UC-NBLr 
 
 226 
 
 ccriri tin 
 
 BiiHii 
 
 : iiliil II 
 
 - - 
 
 ! ' ' . ' '' 
 
 
 ; 
 
 ;j - 
 
 .',;.'. 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 
 B8B ' 
 
 
<u 
 ' 
 
 p 
 
 re 
 
 4-J 
 
 tn 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 (j~ 
 <u 
 
 (/} 
 
 're 
 fc4 
 
 cJ 
 
 <U 
 
 55 
 
 w g 
 
 Sfl o 
 
 r ) *- 
 
 H " 
 
 O _ ly i 
 
 o g 
 
 HH *"O 
 
 CA! "g 
 re 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 .SJ 
 ex 
 
 V. 
 
 UJ 
 
 o 
 
 4-> 
 
 CO 
 CU 
 
 4-> 
 
 <+H 
 
 O 
 
 're 
 
 (U 
 
 o 
 
 'a 
 
A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 BY 
 
 RUTH A. WARDALL, M.A. 
 
 HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS 
 STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 
 
 AND 
 
 EDNA NOBLE WHITE, A.B. 
 
 HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS 
 OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY 
 
 >:. :: 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO LONDON 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY RUTH A. WARDALL 
 
 AND EDNA NOBLE WHITE 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
 414.7 
 
 t 
 
 C ft * * 
 
 ...* . 
 
 c / , - . 
 
 , o ./. , fc ' . 
 
 c ( , * *%" 
 
 Tgftc 
 
 GINN ANM) COMPANY PRO- 
 PRIETORS BOSTON U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This volume is intended to present the subject of foods 
 in a simple, concise manner. The preparation of food 
 which is suggested in the book is in every case an illus- 
 tration of some one or more principles involved and pre- 
 viously discussed. The object of this work is not to provide 
 training for a finished cook, for skill comes only with 
 experience and practice ; neither is there an attempt to 
 make a food expert. A serious consideration of the subjects 
 of chemistry, the physiology of digestion, and dietetics 
 belongs to a university course. It is hoped that the work 
 outlined will give some knowledge of food materials, of the 
 effects of heat upon them, of methods of manipulation, 
 and of comparative cost of commercial and domestic prod- 
 ucts. The increased cost of living makes especially desir- 
 able a study of food values and the cost of food from 
 different sources. 
 
 In schools where courses in chemistry, physiology, and 
 physics are offered, there are many opportunities for cor- 
 relation with the food work, which will at once suggest 
 themselves to the well-trained teacher. The reference 
 lists at the close of each chapter will be found very help- 
 ful for classes, as well as for clubs who use this book as 
 a guide. The preparation of food suggested in the text 
 could easily be managed in the home and results discussed 
 and compared later. 
 
 304742 
 
vi A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 The food principles, or nutrients, form the basis of the 
 arrangement of the work, but the cost of food is especially 
 emphasized. No attempt has been made to divide the 
 work into separate lessons, and the subject matter may be 
 amplified or abbreviated, according to the need. Sug- 
 gested lists for reference are given, and it is hoped that 
 these will be liberally used, for there has been no attempt 
 to make this a complete text ; it is intended only as a guide 
 to the study of the subject of foods. Questions and exer- 
 cises are frequently suggested for the use of the pupil, and 
 these should be recorded in the notebook. 
 
 Grateful acknowledgment should be made to Professor 
 Henry C. Sherman for suggestions and assistance and 
 to Mr. A. D. Emmett and L. D. Hall of the Illinois 
 Agricultural Experiment Station for the use of the photo- 
 graphs of meat and the descriptive matter accompanying 
 
 them. 
 
 RUTH A. WARDALL 
 EDNA N. WHITE 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. FOOD I 
 
 II. WATER u 
 
 III. FRUITS AND GREEN VEGETABLES 15 
 
 IV. PRESERVATION OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES ... 22 
 V. SUGAR 31 
 
 VI. STARCH 37 
 
 VII. POTATOES 40 
 
 VIII. CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS 43 
 
 IX. DRIED LEGUMES 51 
 
 X. MILK 54 
 
 XI. EGGS 61 
 
 XII. CHEESE 65 
 
 XIII. MEAT 68 
 
 XIV. FISH AND OYSTERS 81 
 
 XV. GELATIN 87 
 
 XVI. FATS AND OILS. . 90 
 
 XVII. FLOUR 94 
 
 XVIII. FLOUR MIXTURES 99 
 
 XIX. BREAD 108 
 
 XX. FOOD REQUIREMENTS 120 
 
 XXI. SELECTION OF FOOD 129 
 
 XXII. SERVING MEALS 135 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 FOOD STANDARDS 139 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 RETAIL CUTS OF BEEF 143 
 
 INDEX 171 
 
 vn 
 
> 
 
 ' \ ' . 
 
 >>''' 
 
 ' > I . 
 
 t> 1 1 
 
 1 > 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 FOOD 
 
 
 
 Food, as defined in Farmers' Bulletin No. 142, "is that 
 which, taken into the body, builds tissue or yields energy." 
 While the supply of building material and energy are two 
 important functions, there is a third purpose served by 
 food in the regulation of certain important processes in 
 the body. Sherman says : ' Upon the presence of the 
 so-called inorganic elements also depend such important 
 matters as the alkalinity or neutrality and coagulability of 
 the blood, the acidity or alkalinity of the digestive juices, the 
 solvent power and osmotic pressure of the body fluids, the 
 elasticity and irritability of muscle and nerve. They also 
 tend to protect the body against harmful substances by 
 combining with them to form compounds which are less 
 toxic or more readily eliminated. These latter functions 
 are perhaps regulatory rather than structural and are hardly 
 suggested by the term 'tissue building.' In order to give 
 them proper prominence it may be necessary to expand 
 the usual definition of the function of food (that it yields 
 energy and builds tissue) into one of three divisions 
 
 h 
 
 according to which the functions of food are 
 
 1 . To yield energy. 
 
 2. To furnish building material. 
 
 3. To regulate body processes. 
 
2 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 The energy of the food furnishes power for internal 
 work, as in respiration, digestion, and other body proc- 
 esses, as well as for external work, - - when the muscles 
 are brought into activity, - - as in running, digging, or 
 any other form of exercise. When the energy of the 
 food is changed into energy for body use, heat is given 
 off in somewhat the same way that heat results when 
 the energy of the coal is changed into energy for the 
 engine. Under ordinary conditions the heat resulting 
 from energy transformation keeps the body at a comfort- 
 able temperature, but where a great deal of energy is 
 needed, as in a brisk walk or in active muscular work, the 
 amount of heat is greater and frequently causes discom- 
 fort. In case of little or no exercise and a cold day, 
 it may be necessary to transform energy for the sake of 
 keeping the body warm. Building material must be avail- 
 able to the body, for there is constant wear and tear of 
 tissues in all, and development of tissue - - or growth - 
 in the young. 
 
 While foods present a great variety in appearance and 
 flavor, it is found on chemical analysis that they are made 
 up of compounds which may be divided into five general 
 groups : water, mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohy- 
 drate. All five of these nutrients are found in some foods ; 
 usually one or two are present in much greater quantity 
 than the others, so that we value some foods for protein, 
 some for fat, carbohydrate, or mineral content. Eggs and 
 meat are valued especially for protein ; butter and nuts, 
 for fat ; potatoes and rice, for carbohydrate in the form 
 of starch. Flour is valued for carbohydrate and protein ; 
 green vegetables and fresh fruits, for water and mineral 
 
FOOD 3 
 
 matter ; cheese, for fat and protein ; and milk is unique 
 in that it contains all the nutrients, or food principles. 
 
 Our foods are derived from both the plant and animal 
 kingdoms. All the nutrients are abundant in either king- 
 dom, with the exception of the carbohydrates, which occur 
 mainly in plant foods. 
 
 Protein, mineral matter, and water are frequently classed 
 as tissue builders. Water and mineral matter are found 
 in all the body tissues, and protein is found principally in 
 muscular and glandular tissues. Mineral matter, in addi- 
 tion to its function of building tissue, plays an important 
 role in the regulation of body processes, as before stated. 
 Fats and carbohydrates yield energy, and, to a considerable 
 extent, one may take the place of the other for this pur- 
 pose. While protein is the only one of the nutrients 
 which can build certain body tissues, it may also serve 
 the function of an energy yielder. 
 
 The same chemical elements which are found in the 
 body are found in the food which is necessary to growth 
 and maintenance of life. The wise selection of food is 
 based upon a consideration of its composition, its ease and 
 completeness of digestion, its cost, and palatability. 
 
 CARBOHYDRATES 
 
 The carbohydrates consist of a group of substances 
 closely related chemically, although differing in appear- 
 ance and taste. The well-known carbohydrates are sugars, 
 starches, and cellulose. The carbohydrates are found in 
 the plant kingdom with very few exceptions, such as lac- 
 tose in milk and glycogen in the body. Starch occurs 
 more abundantly in vegetables than in fruits, and sugar 
 
4 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 is found in both. A woody substance, cellulose, forms the 
 framework of the plant. Cellulose is a food for the lower 
 animals, but not for man ; however, it is commonly eaten 
 by man, and because of its bulk it is an aid in digestion. 
 Starch and sugar are both valuable human foods ; they do 
 not build the tissues of the body, but they furnish energy. 
 Since plant foods are less expensive than animal foods, 
 the carbohydrates are generally less expensive than proteins 
 
 and fats. 
 
 FATS 
 
 There are many substances chemically related which 
 are known as fats. Those which are liquids at ordinary 
 temperatures are called oils. F'ats, like carbohydrates, yield 
 energy and are frequently stored in considerable quantity 
 in the body. Weight for weight, the fats yield two and 
 a quarter times the energy that carbohydrates or proteins 
 do. Fats are highly concentrated foods and are obtained 
 from both plant and animal sources. The common animal 
 sources are cream, butter, and fat of meat, and the common 
 vegetable fats are olive oil, cottonseed oil, and the fat of 
 nuts. F*at from most sources is expensive. We use fats not 
 only as food but also as a medium for cooking. 
 
 PROTEINS 
 
 The term ' protein ' includes a group of substances 
 chemically related, and all containing nitrogen, although 
 not all substances containing nitrogen are proteins. 
 
 The chemistry of the proteins is very difficult and will 
 not be discussed here. Some of the well-known members 
 of the protein family are gluten of wheat, albumen of egg 
 and meat, casein of milk, legumin of peas and beans. 
 
FOOD 5 
 
 Protein is derived from both plant and animal sources. 
 Some plant foods rich in protein are wheat, corn, oats, 
 peas, beans, peanuts, lentils, and nuts. The animal sources 
 of proteins are meat, milk, eggs, and cheese. Plant foods 
 are cheaper than animal foods, and consequently they are 
 a cheaper source of protein. . 
 
 Protein, like fat and carbohydrate, may serve as a source 
 of energy to the body, but it differs from these in that it 
 also builds tissue. 
 
 Although protein is very necessary in the diet, it should 
 not be eaten in too great quantities, for certain ills may 
 attend its excessive use. Heavy eating, and particularly 
 heavy eating of meat, may easily furnish more protein than 
 is desirable, and it is believed that meat protein may cause 
 more harm than other proteins. 
 
 WATER 
 
 Water furnishes the fluid necessary for the body and 
 enters into the composition of all the tissues. Approxi- 
 mately two thirds of the weight of the body is water, con- 
 sequently the supply must be liberal. All foods contain 
 water ; fruits, green vegetables, and milk are especially 
 high in water content, but the body needs more than occurs 
 in the food, and water should be freely used as a beverage. 
 
 MINERAL MATTER 
 
 The body contains several pounds of mineral matter, 
 the bulk of which is in the bones and teeth. Some mineral 
 salts are in solution in the body fluids, and some are found 
 in other body tissues. Mineral matter occurs in practically 
 all our foods, both animal and plant, but it varies in amount 
 
6 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 and kind. While a freely chosen, normal diet may contain 
 enough mineral matter to supply the demands of the body, 
 it is not always in the form or amounts needed. Knowledge 
 of the composition of food leads physicians to prescribe 
 certain diets for people who show a lack of some mineral 
 constituent. Fruit and vegetables are especially valued 
 for their mineral content. The outer coats of the cereal 
 grains, so often discarded, are also rich in mineral matter. 
 Care is necessary, especially with children, to provide foods 
 supplying mineral matter. 
 
 PREPARATION OF F'OOD 
 
 Some foods are eaten in the natural (or raw) state, but 
 much of our food is cooked. Cooking means the applica- 
 tion of heat to food. It makes it more attractive in appear- 
 ance, more palatable, and destroys any living organisms 
 which may be present. In the case of foods eaten in the 
 raw state, such as lettuce, celery, and fruits, very thorough 
 cleansing is necessary. One should be accurately informed 
 as to the condition of milk which is used in the raw state, 
 for it frequently is the carrier of disease germs. Methods 
 of cooking and degree of heat vary with the nature of the 
 food. The temperature and method of cooking should 
 vary as fat, protein, or carbohydrate predominates in the 
 food. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Laboratory and Equipment 
 
 Examine desks, list equipment, and carefully note arrange- 
 ment of utensils in the desk. If general supply cupboards are 
 used by pupils, examine and note contents. 
 
FOOD 7 
 
 The following abbreviations are used throughout the book : 
 
 (J L III J 
 
 s.s salt-spoon 
 
 t teaspoon 
 
 T tablespoon 
 
 II. Measurements 
 
 Compressible materials, such as flour and powdered sugar, 
 should be sifted before measuring, and lightly filled into the 
 measure without packing. Heap all dry materials into the meas- 
 uring cup or spoon, and level with the edge of a knife. Measure 
 a half spoonful by dividing lengthwise. A measure of liquid 
 means all that the cup or spoon will hold. 
 
 1. Answer the following questions by measuring with sugar; 
 with flour ; with water : 
 
 How many t in i T ? % How many c in i Ib. ? 
 
 How many T in i c ? How many c in i pt. ? 
 
 2. Repeat measurements for a check. Compare results with 
 others in class and account for differences. Is the measure 
 responsible in all cases ? 
 
 III. Weights 
 
 1. Determine, by avoirdupois system, weight of 
 
 i c flour i c water 
 
 i c sugar i c lard 
 
 2. Compare weight of i c of unsifted flour with i c of flour 
 sifted once, twice, and three times. 
 
 3. Compute weights of the above in the metric system. 
 NOTE, i pound = 453.6 grams: i ounce = 28.36 grams. 
 
 4. From above data compute number of cups of flour, sugar, 
 water, and lard in i Ib. avoirdupois. 
 
8 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 TEMPERATURES 
 
 Heat is always used in cooking food, 
 but it may be applied in a number of dif- 
 ferent ways. Varying degrees of heat may 
 be employed in -the cooking of food by 
 using hot or boiling water, steam, hot fat, 
 or hot air in the oven. 
 
 THERMOMETER SCALES 
 
 The difference between freezing and 
 boiling temperatures is marked by 100 
 degrees on the centigrade scale and by 
 1 80 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. The 
 THE CENTIGRADE ratio between the two scales is IOO : 180, 
 AND FAHRENHEIT or 5 : 9. The freezing point is OC. and 
 SCALES 32F. To change from one scale to the 
 
 other use the following formulas : 
 
 |C+ 3 2 = F, |(F- 3 2)=C. 
 
 -17.78 
 
 DEMONSTRATION BY TEACHER 
 
 A. High Temperatures 
 
 1. Note and record room temperature by centigrade ther- 
 mometer. 
 
 2. Note and record boiling point of water. 
 
 3. Note and record temperature of steam just above boiling 
 water. 
 
 4. Note and record temperature of steam in a covered kettle. 
 
 5. Note and record temperature of water in the covered top 
 of a double boiler when the water below is boiling. 
 
FOOD 9 
 
 6. Oven temperatures. 
 
 By noting time required to brown white paper, test the 
 oven at the following temperatures : 150; 200; 250. 
 
 7. Fat temperatures. 
 
 a. Note condition of a piece of bread one minute after 
 it is dropped into fat which is at the temperature of 
 boiling water. 
 
 b. Note temperature of fat in which bread is browned : 
 in one minute ; in forty seconds. 
 
 B. Low Temperatures 
 
 Low temperatures are used in the household for preservation 
 of food and in the preparation of frozen dishes. 
 
 1 . What is the temperature of ice ? 
 
 2. What is the temperature of a mixture of ice and salt ? 
 
 3. Does the proportion of ice to salt affect the temperature 
 of the mixture ? 
 
 FUELS 
 
 The usual source of heat for cooking is furnished by 
 coal, wood, gas, gasoline, and kerosene. Electricity is a 
 very desirable, but usually a very expensive, source. The 
 cost of fuel must be considered a part of the cost of 
 our food, and should be added to the cost of raw food 
 materials. By planning, it is possible to economize in our 
 use of these fuels. For example, when the oven of a 
 coal or wood range is in use, the top of the stove is hot 
 and may also be in use ; and a gas burner need not be 
 turned on full in order to keep water boiling. If a gas 
 meter is attached to a range, it will be observed that there 
 is quite a difference in the gas consumed when the burner 
 is partially opened and when it is turned on to the fullest 
 extent. 
 
10 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 Convert recorded temperatures to Fahrenheit scale. 
 
 What is the lowest temperature in the above demonstration ? 
 
 When would you use this in cooking? 
 
 When would you use the highest temperature in cooking ? 
 
 Suggest different dishes which might be prepared at the other 
 temperatures. 
 
 What ways of applying heat to food are suggested in the above 
 demonstrations ? Which medium is most commonly used ? 
 
 What is the source of heat used in preparation of food in a 
 fireless cooker? In what way does the modern fireless cooker differ 
 from the old " hay-box " ? Is the hay-box or fireless cooker of any 
 service in keeping things cool ? Is a fireless cooker an aid to economy 
 in fuel ? 
 
 Suggest other ways of reducing cost of fuel in preparing food. 
 
 From the data and experience that you have, discuss the various 
 fuels from the viewpoint of cost, desirability, and convenience. 
 
 Examine and operate all stoves and other heating devices found in 
 the laboratory. 
 
 References 
 
 ATWATER. " Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food," 
 
 Farmers' Bulletin No. 142, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics, chap. i. 
 HOUGH and SEDGWICK. The Human Mechanism. 
 JORDAN. Principles of Human Nutrition. 
 SHERMAN. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. 
 WILEY. Foods and their Adulteration. 
 NORTON. Food and Dietetics. 
 ATWATER and BRYANT. " The Chemical Composition of American Food 
 
 Materials," Bulletin No. 28, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. 
 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 LANGWORTHY. "Ash Constituents of the Food," Journal of Home 
 
 Economics, February, 1910. 
 
 MURLIN. Tigerstedt's Text Book of Physiology. 
 HILL. Recent Advances in Physiology and Biochemistry, chap. x. 
 BEVIER and VAN METER. Selection and Preparation of Food 
 
 Laboratory Guide. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 WATER 
 
 Generally speaking, water is either hard or soft, de- 
 pending on the mineral substances which it carries in solu- 
 tion. Rain water as stored in the ordinary cistern is the 
 softest water available to the household. Well, river, and 
 spring water vary greatly in the materials in solution, and 
 consequently vary greatly in degree of hardness. 
 
 Boiling will sometimes bring about changes which tend 
 to soften water. Doubtless all have observed the lime 
 deposit in the teakettle. Other causes of hardness can 
 be removed only by the use of chemicals. Cities some- 
 times use chemicals on a large scale to soften water for use. 
 In a small way the same thing is done in the household 
 when baking soda is added to the water for cooking beans, 
 or lye is added to water which is to be used in cleaning. 
 
 While hardness of water is a matter of importance to 
 the household, there is another far more important con- 
 sideration. A safe water is one which does not contain 
 disease germs or any substances injurious to health. A 
 number of diseases are carried by water ; typhoid fever and 
 dysentery are among the common ones. The appearance 
 of typhoid fever should lead to an immediate investigation 
 of water and milk supply. The typhoid fever record of a 
 city is a fair index of the safety of its water. Water may 
 be clear and sparkling and yet be very dangerous. Surface 
 wells are very easily contaminated and there is always risk 
 
 ii 
 
12 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 in using water from such wells. Deep, driven wells are 
 less liable to contamination, but their safety is not assured. 
 Generally speaking, a municipal water supply is preferable 
 to the ordinary well, because it is apt to be more carefully 
 watched. The surety of a safe water supply is a moral 
 obligation which all should feel. If there is any doubt 
 about it, the water should be boiled. The household filters 
 ordinarily seen are worse than useless, and often a real 
 menace because they frequently become breeding places 
 for germs. Directions from a board of health to boil water 
 should never be neglected. 
 
 As said before, a liberal supply of water is needed for the 
 body fluids and to remove waste. Water is used as a bever- 
 age, either alone or flavored with other substances. It is used 
 also as an agent in the preparation of food. Hot water is a 
 very common medium for the cooking of food, and in tea, 
 lemonade, and other mixtures, water serves as a carrier of 
 flavor. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 WATER AS A MEDIUM FOR FOODS AND FLAVORS 
 
 I. Lemonade 
 
 i lemon 3 T sugar 
 
 i c cold water \ c boiling water 
 
 Wash lemon and grate a small portion of yellow rind. Add 
 boiling water to sugar and grated rind. To this add cold water 
 and juice of lemon. Chill and serve. 
 
 II. Fruit Punch 
 
 i c cold water iJT lemon juice 
 
 J Jc sugar Jc chopped pineapple 
 
 \ c orange juice 
 
WATER I 3 
 
 Boil water, sugar, and pineapple several minutes ; cool, add 
 fruit juice, strain, and dilute with ice water. 
 
 Other fruit juices could be substituted for any of these. 
 Lemon juice is necessary with almost any fruit. 
 
 III. I^emon Ice 
 
 2 c sugar i c lemon juice 
 
 i c boiling water 3 c cold water 
 
 Make a sirup of sugar and hot water. Add the rest of the 
 water and then the fruit juices. 
 
 For variation add ^ t vanilla, juice of an orange, or other 
 fruit juice. Freeze. 
 
 IV. Sherbet 
 
 To i qt. of lemon or other ice add the beaten white of i egg, 
 when the mixture begins to freeze. 
 
 i c freshly boiling water 
 it tea 
 
 Scald the teapot. Pour water over the tea in the teapot. Let 
 tea stand 2 or 3 minutes in a hot place, and serve. Never boil tea. 
 
 Compare the beverages made from green tea, from black tea, 
 and from a mixture of the two. 
 
 VI. Coffee 
 
 1 . ic freshly boiling water 
 
 2 T ground coffee mixed with i T cold water 
 
 Pour boiling water over the moistened coffee in the coffee- 
 pot. Boil up once, simmer 4 or 5 minutes, and let stand in a 
 hot place for from 5 to 10 minutes. 
 
 2 . ic cold water 
 
 2 T ground coffee 
 
 Pour water over coffee in the coffeepot. Bring to boiling 
 point, and then simmer for 2 minutes. Stand in a hot place 
 for from 5 to 10 minutes. 
 
14 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 A small amount of white of egg may be stirred in after the 
 coffee has boiled, to aid in settling the grounds. Long cooking 
 of coffee not only impairs the fine flavor but extracts undesirable 
 substances. 
 
 Compare the beverages made from coffees of different kinds 
 and grades as to desirability and cost. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 Calculate the cost of a cup of black coffee ; the cost of a cup of 
 coffee with sugar and cream. 
 
 Determine source of home and of school water supply. 
 
 Is lemonade a valuable food? Explain. 
 
 Calculate the cost of a glass of lemonade. 
 
 Why use freshly boiling water for tea and coffee? 
 
 Are tea and coffee valuable as foods? 
 
 Are there any objections to their use? 
 
 References 
 
 ELLIOTT. Household Hygiene, pp. 90-113. 
 PRICE. Handbook on Sanitation, chaps, v, vi. 
 RICHARDS and WOODMAN. Air, Water, and Food, chaps, v, vi. 
 SEDGWICK. Principles of Sanitary Science, chaps, ix, x. 
 SHERMAN". Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, chaps, ix, x. 
 HOUGH and SEDGWICK. The Human Mechanism. 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 
 LANGWORTHY. " Cereal Substitutes for Coffee," Bulletin No. 122, U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 FRUITS AND GREEN VEGETABLES 
 
 FRUITS 
 
 Fruits are largely composed of water. Many of the fresh 
 fruits contain from 80 to 90 per cent of water. Dates, 
 figs, and raisins are fruits from which the water has been 
 evaporated, and consequently they are concentrated foods. 
 Peaches, apricots, apples, and prunes are dried in order 
 to preserve them, but the water is restored when they are 
 prepared for eating, and they resemble other cooked fruits 
 in composition. The banana owes its food value largely to 
 the starch it contains, while a number of fruits, especially 
 grapes and pineapples, are valued for sugar. The acids 
 and minerals occurring in fruits give them an important 
 place in the diet. The woody fiber which forms the frame- 
 work of the fruit is a carbohydrate called cellulose, which 
 adds bulk to the food and stimulates peristalsis. 
 
 Fruit is frequently valued as an appetizer, and the water 
 content and bulk make it a desirable addition to the diet, 
 although for actual nutrients fruits are expensive. Canned 
 fruit has a greater food value due to the addition of sugar. 
 The cooking of fruit changes the flavor, cooks starch if 
 present, softens the cellulose, and in the case of dried fruits 
 restores the water lost. It is important that the juice be 
 served with the cooked fruit so that the mineral salts may 
 not be lost. 
 
 15 
 
U. 8. Department of Agriculture 
 
 Office of Experiment Stations 
 
 A. C. True: Director 
 
 Prepared by 
 c. F. LANG WORTHY 
 
 Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 
 
 Protein 
 
 Fat 
 
 Carbohydrates Ash 
 
 Water 
 
 Fuel Value 
 1. Sq.Tn. Equals 
 1000 Calories 
 
 APPLE 
 
 EDIBLE PORTION 
 
 Water: 84.6. 
 
 Carbohydrates: 14.2 
 
 Protein: 4.3 
 
 Protein: 0.4 
 Fat: 0.5 
 
 Carbohydrates: 74.2 
 
 Fuel 
 value: 
 
 Ash: 0.3 
 
 285 calories 
 per pound 
 
 DRIED FIG 
 
 EDIBLE PORTION 
 
 /Water: 18.8 
 
 Fat: 0.3 
 
 Ash: 2.4 
 
 1435 calories 
 per pound 
 
 BANANA 
 
 EDIBLE PORTION 
 
 STRAWBERRY 
 
 EDIBLE PORTION 
 
 Water: 00. 
 
 Fat: 0. 
 Carbohydrates: 7.4 
 
 Water: 75. 3 
 
 Protein: 1.0 
 Ash: 0.6 Carbohydrates: 22.0 
 
 Fuel 
 value: 
 
 175 calories 
 per pound 
 
 Protein: 1.3 
 
 Fat: 0.0 
 
 Fuel 
 value: 
 
 Ash: 0.8 
 
 445 calories 
 per pcund 
 
 FRESH AND DRIED FRUITS 
 
 16 
 
FRUITS AND GREEN VEGETABLES I? 
 
 GREEN VEGETABLES 
 
 Various parts of plants are used as food. The stem of 
 asparagus, leaves of the spinach, flower of the cauliflower, 
 root of the beet, fruit of beans and tomatoes, are eaten. 
 Many green vegetables are grown and valued for their 
 variety in flavor, their bulk, and their mineral salts. Green 
 vegetables, like fruits, are conspicuously high in water ; 
 lettuce, cucumbers, and celery, for example, are about 
 95 per cent water. Cellulose forms the framework of the 
 green vegetables. Minerals occur in all, sugar and starch 
 in some. In cooking strong-juiced vegetables, such as 
 onions and cabbage, a large amount of water is used ; and 
 in vegetables valued for sugar and other soluble materials, 
 as corn, peas, carrots, etc., it is best to use the smallest 
 amount of water that is possible. 
 
 LA li( >A\-1 TORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Canned Green Vegetables 
 
 Open the can and empty at once. The flavor is usually im- 
 proved by allowing the vegetables to stand for an hour or more 
 exposed to the air. 
 
 The majority of the canned green vegetables are palatable 
 when simply seasoned with butter, pepper, and salt, and heated ; 
 or they may be served with cream sauce. 
 
 II. Baked Apples 
 
 Select sound apples, preferably tart ones. Wash and core, 
 place in a shallow pan, fill centers with sugar, or a mixture of 
 sugar and cinnamon, cover the bottom of the pan with water. 
 Bake in a moderate oven until apples are easily pierced with a 
 fork. If the oven is very hot, cover with a pan or baste apples 
 frequently with the sirup in bottom of pan. 
 
