^r:>^>:/;^. *. .'•••v. ^ It {I ^^"^f A GIFT or ? n o c -I H c :.. in TREATISE OK THE POLITICAL ECONOMY or RAILROADS; IN WHICH THE NEW MODE OF LOCOMOTION IS CONSIDERED IN ITS INFLUENCE ;Ui*ON' IHE ATFAJRS OF NATIONS. € • BY HENRY FAIRBAIRN. ♦ V " Through a long succession of generations he had been the progenitor of a virtuous and able citizen ; who by force of the arts of peace, had corrected governments of oppression, and suppressed wars of rapine.'' — Burke, — Character of Mr. Fq4f- LONDON: PUBLISHED BY JOHN WEALE, ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY, HIGH HOLBORN 1836. ■'.t**-n.^: .,0 : ..tONDoy.; JOHN LEICnXON^ JOIINSaN's-COUUT, J^'L^ET-tiTUEET. fi .CA-\X^-^yAr V ^ io ^ '***■ ^ '' ^»' ^ \ PREFACE. The importance of the railroad system is now so fully established in the estimation of the people of this and of all other nations to whom the scientific inventions of Great Britain are transmitted, that arguments are no longer required in support of the general advantages of iron roads. The object of the present work is, accordingly, to attempt the establishment of the system upon the most economical, durable, and least hazardous foundation, and to exhibit also the extraordi- nary consequences whicli the right application of this new mode of intercommunication will probably produce upon the whole future condition and prospects of mankind. So 956041 IV PREFACE. great have been the revolutionary conse- quences which have arisen from the invention of the steam-engine, and from other scientific discoveries at first apparently unimportant in their operation, and so vast has been the accumulation of wealth which England has derived from these applications of the sim- plest materials of which the universe is com- posed, — that we now perceive that the ascen- dancy resides in the nations distinguished by commerce alone ; and, turning with con- tempt from the records of the battles and victories of former times, we acknowledge that science has become the distributor of all power. Other nations are daily becoming more confirmed in corresponding views of the superiority of the arts of peace, and the new mode of facilitating the intercourse of the people of neighbouring countries has certainly been discovered at a most fortunate period in the changing sentiments of man- kind. The projects which are contained in the following pages, for connecting Scotland PREFACE. with Ireland, and England with France, by railways over the seas which now separate us from those countries, w^ould have been mere visions of the imagination to the people of any preceding time; but it has now become acknowledged that the interests of countries are not less similar than the interests of towns ; that to be divided by the sea is not different to the minor divisions by moun- tains or by rivers, and, therefore, not the policy, but the practicability of thus consoli- dating the interests of nations, will become the only object to be considered at some very early period of time These portions of the work were formerly published in the United Service Journal, and w^ere received with a degree of favour both in England and upon the continent, which has induced the writer to extend his observations upon those projects in the course of the present work. That such propositions should be adopted immediately is certainly not to be supposed ; but the accu- mulations of population, capital, and com- Vi PliEKACP:. merce, which the abandonment of war will have a tendency to create, will now furnish tlie means for the accomplishment of designs which could not be undertaken before the cessation of that waste of the resources of nations which at length has come to pass. The facilities of communication by the intro- duction of railways will very powerfully has- ten the oblivion of all national animosities ; and so much is the writer impressed with the value of the system in its tendency to banish the envy and uncharitableness which hitherto have been the prevailing sentiments amongst the nations, that he does not hesitate to ac- knowledge his belief and desire that England will not remain a colossus amongst the mo- dern states, — but that the diffusion of wealth will become more universal, and that the means of acnuirini}^ the blessino-s of existence be equalised all over the world. I'he proposal for the employment of the present turnpike roads as the sites of the new roads, if adopted, will be injurious to the in- PREFACE. Vll terests of many speculators in the railroad projects, which are intended to be carried on by incorporated companies; but as these appear to the writer to be projected upon a foundation so dangerous to the future inter- ests of the country, the prevention of a greater, must be the apology if the present proposition should occasion some present, loss. The railroad system has been yet so little unfolded in its mechanical, commercial, or political operation, that much must be left to conjecture in works which are published upon it in its present stage ; and should inaccuracies appear in any of the calculations in the fol- lowing pages, it is to be hoped that the ge- neral correctness of the principles and out- lines will outweigh those smaller errors which may be reasonably expected to occur in discussions upon a subject so little de- veloped at the present time. London^ February oth, 1830. CONTENTS. vt^ Page CHAPTER I. Objects of the present work — Importance of Railroads — Proper mode of constructing them considered — The general principles of joint-stock companies explained — Individual enterprise preferred to the operations of great incorporated bodies — Expenses of joint-stock companies frequently fatal to their profitable existence — Superior advantages of private capitalists — All commercial legis- lation should be avoided — Companies for the formation of railroads shewn to be not an exception to the general rule 1 CHAPTER II. The common turnpike roads the true sites for the forma- tion of railroads — Practicability of constructing them on the present roads — The traffic not impeded during the formation of the tracks — Suspension railways proposed — Plates exhibiting the proposed new system — Saving of property by the use of the present roads — Costs of parliamentary bills — Surveys and other expenses saved — Savingof property in inns — Mortgages upon tolls and other investments on the present roads prevented from being lost — The sites of the turnpike roads in every re- spect to be preferred. 5; 1 1^ CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. Page. Some of the lines now in the act of construction examined as to their probability of success — The Greenwich and London railway — Its expensive construction and little probability of its success — The Southampton and Lon- don railway investigated— Shewn to be premature, and not a beneficial line — The Birmingham and London, and Great Western railway liable to similar objections — Great losses anticipated from the many proposed joint- stock schemes 25 CHAPTER IV. Steam locomotive power considered with reference to its expense — Shewn to be too expensive for use in conveying merchandise — The cause of its expense, and compara- tive cost of locomotive and stationary steam-engine — Cheapness of horse-power, and its speed sufficiently great for the transit of goods — Horse-power discussed in a statistical point of view 31 '^CHAPTER V. Further improvements proposed — The rails should be narrow, hard, and smooth — Facings of polished steel proposed — Railroads should be straight — Tunnels con- sidered, and the levelling of the hills generally to be preferred — Excavation of hills lessened in expense by the sale of the materials — Cheap transport will favour the formation of levels — Many extensive results of the system anticipated — Agriculture extended and im- proved — iMountains levelled, and climate improved — Great influence of the system upon the future prospects of mankind 40 '' CHAPTER VI. Railways and canals compared — The superior advantages of raih-oads when economically managed — The present CONTENTS. XI I'age. advantages of canals owing to the misuse of steam power upon railways — Canals inferior to railways in economy and speed — Render great tracks of country damp — Have a hum.id influence upon climate — In every respect a rude mode of conveyance — Their disappearance a great advantage in a national point of view 49 & CHAPTER VII. Proposal for one great line from Dover to Glasgow — Through the centre of the manufacturing districts of the kingdom — First division of the work from Dover to London — The navigation of the Thames superseded — Consequences to dock property not disadvantageous — The trade of London will be increased by railway tran- sit— Calculations of the general saving by the superces- sion in the Thames — The line from Dover to be carried to the Thames Tunnel — Proceeds due north to Birming- ham, Manchester, Glasgow, and Carlisle 58 CHAPTER VIII. The works now in progress at the harbour of Dover considered — Its improvement shewn to be difficult from natural causes — Proposed new harbour upon that part of the English Channel — Mode of constructing it — Its expenserepaid by the shipping drawn from the Thames — Proposed land communication with France — Shallowness of the sea, and facility of constructing a pass — Several modes proposed, a bridge, causeway, tunnel, steam ferry or floating bridge — Great revenue and international consequences to arise from the pass 70 CHAPTER IX. Central position of the pass amidst the European states — Railways from Calais to Paris, and the JMediterranean sea — Another great line from Calais through Belgium Holland, and the Hanse Towns to the Baltic sea — Xll CONTENTS. Page Calculations of revenue — Bridges between nations more required, if practicable, than bridges between towns — Objections to the effect upon the coasting trade removed — Importance of the reciprocity of nations 98 CHAPTER X. Return to the main line of British railroads to Portpatrick in Scotland — Land communication with Ireland proposed — The soundings and islands between Portpatrick and Donaghadee described — Circumstances favourable to the formation of a causeway — Proposal to employ the army in the construction of the work 98 CHAPTER XI. Review of the present commercial relations of England and Ireland — True causes of the poverty of Ireland and the wealth of England — Manufactures the principal source of English w^ealth and national power — They are founded upon steam power — Ireland cannot have steam power because destitute of coal — Agriculture shewn to be not the great source of national wealth 105 CHAPTER XII. Remedies for this deficiency of fuel pointec^ out — Coal of good quality may probably be found in Ireland — The coals of Scotland may be brought across the land pass — The steam-engine may be superseded, and coals no longer required — English superiority in manufatures then would decline — Probability that the railway system ■will equalize the advantages of all nations 115 CHAPTER XIII. Effect of land communication upon the agriculture of Ireland — General improvement of that country through the opening of the English markets — Prices of produce will be raised, the bogs reclaimed, and fisheries revived — CONTENTS. xiii Page A land communication -with Scotland and England will have other extensive consequences — Steam navigation shewn to be insufficient for these purposes — The union considered; its importance to England, shewn to be over- rated — General observations upon Irish politics and trade 124 CHAPTER XIV. Lines of railroads required through Ireland — Line to the Atlantic Ocean on the Bay of Donegal — New harbour proposed — Lines from the Clyde to Donaghadee and the Bay of Donegal — Line from Dublin to Donaghadee, and thence to Scotland and England — Project of a railway from Valentia to Dublin considered — Central position of the Isle of JMan pointed out — The intervening sea shallow, and this a favourable position for a land pass between England and Ireland 135 CHAPTER XV. Proposed railroad from Limerick to the Irish Channel — Importance of this line — A navigation of fifteen hundred miles towards England will be thus cut off — Consequen- ces of this upon the agriculture and general condition of the population of the centre and the west of Ireland — Line to be carried to Dungarvon Bay — Proposed im- provement of that navigation — Further influence of the harbour and railroad upon the fisheries of the Nymph Bank — The Shannon superseded by this railroad to the Irish Channel 139 CHAPTER XIV. The growth of tobacco in Ireland considered — Its prohibi- tion an error — Might be made a great cause of wealth — The soil, climate, and cheap labour of Ireland all favour- able to the cultivation of that plant — The prohibition shewn to have had other unfavourable consequences upon the progress of the country in wealth 119 XIV CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVII. Page. Influence of railways upon the Irish mines — A raih'oad proposed from Kilkenny to the Irish Channel — The Kilkenny coal field reached by this line — The coal described — Its advantages for steam navigation — Proba- bility of an extensive export trade in coal — This fuel favourable for the smelting of ores — When conveyed upon railways will cause the re-opening of the Irish mines — The hot blast and its effects in the manufacture of iron — Anthracite may be cheapened in its excavation — Ireland may now become possessed of extensive manu- factures of iron 166 CHAPTER XVIII. English railways as connected with the Irish trade — Line from Bristol to London — New harbour upon the Bristol Channel proposed — Railway from Birmingham to Bristol proposed — Great importance of such a line — The port of Liverpool as connected with the Irish trade — Injustice of the high dock dues — Proposal for deepening the Menai Strait — The English manufacturing districts in- terested in the cheap supplies of Irish grain — The general interests of the two countries the same 174 CHAPTER XIX. Some of the present political questions of Ireland dis- cussed — Church reform — Poor rates — Public educa- tion — Public works — The fisheries — Draining of the bogs — Taxes upon absentees — All these exaggerated in their importance — Ireland is possessed of abundant re- sources without assistance from the state 180 CHAPTER XX. The railway system in the new world — Railways from Halifax to Boston, and round the Avhole circuit of the sea board of the United States — Line from Quebec to CONTENTS. XV rage. the Bay of Fundy — The St. Lawrence superseded — Railway across the Peninsula of Florida — Importance of this work — Line from Baltimore to the Ohio river 101 CHAPTER XXL Other political consequences of railways in the United States — Their effect in concentrating the population — Commerce diverted from the western rivers by railways to the Atlantic Ocean — Thence the prevention of emi- gration to the new States, and spread of agriculture in the New England States — The climate of the New Eng- land States considered — Its extreme variableness and low temperature in winter — Proposal for the embank- ment of the lakes 201 CHAPTER XXII. Pass across the Isthmus of Suez considered — A canal the best mode of effecting the communication between the Red and ^Mediterranean seas — An iron canal proposed — A marine railway — Calculations of revenue from the work — Steam navigation to the East Indies favoured by circumstances — Railroad from Bombay to Calcutta — From Calcutta to Canton — Great results to be expected from this work 209 CHAPTER XXIII. Railroads as connected with the general question of free trade — Will be useless if monopolies be not previously abolished — Over-legislation the principal cause of na- tional poverty and distress — Governments must be limited in their powers — The Post Office an instance of the bad consequences of monopolies — The Corn Laws discussed with reference to railroads — Shewn to be a great evil — Produce great derangements of trade, botli at home and abroad — The importance of the landed in- terest over-rated — ^lanufactures the great source of XVI CONTENTS. Page national wealth — Probability tliat railways will transfer the ascendancy to France — The landed interest short- sighted in opposing the progress of manufactures 217 CHAPTER XXIV. The currency considered — Great importance of the question — The Bank of England a dangerous institution — Le- gislative errors committed with regard to it — The panic occasioned by the errors of the government and the Bank — Suppression of the one and two pound notes a great injury to the commerce of the country — The trade in money should be free — Free trade will always pro- duce an abundance of the precious metals — No legisla- tion required with regard to gold., 229 ■> » » • » > THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF RAILROADS. CHAPTER I. Objects of the present work — Importance of Railroads — Proper mode of constructing them considered — The general jJrinciples of Joint-stock companies explained — Individual enterprise pre- ferred to the operations of great incorporated bodies — Expenses of joint-stock coynpanies frequently fatal to their prof table existence — Superior advajitages of private capitalists — All commercial legislation should be avoided — Companies for the formation of railroads shewn to be not an exception to the general rule. The new mode of locomotion by iron railways is so remarkable an invention, and promises to bring forth changes so extraordinary in the affairs of all civilized nations, that contributions to our knowledge of the principles upon which it has its foundation will be appreciated by all who are aware of the importance of giving a just direction h 2 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY to a system which already is perceived to be amongst the most magnificent scientific pheno- mena of modern days. The present work has, therefore, for its object, — to go forward to the future, in preference to dwell- ing upon the past, — to point to the many dangerous errors which are about to be committed by the shareholders in the almost innumerable crowds of joint-stock companies which are daily coming into existence, — and to explain the commercial and legislative principles which are applicable to the system, and without a comprehension of which, this most valuable invention is in danger of being smothered in its rise. The material mechanism of railways has been so abundantly set forth in the many valuable works which have appeared since the opening of the Manchester and Liverpool railway has given a stimulus to inquiries upon this subject, that it is proposed, in these remarks, to pass over that por- tion of the ground, and to proceed to the first step in our inquiry into the Political Economy of Railroads, by an examination of the principles upon which joint-stock companies, for any pur- pose whatsoever, can have any just foundation, when viewed in connexion with the circum- stances of the present age. Joint-stock companies, when incorporated by acts of parliament, are usually treated by political economists as coming under the order of mono- OF RAILllOADS. 3 polies; and the principles of monopoly have been described, by the author of " The Wealth of Nations,'' in a manner so clear, that it is difficult to comprehend how the track of legislation has been lost, as exhibited in the numberless incor- porated bubbles of recent years. According, then, to those principles of legislation, which are derived from the order of all natural justice, each subject of a state is entitled to an equal opportunity of employing to his own advantage, and consequently to the advantage of the state, his own labour, enterprise, capital, and skill ; and any violation of the commercial rights of indi- viduals can be justified only on the ground of some overwhelming necessity which has arisen to the state. Following this reasoning, it is found that monopolies, or acts of incorporation for joint- stock companies, can only be granted to favoured individuals, in return for some corresponding advantage so rendered to the whole community ; and this advantage must be indispensably ne- cessary to be obtained, — and such as cannot be achieved by the individual skill, capital, and labour of the subjects of the state. The only description of undertakings which the author of *' The Wealth of Nations " could find, in his own day, to possess these characteristics for incorpo- ration, he describes as limited to three:— compa- nies for the formation of roads, harbours, canals, — for banking institutions, -and for insurance B 2 4 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY against fire and death. But, limited as this num- ber of just incorporations may appear to be, it is not to be altogether surrendered that even those, in the times of our illustrious economist, were in reality well-founded exceptions to the general rule ; for the roads, harbours, canals, banking institu- tions, and offices of insurance, in an age of less extended commerce than the present, were only required upon a scale which corresponded to the wealth existing in the hands of individuals ; nor has there ever wanted a Duke of Bridge water to construct canals from the resources of his own fortune ; nor private bankers, with a sufficiency of capital for the accommodation of all the purposes of trade; nor individual underwriters, who could pay for the most valuable cargo that ever has been lost upon the sea. But whatever the necessities of former times may have rendered expedient with regard to the incorporation of joint-stock compa- nies, it is at least certain that the modern immense accumulations of capital render the efforts of individuals quite equal to the accomplishment of the grandest designs which have arisen with the extending commerce of the present day. And not only upon principles of equity and equality, but upon those of expediency and eco- nomy of management, it is for the benefit of states that privileges and acts of incorporation should be very sparingly dealt out. For great incorpo- rated institutions are more complicated, unma- OF RAILROADS. nageable, and expensive in the machinery re- quired for their direction, and more subject to the losses which arise from waste, indifference, and fraud, than the smaller establishments carried on by individual subjects of the state. This arises out of the principle of self-interest and self-preser- vation ; since an individual, — whose whole fortune is embarked in his occupation, and from the well management of which he must derive his subsist- ence, or from the ill-management of which that subsistence ^vill be endangered or destroyed, — will usually conduct his affairs with more economy, vigilance, and skill, than any great incorporated body of proprietors, whose numbers are too large, and whose individual interests are too small, for the requisite attention which is wanted for success. Indeed, great numbers of subscribers to joint- stock companies engage in such speculations, not for the fair indemnification to arise in the shape of interest for their capital employed, but for the plunder of the rest of the subscribers, in the shape of the unduly salaried idleness of direc- tors, secretaries, solicitors, contractors, parliament- ary agents, and the whole supernumerary rabble who clog the operations of all such great incorpo- rated jobs. This natural tendency of such insti- tutions to mismanagement, waste, and early anni- hilation of the capital of unsuspecting speculators has been seen in the melancholy history of the bubble institutions of the vear 1825. Had the le- (] 'JHE POLITICAL ECONOMY gislature borne in mind the very alphabet of poli- tical economy, scarcely one of all those schemes would have ever been allowed to see the day, for no other purpose than to send thousands of inno- cent speculators, in the words of a celebrated writer of the time, to the gaol, the workhouse, and the grave. For these companies were incor- porated for purposes which could be abundantly well achieved by the capital of individuals, and were not indispensable to the welfare of the state ; since many of them were companies for washing, baking, milking, and almost all the very simplest operations of ordinary life. Let us examine the operation of such institu- tions, in the history of the Steam Washing Com- pany, which established itself upon the Isle of Dogs. Here it is seen, that all the privileges and powers of the company could not prevent them from being underwashed and ruined by the individual wash- erwoman, at her own unincorporated tub. For the washerwoman at Kensington had no directors, secretaries, engineers, and other supernumeraries to employ ; she had no large annual sum to lay aside for the payment of the costs of passing a bill through the houses of parliament j no house in a conspicuous situation, and at an enormous annual rent ; no Ottoman sofas, silver candlesticks, and Turkey carpets, for the furniture of this house ; and no dinners for the directors, consisting of turtle OF RAJLllOADS. 7 and champagne. Thence the individual washer- woman could achieve clean linen at a much cheaper rate than a company, \vhich could only act under such loads of superfluous expense : and thence the annihilation of the capital, and ruin of the happiness of thousands of speculators, in that and the numberless other similar institutions wdiich went down after the bulk of the capital had been swallowed up by the projectors of the schemes, was attributable only to the error of a government, which, in endowing them with privileges, immu- nities, and irresponsibility beyond all other sub- jects, was guilty of a broad violation of the clearest principles of all commercial law. Having thus cleared the way to the subject more immediately before us, and having seen the disastrous consequences of the errors of former years, it is next to be discovered whether railroad companies are not liable to similar objections as the companies for washing, milking, and baking the bread of the subjects of the state. That railroads are of the greatest importance to the welfare of the community, and indispensable to be possessed by this country for the purpose of maintaining an equality of advantages with the neighbouring nations, is certainly most true ; but it is not a consequence, that private individuals cannot undertake the construction of such works. The canals of the Dukeof Bridgewater were com- pleted from one fortune, at a time when that for- 8 Tlli: POLITICAL ECONOMY tune was not of one half of the value of such pro- perties in the present day ; and, not to confine ourselves to the ranks of the aristocracy, there are numbers of individuals who have been able to in- vest such sums as 100,000/. in the railroad, now in the act of construction, from London to Birming- ham alone. Let us, therefore, suppose that a pri- vate company of such capitalists should determine upon forming a new line of railroad from Man- chester to Liverpool, in opposition to the present joint-stock line. The distance is thirty-two miles, and allowing that the land could be obtained by private purchase, or even that a circuit of some miles were rendered necessary by the opposition of some of the proprietors upon the route, still this private company, by avoiding the great outlay for parliamentary expenses, and for the salaries of directors and other officers, and availing them- selves of the improved method of constructing rail- roads which have arisen out of the experience of those whom they would be about to oppose, would probably be enabled to complete their un- dertaking at less than one quarter of the cost of the joint-stock line. By the purchase of portions of the old turnpike road, and the avoidance of su|)erfluous expenses for Ionic colunms and other ornamental pieces of workmanship in the bridges, viaducts, and warehouses required, with that general attention to economy which individuals will always exercise in these s[)eculations, — it is Ol- RAILROADS. \) probable that a private company of three capital- ists could complete a sufficient railway communi- cation of thirty-two miles, at 4,000/. per mile, or less than a sum of 128,000/. for the whole distance of thirty-two miles. Our knowledge of the costs of the private railways at the collieries in the north and still more that the canals of the Duke of Bridgewater were all executed at a cost of little more than 1,000/. per mile, renders a sum of 4,000/. per mile an abundant allowance for the construc- tion of a railroad through even a very expensive portion of the kingdom. But, on the other hand, the railroad of the joint-stock company already in existence was constructed at a cost of not less than 800,000/., or 25,000/. per mile, which is more than five times the sum that a company of private adventurers would probably require for the con- struction of a railroad thirty-two miles long. The private company would, moreover, be managed at one half of the annual cost for the joint-stock line; and, with all these advantages, would be enabled to convey merchandise and passengers from Man- chester to Liverpool at one-sixth of the charge. The consequence of this change would be, that total ruin would fall upon the joint- stock line : nearly one million, originally invested in it, — and another million, which has been added in the purchase of shares, which have risen to about one hundred per cent, above par, — all would be wasted and destroyed, and grass would grow upon a road 10 TJIE POLITICAL ECONOMY which now is apparently in the full tide of pros- perity, and the pride and glory of the world. In this conjuncture, the government would be implored, by the shareholders in the joint-stock line, to interfere, to prevent the construction of the private line. But this prevention of the for- mation of a cheaper road from Manchester to Liverpool, would virtually amount to an addition of four hundred per cent, upon the cost of trans- portation between these two great mercantile towns ; and, as other manufacturing districts and nations would possess railways and locomotion at the cheaper rate, the advantages of cheap transit would be lost to the manufacturers of Manchester and the merchants of Liverpool, through this violent upholding of a monopoly of the carrying trade. It would, therefore, be a cheaper method of overcoming the consequences of the first mis- take, — not to commit a greater, by taking away ten times more capital in forced resistance to the pros- perity of Manchester and Liverpool, which such a measure would create, — but rather to purchase, out of the treasury of the country, the whole of the stock of a company which will thus have fallen into ruin through the want of foresight in the go- vernment alone. Nor is there any doubt that individual enter- prise will soon be directed to the formation of such works. Though no one capitalist should possess the means of forming a line of railroad of OF IIAILIIOADS. 1 1 luindreds of miles in length, yet a chain of such capitalists would very easily complete such an undertaking, by dividing the line into individual proprietorships of the road from tov^n to town. The opposition to the sale of the required land would also very rapidly disappear ; for amidst the falling of rents, and general agricultural distress, the self-interest of the landed proprietor will very soon turn his opposition into the most ardent support of undertakings which would double the value of his estate. — With a better knowledge of the advantages of the system, the opponents of railways will become few and far between. From these principles and calculations, it is seen that all commercial legislation is an evil that ought to be avoided ; that no act of Parlia- ment, for the furtherance of any enterprise, trade, or commercial purpose whatsoever, should be allowed to be passed ; and that railroad projects are not an exception to the general rule. 12 THE POLITICAL LCONOMV CHAPTER II. The common turnpike roads the true sites for the Jormatioji of railroads — Practicability of cojistrucling them on the present roads — The traffic not impeded during the Jbrination of the tracks — Suspension railways proposed — Plates exhibiting the proposed new system — Saving of property by the use of the present roads — Costs of parliamentary bills — Surveys and other expejises saved — Saving of property in inns — Mortgages upon tolls and other investments on the present roads prevented from being lost — The sites of the turnpike roads in every respect to be jjrefeiTcd. As joint- stock companies are not an approved method of bringing the railroad system to that perfection which the national economist must desire, it is proposed, as the next step in this inquiry, to point to the existing common turn- pike roads, as the most eligible lines upon which the foundation of the system should be laid. It has not been sufficiently considered, that the improvements in road-making, during recent years, have caused the levelling of hills and shortening of distances, almost to the most direct lines and levels that possibly can be found. Upon these ready-made lines of road, it would therefore be the most obvious policy to commence the inter- section of the kingdom with the railways ; for the OF RAILROADS. 