Testament possesses for every Christian reader, is very independent of the dates of periods, the exact know- ledge of which could only have been known by means of a piu-poseless inspiration to the authors and elaborators of those 362 THE author's dedication writings, many of whom lived several centuries later. Strict science has also very generally decided in this manner for a long time past, and has not failed to exercise its purifying reaction upon the dogmatical comprehension of the matter. So much the more solicitous am I, however, as to whether my views will stand your examination, and the judgments of other far more competent investigators than myself in this department, or will, at any rate, meet your consideration. The two numbers, namely the 430 years of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, and the 480 years from the Exodus to the building of the Temple, have been entirely abandoned by me, but have been the points on which all the most modem investigations have rested, though they appear to have been quite unknown, at least not brought uuder the consideration of all the older scholars, as Josephus, Africanus, Eusebius, Syncellus, &c- On the other hand, I have clung to the Le- vitical registers of Generations as a far more certain guide ; and thus, in place of a chronological fabric, which had been already long considered untenable, I immediately obtained a true historical foundation, and a chronology" bordering, at least, on a perfectly reliable one, as far back as Abraham, and this not only most satisfactorily coincided with all the other historical relations in the writings of the Old Testament, but also with the already established Manethonic-Egyptinn computation of time. The path which I have here taken is by no means new. Des Vignolles, Bockh, and Bertheau had already abandoned the number 480 years ; you yourself de- cided against the 430 years, and I find the same path pursued by Engelstoft in the most decided manner in his interesting work, to which, however, too little attention has been paid. Other preparatory labours in the widely extended department of this literatm'e may have escaped my notice, but, at all events, these opinions had hitherto been unable to make themselves properly appreciated, as is evident from the latest works of the most important inquirers ; and first among them Ewald's profound and acute history. Were it only occasioned by this mode of apprehension being hitherto not sufficiently carried out, and requiring especially the essential confirma- TO THE CHEYALIEE BrXSE>'. 363 tion of Egyptian clironology, and should tlie new course whicli I have adopted on that account win a more general assent, it would be no slight satisfaction to me, and would especially afford me one more guarantee of the genuineness of the Egyptian chronology. But the real foundation for the Egyptian computation of time, according as, in my opinion, it should he restored, is to be found in the last section of this volume in the criticism upon the authorities which derive their information from Ma- netho. This is a detailed and complicated investigation, and the superabundant material which is presented, forms a knot whicli the labour of almost a thousand years, in place of dis- entangling, has only drawn still tighter, because the wrong ends of the threads were always pulled. It was first of all necessary carefully to pursue these false ends through all their twistings — I mean especially the spurious writings, and the influences exercised by them, and separate them distinctly ; but to recognise the true character of the remaining genuine portion, and to fix securely the few principal points. Besides my own^reparatory labours, I possessed two admirable re- searches, upon which I could still further build : your own work, and the one by Bockh upon the Manethonic Computa- tion of Time. The result of the two investigations, which were obtained independently of each other, and published almost simultaneously, deviate very much from one another, since you fix Menes more than 2000 years later than Bockh believes he is placed by Manetho. This discrepancy must be the immediate result of the difference in your fundamental views, which caused Bockh to regard the Manethonic Dynas- ties as uninterruptedly consecutive, you as partly reigning contemporaneously. Bockh especially cited in support of his view the circumstance, that if we count the Dynasties ac- cording to the presentation of them by Africanus in a con- tinuous line, the first year of Menes coincided very nearly with tlie proleptically calculated year of commencement of an Egyptian Sothis period. He treated the questions under consideration with all the learning and ingenious criticism which is peculiar to this master in archaeological investiga- 364 THE ArTHOH'S DEDICATIOIv^. tion, pointing out that the slight deviation between the result which had been arrived at, and the one expected, might be removed by very simple means ; and he came to the conclu- sion, that this agreement was intentionally brought about by the Egyptian annalists, consequently that the Manethonic computation of time was cyclically invented or adapted, not handed down by history. The view that you maintain, which differs very much from this, you founded especially upon the comparison of the Eratosthenic lists with the Ma- nethonic Dynasties of the Old Monarchy ; you thus deter- mined the continuous Monarchical Dynasties, Avhose periods you calculated by the numbers of Eratosthenes, you espe- cially recognised no cyclical element in the Manethonic chronology, and hence believed "the accounts of Manetho and Eratosthenes to be a historical tradition, in part the re- sult of learned Alexandrian investigations. My view corresponds with yours in all essential points. That several of the Dynasties were contemporaneous, ap- pears to me most decidedly attested ; and I have been able to obtain a direct, and, as I believe, a genuine Manethonic proof of it. On the other hand, from the beginning I have never been able to lay so much stress upon the list of Eratosthenes, especially upon its individual names and numbers, opposed to the IManethonic statement, as appeared to you justifiable, owing to the important information you obtained from it concerning the Monarchical Dynasties. This is the principal reason why we still differ so much in our determination of the duration of the Old Monarchy down to the entrance of the Hyksos. A cyclical treatment of the Egyptian chronology, which you neither recognised in 4;he History of the Grods, nor in the History of Man, which Bockh, on the other hand, believes he finds in both parts, appears to me, indeed, capable of being demonstrated, but only in the mythical history, before Menes. The result of this has been a confirmation of the sum total of the Manethonic History of Man, which is also considered genuine by you, and upon which I imagine I may venture to place the greatest weight. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION On the previous Conditions necessary for the Origin of a Chronology among the Egyptians, and the Possibility of its Restoration. PAGE Favourable Conditions Ibr an early Egyptian History and Chronology 3G8— 396 External Circumstances in favour of an Historical Development . 368 — 374 Influence of the Local Character and Climate upon the Pre- servation of the ilonuments 368 — 371 Abundance of Building Stone 371 Bricks. Papyrus used as a Writing Material .... 372 Intellectual Basis and Proofs of Historical Activity . . . 374 — 396 National Historical Sense of the Egyptians .... 374 — 380 Earlier and more extended Habit of Writing .... 377 — 380 Books. Libraries 380 Fame of Egyptian Wisdom and Learning among the Greeks . 382 Sacred Writings of the Egyptians 387 Kemains of Historical Literature 392 Retrospective View 397—400 FIRST PART OF THE CHRONOLOGY. Criticism upon the Authorities. The Hebrew Tradition 401—493 Uncertainty of the Hebrew Numbers . . . c . .401 The Exodus according to Manetho 404 The Exodus according to Hecataeus and Diodorus . . . 408 The Exodus of the Lepers the same as that of the Israelites . 411 The Pharaoh of the Exodus according to Manetho . . . 417 The Pharaoh of the Exodus according to Ptolemy Mendesius, Apion Josephus 420 The Pharaoh of the Exodus according to Eusebius . . . 422 The Pharaoh of the Exodus accordmg to Lysimachus . . 423 Intimations concerning the Time of the Exodus in the Old Testa- ment 424 366 CONTENTS. PAGE The Situation of Abaris 425 The Situation of Heroonpolis 434 The Situation of Ramses 437 The Town of Eamses built by Ramses- jMiamun (Ramses II.) . 438 Canal Connection between the Nile and the Red Sea . . 439 The Towns Pithom and Ramses, on the Canal of Ramses II., built in the Reign of Ramses II 446 The Exodus of the Israelites later than Ramses II. . . 449 The Exodus in the year b.c. 1314 according to the Rabbinical Chro- nology 450 The Date of the Exodus according to the .Jewish Generations . 457 The Date of the Exodus according to the Book of Judges , . 470 The Period from Jacob and .Joseph to Moses .... 475 — 485 The Pharaoh of Joseph in Herodotus and Diodorus . . . 480 The Period from Abraham to Moses 485—492 Joseph placed during the Reign of Aphophis 487 End of Hebrew Tradition 492 The genuine Manethonic Numbers 494 Retrospective View 496 Tables of Egyptian Dynasties 499 i:nteoduction CHROXOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS. While the beginnings of Greek and Eoman history, by the strict investigations of modern criticism, have lost more and more of their historical character, and while cautious inquirers consider it impossible to obtain a fixed date for separate events, earlier than the seventh and eighth centuries before Christ, the history of Egypt treats of strictly historical facts, and its chronology contains exact numbers of years, months, and days in the third and fourth millennium previous to our era. This appears such a palpable contradiction, that it is not alone worth while on account of the larger circle of readers who are more out of the scope of these investigations, but it must also be important to the inquirers in this field, to answer for themselves the preliminary question, how it is possible to prosecute the history of Egypt so much far- ther back than the history of the nations of the West and East, without denying the principles of that criticism which has pointed out limits to the history of classical antiquity, and which must justly be considered the most valuable trea- sure of modem science ? In order to answer this question, we must first call to mind that it has now become a principle, derived from ex- perience, that the real history of a nation, in the strictest sense of the word, never recedes much farther back than its oldest contemporaneous authorities^ and this once expressed, becomes, from its intrinsic necessity, self-evident. This principle applies both to us — since our certain conclusions in historical investigations do not extend much farther back — 36S lyTEODUCTIOy and also to the nations tbemselves ; for tliey only obtain his- torical consciousness and historical experience when they he,'^in to produce monuments, especially written monuments, to bear witness to posterity of what is occurring. Monu- ments form the dial-plate of history ; until they exist, the present alone belongs to a nation, not the past — it exists without a history. If a nation loses its monuments, either through its own fault or through circumstances, it will be unable to preserve its history, which becomes confused and traditionary, and in place of the purely historical account which it has lost, it obtains, at the best, another principle of internal order ; a poetic-mythological, as with the Greeks ; a philosophic-mythological, as with the Indians ; or a religious one, as with the Israelites ; but it always loses its original value as a reproduction of a series of real facts. Now if we start from this axiom, that the commencement of everv true history and chronolog}', as it is scientifically understood at the present day, cannot be carried much far- ther back than their oldest contemporaneous authorities, and that we find this confirmed in the nations of Europe and Asia to the prejudice of their earliest histories, then it is here precisely that exists the marked superiority of the his- tory of Egvpt above all other histories. It is because we have here sucli very early contemporaneous autliorities — not only literary, but the most direct which exist, namely, monu- mental authorities — that we possess the means of obtaining so early a history of the Egyptians. If, with reference to this, we first observe the local and climatal conditions of Eg^-pt, we shall at once perceive that they aid in a wonderful manner in preserving all kinds of monuments and other relics of the earliest antiquity. A damp climate generally prevails in the more elevated and northern parts of Asia ; and in the more favoured regions, owing to a periodical rainy season, the extensive plains are covered with a fertile soil and luxuriant vegetation (the barren and stony deserts being always deprived of any high cultivation), consequently all, even the most solid, monu- ments of art, where we might have hoped to find them in TO EGYPTIAN CHEOXOLOGT. .3G9 considerable numbers, are overpowered and destroyed by the predominating vital power of nature, ever inimical to the works of man ; whereas the fertility of 'Egypt, as is well known, is almost entirely independent of rain. This cer- tainly applies less to the damp air, often pregnant with rain, along the sea-coast, or to the well-watered and marshy low district of the Delta. But it is principally for that reason that there are so few remains of the numerous large and flourishing towns of the Delta, and that these are hardly worth mentioning. Irregular heaps of ruins alone exist now of Memphis, tlie rich metropolis of Lower Egypt, reno\vned in the earliest and latest periods of the Monarchy, and of Heliopolis, Sais, Bubastis, and other important to^^-ns. The granite obelisks in Alexandria are so corroded by the weather that their inscriptions are hardly recognisable. In Upper Egypt, where it scarcely/ ever rains, it is totally different, especially with respect to all the monuments which are situated on the borders of the desert, out of reach of the annual inundation, and this is uniformly the case with the iombs, the richest storehouses for our knowledge of ancient Egyptian life, whicli in this country alone really fulfil their true destination, by serving as an asylum against destruction and decay. The narrow district of the Nile, annually re- created, borders in its whole length on the wide, rocky, and petrifying desert. The to^^^ls and temples were therefore chiefly built on the boundary between the two, partly not to intrench upon the fertile ground, partly in order that the buildings should be upon a drier and more secure founda- tion. And thus, in fact, we find the numerous temples and palaces in wonderful preservation, so far as they are not mutilated by the hand of man. Even the black bricks made of Xile mud. ?.ud dried in the sun, apparently the most perishable material, have not un- frequently been preserved in the open air for thousands of years, in the form in which they were built up, and with their coating of plaster. A row of great vaulted halls, built entirely of black iXile bricks, and partly covered in the 2b 370 I>'TEODUCTION inside ^vitli stucco, stands about the celebrated temple of tbe great Eamses, in Thebes. They date from the same period as the temple itself, the beginning of the thirteenth century before Christ. This is not alone testified by the architectonic plan of the building, but most irrefutably by the bricks themselves, which bear the name of Eamses- Miamun stamped upon them, as a mark of the royal manu- facture. At that time, and earlier, during the whole of the 18th and 19th Dynasties, it was a \erj common prac- tice to line the excavated rock-tombs with Nile bricks, and afterwards to paint upon the stucco, especially wherever the rock was friable, and was therefore hewn into a vaulted roof. But the same custom is sometimes found even in the earliest period of the Pyramids of Memphis. In enclosed places, not only the buildiug material, but the colours, both upon the stone and upon the plaster covering, have almost without exception retained their original freshness and per- fection, and also, Tevj frequently, where they have been ex- posed to the open air. The peculiar incorruptibility of vegetable and even of animal matter is, however, still more astonishing. Our museums are filled with such remains. In the most ancient tombs of Memphis, a multitude of objects are found made of wood, such as sarcophagi, chests, and boxes of all kinds, chairs, instruments, small ships, lilcewise grains of corn, and dried fruits, such as pomegranates, dates, the fruit of the Doum Palm, nuts, almonds, beans, grapes ; also bread and other food, besides cloth made of bast, a texture of reeds, papyrus, and an incredible quantity of linen. The countless number of mummies, also, are well known, which, though taken out of their tombs, still last for centuries with their skin and hair ; also all mummified bodies of animals, with their furs and feathers ; even the iuternal parts of the human body could there be embalmed for ever, and are still found in vases expressly designed for that purpose. This wonderful conservative property belonging to aU ancient Egyptian objects, depends therefore chiefly upon the TO EGYPTIAN CIIEOyOLOGY. 37l sky being without rain, and the dry soil of the non-irrigated desert. But the couutnt' offered another marked advantage above other lands, namely, the greatest abundance of ma- teriah especiaUy adapted for all kinds of monuments. Chief among tliese, is an admirable stone of the most varied quality, suited as well to building of all kinds, as to the most delicate sculpture. The mountain range which flanks the valley, and follows the course of the river from the Delta to beyond Thebes, is composed of limestone ; in the neighbourhood of ancient Memphis, upon the Lybian side, where the Pyramids stand, it is a solid nummulitic limestone, more adapted for excavations in the rock, and for building stone, than for sculpture ; on the opposite side, among the Arabian mountains, it has the finest grain, and is of a uniform density, approaching almost to marble ; it is capable of being worked in any manner, and on account of the beautiful polish it takes, was used, among other pur- poses, for the external covering of the Pyramids, while the interior was made of the Lybian stone off the ground, upon which they were erected. The Theban range of mountains is almost everywhere composed of rock, of such an extremely fine quality, that the sepulchral passages and chambers of the dead, hewn out in the living rock, most of them several hundred feet deep, running in various directions, were capable of receinng everywhere the richest sculptures, in the most delicate bas-reliefs, directly upon the polished surface of the rock. Beyond Thebes there are ranges oi sandstone mountains, from Grebel-Selseleh to Assuan. From these, and especially from the enormous stone-quarries of Selseleh, the architects as well as the sculptors of the New Monarchy obtained their chief supply of the most excellent and durable fine-grained sandstone. Pinally, the syenite and granite of Assuan are still considered the most beautiful and valuable of their kind, and were also used by the ancient Egyptians not only for their monolithic colossi, obelisks, sarcophagi, statues for entire small temples, &c., but were employed as a building stone, at all periods. In the 2b2 372 I>'TEODUCTION Pyramid of Chufu, the high walls, the ceiling, and floor of the greatest sarcophagus chamber, are entirely made of polished granite, and the third Pyramid of Mencheres was cased with it up to a certain height. I shall here pass over all the other more valuable kinds of stone, particularly those of the higher Arabian moun- tains, abundantly used in ancient Egypt, each in its own way, especially the beautiful yellow alabaster, several very valuable breccias, greenstone, serpentine, and the bluish-red porphyry of Gebel-Dochau, which was much employed at a later period, as they were all reserved rather for pur- poses of luxury. But we must not omit to mention here, that the abundance of building stone in this country was doubled by the ease of transport from one end of Egypt to the other, upon the great water road of the Kile ; therefore, sandstone and granite were used nearly as much at Thebes, and in all that part of the country where limestone rock alone was to be found near at liand, as in Upper Egypt, where it was hewn. Limestone or sandstone have been always, and in all coun- tries, the most important material for monumental pro- ductions. "Where this was wanting, or was obtained with diificulty, as in Babylon, or on the Indus, or in the north of Germany, earthen bricks were used as the best substitute, at least for building purposes. But in Egypt also they could be replaced by bricks of the best quality, since the soft, clayey Nile mud was especially adapted for the latter. Thus the wary Egyptians not only did not neglect this expedient, but made the utmost use of it, and with greater results than anywhere else, because here it was not required to take the place of some better material, but only preferred in those cases where the object itself made it appear best adapted. This more especially applies to great dykes, town walls, and those temple enclosures which were to contain no covered rooms, and no delicately constructed parts ; therefore, even in the earliest times. Pyramids were also built of bricks. They were employed to fill up the ground and to make elevations, but were more especially everywhere used where large spaces TO EGYPTIAN" CHEOXOLOGT. 373 bad to be covered in, witbout incurring tbe great expense of buge slabs of stone, before tbe useful principle of concentric 8tone-cuttin2: was known. This occasioned tbe remarkably earlj use of brick-vaulted roofs, along witb tbe imperfect stone arcb, wbicb was, as it were, only cut out of borizontal layers of stone. Hence arose tbe custom, connected witb tbis, wbicb we bave already mentioned, of lining rock-cbam- bers of crumbling stone ^vitb arcbes of JS'ile bricks. Tbe ex- ternal layers of tbe brick buildings in Babylon and Nineveb were generally made of burnt bricks, and yet tbey could not resist tbe cHmate and time. In Egypt, dried bricks alone were everywhere used ; owing to tbeir natural solidity, and to tbe climate, tbey answered better for tbeir monumental purpose tlian tbe burnt bricks of Babylon, wbicb is still proved by tbe numerous extant brick buildings, witb tlieir stucco and tbeir pictures. But in tbe history of a nation, a substance favourable to its book literature is of no less importance than tbe material for building and sculpture. Egj^Dt possessed also for tbis purpose an invaluable product of tbe country, tbe papyrus plant, from wbicb tbey were able to ob- tain a perfect material for writing upon, unsurpassed throughout antiquity. IS'eitber tbe skins of tbe lonians, nor the linen of tbe ancient Eomans, nor tbe cotton atuft' and palm leaves of tbe Indian, nor tbe parchment of Mysia, are to be compared witb tbe Egyptian pap3rrus in pliability, or in tbe power of extension, in durability and cheapness ; therefore its use became gradually more widely spread, and was preserved far down into tbe middle ages. Even the later discovered paper of our own time has not only retained tbe name of tbe ancient plant, but, with regard to its material, can only be looked upon as a continuation and perfecting of tbe EgN^tian paper, since pressed fibres of plants (particularly of flax and hemp) bave proved to be the most suitable material, even up to the present day. In ancient times tbe papyrus plant grew more especially in tbe marshy ground of tlie iS'ile Delta, and is only elsewhere men- 37*4 INTRODUCTION tioned by Pliny as growing near S}Tacuse, wliere to tliis day it is found in great abundance. Why, on the other hand, it has become almost entirely extinct in Egypt, may be ex- plained by the circumstance that it was artificially cultivated to an extent far beyond its natural powers of growth, and became therefore, like other plants, exhausted. Its use may be traced back to the most ancient times of Egypt; the papyrus roll and the writing apparatus are found upon monuments as early as the 4th and 5th Dynasties, therefore between three and four thousand years before Christ. But this discovery of very ancient Egypt, which may perhaps be considered as the most important, next to the invention of writing, only obtains its full significance in history by the unaltered preservation of those very rolls of writing for thou- sands of years. Eor they not only afforded the Egyptian priests the benefit of prhneval uninjured archives, but we still obtain from them the instructive contemplation of a multitude of such original documents, written on papyrus, from the prosperous times of the JMonarchy. In addition, however, to the external aid afforded by the climate and productions of Egypt, for the preservation of its history, is to be mentioned tlie internal and more efficient influence derived from the original direction of the national character — its historical sense. Tliis can by no means be explained solely by the reaction which the facility of immor- talising the present, and the peculiarly conservative nature of the neighbouring desert, might produce upon the original tendency of the national mind ; as little as .we can interpret the striking want of a sense for history, among the Indian people, by tlic less favourable locality of their country. The ultimate foundation for such national individualities can always alone be sought, in the particular part they are called to play in the general history of the world. But, on a nearer examination, we can have no doubt that such an his- torical sense existed among the Egyptian people in an un- usually high degree, and was cultivated by them in all its stages. TO EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY. 375 It is first of all demonstrated by the incredible midtitude of monuments of every kind, wbicli Avere at all periods erected by kings, and persons of private fortune. All the chief cities of Egypt were adorned with temples and pa- laces, and the other towns, frequently indeed more insig- nificant places, with at least one, often with several sanc- tuaries; these were filled with statues of the gods and kings of all sizes, composed of the most valuable stone, and the walls externally and internally were covered with coloured sculptures. To erect these public buildings, and to endow them splendidly, was the exclusive privilege and pride of kings. In their turn the richer portion of the people vied with them in their concern for the dead, by erecting monumental tombs. Whilst with reference to public buildings, the passion for building among the Greeks and Bomans, in their most prosperous days, can alone be placed beside that of the Pharaonic time, the Egyptian necropoli far surpass those of Greece and Eome, both in extent and in the number of the monuments, as well as in the richness of their execution, especially in their endowment of pictures and inscriptions. But next to the multitude and splendour of these works, tlie unsurpassed attention paid to their durability, especially proves the innate historical sense of the Egyptians. That they laid due stress on the great age of their buildings, follows from the annalistic account of Manetho, which is in no respect liable to suspicion, by which we learn that even Tosortiieos, the second king of the 2nd Dynasty, a7id the cotemporary of Menes, commenced budding with liewn stones dia ^ecTTtoi/ \l6u)v. And it is hardly necessary to mention the great Pyramids of Memphis, those colossal massive structures, which, solid tliroughout, and built of strong nicely joined hewn stones, are piled up above the sepulchral chambers, cut out of the living rock, generally without leaving any vacant space, like artificial rocks in the simplest form, as if he who built them had been aware that, in them he laid the foundation of the 376 iXTROcrcTiox future gigantic building — the History of Man. This may equally refer to all the other buildings, whether they are destined for the living or the dead ; the desire to labour for eternity is imprinted upon all of them. The belief which was early formed of a life after death, and of a relation continuing to subsist between the soul and the body, was closely connected with this ; and along with it the exaggerated care that was bestowed upon the bodies of the dead, embalming them, and swathing them, and shutting them up in double and triple sarcophagi, made of the strongest wood, and the hardest stone, which were buried in deep pits, and in laboriously excavated rock-cham- bers. Even in the most peaceful times this nation appears always to have anticipated the possibility of future hostile invasions, and of barbarous and rapacious races ; for that reason they so ingeniously closed the large granite sarco- phagi by means of metal rods, which only fell down into the holes prepared for them in the sides, at the last thrust of the cover, which was driven drawer-like in, so that the sarcophagi could only be opened by the destruction of the colossal masses of stone. They also endeavoured to guard even the passage which led to the sarcophagi cham- bers by heavy stone trap-doors, and by ingeniously building up the walls, so as to divert the attention, and to protect them in every other possible way from inroad and desecra- tion, i'or that reason many subterranean tombs are un- doubtedly still hidden from ns ; only a few tombs of kings are known, and many important monuments will still be dis- covered in the inexhaustible necropoli of ^lemphis, Abydos, and Thebes. However, we already possess such an abundant supply of works of art, and other things belonging to daily life, from the earliest, down to the latest times of the Pharaonic Mo- narchy, that these in themselves alone, considered only ob- jectively, would form an extremely important source of knowledge concerning the mode of life in ancient Eg\'pt. The great work of JS'apoleon, the " Descripion de VEgrjpte'' TO EGTPTIAX CHEOXOLOGY. 377 has splendidly demonstrated liow much in fact maj be gained by such an objective examination of the monuments ; it con- tains matter that will always deserve praise, and a rich treasure was collected for the cause of science, althouo-h the key to the hieroglyphics had not yet been discovered, and consequently all the monuments being chronologically uncomprehended, or "wrongly comprehended, stood beside each other, as in a picture without perspective, on one plane surface. This very work, however, is an evident proof of what coidd not be done, even with the greatest expenditure of means and learning, without aid obtained from the inscriptions. The history of the people in all its varied development re- mained dark and fabulous as before. It is the same with the monuments of all nations, which have come down to us either without any written character, or with it unde- ciphered, like those of our own heathen ancestors, or of the aborigines of South America, or even of the Babylonians. History profits very little by them. The Egyptians, however, from the beginning, exhibit, even on this higher stage, their historical sense and vocation. According to the Eg}-ptian annals, it was the same King Tosorthros who gained the highest reputation relative to the perpetuity of the history of Egypt since his time, not only by the introduction of hewn building stones, but still more by the care he bestowed upon the development of the written character ; and we see upon the monuments, at least since the time of Cheops, between three and four thousand years before Christ, a perfectly-formed system of writing, and a universal habit of writing, by no means confined to tlie priesthood. Even at that time the writing was no longer merely monumental ; tlie signs, indeed, when they were rapidly used, sometimes approached the hieratical short-hand. It therefore appears to me undoubted that, even in the time of Menes, in the very commencement of our Egyptian history, the hieroglyphic writing had been long invented, established, and practised, which we must of 378 IXTEODUCTIOX course presuppose since we hold Menes to be historical; for there can be no history without writing. From the choice of the pictures in hieroglyphics, and from other rea- sons, it appears indeed justifiable to suppose, that this won- derful picture-writing of the Egyptians was formed, with reference to its peculiar character in Egypt itself, without any other influence from abroad, although they may have brought the first beginning of it with them from their origi- nal home in Asia. But that a people should produce any- thing so perfect as this system of writing, which embraces at once all the stages of human writing, from the most direct ideographical symbolic writing through syllables, to the equally direct notification of sound by means of vowels and consonants, certainly indicates a long previous development. The application, however, wliich the Egyptians made of this early invention, from which so much resulted, is of still more importance. Eor they not only employed it, as often happens among nations of much higher civilisation, in tlie most necessitous cases, and where it was most immediately advantageous, but to an extent which surpasses everything that we have heard of elsewhere, and which must still astonish any one who considers the matter for the first time. While the Greeks and Eomans, at the period when they were most lavish of their writing, only placed a short inscrip- tion of a few words on the front of their largest temples aud most splendid buildings, for which reason the monumental style still denotes among us a sliort laconic style, as seems most suitable to the speaking stone ; among the Egyptians the temples Avere almost covered with inscriptions. All buildings, wliich were erected to the gods, to the kings, and to the dead, had generally representations or inscriptions upon all the walls, ceilings, pillars, architraves, friezes, and posts — ^inside as well as outside. In place of only giving the most necessary information, the writing here forms in itself at the same time an essential ornament of the architecture, as is the case also with representations on a larger scale. The variegated written columns on the white or grey surfaces, not TO EGYPTIAN CHEO'OLOGY. 3/9 only express a feeling for ornamental drawing, by the great variety in their lines, which run backward and forward with the utmost regularity, and satisfy the painter's eye by the brilliancy of the varied colours, but they also excite the ob- servation of the unlearned by the figurative and direct mean- ing of the written objects, taken from all the natural king- dom, and, lastly, the intelligent curiosity of the inquirer, especially of every cultivated man, by the peculiar significa- tion of their religious or historical purport. Thus hiero- glyphics becomes a monumental writing^ in a sense and to a degree of perfection, beyond any other written character on earth. They liad also so far overcome the technical difficulty of engraving these signs, both in the most fragile and the hardest kinds of stone, that it seems hardly to have been considered at all, though these signs were not composed of simple mathematical strokes, like the Eoman or G-reek monumental \vriting, or the cuneiform wiiting of the Asiatics, but were at the same time writing and artistic drawing. Among the Egyptians the written character was not alone the constant and indispensable accompaniment of archi- tecture, and of the larger representations upon the walls of the temples, but was placed with an equal predilec- tion upon all, even the smallest objects of art and of daily Hfe. How precious among other nations of antiquity are those statues, vases, gems, or other objects, which bear upon them inscriptions with respect to their origin, their owners, or their intended use! This is the universal practice in Egypt. There, no Colossus was so great, and no amulet so smaU, that it should not itself express for what it was de- signed by means of an inscription ; no piece of furniture that did not bear the name of its owner. Not only the temples had their dedications, in which the builder was named, and the god to whom it was consecrated by him, but they were considered of such importance that a particular class of in- dependent monuments were especially pevoted to them, viz., the obelisks at the entrance of the gates ; and besides this. 880 INTRODUCTIO' every fresh, addition to the temple, every newly-erected pillar, actually even the restoration of separate representations, which had been accidentally injured upon the old walls, had a written information respecting which of the kings built it, and what he had done for the enlargement, embellishment, and restoration of the temple. "We sometimes find the name of the reigning king recorded upon the separate building stones, as the stone-cutter's mark, and it was usually stamped upon the bricks of royal manufacture. Finally, however, writing was employed among the Egj-p- tians in its last and highest destination, as hooh-icriting for literary purposes ; and, indeed, as we have already mentioned, from the earliest times, for the use of the papyrus goes thus far back, and we frequently see upon the representa- tions from the time of the great Pyramids of Memphis, one or more scribes occupied in registering upon sheets their master's possessions in flocks, corn, and other treasures. We learn from the historical accounts relative to the first Dynasties, which are still preserved, that even at that time they possessed Annals oftlie Monarcliy. If we now reflect upon the period from which the ori- ginal fragments of such annals have come down to us, namely, the beginning of the New ^Monarchy, we find tliat this extends one thousand five hundred years farther back than the oldest remains of book literature in the whole of antiquity put together. For it is known that the greater proportion of our manuscripts only go back about as far as the tenth century of our era ; previous to this their number rapidly diminishes, and the small fragment of a manuscript of Livy, which was lately brought to Berlin, and was there recognised as probably belonging to the first century after Christ, may be viewed as the earliest remains of a book which can be referred to out of Egypt ; even the rolls — which were reduced to coal at Herculaneum — do not go farther back ; whereas in Egypt not alone numerous papyri have been preserved from the time of Ptolemy, but a much greater number from the centuries previous to that time, namely TO EGYrTIAX CDEOyOLOGT. 