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 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 ^cccssion§'^^^*^¥^S'K . CLns No. 
 
 r,<?n 
 
THE KELT OR GAEL 
 
 HIS ETHNOGRAPHY, GEOGRAPHY 
 AND PHILOLOGY 
 
 BY 
 
 T. DE COURCY ATKINS 
 
 B.A., LONDON, BARRISTER-AT-LAW 
 
 LONDON 
 T. FISHER UNWIN 
 
 PATERNOSTER SQUARE 
 1892 
 
TO MY WIFE 
 
 THESE 
 

 
 THE KELT OR GAEL. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Elementary Condition of History. Mosaic Cosmogony. 
 Corrected by Science, Astronomy, Geology, Biology, 
 Philology. Its Divisions of Language. The 
 European Aryan, Migration, Race. 
 
 The history of races, even if the word itself have Elementary 
 
 , , , . condition of 
 
 a meaning, has not only not been yet written ; history. 
 it has not even been approached. The evidence 
 for such a work has not even been collected. 
 
 The Mosaic theory of creation accepted by Largely due 
 the Aryan from the' Semite, and derived as to its Mo^s"k^° 
 machinery from Chaldea, and as to its theism 'Cosmogony, 
 from Egypt, alleges that the earth, sun, moon, 
 and stars, vegetable and animal life, were created 
 in six days. It starts man with family life and 
 a language. It alleges a subsequent catastrophe 
 called the deluge, by which the greater part of 
 terrestrial animal life was destroyed ; and a 
 further catastrophe by which men were dispersed 
 over the earth, and made to speak different 
 languages. Moses fixes the date of all these 
 phenomena ; and as the deluge left the face of 
 the earth in much the same condition as it was 
 
4 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 on the sixth day of creation — and the date of 
 the deluge was B.C. 2348 — it is clear that if we 
 accept the Mosaic cosmogony we must be pre- 
 pared to account for all natural phenomena 
 within a period of about 5894 years, and all 
 ethnological and philological phenomena within 
 a period of about 4238 years, and so corrupt all 
 the fountains of history. This account of the 
 origin of phenomena, however, is taught in all 
 our primary schools at the present day. 
 
 Corrected by The astronomer nevertheless gradually un- 
 
 science. folded the plan of the heavens, the geologist 
 
 the plan of the earth, and the biologist that of the 
 life upon it ; and the myths gradually disappeared 
 from the sphere of reason. Darwin has given a 
 new meaning to the word " evolution," and 
 " survival of the fittest " probably applies to 
 planets and solar systems, as well as to living 
 individuals and species. Given the unlimited 
 time of the geologist, with force and matter, 
 and all phenomena can be accounted for by the 
 philosopher. 
 
 Anthropology. The anthropologist is on the track of mankind, 
 but the ways are long and life is short. From 
 the element to protoplasm, and from protoplasm 
 to man, the links, if not complete, are nearly so ; 
 but from a knowledge of man in the abstract 
 to a knowledij'e of men in the concrete the 
 progress is so small that the word "race" has as 
 yet only a popular meaning. 
 
 Ethnology. The ethnologist as yet can only see that groups 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 5 
 
 of men differ in size, or in form, or in colour ; 
 and he expresses the fact of the presence of 
 one or more of these differences by saying that 
 the men differ in race. What the origin or 
 cause of the difference is we know not yet. 
 Whether races sprung from different ancestors, 
 and if so, when and where ; what their early 
 surroundings were ; what modifications, if any, 
 are due to the climate ; how many of them 
 inhabit their early homes ; or what modifications, 
 if any, are due to migration, are not proven : nay, 
 the evidence is not even yet available. 
 
 The philologist is aiding the ethnologist, but as Philology, 
 yet with little result. It is not yet known whether 
 there is any necessary relation between race and 
 language ; nor is it known at what stage in his 
 career man began to speak. It is doubted 
 whether the vocal organs of the man who owned 
 the Neanderthal skull were complete. Professor 
 Sayce says, while the characteristics of race seem 
 almost indelible, language is as fluctuating and 
 variable as the waves of the sea. It is perpetually 
 changing in the mouth of its speakers ; nay, the 
 individual can even forget the language of his 
 childhood, and acquire another which has not the 
 remotest connection with it. A man cannot rid 
 himself of the characteristics of race ; but his 
 language " is like his clothing, which he can strip 
 off and change almost at will. It seems to me 
 that this is a fact of which only one explanation 
 is possible. The distinctions of race must be 
 
6 TJie Kelt or Gael. 
 
 older than the distinctions of language, . . , Not 
 only the very words but the very forms of 
 grammar are still used by the Bedouin of Central 
 Arabia that were employed by the Semitic 
 Babylonians 5000 years ago. At that early date 
 the Semitic family of speech already existed with 
 all its peculiarities, which have survived with but 
 little alteration up to the present day. And 
 when it is remembered that old Egyptian, which 
 comes before us as a literary and decaying 
 language a thousand years earlier, was probably 
 a sister of the parent Semitic speech, the period to 
 which we must assign the formation and develop- 
 ment of the latter cannot fall much short of 
 10,000 years before the Christian era." 
 
 I think the estimate is exceedingly moderate. 
 Whether language is a racial characteristic or not, 
 it measures the intellectual development, and 
 perhaps the order in time of the persons who use 
 it for the moment ; and enables us to guage the 
 progress of lapsed races, and to connect existing 
 ones by some, even if a frail, bond of union ; and 
 so the philologist proceeds to group it from time 
 to time. The latest grouping seems to be in the 
 order of the relative importance of the groups as 
 it strikes the grouper. 
 Linguistic First, comes the Aryan group, sometimes called 
 
 groups. , . . . 
 
 " inflective," and which comprises Sanskrit, 
 Persian, Greek, Latin, Keltic, German, and 
 Slav. 
 
 Second, the Semitic, described as " exflective,"" 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 7 
 
 and including Assyrian, Syrian, Arabic, Hebrew, 
 Phoenician, Egyptian, and Ethiopic. 
 
 Third, the Turanian, described as "isolating" or 
 monosyllabic, and giving voice to Burmah, Siam, 
 Tibet, China, and Japan. 
 
 Fourth, the Ural or Ugro-Altaic, a new division, 
 formerly included under Turanian, but now found 
 to differ in development sufficiently to take a 
 place of its own, and which includes Tungusian, 
 Mongol, Samoyed, Finnish, and Lap. Hungarian 
 and Turkish are offshoots from it. 
 
 Fifth, the Dravidian or South Indian, the group 
 of languages spoken in the whole Indian peninsula 
 before the arrival of the Aryan, but not yet differ- 
 entiated. 
 
 Sixth, the Malay, Polynesian, and Melanesian, 
 spoken throughout the islands of the Pacific. 
 
 There are four other large groups, whose names 
 only serve to cover the gebgraphy of Australia, 
 South and Central Africa, and aboriginal America ; 
 but although the expressions prefixial, postfixial, 
 and polysynthetic are distributed among the 
 groups, these latter are not sufficiently differen- 
 tiated to found a generalisation. 
 
 I have long thought that the words mono- Evolution 
 syllabic, agglutinative, and inflexional, as applied ^^"s^age- 
 to groups of languages, only express stages in the 
 history of language generally ; in other words, 
 that a language must be monosyllabic before it 
 is agglutinative, and agglutinative before it is 
 inflexional. If so, Aryan, which is only known to 
 
 in 
 
8 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 us in its third, and so far final stage, must have 
 gone through the stages at which Turanian and 
 Semitic respectively stopped short, thereby giving 
 the Aryan an almost fabulous antiquity compared 
 with the 10,000 years which Professor Sayce 
 gives to Semitic, a group of the second stage. 
 
 It will probably be asked, if so, why is it that 
 Semitic civilisation, as known through Chaldea 
 and Egypt, appears to be so far in advance of 
 Aryan ; and why is the Aryan only found upon 
 the scene as the Semitic stands still or declines ? 
 To this it may be answered that the Aryan may 
 have culminated long ago, and suffered eclipse 
 before the advent of the Semitic, and is now 
 again in the ascendant, and that the Semitic may 
 hereafter reappear in the third stage. No one 
 can say whether the most backward races of 
 to-day were not formerly the foremost, and vice 
 versa ; no one can say whether in the course of 
 geological periods a white man may not become 
 a black man, and a black man a white man. It 
 may be doubted whether Nature herself prefers 
 one colour to another. But the vanity or self- 
 esteem of mankind makes each man think his 
 own colour the best : the white man uses "black 
 man " as a term of reproach ; the black man uses 
 "white man" as a term of reproach; the white 
 man makes his devil black, and the black man 
 makes his devil white. 
 European For the purposes of the present work we may 
 
 '^^^"* set aside at once all the races and tongues not 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 9 
 
 included in the Aryan, or first group. This 
 leaves us face to face with the Hindoo, the 
 Persian, the Greek, the Latin, the Kelt, the 
 German, and the Slav. According to the 
 expounders of the Mosaic cosmogony, not only 
 the members of this group, but the members of 
 the nine other groups, sprung directly from Shem, 
 Ham, and Japhet, the sons of Noah, and indirectly 
 from Adam and Eve. This of course rendered 
 the doctrine of migration a necessary part of the Doctrine of 
 
 1 11- r 11 • • J migration. 
 
 theory, and the existence 01 all nations is accounted 
 for by showing that they wandered away from 
 Central Asia after the Flood, and carried the 
 consequences of the Tower of Babel with them 
 into Polynesia, Melanesia, Australia, and else- 
 where ; and that climate and lapse of time 
 produced the racial differences. As a corollary 
 to this ethnology, the terms Semitic, Hametic, 
 and Japhetic have been used even in the present 
 generation to account for and include all variations 
 in human speech. That form of ethnology and 
 of philology is no longer received by students ; 
 but it has left behind it in science the doctrine of 
 a racial ancestor, and of the migration of races. 
 
 A good deal has been said recently about the 
 primitive Aryan man ; but I doubt his existence. 
 If we seek him, we must seek the primitive Semite, 
 the primitive Turanian, and so on through all the 
 groups. I do not think, and it certainly has never 
 been shown, that the connection between the 
 ^roup of languages classed as Aryan involves the 
 
lo The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 springing of all the speakers of those groups from 
 a common ancestor. I think the more probable 
 hypothesis, and the one most in conformity with 
 the doctrine of evolution is, that human life was 
 not confined to any particular land or country, but 
 orip-inated wherever the conditions were favourable 
 for it, and that individuals coalesced into groups, 
 and groups communicated with each other from 
 motives of convenience, and principally for pur- 
 poses of protection. It must be fully understood 
 that this is only a guess, and is not intended to 
 influence any one who is investigating the facts 
 for himself. 
 Competing This doctrine of a primitive Aryan ancestor 
 
 Sng^oint/^^-y the doctrine of migration is advanced by 
 two competing groups of writers, under various 
 forms. 
 
 Professor Max Muller and his school suggest 
 that Northern India was the home of the primi- 
 tive Aryan, that his descendants proceeded to 
 the West, giving off the Persian, the Greek, the 
 Latin, the Kelt, the German, and the Slav in 
 the process. 
 
 Professor Schriider and Dr Penka in Germany, 
 and Professor Sayce in England, suggest that 
 the Aryan was a native of some cold part of 
 Western Eurooe — Southern Scandinavia seems 
 the latest favourite locus i7i quo — and started for 
 th'j East, entering India at a comparatively 
 recent period, having previously sent off southern 
 offshoots to father the Kelt, the Latin, and the 
 
TJie Kelt or Gael. II 
 
 Greek. The theory of a recent entry into India 
 appears to meto be inconsistent with the long history 
 of Sanscrit and of Zend. Neither school has as 
 yet, I believe, convinced the other; the arguments 
 in support of either view appear to me to be 
 insufficient ; and the doctrine of a special origina- 
 tion with migrations to be a survival from the 
 Mosaic ethnology. 
 
 The one result on which I think I may say what Aryan 
 that all philologists are so far agreed is, that there 
 is a group of languages called, simply as a matter 
 of convenience, Aryan, because those languages 
 have the vocabulary of a very primitive society 
 in common ; that two of those languages — 
 Persian and Sanscrit — with their dialectical 
 varieties are confined to Asia, and that three 
 of those languages, and possibly five, viz., Keltic, 
 German, Slav — and Latin and Greek, if the two 
 latter are not Keltic dialects — are confined to 
 Europe. 
 
 The only other question that arises on the is there an 
 
 A 1 • • • • A 111 1 • Aryan race ? 
 
 Aryan division is. Are all the persons speaking 
 any language of the Aryan group of the same 
 race ? Are Hindoos, Parsees, Kelts, Germans, 
 Slavs, of the same race ? The difficulty in answer- 
 ing the question is that ethnologists have not yet 
 agreed on a definition of the word " race;" it is still 
 a popular and not a scientific expression. Groups 
 of men corresponding within reasonable limits 
 in size, form, and colour, are said to belong to 
 the same race. Then the race may have many 
 
12 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 varieties. The only difficulty in my mind is, 
 can the Aryan Hindoo be a variety of the Aryan 
 Slav or the Aryan German, without giving to 
 the word "race" a meaning so wide as to render 
 it worthless ? I cannot answer the question 
 satisfactorily, but I have no hesitation in saying 
 that the word "race" in its present acceptation will 
 satisfactorily cover every European variety of 
 the Aryan, viz., Greeks, Latins, Kelts, Germans, 
 and Slavs. There is no incompatibility in size 
 or form. There are variations, such as we may 
 see in many families ; nothing more. So also in 
 the test of colour. The red or fair hair of the 
 Venetian donna, a pure Kelt, of the Galway 
 colleen, or of the Argyle lassie, are very much 
 the same ; so are the blue eyes ; but in Venice, 
 Galway, and Argyle there are dark Kelts as well 
 as red or fair. So there are fair Germ.ans and 
 dark Germans, fair Slavs and dark Slavs, fair 
 Scandinavians and dark. But the fairest and 
 most blue-eyed people in the world are the 
 South Russians, the White Russians, the Little 
 Russians, and the Great Russians, Slavs to a 
 man. Fair hair and blue eyes is only a modified 
 form of Albinoism ; the fair-haired and blue- 
 eyed man is generally seen in spectacles ; and 
 Dr Penka and Dr Poesche think the colour 
 is due to loncf residence in a semi-Arctic climate. 
 Again, it is within the experience of most people 
 that dark-haired parents frequently have fair- 
 haired children, and fair-'haired parents dark- 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 13 
 
 haired children. These variations in colour 
 among European Aryans, where greatest, are due 
 to climatic effects, but are nowhere sufficient to 
 create a racial difference. Professor Virchow 
 finds that eleven per cent, of the Swiss, nineteen 
 per cent, of the Austrians, and thirty-one per 
 cent, of the rest of the Germans only, are fair ; 
 and Dr Beddoe says a brunette has ten chances 
 of getting married in England to a blonde's nine 
 chances, because the men persist in selecting the 
 dark-haired women for wives. 
 
 '^^^^I'-i!'^^ 
 
 CKIVEBSITT 1 
 
 Of 
 
 ^fFORNlA^ 
 
CHAPTER I I. 
 
 Distribution of the European Aryan. Greeks intro- 
 duce THE Keltoi. Latins introduce the Galli. 
 The same People. The Iberian. The Basque. The 
 Keltic Ground. The British Isles. Gaul. Cymric 
 Peninsula. Bohemia. Moravia. Rhaetia. Vinde- 
 LiciA. Pannonia. Moesia or Thrace. Galatia. 
 Italy, Spain. Helvitia. East of the Rhine and 
 North of the Danube was, broadly speaking, 
 German and Slav Ground. Scandinavia. 
 
 Distribution GiVEN the facts found by Ethnoloofv and Philo- 
 
 of the Aryan . -^ *•' 
 
 in Europe, logy that Europc outside the Ugro- Altaic or 
 sub-Arctic regions is Aryan, i.e., Keltic, German, 
 Slav, Latin, and Greek, the question arises. Over 
 what portion of Europe were these peoples and 
 their languages distributed when we first became 
 definitely aware of their existence ? The position 
 of the Latin was Latium ; of the Greek, Hellas. 
 The positions of the German and Slav give 
 little or no trouble ; but ignorance and prejudice 
 combined have ignored, concealed, or misrepre- 
 sented the position or geographical distribution 
 of the Kelt or Gael. My first object conse- 
 quently must be to determine the area occupied by 
 
 the Kelt or Gael, with his institutions and dialects. 
 11 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 15 
 
 Of the European Aryans, the Greeks and 
 Latins are the earliest known in general history. 
 
 The Greeks introduce us to the other inhabi- Greeks 
 tants of Europe. For them mankind consisted Keitoi. 
 only of Greeks and Barbaroi or barbarians. 
 When they condescended to specialise, they called 
 those inhabitants of South- Western Europe with 
 whom they first came into contact Keitoi or 
 Kelts. The contact took place at Massilia, about 
 B.C. 600, the present Marseilles, the earliest Greek 
 colony in the Mediterranean. The inhabitants of 
 the adjoining coast of Spain they called Keitoi 
 Iberys, translated Kelt Iberians. From this 
 expression a deduction was made that the Spanish 
 peninsula had two names, Keltiky and Ibery, and 
 that it was inhabited by two races, Kelts and 
 Iberians. I have looked carefully into the 
 evidence, and I find no ground for the conclusion. 
 One name came from the Keltic river, which the 
 Greeks called Ibery, the Latins after them called The Iberian. 
 Iberus, the present Ebro. What the original 
 Keltic name was we have no means of determin- 
 ing exactly, as the records of pre- Roman Spain, 
 if they ever existed, are lost. The word Ebro, 
 however, is the same as the Latin Tiber, the 
 Scotch and Irish Tobur, anglicised in Tipperary, 
 and the Welsh Dyfr, anglicised in Dover, and 
 means sometimes a river and sometimes a well. 
 Kelt-Iberian, then, meant the Kelts dwelling on 
 the Ebro ; and the tribe inhabiting the valley 
 of that river was alone correctly called Iberian. 
 