13 laying down tracks of iron is not comparatively a much greater improvement upon the present Mac- adamized roads, than Macadamized roads were upon the rude roads of former times ; and, indeed, the substitution of iron tracks would appear to be the next and most natural and gradual improve- ment of common turnpike roads. Thus there is abundance of room for the construction of single tracks upon either of the sides of the present wide and magnificent North road ; and waggons might travel to and fro, and yet not impede, for the present, the travelling of carriages, mails, and waggons, upon the centre of the road. Or, if the roads were required to be widened for the trial of the new system, and for the avoidance of inter- ruption to the traffic during the progress of the work, still the turnpike roads present immeasur- ably the cheapest lines of road. For here would be no new purchases of land, and no parliamentary expenses ; no invasion of estates, and destruction of immense masses of property in the inns and other appurtenances of a great mercantile road. Were the commissioners of the turnpike roads to commence by laying down one track upon either side of the road, — then, not only would the cost for new land and for parliamentary proceedings be avoided, — but no engineers, consulting-engineers, secretaries, assist- ant-secretaries, with solicitors, directors, standing counsel, and takers of gradients, termini, and 14 THE POLITICAL F.CONO:\IY levels, would be required; and thence, the various lines would be constructed at one-tenth of the ex- pense, and the price of locomotion be in a corres- ponding degree reduced to the people at large, by the nullification of the joint-stock schemes. Indeed, the incalculable waste of property which is threatened upon the present turnpike roads, is a very powerful reason why parliament should pause upon the entertainment of all joint- stock schemes. An individual possessor of property cannot certainly be protected in its enjoyment against the experience, enterprise, capital, and skill of another individual of the same community ; and, therefore, if individuals construct railroads which shall destroy the property of other individuals upon turnpike roads, it is one of the ordinary misfortunes of an age of rapid progression in inventive science ; but the advantages to the nation must be shewn to be very overwhelming indeed, before a just government would endow bodies of other individuals with privileges and powers which should operate to the destruction of the livelihood of individuals who possess inns, farms, and establishments for coaches and wag- gons upon an old-established line of turnpike road. Upon this ground, it is difficult to be seen how landed proprietors, whose property is taken away for the construction of new lines of road, should be more entitled to compensation than the OF KAILROADS. 15 owners of inns and farms, whose properties arc equally taken away, in being rendered valueless by the new railroad line. If it be for the benefit of trade, and therefore for the benefit of the state, that bills should be passed for the formation of lines of road through the lands of individuals, — so the same benefit derived by the state should, upon just principles, direct that compensation should be made for the equally forced loss of pro- perty in inns, farms, and other appurtenances of the road, which the law, for the benefit of the state, has compelled to be destroyed. This is, then, the most economical plan upon which the railway system can be allowed to unfold itself. The land is already purchased ; and where not already levelled, levels may be made at a comparatively small cost ; and the labour of our ancestors having given to us the sites, it would be folly to lay void these roads for the purchase of new land, for purposes which the old will serve equally as well. Then the debts upon the present roads would be saved from being lost by the diversion of the trade to the proposed new lines ; to which being added the salvation of the inns, and other valuable ap- purtenances of the present lines, with the saving of the capital which must be invested in new inns upon the new lines, and the saving of the pro- perty in the new railroads, inns, and appurte- nances, — which will be in danger of being again 16 THE POLITICAL ECOXO^n' laid waste by future private competition, — the hazard of all this massacre of property is so immi- nent, as to lead to the necessity of a pause in legislation upon the subject, if not to the closing of the doors of parliament upon all seekers of bills for the various joint-stock schemes. Having, then, established the true sites for rail- ways to be upon the present turnpike roads, it is proposed, in the following engravings, to ex- hibit new views of the construction of the works. In Plate I, is a view of the present great North road, and upon either of the sides is a single track of iron road — the waggons drawn by horses and confined to the proper side of the road, whether travelling to or fro. In the centre is seen a mail coach and horses travelling without interruption upon the present turnpike road, and in the act of being passed by another with equal facility as at the present time. The average w^idth of the great North road and of the other principal roads of the kingdom is about thirty five yards, and the width of two mail coaches abreast is about six- teen or eighteen feet ; and thence coaches or waggons and horses could pass and yet abundance of space be allowed for either of the tracks of iron road to be taken from the present width. Thus no interruption of the usual traffic would take place during the construction or after the opening of the riJlway tracks ; or, if the present width of the turnpike be not sufficient for these purposes, OF RAILROADS. 17 PLATE I. >;3h x^ i PLATE II. C'/?^j:2:C^===rr=^ x-^'^^ r^/"^ ^#S"^^vv^^^ PLATE III. 18 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY the throwing down of the hedges upon only one side of the road would yield the required breadth, and be attended with but very inconsiderable cost. By this means we lay the first foundation of the system upon any common turnpike road. In Plate II., the same road is exhibited, but with the addition of the suspension railway above. This superincumbent structure is shewn to rest upon a series of iron pillars and braces, imme- diately upon which the rail is made to rest ; and the carriages being constructed with wheels upon the principle which throws the weight upon the axle, the chief weight of the waggon and load is thrown upon the centre of strength in the iron pillars. The track upon which the horse moves is constructed of wood, as upon suspension bridges, that being the lightest material to be be used, where the economy of weight is to be sought. The distribution of the weight upon the suspension railway is, therefore, such as to produce the minimum of pressure, and therefore, the mi- nimum of strength and of expense for the work of which it is composed. Thus two railways are obtained upon the same quantity of land, and the railway above covers in and protects from the rain, dust and snow, the track beneath it; whilst its own elevation secures it from dust, and allows the rain to flow off by spouts to be placed at intervals, similar to the scuppers of a ship. Projecting from either side of the upper railway is a walk or sort of balcony for foot-passengers. This widens OF RAILROADS. 19 into a stage at an interval of each seven or eight miles, for the purpose of changing the horse, and of lighting, tending, and repairing the general body of the work. For foot-passengers this walk will be at all times dry. The waggons are seen passing at a speed of twelve or thirteen miles an hour, conveying passengers, mails, and light articles of merchandise. This portion of the road is to remain upon the present plan, since the carriage of passengers and goods at the rate of twelve miles an hour, and at a charge of less than one quarter of the cost for locomotive steam- engines, will probably be sufficient to continue to that department of the work a large portion of support. When passengers shall be enabled to travel at the rate of thirteen miles an hour, or from London to York in fourteen hours, it is probable that the saving of three quarters of the fare will more than counterbalance the saving of one-half of the time, by a steam locomotive engine at twenty- six miles an hour, or double the speed of the horse. But though this portion of the work should be deserted for the steam-track which is about to be constructed, yet its utility will remain for the conveyance of merchandise alone. In Plate III. is seen the completion of the sys- tem by the covering of the whole site of the road with railroad-tracks ; for the completion of the first suspension-railway, in the preceding plate, allowed the mail-coaches, private carriages, and c 2 20 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY Other rapidly moving vehicles to be transferred to that line ; and thence the centre of the road no longer being required, the workmen were seen in the act of constructing the central works, which appear in the present i)late. The tracks here consist of a double line of horse railroads below, with a double track suspended upon arches above, for the use of steam power. Locomotive engines are seen passing to and fro, and this portion of the work is supposed to rest upon a series of light elliptic iron arches, because a greater degree of strength is required for the support of a steam lo- comotive engine than for a single horse. Here is gradually completed a series of lines which afford every degree of speed, the transit on no one track being impeded by that of another. The stream of trade is flowing continuously upon one track from, and upon the opposite one to, any given ])lace. A double number of lines upon the ground is afforded, since the bulk of the traffic upon any road must consist of the carriage of goods ; and those also travelling at the slower rate will oc- cupy more time, and thence the road being more continuously filled, a greater space for that species of traffic is seen to be required. What the cost of the suspension or arched rail- ways would be, must depend upon local circum- stances, and upon the cost of iron at the time and place of their construction. The expense would be very greatly diminished by the cheap trans- OF RAILROADS. 21 port upon the first completed track, of the iron- work required for the whole of the railroads above. The arches, it is to be observed, are not the wide arches of a cast-iron bridge, but only, perhaps, one twentieth part of such width and expense ; since arches of one foot in width would be sufficient for the foundation upon which the sleeper and rail are to rest, the whole weight of the locomotive engines and trains being thrown upon the axles and rails — the transverse flooring being also of wood, as in the former case. The centre arch will support two sets of sleepers and rails, and as the pressure upon an elliptic arch may be increased to any extent without injury to that most indestructible of all the positions of matter, the work would endure to the end of time. Per- haps, therefore, we may estimate the cost of such a work as being about one tenth part of a cast- iron bridge fifty feet wide ; or, with the advan- tage of the cheap carriage of the iron-work, about 3,000/. per mile. Should the traffic upon the line of railroad not render necessary a quadruple track for the con- veyance of goods, then the centre of the road— upon the ground-plan — may be occupied for tlie purposes of steam locomotive power. The arched railway may then be added at any future time, when increased trade, and decreased expense in the price of iron-work, or other local circum- stances shall lead to an extension and completion 22 THE POLITICAL FXONOMV of the work. The advances in the value of iron- work — which will probably be the consequence for a long time — upon the great demand for the materials of the new iron roads, may lead to a more economical construction of the arches by stone or other materials, which may abound or be readily conveyed upon the lines of road. Here, then, we complete the introduction of the system of railways, without hindrance to the present traffic upon turnpikes — without the loss of the sites of the present roads — without the purchase of new land — without parliamentary costs — without the general machinery of joint- stock companies — in one quarter of the time, and at one quarter of the expense, since the sites have been provided by the labour of our ancestors, and therefore come to us without cost. It is pro- bable, therefore, that no private railroad could be formed upon terms which would supersede the public railroads then formed at the minimum of expense. The double economy of the preservation of the present turnpike roads, is thus seen to be conclusive against the opposition of all joint-stock lines ; and though the commissioners of the turnpike roads should not proceed to the formation of iron tracks, yet, as the Macadamized roads could not compete with railroads in cheapness of transport, even though the latter were encumbered with the expenses of joint-stock operations, and the trade and the tolls would thus be lost to the present OF RAILROADS. 23 lines, the incumbrancers of the turnpikes would then be entitled to the property in the road. For the extensive improvements in road-making which have been produced in recent years, as seen in the levelling of hills, and shortening of distances, have caused very extensive debts to be incurred upon almost all the great turnpike roads ; and though mortgagees have a security upon only the tolls of the respective roads, yet would equity compel the commissioners to use every exertion in their power to prevent the annihilation of the capital .thus loaned. Therefore the sites of the then de- serted roads would be compulsorily sold for the benefit of the creditors, and thus passing into the hands of individual speculators, the rails would in that manner be laid in opposition to the joint- stock line. Perhaps the sale of the present lines would be the most truly economical mode of commencing the new operations in iron roads. For though the subdivision of turnpike trusts into distances of only a few miles in length, is a less evil than the system of centralization, which impedes all improvement in the roads of foreign nations, ye the utmost economy of transport could best be obtained by the operations of private individuals, and the whole of the turnpike roads of the kingdom would be very advantageously sold. As national property, the conditions of the sale might limit the toll to the minimum required for the 24 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY benefit of trade, though even that condition would probably be rendered needless by the competi- tion of opposing lines. Were the tolls exor- bitant upon the road to Manchester through Bir- mingham, the railroad through Oxford would be simultaneously open for the conveyance of passen- gers and merchandise; and therefore the principle of free competition would reduce to a fair level the average of all toll. Individual proprietors would also more zealously follow out the improve- ments in the construction of railroads, than \vould any unsalaried commissioners, whose self-interest is not engaged in the most economical manage- ment of the roads; and therefore the introduction of the system of private proprietorships in roads would produce, first, an immense amount of mo- ney, to the extent of many millions, in the sale of the fee, and afterwards in the more economical management of individuals, the utmost reduction in the cost of locomotion, and, therefore, the utmost benefit to the state. Thus it appears, that the joint-stock schemes in the expenses required for their incorporation, for the complicated machinery indispensable to their management, and in the fear from the more econo- mical effects of individual competition, are beset with difficulties and dangers upon every side. OF RAILROADS. 2o CHAPTER III. Some of the lines now in the act of construction examined as to their pr oh ahility of success — The Greenwich and London rail- pjay — Its expensive construction, aiid little probahiUtij of its success — The Southampton and London railwatj investigated — Sheivn to he premature, and 7iot a henejicial line — Tlie Bir- mingham and London, and Great Westerii railways liable to similar objections — Great losses anticipated from the many proposed joint-stock schemes. As these remarks are intended for the preven- tion of future loss, it may be well that a few of the existing joint-stock companies in railroads should be next examined as to their individual claims upon the capital of the subjects of the state. First, in order of time, is the Greenwich and London railway. This work is computed by its projectors to require an expenditure of 400,000/. for six miles of railway, or a sum of 85,000/. per mile. Without alluding to the expensive con- struction of arches of brick, or asserting that light iron work would have been of equal strength and greater durability, and one third cheaper in ex- pense, it is apparent that under any circumstances whatever, no such a work can have the slightest chance to succeed. For the calculations as to the 2C THE POLITICAL ECONOMY niuiiber of passengers to be carried upon this line will be found to be very short-sighted in every de- partment of the scheme. Were there to be in future this one railway alone from the metropolis as a holiday plaything for the people, then the ex- penses of such a work might probably be borne ; but when railroads will at the same time be in existence from all the other entrances to London, the novelty will be divided amongst them upon equal terms ; or rather the others not passing through so much expensive property, and there- fore having been completed for one quarter of the cost of the railway from London to Greenwich, and having locomotive power upon equal terms will be enabled to carry passengers and mer- chandise at one quarter of the rate ; for the Liverpool and Manchester railroad has been con- structed at 25,000/. per mile, and the South- ampton, Great Western, and Birmingham railroads are all estimated at a similar rate, and therefore passengers could travel nearly four times the dis tance upon any of these lines as upon a road which has been constructed at a cost of 85,000/. per mile. Passengers could be conveyed to Windsor upon the Western road, a distance of twenty-one miles at the same ex])ense which must be incurred for only six miles of transj)ort uj)on the Green- wich line. Therefore Greenwich will not only be not improved in attractions for passengers through the construction of its railway, but its present OF RAILROADS. 27 advantages will be absolutely annihilated, when locomotion shall be more than 300 per cent, dearer upon its railroad than upon the other roads leading out of town. The calculations that the passengers would be diverted from the present turnpike road, have therefore no reference what- ever to a future state of things, wdien other rail- roads shall be in existence and in superior advan- tages of competition for the trade. That the mass of the community will prefer those roads which are the cheapest in expense is certainly quite clear ; for the desertion of the Waterloo-bridge for more circuitously placed bridges which procure the salvation of one penny, makes an unanswer- able instance that negligence of small sums is not the characteristic of the great body of the people. These calculations are founded, however, upon the supposition that the turnpike roads should not be converted into iron ways, for should that system be introduced, the present road from London to Greenwich, from Westminster-bridge, is almost a direct line, and almost a perfect level, and could be covered with rails at one fortieth part of the w^hole cost of the present joint-stock line. More- over, the estimate of passengers to be derived from the Thames has been totally annulled by the pro- ject of a railway to Blackwall, if even the whole stream of passengers from abroad does not centre at Dover or Gravesend ; for all will avoid the ex- 28 THE POl.niCAL ECONOMY pense and delay of water conveyance when rail- roads shall afford a conveyance at one-third of the expense, and with a saving of two-thirds of the time. Neither can the Greenwich railroad be a por- tion of the future line from Dover and Gravesend, since a cheaper mode of approaching the metropolis must be found than one which has been formed at a cost of 85,000/. per mile. Under all this accu- mulation of disadvantages and misfortunes, it is clear that this railway is amongst the most mon- strous abortions that folly ever yet has caused to be brought into the financial world. The Southampton and London railroad is esti- mated at a cost of 25,000/. per mile. Passengers from and to England and France would appear to be the chief dependence for its profitable support. But as lines of railway will soon be constructed from Paris to Calais, and from Dover to London, and the distance from Dover to London will be less than that to Southampton, with the advantage of a line to be constructed at one quarter of the cost of the present too early railway to Southampton, it is certain that there is little chance for a subsis- tence for the latter line. The })assage from Havre de Grace to Southam])ton occupies usually a period of twelve hours, whilst that from Calais to Dover not more than about three hours, and though the difference of distance between Havre de Grace and Calais is now so considerable as to give OF RAILROADS. 29 Southampton some opportunity as a thorough- fare from France, yet when a railway shall convey passengers from Havre de Grace to Calais at five times the present speed, and at one fifth of the present cost, it is probable that the saving of nine hours in time and the corresponding expense of the passage by steam, with the general aversion to the water by passengers of pleasure, will bring the whole of the intercourse between Eng^land and the continental states to centre at Dover alone. Thus the railroad to Southampton will be re- duced for its livelihood to depend upon the trade of that watering-place alone, subject also to the hazard of opposition from future private compe- tition at one quarter of its cost, or the covering of the turnpike road with rails, at, perhaps, one- twentieth portion of the expense of this joint- stock line. Of the Birmingham and London, and the Great Western railroads, it is only required to remark that the expenses which have been incurred in the passing of the bills, and other preliminary ar- rangements for their construction, amount to a sum which would cover the whole length of the turnpike roads to those places, with two tracks of rails. There are of other schemes which propose themselves for acts of incorporation in the ensuing session of parliament, altogether, a number 30 THE POLIllCAL ECONOMY whose aggregate capital stock would amount to about fifty millions of money, of which great por- tion of the wealth of the country it is probable that were all the petitioning companies incorpo- rated, about forty millions would be lost. OF KAJLItOADS. 31 CHAPTER IV. Steam locomotive power considered with reference to its expense — Shewn to be too expensive for use in conveying merchandise — The cause of its expense, ajid comparative cost of locomotive and stationary steam-engine — Cheapness of horse pojver, and its speed sufficiently great for the transit of goods — Horse power discussed in a statistical point of view. Having thus obtained some views of the leois- lative economy of railways, it is proposed to ex- amine next the material economy of the new system — and first, the propelling power. The great disadvantage now experienced by the railroad companies is the difficulty of reconciling economy with speed, through the enormous outlay for the cost and repairs of the steam locomotive engines, the returns; of the Liverpool and Man- chester company being found to exhibit the sum of 80,000/. per annum as required for the steam power, without including the damage and de- rangement of the road, through the pressure of those moving mountains of iron, water, and coals, of which the steam-drags and their appurtenanc- es are composed. This great annual outlay for steam power is required almost for the conveyance of passengers alone ; for the cost of transport by steam is so very expensive that little merchandise 32 THE POriTlCAL ECONOMY is carried upon the railroad; and excepting for the rapid transport of passengers, the work may be said to be of no benefit to trade. The ]\lancliester and Liverpool railroad com- pany have persevered in the use of locomotive en- gines up to the present time, although by that m(xle of conveyance the goods which, by horse power, are carried upon the Stockton and Darling- ton and other railroads, at one penny per ton, per mile, are not carried at less than Ss. per ton from Liverpool and Manchester, a distance of thirty-two miles : the consequent charge being about 3^/. per ton, per mile, or two hundred per cent, higher than the usual charge where the horse has been substituted for the power of steam. In consequence of this charge for the conveyance of goods, the Liverpool and Manchester company have not succeeded in abstracting any very consi- derable portion of the trade from the canal, since out of nearly two millions of tons of croods which regularly pass between those two great commer- cial towns, the railway company has yet obtained only about 200,000 tons, or one tenth part of the whole ; although the canal is about sixty miles long, and the goods three days upon the way. Indeed, it is asserted, that at this great charge of Ss, per ton from Manchester to Liverpool no profit arises to the company upon the conveyance of goods, but that a positive loss is sustained, and this loss is made up from their profits upon the conveyance OF RAILROADS. 33 of passengers alone. Since, therefore, the charge for the conveyance of goods cannot be reduced without loss, below 3^. per ton, per mile, for steam power ; and that charge is so much higher than the rate at which goods can be conveyed upon canals, it follows that if the utmost advantage be intended to be taken of the capabilities of the system, some cheaper power must be found. Stationary engines have been fully proved to have no advantage over locomotive engines, by reason of the great loss of power in the distance from the load and other disadvantages ; and, though a steam engine, when stationary, is cer- tainly acting advantageously in not being bur- thened with the propulsion of its own weight, and of water, fuel, and attendants — yet the above counteracting circumstance has been found equally fatal to its profitable use. Air engines, of various kinds, though promising to be a light and highly suitable contrivance, have not yet been brought into a perfect or practica- ble shape — and therefore the horse alone remains to be considered as the agent again to be employed. First, to meet the objection, — that the slow motion of the horse, \vhen drawing loads of mer- chandise upon a railroad, which does not admit the passing of faster travelling vehicles as upon a turnpike road, — it has already been proposed to remove the locomotive engines to a peculiar de- partment of the work, either upon arches above, D 34 THE POLITICAL ECONOMV or upon the ground in the centre of the road. By these means the necessity of conveying goods at a rate of twenty-five miles an hour, as upon the Manchester and Liverpool railroad, in order that passengers and mails shall not be obstructed in the rapid motion which is required, will be effectually removed ; and the removal of this impediment will be next seen to convert the carrying of mer- chandise into an extensive source of profit, though now it is attended with a positive loss. Having therefore removed the passengers, mails, and light articles of merchandise to the suspension road, — the next step is to organize the system of horse transport upon the track below. It has been seen that upon the Manchester and Liverpool line, the charge for the conveyance of goods by steam is not capable of being reduced be- low 8^. per ton, and that a loss is probably sus- tained even at that high charge, — whereas, by horses, the same merchandise could be conveyed at 16". per ton from Manchester to Liverpool, or only an eighth part of the charge by steam locomotive power. Experiment has shewn that the daily performance of a horse upon a level railway is equal to twelve tons conveyed a distance of twenty miles at the rate of two miles an hour. But without referring to the extensive improve- ments in the construction of the works, and the consequent great increase of the propelling power of the horse, which arc undoubtedly at hand, let OF KATLflOADS. .'jf) US content ourselves with supposing that the daily task of the horse shall be not more than twelve tons, to be conveyed for a distance of twenty miles. At this charge of 1^. per ton, one horse will earn a sum of 12s. per day, or, at the rate of six working days, the sum of 3/. 12^. per week. The expense of the support of each horse in feeding, stabling, and attendance, would not be more than about 12^. per week, or less than one-third of its earnings, when engaged in the business of conveying goods at the rate of 1^. per ton for a distance of thirty- two miles. There is, accordingly, a profit of two thirds of the earnings of the horse, which profit will amount to 6d. per ton from Manchester to Liverpool; and if two millions of tons were an- nually conveyed by horse power (the canal being then closed) the profit would amount to 50,000/. per annum : whereas, at the rate of even Ss. per ton for steam power, a positive loss has been seen to be sustained. To this is to be added the great saving in the annual expenditure for the re- pairs of the road, when locomotive engines, weigh- ing each about ten tons, and pressing fully upon the rail, shall be superseded by horse's, whose weight will rest altogether upon the centre of the road. Nor would the diminution of speed in the con- veyance of merchandise be attended with the slightest injury to trade. At the rate of three miles an hour merchandise may be transported D 2 36 THE POLITICAL KCONOMY by horses from Manchester to Liverpool in a period of ten hours, or from Birmingham to London in a period of fifty-six hours, or at full speed upon the suspension railway, in two hours from Manches- ter to Liverpool, or nine hours from Birmingham to London, and at a cost very far indeed below that for conveyance by steam. Then the imme- diate delivery of goods is not at all times a very material consideration, for at present the goods which pass from Manchester to Liverpool at Ss, per ton very frequently remain for hours in the warehouses of the company, although that time might have been employed in a slower motion by horse power at one eighth part of the charge for transport by this most unnecessary steam. Thus, under this system, the speed of conveying passen- gers and mails would not be decreased if the steam power were employed upon the suspension railway above, whilst the rate of conveying the goods by horse power below would not be inconveniently slow, and seven eighths of the amount of carriage would be saved by the change. The dividend upon the capital invested in the railway would therefore be increased, when 50,000/. per annum would be the profit upon the labour of horses where now an extensive loss is sustained, and a reduction of 7s. per ton would take place upon the two millions of tons of goods which would be annually carried upon the Manchester and Liverj^ool line. This w^ould amount to the sum of 700,000/. per OK IIAILKOADS. 