8S1 from the sixteenth to the thirteenth century, some of them of extraordinary length^. The greatest proportion of them were deposited with the mummies, and therefore only contain what relates to death and a future life ; but other rolls were interred in the tombs as the most seciu-e places, carefidly packed in particular vases or baskets, and they contain lau- datory songs upon kings or gods, historical annals, the ac- counts of the temple, that which relates to the calendar, and many other things with reference to this life, frequently contracts, law-suits, and similar documents from the time of tlie Greeks, sometimes also with Greek translations or additions. The large number still in preservation leave therefore no doubt concerning the remarkable fact communicated by Diodorus I. 49, on good authority, that King Osymandyas, ?. e. Eamses-Miamun, built a library in his temple at Thebes, as early as the fourteenth century before Christ. The de- scription which he gives us of tliis splendid building may still be traced from one chamber to the other among its ruins, and at the entrance — behind which, according to Diodorus, the library was situated — Champollion perceived on both sides the representations of Thoth, the God of AVisdom, and of Saf, the Goddess of History ; then, behind the former, the God of Hearing, and, behind the latter, the God of Seeing, which significantly reminded the person wlio was entering of the locality. Several hieratical papyri, which we still possess, are dated from the Eameseion, ^ I ( ©linUD^^^^ I audit is also frequently mentioned in the so-called Historical Papyri. I found in Thebes the tombs of two Librarians of the time of Eamses-]Miamun, therefore probably belonging to the library described by Diodorus ; they are situated to the south-west of the palace of Eamses, behind Der el Medinet. The occupants Avere father and son, since this office was hereditary, as most of them were. The father was called > The great Book of the Dead, at Turin, is upon a single Roll, 57' 3" Ehineland feet in length. 382 IlfTEODUCTION JSTeb-nufre, the son Nufre-hetep, and they bore the titles of I lier sclia' tu, " Superior over the Books," aud ^v^vyw^il* naa en scJia' tic, " Chief over the Books." In the tomb of the son, Eamses sacrifices to Amen-Ea, and portions of two statues of the deceased are still scattered about. We have good reason to suppose that this library, of which we have incidentally received still further information, was neither the first, nor the only one, and this is inferred, among other things, because the two gods above mentioned bear as one of tlieir fixed titles, not only here, but upon other monuments of all classes, the one the Master and the other the Mistress of the Sail of Books, and that, consequently, the idea of gods of libraries must have been A^ery familiar to the Egyptians. This also explains how, in the earliest times of the Greek dominion, under Ptolemy Philadelphus, it was possible to fill the library founded in Alexandria in the space of a few years with 400,000^ rolls, at a time when there was no precedent in the Grecian motherland except the private collection of Aristotle. It is explained, when we remember that Phila- delphus found such an abundant store already existing in the Egyptian archives and libraries. It no longer seems anything remarkable when lamblichus-, referring to a Seleucus, tells us of 20,000 hermetic books, which we must understand to be a rough computation of all Egyptian literature ; the notice does not obtain a mythological character until the introduc- tion into it of the cyclical number 36,525, which lamblichus quotes from Manetho — of course from the false one. The fame of Egyptian wisdom^, which was universally dif- fused throughout the ancient world, was grounded upon an abundant literature, and the stock of knowledge deposited therein, which increased from year to year like a well-invested capital. This fame was never disputed even by the Greeks 1 Eitschl. The Alexandrian Libraries. 1838. P. 32, &c. - De Myster. viii. 1. According to Bockh, Manetho, p. 117. J. Firmicus also speaks somewhere of 20,000 books of Hermes. Compare Fabr. Bih. gr. ed. Harl. t. i. p. 85. 2 1 Kings iv. 30; Acts vii. 22. TO EGYPTIAN CnEOXOLOGT. 383 themselves ; possessing so mueli higher natural endowments than others, they were more just in this point than many of our modem critics, who would rather consider the genius of the Greeks as auto-didactic, grown up in a barbarous wilderness. Herodotus calls the Egyptians " by far the best instructed people with whom he has become acquainted, since they, of all men, store np most, for recollection^ When the Eleians wished to establish their Olympian games, they sent an embassy to the Egyptians, they being the wisest people of all the earth, to obtain their judgment and their good advice upon this great project^. The distinguished series of celebrated men^ who are said to have carried Egj^ptian -wisdom to the Greeks, begins as early as the mythical times. Danaus brought the first germ of higher civilisation from Egypt to Argos-^, and Erectheus, King of Athens, was considered by some an Egyptian*, and taught the Eleusinian mysteries according to the manner of the Eg}^ptians. The holy singers of antiquity, Orpheus^, Musaeus^, Melampus''', and Eumolpus^, thence acquired their theological wisdom ; and even to Homer^ himself Egypt may not have been unknown. The most ancient artists of Greece, Daedalus^^, Telecles^^, and Theodorus^^, are said to have educated themselves in this land of pri- meval art, and have employed the Egyptian canon of pro- portions. Lycurgus"^^ and Solon^* introduced into their 1 Herod, ii. 160. - See the general accounts in Diodor. Sic. i. 69, 96—98; Plut. de Is. et Osir. c. X. ; Clem. Alex. Strom, p. 131 ; Sylb. Cedren. Hist. comp. p. 94 B. 3 Herod, ii. 91 ; vii. 94, &c. [Diod. i. 28.] ^ Diod. i. 29. ^ Diod. i. 69, 96; iv. 25. [Justin. Mart, ad Graec. c. xiv.] « Diod. i. 96. [Clem. Protr. p. 12; Uireph. Synes, p. 421.] : Ibid. s Diod. i. 29. 9 Diod. i. 69, 96. Heliodor. Aeth. iii. 14; Clem. Div. i. p. 130. [Justin. Mart. c. xiv. 17.] 1'^ Diod. i. 96. ^^ Diod. i. 98. ^- Ibid. 13 Diod. i. 96; Plut. de Is. et Osir. c. x. [Plut. Lye. i. p. 41; F. Isocr. Laud. Busir. p. 329.] '* Plato. Tim. p. 21 ; Diod. i. 69, 96; Plut. de Is. c. x.; Vita Solon, 0. xxvi. [Justin. Mart. c. xiv.; Cyrill. c. Julian, i. p. 15.] 384 INTEODrCTION fatherland all the ^Yise regulations they there became ac- quainted with ; and Herodotus^ especially tells us that the Egyptian laws relating to the surveying of the land, by which every one was obliged to declare to the monarch his annual revenue, were transferred to Athens by Solon, and were in use even in his time. Cleobulus, tlie sage of Lindus, is said also to have visited Egypt-. It signifies little how much historical foundation there is for these accounts. The general direction taken by tradition, with reference to it, proves even more than separate facts could do, the early and late general universal recognition of Eg}^tian wisdom. It was considered a glory to participate in it. But Egypt was especially regarded as a university for philosophy, and for all that could be gained through science and learning. "We therefore see philosophers, mathematicians, physicians, historians, resorting to Eg}'|)t, each emulating with the other, and studying for many years under Egyptian teachers. Tlie houses in Heliopolis in which Plato and the mathematician Eudoxus had lived for tliirteen years, were still shown to Strabo^. The observatory of Eudoxus, in which he is said to have made certain observations of the stars, and on Canobus, in particular, bore his name"* in the time of Strabo. Even Thales'"' was instructed by the Egyptian priests, and as it is expressly said, had besides them, no other teachers. Here he became acquainted with the division of the year into seasons, and into 365 days ; and here also he learnt how to take the measurement of high objects, such as the Pyramids by their shadow, at a particular hour of the day^. Archimedes^ in- vented his celebrated water screw in Egypt, and there applied it, in the establishments which were devoted to the irrigation 1 ii. 177. - Diog. Laert. i. 89. 3 Strab. xvii p. 806. 807; Cic. de fin- ^'- 29; Diod. Sic. i. 96; Plut. dels. c. X. de genio Socr. p. 578; Clem. Al. Strom, i. p. 131; Diog. Laert. iii. 6. ^ Strab. ii. p. 119; xvii. p. 807. ^ Plut. de Is. c. X. de placit philos. i. 3 ; Clem. i. p. 130; Diog. Laert i. 27. [Theod. Melit. Proem, in Astr. c. xii.; Cyrill. c. Jul. i. p. 15.] " Diog. Laert. i. 27; Plin. H. N. xxxvi. 17. ' Diod. v. 37. TO EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY. 385 of the land. Pythagoras^ was a long time in Egypt, and all that -we know concerning the dogmas of this influential man agrees with this account-. His doctrine of the immortality of the soul, especially, is very decidedly referred, by Hero- dotus, to 'Egypt. He says, " This doctrine is wrongly pro- nounced hy certain GreeTcs, whom he will not inention, a^ belonging 'peculiarly to them^^^ by which he evidently has Pythagoras and his master Pherecydes in view, for it is also related of the latter that he was in Egypt*. And it is in fact now sufficiently known, from the monuments, that the Eg}'ptians possessed from the earliest times very distinct ideas about the transmigration of souls, and of judgment after death^. The philosophers Anaxagorim^, Bemocritus^ , Sphaerus^, the mathematician Oinopidea^, the physician Chrysippus'^^, also Alcaeus^^ and Euripedes'^^, are enume- rated among the visitors to Egypt, Einally, the same is known of Hecateus^^, Herodotus, Diodorus'^^, Straho, and many less celebrated Grreeks. All these men did not merely desire to acquire a knoAV- Icdge of Egypt as eye-witnesses, but went there principally to gain instruction from the learned priests on particular branches of knowledge. This is the light in which those historians regarded it, who give us more detailed accounts of these wanderings of the Greek scholars to Egypt^^. The Egyptians themselves indeed valued it so highly that the priests, as Diodorus, i. 96, expressly recounts, recorded in their annals the visits of celebrated Greeks. It thence ' Cic. de Jin. v. 29; Diod. i. 96; Strab. vii. p. 297; xiv. p. 638; Plut. dc Is. c. X.; Diog. Laert. viii, 3, 11; Clem. 1. 1. [Justin, ilart. c. xiv. 19; Isocr. Busir. p. 227.] ^ Herod, ii. 81 ; Diog. Laert. viii. 24, 33, 34; Diosr. Laert. viii. 4. 3 IJerod. ii. 123; Diog. Laert. viii. 14; Cic. Tusc. i. 16. * Clem. Alex. i. p. 129; Cedreu. p. 94, B. [Theod, Melit. Pr. in Astr. c. 12.] * See preface to the Todtenbuche der ^Egi/pter, p. 13, &c. 6 Cedren. p. 94, B. ' ])iod. i. 96; Diog, L. IX. 35. « Diog. L. VIL 177. ^ Diod. i. 96. '° Diog. L. VIL 186; viii. 87. " Strab. L ii. p. 37. •2 Diog. L. III. 6. '3 Ikroil. ii. 143. '* Diod. i. 44. '5 _oiod. i. 69. 2 C 386 INTRODUCTION arose that the most distinguished among them, even the individual teachers, remained known by name and descent, and were handed down to us^. These names bear upon them a genuine Egyptian stamp, and therefore offer no grounds for any material doubt from this side. Plutarch calls the teacher of Solon, SoficJiis, from Sais ; of Pythagoras, OnnupMs, from Heliopolis ; and of Eudoxus, Chonuphis, from Memphis. Clemens adds to these the teacher of Plato, SechmipMs; all of them names whose Egyptian form may be easily restored. It is evident that this instruction must have contained more than an unintelligible knowledge of symbols, a petri- fied mysticism, and empty dreams, as people have been hitherto frequently inclined to believe. Real knowledge and scientific experiences could only be founded upon a copious literature, carefully fostered for many ages. Its great treasures had indeed been long known and envied before the time of the Ptolemies ; the Persians, under Artaxerxes, carried off a portion of them, together with other treasures, from the ancient archives of the temples, and only restored them for a high ransom^. But their contents began for the first time to be better known, and more per- fectly understood, when the translations appeared, which were extensively made for the Greeks^ after the time of the first Ptolemies. Strabo, among others, affords us a valuable proof of this, where he speaks of the thirteen years' resi- dence of Plato and Eudoxus in Egypt^. " These priests (he says) were versed in astronomy, but, mysterious and far from communicative, it was only after the lapse of time and by polite attentions that they allowed themselves to be in- duced to communicate some of their doctrines ; but still the most part was kept concealed by these barbarians. For in- stance, to complete the perfect year, they added that portion of the day and night which goes beyond the 365 days ; * Plut. de Is. c. X. ; de genio Socr. p. 578, F ; Clem. Al. Str. i. p. 131. * Diod. xvi. 51 . » Sync. p. 271, D. * xvii. p. 806. to"lgtptian cheo^'ologt. 387 neveHJieless, the perfect year remained unJtnoicn to tlie GreeJcs, as well as many other things, until the later astronomers learnt it from the treatises of the priests, which were translated into Qreelc ; and they still refer to the writings of the Egyptians, as icell as to those of the Chaldeans^. But, in order to view more distinctly the multiplicity of the Egyptian branches of learning, I shall mention the forty- two Hermetic books, probably chieily sacred, described to us by Clemens of Alexandria, from a genuine ancient authority^. "We learn from it that the ten first and principal books, those of the Prophets, called the Hieratical, or Priest Books, treated of the laws and the gods, namely, of the highest theological education, which embraced at once di^^ne and human laws^, and pliilosophy*. To this was appended, as an immediate and necessary complement, the ten books of the Stolistes — liturgical in their contents — containing ordinances about the sacrifice, and the ofiering of the first-fruits, of hymns, prayers, processions, feasts, &c. To these twenty writings, which were in a stricter sense sacerdotal, succeeded fourteen others, treating of more iecidar learning, what we should call the eccact sciences, which were indeed indispensable to the priests, but in them- selves bore no theological character. These also were again divided into two divisions ; of which the first, consisting of ten books, belonged to the hierogrammatist^, and not alone embraced the wide field of hieroglyphics, i. e. writing and ' See respecting this, Letronne. Translation of the 17th Book of Strabo. (Ge'ographie de Strabon. t. i. Paris, 1819. p. 390.) Com- pare the passage in Herodot. ii. 123, where, though not by name, he accuses Pythagoras and Pherecydes of having ascribed to themselves irhat tliey had borrowed from the Egyptians. The same was related by some of Eudoxus. Diog. Laert. viii. 89. ' Strum, vi. p. 260, ed. Sylb. See also Bunsen JEgyptens Sielle in der Weltgesch., Bd. i. p. 34, &c. {EgupCs Place in llnivasal History, book i. p. 9.) H 3 Aelian. Hist. var. xiv. 34, says, that the Egyptians in ancient times had priests as their judges. * Clem. Strom, i. p. 131. ^ [Sacred Scribe.] 2 c2 388 ISTTEODTJCTIOK drawing; but also all that fell witMu the department of the measurement of space and of geometry, commencing with the more general, cosmograpliy, universal geography, the cliorograpliy of Egypt, and the course of the Nile ; then, also consequent upon that, the topograpliy of the temple- sites ; and lastly, the most local arrangements of the furniture of the temple, as it were, or naograpliy. The remaining four books, the ast7'oIogical, more properly called by us the astronomical, were committed to a particular class of scholars — the horoscopi, or time seers. This portion of their science, so peculiarly important to the Egyptians, and therefore kept distinct from the rest, entered into everything that it was necessary to be acquainted with for the calcula- tion of time, both in detail and on a large scale, therefore more especially with the heavenly chronometers, the stars, and indeed, above all, the position of the fixed stars (and the constellations) ; then the arrangement of the planets (and their revolutions), the conjunctions and phases of the sun and moon ; lastly, the rising of the stars. The practical purpose was indicated by the symbols of the horoscopes, the horologium, and the palm-branch of the years and periods. After the strict sciences, there followed the two books of the Chanter. He represented the only art — at least, the only one which was recognised as such, by its separate posi- tion — that of onusic. Architecture and the art of drawing were practised, and even with a feeling for art, but they had not emancipated themselves as independent arts, from the rule and line condition of the hierogrammatist. Even music, which was apprehended, and came into the world for the first time through the Greeks, was not considered by the Egyptians as an independent art, in our sense of the word, neither could it be regarded a science like drawing, as if it were equally an efflux of the horoscopical chronology, to which it was externally attached. It was on that account necessary to keep them apart. We must, therefore, look upon the chanter only as a precentor — a practical leader of the reli- TO EGYPTIAN CHEOXOLOGT. 389 gious and festive songs. His two books contained hymns to the gods, and (encomiastic-poetical) observations upon the royal life, but only as the subject-matter of the religious chorus. It cannot be known how far real music was here brought into consideration ; but certainly the wSos had nothing to do with the theological purport of his hymns — information concerning this must be derived from the prophets and the Stolist. The contents of the last six books were medicinal, and treated of the structure of tlie body, of diseases, the organs, curatives, for the eyes especially, and of female cases. They are assigned by Clemens, probably from a misunderstanding, to the FastopTiori, i. e. the watchers of the temples^. This survey of the forty-two ancient sacred books deserves here especially, our full consideration, because it brings clearly to light an intelligent, thoughtful, general view of ' The Pastophori do not appear in the train of the priests, and are expressly separated from the priests (iepety) by Porphyrius. They "were, as their name implies, the bearers of the small sacred chapels of the gods which formed the principal furniture of the temple. That is probably the reason why they appear in the great processions, where the images of tlie gods were carried about, not as priests, but as umler-officcrs of the temple; and they are, therefore, rightly placed by Porphyrins along with the veoxopoi, the sweepers of the temple, and the other servants of the temple {ynovpyoi). As bearers of the sacred shrines they were also their watchmen, and, therefore, especially the overseers of the temple, the watchmen of the temple ; therefore their hieroglyphical sign, according to Horapollo, i. 41, is a house •watchman, (pvKa^ o'ikov, because the temple is guarded by him, Sia TO iTTo TovTov (^vXciTTfordai TO tepov. But what could the temple •watchmen have had to do with medicine ? There is nowhere even the most distant relation indicated between the pastophori and the physicians; indeed, their occupations appear necessarily to exclude them. I therefore believe that there is either some fundamental error, or a false reading, in the passage of Clemens, which cannot yet be solved. The pastophori were the principal under-oflScers, and there- fore were united by their rank with the chanter, the lowest class of the priests. Was this possibly the reason why the books of medicine, which succeeded those of the chanter in this canon, were ascribed to them? There were many more than fortj'-two sacred books, and they must have all been lodged among the archives of the temple, without, however, being assigned to any particular class of priests. 390 INTRODUCTION the universe, straining after inward perfection and con- scious arrangement, and also the necessity of giving this a prominent form by literature, and of introducing it practi- cally into life. Proceeding from the general to the indi- vidual, from the spiritual to the external, from the theoretical to the practical, as well in the succession of the general sec- tions as in the arrangement of the separate books, this code forms a defined whole, which we nowhere find repeated among any of the nations of antiquity, not even among the Indians. Unfortunately, the ten first and most important books, which contained their fundamental ideas on religion, philosophy, and law, and therefore the highest and most spiritual department of their contemplation, are not so fully described as the following sections, as regards the detail of their contents ; therefore the enumeration of the separate branches of knowledge with which the hierogrammatists, the real scholars, and the horoscopi, next to them, occupied themselves, and which comprehended the whole visible and measurable world, is so much the more worthy of our notice. At the same time we must remember that in the con- struction of this canon there was no intention of giving the chief features of an encyclopaedia of their sciences. Every scientific purpose was necessarily laid aside, only the thoroughly practical aim of a sacerdotal compendium was contemplated, in which learning only formed part of the education of a priest, and merely occupied a third place after theology and the liturgical forms, and was only represeiited so far as a direct practical use could be obtained from it. Philosophy was therefore not at all separated from theology ; human law was only an efflux of divine law. The know- ledge of geometry was necessary for the surveying of the land, the division of the produce, the building and decoration of the temples ; the knowledge of astronomy for the calendar of festivals, and the civil calculation of time ; singing formed a part of the Liturgy. jS'or is proof wanting that the knowledge and literature of Egypt far siirpassed what was required by the hierarchy, that the thirty-six or forty-two TO EGYPTIA^' CHEO^'OLOGT. 391 books were also the earliest and original centre, to wliick later progressive improvements might everywhere attach themselves. We frequently read in other authors about the " Sacred Writings^'' of the Egyptians, or of their Sermetic books, but it would be wTong to refer all these notices to the forty- two books named by Clemens. It seems to me by no means improbable tliat the above-mentioned precepts on the life of the king, in Diodorus, which for Egj'pt bear a thoroughly classical stamp on them, formed a portion of the sacred law- books of tlie prophets, and that the laudatory song upon the deceased king, mentioned at the end of that passage, might have been composed in imitation of the eKXoyto-/x6s /3acrtXtKo5 ^iov, in the last of the thirty-six books, and have only been employed in the last case. But it is not to be supposed the forty-two books themselves contained separate laudatory songs on particular kings, although such songs, understood in a wider sense, certainly belonged to the sacred books. We read in the same passage of Diodorus, that wise say- ings and actions of the most distinguished men were read aloud to the king after the sacrifice by the hierogrammatist from the " Sacred Books," in rav Upcov /3i/3Xtoi/. We still pos- sess ancient pap}Ti which contain proverbs of a similar kind, some of them even put into the mouths of certain celebrated kings belonging to the Old Monarchy, such as Amenemha I., the head of the 12th Dynasty-, resembling somewhat in their form the proverbs of Solomon. For the sake of the reader, and the one who reads out loud, they are divided by red points recurring at nearly stated intervals into short verses, accord- ing to the sentences, like the Hebrew scriptures. But these could not have belonged to the ten rolls of the hierogram- matists, nor to the priests' canon in general. It were more easy to suppose that the first book of the singer ' [Diod. i. 70, 73, 96.] ^ 1 speak here of the first section of the Papyrus of Sallier, No. 2, which is communicated in tlie Select Papyri in the hieratic character^ from the collection of the British Museum. London. 1844. PI. x. — xii. 392 I^TTEODTJCTIOK may have consisted of single hymns and prayers addressed to particular divinities, such as we still possess several instances of, e. g. to Ea, Amen Ea, Mut^, to Thoth-, to Osiris^, Atmu^, &c., yet probably it likewise only contained the daily litanies, which belonged to every temple service, and which were also expressly mentioned*. I can as little agree with the opinion^ that the great Book of the Dead of the Egyptians was one of the ten books of the Stolistes, although I consider it to be also^ a sacred book ascribed to Hermes. Even its extent forbids the former supposition. And, moreover, it is by no means a liturgical book, which one belonging to the Stolistes must have been, nor a book of Eituals, as ChampoUion appears to have regarded it, but essentially a history of the soul after death, therefore it was placed in the tomb with the deceased. The theological basis of this work, however, was undoubtedly included in the hieratical books of the prophets. Bunseu^ justly makes a distinction between the civil law- book, and the sacred law-books of the prophets. It was impossible that the regulations and precepts of the six law- givers, who are mentioned by Diodorus^, could have been re- ceived into the canon, this can only be supposed of the most ancient portion of them — the laws of Menes, which were ascribed to Hermes by himself, and probably were the foun- dation both of the religious and of the civil law. "We shall now more easily understand why still less space was afforded in the canon of Clemens for the historical litera- ' I procured in Thebes a number of such hymns for the Eoyal Museum at Berlin. Several of them were composed in the reign of King Ramses IX., in the 20th Dynasty. There was a hymn to Amen- Ra, upon a roll of eleven pages, in the Egyptian collection of JSIr. Sams in London, 1839. * Upon a wooden tablet covered with fine white chalk, in the British Museum. 3 In the Book of the Dead, c. 128, 134, 139, &c. [Plut. de Is. c. 52.] *■ Porphvr. de ahst. iv. 8. 5 Bunsen, Bd. i. p. 55. {Eg.'s PI. m Un. Hist. bk. i. p. 28.) ^ See my introduction to the Todtenbtiche der j^gypter. Leipzig, 1842, p. 17. 7 Bd. i. p. 47. (E(/.'s PL in Un. Hist. bk. i. p. 20.) » i. 94, 95. TO EGTPTIA>^ CHEONOLOar. 393 tare. It presented neither a speculative nor a practical side to the object which Egyptian theology had in view, and re- garded in this light, therefore, it must appear subordinate. But on that account it no less existed. This is proved as well by the authors^ themselves as by the original remains, which. we still possess. Historical facts of aU kinds, related both by means of pictures and writings, covered the walls of the temples in the principal towns; single battles and whole wars were described, with their exact dates, and with all the living details of an eye-witness, upon the stone surfaces of the pylons and the surrounding walls. As long as these lasted, the remembrance of those actions must have remained li\dng and true in the mind of every cultivated Egyptian. And, in fact, we find these representations at a late period used as a direct authority in history. Tacitus- recounts to us the visit of Germanicus to tlie " great remains of ancient Thehes. And Egyptian inscrip- tions icere stiU extant upon the enormous buildings ichich declared the former onches. One of the most distinguished of the priests, icho icas required to explain the language of the country, related, that at one time 700,000 7nen, capable of bearing arms, dwelt here, and that King Ramses loith this army had conquered Libya, Ethiopia, the Medes and Persians, the Bactrians, and Scythians, and that he held under his dominions the countries of the Syrians, the Armenians, and the neighbouring Cappadocians, and thence to the Bithynian and the Lycian Sea ; the tribute laid upon the people ivas also read aloud, the iceight of the silver and gold, the number of the weapons and horses, and the presents to the temple, of ivory and frankincense, and how much corn and other objects had been remitted by each nation, which was not less than what is now imposed upon the people by the might of the Barthians, or the power of the Bomans.^^ This is as strictly an historical notice from the reign of Eamscs II., in the fourteenth century before Christ, as was ever related to us by the Greeks from the life of Xerxes or Alexander : for we read this statement now in the present day ' [Tatian. or. ad Grcec. c. 1.] ^ Annal. ii. 60. 394 IKTEODUCTIOX upon the same walls, before wliich Grermanicus stood "with wonderiug eyes. The Greeks and Eomans seldom derived their knowledge from such a direct source as Germani- cus did here, and Tacitus was quite unconscious that he was speaking of the same King Eamses, when shortly before he related of King Sesostris, that the bird called the Phoenix ap- peared for the first time in his reign. AVe stni read the name Eamses upon the monuments, as the priest read it to Germanicus ; Sesostris was the name of Sethos I., who was so often confused with his son Eamses, and was carried down by a Greek mistake, siuce the time of Herodotus (ceecocic, cecococic, COCCOCTpic). "Who can well doubt that along with such a historical literature engraven in stone, which to this day fills the whole of Egypt from Alexandria to Mount Barkal, far in Ethiopia, a corresponding historical hook literature must have existed, of course much richer and more complete, even though we may not be able at present to point out the remains of it. But in fact we still possess papyrus rolls, one of which accidentally refers to the identical warlike deeds represented, with their annotations, upon the walls of the Theban temple. This is one of the important docu- ments which the British Museum purchased in the year 1839 from M. Sallier, in Aix, after Champollion had already, in the year 1828, recognised and communicated several pas- sages in it which related to the war of the great Eamses against the people of Cheta^. In 1838 I found at Leghorn, in a collection of Egyptian antiquities belonging to M. D'Anastasi, a series of papyri very similar to this, which mention other warlike features of that glorious period. They appear to come originally from the same tomb as those of Sallier, since they proceed, partly, indeed, from the same ^ Champollion, Lettres ecrites dEgypte et de Nubie, p. 21, 426. After the death of Champollion, Salvolini made use of the privately withheld papers of his master for a particular treatise : Campagne de Ramses-Ie- Grand (Sesostris) contre les Schela et leurs allies. Manuscrit hieratique appurtenant a M. Sallier a Aix. en Provence. Notice sur ce MS. Paris, 1835, 8. TO EGYPTIAN CHEONOLOGT. 395 Bcribe. Other similar pieces are found in the Egyptian col- lections at Turin, Leyden, and Berlin. It is evident, partly from the express date of the author or scribe, partly from the kings mentioned in the text, that the largest proportion of them belong to the 19th Dynasty. The most ancient date in the London papyrus is from the ninth year of the Great Eamses II. ; the latest is from the first year of King Set-Xecht, the third successor of tlie former. The Turin Eoyal Annals 'also belong to this or the next DxTiasty. Other papyri are certainly not older than the 20th ; e. g. one of those which I obtained in Thebes repeatedly mentions the name of Eamses IX., and is dated, upon the reverse side, from the 13th of Pachon — the six- teenth year, probably, of this king. Another of these rolls contains, on the other hand, a por- tion of a composition which belongs to the time of Tutmes III., the conqueror of the Hyksos in the 18th D>Tiasty ; a roll in Turin treats of the same king. We have as little reason to doubt that the first paragraph in the Pap. Sallier, No. 1, pi. i. — iii., which treats of two kings at the end of the Hyksos period, was also composed in their time, or soon after their death. Two remarkable papyrus rolls, which I obtained in Lon- don for the Berlin Museum, mention the first kings of the 12th D.ynasty, Amenemha I. and Sesuetesen I. Their writing is very different from the rest of those that I am acquainted with, and they belong to the very rare exceptions which, in place of horizontal lines, are written in vertical columns, after the manner of hieroglyphical writing ; so that it would not surprise me, if by penetrating more deeply into the contents, the result should be, that they were composed, even this very copy, during the Old Monarchy. But the most ancient of all* the hieratic royal namcG are found in a papyrus in my own possession^. Here the name of Chuftj ' I am indebted for this valuable present to an English lady. Miss Westear, who had deposited it a long time ago in the Bodleian Library^ Oxford. It contains nine sides, of which, unhappily, the first four are 396 iNTEODrcTio>- (Cheops) is frequentlv mentioned, also King S>'efett in the 3rd Manethonic Dynasty, and three other kings, who probahly belong to the same Dynasty. These kings are, indeed, all cited as dead, but since the whole of them belonged to that ancient period, its contents could hardly be placed much later. Among a people who were at all times sur- rounded by so many contemporaneous monuments and his- torical authorities, reaching as far back as their first royal Dynasties, it must have been generally much more difficult to supplant, or essentially to alter the existing genuine history of ancient times by fabulous tales and poetical inventions of later times. In spite of the astonishing number of monuments, and in spite of the rich literature, whose original remains are con- firmed by the accounts we find in different authors, it would, however, have been impossible to the Egyptians themselves, how much more so to us, to obtain a correct and clear insight into the course and connection of their history, if from its commencement a chronological sense had not been so early developed among them. Witliout chronology we should ob- tain no history, even from the most varied literature ; the Indians, especially, give us a striking proof of this. History first obtains a perfect self-consciousness through chronology. With the growmg civilisation of a people, the necessity in- creases for a sharper division of time both in small and large periods. From the earliest era of their history, the Egyptians have known how to satisfy this necessity, inherent in every higher state of civilisation. But a chronology which is well arranged and established must always proceed from astronomy. "VVe cannot conceive the existence of the former, in any nation, without the latter being to a certain degree developed. It will not, therefore, appear superfluous if we enter here more minutely into the very much destroyed. The remainder, also, is very hastily -written, and is therefore difficult to deciplier. It appears to be poetical, and to be addressed to a king, whose name unfortunately is lost ; the example " of his ancestors," Chufu, Snefru Ser, &.c. is held up to him. TO EGTPTIAX CHBONOLOGT. 397 astronomical knowledge of the Eg^-ptians, before we turn our attention to their computation of time. We shall here, also, commence with the information we obtain from authors, and afterwards see how far it is confirmed and completed by the monuments. [Tiie author here proceeds to the astronomical basis of Egyptian chronology, and the chronological knowledge pos- sessed by the Egyptians, and concludes his Introduction with the following words :] Takinj^ a retrospective survey of the path we have hitherto pursued in our discussions, I believe I have essentially ful- filled the task we undertook at the commencement, namely, to point out the i^ossihility of the existence of such an early history of Egypt. AVe have seen how, contrasted with the most ancient Asiatic nations, the Egyptians (pre-eminently favoured by their climatal and geographical conditions) were destined, as it were by nature, to be a monumental nation. These external conditions correspond with the innate bias of their feelings, which is shown by the innumerable multitude of their monuments, and by the extreme care they bestowed upon their preservation. From their desire to retain the fleeting present, may be explained the early development of their system of writing (so rich and significant in its organism, owing to its important origin), as well as the ex- cessive use which was made of this writing, especially for the monuments, beyond any other nations of antiquity, so that it soon attained its highest destination by its applica- tion to a many-sided book literature. "We have been able to refer to a Theban library as early as the fourteenth cen- tury before Christ, and have found reason for considering it neither the most ancient, nor the only one in Egypt, It was this very ancient literature and hereditary learning, which a later antiquity, and more particularly the Greeks, abun- dantly acknowledged, praised, sought out, and studied. Among the various branches of knowledge we have surveyed, espe- cially the sacred codes of the priests — the forty-two Hermetic 898 INTRODUCTION "books described by Clemens, we have however particularly attempted, to indicate more closely from the monuments, the early study of astronomy, because the arrival at a more fixed chronology depends especially upon its development. We have likewise endeavoured to point out that, under the favourable circumstances of an Egyptian sky, and especially since the introduction of the variable sun-calendar (calcu- lating as it were, and forming periods for itself), astronomy was cultivated in the most elaborate and most complete manner, and this we have been able partly to confirm by the monuments of the 4th and 12th Dynasties of the Old Mo- narchy. "We have discovered a division of time, less than an hour, to the sixty times sixtieth part of a minute, and above an hour to the period of 36,525 years. Between these there were the greatest variety of cycles, such as no other ancient nation, except the Eg}^ptian, has been able to produce in equal perfection. They were acquainted with the civil hours of day and night, also with the twenty-four equal or equi- noctial hours of the complete day, vvxBr}l^€pov. From days they formed the decades, or Egyptian weeks, and from these the thirty-day month; they also knew the lunar months, and solemnised the new and full moon. Their season consisted of four months. They recognised as forms of years, and carried out in the calendar, both the oldest lunar year, as well as the solar year of 365 days, and the Sirius year, which is a quarter of a day longer. The civil solar year, after twenty-five years, namely at the Apis period, agreed again with the lunar year ; in the same way, calculating by the day, it agreed with the Sirius year, at the lustrum of four years ; and in the space of 1461 years, it agreed completely with the Soihis period. The Phoenix period, of 1500 years, was employed to make the civil year agree with the tropical year, which was afterwards divided according to the three seasons into three parts— 500 years each. Finally, the Sidereal year, or the slow receding of the echptic to the west, became known, and it was expressed, although with an imperfect comprehension of the direction TO EGTPTIAIN- CHiaoyOLOGT. 