1 6 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Pliny expressly states that the Greeks called all 
 Spain Iberia after the river.^ It is from the 
 incorrect use of this expression Kelt-Iberian that 
 another error arose, namely, that Spain alone 
 produced a small, dark, pre-historic race of men, 
 sometimes called Kelts and sometimes Iberians, 
 but equally incorrectly. That there was such a 
 small race in Spain is vouched for by men who 
 learn their facts and measure their language ; 
 but now the little men have been traced through 
 every country in Europe, from Southern Spain to 
 the Caucasus, and also in Britain. They were 
 pre-Keltic, pre-German, and pre-Slav : they 
 were a link in the chain of evolution ; but there 
 is no greater ground for calling them Iberian than 
 for calling them Caucasian, 
 Basques. It IS Suggested that the Basques, Biscayans, 
 
 or, as they call themselves, Vascongados and 
 Vascuentes, are the remains of these Iberians. 
 It cannot be so : they live, and have always lived, 
 not on the Ebro, but on the Bay of Biscay, 
 named after them, and, with the Gallegos. are 
 perhaps the biggest and most robust people in 
 Spain. Their language, which I have examined, 
 contains at present a considerable infusion of 
 Keltic, but has nothing else in common with any 
 European tongue, and, with the exception of Etrus- 
 can, is the only European dialect not yet grouped. 
 Etruscan I am convinced is a Keltic dialect, 
 
 ^ Plinius, Lib, 3, Cap. 3 : Iberus amnis . . . quern propter 
 universam Hispaniam Grrcci appellavcrc Ibcriam. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 1 7 
 
 When the Latins came into contact with the Latins and 
 same people, they called them Galli and their ^''"'" 
 country Gallia. The people generally called 
 themselves Galls, or Gauls, or Gaels, or Gaedhils, 
 or Gwyddels, according to dialect and locality. 
 The Latins, however, soon found there were two 
 Gauls — Trans- Alpine Gaul, including the whole Two Gauls. 
 of the present France, Belgium, and West 
 Switzerland, with the line of the Rhine to the 
 sea, and the Pyrenees, with most probably the 
 Cymric peninsula, the present Schleswick-Holstein, 
 and Jutland or Angeln. Cis- Alpine Gaul included 
 the whole of North Italy. It was divided by the 
 Po into Cispadine and Transpadine Gaul. At 
 the time Rome came into contact with Etruria, 
 the latter probably formed no part of the Gallic 
 nation on both banks of the Po, and its traditions 
 connected it with the Raseni of Rhaetia. But 
 the remainder of Northern Italy was at that time 
 Gallic in race and language, viz., the present 
 Umbria, Romagna, Lombardy, Venetia, Istria, 
 Genoista, or Liguria, and Piedmont, with Italian 
 Switzerland or Helvetia. 
 
 When the Latins became acquainted with Greek 
 literature, they sometimes called the Galli, Celt^ ; 
 and when Latin literature was in the ascendant, 
 the Greeks called the Keltoi Galli, or Gallati, 
 until both words were used without distinction by 
 Latin and Greek writers. Wherever hereafter 
 I use Kelt or Keltic, it includes Gael or Gaelic. 
 
 The whole of the Alps are Gallic or Keltic ; in The Alps. 
 
 £ 
 
i8 
 
 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Rhaetia, 
 
 Vindelici:i, 
 
 Noricum, 
 
 Pannonia, 
 
 Moesia or 
 
 Thrace. 
 
 Galatia. 
 
 fact, Alp means a peak. It is the same root as 
 Alb in Albion and Alban. The root is doubled 
 in Apennine, i.e., Alb, and pen, which also means 
 peak. We have it in Ben Nevis, Ben Lomond, 
 the Pennine range, and the twelve Pins in Ireland, 
 which is a corruption of the twelve Bens. Between 
 B.C. 15 and B.C. 13, Tiberius, Drusus, and S. 
 Italicus crossed the Alps, and conquered the sub- 
 Danubian provinces of Rhaetia, Vindelicia, and 
 Noricum. Pannonia, superior and inferior, and 
 Moesia, superior and inferior, had been conquered 
 a few years previously ; but the whole of those 
 countries, all of which were Keltic, were made 
 Roman provinces in the reign of Augustus. 
 These countries comprise the present Bavaria, 
 Northern Switzerland, the Tyrol, the whole of 
 German Austria, part of Hungary, the whole of 
 Slavonia, Croatia and Bosnia, Servia and Bulgaria; 
 in fact, the whole of the southern bank of the 
 Danube or Ister, from its rise to its outfall in the 
 Black Sea. Broadly speaking, the Danube was 
 the southern boundary between the Kelt on one 
 side, and the German and Slav on the other. 
 Moesia was originally part of Thrace ; but 
 Augustus called the portion between the Haemus 
 range and the Danube Moesia, and the remainder 
 retained its old name. It is clear, then, that the 
 ethnology of Moesia is the ethnology of Thrace, 
 and also of Macedonia. 
 
 About B.C. 279 Brennus, the Gaul or Kelt, 
 invaded Macedonia and Thessaly with an army 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 19 
 
 of 150,000 foot and 61,000 horse, and through 
 the same road as the Persians had formerly 
 taken, he advanced to Thermopylae. He was 
 then stopped as the Persians were. The pass 
 over the mountains was sold as in Persian times, 
 and the Greeks took to their ships and fled. He 
 turned and took the same road as the Persians 
 had taken to plunder Delphi, and, like them, his 
 army fled panic-stricken, defeated in the same 
 manner by thunders and earthquakes, and more 
 especially by huge masses of stone rolled down 
 from the mountains. 
 
 North of the Danube Bohemia and Moravia Bohemia and 
 were first Keltic, then German, and are now 
 Slav. 
 
 The presence of Kelts in Thrace and Asia Asia Minor. 
 Minor is accounted for by stating that the 
 remnants of the army of Brennus partly settled 
 in Thrace, and partly migrated to Asia Minor. 
 The only evidence on this point is that one of 
 the tribes of the Asiatic Gallati was named Tecto- 
 sages, and a people dwelling at the foot of the 
 Pyrenees passed by the same name. This is no 
 proof, as there were Brigantes in Vindelicia, in 
 Spain, in Britain, and in Ireland, and I am not 
 sure there were not some in Gaul. Ptolemy, in 
 his map of Asia Minor, gives a large space to 
 Galatia, and Strabo describes its constitution, 
 which is certainly Keltic. For many centuries 
 the Gallati were engaged in every battle that 
 took place in Asia Minor, till their conquest by 
 
20 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 the Romans. They are best known to Western 
 Europe from St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. 
 St Jerome, a Gaul who lived at Treves, visited 
 them in the beginning of the fourth century of our 
 era, and says the Galli of Asia Minor still kept 
 their own language. No Keltic scholar has 
 visited the country since, and it is impossible to 
 say if they still use the dialect to any extent. 
 
 Such a mode of accounting for the existence 
 of Kelts in Thrace and Asia Minor is dependent 
 on a sino-le assertive fact. It leaves out all the 
 negative evidence. When these assertions were 
 made, nothing practically was known of the 
 general history of the Kelt, the Teuton, or the 
 Slav. These divisions — the first to lay a basis 
 for European history — owe their substance to 
 philology, which gives them as the European 
 branches of the Aryan race and language. The 
 Latin is certainly a Kelt, the Greek is largely 
 a Kelt. If there were no Teutons or Slavs in 
 Thrace or Asia Minor in the times referred to — 
 and no one contends there were — then the only 
 other branch of the Aryan peoples that could 
 have occupied them was the Keltic or Gaelic. 
 
 From the British Isles, then to Gaul, west 
 of the Rhine, with, south of the Danube, 
 Rhaetia, Vindelicia, Norricum, Pannonia, Moe- 
 sia and Thrace, across the Bosphorus into the 
 heart of Asia Minor, and back through the 
 Mediterranean to the Atlantic, is the Keltic 
 g:round. The rest of Europe north of the 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 21 
 
 Danube is German or Slav. I will hereafter 
 deal with Southern Italy and Greece when I Southern 
 come to compare the Latm and Greek tongues Greece, 
 with the less known Western Keltic. In all 
 this I have done or said nothing new. The 
 statements taken singly have never been con- 
 tested. I have simply placed side by side 
 matters that have hitherto been treated separ- 
 ately. 
 
 Hereafter I hope to show that Latin, and, to 
 a less extent, Greek, are only Keltic dialects : 
 that the Latin-speaking countries of Italy, Spain, 
 France, and Britain accepted the Latin tongue 
 readily, because it was in each case only a 
 higher and more copious form of their own 
 language, and gave them the command of a 
 higher literature. 
 
 In the countries of Bohemia and Moravia, 
 Rhaetia, Vindelicia, Norricum, Pannonia, and 
 Moesia, the German and the Slav have come 
 in upon the Kelt, and he has lost his language, 
 but he has not lost his blood, his vitality, or his 
 imagination, the greatest gift of the Deity to 
 man. 
 
 East of the Rhine and north of the Danube German and 
 was the German and Slav ground, but how it ^^2"^°"" * 
 was then divided is still uncertain ; probably 
 very much as it is to-day. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Keltic Dialects. Reason for Grammar Alphabets- 
 Irish OR British Alphabet. Grammar. Welsh 
 Grammar. Six Dialects of Keltic or Gaelic. Two 
 Groups. Irish, Scotch, and Manx compared. Welsh, 
 Cornish, and Armoric compared. Reasons for 
 sketching Irish and Welsh Grammars. 
 
 Keltic dialects. There are six dialects of Keltic or Gaelic which 
 have a known literature — the Irish, the Scotch, 
 and the Manx forming one group, and the 
 Welsh, the Cornish, and the Armoric forming a 
 
 Two groups, second group. From local names and such 
 words as road, ford, town, down, fell, combe, 
 avon, I am satisfied that all these dialects were 
 spoken in Southern Britain. 
 
 The Irish, the Scotch, and the Manx are 
 sometimes called Gallic or Gaelic ; but the word 
 so applied is misleading. Keltic and Gaelic are 
 equivalents, the only difference being that Keltic 
 is a word of Greek origin, and Gaelic or Gallic 
 a word of Latin origin. The Keltoi and the 
 Gain appeared to have called themselves Gall 
 or Gael or Gaidhel, for the three words are 
 pronounced in the same way ; and in one form 
 or another the word is found in every known 
 dialect of the sub-Danubian peoples. Welsh is. 
 
 22 
 
The Kelt or Gael, 23 
 
 also sometimes spoken of as British, Cambrian 
 or Cambric, and Cymraeg ; but the logical mode 
 of statement is, that the word Keltic or Gallic 
 as expressing a language is the genus, and all 
 the species of that genus, whether Continental 
 or British, are dialects of it. In the comparison 
 of Keltic dialects which I hope to make, it will 
 be clear to any student of German that there is 
 less difference between the Irish and the Welsh 
 than there is between the Dutch and Hanoverian 
 of the present day. 
 
 Between the Irish and Scotch dialects of Keltic Irish, Scotch, 
 there is scarcely any difference, in so far as the 
 written language is concerned. The literature of 
 the one country is current in the other ; the 
 grammars and vocabularies of Ireland are used 
 in Scotland, and those of Scotland in Ireland. 
 The pronunciation is, however, so different, and 
 specialisation of function so apparent, that spoken 
 sentences have to be compared almost word for 
 word before the Eirinach and the Albanach under- 
 stand each other. There Is very little left of 
 Manx, but what remains differs very little from 
 Irish or Scotch. Manx drops the final vowel of 
 many words, and interchanges some consonants 
 not found at present interchanged in Irish or 
 Scotch, and that is all. 
 
 Some writers appear to think that the practical 
 unity of the Irish and Scotch dialects is a result 
 of the Dalriadic or Scotch conquest of Caledonia, 
 or Alban, or PIctish Scotland, and the imposition 
 
24 
 
 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Welsh, 
 
 Cornish, 
 
 Armoric. 
 
 Reasons for 
 sketching 
 Irish and 
 Welsh 
 grammar. 
 
 on it of the conquerors' dialect. I do not share 
 this opinion. The local and other proper names 
 of all sub-Danubian countries show a practical 
 unity of language, similar to, but not quite so 
 strong as, that between the Irish and Scotch 
 dialects, a proposition which may be fully illus- 
 trated from Zeuss's " Grammatica Celtica," and 
 from the " Ethnogenie Gauloise " of Roget, Baron 
 de Belloguet. 
 
 The Welsh, Cornish, and Armoric, when closely 
 examined, show an agreement similar to, but 
 not quite so near as, that between the Irish and 
 the Scotch. Indeed it appears to me that a 
 great deal of the difference is due to the more 
 modern orthography and etymology of the Welsh, 
 and that Welsh appears to include the Cornish 
 and Irish roots in a modern disguise. 
 
 I always intended to make the short comparison 
 of Aryan words contained in this chapter ; but I 
 did not intend to give even the bird's-eye view 
 of Irish and Welsh grammar which follows, until 
 an educated professional friend asked me, a short 
 time ago, if any of the Keltic tongues showed 
 any traces of grammar. I was simply amazed at 
 his ignorance ; but on thinking over his question, 
 I remembered that the University man of the 
 present day learns the basis of his own English 
 language, three-fourths of which is Keltic, through 
 the Latin and Greek varieties, instead of eoinsf 
 to the fountain-head, still flourishinor, of Welsh 
 or Irish. The position of Keltic literature in 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 25 
 
 England is lower than it is in any other country- 
 having any pretension to education ; while Ebel, 
 the learned editor of Zeuss, has declared, and I 
 fully endorse the expression, that the key to the 
 early history of Europe lies in the Keltic lan- 
 guages and literature. Zeuss's grammar requires 
 more scholarship than is at the command of 
 every reader, inasmuch as it is written in Latin, 
 makes a large volume in itself, and the method 
 is highly complicated. He does not admit words 
 later than the ninth century of our era ; and 
 although Mr Whitley Stokes sent to the editor of 
 the second edition. Professor Ebel, some new voca- 
 bularies, he does not seem to have made much use 
 of them. As it would therefore be useless to refer 
 all readers to Zeuss, and as some are perhaps no 
 better informed than the friend of whom I have 
 spoken, I shall just indicate the nature of an 
 Irish and Welsh grammar, and also the nature 
 and differences of their alphabets, and the causes 
 of those differences. That again will lead to a 
 short consideration of alphabets in general. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Modes of communicating Ideas. Gestures. Words. Pic- 
 tures. Hieroglyphs. Alphabets, The Phcenician. 
 The Chinese or Japanese. The Aztec. Their 
 Histories. All European Alphabets derived from 
 THE Phcenician. Oghamic Writing. 
 
 Modes of 
 communicat- 
 ing ideas. 
 
 Alphabets. 
 
 Picture. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Sound. 
 
 Man may communicate his ideas by gestures, 
 words, pictures, aud writing. Of these modes ges- 
 ture is the most general, and the sole mode with 
 primitive man. Gestures and words pass, writ- 
 ing remains. It involves the invention of an 
 alphabet. 
 
 An alphabet is a body of symbols representing 
 the sounds of a language. 
 
 The first stage in ideography seems to be a 
 rude drawing representing the thing expressed, 
 as the figure of an animal. The cave men were 
 equal to this feat. That drawing being improved 
 and colour added, we get the picture language. 
 The next stage is that of the invention of a 
 symbol for each figure, and that is the hiero- 
 glyphic stage. The next is the invention of a 
 symbol for a sound, and we get the phonetic 
 stage. 
 
 The latest expression of the history of alphabets 
 
 26 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 27 
 
 restricts them to three — the Phoenician, the 
 Japanese or Chinese, and the Aztec or Mexican. 
 
 The Egyptians invented and perfected a 
 picture language, and developed it to the hiero- 
 glyphic stage. At that stage it acquired a sacred 
 character and stopped. The Phoenician, who was Phoenician 
 
 , . iii->>i-ii alphabet. 
 
 always irreverent, took the bgyptian hieroglyph, 
 or sacred symbol of an idea or thing, and adapted 
 it to the symbol of a sound, and so made an 
 alphabet. The general idea is that the West 
 got, not only the thing, but the name of alphabet 
 from Greece, from the names of the two first 
 letters, alpha, beta. That was not so. Greece 
 got the letters and the names from the Phoenician 
 letters aleph, beth. 
 
 The Chinaman invented a picture language, Chinese or 
 and developed it to the hieroglyphic stage, where ^^'^"^^^^ 
 it also stopped. The Japanese took the symbol 
 and made it phonetic, and gave us the Chinese 
 or Japanese alphabet. The Assyrian borrowed 
 from the Turanian and Phoenician, using both. 
 
 The Aztec went through the three stages Aztec, 
 himself. 
 
 The Chinese alphabet Is now confined to the 
 Turanian branch of the human family, and the 
 Aztec has died out ; the Phoenician serves all 
 other branches of writing men. 
 
 The Phoenician, in adapting the Egyptian Phoenician 
 symbol to sound, adapted It to his own Semitic ^ p ^ ^ * 
 sounds, and no doubt the symbols expressed the 
 sounds fully. But it does not follow that they 
 
2S The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 expressed the sounds of Aryan speech with equal 
 fulness: as a matter of infeience, we should at 
 once decide that they did not. For this reason 
 it is that every Aryan tongue, nay, even dialects 
 of the same tongue, use a different number of 
 letters, many recently invented or derived, in 
 order to express its sounds, while others, 
 especially English, so strain the sounds of their 
 letters, that the different sounds of the same 
 
 Greek letter are only current by convention. 
 
 aipiiabet. 'Y'\\^ Greeks borrowed, and after a time added 
 
 to, the Phoenician alphabet, and nearly all 
 existing European alphabets are derived from 
 the Greek. Another Phoenician alphabet has 
 been traced to Spain. It may possibly be the 
 original Basque. It is not used by them at 
 present, but I am informed that there is an early 
 Basque coinage with a peculiar alphabet for 
 the inscriptions, though I have never seen any 
 
 Irish or British q^ J^^ 
 
 alphabet. , 111 1 • 1 • • 11 
 
 There is an alphabet which is now specially 
 known as the Irish, but which should, I think, be 
 called the British, and which may be derived 
 from the Latin. The Senchus Mor, or old Irish 
 laws compiled in the fifth century, is written in it. 
 The oldest Welsh and Cornish manuscripts in 
 existence are written in it. The Saxon chronicle 
 is written in it, incorporating, however, the 
 extra letters invented by Ulfilas for the Moeso 
 Gothic, and the Runes are only a coarser form 
 of it. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 29 
 
 The Oghamic writing, which so far appears to 
 have been peculiar to Ireland and Wales, is more 
 like musical notation than literary symbol, but its 
 existence must not be forgotten when speaking of 
 alphabets. All that is known about the name is 
 that the Greeks say the Keltoi worshipped a deity 
 called Ogmios. Zeuss in his preface says that it 
 was " in usu in hoc vetusto codice, quidni etiam 
 inde a longinquis temporibus." There is a 
 treatise on Oghamic writing in a manuscript 
 called the Book of Ballymote, in the Royal Irish 
 Academy, which should be published without 
 further delay. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Irish or Ancient British Alphabet. Vowels and 
 Consonants. Mutable and Immutable Consonants. 
 Rule of Aspiration. Rule of Eclipsis. Early 
 Parts of Speech. Present Parts of Speech. 
 Declensions. Conjugations. Concords. 
 
 Irish or As I could not expcct my readers to learn the 
 
 SpSbet. Irish alphabet for the purpose of studying the 
 little I have to say on that dialect, I shall use 
 the English, which is in reality equally convenient. 
 The Irish or ancient British alphabet, however, 
 agrees more closely than any other with the 
 Phoenician, the parent alphabet, as to the number 
 of its letters. It comprises seventeen letters — a, 
 b, c, d, e, f, g, i, 1, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, and u. The 
 Phoenician alphabet consisted of sixteen letters : 
 they used the same character for o and u. As 
 these letters are quite incapable of expressing all 
 the sounds of the Irish language, the incapacity 
 is provided for by the rules for aspiration and 
 eclipsis. 
 
 The five Irish vowels, which are the same as 
 the Latin, are divided into three broad, a, o, u, 
 and two slender, e and i. P>om this division a 
 considerable difficultv arises for the student. 
 
 Vowels. 
 
 30 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 31 
 
 owing to a modern rule that a broad vowel 
 must accompany a broad vowel, and a slender 
 one accompany a slender. Thus what was 
 originally written saeradh, libertas, must now be 
 written saoradh, the broad a requiring another 
 broad vowel, o, to accompany it ; and so on. The 
 effect of the rule makes the othography of the lan- 
 guage and the identification of roots much more 
 difficult. 
 
 It will be seen there was no k, and no q in 
 this alphabet ; c, always hard, had to do duty for 
 itself and the other two. There was no v, mh, 
 or bh — that is, m or b aspirated filled its place. 
 There was no w, x, y, or z. 
 
 The consonants are mutable or immutable. Consonants. 
 The mutable are such as by placino- a dot over,, ,, 
 
 , ■' ^ ^ Mutables. 
 
 them, or writing the aspirate h after them, lose 
 their original simple sound, and take another, or 
 in a few cases become silent. They are written 
 with the aspirate thus, b, c, d, f, g m, p, s, and t, 
 or thus bh, ch, dh, fh, gh, mh, ph, sh, and th. 
 Aspirated final consonants, such as we find in Aspiration, 
 sigh, thigh, etc. etc., are evidently British 
 survivals. The look of a word containing some 
 aspirates is forbidding to an uneducated eye, but 
 the pronunciation to the initiated is simple 
 enough. The aspirate has been a difficulty with 
 every Keltic people. The Italian, the French- 
 man, the Briton, and the Spaniard almost reject 
 it. The immutable consonants are 1, n, and r. immutable. 
 Consonants in Irish are likewise subject to a 
 
32 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Eciipsis. rule called '-'eclipsis," which, while it adds- 
 immensely to the euphony of the language, 
 increases the difficulty of the learner. When, 
 for the sake of euphony, an initial radical con- 
 sonant is rendered silent by introducing a 
 different consonant before it, the radical consonant 
 is said to be eclipsed. Thus in the word beatha, 
 life (vita), it is not found easy to pronounce b 
 after r ; and so another consonant more easily 
 pronounced is placed before b, and pronounced 
 instead of it. In the case of b such a consonant 
 would be m, and so what is radically ar beatha 
 becomes phonetically ar mbeatha, i.e. m is pro- 
 nounced, b is silent. So also c is eclipsed by g, 
 d by m, f by b, g by n, p by b, s by t, and t by 
 d. Although the eclipsed letter is not sounded,, 
 it should never be suppressed in writing, as the 
 root consonant would thus be lost, and the word 
 would have a totally different meaning. 
 
 In compound words, again, the initial root 
 consonant is often dropped, and the article, 
 preposition, and noun, and indeed other parts of 
 speech, are frequently written as one word ; or, as 
 Zeuss and other grammarians say, the word is "in- 
 fected." This again sometimes renders it necessary 
 to introduce fresh eclipsing consonants between the 
 parts, which makes the word appear as if over- 
 laden with consonants, while in reality the 
 greater number of them are silent. 
 Early Irish Originally the Irish parts of speech were only 
 
 speech. three — Pearsa or person ; Ainm, name or noun ; 
 
The Kelt or Gael. -^-^ 
 
 and lalrmbearla or adjunct. Pearsa included the 
 
 agent and his action or passion ; Ainm the name 
 
 of all objects and instruments of action ; and 
 
 lairmbearla all circumstances of time, place, and 
 
 manner. The tendency of present grammarians 
 
 seems to be to return to that state of things ; but 
 
 for a long time the forms of the Latin grammar 
 
 have superseded it ; and the parts of speech are 
 
 article, noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, Present parts. 
 
 preposition, conjunction, and interjection. Some 
 
 add participle. 
 
 There is only one article, the definite, or the, Article. 
 whose singular form is an, with the plural na. 
 It is declined, but only one case shows signs of 
 gender. 
 
 Nouns have two numbers, singular and plural : Noun, 
 two genders, masculine and feminine, though 
 Zeuss gives a neuter also. There were origin- 
 ally only three cases, but there are now the six 
 Latin ones. This is merely a nominal difference, 
 as the accusative is the same in form as the 
 nominative, the ablative as the dative, and the 
 vocative as the genitive. Nouns make their 
 cases and numbers, not only by an external 
 modification as by the addition of a letter or 
 letters, but also by internal modification of the 
 vowels of the roots, and sometimes, but more 
 rarely, by totally different words, as fear, man, 
 ban, woman. 
 
 Adjectives, pronouns, and participles agree, Adjective, 
 with a few exceptions, with the noun in gender, 
 
 c 
 
 UNIVERSITY J 
 
34 '^^^<^ A'(?// or Gael. 
 
 number, and case. Adjectives have three de- 
 grees of comparison. The comparative and 
 superlative are formed either by different words, 
 or by terminations, or by intensitive particles, 
 in fact, as in English. 
 
 Pronoun. Pronouns are personal, possessive, relative, 
 
 and demonstrative. The personal are me or 
 mi, I, tu or thu, thou, and e or se, he or it, i or 
 si, she ; with their plurals, sinn, we, sibh, ye or 
 you, and iad or siad, they. These are, of course, 
 all declined. They are compounded with se, 
 thus, mise, myself, thuse, thyself, etc. etc., and 
 also with fein, as mifein, myself, thufein, thyself, 
 etc. etc. The se in the first compound is an 
 abbreviation of the Latin ipse, and the fein is a 
 modification of the French meme in moimeme. 
 The corresponding possessive pronouns are mo, 
 my, do, thy, a, his, her, or its ; ar, our, bhur or 
 'ur, your, an, am, or iar, their. The single 
 relative pronoun, a, may be always used, or it 
 may be changed for noch and nocha. 
 
 There are three demonstratives — so, this, sin, 
 that, and sud, yon. There are three interrog- 
 atives — co, cia, and ciod, which represent the 
 Latin qui, quae, quod. 
 
 Verb. Verbs are of four kinds — active, passive, 
 
 neuter, and impersonal. They have number, 
 person, mood, and tense. They have the sing- 
 ular and plural numbers, and the usual three 
 persons. The verb agrees with its nominative 
 in number and person. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 35 
 
 The tenses are structurally three, present, past, 
 and future ; but the highest degree of refinement 
 of time can be, and is, expressed by means of 
 auxiliaries. 
 
 The root of the verb 'm ,the making of its 
 numbers and persons, moods ;'and tenses, suffers 
 both internal and external ; modifications, as the 
 noun does, in the making; of its numbers and 
 cases. The verbs are conjugated affirmatively, 
 negatively, and interrogatively. The moods are 
 six — imperative, indicative, consuetudinal, poten- 
 tial, conditional, and infinitive. 
 
 There is no true verb -to have in Irish or 
 Welsh ; the verb to be, in 'one of its forms, is 
 used instead, either as a principal verb or as an 
 auxiliary. Thus, instead of saying, I have it, 
 the Irish form would be, ta se agum, the 
 equivalent of which is the French c'est a moi, 
 it is with me, or to me. 
 
 It is said there are five auxiliary verbs in 
 Irish. I think, however, it is better to say there 
 are several parts to the verb to be ; thus as, or is, 
 equals he, she, or it is^; tha or ta equals he, she, 
 or it is, also ; fuil equals he, she, or it is, in 
 another sense ; and be, or bidh, he, she, or it is, 
 or exists, in the sense of a principal verb; and 
 raib, was. Is is thus conjugated in the indicative 
 present — is me, I am ; is thu, thou art; is se, he 
 or it is ; is si, she is : when the s of se and si is 
 aspirated, they are written ishe, isshi, he is, she 
 is. The plurals are is sinn, is sibh, is siad. 
 
36 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Is has a past tense — ba me, I was. Ta, fuil, and 
 raibh have only one tense. Ta is always 
 affirmative, fuil interrogative or negative. Raibh 
 can be used in any manner. 
 
 Bi or bidh, to be (both forms are pronounced 
 alike, and are the originals as well as equivalents 
 of the English verb to be), has all its tenses 
 formed regularly, in all the moods, as a principal 
 verb : thus indicative present, Bidhin me, I am ; 
 Bidhin thu, thou art ; Bidhin se or si, he or she 
 is. The verb remains the same in the plural ; the 
 pronouns are sinn, sibh, siad. 
 
 Past. — Do bhi me, I was ; Do bhi thu, thou 
 wast ; Do bhi se or si, he or she was. For the 
 plurals add the pronouns. All past tenses in 
 Irish are preceded by an intensitive particle : do 
 is the usual one. 
 
 Future. — Beidh me, I shall be ; Beidh thu,. 
 thou wilt be ; Beidh se or si, he or she will be. 
 Add the pronouns for the plural. 
 
 Compound tenses of the moods are constructed 
 out of the auxiliaries. 
 
 There are three participles, present, past, and 
 future. 
 Othtr parts. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and inter- 
 jections undergo no variation as such. The 
 majority of the particles in European languages 
 are of similar form, though their meaning varies 
 from dialect to dialect. 
 
 As this shows the grammatical structure of the 
 language, it is unnecessary to go through the 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 37 
 
 other moods of this verb, or to go through the 
 various voices of any verbs. Whoever wishes to 
 study the language can easily get a full grammar 
 of it. 
 
 By compounding pronouns and prepositions a 
 very numerous class of words is formed, which 
 look apparently like roots, but a careful student 
 will soon learn to analyse them. 
 
 This little outline is equally applicable to the 
 Scotch and Manx dialects as to the Irish. Their 
 roots, construction, and grammar agree. They 
 differ slightly in spelling, as some writers do, and 
 all writers did, especially before the invention of 
 printing and the great multiplication of books 
 enabled educated persons to gradually establish a 
 standard. They differ considerably in pronuncia- 
 tion, as I have already explained. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Welsh and ancient British Alphabet. Early Alphabet, 
 Present Alphabet. Early Parts of Speech. Present 
 Parts of Speech with their Declensions, Conjuga- 
 tions, AND Concords. 
 
 Early Welsh Tt appears from the Analysis or grammar of 
 Ederyn that the Welsh alphabet originally 
 consisted of sixteen radical letters, including four 
 vowels and twelve consonants, which is the same 
 as the Phoenician, and practically the same as the 
 Irish alphabet. Derived from these, however, 
 there were twenty-seven secondary letters, of 
 which eight were treated as vowels, and twelve as 
 consonants, making in all forty-three letters. 
 The ancient Welsh characters as given by Pugh 
 are very rough, and resemble the characters of 
 the Senchus Mor, or the Saxon Chronicle ; but, as 
 I have stated, the oldest Welsh manuscripts are in 
 the Irish or British character. 
 
 At present, and after the adoption of the 
 Roman characters, the Welsh alphabet consists of 
 thirty-one letters — a, b, c, ch, d, dd, e, f, ff, g, ng, 
 ngh, h, i, 1, 11, m, mh, n, nh, o, p, ph, r, rh, s, t, 
 th, u, w, and y. 
 
 It will be seen that the same letters are still 
 
 88 
 
 Present 
 alphabet. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 39 
 
 absent as in the Irish, viz. j, k, q, v, x, and z, and 
 also w and y considered as consonants. W and 
 y appear, but as vowels ; and thus the Welsh 
 vowels agree, not as the Irish, with the Latin, but 
 with the Greek, as a, e, i, o, u, w, and y, the w 
 and y being the Greek omega and eeta. 
 
 The form of Welsh words consequently appears 
 more Greek, and the form of Irish words more 
 Latin, a circumstance which I have taken into con- 
 sideration in the following comparison. Besides 
 the fact that the above double and triple 
 consonants have only one sound each, the 
 English observer treats the vowels w and y 
 as consonants, and concludes the language is 
 unpronounceable ; while, as vowels, they render 
 it more euphonious; in fact, the Welsh is the 
 most euphonious of existing European dialects, 
 not forgetting even Italian. 
 
 It appears to me that by the Irish mode of 
 aspiration of the mutable consonants, and the 
 rule of eclipsis, the effect of a greater number of 
 letters than even the Welsh contains is obtained 
 in a simpler manner ; but this may arise from 
 the fact that I am more familiar with the one 
 practice than with the other. 
 
 It would serve no purpose to give the pronun- 
 ciation of the Welsh vowels and consonants here; 
 but I may at least state that there are no silent 
 letters in Welsh, as there are in Irish, and 
 English, and French. Welsh scholars are not yet 
 all agreed on the subject of Welsh orthography. 
 
40 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Early parts of As the IHsh P^rammar orimnally consisted of 
 
 speech. ^ ^ o y 
 
 only three parts of speech, so the Welsh con- 
 tained nominally only two, the noun and the 
 verb. Each, however, gave birth to or was 
 accompanied by a number of secondary parts, 
 which, since the adoption of the Roman system 
 of grammar, receive the ordinary names of 
 article, noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, 
 preposition, conjunction, and interjection. Of 
 these the article, pronoun, and adjective spring 
 from the primitive noun, and the adverb, pre- 
 position, and conjunction from the primitive 
 verb. 
 Article. Welsh, like Irish, has only one article, the 
 
 definite, or the. It is expressed by y before a 
 consonant, and yr before a vowel or the letter h. 
 It has neither gender, number, nor case. Both 
 forms are used as adverbs and conjunctions, with, 
 of course, totally different meanings. 
 
 Nouns have two genders, masculine and fem- 
 inine ; two numbers, singular and plural ; and 
 nominally four cases, the nominative, possessive, 
 objective, and vocative. Welsh nouns, however, 
 have lost their case endings, as the English have, 
 with the exception of the possessive, and all the 
 oblique cases are governed by prepositions, verbs, 
 and other nouns. 
 
 The genders are distinguished sometimes by 
 different words, as tad, father; mam, mother. 
 Some masculines become feminines by the addi- 
 tion of es, as dyn, man; dynes, woman; others 
 
 Noun. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 41 
 
 by changing the termination yn to en, as asyn, 
 he ass; asen, she ass. Others acquire gender 
 by prefixing the Welsh equivalents of he and 
 she to words not otherwise distinguishable. 
 
 The plural of Welsh nouns is formed from the 
 singular, much as in Irish, by internal and by 
 external modifications, or by both ; internal, as 
 iarll, an earl ; ieirll, earls ; bardd, a bard ; beirdd, 
 bards ; post, a post ; pyst, posts. External, by the 
 addition of a syllable, as dyn, a man, dynion, men. 
 In both ways, as mab, a son ; meibion, sons. 
 
 Some adjectives have three genders, masculine. Adjective. 
 feminine, and common. The rule is that all 
 primitive adjectives have gender. The masculine 
 is in such cases changed to feminine by change 
 of the radical ,vowel, as m. clws, trim, f. clos ; 
 m. gwyn, white, f. gwen. Compounds and 
 derivatives, and adjectives in a state of com- 
 parison, as a rule have no gender. 
 
 The numbers of adjectives are likewise defec- 
 tive. No adjectives have case terminations ; 
 consequently adjectives agree with their nouns 
 in number and gender only sometimes, while 
 neither noun nor adjective has a case termination. 
 Adjectives have four degrees of comparison, the 
 positive, the equal, the comparative, and the 
 superlative. The equal is formed by adding ed 
 to the positive, the comparative by adding ach, 
 and the superlative by adding af. There are 
 also irregular comparisons. 
 
 Pronouns are personal, possessive, relative, Pronoun. 
 
42 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 demonstrative, and indefinite. A few examples 
 must suffice as in the Irish. 
 
 Personal are mi or i, I ; ti, thou ; e, he ; hi, she; 
 ni, we ; chwi, you and hwy, they. They are 
 compounded as in Irish, myfi, myself; tydi, thy- 
 self, etc. 
 
 The possessive pronouns are fy, or ym, my ; 
 dy, thy ; and ei, his, hers, its ; with their plurals, 
 ein, our ; eich, your, and en, their. 
 
 These are compounded thus, fyhun, dyhun, 
 eihun, einhun, eichhun, and euhun. The hun 
 here is the equivalent of the Irish fcin, and the 
 compounds are myself, thyself, etc. 
 
 The demonstratives are very complicated. 
 The English provide only this and that ; while 
 the Irish give this, that, and yon ; and the Welsh 
 give this, that, yon, and that out of sight. 
 
 The relative pronouns are formed from the 
 demonstrative by prefixing the article yr to each, 
 as yr hwn. 
 
 The interrogative pronouns are pwy, and pa, 
 and are of both numbers and genders. 
 
 Pronouns have no case endings, but they agree 
 with their verbs in number and qrender. 
 Verb. Welsh verbs, like Irish, had originally only 
 
 three tenses formed from the root, viz. present, 
 past, and future; all other modilications of tense 
 were obtained by means of auxiliaries. Now 
 they have present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, 
 first and second future tenses, all obtained from 
 the root. There is always a corresponding", and 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 43 
 
 sometimes two or three corresponding tenses, 
 formed by a great number of auxiliaries, which 
 makes the conjugation of a Welsh verb a very 
 severe exercise for the student. 
 
 Like Irish, the Welsh contains no true verb to 
 have ; its effect is obtained by the use of other 
 auxiliaries, principally tenses of the verb to be ; 
 as in the French reflective verbs, its sense soon 
 becomes familiar to a student. 
 
 The infinitive form of the verb to be in Welsh 
 is bod, corresponding with the Irish bi or bidh. 
 At present it has all the tenses named above, but 
 the principal forms — the present, past, and future — 
 are only dialectical varieties of the Irish, as will 
 be seen by comparing the following forms with 
 those set out in another page. 
 
 Welsh present indicative of bod, to be. — Byddaf 
 i, I am ; Byddi di, thou art ; Bydd efe, he is ; 
 Byddwn ni, we are ; Byddwch chwi, you are ; 
 Byddant hwy, they are. 
 
 Past. — Byddwn i, I was ; Byddit ti, thou wast ; 
 Byddai effe, he was ; Byddem ni, we were ; 
 Byddech chwi, you were ; Byddent hwy, they 
 were. 
 
 Future. — Byddaf fi, I shall be ; Byddi di, thou 
 wilt be ; Bydd efe, he will be ; Byddwn ni, we 
 shall be ; Byddwch chwi, you will be ; Byddant 
 hwy, they will be. 
 
 The same resemblance continues in all the 
 other moods. It will be seen that each person of 
 the Welsh verb, in both numbers and in all the 
 
44 1^^^ Kelt or Gael. 
 
 tenses, has a special termination, so that all can 
 be distinguished without the pronoun as in Latin 
 and Greek, so that what it has lost in case 
 endings it has gained in tense endings. 
 Other parts. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and inter- 
 jections undergo no change as such, and when 
 clothed with the same spelling look, as they really 
 are, very much like the Irish. 
 
 With the exception of the differences in spelling, 
 and the great addition to the forms of conjuga- 
 tion, the Welsh grammar would answer fairly 
 well for the Cornish and Armoric. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Keltic Ground. European Divisions of Aryan Language. 
 Turkish. Magyar. Etruscan. Basque. Are Latin 
 AND Greek Keltic ? German and French Keltic 
 Scholars. Marcellus of Bordeaux. Zeuss and 
 WiNDiscH on Irish. Wharton and Windisch on 
 Greek. Changes in Keltic Ground. Object of 
 Vocabulary. 
 
 I HAVE already indicated in a former chapter Keltic ground 
 the Keltic ground, namely, the British Islands, '^^^'^'"^ • 
 Gaul, the Cymric peninsula ; crossing the Rhine 
 and north of the Danube, Bohemia and Moravia; 
 crossing the Danube on its southern bank, 
 Rhaetia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia, 
 and Thrace. In Asia, Galatia or Gallo]^Grsecia. 
 Returning by Greece and Italy, it is admitted 
 that the whole of Northern Italy was Keltic, as 
 was the whole of Helvetia and Spain. Gener- 
 ally speaking, we might have returned from 
 Asia Minor through the Mediterranean to the 
 Atlantic, leaving Keltic ground always on the 
 right. We have also seen that the broad divi- 
 sions of the Aryan tongue in Europe were the 
 Slav, the German, the Keltic, the Latin, and European 
 the Greek. We have also seen that these A^an"^° 
 peoples were of the same race, in so far as a'^"^"^^^' 
 
 46 
 
46 
 
 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Etruscan. 
 
 definite meaning can be given to race, in the 
 present condition of our knowledge. 
 
 There are traces of other languages, such as 
 
 the Ugro-Altaic, but as it has within historical 
 
 times been confined to sub-polar countries, it 
 
 Turkish and j-nay be Omitted without danafer of error. Turkish 
 
 Magyar. ■^ . "^ 
 
 and Hungarian, or rather Magyar, we know are 
 Turanian dialects, recently imported into Europe 
 by Turanian races. Etruscan and Basque have 
 hitherto resisted all attempts to reduce them to 
 Aryan speech. The late Sir Wm. Betham, in 
 his " Etruria Celtica," purported to investigate 
 Etruscan antiquities, and to compare and identify 
 the language with the Ibero-Celtic, and both 
 with the Phoenician. As I know nothine of 
 Phoenician, I cannot say whether he was or not 
 successful ; but many of the alleged Etruscan 
 words were Celtic. Both Lepsius and Niebuhr 
 were of opinion that the Etruscan was Keltic. 
 I am strongly of opinion that not only is the 
 language Keltic, but that Rome borrowed most 
 of her institutions from Etruria. All the local 
 names in Etruria are Keltic, Apart from groups 
 of a few words, in which the vowels are some- 
 times omitted, and which appear to stick together 
 like the formulae of Marcellus of Bordeaux, there 
 are very few complete inscriptions in existence. 
 There was one found in a tomb in the Grotto 
 del Tifone, at Corneto, the ancient Tarquinil, 
 about 1832. I believe it is at present, or a copy 
 of it is, in the Etruscan museum at the Vatican. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 47 
 
 It runs thus : " Laris Pumpus Arnthal Clan Ce- 
 chase." Laris or Lars is evidently a proper 
 name, as we find it in Lars Porsenna, who 
 *' came down from Clusium," and we find 
 another in Zeuss — " Lars, imperator V^eientium," 
 It is the same root as Lares, household gods, and 
 it runs through all the Keltic tongues with the 
 meaning of floor, or foundation. Pumpus is 
 probably an epithet of Lars, and I suggest means 
 fifth, from the Welsh variety, pump, five. Hence 
 I must admit that all the Pompeys were fifths. 
 I do admit it, as the Sextuses were sixths, and 
 the Septimuses sevenths, and so on. Arthnal, 
 I think, means the tribe of Aruns. Aruns was a 
 son of Lars Porsenna, and his tomb, long taken 
 for that of the Horatii, is still to be seen at the 
 next end of the great viaduct leading from 
 Albano to Laricia. There was an Aruns Tar- 
 quinius also. Dal, or thai, means a tribe, as 
 we find in Dalriada, the tribe of the long arms, 
 who settled in ancient Alban, and gave it its 
 kings. Then if dal be tribe, it leads at once to 
 the word and the thing Clan, which in all Keltic 
 sub-divisions is part of the tribe. We are then 
 left with only one word, Cechase, which must 
 be the name of the clan. Then, if I am right 
 (I have only guessed it, and there is no means 
 at present of testing the guess), the whole inscrip- 
 tion would run : " Lars, the fifth of the tribe of 
 Aruns and the Clan Cechase" — probably the Irish 
 name of Casey. 
 
48 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Basque. I have not met with any ancient Basque 
 
 writing. In its present condition the language 
 seems to me to be highly compounded. The 
 present Spanish is, of course, largely Latinised, 
 as are also Italian, French, and English, but all 
 these languages contained, and still contain, a 
 larse number of Keltic words, which were not 
 
 o 
 
 common to them and the Latin. The Latin had 
 no equivalents to superimpose on those words, 
 and so they continued to thrive in each of those 
 dialects. There remain then in Spanish, Italian, 
 French, and English, two parts, the original 
 Keltic of each, which was unaffected by the 
 Latin, plus the Latin which was superimposed 
 on the remainder of the original tongue. There 
 is of course in English a German infusion. 
 
 The Basque, on the other hand, contains three 
 parts. The first, or principal part, I cannot 
 trace to any group. The second is the Keltic 
 element which remains unaffected by Latin, and 
 the third is the Keltic element on which the 
 Latin was superimposed. The Latin Frenum 
 was probably superimposed on the original Spanish 
 Brida, which has now become Freno, while the 
 Basque preserves Brida, with other Keltic tongues, 
 and makes in English, Bridle. 
 
 In Latin we get saltare, to dance, but it has not 
 survived even in Italian. Ballare is the Italian 
 equivalent, and bailar the Spanish. We have 
 got one part of the word in English and French 
 in ball, but the verb is wanting. In almost all 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 49 
 
 other Aryan dialects the equivalent is dance, and 
 we find even the Basque is danzatu ; the Welsh 
 is dawnsio, while the Irish equivalent is rince. 
 The Spanish again has barrena for gimlet, while 
 the Basque still keeps the original guimbaleta, 
 English gimlet. All dialects seem to have kept 
 the word baton, as Spanish baston, French baton, 
 Irish batte and bosthoon, Basque bastoya. The 
 Spanish word barco, Irish bare, English bark, is 
 also found in the Basque barcua. The Spanish 
 chaqueto, jacket, is common to all Celtic tongues 
 as well as to Basque. The Spanish frac, English 
 frock, makes in Basque casaca. The Spanish 
 galopar, English galop, makes in Basque galop- 
 atu. Spanish isla, English isle, makes in Bqueas 
 isla also, Spanish ruina, English ruin, makes in 
 Basque dollorra. Spanish tohalla, English towell, 
 makes in Basque toallea, the exact Irish equiva- 
 lent. 
 
 Spanish batalla, English battle, Basque batal- 
 loya. Spanish blondo, English blond, Basque 
 blonda. Spanish cable, English cable, Basque 
 cable. The Latin career, prison, is a very 
 curious word. It appears in several of the Keltic 
 tongues. But the general word, prisun, does not 
 occur at all in Latin. It occurs, however, in 
 some form in Italian, French, Irish, and English, 
 and Basque, while the Spanish only gives the 
 Latin equivalent carcel. Spanish again gives 
 coche, English coach, Basque cochea. Spanish 
 gives baile, the jurisdiction of a bailiff or bailey ; 
 
50 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 the same word in Irish is baile, also now frequently 
 spelt bally, and in English bailey ; there is no 
 Basque equivalent. Spanish poste, English post, 
 Basque postac. Spanish juego, English joke, 
 Basque jocua. Spanish taberna, English tavern, 
 Basque taberna and ostolaria. Spanish jardinero, 
 English gardener, Basque jardinzaya. Spanish 
 esgrima, English scrimmage, Basque esgrima. 
 Spanish derrota, English rout, Basque derrota. 
 
 In the Aryan tongues the pronouns are much 
 the same ; the Basque differ wholly, as : — 
 
 Spanish Eng. Basque Spanish Eng. Basque 
 
 Nosotros We Guec Vosotros You Zuec 
 
 De nosotros Ours Gutaz De vosotros Yours Zuetaz 
 
 A nosotros To us Guri A vosotros To us Zuei 
 
 Para nosotros Guretzat Para vosotros Zuentat 
 
 Con nosotros ' Gurequin 
 
 These indicate what is called the non-Aryan 
 element in Basque. While Etruscan is probably 
 a pure Keltic tongue, Basque, though largely 
 impregnated with Keltic, has a large unreferred 
 base. 
 Are Latin and It uow remains to be seen whether Latin and 
 
 Greek Keltic /^ i i r i • i 
 
 or not? (jrreek can be reterred to any wider group, or, m 
 
 other words, whether they may not be dialects oi 
 some of the other groups. 
 
 Latin was the dialect of the ager Romanus ; 
 Greek the dialect of Hellas. We should scarcely 
 expect that the ager Romanus gave birth to a 
 language, and produced a race of its own ; the 
 expectation would rather be that the language 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 51 
 
 and the race would be respectively part of their 
 surroundings. 
 
 All that Bopp, and Grimm, and Zeuss, and 
 Ebel, and, more recently, Windisch have done in 
 Germany; and Thierry, Pictet, and Roget de 
 Belloguet have done in France and Switzer- 
 land, is to prove that the Keltic tongues were 
 
 Aryan. 
 
 The latter says in the "Ethnogenie Gauloise" :^— 
 ** Parmi les questions preliminaires dont j'ai 
 parle, il en est trois que j'ai prises comme point 
 de depart, les tenant, avec le plus grand nombre 
 des philologues, pour resolues definitivement, 
 malgre quelques dissidences qui se reveillent 
 encore de temps a autre, surtout pour la troisieme. 
 Ces questions sont — 1° L'origine indo-europeenne 
 des langues appelees communement celtiques, et 
 encore parlees aujourd'hui ; savoir le Gallois ou 
 le Kymmryque, dont notre Bas-Breton ou 
 Armoricain est un dialecte, et le Gaelique, 
 divise en Irlandais, erse on Ecossais des hautes 
 terres, et Manx ou patois de I'ile de Man. 
 2° L'etroite parente de ces deux langues, le Kym- 
 mryque et le Gaelique, attestant la tige commune 
 dont elles sont sorties. 3° L'identite, sinon 
 absolue, du moins originelle de I'une ou de I'autre 
 de ces langues avec le Gaulois ou le Breton 
 paries a I'epoque de la conquete romaine." 
 
 The writer then gives a number of words and 
 sentences gathered from classical authors, and 
 
 1 Vol. i. p. 9. 
 
52 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 inscriptions, and deduces from them, I think 
 correctly, the conclusion that the differences of 
 languages in the three divisions of Gaul were 
 only dialectical. Such a question can scarcely 
 arise again, as the Keltic ground is now fairly 
 defined, and the inhabitants of it could only speak 
 Keltic, not German or Slav. He then gives a 
 short history of an interesting discovery by 
 Grimm. In 1849, as well as I remember, Grimm 
 published a memoir of one Marcellus of Bordeaux, 
 a physician of the fourth century, in which he 
 tried to explain that some written formulae, used 
 by Marcellus as incantations or prescriptions for 
 the cure of disease, were Keltic. Several of 
 the words of each formula, however, were joined 
 as one, and Zeuss, who could not understand any 
 of them, denied that they were Keltic at all. 
 Then about the year 1S55 Pictet went to the 
 assistance of Grimm. They reconsidered the 
 formulae together, cut them up into lengths and 
 words, and eventually discovered a meaning. 
 In the meaning so discovered, Marcellus was 
 supposed to address the pain or disease, and bid 
 it begone, while he touched or rubbed the part 
 affected. The friends did not quite agree as to- 
 all the meanings to be deduced from the formulae, 
 but they both agreed that all the constructed 
 words were of the Irish dialect of the present day, 
 the most primitive and the least changed of the 
 Keltic tongues. Used as an incantation in the 
 fourth century, It must then have had a certain 
 
The Kelt or Gael 53 
 
 air of antiquity about it. Zeuss in the Introduc- 
 tion to the " Grammatica Celtica" gives the Irish 
 dialect the first place, not only for the richness 
 of the language, but for the wealth of its litera- 
 ture. 
 
 " HIbernica lingua, extrema et ultima omnium 
 linguarum Europae et Asiae a primordis 
 affinium, ut Thule insula est ultima Europae, 
 in inquisitionibus hujus operis, quae id quaerunt 
 presertim, quae fuerint primitivae et communes 
 celticae formae, et quomodo ex eis prodierit 
 recentior varietas, primum locum sibi vindicat, 
 primamque diligentiam, non solum ob majorem 
 formarum ubertatem linguae Ipsius, sed etiam ob 
 copiosiora monumenta servata in codicibus vetustis 
 hibernicis, a quibus longe superantur tam numero 
 quam contentorum copia britannici codices ejus- 
 dem aetatis, vel potius cambrici, qui scilicet soli 
 aetatem hibernicorum attingunt." 
 
 The present Professor Windisch, who is, I think, 
 the best Irish scholar Germany has yet produced, 
 says in his able work, "Irische Texte mit Worter- 
 
 buch " :— 
 
 Ueber den hohen Werth der irischen Sage 
 habe ich mich ausfiihrlicher in dem oben erwahn- 
 ten Vortrage ausgesprochen. Ich bleibe dabei, 
 dass die irische Sage die einzige reichlich 
 fliessende Quelle ungebrochenen Celtenthums 
 ist. Welche Fulle von interressanten Zugen hat 
 o'Curry in seinen Lectures aus dieser Quelle ges- 
 chopft, ohne sie zu erschopfen. In Deutschland 
 
54 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 haben sie die Krcise der Anthropologen und 
 Alterthumsforscher von jeher besonders fur die 
 celtische Cultur interessirt," 
 
 I am quite convinced myself that the Latin 
 language, the dialect of the Ager Romanus, 
 which in Imperial times overshadowed all other 
 European dialects, is pure Keltic. But some 
 one will say it contains a considerable infusion 
 of Greek. I agree it does — of the Keltic portion 
 of Greek. " Mr Wharton has found," says 
 Professor Sayce, "by a careful analysis of the 
 Greek Lexicon, that out of 2740 primary words 
 only 1580 can be referred with any probability 
 to an Indo-European origin, while the prevailing 
 racial type in ancient as in modern Greece was 
 distinctly non-Aryan." Mr S. G. O'Grady and 
 Mr Whitley Stokes are certainly the two best 
 Irish scholars living; and Professor Windisch 
 had in his studies the inestimable advantage, 
 for a German student, of Mr O'Grady's assistance 
 in his studies on the spot, in Dublin. Probably 
 as a result of that advantage there is a greater 
 precision and certainty in the treatment of Irish 
 words and subjects by Professor Windisch than 
 in the writings of any other German philologist. 
 After his return to Germany Professor Windisch 
 undertook an analysis of Greek roots, and found 
 that a little over a third were Keltic. No part 
 of the Latin has, on the other hand, ever been 
 referred to any other than an Indo-European 
 origin. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 55 
 
 The present condition of the continental Keltic Changes in 
 
 ,. ,. T T-.1 • ^ ■\K • 1 Keltic ground. 
 
 ground is this. In Bohemia and Moravia the 
 German overran the Kelt, and the Slav overran 
 both, and his language is now dominant, but the 
 race is very mixed. In Rhaetia, Vindelicia, and 
 Norricum, the German overran the Kelt ; his 
 language is dominant, but the new race is gener- 
 ally more sprightly and intelligent than the 
 ordinary German. In Pannonia, or rather part of 
 it, the Hun came in upon the Kelt, and the 
 Magyar upon the Hun. The Hun has left his 
 name, the Magyar his language, and the race is 
 very mixed indeed. Through the rest of 
 Pannonia and Moesia or Thrace the Goth and 
 the Gepid has left traces, but the Slav and the 
 Turk are dominant in language in their several 
 parts, but the races are quite as mixed as the 
 present Hungarian. 
 
 I have already said that there is no greater 
 difference, if there be so much, between those 
 Keltic dialects whose literatures exist, or some 
 portions of which have survived to us, than there 
 is between the present Dutch and Hanoverian. 
 
 I now give a few words to prove the essential Object of 
 unity of the admitted Keltic tongues, and I add 
 to it the Latin equivalent in every case, to 
 reinforce my general racial, philological, and 
 geographical arguments, that Latin is, and only 
 can be, a Keltic dialect, while the English 
 equivalent shows English is almost as Latin, and 
 Keltic as French, Spanish, and Italian. As I arn 
 
56 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 not writing a work on philology, but an aid to 
 history, I have limited the number of examples, 
 but they can be increased ad libitimt. Neither 
 have I set out any of those words which require 
 the aid of the philologist, and the application of 
 Grimm's laws and technical methods to trace. I 
 think all my examples appeal, so to speak, to the 
 naked eye. 
 
 As a matter of convenience, I have given the 
 first place to the Latin, and then, following Zeuss 
 and Windisch, I have given the next to the Irish, 
 and the strange result follows that the language 
 of Ireland, the only Keltic country not occupied 
 by the Romans, comes closest of all to the Latin 
 tongue. I have left out the Scotch and the 
 Manx, fearing to weary the reader's eye, and 
 because the Scotch agrees in almost every word 
 with the Irish, and so does the Manx, where the 
 word can be traced. 
 
 Every word shows two or more unities — either 
 the unity of the hitherto admittedly Keltic lan- 
 guages inter se, or their, or some of their, unity 
 with the English or the Latin, while in many 
 cases they are practically all the same. 
 
 In the vocabulary /. stands for Irish, W. for 
 Welsh, C. for Cornish, and Ar. for Armoric. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Acta — /. Achda. Eng. Act, in a legal sense. 
 
 Advocatus — /. Fear lagha. Eng. Advocate, lawyer. 
 
 Admirabilis — /. Miorbhuileach. W. Mawryga. Eng. 
 Admirable, marvellous. 
 
 Adoratio — /. Adoradh. W. Addoliad. Eng. Adora- 
 tion. 
 
 Aer — /. Adhar. W. Awyr. C. Air. Ar. Ear. Eng. 
 Air. 
 
 Aes, Cupreus — /, Prais, coper. W. Pres, copr. C. 
 Brest, coper. Ar. Cuevr. Eng. Brass, copper. 
 
 Aestuans — /. Air boile. Eng. Boiling, aestuary. 
 
 Aliusmodi — / (Air) modh eile. W. Modd arall. The 
 Cornish and Armoric have not the word " modh," 
 but they have the " alius " in C. Gele. Ar. All. 
 Eng. In another mode. 
 
 Affabiles — /. Comraideach. W. Cymmrawd. Ar. 
 Camrad. Eng. Affable comrade. 
 
 Altare— /. Altair. W. and C. Allor. Ar. Alton 
 Eng. Altar. 
 
 Ager — /. Magh. W. Maes. A. Mes, park. Eng. 
 Field, park. 
 
 Alea — /. Dis. W. Dis. Ar. Diksu. Eng. Dice. 
 
 Alumen— /. Alum. W. Allum. C. Allog. Eng 
 Allum. 
 
 Albus — /. Finn. W. Gwyn. C. Guyn. Ar. Guen. 
 Eng. White, fine. (Except in names, the Keltic 
 words do not seem to have survived, but they show, 
 as many others, the essential unity of the Keltic 
 dialects.) 
 
 57 
 
58 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Agnus — /. Uan. W, Oen. C. and Ar. Oan. Eng. 
 Lamb. 
 
 Amanuensis — /. Lamh-sgriobhache. W. Llaw-ys- 
 grifennydd. E-Jig- Amanuensis. The glosses, 
 though coming from different roots, are of the same 
 structure as the Latin, and the English equivalent 
 would be hand-scribe. 
 
 Amicus has no English translation except in the com- 
 pounds. It appears from the British equivalent to 
 have parted company from the original root " Car " 
 in Caritas,as both the words,together with Familiaris, 
 are glossed in the same way. Hence we get — 
 
 Amicus — 1. Caraid. W. Carwr. C. and Ar. Car. Eiig. 
 a friend, amicable, and 
 
 Al^riClTIA — /. Cairdeas. W. Carwrieith. Eng. Friend- 
 ship. 
 Caritas — /. Cariad. W. Carwr. Ar. Carantez. Eng. 
 
 Charity. 
 Familiaris — /. Cairdeil. W. Caredigol. Eng. Fami- 
 liar, cordial. 
 
 Amnis and Flumen are glossed in the same way. 
 /. Amhain. W. Afon. C. Avan. Ar. Rijivier. 
 Eng. Avon and river. 
 
 Amphora — /. Buideal, baraille, beag. Eng. Amphora, 
 bottle, little barrel. 
 
 Amplector — /. Umbracam, E7ig. Embrace. 
 
 Ancpiora — /. Ingir. W. Angor. C. Ankar. Eng. 
 Anchor. 
 
 Angelus — /. Aingeal. W. Angel. Eng. Angel. 
 
 Angulus — W. Ongl. /. Coirnel. C. Cornal. Ar. 
 Corn. Eng. Angle and corner. 
 
 Anima — /. Anam Spiorid. W. Arradl-Ysbrid. Eng. 
 Animate, with other compounds, and Spirit. 
 
 Animal — /. Ainmhidh. W. Anifel. Ar. Aneval. C. 
 Best. Eng. Animal, beast. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 59 
 
 Annus — /. Bliadhain. W. Blwdhyn. C. Blcdhan. 
 
 Eng. Annual, year. The British words, like the Latin, 
 
 have a root meaning of ring. 
 Aper and PORCUS are glossed in nearly the same way. 
 
 /. Tore, muc, porcan. W. Twrch, moch, porchel. 
 
 C. Pig, hoc. Ar. Hue. Eng. Pig, hog, pork, porker. 
 Apes — /, Beach. Eng. Apiary, bee. 
 Aqua — /. Awe, uisge, burn. W. Dwr, cor, dufr. Eng. 
 
 Aqueous, burn, dover, water. 
 Aquarius — /. Portair uisge. W. Dyfryddian. Eng. 
 
 Water-carrier or porter. 
 AratruM' — W^. Aradr. (7. Ardar. Ar. Kx-ax. /. Sheis- 
 
 reach. Eng. Aration, and plough, which is a Slav. 
 
 root. The Irish word means six-horse, and is, I 
 
 believe, the root of Sizergh in Sizergh Hall and 
 
 Sizer at the Universities. 
 Argentum — /. Airgid. W. Ariant. Ar. Archant. 
 
 Eng. Argent, money. 
 Argentaria — /. Bord an airgid. W. Ariandy. Eng. 
 
 Money-house, bank. 
 Argentarius — /. Airgiodach. W. Ariantwyr. Eng. 
 
 Moneyer, banker. 
 Argumentum — /. Argumaid. W. Rheswn (argumen- 
 
 tosus), argumaideach. E7ig. Argument, argumenta- 
 tive, reason. 
 Arma — /. Arm, armail. W. Arfan. Ar. Armel. Eng. 
 
 Arms, mail. 
 Armamenta — /. Airneas. Ar. Harnes. Eng. Arma- 
 ment, harness. 
 Atrium — /. Lis, dorus, porth. W. Llys, drws, porth- 
 
 Eng. A fort, door, port. 
 Attero or Tero — /. Rub. W. Rhwbio, brusio. Eng- 
 
 Attrition, rubbing, bruising. 
 AUCTOR — /. Ughdair. W. Awdwr. Ar. Othor. Eng. 
 
 Author. 
 
6o The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 AURUM— /. Or. W. Oyr. C. Our. Ar. Aur. Eiig. 
 
 Auriferous, gold, ore. 
 Auriga—/. Cartair carbadair. W. Cerbydwr. Eng. 
 
 Carter, carman. 
 Aula—/. Halla. C. Hall. Ar. Sail. Eng. Hall. 
 
 Bardus— / Bard. W., C, and A. Bardd. Eng. Bard. 
 Balbus— glossed with Infans. / Balv. W. Baban. 
 
 Eng. Without speech, a babe. 
 Barba— TF. Barf. C. Bar. ^r. Baro. Eng. Beard, 
 
 barber, etc. 
 Benedictio, Benedictum— /. Beannacht. W. Bendyth. 
 
 Ar. Benos. Eng. Benediction. 
 Bestia— / Beist. W. Bwystfil. C. Best. Eng. Beast. 
 BIGA— / Cairt, carbad. W. Cerbyd. Ar Carr. Eng. 
 
 Cart or car. 
 BiPES — /. Da-chosach. Eng. Two-footed. 
 BiREMis — /. Da-ramhach. Eng. Two-oared. 
 Bolus—/. Ball. W. Pel. Ar Bailie. Eng. Bolus, 
 
 ball. 
 Bos—/ Bo. W. Bu. Ar Biw. E7tg. Ox. 
 Bovile— / Bothy. W. Beudy. C. Boudzhi. Eng. 
 
 Bothy, booth. 
 Braccae — / Briogan, bristhe, triusan. W. Bryccan. 
 
 Ar. Brages. Eng. Breeches, trousers. 
 Brachium— / Brae. W. Braich. C. Breh. Ar Brech. 
 
 Eng. Arm, brachial. 
 BUCOLICUS— / Buachailleach. W. Bughel. Ar Bughel. 
 
 Eng. Bucolic. 
 BULGA— / Bolg. W. Bylgan. Eng. Bulge, a sack. 
 BUTYRUM — /. Immen. W. Ymenyn. C. Ammen. Ar. 
 
 Amman. Eng. Butter. 
 BUXUS— / Busca. W. Bocys. Ar Beys. Eng. Box. 
 
 Caballus— / Capull. W. Ceffyl. Eng. Horse. Ar. 
 Caul. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 6t 
 
 Caespes— /. Clod. W. Tywarch. Eng. Clod, turf. 
 Calamitas — /. Call. W. and Ar. Coll. Eng. Calamity. 
 Calamus — /. Strabh. C. Calav. Ejig. Straw. 
 Calor — /. Tinne. W. Twymder. C. Tunder. Ar. 
 
 Tomder. Eng. Thunder, heat. 
 Calculator — /. Cunntair. Eng. Calculator, counter. 
 Calix — /. Cupan. W. Cwppan. Eng. Chalice, cup. 
 Calx—/. Cailc. W. and C. Calch. Eng. Chalk. 
 Cancer — /. Cruban, partan. W. Cruban. C. and Ar. 
 
 Cancr. Eng. Crab. 
 Candela — /. Coinneal. W. Canwyll. C. Cantl. Ar. 
 
 Cantol. Eng. Candle. 
 Candelabrum — /. Coinnleir. W. Canwyllbren. Ar. 
 
 Cantoler. Eng. Chandler, candlestick. 
 Caper — /. Gabhar, boc. JF. Hyvr, bwch. y^r. Gaouffr^ 
 
 bouc. C. Byk. Eng. A buck (goat). 
 Carcer — /. Carcar, priosan. W. Carcher, geol. C. 
 Carhar, cor, brison. Eng. Incarcerate, prison, gaol, 
 with their compounds. 
 Carmen — /. Fearsa. W. Mydr, guers. Ar. Guers. 
 
 Eng. Verse, metre. 
 Catus— /. Cat. W. Cath. Ar. Cas. Eng. Cat. 
 CheiruRGUS — /. Lamh leigh, hand leech. W. Llaw- 
 feddyg, hand medic, y^r. Shiriurzan. £"«^. Surgeon. 
 Castellum — /. Caistel. W. and A. Castell. Eng. 
 
 Castle. 
 Castellan US — /. Caistellach. W. Castellgwyr. Eng. 
 
 Castellan. 
 Castra — /. Camp, longphort. W. Llongphort. Eng. 
 
 Camp, ship port. 
 Cataplasma, Emplastrum — /. Plas-d. W. Plas-dr. 
 
 Ar. Plastr. Eng. Cataplasm, plaster. 
 Caseus — /. Caise. W. Caws. C. Cez. Eng. Cheese. 
 Catharticus — /. Purgaideach. W. Puredydd. Eng. 
 Cathartic, purgative. 
 
62 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 CauPO — /. Osdfhear. W. Ostrigwyr. C. Osda. Ar. 
 
 Ostler. Eng. Host. 
 Caupona — /. Tavairne. W. Davarn. C. and Ar. 
 
 Tavargn, hostleri. Eng. Tavern, hostlery. 
 Causa — /. Cuis, cuislagha. W. Achos. Ar. Cos. Eng. 
 
 Cause, law-cause. 
 Cavus — /. Cabhan. W. Cafn. Ar. Caff. Eng. Cave, 
 
 hollow, cabin. 
 Cella — /. Cuil, seilear. W. Cell, seler. Ar. Sellicr. 
 
 Eng. Cell, cellar. 
 Celo— /. Ceilim. W. Cidhio. C. Citha. Ar. Cydha. 
 
 Eng. Conceal. 
 Censor — /. Cronadair. E7ig. Crowner, coroner. 
 Census — /. Sluagh, cunntas. W. and C. Slu. Etig 
 
 Census, counting the people. 
 Centum — /. Ceud. W. Cant. Ar. Cant. C. Canz. 
 
 Eng. Cent, hundred. 
 Cervisia — W. Curv. C. Cor. Ar. Bier. /. Leann. 
 
 Eng. Beer, ale. 
 Cera—/. Ceir. W. Cwyr. C. Coir. Ar. Coar. Eng. 
 
 Sincere, wax. 
 COMARCHUS — /. Jarla. W. Jarll. C. Yarll. Eng. Earl. 
 Chlamys — /. Cleoc. W. Clog. C. and Ar. Mantell. 
 
 Eng. Cloak, mantle. 
 Chorales — /. Ceolaire. W. Corawl. C. Carol. Eng. 
 
 Choral, carol. 
 Chorda — /. Cord. W. Cordd. C. Streng. Eng. Chord, 
 
 cord, string. 
 CiSTA or Arca — /. Bascaid, cisd. W. Basgawd, cist, 
 
 cofr. Ar. Cufr and Pancr. Eng. Basket, chest, 
 
 coffer, pannier. 
 CiVITAS — /. Comunn, cahir. W. Cymmun, caer. Ar. 
 
 Campen. Eng. City, state, commune. 
 Clango — /. Gliong. Eng. Clang. 
 Cloaca — /. Guitear. W.QwXXmx. £"«o-. Cloaca, gutter. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. d'^ 
 
 Clyster — /. CHostra. W, Chwistrel. Eng. Clyster. 
 COCINNUM and Purpura — /. Purpur, corcur, sgarlaid. 
 
 W. Porffor, ysgarlaid. Eng. Cochineal, purple, 
 
 scarlet. 
 COENA — /. Suipeir. W, Swpper, cwyn. C. Con. Ar. 
 
 Coan. Eng. Supper, 
 COENACULUM — /. Seomar-suipeire, seomar-dinnearach. 
 
 W. Siambr. Ar. Cambr. Eng. Supper-chamber, 
 
 dinner-chamber. 
 COLLARIA — /. Coileir. W. Coler. Eng. Collar. 
 COLUMBA — /. Columan. W. Colummen. Eng. Pigeon. 
 COMITIUM— /. Mod, tigh-cuirt. W. Modd. Eng. Mote, 
 
 court, shire-mote. 
 Comes and Collega — /. Companach. W. Cymmer. 
 
 Ar. Compagnun. Eng. Count, colleague, com- 
 panion, company. 
 COMPENSO — /. Paidh. W. Pwyth. Eng. Compensate, pay. 
 COMPOSITIO (PACTUM) — /. Cumhnant, cordadh. W. 
 
 Cymmod. Eng. Composition, pact, covenant, 
 
 accord. 
 COMPOTATIO — /. Comh-phoit. W. Cyfedd. Eng. Com- 
 
 potation. 
 CONSERVA — /. Comh-sheir-bhiseach. Ar. Shervisher. 
 
 Eng. Fellow-servant. The Irish and the Latin are 
 
 the same words, but the Latin has dropped all the 
 
 aspirates and silent letters ; the intermediate stage 
 
 is seen in the Armorican word. 
 Consilium — /. Comhairle. VV. Cysswl. C. Cyssyl. 
 
 Ar. Avis. Eng. Counsel, advice. 
 CONSOLATOR — /. Comh-fhurtair. W. Comfforddwr, 
 
 Eng. Consoler, comforter. 
 CONTAGIUM — /. Plaigh. W. Pla. Eng. Contagion, 
 
 plague. 
 CONVENTUS, as Regio — /. Duthaich, sioramachd. Eng, 
 
 Convention, sheriffdom. 
 
64 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 CONVIVIUM — /. Feisd. Ar. Fest. Eng. Convivial, feast, 
 
 fete. 
 COQUUS — /. Cocaire. W. Cog. C. Ceg. Ar. Ceginis. 
 
 Eng. Cook. 
 CORNU — W., C, A. Corn. E;ig. Horn. 
 Creator — /. Cruitheoir. JV. Creadwr. Eng. Creator. 
 Credibilis — /. Creideasach IV. and A. Credadwy. 
 
 Eng. Credible. 
 Croceus — /, Crocach. Eng. Saffron -coloured, crocus. 
 Cruor — /. Gaor. W. Gvvyar. Eng. Gore. 
 Crusta (and Cortex) — /. Rusq. W. and Ar. Rhisq. 
 
 C. Rusk. Eng. Crust, rusk. 
 CUCULLUS — /. Cuchull. W. Cochol. C. Cugol. A7'. 
 
 Capot. Efig. Hood. 
 CULEX — /. Cuileag. W. Cylion. Eng. A fly. 
 CULTER — /. Coltar. W, Cwltr. C. Coultyr. Eng. The 
 
 coulter of a plough. 
 CUPRESSUS — /. Siprus. IV. Cypress. Eng. Cypress. 
 CURA — /. Curam. W. Cur. Eng. Care. 
 Cylindrus — /. Rolair. W. Rholio. Eng. Cylinder, 
 
 roller. 
 Curia — /. Cuirt, lis. W. Llys. Ar. O-dians. E?ig. 
 
 Curia, court, audience. 
 
 Daemon or Diabolus — /. Deamhan, diabhul. W. 
 Diawl. C. Dzhiaul. Eng. Demon, devil. 
 
 Damnatio— /. Damnadh. IF. Damnaff Eng. Dam- 
 nation or damage. 
 
 Dea — /. Bandia. IV. Duwies. Ar. Dues. En^r. 
 Goddess, deessc. 
 
 Debilis— /. Diblidh. W. Egwan. C. Gwadn. Eng 
 Debilitated, wan. 
 
 Decretum (lex)—/. Ordugh, lagh. W. Ordinhaad. 
 C. Laha. Ar. Ordrenans. Eng. Decree, order, 
 law, ordinance. Lagh'as ordugh, law and order. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 65 
 
 Decumae— /. Deachamp. W. Degvvm. Eng. Deci- 
 mals, tenths. 
 Decus, Honor—/. Onoir. C. Annerh. Ar. Enor. 
 
 Eng, Honour. 
 Dedecus — /. Easonior, leannan. Ar. Dizenor. Eng. 
 
 Dishonour, leman. 
 Dens— TF., C, and Ar. Dans. /. Fiacail. Eng. Dentist, 
 
 tooth. 
 Diadem A, Corona — /. Crun. W. Coron. Ar. Curan. 
 
 Eng. Diadem, crown. 
 DiALECTicus — /. Reusanach. W. Rhesymmwr. Eng. 
 
 Dialectician, reasoner. 
 DiLUO— /. Glan, squr. W. Glan, ysgurio. Eng. Wash, 
 
 clean, scour. 
 Diluvium—/. Dile. W. Dilyw. Ar. Dilus. Eng. 
 
 Deluge. 
 Dies—/ Dia. W. Dydh. Ar. Deidh. C. Det 
 
 Eng. Day. 
 DISCORDIA — /. Mi-chordadh. W. Anghythun. Eng. 
 
 Discord, untuned. 
 Disco—/ Discim. C. Dis-cy. W. Dgs-gy. Ar. Disci. 
 
 Eng. Learn. 
 DiSCiPULUS— / Discubil. W. Disgybl. C. Desgibl. 
 
 Ar. Discibl. Eng. Disciple. 
 DiSPENDlUM — / Cosdas. W., C, and Ar. Cost Ejtg. 
 
 Expense, cost. 
 DiSTURBATio— / Troblaid. W. Trublaeth. Ar. Tru- 
 
 buill. Eng. Disturbance, trouble. 
 DiVIDO — / Eader-sgar. W. Ysgaru, parthy. Eng. To 
 
 divide, to scar, to part. These words, divido and 
 
 sgar, have the same relation to each other that 
 
 amicus and car have. Both cases show what is 
 
 expressed by specialization of function. 
 Dolor — / Plan, saurach. W. Poen, dolwr. C. and Ar. 
 
 Poan. Eng. Dolorous, pain, sorrow. 
 
 E 
 
66 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 DOMINUS and Magister — /. Malsther. W. Meistr, 
 llhyuydh. Ar. Maestr, arluydh. Eng. Dominion, 
 magistrate, master, lord. 
 
 DUCO— /. Stiur. Ar. Stur. Eng. Steer. 
 
 Dux — /. Caiptain, Stiubhard. W. Dyg. Ar. Cabiten. 
 Eng. Duke, captain, steward, steerer. 
 
 DUPLICATIO — /. Dublachadh. W. Dyblu. Eng. Du- 
 plication, doubling. 
 
 ECCE — /. Fiac. W. Ycha. Eng. Behold. 
 
 ECCLESIA — /. Eaglais. W. Eglwys, C. Egliz. Ar. His. 
 
 Eng. Ecclesiastic, church. 
 Efficasi — /. Eifeachdach. W. Effeithiol. Eng. 
 
 Efficacious. 
 Eleemosyna — /. Almasa. W. Elysen. A. Alunsen. 
 
 Eng. Eleemosynary, almsgiving. 
 Emporium — /. Margadh. W. Marchnad. Ar. Marchat. 
 
 Eng. Emporium, market. 
 Mercator — /. Fear margadh. W. Marchnadwr. 
 Eng. Merchant, marketer. 
 Ens — /. TBith. W. Bod. Eng. Being, or to be. 
 Epistola, Litera — /. Letir, eipistal. W. Llythr. C. 
 
 Lytheran. Ar. Lidhir. Eng. Epistle, letter. 
 Equus — /. Each, march. W., C, and Ar. March; see 
 
 Caballus. Eng. a horse. 
 Eques — /. Marcach, trimarchis. W. Marchog. Eng. 
 
 Equestrian, a marquis, a horseman. 
 Exemplar — /. Eisimpleir. IV. Siampl. Ar. Exampl. 
 
 Eng. Example. 
 
 Faber — /. Fear oibre. W. Gwyr llafur. Eng. Fabricate, 
 
 labourer. 
 Fas — /. Laghalachd, ceartas. W. Cyvraith. Ar. Shy- 
 
 ustis. Eng. Law, right, justice. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 67 
 
 Favor — /, Fabhar. W. Ffafr. Ar. Favor, Eng. 
 
 Favour. 
 Febris — / Fiabhrus. Eng. Fever. 
 FiDELis — /. Feidil, dileas. W. Dilys. Ar. and C. Leal. 
 
 Eng. Fidelity, lealty. 
 FiDICiN — /. Fidhlear. W. Filor. C. Fillores. Eng, 
 
 Fiddler. 
 FIDICULA — /. Fiodhall-beag. W. Ffill bychan. Eng, 
 
 Small fiddle. 
 Fistula—/., W., C, Ar. Pib. Eng. Fistula, pipe. 
 Flos — /. Fluran. W. Fflur. Eng. Flower. 
 Floreas — /. Fluranach. Eng. Flowery. 
 Fornax and Furnus — /. Fuirneis. W. Ffwrn. C. 
 
 Forn. Ar. Furn. Eng. Furnace. 
 FORTUNA — /. Fortan. W. Ffortun. Ar. Shans. Eng. 
 
 Fortune, chance. 
 Fossa — /. Dig, trainse. W. Fosle. Eng. Foss, dyke, 
 
 trench. 
 Frater — /. Brathair. W. Brawd, broder. Ar. Breur. 
 
 E?ig. Brother. 
 Fratricidia — /. Brathair mhordadh. Eng. Fratricide, 
 
 brother murder. 
 Fretum— /. Frith. W. Ffrwd. C. Frot. Eng. Frith. 
 Frictio — /. Rubadh. VV. Rhwbio. Eng. Friction, 
 
 rubbing. 
 FUNALE and FUNIS — /. Ropa, corda. W. Rhaf, cord. 
 
 Ar. Cord, shabl. Eng. Rope, cord, cable. 
 FUNDAMENTUM — /. Fundaimeint. Ar. Fondament. 
 
 Eng. Fundamental. 
 FURCA — /. Gobhal, prop. W. Post, forch, picforch. 
 
 C. Vorh. Ar. Forch. Eng. Fork, gaval, prop, 
 
 post, pitchfork. 
 
 Genero, Gens—/. Ginim. W. Cenedhlu. Ar. En- 
 
 guenta. Eng. Generation, gens, engender. 
 Genitor — /. Gineadair. W. Cenedhlwr. Eng. Begetter. 
 
6S The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Gladium— /. Cladmh. W. Clcdhyv. Ar. Clcdhe. 
 
 Eng. Sword, gladiator. 
 Glaucus — /. Glas. W. Glas. Eng. Sea-green. 
 Gloria—/. Gloir, bosd. W. Bost. Ar. Gloar. Eng.. 
 
 Glory, boast. 
 GliADUS— /. Gradh. W. Gradd. C. Grat. Eng, 
 
 Grade. 
 Granum — /. Gran. W. Grawn. Eng. Grain. 
 Granatus — /. Grainseach. Eng. Grainge. 
 Grammaticus — /. Gramadoir. W. Grammadeewr. 
 
 Eng. Grammarian. 
 Gratia — /. Gras, fabhor. W., C, Ar. Gras. Eng. Grace.. 
 
 HORA— /. Uair. W. Awr. C. Ur. Ar. Eur. Eng. 
 
 Hour. 
 Hexachordus — /. Se chordach. W. Se cordedd. Eng. 
 
 Six-corded. 
 Hexagonus— /. Se shlisneach. W. Se yst-lysawl. 
 
 Eng. Six sided or sliced. 
 HORDEUM — W. Eorna. W. Hardh, barlis. Eng. 
 
 Barley. 
 HODIE— I^. Hedhyw. C. Hidhu. Ar. Hirion. Eng. 
 
 To-day. 
 HUMILIS— /. Umhail. W. and C. Huvel. Eng, 
 
 Humility, humble. 
 
 lANUA — /. Geata, dorus. W. let drws. C. Forth. Ar. 
 Dor. Eng. Janitor, gate, door. 
 
 Idolum — /. lodhul. W. Addol. Ar. Idol. Eng. 
 Idol. 
 
 Immoderatus — /. Anra-measarra. W. Anghymmesur. 
 Eng. Immoderate, unmeasured. 
 
 Impune — /. Gan-phcanas. W. Di-poen. Eiig. Un- 
 punished, without pain. 
 
The Kelt or Gael, 69 
 
 INCAUTUS — /. Neo-churamach. W. Di-curiawl. Ensr. 
 
 Incautious, careless. 
 Incorporalis — /. Neo-chorpora. W. Anghorphoral. 
 
 Eng. Incorporeal. 
 Incredulus — /. As-creidmheach. W. Anghrediniol. 
 
 Eng. Incredulous. 
 Infernum — /. Ifrionn. W. Uffern. C. Ifarn. Eng. 
 
 Infernal. 
 INFIDELIS — /. Mi-dhileas. W. Mi-dilys. Eng. Infidel, 
 
 faithless. 
 Infortunium — /. Mi-fhortan. Eng. Unfortunate, 
 
 misfortune. 
 Insula — /. Ilan, innis. W. Ynys. C. Ennis. Eng. 
 
 Insular, island, inch. 
 Intellectus — /. Intleacht. Eng. Intellect. 
 Interfector — /. Mortair. Eng. Murderer. 
 INTERVALLUM — /. Eadar-bhalla. Ar. Spas. Eng. 
 
 Interval, space. 
 lUGERUM — /. Acair. W. Angor. Eng. Yoke, acre. 
 lURlS-CONSULTUS, lURISPERlTUS — /. Fear-lagha. Eng. 
 
 Jurisconsult, lawyer. 
 lUS and Lex — /. Reuson, ceartas, lagh. W. Cyvraith. 
 
 C. Laha. Eng. Justice, reason, right, law. 
 
 Labium — Liob or Lib or Lippe is common to many 
 
 languages, but Irish has in addition Bile. W. Byl. 
 
 Eng. Bill, or beak. Also /. and W. Bus. Eng. Lip 
 
 or mouth. 
 Labor — /. Luvra (obsolete). W. Llavyr. Ar. Labour, 
 
 Eng. Labour. 
 Lac—/. Lacht. W. Lhaeth. C. Lait. Ar. Leth. Eng. 
 
 Milk, lacteal. 
 Lachryma — /. Deur, dear. W. and Ar. Daigr, Eng. 
 
 Lachrymose, tear. 
 
70 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Lancea — /. Lann. Ar. Lans. Eng. Lance. 
 
 Lar — /. Lar. W. Llawr. C. Ler. Ar. Leur. Eng. 
 
 Floor, level. 
 Lana — /. Olann. W. Gwlan. C. Gluan. Ar. Gloan. 
 
 Eng. Wool. 
 Lardum — /. Lharde. W. Lard. Etig. Lard. 
 Latro — /. Ladronn. W. Lhadron. C. Laden Ar. 
 
 Ladhr. Eng'. A thief. 
 Latus — /. Leathann. W. Llydan. Eng. Latitude. 
 Lector — /. Leughadair. W. Lleugwyr. C. Rcdoir. 
 
 Eng. Lectern, reader. 
 Legalis — /. Laghail. ^«^.' Lawful. 
 Liber — /. Leabhar. W. Llyvyr. C. Lyfr. Ar. Lewr. 
 
 Eng. Book. 
 Librarium — /. Leabhar-lann. W. Lyfyrgell. Eng. 
 
 Library, place for books. 
 LiBRO and Pondo — /. Fund. W. Funt. Ar. Balans. 
 
 Eng. Found, balance. 
 LiLlUM — /. Lilidh. W. Lili. Ar. Fourdeliscn. E^ig. 
 
 Lily, fleur de lys. 
 LiMEN — /. Stairsneach. W. Forth. C. Fortal. Eng. 
 
 Stairs, portal, threshold. 
 Lingua — /. Teanga. W. and C. Tafod. Eng. Lan- 
 guage, tongue. 
 LiNUM — /. Linn. W. Lhin. C. and Ar. Lin. Eng. 
 
 Linen. 
 LiTERARius — /. Litercach. W. Llythyrawg. Eiig. 
 
 Literary. 
 LOQUOR — /. Labhair. W. Llefaru, Ar. Lavaret. 
 
 Eng. Loquacity. 
 LORICA — /. Luireach. W. Llurg. Ar. Harnes. Eng. 
 
 Cuirass, harness. 
 LUDIMAGISTER — /. Maighstir-sgoile. W. Meister-ysgol.. 
 
 Ar. Maestr-scol. Eng. Schoolmaster. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 71 
 
 Macula — /. Machuil. W. Magi. Ar. Taish. Eng. 
 
 Immaculate, a stain. 
 Majestas — /. Mordhacht. W. Mouredh. C. Mourder. 
 
 Ar. Meurder. Eyig. Murder, treason. 
 Maledictio— /. Mallachd. W. Melldith. C. Molle- 
 
 thians. Ar. MilHgaden. Eng. Malediction. 
 Manicae — /. Muincheall, bragaille. W. Gevynnae. 
 
 Ar. Manequ. Eng. Manicles, bracelets, gyves. 
 Mare, Aequor, Oceanus — I. Muir. W., C, and Ar. 
 
 Mor. Eng. Mere, ocean, sea. 
 Membranum — /. Meambrum. W. Memrun, C. Pair- 
 
 chemin, Ar. Parshemin. Etig. Membrane, parch- 
 ment. 
 Mater—/ Mathair. W., C, A., Mam. Eng. Maternal, 
 
 mama, mother. 
 Mantellum — /. Naipikin. W., C, A., Mantel, pelis. 
 
 Eng. Mantle, napkin, pelisse. 
 Matutinus— /. Maduinn. W. Metin. Ar. Mintin. 
 
 Ettg. Matutinal, early, morning. 
 Medium — /. Meadhon. W. Moddion. C. Mayn. 
 
 Ar. Moyen. Eng. Medium, a mean, middle. 
 Mel— /.Mil. J^.,C^.,Mel. £«^. Honey, mellifluous, etc. 
 Memoria — / Meamhoir. Ai'. Memoar. Eng. Memory. 
 Mensa — / Bord. W., and C, Bwrd. Ar. Tavl. Eng. 
 
 Mensal, table, board. 
 Mensis— / Mios. W. C. A. Mis. Eng. month. 
 Mensura — / Measur. C. Mesyr. Ar. Musur. Eng. 
 
 Measure. 
 Mentha—/ Mionnt. W. Mintys. C. and Ar. Ment. 
 
 Eng. Mint. 
 MiNUTUS — / Mean. W. Man. Eng. Minute, mean. 
 Modus—/ Modh. W. Modd. Eng. Mode. 
 MOLA— / Muilenn. W. Melen. Eng. A mill. 
 Moles — / Meall, dun, torr, cruach. W. Moel, dyn, tor, 
 
 crug. Eng. A mole, down, torr or tower. 
 
72 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 MONS— /. Moin. W. Mynydd. C. Monedhin. Eng. 
 
 Mountain. 
 Mora — /. Mairncal. Ar. Dalez. Eng. Delay, de- 
 fault. 
 MORTARIUM — /. Mortair. Ar. Morter. Eng. Mortar. 
 MORTUUS— /. Marbh. W. Marw. C. and Ar. Maro. 
 
 Eug. Dead, mortal. 
 Mersus— /. Baithte. W. Badydd. Ar. Beydhit Eng. 
 
 Immersed, bathed. 
 Metallum— /. Mitail. W. Mettel. Ar. Metall. 
 
 Eng. Metal. 
 Murus— /. Mur. W. Myr, gwal. C. Foz. Eng. 
 
 Mural, wall, foss. 
 MiLLlA and MiLLlARlUM — /. Mile. W. and Ar. Mil. 
 
 Eng. A mile, a thousand paces. 
 MiXTUS — /. Measgtha. W. Cymmysg. Ar. Cemescet. 
 
 Eng. Mixed. 
 
 Nasus — /. Sron. W. Trwyn. Eng. Nose, stranraer 
 
 (fatnose). 
 Natura — /. Nadur. W. and Ar. Natur. Eng. Nature. 
 Naturalis — /. Nadurach. W. Naturiol. Eng. Na- 
 tural. 
 Navis — /. Long, barca, bad, gailear, scaf, long-aid- 
 
 morala. W. Llong. E^tg. Navy, bark, boat, 
 
 galley, skiff. Admiral's ship. 
 Nauta — /. Seoladair. W. Hwylwr. Eng. sailor. 
 Nebula — /. Neabhul, neul. W. and C. Niul. Eng. 
 
 Nebulous. 
 Nervus — /. Neart. W. Ncrt. C. Nerg. Ar. Nerven. 
 
 Eng. Nerve. 
 Nidus—/. Nid. W. Nyth. C. and Ar. Neith. Eng, 
 
 A nest. 
 Nox — /. Nochd. IV., C, Ar. Nos. Eng. Nocturnal, 
 
 night. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 73 
 
 Nona—/. Noin. W. Nawn. Eng. Noon. 
 
 Novus— Nuadh. W. and Ar. Newydd. C. Newydh. 
 
 Eng. Novelty, news. 
 NUDAS— /. Nochd. W. Noeth. Eng. Naked, nude. 
 NUMERUS— /. Niumhuir. W. Niwer Ar nombri. Eng. 
 
 Number. 
 
 ObsCURITAS— /. Dorchas. Eng. Obscurity, darkness. 
 Obsessio— /. Seisd. W. Eistedd. Ar. Sishenna. Eng. 
 
 Seige. 
 Obsessor— /. Seisdear. W. Eisteddwr. Eng. Besieger. 
 Olea— /. Crann-ola. W. Pren-olew. Ar. OHvisen. 
 
 Eng. Olive-tree. 
 Opera—/. Obair. W. Travael. C. and Ar. Labur, craft. 
 
 E7ig. Opera, travail, labour, craft. 
 OpERARIUS— / Fear-oibre. W. and C. Creftur. Ar. 
 
 Laburer. Eng. Operator, crofter, labourer. 
 Oppidum — /. Baile, cathir, brugh. W. Bala, caer, 
 
 burdeistref C. Tre. Ar. Cer. Eng. A city, a 
 
 borough or burg. 
 Ora— / Oir. W. and Ar. Or. C. Oir. Eng. Shore, or 
 
 border. 
 Oratio— /. Oraid. W. Araith. Eng. Oration. 
 Orator—/ Oraidachi. W. Areithiwr. Eng. Orator. 
 Orca — / Ore. Eng. Sea-calf. 
 Ordo— / Ordh. W. Yrdh. Ar. Yrdh, renk. Eng. 
 
 Order, row, rank. 
 OSTREA, OSTREUM — /. Ostrin. W. Oestren. C. Estren. 
 
 Eng. Oyster. 
 Ovum—/ Ubh. W. Wy. C. Oy. Ar. Uy. Eng. 
 
 Oval, egg. 
 
 Pactum — / Cumhnant, cordadh. W. Cord. Eng. 
 Pact, covenant, accord. 
 
 t,\ UNIVERSITir : 
 
74 ^/^^ Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Factor — /. Cumhnantaichte. W. Corddvvr. Eng. 
 
 Covenantor, accorder. 
 Palatium — /. Cuirt, palas. W. and C. Plas. Eiig. 
 
 Palace, court. 
 Palla or Pallium — /. Falluinn, cleoca, gunna, roba. 
 
 W. Ffalling mantelh. Etig. Pall, cloak, gown, 
 
 robe, mantle. 
 Palludosus — /. Bog, fluich. W. Boug. Eng. Bog, 
 
 boggy. 
 Papyrus — /. Paipear. W. Pappyr. Ar. Paper. Eng. 
 
 Papyrus, paper. 
 Patricida, Matricida — /. Mortair-athair, mathair. 
 
 Eng. Patricide, matricide. 
 Par—/. Pire. W. Par. Ar. Par, cubul. Eng. Equal, 
 
 pair, couple. 
 Pars—/. Pairt. W. Parth. C. Part. Ar. Perz. Eng. 
 
 part. 
 Pater—/ Athair. W. Dad. C. Sira. Ar. Tat. Eng. 
 
 Father, dad, sire. 
 Patera—/ Copan. W. Cwppan. C. Bolla. Eng. Cup, 
 
 bowl. 
 Patria— /, W.y C, A. Tir. Eng. Patriot, countiy, 
 
 shire. 
 Pauper—/ Bochd. C. Bochodoc. Ar. Paur. Eng. 
 
 Pauper, poor. 
 PecCxVTUM— / Peacadh. W. Pechod. C. Pehod. Ar. 
 
 Peched. Eng. Fault, sin, peccant. 
 Peccator — / Peacaire. W. Pecadwr. Ar. Pechor. 
 
 Eng. Offender, sinner. 
 Pecten — / Caird, cir, raca. W. Gard, peithyn. Eng. 
 
 Card, rake, comb. 
 Petra — / Craig. W. Craig. Ar. Carrec. Etig. Petrify, 
 
 crag. 
 Petrosas — / Craigach. W. Craigawl. Eng. Rocky,. 
 
 craggy. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 75 
 
 Piper—/. Peabur. W. Pybyr. Ar. Pibur. Eng, 
 
 Pepper. 
 PIPERATUS— /. Peaberach. W. Pybyredio. Eng. 
 
 Peppery. 
 PISCIS-/. lasg. W. Pysgod. C. Pysg. Ar. Pesc. 
 
 £"/?^. Fish, piscatorial. 
 PISCATOR— /. lasgaire. W. Pysgodwr. C. Pys-cadar. 
 
 Eng. Piscator, fisher. 
 Piscina— /. las-glin. ^. Pys-godlyn. C. Pisklin. Eng. 
 
 Fish-pond. 
 Plenus— /. Lan. ^F. Lhawn, C Len. ^r. Lein. Eng 
 
 Plenty, full. 
 
 Plico— /. Fighim, pleatam. W. Plygu, Ar. Plega. 
 Eng. To bend, to pleat, implicate. 
 
 Poena—/. Peanas, plan. W. Penyd. Eng. Punish- 
 ment, pain. 
 
 POENALIS— / Piantach. W. Penydiawl. Eng. Penal, 
 
 painful. 
 PONDUS— fF. Pwys. Ar Poes, Poesul. Eng. Weight, 
 
 bushel. 
 PUNIO— / Peanasiach. W. Poeniad. Ar. Castisa. 
 
 Eng. Punish, chastise. 
 POPULUS— / Popull. W. Pobol. C. Pobel. Ar Pobl. 
 
 Eng. People. 
 Porta—/ Port, geata, dorus. W. Porth, jet, drws. 
 
 Eng. Port, gate, door. 
 Preceptum— / Teagasg. W. Dysg. Eng Precept, 
 
 task. 
 PraecinctoRIUM — / Aparan. C. Apparn. Eng. 
 
 Apron, precinct. 
 Praetorium— / Cuirt, tigh moid. Eng. Praetorium, 
 
 court, meeting-house. 
 Pratum — / Meadh. Eng. Meadow. 
 Praelium— / Cath, bataille. W. Cad. Ar Combat 
 
 Eng. Battle, combat. 
 
76 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Prandium — /. Proinn, dinneir. Eng. Prandial, dinner. 
 Pretium— /., W., C. Pris. Ar. Cost. Eng. Price, cost. 
 Princeps — /. Prionnsa, flath. Ar. Prins. Eng. Prince. 
 Primus — /. Priomh. W. Prif. Eng. Prime. 
 PUNCTUM— /. Punc. W. Piong. Ar. Poent. Eng. 
 Puncture, point. 
 
 Quid ? /. Ciod ? Eng. What ? Co, co, cidd ; qui, quae, 
 quod, who, which, what. 
 
 Rana — /. Froga. W. Broga. Ar. Ran. Eng. Frog. 
 Rapina — /. Reub, Reubainn. W. Cribdhail, yspail. 
 
 Eng. Rapine, rob, crib, spoil. 
 Raphanus— /. Raidis. C. Rhedhic. W. Rhydhigl. 
 
 Eng. Radish. 
 Rastrum — /. Raca. W. Rhaca. C. Rackan. Ar. 
 
 Rastel. Eng. Rake, rack. 
 Ratio — /. Reasun. W. Rhesum. Ar. Reiz, Eng. 
 
 Ratio, reason. 
 Rector — /. Riaghlair. W. Periglor. Ar. Person. 
 
 Efig. Rector, ruler, parson. 
 Regula — /. Riaghail. W. Rheol. Eng. Rule, regular. 
 Regalis— /. Rioghail. W. Rhiol. C. Ryal. Ar. 
 
 Real. Eng. Royal. 
 Regnum — /. Rioghacht. W. Rhwyfaniad. Eng. 
 
 Kingdom, reign. 
 Remus — /. Ramh. W. Rwyf. C. Rev. Ar. Roenv. 
 
 Eng. An oar. 
 Renovo — /. Ath-nuadhaich. W. Adnewyddu. Ar. 
 
 Refresca. Eng. Renew, refresh. 
 Rex — /. Righ, cing. W. Rhwy. Ar. Rhy. Eng. 
 
 King. 
 Regina — /. Riona or ban righ. Eng. Queen. 
 Rota, Rheda— /. Roth. W. and C. Rhod. Ar. Rot. 
 
 Eng. Wheel or chariot. 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 'J'J 
 
 Rhedarius— /. Cartair. W. Cerbydwr. Eng. Char- 
 ioteer, carter. 
 
 Rosa—/. R6s. W. Rhos. Ar. R6s. Etig. Rose. 
 
 ROSETUM — /. Garadh-ros. W. Rhoswyddion. Eng. 
 Rose garden, rosewood. 
 
 Rosmarinus — /. Rosmairi. W. Rhosmairi. Eng. 
 Rosemary. 
 
 Rotans— /. Rothachy. W. Rhodawg. Ar. Rout. 
 Eng. Route, turning. 
 
 RUFUS— /. Ruadh. W. Rhudd. C. Rydh. Ar. Ruz. 
 Eng. Rufus, red. 
 
 Saccus or Sagum— /. Sac, mala, poca. W. and Ar. 
 
 Sach. W. Pocced. Eng. Sack, mail, pocket. 
 Sacerdos— /. Sagart. Ar. Sacr. Eng. Priest, sacer- 
 dotal. 
 Sagitta — /. Saighead. W. and Ar. Saeth. C. Zethan. 
 
 Eng. Sagittary, arrow. 
 Sagittarius — /. Saighdeur. W. Sawdwr. Eng. 
 
 Soldier. 
 Sal—/. Salann. W. Halen. C. Holan. Ar. Halon. 
 
 Eng. salt. 
 Salarius— / Salanach. W. Halenydd. Eng. Salted. 
 Saltatio— /. Dannsa. W. Dawnsio. Eng. Dance, 
 
 exaltation. Nearly all languages have the word 
 
 "dance." 
 Sanctus — /. Sant. W. Sanctaedh. C. Sanz. Ar. 
 
 Sant Eng. Saint. 
 Sartor—/. Taillear. W. Taeliwr. Eng. Taylor. 
 SCALA — / Stairshe. Ar. Skeul. Eng. Scale, stairs, 
 
 ladder. 
 SCHOLA— / Sgoil. W. Ysgol. C. and Ar. Scol. 
 
 Ejig. School. 
 SCHOLASTICUS—/. Scolaire. W. Ysgolwr. C. Scylur. 
 Ar. Scolaer. Eng. Scholar, 
 
78 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 SCRIEO — /. Sgriobhim. W. Ysgrifyn. C. Screfa. Ar. 
 
 Scriva. Eng. Write. 
 SCRIBA and NOTARIUS — /. Sgriobhair. W. Ysgrifenwr. 
 
 Eng. Scribe, scrivener, notary. 
 SCABELLUM — /. Binnse, stol, pillin. W. Ystol. C. 
 
 Scabl. Eng. Bench, stool, pillion. 
 SCRUTATIO — /. Rannsachadh. Eng. Ransacking. 
 SCRUTOR — /. Sgrud, rannsaich. Ettg. Scrutator, ran- 
 sacker. 
 Scutum — /. Sgiath. W. Ysgwyd. Ar. Scoet. Eng. 
 
 Shield, scutage. 
 Secale — /. Seaghal. Eng. Rye. 
 Segrego or DiviDO — /. Eadar-sgair. W. Ysgaradwy. 
 
 Eng. Interscar, segregate, divide. 
 Siccus — /. Sic. W. Sych. C. Sich. Ar. Sech. E7ig. 
 
 Dry, dessicated. 
 Senex — /. Sean-aosda. W. Henoesog. Ar. Kenaelder. 
 
 Eng. Aged, senior. 
 Securus — /. Siccir. W. Siccheir. E7tg. Secure. 
 Septimana — /. Seachtmhain. W. Wythnos. C. 
 
 Seithyn. Ar. Sethun. Eng. Seven days, septem 
 
 mane. 
 SiLVA — /. Coin. W. Kelli, coed, gvvydd. Ar. Forest. 
 
 Eng. Sylvan, wood, trees, forest. 
 SiGlLLUM — /. Saoil. W. Sel. Ar. Siell. Eng. Seal. 
 SiLEX — W. Maen-tan. C. Maen-flent. Ar. Maen- 
 
 sclent. Eng. Flint, siliceous. 
 SiMiCA — /. Apa. W. Ab. C. Sim. Ar. Marmus. Eng. 
 
 Ape, marmot. 
 Simplex — /. Simplidh. W. Symledd. Ar. Simpl. 
 
 Eng. Simple. 
 SiNAPE — /. Mustard. W. Mwstard. Eng. Mustard. 
 Smarag-DUS — /. Smarag. W. Emerld. E7ig. Emerald. 
 SOCCUS — /. See. W. Soccys. Ar. Soc. Eng. A plough- 
 share. 
 
The Kelt or Gael, 79 
 
 SOCIUS — /. Companach, comphartach. W. Gwmpeini. 
 
 Ar. Companiun, consort. Eng. Social, companion, 
 
 consort, company. 
 SOLAMEN — /. Solas. W. Solas. Ar. Consolation. 
 
 E7ig. Solace. 
 SOLATOR — /. Comhfhurtair. W. Comfforddwr. Eng. 
 
 Consoler, comforter. 
 Spatium — /. Spas. W. Yspaid. Ar. Spas. Eng. Space. 
 Sphera — /. Speir, ball. W. Pel. Eng. Sphere, ball. 
 Spolium — W. Yspail. Ar. Preidh. Eng. Spoil, prey. 
 Spiritus — /. Spirid. W. Ysprid, spiriz. Ar. Speret. 
 
 Eng. Spirit. 
 Spongia — /. Sponc. W. Yspwng. Ar. Spue. E7ig. 
 
 Sponge. 
 Stabulum — /. Stabul. W. Ystablu. Eng. Stable. 
 Stabularius — /. Marascal, contraction of Maor sgal, 
 
 meaning Master or Mayor of the Horse. Eng. 
 
 Constable, marshal. 
 Stadium — /. Stadha. W. Ystad. Ar. Stadium. Eng. 
 
 Racecourse. 
 Stagnum — /. Staing, Ar. and C. Stanc. Eng. Tank. 
 Statua — /. lomaigh. Ar. Imaish. Eng. Statue, image. 
 Statuaria — /. Grabhaladh. W. Argraphwr, cerfiwr. 
 
 Eng. Statuary, engraver, carver. 
 Status — /. Staid. W. Ystad. Ar. Stat. Eng. Status. 
 Stola — /. Stoil, roba. C. and Ar. Stol. Eng. A stole, 
 
 a robe. 
 Studiosus — /. Stiudearra. W. Astudiwr. Ar. Styudea. 
 
 Ejig. Studious. 
 Stipes — /. Stoc, post. W. Ystoc, post C. Stock- 
 
 Eng. Stock, post. 
 Tabula—/. Tabhail. W. Tabler. C. Plankan. Ar. 
 
 Tavlen. Eng. Table, plank. 
 Taberna — /. Taibhirne. W. Tavarndy. C. Tavarn. 
 
 Ar. Stal. Eng. Tavern, stall, shop. 
 
8o The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Tabernarius — /. Os-dhfear. W. Ost, ostl, ostler. C. 
 
 Osd. Eng. Taverner, host. 
 Taurus— /. Tarbh. JK and y^r.Tarw. C Taro. Eng. 
 
 Taurine, bull. 
 TiGNUM or DOMUS— /. Tigh. W. Ty. C. Tshyi. Ar. 
 
 Ti. Eng. House, domestic. 
 Tenuis—/. Tana. W. Tan. C. Tanon. Ar. Tanov. 
 
 Eng, Thin. 
 Terges — /. Sgur, glan. W. Ys-gwris, glan. Eng. 
 
 Scour, clean. 
 Terra—/., W., C, A. Tir, tellus. / Doer. W. Daiar. 
 
 C. Dor. Ar. Duar. Eng. Earth, country. 
 TiNCTURA — /. Lidh. IV. Lliw. C. Liu. Ar. Liv. Eng. 
 
 Tincture, lye, colour. 
 TURBA — /. Turba. W. Twrf. Eng. A crowd, turbu- 
 lent. 
 Tribus — /. Trieub. W. Ydryf. Eng. Tribe. 
 Tunica — /., W., and C. Cota. Eng. Tunic, coat. 
 
 Viator — /. Triallaire. W. Trafellivvr. Eng. Viator, 
 
 traveller. 
 Via—/ Rod. W. and C. Fford. Ar. Rout. Eng. Way, 
 
 road, ford, route. 
 TURRIS — /. Tur. W. Tor, Twr. C. Tur. Eng. Tor, 
 
 tower, 
 Varius — / Ball, spot. W. Pell, Ysmott. Eng, Spotted, 
 
 various. 
 Vates — /. Faidh, bard. W. and Ar. Bardh. Eng, 
 
 Vaticinate, bard. 
 Velum and Sagalum — /. Seol. IV. Hwyl. Eng. 
 
 Sail. 
 Venia — /. Pardun. Ar. Pardon. Eng. Venial, 
 
 pardon. 
 Veritas — /. Firinn, IV. Gwircdd. C. Gurrionedh. Ar. 
 
 Guirionez. Eng. Verity. 
 
The Kelt or Gael, 8i 
 
 Verna — /. Traill, caeth. W. Gwas, wasaul. Ar. 
 
 Captif. Eng. Thrall, vassal, captive. 
 Versus — /. Fersa. W. and Ar. Guers. Eng, Verse. 
 Vesper — /. Feasgar, W. Gosper. Ar. Guespera. 
 
 Eng. Evening, vesper. 
 Veteranus — /. Sean saighdear. W, Hen sawdiwr. 
 
 Eng. Veteran, old soldier. 
 Vexo — /. Saruich. W. Sardio. C. Speitia. Ar. Tru- 
 
 builler. Eng. To vex, to sorrow, to spite, to 
 
 trouble. 
 Vexator — /. Fear saruchaid. W. Sardiwr. Ar. Tra- 
 
 builliur. Eng. Vexer, sorrower, troubler. 
 ViCUS — /. Sraid. W. Ystrad. Eng. Street, village, 
 
 vicinage. 
 Villa — /. Mainnir. W. Maenol. Ar. Burch. Eng. 
 
 Villa, manor, burgh. 
 ViR — /. Fear, duine. W. Gwyr, dyn. C. Gur. Ar. 
 
 Den. Eng. A man, virtue. 
 ViRGA and ViRGATOR — /. Sguirs, Sguirsair. Eng. 
 
 Scourge, scourger. 
 Virtus — /. Feart, faicill. W. Wyrth. Ar, Vertys. 
 
 Eng. Virtue, faculty, worth. 
 ViVIDUS — /. Brisq. Ar. Bresk. Eng. Vivid, brisk. 
 
 Umbra — /. Sguth. W. and C. Scod. Ar. Sceut. Eng. 
 
 Scud, umbrage. 
 Uncia — /. Unsa. W. Uns. Eng. Ounce, inch. 
 Unguentum — /. Ungadh. W. Wylment. Ar. Oinna- 
 
 ment. Eng. Unguent, ointment. 
 Unguis — /. longa. W. Ewin. Eng. Nail. 
 Unicus — /. Priomh. W. Ynig. Eng. Prime, unique. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Irish Words in Popular Speech. Ignorance of Keltic 
 Element in English. German Elements and their 
 Sources. Language of Senchus Mor. Fall of 
 Latin. Rise of Dialect. Extent of the German 
 Element in English. The Keltic Element in German. 
 Structure of English and German. Scandinavian. 
 
 All the Irish The IhsH words in this list are not merely 
 rf°common literary words ; they, and their parts and corn- 
 speech, pounds, are now the common language of the 
 Irish-speaking people. On that point I can 
 bear personal testimony, as I myself speak every 
 dialect of the Irish Keltic. I may say, however, 
 that the dialectical differences are not greater 
 than those between the North and South of 
 England. 
 
 I had hoped to have had in this part of my 
 work the co-operation of my friend, the late 
 Mr Hennessy, whose knowledge of Irish texts 
 was probably unrivalled, his position as head of 
 the Irish manuscript department in the Record 
 Office of Dublin affording opportunities enjoyed 
 probably by no other Irish scholar. He also spoke 
 Irish better and with a wider vocabulary than 
 any person I have known, and I feel that the 
 
 82 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 83 
 
 advice and assistance which he volunteered would, 
 had he survived, have spared me much labour, 
 and would have much enhanced the interest of 
 this essay. It will be interesting to Keltic 
 scholars generally to hear that the Government, 
 or rather perhaps the British Museum, have 
 now retained Mr O'Grady to catalogue all Irish 
 manuscripts, a work as laborious as it is interesting. 
 
 The ordinary English reader who is told that Common 
 
 ' " -11 t 1 1 Ijritish words. 
 
 he is always talking Low German will probably 
 be startled to find that such common words as 
 joy and sorrow, trouble and tears, dinner and 
 supper, law and order, and bargaining, marketing, 
 costing and paying, cleaning, rubbing, scouring, 
 and bruising ; the coat, the frock, the trousers, the 
 breeches, the cloak, the mantel, the pelisse, the 
 cassock, the robe, the cap, the bonnet, the flower, 
 the ribbon, and the apron ; the coach, the chariot, 
 the cart, and the carter, the rusks and crusts, the 
 boiled, the roast, the toast, the broth, the roll, and 
 even the baby ; the gate, and the wall, and the 
 post, the prop, the crook, and the stake, the 
 buckle, the rope, the string, and the cord, the 
 ball, the dance, and the rink ; the door and the 
 stairs, the loft and the chamber, the cook, the 
 butler, and the steward, the sail and the sailor, 
 the road and the ford, the down and the town, 
 the mountain and the valley, and so on ad 
 infi^iitum, are pure British words. These are 
 merely put in from recollection, and by w^ay of 
 example ; the English language may be recon- 
 
84 
 
 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 structed from pure British, if such a thing were 
 
 required. 
 Ignorance of No Keltic and German scholar who studies 
 element in the English vocabularies in the light of these two 
 
 English 
 language. 
 
 German 
 
 elements and 
 their sources. 
 
 branches of the Aryan tongue can repress a 
 smile at the derivations and explanations of 
 English words so frequently given. They remind 
 me of a work written about thirty years ago by 
 a Portuguese gentleman, and entitled " English 
 as she is Spoke." 
 
 The only form of German spoken in England, 
 and of which any specimen has come down to 
 us, is that of the Saxon Chronicle, and of the 
 legal compilations of the Jutes and West Saxons. 
 Kemble's "Codex Diplomaticus " also preserves 
 a considerable body of early German in the form 
 of charters, deeds, and wills. The fact that many, 
 probably the majority, of them were forged, does 
 not affect the language in which they were written. 
 Between the language of the Chronicle, the Laws, 
 and the Codex, I can find no dialectical difference. 
 Nothing Anglic or even Danish is left, unless 
 it be the song of Beowulf, which the Danes 
 claim. Some form of German, however, side 
 by side with the Latin, was the language of the 
 governing body in England for 500 years, and 
 of course became considerably diffused among 
 Englishmen. 
 
 The language of all the above works contains 
 some Latin and some Keltic, as one would 
 naturally expect. The Germans who invaded 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 85 
 
 England were admittedly the most primitive of 
 their race, and their language would not be 
 adequate to express the ideas and requirements 
 of an advanced people, such as the Romano- 
 Britons were. 
 
 The laws of Ethelbert and Hlothaire probably 
 give us the earliest form of German ever reduced 
 to writing, with the exception of the Moeso- 
 Gothic of Ulphilas. The last is far in advance 
 of the language of Kent and Wessex, as one 
 would also expect from the fact that the Goths 
 had, before the scriptural translation of Ulphilas, 
 been for over 200 years in contact with the 
 Greek or Latin tongue, and many of the Goths 
 had been highly educated. 
 
 A comparison of the language of the above 
 laws with the language of the Saxon Chronicle, 
 say, for instance, of the beginning of the eleventh 
 century, will exhibit considerable progress in the 
 latter. Nevertheless, I assert that not one half 
 of the language of the Saxon Chronicle, limited 
 as it is, has survived in the English of to-day. 
 That portion which has survived merely expresses 
 the physical wants of a primitive people, such as 
 eating and drinking, waking and sleeping, and 
 their concomitants. But the German could never 
 dine or sup ; he could only eat. He learnt to dine 
 and sup, as he learnt comfort, and law, and order 
 from the Kelt. The German had no meats. He 
 had only flesh; he knew nothing of beef or mutton, 
 veal or pork. 
 
86 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 As Zeuss has observed, the oldest Keltic manu- 
 scripts in existence are the Irish. Perhaps the 
 oldest, certainly one of the oldest, of those 
 manuscripts which have hitherto been published, 
 are those included in the four volumes of Irish 
 law compilations recently published by the Irish 
 Record Office, under the direction of the English 
 Master of the Rolls. These publications, which 
 Language of ^rc known under the generic name of Senchus 
 Senchus Mor. ]yj -^.^ glossed by Zeuss as vetus lex, but not 
 quite correctly, may be had at any public library ; 
 and as the English translation accompanies the 
 original Keltic, even an unskilled person can 
 obtain some idea of the condition of the latter 
 tongue. 
 
 Part of the compilation, the Cain Padrig, pur- 
 ports to have been made by St Patrick, with the 
 assistance of some Brehons, or jurists, so as to 
 bring the previously-existing law into harmony 
 with the newly-received Christianity ; and I see 
 no reason to doubt the statement. What I am 
 here concerned with, however, is the condition of 
 the earliest Irish Keltic of which we have any 
 written knowledge. The language of the Cain 
 Padrig is as flexible and expressive though more 
 simple in its construction than Latin or Greek. 
 It is so far in advance of the German of Ethelbert 
 and Hlothair of nearly 200 years after, that a 
 comparison is impossible. As to the laws them- 
 selves, I shall probably deal with them hereafter. 
 I do not think there is any country in Europe 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 87 
 
 whose political unity is so complete as that of 
 Italy, which nevertheless contains so many 
 different dialects. It is probable that these 
 dialects have existed almost unchanged among 
 the uneducated speakers for thousands of years. 
 Latin was only the language of the educated. 
 The people of the Roman Trastevere still pre- 
 serve a dialect, which they say is the earliest 
 form of Roman speech. Latin declined from the Fail of Latin, 
 severance of the Empire, the transference of the 
 real capital to Constantinople, and the adoption 
 of the Greek as its official language. It sunk 
 with the Italian kingdom of Theodoric. Then 
 the dialects began to be written, and Italian to be Rise of 
 formed out of them, till Dante fixed the standard 
 to which the language of the educated still aspires. 
 But the Italian even of Dante shows a loss of 
 Latin, and the acquisition of something which 
 was not in the Latin. That acquisition is not 
 German ; it is the dormant Keltic, which was 
 only spoken, while the Latin was the dominant 
 written dialect. 
 
 The history of the French, Spanish, and 
 English languages is similar, save that we have 
 to deal in English with a considerable German 
 element. The stronghold of the German in 
 English is the region of irregular verbs, though 
 they were never wholly adopted, and many have 
 died out. A large portion of the English language The extent 
 is made up of the verb " to be " and the verb " to element in 
 have," used either as auxiliary or principal verbs, ^"siish. 
 
88 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 together with the pronouns as they are constantly- 
 occurring in speech or writing. The verb "to be" 
 is Keltic ; the German equivalent is sein, but one 
 tense of the German verb is probably used in 
 English. There was no true verb "to have" in 
 any British dialect, though there was an equiva- 
 lent in Armoric under the name of eus. Where 
 the Germans got haben I am unable to say — 
 whether they borrowed it from the Latins, or 
 whether both got it from a common source. At 
 all events, the verb was in Britain before the 
 German, and therefore he cannot claim its 
 introduction. Then the personal and possessive 
 pronouns form a large part of every language. I 
 is Welsh. Thou is common to every dialect I 
 know in some form, as tu, thu, or du. He and 
 she are Irish and Armoric. The plurals are 
 mixed, but not in favour of the German. My 
 and thy are Keltic ; mine and thine are German. 
 His I am not certain about. Our, your, their, 
 are Keltic, and especially Irish. Thee and ye 
 are Cornish, and I think from the structure we 
 is also ; other pronouns are in much the same 
 proportion. The English definite article, the, 
 may be German. The indefinite article, a or an, 
 is the Irish definite article, a or an ; the latter 
 has no indefinite. The German speech when 
 introduced was very primitive — as primitive as 
 its introducers were. It expressed the social 
 and intellectual condition of such a people. It 
 has largely died out. What remains, having 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 89 
 
 obtained a lodgment in our literature, will pro- 
 bably be permanent, and the English language 
 will be enriched to that extent. But if the roots 
 of the English language were counted, not one 
 fourth would be found German. 
 
 The great majority of German words in English 
 is monosyllabic. The German compounds more 
 awkwardly and more harshly than any other 
 literary language, and so cannot subserve the 
 wants of an advanced literature. The Keltic 
 tongues compound gracefully and musically, . re- 
 sponsive to the widest demands of expression, 
 and there seems no limit to their powers in this 
 respect. The future belongs to the Keltic, and 
 not to the German. 
 
 I recently took up a little book from which I 
 myself learnt spelling many years ago, and which 
 still apparently remains in use, as the edition I 
 found was dated 1875. I refer to Carpenter's 
 Spelling-book. On looking through its seventeen 
 pages of monosyllables, I found the German 
 element slightly in excess of the non-German, 
 while of its 100 pages of compounds, not more 
 than two or three per cent, were German. 
 
 But it is not in Engflish alone that the German The Keltic 
 
 ^ , element m 
 
 element bears so small a proportion. The same German, 
 thing is taking place in modern German itself. 
 The original language, as I have said above, 
 expressed only the social and intellectual condition 
 of a primitive people. They did not develop 
 science, or art, or literature, or poetry, or juris- 
 
90 TJie Kelt or Gael. 
 
 prudence, or philosophy. They took all these 
 subjects, in the widest sense of each, from the 
 Kelt ; and with the subject they necessarily 
 adopted its terminology. Any person who looks 
 through half a dozen pages of a German diction- 
 ary will see that in addition to this the language 
 is absorbing Italian, French, English, and even 
 Spanish, to a considerable extent, and the longer 
 this process continues, the slighter will be the 
 ratio which the old German will bear to the 
 new. 
 structure of The Structure of English is Keltic, and the 
 
 English and r^ ■> _ . . . . , , 
 
 German. German element m it has conformed thereto. 
 No Englishman could think in any form similar 
 to the following, though it belongs to the simplest 
 form of German, that of the nursery literature, 
 and is called "The Horse and the Bull" : — 
 
 "Auf einem feurigen Rosse flog stolz ein 
 dreister Knabe daher. Da rief ein wilder Stier 
 dem Rosse zu. Schande ! von einem Knaben liess 
 ich mich nicht regieren ! Aber ich, versetzte das 
 Ross : denn was fiir Ehre konnte es mir bringen, 
 einen Knaben abzuwerfen ? " 
 
 I willingly bear tribute to the German scholar- 
 ship of to-day, and of the last lOO years. The 
 German intellect flowered late, but most of the 
 blossoms have set. In patient industry and 
 enthusiasm the German scholar is unrivalled ; 
 but I think the intellect is critical rather than 
 constructive. The only enemy of the intellectual 
 German is his ignorant admirer, who, incapable 
 
The Kelt or Gael 91 
 
 of understanding what he has done, credits him 
 with what he has not claimed. 
 
 With respect to the group of dialects known Scandinavian. 
 as Scandinavian, I have been through most of 
 their vocabularies within a few years. They 
 contain a trifling infusion of Keltic. This may 
 be accounted for in several ways. It may be 
 part of the common Aryan stock ; it may have 
 been picked up by the invaders of England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, and carried home. It 
 may have been left by the Irish monks and 
 others who colonised Iceland, or It may have 
 been acquired when the Kelt and German met 
 somewhere in the neighbourhood of Judand. 
 Although it Is of no great Importance In itself, 
 I think the elder Edda sprung from Keltic 
 imagination, though the language Is almost 
 wholly Teutonic. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 Comparison of Greek and Welsh Words in their 
 
 Structure. 
 
 I HAVE already referred to the analysis of the 
 Greek language by Mr Wharton and Professor 
 Windisch, and to the fact that their independent 
 labours led to practically the same result. 
 
 However, as I mentioned in the little tract on 
 Welsh grammar that the form of Welsh words 
 was very like the Greek, I append a few examples 
 from which the reader can judge of the matter for 
 himself. It must be understood that they have 
 their equivalents in all the other Keltic dialects as 
 well ; but as I have already trespassed too far on 
 the reader's patience, I will not trouble him with 
 them. These words are not new, nor are they of 
 my selection, and I have submitted them to an 
 independent Welsh scholar before using them in 
 illustration of my theory. 
 
 Greek 
 
 'Ayyetov 
 
 'AyKaAai 
 
 'A Sew 
 
 'Aei 
 
 'Ae/D 
 
 'ArjTOS 
 
 'AiytaAos 
 
 AWw 
 
 92 
 
 English 
 
 vessel 
 
 arms 
 
 content 
 
 ever 
 
 air 
 
 eager 
 
 shore 
 
 to consume 
 
 Welsh 
 
 Angeian 
 
 Angellau 
 
 Hoddiaw 
 
 Aw 
 
 Awyr 
 
 Aethus 
 
 Aigial 
 
 Aethu 
 
The Kelt or Gael, 
 
 93 
 
 Greek 
 
 AlWVOS 
 
 'Akt^ 
 'AAet(^co 
 'AAtcr/cco 
 'AAAoio) 
 'AAs 
 'Avia 
 'Avwyo) 
 Ai'x^w 
 'AxAtjs 
 AxAuoj 
 Baivoj 
 BaAAo) 
 Btos 
 Bo/oa 
 BouA'^ 
 BovAeuft) 
 
 BoCTKW 
 
 BpaSus 
 
 B/aai^twv 
 
 B/jaxtoviov 
 
 B/3TjXw 
 
 B/3ucr(o 
 
 Bpwo-yco 
 
 Feveo-is 
 
 Fepavos 
 
 FAa^w 
 
 roaw 
 
 Vpd<f)(a 
 
 VvVTJ 
 AciKVO) 
 
 AaKpi; 
 AepKCO 
 AoAow 
 
 AtSaCTKO) 
 
 Aov€i!a> 
 AouAos 
 A/DoLcrcra) 
 A/DUS 
 
 A(i}/3£(I> 
 
 English 
 
 to hear 
 
 life 
 
 shoal 
 
 to anoint 
 
 to seize 
 
 to alter 
 
 salt 
 
 weariness 
 
 to incite 
 
 to boast 
 
 covert 
 
 to cover 
 
 to ascend 
 
 to throw 
 
 life 
 
 food 
 
 counsel 
 
 to counsel 
 
 to feed 
 
 heavy 
 
 the arm 
 
 bracelet 
 
 to stir up 
 
 to bud 
 
 to grow heavy 
 
 bearing 
 
 race 
 
 a crane 
 
 an old man 
 
 to carve 
 
 join 
 
 woe 
 
 hag 
 
 to grave 
 
 woman 
 
 to bite 
 
 a tear 
 
 to look 
 
 to deceive 
 
 to teach 
 
 to move 
 
 a slave 
 
 to thrash 
 
 an oak 
 
 to present 
 
 Welsh 
 
 Oiaw 
 
 Einioes 
 
 Aigdde 
 
 Eliaw 
 
 Hylusgaw 
 
 Alleiaw 
 
 Hal 
 
 Ennui 
 
 Annogi 
 
 Awchiaw 
 
 Achlud 
 
 Achludaw 
 
 Banu 
 
 Balu 
 
 Bwa 
 
 Bara 
 
 Pwylla 
 
 Pwyllaw 
 
 Pesgi 
 
 Bradw 
 
 Breichiawn 
 
 Breichionen. 
 
 Brwchu 
 
 Brwysaw 
 
 Brwysgaw 
 
 Genidas 
 
 Genad 
 
 Garan 
 
 Geryn 
 
 Gleifiaw 
 
 Gnwth 
 
 Gwae 
 
 Gerai 
 
 Creifiaw 
 
 Genog 
 
 Dygnoi 
 
 Daigr 
 
 Drychu 
 
 Twyllaw 
 
 Dyddysgu 
 
 Twynaw 
 
 Dylad 
 
 Treisiaw 
 
 Derw 
 
 Dyroi 
 
94 
 
 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Greek 
 
 English 
 
 Welsh 
 
 'Eyyus 
 
 near 
 
 Yngus 
 
 Eyyi^'w 
 
 to approach 
 
 Yngusaw 
 
 'EtVe /xoi 
 
 he said to me 
 
 Ebai imi 
 
 EiAow 
 
 to cover 
 
 Huliaw 
 
 'Ev ayopa 
 
 in the market 
 
 Yn agorfa 
 
 'Hv/a 
 
 a strap 
 
 Hoenai 
 
 'H/je/iOS 
 
 soft 
 
 Arafus 
 
 'Ho-vi^atos 
 
 ease 
 
 Heddychiad 
 
 Ge/jieAiov 
 
 a station 
 
 Temlon 
 
 Geos 
 
 Deus 
 
 Duw 
 
 Gepo) 
 
 to heat 
 
 Twyraw 
 
 QrjpLov 
 
 furious 
 
 Teryn 
 
 Gts 
 
 a bunch 
 
 Twys 
 
 G?;v 
 
 a fort 
 
 Din 
 
 Go/0l'/?OS 
 
 disturbance 
 
 Twrfu 
 
 GueAAa 
 
 a tempest 
 
 Tywyllai 
 
 GV 
 
 door 
 
 Drws 
 
 JT ' 
 
 to shout 
 
 Eichiaw 
 
 "ISios 
 
 one's own 
 
 Eiddo 
 
 'Icrrwp 
 
 learning 
 
 Ystyr 
 
 'Iva 
 
 that 
 
 Hyna 
 
 KadaCpo) 
 
 to purge 
 
 Cothori 
 
 Kaivos 
 
 fresh 
 
 Cain 
 
 KciAa/xos 
 
 a straw 
 
 Calaf 
 
 KaAeo) 
 
 to call 
 
 Galw 
 
 Ka/XTTTO) 
 
 to bend 
 
 Camu 
 
 KpaSta 
 
 heart 
 
 Craidd 
 
 KapT^i'ov 
 
 crown of head 
 
 Corunon 
 
 KuD^^i^crts 
 
 caucus 
 
 Coegedd 
 
 Kepxo5 
 
 the tail 
 
 Cwrcwd 
 
 Kei^^cu 
 
 to hide 
 
 Cuddiaw 
 
 Keo; 
 
 to split 
 
 Ceuaw 
 
 Kt^/oos 
 
 wax 
 
 Cwyr 
 
 KipKos 
 
 a circle 
 
 Cyrch 
 
 Kto-o-do) 
 
 to hate 
 
 Casaw 
 
 KAeivo) 
 
 to incline 
 
 Cleiniaw 
 
 KAiTta 
 
 a cover 
 
 Clydai 
 
 KAuTos 
 
 famous 
 
 Clodus 
 
 Kvaw 
 
 to gnaw 
 
 Cnawu 
 
 KoAAoj/>i€vos 
 
 a joining 
 
 Cylymyniad 
 
 KoAeo) 
 
 to cut 
 
 Cwllu 
 
 KoAwvos 
 
 a hill 
 
 Colyn 
 
 KoxAw 
 
 to turn 
 
 Cwchlu 
 
 KvkAos 
 
 a cycle 
 
 Cylch 
 
 K/JatVo) 
 
 to perfect 
 
 Cywreiniaw 
 
The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 95 
 
 Greek 
 
 K/OCKO) 
 K/OtVOV 
 
 Kpouo) 
 KvAAos 
 
 KlJTOS 
 KdJ^WV 
 
 Kwmu 
 AaAeco 
 Aaos 
 
 AaTTTO) 
 
 Aexa 
 AijycD 
 
 AljU.>)v 
 Ao€T/DOV 
 
 Ao;^os 
 
 Kvdpov 
 
 Avpa 
 
 MaKap 
 
 MaAacrcrw 
 
 Mavos 
 Mapatvti) 
 
 MetAtcrcrct) 
 
 MeAaiVw 
 
 MeAi 
 
 MeAtTjSes 
 
 Mei/os 
 
 Merpov 
 
 Mcvvos 
 
 M0A05 
 
 Mt'SatVw 
 
 N^os 
 Neo) 
 
 Noos 
 
 English 
 
 to creak 
 the lily 
 to beat 
 lame 
 a billow 
 a cavity 
 a dog 
 a crater 
 to kindle 
 to chat 
 multitude 
 to lap 
 to lie down 
 
 tattle 
 
 to cease 
 
 to lie hid 
 
 a haven 
 
 dregs 
 
 an ambush 
 
 grime 
 
 a lyre 
 
 happy 
 
 to soften 
 
 a mother 
 
 thin 
 
 to decay 
 
 I contend 
 
 mead 
 
 to intoxicate 
 
 to sweeten 
 
 to blacken 
 
 honey 
 
 sweet 
 
 mind 
 
 a metre 
 
 minute 
 
 noise 
 
 to rot 
 
 new 
 
 to swim 
 
 an isle 
 
 to snow 
 
 to spin 
 
 temperament 
 night 
 
 Welsh 
 
 Creciaw 
 
 Crinon 
 
 Curaw 
 
 Callus 
 
 Cwmai 
 
 Cwt 
 
 Cian 
 
 Cwthwn 
 
 Cynneuaw 
 
 Lloliaw 
 
 Lliaws 
 
 Lleipiau 
 
 Llechu 
 
 Llesga 
 
 Llagu 
 
 Llethu 
 
 Llifon 
 
 Llwtron 
 
 Lloches 
 
 Llwtron 
 
 Llyre 
 
 Mygyr 
 
 Mallusaw 
 
 Mam 
 
 Main 
 
 Merwinaw 
 
 Machofi 
 
 Medd 
 
 Meddwadu 
 
 Melysu 
 
 Melynu 
 
 Melid 
 
 Meleidus 
 
 Menw 
 
 Medryn 
 
 Manw 
 
 Moloch 
 
 Mwydioni 
 
 Newydd 
 
 Nofiaw 
 
 Ynys 
 
 Nyfiaw 
 
 Nyddu 
 
 Naws 
 
 Nocdh and Nos. 
 
96 
 
 The Kelt or Gael. 
 
 Greek 
 
 English 
 
 Welsh 
 
 "0X05 
 
 whole 
 
 HoU 
 
 'Qiv% 
 
 acute 
 
 Awchus 
 
 Ovai 
 
 woe 
 
 Gwae 
 
 Ilaiw 
 
 to beat 
 
 Pwyaw 
 
 Ilaila) 
 
 to pause 
 
 Peuaw 
 
 IleSiAoi/ 
 
 a shoe 
 
 Pedolan 
 
 IlAeKoj 
 
 to plait 
 
 Plygu 
 
 TaStos 
 
 facile 
 
 Rhwyddus 
 
 'Pao-o-o) 
 
 to rush 
 
 Rhysiaw 
 
 Tea) 
 
 to flow 
 
 Rheu 
 
 Ttv 
 
 a nose 
 
 Rhyn 
 
 ToSavos 
 
 swift 
 
 Rhodiannus 
 
 SkoAo;/' 
 
 a stake 
 
 Ysgolp 
 
 Skotos 
 
 shade 
 
 Ysgawd 
 
 2Ki)/?aAov 
 
 refuse 
 
 Ysgubellion 
 
 2Tt)A77 
 
 a pinnacle 
 
 Ystolion 
 
 Tacrcro) 
 
 to lead 
 
 Tywysaw 
 
 Taupos 
 
 a bull 
 
 Tarw 
 
 Teivo) 
 
 to extend 
 
 Taenu 
 
 Teipa) 
 
 to beat 
 
 Taraw 
 
 Te/ivoj 
 
 to cut 
 
 Timynu 
 
 Tepeoj 
 
 to bore 
 
 Trwyaw 
 
 Tt^^s 
 
 a teat 
 
 Teth 
 
 Te/or;v 
 
 tender 
 
 Tirion 
 
 T/Dexw 
 
 to strive 
 
 Trechu 
 
 TptVAa^ 
 
 triple 
 
 Triphlyg 
 
 Tv/jifSos 
 
 a tomb 
 
 Tom 
 
 Tlvttos 
 
 a type 
 
 Teb 
 
 Tv<^Aos 
 
 dark 
 
 Tywyll 
 
 *aw 
 
 to shine 
 
 Ffawu 
 
 ^opf3r} 
 
 pasture 
 
 Porfa 
 
 ^Aao) 
 
 to flaw 
 
 Fflawu 
 
 ^Aeyo) 
 
 to flame 
 
 Ffaglu 
 
 Xapis 
 
 grace 
 
 Cariad 
 
 Xopos 
 
 chorus 
 
 Cor 
 
 I submit that I have herein proved not only 
 the ethnography, geography, and philology of the 
 Kelt or Gael, but also that Latin and Greek are 
 Keltic dialects. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
 
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