37 annum, by which amount the consumers of tlie goods would be benefited in the consequent re- duction of the price. Next let us examine the advantages and dis- advantages of the use of horses in a statistical point of view. It has been reckoned amongst the most valuable consequences of the introduction of railroads, that horses would become disused, and that more food would accordingly be in existence for the human mouth. The keep of one horse is equal to the support of a labouring family of four persons; and if the whole number of horses be estimated at only four millions, the cost of their support will be equal to that of one half of the population of the land. To remove this animal would therefore make room for human beings to a very considerable extent ; and the capacity for maintaining a double number of human souls is certainly much to be desired in a statistical point of view. But if the removal of the horse can only be effected by the substitution of steam power, which is ten times more expensive, or requires ten times more money than would suffice for the purchase of the provender of the horse, whether from our own farmers, or from the farmers of foreign nations, it follows that it would become folly to substitute the dearer for the cheaper power. Unless all the lands of the old and the new world were so covered with population that no subsistence remained for the quadruped 38 THE POLITICAL ECOXOMV part of the creation, there would be no necessity for the Ixmishinent of tlie horse In China, an em- pire which is overflowing with a starving popula- tion, and which is too far removed from other agricultural nations to receive foreign grain, unless at an expense which would enhance its price beyond the reach of the great mass of the people, quadrupeds are very properly prohibited to exist. But when in England our corn laws shut out the superabundance of the corn of Poland, Belgium, Germany, the American States, and other agricul- tural nations, it is apparent that a change of policy alone, through the abolition of the corn laws, is required for the removal of our anxiety for superseding the labour of the horse. If in- animate power would, in reality, be cheaper than that of this animal, it would certainly be the true economy to adopt it upon railroads ; but if the amount of provision which is consumed by the makers and attendants upon steam locomotive engines, from the commencement of the extraction from the mine of the iron of which they are com- posed, to the time when they are moving upon the road would be ten times more in amount than that consumed by the horses which can effect the same amount of work, it follows that the disuse of horses becomes an extensive waste of the very resources of the land. Horse power, in the present state of our know- ledge of the principles of motion, is, therefore. OF HAILKOADS. 30 much cheaper than any of which we are possessed. But even upon returning to its use upon railroads, the numbers will be reduced to one twelfth of the number now required upon a turnpike road ; and therefore eleven twelfths of the land now required for the growth of animal provender will be con vertible into the cultivation of the food of a popu- tion, which, though rapidly increasing, is yet more rapidly supplied by science, with extended means of support. 40 iHE POi.rncAL economy CHAPTER V. Further iinproveme?its proposed — The rails should be narrow y hard, and smooth — Fac'mgs of polished steel proposed — Rail' roads should be straight — Tunnels considered, and the levelling of the kills generallij to be preferred — Excavation of kills lessened in expense by the sale of the materials — Cheap trans- port will favour the formation of levels — Many extensive results of the system anticipated — A^ riculture extended and improved — Mountains levelled, and climate improved — Great infuence of the system upon the future prospects of mankind. Having thus obtained the utmost economy of the general construction and moving power, it is proposed to offer other considerations for the im- provement of this new system of roads. First,, of the rails. Facility of draught depends upon the diminution of resistance, and the mini- mum of resistance is obtained by the utmost ac- quirement of a surface which is narrow, hard, and smooth. Therefore the rails should be diminished to the smallest extent of horizontal surface which would support a given load, and should also be faced with polished steel. This substance is much harder, smoother, more durable, and less liable to rust than the rails of common iron which are now in general use. The circumference of the wheels of the waggons' should also be similarly OK UAILKOAUS. 41 faced with steel, and by these means a resistance so slight might be obtained, as to be little greater than the mere resistance of the air. Substances for procuring anti-attrition, might also be used. Railroads, at whatever expense, should be formed in straight lines. Circuits increase ex- pense for land, rails, and motive power, and for the perpetual support and repair of such need- lessly increased distance : they also deaden im- petus, and, consequently, speed. Tunnels, however, should seldom be the mode of procuring a direct line of road. The expense of their construction, lighting, ventilation and re- pair, outweighs in general the saving of the rough labour which would be required for cutting direct through a hill. An important diminution of the expense of cutting through hills may be also pointed out in the storing of the material, and its sale at a future time, when the cheap transport upon the railroad shall enable it to be carried at a small comparative expense. Almost any descrip- tion of stone, metal, or earth, will probably now become an article of sale. For the opening of railroads will give rise to the extensive forma- tion of artificial soils in places along the lines, which will be raised in value by their contiguity to the work ; and whether hills be found to consist of clay for brick-making, limestone for manure, or of coals, or ores of any kinds or even of stone or sand, all these will now become saleable materials. 42 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY During the progress of the excavations the mate- rial should be hoisted upon cranes, and deposited in the vicinity until the opening of the railroad shall enable it to be sold. It is probable that the sale of the material would frequently be more than equal to the expense of quarrying through a hill ; and it is certain that in some situa- tions immense profits would be found from that source. Tunnels, therefore, unless the mountains be of an unusual height, will probably become disused. Railroads should be wide. Increased width of the track would bring the horse, or locomotive steam engine, nearer to the load, and thence would extensively increase the power. Single horses and waggons are the most effectual means of ob- taining the utmost power of propulsion, because the load is then brought nearer to the centre of effort, whereas, by teams, the diffusion of the force occasions it to be proportionally lost. This principle is most strangely neglected by the far- mers of England, in the use of the horse in the waggons and ploughs of the southern districts of the country, for more coals or corn can be carried in two one horse carts than in one waggon drawn by four horses in a row. Two horses abreast, and one man, in Scotland, plough more land and in a better manner in the same given time,* than four * Kcad Arthur Younp^ on this subject. Ol- RAILROADS. 43 horses and two men in the counties of Middlesex or Kent. Thence one half of the horses of England and one half of the labour of the attendants upon them, and one half of the capital invested in the horses, harness, stabling, and repairs, all in reality are lost. This has an extensive influence in pro- ducing v^hat is termed agricultural distress; but which is probably little more than another name for agricultural stupidity and waste. Upon the above principle railroads should be increased to any width which will allow the saving of power to be superior to the value of the land. In the tracks to be devoted to steam locomotive engines, this will be of more importance than upon those whereon horses are intended to be used, because steam power being so much more expensive, is con- sequently required to be more economically used. Therefore the central track, which in Plate III., page 17, is seen to be devoted to steam power, is more than double the width of the side tracks, upon which horses alone are to be used. Upon the Liverpool and Manchester railroad the waste of steam-power is very considerable in this respect, for the line of carriages, with the intervening space occupied by the tender to the engine, reaching frequently to a very extended distance from the power. The widening of the tracks for steam locomotive engines is, therefore, of much import- ance ; and, further, this increase of width would allow the carriages to be constructed in a more 44 THE I'OLIIICAL ECONOMY comfortable form, even with the conveniences of houses flying through the air. The tracks of the principal lines of railways should be of an exact uniform width throughout England, Scotland and Ireland, and even through France and the neighbouring continental states. This will save the cost of unloading and reloading the waggons, which then may travel without im- pediment throughout the whole length of the kingdom ; and the same waggons may be shipped with their loads, at the seaports; and in the same state unshipped, and placed upon the railways to pass through Ireland, Scotland, France, or the neighbouring continental states. To economise spac3 and diminish weight in the sea-transport of waggons, the material of their construction should be studied to combine the utmost weight and strength; the wheels being taken off at the port of their shipment, and wheels of the same dimen- sions being supplied at the port of discharge. The tracks upon which private carriages and common carts, and other vehicles are to be con- veyed, should also be light. Then each farmer arriving at the railway will place his cart upon the track — and, using his own horse, or hiring his power from the commissioners of the railroad, will carry twenty times more hay, corn, or potatoes to market, and will return with twenty times more provisions, coals, or lime, than can be drawn by the same horse upon llic present turnpike road. OF RAILROADS. 45 Then the wear and tear of an iron road being not one quarter of that of a road made of stones, the toll will be reduced to about one quarter of the pre- sent rate, — the full result being, that the expenses of transport will be reduced to one nineteenth, and that of tolls to one quarter, of the present average expense. But this is limiting the saving to that which has been ascertained at the present time: but allowing that great improvements in the for« mation of levels and rails to be at hand, and the minimum of resistance to be obtained, — it is not improbable that one horse shall ultimately draw, not twenty, but fifty, or one, two, or more hun- dreds of tons. The resistance of the surface of the rail being reduced to the smallest extent, and the impetus of the load counterbalancing the re- sistance of the air, the propelling power of the horse would seem to be almost without bounds. Perhaps even horse power may become disused, and waggons be ultimately propelled by cranks and the human hand. In national economy these changes will pro- duce the most important results : for each farm- house communicating with the main railroad, by another small railroad down the lane which forms the present communication with the turnpike road, the whole object of horses in the business of transport will be entirely at an end. And as the carriage of corn, coals, lime, manure, building 4G THE POLITICAL ECONOMY^ meiterials, and other heavy commodities, form one half of the labour of the horses upon a farm, their support will be attended with a double expense when required only for the plough ; and though at the present prices of human and of horse labour, the spade, through its increased productiveness, employment of manual labour, and consequent saving of poor-rates, is already considerably cheaper than the plough, — yet, when the cost of animal labour shall be comparatively doubled, it is certain that human hands alone will be employed in agriculture, and that this will occasion the universal introduction of garden cultivation, and the entire disappearance of the horse. Thence double the number of men will be employed ; and yet there will be more than three times the present amount of food for their support. Thence manu- factures will be extended, through the existence of this surplus of food, and almost boundless fields will be found for expanding population, revenue, and wealth. But further results present themselves. The cheap carriage of manure, lime, clay, sand, marl, and other substances will occasion an extensive manufacture of new soils. The science of chemical agriculture will become of the most extensive benefit to nations ; for the carriage of the materials no longer interposing the difficulty of expense, the land may be rendered of equal fer- OF RAILROADS. 47 tility all over the world. The soils now useless to man, will be cured of their sterility, when the requisite material for combination can be pur- chased at a distance, and conveyed at a cost of probably one farthing per ten tons, per mile. Then the mountains will be levelled for the value of the soil, stones, ores, or other materials of which they are composed, and for the acquisition of the land now covered with their bases, which will then be covered with a cultivable soil. Improvement of climate will then rapidly follow the removal of elevated ranges from the high latitudes, and the air of these islands will be rendered more genial, warm, and dry. The bogs, locks, and estuaries, will be drained and converted into land, by the diminished expense of such undertakings through tramways and railroads, and the surface of the British islands be even doubled in extent, and all capable of being brought into a state of garden cultivation ; whilst the fisheries will be ex- tended, and millions of people be employed in drawing a now neglected abundance from the sea. Then these changes will be carried to all surrounding nations — the interests of countries will become embedded so firmly that war will be rendered impossible, and the ancient balance of military power will become thought of no more. The public health, intellect, and man- ners will be improved by this rapid intercom- 48 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY munication of the people, liberty and science will become universally diffused, — and the mind be- comes, indeed, lost in the attempt to follow after the immeasurable results which this annihilation of time and space will produce upon the future destinies of mankind. OF RAILROADS. 49 CHAPTER VI. Railways and canals compared — The superior advantages of railroads when economically managed — The present advan- tages of canals oiving to the misuse of steam-power upon rail' ways — Canals inferior to raihvays in economy and speed — Render great tracks of country damp — Have a humid infu- ence upon climate — In every respect a rude mode of convey- ance — Their disappearance a great advantage in a national point of viejv. The next division of the system which it is proposed to examine, is, the relative advantages and disadvantages of raihvays and canals. The threatened destruction of much valuable property in canals, has induced many of the proprietors of those works to entertain a desire, that through their economy in charge, the disad- vantages of slowness may be outweighed, and the contest with railways be maintained. It is said, by these persons, that though the new railroads may appear to be certainly more magnificent and eatj^le-wino^ed than the ancient and more unpretending mode of conveyance by canal; yet that experience has shewn, and will con- tinue still further to establish, that the dearness of the construction and repairs of the railroads will be found to raise the cost of transit to 50 THE POLITICAL fCOXOMV a rate which will much more than counter- balance the advantages in the saving of time, and that this consideration will at length prove fatal to their use. The fact is alluded to, of the confident predictions of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway Company, that the canal should be annihilated forthwith, and that rushes and weeds should cover the bottom of it in a single year, — yet, notwithstanding that experience has shewn that the canal has not only maintained the contest with the railway, but may now very safely set at defiance all future railway opposition. The railway, though only one-half the length of the canal, yet is so expensive a work in its con- struction and repair, that goods cannot be carried upon it at a less price than upon a canal which is sixty miles long, and therefore contending with it under the disadvantage of a line of twofold cost for construction, repair, motive power, and all other sources of expense. If, they say, the canal from Liverpool to Manchester were only thirty miles long, and therefore its expenses one-half of the present amount, — it would be totally impossible for the railway, which now does not take away one- tenth portion of the trade, to continue in existence when the charge per ton were reduced one>half by the canal. How, they say, could a railway, which already derives no profit, if not a loss, from the carrying of goods at 8^. per ton, continue to rival a canal, which, if constructed of equal length OF RATLTIOADS. 51 and at an equal ex}3ense, would then be enabled to reduce the rate of carriage to one-half of the present rate? To all this, however, the reply may very con- fidently be made, — that the amount of experience, from the effects of the Liverpool and Manchester railroad, is totally insufficient for proof of the superior cheapness of canals. We have seen, already, that the horse system has never yet been attempted upon that railroad ; and it is the vast and wasteful expense for steam locomotive power that has occasioned the nonfulfilment of the threats to close the canal. By the previous calculations en- tered into with reference to the comparative ex- pense of steam and of horse power, we have seen that the one is seven times more expensive than the other, — the goods which are now conveyed for Ss. per ton from Liverpool to Manchester by steam locomotive engines, being capable of being carried at 1^. per ton by horses, a profit of one half of even that low rate of tonnage remaining to the company. Now, if the proprietors of the canals, at the present time, charge Ss, per ton for carrying goods from Manchester to Liverpool, and the same kind of motive power were resorted to by the railway company, the former would forthwith be compelled to reduce their rates of carriage to one eighth of the present price. This they could not, by any means whatever, afford; for a canal, — with its extensive excavations, locks, reser- K 2 52 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY voirs, and the other great works attached to its first construction, with the great cost for clearing out, and annual loss from stoppages by- drought in summer, and the ice in winter, — in all these things considered, is an infinitely dearer work in its construction and repair, than any judiciously constructed railroad possibly could be. For, if horse power be used upon railroads, it has been shewn, from the example of the collie- ries, where they have been in use for so many years, that the expense of their repair is almost too trifling to be named. A canal, however, is subject to very extensive expenses, for repairs of locks, banks, and reservoirs, motive power, atten- dance, and numberless other charges, — and, there- fore, canals would not be enabled to compete with the railway, if the expense of the motive power were the same. Perhaps a fair mode of viewing the compa- rison between railroads and canals, is to suppose that steam locomotive engines should be used for drawing the barges and packet-boats which now pass along the canals. If this power were introduced, the expense of engines, with their wear and tear, and the wear and tear of the banks of the canal, would be found so great that passengers and goods could not be conveyed upon them at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour, under an infinitely higher rate than is now charged by the iron road. OF RAILROADS. 53 That canals will be totally unable to compete with horse power upon railroads, will be abund- antly shewn from the present charge upon the Birmingham and London canal, which is usually 3/. per ton for the carriage of goods from the metropolis to Birmingham. This charge amounts to no less than 6cL per ton per mile, estimating the length of the canal to be about one hundred and twenty miles ; and though it may be true that the rates of tonnage could be very considerably low- ered in the event of rivalry from railroad com- panies, yet it is not to be supposed that the reduction could extend to one sixth of the pre- sent rate, or one halfpenny per ton per mile, — which, by the estimate of the result of horse- power on the Liverpool and Manchester railway, is the rate at which goods can be conveyed, even without further improvements in their construc- tion, as seen at the present time. = It has, however, been asserted, that the new mode of using the power of the horse upon canals, will come in very seasonably to revive the hopes of the proprietors of canals. This is the intro- duction of the system of conveying boats upon canals at the utmost speed of the horse. This, upon some of the canals in Scotland, has been found to be a most valuable discovery in canal navigation, and one which, unfortunately, has come only a century too late. From the ex- periments upon the Ardrossan canal, it is proved. 54 THE POLITICAL ECOXOMV in the words of Mr. Graham, that '' two horses on the Paisley canal draw with ease a pas- sage-boat, with a complement of seventy-five or ninety passengers, at the rale of ten miles an hour, — whilst it would take even double that num- ber of horses to draw the same load along the canal at the rate of six miles an hour ; and it would be decidedly easier to draw the load at the velocity of fifteen miles an hour than of six miles. The ordinary speed for the convey- ance of passengers along the Ardrossan canal has, for several years, been from nine to ten miles an hour." Now the introduction of this practice of travelling at the higher rate of speed, is supposed by Mr. Graham to be an important means of enabling canals to compete with the railroads through the amendment of the speed to a rate equal to the reasonable wishes of the public, — and that too being accompanied by so exten- sive a saving of horse power as materially to lessen the expense of transport upon canals. It seems, moreover, that this increased speed has not raised so great a commotion in the water of the canal — nor have its banks been more worn than though the slower rate of passing along its banks ; the boat gliding over the water, and raising up a less volume of resistance at the stem. But all these advantages are derived very obviously from the common principle of increased impetus with increased weight and speed. The boat u|)on the OF RAlLllOAi)S. 55 canal is propelled with more ease at the rate of ten than of six miles, because the impetus and power of self-propulsion become greater at one rate of motion than another; and though this is undoubt- edly a great advantage in canal-navigation, it is apparent that the same principle will act equally in favour of the railroad, — increase of speed in- creasing the expedition of the horse as much upon a railroad as upon a canal ; and as the prin- ciple will be taken advantage of upon railroads, all its comparative advantage towards the proprie- tors of canals will be thenceforth lost. Moreover, this rapidity of motion can only be obtained upon the small number of canals which pass through level districts of country, and are therefore without locks. Where these obstruc- tions occur, the delay would not only form a great deduction from the advantages of the former speed, but the impetus would be lost, and be required to be regained upon passing each of the locks. Upon railways, however, there cannot exist any such impediments to the impetus and speed ; for if the lower road be not a perfect level, the suspension works, by lengthening the pillars, may be constructed upon a perfect plain, and thence the utmost advantage of the impetus may be obtained upon a railroad, though it is subject to be perpetually impeded and lost upon a canal. But though the contest is certainly hopeless 56 THK POLiriCAL FXONOMY against well-constructed lines of iron road, sites of canals cannot be without their value, since the alluvial deposits upon their bottoms would appear to render them the most fertile of land ; or some of these lines of canals may pass with sufficient directness from town to town to admit of their being constructed into railroads; and as the chief expense of railroads will probably be in future in the purchase of the land, it will be a paramount advantage that canal companies will have in their possession the ready-levelled land. In some situations, the sites may perhaps be con- verted into aqueducts from town to town ; and many other modes of applying the property will undoubtedly arise. In some of the individual proprietorships, the loss of tiie property is less to be regretted, from the remembrance of the enormous v.ealth which has been derived from the canals ; as those of the Duke of Bridgewater, upon which the charges for transport have been usually lower than the expense of carriage upon the turnpike road only by the smallest amount which would draw the trade to the canals for the benefit of the ])roprietors, and without any reference whatever to the general benefit of trade. Though Acts of Parliament were granted for the whole of the canals of the Duke of Bridgewater, yet the tolls have always been most enormous in amount, and the general benefit to the commerce of the coun- OF RAILROADS. .57 try has been infinitely less than has been usually supposed. With reference to their influence upon climate also, the disappearance of canals is much to be desired. In these islands they add undoubt- edly in a very extensive degree to the humidity of a country already humid to excess ; for not only are the surfaces of canals and their reservoirs exposed to the influence of evaporation, but the adjoining lands are also in many situations ren- dered marshy and unwholesome to a very consi- derable extent. It is, therefore, apparent, that canals are now to be classed amongst the rude inventions of a former age ; and that there is not the smallest probability of their continuance in existence in opposition to the more modern invention of iron roads. 58 THE POLITICAL LCOXOMV CHAPTER VII. Proposal for one great line from Dover to Glasgow — Through the centre of the mamfacturing districts of the kingdom — First division of the norh from Dover to London — The navigation of the Thames superseded — Consequences to dock property not disadvantageous — The trade of London will he increased hy raihvay transit — Calculations of the general saving by the su- percession in the Thames — The line from Dover to he carried to the Thames Tunnel — Proceeds due north to Birmingham, Manchester, Glasgow, and Carlisle. Having thus discussed the principles of the economy of the legislation, construction, and moving power of railroads, I propose to pass next to the more immediate results of the system, as seen in the formation of lines of road through the centre and to the Eastern and Western portions of the kingdom, for the purpose of connecting all our seas. The first great line is proposed to be constructed from Dover to London, and thence without inter- ruption to Birmingham, Manchester, and Carlisle, and through Scotland to Glasgow ; thus passing through the whole of the great manufacturing districts of the kingdom, and measuring a dis- tance of fnui- himdrcd and jbrty miles. This line OF UAILUOADS. 59 will comprehend so wide a stream of trade, and will be the cfrand artery from which so manv smaller branches will be carried to the east and to the west, that its construction may be under- taken upon a very extensive scale. Let us, then, take our departure from Dover to London, between which places the distance, in the nearest line, will be little more than about sixty miles. Now, supposing a vessel to discharge its cargo at Dover, and the goods to be conveyed at the rate of ]cL per ton, per mile, upon the rail- road to London, the whole amount of the expense of conveyance for this distance of sixty miles will be 5s. per ton ; the time occupied in the passage beino' not more than about seventeen hours. On the other hand, the present expense of sailing from Dover to London, including pilotage, light- money, dock dues, and the other countless charges of the Thames, cannot be estimated at less than 255. per ton ; the passage also occupying more than an average of five days, through the expensive, intricate, and dansrerous naviofation of the Downs and the Thames. Thus, in addition to a saving of about 20s. per ton in the carriage of goods will be the saving of the interest upon the value of the cargo and the ship for a period of four days, with the saving of insurance, wages, victualling, and the whole of the expenses of the vessel for the same period of time. It is, therefore, quite apj)a- rent, that upon the opening of a railway from the 60 THE POLITICAL ECOXOxAIV English Channel to the metropolis, the expense or navigation will be so much greater than that of transportion by land, that the whole trade of the metropolis will be withdrawn to a port or ports upon the southern coast; unless, indeed, the bar- barous system of impeding the progress of im- provement be resorted to by the goverment, for the purpose of preserving the property in docks, warehouses, and other commercial appurtenances of the Thames. But let us examine this matter, in anticipation of the closing of the docks. First, — though the East and West India and London Docks were abandoned by the shipping, still the sites of them would not be lost. These docks cover an area of miles ; and were the water let off, the soil would be found to be of the richest alluvial kind, in consequence of the de. posits which are perpetually accumulating in all such spots. If the water of the Thames were built out by a wall at the present entrance to the docks, and the surface were covered with mould, turf, or other vegetable matter, then so much ground for gardens would suc- ceed to the present body of water contained in the docks. Considering that these docks are already too numerous, that the dividends upon the stock of the West India and London Docks do not average more than about two and a half per cent, per annum,— that millions of capital have OF RAILUOADS. (jl been lost through the decline of the value of the shares, and that the loss of undue monopolies is now causing London to decline rapidly to its na- tural dimensions — it is to be doubted whether these properties would not already be made more profit- able by employing the sites in laying out gardens with ranges of dwelling-houses above, or in con- verting the ground into manufactories, warehouses, vaults, and the numberless other valuable modes for the employment of land in the heart of the me- tropolis of the world. Then the whole of the outbuildings can be converted into manufactories, warehouses, and dwelling-houses; since the car- riage of coal, iron ore, cotton, and other raw ma- terials will be reduced to so low a rate upon the railroads as to allow manufactories to be esta- blished in all situations where there is a population to manufacture and consume the products; and therefore the average trade of the metropolis will be probably increased by the abandonment of the navioation of the Thames. When coal shall be conveyed from Staffordshire to London at a charge of 5s. per ton, and iron ore at the same low charge, the metropolis, from its dense popula- tion, and greater vicinity to the sea, will have some advantage over the more inland districts, in the diminished distance of the carriage for expor- tation of the finished articles of cutlery, cotton, silk, and other departments of manufacturing in- dustry w^hich undoubtedly would arise. The ge- 62 TFIL POLITICAL LCON'OMV neral trade of the metropolis being then not likely to decrease, but very greatly to increase, by the cheap rates of conveyance upon the railroad from Dover to the metropolis, it becomes less required that the economist should be anxious about the destruction of the property in the docks, ware- houses, and other mercantile property upon the banks of the Thames. Moreover, the property for miles alonsr the banks of the river consists of streets so ancient, filthy, and of value so small, that the formation of the modern ranges of buildings which would arise upon their ruins, would become an ultimate source of extensive gain. Having brought the railway from Dover to Lon- don, let us pause to examine the effects which this direct land communication from the metropo- lis to the English channel will have upon the general commerce of the nation. It has been shewn already, that the charge for conveying one ton of merchandise from Dover to London will amount to not more than 5s. per ton, at Id. i)er ton, per mile. Now the number of vessels of all descriptions which enter the Thames may be averaged at about twenty thousand in each year; and, at an average burden of two hundred tons each, it would appear that the total amount of goods carried upon the Thames may be esti- mated at about two millions of tons per year. If, therefore, this immense quantity of merchandise can be carried in one day, and at a charge of 20.y. OK HAILUOADS. 