399 and Telocity of the movement, by its greatest astronomical period of 36,525 years. "We have gained the principal purpose we had in view if we have succeeded in pointing out that, in Egypt, from the time of Menes, to whose reign the historical accounts go back, there existed to an extraordinary degree all the con- ditions necessary for the growth and the perfect development of the self-conscious and historical life of a nation, and for a chronologically-arranged historical literature, formed by the monuments and contemporaneous records. These circum- stances have placed it in our power to investigate and restore, from such early times, the experienced and recorded history of the Egyptians. As far as our present knowledge extends, the conditions that we have named only appear complete among the most ancient Asiatic and European nations at a much later period, namely, during the last millennium before Christ, therefore an historical investigation, which refers back as far as that of Egypt, has hitherto been impossible with respect to those nations, except so far as in the Egyptian history itself new points of information may be found respect- ing the oldest history of nations, not Egyptian. But it may very possibly be imagined that we have been compelled to stop at the indication of this jpossibility^ being deficient in the means to raise this historical treasure from the depths in which we behold it. "We can only restore true history with the assistance of an historical literature, and this must either be contemporaneous, and so far possess in itself a monumental value, or if it is a later literature, referring to what has long gone by, it must be accompanied by contemporaneous and intelligible monuments to enable us to prove and correct it by them. Hitherto we have certainly possessed one of the necessary means for the restoration of the Pharaonic history, namely, the Greek accounts, and extracts from an ancient Egyptian historical literature. But they remained useless and confused, because the monuments and the literary remains of the country were still mute and unintelligible. However, since Cham- 400 INTEODUCTIO>'. pollion's praisewortliy deciphering of the hierogljphical writing has rendered it possible to make an historical use of the monuments of the country, the second means for his- torical investigation has been placed in our hands. It was now for the first time possible to gain some advantage from the literary authorities, and to make a critical examination of them, which would necessarily demonstrate the general connection that subsists between the monuments. Only a correct all-sided combination of the means offered on both sides can here lead to the aim we have in view. THE HEBREW TRADITION. AVe can best exhibit the relation that subsists between tlie Hebrew and Egyptian records, by endeavouring to deter- mine chronologically, and by such means as are extant, the most important point of contact in the two histories — namely, the Mosaic period — and thus to prove the value of tlie several numbers stated. We shall thereby perceive that the Hebrew accounts, in so far as they are connected with Egypt, may be held to be of more historical value than several modem inquirers are inclined to accord to them, and tliat they are by no means wanting in a fixed chronological principle, without which history cannot subsist; but that a more exact chronology, which might serve as a point of support to the Egyptian, is not to be sought in them, and it is rather this last which supplies the most certain chro- nological explanation of those times to the history of the Israelites. The genuine chronological character of the Jewish history is pretty well acknowledged by every one as far back as the division of the kingdom, or the building of the temple, whereby, indeed, the individual chronological difficulties, which frequently occur during this epoch, are not considered, but only the chronological value of those num- bers generally wliich form the basis of these separate inves- tigations ; but the strictly chronological character of the Hebrew determinations of time before this epoch is dis- puted, and, indeed, in those very numbers which contain in themselves alone the threads of an exact chronology. A cri- tical examination of the value of these numbers generally is thus necessary, and therefore this discussion becomes ap- propriate here. It is, in fact, of the greatest importance to 2d 402 THE HEBEEW TRADITION. "US, because it determines whether it be possible to solve some marked contradictions which have at all times keenly engaged the attention of historians and theologians, and still continue to do so ; it will, besides, enable many people to decide upon the value of the Manethonic, consequently of the Egyptian chronology generally, so far as it is made to depend on its agreement with the accounts obtained from the oldest source, the only one indeed not Egyptian, which here, at all events, admits of a comparison. There are, especially, two numhers which have liitherto formed the turning points of the chronology of the Old Testament for the Mosaic period, because, passing over the uncertain individual statements, they fixed the limits to great spaces in time, and appeared to lay down a rule for more special investigations. I mean the 480 years^ which are calculated to. be the period between the Exodus and the building of the temple, and the 430 years- for the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt. Both numbers very early created difficulty, and are partly modified, and partly refuted by other statements of time in the Old Testament. The 4S0 years ought to correspond with the sum of the individual numbers in the Book of Judges, which last is, however, con- siderably greater. The genealogies of that same period would, on the other hand, lead to the conclusion that the number of years was much fewer. The Seventy themselves differ in their statement of tlie number, since they write 440 in place of 480 years ; and in the Acts of the Apostles (xiii. 20), 450 years are calculated for the Judges only to the time of Samuel; and this again differs from all other statements. Lastly, we find that Josephus also, even if he knew the number 480, still did not consider it as binding, since he never mentions it, but accepts different numbers, and far higher ones^, which, nevertheless, do not agree with the Book of Judges. It thereby at least follows, that the number 480 by itself cannot claim any decided authority. ^ 1 Kings vi. 1. - Exodus xii. 40. 2 Ant. viii. 3, 1: 592 j c. Ap. ii. 2: 612 years. rNCEETAINTT OF THE HEBEEW ^'^irBEES. 403 But there is a still greater difference in the acceptation of the 430 years which the Israelites are said to have passed in Eg}'pt. For, setting aside that in an earlier prophecy^ the round numher 400 alone is given, the Seventy under- stand the whole statement to mean, not from the entrance of Jacob into Egypt, but from the entrance of Abraham INTO Canaak, and they therefore translate the words in Exodus xii. 40, " Now the sojourning of the children of Israel, who dwelt in Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years ; by t] de KaroiKTjais T&v vlav ^la-parjX, rjv KarcoKrjo-av iv Tjj yj) AiyvTTTa Koi (u yrj Xapaav, errj TCTpaKocria TpiaKovra (!N^OW the dwelling of the children of Israel, which they dwelt in the land of Eg}-pt and in the land of Canaan, was four hun- dred and thirty years). The Apostle Paul- also reckons the 430 years from the promise of Abraham, and Josephus-^ does the same, so that for the sojourn in Egypt, which is understood in the Hebrew text, only 215 years are reckoned, the remaining 215 being assigned to the time from Abraham to Jacob. Lastly, if we compare the number of generations in this period, we shall only find four generations for the four centuries, so that for this, even half of the time stated would still be fir too great. • Finally, if we consider along with these contradictory statements the intrinsic character of the numbers given in the original text, namely, the arithmetical relation of the 215 years from Abraham to Jacob, to the 430 or 215 years from Jacob to Closes, the frequent return also of the inde- terminate number 40, both in the first'* and still more in the second period, and lastly the nature of the numbers 480 or 440 as a multiple of 12 or 11 generations of 40 years each, it appears to me very natural that either a higher providen- 1 Gen. XV. 13; compare Ap. Hist. 7, 6. * Gal. iii. 17. 3 Ant. ii. 15, 2; viii. 3, 1, Compare c. Ap. i. 33, where he calculates 170 years from Joseph to ]Moses. * Isaac was 40 years old wheu he married Eebecca; Moses is 40 years old when he goes' to Midian ; at 80 years of age he leads the people out of Egypt, and dies at the age of 120. 2d2 404 THE HEBEEW TEADITIO'. tial meaning, and in spite of all other opposing considera- tions, the only correct chronological expression would be seen in this play of numbers, or that this external garb of numbers would be regarded as unessential for the religious — indeed, in part, also, for the historical import of those narra- tions, but that in the latter case all more exact chronological investigation of this period must be relinquished. The latter view must gradually prevail in stricter science. A criterion was wanting in the investigation of the Old Testament, which might decide upon a definite choice among its self-contradictory statements. Each claimed for itself a like authority. If we believe that we may now attempt a new solution of the difficulty, we rely upon the fresh point of view which we can occupy for that purpose, since we now possess a positive scale that may be relied on (indepen- dent of the investigations of the Old Testament), by which we can estimate the Hebrew statements, namely, the authen- tic history and chronology of the Egyptians, which more than equals the Hebrew in point of age. Now if it should appear that they can in no way be harmo- nised, science would then, indeed, remain in its former un- certainty concerning the times before Solomon, and we should lose one of the most important and most acceptable corrobo- rations of Egyptian chronology. But the result of our in- vestigations is more favourable, since the Egyptian order of time, resting upon perfectly independent foundations, most decidedly determines that there is a chronological principle throughout the historical relation of the Old Testament, and not an arbitrary selection of Hebrew numbers. By this means a firm foundation is given to the critical examination of the latter, and both histories reciprocally afford each other a support that cannot be shaken. "We must first of all show that the Egyptian account of the expulsion of the Lepees, given by Manetho, refers really to the same event as that narrated in the Old Testament, as the Exodus of the Iseaelites. "We shall afterwards determine the epoch which is recognised in the Egyptian tradition, and, THE EXODUS ACCOEDIXG TO 3IAXETH0. 105 lastly, attempt to show how ever}' other time is in like man- ner eicludt'd by the historical purport of the Hebrew narra- tive; that there exists, also, a chronological thread which leads us to the same result, and, indeed, that the authentic tradition concerning the year of the Exodus has never been entirely lost among the Jews. From this fixed point we shall tlien look back still farther into the times of Joseph, and the accounts of the Greeks appertaining to that period, to which will be added our views regarding the visit of Abra- ham to Eg}-pt. The following is the account of the Mosaic events which Josephus gives us from Manetho, and partly in the words of Manetho himself i. After describing the expulsion of the Hyksos, whom Josephus considered to be the ancestors of the Jews, and gi^ing an account of the kings who succeeded that event, as far as Eampses, the son of Sethos, he continues : " After he (Manetho) had therefore related, in conformity with his earlier narrative, that our ancestors^ (the Hyksos) had departed from Egypt so many years earlier, he then sa}'s that King Amenophis, whom he here inserts, desired to become a beholder of the gods, like Horus, one of his pre- decessors. He communicated this desire to one Amenophis, son of Paapis, who, on account of his wisdom and pene- tration into futurity, was believed to partake of the divine nature. Xow this namesake of Amenophis told him that if he cleansed the whole country of the Lepees and other unclean people, he would then be able to behold the gods. The king thereby rejoiced, collected together all who were smitten with this bodily disease, throughout the whole of Egypt 80,000 in number, and cast them iuto the stone-quarries, which are situated east of the Nile, in order that they should there work, apart from the other Egyptians. Among them were some learned priests, who had been attacked by the leprosy. But that wise and prophesying Amenophis began * Contra. Ap. i. 26. 2 Manetho had only related that the Hyksos were expelled in the rei^ of Tuthmosis. It is the opinion of Joseuhus alone that they were the Jews. 400 THE HEBEEW TEADITION. to fear the auger of tlie gods, for himself as well as for the king, if they, the priests, were seen at sucli compulsory labour ; and he foretold, moreover, that others would hasten to the assistance of the unclean, and would govern Egypt for thirteen years. He did not, however, venture to express this to the king, but, leaving behind liim a written record, he killed himself. Upon that the king became very much dejected. Then he (Manetho) continues verbatim, thus: * Kow, when these people had suffered sufficiently by the hard work in the stone-quarries, the king yielded to their entreaty, and gave up to them, for their deliverance and pro- tection, the town of Abaris, which had at that time been for- saken by the shepherds (Ilyksos). But this town, according to traditions of the gods, had always been a Typhonic town. Now, when these people had entered into this town, and found the place favourable for revolt, they appointed as their leader a priest of Heliopolis, by name Osarsiph, and swore to obey him in all things. He established as their first law that they should worrship no gods, and that they should not abstain from those animals which, according to the law, are considered most holy in Egypt, but that they might sacrifice and consume them all ; also, that they should associate only with their fellow-conspirators. After he had established these and many other laws, which were entirely opposed to the Egyptian customs, he commanded them all to set to work to build up the town walls, and to prepare them- selves for war against King Menophis. But, whilst he con- sulted some of the other priests and infected persons, he sent messengers to the shepherds who had been expelled by Tethmosis to the town of Jerusalem, and, after he had let them know what had happened to himself and to the others who had been injured along with him, he invited them to make war against Egypt in unison with his followers. He would first of all conduct them to Abaris, the town of their forefathers, and amply provide the troops with vrhat they required ; but, if it were necessary, he would protect them, and easily subject the country to them. Greatly rejoiced, THE rXODUS ACCOKDIXG TO il^yETUO. 407 they readily brought together as many as 200,000 men, and soon arrived at Abaris. But when Amenophis, the Egyptian king, heard of the invasion of these people, he was not a little disturbed, for he remembered -what Amenophis, the son of Paapis, had prophesied. He first collected the Egyptian troops, conferred with his commanders, desired those sacred animals which are the most honoured in the sanctuaries to be brought to him, and commanded the individual priests, more especially to conceal the images of the gods most securely. But he sent his son, Sethos, who was five years old, and was also called Eamesses, from Eampses, the father of Amenophis, to his friend (the King of Ethiopia). He himself, indeed, went forward with the remaining Egyptians, who amounted to 300,000 fighting men ; however, when the enemy advanced to meet him he did not engage in battle, but returned hastily to Memphis, because he believed he was fighting against the gods. There he carried ofl" the Apis and the other sacred animals which had been brought thither, and repaired innnediatcly with the whole army and the remaining bag- gage of the Egyptians to Ethiopia. The King of Ethiopia was, in fact, beholden to him ; he, therefore, received him, supplied his troops with all the necessaries of life which the country aff'orded, assigned to them as many towns and villages as would sufiice for the predetermined thirteen years, in which they would be compelled to be deprived of his government, and even placed an Ethiopian army on the borders of Egypt as a protection to the people of King Amenophis. Thus it stood in Ethiopia. But the Solymites who had come into the country, and the unclean among the Egyptians, treated the people so shamefully, that the period ot^their government appeared to all who then beheld these impieties the worst of times ; for they not only burnt towns and villages, and were not satisfied with plundering the sanctuaries, and abusing the images of the gods, but they continually made use of those venerated and sacred animals which were fit to be eaten, compelled the priests and prophets to become their butchers and destroyers, and then sent them 408 THE HEBEEW TEADITIOK. away destitute. It is said, however, that the priest who gave them a constitution and laws, who was a native of Heliopolis, and called Osarsiph (from the god Osiris in Heliopolis), went over to these people, changed his name, and was called Moses.' This and much more, which for the sake of brevity I must omit, is what the Egyptians relate concerning the Jews. But Manetho says further, that Amenophis after- wards returned out of Ethiopia with a great force, that he and his son Eampses, who had also an army, gave battle to the shepherds and the unclean, conquered them, killed many, and pursued the remainder to the borders of Syria. Manetho wrote this and similar things." Next to this Manethonic account, we shall place the Greek conception of the matter as we find it in Digdoeus, xl. 3, taken from Hecataeus of Abdera (and also in an earlier pas- sage, xxxiv. 1, without his authority being given). " When," says Hecataeus, " a plague once broke out in Egypt, most people believed that it was a punishment sent by the gods. For since many strangers of divers races dwelt among them, who practised very anomalous customs, with respect to the sacred things and to the sacrifice, it came to pass that hence their own ancient worship of the gods declined. Therefore the natives feared there would be no end to the evil, if they did not remove those who were of foreign extraction. The foreigners were therefore quickly expelled. The best and the most powerful of them united together, and, as some people say, were driven away to G-reece and other places, under distinguished leaders, of whom Danaus and Cadmus were the most famous. But the great mass withdrew to the country which is now called Judea, situated not far from Egypt, which was at that time barren and uninhabited. The leader of this colony was Moses, who was distinguished by the power of his mind, and by his courage. He captured the country, and besides other towns, built HiEESOLTiiA, which has now become so famous. He also founded the temple, which was so pecu- liarly holy in their eyes, taught them the worship and the THE EXODrS ACCOEDLS'G TO nECATAETJS AND DIODORUS. 409 service of the Deity, gave them la^s, and regulated their constitution. He divided the people into twelve tribes, because this is the most complete number, and agrees with the number of months in the year. But he set up no image of the gods, for he did not believe God had a human form, but that he is one God, who embraces heaven and earth, and is Lord of all things. He regulated the sacrifices and the usages of life very differently from those of other nations ; since, in consequence of the banishment which they had themselves experienced, he introduced a misanthropical mode of life, hostile to strangers." The statement in the earlier passage of Diodoetjs, xxxiv. 1, sounds far more bitter, where he says " that they (the Jews) alone among all nations scorn any intercourse with others^, and look upon every one as their enemy. Their forefathers, also, were driven out of Egypt as disgraced and hated by the gods ; and in order to cleanse the country, those attacked with the white sickness and leprosy had been collected together and cast beyond the frontiers as an accursed race. But tlie expelled people had conquered the country round Jerusalem, had formed the nation of the Jews, and trans- mitted to their descendants their hatred of mankind. On that account also they had adopted perfectly anomalous laws, neither to eat with any other people, nor to show them any kindness." " Antioclius Epiphanes, after he had conquered the Jews, entered into their holy of holies, into which only the priests were admitted ; ho there found a stone image of a bearded man, who sat upon an ass, and held a book in his hand. He took this for Moses, who had founded Jerusalem, organised the people, given them laws, and introduced the disgraceful and misanthropical customs." Now if we compare these relations, which evidently refer to Egyptian and not to Jewish statements, with the repre- sentation we meet with in the Hebrew conception of the matter, we cannot mistake the general agreement of the most essential features. 1 Compare Exodus xxxiv. 12, 13. 410 THE HEBEEW TEADITION. Differing entirely from the former Exodus of tlie Hyskos, the description of which is likewise preserved to us by Mane- tho, here, it is not an open enemy who is to be subdued, but people of foreign descent, peaceabl}' dwelling in the land, increasing, however, to a dangerous extent, and who inspired the Egyptians with fear and hatred. It is true that neither Manetho, nor any one of the authors we have named, ex- pressly say that the expelled people were of a different race from the Egyptians ; but the cause of this may have been that the entrance of the family of Jacob into the country which was so important to the Jews, probably passed un- noticed by them. The influx of emigrants from the eastern and north-eastern Semitic countries was apparently much greater in those flourishing times of tlie Egyptian kingdom than it was thought necessary to recount in the detached history of the house of Israel. The influence of those people from Palestine who had been driven back under Tuth- mosis, must only have increased the former importunity of that people to enter the blessed land of Egypt. But so long as they came singly and peacefully, and did not shrink from entering into all kinds of intercourse and alliance with the Egyptians, they must have been considered by the natives as belonging to the country — as Egyptians. It is cer- tainly a mistake to suppose the Israelites were the only strangers in Egypt. They dwelt in the land of G-oshen, situated on the eastern border of the Delta, but of course only a very small body in the midst of Egyptians, and many Philistines and Arabians, from whom the Egyptian could not distinguish them. The immense increase in their nimi- bers, of which we read, is only to be understood in this manner. How could there have been so distinct a division of the one race from their Semitic companions, as is usually understood, when their chief men themselves frequently did not shrink from mingling with the Egyptians ? Even Ishmael had an Egyptian mother and an Egyptian wife^. Joseph becomes so completely Egyptian that he is 1 Gen. xvi. 3: xxL 21. ZXODUS OF TUE ISBAELITES. 411 able to occupy the highest position under the king, does not eat at the same table with his brethren, and speaks to them through an interpreter. He also takes an Eg}'ptian woman as his wife^, even the daughter of a Priest of Heliopolis ; and Moses himself marries an Etliiopian-. The same inter- mingling between the races is afterwards still more fre- quently mentioned, without being considered as anything remarkable or forbidden, e. g. Leviticus xxiv. 10 ; 1 Chron. ii. 34, 35 ; and the same with respect to other foreigners, the Tyrians, e. g. 1 Kings vii. 14. The immigrants also did not limit themselves to the land of Goshen, which had been first assigned to them, but ^^ filled the land^^ and appeared "^o grow greater and migTitier than the Egyptians^ That the simple race of Jacob is not here meant, but all who had allied themselves to it, as to a powerful centre, is again made evident in the Exodus, where it is said'^, ^'■And a mixed mul- titude icent up also ivifh them.''^ There may even have been many Egyptians among the mixed multitude ; indeed the whole population continued to cling, even long after the Exodus, so firmly to Egyptian customs, and even to the re- ligious practices of the Egyptians, that they were constantly inclined to fall back again to the old form of worship. Is it surprising that the Egyptians should have considered those people as Egyptians — and called them so in their traditions — who, even at the foot of Sinai, made an image of the holy bull, INIneuis, and solemnised it with festivities, thus proving that the greater proportion of them had adopted the Egyp- tian religion ? This was naturally the reason why the Jews were so fre- quently viewed as an Egyptian colony, e. g. by Strabo^, Apion^, and others ; and in this at least there is no contra- diction between the Egyptian and Hebrew accounts ; they rather both assist in completing a more perfect picture. * Gen. xlL 45. 2 Numb. xii. 1. ' Exodus xii. 38. Compare Numbers xi. 4. * p. 701), 824. 5 C. Ap. ii. 3. Compare Tacit. Hist v. 2- Aethiopum prolem. 412 THE HEBEEW TSADITIO^'. The emigrating people were described especially by Mane- tho, and by all the other Egyptian traditions, as a race of ^^ unclean, leprous Egyptians, godless, and hated hy God'' It is evident that the people designated here were of foreign ex- traction, DiFFEEiXG rN" EAiTH, consequently godless settlers in Egypt, the shepherd families, who, on account of their occupation, in remembrance of the old hereditary enemy, were hated by the genuine Egyptians, especially by the priests, "ybr every shepJierd is an abomination tcnto the Egyptians'^.'''' The Mosaic account also corroborates the opinion that the leprosy and the lohite sickness (Xcvktj, dXcpas), which re- sembles it, were very prevalent in those times, and particu- larly among the Jews, and that they were most dangerously infectious. This is intimated by the strict laws of separation issued by Moses against those attacked by the leprosy, among whom, however, his own sister Miriam^ is found; also by the miracle of Moses, who draws his own liand out of his bosom white as snow with leprosy^, and afterwards afflicts the land "^^-ith the plague and with noxious boils*, and finally with the sudden death of all the first-born. This perfectly explains the Egyptian account of the universal plague of the leprosy, which had more particularly broken out among the poorer and more uncleanly settlers, and which threatened the whole Egyptian nation^. To this is to be added the belief of th6 strict Egyptians that inward un- cleanness and godlessness of the heart must necessarily be inseparably connected with outward uncleanness and with the leprosy, the most abhorred of the diseases sent by God. It is said, by Manetho, that among these infected people there were some learned priests. Possibly these were of the Egyptian race, and yet were cast together with the unclean strangers. But there is nothing to prevent our • Gen. xlvi, 34. 2 ^STumbers xii. 10. 3 Exodus iv. 6. 4 Exodus ix. 3, 9. * The Persians also knew no other way of protecting themselves against tliis infectious disease of the Xeirp-q rj Xevxi] than by driving those who Avere attacked by it out of the town, and if they were strangers, out of the country. Herod. 1, 138. EXODrS OF LEPEES SAME AS OF ISEAELITES. 413 assuming that these priests were also of foreign descent, and perhaps themselves Israelites. It is not, indeed, an im- probable assertion, that Moses himself was brought up as a priest of Heliopolis. It is evident that Joseph could not, as a Hebrew, have been first minister of Pharaoh, but that he must, at the same time, have possessed both the rank, learning, and outward consecration of the Egyptian priests, with whom he had also united himself by marriage; and that Moses likewise, brouglit up in the house of the king, could only be instructed, in all the wisdom of the Egyptian priests, through the same medium of outward fellowship. Contrasted with the Egyptian prophets and hierogramma- tists, who equally convert their staffs into serpents, change water into blood, and fill the land witli frogs, he appears before Pharaoh only as a wiser, and more highly endowed man, than those sages. The name Osarsipli, is of little im- portance here, for even the name of Moses is expressly de- clared to be Egyptian, as it could not have been otherwise. But yet on this very account it is worthy of notice, because it is interpreted as being expressly derived from Osiris at Heliopolis. As the principal god in that place was Ea, i. e. ■'HXtos, the service of Osiris was imdoubtedly most closely united with the holy sun-bull of Osiris^, the white buU represented in the paintings gold^ ^ (j "^^ Menes, or Mneuis, the same whom the people adored in the desert, and whose worship was even introduced into Palestine by King Jeroboam I., when he was recalled from Egypt'^. A par- ticular local worship in Heliopolis had been dedicated to this bull since the time of Menes ; and this very town, in which, according to the Egyptian tradition, Moses is said to have been the priest of Osiris (therefore of the golden calf), is, besides, always considered specially connected with the Jews. Erom that town Joseph took his wife, and On— so Helio- polis was called by the people — according to the Septua- * Plut. de Is\ c. xxxiii. a Champollion, Pantheon, pi. xxxviii. 3 1 Kings xii. 2, 2S, 30, 32; 2 Kings x. 29. 414 THE lEEBEEW TEALIIION. gint, was even built by tlie Israelites^. This cannot mean that they first founded the town, for it had been already mentioned as the native town of Joseph's wife, and is also named upon the monuments even in the Old Monarchy, and in the annals as early as the time of Menes ; but it cannot also be explained alone by saying that Heliopolis was pro- bably tlie principal town of the eastern province of Goshen, it certainly can only be understood to mean that the Israel- ites completed the elevation and damming off of the town against the inundations, of which we shall say more here- after. The Manethonic account is therefore important for this reason also, that it makes Moses come from Heliopolis, and thence indicates his connection with the golden bull. It further follows, from the Egyptian recital, that the sudden persecution of the unclean people had a special cause, and this appears always to proceed from the advice which the priests give the superstitious Idngs, as to how the distress of the leprosy, and the degeneration and desecra- tion of their religious services were to be remedied. But in the desire not to expel this whole race, but to destroy them by hard labour in the country itself, or to let them perish in the desert, or even to drovrn them-, we at the same time perceive another reason for the persecution, namely, the fear lest they should rise up as open enemies of the country, and unite themselves with the banished shepherds for a new subjugation of the land, a fear so well founded, that what was expected, was soon most completely fulfilled. Here again there is the silent acknowledgment that those un- clean Egyptians were principally of foreign extraction, and had a natural bias to their Palestinian hereditary enemies, whom they afterwards called to their assistance. And the Mosaic account also exactly agrees with this^ : " Let us deal wisely with them," says Pharaoh, " lest they multiply, and it come to pass that when there falleth out any war 1 Exod. i. 11. - Similar perhaps to the command of Pharaoh to drown the Hebrew "boys. 3 Exod. i. 10. EXODrS OF LEPEES SAME AS OF ISEAELITES. 415 tliey join also with our enemies, andjiglit against us^ There- fore, taskmasters were placed over the land, and the people tormented with building and all kinds of hard service, to which undoubtedly the working in the stone-quarries had reference, which is made particularly prominent in the Egyptian relation. The chief feature in both recitals is the design of oppression and destruction, by means of ex- orbitant taskwork. All accounts are also agreed upon the great number of the enemy, which had grown up in the country, and even if only 280,000^ had departed, as the Egyptians related, while in the Hebrew accounts 600,000 are mentioned, it was at any rate a great event, on which the Eg}^tian annals could not possibly preserve silence. These are all features of the Egyptian narrative, which place beyond doubt the identity of tliat iusiuTection of the Lepers under Osarsiph, with the Exodus of the Israelites under Moses, even if we set aside the far more direct, but in the view of some perhaps, on that very account, less trust- worthy evidence, which consists in what is added concerning the laws of Osarsiph, that the Egyptian gods should no longer be worshipped, and that they should never again hold intercourse with any other race, also concerning the name of Moses itself, which Osarsiph is said to have adopted. Eor I certainly consider it as more than probable that the name of jNIoses was not originally found in the Egyptian narrative ; that the latter was only connected with a rebellious priest Osarsiph, and that Manetho first changed the name in con- sequence of the comparison with the Hebrew accounts, which had been made long before his day. But this assump- tion only upholds still more the age and the independence of the Manethonic narrative, whose genuine and ancient Egyp- tian character is besides apparent to the attentive reader through all its other parts. AYith reference to this, I shall only mention the peculiar feature of beholding the gods, and ^ This number, which differs from the one in the original, was in- serted by the Author, April, 1853.— Tr. 416 THE HEBEETV TEADITIOX. its connection with an earlier king, further the name of the town Abaris, which was entirely lost in later times, and could not therefore have been orally preserved by the people, but must have been taken from old writings. Also the un- fortunate and ignominious turn of the event for the Egyp- tians, the cowardly flight of the king to Ethiopia, and the revolting usage to which the whole lower country, and espe- cially the priesthood, were exposed for thirteen years, but, above all, the complete absence of all allusions and attacks upon the Jews as such, sufficiently proves that the whole was a simple, faithful account from the old writings. There- fore, when Josephus, in order to maintain his wholly unte- nable opinion that the Hyksos were the Jews, asserts that Manetho did not derive this narrative from genuine ancient sources, but that he only relates incredible fables, and de- clares besides that Manetho himself granted the uncertainty of his account, when he says, he will now write what is men- tioned in the tradition of the Jews — ypacjxiv to. fivSevofxeva Koi Xeyofieva nest ratv 'lovbaitov — (to write the mythical and legendary accounts concerning the Jews), this is only one more of the forced and ingenious accusations of which his controversial work is composed. The words of Manetho, as they are extant, nowhere support this assertion of Josephus, except the last, which are to this purport : — Xeyerat d'on rfju TToKiTciav KDLL Tovs vofxovs avTols Kara^aXofievos lepevs, to yevos HXiouTToXtTT^ff, opofia '0(rap(ri(P, dno tov iv 'HXtou ttoXcl 6eov 'Ocripecos, (OS peTejBT] ds tovto to yevos, peTeredr] Tovi'op.a kol TrposrjyopevdTj M(ov(rris—(It is said that a priest who founded their pohty and laws, a HeliopoKtan by race, named Osarsiph, when he went over to this nation from the service of the god Osiris in Hehopolis, received a change of name, and was called Moses). This contains the honest acknowledgment of Manetho that the ancient sources whence he derived his information neither mention the J'eics nor Moses, which is confirmed by his own narrative. Therefore it was only a Xeyopei/ov (tradition), if it were not indeed a pLv6ev6p.evov (mere table), as Josephus adds, which applied that account to the Jews. Manetho evidently EXODUS OF LEPEKS SAME AS OF ISEAELITES. 