U. 8- Department of Agriculture 
 
 Office of Experiment Stations 
 
 A. C. True: Director 
 
 Prepared by 
 C. F. LANGWORTHY 
 
 Expert In Charge of Nutrition Investigations 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 
 
 Protein 
 
 Fat 
 
 Carbohydrate* Aeh 
 
 Water 
 
 Fuel Value 
 1. Sq.In. Equals 
 1000 Calories 
 
 Fuel yalue: 
 
 295 calories 
 per pound 
 
 ONION 
 
 Wate:-87.6 
 Protein: L6. 
 
 Carbohydrates: 9.9 
 
 Water: 83.0 
 
 Protein: 1.6 
 ^ Fat: 0.6 
 
 Carbohydrate*: 13.6 
 
 Fuel 
 value: 
 
 I 
 
 Fat: 0.3 
 Ash: 0.6 
 
 220 calories 
 per pound 
 
 CELERY 
 
 POTATO 
 
 Protein: 2.2 
 Fat: 0.1 
 
 Water:-94. 
 
 Ash: 1.0 
 
 Carbohydrates: 18.4 "Water: 78.3 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 Fuel value! 
 
 C 
 
 375 calories 
 per pound 
 
 Protein: 1.1 
 Carbohydrates: 3.4 
 Ash: 1.0 
 
 ,11111 iimiiuitiiiitiiit 
 
 80 calories 
 per pound 
 
 ROOTS AND SUCCULENT VEGETABLES 
 
 18 
 
FRUITS AND GREEN VEGETABLES 19 
 
 III. Stewed Prunes 
 
 Select good prunes, sort, and wash. Cover with water and 
 soak several hours or overnight ; then slowly cook in the same 
 water until plump and smooth and the stones will easily slip out. 
 A little lemon juice or sugar may be added. 
 
 IV. Creamed Onions 
 
 Cook onions in a large amount of boiling water in an un- 
 covered kettle, and change water two or three times. Cook 
 until tender ; drain, and reheat in white sauce. 
 
 V. Escaloped Cabbage 
 
 Cook cabbage in boiling, salted water, changing water two 
 or three times ; do not overcook. Arrange in baking dish alter- 
 nate layers of cabbage and cream sauce. Cover with buttered 
 crumbs and brown in oven. 
 
 VI. Glazed Swtrf /'<>t<itoes 
 
 Wash and pare potatoes. Cook until partially done in boiling 
 water. Remove from water, cut potatoes in halves or slices. 
 Brush with melted butter, sprinkle with sugar lightly, and bake. 
 Or make a sirup of i T sugar, i T water, and i T butter ; brush 
 potatoes with this, and baste with it during the cooking. 
 
 VII. Spinach 
 
 Carefully pick over and wash spinach through several waters. 
 Cover bottom of pan with water, place spinach in pan, heat 
 slowly, and cook until tender. Drain, season with butter, salt, 
 and pepper, and garnish with slices of hard-cooked egg. 
 
 SALADS 
 
 A salad is a wholesome and a favorite way of serving 
 vegetables, both fresh and cooked. Combinations of meat, 
 eggs, fruit, nuts, and cheese with vegetables are frequently 
 made in salads. 
 
20 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 The dressing is usually a mixture of vinegar, egg, fat, 
 and seasonings. The simplest of all dressings (the French 
 dressing) is made of oil, vinegar, and seasonings, and is not 
 cooked ; a raw egg in combination with the same gives a 
 mayonnaise. Butter is more commonly used than oil in 
 making dressings, and the mixture is cooked. 
 
 As a source of food the salads vary greatly, depending 
 entirely upon the materials put into them. If properly used, 
 the salads are a very desirable addition to the diet. With 
 a heavy meal a light salad, such as celery or lettuce, should 
 be chosen, and in this case the salad is an accessory to the 
 meal. The salad if made of meat, egg, or cheese may really 
 be the major part of the meal. 
 
 Care should be taken to have vegetables or fruits fresh, 
 crisp, and thoroughly cleaned, and meat carefully freed from 
 gristle and bone. All materials, including dressing, should 
 be cold. Salads should be carefully mixed and served, in 
 order to preserve their attractiveness. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. French Salad Dressing 
 
 3T oil i T vinegar or lemon juice 
 
 Jt salt ^t paprika 
 
 Mix salt and pepper with oil, add vinegar slowly, and beat. 
 
 II. Cream Dressing 
 
 Yolks 3 eggs or 2 whole eggs 1 1 salt 
 
 2 T flour 1 1 mustard 
 
 i T sugar c vinegar 
 
 i T butter Paprika 
 
 Mix dry ingredients, add vinegar, and cook thoroughly ; re- 
 move from fire, add slightly beaten egg and butter. Cool, and 
 
FRUITS AND GREEN VEGETABLES 21 
 
 store in a glass jar until ready for use. When ready to serve, 
 thin the dressing with cream, sweet or sour. Whipped cream is 
 especially desirable. 
 
 III. Vegetable Salad 
 
 c peas i small cucumber 
 
 c string beans i tomato 
 
 Carefully prepare the vegetables and serve with either French 
 or cream dressing. 
 
 IV. Fruit Salad 
 
 I'se seasonable fruits, either alone or in combination. Serve 
 on lettuce leaf with French or cream dressing. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 From Bulletin No. 28, ' f Chemical Composition of American 
 Food Materials," and I'\inners Bulletin No. 293, " Use of Fruit as 
 Food,' 1 list ten commonly used fruits according to water content ; 
 according to sugar content. Which are valued for food and which as 
 appetizers? Compare grapes and raisins with respect to water and 
 sugar content, and explain difference. 
 
 List ten common green vegetables according to water content ; 
 protein content. What green vegetables contain sugar? 
 
 References 
 
 LANGWORTHY. " Use of Fruit as Food," Farmers 1 Bulletin A r o. 293, 
 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 PARLOA. ' Preparation of Vegetables for the Table," Farmers 1 Bulletin 
 
 No. 256, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 SNYDER, FRISBY, and BRYANT. " Losses in Cooking Vegetables," 
 
 Bulletin No. 43, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department 
 
 of Agriculture. 
 
 HOUGH and SEDGWICK. The Human Mechanism, pp. 93, 350. 
 BAILEY. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 PRESERVATION OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES 
 
 Food spoils, due to the action of some form of plant or ani- 
 mal growth. The most common causes of spoiling are the 
 minute plants, always found in the air, called bacteria, yeasts, 
 
 APPARATUS FOR STEAMING FRUIT IN CANS 
 
 and molds. A food, or any other substance, is sterile when 
 all these microscopic forms of life have been killed. Steri- 
 lization is most frequently accomplished by the use of heat. 
 Since all dust is laden with these minute forms, food 
 should not be exposed to the air unnecessarily. Like other 
 
 22 
 
PRESERVATION OF FRUIT 23 
 
 plants, these microscopic forms need food, warmth, and 
 moisture. One of the means of protecting food is to keep 
 it in a dry place, and in some cases the food is actually 
 dried, as raisins and dried apples. Cold is the commonest 
 and best means of protecting food, either in the household 
 refrigerator or the commercial cold-storage plant. 
 
 Heat, sugar, salt, vinegar, spices, and certain chemicals 
 are used in preserving food for long periods of time. These 
 agents are useful because they do not favor animal and 
 plant growth. Heat is the most effective preservative, for 
 if high enough and long enough applied, it will kill any 
 form of life. Sugar, vinegar, and spices give a desired 
 flavor to the food, as well as aid in preserving it, if used 
 in sufficient quantities. Frequently several of these agents 
 are combined. Canning powders may preserve food indefi- 
 nitely, but they should never be used. The Pure Food 
 Laws are forbidding the use of chemicals by the manufac- 
 turer, and the housewife should be no less particular. Heat, 
 if properly used, will preserve food as well as chemicals, 
 and there can be no question as to the safety of its use. 
 
 The preservation of food has largely passed out of the 
 modern household, excepting the canning and pickling 
 processes, and, in some localities, the curing of meat. 
 
 LA BORA T( M' ) ' EXERCISES 
 AGENTS AND METHODS OF PRESERVATION 1 
 
 Experiment I. Put portions of some ripe fruit (as peach or apple) 
 and vegetables (as tomato) on small dishes and treat as indicated : 
 
 1. Expose at room temperature. 
 
 2. Place in refrigerator. 
 
 1 This group of experiments may be demonstrated. 
 
24 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 3. Carefully dry sample in slow oven. Leave exposed in room. 
 
 4. Cover with ground spice. 
 
 5. Cover with sugar. 
 
 6. Cover with salt. 
 
 Examine samples at intervals and note results. 
 
 Experiment II. Prepare duplicate samples for comparison. 
 
 1 . (a) Put slices of raw fruit into small glass bottles ; cover 
 with water ; cork and seal. 
 
 (#) Repeat with cooked fruit. 
 
 2. Sterilize, by boiling, two small glass bottles with corks 
 to fit. 
 
 (a) Fill one with raw fruit ; cover with water ; cork and seal. 
 (//) Fill the other with cooked fruit at boiling temperature ; 
 cork and seal. 
 
 Examine samples at intervals and compare. 
 
 Experiment III. Put slices of fruit in small glass bottles 
 and treat as indicated : 
 
 1. Cover with. alcohol. 
 
 2. Cover with vinegar. 
 
 3. Cover with sirup of 5T sugar and 2T water. 
 Examine at intervals and compare. 
 
 All samples in these experiments should be discarded on spoil- 
 ing, but some will need to be kept for a long period. 
 
 In Experiment I note order in which samples spoil. Why do 
 some keep indefinitely ? 
 
 Discuss the value of sterilization as illustrated in Experi- 
 ment II. What is complete sterilization, and in which sample 
 is this illustrated ? 
 
 Compare samples in Experiment III. Are all desirable ? 
 Explain. 
 
 When would you use any of the above methods in the 
 household ? 
 
PRESERVATION OF FRUIT 25 
 
 CANNING 
 
 Canning is largely a method of preservation by heat. 
 In the canning of fruit, usually from one fourth to one third 
 the weight of the fruit in sugar is added to give the desired 
 flavor. 
 
 Cans, lids, and rubbers should be thoroughly washed 
 and rinsed. Cans and lids should be sterilized by boiling, 
 and care should be taken not to touch the top of the can 
 or the inside of the .lid with fingers or cloth. New rubbers 
 
 TYPES OF FRUIT JARS 
 
 only should be used, and these should be sterilized with 
 boiling water. Spoons and funnels used in handling fruit 
 should be sterilized in boiling water. 
 
 LA BORA TOR Y EXERCISES 
 I. Canned Corn 
 
 Use only fresh and perfect corn. Free from silk and cut from 
 cob, using care not to cut too closely. Put into kettle, barely 
 cover with water, and boil thoroughly. Fill jars, add 1 1 salt and 
 1 1 sugar, and set lids loosely on top. Place in a covered steamer, 
 steam i hour, and seal. After 24 hours fill steamer with cold 
 water and heat, steaming the corn for an hour. Repeat the 
 
26 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 steaming the third day. This same method is applicable to 
 beans, peas, and other vegetables. 
 Calculate cost, and note on each jar. 
 
 II. Canned Peaches 
 
 Prepare peaches by paring and dividing into halves. Make a 
 sirup, using i c sugar to 2 c water. Cook peaches in sirup until 
 tender and somewhat transparent, put into sterilized jars, and 
 
 II 
 
 I. JAR OF FANCY MELBA PEACHES; COST, $i. II. FIFTEEN JARS OF 
 PEACHES CANNED IN LABORATORY; COST, $i 
 
 seal. Invert jars at once and leave until cool. By inverting the 
 jar an ill-fitting top is quickly discovered. This same general 
 method is applicable to other fruits. 
 
 Keep a complete record of cost of fruit and sugar used for 
 each jar. Note on a gummed label, and paste on jar together 
 with date and name. 
 
 III. Canned Tomatoes 
 
 Sterilize cans, tops, and rubbers as for canned fruit. Wash 
 tomatoes, scald, remove skins and hard green core. Cut into 
 
PRESERVATION OF FRUIT 27 
 
 quarters and cook, without adding water, until thoroughly heated 
 through and boiling. Fill jars, seal, and invert. 
 Calculate and note cost on each jar. 
 
 PRESERVING 
 
 Preserving fruit is largely a method of preservation by 
 a heavy sugar solution, three fourths to equal weight of 
 sugar being used. 
 
 Wash, rinse, and scald with boiling water the glasses 
 for preserves. Cover fruit with melted paraffin. 
 
 LA BORA TOR Y EXERCISE 
 I. Grape Conserve 
 
 i pint grapes c raisins 
 
 i small orange 
 
 Pulp grapes, cook until soft ; then put through a colander and 
 add skins, orange pulp, and raisins. To every cup of this add a 
 cup of sugar and cook until of desired consistency. Nuts added 
 at this time increase the attractiveness of the conserve. 
 
 Calculate and record cost on each glass. 
 
 I I 1. 1. Y-MAKING 
 
 In making jelly, sugar is used in large enough quantity 
 to act as a preservative. 
 
 Prepare glasses as for preserves and cover in same way. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISE 
 
 I . Gmpc Jelly 
 
 Cover the bottom of an enameled kettle with water and add 
 the grapes, which have been thoroughly washed. Cover, cook 
 slowly, and stir occasionally. When simmering point is reached, 
 crush the fruit with a masher and continue heating until thor- 
 oughly cooked. Pour the hot mass into a double square of 
 
28 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 cheesecloth ; tie the corners together and let the juice run out. 
 Do not squeeze the pulp. Measure the juice, boil 2 or 3 minutes, 
 add a three-fourths measure of sugar, and boil until the jelly will 
 drop in flakes from the spoon. Pour into hot jelly glasses and 
 cover with melted paraffin. 
 
 The same method may be used with any juicy fruit. 
 
 Calculate and record cost on each glass. 
 
 PICKLING 
 
 Pickling is usually a method of preserving by use of 
 vinegar and spices. Heat may or may not be used. 
 Wash, rinse, and scald jars. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISE 
 
 I. Cucumber Pickles 
 
 Place cucumbers in stone jar, cover with brine in proportion 
 of ^-c salt to 2 qt. boiling water. Let stand 24 hours. Drain 
 off brine, scald, and pour again over cucumbers. Let stand until 
 cool, or longer if necessary. Drain off the brine and pack pickles 
 closely in jars. 
 
 i pint vinegar Stick cinnamon 
 
 Salt Sugar 
 
 Cloves Pepper 
 
 Scald vinegar with seasonings, pour over pickles, and seal 
 jars. These seasonings vary with strength of vinegar, spices, 
 and individual tastes. 
 
 Calculate and record cost of pickles on each jar. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 In order to test the proper care of all sorts of canned materials, 
 carefully wrap and stand in a dark place samples of each kind of 
 fruit and vegetable canned. Leave duplicate samples exposed to full 
 
PRESERVATION OF FRUIT 
 
 29 
 
 light. After two or three months open and compare the above 
 samples with each other, and with commercial samples. 
 
 Carefully measure commercial products to estimate the cost of one 
 quart, and compare with the domestic product made in the class. 
 
 COMPARISON OF DOMESTIC AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS 
 
 PRODUCT EXAMINED 
 
 FLAVOR 
 
 AlM'EAR- 
 ANCE 
 
 COST i-EK QUART 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 (Suggest 
 reasons for 
 differences) 
 
 IN 
 
 SEASON 
 
 AT TIME OK 
 CANNING 
 
 Corn 
 
 / Cheap 
 Commercial < 
 [_ Expensive 
 
 Domestic Product 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 Commercials 
 ^ Expensive 
 
 Domestic Product 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Commercial -1 
 ^ Expensive 
 
 Domestic Product 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jelly 
 
 . /Cheap 
 Commercials 
 ^ Expensive 
 
 Domestic Product 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pickles (Cucumber) 
 
 . [ Bottled 
 Commercial^ 
 ^ Bulk 
 
 Domestic Product 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 i bu. peaches = 48 Ib. 
 
 i bu. tomatoes = 56 Ib. 
 
 What is a reasonable price to pay for peaches for canning? for 
 tomatoes ? 
 
 What factors enter into the cost of the commercial product, which 
 are not usually counted in the domestic product? 
 
30 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 
 
 References 
 
 CONN. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. 
 
 PRICE. Handbook on Sanitation. 
 
 PARLOA. " Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies," Farmers* Bulletin 
 
 No. 203, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 BREAZEALE. "Canning Vegetables in the Home," Farmers' Bulletin 
 
 No. 359, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 GOLDTHWAITE. " Principles of Jelly Making," University of Illinois 
 
 Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. 7. 
 
 GOLDTHWAITE. "Jelly Making," The Joiirnal of Home Economics, Feb- 
 ruary, 1910. 
 ABEL. "Care of Food in the Home," Farmers' Bulletin No. 375, U.S. 
 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 SNOW. " Effect of Sugar and Temperature on Fruit Juices," The 
 
 Journal of Home Economics, June, 1909. 
 HOFFMAN and EVANS. " The Preservative Action of Spices," The 
 
 Jojtrnal of Home Economics, December, 1911. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 SUGAR 
 
 There are several kinds of sugars. The common com- 
 mercial sugars are granulated, powdered,' light and dark 
 brown, maple, and glucose. The commercial names do 
 not indicate their chemical composition - - chemically pure 
 powdered, granulated, and maple sugars are identical. Com- 
 mercial maple sugar contains flavoring materials which make 
 it very desirable for some purposes. There are a number of 
 chemically different sugars, which are of interest to the phys- 
 iologist, but in the household we are principally concerned 
 with granulated (cane) sugar and grape sugar (dextrose). 
 
 Granulated sugar is obtained commercially from the sugar 
 cane and the sugar beet. Contrary to popular notions, the 
 sugar is the same from both sources. Differences which 
 have been noted in granulated sugars are probably due to 
 the degree of purification in their manufacture. Cane 
 sugar is found in fruits and other vegetables, but in lesser 
 quantities than in the sugar cane and beet. Grape sugar 
 occurs in honey, fresh and dried fruits, and may be seen in 
 small whitish lumps on raisins and prunes. The starches 
 and sugars are easily changed to grape sugar by the action 
 of heat and acid outside the body and by digestive fluids 
 in the body. 
 
 The commercial sirup (glucose or corn sirup) is prepared 
 from starch, and contains from 34 to 36 per cent of grape 
 sugar. When cream of tartar, vinegar, or lemon juice is 
 
 31 
 
U. 8. Department of Agriculture 
 
 Office of Experiment Stations 
 
 A. C. True: Director 
 
 Prepared by 
 
 c. F. LANGWOKTHY 
 
 Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 
 
 Protein 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 
 
 Water 
 
 Fat Carbohydrates Ash 
 
 Fuel Value: 
 
 1. Bq.In. Equals 
 
 1000 Calories 
 
 SUGAR 
 
 GRA NULATED 
 
 MOLASSES 
 
 Protein: 2.4 
 
 Carbohydrates: 100.0 
 
 1810 calories 
 per pound 
 
 Carbohydrates: 69.3 
 
 STICK CANDY 
 
 s Carbohydrates: 9G.5 
 
 Water: 26.1 
 
 Ash: 3.2 
 
 1300 calories 
 per pound 
 
 Ash: 0.5 
 
 Water. 3.0 
 
 Fuel Value: 
 
 MAPLE SUGAR 
 
 1745 calories 
 per pound 
 
 Ash: 0.9 
 
 HONEY 
 
 Water: 16.3 
 
 Carbohydrates: 82.8 
 
 Water: 18.2 
 
 Protein: 0.4 
 
 Carbohydrates: 81.2 
 
 1.100 calories per pound 
 
 Fuel Value: ^ Ash: 0.2 
 
 1175 calories per pound 
 
 SUGAR AND SIMILAR FOODS 
 
SUGAR 33 
 
 added to taffy, a portion of the cane sugar is changed to grape 
 sugar. Cane sugar easily granulates, while grape sugar does 
 not ; so in the making of candy it is desirable to have glucose, 
 to prevent the coarse granulation, or " turning to sugar." 
 
 The sugars are valuable as food. They are easily dis- 
 solved, do not require cooking, give a pleasant flavor to 
 other foods, and, eaten in moderation, are valuable to the 
 body as a source of energy. The sweet flavor of sugar 
 is universally liked, and frequently it is used in too great 
 quantities, particularly in the form of candy, and with tea, 
 coffee, and cereals. The overeating of sugar may cause 
 fermentation in the stomach. 
 
 Cane sugar is the form most commonly used, but the 
 grape sugar is eaten in large quantities in honey, corn 
 sirups, candy, and fruits. Grape sugar is wholesome as a 
 food, and occurs in the body as a result of the digestion of 
 starches and sugars. Glucose is produced more cheaply 
 than cane sugar, and the chief objection to its use in com- 
 mercially prepared food is its substitution for the more 
 expensive products without a reduction in the price of the 
 finished article. Glucose is more familiar to us in the form 
 of sirup than as a dry sugar, and is not so sweet as cane 
 sugar. Under the Pure Food Laws, the sirup glucose is 
 called corn sirup- -a concession to the popular prejudice 
 against glucose. 
 
 Lactose (milk sugar) is prepared commercially and is fre- 
 quently used in infants' food. Lactose is still less sweet than 
 grape sugar. Molasses is another familiar form of sugar in 
 the household. It contains both cane sugar and grape sugar 
 and a number of coloring and flavoring substances which 
 exist in the raw materials from which the sugar is made. 
 
34 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Effect of Heat upon Cane Sugar 1 
 
 1 . Put c sugar in a small frying pan, heat gently, and stir 
 constantly until sugar is melted. Quickly remove a small portion 
 to a plate and examine the product, which is known as barley 
 sugar. Continue the heating until the whole mass is light brown 
 in color. Remove a small portion of this product (caramel) to 
 a plate and compare with barley sugar. To the caramel in pan 
 add c boiling water and boil to a sirup. This caramel may be 
 saved and used for flavoring custards and sauces. 
 
 2. To ic sugar add -j-c water. Place in a small pan. Boil, 
 and with constant use of the thermometer discover the temper- 
 ature for the following tests which are in constant use : 
 
 a. When sirup will form a soft ball in cold water. 
 
 b. When sirup will form a thread as it is dropped from spoon. 
 
 c. When sirup will form a hard ball in cold water. 
 
 d. When sirup will harden in cold water and crack on cooling 
 
 (crack stage). 
 
 e. When caramel is formed. 
 
 Remove a portion to a small dish at each stage of the heating. 
 Compare products and suggest uses. 
 
 II. Peanut Brittle 
 
 Place -J- c sugar in small frying pan, heat slowly, stirring con- 
 stantly, until sugar is melted and light brown in color. Stir in 
 2 T chopped peanuts and pour at once onto a buttered plate. 
 
 III. Fondant 
 
 Add \ c sugar to -J c hot water, stir until dissolved, then 
 add T ^t cream of tartar and boil to soft ball stage. During 
 cooking remove all crystals from the sides of the pan by washing 
 
 1 This may be demonstrated by the teacher. 
 
SUGAR 35 
 
 with a wet cloth wrapped around a fork. Pour onto a cold plate, 
 cool, flavor, then beat with a spoon until it stiffens and can be 
 molded with the hands. Handle the mass until it is soft and 
 creamy. This may be molded into candies at once or it may be 
 covered closely and allowed to stand for 24 hours. 
 
 IV. Chocolate Creams 
 
 Mold fondant into desired shapes, and when firm place on tip 
 of fork and dip into the melted chocolate. 
 
 (Irate or scrape chocolate into a cup or bowl and place the 
 bowl in warm, not hot, water. Be very careful not to overheat 
 or the chocolate will thicken. 
 
 Place dipped creams on oiled paper and cool at once. 
 
 V. Molasses Taffy 
 
 
 
 ^c molasses ic sugar 
 
 i T butter ^c boilin water 
 
 i T vinegar ^t soda 
 vanilla 
 
 
 Mix all the ingredients except the soda and cook until brittle 
 when tried in cold water. Add soda and pour onto a buttered 
 pan. When cool enough to handle, add vanilla and pull candy 
 until light. Pull out into a long rope and cut with scissors. 
 
 VI. Butterscotch 
 
 i c sugar Flavoring 
 
 -Jc water ^t cream of tartar 
 
 i T butter 
 
 Boil together sugar, water, and cream of tartar until the color 
 changes to a light brown. Remove from fire, stir in butter and 
 flavoring. Boil up again and pour, in a very thin layer, onto a 
 buttered pan. Mark into squares before the candy hardens. 
 
A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 COMPARISON OF COMMERCIAL AND DOMESTIC PRODUCTS 
 
 
 APPEARANCE 
 
 COST 
 
 FLAVOR 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 Peanut Brittle 
 Commercial 
 Domestic 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chocolate Creams 
 Commercial 
 Domestic 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Butterscotch 
 Commercial 
 Domestic 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taffy 
 Commercial 
 Domestic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Why is cream of tartar added to fondant? Is this absolutely 
 necessary? Why is the flavoring not added at the beginning of 
 the cooking process? What are the objections to cheap candies? 
 
 Table sirup made from granulated sugar in the household fre- 
 quently turns to sugar on standing. Can you suggest any way to 
 avoid this? Illustrate with an example. 
 
 Examine the samples of different sugars and note characteristics. 
 
 References 
 
 REMSEN. Organic Chemistry, chap. xi. 
 
 ABEL. " Sugar as Food," Farmers'' Bulletin No. 93, U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture. 
 
 LEACH. Food Inspection and Analysis. 
 
 WILEY. Foods and their Adulterations. 
 
 JORDAN. Principles of Human Nutrition. 
 
 SHAW. " Cane and Beet Sugar for Canning and Jelly Making," Bul- 
 letin yV0.jj, California Experiment Station, 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 STARCH 
 
 Starch is the form in which plants commonly store food. 
 Starch occurs in the form of grains, which are closely packed 
 in the plant cell. These grains vary in different plants, and 
 microscopic examination of the starch grain usually tells at 
 once the kind of plant from which it comes. Corn is the 
 common commercial source of starch, both for laundry and 
 for table use. Starch is also prepared from wheat and 
 potatoes. Less usual forms of starch are tapioca, sago, 
 and arrowroot. 
 
 Starch is a valuable food and a cheaper form of carbo- 
 hydrate than sugar. Its use in the body is the same as that 
 of sugar ; it yields energy for work and keeps the body 
 warm. In the process of digestion starch is made soluble, 
 finally being reduced to grape sugar, in which form it 
 circulates through the animal body. Carbohydrate may be 
 stored in very small quantities in animals and exists in the 
 form of glycogen, sometimes called animal starch. Dry 
 starch when heated changes its color and flavor and is 
 converted into a form of carbohydrate called dextrin. This 
 substance is familiar in toast and in browned flour used in 
 making gravy. Starch, unlike sugar, is not soluble in cold 
 water. Starch heated with water swells, changes its flavor 
 and appearance, thickens, and forms a translucent mass. 
 Raw or undercooked starch has an unpleasant flavor, so 
 
 37 
 
38 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 all starchy food should be thoroughly cooked and should 
 reach the boiling point some time during the cooking 
 process. The thickening power of starch makes it desir- 
 able in the preparation of many dishes, such as puddings, 
 sauces, and gravies. It is necessary to use a little care in 
 cooking starch to avoid lumping. Starch, if first mixed 
 with something else, as sugar, cold water, or fat, does not 
 lump when a hot liquid is stirred into it. When iodine is 
 added to starch, it turns blue. This is a simple and reliable 
 test for detecting starch. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 I. Cornstarch Puddin 
 
 fruit juice f c water 
 
 2 or 3 cloves Sugar to taste 
 
 \ t salt 2 T cornstarch 
 
 Heat water and juice. When boiling, stir in the cornstarch 
 which has been mixed with a little cold water. Stir over the 
 direct flame until it thickens, and add cloves and sugar. Cook 
 \ hour in a double boiler ; then pour into molds to cool. Fruit 
 or nuts may be added at this time. 
 
 Chill and serve plain with fruit or with cream. 
 
 Strong flavored fruits, as plums or grapes, should be used. 
 
 Calculate number of servings and cost. 
 
 II. White Sauce 
 
 1 c milk 2 T flour 
 
 2 T butter Salt and pepper 
 
 Soften or melt butter in pan, add flour, and mix thoroughly. 
 Remove pan from fire and very gradually add the milk, stirring 
 constantly to avoid formation of lumps. After these are mixed, 
 return to fire and boil the sauce thoroughly. Add pepper and salt. 
 
STARCH 39 
 
 III. Cream Toast 
 
 Prepare two slices of toast, and dip each into hot white sauce. 
 Place on a heated plate and pour the remainder of the sauce 
 over them. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 Test several foods for starch. 
 
 Make a microscopic examination of starches from different sources. 
 
 Is there any difference in the thickening power of white and 
 browned or dextrinized flour? Explain. 
 
 Compare value of cornstarch and flour as thickening agents. 
 Explain. 
 
 Will cost lead to a choice between them ? 
 
 References 
 
 See list for Chapter V. 
 
 WILEY. "Cereals and Cereal Products," bulletin No. /j, Part IX, 
 Division of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 POTATOES 
 
 The potato is a commonly used vegetable. It is a tuber, 
 or underground stem, in which the plant stores a large 
 amount of starch, and so is a good source of food. New 
 potatoes, if ripe, are more palatable than old potatoes. 
 When potatoes are old and begin to sprout, they become 
 waxy on cooking and are not so choice. This is due to a 
 certain change in composition. The potato is composed of 
 water (75 per cent), cellulose, starch, mineral salts, and a 
 small amount of protein. We value the potato for its starch 
 and the bulkiness of its cellulose. The mineral salts lie 
 very close to the skin, and a thick peeling may easily 
 remove a large part. Care should be taken not to overcook 
 potatoes. They are mealy if properly cooked, but soggy 
 if overcooked or not thoroughly drained and dried. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Cut a very thin slice through the center of a potato, hold 
 
 up to the light, and observe the structure. Add a drop of 
 weak iodine solution and observe again. 
 
 II. Remove skin from a potato and grate about one third of 
 
 the potato. Let this stand two or three minutes on a plate 
 which is placed on a slant. What is the bulky portion? 
 Pour liquid off from the lower edge. What remains ? 
 
 40 
 
POTATOES 41 
 
 III. Boil one potato with the skin on, and one potato which has 
 been pared. After the water used in cooking the two pota- 
 toes has been cooled, test it with iodine. 
 
 Compare the two potatoes as to appearance and flavor. 
 
 IV. Prepare two potatoes of uniform size for baking. Put one 
 into the oven 20 minutes after the other. Remove both 
 when second potato is properly cooked. 
 
 Compare the properly cooked and the overcooked potato. 
 Why are you often directed to pierce skin of baked potato 
 when it is done ? 
 
 V. Boiled Potatoes 
 
 Select potatoes of uniform size. Clean and pare, or not, as 
 desired. Cook in boiling, salted water until easily pierced with 
 a fork. Drain off water and shake the pan over the fire until 
 potatoes are thoroughly dried. 
 
 VI. Creamed Potatoes 
 
 Use diced boiled potatoes. Prepare a white sauce of the 
 desired consistency, and add salt and pepper. Turn the potatoes 
 into this, and with as little stirring as possible heat potatoes 
 thoroughly. 
 
 VII. Mashed Potatoes 
 
 2 boiled potatoes Salt 
 
 Milk or cream Butter 
 
 Potatoes for mashing should be pared before cooking. Mash 
 potatoes, and add butter and salt. Mix thoroughly and add milk, 
 beating vigorously. Pile lightly in a hot dish and serve. 
 
 Why is the amount of milk and seasoning not given in this 
 direction ? 
 
 VIII. Potatoes au Gratin 
 
 Put a layer of diced, cold boiled potatoes in a baking dish. 
 Sprinkle with grated cheese and diced pimentos. Cover with 
 
42 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 
 
 white sauce. Repeat until dish is full. Cover with buttered 
 crumbs and bake until well browned. 
 
 Buttered crumbs. Melt i T butter in pan, add 4 or 5 T bread 
 crumbs, and mix thoroughly. 
 
 IX. Escaloped Potatoes 
 
 Put alternate layers of sliced, hard-cooked eggs and cold, 
 boiled potatoes in a greased baking dish. Cover each layer with 
 white sauce. Put buttered crumbs on top and bake until brown. 
 
 X. Potato Salad 
 
 Use only potatoes which have been thoroughly cooled after 
 
 i c diced potatoes i hard-cooked egg 
 
 ^c diced celery Dressing 
 
 The flavor of the salad may be changed by adding a little 
 onion, pimento, or green pepper. A potato salad should be 
 carefully and lightly mixed, and not stirred and mashed together 
 with a spoon. Enough dressing should be used to coat and 
 flavor the whole salad. It is better if it stands at least half an 
 hour. Serve on a crisp lettuce leaf. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 For a family of six compare the cost of a dish of boiled potatoes 
 when they cost 90 cents a bushel and when they cost $2.50 a bushel. 
 
 What would be the cost of a dish of boiled rice, hominy, or mush 
 for the same family ? 
 
 Is one of these a reasonable substitute for one of the others? 
 
 References 
 
 LANGWORTHY. " Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food," Farmers* 
 Bulletin No. 295, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 SNYDER, FRISBY, and BRYANT. "Composition and Digestibility of 
 Potatoes and Eggs," Bulletin No. #j, Office of Experiment Stations, 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 ^HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS 
 
 The cereals, and the preparations from them, furnish 
 foods high in starch. Some fruits and vegetables contain 
 starch, but in smaller proportions. The potato, a very 
 starchy vegetable, is considered in the preceding chapter. 
 
 The cereals - - wheat, oats, corn, rice, barley, rye, millet, 
 and buckwheat- -store a large amount of starch in their 
 seeds. In some cases these seeds, or grains, are used whole, 
 and in others they are crushed, rolled, or ground into meal 
 or flour. In addition to starch, which averages 65 per cent 
 to 70 per cent, the cereals contain 10 per cent to 1 2 per cent 
 each of protein and water, and, with the exception of oats 
 and corn, very little fat. The mineral matter in cereals adds 
 greatly to their food value. In milling the grains, the outer 
 layers and germs of the grain are frequently discarded and 
 so the greater part of the ash is lost. The loss of total 
 mineral matter in milling may be shown in the case of 
 wheat ; the whole grain contains 2 per cent ash, the bran 
 about 6 per cent, and the white flour about ^ per cent. 
 
 A list of the so-called breakfast cereals found on the 
 market will quickly reveal the fact that there is a large 
 number of commercial products made from this group of 
 foods. When the cereals are put up in fancy boxes and 
 under special names there is an increase in the price not 
 always warranted. 
 
 43 
 
44 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 From corn, starch is prepared on a commercial scale and 
 sold as cornstarch. Corn meal is a staple article of food, 
 and hominy is another familiar preparation from corn. 
 Wheat in the form of flour for bread and cake is very 
 extensively 'used. Macaroni and spaghetti are pastes made 
 of coarsely ground wheat (called semolina) and water. 
 
 While the cereals are high in starch, which is desirable 
 for its nutritive value, they also contain the bulky cellulose, 
 
 5 6 -7 
 
 TEN CENTS' WORTH OF EIGHT WELL-KNOWN BREAKFAST FOODS 
 
 i, Grape Nuts; 2, Puffed Rice; 3, Shredded Wheat Biscuit; 4, Corn Flakes; 
 5, Cream of Wheat ; 6, Rice ; 7, Oatmeal ; 8, Corn Meal 
 
 which serves its purpose in the body by aiding in peristalsis. 
 In cooking cereals, starch and cellulose are to be specially 
 considered. For the sake of flavor starch should be thor- 
 oughly cooked, reaching the boiling point at some time 
 during the process. The cellulose, surrounding the starchy 
 grains, must be softened so that the digestive juices may 
 more easily penetrate the mass. The greater the amount 
 of cellulose and the larger the particles of the grain, the 
 longer must the cooking be continued. Cracked or rolled 
 
CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS 45 
 
 oats, for instance, are more quickly cooked than the whole 
 grain. Rice contains less cellulose along with the starch ; 
 consequently it is more quickly cooked. 
 
 The cereals form a large part of the food of people in 
 the greater part of the world. They are easily grown and 
 stored, and being high in all the nutrients but fat, they 
 furnish one of the cheapest sources of food. The corn of 
 the American Indian and the oatmeal of the Scotch High- 
 lander furnish a much more complete food than the rice 
 of the oriental, due to the fact that rice furnishes practically 
 no protein or fat. The rice-eating people use fish and beans 
 to supply fat and protein in their diet. The common custom 
 of using butter with bread, eggs and milk with rice is easily 
 justified on the ground of composition of wheat and rice. 
 
 LA BORA TORY EXERCISES 
 I. Boiled A'/'tr 
 
 1. c rice 2C boiling water 
 t salt 
 
 Wash rice and add to 20 rapidly boiling water in which 
 salt has been dissolved. Keep up the rapid boiling until the 
 rice is tender, replacing the water lost by evaporation, if needed. 
 Turn water and rice into a strainer, drain, and set in the oven 
 to dry slightly. 
 
 Note time of cooking ; bulk before and after cooking. 
 
 Continue boiling the water in which rice was cooked until its 
 volume is reduced about one half. Explain. 
 
 2. ^c rice f c boiling water 
 it salt 
 
 Wash rice, add to boiling salted water, and cook 3 or 4 min- 
 utes. Finish cooking in a double boiler and avoid stirring the rice. 
 Compare with rice from No. i, as to appearance and flavor. 
 
46 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 Note time of cooking ; bulk before and after cooking. 
 When would you use these different methods, and why ? 
 
 II. Escaloped Rice 
 
 Put a layer of cooked rice in a buttered baking dish ; cover 
 with a layer of grated cheese and white sauce. Repeat until 
 dish is filled. Cover with buttered crumbs and brown in oven. 
 
 Macaroni may be prepared in a similar way. 
 
 III. Rice Pudding 
 
 4C milk -Jc sugar 
 
 rice ^-t salt 
 
 seeded raisins, if desired 
 
 Mix ingredients in a baking dish and cook in a very slow 
 oven for from 4 to 5 hours. It will be necessary to stir occasion- 
 ally to prevent rice and raisins from settling to bottom of dish. 
 If raisins are not used, some flavoring should be added. 
 
 Calculate cost of this pudding, and the number of people it 
 will serve. 
 
 IV. Boiled Macaroni 
 
 Macaroni Boiling water 
 
 Salt 
 
 Break macaroni into inch lengths and cook in rapidly boiling 
 salted water until tender. Drain. 
 
 V. Macaroni with Tomato Sauce 
 
 1 c tomato juice it salt 
 
 2 T flour T V t pepper 
 2 T butter i J-t sugar 
 
 i slice onion 
 
 Melt butter ; mix thoroughly with flour. Remove from fire ; 
 gradually add tomato juice, stirring constantly. Add seasonings. 
 Boil sauce until it thickens and remove onion. 
 
CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS 47 
 
 Place alternate layers of boiled macaroni and tomato sauce in 
 a buttered baking dish. Cover top with buttered crumbs. Bake 
 until the whole is heated through and crumbs are browned. 
 
 Rice may be prepared in a similar way. 
 
 BREAKFAST CEREALS 
 
 In cereals the starch and cellulose are both improved by 
 long cooking. A fireless cooker may well be used after the 
 cereal has been thoroughly boiled. It is economical because 
 it saves the time of watching and the fuel for cooking. An 
 undercooked cereal is poor in flavor, and breakfast cereals 
 are so frequently undercooked that many people do not 
 care for them and will not eat them. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Corn Meal Mush 
 
 i c corn meal 3 Jc boiling water 
 
 1 1 salt 
 
 Mix corn meal with cold water, slowly stir this into the 
 rapidly boiling water, boil and stir for 5 minutes, cook more 
 slowly for 2 to 3 hours. This may be served hot with milk 
 or cream and sugar, or it may be molded and used for frying. 
 It is nice to use milk in place of part of the water. 
 
 Note increase in bulk of corn meal after cooking. 
 
 II. Fried Mush 
 
 Cut molded mush into f-inch slices. Drop into deep fat and 
 cook until golden brown. 
 
 If desired, the slices may be dipped into egg and crumbs. 
 
 III. Rolled Oats 
 
 i c Rolled Oats 2 c water 
 
 salt 
 
48 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 Gradually stir oats into boiling salted water. Boil, stirring con- 
 stantly, for 5 minutes, then cook at a lower heat for several hours. 
 
 Raisins or dates make a nice addition, but they should be 
 cooked with the cereal. 
 
 Note increase in bulk on cooking. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 In using corn meal for breakfast cereal, what measure would you 
 cook for a family of six ? Calculate cost. 
 
 What is the measure and cost for Quaker Oats and Cream of 
 Wheat? How much would the addition of raisins or dates increase 
 the cost and food value ? 
 
 What is the amount and cost of Shredded Wheat and Corn Flakes 
 needed for a family of six ? 
 
 Compare package and bulk cereals as to cost and desirability. 
 
 References 
 
 WILEY. " Cereals and Cereal Products," Bulletin No. /j, Part IX, 
 
 Division of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 WOODS. " Food Value of Corn and Corn Products," Farmers' 1 Bulletin 
 
 No. 298, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 WOODS and SNYDER. " Cereal Breakfast Foods," Farmers' 1 Bulletin 
 
 No. 24.9, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 KNAPP. " Rice Culture in the United States," Farmers' Bulletin A r o. no, 
 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 KNAPP. " Course in Cereal Foods and their Preparation," Bulletin 
 
 No. 200, Office of Experiment Station. 
 
 KNAPP. " Breakfast Foods," Bulletin No. 7^, Iowa Experiment Station. 
 KNAPP. " Composition of Prepared Cereals," Bulletin No. 33, Wyoming 
 
 Experiment Station. 
 
U. 8. Department of Agriculture 
 
 Office of Experiment Stations 
 
 A. C. True: Director 
 
 Prepared by 
 
 C. F. LAXGWOUTHY 
 
 Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 
 
 Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash 
 
 CORN 
 
 Fat: 4.3 
 
 Aeh: 1. 
 
 Water: 10.8 
 Protein: 10.0 
 
 Carbohydrates: 73.4 
 
 Water 
 
 Water: 10.6 
 Protein: 12.2 
 
 Carbohydrate*: 73.7 
 
 Fuel Value 
 1. Sq.In. Equals 
 1000 Calorie* 
 
 WHEAT 
 
 168& calories 
 per. pound 
 
 BUCKWHEAT 
 Protein: 10.0 -~ Water: 12.6 
 
 Fat: 1.7 
 
 Ash. L8 
 
 Carbohydrate*: 73.2 
 
 lf>2f> calories 
 per pound 
 
 Ash: 2.0 
 Fuel value: 
 
 OAT 
 
 Fat :f..n 
 
 Ash: 3.0 
 
 Water: 11.0 
 -Protein. 11.8 
 
 1696 calories 
 per pound 
 
 RICE 
 
 Water. 12.C 
 Protein: 8.0 
 
 Carbohydrates: 69.2 
 
 Fat: 1.5 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 Carbohydrates: 73.0 
 
 RYE Carbohydiates: 77.0 
 
 Water: 10.3 
 
 -Fat: 2.0 
 
 Ash: 1.0 
 
 Protein: 12.2 
 
 i: 1.9 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 1070 calories 
 per pound 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 1C20 calories 
 per pound 
 
 1620 calorie* 
 per pound 
 
 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 49 
 
U. S. Department of Agriculture 
 
 Office of Experiment Stations 
 
 A. C. True: Director 
 
 ^Prepared by 
 
 C. T. LANGWORTHY 
 
 Expert in .Charge of Nutrition Investigations 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 
 
 Protein 
 
 Fat ICarbohydrates Ash 
 
 Water 
 
 Fuel Value 
 1. Sq.ln. Equals 
 1000 Calories 
 
 SHELLED BEAN, FRESH 
 
 ,-Water: 58.9 
 
 Fat: O.G 
 
 Carbohydrates: 29.1 
 
 Erotein: 9. 
 
 Ash: 2.0 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 NAVY BEAN, DRY 
 
 -Water: 12.6 
 
 -Fat: 1.8 
 
 Ash: 3.5 
 Fuel value: 
 
 720 calories 
 per pound 
 
 1560 calories 
 per pound 
 
 STRING BEAN, GREEN 
 
 Carbohydrates: 7. 
 
 Water: 89.2 
 
 "Water: J.5.; 
 
 Protein; 2.3 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 I 
 
 100 calories 
 per pound 
 
 CORN, GREEN 
 
 EDIBLE PORTION 
 
 Carbohydrates: 19.7 
 
 Ash: 0.7 
 
 4CO calories 
 per pound 
 
 -Fat: 1.1 
 
 LEGUMES AND CORN 
 
 5 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 DRIED LEGUMES 
 
 Not many vegetables are dried, but legumes - - such as 
 beans, peas, lentils, and peanuts- -are kept in the dry 
 state for use during the whole year. These dried leg- 
 umes, naturally, have a very low percentage of water. 
 They are high in protein and contain some starch. Pea- 
 nuts are high in fat. In some households corn is dried, 
 and it makes a very acceptable product. Commercially, 
 other vegetables have been dried, but the result is not 
 altogether satisfactory. 
 
 The legumes are not only high in food value, but they 
 are inexpensive, make a very good substitute for meat, 
 and add variety to the diet. The wide use of legumes by 
 certain races, and by those engaged in hard labor, such 
 as lumbermen, bears evidence to the fact that their food 
 value is high. A little care bestowed upon the prepara- 
 tion of the legumes will result in very palatable dishes, 
 the use of which should be encouraged both from a die- 
 tetic and an economic viewpoint. The removal of the 
 hulls of beans and peas will frequently prevent the dis- 
 comfort which sometimes follows the eating of them. If 
 the water used in cooking is very hard, a little soda should 
 be added. Time should be allowed for soaking these dried 
 foods, and they should be cooked until they are thoroughly 
 softened. 
 
52 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Baked Beans 
 
 Soak 40 beans overnight in cold water. In the morning add 
 fresh cold water and cook slowly until the skins begin to burst. 
 Pour off water and put beans into jar. Bury in beans f Ib. of 
 fat salt pork. To i c boiling water add i T salt, i T molasses, 
 3T sugar, and pour over beans. Add enough more boiling 
 water to cover beans ; replenish, if needed, during cooking. 
 Cover the bean jar and bake slowly from 6 to 8 hours. Mustard 
 may be added if the flavor is desired. 
 
 Calculate the cost of this dish and the number of people served. 
 
 What is the increase in the bulk of beans on cooking ? 
 
 II. Lentil Soup 
 
 4 c lentils i Ib. ham Salt 
 
 i bay leaf i onion Pepper 
 
 i carrot i T butter 
 
 Soak lentils overnight, drain, cover with cold water, and 
 bring to boil ; cook for an hour. Drain again, cover with boil- 
 ing water, add ^t soda, ham, bay leaf, onion, and carrot. Cook 
 until lentils are tender. Remove ham, press through a colander. 
 Season with salt, pepper, and butter. Add cream or milk to 
 give desired consistency. 
 
 III. Dried- Pea Soup 
 
 1 c dried peas Small piece of 2 T flour 
 
 2 qt. cold water fat salt pork i^t salt 
 
 ^ onion 3T butter -Jt pepper 
 
 Soak peas several hours or overnight; drain, add water, pork, 
 and onion. Simmer several hours until soft, and run through 
 colander or sieve. Melt butter, add flour, and mix. Add to this 
 a small portion of the soup, boil, and turn into the soup kettle. 
 This use of flour and butter in the making of soup or gravy is 
 
DRIED LEGUMES 53 
 
 termed "binding," because it holds together all the ingredients 
 of the dish. Season with salt and pepper. If soup is too thick, 
 add milk or cream. 
 
 IV. Cream of Lima Beans 
 
 Soak i c dried beans overnight, drain, and cook slowly in 
 salted water for from 2 to 3 hours. Drain, season with butter, 
 pepper, and salt, and add ^c cream. 
 
 V. Peanut &indwiches 
 
 Put freshly roasted peanuts through the finest knife on the 
 grinder; mix with melted butter or salad dressing and make 
 into sandwiches. 
 
 V I . Salted Pea n uts 
 
 -j-T butter or olive oil -J-c shelled peanuts Salt 
 
 Shell and remove skins from unroasted peanuts, add them to 
 the hot fat in frying pan, and stir constantly until peanuts are a 
 light brown. Salt, and cool on brown paper to remove excess 
 
 of fat. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 Is it desirable to use the fireless cooker in preparing dried 
 vegetables ? 
 
 Compare the composition of beans and peanuts with potatoes. 
 
 Would you serve salted peanuts with a heavy or a light meal ? 
 
 If you were going camping and were allowed small luggage, 
 suggest some of the vegetable foods which you probably would take 
 and some which you would not. 
 
 References 
 
 ABEL. "Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food," Fanner^ Bulletin 
 
 No. 121, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 BEATTIE. " Syllabus on the Peanut," Faj-niers* Institute, Lecture /j, 
 
 Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 V ' MILK 
 
 Milk has a large percentage of water, but still contains 
 enough of other nutrients to make it a good food. It is 
 especially adapted to infants and young children, but is 
 desirable for older people, either when taken alone or com- 
 bined with other foods. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF MILK 
 
 CONSTITUENTS 
 
 PER CENT 
 
 Water 
 
 87-88 
 
 Protein 
 
 T.-A 
 
 Fat 
 
 3 1 
 
 -?-c 
 
 Carbohydrate 
 
 J J 
 
 4.c-c 
 
 Ash 
 
 t*j j 
 
 O.7 
 
 
 */ 
 
 It will be noted that milk contains the five nutrients, 
 or food principles, and this is to be expected when it is 
 realized that infants and growing children live on milk 
 alone. It is adapted in form and composition to the needs 
 of the young, but it is not good as an exclusive food for 
 older persons, for the food principles are not in proper 
 proportion for the adult. 
 
 Milk is an animal food which contains a carbohydrate. 
 This is a sugar and is called lactose. The fat of milk 
 occurs in tiny globules (which rise to the top of milk as 
 cream), and is separated in the form of butter. The mineral 
 
 54 
 
MILK 55 
 
 matter of milk is especially adapted to the needs of the 
 growing child. The protein of milk is mainly in two 
 forms, casein and albumen. As said before, protein is 
 the nutrient which builds tissue, and this is absolutely 
 necessary for people of all ages, but especially needed for 
 the young on account of growth. If milk is taken with 
 a meal instead of water, it must be remembered that so 
 much extra food is being added to the meal. A glass of 
 milk or a bowl of cream soup may well form part of a 
 light lunch. The value of skimmed milk as a food is 
 not always appreciated. Skimming removes fat only, and 
 the rest of the nutrients are left. The price of skimmed 
 milk is much less than that of whole milk, and it has 
 enough food value to deserve more extended use. 
 
 Certain minute forms, already discussed in Chapter IV, 
 as well as similar forms which produce disease, grow very 
 readily in milk. Consequently great care must be used in 
 producing, handling, and keeping milk. The production 
 of clean, wholesome milk involves extra care and means 
 additional expense. It is always wise to pay the price of 
 good, wholesome milk, particularly if it is used for infants 
 or invalids. The duty of inspecting dairies belongs to city 
 boards of health ; and from these boards information con- 
 cerning the condition of the milk from any dairy may be 
 obtained. The duty of the householder is to know the 
 source of the milk supply in the first place, and, in the 
 second place, to take proper care of the milk after it is in 
 the house. All pails, pans, bottles, and other vessels in 
 which milk is kept should be thoroughly washed and scalded 
 with boiling water after each use. A milk vessel rinsed with 
 boiling water is in better condition if it is not wiped with 
 
U. S. Department of Agriculture 
 
 Office of Experiment Stations 
 
 A, C. True: Director 
 
 Prepared by 
 
 C. F. LANG WORTHY 
 
 Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 
 
 Protein 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 
 
 Fat Carbohydrates 
 
 Ash 
 
 Water 
 
 Fuel Value 
 1. Sq.In. Equals 
 1000 Calories 
 
 WHOLE MILK 
 
 Fat: 4.0- 
 Ash: 0.7- 
 
 - Water: 87.0 
 
 Fuel' value: 
 
 -Protein: 3.3 
 Tar 
 
 bohydrate*: 5.0 
 
 815 calories 
 per pound 
 
 BUTTERMILK 
 
 Fat: 0.5 
 Ash: 0.7 
 
 Water: 91.0 
 
 Protein: 3.0 
 Carbohydrates: 4.8 
 
 SKIM MILK 
 
 Fat: 0.3 
 Aon: 0.7 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 -Water: 90.6 
 
 Protein: 3.4 
 Nar, 
 
 bohydrates: 5.1 
 
 165 calories 
 per pound 
 
 CREAM 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 ar bohydrates: 4 
 
 ICO calories 
 per pound 
 
 880 calories 
 per pound 
 
 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS 
 
MILK 57 
 
 a towel or cloth, for these are not free from bacteria. For 
 the same reason, the common custom of rinsing a pan 
 in fresh cold water is not a good one. If the condition of 
 the milk is doubtful, it is best to pasteurize or boil the milk, 
 since heat will kill any disease-producing forms. Boiling 
 milk will destroy many organisms present, but it affects 
 the flavor of the milk and brings about other undesirable 
 changes. In pasteurization the milk is not heated to the 
 boiling point, but to a temperature high enough to destroy 
 most disease-producing organisms. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 1 
 
 I. Pasteurization of Milk 
 
 Nearly fill a clean bottle with fresh milk. Cork with a care- 
 fully rolled plug of clean cotton. Place the bottle in cold water, 
 taking care that the water does not reach the mouth of the bottle. 
 Heat slowly until the water reaches a temperature of 60 C. 
 Remove from fire, but keep closely covered for 20 minutes. 
 Remove from water and cool quickly. Keep in a cool place. 
 
 Why should pasteurized milk be used soon after treating ? 
 
 II. Effect of Boiling upon Milk 
 
 1. Boil a portion of sweet milk for i minute. Cool and com- 
 pare with pasteurized milk as to taste. 
 
 2. Boil a portion of sour milk for i minute. 
 
 III. Separation of Constituents of Milk 
 
 1. Skim cream from i c of milk. What has been removed 
 from the milk ? 
 
 2. To the skimmed milk add vinegar drop by drop until the 
 white curd (casein) separates out from the liquid. Strain. What 
 nutrient is strained out ? 
 
 1 Exercises I, II, and III may be demonstrated by the teacher. 
 
58 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 3. Boil the liquid which has passed through the strainer in 2. 
 Strain or filter this through a filter paper. On the filter paper 
 is the albumen. What nutrient is this ? 
 
 4. The liquid which has passed through the filter in 3 is the 
 water of the milk with some substances dissolved in it. What 
 are they ? 
 
 IV. Cottage Cheese 
 
 Pour 2 c of hot, but not boiling, water over 2 c of thick, sour 
 milk. Strain. If the curd has a sour taste, add water a second 
 time. Season with salt, pepper, and cream. 
 
 V. Junket 
 
 Heat to lukewarm ^-c milk. Add ^t sugar, a few drops va- 
 nilla, and -J junket tablet dissolved in 1 1 warm water. Pour at 
 once into a dish. When set, cool and serve. 
 
 VI. Chocolate 
 
 f c heated milk |-T sugar 
 
 \ square bitter chocolate A few grains of salt 
 
 cornstarch mixed with 4 or 5 drops of vanilla 
 cold milk 
 
 Add cornstarch, sugar, and salt to cold milk and heat to boil- 
 ing, stirring constantly. Remove from fire, add grated choco- 
 late, and mix with f c heated milk. Heat in a double boiler 
 from 10 to 15 minutes. Just before serving, add vanilla and 
 beat with Dover egg-beater. 
 
 VII. Potato Soup 
 
 3 potatoes i-J-t salt 
 
 4C milk t celery salt 
 
 2 slices onion -Jt pepper 
 
 2T butter A few grains of cayenne 
 
 i T flour i T chopped parsley 
 
MILK 59 
 
 Cook potatoes in boiling, salted water. When soft, rub through 
 a sieve. Scald milk with onion until well seasoned, remove onion, 
 and mix milk and potatoes. Bind the mixture with butter and 
 flour which have been cooked together. Add seasonings and 
 
 serve. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 Compare cost of milk per quart from different dealers. What 
 causes the difference in price? What is the standing of your milk 
 dealer ? 
 
 When should milk be pasteurized? 
 
 What changes do you observe when sweet milk is heated ; when 
 sour milk is heated? 
 
 Why not use boiling water in making cottage cheese? 
 
 Why do you heat milk in a double boiler? 
 
 Why not use hot milk in making junket? 
 
 References 
 
 MILNER. "The Use of Milk as Food," Farmers' Bulletin No. 363, U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 
 ROGERS. 'Bacteria in Milk," Farmer^ HnUctin No. 348, U.S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture. 
 
 WHITAKER, Roci RS. and HUNT. " The Care of Milk and its Uses in the 
 Home," Farmers' Hnlletin No. 413^ U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 WHITAKER. "The Extra Cost of producing Clean Milk," Circular 
 No. 170, Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 LANE. " Medical Milk Commissions and the Production of Certified Milk 
 in the United States," Hnlletin No. 104, Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 " Milk and its Relation to Public Health," Hygienic Laboratory Bul- 
 letin No. 56. 
 
 DENTOX. ' Pasteurization of City Milk Supplies," The Journal of Home 
 Economics^ June, 1910. 
 
U. S. Department of Agriculture 
 Office of Experiment Stations 
 A. C. True: Director 
 
 Prepared by 
 C. F. LANG WORTHY 
 
 Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 
 
 Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash Water 
 
 WHOLE EGG 
 
 Fuel Value 
 
 1. Sq.In. Equala 
 
 1000 Calories 
 
 Water: 73.7 
 
 EGG 
 
 WHITE AND YOLK 
 
 Protein: 14.8 JM 
 
 Fat: 10.5 
 
 Ash: 1.0 
 
 Fuel value of whole egg: 
 
 ater: 86.2 
 
 lein: 13.0 
 
 JIuei value of yolk 
 
 Fat: 0.2 
 Ash: 0.6 
 
 Fuel value of white: 
 
 695 calories 
 per pound 
 
 CREAM CHEESE 
 
 Water: 34.2 X 
 
 1650 calories 
 per- pound 
 
 245 calories 
 per pound 
 
 Fat: 33.7. 
 
 Ash: 3. 
 
 COTTAGE CHEESE 
 
 Protein: 25.9 'Water: 72.0, 
 
 Carbohydrates. 2.4 
 
 Carbohydrates: 4, 
 
 Protein: 20.9 
 
 1885 calories per pound 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 B 
 
 495 calories per pound 
 
 EGGS AND CHEESE 
 
 60 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 EGGS 
 
 Eggs are a valuable animal food composed of water, 
 protein, fat, and mineral matter, all the substances required 
 for the development of the young chick. The percentage of 
 water is less than in milk, the protein is greater, and there 
 is no carbohydrate. Albumen is found in the white and 
 yolk of egg, as well as in milk, but other forms of protein 
 occur in eggs. The yolk contains the fat and a large part 
 of the mineral matter. Eggs are a good substitute for meat 
 because of their protein. The shell of the egg, contrary to 
 popular notion, is porous, and consequently will permit 
 the entrance of disease and other putrefactive germs. 
 Dirty nests may be dangerous, and if eggs are packed, 
 clean material should be used. Eggs should be kept clean 
 rather than washed, for they have a slight covering which 
 is some protection against infection as well as against 
 evaporation. As an egg grows older, water evaporates 
 through the porous shell and the egg weighs less. This 
 fact is made use of in testing the freshness of eggs. When 
 they are put into water or a salt solution, the fresh or heavy 
 ones stay at the bottom and the lighter ones come to the 
 top. The white of egg on beating entangles a large amount 
 of air, and this is an aid in making light desserts, omelets, 
 and cakes. Albumen coagulates on heating, and this makes 
 
 egg a thickening agent for custards and sauces. Care must 
 
 61 
 
62 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 be taken not to overcook albumen ; if in combination with 
 a liquid, it will first thicken the liquid, but on continued 
 heating it will separate, as the protein of milk does in 
 making cottage cheese. If albumen is heated slightly it 
 becomes jellylike, and on continued heating it grows very 
 hard and tough. 
 
 LA BORA TOR Y EXERCISES l 
 
 I. Manipulation. 
 
 1. Separate the white and yolk of an egg. Beat each thor- 
 oughly with a wire egg-beater. Note difference in results. Let 
 both stand 30 minutes. Observe occasionally, but do not disturb. 
 If eggs are used as leaveners, when should they be beaten ? 
 
 2. Beat whole egg thoroughly. Compare i and 2. What ef- 
 fect does the presence of the yolk have on the beating of the 
 white ? What is the purpose in the beating of eggs ? 
 
 II. Effect of Heat upon Eggs. 
 
 1. Place 3 eggs in 3 pints of boiling water. Remove from 
 flame, cover closely, and keep warm. Test i egg in 5 minutes, 
 another in 7, and the third in 10. 
 
 2. Cover i egg with boiling water. Boil for 3 minutes. Re- 
 move and test. 
 
 3. Cover i egg with boiling water and boil for 20 minutes. 
 What factors would have any effect on comparable results in 
 
 the above experiments ? 
 
 III. Poached Eggs. 
 
 Place i c water in small frying pan. Bring to boil, add J t salt. 
 Break an egg into a saucer and carefully slip it into a buttered 
 muffin ring placed in the bottom of the frying pan. The water 
 should cover the egg. Place the pan where the water cannot 
 
 1 Exercises I and II may be demonstrated by the teacher. 
 
EGGS 63 
 
 boil, let stand until a white film has formed over the top of the 
 egg and the white is firm (about 6 minutes). With a skimmer 
 remove the egg and muffin ring to a piece of buttered toast and 
 carefully lift off the ring. Season with butter, salt, and pepper. 
 
 IV. Omelet. 
 
 i egg i T water 
 
 t salt Pepper 
 
 i t butter 
 
 Separate white and yolk of egg. Beat yolk until thick, add 
 salt, pepper, and water, and mix well. Beat white until stiff but 
 not dry. Fold the white carefully into the yolk. Melt the but- 
 ter in an omelet pan, add the egg, and cook at a low tempera- 
 ture. Place in a hot oven to dry the top. Fold and turn onto 
 a hot platter. 
 
 When should the oven be lighted ? 
 
 When should the white of egg be beaten ? 
 
 Would a preparation of yolks of eggs alone be light ? 
 
 V. Baked Custard. 
 
 i c milk 2 T sugar 
 
 i egg A few grains of salt 
 
 Flavoring 
 
 Do not beat egg, but mix thoroughly with milk, sugar, and 
 salt. Add milk and flavoring and pour into a custard cup. Set 
 cup in a pan of warm water and place in oven. 
 
 Why is the cup set in a pan of water ? 
 
 VI. Soft Custard. 
 
 i c scalded milk Few grains salt 
 
 1 egg Vanilla 
 
 2 T sugar 
 
 Beat egg slightly and add sugar and salt ; stir constantly while 
 gradually adding the hot milk. Cook in a double boiler ; continue 
 
64 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 stirring until mixture thickens and a coating is formed on the 
 spoon. Chill, and flavor with vanilla. If cooked too long the 
 custard will curdle ; if this should happen, remove immediately 
 from the fire and whip with a Dover egg-beater. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 From observations on Exercise II, how should a soft-cooked egg 
 be prepared? 
 
 For a family of six, calculate the cost of a serving of soft-cooked 
 eggs when eggs are 20 cents a dozen ; 45 cents a dozen. 
 
 Repeat cost calculation for omelet. 
 
 Why are eggs beaten in making the omelet, and not beaten in 
 making the custard? 
 
 References 
 
 LANGWORTHY. " Eggs and their Uses as Food," Farmers'' Bulletin 
 
 No. 128, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 HAMMERSTEN. Physiological Chemistry. 
 LEACH. Food Inspection and Analysis. 
 LAMSON. " Water Glass a Preservative for Eggs," Bulletin No. 67, 
 
 Connecticut Experiment Station. 
 LAMSON. " Infection and Preservation of Eggs," Bulletin No. 
 
 Connecticut Experiment Station. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 CHEESE 
 
 Cheese is a food prepared from milk, but differs greatly 
 from milk in composition. At least half of the water is re- 
 moved from milk in the making of cheese. There is a great 
 variety of cheeses, due to the kind of milk used and the 
 methods of making and ripening. Ordinarily cow's milk is 
 used, and the curd is separated by use of either acid or rennet. 
 Where a large part of the water is removed, a hard cheese 
 results, such as the ordinary American cheeses. The Neuf- 
 chatel is an example of a soft or cream cheese. The flavor 
 of cheese is produced during the ripening process by the ac- 
 tion of bacteria or molds. The familiar American or Cheddar 
 cheese is ripened by bacterial action ; Roquefort, by molds. 
 
 Cheese varies greatly both in kind and composition, but, 
 generally speaking, it is approximately one third each of 
 water, fat, and protein. Cheese contains practically no car- 
 bohydrate, and the custom of eating it with crackers, or com- 
 bining with rice, macaroni, or potatoes, is rational. Cheese 
 is frequently called indigestible, but the reason for this is usu- 
 ally due to improper use. It is a highly concentrated food, 
 consequently should not be eaten in very large quantities 
 or added to the dessert at the end of a heavy meal. Cheese 
 is frequently eaten for its flavor, but its food value should 
 always be recognized when it becomes a part of the meal. A 
 very desirable way of serving cheese is in combination with 
 other foods, thus affording a large variety of cooked dishes. 
 
 65 
 
66 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Effect of Heat upon Cheese 
 
 Add 2T grated cheese to -J-c milk. Heat to boiling. Note 
 results. Explain. 
 
 II. Welsh Rabbit 
 
 . 2 T flour 2 T butter 
 
 i c milk 4-6 T cheese 
 
 i egg yolk 
 
 Prepare a white sauce with flour, butter, and milk. Add 
 cheese (finely divided) and egg yolk. Remove from fire, and stir 
 until cheese is melted ; reheat, and serve at once on hot wafers 
 or toast. 
 
 III. French Rabbit 
 
 Fill a baking dish with alternate layers of bread (which has 
 been sliced, spread with butter, and cut into small squares) and 
 cheese either grated or ground. Moisten this thoroughly with 
 a mixture made in the following proportions : 
 
 i c milk Salt 
 
 i egg Cayenne pepper and mustard 
 
 Bake until thoroughly heated through and browned on top. 
 
 IV. Cheese Crackers 
 
 Sprinkle grated cheese thinly over crackers. Season with 
 salt and cayenne pepper. Place in the oven until crackers are 
 slightly browned. 
 
 V. Cheese and Pimento Sandwiches 
 
 c cheese 2 T cream or salad dressing 
 
 chopped pimento Salt and pepper 
 
 Cottage, Neufchatel, or any other soft cheese may be used. 
 Cream the butter and spread very thin slices of bread. Spread 
 
CHEESE 67 
 
 the filling on the slices of bread and pile in layers of from six to 
 eight slices, having a piece of plain bread on top. When ready 
 to serve, cut through the slices, making a layer sandwich. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 Which one of the food principles in cheese is most affected 
 by heat? 
 
 For a family of six, what is the cost of a serving of Welsh rabbit ? 
 
 Note cost, flavor, and appearance of at least five different kinds 
 of cheese. 
 
 References 
 
 LANGWORTHY and HUNT. "Cheese and its Economical Use in the 
 Diet," Farmers' Bulletin No. 4.87, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 
 CONN. Dairy Bacteriology. 
 
 WILEY. Foods and their Adulteration. 
 
 LEACH. Food Inspection and Analysis. 
 
 ALVORD. Cheese Making on the Farm, Farmers' Bulletin No. 166, 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 WILLIAMS. Chemistry of Cookery. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 MEAT 
 
 The flesh of cattle, swine, and sheep furnish our common 
 meats. Beef is from cattle, veal from calves, mutton from 
 sheep, and lamb from the young sheep. Meat, milk, cheese, 
 and eggs are the chief sources of protein. Protein from 
 animal sources is expensive, and vegetable protein should 
 be frequently used as a substitute. 
 
 Meat contains water, protein, fat, and mineral matter. 
 The amount of water varies with the fat, which occurs in 
 layers and also through the lean of the meat in portions so 
 finely divided as not to be visible. The mineral content of 
 meat is important from a dietetic viewpoint. Meat contains 
 a group of substances called extractives. These are not 
 nutrients, but they give to the meat its desirable flavor and 
 consequently they should be considered in cooking meat. 
 These extractives are soluble in water and may be quickly re- 
 moved by hot water. They vary in kind and amount in dif- 
 ferent meats, and these, together with the fat, give each meat 
 its characteristic flavor. As a muscle is used, the amount 
 of extractives increases, consequently the highest flavored 
 is very often the most used and the toughest. For example, 
 a round steak is more highly flavored than a tenderloin. 
 
 Meat, or muscle, is made up of bundles of fibers bound 
 together with connective tissue. Each of these bundles is 
 made up of smaller bundles, the fibers being microscopic. 
 
 68 
 
MEAT 
 
 69 
 
 These little fibers are elongated cells filled with a fluid 
 called protein. There are several proteins in meat, and 
 some are soluble in cold water. Protein forms from 15 
 to 20 per cent of the meat. As a muscle is used the walls 
 of the fibers thicken and harden, and the connective tissue 
 increases in amount, so making a tough piece of meat. 
 
 '2 34 
 
 BOTTI.KS SHOU INC; AVKKAGE COMPOSITION OF ONE POUND OF BEEF 
 I, mineral salt, .16 oz. ; 2, fat, 2.08 oz. ; 3, protein, 3.04 oz. ; 4, water, 10.72 oz. 
 
 The cuts of meat may be roughly divided into two classes, 
 tough and tender. The toughness may be due to the amount 
 and kind of connective tissue, or to the fact that the desir- 
 able changes which follow slaughtering have not taken place. 
 The connective tissue increases in amount and toughness 
 with age and hard work. For this reason, veal is more 
 tender than beef ; the porterhouse steak cut out from the 
 back where the muscles are little used is more tender than 
 the round cut from the leg where the muscles are in con- 
 stant use. The best beef-producing cattle have certain 
 
70 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 * 
 
 characteristics wide back, thick flesh covering, short legs, 
 etc.- -and animals of this type that have been well fed 
 produce first-grade meat. This, of course, is more tender 
 and of a better flavor than that from lower-grade cattle. 
 The fat should be evenly distributed through the meat ; 
 this means less waste, and in cooking bastes all parts much 
 more effectively. 
 
 Meats undergo marked changes in texture after slaughter- 
 ing. Immediately after the animal is killed the flesh is juicy 
 and tender ; very soon the death rigor develops, the muscles 
 stiffen, and the meat is. tough. Later on, due partly, at least, 
 to the formation of acids, the flesh becomes softer and more 
 tender, as in the first stage, and acquires an added flavor. 
 In hot climates the meat is commonly eaten in the first or 
 the second stage ; in temperate climates, in the second and 
 the third, and, of course, is much more palatable and tender 
 if left until the third stage. 
 
 The effect of heat upon protein has already been shown 
 with milk, eggs, and cheese, and the same general principles 
 hold for cooking the protein in meat. The purposes of 
 cooking meat are to develop flavor, improve appearance, 
 kill any living organisms, and soften the connective tissues 
 if they are present in large amounts. Since proteins are 
 coagulated and hardened by heat, it is probably true that 
 cooking diminishes ease of digestion, and it may remove 
 considerable quantities of nutrients. The effect on con- 
 nective tissue depends on whether dry or moist heat is 
 applied. If the soft part, or the contents of the fibers, is 
 scraped out and the remaining connective tissue placed in a 
 smoking hot frying pan, the effect of dry heat can easily 
 be seen. The tissue shrinks and hardens to a remarkable 
 
MEAT 71 
 
 degree, illustrating what happens when a tough cut, such 
 as round, is broiled or roasted. If a similar piece were 
 placed in water and simmered for a long time, the fibers 
 would fall apart, and when the broth was cooled it would 
 set more or less solidly. This is due to the fact that the 
 moist heat has acted on the connective tissue, forming 
 gelatin, which dissolves easily in the hot liquid and stiffens 
 on cooling. The extractives, or flavoring materials in the 
 meat, are dissolved out in hot water. The flavor is much 
 more highly developed in meat cooked by dry heat, because 
 of the higher temperature and also because of the browned 
 outside. So we prefer the broiled steak or the roast if the 
 meat is a tender cut. 
 
 Beef is divided by the butcher through the backbone 
 into sides or halves, and then each of these is cut between 
 the twelfth and thirteenth ribs into fore and hind quarters. 
 The muscles of the four quarter run irregularly and there 
 are more of them, so that the meat is usually of a lower 
 grade and, therefore, cheaper than that from the hind 
 quarter. The most tender and the most expensive cuts lie 
 just back of the middle of the backbone, decreasing in 
 value as either extremity is approached. The best part of 
 the fore quarter is taken from the ribs and is usually cut 
 into roasts. A rib roast is tender and may be roasted in 
 an open pan with dry heat. The fore quarter includes the 
 chuck, neck, etc., and belongs to the tough cuts, so they 
 must either be ground or cooked by moist heat, as in pot 
 roasts, stewing, braising, corning, or in soup. These cuts 
 are fully as nutritious as the more expensive ones, and if 
 properly cooked at low temperatures and well seasoned, 
 they offer an excellent means of reducing the cost of food. 
 
72 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 The most expensive and tender cut comes from the 
 
 Short ph^ jn front- nf th^ hipg anH IQ knnwn xs. fhp pr| r |-er- 
 
 house cuL This cut is made up partly of the muscle called 
 the tenderloin and partly of the sirloin. Where the 
 tenderloin muscle ends, the loin n its ^ p g in i and extend 
 back to the rump cut. These are not so tender as porter- 
 house, but still are classed as tender cuts, and, therefore, 
 are suitable for broiling. The rump piece is ordinarily cut 
 into roasts, but usually needs the application of some moist 
 heat to make the meat tender, and for this reason they are 
 used as pot roasts. Relow the rump lies the ronnrj a piece 
 of meat that has little waste and good flavor. The inside, 
 or top, round from a first-grade animal ma UPS a fairly tpnHpr 
 steak when broil pd ; tjie ontsiHp nr hnfforr^ r minH ic less 
 
 desirable, and unless one is sure of the grade of the beef, 
 moist heat or grinding is usually advisable. 
 
 In estimating the relative cost of the various cuts, the 
 amount of waste must be taken into consideration ; for 
 example, chuck ribs ordinarily sell for from 10 to 12! 
 cents per pound, round from 1 5 to 1 8 cents per pound, and 
 porterhouse from 25 to 30 cents per pound. Of the chuck 
 ribs at least one half is waste ; of the round only about 
 one twelfth ; and of the porterhouse about one eighth. 
 The real cost of the edible portions then of the three 
 cuts mentioned at 10, 15, and 25 cents per pound, re- 
 spectively, would be 22, 1 6^, and 28 1 cents, showing that 
 the round because of its small percentage of waste is by 
 far the cheapest. 
 
 As has already been said, protein is coagulated and hard- 
 ened by heat. The higher the temperature, the harder and 
 tougher the product. Therefore we use a high temperature 
 
MEAT 73 
 
 only at the beginning of the cooking process to form a 
 coating over the outside which will retain the juices, and 
 then lower the heat so that the interior may not be tough- 
 ened and its juices coagulated. For this reason steaks 
 should not be cut too thin ; never less than three quarters 
 of an inch thick, and thicker than that is desirable. 
 
 The methods of cooking meat by application of dry 
 heat are broiling, pan broiling, oven roasting in an un- 
 covered pan, or roasting before an open fire. The steak 
 may be broiled under gas or over glowing coals, and if 
 properly done will be well browned on the outside and juicy 
 and pink on the inside. A steak that is gray all through 
 will not be juicy, because the proteins dissolved in the juices 
 have all been hardened by the heat. The steak should be 
 first seared on either side to retain the juice, then moved 
 farther from the flame so that the interior will not be over- 
 cooked. Frequently it is more convenient to broil in frying 
 pan or skillet. In this case the pan should be smoking hot 
 and may be rubbed lightly with a bit of fat to prevent stick- 
 ing. As soon as the meat is browned on either side, the 
 heat should be reduced as in ordinary broiling. If fat col- 
 lects in the pan, it should be poured off, otherwise the meat 
 will be fried rather than broiled and will lose in flavor. 
 
 A number of experiments in the roasting of meat were 
 carried on at the University of Illinois, and it was found 
 that for a tender cut the closed pan did not give as satisfac- 
 tory results, as far as flavor and appearance were concerned, 
 and the losses were greater than where an open pan was 
 used. The same principle of high heat at first for searing 
 and then a lower heat to finish the cooking applies here 
 also. If the fat side is placed uppermost in the pan, 
 
74 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 basting will not be found necessary. If the roast is lack- 
 ing in fat, lay a piece of suet on the uppermost side. 
 
 The methods of cooking meat by the application of 
 moist heat are stewing, braising, steaming, etc. By brown- 
 ing the meat first, a good flavor is produced and probably 
 more of the juices are retained. In stewing, the meat is 
 cut into smaller pieces and is served with the broth or gravy 
 so that none of the flavor and nutritive material will be 
 lost. In braising, the meat is placed in a covered pan in 
 the oven and steamed in its own juice. A pot roast is 
 similar, except that it is cooked in a kettle on top of the 
 stove. A small amount of water is usually added in both 
 cases, and the meat may be floured and browned in 
 smoking fat before the water is added. The temperature 
 
 9 f 
 
 after the browning process is finished must be low. This 
 method may be used with steaks also, browning thoroughly, 
 then adding a small amount of water, covering closely, 
 and cooking for a long time over a very slow fire. 
 
 Unless the broth is served with the meat, quite a little 
 of the nutritive and flavoring material may be lost, since 
 the extractives, mineral matter, and some of the protein 
 will dissolve in water. The scum which covers the sur- 
 face of broth is mostly made up of the dissolved protein 
 which has been hardened by heat, as are also the set- 
 tlings. In a clear broth this scum and any solid particles 
 are usually carefully removed before serving, so that there 
 is little left in the broth but some mineral salts and the 
 extractives. 
 
 The strong meaty flavor deceives many people who 
 imagine that because of it the broth is nourishing. These 
 extractives are allied to the stimulating substances found in 
 
MEAT 75 
 
 tea and coffee, and therefore the broth has some value as a 
 stimulant, often whetting the appetite, but in cases of severe 
 illness it should not be given unless ordered by a physician. 
 It is commonly thought that the most expensive cuts of meat 
 have the best flavor, but it is frequently true that the extrac- 
 tives are better developed in the muscles which have been 
 used more, and are in consequence tougher. The use of dry 
 heat, which is possible only with the more tender cuts, 
 does tend to develop flavor, and because of the ease of 
 mastication the flavor is more easily detected in the tender 
 cuts. While the extractives are not nutritious, their value 
 as digestive stimulants must not be underrated. 
 
 Good meat is bright red in color and has fat evenly 
 distributed through it. The fat should be light yellow and 
 firm. The price of meat is regulated by its tenderness 
 rather than by its nutritive value. The tougher cuts require 
 more skill in preparation, more time, and more fuel, al- 
 though usually the cost of the extra fuel does not equal 
 the extra cost of the tender meat. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Effect of Dry Heat upon Protein 
 
 From a three-inch square of round steak scrape out the soft 
 portion with a dull knife. Form this into a ball. Place the soft 
 ball, and the connective tissue from which it has been scraped, 
 in a hot frying pan. Carefully watch the connective tissue while 
 heating. Examine both after cooking and explain results. 
 
 II. Effect of Moist Heat upon Protein 
 
 Soak i T ground beef in 2 T cold water for several minutes. 
 Strain and place in a test tube. 
 
76 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 Mix 1 1 white of egg with 2 T cold water and place in a test tube. 
 Heat both test tubes. Explain results. 
 
 III. Tender Cuts 
 
 1 . Pan-broiled porterhouse steak or chops. Note weight as 
 purchased. Weigh all edible portions and calculate the cost. 
 Wipe with a damp cloth and trim off ragged edges and excess 
 of fat. Put into a smoking hot frying pan without any grease. 
 Turn several times until both surfaces are seared and brown. 
 Finish cooking at a lower heat, turning occasionally. Salt sides 
 of meat just as the cooking is finished. Serve on a hot dish. 
 
 2. Beef roast (ribs). Calculate cost of the edible portion as 
 in exercise III. See that the meat selected is clean. Trim off any 
 ragged portions, but do not remove fat. Place a rack in the pan, 
 arranging to have the larger cut surface exposed to the direct 
 heat of the oven. The part with the greatest surface of fat should 
 be placed uppermost, to do away with the necessity of basting. 
 Place in a very hot oven, maintaining this heat for 15 or 20 
 minutes, after which the heat should be lowered and the roast- 
 ing continued, allowing from 15 to 20 minutes for each pound, 
 according to the shape of the cut and the degree of cooking 
 desired. Remove roast to a hot platter and pour hot fat from 
 pan. Make gravy in pan in which roast is cooked. Measure 
 flour and fat in the proportion of 2 T of each to i c water. 
 Thoroughly mix and brown fat and flour. Remove from fire 
 and gradually add the water, stirring constantly. Boil, season, 
 and serve hot. 
 
 IV. Tough Cuts 
 
 i. Pressed veal. Cook a shank of veal until very tender, so 
 that meat can be easily picked to pieces. Let the water cook 
 down until about i c of the liquid remains. Pick the veal apart, 
 season with salt, pepper, and sage if desired. Pour over this 
 the liquid from the vessel in which the meat was cooked. Mix 
 
MEAT 77 
 
 thoroughly and pack closely in a pan of proper shape to make 
 good slices when the meat is cold. When set, cut in thin slices 
 and serve. 
 
 Hard-cooked eggs may be packed into center 6f mold. 
 
 2. Sivtss steak. Pound a liberal quantity of flour into a piece 
 of round steak on both sides. Season well and saute in very 
 hot suet drippings until a good brown crust is formed. Then 
 add sufficient water to barely cover, and simmer slowly for 
 from i to i hours. It may be necessary to add a little water 
 occasionally. When ready to serve there should be just enough 
 liquid to moisten the meat thoroughly. Onion or tomato juice 
 may be added to vary the flavor. Calculate cost of edible portion 
 as in exercise III. 
 
 3. Brown stav. Cut lean beef into cubes; neck beef will be 
 found quite satisfactory for this. Season each piece with salt 
 and pepper ; dredge thoroughly with flour and brown well on all 
 sides in a frying pan, using a little suet to prevent sticking and 
 to give necessary fat. Add sufficient water to cover meat, and 
 when this has boiled up once, turn into a double boiler and cook 
 for 3 hours. Diced vegetables may be added, toward the end of 
 the cooking, if the flavor is desired. If gravy is thin, pour off 
 and thicken. 
 
 4. Pot roast. Use a cut from the round, the rump, or the 
 shoulder. Season with salt and pepper and dredge with flour ; 
 then brown entire surface in pork fat or suet. Add a little boil- 
 ing water, cover closely, and cook slowly for several hours 
 (4 hours is not too long for a 4- or 5-pound roast). Vegetables 
 may be added if desired. Less water may be added and the 
 meat cooked in the oven. The water around meat in either 
 case should be kept below the boiling point. Why ? 
 
 The liquor around this meat makes an excellent foundation 
 for gravy. 
 
A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 MEAT SUBSTITUTES 
 
 By a meat substitute is meant a dish which contains 
 enough protein so that it can reasonably take the place 
 of meat at a meal. Meat substitutes may be found from 
 both vegetable and animal sources, but the former are 
 cheaper. 
 
 List the dishes suggested in this book which might 
 serve as meat substitutes. Discuss the comparative cost 
 and food value. Suggest other substitutes. 
 
 Materials, such as rice, potatoes, dumplings, and maca- 
 roni, are frequently cooked with meat, thereby gaining its 
 flavor and lessening the amount of meat eaten. These 
 are called meat extenders, and their use helps to reduce 
 the cost of food. These extenders are useful when a 
 small quantity of meat is on hand. 
 
 MEAT LEFT-OVERS 
 
 Portions of meat left over are too frequently thrown away, 
 or so poorly prepared that. they might as well have been 
 thrown away. The use of left-overs requires some skill 
 and care, but throwing them away is extravagance. More 
 thought about quantities purchased would frequently result 
 in no left-over portions. In preparing left-overs the result 
 should always justify the extra materials added, the time, 
 and the fuel used in preparation. In the second cooking 
 of meat it must be remembered that little cooking should 
 be done, or the meat will be dried and unappetizing. Extra 
 flavorings are usually added, for the original flavor of the 
 meat is lost. 
 
MEAT 79 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Minced Meat 
 
 Chop or grind cold meat, heat with some of the gravy, and 
 season with celery salt or onion juice. Serve on buttered toast. 
 
 II. Escaloped Meat 
 
 Put into a baking dish alternate layers of macaroni or rice, 
 and chopped or ground meat. Pour over it brown gravy or 
 tomato sauce. Cover with buttered crumbs and bake until dish 
 is heated through and crumbs are brown. 
 
 III. Browned Hash 
 
 Mix together equal parts of chopped meat and chopped cold 
 boiled potatoes. Moisten slightly with gravy or stock. Season 
 and place in heated frying pan containing a little fat. Press 
 compactly into one half of the pan ; heat slowly until brown. 
 Turn onto a platter and serve with tomato sauce. 
 
 IV. Beef Croquettes 
 
 i c cold beef (ground) A few drops Worcestershire 
 Salt and pepper sauce 
 
 i T melted butter Enough gravy or meat 
 i or 2 1 onion juice stock to moisten well 
 
 Add ingredients to meat, shape, roll in flour, egg, and crumbs. 
 Fry in deep fat and serve with tomato sauce. 
 
 V. Meat Salad 
 
 Left-over portions of veal, chicken, or ham may be mixed 
 with celery or cabbage and dressed with salad dressing. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 List the market prices of the common cuts of meat. 
 For a family of six, calculate cost of a porterhouse and a Swiss steak. 
 With the cost of the serving of meat just calculated, compare the 
 cost of a serving of eggs at 20 cents a dozen ; at 45 cents a dozen. 
 
8o A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 For a family of six, calculate the cost of a rib roast and a pot 
 (rump) roast. 
 
 In which of the above illustrations would a fireless cooker be 
 useful ? 
 
 What makes the pressed veal " set," after the liquid is poured 
 over the meat? 
 
 Do you think that the usual objection to tougher and cheaper 
 cuts of meat is well founded? 
 
 References 
 
 WOODS. " Meats, Composition, and Cooking," Farmers 1 Brdletin No. 34, 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 LANGWORTHY and HUNT. " Economical Use of Meat in the Home," 
 . Farmers' 1 Bulletin No. 391, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 GRINDLEY. ' Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meat," Bulletin 
 No. 102, Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 GRINDLEY and MOJONNIER. " Losses in Cooking Meat," Bulletin 
 No. 141, Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 GRINDLEY. " Studies of Effect of Different Methods of Cooking upon 
 Ease and Thoroughness of Digestion," Bulletin No. 193, Experi- 
 ment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Boss. " Meat on the Farm, Butchering, Curing, and Keeping," Farmers'' 
 Bulletin No. 183, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 MELVIN. ' The Federal Meat Inspection Service, Bureau of Animal 
 Industry," Circular No. 125, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 BEVIER and SPRAGUE. ' Roasting of Beef," Circular No. 77, Illinois 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 HALL. " Market Classes and Grades of Meat," Bulletin No. 147, Illinois 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 
 TERRELL. Household Management. 
 
 HALL and EMMETT. " Relative Economy, Composition, and Nutritive 
 Value of the Various Cuts of Beef," Bulletin No. 138, Illinois Ex- 
 periment Station. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 FISH AND OYSTERS 
 
 The flesh of fish resembles the flesh of other animals 
 in composition. The muscle fibers are shorter, coarser, 
 and are bound with much less connective tissue. Generally 
 speaking, fish contains more water than meat and much 
 less fat. A few of the commonly eaten fish, such as sal- 
 mon, contain fat in greater quantity, but these do not con- 
 tain more than half of the quantity found in a piece of 
 moderately fat beef. The flavor of fish is very character- 
 istic, and its use affords variety to the diet. The flavor of 
 freshly caught fish is far superior to that which has been 
 kept even a short time. Unlike meat, fish should not be 
 kept, but used immediately. Fish lends itself to various 
 methods of preparation, and is good in combination with 
 other things. The all-too-frequent habit of frying fish has 
 possibly led to its disfavor with many people. In selecting 
 fish on the market, choose only those with firm flesh and 
 bright eyes. Fish spoils very quickly on removal from 
 cold storage. 
 
 Oysters are another form of sea food very commonly 
 used. These are valued for their flavor rather than for 
 their nutritive value. They have approximately the same 
 composition as milk, and cost from five to ten times as 
 much as milk. Some danger attends the eating of raw 
 
 oysters, due to the fact that they are sometimes fattened 
 
 81 
 
U. S. Department of Agriculture 
 
 Office of Experiment Stations 
 
 A. C. True: Director 
 
 Prepared by 
 
 C. F. LANGWOKTHY 
 
 Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 
 
 Protein 
 COD 
 
 LEAN FISH 
 
 Fat 
 
 Carbohydrates Ash 
 
 Water: 82.6 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 t 
 
 300 calories 
 per pound 
 
 Protein: 15.8 
 
 OYSTER 
 
 Fat: .4 
 
 Water: 86. 
 
 Carbohydrates: 3.7 
 
 Ash: 1.2 
 
 SMOKED HERRING 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 I 
 
 Water: 34.6 
 Protein: 36.4 
 
 230 calories 
 per pound 
 
 Water 
 
 Fuel Value 
 1. Sq.In. Equals 
 1000 Calories 
 
 SALT COD 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 Water: 53. 
 
 400 calories 
 per pound 
 
 Protein: 21.5 
 
 Fat: .3- 
 
 Ash: 24.7 
 
 MACKEREL 
 
 FAT FISH 
 
 Water 73. 
 
 Protein: 18.3 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 1305 calories 
 per pound 
 
 Fuel value: 
 
 i 
 
 620 calories 
 per pound 
 
 FISH, FISH PRODUCTS, AND OYSTERS 
 
 82 
 
FISH AND OYSTERS 83 
 
 in sewage-polluted water. The laws for food inspection 
 have done a great deal to correct this evil, but outbreaks 
 of typhoid fever have been traced to the eating of raw 
 oysters. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Boiled Fish 
 
 To each quart of water in which fish is to be cooked add 1 1 
 salt and 1 1 vinegar. Small fish should be cooked whole. For 
 preserving the shape and appearance of the fish it is desirable 
 to wrap it in a piece of cheesecloth, which is also an aid in 
 handling the fish. A wire basket is convenient for cooking fish 
 in water. Put the fish into the boiling water and cook at the 
 simmering point until the bones and flesh will readily separate. 
 Drain water from the fish ; bone, and serve with suitable sauce. 
 
 II. Baked Fish 
 
 Clean fish ; the head and tail may or may not be removed. 
 The fish may or may not be boned. Rub inside and out with 
 salt and pepper. Fill the cavity with stuffing, allowing it room 
 to swell slightly. Sew the slit over with strong thread, taking 
 stitches so deep that they will not tear out. Brush over with 
 melted butter and dredge with flour. If the fish is lean, lay 
 strips of fat pork over it. A little water should be added to the 
 pan. Bake from 40 to 60 minutes, basting occasionally. When 
 done, remove strings and strips of bacon. 
 
 Garnish with lemon and parsley and serve with a suitable sauce. 
 
 III. Fish Stuffing 
 
 i c bread crumbs A few drops of onion juice 
 
 melted butter 1 1 chopped parsley 
 
 salt ^t pepper 
 
 1 1 chopped cucumber pickle, if desired 
 
 This is a dry dressing. If a moist dressing is desired, water 
 or meat stock may be added. 
 
84 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 IV. Sauces 
 
 1 . Maitre-d ''hotel butter 
 
 \ c butter \ t pepper 
 
 ^ t salt i T chopped parsley 
 
 i T lemon juice 
 
 Cream butter in a bowl ; add salt, pepper, parsley, and then 
 slowly, lemon juice. 
 
 2. Drawn-butter sauce 
 
 -Jc butter i^c hot water 
 
 3 T flour Salt and pepper 
 
 Melt \ the butter, add flour and seasonings, and pour hot 
 water on gradually. Cook thoroughly and add remaining but- 
 ter cut into small pieces. May be served with broiled or baked 
 fish. In the latter case, add iJT lemon juice or vinegar. 
 
 3. Tartar sauce 
 
 i T vinegar \\. salt 
 
 1 1 lemon juice i T Worcestershire 
 
 Jc butter sauce 
 
 Mix vinegar, lemon juice, salt, and Worcestershire sauce, and 
 heat over hot water. Brown butter and strain into mixture. 
 
 V. Escaloped Salmon 
 
 i c flaked salmon i c white sauce 
 
 Remove salmon from can, separate skin and bone, and flake 
 the salmon. Put alternate layers of fish and white sauce in a 
 buttered baking dish, cover with buttered crumbs, and heat in 
 oven until brown. 
 
 VI. Codfish Balls 
 
 c salted cod -^c potatoes 
 
 egg White pepper 
 
 -J-t butter Salt, if needed 
 
FISH AND OYSTERS 85 
 
 Wash the fish in cold water and break into small pieces. 
 Wash and pare the potatoes and cut into pieces. Cook the fish 
 and potatoes together in boiling water until the potatoes are 
 soft. Drain, shake over the fire until dry, mash with a fork, 
 add the beaten egg, butter, pepper, salt if needed, and beat 
 until light. Take up by spoonfuls, mold slightly, and cook in 
 deep fat. Or shape into croquettes, roll in egg and crumbs, 
 and fry in deep fat. 
 
 VII. Creamed Oysters 
 
 1 c oysters 3 T butter 
 Pepper 3T flour 
 Salt i c milk 
 
 Set oysters to drain. Make a thick white sauce of the other 
 ingredients, add the oysters just before time to serve, and cook 
 only long enough to heat them thoroughly. The oysters should 
 be plump when served - - not heated until they shrink. 
 
 FISH LKFT-OVERS 
 
 VIII. Escahped Fish 
 
 2 c cold flaked fish Bit of bay leaf 
 i c white sauce i slice onion 
 
 i c milk Salt and pepper 
 
 Few sprigs parsley c buttered crumbs 
 
 Heat milk with parsley, bay leaf, and onion until well sea- 
 soned, and make into white sauce. Arrange fish and white sauce 
 in a buttered baking dish in alternate layers, cover with buttered 
 crumbs, and brown in hot oven. 
 
 IX. Fish Croquettes 
 
 Moisten ic cold flaked fish with a thick white sauce. Cool 
 and shape into croquettes ; roll in flour, then in egg and in 
 crumbs, and fry in deep fat. Cold hard-cooked eggs or parsley 
 may be cut up and added to the croquette mixture. 
 
86 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 X. Creamed Fish 
 
 i c cold flaked fish 4.T chopped pimento 
 
 i c white sauce i hard-cooked egg 
 
 Reheat fish with pimento and egg in white sauce. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 For a family of six, calculate the cost of a serving of fresh fish 
 and compare with cost of meat. Repeat with escaloped salmon and 
 creamed oysters. 
 
 Where are oysters grown, how obtained, and how shipped ? 
 
 Is the frequent warning against eating raw oysters well founded? 
 
 References 
 
 LANGWORTHY. " Fish as Food," Farmers' Bulletin No. 85, U.S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture. 
 
 STILES. " The Value of the Shell-fish Industry and the Protection of 
 Oysters from Sewage Contamination," Yearbook of Department of 
 Agriculture, 1910, Separate No. 544. 
 
 STILES. " Shell-fish Contamination from Sewage-Polluted Waters and 
 from Other Sources," Bulletin No. fj6, Bureau of Chemistry. 
 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 GELATIN 
 
 Gelatin is a substance derived from animal sources. It 
 is closely related chemically to the other proteins which 
 have been discussed, but it does not serve the purpose in 
 the body which some of these do. It is prepared commer- 
 cially by boiling bone, gristle, skin, etc. in water, and then 
 purifying. Gelatin is odorless, colorless, and tasteless in 
 the pure state. It swells in cold water and dissolves in hot 
 water. On cooling, a gelatin solution " sets," or " jellies." 
 In this respect gelatin is similar to certain substances in 
 plants which also set, or jelly, water solutions. Certain sea 
 plants, such as mosses and agar, yield substances which 
 have this property, and preparations of these are on the 
 market under various names. In the ordinary fruit juices 
 is found another substance- -pectin, a carbohydrate - 
 which causes these juices to jelly. While some other sub- 
 stances will form a jelly, chemically they are not the same 
 as gelatin, and do not have the same food value. Gelatin 
 is generally used in the preparation of desserts, where it is 
 valued as a carrier of flavor and for its texture and consist- 
 ency. A very small per cent of gelatin is required to jelly 
 a solution, so that the amount of gelatin ordinarily used 
 is small. 
 
 Gelatin is prepared in sheets and in granulated form. 
 The latter may be bought in bulk or in small packages. 
 
 87 
 
88 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 It is most frequently used with fruits, both fresh and 
 canned, but fresh pineapple should never be used because 
 the gelatin will lose its power to jelly, due to the action of 
 the enzyme in the pineapple. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Jellied Prunes 
 
 J Ib. prunes 3 1 gelatin 
 
 i c sugar ^c lemon juice 
 
 Soak and cook prunes, remove stones, and cut into pieces. 
 To the prune juice add enough boiling water to make 2 cupfuls. 
 Soak gelatin in 4 T cold water ; when soft, dissolve in hot prune 
 juice, and add sugar and lemon juice. Add prunes and chill. 
 Stir occasionally during cooling process so that the prunes may 
 not settle when the jelly sets. 
 
 II. Orange Whip 
 
 4t gelatin ^c cold water 
 
 i pt. orange juice Juice i lemon 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Soak gelatin in cold water and dissolve in hot water. Strain 
 into this the fruit juice and sugar to taste. Set aside until partly 
 jellied and then whip with Dover egg-beater until it becomes 
 white and frothy. 
 
 What causes the change of appearance on beating ? 
 
 III. Snow Pudding 
 
 2 1 gelatin i c sugar 
 
 ^c cold water ^c lemon juice 
 
 i c boiling water Whites 3 eggs 
 
 Soak gelatin in cold water, dissolve in boiling water, add 
 sugar and then lemon juice. Cool ; when it thickens, beat with 
 
GELATIN 89 
 
 an egg-beater until light. Add stiffly beaten whites of eggs and 
 continue beating until mixture is stiff enough to hold its shape. 
 Serve cold with custard sauce. 
 
 IV. Tomato Jelly 
 
 i c tomato juice 1 1 gelatin soaked in 
 i slice onion 2 T cold water 
 
 i stalk celery ^t sugar 
 
 i bay leaf Salt 
 
 i clove Paprika 
 
 Simmer tomato juice and seasonings for 5 minutes. Add 
 soaked gelatin to the hot tomato juice. Strain and pour into 
 molds to set. Serve on a lettuce leaf and with a salad dressing. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 Calculate the cost of the three puddings and the number of people 
 served by each. How much would the cost be increased by serving 
 whipped cream with them? 
 
 Can you suggest the reason for the condition of a cold veal or 
 beef soup stock? 
 
 References 
 
 WII.KV. Foods and their Adulteration. 
 ALLEN. Commercial Organic Analysis. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 FATS AND OILS 
 
 * 
 
 Fat is found in both plant and animal foods, as previously 
 stated, and is practically always used as a food in combina- 
 tion with other things. 
 
 The cooking of food in fat is a favorite method with 
 many people because of the flavor which is developed, but 
 the frying of food is more common than it should be, 
 even though by proper care food may be cooked in fat 
 without becoming grease soaked. Food which is soaked 
 in fat is more slowly and less easily digested. Harm may 
 come from overheating fat in the cooking, for heat causes 
 fat to decompose into substances which are irritating to 
 the digestive tract. Fats vary not only in the melting 
 point but in the temperature at which they decompose by 
 heat. Generally speaking, oils may be heated to a higher 
 temperature without decomposing than the solid fats, and 
 consequently they make a very desirable medium for cook- 
 ing. The cooking oils usually cost less than the solid fats, 
 and, due to higher point of decomposition, may be used 
 a greater number of times. Deep-fat frying has some advan- 
 tages over frying in a small amount of fat, since the object 
 to be cooked is immediately immersed in it and a protec- 
 tive coat is formed against the absorption of fat. Care 
 should be taken in cooking in a large quantity of fat be- 
 cause it is inflammable and accidents may occur. Articles, 
 
 90 
 
FATS AND OILS 91 
 
 such as potatoes, which contain a large amount of water 
 will cause the fat to sputter, due to the expansion of the 
 water to steam, and such articles should be added slowly. 
 A large number of cooking fats are on the market at 
 the present time. Some of these are compounds or mix- 
 tures of different animal and plant fats. If properly 
 prepared, there is no objection to their use, and frequently 
 they save money for the buyer. Sometimes old and rancid 
 samples are bought, and on account of the one poor sample, 
 all of these special preparations are unjustly condemned. 
 Any unpleasant flavor detected in foods where these are 
 used is practically always due to the rancidity and not, as 
 is frequently supposed, to the character of the fresh fat. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Effect of Heat upon Fats 
 
 Heat butter, lard, some commercial compound, and a cooking 
 oil, and note point of decomposition as shown by smoking point. 
 
 II. Types of Commercial Fats and Oils 
 
 Observe samples of some common fats and oils, noting 
 source, physical characteristics, price, and use. 
 
 III. Ice Cream 
 
 Ice cream in its simplest form is sweetened and flavored 
 cream. Cream is a very expensive form of fat and sometimes 
 an acceptable substitution may be made for it. In the directions 
 given below the ingredients vary and the cost of each should be 
 computed. Calculate the cost when a thin (16 per cent) cream is 
 used, and the cost when double cream is used. 
 
 i. Ice Cream 
 
 40 cream f c sugar 
 
 Flavoring 
 
92 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 Mix ingredients and freeze. Use a freezing mixture of 3 to 
 4 parts ice and i part salt. 
 
 2. Ice Cream 
 
 40 cream i egg 
 
 2 c milk i T cornstarch 
 
 1 c sugar Flavoring 
 
 Pinch of salt 
 
 Mix cornstarch with i c cold milk and boil. Remove from 
 fire and stir in the slightly beaten egg. Stir until smooth ; then 
 add the other ingredients and freeze. 
 
 IV. Saratoga Chips 
 
 Wash and pare potatoes. Cut into very thin slices in a bowl 
 of cold water. Let stand for from 15 to 20 minutes. Drain off 
 water and dry potatoes in a towel. Fry in deep fat until light 
 brown. Drain on brown paper and sprinkle with salt. 
 
 Fry half of potatoes in lard and the rest in some other kind 
 of fat. Compare in desirability and cost. 
 
 V. Potato Croquettes 
 
 2C hot riced potatoes ^-c grated cheese 
 
 2 T butter i egg 
 
 ^-t salt Few grains cayenne 
 
 Shape into desired form, roll in crumbs, egg, and again in 
 crumbs. Fry in deep fat. Drain on paper in oven. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 To what extent may lard be used in place of butter? 
 
 May any of the other fats be substituted for butter, and when ? 
 
 What is the objection to fried potatoes as they are frequently 
 prepared ? 
 
 What other foods are often fat soaked ? 
 
 Name the objections to foods which are saturated with fat. How 
 may this difficulty be avoided ? 
 
FATS AND OILS 93 
 
 Why is cooking in fat a common and favorite method of pre- 
 paring food? 
 
 What is the danger of cooking in deep fat ? 
 
 Are fats in general cheap or expensive foods ? 
 
 Name some of the cheap and some of the expensive fats. 
 
 References 
 
 LEVVKOWITSCH. Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats, and 
 Waxes, Vols. I and II. 
 
 ALLEN. Commercial Organic Analysis. 
 
 LEACH. Food Inspection and Analysis. 
 
 NY i LEY. Foods and their Adulterations. 
 
 WILEY. " Household Tests for the Detection of Oleomargarine and 
 Renovated Butter," Farmers' Bulletin Xo. /j/, U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture. 
 
 HAYWARD. Facts concerning the History, Commerce, and Manufac- 
 ture of Butter. 
 
 HAYWARI>. ' Principles and Practice of Ice-Cream Making," 'Bulletin 
 No. /5J, Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 FLOUR 
 
 Flour is a very familiar preparation from the cereal 
 wheat. In the milling of wheat, the outer (bran) layers and 
 the germ are removed, and the inner starchy portion is 
 finely ground into flour. Flour is largely starch (from 70 to 
 75 per cent), but it contains protein, varying with the kind 
 of wheat. Water, mineral matter, and a very small amount 
 of fat make up the rest of the content. The protein of the 
 flour possesses some interesting characteristics. Protein 
 of wheat occurs chiefly in the form of glutenin and gliadin, 
 and when water is added, these two unite to form a sticky 
 substance called gluten. This is already familiar to many 
 as the chewing gum obtained from the wheat kernels. 
 Gluten is an elastic substance which is readily stretched 
 as the contained air or moisture expands. Like the other 
 proteins discussed, gluten is hardened by heat. In the 
 making of bread this is of considerable importance, for 
 the expanded and hardened gluten forms the support or 
 framework of the loaf. 
 
 There are many varieties of wheat, and these vary not 
 only in physical characteristics but in composition. In the 
 more moderate climates in the United States the wheat 
 is planted in the fall and left in the ground through the 
 winter. This is generally known as winter wheat. In the 
 Northwest, where the winters are severe, the seed is sown 
 
 94 
 
FLOUR 95 
 
 in the spring, and these are known as spring wheats. 
 The spring wheats are harder and more difficult to mill 
 than the winter wheats. In some of the semiarid portions 
 of the country the very hard Russian wheats are grown. 
 These are known as durum (hard) wheats, the name indi- 
 cating one of their characteristics. The durum wheats 
 usually run quite high in protein, and are sometimes 
 blended with other wheats in the milling process. The 
 
 BAKED GLUTEN FROM Two CUPS OF FLOUR 
 
 i, flour; 2, dough from same ; 3, gluten from same ; 4, gluten baked ; 
 
 5, baked gluten cut open 
 
 durum wheats are very desirable for the making of maca- 
 roni, and some varieties are excellent for bread. 
 
 In all wheats the quality of the gluten is an important 
 factor in bread making. Flour made from a single variety 
 of wheat is not usual. The miller mixes or blends differ- 
 ent wheats to make a more desirable flour. Generally 
 speaking, the winter wheats are more starchy, which makes 
 them especially desirable for the making of cake and pastry, 
 and many of them make excellent bread, while the spring 
 wheats are higher in protein and better adapted to the 
 making of bread than the making of pastry. The harder 
 
96 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 varieties of the winter wheats and the softer spring wheats 
 resemble one another in composition. It is not infrequent, 
 however, to find a flour which is good for both pastry and 
 bread, due to the wise blending of wheats in the milling. 
 The flour of the starchy winter wheats is white and soft, 
 while that of the spring wheats is more granular, and 
 creamy in color. 
 
 The complaints frequently made against a flour are not 
 always just, for they often arise from a failure to recog- 
 nize the kind of flour and the use to which it is adapted. 
 A good flour should be a clear white or cream in color ; 
 a gray flour indicates poor quality, and in no case is a 
 musty smell permissible. 
 
 Graham and whole-wheat flours are also prepared from 
 wheat. The original graham flour was made by grinding 
 the whole wheat kernel without removing any portion of 
 it. Substitutes for this are sometimes found on the market, 
 which are mixtures of bran with an inferior quality of 
 flour. In whole-wheat flour the outer bran layers are re- 
 moved, and the whole is ground finer than in the graham. 
 It is frequently stated that graham and whole-wheat breads 
 have greater food value than the plain white bread, due 
 to the fact that the whole wheat kernel is used in preparing 
 the former. While percentage composition seems to favor 
 the claim, it is also misleading. Bran stimulates peristalsis, 
 and so hastens food through the digestive tract, and its 
 passage may be so rapid that absorption is partially pre- 
 vented, thus causing a loss of nutrients. The laxative 
 action of bran has been attributed to the mechanical irri- 
 tation of its particles, but recent work indicates that this 
 action is largely due to the phosphorus compounds. 
 
FLOUR 97 
 
 Rye, barley, buckwheat, corn, and some other cereals 
 are ground into meals and flours. Rye flour is often used 
 for making bread ; but the gluten, if present, in the other 
 cereals is of such a nature that they do not make good 
 bread. Corn meal is made into a bread by combining 
 white flour or egg with it. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Flours 
 
 Examine graham, whole-wheat, and white flour, rye flour, and 
 corn meal. 
 
 Sift and examine residue of wheat preparations ; compare. 
 What is the percentage composition of these flours ? 
 
 I 1 . d I n ten 
 
 Measure ^c of ordinary white flour and mix with it enough 
 water to form a stiff dough. Work in the hands until it be- 
 comes smooth and elastic, and then wash it until the water is 
 clear. What is left ? What has been removed ? Bake the residue 
 in a moderate oven for from 30 to 45 minutes. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 Is spring or winter wheat grown in your vicinity ? 
 What varieties of wheat are ground by your local miller? 
 What kind of flour is used in your home ? 
 Is more than one kind of flour kept in your home ? 
 What flour does your local baker use ? Why ? 
 What guides the baker in his choice of flour ? 
 What guides the housewife in her choice of flour? 
 Why is a blended flour desirable ? 
 
 References 
 SNYDER. Human Foods. 
 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 OSBORNE. Proteids of the Wheat Kernel. 
 
98 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 r 
 
 OSBORNE. " Winter Wheat Varieties," Biilletin No. 82, Pennsylvania 
 State College Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 SHEPARD. " Macaroni Wheat," Bulletin No. 92, South Dakota Agri- 
 cultural College Experiment Station. 
 
 NORTON. " A Study of Durum Wheat," /oumat of the American Chemi- 
 cal Society, Vol. XXVII, August, 1905. 
 
 DONDLINGER. Book of Wheat. 
 
 FREEMAN and SHILLING. " Flour," The Journal of Home Economics, 
 December, 1911. 
 
 JORDAN, HART, and PATTEN. " Metabolism and Physiological Effects of 
 Phosphorus Compounds of Wheat Bran," Bulletin No. i, New York 
 State Experiment Station, and American Journal of Physiology, 
 
 Vol. XVI, p. 268. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 FLOUR MIXTURES 
 
 In the household we are familiar with a large number 
 of flour mixtures, both batters and doughs. In all these 
 mixtures flour is combined with moisture and some leav- 
 ening agent, whatever else may be added. Water is the 
 liquid most commonly used, but sweet and sour milk and 
 buttermilk are frequently substituted for water. On mixing 
 the flour with the liquid, gluten is formed. As explained 
 before, the gluten is expanded by gas and steam, and if 
 heated while in this stretched, or expanded, condition, the 
 gluten is hardened and forms a sort of framework for the 
 other ingredients of the loaf. Exercise II in the previous 
 chapter illustrates this characteristic of gluten. 
 
 The third essential to the flour mixture is a leavening 
 agent. Flour and water mixtures are heavy, and it is nec- 
 essary to provide some means for lightening, or leavening, 
 them. To accomplish this, air may be beaten into the 
 mixture directly, as in the beaten biscuit of the South, or 
 air may be added after it has been beaten into the white 
 of egg. Carbon-dioxide gas is the most common leavening 
 agent and is supplied by the action of yeast or of certain 
 chemicals. The chemicals used are baking soda and some 
 acid. The acid may be one of several combined with the 
 soda to form a so-called baking powder, or the acid may 
 be supplied in the cooking materials, such as sour milk or 
 
 99 
 
ioo A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 molasses. The moisture used in all these mixtures is 
 expanded into steam during the cooking process, and 
 this also helps to make the mixture light. 
 
 While flour, water, and a leavening agent are necessary 
 to any flour mixture, the resulting product would not be 
 very palatable, and therefore other materials are added to 
 modify both flavor and texture. Salt is necessary in prac- 
 tically every case. Milk, eggs, fat, and sugar are commonly 
 used, and all these add to the food value. Other materials, 
 such as spices and extracts, are valued for their flavor. 
 Eggs not only serve as a means for introducing air into the 
 mixture, but, on heating, the albumen of the egg hardens 
 and aids in forming a framework for the mixture. Fat 
 affects the texture, tenderness, and flavor in proportion to 
 the quantity used. Sugar is valued for its flavor, but it 
 also affects texture. The proportion of liquid to flour in 
 these mixtures varies greatly. Thin mixtures are called 
 batters ; the thicker ones are called doughs. 
 
 Practically all flour mixtures are baked, although fat and 
 steam are used in some cases as the cooking mediums. 
 In applying heat to any food its composition should be kept 
 in mind. This is rather simple when we are cooking eggs 
 alone or starch alone, but where different substances are 
 combined, it is necessary to regard the material which pre- 
 dominates, and a compromise is usually necessary. In 
 most of the flour mixtures starch is present in large quan- 
 tity, and this calls for thorough cooking at a high tempera- 
 ture. In mixtures in which a large amount of egg is used, 
 as in sponge cake, a low temperature is required and the 
 time of baking is prolonged. 
 
I ' , o ''''>*'''' ' 
 
 FLOUR MIXTURES- , 1'Q* ' 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 Repeat oven tests as given in Chapter I. 
 
 II. Baking Temperatures 
 
 Discuss the baking temperatures which will be desirable for 
 the mixtures in the following exercises : 
 
 III. Batters with Air and Steam as Leavening Agents 
 
 i. Popov ers 
 
 i c milk i T fat 
 
 i c flour it salt 
 
 Mix salt and flour ; gradually add milk, in order to keep 
 mixture smooth ; then add melted fat and unbeaten egg. Beat 
 thoroughly with Dover egg-beater or spoon. Pour at once into 
 hot gem pans and bake for from 40 to 45 minutes in a moderate 
 oven. They should be served as soon as cooked. 
 
 All materials and utensils should be ready and fire lighted 
 before mixing is started. 
 
 2. Sponge cake 
 
 Yolks 2 eggs Salt 
 
 Whites 2 eggs Lemon rind 
 
 sugar 1 1 lemon juice 
 
 flour 
 
 Beat yolks until lemon colored and thick. Add sugar gradu- 
 ally and continue beating. Then add lemon juice, rind, and 
 whites of eggs beaten until stiff and dry. When white is par- 
 tially mixed with yolk, carefully cut and fold in flour mixed and 
 sifted with salt. Bake in an unbuttered pan in a slow oven for 
 from 35 to 45 minutes. 
 
 What makes this mixture light ? 
 
"102 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 3. White sponge cake 
 
 |c white of egg t cream of tartar 
 
 fc granulated sugar Flavoring 
 
 flour 
 
 Sift flour once before measuring and several times afterward. 
 Beat egg until very stiff, adding the cream of tartar, and gradu- 
 ally beat in the sugar. Then add flavoring and carefully fold in 
 the flour. Do not stir or beat more than is necessary to mix. 
 Pour into an unbuttered pan and bake for from 40 to 50 minutes 
 in a very slow oven. 
 
 IV. Baking Soda 
 
 Acid of some sort must be added to soda to free carbon diox- 
 ide. Molasses contains a mixture of organic acids ; sour milk 
 contains lactic acid. 
 
 1. Into a tablespoon of sour milk stir a pinch of soda. Watch 
 results. Explain. 
 
 2. Repeat, using molasses. 
 
 V. Batters with Soda and Sour Milk or Molasses as Leavening 
 Agents 
 
 i . Gingerbread 
 
 i c molasses i egg ^c butter 
 
 \ c sour milk i^t soda 2 1 ginger 
 
 2C flour -Jt salt 
 
 Sift together all dry ingredients. Cream the butter, add 
 molasses and beaten egg, and then add to this the flour and 
 milk in turn. Beat the whole thoroughly and turn into a greased 
 pan. Bake in a slow oven. 
 
 2. Sour-milk griddlecakes 
 
 2-J-c flour 2 c sour milk \\. salt 
 
 soda i egg 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES 103 
 
 Mix and sift dry ingredients. Add these to the milk, beat 
 well, and lastly add the beaten egg. Cook on a hot griddle. No 
 grease is required if an aluminium griddle is used. 
 
 3. Corn bread 
 
 i c corn meal i T melted butter 
 
 i c sour milk \c sifted flour 
 
 \\. salt 1 1 baking powder 
 
 1 1 soda i egg 
 
 Sift together all dry ingredients, stir these into the milk, and 
 then add butter and beaten egg. Bake in a moderate oven. 
 
 VI. Baking Powder 
 
 Baking powder is a mixture of an acid and an alkaline con- 
 stituent which will yield a gas in the presence of moisture. 
 The alkaline constituent is almost always the ordinary baking 
 soda, which is sodium bicarbonate. The acid constituent varies 
 with the brand of the baking powder, and may be a phosphate, 
 tartrate, or alum salt. The commercial baking powder contains 
 a third substance, usually starch, which tends to absorb the 
 moisture from the air and prevent premature development of 
 gas from the other two substances. Oftentimes in the house- 
 hold baking soda and cream of tartar are added to a flour 
 mixture. This serves the same purpose as baking powder. 
 
 1. Mix Jt soda and ^t cream of tartar. Stir this into a half 
 glass of water and observe results. 
 
 2. Stir 1 1 baking powder into a half glass of water and 
 observe. (Save this for 4.) 
 
 3. Half fill two glasses with water. Into the first stir 1 1 of 
 a tartrate baking powder ; into the second stir 1 1 of a phosphate 
 baking powder. Do you note any difference in the rapidity of 
 action ? 
 
 4. Boil the mixture left from 2 and note results. Explain. 
 
104 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 VII. Batters with Baking Powder as a Leavening Agent 
 
 1 . Griddlecakes 
 
 i:J-c flour i egg 
 
 ^t salt 2 1 baking powder 
 
 ic milk 
 
 Sift dry ingredients, stir into the milk, and lastly add the 
 beaten egg. Cook on a hot griddle. 
 
 2. Muffins 
 
 2 c flour i c milk 
 
 1 egg 4-t baking powder 
 -^-t salt 2 T melted butter 
 2T sugar 
 
 Sift dry ingredients, stir into milk, and add melted butter 
 and beaten egg. Beat the mixture thoroughly and pour into 
 greased pans. Bake in a quick oven. 
 
 3. White cake 
 
 ^c butter 4t baking powder 
 
 2 c sugar Whites 5 eggs 
 i c water 1 1 vanilla 
 
 3C flour 
 
 Cream butter, add sugar, and thoroughly mix. Sift flour and 
 baking powder several times, add this, alternating with the water, 
 to the first mixture, and then add vanilla. Fold in the stiffly 
 beaten whites of eggs and pour into a greased pan. Bake in a 
 moderate oven. 
 Boiled icing 
 
 i c sugar Lemon juice or 
 
 ^c water flavoring 
 
 White i egg -j-t cream of tartar 
 
 Cook sugar, cream of tartar, and water together until sirup 
 will thread. Pour in a fine stream into well-beaten white of egg, 
 beating until smooth and thick enough to spread upon the cake. 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES 105 
 
 Flavor and pour over cake, spreading with spatula. If beaten 
 too long, thin with a few drops of lemon juice or boiling water 
 and wet the knife in cold water. Ice the cake and calculate the 
 cost of cake and icing. 
 
 VIII. Doughs 
 
 The difference between doughs and batters is in the amount 
 of moisture used with the flour. Batters have one or two meas- 
 ures of flour to one of liquid. Doughs have about three measures 
 of flour to one of liquid. 
 
 i. Biscuit 
 
 ic flour f c liquid, equal parts 
 2 1 baking powder water and milk 
 
 salt i|T fat 
 
 Sift dry ingredients, work fat into flour, and gradually add 
 the liquid, mixing into a very soft dough just stiff enough to roll. 
 Turn onto a floured board, roll to \ inch in thickness, cut, put 
 into a floured pan, and bake in a quick oven. 
 
 2. Sliortciike 
 
 2C flour i T sugar 
 
 4t baking powder Jc fat 
 
 t salt f c milk 
 
 Mix the same as biscuit, roll about J inch thick, and fit into a 
 pan for baking. When done, split and spread with butter, cover 
 with crushed and sweetened fruit. Add the top layer of short- 
 cake and cover generously with fruit and juice before serving. 
 
 3. Doughnuts 
 
 ^c sugar 3t baking powder 
 
 i T butter in i \ c flour 
 
 Jc milk it salt 
 
 i egg cinnamon 
 
 nutmeg 
 
106 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 Beat thoroughly butter, sugar, and egg. Sift dry ingredients 
 and add, alternately with milk, to the first mixture. Add enough 
 more flour to make a soft dough, turn onto a floured board, 
 roll to ^ inch in thickness, cut, and cook in deep fat. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 What is the leavening agent in each of the foregoing illustrations ? 
 
 What furnishes the moisture ? 
 
 Why use moderate or low heat for sponge cakes ? 
 
 Calculate the cost of both sponge cakes and the number of people 
 served by each. 
 
 Suggest a use for the yolks left from the white sponge cake. 
 
 Why are egg and white flour used in making corn bread ? 
 
 Is there any objection to the use of griddlecakes ? 
 
 Does the gingerbread brown more easily than the corn bread? 
 Explain. 
 
 Calculate the cost of corn bread and of gingerbread for a family 
 of six. 
 
 Compare the cost of sponge cakes and butter cakes. 
 
 Calculate the cost of pound cake. Is this expensive ? Explain. 
 
 Calculate the cost of muffins for a family of six. 
 
 How may an oven that is too hot affect a cake mixture? too 
 slow an oven? 
 
 Which needs the greater heat, a layer or loaf cake? a butter or 
 sponge cake ? a molasses or plain cake ? 
 
 How determine when a cake is done? 
 
 When add beaten whites, and why ? 
 
 Suggest possible causes for the following : 
 Cracks across top of cake in baking. 
 Coarse-grained cake. 
 Tough cake. 
 
 How prepare pans? Explain. 
 
 Suggest methods for reducing heat in an oven that is too hot. 
 
 How much should a cake increase in bulk while baking? 
 
 What effect has beating on the texture of the cake ? 
 
 Why will a cake that is carelessly moved in baking frequently fall ? 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES 107 
 
 How care for a cake on removal from oven ? 
 Discuss order of adding ingredients in mixing a cake. 
 When add flour ? When add eggs ? Explain. 
 
 References 
 
 WILEY. Foods and their Adulteration. 
 
 LEACH. Food Inspection and Analysis. 
 
 LEACH. ' Baking Powders," Bulletin No. 7/9, Maine Agricultural 
 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 WILEY. " Cereals and Cereal Products," Bulletin No. /j, Part IX. 
 FARMER. Boston Cooking School Cook Book. 
 HILL. Practical Cooking and Serving. 
 VULTE and GOODELL. Household Chemistry. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 BREAD 
 
 Bread is a dough made of flour, salt, liquid, and yeast. 
 The flour of wheat is used more commonly than that of 
 any other cereal. The flavor of wheat is desirable, and its 
 gluten makes it suitable for bread. If the whole kernel is 
 ground, as in graham flour, the flavor is very pronounced ; 
 if less of the bran is retained, as in whole-wheat flour, the 
 flavor is milder. The range of flavor in the ordinary white 
 flours of the same grade is not so great, but there is a choice. 
 
 It was discovered long ago that a dough, or mixture of 
 flour and water, would undergo some changes on standing, 
 and the character of the loaf on baking was consequently 
 different. This change we know to be fermentation, due 
 to the development of certain living forms in the dough. 
 Instead of depending upon chance for these living forms 
 to make the dough light, we add yeast to the dough at 
 the start. The yeast is a one-celled plant of microscopic 
 size. Like any other plant, the yeast requires the proper 
 conditions for growth- -namely, warmth, moisture, and 
 food. These favorable conditions are found in bread dough, 
 and as the yeast grows there is developed carbon dioxide, 
 which gas lightens the dough. 
 
 Yeast may be purchased in the form of dry cakes, or as 
 compressed yeast. Frequently these are used to make a 
 
 so-called ' starter," which is kept and used from time to 
 
 1 08 
 
BREAD 109 
 
 time in the household. The starter, or liquid yeast, affords 
 a favorable place for the growth of other living forms than 
 yeast, and these often are the cause of sourness or a very 
 poor flavor in the bread. Since the same conditions which 
 favor the growth of yeast favor the growth of other plants, 
 it is very necessary to be careful that all the materials are 
 in good condition and that all the utensils are clean. The 
 amount and the condition of the yeast used in making bread 
 determine the time necessary for the process. The yeast 
 
 TYPICAL LOAVES OF BREAD 
 
 plant develops very rapidly if under favorable conditions 
 and will leaven a large amount of dough in a comparatively 
 short time. If it is necessary to make the bread in a very 
 short time, as much as two cakes of compressed yeast may 
 be added to a small loaf without injuring the flavor of the 
 bread. In the ordinary household process such an amount 
 would be unnecessary and extravagant, except under unusual 
 circumstances. Bread made in a short time with compressed 
 yeast is familiarly known as " short process ' bread. The 
 more common custom is to allow a longer time for making 
 bread. The yeast is mixed with a small portion of flour 
 
no 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 and water. Sugar is usually added to this mixture, and 
 oftentimes potatoes are used. This mixture is known as 
 a sponge and affords favorable conditions for the devel- 
 opment of the yeast plant. The sponge stands for a 
 number of hours (usually overnight) and is then mixed 
 with more liquid and flour to make the dough. Bread 
 made in this way is known as ' long-process ' bread. 
 
 UTENSILS USED IN BREAD MAKING, SHOWING ALSO METHOD 
 
 OF MEASURING 
 
 The liquid used in making bread may be water, milk, a 
 mixture of the two, whey, or potato water. Potatoes furnish 
 a good medium for the growth of yeast, and so their use 
 is frequently favored. Fat may or may not be added. Sugar, 
 in small amount, hastens the activity of the yeast and should 
 be added early in the process. 
 
 The object in kneading bread is to mix it thoroughly 
 and to distribute the gas evenly, so making a finer texture. 
 Repeated rising of the bread and kneading down before 
 making into a loaf makes a somewhat finer texture and a 
 
BREAD 1 1 1 
 
 whiter loaf, but at the expense of the finer flavor of the 
 bread. Very good bread can be made with comparatively 
 little kneading. 
 
 Bread is baked to kill the yeast plant, to cook the starch 
 thoroughly, and to make a brown and palatable crust. It is 
 desirable to bake each loaf in a separate pan which is 
 small enough to insure the thorough baking of the loaf. 
 A small loaf of bread in a single pan should bake not less 
 than forty-five minutes. If dough has doubled in bulk, it 
 should be put into a very hot oven and the heat gradually 
 reduced until the baking is finished. If the dough is put 
 into the oven before its bulk has doubled, the heat should 
 be more moderate at first in order that the loaf may rise 
 sufficiently. 
 
 There are so many notions with regard to the desirable 
 qualities of bread that it is a help to use some standard 
 for judging it. The following score card, accredited to 
 Miss Isabel Bevier at the University of Illinois, has been 
 widely used and found helpful in establishing standards. 
 
 BREAD SCORK CARD 
 
 Flavor ......... 35 
 
 Lightness ........ 15 
 
 Grain and Texture ..... 20 
 
 Color 
 
 Crust < 
 
 Depth 
 Texture 
 
 10 
 
 _ , , Color 1 
 Crumb^ > .... 10 
 
 LMoistureJ 
 
 Shape and Size 10 
 
 Total i oo 
 
H2 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 1. The flavor is determined by taste and odor. Bread 
 should have the good nutty sweet flavor of the grain. A 
 sour or yeasty smell or taste is not allowable. 
 
 2. Lightness is determined by the relation of size and 
 volume. The bread should be neither overlight nor 
 underlight. 
 
 3. Grain and texture are judged by the fineness and 
 tenderness of the loaf. There should be even distribution 
 of the gas, making fine and uniform holes. No heavy 
 streaks should occur. 
 
 4. The crust should be an even, yellowish brown in 
 color, about one fourth of an inch in depth, and should 
 be crisp. 
 
 5. The crumb should be creamy in color, neither 
 excessively dry and crumbly nor doughy. 
 
 6. The loaf should be shapely and small enough to 
 be thoroughly cooked. 
 
 LABORATORY EXERCISES 
 
 I. Effect of Temperatures upon Yeast. (Demonstration) 
 
 1. Blend one yeast cake thoroughly in a pint of water to 
 which has been added i T sugar. 
 
 2. Freeze a portion of the mixture, and then allow it to thaw 
 at room temperature. 
 
 3. Boil another portion and cool to room temperature. 
 
 4. Take another portion at room temperature. 
 
 5. Chill a fourth portion. 
 
 Fill wide-mouthed bottles from each of the above portions 
 and invert them on plates. Keep 2, 3, and 4 in a warm room, 
 and 5 packed in ice during the remainder of the laboratory 
 period. Explain results observed. 
 
BREAD i i 
 
 II. Long- Process Bread 
 
 i c boiled water or i T sugar 
 
 Jc each of milk and water ft salt 
 
 \-\ cake dry yeast or iT fat 
 
 J- cake compressed yeast 3 c flour 
 
 In making long-process bread less yeast is required than for 
 the short process because the time is so much longer. Good 
 long-process bread is made by different methods, but the 
 following is typical. 
 
 A sponge is made by adding sugar, yeast, and flour to the 
 liquid. Scald the liquid, and soften the yeast in 2 T warm water. 
 When the liquid is lukewarm, add the yeast and sugar and 
 enough flour to make a thin batter. This is set aside in a warm 
 place overnight, during which time the yeast becomes active 
 and the sponge is light. In the morning add all the other in- 
 gredients, mixing thoroughly. When enough flour is added so 
 that the dough may be handled, turn it onto the board and 
 knead until it is smooth, sticks neither to the board nor hands, 
 and air bubbles appear near the surface of the dough. Put the 
 dough into a greased bowl and set in a warm place. When the 
 dough has doubled in bulk, make it into loaves and put into 
 greased pans. Again set the dough to rise in a warm place. 
 When the loaves have doubled in bulk, put into a hot oven 
 and bake for from 40 to 50 minutes. The temperature of the 
 oven should be lowered during the baking process. When the 
 loaf is baked, remove it from the pan at once and cool it in a 
 position which allows full circulation of air about the bread. 
 
 III. Short-Process Bread 
 
 scalded milk ^-c boiled water 
 
 i T lard or butter ft salt 
 
 3 c flour i T sugar 
 
 1-2 compressed yeast cakes in 2t warm water 
 
114 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 Put butter or lard, sugar, and salt in bread bowl; pour on it 
 the hot liquid (milk and water). When this is lukewarm, add 
 the softened yeast cake ; then add enough flour to make a stiff 
 batter, beating thoroughly. Add the remaining flour ; mix and 
 turn onto the floured board. Knead until the dough will stick 
 neither to hands nor to board and bubbles may be seen under the 
 surface. Grease the bowl and return the dough to it. Set in a 
 warm place until the dough has doubled in bulk ; then shape 
 into loaves. Let this double its bulk again and bake. 
 
 IV. Whole-wheat, Graham, or Rye Bread 
 
 Make a sponge as for long-process bread. When light, use 
 entire-wheat, graham, or rye flour to make a soft dough. Make 
 into loaves and let rise until thoroughly light. Bake with mod- 
 erate heat i hour or longer. Sugar to sweeten may be added if 
 desired. 
 
 V. Parker House Rolls 
 
 Roll bread dough to ^ inch in thickness and cut with biscuit 
 cutter. Crease each piece in the middle, brush one half with 
 melted butter, fold, pressing edges together. Place in a greased 
 pan, cover, let rise, and bake. 
 
 VI. Cinnamon Rolls 
 
 Roll bread dough to \ inch in thickness, spread with butter, 
 and sprinkle with a mixture of f sugar and -J- cinnamon. Roll 
 up like a jelly roll and cut into f -inch pieces. Place in greased 
 pan flat side down. Let rise and bake. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 Calculate cost of baker's bread per pound. 
 Calculate cost of homemade bread per pound. 
 Judge both samples by the score card. 
 Why is bread kneaded ? 
 When is it desirable to use a sponge? 
 
BREAD I I 5 
 
 What determines the amount of yeast used ? 
 
 What might cause sour bread ? 
 
 What is accomplished in the baking of bread? 
 
 What is " jug " or " starter " yeast? 
 
 What kind of yeast would you use ? 
 
 What is salt-rising bread ? 
 
 Examine yeasts under the microscope, and make drawings. 
 
 
 
 References 
 
 ATWATER. " Bread and Bread Making," Farmers' Uidletin No. 389, 
 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 SNYDER. " Studies on Bread and Bread Making," Kitllelin No. 67, 
 
 Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 SNYDER. " Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread," 
 
 Bulletins Nos. 126, 143, 756, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. 
 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 WARDALL. " Relation of Yeast to Flavor in Bread," The Journal of 
 
 Home Economics, February, 1910. 
 JAGO. Bread and Bread Making. 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 SNYDER. Human Foods. 
 SIMMONS. The Book of Bread. 
 
 BEVIER. Some Points in the Making and Judging of Bread. 
 WOOD. Story of a Loaf of Bread. 
 
. ex &, ex a, &. 
 bo p p 3 3 3 
 
 u o o o u 
 
 " & 
 
 CO 
 
 rt 
 
 H <u 
 
 G O 
 
 O -1-; 
 
 M K M S e$ 
 
 <u re JD -3 E -i-S 
 
 PH O S < OH 
 
 H cs on ^ 
 666066 
 
 116 
 
oo 
 
 S. 
 O 
 
 w 
 
 "> Z 
 
 O 
 in 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 M 
 
 OH 
 
 hi 
 
 O 
 
 2 _ 
 
 tt s 
 
 i * 
 
 H O 
 
 w Z m 
 
 - vo 
 
 ^ 
 
 8 ^ 
 
 ro 
 
 S ^ 
 
 ^ * 
 
 = = 
 
 C/J 
 
 Q 
 O 
 O 
 ~ 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 /5 
 
 H 
 
 as 
 O 
 - 
 
 a 
 B 
 E- 
 
 a 
 as 
 
 0) 
 
 s 
 
 a a " S- 
 p 3 -3 3 
 
 w fto 
 
 HM one M w 
 
 n 
 a, 
 
 u 
 
 1-1 OT 
 
 
 "T 1 1 ^ "1" 
 
 rodvd * f*l 
 OCO ^- 
 
 \n 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 tn 
 
 ej 3 a V 9 g n 
 
 CJ O 2 " OJ Si 
 
 ,_^ pT) pj Q^ p , f| p*| 
 
 O " N ^ ^> 
 
 CO O^ H 1-1 i- 1-1 
 
 d 6 d 6 6 6 6 
 
 u 
 
 B 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 O M 1- 
 
 S R ' 
 
 
 
 a 5 
 
 o 
 
 JJ r*> w OSO 
 CTv ><^ 
 
 (ft 
 
 a 
 
 t/J tfl 
 
 4-J D 
 
 3 O 
 
 73 
 
 C 
 
 i 
 
 tfl 
 
 4) 
 
 <U 
 
 
 O CU 4J 
 
 a, < CQ W u 
 
 | 
 
 JH 
 
 "o 
 
 tx, 
 
 2 55 fc fc ^ ^ 
 
 117 
 
fc 
 o 
 
 PH 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 fl 
 
 H 
 < 
 fo 
 
 fa 
 O 
 
 H 
 2 
 
 > 
 O 
 
 8 
 
 < 
 u 
 S 
 
 tn 
 
 w . . 
 W 2 
 
 H < 
 fc os 
 
 < O 
 
 H o 
 
 O ^ 
 
 o ^ 
 
 K' 1 '^ 
 v-' 
 
 u 
 
 C/5 
 
 C 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 01 
 
 fa 
 o 
 
 C/J 
 
 H 
 
 OS 
 
 o 
 
 PH 
 
 U 
 
 ffi 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 OS 
 
 3 
 
 CO fl 
 
 II 
 
 CU -SJ -3 
 
 I. i 1 
 
 P<^, J2 co C 
 
 H 
 
 X 
 C 
 
 5 
 
 
 o- 
 
 \f\ 1-1 
 
 N 
 
 co T3 
 
 If 
 
 _. T3 -ix 
 
 l^< ^ ,. CO 
 
 2 2i "o cu bo 
 HoQOiffl W 
 
 o 
 
 \O t^ <X5 ON 
 
 66666 
 
 U 
 
 U) 
 
 \ 
 
 rj CO CO CO 
 
 . *J J_) 4-> 
 
 333 
 H CT C C C 
 to 
 
 H 8 
 
 B ft, 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 u-i w ^- 1/1 vo 
 
 O 1^ M N* H^ 
 
 ro in vd CO 
 
 VS (N| "1 VC VO 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 i "! 
 
 S 8 c 
 1 ^ J a 5 
 
 r- S 
 3 J^ ~- CU ^. 
 
 CQ U < * 
 
 4* i> 
 PH & 
 
 t- N ro <* u-, 
 
 d 6 6 d d 
 
 118 
 

 
 
 H 
 Z 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 f C/3 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 b) 
 
 I/) 
 
 3 33 
 
 -M S. 1 o. S 
 
 fl333r,3 
 
 04 
 
 - 
 
 (S 
 
 i ON v) M oo M M 
 
 ; "- 1 <N (N M 1-1 M (S 
 
 ON 
 O 
 
 * 
 
 o 
 tt "> 
 
 O oo 
 
 O ON 
 
 ON 
 
 
 t/i 
 
 Q 
 
 Db 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 U 
 
 w V 5 
 
 ~ S fe 
 
 < os 
 
 Cfl O 
 
 w < 
 
 ^. 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 _ U 
 
 a 7 ! w " 
 
 5 3 s h a 
 
 O -" M ff) -t 
 
 I-<K,__ __ 
 
 ddo'ddddod 
 
 eo 
 
 
 O w 
 
 M CU 
 
 s 
 
 u 
 
 t/3 
 
 Q 
 O 
 O 
 
 X, 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 X 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 H 
 
 S 
 O 
 
 C/2 
 
 pb 
 
 O 
 
 C/2 
 
 z 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 PL. 
 
 M 
 
 a a 
 
 Q. & 
 
 CX rt w 
 
 T3 co 1> cu C 
 
 rt bo he bc^ co s 
 
 >53 J5 -3 cr^ 4 " 
 
 "* -UN ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 bJO 
 C 
 
 r co 
 t CX 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 (S 
 
 H 
 
 X 
 
 U 
 
 1- 
 
 CN 
 
 "-> <N 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 (N 
 
 f. 
 Q 
 
 8 
 
 cu 
 
 J2 ^ 
 
 U W* 
 
 H M 
 
 CO 
 
 CD 
 
 O 
 
 co *-; 
 
 co 
 
 "O eo 
 
 c -y 
 
 1 
 
 <U ; 
 
 o 
 
 CJ fc, CQ 
 
 t^OO ON, 
 
 6 6 d 6 6 d d 6 d 
 
 119 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 FOOD REQUIREMENTS 
 
 In order to meet the needs of the human body, the 
 diet should contain the various nutrients, or food principles, 
 in proper amount and kind, and should furnish the neces- 
 sary energy. Proteins, fats, and carbohydrates are all 
 capable of furnishing energy, and so enable the body to 
 perform its work - - both internal and external - - and keep 
 it warm. Energy cannot be measured in terms of weight 
 or of dimension but in terms of heat or of work performed. 
 The unit of measure is the calorie, which is the amount 
 of heat needed to raise one pound of water four degrees 
 Fahrenheit, or the work necessary to raise one ton 1.53 feet. 
 The calorific value of any substance is determined by burning 
 a given weight in the calorimeter and determining the result- 
 ing heat. Protein and carbohydrate have about one half the 
 calorific, or fuel, value of the same weight of fat. If the 
 amount of protein, fat, and carbohydrate in the food is 
 known, the fuel value of the diet may easily be calculated. 
 
 Many studies of food requirements have been made, and 
 the results have led to the formation of so-called " standard 
 dietaries." Observation of the food eaten by people under 
 normal conditions has frequently been made and records 
 kept of the food consumed. Since these earlier observa- 
 tions of food customs, or habits, very careful experiments 
 have been conducted, investigating food requirements. 
 
 1 20 
 
FOOD REQUIREMENTS 121 
 
 Dr. Langworthy, Chief of Nutrition Investigations, says 
 that, for adults of moderate activity, the results ' do not 
 differ very markedly from a general average of 100 grams 
 of protein and 3000 calories of energy, and that it is fair 
 to say that, although foods may differ very decidedly, the 
 nutritive value of the diet in different regions and under 
 different circumstances is very much the same for a like 
 amount of muscular work." 
 
 It is fairly easy to determine the need of the body for 
 energy under given conditions, and to some extent fat, 
 carbohydrate, and protein may replace each other for this 
 purpose. Protein, it must be remembered, serves two pur- 
 poses in the body ; it builds and repairs tissue, and also 
 furnishes energy. While it is necessary to supply enough 
 protein to build tissue, it is desirable to depend quite largely 
 upon the fat and carbohydrate for energy. If protein is 
 eaten in too large amounts, it causes physiological disturb- 
 ances and frequently makes an undue tax upon the body. 
 In diseases, such as rheumatism and gout, the amount of 
 protein eaten is restricted, and meat is frequently forbidden. 
 There is a great difference of opinion among students of 
 nutrition as to the desirable amount of protein in the diet. 
 
 The factors most affecting total food requirement are 
 work, age, and size. In the adult, muscular exercise or 
 work has the most important influence upon diet. The 
 following estimates of the calorific need for the day are 
 given by Atwater : 
 
 Man without muscular work 2700 calories 
 
 Man with light muscular work .... 3000 calories 
 
 Man with moderate muscular work . . . 3500 calories 
 
 Man at hard muscular work , , , , , 4500 calories 
 
122 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 Lumbermen who engage in very heavy work and in the 
 open air have been known to use as much as 6000 calories 
 and more. 
 
 * 
 
 ' In general, it appears that the food requirements of 
 men and women of equal activity are in proportion to their 
 body weights. Women, on the average, weigh about 0.8 
 as much as men, and it is commonly assumed that if 
 equally active their food requirements will stand in the same 
 proportion. In apportioning the food of a family to its 
 different members it has become customary to make use 
 of some such conventional factors as the following : ' 
 
 Under i year. . . . . 100 calories per kilogram 
 
 1-2 years 100-90 calories per kilogram 
 
 2-5 years 90-80 calories per kilogram 
 
 6-9 years 80-70 calories per kilogram 
 
 10-13 years 70-60 calories per kilogram 
 
 14-17 years 60-45 calories per kilogram 
 
 Sherman, "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition" 
 
 Von Noorden suggests for adults the following allow- 
 ances : 
 
 At complete rest . . . . 3-35 calories per kilogram 
 
 With light exercise . . . 35-40 calories per kilogram 
 
 With moderate exercise . . 40-45 calories per kilogram 
 
 With hard muscular labor . 45-60 calories per kilogram 
 
 For the aged these figures should be lowered by one fourth. 
 The higher calorific allowance for children is due to their 
 great muscular activity, growth, and more intense physio- 
 logical activities. 
 
FOOD REQUIREMENTS 123 
 
 ONE-HUNDRED-CALORIE PORTIONS 
 
 It is frequently desirable to compare foods on the basis 
 of fuel value, and the amounts of foods shown in the table 
 on the following page will yield approximately one hun- 
 dred calories. These amounts are frequently referred to 
 as one-hundred-calorie portions. 
 
 The fuel value and composition of all ordinary foods 
 may be determined by consulting " Chemical Composition 
 of American Food Materials," Bulletin No. 28 \ Office of 
 Experiment Stations. 
 
 FOOD FOR THE INFANT 
 
 For infants the only proper food is milk. If artificial 
 feeding of an infant is necessary, a great responsibility rests 
 upon the one who selects the food, for it is well known that 
 the death rate is much higher where artificial feeding is 
 employed. While the composition of milk is important, 
 its cleanliness is a more vital factor. Ordinary milk con- 
 tains enormous numbers of bacteria, and some of these may 
 be dangerous. It is desirable to obtain a milk as free from 
 germs as possible, and it becomes necessary to know the 
 source and care of the milk supply. In the city market 
 the milk is graded according to cleanliness. The cleanest, 
 highest grade is known as certified milk, which sells from 
 fourteen to sixteen cents a quart. Sometimes the price is 
 even higher. Certified milk is used almost solely for in- 
 fants and invalids. The next grade is known as inspected 
 milk, and this is reasonably safe for ordinary use. For both 
 certified and inspected milk, the cows are tested for tuber- 
 culosis, and all the conditions of production are watched. 
 
124 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 ONE-HUNDRED-CALORIE PORTIONS 
 
 FOOD 
 
 QUANTITY 
 
 CONSTITUENTS FOR WHICH THESE 
 ARE CHIEFLY VALUED 
 
 Almonds 
 Apples 
 
 Bacon 
 Bananas 
 Beans (dried) 
 Beef (round) 
 Bread 
 Butter 
 Cabbage 
 Cheese 
 Chocolate 
 (bitter) 
 Corn meal 
 Cream 
 Dates 
 Eggs 
 
 Milk 
 Oatmeal 
 
 Olives 
 Oranges 
 
 Pickles 
 
 Pork chops 
 Potatoes 
 Prunes 
 Raisins 
 Rice 
 Sugar 
 Tomatoes 
 (canned) 
 
 12-15 
 
 1-2 
 
 Small serving 
 
 i 
 
 One serving (when cooked) 
 
 Small serving (i^ in. sq.) 
 
 i slice 
 
 i square or ball 
 
 small head 
 
 Small cube (i^ inches) 
 
 ^ square 
 i cup 
 ^-| cup 
 
 3-4 
 i 
 
 f cup 
 
 cup (cooked) 
 
 7-8 
 i large 
 
 1 5 cucumbers 
 sized) 
 
 1 very small 
 
 2 small 
 
 3-4 
 
 15-20 
 
 | cup (dry) 
 
 2 tablespoons 
 
 about i pint 
 
 (medium 
 
 Fat and protein 
 Carbohydrate, mineral mat- 
 ter, and bulk 
 Fat 
 
 Carbohydrate 
 Protein and carbohydrate 
 Protein and fat 
 Carbohydrate and protein 
 Fat 
 
 Bulk and carbohydrate 
 Protein and fat 
 
 Fat 
 
 Protein and fat 
 
 Fat 
 
 Carbohydrate 
 
 Protein, fat, and mineral 
 matter 
 
 Protein, fat, carbohydrate, 
 and mineral matter 
 
 Carbohydrate, mineral mat- 
 ter, and bulk 
 
 Fat 
 
 Mineral matter and carbo- 
 hydrate 
 
 Flavor 
 
 Fat and protein 
 
 Carbohydrate and bulk 
 
 Carbohydrate 
 
 Carbohydrate 
 
 Carbohydrate 
 
 Carbohydrate 
 
 Flavor 
 
FOOD REQUIREMENTS 125 
 
 The third grade is known as market milk and is much less 
 rigidly inspected. This grading of milk is a good illustration 
 of the fact that cleanliness costs money. For the feeding 
 of infants the very best milk should be used. This is 
 frequently modified to suit the age and needs of the infant 
 by changing its composition. Water, milk sugar, and cream 
 are very commonly added to cow's milk. 
 
 Frequent attempts have been made to prepare artificial 
 foods for infants, and many are found on the market. 
 Some of these manufactured foods are lacking in mineral 
 salts and some contain starch - - a carbohydrate which does 
 not occur in milk and which is entirely unsuited to a young 
 infant. In general, the proportion and nature of the nutri- 
 ents differ from those of milk and frequently they are not 
 good substitutes for milk. Many times children apparently 
 thrive on these prepared foods, but usually they are large 
 and flabby, and have less ability to resist disease than 
 normally fed children. Whether the food of an infant is 
 natural or artificial, it should be given with great regularity. 
 
 During the second year solid food may be introduced 
 into a child's diet, but great care should be used in its 
 selection. Milk will still be the basis of the diet, and suit- 
 able materials may be added, such as a soft-poached egg, 
 thoroughly dried and toasted bread, orange juice, baked 
 apple, thoroughly cooked prunes, and cereals, junket, and 
 rice pudding. Sugar should be used very sparingly, and 
 should not be permitted with the cereal or fruit, for the 
 sugar habit is easily formed, and the easiest way to avoid 
 its overuse by the child is not to use it the first time. Only 
 the pulp of the fruit should be used, and if the cereal is 
 coarse, it may be put through a strainer to remove a portion 
 
126 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 of the cellulose. During the second year the food should 
 be given in four or five meals at regular intervals. The 
 second year of a child's life is an important one for its 
 future welfare. Many of the health disturbances arise from 
 improper food. The fact that some children thrive in spite 
 of being improperly fed is no reason for taking the risk 
 with other children. 
 
 After the second year fruits and vegetables may be sup- 
 plied in greater variety, but meat should be sparingly used 
 for the first eight years. Eggs, milk, bread, and cereals, 
 with fruits and vegetables, should make up the bulk of 
 a child's diet. Sugar should be added to the diet with 
 some care. It is better given at the end of the meal in a 
 simple dessert, such as rice pudding, custard, figs, raisins, 
 or occasionally a wholesome homemade candy. Sugar is 
 used to excess usually with the cereal, fruit, and beverages, 
 and these food habits should never be formed. Tea and 
 coffee should never be given to a child, but the habit of 
 drinking water should be encouraged. With thought and 
 tact on the part of older people, the child will develop a 
 liking for most ordinary, plain foods. All fancy and rich 
 made dishes, especially those which are highly flavored, 
 should be rigidly excluded from the meals of a child. 
 
 The importance of proper food for the child in school is 
 recognized more and more, as is shown by the action of 
 school authorities and other interested parties in providing 
 food at school. Frequently, as a result, better health follows, 
 better order is found in the schoolroom, and lessons are 
 better learned. Food, especially when eaten in the middle 
 of the study period of the day, should be light and easy of 
 digestion. Eggs and milk will be a safe foundation and 
 
FOOD REQUIREMENTS 127 
 
 should be used more generously than meat. The pennies 
 of school children are most commonly spent for candy and 
 pickles. It is better to include in the meal some wholesome 
 sweet and acid so that the craving for these things is satis- 
 fied. Figs, dates, and raisins are desirable sweets for a 
 child's lunch. Ice cream, if wholesome, is a valuable food, 
 but that obtained from street venders is so frequently bad 
 that it is dangerous to buy it. If the lunch is served at 
 school, milk, soups, and cocoa or plain milk with crackers 
 are good. Fresh and stewed fruits and vegetables should 
 be liberally used. Good bread and butter is always desirable. 
 Cookies, gingerbread, sponge cakes, and other mixtures 
 which are not rich may well be included in the meals of 
 children to supply variety and attractiveness. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 Using the table for one-hundred-calorie portions, plan the three 
 meals of a day which will have a total fuel value of 2500 calories. 
 
 Estimate the calorific value of an ordinary breakfast. 
 
 Using the tables given in this chapter, plan a day's meals for a 
 man who is digging a ditch or sawing wood ; a day's meals for 
 a bookkeeper. The weight of both men is assumed to be 175 pounds. 
 
 Plan one week's suitable noon lunches for a child in school. 
 
 Test for starch several samples of prepared infant's food. How 
 is this done ? 
 
 References 
 
 SHERMAN. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. 
 JORDAN. Principles of Human Nutrition. 
 ROSE. Laboratory Manual of Dietetics. 
 HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. 
 LUSK. Science of Nutrition. 
 MENDEL. Childhood and Growth. 
 
 HUNT. "Daily Meals for School Children," Bulletin No. 3, Bureau of 
 Education. 
 
128 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 " School Lunches," The Journal of Home Economics, February, 1910, 
 April, 1910, December, 1910. 
 
 Psychological Clinic, University of Pennsylvania, Symposium on School 
 Feeding. 
 
 " Classified List of Foods," Yearbook, 1909, Department of House- 
 hold Science, Illinois Farmers' Institute. 
 
 ATWATER and BRYANT. " Chemical Composition of American Food 
 Materials," Bulletin No. 28, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 SELECTION OF FOOD 
 
 A few generations ago, when people produced much of 
 their own food and transportation facilities were not so 
 well developed, the variety of food at hand was not so 
 great as now, and the possibilities of choice were not 
 so many or so confusing. The choice of food for human 
 beings is a real responsibility and should be more clearly 
 recognized. Unfortunately, appetite is not always a safe 
 guide, for food habits are rather easily formed, and an 
 abnormal appetite is as easily and quickly formed as a 
 normal, or correct, one. Appetite, or food habit, may lead 
 to the eating of too much as well as to the eating of too 
 little food. Both overnutrition and undernutrition may 
 be commonly observed in people, due not only to too 
 much or too little food eaten, but to food that is not 
 wisely chosen. The only remedy for bad food habits is 
 some real knowledge of the value of foods, as well as a 
 knowledge of the individuals who are to eat them. At the 
 present time any progressive stockman or farmer can tell 
 what kind and amount of food is being given to the calf 
 or the pig, but not many women in the same families have 
 an equal knowledge of the food which is being given to 
 the children, or to the grown-up members of the family. 
 Mrs. Richards says, "Not all other influences put together 
 
 can equal in profound effect upon the welfare of the 
 
 129 
 
130 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 household that exercised by food and the attitude of mind 
 'regarding it." Sugar is more nearly chemically pure than 
 any of our ordinary food products ; starch is practically 
 pure carbohydrate, but most all of our common food mate- 
 rials contain two or more nutrients or food principles, and 
 a knowledge of the composition is necessary to a wise 
 choice of foods. 
 
 It is not only desirable that a person cultivate a liking, 
 or taste, for all ordinary foods, but it is really a duty. In 
 many cases so-called dislikes are only mistaken notions, 
 and indicate bad food habits or poorly prepared food. 
 Criticism of food at the table is not desirable and should 
 never occur, as this is a strong influence in forming fancied 
 dislikes and cultivating bad food habits. 
 
 In the ordinary family there are both children and 
 adults, and the differences in their need of food should 
 be borne in mind. Certain peculiarities or abnormal con- 
 ditions may need to be considered in connection with the 
 individual. There should be a wide difference between 
 the food of an infant and an adult, and errors in the nu- 
 trition of the infant and the growing child may affect the 
 health in later years. 
 
 To properly select food, its chemical composition must 
 be understood and interpreted in the terms of nutrients, 
 or food principles - - water, mineral matter, protein, carbo- 
 hydrate, and fat. ' Chemical Composition of American 
 Food Materials," Bulletin No. 28, gives the composition of 
 all our ordinary foods. The figures cannot be remembered, 
 but it is not too much to ask that the one who selects food 
 should have in mind the general composition of the food 
 materials. 
 
SELECTION OF FOOD 
 
 The table below suggests the nutrients for which some 
 common foods are especially valued. 
 
 PROTEIX 
 
 FAT 
 
 CARBOHYDRATE 
 
 MINERAL CONTENT 
 
 Meat 
 
 Butter 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Green vegetables 
 
 Eggs 
 
 Cream 
 
 Starch 
 
 Fruits 
 
 Milk 
 
 Bacon 
 
 Bread 
 
 Eggs 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Cereals 
 
 Milk 
 
 Legumes 
 
 Nuts 
 
 Dried fruits 
 
 
 Nuts 
 
 Fat meat 
 
 Rice 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 
 
 
 Macaroni 
 
 
 
 
 Hominy 
 
 
 
 
 Tapioca 
 
 
 
 
 Dried beans 
 
 
 It is not often that we select foods because of a high 
 water content, for water is so easily obtainable elsewhere, 
 but the following foods contain a large amount of water : 
 milk, green vegetables (such as celery, lettuce, cabbage, 
 cucumbers, and tomatoes), fresh fruits, and shell fish (such 
 as oysters and clams). 
 
 Oatmeal, graham flour, green vegetables, and fruits 
 furnish bulk to the diet. 
 
 Cost is a very real factor in selecting food, but it is not 
 always properly considered. A cheap food is one which 
 contains a large amount of nutritive material for a given 
 sum of money- -not necessarily one of low money cost. 
 Cost is in no way a measure of the value of a food. Rarity, 
 flavor, distance from market, season, and other factors 
 enter into the money cost. Generally speaking, meats, 
 dairy products, and vegetables and fruits out of season are 
 high-priced foods. Plant foods, as a whole, are cheaper 
 
132 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 than animal foods ; the cheapest foods are the cereals and 
 legumes. The cost of fuel for cooking any food must be 
 added to the cost of the raw material. Sometimes a sav- 
 ing in the cost of food may be made by buying in large 
 quantity and storing. 
 
 PLANNING MEALS 
 
 Since so many factors enter into the wise selection of 
 food, the planning of meals should be a subject for study. 
 The housekeeper who carefully plans the meals for several 
 days, or at least one day, in advance is able to select more 
 wisely, buy more advantageously, secure more pleasing 
 meals, and do it with less friction than the one who does 
 not. Such a woman is in sharp contrast to the one who 
 goes into the kitchen shortly before a meal, finds a lack 
 of the things wanted, and starts the children in hurried 
 trips to the store for the first article of food which comes 
 to her mind as one that can be quickly prepared. The 
 dropping of this careless habit would be much appreciated 
 by the grocer, as well as by the members of the household. 
 
 In planning meals the tastes of the family should be 
 taken into account to a certain extent. Real likes and dis- 
 likes should be carefully distinguished from whimsical 
 notions. In every case the food should be so prepared 
 and served that it is pleasing both in flavor and appear- 
 ance. Monotony in meals is not necessary and indicates 
 lack of thought and care. Variety in food has both a 
 psychological and a physiological value. This may be ob- 
 tained by using different foods or by using different 
 methods for preparing and serving the same food. Meat 
 and potatoes, for instance, need not always be fried. 
 
SELECTION OF FOOD 133 
 
 A knowledge of the composition of food will prevent the 
 serving of too many starchy foods at one meal, such as rice 
 and potatoes, or macaroni and bread pudding ; or too many 
 foods high in protein, as meat and cheese or legumes. 
 
 Foods should be combined for a meal not only on the 
 basis of composition, but with regard to flavor. Too many 
 acid, sweet, or strong-flavored foods should not be com- 
 bined in one meal, and should bear a proper relation to 
 one another. 
 
 Experience shows that dishes of somewhat different char- 
 acter are chosen for the three meals of the day. Americans 
 are tending toward the simple European breakfast of rolls 
 or toast and coffee, although fruit, cereals, and sometimes 
 a hot dish of some sort is added. The heavy meal of the 
 day is dinner, whether served at noon or at night. In 
 addition to the meat course, a salad course and a dessert 
 course are often served. Frequently a soup course precedes 
 the meat course. The soup and salad courses are some- 
 times omitted. The luncheon or supper is a lighter meal. 
 
 In planning meals the amount of labor involved in 
 preparing the food should be taken into account. 
 
 After food is wisely chosen, well prepared, and properly 
 combined for a meal, some thought should be spent on 
 its serving, for this may either add to or detract from 
 the meal. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 Make a list of dishes suitable for the three meals of the day. 
 
 Suggest the more expensive dishes which appear in this list. 
 
 Suggest the dishes on this list which require a long time in 
 preparation. 
 
 Plan meals for a day which will be low in cost; medium in cost; 
 high in cost. Discuss and criticize. 
 
134 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 References 
 
 * * 
 
 LANGWORTHY. " Food Customs and Diet in American Homes," Cir- 
 cular No. no, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture. 
 
 RICHARDS. Cost of Food. 
 
 RICHARDS. Cost of Living. 
 
 NORTON. Food and Dietetics. 
 
 " Rules and Regulations for the Enforcement of the Food and Drugs 
 Act," Circular No. 21, Last Revision, Office of the Secretary, U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " Classified List of Foods," Yearbook, 1909, Department of Household 
 Science, Illinois Farmers' Institute. 
 
 ATWATER and BRYANT. " Chemical Composition of American Food 
 Materials," Bulletin No. 28, U.S. Office of Experiment Stations, 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 SERVING MEALS 
 
 The dining room should be cleaned, aired, and in order. 
 The linen should be as good as possible and carefully laun- 
 dered, and the silver should be kept in good condition. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING THE TABLE 
 
 If tablecloth is to be used, cover table first with silence 
 cloth for protection, then put on tablecloth with middle 
 fold in center of table. On tables of handsome wood, 
 luncheon is often served without a cloth, individual doilies 
 being used under all the dishes. 
 
 A ' cover ' is a place at table for each person and 
 should consist of plate, napkin, glass, knives, forks, and 
 spoons necessary for the meal. Twenty inches of space is 
 the least that should be allowed for each cover ; and on 
 formal occasions 30 inches should be given. The depth 
 of cover is from 15 to 16 inches. 
 
 Knives are placed at the right of the plate and about 
 | inch from the edge of the table with the cutting edge 
 turned toward the plate. If more than one knife is used, 
 lay the last one to be used nearest the r3late, the first knife 
 to be used farthest from the plate, and the others in order 
 of using. At the right of the knife or knives lay spoons 
 with bowls up, in order of using. On formal occasions 
 
136 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 when a number are required they may be laid by the plate 
 at the time of serving the course for which they are needed. 
 
 Forks are placed, tines up, at the left of plate in the 
 order of using, except the oyster fork, which is placed at 
 right of spoons. 
 
 The napkin is folded and laid at the left of the forks, 
 or in the center of the place. 
 
 The glass should be three quarters filled with water and 
 placed at the right of cover, just above the point of the 
 knife. 
 
 The bread-and-butter plate is at the left above the forks. 
 
 Individual salts and peppers are placed in front of each 
 cover, or salt and pepper shakers may be placed between 
 each two covers or at corners of the table. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR SERVING 
 
 Trays are used to carry silver, small dishes, and those 
 dishes on which fingers are apt to come in contact with 
 the food. Large dishes are sometimes more easily carried 
 on a folded napkin. 
 
 Be sure that hot dishes are served hot and cold dishes 
 cold. 
 
 Dishes from which portions are to be taken should be 
 passed to the left. 
 
 Dishes containing only individual portions are placed at 
 the right with the right hand. 
 
 When a course is removed, take first all large dishes 
 containing food, then all soiled china, glass, and silver, then 
 clean glass, silver, and china, and all things pertaining only 
 to that course. Never pile dishes on one another. One 
 may be removed in each hand or small pieces may be set 
 
SERVING MEALS 
 
 137 
 
 beside one another on a tray. Take the plates and other 
 dishes from the right side of the cover. 
 
 Crumbs are removed before the dessert course and 
 between other courses if necessary. A clean napkin and 
 plate are satisfactory for this purpose. 
 
 The waitress should see that glasses are kept filled, 
 butter, bread, and rolls always supplied without being asked 
 for, and other things at hand as needed. 
 
 Remove every soiled dish from the table as soon as the 
 purpose which it has served is over. Move noiselessly and 
 avoid all clatter of dishes. 
 
 In serving begin with hostess or guest of honor (the 
 lady at the right of the host) and pass to the other guests 
 in order. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES 
 
 r . From a given list of materials, such as the following, plan and 
 prepare a meal for one person. Select either Group I or Group II 
 and use any desired materials from the Common Supplies. 
 
 GROUP I 
 
 .GROUP II 
 
 COMMON 
 
 SUPPLIES 
 
 i potato 
 
 Rice or macaroni 
 
 Ice 
 
 Flour 
 
 i egg 
 
 i egg 
 
 Butter 
 
 c tomato 
 
 \ c milk 
 
 ^ c milk 
 
 Bread 
 
 Gelatin 
 
 Salmon 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 Flavoring 
 
 Orange or 
 
 Pineapple or 
 
 Lemon 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 Canned fruit 
 
 Canned fruit 
 
 Sugar 
 
 
 Serve appropriately. Compare the meals as to originality, desira- 
 bility, and attractiveness of service. 
 
 2. Plan the three meals of the day for six persons at a cost of 
 $1.80, or 30 cents each. 
 
 Make and hand in the order list. 
 
138 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 Prepare and serve the meals. Score according to meal score card 
 in the Appendix. 
 
 Tabulate, in form similar to the one indicated below, the amount 
 and cost of materials used. 
 
 FOODS 
 
 AMOUNT 
 
 COST 
 
 Calculate the cost of fuel used in preparation of the above meals, 
 and the cost of labor at ten cents per hour. 
 
 What is the total cost of the meals of the day ? 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 FOOD STANDARDS 
 
 The fact that poorly prepared food is often found sug- 
 gests the need of better standards. It is easy and natural 
 to like the things to which we are accustomed, and often- 
 times a family is found which is fond of its own particular 
 kind of sour bread, or its hard-fried, leathery beefsteak. 
 Comparison is one of the best means of setting a good 
 standard, and the score card affords a ready means of 
 emphasizing the good or bad points of an article. The 
 following score cards have been found useful, and others 
 could be easily formulated. 
 
 BREAD 1 (WHITE, SALT-RISING, RYE, GRAHAM) 
 
 Flavor 35 
 
 Lightness 15 
 
 Grain and Texture 20 
 
 Crust 
 
 Color 
 
 Depth I 10 
 
 Texture 
 
 ^ 
 
 Crumb 
 
 Color 
 
 I 10 
 
 Moisture J 
 
 Shape and Size 10 
 
 100 
 
 1 Illinois score card for bread. Bevier. 
 
 139 
 
140 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 STEAMED BROWN BREAD AND CORN BREAD 
 
 Flavor 40 
 
 Lightness 15 
 
 Texture 20 
 
 Crust 10 
 
 Appearance 15 
 
 100 
 
 LOAF CAKES 
 
 Flavor 35 
 
 Lightness ,' 15 
 
 Texture 20 
 
 Crust 10 
 
 Appearance 
 
 Shape, Size "1 
 
 Color of Crust L 20 
 
 Icing J 
 
 IOO 
 
 LAYER CAKES 
 
 Flavor 30 
 
 Lightness ........... 15 
 
 Texture 20 
 
 Icing 20 
 
 Appearance . 15 
 
 IOO 
 
 COOKIES, DOUGHNUTS, AND FANCY CAKES 
 
 Flavor 40 
 
 Lightness 15 
 
 Texture 20 
 
 Appearance 
 
 Form "j 
 
 Size, etc. 5- 25 
 
 Additions J 
 
 IOO 
 
FOOD STANDARDS 141 
 
 PIES 
 
 Flavor 40 
 
 Crust 
 
 Flakiness "i 
 
 _ > 40 
 
 Tenderness j 
 
 Appearance 20 
 
 100 
 CANDY 
 
 Flavor 50 
 
 Texture 30 
 
 Appearance 20 
 
 100 
 CANNED FRUIT 
 
 Flavor 60 
 
 Color 15 
 
 Condition of Fruit 15 
 
 Consistency of Sirup 10 
 
 100 
 
 JELLY 
 
 Flavor 50 
 
 Color 15 
 
 Consistency 20 
 
 Texture 15 
 
 100 
 PRESERVES^ 
 
 Flavor |o 
 
 Color 15 
 
 Consistency of Sirup 20 
 
 Condition of Fruit 15 
 
 100 
 PICKLES, CATSUP, ETC. 
 
 Flavor 60 
 
 Condition 25 
 
 Color . 15 
 
 100 
 
142 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 FRUIT BUTTER AND MARMALADE 
 
 Flavor 60 
 
 Consistency 25 
 
 Color . . 15 
 
 100 
 SCORE CARD FOR A MEAL 
 
 Selection of food 
 
 Quality of materials 
 
 Combination of nutrients 
 
 Combination of flavors 
 
 Variety and suitability 
 
 Preparation of food 35 
 
 Service 
 
 Table appointments 
 
 Attractiveness of food 
 
 Table service 
 
 s 
 
 100 
 
 CONTESTS 
 
 The contest may be a valuable means of making com- 
 parisons and forming standards. A bread-judging contest 
 is frequently arranged for a class or a club, in which a 
 number of loaves of bread are judged, according to the 
 score card, by the contestants. Other contests could easily 
 be arranged in the same way. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 RETAIL CUTS OF BEEF 
 
 [Reprint from Bulletin No. fj8, University of Illinois, Agricultural Experiment 
 Station, by L. D. Hall and A. D. Emmett, to be used in connection with their 
 
 photographs of retail cuts] 
 
 Taking the net cost of the lean meat as a basis of comparison, 
 we learn from these data that the most expensive steaks at the 
 prices given are the porterhouse cuts, followed by the club, sir- 
 loin, flank, round, and chuck steaks. Of the different roasts the 
 first-cut prime ribs are the most costly in terms of lean meat, 
 and the rump roast is the most economical. The various boil- 
 ing and stewing pieces furnish lean meat more economically at 
 market prices than either the roasts or steaks ; the rib ends and 
 briskets being the dearer cuts of this class, while the neck and 
 shank stews are relatively cheapest. Several of the soup bones 
 are very economical sources of lean meat, particularly the mid- 
 dle cuts of both shanks ; and only one of them is extremely 
 expensive, even on this basis. In general, the wide variation 
 between the various cuts in net cost of lean is remarkable, 
 ranging from 7.5 cents in one of the soup bones to 40.5 cents 
 in a prime rib roast, and up to 62.5 cents in the hock soup 
 bone ; the latter, however, being used primarily for its flavoring 
 substance rather than for lean meat. It will be observed, also, 
 that the market prices of the cheaper cuts correspond much 
 more closely to their net cost of lean meat than is true of the 
 higher-priced steaks and roasts. 
 
 The net cost per pound of gross meat, or lean and fat com- 
 bined, varies much less as between the different cuts than does 
 the net cost per pound of lean, because the proportions of total 
 meat are more nearly uniform than the percentages of lean. 
 
144 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 The various steaks and roasts rank in substantially the same 
 order as to relative economy on this basis as on the basis of 
 lean meat. The rib roasts, however, are considerably more 
 economical as compared with the porterhouse and sirloin steaks 
 when all the edible meat is considered. The rump shows a 
 very low cost per pound of edible meat, due to the large pro- 
 portion of fat it contains ; and a still further difference is noticed 
 in the case of the rib ends, brisket, navel, flank, neck, and sev- 
 eral of the soup-bone cuts. The stewing meats are generally the 
 most economical sources of edible meat at these prices, while 
 porterhouse steaks are the most expensive. 
 
 On the whole, the data clearly show that the cheaper cuts 
 of beef are by far the most economical sources both of lean 
 and of total edible meat, including fat and lean. It has been 
 shown that no correlation exists between market prices and the 
 proportion of flavoring substances contained in various portions 
 of the carcass ; and cooking tests indicate that the proportion 
 of waste and shrinkage is not necessarily greater in the cheaper 
 than in the more expensive cuts. It is evident, therefore, that 
 retail prices of beef cuts are determined chiefly by considera- 
 tions other than their food value, such as tenderness, grain, 
 color, general appearance, and convenience of cooking. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 145 
 
 COST OF LEAN AND OF TOTAL MEAT IN THE VARIOUS RETAIL 
 
 CUTS AT MARKET PRICES 
 
 RETAIL CUTS 
 
 DIAGRAM 
 NUMBER 
 (PAGE 147) 
 
 RETAIL 
 PRICE (IN 
 CENTS) 
 PER POUND 
 OF CUT 
 
 COST (IN 
 CENTS) PER 
 POUND OF 
 LEAN MEAT 
 IN CUT 
 
 COST (IN 
 CENTS) PER 
 POUND OF 
 LEAN AND 
 FAT MEAT 
 IN CUT 
 
 Steaks 
 
 
 
 
 
 Porterhouse, hip-bone 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 3 8.6 
 
 28.9 
 
 Porterhouse, regular 
 
 10 
 
 2 5 
 
 40.2 
 
 27.2 
 
 Club steak 
 
 18 
 
 2O 
 
 32.1 
 
 22.6 
 
 Sirloin, butt-end 
 
 i 
 
 2O 
 
 2 5-3 
 
 20.6 
 
 Sirloin, round-bone 
 
 3 
 
 2O 
 
 28. 3 
 
 21. 1 
 
 Sirloin, double-bone 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 28.7 
 
 22.7 
 
 Sirloin, hip-bone 
 
 7 
 
 2O 
 
 32.3 
 
 24.2 
 
 Flank steak 
 
 i 
 
 16 
 
 19-3 
 
 16.0 
 
 Round, first cut 
 
 2 
 
 15^ 
 
 17.0 
 
 15-3- 
 
 Round, middle cut 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 17-3 
 
 15.6 
 
 Round, last cut 
 
 M 
 
 15 
 
 19-3 
 
 1 6.0 
 
 Chuck, first cut 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 I8. 3 
 
 14.1 
 
 Chuck, last cut 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 '57 
 
 I3-I 
 
 Roasts 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prime ribs, first cut 
 
 i 
 
 2O 
 
 40.5 
 
 22.9 
 
 Prime ribs, last cut 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 26.1 
 
 18.8 
 
 Chuck, fifth rib 
 
 i 
 
 15 
 
 22.8 
 
 17-3 
 
 Rump 
 
 i 
 
 12 
 
 194 
 
 12.8 
 
 Boiling and stewing pieces 
 
 
 
 
 
 Round pot roast 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 11.6 
 
 IO.I 
 
 Shoulder clod 
 
 '4 
 
 10 
 
 12.3 
 
 10.5 
 
 Shoulder pot roast 
 
 ii 
 
 10 
 
 14-3 
 
 u.6 
 
 Rib ends 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 16.2 
 
 9.2 
 
 Brisket 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 15.0 
 
 8.7 
 
 Navel 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12.8 
 
 7-7 
 
 Flank stew 
 
 ^ 
 
 7 
 
 10.9 
 
 7-i 
 
 Fore shank stew 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 8.5 
 
 7.0 
 
 Neck 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 8.5 
 
 7.0 
 
 Soup bones 
 
 
 
 
 
 Round, knuckle 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 26.3 
 
 12.5 
 
 Hind shank, middle cut 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 7-5 
 
 6-3 
 
 Hind shank, hock 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 62.5 
 
 26.6 
 
 Fore shank, knuckle 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 17.2 
 
 12.5 
 
 Fore shank, middle cut 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 12.5 
 
 9.4 
 
 Fore shank, end 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 28.8 
 
 20.9 
 
146 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 Chuck 
 (knuckle out) 
 
 HIND QUARTER 
 Round 
 
 Rump 
 
 Round with rump and shank off 
 
 Hind shank 
 
 Loin 
 Flank 
 
 FORE QUARTER 
 Rib 
 
 Chuck 
 
 Chuck, knuckle out 
 
 Clod 
 
 Neck 
 
 Plate 
 Shank 
 
 METHOD OF CUTTING THE THREE SIDES, SHOWING WHOLESALE CUTS 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 147 
 
 Round 
 
 HIND QUARTER 
 
 Rump 
 
 1, rump 
 
 Round with rump and shank off 
 
 2, round steak, first cut 
 3-13, round steaks 
 
 14, round steak, last cut 
 
 15, knuckle soup bone 
 
 16, pot roast 
 
 Hind shank 
 
 17, 1 8, soup bones 
 19, hock soup bone 
 
 Loin 
 
 1, butt-end sirloin steak 
 
 2, wedge-bone sirloin steak 
 
 3, 4, round-bone sirloin steak 
 5, 6, double-bone sirloin steak 
 
 7, hip-bone sirloin steak 
 
 8, hip-bone porterhouse steak 
 9-15, regular porterhouse steak 
 1 6- 18, club steaks 
 
 Flank 
 
 i, flank steak 
 
 2, stew 
 
 Rib 
 
 FORE QUARTER 
 
 1, nth and i2th rib roast 
 
 2, gth and loth rib roast 
 
 3, /th and 8th rib roast 
 
 4, 6th rib roast 
 
 Chuck 
 
 i, 5th rib roast 
 2-9, chuck steaks 
 10-13, pot roasts 
 
 14, clod 
 
 15, neck 
 
 Plate 
 
 1, brisket 
 
 2, navel 
 
 3, 4, rib ends 
 
 Fore shank 
 
 i, stew 
 
 2, knuckle soup bone 
 3-6, soup bones 
 
 Neck 
 
 METHOD OF CUTTING THE THREE SIDES, SHOWING RETAIL CUTS 
 
148 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 FIRST CUT SIRLOIN STEAK. LOIN CUT No. i 
 
 WEDGE-BONE SIRLOIN STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 2 
 
 ROUND-BONE SIRLOIN STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 3 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 149 
 
 ROUND-BONE SIRLOIN STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 4 
 
 DOUBLE-BONE SIRLOIN STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 5 
 
 HIP-BONE SIRLOIN STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 7 
 
ISO 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 HIP-BONE PORTERHOUSE STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 8 
 
 REGULAR PORTERHOUSE STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 9 
 
 REGULAR PORTERHOUSE STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 10 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 REGULAR PORTERHOUSE STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 12 
 
 REGULAR PORTERHOUSE STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 13 
 
 REGULAR PORTERHOUSE STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 14 
 
152 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 REGULAR PORTERHOUSE STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 15 
 
 CLUB STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 16 
 
 CLUB STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 17 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 153 
 
 CLUB STEAK. LOIN CUT No. 18 
 
 ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH RIB ROAST. RIB CUT No. i 
 
 NINTH AND TENTH RIB ROAST. RIB CUT No. 2 
 
154 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 SEVENTH AND EIGHTH RIB ROAST. RIB CUT No. 3 
 
 SIXTH RIB ROAST. RIB CUT No. 4 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 155 
 
 RUMP ROAST. ROUND CUT No. i 
 
 ROUND STEAK. ROUND CUT No. 2 
 
I 5 6 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 ROUND STEAK. ROUND CUT No. 3 
 
 ROUND STEAK. ROUND CUT No. 4 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 157 
 
 ROUND STEAK. ROUND CUT No. 5 
 
 ROUND STEAK. ROUND CUT No. 6 
 
158 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 ROUND STEAK. ROUND CUT No. 7 
 
 ROUND STEAK. ROUND CUT No. 8 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 159 
 
 ROUND STEAK. ROUND CUT No. 12 
 
 -- 
 
 
 ROUND STEAK. ROUND CUT No. 14 
 
 HIND-SHANK SOUP BONE. ROUND CUTS Nos. 17, 18, 19 
 
i6o 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 ROUND POT ROAST. ROUND CUT No. 16 
 
 KNUCKLE SOUP BONE. ROUND CUT No. 15 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 161 
 
 CHUCK RIB ROAST. CHUCK CUT No. i 
 
 CHUCK STEAK. CHUCK CUT No. 2 
 
 CHUCK STEAK. CHUCK CUT No. 3 
 
162 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 CHUCK STEAK. CHUCK CUT No. 4 
 
 CHUCK STEAK. CHUCK CUT No. 5 
 
 CHUCK STEAK. CHUCK CUT No. 6 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 CHUCK STEAK. CHUCK CUT No. 7 
 
 CHUCK STEAK. CHUCK CUT No. 8 
 
164 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 CHUCK STEAK. CHUCK CUT No. 9 
 
 SHOULDER POT ROAST. CHUCK CUT No. 10 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 I6 5 
 
 ^- 
 
 
 
 Sim i I.I.KR POT ROAST. CHUCK CUT No. n 
 
 SHOULDER POT ROAST. CHUCK CUT No. 12 
 
1 66 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 CHUCK STEW. CHUCK CUT No. 13. 
 
 SHOULDER CLOD. CHUCK CUT No. 14 
 
 NECK. CHUCK CUT No. 15 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 167 
 
 BRISKET. PLATE CUT No. i 
 
 NAVEL. PLATE CUT No. 2 
 
 I 
 
 RIB ENDS. PLATE CUT No. 3 
 
1 68 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 RIB ENDS. PLATE CUT No. 4 
 
 FLANK STEW. FLANK CUT No. i 
 
 FLANK STEAK. FLANK CUT No. 2 
 
RETAIL CUTS 
 
 169 
 
 SHANK STEW. FORE-SHANK CUT No. i 
 
 KNUCKLE SOUP BONES. FORE-SHANK CUTS Nos. 2, 3 
 
 FORE-SHANK SOUP BONES. FORE-SHANK CUTS Nos. 4, 5, 6 
 
INDEX 
 
 Albumen, 61, 62 
 
 Almonds, 124 
 
 Apples, dried, 15; baked, 17; fuel 
 
 value of, 124 
 Apricots, dried, 15 
 Ash in milk, 54 
 Asparagus, 17 
 
 Bacon, 124 
 
 Baking powder, 103-104 
 
 Baking soda, 102 
 
 Hananas, 124 
 
 Beans, as a green vegetable, 17; 
 dried, 51, 124 ; baked, 52 ; cream 
 of Lima, 53 
 
 Beef. See Meat 
 
 Beef broth, 74-75 
 
 Beets, 17 
 
 Biscuit, 105 
 
 Body energy, 120-127 
 
 Bread, corn, 103 ; composition of, 
 108-111; score card for, m- 
 112; effect of temperatures upon 
 yeast, 112; long-process, 113; 
 short-process, 113-114; whole- 
 wheat, graham, or rye, 114; 
 Parker House rolls, 114; cin- 
 namon rolls, 114; fuel value of, 
 1 24 ; Illinois score card for, 1 39- 
 140 
 
 Butter, 124 
 
 Butterscotch, 35 
 
 Cabbage, 17, 124; escaloped, 19 
 Cake, sponge, 101 ; white sponge, 
 
 1 02 ; white, 104 ; score card for, 
 
 140 
 
 Canning powders, 23 
 Carbohydrates, value of, 2 ; study 
 
 of, 3-4 ; starch, 37 ; in milk, 54 ; 
 
 pectin, 87 ; in some common 
 
 foods, 116; fuel value of, 120- 
 121 
 
 Carrots, 17 
 
 Cauliflower, 17 
 
 Cereals and cereal products, 43- 
 48 ; composition and food value 
 of, 43-45 ; boiled rice, 45 ; es- 
 caloped rice, 46 ; rice pudding, 
 46 ; boiled macaroni, 46 ; maca- 
 roni with tomato sauce, 46-47 ; 
 advantage of long cooking, 47 ; 
 corn-meal mush, 47 ; fried mush, 
 47 ; rolled oats, 47-48 
 
 Cheese, 65-67; composition and 
 food value of, 65 ; effect of heat 
 on, 66; Welsh rabbit, 66; French 
 rabbit, 66 ; fuel value of, 1 24 
 
 Cheese crackers, 66 
 
 Cheese and pimento sandwiches, 
 66-67 
 
 Chocolate, 58, 124 
 
 Chocolate creams, 35 
 
 Codfish balls, 84-85 
 
 Coffee, 13 
 
 Corn, water in cooking, 17; 
 canned, 25-26 
 
 Corn meal, as a food, 44; for bread, 
 97, 103; fuel value of, 124 
 
 Corn-meal mush, 47 
 
 Cornstarch pudding, 38 
 
 Cottage cheese, 58 
 
 Cream, 124 
 
 Croquettes, beef, 79 ; fish, 85 ; 
 potato, 92 
 
 Custard, baked, 63 ; soft, 63-64 
 
 Dates, dried, 15, 124 
 Dextrin, 37 
 Doughnuts, 105-106 
 Doughs, 99-100, 105-106 
 Drawn-butter sauce, 84 
 
 171 
 
1/2 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 Dried legumes, 51-53; baked 
 beans, 52 ; dried-pea soup, 52 ; 
 lentil soup, 52 ; cream of lima 
 beans, 53 ; peanut sandwiches, 
 53 ; salted peanuts, 53 
 
 Eggs, 61-64; composition and food 
 value of, 61-62; manipulation of, 
 62; effect of heaton,62; poached, 
 62-63 ; omelet, 63 ; baked cus- 
 tard, 63 ; soft custard, 63 ; fuel 
 value of, 1 24. See also Cake 
 
 Fat, food value of, 2-3 ; study of, 
 4; in peanuts, 51; in milk, 54; 
 in eggs, 61 ; in cheese, 65 ; in 
 meat, 68; in fish, 81 ; in some 
 common foods, 118; fuel value 
 of, 1 20, 121 
 
 Fats and oils, 90-93 ; composition 
 and food value of, 90-91 ; effect 
 of heat on, 91 ; types of com- 
 mercial, 91 ; ice cream, 9192 ; 
 Saratoga chips, 92 ; potato cro- 
 quettes, 92 
 
 Figs, dried, 15 
 
 Fish, 81-86; composition and food 
 value of, 81; boiled, 83 ; baked, 
 83 ; stuffing for, 83 ; sauces for, 
 84 ; escaloped salmon, 84 ; cod- 
 fish balls, 84-85 ; escaloped 
 left-overs, 85; creamed, 86 
 
 Fish croquettes, 85 
 
 Flour, 94-98 ; composition of, 94 ; 
 varieties of wheat, 94-95 ; food 
 value of, 95-97 ; graham and 
 whole-wheat, 96; rye, barley, 
 buckwheat, corn, 97 ; batters 
 and dough, 99-107 ; leavening 
 mixture, 99-100; oven tests, 
 101 ; baking temperatures, 101 ; 
 popovers, 101 ; sponge cake, 
 101-102; gingerbread, 102; sour- 
 milk griddlecakes, 102-103 ; 
 corn bread, 103 ; baking-powder 
 griddlecakes, 104; muffins, 104; 
 white cake, 104 ; boiled icing, 
 104-105; biscuit, 105; short- 
 cake, 105; doughnuts, 105-106; 
 bread, 108-115 
 
 Fondant, 34-35 
 
 Food, i-io; defined, i; function 
 of, 1-3 ; chemical composition 
 of, 2-6 ; carbohydrates, 3 ; fats, 
 4; proteins, 4; water, 5; mineral 
 matter, 5 ; preparation of, 6 ; 
 temperatures, 8 ; fuels, 9 ; se- 
 lection of, 129-134; good and 
 bad habits in choosing, 1 29-130 ; 
 table of nutrients, 131 ; planning 
 meals, 132-133; serving meals, 
 
 , I3S-I38 
 Food requirements, 120-128; for 
 
 different persons, 122; one- 
 hundred-calorie portions, 123; 
 for the infant, 123-125; for 
 young children, 125-126; for 
 school children, 126-127 
 
 Food standards, 139-142 
 
 French rabbit, 66 
 
 Fruit punch, 12-13 
 
 Fruits, composition and food value 
 of, 15; fresh and dried, 16; 
 baked apples, 17; stewed 
 prunes, 19 ; in salads, 19, 20, 21 ; 
 preserving, 22-30 ; experiments 
 in preserving, 23-24 ; canned 
 peaches, 26 ; grape conserve, 
 27 ; grape jelly, 27-28 
 
 Fuels for cooking, 9 
 
 Gelatin, 87-89 ; jellied prunes, 88 ; 
 
 orange whip, 88 ; snow pudding, 
 
 88 ; tomato jelly, 89 
 Gingerbread, 102 
 Gluten, 94, 95, 97, 99 
 Grape conserve, 27 
 Griddlecakes, 102-103, 104 
 
 Hash, meat, 79 
 
 Heat, in preserving foods, 23, 25 ; 
 
 effect of, on protein, 70, 75-76; 
 
 effect of, on fat, 90, 91 
 Hominy, 44 
 
 Ice cream, 9192 
 Icing, boiled, 104-105 
 
 Jelly, 27 ; grape, 27-28 
 Junket, 58 
 
INDEX 
 
 173 
 
 Lactose, 33 
 
 Legumes, 51-53 
 
 Lemon ice, 13 
 
 Lemonade, 12 
 
 Lentil soup, 52 
 
 Lima beans, cream of, 53 
 
 Macaroni, composition of, 44 ; 
 boiled, 46 ; with tomato sauce, 
 46-47 
 
 MaUre-d'hdtel butter, 84 
 
 Meals, planning, 132-133; serving, 
 135-138 ; setting the table, 135- 
 136; score card for, 142 
 
 Meat, 68-80 ; composition and 
 food value of, 68-69 '> cooking, 
 70-71; cuts of beef, 71-72; 
 methods of cooking, 73-74 ; 
 effect of dry and moist heat 
 on protein of, 75; pan-broiled 
 porterhouse steak or chops, 76; 
 beef roast, 76; pressed veal, 
 76; Swiss steak, 77; brown 
 stew, 77 ; pot roast, 77 ; substi- 
 tutes for, 78 ; minced, 79 ; escal- 
 oped, 79 ; browned hash, 79 ; 
 beef croquettes, 79 ; descrip- 
 tion and cost of various cuts, 
 143-169 
 
 Meat salad, 79 
 
 Milk, 54-59 ; composition and 
 food value of, 54-57 ; pasteur- 
 ization of, 57 ; effect of boiling, 
 57 ; modifying, 57-58 ; cottage 
 cheese, 58 ; junket, 58 ; choco- 
 late, 58 ; potato soup, 58-59 ; 
 compared with other foods, 1 16- 
 119; for infants and children, 
 123-127 
 
 Mineral matter, in composition of 
 food, 2-3 ; study of, 5-6 ; in 
 cooked fruits, 15; in potatoes, 
 40 ; in eggs, 61 ; in meat, 68 
 
 Molasses taffy, 35 
 
 Muffins, 104 
 
 Oatmeal, 124 
 
 Oats, 44-45' 47~48 
 Olives, 124 
 Omelet, 63 
 
 Onions, water in cooking, 17; 
 
 creamed, 19 
 Orange whip, 88 
 Oranges, 124 
 Oysters, 81-86; composition and 
 
 food value of, 8 1 -83; creamed, 85 
 
 Pasteurization, 57 
 
 Peaches, dried, 15; canned, 26 
 
 Peanut brittle, 34 
 
 Peanuts, in sandwiches, 53 ; salted, 
 
 53 
 Peas, 17 ; dried, in soup, 52 
 
 Pectin, 87 
 
 Pickles, 28, 124 
 
 Popovers, 101 
 
 Pot roast, 77 
 
 Potato croquettes, 92 
 
 Potato salad, 42 
 
 Potato soup, 58-59 
 
 Potatoes, 40-42 ; composition and 
 food value of, 40; boiled, 41; 
 creamed, 41 ; mashed, 41 ; au 
 gratin, 41-42 ; buttered crumbs, 
 42 ; escaloped, 42 ; fuel value of, 
 124 
 
 Protein, food value of, 2-3 ; study 
 of, 4-5 ; in potatoes, 40 ; in 
 cereals, 43-45 ; in dried legumes, 
 51 ; in milk, 54, 55 ; in eggs, 61 ; 
 in cheese, 65 ; in meat, 68, 69 ; 
 gelatin, 87 ; in flour, 94 ; in some 
 common foods, 117 ; fuel value 
 of, 120-121 
 
 Prunes, dried, 15; stewed, 19; 
 jellied, 88 ; fuel value of, 124 
 
 Raisins, as a concentrated food, 
 15 ; fuel value of, 124 
 
 Rice, composition and food value 
 of, 43, 45, 1 24 ; boiled, 45 ; escal- 
 oped, 46 
 
 Rice pudding, 46 
 
 Rolls, Parker House, 114; cinna- 
 mon, 114 
 
 Salads, food value of, 19; dress- 
 ings, 20; vegetable, 21; fruit, 
 21 ; potato, 42; meat, 79 
 
 Salmon, escaloped, 84 
 
174 
 
 A STUDY OF FOODS 
 
 Sandwiches, cheese and pimento, 
 66 
 
 Saratoga chips, 92 
 
 Sherbet, 13 
 
 Shortcake, 105 
 
 Skimmed milk, food value of, 55 
 
 Snow pudding, 88-89 
 
 Soups, lentil, 52 ; dried pea, 52 ; 
 cream of lima beans, 53 ; po- 
 tato, 58-59 
 
 Spaghetti, composition of, 44 
 
 Spinach, 17; boiled, 19 
 
 Starch, 37-39 ; composition and 
 food value of, 37 ; in cooking, 
 38 ; cornstarch pudding, 38 ; 
 white sauce, 38 ; cream toast, 
 39 ; in potatoes, 40 ; in cereals, 
 43-45 ; in dried legumes, 51 ; 
 in flour, 94 
 
 Steak, flavor, 68, 71 ; methods of 
 cooking, 73 ; pan-broiled porter- 
 house, 76 ; Swiss, 77 
 
 Sugar, 31-36; kinds of, 31-33; 
 effect of heat on cane sugar, 
 34 ; peanut brittle, 34 ; fondant, 
 34-35; chocolate creams, 35; 
 molasses taffy, 35; butterscotch, 
 35; fuel value of, 124 
 
 Sweet potatoes, glazed, 19 
 
 Tartar sauce, 84 
 Tea, 13 
 
 Temperatures, in cooking, 8-9; 
 
 baking, 101 
 Toast, cream, 39 
 Tomatoes, 17 ; canned, 26-27 ; 
 
 with macaroni, 46 ; jellied, 89 ; 
 
 fuel value of, 124 
 Typhoid fever and oysters, 83 
 
 Water, in food, 2-3, 5, 11-14; 
 hard and soft, n ; safe, 11-12; 
 for lemonade, coffee, etc., 12- 
 14 ; in fruits, 1 5 ; in green vege- 
 tables, 17; in potatoes, 40; in 
 milk, 54; in eggs, 61 ; in cheese, 
 65 ; in meat, 68 ; in fish, 81 
 
 Welsh rabbit, 66 
 
 Veal, pressed, 76 
 
 Vegetables, green, composition 
 of, 17; canned, 17; creamed 
 onion, 19; escaloped cabbage, 
 19 ; glazed sweet potatoes, 19 ; 
 spinach, 19; in salads, 19-21; 
 preserving, 22-30; experiments 
 in preserving, 23-24 ; canning, 
 25-27 ; canned corn, 25 ; canned 
 tomatoes, 26-27 ; pickling, 28 ; 
 cucumber pickles, 28 
 
 Yeast, 108-111, 112 
 
ANNOUNCEMENTS 
 
PURE FOODS 
 
 THEIR ADULTERATION, NUTRITIVE VALUE, 
 
 AND COST 
 
 By JOHN C. OLSEN, Professor of Analytical Chemistry, Polytechnic Institute of 
 Brooklyn, N.Y., Editor of Van NostrancPs Chemical Annual, etc. 
 
 I2mo, cloth, 2,10 pages, illustrated, 80 cents 
 
 'Pure Foods : their Adulteration, Nutritive Value, and Cost" 
 aims to present, in language easily understood, the results of the 
 large amount of scientific investigation to which the various phases 
 of the food problems have been subjected in recent years. 
 
 The text includes the chemical composition of each class of 
 foods, the methods used in producing the food, and the com- 
 mon adulterations, together with a number of simple tests for 
 the detection of these. The directions are so explicit that they 
 may be carried out by persons who have not been trained as 
 chemists. 
 
 The nutritive value of foods being given, it is shown how 
 the true cost may be estimated. 
 
 There is a statement of legal requirements for pure foods, 
 and a list of references to literature on the subject so that those 
 interested may pursue it still further. 
 
 This volume is admirably adapted for use in domestic science 
 or chemistry classes where the chemistry of foods is studied and 
 laboratory tests made for purity. It will also furnish excellent 
 supplementary reading in the upper grammar grades. 
 
 The intelligent consumer of foods and the food producer or 
 dealer will find this of great assistance in purchasing pure and 
 nutritive foods. 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY PUBLISHERS 
 
BACTERIA, YEASTS, AND 
 MOLDS IN THE HOME 
 
 By H. W. CONN 
 
 Professor of Biology in Wesleyan University, izmo, cloth, 
 293 pages, illustrated 
 
 i 
 
 book contains an important summary of the facts which 
 have rapidly accumulated in recent years concerning the 
 relation of microorganisms to all matters connected with 
 the home. The work is a popular and not a scientific discussion, 
 free from many technical terms, and admirably adapted to the 
 needs of the housewife, the student of domestic science, and all 
 others interested in home economics. 
 
 Molds, which are the cause of mildew, the spoiling of many 
 foods, and the decay of fruits ; yeasts, which are the foundation 
 of fermentation in the raising of bread ; and bacteria, which cause 
 food to spoil, meat to decay, and contagious diseases to spread, 
 all these phenomena which are of the most vital importance are 
 presented in an interesting and helpful manner. The author 
 explains the various actions of bacteria, and points out the sources 
 of trouble and the principles which underlie the methods to be 
 adopted for avoiding their effects. Special attention is paid to 
 the problems of food preservation and to the practical methods 
 which can be used in the home for preventing the distribution 
 of contagious diseases. 
 
 To render the work more useful for classes in domestic science 
 there is added an appendix containing directions for a series of 
 simple experiments which will give to the student a practical 
 knowledge of the most important properties of microorganisms. 
 
 167 
 
 GINN & COMPANY PUBLISHERS 
 
ELEMENTARY APPLIED CHEMISTRY 
 
 By LEWIS B. ALLYN, State Normal School, Westfield, Mays. 
 
 izmo, cloth, 127 pages, illustrated, 60 cents 
 
 THIS book offers practical applications of chemistry to pres- 
 ent-day civic and industrial problems. The course is essentially 
 that conducted by the author in the Westfield State Normal 
 School, where a pure-food campaign has been made one of the 
 objects of the course. The widespread results shown in the 
 almost complete elimination of the sale of impure foods in 
 the city of Westfield are matters of national knowledge. 
 
 Besides the work with food products, the book includes 
 exercises with water, textile fabrics, drugs, soils, and similar 
 materials. It gives a particularly complete analysis of each 
 subject and brings out clearly the practical relation which 
 chemistry bears to everyday matters. The order of presen- 
 tation differs radically from that of the usual textbook in 
 chemistry, the common elements, bases, and radicals being 
 taken up as they naturally occur. 
 
 For supplementary use with any regular textbook ' ' Elemen- 
 tary Applied Chemistry ' is invaluable. Teachers of domestic 
 science will find the chapter on food values most important, 
 while for boards of health, inspectors of milk, and all those inter- 
 ested in the pure-food problem, the book has a special function 
 in its valuable information and tests relating to their work. 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY PUBLISHERS 
 
TEXTBOOKS IN 
 
 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 
 
 FOR HIGHER SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 
 
 PHYSICS 
 
 Cavanagh, Westcott, and Twining : Physics Laboratory Manual $0.70 
 
 Gage: Physical Experiments 35 
 
 Gage: Physical Laboratory Manual and Notebook 35 
 
 Gage: Principles of Physics (Revised by Goodspeed) .... 1.50 
 
 Hastings and Beach : Textbook of General Physics 2.75 
 
 Higgins : Lessons in Physics 90 
 
 Higgins : Simple Experiments in Physics " 35 
 
 Hill: Essentials of Physics i.io 
 
 Ives : Experiments in Physics 50 
 
 Miller: Laboratory Physics 2.00 
 
 Millikan : Mechanics, Molecular Physics, and Heat 1.50 
 
 Millikan and Gale: First Course in Physics (Rev. Ed.) . . . . 1.25 
 
 Millikan and Gale : Laboratory Course in Physics 40 
 
 Millikan and Mills : Electricity, Sound, and Light 2.00 
 
 Mills : Introduction to Thermodynamics 2.00 
 
 Newman : Laboratory Exercises in Elementary Physics (in four 
 
 books) per doz. 1.50 
 
 Sabine : Laboratory Course in Physical Measurements .... 1.25 
 Smith, Tower, and Turton : Manual of Experimental Physics . . .80 
 Snyder and Palmer : One Thousand Problems in Physics ... .50 
 
 Stone: Experimental Physics . ... i.oo 
 
 Wentworth and Hill: Text-Book in Physics (Rev. Ed.) . . . 1.15 
 Wentworth and Hill: Laboratory Exercises (Rev. Ed.) 25 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 Allyn : Elementary Applied Chemistry 60 
 
 Dennis and Whittelsey : Qualitative Analysis (Rev. Ed.) . . . i.oo 
 McGregory : Qualitative Chemical Analysis (Rev. Ed.) . . . . i.oo 
 McPherson and Henderson : Course in General Chemistry . . 2.25 
 McPherson and Henderson: Elementary Study of Chemistry . 1.25 
 
 McPherson and Henderson : Exercises in Chemistry 40 
 
 Moore : Logarithmic Reduction Tables \In press\ 
 
 Morse: Exercises in Quantitative Chemistry 2.00 
 
 Olsen: Pure Foods: Their Adulteration, Nutritive Value, and Cost .80 
 Ostwald and Morse : Elementary Modern Chemistry .... i.oo 
 Sellers: Treatise on Qualitative Analysis (Rev. Ed.) .... i.oo 
 
 Thorp: Inorganic Chemical Preparations 1.50 
 
 Unger: Review Questions and Problems in Chemistry 50 
 
 Williams : Chemical Exercises 3 
 
 Williams: Essentials of Chemistry 1.25 
 
 Williams : Laboratory Manual of General Chemistry 25 
 
 146 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY PUBLISHERS 
 
14 DAY USE 
 
 KBTURN TO DE! K FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
 LOAN DEPT 
 
 Renewed books are subject to i 
 
 &B 36* 
 
 REC'D LD 
 
 AUG? .7 
 
 T.D 21A-50m-4,'60 
 (A9562slO)476B 
 
 General Librwy . 
 Ooi5>ity of CaWotm. 
 Berkeley 
 
 -A, J.O 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 * * 
 
ii;;