63 per ton less upon a railway than upon the Thames, a du'ect savmg of 2,000,000/. per annum will result to the general trade of the metropolis from the carriage of merchandise alone. If it be added to this that passengers will be conveyed at a quarter of the present charge to Dover, and that that port will become the great outlet from Eng- land to the continental states, and to all quarters of the world, — and therefore the number of ])assen- gers will be many millions in the year, — it is no exaggeration to suppose that a well-constructed railroad from the metropolis to Dover would pro- duce a saving in the expense of transporting passengers, merchandise and mails, of upwards of five millions a year. All this time the commerce and manufactures of London would have a tendency to increase, whilst the docks, warehouses, and other mercan- tile property of the Thames would not be ulti- mately reduced in value by the change. Some other advantages would be obtained, as that the Thames, when no longer disturbed by the annual passing and repassing of about twenty thousand steam-boats and ships, would resume its natural beauty of appearance, the fisheries would be re-established, and the water of the metropolis become more pure. The towns of Greenwich, Gravesend, and other places upon its banks would be visited by means of railways, and therefore would experience G4 THE POLITICAL LCOXO.MV no loss through the trade being diverted from the Thames. Railways being carried from the Thames Tunnel to all parts of the metropolis upon both sides of the river, — there is every reason to suppose that very great advantages would ultimately arise to all the districts now depending upon the Thames. But though all these advantages should not be realized, and the docks, wharfs, warehouses, and other property upon the river be depreciated in value, there is at least ample room for the pay- ment of some compensation, and even for the purchase of the whole of the property, out of the profits of a road, which will realize a profit of five millions a year, by cutting off the expensive, cir- cuitous, and dangerous navigation of the Downs and the Thames. The general interest of the inhabitants of London is not concerned in the preservation of the navigation of the Thames ; and as other districts and towns will have the advan- tages of railways, it would be placing the metro- polis in a position of decline, to refuse to adopt a system which otherwise will cause the present commerce of the Thames to be extensively with- drawn to Liverpool, Bristol, and other ports to which the expense of transit will be less. For if no railway be carried from London to the En- glish channel, yet a railway, of one hundred and twenty miles from Bristol to the metropolis, would enable a ton of goods to be conveyed at consider- OF UAILROADS. ()5 ably less cost than by the navigation of the Thames. As the trade would even be withdrawn by a railway of a length of one hundred and twenty miles, it would be folly not to proceed to the extremity of the advantages of the system, by passing direct to the sea, by a road only of one half of the length of that which could not be prevented from being executed, and which would equally cause all the losses apprehended through the abandonment of the Thames. In- deed, navigable rivers, canals, and all other modes of conveyance by water, will now be utterly laid void. For, not the Thames alone, but the Shannon, the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and all the other great navigable streams will now be deserted for the land. Let father Thames then die. Thus we have brought the railroad from Dover to London, at the Thames Tunnel, a work, which the inspection of a map of the metropolis will show to be most fortunately situated for car- rying the line forward to the North. This line would not only be the most direct that could be constructed from Dover to Birmingham, but it is at the same time the cheapest route that can be found. The expense of purchasing metropolitan property is so great in any situation upon the Thames, and the line from Dover to Birmingham through the Thames Tunnel is seen to touch so much less of that property than any other point througli which the railroad could be carried, that the very 66 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY expense of passing the metropolis will be exten- sively diminished by carrying the great line to that most economical, central, and direct of all the passes of the Thames. The dimensions of the Tunnel are sufficient for the passage of waggons upon two tracks of moderate width, being eighteen feet in height, and thirty-four feet wide. But should the completion of the Tunnel itself not be found practicable, or its use for a railroad-track be not, for any other reason desirable, — it is at least apparent, that the same spot is the most desirable one for the erection of a steam ferry for the pas- sage of the Thames. Thus, then, we have passed from Dover to London at the Thames Tunnel, and thence to Watford, and upon the present track of the rail- way, or upon the turnpike road through the inter- vening counties to the iron districts of Birming- ham, and thence to the potteries of Staffordshire, the distance from Dover being an average of about one hundred and eighty miles. There- fore, at a charge of Id. per ton, per mile, the cost of conveying goods from Dover to Birming- ham will be about 15^. 6d. per ton, the distance being accomplished by horses in about forty- eight hours, whilst at present the charge for the conveyance of goods by canal from Birming- ham to the metropolis is usually about 3/. per ton, and the porterage to the warehouse of the merchant, and thence to the dock, with the loss OF HAILUOADS. 07 of time upon the repeated iinloadinos of the goods, cannot be estimated at less than an addi- tional 1/. per ton. The expense of the commission agent and of the porterage to the ship will cer- tainly not be saved, because these two branches of expenditure must be undergone at Dover itself, and so also must the harbour charofes, thouo-h those will be comparatively slight, since the waggon may pass from Birmingham to Dover, and for the first time be unloaded upon the rail- way terminating at the dock. Estimating, then, the real saving by the railway from Birmingham to Dover to be only 21. per ton, as contrasted with the present charge by the canal and the Thames, yet immense will be the saving of capital from a reduction of 21. per ton upon all the iron and earthenware exported from the iron districts of Birmingham, and the potteries of Staffordshire, with a corresponding economy in the transit of the colonial and other imported commodities required for those hundreds of thousands of souls enofasred in that great scene of industry and skill. From Birmingham the line will proceed on- wards to Manchester, from which great manu- facturing town to Dover will be a distance of two hundred and forty miles, and the charge of con- veyance to the sea, at \d. per ton, per mile, will amount to 206'. per ton. Whether, therefore, the export and import trade of Manchester and its surrounding towns will centre upon this line, or F 2 68 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY be divided by the Manchester and Liverpool railway on the west, and a railway throu^^h York- shire to Hull upon the east, may perhaps remain to be determined; but the cotton, silk, woollen, and other manufactures consumed by the mil- lions of the population of Birmingham, London, and all other southern districts of England, with the whole of the exports from Lancashire to the European states, will certainly be conveyed upon the line. From Manchester, the work is to be carried northward to Carlisle ; and at that city a railroad to the eastward already is in existence to Newcastle and the German Ocean, at Shields, — by which line the coals, lead, and other mineral productions of Northumberland, and the general imports from the Baltic to Newcastle, will be conveyed across the island to the Irish Channel, to Liverpool, Glasgow, and all our western shores. From Carlisle the work then branches west- ward to Portpatrick, in Scotland, a distance of ninety miles. This port is the nearest to Ireland of any in this division of the kingdom ; and there- fore the branch proposed from Carlisle is to be the principle line for the Irish trade. From Carlisle, the main line then proceeds north, through the manufacturing districts of Scot- land, to the city of Glasgow, a further distance of ninety miles, — thus forming one complete chain of road from Dover to Glasgow, in a distance of four OF RAILROADS. G9 hundred and fihy miles ; and in a similar dis- tance from Dover to Portpatrick, on the western branch ; and to Newcastle, on the east ; the line thus passing through the heart of the manufac- turing districts of the kingdom, and being of uniform width and general arrangement, enabling a waggon to pass, without being unloaded, from the English channel to the eastern and the western seas. Here it is to be observed, that the calculations of the rate of transport are founded upon the general rate of 1^^. per ton, per mile ; not because that rate is the minimum of toll, — for it has already appeared that the rate may be reduced to one tenth, or perhaps even a much smaller toll ; but as this work is intended less for the examination of the minuter details than for the exposition of the general principles, and the broad outlines of a system which is yet only in the dawn, — it is preferred to take that which already has been established as an abundant toll. 70 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY CHAPTER VIII. The works ?ww in progress at the harbour of Dover considered-^ Its improvement shewn to he difficult from natural causes — Proposed new harbour npon that part of the English Chatmel — Mode of constructing it — Its expense repaid bif the shipping drawn from the Thames — Proposed land communication with France — Shallo7V7icss of the sea, and facility of constructing a pass — Several modes proposed, a bridge, causeway, tunnel, steam ferry, or jloating bridge — Great revenue and internatio?ial con- sequences to arise from the pass. Thus, then, we have traced out a great line from north to south, and from east to west; and now it will be necessary to return to the starting- place at Dover, to examine into the possibility of providing a harbour of sufficient capacity for all this great stream of trade. For the harbour of Dover, in its present condi- tion, has not convenience, extent, or depth, for the purpose of containing the whole of the ship- ping which it is supposed will be withdrawn from the Thames. It is, indeed, what is termed a dry harbour, having only a few feet of water, and perpetually changing in its depth, — the beach, with which it is habitually liable to be choked, through its exposure to the south-west wind of the English Channel, causing an enor- mous and repeated expenditure of the public money to keep clear this harbour for the pur- OF RAILROADS. 71 pose of the packet-service between England and France. Some hundreds of thousands of pounds of the national money have been, at sundry- times, expended in the works necessary for the scouring of the harbour, as the process is termed by the engineers, — and yet the entrance remains to this time more obstructed by the beach than at any former lime. This process of scouring is etfecled by the erection of flood-gates, within which the water is enclosed when the tide is full, and let off when the harbour is dry, for the purpose of sweeping away by its impetus the beach wdiich is collected at the mouth. This operation has, however, been always found to give a very temporary relief, for the beach, which has been thus expelled by the water from the flood-gates, has been usually thrown back to its old position upon the first gale, from the south- west or south. Thence all former attempts having failed to keep away the beach ; and the port, as the nearest to France, being obliged to be kept open, at whatever expense, — and the accumula- tions of beach being now so great as to threaten the entire annihilation of the port,— the scouring system has again been commenced during the recent year. The works now in course of con- struction are upon the former plan, but greatly increased in their dimensions; the arches and flood-gates now being upon a scale which will pour out a much greater volume of water, than the /2 THE POLITICAJ. ECONOMY similar works which formerly were found to be insufficient in their force for the purpose of keep- ing the harbour clear. From appearances, some hundreds of thousands of the public money is about to be expended in the attempt ; and this enormous sum, in addition to the many other hundreds of thousands which have been already expended in similar operations at this port, will be totally wasted, should the experiment not suc- ceed in finally clearing away the beach. For it appears that the quantities of beach thrown up by the south-west wind exceeds almost all belief, beds of it of many feet in depth, and many thou- sands of tons in weight being said to be sometimes thrown up in the course of a single night ; and thence it is considerably to be doubted whether any opposing force sent out from flood-gates will have any permanent effect in carrying away the beach. For it is to be observed that the natural cause of this accumulation of beach in our southern har- bours is the increasing prevalence of the w^est and south-west winds, and, whether owing to the clearing of the forests of America, or to other natural causes, it is certain that the wTst is now assuming almost the permanence and regularity of a trade-wind. It is this increasing prevalence of the westerly wind which has caused the rapid inroads which the sea has been making in recent years upon OF RAILROADS. 73 all our shores ; for the weight of the Atlantic Ocean is thus thrown with a perpetually increasing impetus upon these islands, whilst the Gulf Stream is also forced annually further to the eastward ; and the melting of the icebergs, which descend from the Polar seas, and are arrested in the stream at the southern edge of the Banks of Newfoundland, also tends to throw the Atlantic Ocean with an annually increasing force against these shores. Indeed, the chalky cliffs of the southern coast oppose so little resistance to the inroads of the sea, — falling annually in bodies of acres in extent along the whole coasts of the English Channel, — that it becomes a conjecture whether in the course of a few ages the whole of these islands will not be swallowed up by the waves, if walls or other artificial means of defence be not opposed to the advances of the sea. It is, then, the falling of the cliffs which occa- sions the accumulations of beach in the harbour of Dover, and against which no system of scour- ing will, in any probability, have the smallest per- manent effect. For these reasons, then, it is proposed to com- mence operations at the harbour of Dover upon a much more extensive scale : by constructing indeed a new port, by building into the sea to the deep water, which is at a distance of about three miles, where a clear bottom, with five fathoms of 74 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY water, may at all times be obtained. For this purpose it is proposed to take down the cliffs, and, by the agency of rough labour alone, to fill up the sea for an area of several miles. The ma- terial of the cliffs presents itself in mountains, and is of a texture neither too hard nor too soft for the purpose of a well-consolidated work ; whilst the labour of convicts, with tramways, and other modern machinery for facilitating such un- dertakings, would render the covering of a few miles of sea an object of no very considerable expense. By building upon the present beds of beach, the harbour would be freed from the possibility of all future accumulation, since the bed of the channel is there worn clear by the operation of driving the beach forward upon the land ; and as no more material would afterwards fall from the cliffs, which would no lonsrer be washed by the sea, a clear harbour, and the cer- tainty of its remaining unobstructed, would thus be obtained by the accomplishment of the work which is proposed. The spot at which to commence these opera- tions is between Dover and Folkstone, the nearest point by about three miles to the coast of France. Here, then, I would cover the sea for an area of several miles with the material from the cliffs ; and, having arrived at the deep water, thence would build walls of hewn stone or of rough ma- terial, with external surfaces of iron, forming in OF RyVILROADS. 75 the interior the docks and other appurtenances of a harbour of great extent. As it will not be doubted that a harbour may be formed in any situation where labour and money can be found, it remains only to be proved, that the revenue to be derived from this new port would superabun- dantly repay the expense of its formation. Allowing that the rough labour of taking down the cliffs, and depositing the materials as pro- posed, would, by the employment of convicts, be comparatively slight ; yet the hewn stone-work, and the building of the docks, warehouses, and other appurtenances of so great a port as that which is proposed for the supercession of the Thames, may be estimated at little less than five millions of money. But then to repay this great expenditure of capital we shall have the whole of the shipping which now navigates the Thames. These, from official returns, have been shewn to be about twenty thousand per annum, of all sizes and kinds, and may be estimated at an average burthen of two hundred tons. Then, without estimating the enormous increase of our foreign trade w^iich the railway system, and the gene- ral increase of the wealth and population of the country are undoubtedly destined to bring forth,— let us take the whole number of ship- ping which may fairly be calculated upon as entering the future harbour of Dover at twenty thousand, of an average burden of two hun- 76 THi: POLITICAL ECONOMY dred tons, and the consequent whole annual tonnage paying to the port is thus shewn to be about four millions of tons. This amount of tonnage, at a charge of only Q.s. Gd., per ton, (which is not a quarter of the present charges of the London Docks,) would realize the sum of 600,000/. per annum, or an annual dividend of five per cent, upon 10,000,000/. should so immense a sum be required for the completion of the work. That so great an expenditure would be required in these days when labour abounds, and when machinery has even been invented for hewing stones at one-quarter of the former expense, — cannot for a moment be supposed. And as the present harbour of Dover cannot be permanently kept open by the scouring system ; and the money which is now in the act of being expended will, in every probability, be virtually thrown into the sea ; and many more hundreds of thousands must be thrown after it, in a repetition of similar at- tem])ts ; it becomes certainly worthy of consi- deration whether one grand harbour should not be carried into the sea, at a spot which is situated by nature for so happy a point of communication with the whole of these islands by railways and by navigation with the whole continent of Europe, — and, indeed with the whole of the modern world. But, in these days we should not content ourselves with a mere harbour at Dover, but pro- OF ItAILROADS. 77 ceed to carry forward a land communication with the coast of France. It has been shewn that the distance from the land to the southward of Dover to the opposite shore, is about three miles less than from Dover to Calais; or about eighteen miles at the nearest position between England to France. But the very works which have been proposed for the new harbour, will cover about three miles of the dis- tance, and another mile would also be gained upon the wall which would thence project for the enclo- sure of the new port. We, therefore, at the ex- tremity of this wall, — which would be built in the form, and with the width and strength of a breakwater, — shall stand within fourteen miles of the coast of France, and as a similar new harbour will be required at Cape Blacknez to the extre- mity of the opposite works will be only a distance often miles from land to land. Here, then, I propose the continuation of the land communication, and of the railway passage, from England to France, by the construction of a chain-bridge, a causeway, a tunnel, a floating- bridge, a bridge of ships, or any other, the cheaper and most practicable mode. The sea between England and France is ex- tremely shallow, the Channel here carrying soundings — nine, ten, eleven, and nowhere more than about twenty-five fathoms, and the average 78 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY being about ten fathoms, or a sea sixty feet deep from England to France. Now, there is nothing in water sixty feet deep to present any insuperable obstacle or even extra- ordinary difficulty in the formation of a bridge. The foundations of very many bridges over rivers have been laid by the diving-bell, and coffer-dams at a depth much greater than that of sixty feet, and there is no difference, of course, between operating in a river and in the sea. Let us, then, examine the cost of constructing such a bridge, ten miles in length. It is to be observed, that, by the railway from Birmingham to Dover, the iron- work required, could be conveyed, at an extremely small expense from the districts where it must of necessity be prepared ; and by the new invention of machinery, stones can be hewn at one-quarter of the former cost, — from which two causes the expense of this undertaking would be most considerably de- creased. The buttresses must be, not only sixty feet under water, but sixty feet above the surface, for the purpose of a due elevation above the waves of the sea ; but these may be diminished in size to an extraordinary extent, by adopting the system for bridi2:es and viaducts referred to in plate 2, page 17. Indeed, the diminution of the size ' of the buttresses will not only greatly diminish the expense of bridges for railways, but by the corre- OF RAILROADS. 79 sponding diminution of the resisting surface, add greatly to their durabihty and strength. This bridge, then, from the extremity of the works of the newly-proposed harbour, to the ex- tremity of the similar works at the harbour of Blacknez, upon the coast of France, will measure in reality only about ten niiles. Its construction being proposed to resemble the arched work of cast-iron or hewn stone described in a former portion of this work, the expense will be reduced to about one-twentieth portion of the cost of a solid cast-iron bridge of the usual form ; for the arches being only of one or two feet in width, and the centre arch supporting a double sleeper and rail, and the intermediate work consisting only of wood, the real width of the iron-work will be only about six feet, for a bridge fifty, or more, feet wide ; and the cost of ten miles of elliptic arches, of one hundred and tw^enty feet in span, at a moderate price of iron or of stone, would be equal to one mile of bridge-work of the usual solid form. Estimating this at five millions of money, and that two nations, or the individual subjects of two nations, are concerned in dividing the undertaking into two parts of ^ve miles each, the difficulties and expense of the undertaking become diminished to an immense extent. Thus, with soundings only sixty feet deep, and tiie power of rendering arches, of only one-fifth of the usual width, equal for the support of a rail- 80 THE POLITICAL ECOx\OMY way, to the arches of the common bridge, it is no longer to be doubted that the labour, capital, and science of two great nations must be equal to the accomplishment of this most valuable pass. Next it is proposed to consider the mode of constructing this communication by a causeway, from England to France. We have supposed, previously, that eight miles of the distance would be covered by the tw^o harbours, to be formed at Dover and Blacknez, and that the intervening ten miles are alone to be converted into solid land. Now, in the great natural advantages which present themselves in the abundance of material upon the shores of both countries in those soli- tary cliffs, which now are without value, and in the immensity of convict labour which we are annu- ally wasting in a six months voyage to the op- posite extremity of the world, the inducements to undertake the formation of a causeway, are probably greater than any other mode that could be proposed. Supposing, therefore, that ten thousand con- victs, instead of being sent, at a cost of 100/. each, to Van Diemen's Land, should be brought from London to Dover, at an expense of only 2^. Gd. each, and that the 100/. which is expended in wasting their labour in a voyage of six months in the })assage to New Holland, should be suffi- cient to victual, clothe, and superintend this number of convicts at Dover for a i)eriod of more OF RAILROADS. 81 than five years. The same system being adopted upon the French shore, and ten thousand convicts and galley-slaves, whose labour is now totally wasted in dredging in the harbours of France, being brought to the hulks to be stationed at Blacknez, the work would be proceeding simultaneously from the shores of England and France — and five miles of the causeway would, therefore, be all that each nation would have to complete, till the works should meet in the centre of the sea. Ten thousand convicts, at a cost of 10/. each man, a full allowance for clothing, victualling, and beds, would cost the nations, or individuals, or com- panies to whom they might be hired, no more than the sum of 100,000/. per annum, which is not more than the sum which is annually expended in sending only one tenth portion of that number to Van Diemen's Land. The convicts upon the French shore, from the cheaper rate of provisions in France, might even be maintained at a some- what cheaper rate than upon the English side, for it appears that about three thousand convicts, which is the usual number eroployed in the har- bour of Brest, are supported at an expense of 4^. per week each, which even includes a small allow- ance of money to the convict himself; and even this expense would be diminished by the lower rate at which contracts could be taken for the clothing, victualling, and beds, for a great and concentrated body of ten thousand men. G 82 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY Thus, then, we have ten thousand labourers at work on either side of the channel, and the cliffs which are to be taken down lie immediately upon the shore, are easy of excavation, and, in their pre- sent state, mere solitary mountains, and therefore, not required to be purchased at the value of cul- tivated land. With all these advantages, let us suppose that the pass shall be formed at the rate of only one mile in the year from either shore, and thus occupy a period of five years, and to be completed by the labour of ten thousand convicts, in one hundred gangs, of one hundred men each, with one hundred lines of tramway upon a pass one mile wide. The whole expense, therefore, of completing the English portion of the work would be about 500,000/. for the sup- port of ten thousand convicts for a period of five years ; but allowing that one million or two millions were required for superintendence, tools, and the facings of the causeway by metal or hewn stone, and that a similar expenditure were incurred by the people of France, and that the whole undertakings could even be completed for a sum of 5,000,000/., still we shall presently perceive how trifling a sum even that would be for the purchase of the countless advantages which would arise from the pass. Having brought our convict labour into opera- tion at home, it follows that, though the whole of the works should be destroyed by the sea there OF RAILROADS. 83 would be no loss in the mere labour of convicts, who are now sent to a country, the great distance of which from the country at home, renders our system of transportation little other than one un- qualified waste of human labour, health, happiness, and life. That the tide flows with great force in this part of the channel is, not a disadvantage, for the ma- terial would be more perfectly embedded by the flux and reflux of the tide, and the extremity of the causeway would be defended by floating hulls, which could be moored at the exterior edges of the work. That there is no difficulty whatever in forming such an embankment is proved by the fortifications called rip raps, which exist in se- veral of the harbours of America, and are islands of stone, formed by throwing the material in rough masses into the sea ; the stones becoming so firmly consolidated by the action of the tide, that some of these fortifications mount many hundred guns. If a passage be required to remain open for the navigation of the channel, openings may be left, or afterwards formed at the required intervals, with drawbridges attached; or the vessels passing up or down channel may pass through the har- bours of Dover and Blacknez. Less inconvenience would be felt from the obstruction of the naviga- tion, inasmuch as this land communication, if G 2 84 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY completed, would terminate the whole coasting trade In order to diminish the apparent magnitude of such an undertaking, let us now reflect upon the works which have been left to us by barbarous nations and from ages when money, machinery, and men were not so abounding as in this, the most wealthy, populous, and scientific nation that ever has flourished in the world. The pyramids of Egypt, or the Chinese wall, were undertakings of ten-fold greater labour than the formation of a land passage over the narrow sea which divides England from France. If the causeway of Caligula is directly such a work as that which is proposed ; for this Emperor constructed a clear land passage across the Bay of Naples from the Bay of Baioe, to the Mole of Puteoli, where the remains of it are visible to the present day. The work is de- scribed by Suetonius as a bridge which formed a complete land passage across the whole Bay of Naples ; that senseless tyrant having con- structed this gigantic work for the purpose of defeating the prediction of soothsayers, that he should reign no longer than he could drive his chariot and horses over the sea. The work was constructed by chaining ships together two abreast, and these were sunk, and afterwards covered over with soil, and thus the whole was converted into a solid road across the Bay. Now this is the precise description of causeway which OF RAILROADS. 