417 did not intend to say more. The account of the banishment of the Lepers bears exactly the same stamp as the earlier account of the banishment of the Hjksos, and even an en- tirely superficial critical examination would only lead us to con- clude, from the mention in both accounts of the city of Abaris (which at Manetho's time had long since passed out of remem- brance), that he made use of the same ancient authorities for tlie one as for the other. Therefore, instead of the reproaches of Josephus, Manetho rather deserves all our gratitude for so strictly abstaining from introducing his own views, how- ever correct they may have been, into the long-approved historical relations. He leaves the decision in the hands of liis readers. And it seems to me that we can now make ours upon good grounds, not depending upon his opinions, but upon the documentary evidence he lays before us, to the effect, namely, that the identity of the two occurrences, recognised even before the time of Manetho, must actually be accepted. Josephus, however, is equally groundless and frivolous in liis reproach to the Egyptian historian, when he asserts that he has only of his own accord inserted the king here, under W hum he places the event — ' Afxevacf^Lv da-TroLTja-as e/i/3oXi/xoi/ (iaaiXta — (Having inserted Amenophis as king), and that he has not therefore ventured to assign a fixed number of years to his reign. As Josephus before made a great confusion between the kings "A/xcdo-is, and Ted^axris, and since licre also, he has not remarked, that he has named the same king once before in a former extract (c. 15) in his right place, and ascribed to him the correct nineteen years and six months as the period of his reign, the reproach is at once removed from tho Egyptian historian, and falls back upon himself. Let us now see what place in the Egyptian annals is assigned to the King of the Exodus. Here again we are first referred to Josephus. We shall investigate in its proper place more minutelv, how far he had the true account of 2e 418 THE HEEEEW TSADITIOK. Manetho before him, or only extracts from it. But it is easy to perceive from a cursory comparison of his extracts, which are partly given verbatim, and partly summarily, that in the two principal passages upon this portion of Egyptian history, he had two different authorities before him, who, in the writing of the names, and in certain details, somewhat differ from one another, and thence caused no little con- fusion to the inconsiderate critic. If we now place these two authorities of Josephus beside one another, and compare with them the corresponding portion of the lists of Africanus and of the monuments, we obtain the following general view. (See next page.) The first thing to be remarked is that the last column, that of the monuments, is authentically determined, because it is entirely borrowed from several monumental catalogues, and taking it in details, the testimony of numerous con- temporaneous monuments puts it beyond a shadow of doubt. The lists of the authors may therefore be judged with the greatest safety, according as they agree with it, but not the reverse. Hence it follows, that in the first au- thority of Josephus, either one has been lost between the first and second names, or the second and third names are incorrectly anticipated, since they should have come after the foui'th. The numbers placed beside the reigns leave no doubt of this. The last of the two mistakes has evidently been committed by Africanus with regard to the 'AiJLeuco(f)dd ; therefore, in the comparative columns, the same has also been assumed to belong to Josephus. Purthermore, we read in the text of Josephus, chap. 15, 2e6a3aris koI 'Pafiio-a-ris (Sethosis and Eameses), but we learn from the context, and chap. 26, that we ought to read 6 koI (who is also). In the second authority of Josephus, the addition 6 koI 'Fajieara-T)^ (who is also Eamcses), is entirely wanting, which is undoubtedly correct, since neither the names of these two, or any other kings, are seen in connection on the monuments. The mistaken connection appears to have been LISTS OF JOSEPHUS AI^^D AFEICANUS, ri ;3 s s 02 z 3 I— < 1— i o ^2 l-i O a 1 32 1 51 ^ ^ ci CO ^ ■^ 02 iH ^ ^ d d d D ci o o (M o « • ^ r <1 . ^ r—i . i w P^ §■ 3 cr- f r < b S . !<: ^lu ^b d 1 < 1 1 2^ H " rH ^ ?i CO -^ o W - 4 C/l 1 oi £ <5 w D ' , S ^ r-3 (N CO ^ XO c^ ; W S ^ (71 CO 72 C/) O H5 fH rH O d §: o iH ^b . o 1- a. ^ :S, . v-i o C ^-j '"' S _-i-J . O) C/l o ;£, Sir- fa ^ 2 <5 c3 b b 'I < < b i-j. CO ^ c; cc ■^ o 419 2e2 420 THE HEBEEW TEADITIO:S". occasioned by tlie confusion that existed at a much earlier period, in the ideas of the people, about these two kings ; whereas, the surname of the second Eamses, Mia^fxov. is evidently founded on the constant addition of \>> [1 ^.^^^^ Miamun, on the monuments of this king. Without entering into further details, it is now undeniably evident from the same comparative list, that 'Afxevwcfjis, or Mev(o(f)is, the third king of the second authority of Josephus, to whom the banishment of the Lepers was ascribed, is no other than the corresponding 'Aixevecfidrjs, with 20 years, and the M€vef6r]s {Meneplithd) of the monuments ; lastly, no other than the anticipated \\fi€vco(f>is, with 19 years and 6 months of the first authorit}^ of Josephus, the son of 'Ap/xeVcrT^s Mia/x/iov, with 66 years 2 months, i. e. of Ramses-Miamun, whose sixty-second year appears upon the monuments. The King of the Exodus therefore belongs, according to the Egyptian accounts, to the 19th Manethonic DjTiasty, and it seems to me impossible any longer to admit the opinion of those who believed him to belong to the previous IStli Dynasty^. It is true that in this Dynasty we find three different kings named Amenoplns, which caused the confusion with the similarly sounding name Menephthes, but none of them have a Eamses for a father, and a Sethos for a son and grand- father; for the two last names never appear in the 18th Dynasty. "We find, indeed, a king of the 18tli Dynasty men- tioned in the Manethonic relation in Josephus, viz. King Horns. But this incidental quotation contains so much the more an impartial and convincing proof, that the king with whom we are concerned, belonged to the 19th Dynasty, and that the whole account was taken from an ancient authority, to whom the same chronological connection was perfectly well known. It is said, namely, that Amenophis desired to 1 Bunsen. Aegypten. Bd. i. p. 227. (Tr. vol. i. p. 184.) But com- pare Bd. iii. p. 109, where this opinion appears to be already modified. TUE PHARAOH OF THE EXODUS. 421 become a beholder of the gods, like one of Ms ancestors, King Horus. 2s ow this notice is in itself remarkable, and testifies its genuine character, since King Horus is not otherwise known to us thi'ough the popular tradition, probably because he, like most of the others, had left no monuments behind him which had attracted any particular notice in Memphis. But with regard to the time of his reign, it is apparent that he was certainly a predecessor, namely, the fourth of Me- nephthes, but a successor of all the three Amenophises of the 18th Dynasty, which he terminated. It is of minor importance that, according to Diodorus (34, 1), the banishment of the Jews is connected with the emigration of Danaus to Grreece, and that this also is placed, according to the Egyptian tradition at least, in the 19th Dynasty. But we thereby see that the Eg}^tian tra- dition with regard to dates did not deviate much, even when it was connected with foreign elements. If we now compare the clear Egyptian statements that we have cited, concerning the period of the Exodus with what is said about it by the later, particularly the Jewish and Chris- tian chronologists, it would be difiicult to comprehend why they ditfered so exceedingly, if we did not find the funda- mental error fully explained in the writings of Josephus against Apiou, where he asserts that the Jews were no other than the Hyksos. The perfectly untenable grounds for this opinion, which, nevertheless, has been shared even by some modern scholars, although the Mosaic narrative is entirely contradictory to it, both as a whole and in its details, may be gathered from Josephus himself, since a refutation of them here would be superfluous. But Josephus was by no means the first who started this opinion. It was already held by Ptolemy ME^'DESIUsl and Apion-, perhaps even ' Tatian. raraen ad Grac. p. 129 (Oxon). Clemens Alex. Strom, i 21, p. 138. Justin Martyr ad Grsec. p. 10, E. 2 Justin Martyr. Africanus in Eusebius. Prcep. Evang. x. 10. Clemens Alex. 422 THE nEBEEW TEADITION. hj PoLEMON^. From this, also, originates the other misim- derstanding, that it was not TutJimosis, but Amosis, the first king of the 17th Dynasty, who drove away the Hyksos ; and therefore in Josephus^ the name Tedixoio-is is inserted in place of "AiJuoaLs, and in Syncellus^ both names appear united as "A/icoo-ts 6 Koi TedficocTLn — (Amosis, who is also Tethmosis). The reason of this confusion lay simply in this, that Amosis is found placed by Manetho at the head of the Dynasty which immediately follows the Dynasties of the Hyksos ; he must, therefore, have driven away the Hyksos, who by them are understood to be the Jews. "We find a diff'erent opinion in Eusebitjs. In his Mane- thonic list*, beside King CJiencJieres, therefore in the middle between the true Exodus of the Hyksos and that of the Israelites, he writes as follows: — Kara tovtov Mcouo^? rrjs e| AlyvTTTov TTopeias tcov ^lovBaicov TfyqaaTo — (During this reign Moses conducted the journey of the Jews out of Egypt). But the reason for tliis deviation from the usual statements concerning the Pharaoh of the Exodus does not here lie in the name, which perhaps Eusebius had found somewhere mis-stated, but in his assumption (to which we shall after- wards return) that the first year of Abraham was also the first year of the 16th Manethonic Dynasty. He only counted, as he himself states, 75 years^ from this year to Abraham's removal to Haran, and then the 430 years of bondage in Egypt. By that means he obtained the year of the Exodus of Moses from Egypt. This happened, accord- ing to his Egyptian list, in the sixteenth year of Chenclieres ; consequently, in his annals, he entered the Exodus under this king. The most fabulous recital of the Exodus is in Lysimachus, who appears to have written about the time of Christ's birth, ^ Compare the passages of Justin and Africanus. 2 Contra, Ap. i. 15. ^ p. 63, B; 123, D. * Euseb. Armen. Canon, vol. ii. p, 105. Aucher. * According to Gen. xii. 4, THE PHAEAOH OF THE EXODUS. 423 -liortly before Apion. It is not, therefore, worth while to investigate whether the name of the King Bocchoris, in whose reign he makes Moses depart, was arbitrarily imagined, or whether it originated in some great misunderstanding. His romance appears, however, to have found acceptance, since we again meet with the fable of Lysimachus in Tacitus^, with some new and additional facts. Tacitus says, that according to some the Jews wandered to Palestine during the reign of Isis, led by Hierosolymus and Judah ; according to others, they were descendants of the Ethiopians, and departed during the reign of King Cepheus ; but most people said, that at the breaking out of a plague. King Bocchoris had cleared the land of them, according to the sentence of an oracle. But Josephus has rendered the narrative of Lysimachus still more confused, and by that means has also led astray later scholars. He relates, namely, as follows, in the second book of his controversy with Apion : " Manetho says that the Jews wandered out of Egypt in the reign of Tethmosis, 393 years before the flight of Danaus to Argos ; but Lysi- iiiachus makes it under King Bocclwris, that is, 1700 years ago ; ISIolon and others make it as it seems best to them ; but Apion, the one most to be depended upon of all of them, placed the Exodus exactly in tlie seventh Olympiad, and in the first year of it, in which, as he says, the Phoenicians founded Carthage." It was impossible that Josephus could place Bocchoris 1700 years before his own time, for that would make him nearly cotemporary with the first kings of the Egyptian succession, whose names he cites, without, however, mentioning a Boc- choris among them. This king lived, rather, according to Manetho, about 750, and not about 1650 before Christ. If, furthermore, it is asserted that Apion placed the Exodus at the Olympiad 7. 1., namely, B.C. 752, that is most decidedly contradicted by Clemens of Alexandria, Justin Martyr, and Africanus, in passages above referred to, who, on the 1 HisU V. 2. 42i THE HEBREW TEADITIOX. contrary, agree in relating that Apion followed Ptoleray Mendesius, and placed tlie Exodus under Amosis, therefore about 1650 years before Christ. It is evident that Josephus has here in his careless way confused the authors and the .numbers with one another. He meant to say, or ought to have said, that Manetho fixed the Exodus (not of the Jews, indeed, but of the Hyksos) 393 years before Danaus, i. e. 1700 years before Josephus, and Lysimachus fixed it, during the reign of Bocchoris. The fabulous narrator, Lysimachus, could hardly have affixed any statement of time to the name of Bocchoris, or he would certainly have discovered his error ; but Apion, the grammatist and liyper-critic, had probably subjected tlie opinion of Lysimachus to his own critical ex- amination, and reckoned tliat if he assumed Bocchoris to be the king under wliom the Exodus was made, he must intend to fix his date at Olympiad 7. 1. At any rate there is no doubt that tlie Olympiad calculation belonged to Lysimachus, and tlie 1700 years to the ^lanethonic statement. The latter point miglit be remedied if we could place the words TovrtoTi TTpo €Ta)u ^iXtwi' (TrraKoaioiv (That is ouc thousand seven hun- dred years) after AavaoO - or AEAurs. 427 hits on the right point, places Abaris in the spot where we at least believe we ought to place Eamses ; and the same opinion, although given with hesitation, is found even in the masterly researches of D'Anville^. It is still more extra- ordinarv that Ewald"2 holds Abaris to be JBaal Zejylion, and therefore seeks it in the immediate neighbourhood of the Eed Sea. The situation of the town of Abaris can only be decided by the accounts of Manetho; for all other authors, who mention this town, refer to the same passages in the work of Manetho, which we find most fully communicated by Joseph us^. The first mention of the town occurred in the account of the invasion of the Hyksos, who entered the country from Syria about 2100 years before Christ, and governed it for many centuries. The easy success of this invasion, owing to the hitherto unfortified state of the eastern boundary, immediately directed the attention of Salatis, the first king of the Hyksos, to the necessity of closing the gate, which had stood open to them, against every future invader. He therefore did not delay, as Manetho relates*, to make use of his experience : " He re- sided in Memphis, collected tribute from the Upper and Lower country, and left garrisons in the most suitable places. But he fortified the eastern boundaries, especially, as a precaution against the Asspians, who were at that time very powerful, and who might afterwards be desirous like them to invade the same kingdom. Now he found a town particularly suitable for his purpose, situated to the east of the Bulastic arm in the Sethroitic 'Nome ; and, ac- cording to the old tradition of the gods, it was named Abaeis. This he built up and fortified with strong walls, and placed as a guard within a garrison of 240,000 armed men. Thither he came, in the summer season, partly on account of the harvest and to issue the pay, partly in order ' Memoires sur TEg. p. 126, - Gesch. d. V. Isr. ii. p. 53. ' C. Apion. i. 14, 26. ■* Joseph, c, Ap.i. 14. 428 THE HEBEEW TEADITIOX. to practise the garrison diligently in arms to the terror of the foreigners." But when at the termination of the rule of the Hyksos, in the reign of Misphragmuthosis, these liereditary enemies were driven back out of the whole country, " the king finally enclosed them in that place called Abaris. It was 10,000 arura in extent, and (according to Manetho) the Hyksos surrounded it with a great and strong wall." Since he could not capture them by a siege, he came to an agreement with them, and permitted them to de- part with all their property to Syria. Abaris is mentioned for the last time at the Exodus of the lepers, as we have seen above. It is here called an old Typhonic town, which had been uninhabited since the departure of the Hyksos, and was given up to the unclean after they were delivered from their oppression. But they fortify it again, caU the Hyksos from Jerusalem to their assistance, and from this firm point for many years maintain the upper hand over the feeble king, until he, vdth the aid of an Ethiopian army, drove them back to the borders of Syria. In these accounts there is an explicit statement about the geographical situation of Abaris, which determines it to have been placed in the Setliroitic Xome. For it has been long acknowledged that we should read it so, instead of the Saitic Nome, as it is in our present text. This is also shown by the reading of Eusebius, which, indeed, is still incorrectly written in the Armenian translation^, but evidently purports to say, in nomo Metliraite in place of Setliraite, and by many other passages in which this town, though without a name, is mentioned by Manetho, and is placed in the Sethroitic I^^ome^. But even if this correct reading had not been pre- served to us by others, we must still have rejected the Saitic Nome, because this is situated in the western part of the Delta, while Abaris ought to be placed to the east of the Bubastic arm of the Nile. ' Euseb. C/tron. in Aucher. vol. i. p. 224. 2 Africanus in Syncelius, p. 61, B, ic. SITUATION OF AEAKIS. 429 There can be no doubt about the general situation of the Sethroitic Nome, from the statements of Strabo^, and of Ptolemy-, who was bom in Egypt. It lay eastward along the northern part of the Bubastic, or Pelusic arm of the Nile. Its capital was Heracleopolis Parva, and Pelusium, from its position, must also have belonged to this !Xome, although this is never expressly said. Abaris must accord- ingly be situated there. The object also which was to liavc been gained, by tlie original founding of Abaris, directs us to tliis province, and to its most north-eastern portion in tlie neii^hbourhood of Pelusium. It was to serve as a boundary fortification against Syria. In all times, ancient as well as modern, there was only one military entrance from that country. The road led from Gaza, along the sea-coast by Kaphia (Hefah), Khinokolura (El Arisch), Mons Casius, along the Lake of Scrbon, to Pelusium, which is situated at the moutli of the eastern arm of the Nile. This part of the Nile, which extended far out towards the east, was the first within reach ; therefore, although the destination of most travellers lay considerably to the south, the northern circuitous route by this road was rendiTcd necessary, and for the march of armies indi'cd it was quite unavoidable. "When Sesostris led home his con- quering army from Asia, he returned by this road. Accord- ing to Herodotus^, Adt^vai al nrjXnfia-ai (Daphni of Pelusium) was the place where his treacherous brother met him ; accord- ing to ^lanetho^ and Diodorus^, it was Pelusium itself. It is said that from this place the same Sesostris fortified the eastern frontiers as far as Heliopolis*^. Hither Sethos, the priest of Ptha, came to meet Sanherib, because, as Herodotus" adds, " hero was the entrance into Eg}-pt." In this neighbour- hood, at the Pelusaic mouth, below Bubastis, the lonians and Carians brought hither by Psamraeticus were stationed • p. 804. ■ iv. 5. 53. 3 ii. 107. * Jos. c. Ap. i. 15. ^ i. 57. c Diodor. i. 57. ■ Ilcrud. ii. 141. 430 THE HEBEEW THADITION. undoubtedly as frontier guards, at a place which afterwards "bore the name of 2rparo7re8a^. In the strong town of Pelu- siiJM, Psammenitus waited for Cambyses, and by losing this position, lost besides all Egypt to the Persian con- queror^. In later times, the great Macedonian entered by Pelusium^. In Strabo's time, also, Pelusium, to which point according to him Phenicia extended^, was the frontier post in the direction of Syria and Arabia, and the road to Egypt led through this " inaccessible" country, not only from Phenicia, but also from the Nabatain Arabia^. Ajnru {Amr. ehn el As) also took the same road with his 4000 Arabs, when he con- quered Egypt from the side of Syria, a.d. 639, having first taken the strong town of Pelusium by a thirty days' siege ; even down to the latest times, we see the Egyptian armies marching to and from Syria by this road. It appears accordingly undoubted that Abi.ei8, which during the time of the Hyksos, and in the reign of Me- nephthes, was destined for the same purpose as Pelusium at a later period, could not have been far removed from it also in point of situation. To me, indeed, it seems vcr^' probable that it was the ancient name of Pelusium. According to the accounts we receive, both towns were of considerable extent, and it cannot be supposed that there were several of such a description in that neighbourhood. No proof is required to show that UrjKovaiov was not, as the Greeks imagined, formed from nrjkos, although the Arabs in their translation of Tineh — i. e. Lutetia — accepted the quibble. It is much more probably referred to the Philistine name Pe« listim, which is abeady proved in the above-mentioned tradi- tion of its heros eponymos UakaioTivos, or UrjkovcrLos. "We must, therefore, explain Pelusium by " Philistine" or " Pa- lestine-town." It appears to me that Ewald^ has successfiilly 1 Herod, ii. 154. Compare Diod. L 67. 2 Herod, iii. 10, 11. 3 Diod. xvii. 48. ArriaiL iii, 1. * Strab. p. 756, 760, 781. s p. S03. « Gesch. des Volkes Isr. i. p. 451. — cniy, Abarim, is also a Pales- timan name. Numb, xxrii. 12 : Deut. xxxii. 47, 49, &c. JLBABI8 SAME AS PELUSIUM. 431 attributed a fciinilar orii^m to the name of the to)^^l "'A;i ii;i> incpiently been identified with Herooij- polis, by D'Anville*, Larcher*, C'hainpollion*, Gesenius^, Jomard®, and others. The oidy apparent reason which is cited for this opinion is, that Stephanius, of Byzantium, quotes the otherwise unauthenticated tradition, that Typhon waa struck with lightning at Heroonpolia ; and that Mauetho called Abaris, according to an old tradition, a Ty phonic towii*. Tl 1 does not at all overbalance the distinct g. lUMuent of Manet ho, that Abaris was situated in the Selhroitic Xome, to which Hcroonpolis, 1 T' . *m.T.,,.i'u,n of Larcher in Herd. t. viii. p. 62; Cliainixjllion, 7 ii. p. 91; ami Gesenius, thes. I. hebr. p. 1297, that A 1 by its sound with 'Hpto (sec below on Ik-roonpolis) has not < veil .i scrabhincc in itself, even if it were geographically admiseible. • Bd. L p. .128. ' Gesch. Isr. Bd. i. p. 290, 291. • Mim. sur CEo. p. 124. ^ Herod, t. viii. p. 02, 429. • LEg. sur les'Phar. t. ii. p. 90 ' Thes. I. htbr. p. 1297. • In hia map of the Delta. * Joseph, c. A p. i. 26. 432 THE HEBREW TEADITIOX. as we shall see, could not belong. That tradition, indeed, seems only to be founded upon a misunderstanding of Ste- pbanus ; namely, upon tbe unauthentic information that 'Hpo) was also called Alfxos. Greek tradition^, namely, con- nected AlfjLos (not a town, however, but the Thracian moun- tains), as it did other mountains, with Typhon, and probably, only on account of its name, imagined that it was here he was killed, and shed his blood. On the other hand, this tradition about Typhon refers us again to the idea that Abaris was the most ancient name of Pelusium. Typhon was always considered as the particular god of the hereditary enemy of the Asiatic Hyksos.' The mythological evidence of this assertion, which is far from new, does not belong here. But this was, perhaps, the reason why this god, according to tradition, was also brought into local connection with tliat important point on the frontier, tlie only entrance into the kingdom of Osiris from the land of Typliou. llerodotus related'-, probably, there- fore, from a native Egyptian tradition, that it was tliere — namely, in the Lake of Serbonis, so dangerous to all tra- vellers, which stretched out directly from Pelusium eastwards, that Typhon, who was struck by liglitning, lay chained ; and others, also, make him fly away from Jupiter out of Syria, as far as Pelusium^. But, perhaps, another Typhonic trace may still be referred to Pelusium. It might have been expected, namely, that the town of Abaris, or Pelusium, had, besides these signs which were deduced from its origin or from its population, a real Egyptian name ; still more, because we find that most Egyp- tian towns had a double name — the popular name which usually appears in the Coptic and Arabic writings, and the sacred name derived from the local gods, which the Greeks generally, though not always, retained in their translations. TlTjXovaiGv undoubtedly answered to the popular name of the * Apollodor. i. 6, 3. - Herod, iii. 5. 3 Apollon. Ehod. ii. 1215. ri:i.rsirM. -133 lo\ni. The pacred name, according to report, coiild only be derived from T^phon. Now we find the Nome to which Pelusium belongtHl always called ^eSpoit-nj^, or "EfdpaiTTji, not 'HpoJcXearroXiTT;*, aS we should have e3q)ected, since 'H/>a, signitiod the L!;od Srih, or Srt^ i. v. Typlion-, it is not improbable that this was the sacred name of the Tjphonic to\\-n Pelusium, which had once been of greater importance, and had given the name Se^pwmys to the Nome. The only reason which could be employed against Abaris and Pelusium being identical places, and which is really given by D'Anville is, that it would have been mentioned by 31anetho. But this reason may be used against every other town, and in that case we must suppose that the enormous town had at^ensards been entirely desertcHl, and that no traces of its ruins remained, which is more than improbable. It is more likely that either Mauetho did not know himself to \N hat modem to\^^l the ancient name ought to be applied, which he only met with in old writings, or that he mentioned it in a passage which Josephus has not presened. For Jose- phus himself at least su]iposed, that by Abaris, Pelusium was meant, as his words show in the 29th chapter, where he » [This rendinp is now adopted also by the last eminent editor of .stophanus, Moineke (torn. i. p. 559).] ci ^, Set, is the common hioroglyphical name of Typhon. 2f 434; THE HEBEEW TRADITION. even puts the last name in the mouth of Manetho : rovvav TLOv yap avTos etprjKev as 6 TTois tov ^ Afxevacpios TpiaKOvra fivpiddas excov els UrjXovaiov vnrjvTiaCev — (For, on the Contrary, he said that the son of Amenophis, having thirty myriads, advanced to Felusmm) — and Chairemon^ had no doubt about it, since he does not name Abaris, but makes the lepers march to Pelusium. Now, if it is certain that Abaris was the ancient name for Pelusium, or at any rate was situated in the neighbourhood of this town, it is impossible at the same time to consider it to be Heroonpolis ; but neither could it be Eamses. On the contrary, both these latter towns are brought into close connection with each other, even by the Seventy, since they placed the town of Heroonpolis in the district of Eamses, in which undoubtedly the town of Eamses must have been situated^. Scholars also hold the most different opinions about the situation of Heroonpolis, it will therefore be necessary to examine this question next. Strabo^ says that the town was situated " in the an^Ie of tlie Aralian Gu'lf^'' and thence people concluded that it must have been situated in the neighbourhood of the present Suez*, and on that account assert that the gulf itself was called after it koXttos 'upcooTToXiTj]:,^, CLud cltos the statement of Ptolemy^, according to which Heroonpolis is placed at 30° north lati- tude, which corresponds nearly with the present Suez, These reasons appear to be of great importance. Nevertheless we cling, without hesitation, to the opinion of those scholars who place Heroonpolis far more north, namely, on the ancient Nile canal, west from Birket e' temsah, in the neighbourhood of the valley Seba-Biar. D'Anville was also of this opinion, though he was not then aware of the ruins of ancient towns which are found there. The French 1 Joseph, c. Ap. i. c. 32. - Gen. xlvi. 28. ^ ^^^ p, go4. * Roziere, in the Descr. de VEg. vol. vi. p. 257, &c. " Ptolem. V. 17. 1. Plin. H. N. V. 11, § 65. ® iv. 5. According to other manuscripts, 29° 50'. SITUATION OF IIEKOONrOLIS. 435 expedition pointed out two of them. Adjoining Seba-Biar, at the west end of this low district, lie the ruins which are now called Jfidfdr, and farther west those of Ahu-Kesheb^. Tlie latter are considered by Et. Quatremere'-, Champollion^, Du Eois Aymc*, and others, as the remains of Heroonpolis. r am more in favour of those at JTidfdr. With regard to the general situation of Heroonpolis in iliis countr)', we must next remark, that it would be singular if three towns, Arsinoc, Klysma, and Heroonpolis, had been crowded together at tlie head of the gulf, wliik* the ruins of two only are to be seen. But it is a still more important consideration, that we find the meeting between Joseph and Jacob placed at Heroonpolis not only by Josephus^, but also by the Seventy, who must undoubtedly have known the situation. Heroonpolis existed in tlieir time, indeed it ap- jjcars to have been first mentioned by tliem. But it was impossible that they could have made Josepli go to Suez, if he wished to meet his father, who came out of S}Tia. It must have been situated on the road from Syria, and they undoubtedly mentioned it, because in their time it was the capital of tliat province, which tliey considered to be the district of Goijhen and Eamses. But the situation wliich tlie Itinerarium Antonini*^ gives to the town Hero, which is Heroonpolis, is decisive, since it places it XXIV. mille passus from Thoum, XVIII. from Serapiu, and the latter L. from Klysma. But Et. Quatremere^ has most completely pointed out that Klysma was situated at the head of the gulf opposite Arsinoe, as it is marked in the tablet of Peu- tinger. But Thoum, i. e. Fithom, was situated on the Nile, 1 Wilkinson, Modern Eijypi and Thebes, vol. '}. p. 311, there only heard the name of E' Satfieh, '-the Water-wheel;" but my friend and foUow-traveller, II. Aboken, who was also on the spot, confirmed mo in the name whicli Kobinson gives in his map {Aba Keischeib). The French scholars, on the contrary, -write Abua Keycheyd. • Man. siir CEg. i. p. ICG. ^ J-'Eg. sous les Phar, 11. p, 89, * Descr. de VEg. xi. p. 378, ^ Antiq. Jud. n. 7, 8. « p. 75, ed. Tarthev and Tinder (p. 170, Wess> 7 Mem. sur VEg. t.'i. p. 151, &c. 2f2 436 THE HLEEEW TEADITIOX. in the neighbonrhood of Bubastis^. Thereby the situation of Heroonpolis is placed somewhere near the aboTe-men- tioned ruins. This was a convenient situation for the capital of that part of the country to which it gave its name^. But the province, which extended as far as the gulf, might have been suitably named after it. The account given by the Seventy also agrees very well with this, since the road from the north to Cairo still passes in this neighbourhood^. But the question is, how can Strabo, who places Heroonpolis iu the angle oftlie gulf, be made to accord with this ? In consequence of these different statements, Du Bois Ayme believed lie was justified hi the supposition*, which he has fully stated, that in earlier times the gulf extended much farther north, and filled up aU the low districts of the now dry so-caUed Bitter lakes, but afterwards being covered by sand, withdrew itself within its present shore. I do not think that it is necessary to believe in such a physical change ; and the idea of it seems to me most completely set aside by the remains of an artificial canal, more than four leagues iu length, which runs from Suez towards the north, and which was pointed out by the French expedition, for no canal could be cut where there was sea ; the utmost that was necessary was to render the passage navigable when it was filled up with sand. But the opening of this canal must have had nearly the same results as those which may be derived from the belief iu the extended sea. The wide basins of the Bitter lakes were filled by the canal, as well as the adjoiuiug lakes to the north, and the low dis- trict of Seba-Biar, which extends even to the ruins of Muk- far. Here first commenced the real Xile canal, which re- ceived its water from the west. Here was the harbonr, as 1 Herod, ii. 158. = PI in, H. N. V. ix, 9. 3 S. Wilkinson, Eg. and Thebes, vol.i. p. 311. ■* In his Memoire sur les anciennes liniites de la mer rouge, in the Descr. de VEg. t. xi. (Pauck.) p. 371, &c.; and in the Notice sur k scjour des Hebreux en Egypte, t. •siii. p. 112, &c. siiUAiioN ur ii£iioo>"i'uLii. 137 Strabo expressly aaya^, in which they embarked for a voyage on the Ked Sea. On account of the natural and extensive shore of tlie lake, the notion of a sea voyage was here imparted to the traveller; and, therefore, this part artificially drawn into the gulf mighi naturally be called the /^^x^^ """"^ tcuXnoVf the innermost angle of the gulf. Strabo, or Eratosthenes, whom he cites, even says expressly in one place, that ileroon- polis was situated on the 2sile, that is to say, on a canal of the Nile, and yet calls the town itself at the same time the fivx^s rov Apa^iov koXitov (The innermost part of the .Vrabian Gulf)2. Ptolemy also says, that the Trajanic river (as the canal was called, which was afterwards cut from Babylon) tlowed through Ileroonpolis. On account of the sharp angle so far removed to the east, which is formed here by the Nile canal and the extended gidf, this provinci;d capital was particularly :ulapted for tlie more general geographical determinations ot those countries, for which purpose it had been especially used by Strabo, and earlier, also, by Eratosthenes'^. With regard to the statement of numbers given by Ptolemy, the longitude agrees very well with our acceptation, and also prevents us placing the town still farther west. But the latitudes, according to which 'Hpwojj/ ttoXis would fall under 30' (others give 29" oO), tlie /i^x"^" "^^^ K6\nov (inner- most part of the gulf) under 29^ 50', and Apaivuq under 29-^ 30 (or 29' 10', also 29° 20), certainly contain an error, wheresoever we place the /luxo^j because Axsinot*, which \vas undoubtedly situated in the neighbourhood of Suez, is placed 30, or even 50', too far south. It is, therefore, more probable, that we ought only to consider the distances of the three places from one another as correctly fixed, somewhat in the order, 29^ 50', 29' 50', 29° 10', exactly as they are given in the codex Mediceus, but that there is an error easy of explanation throughout the numbers, by which they have all been placed 50' too far south. Eor the true position, ac- ' p. 768. ■ p. 767. ' Strabo, ii.p. 85, 86, &C. 438 THE HEEEEW TEADITIOX. cording to other proofs, demanded for Heroonpolis (Mukfar), and for the fxvxos (Seba-Biar), bordering on it, 30° 40', for Arsinoe (not far north of Suez), 30°. Thus the statements of Ptolemy also appear to me to be no longer opposed to our acceptation. We decide, there- fore, for Mukfar, rather than for Abu-Kesheb, because the first was in reality situated close to the /iv^os of Seba-Biar, while Abu-Kesheb lay about an hour and a half farther west on the canal, and not on the lake. There is, besides, the additional reason, that we believe we have found in the ruins of Abu-Kesheb the still more ancient town of Bamses, which must have been situated in this neighbourliood, and yet can hardly be tlie same as Heroonpolis. The Seventy say that Heroonpolis was situ- ated in the province of Eamses. Thence follows that in their time at least the town no longer bore tiie name of E-amses. This last name, moreover, is nowhere found except in the Old Testament. The tovra had therefore undoubtedly been already forsaken and forgotten, and appears to have been exactly supplanted and replaced by Heroonpolis, which was afterwards built in its neighbourhood ; whilst no reason could be discovered wherefore the old Egyptian name of Bamses should have been changed into the later Egyptian name of Heroonpolis. But that we may really seek for Eamses in the ruins of Abu-Kesheb is most decidedly confirmed by a monument which was found upon those very ruins as early as the time of the French expedition. It is a group of three figures cut out of a block of granite, which represents the gods Ea and Tum, and between them the King Eamses II. The shields of this the greatest ofnhe Pharaohs are repeated six times in the inscriptions on the back^. It was therefore King EAMSES-MiAiirx who built this ^ The first imperfect copy is in the Descr. de VEg. Antiq. vol. v. pi. 29, Ko. 6 — 8. The best is given by Wilkinson in his Materia Hiero- gli/phica. Append. No. 4. TUE TOWy OF BJLMSES. 439 town, and was worshipped there, as is shown by this monu- ment, and he it was who gave his name to the to\Mi^ ; for it is not easy to believe that it was founded by his grandfather, Ramses I., who only reigned about one year. This leads us to the histor}- of the remarkable canal on which the to\N'n was built. It is known that this canal after- wards served to connect the Nile and the Kcd Sea. Con- cerning this connection, we read in Herodotus'- that it was first undertaken by Nekos, who also caused .-Virica to be cir- cumnavigated, but that it was interrupted before its com- pletion. Darius then took up the work. The connection actually existed in the time of Herodotus, as we learn from his words. The assertions of Aristotle, Dii)dorus, Strabo, and Pliny apj)ear to contradict this, who some of them fix the period of the first plan of the connection much earlier than Herodotus, since they ascribe it to Sesostris, and some make the completion of the work later than him, namely, that it was only finished in the time of Ptolemy Phila- delphus. Aristotle"* says that both Sesostris and afterwards Darius commenced the work, but gave it up because tlie sea was discovered to be higher than the land, and it was tlu'refore feared that the Nile water might be spoilt by the rushing in of the sea. Aristotle does not mention Nekos; it therefore appears that in his day the connection which existed in the time of Herodotus had again ceased. AVe can thus understand why Diodorus* ascribes the final completion of the canal to Ptolemy Piiiladelphus. He makes no more mention of Sesostris, than Herodotus did. But accordmg to him, Nekos as well as Darius are prevented from completing it, lest by that means they should overflow ' Kinp Ilamses was therefore just as much the local god of the town Pianiscs, as the pod Hero of the town Hero. - ii. 158. Compare iv. 42. 