85 it is proposed to erect between England and France, and some useful hints may even be taken from the description which Suetonius has given of the work. Thus the sinking of the hulls of ships might be adopted here where old hulls are infi- nitely more plentiful than in ancient Rome, and even old boats, barges, and craft of any other description might be bought or even made of slight materials for the purpose of being filled with soil and sunk at the edges of the work. If, then, such works have been seen in barbarous times, and if China possesses canals three thou- sand miles long, and a wall of solid masonry of one hundred feet wide, and fifteen hundred miles long, what is there that the English nation may not attempt ? Though the sea from England to France were a hundred miles wide, the work would be a molehill to a nation possessed of ad- vantages in labour, capital, and science, such as never were accumulated in any nation of the world. Indeed, there is not only no difficulty in forming a causeway of a single mile wide be- tween England to France, but labour, capital, and material so abound, that a very great portion of the English channel might undoubtedly, under the new system of transporting the material, be converted into solid land. The regular employ- ment of convicts in such operations would, in time, not only level the present useless Downs of 86 THE rOLITICAL ECONOMY the coast, but would also redouble the quantity of land in the portion which thus would be gained from the sea. Thus, if the present site of the Downs for five miles inland, and twenty miles along the coast, were taken down by convicts and transferred into the sea, this, in the average triple height of the cliffs to the depth of the sea, would cover the entire channel for a distance of twenty miles wide and twenty miles long, and thus an area of five hundred miles of land might be gained from the sea. This isthmus could then be covered with soil, mud, or manure, at a very reduced ex- pense by the railways from England, Belgium, or France, and would be situated in the mildest cli- mate of England, and rendered valuable by its contiguity to Belgium and France. But to those who do not perceive that England is yet only in the dawn of its prosperity, that in a hundred years, a hundred millions of people will be inhabiting these islands, that the hundreds of millions of money which formerly were wanted in war, will now expand into thousands and tens of thousands of millions through the cultivation of the acts of peace, it is visionary to foretel that our posterity will enlarge their domains by the conquest of kingdoms from the sea. A tunnel could be constructed from the extre- mities of the two harbours proposed, and would be therefore only ten miles long. Also buildings similar to lighthouses might be erected in the OF RAILROADS. 87 channel, through which shafts might be opened for the purpose of proceeding with the excavation from a number of points simultaneously, and these also might be left permanently open to light and ventilate the work. It is to be observed in favour of this mode, that the chalk of which the substratum is composed is soft of excavation, and would be at all times dry, no springs being ever found by the geologists below the superior surface of the chalk. Whether a floating bridge could be advanta- geously contrived, or a steam ferry-boat upon a great scale, moved by many engines, and from its power able to pass with regularity in all conditions of the weather and the sea, may also be ranked amongst the suggestions not unworthy to be made. Thus, then, for the present, we sum up the calculations and arguments already set forth as proving, first, that a harbour is now, and upon the completion of the railway to Dover, will be infi- nitely more required at any cost whatsoever to be found ; secondly, that from natural causes no such harbour now exists, or without reaching the clear bottom and deep sea, can be permanently made ; thirdly, that the great streams of trade which the railways through France and from the northern states will bring to the vicinity of Calais, render the construction of a similar harbour to be equally required upon the opposite shore ; 88 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY fourthly, that these harbours and works will cover the channel for a distance of eight miles, and leave only ten miles of sea between England and France, and that in the abundance of material in the cliffs upon both shores, and accumulation of convict labour in the prisons of both nations, the further proper land communication may be formed at a very inconsiderable cost. OF IIAILUOADS. 89 CHAPTER IX. Central position of the pass amidst the European states — RaiU ways from Calais to Paris, and the Mediterranean sea — Another great line from Calais through Belgium, Holland, and the Hanse Towns to the Baltic Sea — Calculations of revenue— ^ Bridges between nations more required, if practicable, than bridges between towns — Objections to the effect upon the coast- ing trade removed — Importance of the reciprocity of nations. It is next intended to shew the commercial and political changes which would result from the formation of this land communication between England and France. Upon arriving at Calais, the extremely fortunate position of that point engages our attention, since we stand at that place, in the very centre of the great European nations, and at an equal distance from the Baltic and the Mediterranean Seas. Here, then, the sites of two great lines of rail- ways present themselves to the view, to the north and to the south, the first passing through Bel- gium, Holland, and the Hanse Towns, to Ham- burgh, and Lubeck on the Baltic Sea. The dis- tance from Calais to Lubeck is about four hun- dred and eighty miles, and this line would take in the whole intervening trade of that great com- mercial quarter of Europe, with the whole trade 90 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY of Belgium, Holland, the Hanse Towns, and even Russia, Sweden, and the nations upon the Baltic Sea, would pass upon this road from Lubeck to all parts of England, Scotland, and Wales, and to the French harbour, for all quarters of the world. The entire coasting trade of Europe would be annihilated, the whole of the iron-bound coasts of the northern seas avoided, and iron, timber, and grain of the Baltic nations conveyed in one quarter of the time and one quarter of the expense. The toll from the extreme distance at Lubeck at one penny per ton, per mile, would amount to 64^. per ton, from the Baltic to the place of export in France, and the annual losses of merchandise by shipwreck along the coasts of our own islands and the whole of the Baltic and the northern seas would thenceforward be saved by the change. Here, then alone, and without estimating the saving in the cost of the conveyance of passengers and mails, and the general extension of com- merce and its attendant civilization throughout the northern nations, is an amount of tonnage which would repay the construction of a line of railroad from the Baltic to the English Channel, and of the land-passage into England, although fifty millions of money should be expended upon the work. But this is only one of the numerous streams of trade which here would flow into England across this pass. For Calais is also equi-distant from OF RAILROADS. 91 the Mediterranean, to which sea at Marseilles is precisely four hundred and eighty miles, and al- ready lines of railways have been projected, from Calais to Paris ; and throughout the whole length of France. Tiiis would create a clear passage for waggons from Marseilles, Paris, and all quarters of France, to London, Birmingham, Manchester, and to the eastern and western seas. The extreme distance from the Mediterranean, at Marseilles, to London, will then be about five hun- dred and eighty miles, and at Id, per ton, per mile, the charge will be less than 3/. for conveying the fruits, wines, and silks of Turkey, Spain, Italy, and Greece, our manufactured exports being also conveyed to all those nations at a corresponding rate ; and thus a navigation of two thousand miles being cut off from the Mediterranean to England, the tonnage will be conveyed in one tenth portion of the time, and with further improvements in railroads at one quarter of the cost of navigation, whilst not another ton of merchandise will be in future lost upon the sea Let us then, return to estimate the revenue which would result from this railroad from England to France. All the lines of railways to meet and concentrate at Calais may be estimated from certain calcula- tions upon the trade and population of the various countries through which they will pass, at about nine millions of tons per year, but as several mil- 92 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY lions of this amount will probably consist of ex- ports and imports from Holland, Belgium, and France, to the East and West Indies, and various other quarters of the world ; and as this portion of the trade will not proceed beyond the harbour of Blacknez, the whole amount of tonnage which will pass and repass upon the railway from Dover to Blacknez, may be taken at about five millions of tons. This does not include the foreign trade of England to the East and West Indies, and North and South America, which will not proceed beyond the harbour of Dover; nor does it include the supposition that the extension of commerce and population, through the rising up of those works, and the accumulation of capital through the abandonment of war, will probably double the amount of the trade in the course of a very few years. Estimating, then, the entire tonnage which would pass upon the railroad from England to France at five millions of tons per annum, exclusive of passengers and mails, the conveyance of these five millions of tons of goods would require about one hundred steam boats of a burthen of two hun- dred tons each ; allowing each vessel to load, sail, discharge its number of waggons, and to return with another such cargo within the average, in all wea- thers, of a single day. The cost of building and upholding these one hundred steam boats, at a cost of 100/. per diem for each vessel, would amount to the sum of 3,000,000/. per annum ; or should the OF RAILROADS. [)3 system of steam ferry boats be adopted, the ex- pense would be not very extensively diminished, and a toll of about 15^. per ton upon five millions of tons of merchandise would be required for the expenses of conveyance by steam. On the other hand, we have seen that the land-passage may be constructed for a sum of perhaps less than five mil- lions of money, and therefore a toll of 1^. per ton upon five millions of tons of goods will provide a revenue of 250,000/. per annum, or a dividend of 61. per cent, upon the capital employed in the formation of the pass ; and this, without including the conveyance of many millions of passengers to every quarter of the European states. Thus, the land communication will be 1,500/. per cent, cheaper than steam navigation, and will be the most secure, pleasant, rapid, and direct method of travelling over the sea. Indeed, the advantages of a bridge upon a great scale across the sea, are precisely similar to the greater advantages derived from bridges than by ferry boatsover rivers, excepting that the connexion of nations is infinitely more profitable than the con- nexion of towns ; and, indeed, the necessity is not so great of constructing roads, bridges, and canals, between the cities or districts of England itself, which from similarity of productions in agricul- ture and manufactures are not so dependent upon an interchange of commodities, as two nations, such as Enofland and France, each excelling in 94 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY the arts, luxuries, and food, unattainable to the other by reason of the diversities of climate, and different habits of trade. Though no bridge should exist between two of the agricultural counties of Eng- land, the loss would be less where each could pro- duce corn, than though no bridge should exist to convey, at a cheap rate, the wine, silk, and other agricultural luxuries of France, which in England are forbidden by the climate to be produced, and yet are required to the comfortable enjoyment of our lives. Indeed, it is the glory of the present age that these truths are at length acknowledged by the world. The disappearance of the ancient vulgarity of our views towards foreign nations, and the repentance with which so many hundreds of millions of money are now seen to have been employed not in feeding, educating, and refining our own population, but making one vast slaughter- house of the neighbouring states, render no longer doubtful the beneficial consequences of removing the barrier between these islands and France, and the conversion of the whole of the European states into one uninterrupted chain of solid land. It may be objected to the removal of the the sea-passage between England and France, that this will throw out of employment the many thousands of seamen and vessels employed in the coasting and general European trade, which will become the undoubted result ; of trans- ferring to the railroads the whole of the present OF RAILROADS. 95 traffic upon the sea. But the seamen now engaged in conveying the commodites by sea will find em- ployment in the almost unbounded new channels of commerce, which this change will have a tendency to create in our inland and our foreign trade. Be- sides the fields of employment which the construc- ting, repairing, and conducting the lines of railways which are about to come into existence, there is the rapid extension of manufactures, and conse- quent great multiplication of exports to those fo- reign nations to which we must still be compelled to travel by the sea. The iron, cotton, and earth- enware exports from Lancashire and Staffordshire will be so cheapened in production by the cheap- ness of transit, that ten times the present number of persons will be employed in England by this extension of these manufactories. New fields of labour through the carrying of railways through districts of iron, copper, coal, lead, clay, and other elements of manufactures, now inaccessible by reason of the absence of roads and dearness of transit, will also furnish employment for future millions of the people of these islands. Agricul- ture, also, will be extended by the covering of now barren situations with lime, soil, and manure, which will be carried at so small a cost by the railways; and we have also seen the probability that the horse will be banished from all employ- ment in agriculture, and that the gross produce ot 96 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY the soil will be doubled by garden cultivation when all England shall be cultivated by the spade. The land upon which the timber now grows for the building of ships, and that which is occupied for the growth of the flax for cor- dage, cables, and sails, all will come into cul- tivation for the food of man ; whilst the corn, the coals, and the cloth, now annually wrecked upon our coasts, would suffice for the subsistence of whole millions of men. If, therefore, there promises to be no deficiency of employment in manufactures, agriculture, and other profitable occupations, it would surely be more desirable that our population should be withdrawn from the very dangerous, useless, and uncomfortable occupation of the sea. Navigation is an employ ment of constant privation, hazard of existence, and sighing after home, and the sea is an element which, in the words of the enlightened Colling- wood, '' is not natural to man." Indeed, if it were required that a part of the population should be provided with employment upon the water, it would be more economical and humane that the requisite number of bridges over the rivers of the country should be demolished, that the seamen be employed in the ferrying of passengers and merchandise, as a more secure and comfortable mode of providing them with a subsistence, without the hazard of their lives in carrying pas- sengers and goods across the sea. It is only. OF RAILROADS. 97 however, through our ignoble views, and the mis- management of governments in the changing cir- cumstances of the world, which occasions us to talk about the danger of over-production, over-trading, and over-population. Were the enterprise and industry of states not obstructed by the existence of monopolies, there would be no such grovelling fears about the possibility of too many people coming into the world. The time will arrive when human life will be valued more highly than in this generation ; when time spent upon the sea will be considered a mere waste of the existence of man, and when policy will direct to the abandonment, to the utmost of our power, of an element upon which capital is annually wasted in millions, through the sinking of cargoes of money, fuel, clothing, and food ; and, that when goods can be conveyed by waggons at one-tenth portion of the expense of navigation, the very building of vessels will be viewed as a waste of the timber and iron of the world. H 9S THE POLITICAL ECONOMY CHAPTER X. Return to the main line of British railroads to Portpatrick in Scotland — Land communication with Ireland proposed — The soimdings and islands between Portpatrick and Donaghadee described — Circumstajices Javonrable to the formation of a causeways-Proposal to emjyloy the army in the construction of the work. Having now traced out an uninterrupted line of railways from Glasgow to Manchester, Bir- mingham, London, Dover, and the Baltic and the Mediterranean Seas, I propose next to com- plete this great chain by a railway across the Irish Channel, which shall join Ireland to England, and thus form one line from the Atlantic to the Irish Channel and the German Ocean, completing the connexion of all the European seas. The mode of constructing this pass, after the description of the mode of constructing the pas- sage from Dover to Calais, can be given in a very few words. We have seen that the line of railways already described as passing from Manchester to Carlisle ; and from Carlisle a branch was proposed to be carried westward to Portpatrick, a distance of about ninety miles. From Portpatrick to the Irish shore, above OF RAILUOAUS. ijlj Donaghadee, and direct across the cluster ai islands called the Copelands, is a distance of about fifteen miles ; and here it is proposed to station bodies of convicts, paupers, or regiments of soldiers, upon both shores, and upon the Cope- land Islands, for the formation of a causeway of rough stone, from shore to shore. Though the distance from land to land is about fifteen miles, yet the water is so shallow^ from the Irish shore to the Copeland Islands, that the labour of filling up that portion of the sea will be comparatively slight; and the extreme point towards Scot- land being about five miles from the Irish shore, and the average depth not more than about four fathoms, the difficulty and expense of forming that portion of the work becomes so small, that we may almost consider the causeway as beinq; only ten miles in length, from the Copeland Islands to the coast of Scotland. The material contained in the Copeland Islands will more than suffice to carry the causeway from the Irish shore to their extreme eastern side, and the remainimr ten miles are to be covered from the opposite shore. The soundings here are, from the coast of Scotland, eight, ten, twenty, thirty, and forty- five fathoms into mid- channel, where the depth for about one mile descends to ninety-eight, and thence becomes gradually shallower again towards the Irish shore, in thirty-five, twenty-five, and twelve fathoms, to about eight at the eastern ex- n 2 100 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY tremity of the Copeland Isles, and thirty-five fathoms being the average depth of these nine miles. At Portpatrick the mountains overhang the sea for miles along the coast, and material is thus to be procured to any extent, v^hilst tramw^ays may be laid upon both sides of the causeway, and also bank into the country,— thus diminishing the dis- tance of transporting the material to the extremity of the works as they are carried into the sea. With this great advantage in the reduction of the expense of transport, which the iron roads now create, added to the abundance of material in a solitary and valueless situation amongst the mountains of Scotland, — and the probability of ores, coal, or valuable beds of stone being found in the excavation of those peculiarly promising hills, with the value of the sites so gained to be afterwards converted into cultivated land, — and the gaining of a railway across the sea without the expense of purchasing the land for its foundation, — and the whole work from Ireland to Scotland thus executed by rough labour alone, — these present a sum of advantages, without reference to the political consequences of the formation of these islands into one body of land. Estimating its completion at five millions of money, and that no toll whatever should be levied at the pass, — yet that sum would, in a single year, be repaid by the saving of the expenses of the navigation OF RAILIIOADS. 101 between England, Scotland, and Ireland, — and the prevention of the loss of millions of property, which then would be transported in security upon railways by land, but which is now annually lost upon the shores of that iron-bound sea. As the distance is only ten miles from the ex- tremity of the land at Portpatrick to the Cope- land Islands, and only about seven miles from the soundings in eight fathoms up, on either side, to which a wall could be made with compara- tively small expense, it is probable that a bridge of seven miles could be formed. The depth is too great for the use of coffer-dams ; but, buttresses could be constructed upon the prin- ciple of rip-raps, by throwing the loose stones into the sea, and thus raising up islands equally durable as rocks, whereupon to rest the works of the bridge. It is to be observed, that the bridge might be then carried from the first buttress without other support than projecting scaffolds from the extremity of the work, and thus a rail- way would be formed for the waggons of stone to be emptied at the spot where the succeeding but- tresses were required to be formed. It must be fully borne in mind, in these operations, that the tram- ways to be used, have all the advantages of the system in the diminution of the cost of transport- ing the material to the sea. To propose the level- ling of mountains, and throwing their volumes into the sea, without a cheaper power than com- •]0^ THE POLTICAL ECONOMY moil horses and carts, would be an utterly imprac- ticable scheme ; but, as iron rails will enable one horse and one driver to carry a load which can now only be carried by twenty horses and men, that grand cause of the expense of these under- takings is thus seen to be diminished to one- twentieth part of the amount upon the former scale. Should the construction of a tunnel be worthy of consideration there is the obstacle, that the work must be carried almost six hundred feet below the level of the sea, in order to avoid the extreme depth of ninety-eight fathoms^ which exists in mid-channel as before described. But still the expense of constructing the work would be the same at whatever depth it might be carried, with the exception of the expense of the ap- proaches, w^hich would increase with the depth. The real distance to be excavated might be re- duced to about seven miles, from openings at the extremity of the shallow soundings, to be filled over at a slight expense from either shore. At the Copeland Islands, the railway would emerge and be carried upon the embankment to the Irish land. The lowering and elevating the waggons might be effected by a stationary steam-engine at either extremity of the work. Should these proposals be upon too large a scale, at least the shallows from Donaghadee to the eastern side of the Copeland Islands, and from OF RAILROADS. 103 Portpatrick to the deep soundings may be covered as proposed, and the distance between Ireland, Scotland, and England, thus be reduced to about seven miles. Then, with steam-ferries of great power, waggons may be transported from shore to shore ; and the railway -tracks being of uniform width in all quarters of the kingdom, may proceed upon their destination, without the expenses of unloading, reshipment, and delay. The celebrated Mr. Brindley, for years, had his eye fixed upon this pass from Portpatrick to Donaghadee. He proposed to connect the islands here by a kind of floating canal, but it cannot be discovered that he has left his project behind him in a regular or demonstrable shape. It seems, however, that he perceived no difficulty in con- structing his work, in a manner which should defy the resistance of the sea. Before passing on to the political consequences of this junction of the kingdoms, it may be well to point to the economy of employing the troops in this or similar national designs. Soldiers, from their physical capabilities, habits of subordination and uniformity of co-operation, are peculiarly well fitted for employment in works upon an extended scale. Officers, also, from the portion of their education which relates to military engineering, are well qualified for the superintendence of such works. For twenty years scarcely a shot has been fired, whilst daily the prospect of employ- 104 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY rnent in military operations becomes more distant, by reason of the ascendency of the commercial principle amongst the nations ; and the military occupation may be said to be almost gone. This change would render the troops more popular >vith their fellow-countrymen, and increased pay, both to officers and men, could be afforded through this employment of the army in the pur- suits of peace amidst the intervals of war. OF RAILROADS. 105 CHAPTER XI. Review of the present commercial relations of England and Ire- land — True causes of the poverty of Ireland and the wealth of England — Manufactures the pri?icipal source of English wealth and natiojial power — They are founded upon steam-'power — Ireland cannot have steam-jjower because destitute of coal — Agricultiire shewn to be not the great source of national wealth. Having thus seen that the junction of the three kingd^oms is not only practicable, but through the extraordinary accumulation of money and of labour, which we possess in this nation, a work in reality of very easy execution, it will be good to dwell for a time upon the general relative condition of England and Ireland, and the man- ner in which these two nations are rendered so dissimilar in circumstances, that each is to the other as a foreign land. England is a very rich nation, and Ireland is a very poor one. This comparative wealth upon one side of the Irish Channel and poverty upon the other, is not attributed, by economists, in more than a very small degree, to the causes which are usually assigned for it — the tyranny of England, and the ages of misrule to which the Irish politi- cians are accustomed to say that the emerald isle 106 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY owes all her blemishes and sores. In former times, when the policy of prohibition of foreign trade was more customary with the government of England than in the present day, much tyran- nical legislation most undoubtedly was practised against the woollen, linen, and other staple manu- factured exports of Ireland, in order to their ex- clusion from the markets of England, and of the foreign states to which similar English exports were sent. But this very barbarous policy has long since been abandoned, and since the period of the Union, the exports of Ireland not only come freely and without duty into the harbours of Eng- land, but, through the corn laws, Ireland has obtained a direct participation in the monopoly which the landed interest of England has esta- blished for itself against the agricultural imports from the surrounding European states. Nay, more, the policy of commercial prohibition has not only been abandoned with regard to Ireland, but many important commmodities are subject to a much less excise duty in Ireland than in Eng- land, and every attempt that financial indulgence could offer for a reconciliation with the once iu' jured people of Ireland, would certainly appear to have been made. And yet Ireland remains poor, deserted, and unhappy, whilst England grows daily more con- tented, luxurious, powerful, and rich. Whence, then, comes this condition of things? OF RAILROADS. 107 It is because England has manufactures and Ireland has none ; because England has millions of people working in the foundries and mills of Birmingham, Manchester, and Leeds, whilst in all Ireland there is not a single manufacturing town. . This state of things has arisen in consequence of the invention of the steam-engine, a power which has entirely overthrown the ancient system of manufacturing by hand, and which has not only ruined the manufacturers of Ireland, but is daily ruining the manufactories of Belgium, France, and all other European nations, and even has thrown out of employment the silk weavers of the East Indies, although labour is so low in that country that the wages of a hand loom weaver are not much more than 3d. per day. Even in the Empire of China, this effect of the steam engines of England will now rapidly be felt, for the abolition of the monopoly of the East India Com- pany will occasion the fabrics of England to be introduced at a price which will throw out of employment the manufacturers of that country, and bring on great disasters in an empire already overflowing with a discontented population. The insurrectionary movements at Lyons have not been occasioned by political animosity towards the ruling power so much as by the low wages, want of employment, and general overwhelming distress of the hand-loom silk-weavers of France, 108 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY since the trade has been drawn, by the alteration of the silk duties of England, towards the mills and the power-looms of Macclesfield and Leeds. Therefore the people of Ireland may perceive that they are not alone in their sufferings, for the same cause which impoverishes their country impoverishes neighbouring states still more ; and the whole world is now subjected to English in- fluence through the ascendancy of English steam. But whence has England the advantage in this respect, and why cannot Ireland and other nations have steam-engines as well ? Because England alone has the elements of steam-power, iron ore and coal ; for coals are the food of the steam-engine, and in countries where this fuel does not exist, the steam-engine cannot be brought into any extended use. So great are the advan- tages of England in this respect, that not only coal and iron ore abound, but exist in the same veins, and are taken up upon the same spot. Then coal is so bulky a commodity, so much of it is required for the consumption of steam-engines, and the expense of its carriage is so great, that the manufactures of iron, cotton, wool, silk and all other articles which are produced by steam-power, are seen to be concentrated at Birmingham, Man- chester, and Leeds ; all of which great manufac- turing towns are placed over beds of coal. The manufactures of Ireland have not only been abolished by the steam-engines of England, OF RAILROADS. 109 but the manufactures of England itself have been withdrawn from their former seats, where, as at Norwich, coal does not abound, but must be brought from the northern counties, at an expense which gives the advantage to the districts of Eng- land which have coal directly under foot. Thus it is that the steam-engine has sur- passed all manual competition, and England alone having iron and coal, a favourable climate, and easy transit to the sea, in that country alone can this all-powerful steam-engine be brought into profitable use. Then, this steam-engine is the maker of almost every thing that is valuable in the world — the clothing, blankets, tools, all the ten thousand commodities which are desirable to the comfort- able enjoyment of our lives. In every thing ex- cepting agriculture the steam-engine abbreviates the labour of man, in a manner so very magnifi- cent, that every valuable commodity, excepting food, is made cheaper in England than in any other nation in the world. The country, then, which can do this for other nations, is possessed of very superior advantages for the acquisition of wealth, since food alone, which is all that other nations can produce, is not the only thing which is requisite to man; for warmth must be procured by clothing, and agriculture cannot be practised without plough-irons, pickaxes, and spades, nor armies maintained, without clothing, and swords. 110 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY and guns ; and as man shall not live by bread alone, so all nations must have stockings, and blankets, and gowns^ and England clothes the globe. It is, then, the possession of her mines of coal, iron, tin, copper, and lead, but, above all, the abundance of coal, which confers upon England all her power and supereminence amongst the nations of the world, producing, by the excess of exports and imports, a favourable balance of trade with all other nations, and drawing to one misty island, the tributary gold of every foreign land. From a participation of these advantages, Ireland is debarred, by the absence of the useful metals, and the impracticability of their profitable conveyance by the sea ; and, therefore, in the absence of manufactures, the whole population must of necessity be employed to overflowing upon the land, accumulated num- bers contending for the soil, amidst all the horrors of men who are struggling for existence like shipwrecked seamen upon an over-crowded wreck. And in the absence of war, and the conse- quent cessation of the former drains of the able- bodied population, the population of Ireland must now very rapidly increase ; and if the source of the evil be not cut oft', the destitution, disaftection, and the present long catalogue of evils, must very rapidly extend. OF RAILROADS. Ill That it is not, however, to the misgovernment of England alone, that the poverty of Ireland is to be attributed, is manifested in the condition of Scotland, a country very considerably less fertile than Ireland, and which yet, since the establish- ment of manufactures^ has been advancing with the rapidity of England herself, in wealth, popu- lation, and abundance ; possessed of an extend- ing trade to all foreign nations, the results of the foundries and the mills of Carron, Glasgow, Kil- marnock, and Dundee. Had not the steam-en- gine been invented, and Scotland been supplied by nature with iron ore and coal, the people of that country would now have been equally poor and discontented, as are those of Galway or of Clare ; and on the other hand, if the steam-en- gine could have been introduced into Galway and into Clare, there would have been no Terries in Ireland to-day. For a long train of evils will be seen to arise from the absence of the materials of the manu- factures of modern times. First, there is no mode of employing the population other than upon the land, the surplus supplies of labour thence car- rying down the wages of the peasant to the lowest point at which existence can be sustained. Then the income of Ireland is reduced immensely by the expenses of sending to the markets of England the corn, cattle, and other agricultural productions of the country ; and by the second expense of bringing back from England the whole 112 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY manufactures which the Irish population consume. Thus the price of corn in Ireland being at all times regulated by the demand for it in England, is reduced by the cost of carrying it to that market by the sea ; for a bushel of wheat which has been transported to Liverpool, through the many por- terages, shipments, and landings, which it has to undergo before its final sale to the dealer in England, yet then produces only the same price with a bushel of wheat grown in Lancashire or Cheshire, and which has been conveyed to Man- chester, Liverpool, or Preston, at a merely no- minal expense. By this means the whole ex- ports of Ireland are lowered in value by about fifty per cent, in the cost of transportation to the only market which exists ; but were there manu- facturing towns in Ireland, and did such masses of population as those of Manchester and Leeds require to be supplied in that country, then the corn of Ireland, being sold upon the spot, would be equal in price to the corn of England, and the cost of transportation being thenceforth saved, the corn which is now obliged to be conveyed to England would be consumed at a double price at home, and the agricultural income of Ireland be- come therefore doubled by the change. Ihit not only is the corn of Ireland rendered less productive of money, by reason of the ex- penses of its transportation, de[)reciation in quality in shipment, and the loss of great quantities of it OF UAILROADS. 1 1^ annually upon the sea ; but the whole of the re- turn cargoes of hardware, woollens, cottons, and other manufactured commodities, must be loaded with the expenses of transport, insurance, and other charges of conveyance between England and Ireland ; since in England alone manufactures can be bought. The consequence of this is, that the Irishman purchases his spade at a price higher than the Englishman, though earning only one half of the wages of the labourer of Kent, and the English farmer purchases his plough-irons, cart- wheels, tools, furniture, and clothing, at a lower cost than the farmer of Ireland, and yet obtains a double price for the produce of his land. There- fore in England, all is accumulation ; and in Ire- land, accumulation there is none ; because every Irishman must have clothing and tools, and yet in all Ireland there is not manufactured a coat, a blanket, or a spade. These, then, are the causes why Ireland is possessed of so unhappy a population ; and here also is seen the fallacy of that doctrine which our modern economists have derived from the author of the ** Wealth of Nations," that the true riches of a country are contained in its land. Though England were one vast rock, where not an acre of corn had ever waved, still those four hundred mil- lions of men, whose labour is represented by the machinery of the country, would extort an abun- dance of corn from all the surrounding states. As I 114 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY we raise neither tea, nor wine, nor gold in En- gland, yet is the country overflowing with all these luxurious imports from foreign nations, and En- gland is a land of gold. Since the days of the il- lustrious author of the *' Wealth of Nations," the steam-engine has been invented, and this has raised up the immense fabric of our manufactures, has caused a favourable balance of trade with all nations, levelled the then commercial supremacy of the Dutch, and brought into the hands of the merchants of England the regulation of the ex- changes of the world. Ireland, from natural disadvantageous circum- stances, is therefore drained of her oross asfricul- tural productions for the purchase in England of the manufactures which are indispensable to existence ; and thus it is, that notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, the population of Ireland are virtually a nation of slaves, who reap that others may enjoy. OF RAILROADS. 115 CHAPTER XII. Ronedies for the deficiency of fuel pointed out — Coal of good quality may probably be found in Ireland — The coals of Scot- land may be brought across the land pass — The steam-engine may be superseded, and coals no longer required — English su- periority in manufactures then ivould decline — Probability that the railway system will equalize the advantages of all nations. Allowing then, that this train of reasoning be well-founded, and that Ireland is impover- ished by the absence of manufactures, and that the absence of manufactures is caused principally by the absence of coal, where are we to search for the remedy for this condition of affairs ? The remedies would appear to be these : either to discover that coals do, contrary to the general supposition, exist, and of the quality suitable for the steam-engine ; or next, by railways, to bring in the coals of England or of Scotland at a cost which will allow them to be profitably used, or third, the discovery of some machine for the supercession of steam power. With regard to the first, the discovery of coal in Ireland, it does not appear that there is much present prospect of so desirable an event. It is not that no coals have been nominally dis- 1 2 116 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY covered in that country, for there are many well- known coal-fields in existence, but all are attended with some disadvantage for general and profitable use. Tlie coals of Ballycastle in the north, are of a quality so inferior, that English coal is in use within a very few miles from the pits ; the coals of Arigna are almost equally inferior in quality; whilst the anthracite or stone-coal of Kilkenny, from its deficiency of flame, can only be partially used, and from its weight and density of texture is three times more expensive in excavation than the bituminous coals of the English fields. There- fore, coals, being subject to the expense of sea- carriage from Whitehaven, Swansea, or the Clyde, are at all times two hundred per cent, dearer in Ireland than in the average of England, Scotland, or Wales. Then that this high price of coals is fatal to all manufactures by steam power will be proved by the following calculation of expejise. The supply of fuel for a steam-engine of sixty horse power is about one hundred bushels for a day of twelve hours, and this quantity of coal in the manufac- turing districts of England is of an average value of 2/. 10^., but in the average of Ireland, its value would be very considerably more than double that amount; and thence the daily difference of ex- pense for a moderate sized steam-engine would be at least 1/. 5.s\ per day, or about 400/. per annum, for a working year of three hundred and OF RAILROADS. II7 ten days. Without reckoning the further expense of importing the very steam-engine itself, and all the machinery of a manufactory from England, with other disadvantages, it is clear that a differ- ence of 400/. per annum, or the interest of a capital of 8,000/. v^ould be totally fatal to the use of a steam-engine of sixty horse power, amidst the grinding competition of modern trade. And though the absence of steam power is the principal, it is by no means the only disadvantage w^hich is experienced from the absence of coals. For the mines cannot be worked without fuel at a price which shall correspond with the prices in England, Scotland, or Wales. Eight tons of coal are, or up to a recent period, have been, required for the smelting of one ton of iron; and this greater expense in the fuel upon the Irish side, would be more than one half of the value of the iron pro- duced. Even the copper mines of Kilkenny were abandoned through the dearness of coals, though that metal is so much more valuable than iron. Then no potteries can exist in such a country ; not even bricks can be burnt for exportation ; and the very burnino: of the limestone for manure adds greatly to its comparative expense. The whole domestic fuel of Ireland is also doubly dearer than the firing of the English population ; for turf is a very dear material when considered with reference to the labour required for its production and the rental of the bogs. ** The peasantry in 118 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY VVicklow," observes Mr. Wakefield, " informed me that Ad. expended in English coals, goes farther than Is, Ad. in the purchase of turf." Therefore the whole labour bestowed upon the cutting, drying, cartinsf, and stacking- the fuel derived from the boofs, forms an immense annual waste of the labour of the Irish population ; and the mass of all the sufferings of that most unfortunate nation is clearly to be traced to the absence of the cheap elements of fire. That this will always continue to be the state of things, cannot certainly be supposed ; for be- sides the contiguity of Ireland to Scotland, upon the western coasts of which country extensive beds of superior coals have been found, and the little probability that so abounding a material should suddenly slop short upon the Irish shore, it is probable that coal may be found in almost any country ; for geological research has shewn, that this substance is of an almost universal ex- istence, the depth and quality of the seams being the considerations as to profitable mining opera- tions in coal. Hitherto, certainly, nothing has been found in Ireland which can compete with the bituminous fields of England, Scotland, or Wales ; and, therefore, we only can direct the attention of the people of Ireland to the disadvan- tages arising from this absence of coal, that the geologists and ca])italists may employ their pow- ers in search of a mineral, the possession of which '- OF RAILROADS. 119 would be the most effectual remedy to be found for all their national poverty, disorganization, and distress. The next method of causing manufactures to rise up in Ireland, would be to convey the coals of Scotland across the channel by the railway which has been proposed over the causeway from Portpatrick to Donaghadee. Supposing the rail- way across the channel to be constructed by the labour of convicts, and not subject to a toll, then fifteen miles of the distance would be virtually saved, and the real distance from the coal-fields of Scotland to the counties which compose the province of Ulster would be an average of fifty miles. The cost of conveying coals, at Id, per ton, per mile, would be about 4^. 2d. per ton, and the price at the pit being usually about 3s. 6d. per ton, the whole north of Ireland could be supplied with that mineral at a price of about Ss. per ton. This cost of transport might therefore be sustained and the steam-engine brought into profitable use ; for Ireland is most admirably placed by nature for an export trade to the western world, and the voy- age to America from the western coast of Ireland being one third shorter than from the harbours of Liverpool or Glasgow, with a clear sea from the ports, and not subject to the intricate naviga- tion of the Irish Channel, the saving in the time, in- terest of money and insurance, which would arise from shipping manufactured goods from the 120 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY western harbours of Ireland to the United States, West Indies, and other quarters of the world, would fully counterbalance a charge of 4;hK0RD, Esij., in January, 1818, and received his ."Majesty's Charter of Incorporation in June, 1828. The objects of the Institu- tion are ilic Acquirement of Professional Knowledfce and the Advancement ol .Mechanical Philosopliy; which ol)jecls are [>rincipally promoted liy weekly .Meetings and Conversations dnrinj' t'.ie session, and by collecting: fr>m Contributors, Essays on En^'ineeiiiig Subjects, and Practical Ac- oounts and Drawiiigs of Public Works. The Institution consists of Members, Corresponding Members, Associates, and Honorary Members. Those who reside in or near London have the advantage of at- tcn.Ln? the Meetingg of the Institution, lr"iii which Corresponding Members are, by their distance, debarred. In order. therefore, to impart to absent A(embers the beiictits of the Institution, and to ex- tend the circle of its utility, a selectioi: has been made, from its valuable collec- tion of Communications, of Papers anJ I)i-awings on such subjects as may nt this period be accei table to the Profession ami to those who take nn interest in the .\it ; and this selection it is now proio.sc.l t«.i embody in a Volume of Tran-at man- ner, with a newty['e,and upon a suj)erior paper ; the Plates are from elalxiratt* Drawings, neatly engraved by (Jladwin, and others equally eminent in mechanical engraving. Engineers and others fwho are not Membeis of the Institution) desirous of |iosses>ing the Transactions, arc reiiuts'.eU to apply tu tlie Publiitber. 1/ 2 John Weale {Successor io the Za/e Josiaii Taylor), A PRACTICAL TREATISE on LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES upon RAILWAYS; a Work intended to shew the construction, the mode of actinj^, and the effect of those engines in conveying heavy loads: to give the means of ascertaining on a general inspection of the machine, the ve- locity with which it will draw a given load, and the results it will produce under various circumstances and in different localities; to fix the proportions which ought to be adopted in the con- struction of an engine to make it answer any intended pur- pose; and to determine the quantity of fuel and water re- (luired, 8cc. ; with practical tables shewing at once the results of the formuhe; FOUNDED UPON A GREAT MANY NEW EXPERIMEN'J^S made on a large scale, in a d.-iilv practice on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, with many different engines and considerable trains of carriages: to which is added an Appendix, shewing the expense of conveying goods by means of locomotives on Railroads. Ry the Chev. F. M. G. de PAMBOUR, Student of tlie l':cole Pdlytechiiiqiie, and late of the Koyal Aitillory, ontlie Staff in the rrencli Service, Kiiifflit of the Pioyal Order of the Legion d' Honneur, &c., DURING A RESIDKXCE FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES. In 8vo., with Piatcs, 12jf. • A DESCRIPTION of a PRACTICAL and ECONO- ^^ MICAL METFIOD of EXCAVATING GROUND and FOPvMING EMBANKMENTS for RAILWAYS, &c. ; with Practical Observations on the Construction of Railways. By W. BRUNTON, Civil Engineer. In 8vo., with Two Plates, 2s. G /. A TREATISE upon the POLITICAL ECONOMY of RAILROADS, in which the new mode of Locomotion is considered, in its Influence upon the Affairs of Nations. By HENRY FAIRBAIRN. " Thr(>u;,'h a long succesision of {reiiera- tions, he h;i> hoen the i>iogenitor of a vlr tuous and iil>le citizen, who, hy tnrie of the arts of peace, had covicct'.d goverii- 1 vol. 8v6., with Cuts, ments of np;^res, and suppressed many of rapine. — Uurkc." — Ch'.tnictLr ojMr. Fo,i. l Architectural Library, 59, High Uolborn. 3 PRACTICAL TREATISE on RAIL-ROADS and CARRIAGES. Shewing the principles of estimating their Strength and Proportions, Expense, and Annual Produce. By THOMAS TREDGOLD, Civil Engineer. Second Edition, 1S35, in 8vo., 85. PRACTICAL VIEW of the STEAM ENGINE. Il- lustrated by elephant folio Engravings of the largest Ma- chine in Scotland, constructed by Messrs. Girdvvood and Co., for the Coal-Mines of Sir John Hope, of Craighall, Bart, ; with an account of a Mercurial Statical Dynamometer, and re- sults of the draught of Horses, quantum of friction on Rail- way, &c. By I. MILNE. Letter-press description in 8vo., with Two Plates to acfouipany the two large elepliant ^ folio plates, 1/. I5. SUSPENSION BRIDGETS. A SCIENTIFIC and an HISTORICAL and DE- -^ SCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT of the SUSPENSION BRIDGE constructed over the MENAI STRAIT, iu Nonh Wales ; with a brief notice of CONWAY BRIDGE. From Designs by and under the direction of Thoji-^s Telford. Esq., F.R.S. L. & E., &c. &c., and Alexaxder Pkovis, Esq., Resident Engineer. Large Atlas Folio, 17 very finely engraved plate?, 4' 145.6/. A few copies only of proofs on India 1 aper, 6/.C5. To contribnte wifb a proper spirit, totlie frro\iine ta?te for scientidc works, particulnrly tlie art of sus; ension in ti.e (onstruction and erection of Bri'lges, and to faci'.it.ite the acquirements of the Student, the author has been induced to offer thi<« very elaborate work at the above consiilerably reduced prices, and, bcuff assure! that; the few copies now remaininir will ere loMjr be s.'ld, it is reconimeiideil tliat early applcations should be made for the work. 'PHE BUILDING and OTHER ACTS RELATING to BUILDING. With Extracts from the Paving and Sweeps' Acts : and with Notes and Cases. By A. AINGER, Architect. 2<. 6(f. Pocket-size, cloth boards ; or, in the form of a Pocket-Book, in leather, 35. 6d. a2 4 John Weale [^Successor to the lateJosiAu Taylor), GERMAN GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. IVfEMORIALS of GERMAN ARCHITECTURE; or, the ARCIHTECTUKAL ANTIQUITIES of GER- MANY. By GEORGE MOLLER, of Darmstadt, Architect to the Grand Duke of Hesse. 2 vols., large Folio, with 130 Plate?, a Desrri]ition of each Editioe, and p.n Essay on tiie Origin and Progress of Gothic Ari'lntccture with reference to iis Orisrin and Proirrcss in Enjrland, in the German Laiiffuane, accompanied hy an English Translation, in 8vo., with Notes and Illustrations by W. H. Leeds, 3/. lo.v. " The Transition, or Early German, has not yet, so far as I know, received ninch distinct attentior. Dr. Moller, however, in the course of his valuable Denkniaeh. ler, has i eocntlv given ns excellent re- jiresentations of the cathedral at Lim- hurg on the Lahn, which is a very ad- niirable specimen of this kind ; and has noticed the intermediate and transition place which this edifice seems to occupy in tiie developement of the German style." — /Fhewell'x .\'otes onGerman Churches, P. 25. "There exist, however, several valu- able publications with good plates on the subject of German Arcli'tecture, and more will probably appear in a short time. Dr. MoU-v's work ( Denknaehler der Deutschen Baukunst) already con- tains excellent specimens of every style of German buildings, and oilers additional interest and licauty in each new num- ber." — IVhewell's JYotes on German Churches, pp. 28,29. "The church of St. Catharine, at Op- penheim, near Worms, also in part a ruin, is another fine example of thi« style, and has been worthily illustrated in the m;;?- nificentworkof Dr. Mcller." — ft^heirell's Notes on German Churches, p. 113, Subjoined is a List of the prim The Convert at Lorsch, founded in 764, plates 1, 2, 3, 4 Plan of the Catliedial at Worms, 5 South-east Gate of the Cathedral at 3Ientz, 6 Plan ami Elevation of the Church of St. Custor, at Col)l?iitz, 7, 8 Two liantismal I'onis, 13 View of the Cloisters of the Abbey at Aschalfenbeig, and details of the Co- lumns, 14. 15, 16 The South (Jate of the Cathedral at Pa- derbnrn, 17 The West Side of the Cathedral at Worms, 18 Plan, Eli'vation, S"ction, Perspective, and Details, of the Head Church at Gelnhausen, 19 to 2.i Plan. (Jate and Portico, of the Church at rrieilliert', '2fi to •2'i Plan, and PainliuL's on Glass, of the Cliurrli at Griinberir, 29, .30 The Church ot St. Catherine, at Oppen- lieim,31 to 37 Cap tiisof tlic Church of St. Stephen, at .\leht7,38 Plan, l.;iev,ition,fection, and Pers)iective Views of the .Merchants' GuilUhouse, at Mentz, 39 to 4a cipal Buildings in the TFork : — > Details of the Columns in the Hall of the Chapter of Alentz Cathedral, 9 Gate to the Cloisters at Worms, 10 View of theGateof St. Leonard'sChurch at Frankfort, 1 1 The Vestrv Door of the Cathedral at Mentz, 12 Details ol the Windows of the Chapel of All Saints in the Cathedral at 31entz,44 Tomb of Peter von Aspelt, Archbishop of Mentz, 4.t Tomb of Cuno von Fulkeustein, Arch- bishop of Trevcr, 46 Fac simile of an old Drawing of the Plan and Elevation of a Church Tower, 47. 48 Elevation of some old Houses at Hano- ver, 49 to 51 Two old Houses at IVIentz, 52 Elevatjon of a Church Steeple from an ancient Drawing, .'J3 A (iate ot the Cathedral of Mentz, with a perspective View of the Chapter House and Cloisters, 54 Tomb of a IJisliop in the Churcb of St. Castor, at Coblentz, 55 Tomb of John, Lord Chamberlain of Worms, surnamed Dal berg, oiid oJ his Cuusort, Auiiit, 5G J Architectural Lihranj, 59, High Holborn. IMOLLER'S GERMAN GOTHIC Tlie Tower ol' the Minster at Ulm, and its (letailis, 57, 58 The Tower of the Cathedral at Frank- fort, 59 Fac-simile of ancient Di'awings repre- seiitiner the Plans of two Canopies, and the Elevation of one, 60, 61 Elevation of a Honse at J)autzick, 62 Details of the Stalls in the Chnrch of the Grey Friars, at Dantzitu, 63 to 65 Plan and Elevation of a Canopy, 66 to 70 Comparison of tlie 3Iinsters at Freiburji and Strasbnrs: with some Foreign Churches built in the pointed Arch Style, 71. 72 CuuRCH OF St. Elizabeth at Mar- burg — Ground Plan, plate 1 Elevation of the West-Front, 2 Side-Elevation, 3 Perspective View and Details of the Great West Doorway, 4, 5 Perspective View of the exterior of tlie Church, 6 View of the Church with a Part of the Town and the Castle, 7 Lontritudinal Section, Section of the Towers, Transverse Section,8, 9, 10 Details of the Pillars, II Capitals of Pillars, 12 Tomb of St. Elizabeth andDetails,13,U Perspective View of the Interior, 16 Details of the Painted ^Vinliow, 16 Landgrave Conrad's Monument, 17 3Ionumentof Landgrave Henry II. and his Consort, 18 Obsekvations on the Cathedral at LiMnrRG — Plan of the First and Second Stories, plate 1 Plan of the Third and Fourth Stories, 2 Elevation of the West-Front, 3 View of the Principal Entrance, 4 *,* Moller's 'a-ork bears the highest leputation as elucidating the History, Progress, and Science of this style of Ar- chitecture, which to England is so inte- resting as being intimately connected with her history, early Architecture, and her social condition. Owing to its expen- siveness, this highly meritorious and de- Sereral copies of Seventy-two Plates, making Vol, I., have been s-ild in tliis country: I have bought several co- ARCHITECTURE (continued). Details of the preceding Door, and of tlie Backs of the Stalls of the Choir, 5 View of the Church from theXoitii- west, 6 Lontiitudinnl &Transverse Section, 7, 8 The Font, 9 Aiew in the Upper Galleries of the In- terior, 10 Details of the Arches and Galleries, 1 1 Exterior View of the East-Eud of the Church, 12 St. Palm's, at Worais — Ground Plan of the Church, plate 13 Elevation of the West End, 14 Elevation of the Clmir, 15 Section of the Vestibule or Internal Porch, with an Elevation of the In- terior of the Choir, 16 Details, 17 Persitective View of the Interior of the Chu'-ch at Limburg, 18 The ^IixsTKR of Frkibkrg — Ground Plan, plate 1 Plan of the Second and Third Stories, 2 Elevation of the West-Frimt, 3 Elevation of the South-Side, 4 Longitudinal Section, 5 'J'l'aiisvcrse Section of the Nave, 6 South-West View of the Church, 7 Plans of the different Stories of the Tower, and Details of its Construc- tion, 8 toll Perspective View of the Western Porch, 12 Details of Pillars, 13, 14 The Two Side Doorways in the Tran- septs, 15, 16 Interior View of the Cliurcli, 17 Details of the Doors ot the Trans- epts, 18, 19 Ov THE CoNSTRCCTtilN OV THE Bl'II.D- INGS OF THE MlUDLE AOBB. sirablR publication has hitherto been lit- tle known i^i this country, but it may be jiresumed, that at the low price it is now offered, the very limited number of co- pies for sale will be eagerly purchased. The work was completed in twenty-four livraisons, and charged in London at I5s. per number, importing price. pies of the 2nd Vol. to make up these set's, and which can be had for 21. 12*. Qd. —J. W. jyj^OLLER'S GERMAN GOTHIC ARCHITEC TURE Translated. With Notes and Illustrations. By W. H. LEEDS. 8vo., cloth boards, and lettered (separate from piecedinff), 8*. A 3 6 John Weale (Successor to the late Josiah Taylor), ARCHITECTURE, ENGINKERINfi, AND MECHANICS COMBINED. ^N ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY, contain- taining a correct Nomenclature and Derivation of the Terms employed by Architects, Builders, and Workmen. Comprehending the Theory and Practice of the various branches of Architecture, Carpentry, Joinery, ]Masonry, Brick- laying, and their dependence on eiich other ; the Sciences ne- cessary to be understood, and the Lives of the principal Architects j the whole forming the most comprehensive and the most accurate work on the Science of Architecture and the Art of Building. By PETER NICHOLSON, Architect. 2 larfi^e and lliick vols, of 1000 pa?ps 4to., containing 281 very line plates, engraved by the best Arcbitecttiial engravers (published at 12/. 5?.), now olFered to the Student, Arcliiteot, and Engineer lor 4/. 4^., neatly bound in cloth and lettered. Some few (Mvpies on tine paper for 6/. G.«. bound similar ; and some copies of the former kept elegantly half-bound, for 4/. Ms. 6rf. Tlie Student, Arcbi'et icedilicesof these periods, will contiibute to the work, and others are invited. J Architectural Library, 59, High Holborn. CONTINENTAL AND GREEK ARCHITECTURE. TO FACILITATE THE STUDIES OF THE STUDENT AND AMATEUR IN ARCHITECTURE, J. Wersle lias been recomnuMnlcd l)v several pniiiient Arcliite' ts, to publish in Parts, at convenient periods, Mr. Woods admired Critical \Voik of »lie several Ptvles of Arcliitectiire of the Continent and of Greece, so amplitied in descriptions, asto render it of t!ie utmost utilits to all wlio desire to search into the beautv and harmony of this most useful aiid ornamental branch of the Fine Arts, and to possess a work — " The best Architectural Manual on Italy," Si.c.— Quarterly Review, JVo. 106. It is proposed to publish, on the 1st of March. Part I., containing ten sheets, demy qujirto, with en-raved Copper-platfs and Wood-cuts. The wliole work to be com- pleted in 12 nionthlv parts, at is. each, containing in all 120 sheets, or 960 pages, and 21 Plates, very neatly engraved, and 72 Wood-cuts, making two quarto vols., very neatly printed', and on good paper. To render the work useful to the Student during the progress of its publication, care will be taken in givin:^ the pages consecutively, and a'.so the illustrations to them, and all breaks hi the subjects (which ollen hapiens in the publication of works in parts,) will, in this instance, be avoided. Persons out of London desirous of subscribing to the Work, will be ideased to order it of the resident Rookscller, who can receive it from his Correspondent in the Magazine parcel, the Publisher making arrangements to have each part ready by the 2Sth of each preceding month. In London, applications to be made at the Archi- tectural Library, 59, High Holborn, and the work to be entitled, (CRITICAL REiMARKS on CONTINENTAL AR- ^ CHITECTURE, ANCIENT and MODERN, and on the CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE of GREECE. Written in a series of Letters. By JOSEPH WOODS, F.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c. The following subjects are selected as examples of the extent of the Work : — Cathe Iral at Dijon. Church of St. ^lichael, do. Notre Dame, ditto. Cathedral at Chalons sur St. Denis, at Braine Catheoral of Amiens. Cathedral at Beauvais, Notre Dame de Basse Q^uvre, at ditto. St. Stephens, at ditto. Boulevards of Paris. Tuileries of ditto. Champ Elysees of ditto. Quays, ditto. Bridges, ditto. Palais Royal of Paris. Institute of ditto. Notre Dame Chalons, St. Wulfram, at Abbeville, Church at L'Epine. St. Germain des Pres. Cathedral at Chalons. Church of St. Remi, at Rheims. Church at Mantes. Cathedral at Chartres. Notre I'atne at Paris. Cathedral at Rheims. Kuined Church of St. John's Baptiste. sur Jardin du Roi. Bridge at Xeuilly. Palace of St. Cloud Versailles. Church of Churches Ve«le. ?t. Andre at Cbaitres. St. Pereat Chartres. Cathedral at Dr»'ux. Church at Li may. St. Germaine Auxerre. St. Jacques de la Bou cheree. St. Sererin. St. Martin. St. Etienne du Mont. St. Nicholas des Champ. St. Gervais. St. Eustache- Editices of Paris, generally and paiticularly. Cathedral at Lyons, Church of la Madelaine, ditto. Saone. Chtirch atTournu, &c. Buildings generally and particularly at Lyons. Public Buildings, Bridges, &c., in all parts of the South of France— and the same at Geneva, and in Switzerland. Cathedral at Milan. Steeple of St. Godard. Church of the Passione. Saint Eustorgio. Saint Ambrose. Palace of Government, (treat Hospital. Canal from Milan to Pavii. Cathedral at Pavia. Church of the Carnu'ie. San Francesco. San Salvadore. 1 8 John Weale (Successor to the late Josiah Taylor), WOOD'S CONTINENT San Mielieli. San Piotro in Cielo d'Oro. Cliurcli erected l)y Pelle- grino. Pellci^rino University. IJridtre over Ticino. Certosa. Botanic Harden. Verona, Theatre at Brescia. Laeo