3 Meteorolcpg. i. 14, p. 352, h (Bekk). * i. 33. 440 THE HEBEEW TEADITIO>'. the country. This does not weaken the testimony of Hero- dotus concerning t]ie existing connection. Ptolemy Phi- ladelphus did not only re-open the connections, but he built an artificial sluice at its extreme point, at Arsinoe, from which this canal received the name of the Ptolemaic. Strabo^ says, that Sesostbis began it, but desisted, being afraid of the higher level of the Eed Sea. It was not finished by the son of Psammeticus {HeJcos), on account of his premature death. Darius also discontinued the abnost completed work, because he feared that he should overflow Egypt ; the Ptolemies at lengtli finished the opening, and made a sluice at Arsinoe. By tliat means, the salt-water of the Bitter lakes became sweet, and abounded with fish. Of the more ancient kings, Pliny^ only mentions Sesostbis and DAEirs, but he says of Ptolemy PniLADELPnus, that he cut a canal 100 feet wide and 40 feet deep, as far as the Bitter lakes, called it amnis PtolcmcBus, and built Arsinoi' upcm it. He discontinued cutting the canal, being afraid of an inun- dation. Lastly, we must again cite here what has been already casually mentioned in a former place, tliat a Tpaiavos norufM)^ is named by Ptolemy", which ran through Babylon and Heroonpolis. The contradictions which these diflerent statements of tlie. ancient authors appear to contain, have been frequently brought forward, but even the full deliberation which Le- tronne has bestowed on this interesting subjecf*, does not appear to me to have given a perfectly true picture of the . history of this connecting canal. It has everywhere been forgotten, that the question is not about 07ie, but two canals. The first and the oldest canal was only conducted from » p. 38, p. 804. Compare p. 780. - Hist. Nat. vi. 29, § 165—167. ^ iv. 5. * L'Isthme de Suez, in the Hevite des Deux Jfondes, livr. du 15 Juill. 1841. CANAL BETWtry 5TLE AJKD RED SEA. 441 the Nile to S^ ' ' ■:i an exact ea:*terly direction. Tlud (.-anal was un --iit l>y H;\!v.!Hd (Scaoatrui), lxH:au*e, m lias becTi r ^K)uring ruins of Abu- K'< <^Jii*b, a gm:-. ^ ^ ... : irnJ, which r\^prv«enta king, and which mui^t have stood in the temple of the Letronne. v ^ -■ ars to have been unaware of thia :njitan«», is tV r-(»ng. when (p. 7) he cvjuaidera :«.*, iStrabo, aiul Pliny, that lion, but did nut rt»^lo^c it, as a iatiT tradition, only arisen since the tiim* of llcrodotun, " ' '-rler to enhance still more the name of Sesoajtri*. This . like many others cut by this king, had its own par- t . iP J .r; -t •; he acquired thereby a conaidi r .' liiun ' ♦ • - " Ikit if we consider tlie csjhh . iiou. > alfo paid to ship-buildiuj:, since he limt ' _ Arabiiin Gulf with war bhipa^ it could not have ap|>eared to him a very strange idea to cut tlirough the narrow istlimus between the Arabian Gulf and the iiitter Likti?. The Egyptians had for ages jHJssfMsed the art of 1 u the grt»atest jn^rfection, and practised it mi»r« I in the time of St-sostria, therefore there waa nothing eitraonlinar}' at that time in the reasons given by Aristotle and Slrabo why the opening waa not \i'iitured upon, because it was discovered that the lied Sea was too Ingb". Xekos, howevpf. inidertjikes it, but leaves it off again, ncronliiii: !■' I' 'iirnced by an oracle, who t*.»ld hiiu he workeii . urians (a danger whicli likewise has always made the calculating Mehemet Aii disinclined to the undertaking), and according to Strabo, because he died. Diodorus attributes this scruple to him in place of to St'>M>tns, but incorrectly, because the levelling mujst Imve ' IKtihI. ii. 102. ' The hcijfht of the ' is diaeovered to be 30 fi>fct 6 inches Mvo the K'vcl of th<- .' . in Soa. [By the very hitcst invc«- I I .nations the difltToncv ut .'" icvt. which wa« funncriy accepted, h&s Kin reiiucftl to 3 feet.] 442 THE HEBEEW TEADITION. been made before the section could have been commenced. It was necessary, however, to dig througli a double elevation of the ground, and distinct traces of both these connecting trenches may still be found upon the careful map of the French engineer, who took the level of this part of the country^. The first cutting which restored the con- nection between Seba-Biar and the Bitter lakes, was insig- nificant, and only consisted of about 7000 metres; the second, between the Bitter lakes and the sea, was the most important, and almost four times as long as the former. Kow, it is possible that Xekos undertook the first cutting either with the intention of fertilising the extensive land round the Bitter lakes by tlie pouring in of the Nile water, or thus to prepare for the second more difiicult cutting. "We can easily imagine that tlie idea of connecting the two seas must have been a very natural one to that same Nekos, who, according to Herodotus-, caused Airicu to be circum- navigated, and triremes to be constructed for various enter- prises, both on the Mediterranean Sea, as well as on the Arabian Gulf^. The opinion of Letroime seems to me, therefore, of little value, who imagined that he first borrowed the idea from the plan of his cotemporary, Periaxdeb, for cutting through the Isthmus of Corinth. The reverse is evidently a much more probable supposition, since the Greek plan was much more difiicult to accomplish, was less called for by necessity, and was conceived at a time in which, probably, Eg^-ptian hydraulic architects would have been employed, since this profession had flourished for ages in Egypt, but nothing similar to it had been accomplished in Greece. DAEirs must have certainly cut through the district be- tween the sea and the Bitter lakes, and thus have restored the first real connection by water, between the sea and the Kile, for it existed in the time of Herodotus, whatever 1 Descr. de VEg. Atlas, pi. 23, 31. 2 ii. 15S, iv. 42. 2 Herod, ii. 159. CJL5i.L BETWEEN XILE JLXD RED SEA. 113 Arisl<'l!f, PI'mI-pi'*. nr.'l St^:l^'> !:>ay pay to tlio contrary, who again tran-lVr th.- • M tnuiiiioii about tho fear of an inundation from Sciiostris to Darius. It waa never possible, indet'd, to make a perfectly free connection, on account of the different height of the water, and the ebb and flow of ihb Hid Sea. 1 conjecture, therefore, that Darius con- Btructrd « ?li!»eo nt the inner citremity of the mw canal, where it -.If into the Bitter lakes, in onlcr to protect I rs and the adjacent fertile lauds from the overflowing sea. This was undoubtedly the most suit- ible point for such a work, since it would not be so diflTuult fts immediately on the sea. The paiwacf throutjh, would lx> '- 1 by the level of the sea, v with tho < llow of the tide, as must b i a simple siuice. But it is in tlie monuments that wo again find tho opinion most ct^rtainly confirmed, that a passage existed hero OS early as the times of the Persians. During the French expedition, the chief engineer, De Itozien*. discovered, on a military excursion from Suez, a heap of ruins in a district which is not accurately defined, but which cannot have been far frt)m the southern extremity of the Jiitter lakes, upon which were scattered the remains of the statue of a Frrsian king, and several fragments of cunriform inscriptions, all in red granite^ It appears that no traveller has since visited this spot*. But how can the existence of Persian ruins in this part of tlie i.'*thinus be explained, if they were not con- ncvted with the oj)eniug of the canal, situated there ? Jk'- eides this, tho largest portion of the cuneiform WTitings men- tioned above contains precisely the name of King JJarius, fol- lowed by the addition vaiya vas-(arqa), princrps viof/nus, ' Deter, de TEg. (Panck.) Ant. vol. viii. p. 27, &c. Compare rol, v. p. 4il, and Jomartl. carte de la Intsse Eyijpte. A copy of the frag- ment in pivcn in a copj^r-i'late. Ant. vol. v. pi. 29. • [Tlie sjKJt lias now Uxn re-(li!»coverc-'. which is also found in other inscriptions, from which we may deduce with certainty that this king, whom the image also undoubtedly represented, took an active part here. At all events it was only a narrow canal, and not constructed for large ships. Therefore it might afterwards be again filled up with sand, and fall into disuse, and, indeed, be so far forgotten that Aristotle might imagine it had never been completed. Ptolemy Philadelphus undertook its restoration. He appears to have had the magnificent intention of restoring a connection by water between the two seas for ships of war also. This alone explains the grand idea of constructing a canal to the Bitter lakes, 100 feet wide, and 40 feet deep, which would have been quite unnecessary for common ships of burden. At the same time he constructed an artificial sluice, probably at the point where the sea entered, wliere he also built the town Arsinoe. But as Pliny expressly says, he only carried this work from the sea to the Bitter lakes. It is only this canal that we must undoubtedly understand by the TTOTafxos TlToXefiaios, amnis Ptolemccus, which, according to Diodorus and Pliny, received its name from the second Ptolemy. The immense difference between this canal and the two northern ones, is visible in the plan of the French engineer^, therefore it does not even require the ingenious explanation of Letronne in order to understand that it was impossible for Cleopatra, after the battle of Actium, to cause ships of war to be brought from the Mediterranean to the Eed Sea, except by land. "With reference to this last work, Strabo mentions the Ptolemaic kings, this, connected with the fact that the town of Arsinoe, since the time of Strabo, is also mentioned under the name KXeoTrarpty, leads to the supposition that one of the last Ptolemies, or Cleopatra herself, completed the work- ings on this canal, perhaps the sluices. The name ttotuhos Tpaiavos, by which Letronne also un- ^ Descr. de CEy, Atlas, pi. 23, 31. CANAX BETWIiy NILE JLXD HT. 4 IG detftandB thewht>i' Ini:^ way as far ;i:j ine &oa^ ua4 UTidmibte«l)y !U« - tlv !>:inie Trora/ior nroXtfunot. f Arsinor' orthe 5ca; be ^'ii Babylon and Ilcroou- polis. This, tbirelupe, refers to the caiia), of which traces an* al«o rtill cxtoiit, which received ite water much higher up tliau the ancient one of Sesostris, namely, at Babylon, and wah nto it. ai! " -^'cd itself witli it i: ;r at Her tioii< M ••.!!.;.!. 1 t that litJ ila- K till . bnt wii« • hy which lAlronne , 1. uUmt llu- liiiH- of ^ ilic I'orphyry (luurrits of Ctcl»cl l»tn.linu ajiji^-iif Ut Im^c Uxu iK-yu^ i !. i* not. howcviT. n ■ntficirnt p-h^'P tor ih\* c*mf'lu*i''>n. Th.- < .i!;al rcLVrttJcr «c ctiHul i/u* uuuU i/u iN lf n^ffrrnunne : c^cst le m>mf '{ur Ammu fftt el-' A ■'■ ■ • - . 340), whiix- At; • . ^ aua lirnt ifuz nuutt ill .'/ n<;:.,:. .-r '■ --:'-tr dc cc , ., - mumtciitioH » */ et Its manfinndstntMl aband.nut U ;..: i ' : : .^. iluit thi- canal during the ri»ing of liu- AniU«, shortly l^forc the Kg^-ptiau coiuiuest, hail btvn disiffni'dly fiU'^-l up hy th<' K^'j'plians a.s an ininucal and iirudontial measure, fur th "it it was afterwards again filkd up ])y tJie CaJiph 111 >! .lohammet ben 'Alxiallali rose against him at Mr ' • . ...» , .; (aeeurding to others TtiT}. Tlie yt-ar also of it- :i ai>p<.'ars to me still doubtful. Mai^rizi, iiukcd, says (p. : ; / juc le Trh-Haut arcorda fislarnisme aiix fu/mmcSy ft que 'Amruu /jcn tl-'Ass Jit lu cuntjutte de rUginjte, ce ytntruL, d'apris Cordre de 'Omar ben al-KhttOithab, prince des Jiaeles, succupa de J\ure recreu^tr le canal dans ri:nn-< 'ICAL CUBONOLOGY. 153 fact Tcn* remote ; we should only have expected that the number of the Exodus would rather have been advanced two years, in conformity with the fixed and uuiversally intro- duced era of the Seleucidic, and not, on the contrary, that the latter should be sent so far back. But the number 2418 was left standing, which still more indicates a determinate selection of this year, independent of a cyclical or arbitrary arrangement. There is proof also that the Eabbis did not alter the com- mencement of the {Seleucidic Era, in the circumstance, that it has retained its correct place in chronology, in spite of the universal displacement in the chain of events. According to that displacement, Alexander first began to reign 3412 = 320, and died in 3451=308. The beginning of the new era, therefore, according to this, happened in the reign of Alexander himself, who in reality had been dead twenty-one years at the time of the battle of Gaza, which occasioned the new era. In consequence of these contradictions the number was retained, and the event was changed to agree with it, since the introduction of the era of kSeleucus was transferred to Alexander, and connected with an account of his presence in Jerusalem, which is otherwise only men- tionid by Josephus^ and the so-called Barbarus of Scaliger-. But the question is, how we can reconcile the remarkable displacement of events with the true numbers ? Iueler has shown that we must refer the first establishment of the era of the world, and consequently the foundation of the whole clirouological system that we are considering, to the author of the Moleds, or new moons, and particularly of the late .Fewish calendars, therefore to the Kabbi Hillel, in the first half of the fourth centur}'. In the time of Eusebius, and Theon of Alexandria, people could not possibly be so com- pletely ignorant of the history of the last centuries before Christ, as the rabbinical chronology supposed. It was least to be believed of such a learned mathematician, astronomer, ' Ant. XL viii. 5. - Thcsaur. tanpp. Euseh. 1G58, torn. ii. p. 72. 45^! THE HEBEEW TEADITION. and cbronologist, as we imagine the reformer of the Jewish calendar to have been, who founded it upon the nineteenth- yeared cycle of Meton and Calippus^. It appears to me, therefore, that the following acceptation is alone possible, which I would at least recommend to the closer examination of well-versed labourers in Jewish anti- quities. The Talmud contains very few chronological dates, and nothing justifies us in the belief that the learned Hillel had already given a chronological view of the events, as we afterwards find them. But he must have necessarily had some resting points for his technical chronological works, if he desired to connect his present with the past, and even with the Creation. It could not have been difficult to find these resting points at that time, eo soon after Africanus ; the best authorities were still open to him. But the Exodus from Egypt must have been his most important point, for previous to that event the numbers in the Pentateuch were clear, and without mistakes. It was only necessary for him to decide between the two diflerent views concerning the period between Jacob and Moses. The numbers after the Exodus were much more uncertain, as the calculations of Josephus have already proved. On the other hand, the well- known era of the Seleucidae, which was at that time still in use, naturally fomied another fixed point which he could not avoid. Under these circumstances, every clever and mathematically educated chronologist, would be compelled to connect the date of the Exodus with the only certain and astronomically verified Egj'ptian chronology. If the eea of Xing Mexephthes, and the exact year of its commence- ment was familiar to the mathematician, Theon of Alex- andria, who Lived at a later period, must it not have been equally well known to the astronomer Hillel ? But nothing more was necessary to determine the date of the Exodus, which took place under the same King MenepMTie^ J S. Ideler, Handb. i. p. 579. ,.l.-^^ ^^^^ ^'^^^ 31S the determination of Easter, according to the diflerent Christian calendars, was transferred from the Nicene Council HiJBBIXICAL CHnOXOLOOT. 155 TVe should not tlierefore be surprised to see, even at that time, the perfectly correct acceptation of the year 2448 for the Exodus. It was, at all events, impossible to determine the year of the Creation without having ob- tained the two periods of the Seleucidic Era, and of the Exodus. On the other hand, it is ver}' improbable that llillel set to work as Ideler^ imagiues he did. He says ** that llillel evidently started from the beginning of the Seleucidic Era, which was at that time still universally employed by the Jews, the autumn of the year B.C. 312. Reckoning from this point backwards, he made the next e^KX'h the destruction of the first Temple, and placed it only 112 years earlier than the Seleucidic Era, counting about 150 years too little, so tliat he advanced Nebuchadnezzar to the times of Arta- lerxes I. Whilst he thus went back still farther to the building of the fmst Temple, to the Exodus of the Israelites out of Eg}'pt, to the Flood, and to the Creation, following partly the express statements of time in the Bihle, partly hia own explanation of it, he found the beginning of the year, 3i50 of the world, to be the epoch of the Minjan schtaroth." As we said before, it was perfe''. world, whicli comprised 5000 years, according to the state- ments of the Old Testament. In fact, we find neither in the Talmud, nor even in the first writings of the rabbis, which succeed the Talmud, e. g. in the Seder Olam Bahah, one of the oldest of those writings, the full chronological details, some extracts of which we have seen above. It appears to have been first completed in the twelfth centurj-, therefore in the period of a scientific barbarism, which had been long in- troduced. It was only necessary to follow the numbers of the Pentateuch from tlie Creation to the Flood, and to the Exodus, in order to obtain the given year 2448=1314. The convenient number 480 years, down to the building of the Temple, in the first Book of Kings, was afterwards immedi- ately adopted, and the chronology of the times of the Judges adapted to it. But hereby the historical event next follow- ing was at the same time displaced to about the IGO — 170 years we have mentioned, and drew with it the displacement of all the succeeding events. It first became apparent at the next fixed point, about the year 3450=:312, that the chain of events was far too long for the stated intenal, from the build- ing of the first to the second Temple. Therefore, the period from the erection of the second Temple, built under Darius Hystaspes, to the time of Alexander, to which was given the name of the Grecian Era^, was cut (iown without ceremony from 184 years into 34 years. This raised no obstacle at first, but afterwards occasioned many difficulties, until these also were got rid of by the simple expedient of taking Darius II. and III for one and tlie same person. Only thus can we explain the peculiar phenomena of an entirely displaced and afterwards mutilated clironology, in which, however, there ap- pears two fixed points alone correct, and which afibrd us at the same time the important, and probably the most exact, determination of the Exodus by a truly learned clironologist of the fourth century-. J It was also called " the Era oi Alexander:' Ideler, Chron. i. p. 449. - It would be important to iuquire when the year 2448 is first men- tioned in Jewish literature as that of the Exodus, and which of the ME CF THE EXODUS. 457 Viewing ii, i.ir. :ore, from this side, we return to iln- opinion, that thf (rrt-at stumbling-block to the whole of the chr' l fur the Old Testament was the nu!;. wa8 calculated us the period be- tween the Exodus and the building of the Temple mentioned in the first Book of Kings^ As soon aB we set this aside, regarding it only aa a supplementary multiple of twelve .ts of 40 years each, the Hebrew and - are no longer opposed to each other with rerertncc to ihe time of the Exodus. All llie other intimations we meet with in the Hebrew accounts, and their whole connection, demand, on the contrary, precisely the same time, which we find unequivocally stated in tlu* Eiiyptian annals of Manetho. The question now is, whether along with this number i^O, to which we can attribute no greater importance than to the simple number forti/, so often repeated in the history of Israel at that period, we must also give up as valueless every other chronological measure of the events immediately suc- ceeding the Exodus. But this is so little the case, that, on Rnbbis first clunp to this epocli in the outline of history, wliich wa« at flr»t prvib.ihly (uly niarkcil in the calendar. ' We havi- alrcaiiy »etn abovi-, lliat neither the Apostle I'aul nor Josephujj ricuj;iiisttl the calculation of tliL- 4'<() ye:ir«. Africanus jubt ti» Httle, who ri-ckonel 74S years. (Kouth, lielii/u. sacnr, vol. ii. p. 313, ff.) Kuscbius (reckons 600, or even CIO years; I'rap. F.v. x. 14, compare Houth elM-'wlu-re; but in his Canon he calculates 480), Clemens Alexamlr. {Strom, p. 380, I'ott. 567), Syncellus (p. 175, JiiO), and others. AmouR modern scholars, Des Vipnoles {('hnntiJ. de VhisL saintc, t. i. p. 172) has esi)ecially treated the (juestion in detail. He finally dtxidis uiK>n the acceptation, that the i)eriotiny of the Israelitish people, firmly bound together, and always separating themselves most rigorously from strmngers, yet frequently transplanted in masses from one country to another, and settled amidst other nations, enables us perfectly to comprehend this universal attention to an au- tlientic register of generations. We find it stated that they were already twice numbered^ in the desert ; for which pur- pose the whole people were collected together, and were en- tered in the registers of the births " by their generations^ after their families, according to the number of the names, from twenty years and upwards, and by their polls." On their return from exile it is particularly ob8er%ed that some of the wanderers could not trace their geneah»gy^. Among these were several priests' families, of whom it is said, " These sought the register of their generations, but it waa not found, antl, therefore, they were rejected from the priest- hood'. It follows from this that the priests of the tribe of Levi were obliged by law to preserve and continue the register of their generations. This law must naturally only have existed since the Exodus, and, therefore, when Jose- phus* asserts that the High priests possessed written regis- ters of their generations, as far back as 2000 years, this is, indeed, connected with his opinion about the early epoch of the Exodus ; it shows, however, that they were brought down to his time, which is, indeed, also confirmed by the register of the generations of Jesus Christ^. We need no further justification, therefore, for placing gi'cat ' Numb. i. i>C. - Ezra ii. 59; Nebemiah vii. 61. ' Ezra ii. C2; Nth. vii. 64. ■• Contra. Ap. i. 7. ^ Gospel Matth. i. 2, &x\; Luke iii. 23, &c. The great diflferences between the two penealoj^ies have been considered in a variety of ways, but. aa it appears, they have not yet been satisfactorily explained. Therefore, they do not permit of any immediate chronological con- clusions. 460 THE HEBEEW TRADITION. value upon the successive generations, and for discovering in them the true clironological thread for those times during which more exact reliahle statements are wanting. "We fortunately possess a whole array of genealogies for the period between the Exodus and the building of the Temple ; and, indeed, princi- pally generations of priests, which go back as far as Levi, and are, therefore, from the reasons we have stated above, the most to be depended upon. Altogether, j/??;e different generations of the Levites may be distinguished ; some obscurities have crept into our text, which probably happened at the time it assumed its present form, since they are found also in the Septuagiut ; it seems, however, that they may easily be re- moved^. The following is a survey of the principal genealogies, in which the Levitical generations preserve the order in which they are cited, 1 Chron. vii.- This is preceded by the genea- logical succession, according to Josephus, from Levi to Zadoh^ and by his series of High priests from Aaron to Zadolc. Lastly, there follows a table of the generations of Judah. On the other hand, we have excluded other genealogies; e. g. the three of Ephraim ; Num. xxvi. 35 ; 1 Chron. viii. 20,21,24 — 27^; because they are evidently confused, and lead to no result*. 1 The removal of some of tlie difficulties indicated in the follovring table are obvious, and may, therefore, have been expressed long before me, in the critical-biblical literature already published, although I am unable to point it out. But the aim we have in view requires us to examine this subject somewhat more accurately. I see, besides, that Ewald also, Gesch. Isr. i. p. 31, ii, p. 433, and in other passages, considers the two generations from Levi to Saul and to Heman, as the most complete, and, therefore, all the others as incomplete. "' According to the Septuagint. In the Hebrew text, chap. v. & vi. 3 [Hebrew text, 1 Chron. vii. 20, 21, 24—27.] * It is impossible that the descendants of Ephraim, mentioned in 1 Chron. viii. 20, 2 1, could have been all killed at the same time by the men of Gath (therefore, in Palestine), since they include eight generations. The march to Gath also, which is mentionecl, could not have been from Egypt (Bunsen, Aeg. i. p. 220) (Tr. vol.i. p. 178), since they went down. It is equally impossible that Non and Jehoshuah can be rightlv placed m V 27, since the latter ought to stand in the ninth in place of the third degree from Ephraim. JEWISU GENLUATIONS. 4Cl - I- - t^ c: O O O O O C :: rt ro CO CO cc rc >J ^ =■ • c- • • • • o v> 'C • ^ <5 = -3 = -3 ^ > j^^ 1 r: 'r* ~ -§1 •55 i 5 h'' o o o o c 00 cc oc cc ? ■3 'i'^r'^ •^ J- y r. z, "o o'o o o o o" CO 00 CO CO CO 00 CO CO ^ 2 < :'^ 4 < a P jr Z^jr < < r-i C4 CO "^ uo o t>i 00 ci d -- o o 00 00 O |0 o o o o CO ;C5 CO cc cc c: 88 5H C r C O COO o o o o o o I"* ^ I 1^1 CO r- CI r: ^ c -^ o tD t.>^ CO ci d ^ 462 THE HEBREW TKADITIOIT. V. The Generation of Merari— Mahli. 1 Chron. vii. 29 — 30 1 i 1. Levi 2. Merari 3. Mahli H^ 02 P GG 3 ^ rH C^ X ci d 1— 1 III. The Generation of Kohath-Amniinadab. 1 Chron. vii. 22 — 24. ( = VI.) [Levi] Kohath Amminadab oooooooooo o cocococococccocococo o Korah . . Elkanah Ebiasaph Assir . . Taliath . Uriel . . Uzziah . Saul . . (Jonalhai rH CM CO ^ ci CO -^ io o t- X c: o 1— ( II. The Generation of Gershom — Libni. 1 Chron. vii. 20, 21. ( = VIII.) 1. Levi 2. Gershom 3. Libni 1. (Jahath) 2. Ziiiimah 3. Joah 4. Iddo 6. Zerah 6. Jeaterai I. The Generation of Aaron. 1 Chron. vii. 1 — 9, 50—53. Ezra vii. 2 — 5, Levi Kohath Am ram ooooooooooo cococccocococococccoco o cc CO 1 S § -^ -s ^ ?:; 2 - 5 .-r -S rH Cq CO rnCMC0^10 0i>XOOrH JEWISH OESERATIONS. 4ti3 C jc - - ^» - 5C 5 n t - X - -• i — C -^ .3 c o o o o o o cc r: rt re re ?c re 2 IS I c^ r3 rt . , ^ C- 7 4 rt -* k-e :r' t^ x ri 1 I o « u H £'-> ce ?c rr re w o o o o o ?e re CO 73 CO CO •r i. 3 t-^ <^ ^ .- S3 ^:^<=:<:r^, 4WEi^^ o "* r-i C^ 7D .-I ei X ^ o d i>^ X d d ^ f— 1 . oooooooooo IS . 1 cecececececececcooce < . . , 1 . . . ^ . . . 1=0 b -i -^ ^ H ii 3 III. > £:u -*--'.'' -3 X S 0, N! ^ S u^i^jrj ^ ^::ii:i <: r^ S3 ears to hidicate that there is a pause. Yet the correctness of our division hero also, will luirdly be found doubtful. It would be quite impossible to believe that among six genealogies one alone could have been as long (Jeatcrai). Shiraci and Libni appear to be brothers. But, on tJiat account apain, tin- name of .Taliatli, as above remarked, ougljt to be rubUd out of lK)th lists, and perhaps be considered as a common sur- name of the brothers. For Jahath appears in the 1 Chron, vii, 43 as the father of Shimei, xxiii. 10 as the son of Sliimei, vii, 20 as the son of Libni, but, xxiii, 8, not amonj,' the sons of Laadan, who neverthe- less, xxiii, 7, stands in the place of Libni ' Gescn. Thes. 2 Ilebr. p. 1011. ■^ The omission may perhaps be explained by Exodus vi, 24, where Assir, f^lkanah, ami Abiasapli literally appear beside one another as sons of Korah, while it Mas probably intended that, as his sons, they should succeed one another. 2 n ^QQ THE HEBEEW TRADITION. again as all the others; for if we omitted the two re- stored members of the sixth series, we should still retain nineteen members in place of ten or eleven, as in the other genealogies. We should therefore still feel obliged to believe there was a mistake, even though unable to point it out. But, upon a further investigation, it explains itself. It is very apparent that we have the same genealogies in the fourth series as in the seventh, although there appears to be several deviations in the manner the names are written, and in some passages completely different names. Let us now see how the fourth series is introduced in the Chronicles. The first part of the seventh chapter (in the Hebrew text made the sixth) brings prominently forward, apart from the other genealogies, that of the generations of the high priests, which goes back through Aaron, Amram, and Kohath, to Levi. The generations of the other Levites are afterwards designated, and indeed in two divisions. The frst proceeds from the first-lorn of the sons of Levi, in which, nevertheless, in the race of Kohath, Amratn has already been removed from the series, and Amminadah, i. e. Izhar, takes his place ; the second goes upwards from the three songsters of David, Heman, Assaph, and Ethan, as far back as the grandchildren of Levi. The ancestors of Heman come first, because a first-lorn grandson of Levi stands at the head, Izhar, i. e. Amminadal, whose generation was therefore already mentioned among those of the first-born grandsons (III.). The ancestors of Assaph and of Ethan succeed, because later-born grandsons of Levi stand at the head, who are again arranged in the succession of the sons of Levi. There is here a strict and duly considered rule, which is made evident by the following survey : TUE JEWISH GEXEEATIONS. 467 Levi. 1. (lershom. \ \ | 2. Kohalh. .3. Elkanah. 4. Muari. I. ]. Am ram. 1. Aaron, 2. Moses. Amminadab-Izliar. IV. III.?o II. 1. Libni. VI. i - VIII. 2. Jahath-Shimci. ;}. Ilel run. Vli.| 1-^'"=»S''!- ^'- I- M^il'li- 4. I'zziah. 2. Aliiinclli. IX.2. Muslii. This certainty presupposes wliat has bct'U already a.-^sunifd here, that Elkanah was a son of Levi, and, indeed, the TiiiBD son, although in former passages he is not cited aa among the sons of Levi. Little is proved by this omission, for there are many such cases, and in this very chapter, V. 43, Jahath is called a son of Gershom, although in v. 17 he is not cited among the sons of Gershom^ In such cases, certainly, the conjecture still remains which we admitted above, p. 464, in the case of Jahath, that one name has been substituted for another, as, without doubt, occurs in many cases ; and therefore some might prefer here to suppose Elkanah the same person as Kohath, Zuph (VII.) as a later Klkanali (IV.), Toah (VII.) as Xahath (IV.), Azariah (VI.) as Uz/.iah (III.), Joel (A^II.) as Vashni (IV.), Laadan as Libni, i^e. Uowever, this seems very improbable here. In the chap- ter we allude to the children of Gershom-Libni are first stated in tlie series of the first-bom, then the children of Kohath- Amminadab, then the children of Elkanah-Amasai, lastly the children of Merari-Mahli. Elkanah is, therefore, evidently ' "We sliould, perhaps, also take into consideration the preference which is given in the genealogical tables of the Old Testament to three sons. 2u2 468 THE HEBREW TEADITTON. also placed between Kohatli and Merari, as one of the first- lorn. If EikanaJi, the head of this family, were no other than the Elkanah previously mentioned in v. 23, the son of Assir, this whole genealogy would not belong here, which is evident from the arrangement we have given above. But the same arrangement proves that the first part of the genealogy of Heman, our sijrth series^, concludes ^vith the same Joel who in the second part in our seventh series appears as the father of Heman ; that, consequently, we have to complete the end of the sixth series with the name of Heman again ; in short, that we have before us, in place of one of double length, tico single genealogies of Heman, which spring from his father by difierent grandfathers^. So much for the generations of Levi from the Hebrew text. With respect to the genealogical succession from Levi to Zadok, according to Josephus, it corresponds with our first Levitical series, but does not entirely agree with it. According to Josephus, the generations belonging here would be as follows : 'Aapwi/. 1. EXfo^apr/S. 2. ^iveecTj^ 'IS, 'la)07/7ros. BoKKias. 'lu)^a/xos (Meraioth=) Uapaicudoi. Apo0alos. (Ahitub=) 'AxiTcofios. 10. SaScoKoS. 'APi(C(pr)S. BoVKl. 'afxapos 'HXfi. 'Axt/xeXfxoS-. 'A/Stti^upos. 1 The genealogy -was certainly originally brought down from father to son; therefore the names carri-.d up from F.lkanah to Heman precede those from Kohath to Joel (and Heman), although Kohath is the elder brother. We follow the correct order. 2 Azariah appears to have been the true father of JueJ ; Samuel was, perhaps, his father-in-law, or his uncle, for although, 1 Sam. viii. 2, Joel and Abiah are also stated to be sons of Samuel, our fourth genea- logy, 1 Chron. vii. 28, calls them Vashni and A'jiali. ..i^ vLWlan GENERATIONS. •W But the Hebrew series U not only supported by three pas- sages, but it h&s alao mure iuteriiai probability than that of .1 - For BoMuir and BovkI seem to ditler but little, Zaduk and Abiathar are coteniporar}, a name ap- pears Uj be wanting in the series of 2a3<*«H>$, which is given in the Hebrew aeries^ In our series of the successions of the High pristtM i^mt'tnjs is an interposition, because the pontificate {laasod luiiai'diatcly from Kli t<» his grandson. I'iic genepJogy of Judah^ which wc have added, is at the ^an^e time the table of the generation of Davui. It is the shortest of all, but ought not therefore to be retarded with suspicion. We must place Hczron equal with Jdosot^ ;ilthoiigh ouly one generation is given between hun and Judal), for it is said of hiin (I Chron. ii. 24) that he died at Caleb- Ephratiih, tluTcfore after the entrance iiiU.) Palest mo, and tliat his wife, Abiidi, had a son after his death. Thexe- fore there only remains Jtulah and Fharez for the Eg^iitian time. This need not surprise ub, since Phartz was oidy born to Judiih by Thamar after she had been alremly the wife of his sons ; Fharrz is, therefore, both the son and the qrauihon of Judah. There remain nine generations^ for the period from the Exodus to tlie building of the Temple ; but here, also, we know at least concerning the hk^t name, JJavid, that he was the teventh son of his father. If we now review the collected series of our table, we tind among them right dillerent and complete series, namely, be- sides six tribes of Levi, the tribe of Judah, and the series of the High priests. Of these, one contains 12 namen, three of them 11, three 10, and one 9. This gives as a mean number exactly ten and a half generations. K we inquire the mean number for the years of a geneimr tion, we must not tliink of the Hebrew number 40. It is > In the scries of TA\, 'A;^tTa),3oS must stand in place of 'loj^ci/ar^s, for the ancestors of Zadok and Achimelcch were hoth named Ahitub, which nii^ht at all events easily produce confusion. The natne 'loxu<^7^ Boems to bo founded upon Icliabod, the brother of Alutub (1 Sam. iv. 21 ; xiv. li). 470 THE HEBEEW TEADITIOy. evidentlj too high a number, and was only sometimes con- ferred hy the Hebrews on the generations, because it had been long used by them for undetermined quantities as a round and sacred number. The 33|rd years also of the Egyptian generations, accord- ing to Herodotus (ii. 142), was rather a subdivision of the century than a calculation of the real succession of genera- tions. The longest series, from which we could obtain a mean number, are the series of kings. But we can obtain no scale even from them. The kings of Judah only reigned on an average nineteen years, those of Israel only twelve years. Successions of reigns are, however, always shorter than generations, and in J udah seven out of twenty kings were killed, or expelled ; in Israel, fully half out of twenty. We shall therefore approach much nearer the truth if we adopt the Greek acceptation^ of thirty years for a generation, in which we only follow most of the modern scholars. Admitting this, ten or eleven generations would amount to 300 or 330 years, and if we place Solomon about the year 1000, the genealogies would lead us to 1300 or 1330 years before Christ, which most perfectly agrees with our earlier results, since, according to Manetho, we believe we ought to place MenepJithes 132S— 1309. The Ballinical date of the Exodus is B.C. 1314, exactly between 1300 and 1330, upon which of course no more importance is to be laid than is allowable by the indeterminate factors of the calculation. At any rate the whole discussion leads to this, that i\\e genealogies, the only trustworthy although less exact chronological thread of those Hebrew times, speak as decidedly against the calcu- lation hitherto adopted of 4S0 years, as in favour of our calculation of, about, 300 years. This agreement appears to me of the greatest importance in judgmg both the Eg}-ptian as well as the Jewish history. But if, finally, we look at the numbers in the Book of Judges, we have already seen that, according to the usual ; According to Eratosthenes, Apollodor, Diodor. &c.: see Larcher, Herod, torn. vii. p. 51, 53, 68, 395, 397. DATE OF TILE EXODUS. 