  • n Gardening, what quantity of Land will keep a Fa- milv in culinary Vejretahles ; Pork, Eggs, 31 ilk, and lircad Corn ; on the Keeping of Cows, Hogs, I'nulti y. Bees, and Ait of making of Candles, Soap, Storing Fruit, Roots, &c. " The author is a practical builder and surveyor ; and he has not only passed the greater part of his life among bricks and mortar in this country, but he has been in America. Ke has given such plain directions for building earthen walls, that any labourer may carry them into execution. \Ve feel assured th.t this work will be a most valuable one, both to the emigrant and to the settler in any newly co'onised country, which is nut sutfic'cntly advanced to have houses of brick or stone. Directions are aUo given for building log bouses, aud also framed houses. " Chap, III., on the Manufacture and Choice of Bricks, cm tains oi.e of the best accoun's of the London practice of brickmaking which we have anywhere seen, and w-hich will be of great value in cur provincial oistricts as well as in new counti ics. " Chav. IV., on the Properties, Uses, and Man"facture of Lime, is equally valuable with that mi bricks. " Speaking of cements, the author truly observes, that mortar made of good lime and clean sharp sand, may be suc- cessfully emploved for the same purposes as Roman cement, provided it be allowed sufficient time to dry before water is permitted to act upon it. This was men- tioncd many years ago by Arthur Young. "Chap. V. treats oi fy^ell-lifgins^. Draining, 8^c., and includes a variety of useful informat on on the subject of croppiiu gardens, &c. " Ti.e plates in i\lr. Wild's work are neatly engraved, and the designs plain and \ye\\ arranged. "We recommended this work both to emigrants and architects, had it only con- tained the chapter on building in pis'- ; but findiiiif also the two very excellent chapters on bricks and on lime, we cer- tainly have no hesitation in saying, that it deserves to be in the library ot every young architect and builder, and m that of every landed proprietor, in remote parts of the country, wlio possesses brick eartfi on his estate. ' — Loudon's Archi- tectural ^^lag. T)ESIGNS for VILLAS and other RURAL ^ BUILDINGS. Bv the late EDMUND AIKIN, Archt. Engraved on 31 Plates, with Plans and Elevations, ele- gantly coloured, and an Introductory Essay, containing Re- marks on the prevailing Defects of Modern Architecture, and on the Investigation of the Style best adapted for the Dwell- ings of the Present Times. Dedicated to the late Thomas Hope, Esq. " Modern Architects profess to imi- tate antique example*, and do so in co- lumns, entablatures, and details, but never in the general effect. Is it that they imitate blindly, and without pene- trating into those principles and that system which is su[criorto the details that jruide them? This is a subject whirh it mav be useful and interesting to pursue." — Vide Introduction. Second Edition. 4to. Price 1/. U. 12 Jonx Weale (Successor to the late Josiah Taylor), THE HISTORY and ANTIQUITIES of the ROUND CHURCH and COMMAXDERY at LITTLE MAPLE- STEAD, Essex. Formerly belonging to the Knights Hos- pitallers of Saint John oif Jerusalem. (Afterwards known as the Knights of Rhodes and now of Malta). Preceded bv an HISTORICAL SKETCH of the CRUS ADES By WILLIAM WALLEN, Arcliitect. F. S. A. " 3lany a time tlie Hos|(italler* liave foiifflit, For Jesus sake in jfloi ions Christian field,' Streaminfi: tlie ensigns of the Christian cross Against lilack Pagans, Infidels, and Turks." Considerable delav has occurred in the pulilication of tii'is work, but it has not been unattended with its advan- tages, as the Author has been thereby enahled to extend the letter press very considerably beyond the proposed limits, and also to add numerous emhellish- ments to the historical portion of it. Besides other inforntation, interestine: to the Architect and Antiquarv, it con- tains the Account of the Farm and xManor of Maplestead taken by the Commis- sioners immediately after the dissolution of the religious houses belonging to the Knights Hospitallers, and a copy of tlie deed by which Henry the VIII. ex- changed the 3Ianor of Maplestcad for cithers belonffing to George Harper, Esq. (with the Autograph of Harper) together with a copy of the deed (dated 1542J conveying the Manor from George Prices to Subscribers demy 8vo. /.». To Subscribers, roval ^on Subscrihers 10*. 6^?. Non Snbsri ibers. A few copies, royal 8vo. with the ornamental initial letters and bearings illuminated, at 1/. 1*. Harper, Esq., to John Wiseman, Esq., shewing its exact value at that period. In the appendix the titles are given of the various grants (585 in number) of land and other property made to the commandery of Littk .Maplestead, wliicli prove it to have been one of the most important of the minor estahlishments connected with the Religious iMilitary order of Knights Hospitallers. The Graphic Illustrations consist of a plan, views, sections and arciiitectural details of Little Maplestead Church, a view oi the Priory Gate at St. John's Clerkenwell, ornamental initial letters to each chapter, and numerous wood cuts, executed by ]\lr. Samuel Williams, whose name, it is presumed, is a sutR- cient guarantee for superiority of ex- ecution. 8vo 10?. 6'/. 14*. 0^. the armorial JJISTORY and DESCRIPTION of the LATE HOUSES of PARLIAMENT and ANCIENT PALA- TIAL EDIFICES of WESTMINSTER. By JOHN BRITTON and EDWARD W. BRAYLEY, Authors of numerous Antiquarian and Topographical Publications; Fellows'of the Society of Antiquarians of Litndon, and of several other.Societies. The Work is in One \olume of 450 pages, with 45 Embellishments, engraved in the line manner, from original and carefully executed Drawings, repre>:ent- ing the Building in nun- immediately after the lire of Octuhcr 18.34 ; and also architectural splendour. The accounts embrace historical notices of the ancient palace, its monarchs, chivalrous feats, &c. ; and critical descriptions of the va- rious buildings which constituted the monarch's town mansion, from tiie An- glo-Norinan dynasty. In large and thick 8vo.. containing 40 very beautiful and interesting Plates Xcat M *■^;^^^[•"^••''^ .^V''*'. '^•,^'- ^" '">•"' I^*'*''*''' -^- -'■ '" ^t--.. to be unifuim with Mr. Britton 8 Cathedrals, 4/. 4s. Very few copies of Proofs and Etchings in royal ovo., 4/. 4*. ° ' displaying them in their original ttate of Architectural Library, 59, High Holborn. 13 A CORRECT DETAIL PLAN of the PARLL\- AMEXTARY and other PUBLIC BUILDINGS ad- jacent at W'ESTMINSTER. From a careful and accurate Survey, made with the intention of providinj^ the information so necessary for the proper consideration of the subject of the new Buildings. By CHARLES JAMES RICHARDSON, Architect. Tliis Plan includes, from tlie North side ot' Westminster Bridire to tlie mid- dle of Abinsrdoi! Srreet, and from Heiuv the Si'venth's Chapel inclusive to the River, the Names aiid appropriation of the Rooms in all the Floors as tliey ex- isted hetore the Fire, the Seats in' the old House of Lords, &c. &:c., M-ith Ele- vations and Sections of the Buildinars in New and Old Palace Yards, St. Marjjra- rets Street, Cotton Garden, &c., Resto- ration of St. Stephens' Chapel, and Ihe Details of the Buildings erected in 1823 and 1826. The whole drawn to the scale of 20 Feet to an Inch. Price 1,'. \s. Preparing for Publication, in 8vo., with Plates, J^ PRACTICAL VIEW of the IMPROVEMENTS effected in the WARMING and VENTILATION of BUILDINGS by the introduction of the system of Warm Water circulation through One Inch Tubes, invented by Mr. A. M. Perkins. The work will contain about Ten Zinc Plates, consisting of Plans and Sections of some of the numerous Public and Private Buildings warmed on this system, show- ing minutely the Construction and Arrangement of the dift'erent Furnaces, Pipes, &c , in each ; also a method of producing a simple and perfect Ventilation of Public and Private Buildings, more particularly the latter, by the introduction of these tubes. By CHARLES JAMES RICHARDSON, Architect. NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT. Preparing for Publication. ^NALA^SIS of the REPORT of the Select Com- mittee of the Honourable the House of Commons j On Ventilation. With Notes and Observations. By W. S. INMAN, Fellow of the Institute of British Architects. I 1-1 J OHM Weale (Successor to the late Josiah Taylor), THE TUDOR AND ELIZABETHAN STVLES Now much applied in Architecture, Ornament, and Decoration. gRJDGEN'S IXTERIOR DECORATIONS, DE- TAILS, and VIEWS of SEFTON CHURCH, in Lan- cashire, erected by the Molyneux J'aniily (the ancestors of the present Earl of Sefton), in the earlv part of the reiirn of Hcnrv VHL ^ ^ The Plates (34 in nnmbei) display tlie beautiful Stvle of the Tudor Age in DetaiN Ormimcits Sections, and Views. Etc lied in a masterlv style of art. In folio size' 1/. 1*., m boards. (]LARKE'S ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE. 20 Plates, imperial 8vo., cloth boards, 1/. \s. Contents : Wimbledon House, Surrev, built by Sir Thoma'5 Cecil, l.i88. Easton House, Essex, Sir Henry May nard. Aston Hall,\Vai\vi9kshire, SirThos. Holt' Graft. m Hall. Cheshire, Sir Peter War- burton. Stanfield Hall, Norfolk, family of Flow- enlevvs. Seckford Hall, Thomas Seckford. Brainshill House, Hampshire. Penn Place, Kent, Lord Zouch. Queen's Head, Islington, Sir Walter Ra- leigh. Chastleton, Oxfordshire, M'alter Jones. Brereton Hall, Cheshire, SirWalter Rre- reton. H(dland House, Middlesex, Sir Walter Cope. Hausfhlpy House, Suffolk. Streete Place, Sussex, Dobell Montacute House, Somersetshire. Sir Ed- ward IMiilip*. West wood House, Worcftstershire. Wakehurst Place, Sussex, Sir Edward Cnlppper. Carter's C'lrner, Sussex. Easthury H.)use, Essex, Lord Monteagle. Ku'-t Muscall, Sussex, Newton. Old House, near Worcester, &c. JJAKEWELL'S ATTEMPT to determine the exact character of EHzabethan Architecture, illustrated bv Paral- lels of Dorton House, Hatfield, Lon^leate, and ^\'o^aton, in England ; the Pallazzo della Cancellaria at Rome. The Plates (8 in number) consist of compartment of the I'allazzo della Cancel- laria at Koine, by HrauuiMte, 1495 ; and LoiiKloate, by John of Pa.lua, l.'iO"; Com- l>avtmeiit of the South Front of Hattield, 1(511, with Comiiiirtment of M'ollaton Hall, i:)SO; Dorlon House, Bucks., a Plan, Screen in the Hall, Longitudinal Section of the Staircase ; Transverse Sec- tion of the Staircase ; Chimnev-piere in Queen Elizabeth's ; room Ceiling in the same room ; a fr.mt view of the Queen oc- cupies the centre compartment, the cor- respondinir compartments are tilled with the Portraits of her principal Ministers in profile. In 8ro. extra cloth boards, and lettered, 7s. 25 copies are printed ou India roval paper, \^)s.Od., SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED. J Architectural Library, 59, High Hulborn. 15 JJAMPTON COURT. Prospective View of the mag- nificent Hall at Hampton Court, l)uilt in the time of Henry VHL, 1332. Very finely engraved, folio size, 5*. TJOBINSON'S PLANS, ELEVATIONS, VIEWS, ^ and DETAILS of HARDWICK HALL, in Derbyshire, one of the Seats of his Grace the Duke of Devonshire. On atlas loUo size ; 10 very beautiful Plates, with copious text to accompany, very beautifully printed, 3/. 3*. fJOBINSON'S PLANS, ELEVATIONS, VIEWS, and DETAILS of HATFIELD HOUSE, in Hertford- shire, the Seat of the Marcjuis of Salisbury. On atlas folio size, uniform with Hard wick ; 10 very beautiful Plates, with copious text to accoaipany, very beautifully printed, 3/. 3s. rjEO^^IETRICAL ELEVATIONS of the WEST ^ FRONTS of the CATHEDRALS of SALISBURY, NORWICH: St. PAUL'S. LONDON; St. PETER'S. ROME, and the GREAT PYRAMID of EGYPT, TO ONE SCALE. Tot^l Hpiirhts. sr. Pauls' . . . .365 feet Norwich 37 Salisbury .... 406 Finely engraved folio print, 5s. India paper proofs, Js. 61. f:;EOMETRICAL ELEVATIONS of the WEST ^^ FRONTS of the CATHEDRAL of St. PAUL'S, LON- DON, before the Fire; Sr. STEPHEN'S, VIENNA; STRASBURG, COLOGNE. The TOWER of MECH- LIN, and the GREAT PYRAMID of EGYPT TO ONE SCALE. Total Heights. Tower of Mechlin . . 6-">0 feet (as it was originally designed) Cnluffnc 530 ditto ^t. PhmI's ^Old) . . 5-20 as it existed Pyramid 476 as it is ,_, Siiasburg 435 ,, St. Stephen's .... 447 „ Finely engraved folio print, 5*. India paper proofs, 7s. 6d. f L e called a view of ttiis frreat National Moniiineni of Architecture, Mr. Gi.adwin prcsuinps, with becoming deference, to submit bis present Work to the notice of the Ama- teur, tl»o Clergy, the Arciiitect, ami tht Public, trustiji^r that it will be fi'Uii< eiiual to the imi)ortance of the subject' and to merit encouragement. I XTLEMENTARY PRINCIPLES of CARPEN TRY, &c. A Treatise on the Pressure and Equili brium of Beams and Timber Frames, the Resistance o Timbers, and the Construction of Floors, Roofs, Centres, Bridges, &c. With Practical Rules and Examples : to which is added, an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Tiuiber ; including the INIethods of Seasoning, and the Causes and Pre- vention of Decav ; with Descriptions of the Kinds of Woot used in Building : also numerous Tables of Scantlings of Tim ber for different Purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials. &c. Illustrated by twenty-two Engravings. By THOMAS TREDGOLD, Civil Engineer. 4to. 1/. 45. boards. 'THE CARPENTER and JOINER'S ASSISTANT containing Practical Rules for making all kinds of Jointi and various methods of hingcing them together ; for hanging of Doors 5 for fitting up ^^'indows and Shutters ; for the con- struction of Floors, Partitions, Soffits, (iroins, Arches fo Masonary •, for constructing Roofs in the best manner from ;■ given (juantity of Timber, &c. Also Extracts from :M. Bclidor. M. du Ilamel, M. de Buffon, /kc. on the strength of Timber. Illu:>trated with 79 Plates. By PETER NICHOLSON. 4to. 1/. 1». Revised and corrected. Architectural Librarij, 59, High Hulborn. 17 'pHE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE, being a complete Book of Lines for Carpeutry and Joinery, treat- ing fully on Practical Geometry, Soffits, Brick and Plaster Groins, Niches of every description. Skylights, Lines for Roofs and Domes, with a great variety of Designs for Roofs, Trussed Girders, Floors, Domes, Bridges, &c., on 8-1 Copper-plates ; including some Observations and Calculations on the Strength of Timber. By P. NICHOLSON. 4to. 1/. 1*. A new edition, roirectcd and enlarged. ^HE PRACTICAL HOUSE CARPENTER, or YOUTH'S LNSTilUCTOR ; containing a great variety of useful Designs in Carpentry and Architecture ; as Centering for Groins, Niches, &c., Examples for Roofs, Sky-lights, &c. Designs for Chimnev-pieces, Shop Fronts, Door Cases. Section of a Dining-Room and Library. Variety of Stair- cases, with many other important Articles and useful Embel- lishments. The whole illustrated and made perfectlv easy by 148 Quarto Copper-plates, with Explanations to each. Bv WILLIAM PAIN. The sixth ciition. 18s. MEASURING BRICK WORK, &;C. 'THE BRICKLAYER'S GUIDE to the xMeasurin^ of all Sorts of Brick-Work. A PRACTICAL TREATISE on the MANUFACTURE and CHOICE of BRICKS. On the Causes and Cure of Smoky Chimneys, the Formation of Drains, and on the Construction of Ovens, heated with Coals. Also Practical and Useful Information on the Building Act. A new edition with considerable additions. By W. LAXl'ON, Surveyor, &c. Illustrated by wood cuts aiidiiine;copper plates. 8vo. 7s. boards. ^N ESSAY on the STRENGTH and STRESS of TIMBER. Founded upon Experiments performed at the Royal Military Academy, on Specimens selected from the Royal Arsenal and his Majesty's Dock-Yard at Woolwich ; preceded by an Historical Review of former Theories and Ex- periments. Also an Appendix on the Strength of Iron and other Materials. Bv PETER BARLOW, of the Royal Military Academy. Wilb numerous Tables and I'iatcs. Tliiid eiljli'on, corrected.' 8vo. 16*. boards. B Li 13 John Weale (Successor to the Late Josiah Taylor), A PRACTICAL ESSAY on the STRENGTH of CAST IRON and OTHER METALS ; intended for the Assistance of Engineers, Iron-Masters, jNIilhvrights, Architects, Founders, Smiths, and otliers engaged in the Construction of Machines, Buildings, &c. Containing Practical Rules, Tables, and Examples, founded on a Series of new Experiments ; with an extensive Table of the Properties of ^Materials. Il- lustrated by Four Plates and several Wood-cuts. By THOMAS TREDGOLD, Civil Engineer, Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, &c. Third Edition, Imjiroved and Enlarged. 8vo. 12*. boards. AN ESSAY on the CONSTRUCTION of the FIVE ARCHITECTURAL SECTIONS of CAST-IRON BEAjNPS, employed as (birders, Bressummers, and other Hori- zontal Supports for Buildings, &c. Jiy WILLIAM TURXBULL. Wood-cuts, 8vo. 4s. G./. %• This Work may appropriately be called a Supplement to the preceding. PRACTICAL ESSAYS on MILL- WORK and other MACHINERY.— On the Teeth of Wheels, the Shafts, Gudgeons, and Journals of Machines ; the Couplings and Bearings of Shafts, disengaging and re-engaging Machinery in Motion, equalising the Motions of Mills ; changing the Velo- citv of Machines in Motion ; the Framing of Mill- Work, hv.; with various useful 'I ables. By ROBERT BUCHANAN, Engineer, rhe Third Edition, in the press, revised, v/ith Notes and ad- ditional Articles, containing new Researches on various ^Mechanical Subjects, By THOMAS TREDGOLD, Civil Engineer. With Cabnilatioiis, Formnlic, &c., by W. S. ii. WOOLllOUSE. Illuslrated by 20 I'lates and Numerous Fi),'ures. 2 vols. bvo. New Edition in tiie press. 1/. 4*. hoards. o LIVER EVANS on MILL-WORK 3 much im- proved and ampliiied. Bv T. P. .TONE S. 8vo. 25 rkitf'3. ISy. ■.maaamti Architectural Library, .59, High Hoihorn. 19 PRACTICAL ESSAYS on MILL- WORK, Mecha- nical and Descriptive. By ROBERTSON BUCHANAN, Civil Engineer. In 8vo., with 15 Plates. Ss. On Coupling of Shafts, &c. On Diseiitfatrinff and Re-engaging Ma chinery wliilp in Motion. On Equafising the Motion of Mills. Compri?inff, On Changing the Velocity of Machinery while ill Motion. On the Fram.ng of Mill-Work, &c. ^ TREATISE ON MILLS; in Four Parts. Part First, on Circular Motion; Part Second, on the Maxi- mum of moving Bodies, Machines, Engines, &c. ; Part Third, on the Velocity of Effluent Water; Part Fourth, Experiments on Circidar Motion, Water- Wheels, &c. By JOHN BANKS, Lecturer in Experimental Philosophy. Four Plates. Second Edition. 8*. boards. \ TREATISE on the TEETH of WHEELS, PL NIONS, &c., Demonstrating the best Forms which can be given to them for the various purposes of Machinery ; such as Mill-work, Clock-work, &c., and the finding of their Num- bers. Translated from the French of M. Camus. The Se- cond Edition, carefully revised and enlarged, with Details of the present improved practice of Millwrights and Engine- makers. By JOHN ISAAC HAWKINS, Civil Engineer. In 8vo., illustrated by Plates. Price 10«. Gd. boards. o BSERVATIONS on the CONSTRUCTION of ARCHES for BRIDGES, and on the REBUILDING of LONDON BRIDGE ; Demonstrating the Practicability of executing the Work of London Bridge in Three Flat Elliptical Arches of Stone, each 230 Feet Span ; with an Examination of the Arch of Equilibrium proposed by the late Dr. Hux- TON : and an Investigation of a New Method for formin'^ an Arch of that Description, illustrated by Seven Plates and other Figures. By JOHN SEWARD, Civil Engineer. 8vo. \'2s. boards. B 2 20 John Weale (Successor to the late Josiah Taylob), TREATISE on the EQUILIBRIUM of ARCHES, in which the Theory is Demonsirated upon Familiar Ma- thematical rrinciples. By JOSEPH GWILT. Architect, F.S.A., &c. 3rJ Edition, 1836, nitli Inrge Plates, and containing Mr. G will's Design fur the New London Bridge. 8vo., in boards, 8*. Shortly will be published, A PRACTICAL TREATISE on the COXSTRUC TION of OBLIQUE ARCHES, commonly called SKEW ARCHES, as applicable to Railways, Canals, &c. By GEORGE W. BUCK. C.E., Corresponding Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Assistant Engineer on the London and Birmingham Railway. In 8vo., with Plates. 'J^HE PLAN and ELEVATION of the BRIDGE, built over the SEVERN at SHREWSBURY. Drawn by J. GW^YNNE, and engraved by E. HOOKER. Price Iv. 6i. A VIEW of the CAST-IRON BRIDGE, erected over the SEVERN at Colebrook Dale. Price 7*. 6d, ^ VIEW of BLACKFRIARS BRIDGE, with Plan and a Sect'.on of the Middle Arch, showing the Centre and Construction. Very neatly engraved by DUBOURG. Price Js. l^LEVxVriON and PLAN of BLACKFRIARS ^ BRIDGE over the RIVER THA.MES. Engraved by R. BALDWIN. Piice 53. VIEW of the FIVE ELLIPTICAL ARCH ^ BRIDGE ACROSS the TWEED at KELSO. Constructed by the late JOHN RENME, Esq., Civil Engineer. Large Print Trice 5*. Architectural Library, 59, High Holhorn. 21 TREATISE on ISOMETRICAL DRAWING, as applicable to Geological and Mining Plans, Picturesque Delineations of Ornamental Grounds, Perspective Views and Working Plans of Buildings and Machinery, and to general purposes of Civil Engineering; with Details of improved Methods of preserving Plans and Records of Subterranean Operations in Mining Districts. With 34 Copper-plate En- gravings. By T. SOPWITH, Land and Mine Surveyor j Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers; Author of "Geological Sections of Mines ;" " Account of Mining Districts," &c. 8vo. Price \6s. " The chapter on Mineral plans is of very great value, botli as to the minute and sensiblfi details into vvhicli the Au- thor enters respecting plans and the best mode of constructing them, the in- struments to be employed, and the best method of preseryiug Mining Plans and Records. As to Isometrical Drawing, this work is by far the most complete that has appeared. Mr. Sopwith de- scribes in a clear and interesting manner the great advantages of Isometrical Drawing in Geology and Mining, its ap- plication to Ornamental and Landscape Gardening, in which he is suppoi ted by the high opinion of Mr. Loudon, and its me for plans of buildings and machinery and for general purposes of Civil En- gineering. The copious illustrations, the many striking examples introduced, and the excellent engravings, make this work not only of importance to tiie man of science but attractive to the general student. Indeed Mr. S. has so skilfully treated his subject as to remove all difficulties from any person of ordinary indu!-try.'' — Ti/ne Mercury. "For Landscape Gardening, Isometri- cal Projeotion is as admirably adapted as it is for Architecture, and we cannot but recommend this book most strongly both to Gardeners and Land Surveyors. To Land and Mine Surveyors it is indeed indispensable ; nothinif of pqual import- ance to it having appeared since Mr. Horner published his improved method of Land Surveying in 1810." — Loudon's Gardener's Magazine. "On this useful mode of delineation Mr. Sopwith has the merit of producing the first work, or at least the first work of real use entirely devoted to tlic sub- ject. We recommand this work for the accurate mauoer in whieh it is treated as indispensable to Enginee^•9, Archi- tects, Coal Viewers, and Surveyors,*' — Newcastle Chronicle. " Drawinifs of this nature are pe- culiarly useful, and there are few in - terestiiig geological tracts to which they are inapplicable: in many instances, especially in mining and coal districts, it will be proper to construct them upon the principles of Isometrical Perspective as proposed by Professor Parish, and developed with mu h ingenuity and prac- tical skill in Mr. Sopwith's recent treatise." — Professor Phillip's Guide to Geology, p. 167. " It gives exceedingly simple and easy rules and examples how to construct designs ; no engineer, builder, or mining surveyoi- or student in these professions, should he without this -vork. The ex- planations of Mr. Sopwith are suited to the comprehension of the general reader and the subjects treated of are exemplifie'l in a familiar and eaiiily comprehensible style." — Newcastle Cou- rant. "Wp have only room at present, strong- ly to recommend Mr, Sopwith's book as bv far the best and indeed the only com- plete work that has yet apreared on the subject. Everv part of it is rendered easily comprehensible even by a person who knows scarcely anything of Geom- etry, and every mode of the application of I*ometiicai Drawing is beautifully illustrated by Engravings."— Lowrfon'* Arcliitectural Magazine. " Mr. Sopwith commences with a general chapter on ' .Mineral Plans and Surveys,' in which he enforces at great length and with no small ability, the importance of a more general and scien- tific system of recording the progress of mineral worka in the great coal and LI. 22 John We ale (Successor to the late Josiah Taylor), SOPWITH'S ISOMETRICA lead mining districts of tlie United King- dom. The measures expedient to he taken for the establishment of a better systetn are treated of bv Mr, Sopwith under five different heads. The pro- prietors and conductors of mines and all under them would do well to study the wl,(de of tliese sections attentively. The Autlior-s suggestions are all of a very •ensible and practical character, accom- panied with every necessary instruction for carrying them into complete etfect. L DRAWING (continued). We are upon the whole ver\' much pleased with Mr. Sopwitli's Treatise : it is not only the fullest, but, in point of practical illustration, the best which has yet appeared on the subject of Isom- ctrical projection, and from its popular style and the elegance of its embellish- ments is eminently calculated to extend the use of this very superior method of graphic delineation."— .VtcAantc'* Ma^' zine. SET of PROJECTING and PARALLEL RU- LERS, invented by T. SOPWITH, for constructing Working Plans and Drawings in Isometrical and other Modes of Projection. Price 2.?. dd. Also to he had the following Works of Mr. Sopwith • QEOLOGICAL SECTIONS of HOLYFIELD, HUDGILL CROSS VEIN, and SILVER-BAND LEAD MINES, in ALSTON MOOR and TEESDALE ; showing the various Strata and Subterranean Operations. Engraved on three copper-plates and coloured, with letterpress desoription. &c. Price \0s. 6d. ^ gIGHT VIEV^S of FOUNTAIN'S ABBEY, in- tended to illustrate the Architectural and Picturesque Beauties of that celebrated Ruin. Engraved from original drawings by J. Metcalf and J. W. Carmichael. With an HISTORICAL and ARCHITECTURAL DESCRIPTION. Royal folio. Price 10«. 6rf. AN ACCOUNT of the MINING DISTRICTS of ALSTON MOOR, WEARDALE, and TEESPALE, in CUMBERLAND and DURHAM; comprising Descriptive Sketches of the Scenery. Antiquities, Geology, and Mining Operations in the Upper Dales of the Rivers Tyne, Wear, and Tees. " Account of Mining Districts. "This is such a work as we have long wished to see. Ilaiipilythe subject has fallen into the hnmls of a i)rarlirai man and not a mere amateur of ores or of the picturesque. The circuirkstances ^ l2mo. Price 4«. Qd of many mines are crowded into one picture and grouped with such effect that we see and feel as we read. Yadmoss, Cauldron Snout and the Dale scenery are admirably described." — ' Architeclural Library, 50, High Holborn. 23 PLAN of the MINING DISTRICT of ALSTON MOOR, with Part of the Dales of Tyne, Wear, and Tees, and the several New Lines of Road recently made in these Districts. Price Is. 6d. plain, or 2s. 6d. coloured. pLAN of the VALE of DERWENT, near New- castle, showing the New Line of Road, with Descrip- tion, &c. Price 7s. 6d. PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. The Principles of Practical Perspective, or Scenographic Projection ; con- taining Universal Rules for delineating Architectural Designs on various surfaces, and taking Views from Nature by the most simple and expeditious methods ; to which are added. Rules for Shadowing, and the Elements of Painting, in 2 parts in 1 vol., large 4to. By RICHARD BROWN, Architect. With 48 Plates, several of which are coloured. Price 1/. 11 s. 6d. GRECIAN VILLAS. ATHENIAN or GRECIAN VILLAS ; being a Se- ries of Original Designs for Villas or Country Residences to exemplify in effect its applicabiHty to Domestic Edifices of this country, and its adaptation in Plan to the modern arrange- ment of their usual apartments. By EDWARD JONES, Architect. Folio size. Division I. (complete of itselfj with Plates. Price 15*. 1\|ECHANTCS for PRACTICAL MEN; containing Explanations of the Principles of Mechanics ; the Steam-Engine, with its various Proportions j Parallel Motion, and Tables of Safety-Valve Levers, &c. j Tables of the Weight of Cast-Iron Pipes ; Tables of various kinds, on Cast and Wrought Iron, for the use of Founders, Smiths, &c. j Strength and Stress of Materials, &c. ; Hydrostatics and Hy- draulics ; Dissertation on Rail-roads, &c. &c. By J. HANN and ISA.\C DODDS, Civil Engineers. Plates. 8vo. 7t. Qd. 21 John- Weale (Successor to the /a/e Josiah Taylor), ^ABLES for the PURCH ASIXG of ESTATES, Freehold, Copyhold, or Leasehold, Annuities, &c., and for the Renewing of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colle-es, or other Corporate Bodies, for Terms of Years cer- tain, and for Lives ; also, for valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next Presentations, &c. Together with several useful and interesting Tables connected with the sub- ject. Also, the Five Tables of Compound Interest By \V. INWOOD, Architect and Surveyor. In small 8vo., for a P.)cket-H.,ol<. A Ne^v Edition, with the Government Tables o Annuities. Price/*, boards. Just published, in 1 thick 8vo. volume. 3/., a new edition corrected, and with above loo of tiie Phites re-engiaved, JHE EiVCYCLOP.EDLA of COTTAGE, FARM, and VILLA ARCHITECTURE and FURNITURE ; with about 1100 Pages of Letter-press, and upwards of 2000 beautifully engraved Wood Engravings, embracing Designs of Cottages, Farm-Houses, Farmeries, Villas, Country Inns,' Pub- lic Houses, Parochial Schools, &c.j including 'the interior Finishings and Furniture ; accompanied by Analytical aud Cri- tical Remarks, illustrative of the Principles of Architectural Science and Taste on which the Designs for Dwellings are com- posed, and of Landscape Gardening, with reference to their Accompaniments. By J. C. LOUDON, F.L., G., H., and Z.S., and Conductor of the Architectural Magazine, &c. Publishing in Monthly Nos. at 2s. each. THE ARCHITECTURAL MAGAZINE, andJOUR- NAL of IMPROVEMENT in ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, and FURNISHING, and in the various Arts and Trades connected therewith. Conducted by J. C. LOUDON, F.L., G., Z.S., &c. Author of the Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture and Furniture, &c. Architectural Library , 59, High Holborn. 25 This (lay is p!i])lislied, in Imperial Quarto, Parts 1 to 10, 2s. 6d.