171 modt' of reckoning, they arc by no means found to agreo immediately with any other chronological acceptation ; still the dironological character of many separate numbers cannot be misitaken, and we may at least expect that, from our point of view also, a simple solution nuist present itself, ^vhich would release the statements of numbers in the Book of Judges from the contradictions in which, as hitherto inter- preted, they have stood ^^-ith the ^lanethonic chronology. Buusen^ gives us a survey of this period. He compares the " Time of Foreign Rule and Anarchy" with the " Time of the Judges and of Peace." For the former he puts 3 J* -f 111 years, for the latter, including the monarchical time to the building of the Temple, 4 x -f 4-i2 years. He consi- ders the first, less historical than the last (p. 212), and supposes tliat the number 4S0 is perhaps formed out of the latter 412. At all events, he believes we must start from this number. But I should prefer an entirely different combination, which promises to lead sooner to a result. If we place the un- certain and round numbers upon one side, and the remain- ing on the other side, we shall obtain the following survey* : ' Arq. i. p. 209—214. (Tr. vol. i. p. 1G6— 171.) - Two points may, poriiaps, strike the reader in the survey of the tlirfirent statements of numbers given here from the Book of Judges, u\xm which I will subjoin what follows in explanation. I have placc and he gave him to wife Asenafh, the daughter of FofipheraJi, priest of On." (Gen. xli. 42, &c.) The fact that the distinctions here conferred upon Joseph are in perfect accordance with Eg}'ptian manners^, would still not be sufficient to prove that he lived at an Egyptian court, for the Semitic rulers might possibly have brought with them the same customs, or might have adopted them. But if such were our belief, it ' Evidently the same name as that of tlie Heliopolitan priest y-ET!:-^, which only, being more complete, has the « at the end, and which the Seventy likewise write Ilfrf^p^. In hieroglyphics the name would be ^^ n ijj or ^0 ^ (^ Pet-Ra, or with the article, which can also be written in hieroglyphics, Pet-Ph-Ra, i. e. " he who is consecrated to the sun." - This was especially the dress of the Egyptian priests, as well as of the king himself, whose transparent upper garments, of fine linen, are known by the monuments. Compare Herod, ii. 37 ; Plin. H. N. xix. 2. The elevation of Joseph into the most distin^'ulshed class, that of the priests, is shown by this laying on of fine linen garments. ' Precious necklaces and chains were bestowed by the Egyptian kings as particular marks of distinction. Several very illustrative representations of this from Thebes and Tel-el-Amarna will be dis- closed in the work of the Prussian Expedition. * At festive processions the chariot of the queen used to follow that of the king, and after it the chariot of the princes. Joseph was thus treated like the son of a king. 5 For other points of comparison, see Hengstenberg, Die Biicher Moses und JEgiipten, ^. 2\ — 76. 478 THE HEBREW TBADITION. would be impossible to combine with it tlie circumstance that Joseph received from Pharaoh expressly an Egyptian name. Por even if the older Hebrew commentators have attempted to derive the name from the Hebrew, these at- tempts have long been rejected by modern scholars^. AVe should be able to decide with more complete certainty about the Egyptian signification of the name if we found it written in hieroglyphics. It sounds in Hebrew Zepnet-ponch (ZapJmath-phajieach) . It appears to me that the last por- tion can hardly be referred to any other word than the ^ auch, Coptic cjoiie Aue with the article n con?, the life; the first part is obscure. Since the Seventy write "irovdoixcpavrjx, it is generally supposed that the two first letters in the Hebrew text have been misplaced, and that the uniting genitive — n (before the labial — w) has been omitted. Both are possible, but not probable. It seems to me that the Seventy cannot claim any more authority on this point than any other inter- preter. It is not surprising that, without understanding the hieroglyphical writing, they were as little capable as we are of explaining the old name from the popular language. But that they ^vrote "irovd in place of Zepnet, or Zpenf, seems to prove that they explained the name something like n CUJUT u c|)AN2 creatio (creator) vitae. But how is it possible that a Semitic king, who, like the six in the lists of the so-called shepherd kings, must un- doubtedly have himself borne a Semitic name, would have given Joseph an Egyptian name, in order to do him honour. Asenath is of course an Egyptian name like that of her father, FotipJira, i. e. JPetplira, and his being called a High priest of On (Heliopolis) is an additional and more certain proof that the Semitic nation of the Hyksos were not reign- ing here, for they would have destroyed all the Egyptian temples ; and they would hardly have permitted the worship of Ba (Helios) to continue in the neighbourhood of Mem- ' Jablonski, Voc. ^g. s. v. Psonthomphanech ; Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 1181. JOSEPH IX EGYrT. 479 phis, whose High priest must give his daughter to Joseph tor a wife, in order to show him particular honour, and to naturalise him completely. It ia equally evident, from tlie meeting of Joseph wiih Ilia brethren, that he lived at a really Eg^-ptiau court. Distrust towards their Pha'uician neighbours was continu- ally kept alive among the Egyptians, therefore it was easy to form a pretext to attack the Hebrews. " Ye are spies, to see the nakedness of the land ye are come." (Gen. xliL 9, 12, 14.) When the brethren talk among them- selves of the act which they perpetrated against Joseph, they speak out loud m the presence of Joseph : " They knew not that Joseph understood them, for he spake unto them by an interpreter.'" (Gen. xlii. 23.) Josepli had be- come so completely an Egyptian, and the Egj'ptian language was so exclusively spoken at the court of Pharaoh, that the brethren could not conjecture any one was near them who understood their language. When, therefore, on their second visit to Joseph's house, ihey were about to take their meal, it is said, " And they set for him by himself, and for them by themselves, and for the Egyptians, which did eat with him, by themselves : because the Eyypiians might not eat bread with the Hebrews, for that is an abomination unto the Egyptians^ (Gen. xliii. 1^2.) The native Egyptians could never have expressed tliis horror, and regulated theii" manners accordingly, under the dominion of a Semitic reigning iiimily. Lastly, it is equally impro- bable tliat Joseph would have advised the immigrating family to call themselves shepherds in order to obtain from Pharaoh a country set apart for themselves. " And it shall come to pass when Pharaoh shall call you, and shall say, What is your occupation ? That ye shall say, Thy servant's trade hath been about cattle from our youth, even until now, both we, and also oiu: fathers ; that ye may dwell in the land of Goshen; for every shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians." (Gen. xlvi. 33.) If the shepherd people of the Hyksos reigned in Eg}'pt, how could the shepherds be an abomination to them ? If it is therefore evident that Joseph lived at au Egyptian^ 480 THE HEBEEW TEADITION. and not at a Semitic court, the old tradition of the Jewish interpreters that Joseph came to Egypt in the reign of a shepherd king, Apophis, is entirely destroyed, as well as the view taken by more modern scholars concerning the Hebrew chronology of that time. But according to Manetho, the Exodus happened in the reign of Menephthes, and according to all the Hebrew genealogies, Jacob's entrance could only have happened 90 or 100 years earlier. Therefore Sethos, the father of the great Eamses, must certainly be the Pharaoh under whom Joseph came into Egypt. This is most indubitably con- firmed by the unmistakeable agreement which exists between ithe Hebrew account of the Pharaoh of Joseph, and what is related by others of King Sethos. It is said by the former, *' And Joseph bought all the land of Egypt for Pharaoh ; for the Egyptians sold every man his field, because the famine prevailed over them : so the land hecame ^haraoli s. And as for the people, he removed them to cities from one end of the borders of Egypt even to the other end thereof. Only the land of the priests bought he not ; for the priests had a por- tion assigned them of Pharaoh, and did eat their portion which Pharaoh gave them: wherefore they sold not their lands. Then Joseph said unto the people. Behold, I have bought you this day and your land for Pharaoh : lo, here is seed for you, and ye shall sow the land. And it shall come to pass in the increase, that ye shall give the fifth part unto Pharaoh, and four parts shall be your own. . . . And Joseph made it a law over the land of Egypt unto this day, that Pharaoh should have the fifth part ; except the land of the priests only, which became not Pharaoh's." (Gen. livii. 20, &c.) "We find the same great alteration in the agrarian condi- tions of the country, and connected with it the introduction of a general ground-tax, from which the priests alone were excepted, ascribed by Herodotus and Diodoras to the King Sesostris- Sesoosis. We read iu Herodotus, ii. 1081, that the king intersected the country with canals, because the places which were re- mote from the Nile sufiered, when it retreated, froin a JOSErn ly egtpt. 481 Bcarcitv of water. It appears from wliat has been observed above, that it was chiefly Ramses who completed the Egvp- tian system of canals, although it is very probable that the great transformation in the condition of the ground which it occasioned had been already commenced by his fiither, SeiJiosU. It is well known that the fertility of Egypt alone depends upon the proper and well-maintained regulation of the overflowings. Since the time of Moris- Amencmha, who was the first to bestow any considerable attention upon it, the country liad degenerated, owing to its long foreign rule, and had but just risen again to complete independence under the mighty Pharaohs of the ISth Dmasty. It is quite con- ceivable that such comprehensive and tedious undertakings for increasing the general prosperity, as a universal construc- tion of canals, especially in the Delta, could only have been first undertaken by the earlier kings of the 19th Dniasty, Sethosi.s and Ramses, who were both of them favoured by long reigns. Tlierefore until that time, a general tailure of the crops and a famine might have very frequently occurred, at a low or even a moderate rise of the water, and perlmps happened for several successive years. Strabo^ relates that, before tiie time of the Prefect Petronius, owing to the water-works being neglected, famine broke out in Eg}'pt if the Xile only rose 8 ells, and 14 ells were necessary for a particularly good year ; whereas, by his improvements, it was only necessary for the Nile to rise 10 ells to produce the best harvest, and if it rose but 8 ells no scarcity ensued. Pamine broke out in Egvpt in the Arabian times also Irora the same reason-. Thus the famine-years in the time of Joseph may be explained to have occiured in the reign of Sethos ; this event may even have called attention to the necessity of a better water regulation in the country. In the following chapter Herodotus says, that the King Sesostris '' divided the land between all the Egyptians by giving an equal-sized square portion to each, from which he ^ xvii. p. 788. Maqrizi in Quatremt-re. M^m. ii. 318, 401. 2i 482 THE HEBREW TEADITIOK. afterwards derived his income by laying an annual tax upon it. But when the river carried away a part of any person's portion, he showed it to the king, who sent people to inquire and measure how much smaller the piece of land had be- come, in order that he might pay the tax for the remainder according to the commands." This is essentially the same arrangement which is ascribed to Joseph, the minister of Pharaoh. Herodotus had already^ mentioned in an earlier passage that the priests paid no taxes, but even received their daily sustenance besides, exactly as it is related in the Mosaic accounts. Diodorus- says of Sesoosis, that he " divided the whole country into thirty-six parts," which the Egyptians called Nomes; over these he placed Nomarchs, who had the charge of the Eotal Eevenues, and "ruled everything besides in their provinces." Therefore here again there was an entirely new division and government of the coun- try, in which the taxes to the king are not forgotten. Afterwards (c. 57) he adds also, that he raised many great mounds, and upon them transplanted the towns which were situated too low (^fTWKio-ej/) . The fresh regulations in the country, and especially the new canals, necessarily created a great number of towns and villages for the management of the grounds which were portioned out, and were now partly cultivated for the first time. To this we may most naturally refer the remark in the Hebrew account that Pharaoh " re- moved them to cities from one end of the borders of Egypt even to the other end thereof." (Qen. xlvii. 21.) Diodorus (c. 56) also mentions the hard taskwork which thence became necessary, and that in consequence of it the " Babylonian prisoners, who could no longer bear the toilsome labour, re- belled against the king." In the very valuable description of the manner in which the Egyptian administration had subsisted under the old^ kings of the country, which is drawn from the most ancient * ii. 37. = i. 54. 3 i. 72^ 74. Compare c. 71. josi-rn IX EGYPT. 4S3 sources, Diodonis again mentions (c. 73, 7-i) the arrange- ment of the Xomes, and a division of the property, by which one-third belonged to the priests, one to the king, the other to tlie warriors ; and how all the cultivators of the soil, for a small reward, only performed task-service for the three orders who possessed laud. It is here also expressly men- tioned, that the priests were exempt (dreXets) from taxation^. But it seems that it is only from the Mosaic narrative we learn that the universal statute of the taxes imposed on the remaining possessors of the land was fixed upon exactly the fifth part of the produce ; this narrative here, as well as in other points, confidently completes our knowledge of those circumstances. Now if the arrangements we have cited, which in fact so essentially changed Egypt, that their introduction could not fail to occupy an important place in the monuments of that time, and to be thus handed down to posterity, were ascribed in the Greek account to Sesosteis-Sesoosis, wc should, in the next place, be uncertain whether Sethos or his son Eamses was meant. It is not in itself improbable, that works demand- ing so much time, and the extensive alterations in the poli- tical circumstances, might fully occupy two such long reigns as those of both the kings mentioned ; and of the canal works especially, we know that at least two particular canals of considerable importance were completed by Eamses, east and west of the Delta, and towns were built beside them. But since it can now hardly be disputed that those events could not have taken place either earlier or later than under these two reigns, which embraced more than a cen- tur}', it appears to b^ perfectly justifiable to suppose that the first and most essential steps to this reform were taken in the reign of Sethos, because, according to the genealogical calculation of time in the Bible, Joseph must have lived and acted in the first half of the reign of Sethosis. The succes- sion of kings in the Mosaic accounts also perfectly agrees with this. "\Ve here read of only tliree Fharaohs during that time. Joseph came to Potiphar in Egypt in the reigu * Compare also Strabo, xvii. p. 787, upon the taxes to the king. 2i2 484 THE HEBEEW TEADITIOT?". of the first, and rose bj liis wisdom to be first minister of the king. This Pharaoh was Sethosis I., with whom the Manethonic lists begin a new Dynasty. By means of the new improvements introduced and regulated by him, the country was saved from the years of famine which had hitherto been constantly dreaded, and the power of the king was increased and strengthened. " And Joseph died, and all his brethren, and his whole race," "jS'ow there arose up a new king over Eg^^t, which knew not Joseph^." Sethosis had reigned more than fifty years, and Joseph must have lived in the first part of his reign. It is therefore conceivable that the new King Eamses II. knew nothing more of him, or wished to know nothing more, and therefore might not on his (Jo- seph's) account have favoured the rapidly increasing popu- lation of the Israelites in EgA'pt. "We therefore see that it was incorrect to explain the words of the account, which are only correct when taken in their simplest signification, that a new Icing arose — by understanding that by this the commencement of a new royal house is intended after a long and indefinite period. The birth of Moses, and his education at the court of Pharaoh, happened under this King Eamses II., and indeed in the latter part of his reign of sixty-six years, in which the times of Joseph were still more forgotten, and the hard oppressions and persecutions of the Jews prevailed. This king, although of a Theban. family, resided equally, and perhaps in those times, evea more at Memphis than at Thebes, as the later Saitic, Bubas- tic, and other dynasties also by no means forsook the old palace in Memphis. There exists, therefore, no grounds for imagining the youth of Moses to have been spent at Thebes rather than at Memphis. But when Moses had slain the Egyptian, he fled to Midian. " And it came to pass in process of time, that the King of ^gyp died ; and the children of Israel sighed by reason of the bondage^." The third king, therefore, succeeded the Pha- raoh of the Exodus, Mei^ephthes, the son of the great » Exodus 18. 2 Exodus 11. 23. rzniOD feom: AEBJiHi:ii to moses. 485 Eamses, the same under whom, aa we believe we have pointed out, the Exodus really happened, and from whom the new Sothid period, which began in his reign, likewise received its name. If, in the same manner, we go still farther back in the Hebrew accounts from Joseph to Abraham, we find this period also only occupied by three generations, which would fix it, according to the views we have exhibited, to about 90 or 100 years. According to tlie chronology hitherto adopted, Abraham's visit tu Eg}'pt would also have happened in the time of the Hyksos. But this is partly opposed by the same objections which we mentioned when speaking of the immigration of Jacob. Abraham also comes to the court of a Pharaoh, therefore of a native EgA^Dtiau ruler, and, in accordance with the Manethonic chronology, the visit of Abraliam would have happened under Tuthmosis lY. or Amenophis III., therefore in the middle of the 18th Dvnasty, after the Hyksos had been already expelled by the 17tli Dynasty, first into the lowest country of the Delta, and then from their last fortress, Abaris. Therefore only about 200 years had passed between Abraham's journey into Egypt and the time of the Exodus. But what gave occasion to the number four hundred and thirty years, so expressly stated in Exodus xii. 40, and which appears, in comparison with the round statement of 400 years in Gen. xv. 13, as more exact, and, at aU events, not an unmeaning number ? We have already ex- pressed our opinion that the round and indeterminate numbers, as well as the larger calculations, were only adopted at a later period m the writings of the Old Testa- ment. The number 480 or 440 years between the Exodus and the building of the Temple appeared to us to depend upon a calculation of 12 or 11 generations of 40 years each. But in the 430 years may, perhaps, lie the first indication of the early- conceived idea mentioned above, that the Israelites were the Hyksos. Eor the number would, in fact, be most 486 THE HEBEEW TEADTTION. perfectly explained if it was referred to the residence of these Semitic races in Egypt. "We shall, namely, point out, in the second part of the chronology, that the long contest between the Egyptians and the Hyksos, mentioned by Manetho, occurred during the 17th Dynasty from Aiiosis to Tuthmosis III. The former completely broke the foreign dominion, and drove back the Hyksos to the northern part of the Delta ; but it was Tuth- mosis who first succeeded in sending them out of their last stronghold of refuge, Abaris. Thence arose the confusion that has so generally prevailed concerning these two kings. The one as much as the other might be regarded as the con- queror of the Hyksos. Manetho specified the whole time of the residence of the Hyksos in Egypt, up to their depar- ture from Abaris, to be 511 years. But it must also have appeared from his narrative, and have been a fact specially known to the priests from their history, that the real domi- nion of the Hyksos in Egypt was terminated by Amosis. If we now subtract the time from Amosis to Tuthmosis, which was 80 years, from 511^, exactly four hundred and ihirty years remain for the dominion of the Hyksos in Egypt^. If, therefore, in the present day, the opinion can in any way be maintained and defended that Abraham (or Jacob) was King Salatis, and entered Egypt not as a peti- tioner, but as a powerful and conquering enemy, and that his seed was first conquered and driven away in the time of Moses by the native kings, the relation of the above- mentioned numbers would certainly appear as one of the most important proofs of it. It cannot, however, be argued that an admission which appears, according to our present ^ Even if we take into account the months also, subtracting 80 years and 8 months from 510 years and 10 months, we shall obtain 430 years and 2 months. _ ' I do not, however, lay more importance upon this agreement than it deserves. The coincidence of this number with the Hebrew periods, originating in a different manner, may certainly have first caused it to be_ believed that the Hyksos were the Jews. I am the less inclined to reject this opinion, as we shall see below that the Hebrew number may also be explained in a different manner. PERIOD rnOlI AEEAHAM TO MOSES. 487 criticism, perfectly impossible, must have appeared equally 80 in ancient times. An impartial apprehension of the pre- sent, and a faithful rendering of the past, was the vocation of an ancient annalist or historian ; it is only thus that they are of importance and worthy of consideration in our inquiry. Criticism was completely out of their sphere, historical aa well as philological ; and when, nevertheless, we do meet with it, it is generally very unsatisfactory, and even from the most distinguished writers, astonishingly feeble. The school of professional Alexandrian critics is by no means excepted. AVe find the most striking examples of this, particulariy in the Christian chronologists, who were not wanting either in abundance of authorities, nor in extensive learning and honest intentions. But we have actually seen, from the example of Josephus, as well as from earlier and later authors, how the opinion above mentioned, of the identity of the Ilyksos with the Jews, really gained admittance from various very super- ficial foundations, and yet Josephus belonged undoubtedly to the most learned antiquarians who we can place under our observation here. AVe ought not, therefore, to be surprised even if we find this view again stated at an earlier period in the arrangement and combinations of the Hebrew historical books; and this appears, in fact, to be very probable, by the number 430 years, which can neither be applied to the three genera- tions of Jacob, nor to the six from Abraham to Moses. The calculation also verifies itself still further. It was an early opinion that Joseph came to Eg}'pt in the reign of the ehepherd King Apliophis. This is expressly said by Euse- bius and Syncellus ; and the various changes in the position of Aphophis, who is difterently placed both by Josephus and Africanus, appear, upon a closer investigation, always to origi- nate from the same reason, namely, in order to place Joseph under Aphophis. The correct position of Aphophis, according to Manetho, was undoubtedly at the end of the 16th Dy- nasty, as we find it stated by Africanus^. Joseph stood, ac- cording to the generations, exactly between Abraham and * Bockh is also of this opinion, Manetho, p. 227. 488 THE HEBEEW TEADITI02?'. Moses. According to tlie Eg^^tian clironolog)^, the first Dy- nasty of the Hyksos reigned 259 years, the second 251 years, therefore Aphophis, the last king of the 1st Dynasty, reigned in the middle of th-e time of the Hyksos. This was probably the first idea which supported the opinion of the exact divi- sion of the 430 years into two equal halves, and the belief that Jacob came to Egypt in the time of Aphophis, Jacob's entrance, or the end of the first 215 years, accordingly hap- pened in the seventeenth year of the Aphophis ; Joseph was exalted by Pharaoh 9 years earlier, therefore in the eighth year of Aphophis. But the correct Egyptian statement, that the Hyksos first departed in the reign of Tuthmosis, had been already misun- derstood in the time of Josephus. He placed the Exodus of the Hyksos and of the Jews under Amosis, and made the whole 17th Dynasty of 251 years precede Amosis. It was impos- sible, therefore, that he could place Joseph under Aphophis. He could as little make the entrance of Abraham happen at the same time as that of the Hyksos, for he gave 511 years for the residence of the Hyksos, 430 for that of the Jews. But lie nowhere says either that the Jews entered with the Hyksos, as they departed with them, or that Jacob or Josephus came to Egypt in the reign of Aphophis. He appears rather to have believed that the first and not the second entrance of Ae Jews into Egypt, therefore the entrance of Abraham hap- pened in the time of Aplwpliis ; and thus that the tradition, which was no doubt known to him, was so to be understood. He must, at least, have thought that the entrance of Abraham really took place in the fii-st Hyksos Dynasty, although, in- deed, not under the last, but under thefourth king. Accord- ing to my opinion, this was the reason why Josephus made Aphophis thefourth king of the Dynasty. Airicanus, the most faithful among the reporters, did not admit aU these calculations, or seek to explain the Manethonic calculation, and to make it agree with his own, but let the contradictions stand, and therefore simply gave the Mane- thonic tradition, even when he did not understand it, and PEBIOD mOif ABRAHAM TO MOSES. 4S9 could not correct the mistakes which were handed down to him. We therefore find the correct position of Aphophia re- tained "by him. Eusebius on the other hand, and his uncertain authorities, again wished to mediate and to explain. In his account we find the first year of the 16th Dynasty placed contempora- neous with the first year of the life of Abraham, which ia evidently an arbitrary proceeding, and one that necessarily drew otlier changes along with it, which are met with plen- tifully in the numbers substituted for those of Manetho. His 17th Dynasty names the four first kings of the Mane- thonic 16th Dynasty, and Amosis follows immediately after. In order to fit in again with the later history, it was neces- sary to abridge considerably the 16th and 17th Dynasties. The numbers of Eusebius, as they appear in the Canon, clearly state that he only counted seventy-five years from the first year of Abraham to his entrance into Canaan and Egypt, and again 430 years from that time to the Exodus of Moses. This happened, therefore, in the last year of X/v^fpr;?. The same is given in the codex A of Sjiicellus, p. 72, D. If we here again calculate 215 years to the entrance of Jacob, or 224 to the exaltation of Joseph, we arrive at his reign of ApnoPHis, as was intended. But in codex B, and in the Armenian translation, the two kings, Athoris and Chen- cheres, who are correctly placed in the Eusebian Canon, are omitted, and undoubtedly by the oversight of Eusebius him- self, not of Syncellus. Thence the Exodus was placed in the reign of Achencheres, in place of Chencheres. The simi- larity in the names themselves appears to have led to the oversight ; thus Syncellus found the text. Kow, if we count back from Achencheres 215 or 224 years, we come to Archies, the predecessor of Aplwph is. Sjnicellus knew of no better way than to transpose Archies and Aphophis, as we find to be really the case in tis text of Eusebius, p. 62, A ; this of course can no longer be reconciled with the emendations of the codex A, which were added in a later passage out of Eusebius. No doubt seems to be left by this explanation of the numbers. 490 THE HEBEEW TEADITIOX. Lastly, Sjncellus, who follows the false Sothis, places the Exodus in the last year of Misphbagmfthosis, calculates from here backwards 215 years, and passing over the 2nd Hyksos Dynasty, which Sothis and Eusebius had already placed before the 1st Hyksos Dynasty, arrives at the fourth king of the latter. Therefore, as in Josephus, Aphophis is placed there. All these circumstances are easily explained when the aim and the issue of the matter is known. But the orierinal grounds why Aphophis, the last king of the 1st Mane- thonic Hyksos Dynasty, was regarded as the Pharaoh of Joseph and Jacob, is alone apparent by the simple relation which we have found subsisting between the Hebrew and the Manethonic numbers. I do not believe that a sound critical examination can con- eider so many and such universal agreements and confirma- tions to be accidental, or the result of an artificial correction, which, at all events, would of necessity be easily pointed out, the more so as, with the exception of a few individual points, my restoration of the Manethonic chronology was principally determined before my journey to Egypt. We therefore believe, that by means of a new path, namely, the Manethonic chronology, we have found the key to the relative portions of time in the Old Testament, so far a3 these are connected with Egypt ; and in an inverse manner we may now consider the agreement that subsists between the chronology of the Hebrew history (both the true chro- nology represented in the genealogies, and the false one, which was afterwards erroneously adopted) and the Eg}'ptiau numbers upon which the chronology was originally founded, to be indeed strongly confirmatory of the authenticity of these last, as they appear according to our restoration of them. It is very evident that our carrying back the Old Testa- ment chronology to its natural relations, as far back as Abra- ham, must be not merely of chronological, but of truly his- torical importance in the highest meaning of the term. The prolongation to above a hundred years, contrary to all hia- PERIOD rnOM ABBAHAil TO MOSES. 191 torical experience, of tlie thirtr-yeared generations of the immediate ancestors of Moses, who lived in the midst of the Egyptians, the length of whose lives was exactly like oiir own, must either appear an intentional miracle, or make U3 doubt the simple historical reality of the persons themselves, and of the events concerning them. The superhuman duration of life, considered as a miracle, would appear to be entirely without a purpose ; besides, in the Old Testament itself it is never viewed as such. The Psalmist^ on the contrary, considered as we do, a life of eighty years as a great age. Therefore the most distinguished, and most earnest inquirers of the present day were led to the opinion, evidently from the numbers, that the history of the three patriarchs, Abra- ham, Isaac, and Jacob, was less strictly liistorical, but only brought before the reader, as it were, three representations of long epochs of about a century each-. It was likewise necessary to regard the register of generations in the time of the Judges as defective, and extremely shortened, because in no other manner could they fill up the long period of 480 years. In order to make this abbreviation more probable, tlie genealogy of Hainan was referred to as the only one which was presen-ed perfect^, while we, on the contrary, consider it a double one. Now according to our view of the subject, this apparently 80 well-founded doubt of the real continuity of the events, and of tlie historical character of the contents, in as far as they de- pend upon the chronolog}', entirely disappears, and I seo no longer any reason to consider the accounts of the great per- sonality of Abraham, of the non-prominent activity of Isaac, the opulent life of Jacob, and the remarkable fate of Joseph, chiefly as typical, and as it were only slightly connected with the historical reality*. For although we must still make a considerable ditference between the character of the history ' Ps. xc. 10. ' So Ewald, Gesch. d. Volks Israel Bd. i. p. 30, 339 &c. Bunsen, JEgypten, i. p. 215, 22.'3. (Trans, vol. i. p. 171, 181.) ' Ewald, i. p. 31. Compare Bunsen, i. p. 220. * Ewald, i. p. 354, 387, &c. 492 THE HEBEEW TEADITIOX. of Israel before and after the building of the temple, yet it cannot be denied that the agreement we have pointed out between the true chronological thread, as it is represented to us bj the genealogies, and the Egyptian history, as well as the confirmation of so many notices respecting Egypt, from the time of Moses and Joseph, establish a far greater his- torical character for the Hebrew accounts, as far back as Abraham, than would have ever been allowed them by a strict criticism, had we been obliged to ascribe to the old authori- ties themselves the numbers which were inserted at a later period. [After some notice concerning the times before Abraham, the author concludes this section as follows :] If, however, our entire view of the Old Testament chro- nology, regarding it as founded upon accurately preserved dates, only so far back as the separation of the kingdom, but nevertheless attached from that epoch up to the time of Abraham to an evidently authentic tliread of historically reliable genealogies, offering, however, before the Egyp- tian period, only cyclical instead of historical numbers and genealogies, and mainly confined to Babylonian sources and traditions — if, I say, this general view of the character of the chronological data which leaves untouched the signifi- cance of their contents, should, on theological grounds, arouse scruples in the mind of any one, I would refer him to the introduction which Bunsen has prefixed to the third section of his first book on Egypt, as full of talent as of meaning, and from which I would more especially extract the following passages^. " Whoever adopts as a principle that chronology is a mat- ter of revelation, is precluded from giving eflect to any doubt that may cross his path, as involving a virtual aban- donment of his faith m revelation. He must be prepared, not only to deny the existence of contradictory statements, but to fill up chasms ; however irreconcileable the former * P. 204, 206. (Trans, by C. H. CottreU, vol. i. p. 161-163.) MANETnoyic cnBO'OLOGT. 493 may appear by any aid of philology and history, however un- fathomable the latter. He who, on the other hand, neither believes in an historical tradition as to the eternal eiistonce of man, nor admits an lii:*torical and chronological element in revelation, will either contemptuously dismiss the in- quiry, or, by prematurely rejecting its more difficult elements, fail to discover those threads of the research which lie be- neath the unsightly and time-worn surface, and which vet may prove the thread of Ariadne. " The assumption that it entered into the sclieme of Dinne Providence either to preserve for us a chronology of the Jews and their forefathers by real tradition, or to pronde the later commentators with magic powers, in n'spect to the most exoteric element of history, may seem indispensable to some, and absurd to others. Historical inquiry has nothing whatever to do with such idle, preposterous, and often falla- cious assumptions. Its business is to see whether anjihing — and if so, what — has been transmitted to us. If it fuliU this duty in a spirit of reverence as well as of liberty, sooner or later it will obtain the prize, which, if the history of the last 2(X)0 years prove anj-thing at all. Providence has refused to both the other systems.'* [After the two first sections of The Criticism vpon the Authorities, of which the first, upon Herodotus and Dio- donis, has been omitted in tliis translation, while the second, upon the Hebrew tradition, has been strongly dwelt upon, the author proceeds to the third and last section, which treats of the historical works of ]\ranetho and the authorities which refer to him. Now, although this section contains the really critical restoration of the Manethonic chronology, considered by the author as the only one to be relied on in its general features, it has not been considered compatible with the ob- ject of the present work to communicate at fiill length this difficult research, which was only vrritten for the profound investigator. We think it sufficient to give the two pas- sages in which the whole extent of the Manethonic history, down to the second Persian conquest, according to a state- 494! THE GENUINE MANETHONIC NUMBEES. ment obtained from Manetho himself, is said to amount to 3555 years, and the connection is pointed out between this time, considered as strictly historical, and the cyclically dis- covered History of the Gods.] The number 3555 is, however, alone essential and im- portant, and, in spite of all the uncertainties and revisings of the text, there cannot be the slightest doubt about it. It led undoubtedly to the termination of the reign of Necta- nebus II. If we can, therefore, determine this end in other more certain ways, we need no longer trouble ourselves about the calculation of Syncellus ; since this, as every one allows, is, at all events, incorrect. But it cannot be doubted that Manetho knew, and correctly stated, the true year of the conquest of Egypt by Ochus, which very likely happened during his lifetime. The calculation of this concluding year has, however, been so fully and comincingly proved by Bockh (p. 125 — 133), that I consider it would be superfluous to return to it again. I assume with hun that the year 3-iO B.C. is perfectly ascer- tained to be the concluding year of the Egyptian dominion. Calculating back from this stated terminating point 3555 Egyptian or 3553 Julian years, we come to the year 3893 lefore Christ, as thejlrst of Menes. We consider this to be established as perfectly historical, in as far as the Mane- thonic relation founded upon the annals of the kingdom may generally be regarded as historically correct. But long before the cyclical system of the government of the gods could be founded upon the Sothis periods, which were established in the course of history, Menes had already been admitted into the Egyptian annals, and was maintained to be the fixed chronological commencement of Egyptian history, especially of the history of Lower Egypt. His epoch could be no more altered. "What happened before his time was ante-historical, and might be adjusted to the cyclical necessities of mythologj'. The only historical fact was, that other kings had reigned before Menes, and indeed in This. In order to distinguish them from the kter kings as THE GENriNE MAXETHOyiC >'UMBEn9. 495 being ante-historical, a designation was selected, which we are not yet acquainted with in hieroglyphics, but which was translated in Greek by N *" i S "^ "2 K - u ? M fe -• 1- 12 S ■t i ? it ■3 ^ PS < lis I. — *' ** ;rtfg p: I.M J i-i^ •=0-5 3 -^-oU* c ca n aK 5.C 1 i t^" < l|l^ n o -^^i. f=— > ' 1 ' 1 roxii .of I.fl) son. o :• ;t? cy 1 5 p5' . § ? < 1 « 1 ^ E> ' ^J3 c - S iisd %9 ^ h II 5 -C ~ n c — t- C t*"- iZ U, "^ oe < 2 't: S ^ c ^ c r. _ a S; = i^ ^ >» B 0,*^ « >^. CrC-/?;:? t3 < tei • X— - -1^ — ^ -^.-^ ^ « 5i = 1 ^ .2 1 If lit •= •= III I f 1 = 1 1^ X ?5 X ^ ;:i^-« H C c — »'- — ?^ z'. •laorao -axiHdKa]^ •aNixKYUjaia -axiHdKaj^ 1 i •ilSYKAQ > ^ > > ^ 502 EaTFTIA^' DYNASTIES ill i '^ 'J. «i t» 1 cc t-&^ '^ 1:^-^.1 ^ c^ ■^-•^ •" c 3 3 i ■ i -^ "" ^ =i jzl ^ = 2 o g^ S ^ =^ c-^ -. c c ?4; J^ w cs '^' <5 p^ ■ D w Sto .r O o o , O ir3 (M oa c3.S OS |C0 ^ J^ S t^ C^ ^Oi Oi -^5 |-S5 Kl 6 o c S-^B . 2do o t^ — -* 00 , S CO O O Ci 00 to J o. *- « (74 (N *" ■;-. >> 1 ^.o ^ ^ .s 11 1" 5 1 il^ S S ;; o i l^r 1 &. - Si . O cc O to i-lli 11 is ^ ■ai O H s >» -^ w°°s Hi^^i^ i o . ^- ^ ^' l:^ e-| o g ^ ames of t in the L Mancthc Eratostl 1 O - O C £ 5 s S3 ti ^ III ,' r^ ^ < -r < tH EOTPTLLN DYNASTIES. 508 •= u X - ^ ! ^! = T r >^ - i /- r -= III i < .« S "S. 5 j^ I ! ^ 2 B fi> osrs o x: c e« 2 o ^ — 00 o ♦* rj .^ cj "^ •-' '^ -ie aS ;=; ^ 72 Kioiao •xraaHX I" ~ — — c b - ~ — 5 .= C — — ' •xraaHj, •JLlSViHQ i^ 504 EGYPTIAIS' DYNASTIES. 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 Sheshonk I. takes Jerusalem about 970. and many cities in Judtea. lie is the Schisehakof the Bible. i i j 1 1 1 Approximate Dates B.C. of bPKinnini? of Dynasty. 3 (N 00 d s e<5 Names of tho same Kin.qs in other Authors. Smcn-Titi Pi-Scham Nefru-ke-ra Menephthah Peher-Se-Amen Pianch Pi-Sciiam-Miamn II. Sesonehis Usuken, Userken, Oserkan Takiloth Pet-subast, Pet-Pacht Oserkna, Userken P-Si-Mut 1 Names of the Kings in the Lists of Manetlio, or of Eratosthenes, Smendes Phusemcs Nephercheres Men(. 22 ^ 5 B .5 5 § 2i 6 o ;2 |x-, -> < ;^, -^. ci •jcioiao •KYIJOIUXa •ajuvs •Kvisa^j 1 •aiivs •ilSYiLLQ > 1— « > 506 EaXPTIAN DYNASTIES. 'i OS S i^ — — (TJOOOt^O ^ oooQO OTtTteoeo 32 ^ S " ^ ^ (^ e3 S eo t-l '• H 2 h:1 "3 X Si : : ^ O : • ^ >>^^ g 9 li 1 Ph :2; c w t o c c G •- 3 * Ph 3 iC 1o = 2 1 00 eo O 00 «3 CI S.O >. 1 t ioS g OO t^ O 00 to (N , <1 s^^M ti |d° = o ^ ^?????5 p^ o a p. CI -^ w t a •S , Ms ^ © o »r5»n»^(MOr-^40«ot^ s5 '7 coO'+G^occao-^'^i-i S s £. «C>JC^(NC<'^'^'-'-<'^ 11 ^ 2^ 1 o^ Sfl Irs il 0<5Q- 05 3) ^ c3 , m.", HE>-GSTEXEERa, and others, comprehend it as a general designation. So far as I know, this is the first time that it has been attempted to prove that there were two Mounts of God, Serbal and Gebel Musa. This, however, certainly is the APrENDTX. 515 nrccssnri/ rcsul/, fJiough not ifct cxpimscd hi/ofJirrs, irJtich all inuat arrive at iv/io placcIiapJiidini in Firdn. In tliis, it appears to mo, lies a main proof with relereuee to the eritieism of the text, that both Mounts of (uhI arc to bo recognised in Scrhdl. Wo must not hiy too much si ress on the greater security of the ])laln of Ivalia for a "harnessed" (Exodus xiii. 18) army of ()()0,()00 men, after it liad set firm footing in ilie hnui, besides Serbal nuist have at all tinu^s olftnvd an achnirablt' phiee of re- serve. The eokl in Ihe l\igh mountain range, wliieh, according toliuPPELL and liouiNSON, free/.es the walcr \\\{o wc in the convent (5000 feet above the S(\i) even as hite as IVbruary (Ivitter, p. 1.15, GlH)), wouUl have nUnie renih^'od an open encampment on tlie phiin of Ivalia during ihe uinter impos- sibh\ for a popuhdion lately accustomed \o the Kgypiimi climate. .But with respect to the vegetation in those dis- tricts, which has imh'ed been ditferently described by diiferent travellers, the idea that not the slightest doubt existed as to this having been at one time the sojourn o^ ihe Israelites, luay have partly causeil many to presujijiose ihe existence of nn)re hcM-bs in the neighbourhood than iIicn- nutinentarilv saw; ])artly, no iloubt, the season ot"thi^ year occasions some variations. I thercM'ore only observe that I visitinl ihe Peninsula about the same time of the year in which, accord- ing to the iMosaic narration, the Israelites also went thither. J\itter, tiuailv, has expressed his viinvs mi ilie Sinai ipu^st ion on another occasion in a imindar essay, " The Peninsula o'C Sinai, anil thi^ Path o( the (^hildren o^ Israel to Sinai/' in (he "bAangi^lit'al Calemlar,'' Almanack tor 1852, pub- lished bji F. Pipti\ j). I>1, i^c. Here also he places Ixaphidini in I'^irau, and tcaci's the Mount of God at JRaphidim in Sorluil. Ibit in op[iosition to the ideuliiy o( Serbal and Sinai, \\c hcvo adduces principally tlu> two following rc^ast'ins. As it has been now provetl thai the so-called Sinaitic inscrip- tions hav(^ a Pagan origin, and that they indicate that Serbal, to which they principally refer, was the " centre i^t'an ancient worship," then this reuiarkabh* nuiuni. if aliwuly a hc)lv mount of the' idolater, could not. havi^ been at the same tiuie 2 N 646 APPENDIX. a '' Mount of Jeliovali' (p. 51), and furtlier (p. 52), "Israel's liolj Mount of God was not situated in the territory of Amaiek, like Serbal, but in tlie eastern and soutliern terri- tory oi Midian, for it is said expressly (Exodus ix. 19), that the Lord commanded Moses in Midian to go to Egypt, and to lead the people to sacrifice to him upon this Mount Horeb and Sinai in Midian" (Exodus iii. 1 — 12). AVith respect to these two points however, the first, namely that Serbal was also a IwJy mount for the Semitic people ruling over the Peninsula at a later period, seems to me a reason of great weight m/«z?owr of Serbal- Sinai, as indeed also already, he- fore the lawgiving, it was not called "Idol Mount," but Mount of God (Exodus iii. 1, iv. 27, xviii. 5), just as much as after the lawgiving (Exodus xxiv. 13, 1 Kings xix. 8), and a heathen readoption at a later period of the woi-ship of this mount must certainly be less surprising. But that Moses dwelt with Jethro in Midian, when the Lord spoke to him, offers no ground to place the Mount of the Law in Midian, for that is nowhere said. We only know that Eaphidim, where Moses was visited by Jethro out of Midian, was situated in the territory of the AmaleTcites, as these here made the attack. Eusebius, who (s. v. 'PacpidliJ., see note, p. 313) expressly places Eaphidim and Choreb in Pharan, says (s. v. Xtoprj^) that this Mount of God lay in Madian. In the Itinerar. Antonini, c. 40, also, Pharan is placed in Madian. I trust these remarks, in which I tliink I have touched upon all the essential objections of the respected author, may prove to bim how high a A^alue I place on each of his argu- ments, as being those of one who is more competent to judge in this field than any other person. Pitter's long proved acuteness for tracing the correct view of such questions, would have excited more consideration in me against my own view of the subject, than all the reasons he has adduced, which, taken singly at least, seem to me refutable, had I not in tJiis case, at any rate, had the advantage of a personal view of the localities, without any preconceived influence ; APPENDIX. 547 this miglit render my judgment of earlier narrators more in- dependent than could be the case with him. AppEifDix C. (P. 306.) — Eobinson gives the distances from Ayun Musa to the point where Wadi Schebekeh and Wadi Taibeh meet, vol. iii. Div. ii. p. 804i ; these accord with BuECKHAEDT, p. 624, 625, who also records the more remote points as far as Wadi Piran ; these last are confirmed by mine, if we calculate his circuitous route by Dhafari. E/obinson's calculation, p. 196, does not, however, take into consideration the circuitous route, from four to five hours longer from the Convent, through Wadi e' Scheikh, for Burck- hardt passed over the Nakb el Haul in eleven hours to Piran, while we occupied sixteen, without including the short way round through the Kteffe valley. After this the distances stand thus : Prom Ayun Musa to Ain Hawareh 18 hours 35 minutes ; then to Wadi Grharandel, 2 hours 30 mi- nutes (not from one hour and a half to two hours from Eobinson's place of encampment as it is calculated above, p. 307) ; to the outlet of the valley near Abu Zelimeh, 7 hours 12 minutes ; to the sea, 1 hour ; to Wadi Schellal, 4 hours 15 minutes ; to Piran, 13 hours 45 minutes ; to the Convent, 16 hours. Eobinson cannot remove the encamp- ment in the Wilderness of Sin to a more southern point than the outlet of Wadi Schellal, because the people here, according to him, stept forth out of the Wilderness of Sin. Por the same reason he is compelled to place Alus in Piean. On the other hand, in my opinion, not alone is the encamp- ment at the sea not different from that at the outlet of the valley at Abu Zelimeh, but the Wilderness of Sin mentioned in the Book of Exodus, which extended as far as Sinai, and ended with Eaphidim, is also the same as the two stations mentioned in the Book of Numbers, Daphka and Alus, and therefore in the last passage should as little have been men- tioned as peculiar places of encampment, as the Eed Sea. The Wilderness of Sin accordingly, like the Wilderness of Sur, embraced three days' journey. The stations, and their re- moteness from each other, stand therefore as follows : 2n2 548 APPENDIX. According to Eobinson. three Stations from Ayun Musa to Ain Hawareh = Marah. to Wadi Gharandel = Elim. to the Sea. to Wadi Schellal = Wilderness of Sin. two Stations to Firan = Daphka and Alus. two Stations to tlie Plain of Raha = Raphidim and Sinai. According to my assumption, three Stations to Wadi Gharandel = Marah. to the Outlet of the Valley near Abu Zelimeh = Elim. three Stations to Firan, i. e. by Daphka and Alus to Raphidim at Sinai. It is easy to imagine why the latter stations are somewhat shorter than the first, on account of the greater difficulty of the road. According to Robinson, the fourth station would be scarcely explicable. Why did the people murmur so near the twelve springs of Elim? How would precisely that strikingly long journey of more than eight hours, from Elim to the sea, not have been mentioned at all ? And how was it possible that the days' marches should have constantly in- creased in length amidst the lofty mountains and difficult ground ? Appendix D. (P. 314 and 318.) — The expounders of this passage take the words: >tp'>bffi?n ti7"TnS. ^^ In the third month,^^ as if it were written, '• 6ii the first day of the third ononth,^^ and therefore refer the following " the same day,'"" equally to the first day of the month. See GtESENItjs, Thesaur. p. 404, b: "tertiis calendis post exitum," and p. 449, b: tertio novilunio, i. e. calendis mensis tertii. Ewald, Gesch. des V. Isr. ii. p. 189. " The Bay (?) of the third month {i. e. however of the new moon, therefore the first dayy) But the Seventy at all events have not under- stood it in this manner, as they translate : Too Se ixr)vbs rov APPEKDIX. 549 TpiTov TT] rjnepa ravrr]. It also appears that the Jewish tra- dition have not comprehended it thus, as the Lawgiting, which according to Exod. xix. 11, 15, occurred on the third da J after their arrival, is even now solemnised by the Jews on the fifth or sixth day of the third month, simultaneously with the appointed harvest-feast, on the fiftieth day after the Exodus (Leviticus xxiii. 15, 16) ; in accordance with this, the arrival at Sinai must have happened on the third day of the third month. We cannot, however, but perceive, how Itnn without addition, might here be employed for neiv moon's day, although in all other passages of customary speech it had lost this etymological signification, and only meant month • even in passages where the new moon's day itself was spoken of, as in Exod. xl. 2, 17 ; Numb. i. 1 ; xxxiii. 38, where every- where tri'nb inSS is especially added to it, " on the Jirst (day) of the month," whereas passages like Numb. ix. 1, and XX. 1, cannot naturally be cited, because here, there lies as little reason as in Exod. xix. 1, to understand the Jirst of the month, and the Seventy also do not translate, iv r]jxepa fiia, or vov/irjvLa as in the former passages, but only in the simple sense of the words eV rw fjLrjvi r© Trpoira. Our passage, Exod. xix. 1, therefore, would alone remain, from which it would be possible to conclude that there was such a double and equivocal employment of li^ih, because here certainly the following words, "the same day," indicate a particular single day, which particular day, nevertheless, cannot be guessed from our present text. But in my opinion this is exactly an additional and not unimportant reason, to assume either a transposition or a later insertion of these two verses. The last is also assumed by Ewald, in so far as he, indeed (Gesch. des V. Isr. p. 75), ascribes the account, xix. 8 — 24, but not the two first verses, to the oldest sources. I have already mentioned above (p. 316) that Josephus (Ant. iii. 2, 5), who also does not understand the words from t\\Q first day of the month, transposes the passage, and indeed to that very place whither I, ignorant of this, had already placed it in my earlier printed account, p. 48, namely, immediately after the 550 APPENDIX. hattle of the Amalekites, to which " the same day" most na- turally refers. If this is correct, then the original text ran thus : that the Israelites at Eaphidim, in AVadi Firan, where they fought the battle, were not only near Horeb, but also near Sinai, that is to say, that both Mounts of God are one ; and that, in fact, Moses first at Sinai received the visit of Jethro, and, as appears most natural, first at Sinai organised his people ; but at the same time it must be allowed that Sinai, or Horeb, was no other mountain than Sebbal. Supposing that, in this manner, we have correctly under- stood the original connection, it did not first of all require any statement of the month ; this would probably be only added upon the isolation of the following section referring to the lawgiving. In this case, only three exact dates for the journey could exist. The people pass out from Eamses in the first year, the first montli, on the fifteenth day; they proceed from Elim, which is half-way, just one month after, in the first year, second month, on the fifteenth day. The days of rest at the stations are unknown, but if we assume that the people proceeded without sojourning, then they came to Eaphidim on the third day from Elim ; received the water, and were attacked by Amalek on the fourth, fought on the fifth till after sunset to the commencement of the sixth day, and on the same sixth day (for the Hebrew day began in the evening) encamped at Sinai. This would have been in the fii'st year, in the second month, on the twentieth day. Now as the retreat from Sinai followed in the second year, in the second month, the twentieth day, then the sojourn at Sinai would have lasted exactly one year. This coincidence was perhaps originally as little the result of accident as the duration of just one montli between the first departure from Eamses and the second from Elim. Appendix E. (P. 319.) — Two inscriptions in marble, referring to the foundation of the convent, still exist, which are let into the external wall fiicing the convent-garden, one in Greek, the other in Arabic. Burckhardt (Trav. p. 545) says : " An Arabic inscription over the gate, in modern cha- APPElifDIX. 551 racters, says that Justinian built the convent in the thirtieth year of his reign, as a memorial of himself and his wife Theodora. It is curious to find a passage of the Koran intro- duced into this inscription : it was probably done by a Mos- lem sculptor, without the knowledge of the monks." The Arabic inscription is certainly over the small door leading into the garden. Ent if Burckhardt saw it here, it is incon- ceivable that he did not see the Greek inscription beside it, let into the wall with a similar border and shelter. Eobin- sox saw neither of them (i. p. 205) ; Eicci caused the Greek inscription to be copied, and from his copy this has been communicated and translated by Letiio:n'XE in the Journ. des Sav. 1836, p. 538, with some slight deviations. But as early as 1823, another copy, which escaped Letronne, was published by Sir Er. Henniker {JVotes during a Visit to Egypt, Sfc. p. 235, 236), which, however, is very inaccurate, although it endeavours to render the written characters themselves. The Arahic inscription, as far as I am aware, is still quite unknown. I have taken an impression of both on paper, and offer a faithful representation of them here. The Greek runs thus : 'Ek ^aQpoiv dvqyepbrj to lepbv tovto jjLovacrrqpiov tov 2ivaLov opovs iv6a iXaXrja-ev 6 deos tco Mcova-rj napa tov Taireivov ^acrCkeoiS 'P(op.aLcov 'lovGTTiviavov TVpos citdLov iJLvrjixoavvov avTov kol r/)? ov^vyov TOV Qeobapas eXa,3e TeXns peTciTO TpiaKoaTov eVos ti]s /3ao-tAetas tov, Kai KaT€(TTr]cr€u iv avro)^ r]vovp.^vov 6v6p.aTi AovXa ev eTei ano p,ev 'ASa/x jTKa OTTO de XpL(rTOV (pK^ » " This holy convent of jMount Sinai, where God spoke to Moses, was built from the foundation by Justinian, the lowly king of the Eomans, in eternal remembrance of the same, and of his consort Theodora; it was completed in the thir- tieth year of his reign, and he placed a chief in the same, one of the name of Dulas, in the year 6021 smce Adam, 527 since Christ." LETEo:^f^^E read in the second line eV m Trpoorov in place of evBuy and in the seventh line KaTea-rqae t6v in place of KUTeo-- rrjo-ev. The written characters indicate about the twelfth or 552 APPENDIX. thirteenth century. As the Emperor Justinian reigned from 527 — 5G5, it is assumed by the writer that the determination to found the convent, and at the same time the appointment of his abbot Dulas, occurred in the first year of the reign of the emperor, although the completion of the edifice is not placed before the thirtieth year of the same, i. e. 556 after Christ. The year 6021 from the creation of the world cor- responds to the year 527 after Christ, according to the Alexandrine era of Panodorus and Anianus. The Arabic inscription is this : (jL«)lljj^-j (^c ij^jb i^^^jjij J 1,0 jj' (_^:>Lx-j^, L_.*AjJkl .^j^^ S^-H^^ " The convent of Toe (Mount) Sina, and the Church of the Mount of the Interview, was built by the dependent on God, and hoping in the promise of his Lord, the pious King of the Greek Confession, Justianus (for Justinian), in re- membrance of himself and his consort Theodora to last for all times, iu order that God might inherit the earth, and who upon it : for lie is tlie lest of tlie lieirs. And the build- ing was completed after thirty years of his reign. And he appointed it a chief, with the name of Dhulas. And this happened after Adam 6021, which corresponds with the year 527 of tlie era of the Lord Christ." The written characters of the inscription, according to the learned judgment of the consul. Dr. Wetzstein^, who has also most kindly taken upon himself the re-writing and translation of the inscription here communicated, indicate that it did not exist before the year 550 of the Moham- medan era, which thus refers to the period when the Greek inscription was also composed. The passage in the Koran which BuRCKHAEDT already mentions, is to be found, Sur. 21, V. 18. APPENDIX. 553 Another large stone is immured in the same wall, but much higher up, over a far larger gate, now built up, at a spot behind which the kitchen is at present situated, the ornamental part of which [ ^ "j j might lead us to infer that another still older inscription might still exist here. Unfortunately I was unable to bring a ladder to the spot to examine the stone more accurately. It is to be hoped some future traveller may accomplish tins. Appendix F. (P. 319.)— The history of the Palm-wood of PJiaran forms the central point of the histor}- of the whole Peninsula. The accounts of it given by the Greeks and ^Romans furnish a new proof for this, although their geogra- phical determinations in great measure have not hitherto been correctly comprehended. Thus the Poseidion of Ar- temidorus, Diodorus, and Strabo, is generally placed at the extremity of the Peninsula, which is now called Eas Mo- hammed ; also by Gosselin, Letronne, and Grosskurd, who nevertheless had already recognised the manifestly incorrect comment of the Strabonic manuscripts (p. 776: tov ['EXai/iVou] yivxov). As Poseidion was situated icithin {ivdorepa) the Gulf of Suez, and here the zvest coast of the Peninsula was to be described, this altar of Poseidion therefore of necessity was situated either at Eas Abu Zelimeh, the harbour of Faran, or at Eas Gehan, whence there was a more southern and shorter communication with Wadi Piran through Wadi Dhaghadeh. That i\\e pahn-grove (^oivlkmv) of those authors is not to be sought at Toe, but in the "Wadi Piran, has been already justly acknowledged by Tuch (Sinait. Inschr. p. 35), although he still places Poseidion at Eas Mohammed (p. 37). It was the Seed Bal, the palm-grove of Baal, from which the mountain first received its name. It appears, in earlier times, while the grove itself was still called by the inhabitants Seeb Bal, that the name of Paran was especially employed for the harbour at Abu Zelimeh, and for a Pharanitic settle- ment on the site of ancient Elim, near the present Gebel 554 APPEiroix. Hammam Earaim, still alwa}' s called Earaj^" by the Arabic authors. (See note, p. 307.) Here also, probably, was the. spot where Aeistoi^ landed under Ptolemy Philadelphus, and founded Poseidiok". Artemidorus (in Strabo, p. 776) and Diodorus (3, 42) mention Mapavlrat., in place of which Gosselin, E.itter, Tuch, and others, read ^apavlrai. As the Maranites, however, in- habited the eastern coast of the Peninsula, and are said to have been totally destroyed by the G-arindaees, I cannot see any support for this supposition. The ravine of Phaea, mentioned by Josephus (Bell. Jud. 4, 9, 4), in Judaea, does not belong hither. The name of the Pharanites on the western coast of the Peninsula first appears in Pliny (H. N. 37, 40), for there is no reason to regard the Fliaranitis gens, whom he places in Aralia Petrcca, as differing from the JPharanifai of Ptolemy. That the northern station Phara (circa ten hours west of Aila) has nothing to do on the tablet of Peutinger with the Pharanitic palm-grove, is placed beyond a doubt by Eitter (p. 147,&c.). Ptolemy, in the third century, is tlie first who mentions a ^lace called Pharax (km/jlt] ^apdv) ; but on account of the de- tailed comparison not agreeing, the basis and the connection of his statements deviating widely from the true conditions, they have for that very reason hitherto remained in obscurity. His construction of the Peninsula becomes clear at once, when we take into account that he has evidently taken the blunt angle of the coast at Eas GIehajS' (whither by his lati- tude he removes Cape Pharan, instead of to Hammam Paraun) to be the most southern point of the Peninsula, from which the more remote coast runs up again towards the north-east. Thereby the Peninsula, according to him, be- comes about 50' too short, although the longitude of his point corresponds with the true one. The real extremity (Eas Mohammed) now corresponds with the point whither he places the bend of the Elanitic Gulf (emarpocpr] tov 'EXaplrov koXttov). T lie whole of the Elanitic Gulf (Gulf of Akaba) APPENDIX. 555 contracts witli liiin into a small angle (/iv^o?) of 15', because all is pushed too far to the north. The coast from the " bend" as far as "On/?; in reality corresponds with that from Has Fuetak (the dKpcorrjpiov TTjs rjTTeipov of Diodorus and Artemidorus, in front of which was situated the island of Phokes) to ' Ai2^ Us"EH, and his Elanitic Grulf, the north part of which (emaTpocfirj) he places 66° Ion., 29° lat., now assumes the form of the gulf whose innermost point is now marked by 'Aiijir UjS"eh. He imagines the Bay of Pharan {fJ^vxos Kara ^apdv) to be from Cape Earan {aKpcoTrjpiov ^apdv) to the inland town of the same name, as the angle of Elana, and the innermost angle of Heroonpolis north of Arsinoe. Prom this same construction of the Peninsula it followed that the P-aithenes, who were situated below the Pha- ranites, on the same coast near Tor (even now called 'Pat^oO), are now placed on the coast facing Arabia (Trapa Trjv opeLvfjv rqs Evdaifiovos ^Apa/^las), therefore on the eastern, in place of the western coast of the Peninsula; and finally, as the natural result of this, he makes the primitive chain of moun- tains extending from Paran to Pas Mohammed (oprj peXava) run towards Judsea, therefore up towards the north-east, in place of down towards the south-east. Prom all this, it is evident, that the place Phaean of Ptolemy is identical with the well-known Pharan in the Wadi Piran, and the Phoenikon of Artemidorus and Strabo. Still less can we doubt that the Phaea]S" of Eusebius also (s. V. 'VacjiLdLp), and of Jerome, which is expressly (s. v. ^apdv) called a town {rroXi^, oppiduni), and situated (certainly some- what too near) three days' journey from Aila, was the town in Wadi Piran, although by a confasion with the Biblical wilderness of Paran, it is added that the Israelites on their way back from Sinai went past this Pharan. (Compare Pitter, p. 740.) According to the manuscript of the monk Ammoxitjs (Illustr. Chr. Martyr lecti. triumphi ed. Combefis. Paris, 1660), the town of Pharan was converted to' Christianity in the middle of the fourth century by a monk Moses, born in 556 APPEITDIX. Pharan itself, but his narration, wliicli is evidently an inven- tion, and belongs to about 370, must by no means be em- ployed as an historical authority for that period, and seems to rest chiefly on some passages of a romance of jSTilus, which was written for an edifying object, and his seems to have been composed with a similar intention. In jS^ilus, who is placed about 390, but over whose period and writings much uncer- tainty still hangs, a Christian counsellor (/3ovXt/) of the town of Pharan is mentioned (Nili opp. qusedam, 1539. 4°). Soon after this, since the first half of the fifth century, Le Quien, from authorities of very unequal value indeed (Oriens, Christ, vol. iii. p. 751), cites a list of hisJiops of Phaea^t, who can be followed down to the middle of the twelfth century. (See Eeland, Palaest. vol. ii. p. 220.) All the monks of the entire mountain range were subordinate to these bishops. "With reference to the foundation of the present convent on Gebel Musa, it is indeed ascribed to the Emperor Justinian by Said ben Bateik (Eutychius), who wrote about 932 — 953 (D'Herbelot, s. v.), as well as in the con- vent inscriptions of the twelfth or thirteenth centuries, which have been communicated above ; but this is most de- cidedly contradicted by the far more reliable testimony, pecu- liarly valuable here, of Peocopius, who was the cotemjporary of Justinian. He says, in his special treatise about the buildings founded by Justinian (Proc. ed. Dind. vol. iii. de adif. Just. p. 326), that the emperor built a cliurcTi to the mother of God, " not upon the summit of the mountain, but a considerahle way heloio it^^ (napa ttoXv epepdev^ in accordance with the locality, which can only mean on the intermediate space of ground half-way up the mountain, where the chapel to Elijah now stands). Separated from this he had also erected a very strong castle {(ppovpiov) at the foot of the mountain (eV rov opovs Trpoiroda), and provided it with a good military guard to check the incursions of the Saracens into Palestine. As Procopius directly before and afterwards, as well as throughout the whole paper, distinguishes very APPENDIX. 557 exactly between the convents and the clmrcJies, and the mili- tary guard-liouses, it is evident that, according to him, Justinian did not found the present convent together with his church. The military castle was, however, probably at a later period employed, and rebuilt into a convent. Besides, the church founded by Justinian higher up the hill was not dedicated, like the present convent church, to St. Kathaeine (see Le Quien, vol. iii. p. 1306), but to Mary. AVhat is said by Eutychius (who Eobixsox first cited, though he placed him somewhat too early, still in the tenth century), both about the building of the convent, and in still more direct contra- diction with Procopius, about a church built upon the summit of the mountain, deserves therefore no more credit than the conversation between the emperor and the architect, which is communicated. As little must we ascribe to Jus- tinian, on the statement of Ben Batrik, the foundation of the convents of Eateh (at Tor) and of Kolzum (a hisliop of Clysma, by name Poemes, is inserted at the Constantino- politan Council as early as 460 ; see Acta Concil. ed. Harduin, ii. 696, 786), as in this case he would undoubtedly have been mentioned by Procopius. Phaeain" is not men- tioned by Procopius. On the contrary, he narrates (de bell. Pers. i. 19, 164 ; de sedif. 5, 8) the important fact, that the Saracen Prince Abocharagos, reigning there, had presented the Emperor Justinian with a large palm-grove ((j)oiptKa>va), situated in the centre of the land (eV tt] fieo-oyala) . On closer consideration of this account, scarcely a doubt can remain that the palm-grove of Phaean is here understood, not the place on the coast ^olvUcov Kafir), mentioned by Ptolemy (vi. 7, 3), or a palm-grove totally unknown to us, also situated in the midst of a solitary wilderness, wholly unprovided with water. According to Ammonius and jS'ilus all the inhabi- tants of Pharan had then become Christian, and a church at all events existed there ; thereby it is easier to understand the gift made by Abocharagos, which Justinian himself pre- sented to the Phylarch of the Palestinian Saracens. jS^o doubt the foundation of the castle in the higher mountains, 558 APPENDIX. for watcliing over tliose Saracens, was in connection with, this. Next to Procopius, Cosmas Indicopleustes is by far the most authentic authority of that period. He was not only both a cotemporary of Justinian, but likewise describes (about 540) what he himself saw upon the Peninsula. His work is the only one containing detailed geography belonging to that period, and his unassuming narration bears everywhere the marks of unvarnished truth. It is so much the more remarkable that he neither mentions a convent edifice, nor indeed the locali- ties at Gebel Musa, but only Phaka:n", although he had the path of the Israelites especially in view. (See below more of this.) That on the other hand A]S'T0N1NUS Placentintjs, who is held by others to be the h. Antoninus Martyr, never- theless in his Itineraeium {Acta Sanctor. Mxty, vol. ii. p. X — xviii), which is placed by Hitter about 600, should again speak of a convent at the thorn-bush (Procopius does not yet make mention of the thorn-bush), between Horeb and Sinai, therefore on the site of the present convent, appears rather to lead us back to the opinion so decidedly expressed by Papebeoch, who first published the Itinerary, that this nar- rative, which has excited such various considerations, though so learnedly defended, does not belong to an earlier period than the eleventh or twelfth centuries. At all events, it would be very desirable if the writings of Ammonius, Mlus, and Antoninus, that have been cited, and so many others attri- buted to the first Christian centuries, were submitted to a more searching and connected criticism than has hitherto been the case. The earliest bishop of Mount Sinai to whom we can refer, is not to be found before the eleventh century, Bishop Jorius, who dies 1033 (Le Quien, iii. 754). The name in the second Constantiuopolitan Council (a. 553), signed Phronimus episc. Synnaii (Acta Concil. ed. Harduin, vol. iii. p. 53), or Stnaitanorum (p. 206), and in the fourth council (a. 870), the one named Constantinus ep. Stfai (Harduin, vol. V. p. 927), have been incorrectly brought hither (Eitter, APPENDIX. *559 Abhandl. der Berl. Akad. 1824, p. 216. Halbinsel Sinai, p. 96), as they belong to Synaus, or Synn-aus, in Phrygia. Appendix Gt. (P. 320). — It must be most absolutely denied that an interrupted and distinct tradition about the posi- tion of Sinai in the Peninsula was preserved as late as the Christian times. The name Choreb, or Sinai, appears even at a very early period to have been understood for the whole of the lofty range in the Peninsula, which was constantly regarded from a distance as one single mountain. No one before the time of the Christian hermits attached any in- terest in connecting a fixed geographical notion with the name that had been transmitted. We only read of Elijah that he fled to the "Mount of God Choreb," and there (1 Kings xix. 9) went into the same cave (for it is pre- supposed that it is known) in which the Lord had already appeared to Moses on Mount Sinai (2 Exodus xxxiii. 22). The native Arab tribes by degrees became so much changed, that not one of the Old Testament names remained in its original position. The Grreeks and Eomans only knew one spot on the whole Peninsula, the Palm-wood of Pharan, be- cause this spot only, and the harbour leading to it, was of any importance since the mines of that wilderness had been exhausted. Eiran must of necessity have been the earliest central point for the Christian hermits also ; that moun- tainous wilderness, aff'ording necessary means of sustenance, in the greatest retirement, must have appeared better adapted for them than any other district, since here we also find the most ancient church of the Peninsula. When gradually the individual Biblical localities began to be more accurately investigated, people had no other means for forming their determinations than we possess now, and besides understood far less to employ these means, since all acute criticism of the Biblical passages, which could alone give them information, at that time lay far removed. They understood the name Sinai as an indeterminate appellation for the whole range ; but when they searched for Sinai in a siugle mountain, Seebal then must 560 APPENDIX. have immediately presented itself. Thither also points all that we read about the matter in authentic writings during the first centuries, but to these the writing of the monk Ammonius certainly does not belong in the opinion of those who examine accurately, and hardly the edifying romance of Nilus. "What Josephus (Ant. iii. 5) says of Sinai (r6 ^lvoIov) may very well refer to Serbal, at all events not to Gebel Musa, as has been already shown by Hogg (in several passages, p. 207). According to Eusebius, Choreb and Haphidim were situated at Pharan (eyyvs ^apdv, see note, p. 313), and Sinai near Choreb (jrapaKeLTai rw opn 2iva, see above). Jerome (s. v. Choreh) regards both mounts as one, which he likewise places at Pharak, and consequently recognises in Serbal. The account by jSTilus also, about the Saracenic attack at Sinai, either does not belong to the time in which it is placed (c. 400), or refers to Serbal, for here a cliiircJi {iKKhrjo-la) is frequently (p. 38, 46) mentioned, which at that time did not exist at Gebel Musa, and Nilus, that very same night in which the scattered slain had been buried, goes down to Pharan, which would have been impos- sible from Gebel Musa. Finally, Cosmas Ikdicopleustes, who traversed the Peninsula about the year 535, probably im- mediately before the building of the Justinian church, passes through Eaithu, i. e. Tor, which he regards as Elim, although he only found a few palm-trees there (the present consider- able plantations are, therefore, of more recent date), and across the present AYadi Hebran to Eaphidim, which is now called Phara:n". Here he was at the termination of his Sinai journey. From this spot Moses went with the elders " upon the Mount Choreb, i. e. Sinai, which is about 6000 paces (one mile and a half) distant from Pharan," and struck the water out of the rock ; here also the tabernacle of the congregation was built, and the law was given; thereby the Israelites besides received the Scripture, and had leisure to learn it for their application ; thence we may date the numerous rock-inscriptions which are still to be found in that wilderness (especially at Serbal). (Eira •noKiv APPENDIX. 561 Trapcvepakov ds 'Pa^idtV, 6i? tt]u vvv KaXovfievTjv ^apdv' kol bLyjrev- (TovTOiv avTcop, TTopeverat Kara Trpocrra^Lv Beov 6 Mcovaiis pera tojv TTpea-fSvTepcov Koi rj pa/356? ev tt] x^^P*- o.vtov, els Xcopfj^ to opos, rovTecrriv iv t48 Beserauieh, village of, 17, 150, 152, 195, 209, 212 Behbet el Hager (Iseum), in Xile Delta, 23, 333 Berber. Mudhir of, 131 Beida, \-illage of, 198 Belbes. Israelites were settled near, 443 Beled Ellaqi. village of, 241 Belled e' Nuba, village of, 228 Benihassan, tombs of, 16, 101, 110— U3 Ben Nasa, village of. 153 154, 194 Beni-Suef, town of, 15, 100, 322 Kensi, tribe of, 241 Berscheh, village of, 16, 101, 113,115 Bertheau, cited, 464 Bet el UaUi, temple of, 124 Berut (Bervtos), Svria, 336, 356 Bethin 'Bethel), Syria, 334 Bethmann, Dr., 23, 322 Biahmu, monuments of, 96 rs-DEx. 565 Bigeh, island of. 20. 120 temple of, .5:31 Bir Ambar. sprint of, 277 Birds, collection of, 160 on Blue River, 168 Bireh. village of. .>a4 Birket e" temsah, 4-^4 Birqet-el-Qorn. the Faium, 15, &2, 93, 95. 97 Biscay, Bay of, 37 Bischariba people. 2ii Bischaris, the, !¥) Bisehari language. 241 Bitter lakes, i:yf, UO, 442, 444 Bischeh, the Faiiim, 97 Blemves, the, 242 Blue River, 162 birds, trees, monkevs. ice, lfiS,169 ' ■ Bocchoris, King. 42-3 Bockh, cited, lu7, 242. 424, 494 letter to, from Dr. Lepsius, 5f>S Boghos Bey, confidential minister of Mohammed Ali, 4el), 355 Cailliaud, cited, 150, 154,155, 209 Calippus. cycle of, 454 Caesar, Augustus, 252, 266 Cairo, 23, 4i— 4*5, SO festival in. 70 Cambyses, 251, 279 Camel, explanation of term, SI drivers, imposition of, 216 Camels, want of, 130 Camp, attack on, at Saqara, 75 life iu the, 56, S7 nieht in Egyptian military, 2W Canal between Xile and Red Sea, 441 —44.5 Xile. 436 Canal, Rosetta, 43 Canals in Egypt, 4S3 Caudace, Queen, 196 Canons of proportions, 2S, 11«, 3S3 Canopic arm of Nile, 447 Carians, the frontier guard near Pelu- sium. 429 Carmel. Mount. 3:36 Castle of Abd el Qurna, 243 Abke. 2:39 Hellet el Bib, 236 Sese, 236 Cataract, second, 131 countrv, excursion to, 225 of Kalfa. 237 Cataracts in provinces of Schaiqieh and Monassir. 22S 239 Cemetery of Meroe, 212 Cepheus^ Kins. 423 Cliafra (Cheph%Ten) , Pyramid of, 59 Chairemon. cited, 434 Champion. M., the Austrian consul, 45, 47 Champollion, Figeac. cited, 25, 51, 107, 110, 112. 119, 120, 124, 266, 527 cited.3Sl, 394. 4^3!. 4.35 Chanter, the two books of, 3S8 Chartum, 15, 130, 131, 15S, 190,193 Chemmis, 115 Cheucheres, King, 422, 4S9 Cheops, writing on the montiments since the time of. 37 (Chufu). Pvramidof, 48, 59, 72, 372 . tablet on, — '- King. 110, 114 Chephren. SeeSchafra Chor el Ammer. desert of Gilif. 216 Ban, 227 Choreb. See Horeb 559 Chorosraphy of Egypt, 29 Choscii e" Guriif, Xuba village, 228 Christian chrouolosists on the i>eriod of the Exodus, 421 Christianity in Nubia, 231 Christmas at Pvramids, 55 Thebes. 273 Chronicle, old, 497, 49S Chronolo2T. 396 ^ Old Testament, 490, 492 ]yianethonic. 490 Chronological character of Jewish His- torv. i4 Daphka, Peninsula of Sinai, 540, 547, 548 Daphni of Pelusium, 429 Darabuka kettle-drum, 184 Dar Fur, 30, 234 language of, 244 Darius, 439, 4i0, irt2 Darius II.. 252, 279 Darmali, village of, 228 Daschiir, Pyramid of, 13, 79,98 Dedications on Temples, 379 Date of the Exodus, 470—474, 449—457, 490 Debbet e' Ramleh, plain of, 300 Deb6d, 17, 20, 123, 242 Debu, temple at, 526 Decades, or Egyptian weeks, 398 Decius, Emp., 206 Defterdar Bcv, 195 Defufa, tomb' of, 2;J4 Delta of the Nile, 369, 483, 486 Dender River, 170 Dendera, temple of, 17, 2S, 101, 110,116, 322 Dendur, temple of, 17, 20, 12 i, 242 Der el Ahmar, %'illage in Syi-ia, 346 Bachit, convent of, 267 Bahri, convent of, 267 Medinet, convent of, 267, 381 De Rozifere, cited, 443 Derr, temple of, 126, 232, 240, 356 Desert, Nubian, l:'.3, 143 journey through, 214 Derut-Scherif, 15 Dhafari, Peninsula of Sinai, 547 Dileb-Palms, 171 Dimeh, in the Faium, 15, 97 Dinka tribes, 149 language, 161 Diocletian, Emp., inscription in honour of, 42 Diodorus, cited, 123, 202, 260, 381, 383, 391, 408, 421, 429, 439, 480, 483, 553, 554 Diodorus, Exodus according to, 409 . Di\ision of time, 398 Doko, country of the, 46 Dongola, province of, 19, 458 new, 233 old, 232 Dom-Palms, 137, 218 Doseh, the trampling, 71 Dromedary, explanation of term, 81 pace of, 139 Du Bois Ayme, cited, 435, 436 Durra grain, 143, 154 Dynasty, Elephantine, collateral, 60 Dynastic Lists, 497 Dynasties, tables of Egyptian, 499, 506 E. Echmim, inscription in rock grotto of, 23, 109, 115 Edbai, countrv of Bischari tribes, 242 Edfu, temple of, 17, 20, 117 Egypt, archaeology of, 29 civilisation of, during first Dy- nasties, 25 climatal conditions of, 368, 369 famine in, 481 geography and chorography of, 29 history of, 367 history of art in, 27 INDEX. 567 Egypt, mythology of, 26 philo]ogy~^of, 26 resarded as a university for plii- losophy, 3Si Egyptian administration under the old kings of the country, 482 Museum in Berlin, views re- specting its decoration, 324 gods, 381, 392 annals. King of the Exodus in. canon of proportions, 383 chronologies not opposed to 4i: Hebrew, 437 collection of Mr. Sams, 392 prophets, 413 Ehden, village of, 353 Ehrenberg, his views respecting lumi- nosity of sea, 37 cited, 234, 239, 290 Eileithyia, ancient, 117 El Ain in Libanon, 338 Kl Akarid, village of, 150 El Ammer, valley of, 216 Elanitic Gulf. 554 El Bosra, alabaster quarries at, 21, 31, 114, 115 El Bueb, hill of, Peninsula of Sinai, 298 El Chor, province of Berber, 145 El Elam, in the Faium, 95, 96 Elephantine, island of, 20 El Famt, hill of, Xubian Desert, 141 El Ge'ah, plain of, 290, 296 El Gos, plain of, 215 El Gues, village of, 212 El Hai, well of, 291 El-Harib, tombs of, 16 El Hessue, vaUey of, 298, 318 El Hibe, monuments of, 23 El Kab, rock tombs of, 20, 117 El Kenis^e, castle of, 239 El Orde (Xew Dongola), 233 El Qorn, mountains of, 277 Elim, 306, 307, 54S, 551, 560 Elijah, 559 Eleians, then- Olympian games, 383 Em Bey, 289 Emigrants from Semitic countries, 410 Emir Pascha, 131, 146, 159, 186, 189, 192 Enned Mountains, 288 Era of the Greeks adopted by the Jews, 452 — Grecian, 456 — of Contracts adopted by the Jews, 452 — of the Seleucidae adopted by the Jews, 452 Eratosthenes, cited, 437 Erbkam, G., member of the expedition, 12, 28, 39, 45, 53. 72, 74, 79, 81, 83, 97, 147, 153, 195, 230, 235, 243, 259 Erectheus, King of Athens, 383 Erment (Hermonthis), temple at, 17 E' Seleha, valley of, 156 Esneh, temple of, 17, 20, 117 Mudliir of, 131 E' Sofra, valley of, 156 I E' Sufr, vallev of, 137 ! E' Sur, village of, 209 I Ethiopian aft more recent than Egyp- j tian, 152 : • civilisation later than Egyp- ! tian, 244 demotic writing, 207 ■ inscriptions, 31 ' Ethiopians of Meroe, 208 ! Ethiopia, flight to, 407, 416 I Et. Quatremere, cited, 435 I E' Tih, descent of, 300 Eudoxus, 384, 386 ' Euergetes II., inscription referring to, i 105 , Eusebian canon, 489 Eusebius, cited, 313, 422, 453, 489, 498, 499, 555, 500 Eutychius. See Said ben Batrik Ewald, cited, 310, 424, 427, 430, 464, 548 Exodus, date of the, 449—457, 470—474 according to Diodorus, 409 according to Hecataeus, 408 according to Manetho, 405— 1 407 I of the Hyksos, preserved by i Manetho, 410 of Israelites, 410, 411 same as expulsion of lepers related by Manetho, 404 of lepers same as of Israelites, 412—417 Expedition, chief purpose historical, 24 French-Tuscan, 24 Ezbe. roads of, 333 Ezbekieh square, in Cairo, 80 Fadnie village, 154 Fakir in Abu Dom, 229 of Taiba, 187 Daha, his'sepulchre, 229 Fenti, castle of, 235 Faium. the, 14, 92—98 journey to, 83 Fallot Xile, 521 Thames, 520 Falmouth, scenerj- about, 36 Famine in Egypt, 481 Faran in Peninsula of Sinai, 31, 554 Fazoql, customs in, 202 Fellah, explanation of term of, 76 industrious, 260 Ferhat Pascha, 131 Ferlini, treasuie found by, 151, 197 Fidimin, village of, 97 Finisterre, cape, 37 Firan, in Peninsula of Sinai, 547, 559 Firman of Viceroy, with permit to the Prussian expedition to coUect Egyp- tian moniuneuts, 40, 42 Fishes, Egyptian collection of, 32 Fortress at Bachit, 231 of Karat Negll, 230 at Tifar, 232 568 INDEX. Frauke, member of the expedition, 39, 53, 57, 75. 153, 198, 210 Franz, cited, 106 French -Tuscan expedition, 24 French expedition, 436, 4.38, 44;j Frey, J., the painter, 12, 3.S, 98 Funeral ceremony in "Wed Medineh, 183 G. Ganz, cited, 452 Gabre Mariam, the Abyssian boy, 181, 187, 275 Gabuschie, village of, 196, 198 Gaqediil, in Desert of Gilif, 214 Garizim, Mount, 334 Gau, cited, 123, 526 Gauata, village of, 101, 115 Galba, Emp., 266 Gaza, road into Egvpt from, 429 G'e'ah, plain of, 290, 296 Gebel. villasre of. 209 Abrak, 217 Abu Gueh, 278 ■ Schegere, 292 Senejat, 141 Sihha, 141 Adar .Viub, 141 Aschtan. 158 Barkal, IS, 220, 222 Barqugres, 215 Buerib, 154 Dah'i, 335 Deqa, 231 Uoohau, 32, 281, 286 red porphyry of, 288, 37i Dosche, 236 El Bab, 136 Enned, 2S9 Farut, 141 Eatireh, 31,' 280 Graibat, 141 Hammam, hot springs of, 291 Katherhi, 292, 293 Kongeli, 226 Lagar, 156 Maauad, 277 Maqa], 228 el 3Iageqa, 216 Mograd, 141 Musa, 292, 303, 315, 532, 544, 563 Mount of the Law, 532 convent of, 556 e' Naffa. 155. 156 • Nusf, 214 Omarda, 214 Qermana, 214 • Qettar, 292 Rauian, 158 ■ Roft, 138 ■ Sefsaf, 293 ■ Selin, 115 ■ Selseleh, 371 ■ Sereen, 214 • Silsilis, 117 - e' Tih, 300 ■ e Tur, 335 Gebel Fm Riglen, 292 Um Schomer, 292, 297 Zeit, 2S9 Gedideh, in Syria, 340 Greez inscription, 208 Geg, pro\-ince of Berber, 145 Genealogies, registers of, 458, 460 Generations, register of, 458 Genua, village of, 150 Gennin (Egennin), SjTia, 335 Geography of Egypt, 29 Geological structure of Lower Nubia, 522 Geometry, the knowledge of. 390 Georgi, O., the painter, 12. 222, 187 I Georgius Syncellus, cited, 498 Gferaschab, Schellal of, 158 Gerbe Dandour, monument at, 526 Gerf Hussen, temples of, 20, 124, 126, 242, 356 Gerf e' Schech, village of, 228 Germanicus, visit to remains of, ancient Thebes, 266, 393 Gertassi, in Ethiopia, 123 Gesch, reed grass, 213 Gesenius, cited, 431, 548 Geziret-el-Qorn, island of, 97 Ghabine, village of, 209 Gharaq Lake, 98 Gibba, in Syria, 343 Gibraltar, 38 Gilif, desert of, 213 Gimscheh, or Kebrit, Peninsula of, 289 Girsche, 242 Gism Haifa, 241 Gizeh, PjTaraids of, 13, 47, 79 Goba, in Syria, 344 Gobat, Bishop of Jerusalem, 39 Gods, Egyptian, 381, 392 Gomra, island of, 150 Gorata, near source of Blue Xile, 99 Gos Basabir, village of, 158 I Burri, village of, 214 Goshen, land of, 49, 410, 411, 414, 43 , 448 Granite of Assuan, 371 Greek inscriptions, 31, 105, 122, 125, 220, 240, 550 philosophers, 385 Greeks, era of the, 452, 456 Gulf of Akaba, 554 Arabian, 4:34 Guneh, in Syria, 355 Gungules, fruit of Baobab-tree, 166 Habak herb, 296 Hadrian, Emperor, 113, 288 Haser Merui, white rock in Province of Robatat, 226 H alpha (Hejiha), Syria, 336 Hair, Arab mode of greasing, 144 Halfai, or Nile, 205 Haluf, Nuba village, 228 Haraada-trees, 295 Hamd^b, district of, 225 INDEX. 569 Hamitic languages, 31 Hammam Faraun, in Peninsula of Sinai, 554 Seidna Soliman, tower of, 237 Hammamat, quarries of, 22, 32, 278, 321 Hammer, von, 341 Hannik, in province of Mahas, 235 Haram el Gizeli, Pyramids of, 47 Hay, cited, 271 Hassan Kaschef, of Derr, 127,241 Pascha, 131,146. 192, 218, 232,235 Hathor, temple to, in Dendera, 116 Heathen temples mutilated by Chris- tians, 267 Hebrew Chronologies not opposed to Egyptian, 457 commentators, 477 numbers, uncertainty of, 402 tradition, 401 Hecataeus, of Abdera.Exodus according to, 408 cited, 260, 408 Heglik-tree, 217 Heliopolis, 46, 369, 384, 406, 408, 413, 414, 448 priest of, Joseph marries the daughter of, 411 (Balbeck), 346 Hellet el Bib, ruins of, 226 e' Soliman, village of, 188, 205 Hengstenberg, cited, 544 Henniker, Sir Fr., 551 Heracleopolis Parv^a, 429 Hermanovich, Dr., 160, 190 Hermes, Book of the Dead ascribed to, 392 Trismegistus, citation from, 270 Hermetic books, 382,387, 391,397 Hermonthis, ancient (Erment), near Thebes, 117 Hermopolis Parva (Damanhur), 447 Hero, same as Heroonpolis, 435 Herodotus, cited, 119, 383, 384, 429, 432, 439, 442, 417, 480, 481 Heroonpolis, 434, 435, 437, 445, 555 situation of, 434, 43S Hierasykaminos, inscriptions of, 125 Hieroglyphical inscriptions on rock, 458 Hieroglyphic writing, 377 Hieroglyphics, 27, 58, 59, 109, 196, 223, 236, 377, 381, 382, 413, 420, 426 Hierogammatist,the, or Sacred Scribe, 387 Hiersolymna, built by Moses according to Hecataeus. 408 Hieratical, or Priest Books, 387 Hillel, the astronomer, 454 Hippopotamus, 158 on Blue River. 170 Historical book literature, 394 literature necessary to resto- ration of true history, 399 sense in the Egyptian cha- racter, 374 Hobi, island of, 153 Hogg, Mr. John, 540, 560 Hopkins, W„ cited, 522 Horeb (Chqreb), 293, 304, 314, 533 Horner, L., paper on bed of Nile, Ap pendix, 507 cited, 239 Horoscopi, the, or time-seers, 388 Horus, King, 259, 405. 420 Horns, the god at temple of Edfu, 117 Hospitahty, Arabian, 277 Hospital in Wed Medineh, 185 Hoskins, 150, 154, 155 Howara, village of, 84 Humboldt, A. von, 105, 532 Hyksos, the, 395, 406, 421, 476, 472 time of, 485 Exodus of the, 410 banishment of, 417 Dynasties of the, 488 invasion of the, 427 endof rule, 428 ,486 Hymn to Amen-Ra, in E.gyptian col- lection of Mr. Sams, London, 392 Hymns to the God, 389, 392 lamblichus, concerning Hermetic books, 382 Ibrahim Aga (Kawass)131, 198,275 Ibrahim Cher, a Syrian, house of, 160 191 Hassan, death of, in SjTia, 346 Pascha, 47, 101, 198 Ibrim (ancient Primis), 20, 125, 240, 241 Ideler, cited, 450, 453 Illahun, Pyramid of, 83, 93 Indigo factory in Kamlin, 163 Tamaniat. 191 Inscription on temple of Begerauieh, 151 on rock grotto of Echmim, on obelisk of Heliopolis, 46 at Philae, 120, 243 on temple of Pselchis, 105 of Edfu, 117 at Konosso, 120 at Xaharieh, 43 on Pyramids of Gizeh, 52 of Meroe, 206 42 at Soba, 165 of Silco, 242 at Talmis, 123 Arabic, 232, 550, 552 Ethiopian demotic, 223, 237 Greek. 240 in Gertassi, 123 on Pompey's pillar. at Coptic church in Wadi Gazal, 220 Inscriptions, 30, 245, 379 modern hieroglj-phics com- memorative of Prussian expedition, 57 Greek and Coptic, 220 Greek and Egyptian, 278 670 INDEX. Inscriptious, hieroglyphic, 114 Roman, 345 Sinaitic, 291, 294, 299, 311 Rock, 239, 560 in Uutial characters, 367 Ischischi, Island of, 225, 231 Isenberg, missionary, 39, 47 Ishmael had an Egyptian mother, 410 Isis, chapel to, in Mehendi, 126 statue of, 223 temple to, at Philse, 120 Ismael Pascha, 161, 195, 205 Israelites, the, 414, 446, 448, 458 Exodus of, 410, 411 not the only strangers in Egypt, 410 , journey of the, 305 , time occupied in journey to Sinai, 548—550 Israelitish people, destiny of the, 459 Isthmus of Suez, geogi'aphical condi- tions, 426 Itinerariimi,Aiitonini, 317, 448, 449 situation of Heroonpolis given in, 435 J. Jacob, meeting between Joseph and, 435 JafiFa, 23 Janni Nicola, 290 Jassur bush, 295 Jericho, 334 Jeroboam I., King, worship of sun -bull introduced into Palestine by, 413 Jerome, St., 313, 317, 555, 560 Jerusalem, 39, 334 Jesreel, plains of, 336 Jewish calendars, 453 chronology, 450 chronologists, 421 generations, 45S— 470 history, chronological character of, 401 — hst, 497 temple of Onias, 449 Jews, the account of, by Diodorus, 409 Jomard, 431 Jorius, bishop of Mount Sinai, 558, 562 Joseph, 410, 413, 435, 481, 483 in Egypt, 476—484 Josephus, cited, 313, 316, 416, 417, 418, 423, 424, 427, 433, 459, 460, 476, 487, 497, 548, 554, 560 lists of, 419 Joshua, book of, 450 Judaea, foreigners in Egypt fled to, 408 Judges, book of, 450 Jussuf, Dragoman, 133, 275 Justinian, convent built by Emperor, 319, 551, 556, 562 . Justin Martyr, cited, 423 K. Kafr el Batran, village of, 76 Kalabscheh, 17, 20, 192, 242, 526 Kalfa, cataract of, 237 Kamlin, 163, 189 Karabel, rock-picture of, 24 Karat Negil, fortress of, 230 Karnak, 20, 102, 247, 248—253 Kasingar, village of, 225, 227 Kasuin, Mount, 341 Katarif, village of, 186 Kawass, the, 87 Ibrahim, 149, 170 Keli, funeral ceremony in, 211 Kenes, island of, 120 Kerak, tomb of Noah at, 337 Kerman, village of, 233 Kibrit, Peninsida of, 289 Kings of Egypt, succession of, 26 Ki-si-Tuthotep, tomb of, 113 Kisch, or Kischiga, village of, 242 Klotsch, Dr., cited, 227 Klvsma, at the head of Arabian Gulf, 435 Koch, Dr., 147, 160 Koi, remains of towns at, 235 Kolzum, convent of, 557 Kom el Birat, village of, 271, 321 Kongara language, 30, 234 Konosso, island of, 20, 120 Koptos, ancient (Quft), 22 Kordofan, brother of Sultan of, 161 Korte, temple of, 124 Korusko, 17, 105, 127, 130, 240 Kosser, 22, 279,321 Kosser road, hieroglyphical inscription on rock of, 458 Krapf, the missionary, 39, 45, 47 , on certain nations in Central Africa, 45 Kteffe valley, 547 Kuban (Contra Pselchis), 20, 242 Kuch, territory of, 225 Kum-Ombo, temple of, 17 Kum-Ahmar, rock-tombs of, 15 Kummeh, village of, 19, 238 Kumr beta D'ahela, village of, 175 Kungara language, 244 Kurru, Pyramids of, 229 L. Labyrinth, arrangement of, 90 founder of, 15 ruins of the, 15, 83 payment of people for dig- ging trenches at, 84 Lake of Serbon, 429 Lakes, bitter, 436, 440, 442, 444 Lancrot, cited, 525 Language of Taka, 201 Languages, African, 31 Larchor, 431 Leake, 240 Loq6ta, village of, 277 Le Quieu, 556, 558, 562 Leontes, river, 336 Lepers, expulsion of, 404, 417 insurrection under Osarsiph,416 Exodus of, same as of Israelites, 412-417 INDEX. 571 Leprosy, Egyptian, account of, 412 Letter to Mr. Horner from Dr. Lepsius, 530 Letronne, cited, 105, 107, 121, 123, 387, 440, 442, 444, 445 Levites, generations of, 460 Levi, tribe of, 459 L'Hote, cited, 105 Libanon, view of, 349 war in, 352 Library at Thebes, 381,397 Alexandrian, 382, 496 Lieder, Herr, German missionary, 36, 47,74 Limestone, nummulitic, mountain range near Memphis composed of, 371 Linant, M., 14, 92, 94, 96 Lions in Berber, 157 Lion, young, 174 Lischt, Pyramid of, 64, 83 Lists, Jewish, 497 Dynastic of Manetho, 497 Literature of Egypt, 386, 390 Livy, fragment of a MS. of, 380 Locusts, swarm of, 68 Lorda, Domingo, 99 Loss of road, 282 Luqsor, temple of, 102, 247, 253 Lycopolis, 101 Lycurgus introduced Egyptian customs into Greece, 383 Lycus. See Nahr el Kelb Lysimachus, on the Exodus, 422, 424 M. Maccabees, book of, 452 Madian, district of, 546 Magal, church of, 231 Mageqa, well of, in Gilif mountains, 216 Mahas, province of, 235 dialect of, 232 Mahmud Welled Schauisch, 188, 205 Mahmudieh canal, 42 Makrizi, cited, 178 Maktaf, or basket, 84 Makrobioten Apappus Pepi, 110 Malta, 38 Mandera. in desert, 130, 162 Manetho, cited, 382, 405, 410, 412, 416, 417, 423, 427, 429, 433, 470, 480, 486, 487, 494, 496, 499 Manethonic chronology, 490, 493, 495 Dynastic lists, 498 Dynasties, 496 • history, extent of, 493 list of Eusebius, 422 numbers, the genuine, 494 —496, 498 Manuscripts, Ethiopian, 99 Mara, 307, 548 Maranites, the, 554 Marcellinus, Ammianus, cited, 79 Martineau, Miss, cited, 514, 520 Maruga, villasre of, 212, 209 Masr, or Cairo, 4A Massaui, island of, 228 Matarieh, village of, 49 M&cheref, village of, 142, 144 Medamot, village of, 247 Medik, village of, 125 Medinet el Faium, 93, 97 Habu, 102, 253, 256, 260 chiu-ch at, 269 Madi, ruins of, 98 Ximrud, town of, 97 Mediterranean Sea, triremes on, 442 Megdel, in Syria, 336 Meharret. See Hererat Mehemet Ali, 441 Mehendi, Roman camp of, 125 3Ieidum, Pyramid of, 64, 83 Mekseh, village of, 336 Melah (Arabic for salt work), 194 Melek Idris Adlan, 177, 191 Memnon statue, 257 Memnonia at Thebes, 102, 248, 258 Memphis, 14, 49, 72, 81, 369, 427, 4S4 P\Tamids of, 24, 44, 370 Menephthes king during the Exodus, 424, 430, 449, 451, 454, 470, 474, 480, 484 rock temple, at Surarieh, dedicated to Hathor by, 100 temple in Nubia erected by, 124 Menes, laws of, 392 epoch, or first historical year, 495 hieroglyphic writings invented in time of, 377 year of 3893, B.C. 494 Menkera (Mykerinos), Pyramid of, 59 Menzaleh Lake, 333 Merhet, priest of Chufu. tomb of, 61, 63 Meraui, town of, 194, 223 Merde, derivation of term, 210 district between Nile and Asta- boras, 17, 146 island of, 225 Pyramids of, 206 well of, 217 Mesam-at, monuments of, 156 el Kirbegan (Ben Naga), 156, 157 e' Naga (Ben Naga), 156 e' Sofra (Ben Naga), 156 Messaid, spring of water, 288 Messelemieh, town of, 166, 189, 205 Metamme, tillage of, 154 Meton, the cycle of, 454 Mice in camp, 87 Migiik, in Gilif range, 216 Military band, 186 Minjau schtaroth, epoch of, 455 Mirage, in Nubian Desert, 141 Misphragmuthosis, end of rule of Hyksos, 428, 490 Mitrahinneh,72 Mneuis, holy biUl, 411, 413 Mo'alaqa, Syria, 337 Mdris-Amenemha, 481 Mocris Lake, 92, 95 dams of lake, 95 572 INDEX. Moeris, Pyramid of , 83 Mofirad, mountain range of, 141 IMotrran River, 146 ]\Ioiiammed Ali, 39. 40, 333 Said, 158 I\roie Messaid. spring of, 288 ]Moleds, or new moons, 453 Molon, cited, 423 IMonarchy, Old, 395, 414 Monassir, cataracts in province of, 228 Honkeys on Blue River, 169 Mons Casius, 429 ■ Claudianus. See Gebel Fatireh ■ For phy rites. See Gebel Dochan Monuments, 368, 375 age of Egyptian, 16 in Old Monarchy. 414 ■ of Biahmu, 96 granite, at Mount Barkal, 223 Pharonic, 233 at Soba. IS at Thebes, 20 Monumental nation, the Egj-ptian, 397 writing, hierogljT)hics be- come, 379 Moqattam Hills. 47 Mosaic account of Exodus, 425 Mosch, town of, 235 Moses, 310, 408, 411, 449, 484, 486, 491, 546 Mosque at Damascus, 343 at Old Dongola, 232 Motmar, 150 Mountains of Xubian Desert, mineral character of, 136 Mud of Nile, bricks made of, 369 Mudhir of Berber, 131 Esneh, 131 Miihleisen, a missionary, 39, 47 Mukfar, ruins of, 'i;35, 436 Mulid e'Xebbi, festival of, 70 ]\Ivanmies, durability of, 370 IMuudera, plain of, 141 Munfieh range, 280 ;Musa Bey, 148 3Iusic not considered by the Egyptians an independent art, 388 Eastern, 85 Arabic, 182 Mustafra Pascha, 131 Mythology of Egypt, 25 Myos hormos, ruins of, 289 N. Nablus (Sichem) Syria, 334 Naga in the desert, 17, 153, 156, 210 Kaharieh, ruins of town near, 43 Nahrel Kelb (Lykos), 22, 355 Nakb el Egaui, Peninsula of Sinai, 291 Haul, Peninsula of Sinai, 291, 294, 547 Names, holv and popular, for towns, 115 Napoleon, Descrip. de l'Egypt,376 Napata, town of, 18, 223 cemetery of, 220 Ferd. Narrative, Mosaic, contradicts the idea that the Jews were the Hyksos, 421 Nascimbeni, engineer of the Viceroy, 93 Nasr, Sultana, 176 Natron, crust in desert of, 139 Natural history, collection by Werne, bought for Prussia, 42 Nazareth, 335 Nebbi Habil (tomb of Abel), 340 Schit, Syria, 345 Nebek-tree, 277, 298 Nebuchadnezzar, 455 Nechel Delfa, in Gebel Munfieh, 281 Necropoli, Egyptian, 375 Necropolis of Thebes, 247 Nectanebus 120, 243, 525, 531 II., 494 Negro soldiers, 186 Nehera-si-Numhotep, tomb of, 112 Nekleh, Rosetta arm of Nile, 43 Nekos begins to cut canal between Nile and Red Sea, 439, 440, 441, 442 Neos Dionysos, Ptolemy XIII., 108 Neslet, village of, 98 Nesnas ape, 164 Neubauer, Herr, apothecary at Char- turn, 160 New Dongola, 233 Nile river, height of, at Semneh, 19, 20 gradual levelling of bed, 30 at Afteh, 4^ waters of, 44 crossing the. 211 observations on rise of, 239, 259 between Thebes and Qeneh, 275 narrow district of, 369 1 mud bricks of, 369 I ease of transport on, 372 ! canal, 436, 448 upper districts of, 458 rise of, related by Strabo, 4S1 breadth, depth, and velocity in Nubia, 519 fall of, 521 Nilomcter, 73 Nimr, palace of King, 195 Nilus, cited, 556, 557, 560 Noah's tomb, 327 Nochol rock, 307 Nofratmu, an ancestor of Ranumhet, chief architect, 458 Nomarchs, who ruled in the Nomes, 4S2 Nomes, Egypt divided into, 482, 483 Nome, Sethroitic, Abaris situated in, 427. 431 Nuba language. 30, 128, 232, 234 dialect, 235 villages, 228 Nubia, Lower, phys. gcog. of, see Ap- pendix, 516 Lower, geological structure of. Appendix, 522 breadth, depth, &c., of Nile, Appendix, 519 temples in, 124 IlfDEX. ;73 K'ubian language, 171 Sheikh, 30 Nubians, character of, 127 IS'umbers, genuine Manethonic, 4Qi~ 496, 498 Hebrew, uncertainty of, 402 Nummulitic limestone near Memphis, 371 IVumt Amen, temple of, 255 Nureddin Eft'endi, a Coptic Catholic Egj-ptian, 163, 1S9 Nuri, Pyramids of, 218, 221 Nus, hieroglyphic name of town, 112 O. Obelisk at Heliopolis, 46 Obelisks in Alexandria, 369 Ochus, conquest of Egypt by, 494 Okmeh, sulphur-spring at, 237 Old Dongola, 232 Old Testament writings, 459 chronology, 490, 492 Old chronicle, 497, 498 Olympiad, the seventh, 423 calculation, 424 Olympian games, 383 Omar Aga, officer in Turkish army, 198 Omarab mountains, 209 Ombos, canon of proportions found in, 20, 118 Om Saiale, well of, 218 Om Schebak, valley of, 218 On, same as Heliopolis, 113 Onias, temple of, 449 Osarsiph, priest of Heliopolis, 406, 408, 413, 416 Osiris, tomb of, 122 service of, 413 statue of, at Kamlin, 164 Osman Bey, chief in command of army against Taka, 196 Osymandyas, King, 381 tomb of, 260 Otho, Emp., 266 P. Paapis, son of Amenophis, 405 Palms, Dileb, 171 Doum, 137, 218 Pachon, Papyri dated 13th of, 395 Painting on Pyramids, 52 Christian, over Heathen repre- sentations, 268 Paintings in Thebes, 246 on tomb in Benihassan, 111 Panodorus, 498 Pauopolis{Chemmis), rock-grotto of,115 Papyrus rolls, 391, 394, 395 of Sallier, 391 plant, 373, 380 roll on monuments, 374 Paran, 304, 539 Parthey, cited, 520, 525 Papebroch, cited, 558 Pastophori, the watchers of the tem- ples, 389 Patriarchs, the three, 491 Paul, Apostle, on number, 403, 480 Pedigree of architect, 279 Peney, M., French surgeon, 196 Petamenap, tomb of the royal scribe. 265 Pelusiac arm of Nile, 429, 446 Pelusium, town of, 429, 430, 432 Peninsula of Sinai, climate of, 545 Periander, 442 Period from Abraham to Moses, 485— 491 Perring, measurement of Pyramids by, 59 13, 79, 114 Petronius, Prefect, 481 Phoenikon, Peninsula of Sinai, 555 Phoenix, period of 1500 years, 398 Phara ravine, 554 Pharan, 297, 304, 313, 546, 555, 557 church of, 562 palm-grove of, 553, 559 Pharaoh, 413, 480 of the Exodus, 421—425 the, of Joseph, 477 (Sethosis I.), 484 Pharaonic history, restoration of the, 399 Philaj, island of, 20, 119, 242, 530, 531 name of, 120 inscriptions at, 107 temples on, 525 Philotera, ancient, 289 Philip Aridaeus, 252 Philologj', Egyptian, 26 Philosophers who visited Egypt, 385 Phokes, island of, 555 Physical Geography of Lower Nubia, Appendix, 516 Pilgrims, German, 302 Pipe, Turkish, pleasure of, 104 Pithom and Ramses, treasure cities, 426 situation of, 435, 447 Plague of the leprosy, Egyptian account of, 412 Plato, house he inhabited in Heliopo- lis, 384 Pliny, cited, 439, 444 fable by, of Sphinx, 67 Plutarch, cited, 123, 386 Poems, Arabic, 182 Polemon, cited, 422 Pompey's Pillar, 42 Porphyry, Gebel Doch^u, 372 Poseidion, town of, 553 Potiphar, an Egvptian name, 476 of HeliopoHs, 411, 413 Priests in Egypt, 385, 386 books, the hieratical, 387 learned, 412 registers of their generations 459 Primis, ancient, 125, 24i0 Procopius, cited, 320, 556 574 i:S"DEX. Prokesch, Gen. von, cited, 625 Proskynemata, 50, 279 Prophets, Egyptian, 413 the, 387 Prudhoe, Lion of Lord, 223, 236 Pruner, Dr., 47, 98 Psahnist, the, on length of life, 491 Psammeticus, 429, 440 1., 24<), inscription belong- ing to temple of, at ]S'aharieh; 43 Pselchis, inscription at temple of, 105 Ptah-nefru-be-u, tomb of, 63 Ptolemy Alexander I., temple built by, 117 , 380, 429, 434, 437, 438 Mendesius, cited, 421, 424 Eupator, inscription referring to, 107 525 Philadelphus, 382, 439, 440, 444, the geographer, 115, 429, 434, 437, 438, 554 Ptolemies, Greek inscription about the, 107 Publius, Prefect, 42 Pyramid of Cheops (Chufu), A-iew from, '48, 49, 59. 72, 372 of Daschur, 79, 9S of Gizeh, 47, 56, 79, 323 of Howara (Labyrinth), 83 of Labyrinth, 90 of Menkeres, 372 Pyramids, 47—65 age of, 13 ascent of, 48 view from summit of, 48 built of bricks, 372 first visit to, 47 remains of, 13 structure of, 65 supposed by Osman Bey to contain treasure, 197 of Abu Roasch, 59, 79 of Abusir, 69 of Beg'erauieh, 195, 150 of Lischt and Meidum, 64, 375 of lUahun and ]\Ioeris, 83 of :Merde, 150—152, 206 of Memphis, 25, 44, 47—81, ■ of Nuri, 221 of Rigah, 79 • of Saqara, 6i, 67 of Tauqassi and Kumi, 229 of Zauiet el Arrian, 59 of Zume, 230 Pythagoras, cited, 385 Q, Qala, village of. 209 Qautur, Pyramid of, at Kurru, 229 Qasr Qorun, town of, 15, 98 e' Saiat, tombs at, 16, 116' Qeneh, village of, 22, 275, 277, 321 Qirre, mountains of, 158, 193 Qirsch, village of, 242 Qsvu- el Benat, plain of, 278 Quarries, granite, 234 porphyry, 2SS stone, 278 Qubbet e' Nasi', view from, 340 Qurna, Thebes, 20, 102, 108, 254, 253 Qurnet :Murrai, hill of, 267 Queens preferred in Ethiopia, 178 Quft (Koptos), 277 Qulleh, clay \vater bottles, 103 manufactory of, 276 Qus, ApoUinopolis parva, 277 Pa, ficrure of the god, 438 PablHs, 453 Rabbinical chronology, 450—455 date of Exodus, 470 Rabbi Hillel Hanafisi, 453, 450 Races intermingled, 411 Raha. plain of, 293, 545, 548, 553 Rahad river, 148, 167 Rain in Upper Egypt, 119 Xubian desert, 137 Raithenes, the, 555 Raithu. See Tor Ramadan, Mussulmans' holy month, 45 Ram of Barkal, 236, 245 Rams, granite, 223 Rauian, mountains of, 158, 193 Rammius ?>Iartialis Eparch, 288 Ramses IL (3Iiamun;. 249, 259,333, 370, 381, 393, 395. 418, 420, 43S, 441, 446,447, 449, 481, 483, 4S4 his name!inscribed on Cleo- patra's Xeedle, 42 statue of, 72 temple of, in Thebes, 102, 243, 259 temple of, near Kalab- scheh, 526 bas-reliefs of, 355 memorial tablets of, 22 III., 250, 260, 450 IX., 395 town of, 426, 447 Rameseion, 3S1 Ranumhet, chief architect, 458 Raphia(Refah},429 Raphidim. Peninsula of Sinai, 312, 318, 540, 545, 548 Ras Fui'tak, Peninsula of Sinai, 555 - — Gehan, PeninsiUa of Sinai, 553, 554 Abu Zelimeh, Peninsula of Sinai, 553 Mohammed, Peninsula of Sinai, 553, 554 e' Schekab, in SjTna, 355 Raych, convent of, at Tor, 557 Rebaba, musical instrument, 182 Red Sea, 437, 440 level higher than Mediterra- nean, 441 INDEX. 575 Register of generations, 458, 459 Rennie, Mr., cited, 521, 524 Representations at Xaga in the desert, 210 Reschraschi, plain of, 278 Rliinokolura fEI Arisch), 429 Ricci cited, 551 Rigah, Pyramid of, 79 Ritter, Carl, 315, 316, 320, 541, 543, 554, 558 his views on position of Sinai, 545, 546 Rltschl, 382 Robatat, province of, 226 Robbery at Saqara, 72, 75 Rock-chambers lined with brick, 373 temple at Abu Simbel, 240 inscriptions, 560 Robinson, E., measurements of distance in Peninsula of Sinai, 547, 548 cited, 308, 309, 315, 316, 533, 545, 551 Roda, island of, 73 Roft, mountain chain of, 138 Romali, \illage of, 175 Roman camp' at Mehendi, 125 inscription, 345 Rossafa road, 321 Rosellini, cited, 29, 51, lOS. ^44, 266, 525 Rosetta canal, 43 inscription of, 121 Royal revenues, 482 Roziere, the traveller, 426 Ruins in Wadi el Kirbesan, 194 Ruppel, cited, 290, 310, 545 Russeger, cited, 166, 515, 519, 523, 528, 529 Rustan Effendi, 192 Saba Doleb, ^iUage of, 171 Sabagura, niins of ancient city, 20, 242 Sacred Books, 391 Sa el Hasrer, ancient Sais, 43 Sacred Writings, 391 Saffi, island of, 227 Sagadi, \illage of, 150 Sai, island of, 19, 237 Said ben Batrik, cited, 556, 562 Saida (Sidon), 336 Sailors on Red Sea, 289 St. Athauasius in Theban desert, 266 St. George, tomb of, 856 St. Martin, cited, 107 Sais, ancient, 43, 369 Saladin's tomb, 343 Salamat (Sanamat), 258 Salame-tree, 217 village of, 228 Salatis, King, 486 Salhieh, Syria, 344 Salmasius, cited, 433 Sallier, Papyrus of, 391, 394 Samanud (Sebennytos), 23, 333 Sami Bey, 39 Sams', Mr., Egyptian collection, 392 San (Tanis), 23, 333 Sanab, 221 Sand dunes in plain of El Gos, 215 Sanherib, 429 Saqara, 64, 72, 81, 86, 89, 103 PjTamids of, 10 Sheikhs of, 76 trial at, 77 Sarcophagus of white limestone in Thebes, 245 Sarcophagi, 376 Sarbut el Chadem, Egyptian monu- ments of, 22, 300, 305 Saulcy, M. de, 121, 273 Schabak (So), King of Etliiopia and Egypt, 251 Schaib el Benat, village of, 231 Schaqieh Arabs, 214, 229 cataracts in province of, 228 princes, 227 pro\ince of, 231 Schataui, village of, 240 Schech-Said, village of, 16 Schendi, town of, 17, 23, 153, 154, 195 Scherif Pascha, the minister, 77, 89 Scheschenk I., 250 Schilluk tribe, 149 Schoa, missionarj' station of, 39 Schomar. See Gebel Um Schomar Schona government store-house, 237 Schrafra (Chafra), King, whether re presented by Sphinx, 66 Pyramid of, 59, 66 Schulz, Dr., 334 Sculptiu-es, Egyptian, 233 Sea, sensations at, 36 luminous appearance on, 37 Seba-Biar, valley of, 434, 438, 441, 445 Sebastieh (Samaria), 335 Sebekhoteps, the Kings, 239 Sebekhotep I., 20 Sebua, temple of, 20, 124, 241, 242, 356, 527 Sedar 01am Rabah, the, 456 Sedeinga, temple of, 19, 237 Sehfel. island of, 20 Seid Hussen, familv of, 275 Haschim, 176, 180, 181 Selajin, village of, 97 Selama, villaee of, 154 Seleucida?, era of the, 452, 453, 455 Seleucus, 382 Selim rascha, governor of Upper Eg.>T)t, 101, 114, 191 Selim of Assuan, cited, 162 gviide, 280 Selun(SUo), Syria, £34 Selseleh, sandstone mountains of, 32 Semitic king, 47S countries, 410 court, 477 Hyksos, 476 Semneh, 19, 238, 529, 531 0/1 I^'DEX. Semneh, Nile at. 30, 239, 529, 531 Seuumt, hieroglyphic name for island ofEiwh, 120 Sennar, capital of the Sudan, IS, 173, 176 Septuagint, -113 Serapiu, 4435 Serbal, Mount, 22, 295, 298, 299, 303, 308, 532 Serha-tree, 217 Sero, on frontier of Sennar and Fasoql, 148. 175 Sese, Mount, 236 Sesebi, ruinsof,19, 230 Sesoosis, 482 Sesostris Sesoosis, 480, 483 481. 394, 429, 439 Sesurtesen I., 2-48, 395 on Pyramids of Begerauich, obelisk erected by, 46 Throne-shield of, at Xaga, 155 II., 112 III.. 120, 23S Sesurtesens, the, 111 Sethos, also called Ramesses, 407 priest of Ptha, 429 I., 15, 48, 236, 249, 259. 394, 449, 481 remains of temple erected by, 124 Sethosis. 418, 481 Sethroitic Nome, 427, 428. 431 Seventy, the, 402, 434, 435, 436, 438, 464, 476 Serbon, lake of, 429 Set-Necht, King, 395 Sheikh Achraed, sheikh of camels, 134 Ahmed ^Veiled 'Auad, in the train of Osman Bey, 196 Sandaloba, chief of the Arabian merchants, 173 Mohammed Welled Hammed, prisoner of Osman Bey, 201 Musa el Fakir, prisoner of Osmau Bey, 200 prisoners, 200 Selam, 2"^0, 2S6 Jusuf Hanna Dahir, of Bscher- reh, 352 Sheikhs of Saqara and Abusir, 76 Sherif Pascha, 89, 45 Shields on PjTamids of Gizeh, 58 hieroglvphic, 58, 196 of the Pharaohs, 438 Sidereal year. 398 Silco, inscription of, 242 Sittere-trees, 295 Sin, wilderness of, 308, 540, 547, 548 Sinai, Mount, true position of, 22, 303— 321,542,560,562 Hitter's views respecting, 541— 546 departure for Peninsula of, 274 convent of, 291, 305 Sinai, tradition of, 559 Sinaitic inscriptions, 31, 291, 294, 299, 311. 545 Siut, town of, 16, 101, 114, 115 Slave revolt, 190, 192, 193 Sluice at Arsinoe, 440 Soba, capital of, kingdom of Aloa, 18, 162, 189 Solb (Soleb), temple of, 19, 223, 236 Soldiers, negro, 1S6 under Osman Bey in good dis- cipline, 205 Snefru, King. 396 Sphinx, excavation in front of, 66 Sphinxes at temple in ^yadi Lebua, 126 Soliman Pascha, 191 Solon, 383 Solymites, the, 407 Soriira-tree, 217 Sont-trees, 101, 213, 217 Soriba, Sultana Nasr resident in, 178 Soter I., 108 Sothis, the, a spurious work, 497. 498 periods, 398, 494, 495, 496 Statue of a Persian king, 443 Stele between paws of Sphinx, 59 Stephanus of Bvzantium, 4:31, 433 Stolistes, the ten books of the, 387 Stone buildings, 371 Storm near PjTamids, 53 Strabo, cited. 119, 266, 384, 386, 411, 429, 430, 434, 4;37, 439, 444, 481 Structure of Pyramids, 221 Suez, town of, 434, 435, 436, 443 isthmus of, 426 Sugar factory in Kamlin, 163 Suk el Barada, village of, in Syria, 344 Sukkot, province of, 237 Sulphur-spring of Okmeh, 237 Sur (Tyrus). 336 wilderness of, 307, 547 Surarieh, rock temple near village of, 15, 100 Suri, beveraee of, 199 Surie, Abu Ramie, village of, 193 Syenite of Assuan, 371 Syncellus, cited, 489, 490, 494, 499 Syria, 430, 435, 449 Table of Jewish generations, 461, 463 generations of Levi according to Josephus, 468 — from He- brew text, 467 undeterminate and historical numbers, 472 Tables of Egyptian Dynasties, 499 Tabor, Mount, 335 Tacitus, cited, 266, 393, 423 Tahraka (Tirhakah), King, 18, 222, 251 Taiba, village inhabited by Fukara (Fakirs), 187 Taka, war in, 186, 199 language in, 201 ITTBEX. 577 Taka, tribes of, 201 Talmis (Kalabscheh), 123, 242 Talmud, few chronological dates, 454 Tamaniat, village of, 158, 193 Tarn i eh, village of, 95, 98 Tanis (Tan), Xile Delta, 333 Tanqassi, Pyramids of, 229 Tarablus (Tripolis), SjTia, 354 Tarfa shrubs, 294, 308 Tehneh, monuments near, 15 Teirieh, ruins near, M Tel Emdieh, village of, 338 Tel Jehudeh, 449 Tel-el-Amarna, 23, 27 Temple, building of first, 455 dedications, 379 at Amara, 237 on island of Bageli, 526 at Mount Barkal, erected by Eamses II., 222 at Bet el Talli, 124 at Debu, 526 of Edfu, 117 near Kalabscheh, 526 .— at Karnak, 248 of Korte, 124 of Luqsor, 253 near Medinet Habu, erected by King Horus, 259 of Qurna, 259 at Sedeinga, 237 of Sesebi, 236 in front of Sphinx, 52 at Solb, 236 rock at Surarieh, 100 Temples, Ethiopian drawings on, 195 erected by the Ptolemies, 266 rock at Abu Simbel, 240 of Balbcck, 346 at Ben Xaga, 153 at Dendera, 116, 322 near Gebel Dochan, 287 of Gerf Hussen and Sebua, 124 259 on Philse, 120, 243, 525 at Xaga, 154, 155 in Xubia, 124 at Thebes, 102, 116, 243, 255, of Semneh, 238 Testament, Old, 402, 404, 438, 490 Tethmosis, King, 423 Thales instructed by EgjiJtian priests, 384 Thames, fall of, between "Wallingford and Teddington, 520 Thana, island of, near Gorata, in Ethi- opia, 99 Thebes, 14, 10^-104, 116, 243—274, 370, 371, 376, 381, 484 scenery about, 247 origin of name, 248 Theodosius, edict of, 266 Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, 497 Theon of Alexandria, 453 Theory of excavation of bed of Xile, 530 Thinitic kings, 495 This, town of, 494 Thoum, i. e. Pithom. 43.5, 448 Thutmosis III., Cleopatra's needle erected by, 42 Tii, wife of Amenophis III., 237 Tifar, village of, 231 Tiberias, on Lake Genezarat, 335 Tomb of Abel, 340 of King Bech-en-Aten, 114 of Ki-si-Tutholep, 113 of Saladin, 343 of Prince Merhet, 61, 63 ofXoaH, .337 of Ramses Miamun, 244 of St. George, 356 at Saqara, 72 Tombos, island of, 19, 234 Tombs in Thebes, 245, 254 in Zauiet el Meitin, 110 removal of, 323 rock, of Amarua, 322 of Beni Hassan, 16, 111 near El Ques, 212 of the kings, 261— 263 of the princesses, 264 of private persons, 264 round Pyramids, 13 at Saba Uoleb, 171 Tondub-tree, 217 Tod, temple of, 20 Tor, Peninsula of Sinai, 22, 274, 290, 560 Tower of Hammam Seidna Soliman, 237 Tosorthros, 2nd Dynasty, 375, 377 Tradition of Gebel Musa, 532 ■ about position of Mount Sinai, 304, 559 Trajanie river, name of canal cut from Babylon, 437, 445 Transmigration of souls, 385 Travellers, visit fi'om, 273 Trees near Gilif mountains, 217 on Blue Eiver, 168 Tripolis (Tarablus), 354 Tuch, cited, 311 i Tukele, straw huts, 162, 173 Tura, chalk mountains of, 32 Turin, royal annals of, 395 Turk, character of the, 88 Turkish breakfast, 159 soldiers, their uniform, 354 Tuthmosis I., 234, 248, 249 - II., 19, 238 III., 24, 124, 236, 237, 238, 249, 256, 259, 300, 301, 4«6 lY., 66, 156, 259, 4S5 IV., stele of, between paws of Sphinx, 59 Tutmes III., conqueror of the Hyksos, ISth Dynasty, 395 Typhon, the god, 432 Typhonic town, 428 2p 578 IXDEX. rm Scliebah, valley of, in desert of Gilif , 21S Vm Schomar. See Gebel Yase at Soba, 1S9 Venus, small statue of, in Soba, 190 Vermin, 104 Vicus Judajorum (Tel Jeliudeh), 4AS, 449 Village scene in Ethiopia, 174 Visit from travellers, 273 Vvse, Colonel Howard, 13 AVad Eraue, 189 Xegudi,171,l73 Wadi Anateb, 154, 155, 156 Abu Dom, 213, 218 Hammed, 214 Harod, 216 Alevat, 297, 298, 318 el Arab, 241 Bahr Hatab, 137 Delah. 137 el Mehet, 216 Dhaghadeh, 553 e' Scheikh, 22, 294, 547 e' Sileha, 156 e' Sofra, 152, 156 e' Sufr, 137, 139 el Kirbegan, 154, 156, 157, 194 el Uer, 216 Ellaqi, 241 Firan, 20, 295, 297, 298, 299, 304, kc, 535 Gazal, 218 Gaqedul, 215 Gharandel, 306, 547, 548 Guah El 'Alem, 215 Haifa, 17, 20, 131, 240, 241 Hcbran, 22, 290, 291, 312 Ibrim, 241 Kalas, 217 Wadi Kenus, 241 Leg a, 561 :Ma2hara, 22, 300, 305 :Mo'katteb, 22, 31, 299 Mui-had,139 Nasb, 302, 305 Nuba, 241 Qeneh, 300 WadiRim, 295 Schebekeh, 306, 547 Schellal, 547, 548 Sebua, temple in, 126 Selaf, 295, 297 Selin, 16 Sieh. 300 i Siqelji, 296 1 Sittere, 300 ; Taibeb, 312, 547 ; Teresib, 154 ! Wagner, von, the Prussian consul- j general, 39 i War in Taka, 186 i Water, search in Nubian desert for, 137 search for, 2S1 i Watf'r-works in Egypt, 481 I Wed Medineh, 176, ISO I slave revolt in, 190 ; Weidenbach, Ernest, member of the ' expedition. 39, 54, 75, 83, 94, 114, 153 i Max., 153, 275 Ernest and Max., 12, 21 Werne, Ferd., objects of natural history ! collected by, 42 I H., 32 ; Wetzstein. Dr., 552 i White River, 161 i WUd, J., travelling companion,. 12, 85, I 56, 57 1 Wilkinson. Sir G., cited, 29. 93. 108, 112» , 244, 266, 271. 2^2, 4:35, 448, 525, 532 Wilson, Dr. John, cited, 539 i Wind, violent, in Chartum, 191 { Women, ancient Egyptian, painted yel- I low, 208 j Wot Mahemut, 157 Writings, sacred, 391 X. Xerxes, 279 Zachleh, town in Libanon, 336 Zahera, village of, 354 Zani, on the Nile, 98 Zauiet-el-Arrian, Pyramids of, 59,79 Meitin, rock-tombs of, 110 Zebedeni. village in Anti-Libanon, S38 Zeitieh, the naphtha pits, 289 Zerin, in Syria, 335 I Zuma, village of, 230. 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