\ eaoh, rnntaining 5 Plates ; a small luimber of Copies on Superfine Paper, in C.)lombier Quarto, 4s. of GRECIAN SCULPTURE; Comprising a Series of Engravings of the most celebrated Spe- cimens of Ancient Art, a great portion of which is now in the BRITISH MUSEUM : in numerous instances exhibiting the Figures and accessories as they were previously to their pre- sent state of mutilation ; also including copies of many Sub- jects which have been totally destroyed since these representa- tions were delineated. Originally' published in STUART's ANTIQUITIES of ATHENS with numerous important addi- tions. Engraved on nearly 250 Plates, and ex- hibiting upwardsof 1000 Figures, forming a niatciiloss collection of exquisite exam- ples lor the Student of the Fine Arts, of pictorial authorities for the Classical Scho- lar, and of the most mteresting Specimens of Antiquity whieli can excite the atten- tion and engag:e the investigation of the Dilettanti; "with Classical, Historical, OeHCiiptivejand Explanatory Remarks. The following is an imperfect sketch of the Subjects in readiness or in preparation for this Work, exclusive of those not yet actually commenced. About a dozen Views of the Edifices or. Tower of Andronicus Cyrrestes at whence these subjects have been obtain ed : several as restored by Stuart, show- ing tlie original situation of the Sculpture, on their Pediments, Friezes, Metopes, &c. Upwards 100 Plates from the .Metopes, Friezes, and Pediments of the Parthenon at Athens : (accounting each double Plate as two). Tliirty from the Temple of Theseus at Athens. Five from the Tenij le of Pandrosus at Athens. Two from the Temple of Aglauros, for- merly at Athens, now totally destroyed. Nine liom the Temple of the Winds ; Athens. Twenty seven from the Choragic Monu- ment of Lysiciates, frequently called the Lanthorn of Demosthenes, at Athens. Thiee from the Choragic Monument of Thrysallus, at Athens. Seven from the Monument of Philopap- pus, at Athens. Eight from the Edifice called the In- cantada, at Salonicha; And a large number of sul)jects from vaiious sources, Cameos, Medals, Busts, Bassi-relievi, Sepulchral Vases, Altars, Inscriptions, Architectural Details and Ornaments, &c. ^HE ANTIQUITIES of ATHENS, accurately mea- sured and delineated by JAMES STUART, F.R.S. and F.S.A., and NICHOLAS REVETT, Faiuters and Architects. This Work contains about 400 Plates, engraved by eminent Artists, accompani- ed by Essays, architectural, classical, his- torical, explanatory, and descriptive, elu- cidating, by a research of many years' arduous labour and great expense, tlie purest examples of Grecian Arcliitecture, aiany of which no loiiger exist, and the traces of them can be found only in this elegant and elaborate publication. — The fc-issue of this magnificent work, will be continued with as much rapidity to be com. pleted in 8U Parts, at bt. each, as a due attention to careful workmanship will permit: it will form four folio volumes. Any part may be procured separately. L„ 26 John Weale (Successor to the late Josiah Taylor), ATTICA.— The UNEDITED ANTIQUITIES of A'lTICA. By the Society of Dilettanti. Comprising the Architectural Remains of Eleusis, Rhamnus, Sunium, and Thoricus. 78 very line Plates, royal folio, neat in cloth boards and lettered. Price 3/. 3s. JHE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES of ROME, accurately delineated by ANTOINE DESGODETZ, Architect Royal to his most Christian Majesty, and Professor of Architecture in the Roval Academy of the Fine Arts, at Paris. Translated by GEORGE MARSHALL, Architect. This Work contains 137 Folio Plates ; the subjects are selected from the most esteemed specimens of Roman architec- tural maprnificencc, with desciiptions and explanations in French and English. It will be completed in 21 Parts, at 55, each, forming two folio volumes. These esteemed representations of ar- chitectural treasures of antiquity have occupied a prominent situation in scienti- fic literature ever since their publication ; thev have constantly been resorted to as models for our public edifices, and as fur- nishing highly esteemed details for the decorations of domestic architecture. Tlie judicious selection of elegant subjects has ever excited the admirati(m of scientific professors; whilethe elaborate and minute accuracy of the details, as described in these Engravings, renders them a series of invaluable originals for study, present- ing a matchless cidlection of working drawings of the most perfect character. In every instance, the admeasurements are ascertained and inserted with the most faithful and scrupulous precision. SUPPLEMENTARY AND FIFTH VOLUME TO THE ANTI- QUITIES OF ATHENS, BY R. C. COCKERELL, ESQ. &c NTIQUITIES of ATHENS and OTHER PLACES in GREECE. SICILY, &c. Supplementary to the Antiquities of Athens bv JAMES STUART E R S F.S.A., and NICHOLAS REVETT, delineated and illustra-* ted by C. R. COCKERELL, A.R.A., F.S.A., W. KIN- NARD, T. L. DONALDSON, W. JENKINS, and W. RAILTON, Architects. Imperial folio, uniform with the original edition of Stuart and Revelt, and the Di- lettanti Works. Verytinely printed, and with numerous beautiful Plates of Plans Elevations Sections, Views, Ornaments, &c. Price, in Extra cloth boards and lettered, 6/. 12*. THE HISTORY and ANTIQUITIES of the FORTIFICATIONS of the CITY of YORK. By HENRY F. LOCKWOOD and ADOLPHUS H- CATES, Architects. Royal 4to., with 13 beautiful Etchings, and several Wood-cuts. Price 18*. Avery few copies in folio (large paper), proofs on India paper. Price 30*. Architectural Library, 59, High Holborn. 27 PEMARKS on the ARCHITECTURE of the ^ MIDDLE AGES, especially of ITALY. By R. WILLIS, M.A., F.R.S., late Fellow of Caius College. 8vo 15 Plates verv neatlv engraved. In clotli boards and lettered Price 10s. 6d. A Tcry few enlarge paper, royal 8vo. plates on India paper, extra cloth, bound, jfiU tops. Price 1/. Is. A GLIMPSE at the MONUMENTAL ARCHI- •^ TECTURE and SCULPTURE of GREAT BRITAIN, from the earliest period to the Eighteenth Century. By MATTHEW HOLBECHE BLOXAM. Crown 8vo., wiUi a profusion of beautiful illustrative Wood-cuts. Price, 12«.. in extra cloth boards. PATTERICK CHURCH in* the COUNTY of YORK. A correct Copy of the Contract for its Building, dated 1412. Illustrated with Remarks and Notes. By the Rev. J RAINE, M.A. ; and with Thirteen Plates of Views, Elevations and Details, By A. SALVIN, F.S.A., Architect. 4to., boards. Price 12s. MOORE'S LIST of the PRINCIPAL CASTLES and ^^^ MONASTERIES in GREAT BRITAIN. 8vo. Price 3s. (published at 7s.) A TREATISE on the ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHI- TECTURE of England during the MIDDLE AGES, with Ten illustrative Copper-plates. By the Rev. J. MILNER, D.D., F.S.A. 8vo. Price 10s. Gd. boards. [ ARCHITECTURAL NOTES on GERMAN I CHURCHES. A new edition, to which is added, m, Notes written during an Architectural Tour in Picardy and m Normandy. ' By the Rev. W. WHEU'ELL, M.A. In 8vo., with Plates, neat in cloth boards and Isttered. Price \0s. 6d. 28 JouN Weale (Successor to the late Josiau Taylor), PAMPHLETS ON THE HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT. ^ LEITER to the Right Hon. Sir ROBERT PEEL, Bart., on the Expedience of a better Controiil over Build- ings erected at the Public Expense, and on the JSubiect of RE- BUILDING the HOUSES of PARLIAMENT. By, Lieut. COLONEL the Hon. Sir EDWARD CUST. 8vo. Price 1*. THOUGHTS on the STYLE of ARCHITECTURE to be adopted in RE-BUILDING the HOUSES of parlia:\ient. By ARTHUR WM. HAKE WELL, Architect. Price 6d. N APOLOGY for the ARCHITECTURAL MON- STROSITIES of London, and a Refutation of the many Mis-statements respecting the Practice of Architecture in this Country, contained in a Letter written by Lieut.-Colonel the Hon. Sir EDWARD CUST to the Right Hon. Sir ROBERT PEEL, Bart., M.P. 8vo. Pijce Is. gTRICTURES on ARCHITECTUR.\L MONSTRO- SITIES, and Suggestions for an Improvement in the Di- rection of Pubhc Works. By T. J. JUVARA. 8vo. Price 6d. J^ LETTER to A. W. HAKEWELL, Architect, in Answer to his REFLECTIONS on the STYLE for liE- BUILDING the HOUSES of PARLIAMENT. By A. WELBY PUGLX, Architect. Price 6d. A NSWER to THOUGHTS on the RE-BUILDING the HOUSES of PARLIAMENT. By B. EERREY, Architect. Price 6d. I Architectural Library, 59, High Holborn. 29 LAXTON'S IxMPROVED BUILDER'S PRICE- BOOK for 1836 ; containing upwards of 8000 Prices, and 2000 ^Memorandums, connected with Building — Tables for the Purchase of Leaseholds, Freeholds, Lifeholds, Annui- ties — 'Weight and Strength of Materials, Abstract of the Build- ing, Paving and Chimney Sweepers Acts, and a variety of other important information. The Prices have been carefully revised and calculated from the present price of Materials and Labour, with very considerable additions not to be found in any other work. Prire 4j. nHIPPEND.lLE'S ONE HUNDRED and THIRTY ^ THREE DESIGNS of INTERIOR DECORATIONS in the OLD FRENCH STYLES, for Carvers, Cabinet- Makers, Ornamental Painters, Brass- Workers, Modellers, Chasers, Silversmiths, general Designers, and Architects. Fifty Plates, 4to. Consisting of Hall, Glass, and Picture- Frames, Chimney-Pieces, Stands for China, &c.. Clock and Watch Cases, Girandoles, Brackets, Grates, Lanterns, Orna- mental Furniture, and Ceilings. Roval 4t<>. Pr;. e 1/. 1.*. nea'lv bound. QHIPPEND ALE'S DESIGNS for Sconces, Chimney and Looking- Glass Frames, in the old French style, adapted for Carvers and Gilders, fashionable and Ornamental Cabinet Makers, Modellers, &c. Elevpii Plates, 4to. Price /*. , A BOOK of ORNAMENTS in the French and Antique Styles. By T. JOHNSON, Carver. Eight Plates. 12mo. Price 3*. 6d. D E SIGNS for VASES, on Seventeen Plates. 12ino. Price is. 6d. SPECIMENS of the CELEBRATED ORNAMENTS ^ and INTERIOR DECORATIONS of the AGE of LOUIS XIV., selected from the magnificent work of Meisson- nier. ' 15 Plates, 4to., 10*. 6rf. I 30 John Weale (Successor to the late Josiau Taylor), J)ESIG\S of the ORNAMENTS and DECORA- TIONS of CHIMNEY-PIECES of the Middle of the last Century. 20 plates, in 4to. 6*. J)ESIGNS of DOORSlt^ WINDOWS, in the Ita- lian and Palladian Stvles. 10 Plates, 8vo. 4.?. ' JJOUSEHOLD FURNITURE, in the taste of a Century ago, containing upwards of Three Hundred and Fifty Designs on One Hundred and Twenty Plates. Large 8vo. 7*. ^ BOOK of ORNAMENTS, drawn and engraved by IM. LOCK, principally adapted for Carvers, but generally useful for various decorations in the old French taste. 6 Plates, 8vo., stitched. 3*. BOOK of ORNAMENTS, suitable for Beginner By THOMAS PETHER, Carver. 5 Plates, oblong. 1^. (id. S. J)ESIGNS for CHIMNEY-PIECES and CHIM- NEY-GLASSES, the one above the other, in the times of Inigo Jones and Sir John \'anbiirgh. 10 Plates, Svo. 45. D Shortly will be publiahed, (RA WINGS of the FINEST EXISTING SPECI- MENS of ANCIENT HALF-TLMBERED HOUSES of ENGLAND, and of their Details j with an Essay, showing the Classification of the Style, and the age to which it beloni^-s. Bv M. HABERSHON, Architect. . Tlio Work will contain about Twenty Views, laUen from the tinest remaining Specimens of this interesting branch of the Ancient Ardiitectnrc of England, tomi>rising Manor Houses, Town liesi- dences, and Cottages, some of which are particularly striking and picturesque ; and, in order to give a more complete illustration of it, to accompany such Views with Drawings to a large scale of Chimneys, Tracery, Porches, Doors, Windows, and other Details. To which will be added, an litsay, giving a geue- ral Historical View of Enf:liih Architec- ture, showing to what paiticular era these " Ancient Homes of England" be- long ; and explaining' iheir particular cliaracter and style. The Work will be published in large 4to., and the Plates executed in a very superior manner in Lithography. With the view of facilitating the progress of the Work, it will be published in I'arts — six in number— at Seven Shillings each, making llie whole Work Two Guineas. 1 Architectural Library, 59, High Holhorn. 31 rjOMPLETE ASSISTANT for the Landed Proprie- tor, Estate and House Agent, Land Steward, Proctor, Ar- chitect, &c. 8vo. 16j. A CATALOGUE of an Extensive and Valuable COL- LECTION of Books (5000 Vols.) on Mathematics, As- tronomy, Natural Philosophy, and the various other branches of Arts and Sciences, to be had gratis. Nearly ready, the splendid Publication, by C. R. Cockerell, A.R.A., F.SA. &c., of a Work on XHE ANTIQUITIES of GREECE; being the TEM- PLE of JUPITER PANHELLENIUS, and other AN- TIQUITIES at ^GINA. lu Imperial folio 3/. 35., plain ; 4/. 4s., coloured ; Containing 20 Plates, executed by the so singular in its preservation, and in its best Artists, and in the most elaborate inflicatioii of a union of tlmse Aits, as manner: illustrating the detail of (-on practised by the Greeks. Published by struction, Sculpture, and Painting of that Subscription, i-emarkable example of the Archaic Style, i ARCHITECTURAL IMPROVEMENTS OF LONDON. SUGGESTIONS for the ARCHITECTURAL IM- PROVEMENT of the WESTERN PART of LONDON. By SYDNEY SMIRKE, Architect, F.S.A., F.G.S. Plan and 2 Plates. Imperial 8vo., extr.-i boards, 7s. XHE MEMOIRS of the ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL ^ SOCIETY of LONDON. 4to., 8 vols., Parts and Tolumes are sold separate, as follows : — £ s. Vol. 1, Part 1 1 1 1 4 Vol. 2, Part 1 1 10 2 1 10 Vol. 3, Part 1 12 2 1 Vol. 4, Part 1 14 d. £ s. Vol. 4, Part 2 1 10 Vol. 5, complete 1 10 Vol. 6, ditto Vol. 7, ditto Vol. 8, ditto .. . Vol. 9, in the press d. JYJR. BAILY'S CATALOGUE of STARS. 4to, 1/.5J. L 32 John Weale {Successor to the late Josiah Taylor), TVrONTHLY NOTICES of the ROYAL ASTRO- NOMICAL SOCIETY of L(JXDON, containing Ab- stracts of Papers and Reports of the Proceedings of the Society. 2 vols. 8vo., 1/. \s. , to- ^STRONOMICAL TABLES and FORMULAE gether with a variety of Problems, &c. By FRANCIS BAILY,Esq., F.R.S., &c. &c. 8vo., 105. MAVAL ARCHITECTURE; or, the RUDI- MENTS and RULES of SHIP-BUILDING: Exemph- fied in a Series of Draughts and Plans ; with Observations tending to the further Improvement of that important Art. Dedicated by permission to his Majesty. By MARMADUKE STALKARTT. Third Edition. Folio, with a large Atlas of Plates. 4/. 4*. PORTRAITS of MATTHEW BOULTON, Esq., and ^ JAMES WATT, Esq. Painted by C. F. DE BREDA, R.A., of Stockholm, and en- graved by S. W. REYNOLDS, in a fine mezzotint style. Folio Plates. Price 2*. 6:/. each, or 4*. 6(/. together. Preparing for publication, A TREATISE on POCKET and OFFICE IN- -^ STRUMENTS used by ARCHITECTS and ENGI- NEERS, particularly Explained, and Illustrated by \Vood-cuts for Students. 12mo. 3s. DESIGNS AND WORKS OF HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE, UPHOLSTERY, AND DECORATIONS. T)ESIGNS of HOIJSEHOLD FURNITURE, VA- -^ LANCES and DRAPERIES, consisting of New Designs for Fashionable Upholstery Work. By T. KING. W. /J., with 30 Plates, roloiired in a superior manner and hot-presseii — bonnd inclolli, and gold lettered — with a letter-press destriptive list of the contents. Tills Work contains a variety of Va lances and Drai'eries of the richest description, adapted for Dininj? and Driiwinff Riionis, with many nctvel Uc- signs lor Pour-iost and French Beds. As a, limited nninher of this Work is prepared, orders are requested ai early as possible. Architectural Library, 59, High Ilolhorn. 33 PABINET MAKER'S SKETCH BOOK. ^ By T. KING, Parts 1, 2, 3, and 4, oontaiaing ti Platrs, As. 6rf. each, royal 4to., to be continucl niontlily ; or bound, 18«. TTPHOLSTERER'S POCKET COLLECTION of ^ FASHIONABLE DESIGNS; containing Examples of a pleasini]; eftect produced bv the most economical means. By'T. KING. 14«., cont^iining 32 coloured Plates. WORKING ORNAMENTS and FORMS, full size, for the use of the Cabinet Manufacturer, Chair and Sofa Maker, Carver and Turner. Bv T. KING. Just published, 3 Parts 1/. IO5. TTPHOLSTERER'S ACCELERATOR, being Rules for Cutting and Forming Draperies, Valances, &c., accom- panied by appropriate remarks, and containing a full description of a New System, which will greatly facilitate and improve the execution. By T. KING. 1/., containing 3/ Plates, and 44 pages of letter- press, 4to. post, common paper, 155. SUPPLEMENTARY PLATES to the WORK en- •^ titled "The MODERN STYLE of CABINET WORK EXE^NIPLIFIED in NEW DESIGNS." By T. KING. The Supplementary Plates consist of 68 New Designs, on 28 Plates, 1/. and libs. MODERN STYLE of CABINET WORK EXEM- PLIFIED in NEW DESIGNS, on 72 Plates, contain- iue 227 Designs for Cabinet Work. ByT. KING. 2/., mediam 4to., balf-bound— common edition, \l. lis. in boards. TIESIGNS for CARVING and GILDING, with Ori- ginal Patterns for Toilette Glasses. By T. KING. 1/., 42 Plates, on royal 4to., many of wbich are neatly coloured. C L. 34 John- Weale {Successor to the lateJosiAii Taylor), J)ECORATIONS for AVIXDOWS and BEDS, con- sisting of 100 Fashionable Designs for Upholstery Work, with the Varieties of the present Stvle, divided into parts. J3v T. KIN(i. On 80 Plates, conveniently small for tlie pocket, ll.3.*., coloured, containing 21 Plates. 4t >. demy, balf boun'l. gHOP FRONTS and EXTERIOR DOORS, display- ing the most approved of London execution, and selected as being those of the best taste and greatest variety, drawn to a scale bv accurate ineasuren)ent, accompanied by the proper Sections and Plans, with several New Designs of great practi- cability : for the use of the Architect, Builder, and Joiner. By T. KING. 15*., 18 Plates, on h'ho demy. ]M;iinwanngs (R.) Chair-lMaker's Guide, 200 Genteel Designs (1766,) Svo., 5s. Pugin's Gothic Furniture (just published), large 4to., 25 plates, IZ. Is. Shaw's Ancient Furniture, 50 plates, 4to., 21. 10s. Smith's Designs for Window Curtains, 2i plates, coloured, 8vo., 14s. Designs for Beds, 24 plates, coloured, 8vo., J 4s. Taylor's (John) Upholsterer's and Cahinet-Miker's Assistant, bcinjj a Collec- tion of Designs for Fashionable Upholstery and Cabinet Work, 2 vols. Svo., 100 plates, many coloured, 11. Is. The Volumes are suld separate ; viz. The Upholstery Work, on 50 plates, 10s. 6c?., and the Cabinet Work, on bO plates, K's. 6d. The 2nd edition of Genteel Household Furniture, in the present taste (abou t 1730), containing upwards of 350 Designs, large Svo., 7s. Whitaker's Furniture, Cabinet, and Upholstery,[iu the most prevalent Styles, •15 plates, 4to. ]/. OS. THE LATEST AND BEST WORKS COTTAGE, VILLA, AND RURAL ARCHTIECTURE. Aikin's Designs for Villas and other Rural Buildings, 31 coloured plates, 4 to., 1^. !«• J Architectural Library, 59, Higli Holborn. X, Bartell's Hints for Ornamental Rustic Cottages, large 8vo., plates, tis. Busby's Designs for Villas and Country Houses, 24 coloured plates, 4to., Ids. Dearn's Designs for Lodges and Entrances to Parks, Paddocks, &c., large 4to. , 20 plates, II. Is. Sketches of Cottages and Rural Dwellings, plates, 4to. 11. Is. Decorations for Parks and Gardens, 55 plates, lOs. (5d. Goodwin's Domestic Architecture and Supplement, iu 2 large vols., 97 plaits, with estimates, 4to., ol. 5s. GyfFord's Small Picturesque Cottages and Hunting Boxes, /^Zo^es, 4to., II. Ia. Hofland's iMansion and Gard.ns of White Knights, plates, folio, 2/. 2*. Hints on Rural Residences, 4to., IOa'. 6d. Hunt's Designs for Gate Lodges, Gamekeepers' Cottages, and other Rural Residences, 1 4 pZa^ts, IZ. Is. Designs for Parsonage Houses, Alms Houses, &c , 21 plates, 4to., IZ. 5s. Architecture Campestre, 12 plates, 4to., IZ. Is. Jackson's Designs for Villas, 30 plates, 4to. IZ. 5s. Jones's Grecian Villa, /^Zc/Zes, folio, 15s. Laing's Hints on Dwellings, joZaZes, 4to., IZ. Is. Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Cottage and Villa Architecture, large thick Svo., vjm-ard^ of 2,000 wood-cuts and plates, Si. Encyclopaedia of Gardening, &c., large thick 8vo., u-ith numerous wood-cuts^ 21. ]0s. Lugar's Plans and Views of Buildings Executed, 32 plates, IZ. Is. (R.) Country Gentleman's Architect, 4to. plates, II. Is. 1 — Villa Architecture, folio, 42 Jine coloured plates, ol. 13*. 6d., half- bound in morocco. Architectural Sketches for Cottages, 4to. jaZaZes, IZ. Is. IMiddleton's Picturesque Designs, coZowrerf joZaZes, Bvo., 10s. 6d. Morris on Landscape Gardening, pZaZes, 4to., IZ. Is. Papworth's Designs for Rural Residences, 4to., coloured plates , 11. lis. 6d. Hints for Ornamental Gardening, Rustic Buildings, Gates, &c., 4to., coloured plates, IZ. lis. 6d. Parker's Villa Rustica, selected from tbe Vicinity of Rome and Florence, 4to., plates, ll. 6s, Plaw's Ferme Ornee, or, Rural Improvements, 4to. joZaZes, 15s. Sketches of Country Houses, Villas, plates, 4to., IZ. Is. Pocock's Rustic Cottages, Pict^uresque Dwellings, Villas, &c., 33 plates, 4to. , IZ. Is. Price on the Picturesque, 3 vols, 8vo., IZ. lis. 6d. Repton's Works on the Picturesque, 4to. Robinson's Designs for Villas, 96 plates, 4to., 4Z. 4s. Series of Designs for Ornamental Cottages, 4to., 9G jJ^ateSi 21. 3s. Village Architecture, ^3 plates, 4to., IZ. lis. 6d. Designs for Farms, 36 plates, 4to., 2Z. 2s. Designs for Lodges and Park Entrances, 4S plates, 4to., 21. 2s. C2 .iC John Weale (Successor to the late Josiah Taylor), Soane's (Sir John) Plans and Elevation of Cottages, Villas, &c., plates, folio, ]/. 5s. Thomson's Retreats, Cottages, Villas, and Ornamental Buildings, 40 Jine cohmred plates, 21. 2s. TrendciH's Designs for Cottages and Villas, with Estimates, 4to. 1/. Is. WaistelTtf Desijjns for Agricultural Buildings. By J. Jopling, Architect, 4to., plntfs, I /. lis. Qd. Wild's Cottages for the Peasantry and for Emigrants, />Za^es, 8vo., 7*. Wood's Series of Designs for Labourer's Cottages, 80 plates, imperial 4to., 18* THE MOST APPROVED WORKS ON GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. Atkinson's Gothic Ornaments. 12 parts, complete, large 4to., 2/. 8s. Bloxam's Monui'uental Architecture and Sculpture of Great Britain, plates, 12 mo. 12s. Gothic Architecture, pfafcs, I2mo., in the press. Britton and Brayley's Westminster Palaces, thick Svo., 45 plates, \l. 1«. Cathedrals, 53 parts complete, A:io., fine plates, RedcliflFe Church, plates, large Svo. Bath Abbey, plates, large Svo., 7s. 6d. Architectural and Chronological Antiquities, 5 voh. fine plates, 4to. , (27/. 12s.) half morocco, elegantly gilt, and fine copy, 12Z. 12s. Chronological Antiquities of Great Britain, ,^«e plates, 4to., 2/. lOs. -Architectural Dictionary of the Middle Ages, fine plutes, 3 parts out of 4 published, 12s. each Bridgen's Sefton Church, plates, folio, IZ. Is. Bdisseroe Cologne, fiiie plates, elephant folio. Blore's Monumental Remains, G parts complete,^ne/)/a^fiS, imperial Svo., l/.lOs. Carter's Ancient Architecture of England, 2 vols, folio, plates. ■ Ancient Sculpture of England, plates, 2 vols, folio. Chapuy's French Cathedrals, 2 vols, imperial 4to., plates, [Paris.) Cotman's Arciiitectural Antiquities of Normandy, 2 vols. 120 plates, imperial folio Cottingham's Henry the Seventh's Chapel. 2 vols, atlas folio, 75 plates. Gothic Ornaments, atlas folio, 38 plates. Westminster Hall, atlas folio. Restoration of Armagh Cathedral. Restoration of Rochester Cathedra'. Coney's Foreign Cathedrals, &o., elephant foVio, plates. Architectural Beauties, fZa^es, 4to. , 7s. Compilations of Splendid Ornamental Designs, 24 pZa^es, 4 to., lOs. Cottingham's Smith, Founder, and Ornamental Metal Worker's Director ; consisting of Designs and Patterns for Gates, Piers, Bulcony-railing, Window-guards, Fan-lights, Verandas, Balustrades for Staircases, Lamp- irons, Palisadoes, Brackets, Street-Lamps, Stoves, Stands for Lamps and Gas Lights, Candlesticks, Chandeliers, Vases, Tripods, Candelabra, 8sc. 83 plates, 4to. , 21. 2s. Gothic Ornaments, atlas folio, IZ. 18s. Grtck and Roman Ornaments, atlas folio, 2o plates, 1/. 5s. Decker's Ornamental Cliinese, Gothic, &c., Garden Seats, Alcoves, Temples, Summer Houses, Cool Retreats, &c., 60 plates, oblong 4to., 7s. Designs for Chimney Pieces and Chimney Glasses, the one above the other, in tbe times of Inigo Jones and Sir John Vanbrugh, 10 plates, Svo., 4s. Designs for Vases, on 17 plates, 12mo., 4s. 6rf. Designs of the Ornaments and Decorations of Chimney Pieces of the Middle of the last Century, 20 plates, 4to., Gs. Iksignsof Doors and Windows in the Italian and Palladian Styles, 10 plates, 8vo., 4s. Gothic Ornaments, selected from the Parish Church of Lavenham, in Suffolk, ou 4^0 plates, 4to., ISs. Halfpenny's Gothic Ornaments, large 4to., 6/. 6s. Iron IMaster and Ironmonger's Pattern Book, oblong 4to., 10s. Gd. Jenkins and Hosking's Selection of Architectural and other Ornaments, Greek, Roman, and Italian, 25 p/u^cs, large folio, 1/. 10s. Architectural Library, 59, High Llolhorn. 39 Johnson's (T.) Book of Ornaments in the French and Antique Styles, 8 plates, 12 mo., 3s. 6d. Knight's Vases and Ornaments in enriched Styles, 2 vols., venj fine plates, large 4to., bl, bound. Specimens of Crests, &c-, SO plates, 4to., \l. Is. Heraldic Illustrations, plates, 4to., 1/. \s. Gems, 500 Examples, 8vo., 1/. lis. 6rf. Unique Fancy Ornaments, 5 parts, 30 plates, 4to. \l. Book of 758 Ciphers, 12s. Book of Ornamental Alphabets, 4to., 3s. Le Pautre, Louis XIV., 3 vols, folio. Line's Ornamental Work, 2 parts, large 4to., 5s. Lock's Book of Ornaments, adapted for Carvers, in the old French taste, 6 plates 8vo., 3s. Meissonier, Louis XIV., \b plates, 4to., 10s. 6c?. Moses's Collection of Antique Vases, Altars, Pateras, Tripods, Candelabra, Sar- cophagi, &c., 170 plates, 4to., half-bound, 2Z. 8s. Englefield Vases, il fine plates, large Svo., H. Is. Selection of Vases, Altars, Candelabras, and Tripods, from the Louvre at Paris, large 8vo., 9 plates, Is.dd, Ornaments selected from thev Antique, Lithographed on 21 leaves, folio, sewed, exhibiting a variety of Foliage and Fragments of Ornaments at large, in a bold and free style. Ornaments displayed on a full Size for Working, proper for all Carvers, Painters, &c. ; containing a variety of accurate examples of Foliage and Friezes, ele- gantly engraved in the manner of Chalks, 33 plates, large folio, 15s. sewed. Ornamental Iron Work, or Designs in the present Taste, for Fan-Lights, Stair- case Railing, Window Guard- Irons, Lamp-Irons, Palisadoes, and Gates, with a Scheme for adjusting Designs with Facility and Accuracy to any Slope,21 plates, 4to. , 6s. Peintures Desinees sur un Service de Table travaille d'apr^s la bosse dans la Royale Fabrique de Porcellaine, par ordre de sa INIajeste le Roi des Deux Si- ciles, 4to., near 300 plates. Pether's Book of Ornaments, suitable for Beginners, 5 plates, eblong, ls.6rf. Pergolesi's Arabesque and Italian Ornaments, large folio, IZ. 16s. Percier et Fontaine Decorations Interieures, plates, folio, 3l.3i. {Paris). Pocock's Modern Finishings for Rooms, S6 plates, 4to., IZ. Is. Piranesi's Vases and Candelabras, 2 vols, atlas folio. Pugin's Gothic Ornaments, 4to., 4Z. 10s. Richardson's Collection of Emblematical Figures, 2 vols, numerous plates, very large 4to., IZ. lis. 6cZ. (1777). Shaw's Examples of ^Metal Works, plates, 4to. , 1 Z. 4s. Gothic Ornaments, folio, IZ. Is. Illuminated Ornaments of the Middle Ages, 4to., 5Z.5s. Smith's Ornamental Designs, after the manner of the Antique, composed for the Use of Architects, Ornamental Painters, Statuaries, Carvers, Carpet, Silk and Printed Calico Manufacturers, 43 joZaZes, royal 4to., 40 JounAA^eale (Successor to the late Josiab Taylor), Skidmore's Designs of Stoves, Ranges, Verandas, Railings, Balconets, &c., 96 plates, 4to., 15s. Tatham's Greek and Roman, fine copy, 2/. 12».6rf. Volpata's Loges of the Vatican, Arabesque style of the most splendid description, all of which are designed and painted by Raphael, elephant folio, 12Z. 12«. Wright's (of Durham) Six Original Designs for Grottoes, large oblong 4to. Is.Sd. THE MOST APPROVED WORKS FOR THE CIVIL ENGINEER, ELEIMENTARY AND PRACTICAL. [officers of the rotal engineers and students would do well TO select from this list.] Adcock's Engineer's Pocket Book for 1836, 6*. Arnott's Physics, 2 vols, plates, 8vo. Attwood on Arches, 2 parts, plates, 4to., 11.5s. Alderson on the Steam-Engine, plates, lOs. Banks on Mills, plates, 8vo., 8s. Barlow on the Strength and Stress of Timber, 1 6s. Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary, plates, 8vo. ■ Experiments on the Transverse Strength and other Properti«s of Mal- leable Iron, with reference to its uses for Railway Bars, 8vo., 6s. Second Report made for the Birmingham Railway, 8vo., 5s. Belidor, Architecture Hydraulique, 4 vols, numerous plates, 4to. Brunton's Compendium of Mechanics, p/a\a.t('s of all kinds of Machine?, Engines, &c. ; a most useful Work to a Practical Engineer and Mechanist, the plates consisting of Elevations.Seclions, Details, &c. Fine paper, 10/. 10*. STUART AND UEVETT. ■piNE PORTRAITS of JAMES STUART, F.R.S. and F.S.A., Painted by Proven at Rome, and NICHOLAS RE\'ETT, F.S.A., &c.. Painted by Raws-vy, and both En- graved by Edwards. Folio siz-', 5*. the pair ; on imperial folio, /-•. 6*;. ; and Proofs, on India imperial folio, lOs. TO TRAVELLERS IN GREECE. A Very elaborate and most accurate MAP of ATTICA, with Part of BCEOTIA. Improved from the Observations of recent Travellers, and particularly by the Surveys of Capt. Smyth, R.N. Very neatly Engraved "by Sydney Hall. Folio, 2s. 6d. PORT OF ATHENS. nHART of the PORT PIRAEUS of the PORT of ^ ATHENS, with all the numerous Soundings round the Coast and in the Harbours. Compiled and corrected from the Admiralty Charts, and examined by Capt. Saiytu, R.N. Folio, \s. Gd. I 46 Jonx Weale (Successor to the late Josiah Taylor), J^ VIEW of the West Front of the PROPYL.EA at ATHENS. Drawn by William KtxxARD, and Etched bv "W^oolnotit. Folio sizi\ \s.G(l. l\f R. WHITWELL'S VIEW of one of the NEW ^'^ COxAIMUXiTIES at IIAR.AIONY in North America. Laige ioliu sizi-, la. 6d. jyjR. ALLOM'S DRAWING of the NATIONAL GALLERY, Charini^ Cross. From the Desijjjn of ^\■. WELKINS, Esc]., Engraved by Sands. Folio size, 3*. 6d. gIR CHRISTOPHER WREN'S First Desijrn, Ele- vation of the Great Cokimn called THE MONUAIENT. A>ry large size. Engraved by Hulsberg. i ■is. gIR CHRISTOPHER WREN'S Executed Design, Elevation of THE MONUMENT. Finely Engraved^ by Wilson Loavry. 7s. 6d. IVf R. TURNER'S DRAWING and ETCHING of the ^ SCREEN in the TEMPLE HALL. (The Elizabethan Style.) Large folio, India Paper, 65. PALAIS ROYAL. 'J^WO very Larc^e and Fine VIEWS of the PALAIS ROYAL, rAIllS. Drawn and Engraved bv ^Villiam Daniel. Very neatly tinted, 7s. 6d. Architectural Library, 59, High Ilolburn. 47 TTIEW of the COLUMBUS (or Great American Raft), commanded by Capt. McKellar, R.N. Dimensions: — length, 301 feetj bVeadth, 50 feet G inches ; depth of hold, 30 feet: 3690 tons. J3nilt at Quebeck, 1824, by Charles Wood. 2s. 6d. iVTENAI SUSPENSION.- MR. PROVIS'S VIEW ^^^ of the SUSPENSION BRIDGE over the MENAI STRAIGHT, near Bani^or, from the Design of the late Thomas Telford, Esq., C.E. Fine large Print, Js- ; India Paper, IO5. Gd. rjESIGN for a Gilded NATIONAL* MONUMENT of Cast Iron, 1000 feet high and 100 feet diameter at the base. Designed by Richard Trkvituick. Two very large Prints, Plan, Section, and Elevation, 7s. T>IELEFELD'S ORNAMENTS in EVERY STYLE of DESIGN practically applicable to the Decoration of the Interior of Domestic andPubhc Buildings. 4to., with 12 Plates, 8*. 'THE LAW of PATENTS for INVENTIONS fa- miliarly Explained for the Use of Inventors and Patentees. By W. CARPMAEL. Containing full information in respect 1 This Work is particnlarly adapted to to Lord Brougl.am'^ New Statute lor the Inventor and Patentee as well as to amending this Branch of the Law. 1 tiie Legal Pracftioner. Second Edition, Price 5s. k 48 John Weale (Successor to the late Josiah Taylor). GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. The Architect and Amateur is informed that J. Weale has purchased the Stock and Copyright of the following very valuable and interesting Work, which, owing to an untoward circumstance, has been withheld from sale for upwards of eight years ; the publication price was fixed at 21. 2s., but, as a fa- vourable purchase has been made, the price will now be at the reduced sum of \(js. in extra cloth boards and lettered. A SERIES OF ANCIENT BAPTISMAL FONTS, NORMAN, EARLY ENGLISH, DECORATED ENGLISH, AND PERPENDICULAR ENGLISH. CHROKOLOGICALLY ARRAKGED. Drawn by F. SIMPSON, jun., and Engraved bv R. ROBERTS. Larjre 8vo.. roitaininp 40 very t)Poutifully engi aved PlatPs, in the best style of that art, and the Ti'xt written by an accomplished and talented Gentleman, whose attainments in Arciiitecture and Antiquity are well known and appreciated. The following are the Edifices from, which the Specimens are taken: "Raptistrv, Lut n Church, BedfordshTC. j We=t Deeping, Lincolnshire. Swayton, aitio. Lincoln Cathedral Deeping. St. James, Lincolnshire. St. MaitinV Caiiterbiiry. Sapcote, Li'icestershire. Pauler's Priory, Noitliamptonshire. Green's Norton, ditto. Wandsford, ditto. Osbournby, Lincolnshire. Belton, ' ditto. Aswarbv, ditto. Waltham-on-the-V.'olds, Leicestershire Heipringhain, Lincolnshire. Thorp Arnold, Leicestershire. Burrow, dUto, Iveyford, ditto. All Saints, Leicps'er. Weston, Lincolnsliire. Treckin((hani, ditto. Barnack, Northamptonshire Koaith, ditto. Noseley Cliapel Leicestershire. HeclU^ .-N HE 1031 f.5 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY