THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
 I I jjjjjm 
 
 ' '- mm mi ; "'. 
 
HARNESS: 
 
 AS IT HAS BEEN, AS IT IS, AND AS IT SHOULD BE, 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN PHILIP SON, 
 
 VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE INSTITUTE OF BRITISH CARRIAGE MANUFACTURERS 1 
 
 MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, AND INSTITUTE OF 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, &c., &c., 
 
 WITH REMARKS 
 
 n fraction, anfc tbe mse of tbe Cape Cart, 
 
 BY NIMSHIVICH. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY CORRESPONDENCE IN THE "FIELD, ' RE-PRINTED 
 BY PERMISSION OF THE EDITOR. 
 
 ALSO, 
 
 AX APPENDIX BY THE SAME AUTHOR, CONTAINING SOME VERY 
 
 IMPORTANT DIRECTIONS TO GROOMS AND COACHMEN 
 
 RESPECTING THEIR DUTIES, THEIR DRESS, 
 
 HINTS ON DRIVING, &c., &c. 
 
 Hewca0tle=upoit=Uv>ne 
 
 ANDREW REID, AKENSIDE HILL, AND 12, COLLINGWOOD STREET 
 MAWSON, SWAN, AND MORGAN, GREY STREET 
 
 Xotrton : 
 EDWARD STANFORD, 55, CHARING CROSS, S.W 
 
 1882. 
 [COPYRIGHT. ] 
 
TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE 
 
 THE EARL OF TANKERVILLE, P.C., D.L., &c., &c. 
 
 MY LORD, 
 
 The permission which your Lordship has given me to 
 dedicate this work to you confers an honour and a pleasure, and 
 permits also the performance of a duty. It is well known that 
 your Lordship has ever evinced a keen interest in the training 
 and general management of "The Horse," especially with a view 
 to the kind and gentle treatment of that noble animal. 
 
 To no one could these pages, which may tend toward thi? 
 high object, be more fitly inscribed by 
 
 Your Lordship's 
 Obedient and Humble Servant, 
 
 JOHN PHILIPSON. 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FRONTISPIECE. Ulysses Ploughing the Sea-shore. T ?AGE. B 
 
 PLATE I. The Horse's Anatomy ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 
 
 II. Ancient Bits, Buckles, &c. 8 
 
 III. Scouts of the loth Hussars training Horses ... ... ... 8 
 
 IV. Ancient Examples ... ... .., ... 10 
 
 V. Do. do 10 
 
 VI. Patterns of Bits, Chains, Bridles, &c 20 
 
 VII. Do. Pads, Winkers, &c 20 
 
 VIII. Harness Furniture ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 
 
 IX. Names applied to different parts of Harness ... ... ... 24 
 
 X. Collars and Bridles ... ... ... ... ... ... 24 
 
 XI. State Harness 28 
 
 XII. Double Harness ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 30 
 
 XIII. Do. without Winkers, Breechings, or Bearing-reins 30 
 
 ,, XIV. Four-in-hand Harness ... ... ... ... ... ... 34 
 
 XV. Cape Harness, with Breast Straps ... ... ... ... 56 
 
 XVI. Breast Strap Harness, without Cruppers ... ... ... 56 
 
 XVII. Hansom Cab, with Cape Cart fittings ... ... ... ... 58 
 
 XVIII. Cape Dog-cart ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 59 
 
 XIX. Cart built at Cape Town, presented by the young Princes to 
 
 T.R.H. the Prince and Princess of Wales 60 
 
 XX. Moor Cart, with Cape fittings ... ... ... ... ... 60 
 
 XXI. Hooded Buggy, with Cape Harness ... ... ... ... 60 
 
 XXII. Do. with Pick-axe Team, Cape Harnessed ... 60 
 
 XXIII. The Curricle of Fifty Years ago, in use still ... ... ... 60 
 
 XXIV. Illustrations to Colonel Pedler's letter . 60 
 
 WOODCUTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 St. Nicholas' Church Steeple ... ... ... ... viii. 
 
 Alcestes and Praetus 14 
 
 Children going to the Exhibition ... ... ... ... 23 
 
 Young Northumberland 28 
 
 The Black Horse ... ... ... ... ... 47 
 
 Birthplace of George Stephenson, Wylam-on-Tyne ... ... 48 
 
 Turf Hotel, Newcastle 64 
 
 Tail-piece ...... So 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ALTHOUGH it may be a truism to assert that the comfort of the 
 horse should be the first consideration with us, it is very necessary 
 for the writer to insist on the fact that, up to the present time, such 
 a truism has not had sufficient practical acceptation. It is a 
 disgrace to our boasted civilization that Mr. Smiles should ever 
 have been able to write : " There is no slavery in England ! But 
 look at the 'bus and cab and cart horses, and you will find that 
 slavery exists for horses. It was said by James Howell, Clerk of 
 the Council, as long ago as 1642, that England is called 'The hell 
 of horses, and not without cause.' Cabs are driven by worn-out 
 animals, and one or more of their feet are full of pain." 
 
 Again he writes, "Ask the carriage horse, galled with its 
 detestable bearing-rein, drawing the proud beauty along the Row, 
 its mouth covered with foam and sometimes with blood; and what 
 would it say? That men and women were alike its merciless 
 tyrants. And yet such ladies go to anti-vivisection meetings to 
 
 protest against cruelty to animals Fashion is strong 
 
 stronger I fear than humanity but still I have hopes. Fashion 
 no longer orders horses to be cropped, docked, and nicked ; therefore 
 these new forms of distortion and cruelty may give way. If a few 
 ladies of fashion would join with men and women of common sense 
 and lovers of humanity, we should soon wipe out this blot upon 
 our civilization." 
 
 Mr. Flower, again, has contributed much towards a more 
 humane practice of the use of the bearing-rein, but, alas ! has not yet 
 succeeded in putting down the gag. 
 
VI 
 
 Therefore, the writer would beg the reader to bear in mind that 
 humanity, before everything in the use of harness, is the guiding 
 principle on which the following little treatise has been written; 
 whilst he has endeavoured to keep to the practical and the useful 
 where certain details do not absolutely interfere with the horses' 
 
 comfort. 
 
 In these days of education and technical colleges apprentices 
 
 and others should be instructed in the uses of different parts of 
 harness, the structure of the horse, &c. ; and should these remarks 
 tend, in however slight a degree, to an improved method of 
 harnessing and greater comfort to the noblest friend of man, the 
 writer will be amply repaid. Steps in the right direction are 
 certainly being taken in different parts of the country in the 
 establishment of annual processions of horses, in which valuable 
 prizes are awarded to the drivers for careful grooming and harness- 
 ing, and the writer can speak with certainty as to the result of the 
 May-day horse procession held in Newcastle. It would be difficult 
 to imagine a more enjoyable sight than that presented on the first 
 of May, 1882, when several thousand horses in splendid condition 
 paraded the streets of the City, nor could the fact be ignored that 
 the horses of the North-Eastern Railway Company (numbering 
 about 300) were the pick of the exhibition, and these horses were 
 worked without bearing-reins, winkers, or crupper docks. In 
 presenting the prizes the Baroness Burdett Coutts gave expression 
 to the sincere pleasure she had derived from the sight. 
 
 I have selected, as a frontispiece, "Ulysses ploughing the sea- 
 shore" as beautifully representing the moral which I wish to 
 pervade this essay, viz., that by kindness and good training a dumb 
 
Vll 
 
 animal can be brought under wonderful control, that simplicity in 
 harness is desirable, and that the harness should be specially adapted 
 for its work. 
 
 I am indebted to my daughters for many of the illustrations, 
 none of which have any pretension to refined art, but are simply 
 intended to exhibit particular features in my essay. 
 
 I take this opportunity to gratefully acknowledge many favours 
 at the hands of several well-known North country gentlemen, and 
 although I cannot enumerate all, it is only my duty to thank 
 Mr. Jacob Wilson, of Chillingham ; Mr. Richard Cail, Ex-Mayor 
 of Newcastle ; Mr. James Allport, of Derby ; Mr. Inman, of the 
 North-Eastern Railway; Mr. Marsters, of the East Coast Lines; and 
 Captain Barthorp, of the London and North- Western Railway; 
 all of whom have honoured me with most useful information, all 
 the more valuable as coming from gentlemen whose exceptionally 
 wide experience enables them to speak with the greatest authority. 
 
 For the rare woodcuts, by Thomas and John Bewick, I am 
 indebted to the kindness of my friend Mr. Robert Robinson, 
 
 bookseller. 
 
 JOHN PHILIPSON. 
 
 NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, 
 
 October igtA, 1882. 
 
PT. NICHOLAS' CHURCH STEEPLE. 
 
HARNESS: 
 
 AS IT HAS BEEN; AS IT is, AND AS IT SHOULD BE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE first consideration in approaching this subject must necessarily 
 be the horse, in which the power and intelligence of the brute 
 creation appears to have its highest development. 
 
 In the domestic state the horse is generous, docile, spirited, and 
 yet obedient; adapted to the various purposes of pleasure and 
 convenience, equally serviceable for draught, the field, or the course. 
 
 In 1792 my townsman, Thomas Bewick, the famous naturalist 
 and reviver of wood engraving, said 
 
 The various excellencies of this noble animal, the grandeur of his stature, the 
 elegance and proportion of his parts, the beautiful smoothness of his skin, the 
 variety and gracefulness of his motions, and, above all, his utility, entitle him to a 
 precedence in the history of the brute creation. 
 
 Sidney Smith's horses came running to him when he entered 
 the field, and his favourite young donkey, when he saw him or any 
 member of his family, would set off with ears down and tail erect in 
 full bray to meet them. Sir Walter Scott narrates that on visiting 
 his daughter, Mrs. Lockhart, the two donkeys would run upon the 
 approach of the laird and be stroked by Sir Walter. 
 
 The horses employed by our railway companies and contractors, 
 and the Manchester trolly horses, evince an amount of intelligence 
 and plodding determination truly wonderful and unequalled by any 
 other animal, and we have only to watch their labours to be pro- 
 
foundly impressed by the facility with which they shunt railway 
 carriages, draw loaded trucks and waggons, which, though running 
 easily when once started, require immense power to set them in 
 motion, and the judgment they display, in stepping aside from 
 between the rails to be out of danger while their chains are being 
 detached, is remarkable. The following is an extract from Smiles' 
 Life of George and Robert Stephenson : 
 
 Stockton and Darlington Railway opened September 27th, 1825. 
 
 The three Stephenson locomotive engines were from the first regularly employed 
 to work the coal trains. . . . For some years, however, the principal haulage of 
 the line was performed by horses. The inclination of the gradient being towards 
 the sea, this was perhaps the cheapest mode of traction so long as the traffic was not 
 very large. The horse drew the train along the level road until on reaching a 
 descending gradient, down which the train ran by its own gravity, the animal was 
 unharnessed, when wheeling round to the other end of the waggons, to which a 
 "dandy cart" was attached, its bottom being only a few inches from the rail, and 
 bringing its step into unison with the speed of the train, he lept nimbly into his 
 place in the hind car, which was suitably fitted with a well-filled hay rack. 
 
 As an example of the marvellous power of memory with which 
 they are endowed, I may repeat, in his own words, an incident 
 related to me by the veteran Master of the North Durham Fox- 
 hounds, H. L. Maynard, Esq. : 
 
 Some years ago I purchased a brown mare by " MacOrville," very highly bred 
 and good looking, that had a fearfully bad character from being wicked and un- 
 manageable, but I liked the look of the mare so much that I was determined to have 
 her. She had thrown her riders and was to all intents spoilt when she came into 
 my stable. I got her used to my voice and kind words, and, by degrees, walked her 
 out, always kindly treating her, and after a time mounted her. She gradually 
 became quiet, and before the hunting season was over my wife rode her, using a 
 snaffle bridle. I kept her four seasons, and she proved to be one of the best hunters 
 in Yorkshire. I sold her to the late John Buncombe Shafto for a long price. The 
 mare had been in his possession two years before I saw her again, when my wife and 
 myself met the Duke's hounds near Raby. About fifty yards from where we were 
 standing Mr. Shafto appeared on the mare, when all at once, Mr. Shafto said, the 
 mare threw up her head, took the bit in her mouth, and rushed up to my wife. She 
 had heard her voice, and she rubbed her nose in the most affectionate way against 
 her habit, and for the whole of the day Mr. Shafto could not keep the mare away 
 from us. 
 
Another incident, in which Mr. Maynard acted a similar part, 
 will bear repetition : 
 
 Some years ago Lord de Lisle had a very fine grey mare which had quite got the 
 better of his man and had become very wicked. He wished me to buy her, for, he 
 said, my man is so much afraid of the mare he dare not go up to feed her. I went 
 over to his place and bought the mare for ^50, and she came to my stable the most 
 frightened animal I ever saw. By good and gentle treatment I soon had her per- 
 fectly quiet and rode her in a snaffle, and, after hunting her four seasons, I sold her 
 to Lord Henry Bentinck for 300 guineas, and she gave perfect satisfaction. 
 
 As an instance of what a horse may be made to do by a resolute 
 rider, I may mention that in July, 1839, during the Chartist riots 
 in Newcastle-on-Tyne Mr. John Fife was mayor of Newcastle at 
 the time, and he was afterwards knighted for the judicious manner 
 in which he quelled the riots a Dragoon being determined to clear 
 the Royal Arcade of the mob, passed through on horseback and 
 rushed down the long flight of steps* which leads from it into the 
 Manors. 
 
 Although it is necessary that I should refer to the structure of 
 the horse, I shall not trouble the reader with a description of that 
 animal's anatomy, but shall limit myself to a few words on those 
 parts more especially connected with draught and harness. Although 
 it may be considered an unnecessary precaution by some, I have 
 given the names commonly applied to various parts of the horse on 
 Fig. i, Plate I., to assist the uninitiated in identifying such parts 
 when reference is made to them. Fig. i represents a once famous 
 draught horse, and is taken from a plate presented to the members 
 of the Northumberland Agricultural Society by my relative, Joseph 
 Snowball, Esq., of Seaton Burn House, Northumberland, as a model 
 of a well-shaped draught horse. The eye has been shown by Mayhew 
 to display special provisions and to closely resemble that of the camel, 
 proving, if any proof were necessary, that he had his origin in 
 tropical regions, and though the horse may not possess the power 
 of seeing in the dark with the same facility as the cat, it is certain 
 that his powers of vision in the gloom are much superior to those of 
 
 * There are 36 steps, and they are very steep. J. P. 
 
man. Besides, the horse possesses the power of telescopic vision, a 
 faculty which must be accepted as supporting this argument, for, 
 as Mayhew says, this power could seldom be needed in these 
 northern climes, but would be a needed protection on the far 
 stretching level of the desert. By a protection of seven muscles 
 the horse is enabled to turn his eye in any direction and to draw 
 it out of reach of danger at will, and if by chance any foreign 
 substance gets into the eye, these muscles are stimulated to sudden 
 activity, and by the assistance of the eyelid, and a gush of liquid 
 from the glands, the intruding matter is carried clear of the eye and 
 lodged on the insensitive body developed at the corner. 
 
 Draught, or the power of drawing loads from one place to 
 another, appears to be the purpose for which the horse is naturally 
 adapted, owing to the centre of gravity being placed well forward, 
 which enables the horse to utilize his own weight to assist in 
 drawing the load. 
 
 In considering the question of a force acting on a particle 
 there are three things to be borne in mind : (i) the point of 
 application (the point of attachment of the trace to the hame) ; (2) the 
 direction ; and (3) the magnitude of the force. In our case the last 
 of these three things is the power of the horse, and the magnitude 
 of this power we know.* The shoulder is the point at which the 
 greatest power is obtained without impeding the action of any of 
 its limbs (see Fig. 2, Plate I.), and Major Francis Dwyer, in his 
 " Bits and Bridles, Draught and Harness," tells us that 
 
 The trace should be attached as nearly as possible opposite to the immovable 
 part of the shoulder-blade that is, to the centre of the shoulder-blade, which is 
 about an inch higher than the hame-hooks of the majority of wholesale made collars. 
 
 The means of applying the power at this point by neck collars, 
 or by breast straps, will be considered in a future chapter. The 
 next thing is the direction of the force, or in other words the incli- 
 nation of the trace. If such a thing as friction did not exist it is 
 easily seen that the trace ought to be parallel to the road, for then 
 
 * Tractive power of horse 166 Ibs. at rate of 2 miles per hour. 
 Ditto do. 41 Ibs. do. 5 do. 
 
PLATE I. 
 
 BREECH.. 
 
 ....FOREHEAD 
 
 THROAT 
 
 FiG.Z. 
 
 FiG.3 
 
 FiG.4 
 
 THE HORSES ANATOMY 
 
the whole force of the horse would be used to draw the load along 
 the road ; but friction does exist, as we know too well, and must be 
 overcome. It is caused by irregularities of the surface, and, in order 
 to overcome it, the load must be lifted over these obstructions, *>., we 
 must use part of the horse-power to draw the load along the road, 
 and part to raise it over the obstructions. This is done by inclining 
 the trace (see Fig. 3, Plate I.) Let A be the point of draught and 
 A B the direction of the trace, then from B, any point in A B, draw 
 dotted line B C perpendicular to the road, and dotted line A C 
 parallel to the road, then we have a triangle ABC. So that if A B 
 represents the force of the horse in magnitude and direction, then 
 C A and B C represent the resolved parts ajong and perpendicular 
 to the road. And it will be seen that, by increasing or decreasing 
 the angle of inclination of A B, the perpendicular force B C is 
 increased or diminished. Therefore, for a smooth road, a very slight 
 inclination is all that is necessary, but for a rough road, a much 
 greater inclination is required. 
 
 There is a muscular connection between the shoulder and head 
 which, by this means, may be raised or bent towards the chest. 
 " Mayhew's Horse Management" contains some very able remarks 
 on the shoulder which I am induced to quote. They are as follows: 
 
 In the metropolis of the world it is indeed a rare sight to behold a carriage drawn 
 by a pair of really good animals. The quadrupeds in general use for such purposes 
 are mostly faulty about the shoulders. The fore-hand is placed upon the trunk in 
 too upright a position. The job-master is conscious of this defect. He always 
 endeavours to convince his patrons that such a make is advantageous where a 
 creature is designed for harness. Possibly the tradesman might succeed in persuading 
 his customers into a false belief, were not prejudice opposed to his suggestions. 
 Ladies admire high action in the steeds attached to their vehicles; this is the kind 
 of step which most of the horses just described are incapable of long exhibiting. 
 
 Art, or cruelty, however, can partially amend the faulty motion of the limbs. 
 Force the head into an unnatural attitude by the unscrupulous employment of the 
 bit or of the bearing rein; retain the neck erect without regard to the cramp induced, 
 or heed of the strain cast upon the muscles and the torture, although the life be 
 shortened, and the safety of the owner endangered, nevertheless, may occasion the 
 feet to be raised during progression. This fact is illustrated in the previous engra- 
 ving (Fig. 4, Plate I.) The natural mode is indicated by the letters AA, the possible 
 
change of form is to be seen in the parts distinguished as BB, although the action 
 there depicted certainly displays a most unusual degree of amendment, to induce 
 which must shorten the existence. 
 
 Any such improvement is always procured at a vast personal risk; for the head 
 being raised partially throws the eyes out of use. It also impedes the circulation, 
 ruins the mouth, distorts the body, and deranges the breathing. All these evils are 
 inflicted to obtain the kind of pace which is never natural, but which closely 
 resembles the sort of step that is characteristic of blindness in the horse. 
 
 The shoulder blade is much more fully developed in some horses 
 than in others, and, therefore, necessitates a suitable collar; i.e., a 
 collar shorter at the draught than would otherwise be advisable. 
 
 If gentlemen, or their grooms, would only see that the neck 
 collars of their horses fitted them truly, there would be little risk 
 of sore shoulders, and probably very little need for false collars. 
 To be perfect, a neck collar must have a prominence wherever we 
 find a depression in the shoulder, and a depression wherever there 
 is a prominence. By these means, and these only, can sore shouldeis 
 be avoided, and comfort secured to the horses. There are also one 
 or two further points about the collar to which I will refer here- 
 after. 
 
 The same rule holds good with regard to saddles, and buyers 
 should ascertain that they are made on suitable trees for their horses 
 backs, otherwise sore backs, and, consequently, more suffering is the 
 result. 
 
 On the mouth of a horse may be said to depend its value for 
 riding and driving purposes. This important but sadly abused 
 organ is, in the animal's tender years, of an excessively sensitive 
 character, and the preservation of this sensibility, so far as nature 
 will admit, should be the object of the breakers' and trainers' most 
 especial care. If this were the case we should hear very little of 
 " hard pullers" and "borers," and their ' coessential evils. There 
 would be little need of those torturing bits, some of which are most 
 cruelly devised to act on the upper jaw, some on the lower jaw, and 
 others on that very tender part of the mouth, the root of the 
 tongue. That there should be any necessity for such bits must 
 be regretted by every humane and right thinking man, and the 
 
time when breakers and trainers are brought to realise the evil 
 effects of harsh and severe handling will be welcomed by all lovers 
 of man's noblest servant. 
 
 There are several old works by Philip Astley, riding master, 
 late of H.M. Royal Light Dragoons, the dates and editions of 
 which vary from 1775 to 1804. In that of 1775 there is very 
 much less detail about bits than we might have expected. He 
 commends the snaffle for hunting, and that is pretty much all he 
 says. Certainly his dictum that "mad men and mad horses never 
 will agree together," is not only a quaint way of putting it, but very 
 true. The fifth edition of his " System of Equestrian Education," 
 (circa, 1801), is much more elaborate, but still leaves much to be 
 said. In Chapter V. he insists very much on the curb being loose 
 and easy, and when you attempt to ride a horse in a new bit, he 
 says you should put it in his mouth three or four mornings previous 
 to mounting him. In the 1804 edition, Astley refers a good deal 
 more to harness, saying : 
 
 I would particularly advise that the horse be not oppressed with the pinching of 
 the bit, the tightness of the harness, nor the too great weight of the carriage. . . . 
 If you have two horses to your carriage, be sure to choose them of equal strength 
 and spirit, otherwise the more vigorous one will be liable to be spoiled from his 
 having the greater share of the labour in drawing, arising from his superiority 
 of spirit. 
 
 Astley was evidently quite before us in the use, now so common, 
 of snaffles for driving, for he says in this work, p. 25: 
 
 My method is to ride with a snaffle and running-rein bridle; indeed I use it for 
 my chaise and coach horses, having some aversion to the long wrench bit ; but (he 
 adds) the use of this kind of bridle I consider as similar to poison- in the hands of 
 an ignorant physician, for without a proper knowledge of its tendencies, nothing 
 but destruction will ensue ! 
 
 It was about this date that Van Amburgh, who made the training 
 and harnessing of horses a study, created so much surprise and 
 admiration by driving eight cream coloured horses through London 
 and the provinces. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 ANCIENT AND MODERN METHODS OF HARNESSING. 
 
 I HAVE selected a few illustrations calculated to convey an idea of 
 the manner in which the ancients harnessed their horses. An air 
 of simplicity pervades all harness or trappings thus represented, 
 whether Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, or Roman, and we would do 
 well to practice this simplicity a little more widely than we do, and 
 thus show some consideration for the natural feelings of the animals 
 that serve us. 
 
 In Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies we learn that the Assyrians 
 drove their horses by two reins, one attached to either end of the 
 bit in the ordinary manner, and each passed through a ring or loop 
 in the harness, whereby the rein was kept down and a stronger 
 purchase secured to the driver. I append a paragraph on ancient 
 bits, taken from the same book : 
 
 The shape of the bit within the mouth, if we may judge by the single instance 
 of an actual bit which remains to us, bore a near resemblance to the modern snaffle 
 (see Plate II., Fig. l). Externally the bit was large and, in most cases, clumsy 
 a sort of cross-bar extending across the whole side of the horse's face, commonly 
 resembling a double axe head or a hammer. Occasionally the shape was varied, the 
 hatchet or hammer being replaced by forms similar to those annexed (see Plate II. r 
 Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7*). The rein seems in the early times to have been attached 
 about midway in the cross-bar, while afterwards it became usual to attach it near 
 the lower end. This latter arrangement was probably found to increase the power 
 of the driver. 
 
 The method of riding adopted by the Romans was with a 
 single rein and snaffle bit as shown in Fig. 2., Plate II. With 
 
 * The action of these bits must have been similar to that of our Liverpool bit. 
 Fig. I is evidently the forerunner of the snaffle. J. P. 
 
PLATEJI. 
 
 FIG. 8. FIG. 9. 
 
 ANCIENT BITS, BUCKLES, ETC. 
 
PLA TE Tff 
 
respect to saddles the reader is referred to Fig. 8, showing the 
 Ephippium, and here it should be observed that the term Ephippium 
 did not, as is sometimes supposed, denote a mere horse-cloth, a skin 
 or a flexible cover of any kind, but a saddle tree or frame of wood 
 which, after being filled with stuffing, was covered with softer 
 material and fastened by means of a girth. It will also be observed 
 from this sketch that stirrups were not used, but that the horses 
 were taught to kneel at the word of command to take up their 
 riders. This is additional evidence to prove how well it is possible 
 to train a horse. Although Fig. 8 was taken from the walls of a 
 house at Herculaneum, and shows that the system was practiced 
 there, it is worthy of remark that the same custom was common in 
 Spain, nor is such training so rare at the present time as some 
 people imagine. This is attested by the following extract from the 
 Sporting and Dramatic News, dated July 22nd, 1882, and illustrated 
 by Plate III. : 
 
 Our illustration is from a photograph kindly sent us by an officer of the loth 
 Royal Hussars. The regiment has eighteen horses thoroughly trained to lie down 
 under fire as shown. As the duty of the scout is to find the enemy, and as he often 
 conies to grief through being suddenly exposed to fire, the advantage of having a 
 horse obedient as a machine, trained to stand or to lie perfectly still at the will of 
 his master, is obvious. There is, of course, also the further advantage of facilitating 
 concealment when needed. The system which has been introduced by the loth 
 Royal Hussars appears worthy of imitation. 
 
 When driven with two horses the Grecian chariot was called 
 a Biga, when with three a Triga, and with four abreast a 
 Quadriga. With a Quadriga it was the custom to place the two 
 strongest horses under the yoke and to fasten the others on each 
 side by means of ropes. This may be gathered from Fig. i, Plate 
 IV., representing the chariot of Aurora, as painted on a vase found 
 at Canosa. The reins of the two middle horses passed through 
 rings at the extremities of the yoke. The details are more distinctly 
 shown in Fig. 2, Plate IV., taken from a terra cotta found at Vienne, 
 in France. It represents a chariot overthrown in passing the goal 
 of the circus, the charioteer having fallen backward. The pole and 
 
10 
 
 yoke are thrown upward in the air, the trace horses have fallen on 
 their knees, and the yoke horses are prancing on their hind legs. 
 This interesting example proves that the Grecians made their 
 chariots so that the charioteer might regulate the weight on the 
 withers by merely shifting his position. 
 
 The yoke by which ploughs and carriages were drawn was in 
 many cases a straight wooden plank or pole laid upon the horses' 
 necks, but it was commonly bent to each extremity so as to be 
 accommodated to that part of the animal which it touched. Fig. 3, 
 Plate IV., shows two examples of the yoke preserved in the Vatican 
 Library. The upper drawing shows the excavations cut in the 
 yoke with the bands of leather, the lower sketch shows the method 
 of tying. The yoke was tied to the pole by means of a leather strap, 
 lashed from the two opposite sides, over the juncture of the pole and 
 the yoke. 
 
 Fig. 4, Plate IV., represents a triumphal chariot with shoulder 
 straps attached to the pole, clearly showing the method of 
 harnessing. 
 
 Fig. i, Plate V., is taken from an antique Greek vase and 
 represents a scene at the Grecian hippodrome, which is thus 
 described : 
 
 The goal is a mere stone post with a fillet wound round it ; the form of the 
 chariots are well shown, and the attitudes of the drivers. Each has four horses as 
 in the earliest Olympic chariot race, and the vividness of the representation is in- 
 creased by the introduction of the incident of a horse having got loose from the 
 first chariot, the driver of which strives to retain his place with the others. 
 
 Figs. 2 and 4, Plate V., show chariots of the Roman era. Fig. 3, 
 on the same sheet, represents a mounted Roman soldier. The rein 
 and bridle of his horse are distinctly shown, and are worthy attention. 
 
 In his admirable book, " The World on Wheels," Mr. Stratton, 
 of New York, says : 
 
 It would appear that the harness for curricles and that for war chariots were 
 nearly alike, and the pole in either case was supported by a curved yoke, the end 
 being attached to the yoke by a strong pin, bound with straps or thongs of leather 
 
PLATE 
 
II 
 
 to render it still more secure. The yoke, resting on a small, nicely padded saddle, 
 was firmly fitted into a groove of metal and the saddle placed upon the horse's 
 withers, furnished with girths and a breast band, and surmounted by an ornamental 
 knob, in front of which a small hook secured it to the bearing rein. The driving 
 reins passed through a thong or ring at the side of the saddle, and thence over the 
 projecting extremity of the yoke, the same thong securing the girths, even appearing 
 in some cases to have been attached to them. In war chariots a 'large ball, placed 
 on the pole, projected above the saddle, which was intended either to give a greater 
 power to the driver by enabling him to draw the reins over a groove in its centre, or 
 was added solely for an ornamental purpose, like the fancy head-dresses of the 
 horses, and fixed to the yoke immediately above the centre of the saddle, or rather 
 to the head of a pin which connected the yoke to the pole. 
 
 a The World on Wheels," which was published in 1878, is by 
 far the most perfect history of carriages yet published, and I can 
 honestly recommend it to all who take the smallest interest in 
 matters appertaining thereto. 
 
 Did space permit I would gladly have quoted some remarks 
 from such books as Madame Marie Isabelle's "Surfaix Cavalier on 
 the Breaking and Training of Horses," Free Lance's " Horses and 
 Roads," Harry Hieover's works, Reynardson's " Down the Road,' 1 
 and S. Sidney's "Book of the Horse;" as they all contain many 
 valuable hints ; but I purpose giving two or three extracts which 
 I consider of exceptional interest. 
 
 In the library of the British Museum may be found a curious 
 work by Guillaume Cavendish, Duke of Newcastle, entitled La 
 Methode et Invention Nouvelle de Dresser les Chevaux. Anvers, 
 1657, fol., and in the new catalogue under the heading, Cavendish 
 (William), a work in two vols., published by Brindley in 1743, the 
 first volume of which is the translation of the above with the 
 original copper-plates, and the second volume a translation of a 
 treatise on Farriery, by Boerhave and Caspar de Saunier. Both 
 volumes are lettered outside " Cavendish System of Horsemanship," 
 which is clearly incorrect; but the first, by William Cavendish, is 
 that from which I have been able to extract some observations 
 pertinent to the subject of this work, although as a whole it is more 
 deserving the study of the person who would qualify himself to 
 
12 
 
 dress or train horses for the manege. Although our noble author 
 gives us a plate of rather a severe bit, he admits that a much 
 simpler form would do as well. He says : 
 
 It is in good lessons, well applied to the nature, spirits, and strength of every 
 horse, that the great and subtle science of horsemanship consists, that science that 
 can manage a horse with only a bit of wood in his mouth. The bridle I confess 
 is of some use, though but little ; art avails much more, as all your excellent riders 
 know ; for I have managed a horse with a halter only, and he went as well as with 
 the bridle, of which I have so many witnesses in this city of Antwerp, who have seem 
 the thing. I have also managed an English one with a scarf and made him curvet 
 and vault very justly ; so that it is not the bridle, but the art of the rider, that 
 renders the horse tractable. 
 
 If such could be the observations of a fine horseman in 1657, 
 how equally necessary they are in the present day when we see 
 scores of soi-disant coachmen without "hands" complaining of 
 pulling horses that would go easily enough in a snaffle. Returning 
 to the Duke and what he says about bits, I will continue to quote 
 him : 
 
 There is some art in fitting a horse with a proper bridle, according as the ply of 
 his neck is long or short, in giving him a large or small mcuthpiece, a large or 
 narrow liberty, the eye short or long, straight or bent : the branches are either 
 shorter or longer, stronger or weaker ; mouth and liberty wider or narrower : the 
 eye longer or shorter, straighter or more bending ; the hooks according to the just 
 measure of the bit ; the curb equal, and consisting of three good round S S's, &c. . 
 . . . But above all, this rule is chiefly to be observed, to put as little iron in 
 your horse's mouth as possibly you can. If his tongue be very big, the liberty must 
 be wider ; if little, the liberty the less ; but you must take heed that the appuy, or 
 resting-place of the bit, be never made too near the liberty, for it would gall him, 
 but the resting-place must be where it ought, which is about a finger's breadth from 
 the liberty upon each side of it; and the bit must rest upon the bars, a finger's 
 breadth above the tushes. . . . Thus you have the truth of bits brought into a 
 narrow compass. There is little virtue in them to bring a horse to understanding, on 
 which a man must work, and that is his reason, by the favour of the logicians' 
 distinction of reasonable and unreasonable creatures; for were they as good horsemen 
 as scholars, they would have made another distinction. Well then, you see it is not 
 a 'piece of iron can make a horse knowing, for if it were, the bit-makers would be 
 the best horsemen ; no, it is the art of appropriated lessons fitting every horse 
 according to his nature, disposition, and strength; punishing and with good lessons 
 rectifying his vices ; rewarding him, and preserving him in his horse-virtues [this is 
 
very quaint, J. P.], which will make him a just and ready horse: and not the 
 trusting to an ignorant piece of iron called a bit: for I will undertake to make a 
 perfect horse with a cavesson without a bit, better than any man shall with his bit 
 without a cavesson; so highly is the cavesson, when rightly used, to be esteemed. 
 . . . . The famous Pynatel at Naples never used but simple bits. ... I 
 always advise lenity and patience with good lessons .... never to exact from 
 him above half so much as he can bear. By this means you will not only preserve 
 him, but make him take pleasure in all that he does: he will even love you and the 
 exercise you give him; whereas otherwise he will hate you, find the manage (manege} 
 irksome, and loth to come to it. 
 
 The following is taken from an old book on horsemanship by 
 Geoffrey Gambado, Esq., dedicated to the Right Honourable Lord 
 Viscount Townshend, in 1737 : 
 
 I have long lamented that riding should be attended with such expense, and see 
 no reason why many articles attending it, which cost money, might not as well be 
 dispensed with as not. If a gentleman, when his bills are brought in, is somewhat 
 put to it to pay for hay and corn (which, by-the-bye, are necessary, or his horses 
 would be no better than jackasses), why should he be so very extravagant in the 
 article of leather ? Your gentlemen now-a-days must have to his bridle two head 
 stalls and two reins; to his saddle two flaps on each side, two girths, a crupper, or a 
 breast-plate perhaps both not forgetting a martingale, with its appendages. I 
 have actually seen a young Cockader about town with a breast-plate on his horse 
 that threw his saddle forwards, merely to be tasty, whilst his companion's nag, who 
 slipt his girths, had a crupper on like a dragoon's. But, sir, these chaps are not 
 confined to their expenditure in leather. Only observe the buckles and studs, &c., 
 that ornament their trappings not a bridle but would furnish a dozen of knives and 
 forks, nor a saddle that has not a tea-kettle and lamp upon it. 
 
 Our forefathers never rode in this way, and I am happy that I forsee a revolution 
 is at hand. 
 
 It is needless to reprobate such expense, as the saddler's bill probably brings in 
 the punishment along with it. 
 
 Whether Adam, or Cain, or Abel ever rode it does not appear; but they had 
 horses and dogs, and foxes and hares, and why are we not to suppose that they went 
 a hunting, and had as good sport as we have (nay, better; for they had no hunts- 
 men) ? They must, however, have rode without saddles, it is pretty clear. 
 
 I do not find that these superfluities were held in much esteem in the time of the 
 Romans. Raphael, in his picture of Attila, at Rome, has treated us with a Hun or 
 two, riding after the fashion of their country, I suppose. The devil a bit of a bridle 
 have they nothing but a strap round their horse's neck, which they hold at each 
 end with their hands. 
 
Matters must have been somewhat changed at the end of the 
 century, if we may judge by the following extract from William 
 Felton's Treatise on Carriages and Harness, 1796 : 
 
 The principal properties of a harness are simplicity and sufficiency, of which 
 there is but little variation, except in the increase of size, the ornaments or dress. 
 Harness made for common work should not be encumbered with any superfluities, 
 as the less a horse is burdened with trappings with the more ease and freedom he 
 performs his work. The appearance of that noble animal, so handsome by nature, 
 is not much, if at all, improved by dress, though it certainly is a great ornament to 
 the equipage to have the harness display a grandeur equal with it; and one advan- 
 tage is that the extra ornaments, strappings, breechings, &c., may at any time be 
 taken off or put on at pleasure without any injury to the remaining necessary parts, 
 so that simplicity or grandeur may at any time be preferred as he proprietors choose. 
 
 ALCESTES AND PRAETUS. "Tales for Youth." From the original 
 block, engraved by John Bewick, 1794. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 To assist the reader who is unacquainted with the peculiarities of 
 leather I will give a very brief resume of the processes involved in 
 the production, at such works as the large establishment of Messrs. 
 George Angus & Co., at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, of the several 
 kinds used for harness. To the initiated, a comparison of the 
 >.i e. thods employed by the ancients and those which chemistry has 
 placed within our reach, furnishes many entertaining and instructive 
 facts, but possess little interest for the general reader. 
 
 The hides of steers or heifers make the best of all harness leather 
 when well tanned with oak bark, which imparts a light brown colour 
 to the leather, makes it firm, with an even grain and to a certain 
 extent allows the hide to retain its softness. The skins or hides, 
 technically called " pelts," are first softened by being soaked in water, 
 after which they are piled in lime-pits to loosen the hair. Instead 
 of placing them in lime the Americans hang them in heated rooms, 
 where they begin to putrefy, and in this state the hair is easily 
 removed; however, neither process should be carried too far, or the 
 grain will be injured, in which case a good finish is impossible; 
 besides, lime is apt to make the leather harsh and brittle. Following 
 the removal of the hair the hides are placed for a short time in a 
 weak mixture of bark and water, termed ''liquor," and from time 
 to time they are moved into liquors gradually increased in strength 
 until they have been in the various pits from ten to eighteen 
 months, according to the thickness of the hides. 
 
 There are many other methods employed in tanning leather, 
 among which we may name those known as " Hemlock" and 
 " Union" tannage, but these and all the other numberless ways of 
 tanning produce a rough hide, which, when curried, does not absorb 
 
i6 
 
 the dubbing, and will not stand wear at the buckles. Moreover, 
 this leather almost invariably swells after being exposed to rain. 
 The reason why so much of this leather is tanned is because the 
 process is much cheaper and is carried out in as many weeks 
 as good bark-tanned leather takes months, but, as I have said, 
 there is no tannage equal to oak bark. By its use we obtain the 
 lightest, strongest, and most pliable leather. It yields a closer 
 grained leather, which, when wet, dresses softer than any other, 
 and to sum up its good qualities, we have only to add that it is 
 easier to work, and takes a better and more even colour than either 
 of the other varieties. 
 
 For the different grades of harness, such as gig, brougham, 
 chariot, &c., a correspondingly heavy grade of leather is used in 
 order that the traces and strapping may possess the requisite strength 
 and substance. After tanning the hide is termed " rough leather," 
 and from this the various kinds of leather are produced. 
 
 Merely tanning leather will not, however, fit it for the harness 
 maker's use, and it must be subjected to another process termed 
 "currying," by which the leather is made soft, pliable, and durable. 
 The hide, being thoroughly soaked in water, is placed over a beam 
 and the surplus flesh is taken off with a knife. As harness makers 
 require their hides as level as possible, those which are naturally 
 level, free from cuts, worm bumps, coarse necks, &c., are chosen 
 for the best harness and rein leather, and, being exceedingly difficult 
 to obtain, they are worth 20 per cent, more than an ordinary hide 
 of equal weight. Shaving the hide to make it level is the most 
 critical part of currying, as if the shaving is carried the smallest 
 degree beyond what the hide will bear the leather is made "loose." 
 This process is followed by the hide being scoured on both flesh and 
 grain side in order to take out the "bloom" and dirt, by which means 
 alone can good and regular colour be ensured. These measures 
 also facilitate the stuffing process, which consists of the hide being 
 well set out on a table and the application of the dubbing (a mixture 
 of tallow and cod oil) in such proportions as the substance or thick- 
 ness of the hide may necessitate. Following this, it is hung up to 
 
dry, or rather to allow the dubbing or oils to penetrate every pore, 
 whereby the hide is rendered pliable and durable and in a state to 
 resist wet. 
 
 It is unnecessary to trouble the reader with all the details of 
 dressing black or brown harness leather, but, generally speaking, it 
 consists of shaving, scouring, stuffing, and blacking, if for black 
 harness; or staining with various ingredients if required for brown. 
 In this state it reaches the harness maker, and he can express an 
 opinion on its adaptability to his purpose, but no matter how wide 
 his experience, he cannot impart to others any rules by which they 
 can select good leather. Practice is the only thing that will enable 
 them to accomplish it with certainty. Good leather is defined by 
 Fitz-Gerald, of New York, "as being solid, but not hard; mellow, 
 but not soft;" qualities that cannot be explained, but which can be 
 detected instantly by anyone who has the requisite experience. 
 
 It is worthy of notice that the harness made by first-class firms 
 possesses decided advantages over that produced or sold by the 
 small dealer, insomuch that the former usually cuts out a number 
 of harnesses at one time, and is thus enabled to use only such parts 
 of the hide for different straps as are most suitable, such as backs for 
 traces, backhands, and other heavy strapping, the best portion of 
 bellies for thickening up traces, &c., and so forth ; whereas the small 
 maker with a limited demand cannot cut up his leather to the best 
 advantage unless by keeping a disproportionate stock. 
 
 The properties of leather may be completely spoiled by in- 
 judicious cutting, and the workman who performs this operation 
 must, above all things, have sufficient experience to enable him to 
 so manipulate the leather that the grain shall always run parallel 
 to the cut, otherwise the leather will stretch directly it comes into 
 use and continue to do so. 
 
 Brown leather, which we use for reins, is in every respect the 
 same as harness leather, except in colour, it being bleached instead 
 of being blackened, and afterwards stained a light shade of brown. 
 There is no part of the harness leather subject to such severe 
 criticism as that composing the reins, and any defect in strength, 
 
i8 
 
 cutting, or uniformity of colour may be said to spoil them. The 
 hand parts especially should possess in great perfection the qualities 
 of softness and pliability. 
 
 Buff leather (called by some buckskin) hand-parts are sometimes 
 used. In making this leather the currier buffs, i.e., beats out the 
 grain, until it cannot be recognised. This gives the leather a furried 
 appearance, devoid of gloss, like chamois skin. 
 
 Buff leather hand-parts are occasionally japanned white on one 
 side and are then called " patent; " but when the reins are stretched 
 by use the japan or varnish cracks, and the appearance is conse- 
 quently anything but seemly. 
 
 Rein hand-parts are occasionally made of white leather, which 
 we obtain from the hide of the horse, bleached and dressed in a 
 solution of alum and other ingredients to preserve it. White 
 leather hand-parts, however, are not fashionable at present, and it 
 is more generally used for whip thongs. 
 
 Hogs' hide is made in the ordinary way from the skin of the 
 hog, hence the name pigskin as applied to riding saddles. The 
 most peculiar feature of this leather is that it is never made rough 
 by friction. Imitation hogskin is made in large quantities, but as 
 the bristles of the pig reach completely through the skin there are 
 holes on the flesh side of the genuine article, whereas those in the 
 imitation only reach partially through the hide. Hogskin is utilized 
 for the pads, winkers, &c., of brown harness, which, owing to its light 
 and showy appearance, is admirably suited for sporting carriages. 
 
 Japanned, or, as it is more familiarly known, patent leather, is 
 made from specially selected hides tanned with more than ordinary 
 care. After being tanned the hide is split by a machine knife, some 
 hides yielding two and some three splits, according to the thickness 
 of the leather, the grain side being used for enamel leather. The 
 manufacture of patent leather includes several processes of a delicate 
 nature, chief among them being the application of the varnish, to 
 receive which the hide is sleeked out tightly on a board with the 
 edges nailed down. This is the -modus operandi at the manufactory 
 of Messrs. Southey & Co. of London, and in other manufactories in 
 
19 
 
 this country, but the case is different in America where it is 
 customary to stretch the hide tightly on screw frames with a view 
 to gain more surface; but this method is objected to in England, as 
 the heavy strain completely destroys the fibre and makes the leather 
 liable to tear when stretched. The quality of patent leather is so 
 much dependent on the state of the atmosphere when japanned that 
 it should only be done during cold weather, otherwise it will crack 
 on exposure to cold, and, as all consumers know, nothing looks 
 worse than cracked patent leather. 
 
 The careful selection of leather suitable for the different parts of 
 harness is an important consideration with the harness maker, and 
 he is ever careful to reject any hides that have been cut or otherwise 
 injured in the currying, or any having warbles. The presence of 
 warbles in light strapping is sufficient to condemn it at once, 
 especially if near the edge, when it is never safe. In addition to 
 Fitz-Gerald's remarks, there is an excellent and very simple way of 
 determining the tannage by examining the edge of the strap when 
 newly cut. If well tanned the whole edge will show an uniform 
 light shade of brown right through ; but if the colour is a light hard 
 yellow toward the centre it shows that the tannin has not penetrated, 
 and if the edge of the strap under examination is slightly damped 
 the difference in colour will become very distinct. Leather that has 
 been tanned with chemicals is usually red in colour, but may be 
 bleached to resemble oak bark tan. When chemicals are used the 
 natural strength of the hide is usually destroyed in the tan pit, and 
 though such leather is materially cheaper than oak tanned, it is 
 very much less durable and will not bear the same strain. Moreover, 
 properly tanned leather bears a bright gloss*' when cleaned up, very 
 different to the harsh dry appearance of inferior tannage. 
 
 The following extract from Archaeologia ^Eliana, November, 
 1 86 1, is very interesting, as showing the esteem in which good 
 leather was held about 100 years ago. Mr. James Clephan writes : 
 
 Whilst I was resident in Leicestershire I accompanied some friends to Beaumanor, 
 the seat of William Perry Herrick, Esq., on Charnwood Forest, our errand-in-chief 
 being to see a family coach of 1740. 
 
20 
 
 In the estimate from the coach-builder for the above coach 
 there occurs the following : 
 
 To four new harness made with the best neats leather, a brass plate on the edge 
 of housing crest, housing plates, brass watering hooks, Starrs, and screwd rings to 
 ye head stalls, double bard bits, and a sett of reins, 12. 
 
 Furniture is a name applied to the foundations and mountings 
 of harness, which include the hames, terrets, rings, buckles, &c. 
 There are at present some twelve or fourteen varieties of harness 
 mountings in use, but silver-plating in its different forms is by far 
 the most important. 
 
 In the first instance, all buckles, terrets, pad-end loops and rings 
 should be of solid German silver or some other white metal as a 
 base for the close plating a trade term, which signifies the coating 
 of another metal with rolled sheets of virgin or pure silver by a 
 process that would not interest the general reader. 
 
 Previous to the introduction of German silver it was customary 
 to use cast-iron bases, toughened by a baking process, which occupied 
 about a fortnight. White metal bases, however, do not rust and 
 are therefore preferable to iron, which, in course of wear, shows 
 black spots and marks by rusting through the silver. 
 
 The larger parts of plated furniture, such as hames, which must 
 necessarily be strong, are of forged iron, neatly prepared to receive 
 the silver by being tinned before it is applied. Those parts of the 
 mountings subject to friction or hard wear, e.g. the kidney links 
 and rings, hame pull eyes, &c., are hard plated, an extra expensive 
 method which renders these articles almost impervious to wear. 
 
 Although there is no reliable method of determining the quality 
 of plating, except by assay, it may be remarked that experts can 
 detect at a glance not only the kind of plating but the grade of that 
 kind. The amateur, however, may easily recognise hard or close 
 plating, as the seam or joining is usually visible, especially if 
 breathed upon or held before a sheet of white paper. 
 
 For common harness solid nickel mountings are coming into 
 fair repute, as this metal, which is whiter than German silver, can 
 be used unplated, and is, therefore, considerably cheaper, indeed the 
 
PATTERNS OF BITS, CHAINS, BRIDLES, AND STRAPPING. 
 
PL A TE 
 
 a i u mi 11 n a mi 111 
 
 PATTERNS OF SADDLES, PADS, WINKERS. ETC. 
 
PLATEVHI 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 57 
 
 HARNESS AND OTHER FURNITURE OF VARIOUS DESIGNS. 
 

 21 
 
 use of inferior leather and this class of furniture enables some 
 dealers to sell machine-made harness at prices ranging from twenty 
 to thirty per cent, less than can the first-class makers who use only 
 materials of the choicest description. This fact alone will give the 
 reader some idea of the difficulties which the best firms experience 
 in carrying on a legitimate trade, as regards quality and price. 
 
 Some firms are beginning to use a metal called nickoline, supposed 
 to be the best of the white metals, and which it is said neither 
 tarnishes or goes black, but on this I offer no opinion. 
 
 The buckles, &c., of brass-mounted furnitures are made of solid 
 brass, upon which a beautifully polished surface can be produced. 
 The hames, kidney links, and rings (see Plate VIII.), however, are 
 made of iron and hard plated brass, in the same manner as the sheet 
 is applied in silver plating. Many buyers prefer the terrets, hame 
 rings, and large buckles plated, and the smaller buckles covered 
 with leather, in which case the furniture is termed " part covered 
 and plated." Ornaments such as crests, rosettes, &c., are raised in 
 sterling silver, and filled with a baser metal in order to give substance. 
 
 Aluminium furniture is used in some instances, but it is costly 
 and goes black very soon. Phosphor bronze is now offered for sale, 
 and has the advantage of retaining its brilliancy, but beyond this 
 feature and the durability of the metal, the writer knows very little 
 of this furniture. 
 
 The art of covering furniture with leather has arrived at a won- 
 derful state of perfection, and there are now methods of covering it 
 with such compositions as celluloid, vulcanized india-rubber, &c., 
 which give it a very neat appearance. The introduction of this 
 style of furniture is owing to the ingenuity of some Americans, and, 
 being durable, there is every likelihood of its coming widely into 
 use in this country. 
 
 On Plate VI., of which I append some explanatory notes, the 
 reader will find some patterns of the principal bits used at the 
 present time. Bits vary greatly in price according to the material 
 of which they are made. Cast malleable iron, wrought iron, soft 
 steel, and hard steel are all used ; but the consumer should reject 
 
22 
 
 anything but the very best steel bits, as, though the cost may be a 
 little more, they are safer, much more agreeable to the horse, and 
 can be kept bright much longer than the commoner sorts. 
 
 REFERENCE NOTES TO PLATES VI., VII., AND VIII. 
 
 I. The Buxton pair-horse bit. 
 2. Globe check or Liverpool bit. 
 3. Duke's pattern. 
 
 4 > 
 
 5. Ordinary Gig bit. 
 
 6-- 
 
 7. A Mullin-mouth Persian or Wilson snaffle. 
 
 8. Double-ring jointed snaffle. 
 
 9. Pole-chain, with spring hooks. 
 
 10. Pole-chain, with ordinary hook. 
 
 II. Bridle, without winkers ; ornamental face and cheek straps. 
 
 12. plain 
 
 13. Pipe loop, showing fancy creasing. 
 
 14. Small loops, to take strap ends or billets. 
 
 15. Chain trace end with swivel and ring. 
 
 16. Chain trace, with swivel and loop. 
 
 17. Trace, with chain end and hook. 
 
 1 8. Trace end, with woodcock eye. 
 
 19. Gig saddle, with knob hook and trough for backhand to slide through. 
 
 20. Gig saddle, with bolt hook. 
 
 21. Gig saddle, with square flaps and bolt hook. 
 
 22. Stanhope or Imperial pad. Can be made for gig, brougham, or tandem harness. 
 
 23. Carriage pad, with centre terret. Used for wheelers in four-in-hand harness or 
 
 pair-horse harness without leaders. 
 24. Ordinary pair-horse pad. 
 
 25. Ordinary straight side pad for lighter harness. 
 26. Blinker, hatchet shape. 
 
 27. square pattern, with rounded corners. 
 28. ,, another variety of hatchet pattern. 
 29. D shape. 
 
 30. another variety of hatchet pattern. 
 31. ,, round pattern. 
 
 32. Brow-band or front of flat, close-link chain pattern. 
 33. curb-chain pattern. 
 
 34. leather, fancy pattern. 
 
 35. Bridle rosette, small pattern. 
 36. large 
 
23 
 
 37- Shaft tug, ordinary. 
 
 38. Ordinary gig hame, with anchor pull, kidney-link and ring, and jointed ring 
 
 for reins. 
 
 39. ,, branch or scroll pull. 
 
 40, 41, 42, and 43. Varieties of same. 
 
 44, 45, 46, 47, and 48. Gig and carriage harness buckles of various patterns. 
 49. Pair-horse shoulder piece buckle, wire pattern. 
 50. Pattern of buckle used for patent breeching, sometimes used throughout the 
 
 harness. 
 
 51 and 52. Other patterns. 
 53. Harness buckles of various designs. 
 54. Coupling ring, with round edge. 
 55. bevelled edge. 
 
 56. Pattern of Dee for breast straps. 
 57. breechings, traces, &c. 
 
 Although a simple matter in appearance, the quality and make 
 of the thread used in stitching the harness is an important matter, 
 and there is nothing that exhibits a plainer proof of good work- 
 manship than tightly-drawn regular stitches, made with the best 
 flax thread, well and carefully waxed. Sewing machines are used 
 for the cheaper classes of harness, but for perfect finish and dura- 
 bility hand-made harness is unequalled, in the same sense that 
 hand-made boots are more durable than those sewn by machinery. 
 
 CHILDREN GOING TO THE EXHIBITION. From the " Oracles." Drawn and 
 engraved by John Be\rick 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 IT is not my intention in the following remarks to enter upon 
 a description of the manufacture of harness, but merely to do a 
 simple work in putting into ready and accessible form the names by 
 which the different parts of harness are designated. Such informa- 
 tion may be considered superfluous by those skilled in such matters, 
 but I venture to think it will be both interesting and instructive to 
 a numerous body who have had no opportunities of becoming prac- 
 tically acquainted with them. 
 
 The bridle is that part of the harness which is placed on the 
 horse's head. Its various parts may be enumerated as follows, 
 (see Plate IX.) viz. : Cheek pieces [A] with buckles and loops at each 
 end, one end taking the head-piece [B] and the other taking the bit. 
 The head-piece [B] goes over the head, and has two loop straps by 
 which it is buckled to the cheek and throat straps [C]. The brow- 
 band or front [D] slides on the head-piece, and is made in a variety 
 of ways. Many people prefer a black leather front, others incline 
 towards coloured or striped leather ; chain and beaded fronts are 
 also used, in fact, so numerous are the available materials for fronts, 
 and so various the shapes of blinkers, &c., that the bridle affords 
 greater scope for the exercise of taste than any other part of the 
 harness. 
 
 The nose band [F] slides on the bottom loop-strap of cheek-piece 
 to which the bit is attached. The winkers [E] are generally con- 
 sidered part of the bridle, and are made in a variety of shapes. The 
 principal are the hatchet, the shell, the Dee, the round, and the 
 square patterns. Prevailing fashion is in favour of the Dee and 
 round patterns shown on Plate VII., Figs. 27, 29, and 31, which 
 represent them. 
 
 Bearing-reins [G] are used for supporting the head, and in the 
 simple form are attached to a loop in the bit, from which they are 
 
PL ATE IX 
 
FlG. I 
 
 PROPERLY-SHAPED COLLAR. 
 
 BADLY-SHAPED COLLAR. 
 
25 
 
 carried through the loop or swivel at [H], attached to the throat 
 band, and from thence to the terret on the pad, as shown by 
 Figs. 1,2, and 4, Plate IX. 
 
 In its more powerful form the bearing- rein is known as the gag. 
 In this case it is attached to a billet stitched to the head-piece, and 
 is then passed through a swivel on the bradoon bit, from which it 
 is taken through another swivel on the end of the gag, and from 
 thence to the terret. It is necessary that the reader should under- 
 stand that two bits are used at once with the gag, one being the 
 ordinary driving bit and the other a bradoon (see Fig. i, Plate X.) 
 bit, which is usually jointed in the centre and fitted with a ring or 
 swivel, each end for attaching the bearing-rein. This is also shown 
 in Plate X. Fig. 2 shows a bridle with simple bearing-rein. 
 
 Bridles for double harness are seldom any heavier than those 
 used for a single horse, except in van or spring-cart harness, when 
 the strapping is more substantial. 
 
 The saddle [I], Plate IX., resembles a gentleman's riding saddle 
 in general outline, and is necessary for carrying the back -band [J], 
 shaft-tugs [K], and belly-band [L]. In carriage harness it is inva- 
 riably covered with patent leather, but for heavy work, black oil or 
 harness leather is to be preferred for its durability. 
 
 The pad is sometimes used instead of a saddle for single harness 
 and is called the imperial, Fig. 22, Plate VII. It is light and elegant 
 but much inferior to the saddle for steadiness under a weight. 
 
 The pad used for double harness has a top of patent leather, 
 on an under cushion of oil leather. A very neat and pleasing 
 effect is gained when the pattern of the pad harmonises with the 
 shape of the winkers, and though this rule is pretty generally under- 
 stood, there is sometimes a difference which detracts very much 
 from the appearance of the harness. Pad cloths, which are placed 
 under the pad, are frequently used. They are made of patent leather 
 usually of a similar colour to the painting of carriage, and are 
 shaped to correspond with the pad. They have a very showy 
 appearance particularly with lace and other fancy borders. 
 
 The belly-band [L], Plate IX., in single harness is usually in one 
 long piece, forming both belly-band and back-band, the middle and 
 
 c 
 
26 
 
 strongest portion of the strap being arranged to serve as the latter 
 and sliding through the pad or saddle. 
 
 Double harness belly-bands are attached to the pads, the pad 
 ends having loops to take the straps which support the shoulder- 
 piece buckles. These latter vary greatly in design according to the 
 class and style of the harness. (My collaborateur, Nimshivich, 
 maintains that no strap or second belly-band uniting the traces is 
 required at all.) 
 
 The pad-tugs [M], Plate IX., are made in a variety of patterns, but 
 are usually oval in shape to admit and hold the shafts. The tilbury 
 tug is a valuable accessory, and very convenient when a horse is 
 difficult to " put to." It is made of iron and neatly covered with 
 leather, and by means of a spring bolt or catch may be opened 
 to admit the shaft. It is fitted with a loop and eye on the outside 
 which enable the belly-band straps to be slipped through and 
 wrapped round the shafts. 
 
 A " common" or ordinary breeching, when complete, consists 
 of the following straps, viz., crupper [O], crupper dock [N], hip 
 straps [P], breeching body [Q], and breeching strap [R]. Fillet 
 straps [P3] are occasionally used. 
 
 The patent breeching, as shown on Plate IX., Fig. 3, is undoubt- 
 edly the best when kept at the proper level, of which I shall speak 
 hereafter. It combines breeching with kicking strap, and may be 
 attached to the shaft tug with a spring hook and eye, or with an 
 eye bolt in the shaft. 
 
 Quarter straps, as represented on Plate IX., Fig. 2, are generally 
 used without the breeching, and serve a two-fold purpose. They 
 answer as kicking straps and support the trace, thus preventing the 
 horse getting his leg over it. 
 
 The neck collar [S] is, in best work, always covered on the outside 
 with glazed or patent leather. It is stuffed with carefully-selected 
 straw, so disposed as to form a cushion to fit the horse's shoulder. 
 It is strengthened with a roll [82], of such a shape as to form a recess 
 in which the hames are placed and secured. When this is firmly 
 done the shape of the collar is preserved and it cannot work outside 
 the shoulders. 
 
27 
 
 Nervous or bad tempered horses sometimes require open-topped 
 collars, which can be clasped round the neck instead of being put 
 over the head ; but such collars should be avoided, as they are 
 neither firm nor safe. When a very soft collar is required a layer 
 of wool may be placed over the straw. 
 
 The martingale [U] is intended to prevent the horse throwing up 
 its head (a habit that occasionally causes some trouble). It is looped 
 through a buckle and attached to the belly-band at one end, from 
 whence it passes through a loop sewed on the collar, and from 
 thence to the bit. That part of the martingale between the collar 
 and the bit is usually a split strap with buckles on the end of each 
 side to take the corresponding side of the bit. 
 
 Hames (sometimes called hame-sticks) [T] are necessary as a 
 means of attachment between the traces and the collar. They are 
 ornamental and, as I have said, prevent the collar working outside 
 the shoulder, which it does if allowed to lose its shape. 
 
 The bullets or pulls are sometimes very fanciful in design, but 
 the old plain pattern, known as the anchor pull, is very much in 
 vogue just now, being strong and easily cleaned. 
 
 Shoulder pieces are attached to the hames, with buckles to 
 alter the length of traces as may be needed, but they can be 
 dispensed with if several holes are made in the traces at the bar. 
 This latter arrangement does not irritate the horse's side at the bend 
 of the shafts in the same degree as shoulder-pieces. 
 
 Traces [V], being the means of draught, must necessarily be strong, 
 and are, therefore, made of two plies or thicknesses of the best and 
 and soundest leather. Single traces are usually made to take the 
 shoulder-piece buckle at one end, and have a hole at the other to 
 take the pulling bar hook or the dart bolt on carriage. They may 
 be fitted with a woodcock eye, but, as a rule, this ,is more general in 
 leading bar traces for four-in-hands, &c. 
 
 Pair-horse traces are also made of double leather thickened up 
 at each end to make the trace of uniform thickness, and to suit the 
 buckles and roller bolts on splinter bar. 
 
 Leading traces for tandem or posting harness have a spring hook 
 at the end to take an eye in the shoulder-piece buckle. 
 
28 
 
 Pair-horse driving reins [W] are made both of single and double 
 leather, the latter four times stitched, .?., there are two rows 
 of stitching on each side, but good single leather is the most durable. 
 It is now becoming a pretty general custom to use "flat and laid-on n 
 reins, which are of flat, single leather, but have a narrow strip of 
 leather laid on and sewed up the centre of the rein. Pair-horse 
 reins consist of an outside rein attached to the outside of the bit of 
 each horse, and two inside or coupling reins, which run from the 
 inside of the bit of each horse, and, after crossing each other, are 
 buckled to the outside rein at a point some eight feet from the bit. 
 It is sometimes necessary to lengthen or shorten the coupling of the 
 two reins, and some gentlemen prefer to have them made sufficiently 
 long for this to be done from the driving seat, in which case the 
 coupling is from 8 feet 9 inches to 9 feet distant from the bit. 
 
 Round reins are made with a cord running down the centre, but 
 being unserviceable and difficult to repair are falling into disuse. 
 The fact is, we have not succeeded so well as the Americans in the 
 manufacture of this kind of rein. Single reins are occasionally 
 made of double leather, stitched as before-named, but are more 
 generally of single leather only, which is the most durable form. 
 The hand-parts are usually of brown leather, while the body of the 
 reins, passing through the terrets to the bit, is of black leather. All 
 brown reins, however, are preferred by many, and are smart and 
 attractive. 
 
 YOUNG NORTHUMBERLAND. Fiom the original wood block, 
 engraved by Thomas Bewick, 1734. 
 
PLATE'S] 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 PLATE XI. shows a set of dress harness, with full appointments, such 
 as is used at present. It is complete with full bradoons, breeching 
 with split hip and fillet straps, straight patent leather pads with 
 pad cloths and square winkers, chain fronts, bradoon chains and 
 breast straps. The reader will have no hesitation in deciding 
 this style to be unsuitable for the very light carriages now used, 
 although for old-fashioned carriages, such as are used for State 
 purposes, it has an imposing appearance, sometimes heightened 
 by the use of brass or silver-plated beads on the winkers, pads, &c. 
 Plate XII. does not exhibit the same unnecessary weight. It has an 
 ordinary bearing-rein, single hip-strap to breeching, the shoulder- 
 pieces are drawn with safe-all, to protect the shoulders from chafing, 
 and there are no martingales. 
 
 Leading harness for four-in-hand could be added to either of 
 these sets, in which case the pads would be lighter or no pads at all, 
 a diagonal strap leading from top of hame to [D] on trace, and the 
 leading traces would be fitted with woodcock eyes to take the bars. 
 See Plate XIV., which represents harness without breechings, 
 bearing-reins, or pads to leaders. Plate XV. shows the style of 
 harness generally adopted for use with the " Cape Cart." It 
 differs principally from ours in having breast-straps instead of 
 collars, and there are several reasons why neck-collars would be 
 unsuitable. The breast-straps are easily regulated to suit the size of 
 any horse, which, of course, is not the case with a neck-collar. 
 To secure perfect ease to the riders this vehicle must be balanced 
 so accurately that the inclination of the driver's body should 
 take all weight off the horse's shoulder, allowing it to work easily 
 and without imparting knee motion. 
 
30 
 
 To make this clear it will be advisable to briefly explain the mode 
 of attaching the horses. The yoke ought to be placed across the 
 pole about 18 inches from the end. At this point the pole is 
 covered with oil leather to reduce friction and rattle, and here the 
 yoke should be strapped. Straps (resting on two leather pads with 
 chapes) pass over the withers of each horse and take the yoke at the 
 ends. This prevents the pole falling, although such a contingency 
 is hardly likely with a well-balanced vehicle. 
 
 The breast-straps must not be hung too low, or they tend to 
 cramp the shoulder. Each breast-strap is fitted with a [D] to take 
 the pole braces, and by having the pole a good length the cart is 
 prevented running on to the horses. 
 
 When this arrangement is adopted breeching and crupper dock 
 may be dispensed with and their place taken by hip-straps to support 
 the traces. Pads are sometimes omitted, but a light breeching then 
 becomes necessary ; this requires a light strap from the top of neck 
 support of breast-strap to the croup, and to this strap the hip- strap 
 is attached. 
 
 This plan is shown in Plate XVI. as devised by Colonel Pedler 
 and referred to in the correspondence of that gentleman with my 
 collaborateur, Nimshivich. 
 
 I should go more at length here into the respective merits of the 
 Cape Cart and the Curricle Harness were it not that the subject is 
 fully discussed by Colonel Pedler and others in the latter part of 
 this work, and I will therefore refer my readers to what they say. 
 I will simply draw attention to Plate XVII., where a hansom is shown 
 to be drawn Cape fashion by two horses, a novelty for which, in 
 conjunction with Nimshivich, I think I may take the credit. And 
 here I would observe that there is one characteristic about the 
 hansom that has hardly ever been mentioned. I allude to the fact 
 that in principle it embodies the best points of the Roman chariot 
 in having the body and weight well over the axle and the balance 
 adjusted to take the weight off the horse's back. So do the carts in 
 Plates XVIII., XIX., XX., XXI., and XXII. ; they all embody the 
 principle of the old Roman chariot, especially in the method of 
 yoking the horses. 
 
PLAT EXIT 
 
 fe 
 
PLATE X1JJ 
 
On Plate XIII. I have given a representation of a pair of horses 
 harnessed in accordance with my ideas of humanity, and to this 1 
 would request the particular attention of the reader, who will ob 
 serve that bearing-reins, winkers, and crupper docks are omitted. 
 
 Of late years there has been a great deal written about bearing- 
 reins, but a practical experience of some thirty years with horses 
 and harness has taught me that there are other parts of harness, 
 in addition to bearing-reins, that may be objected to on the score 
 of causing discomfort to the horse. It is not, however, my inten- 
 tion to inveigh against such appurtenances with the bitterness of 
 some people ; I would rather treat the matter with moderation, as 
 most practical men know that there are horses and horses. 
 
 Putting aside individual caprice or the requirements of State, 
 the harness maker, on being called on to advise his customer, has 
 to consider appearance and utility, and, as a secondary consideration, 
 prevailing fashion. It may fairly be averred that no strap or buckle 
 should be present which has not a distinct use. Of course we must 
 often admit parts the utility of which is open to dispute, and under 
 this head winkers may be said to come. It will be observed from 
 the sketch that I, amongst others, consider them superfluous, as they 
 impede, and sometimes impair, the sight of an animal gifted by 
 Providence with exceptionally powerful organs of vision. Mayhew 
 has shown that the eye of the horse is in every way superior to that 
 of man, and that it possesses the power of protecting itself from 
 injury by dust, insects, &c. (a faculty, by-the-bye, that avails nothing 
 against the lash of a whip). Why then should we use winkers at 
 all, except for horses that have been rendered nervous and unsafe 
 by harsh or injudicious treatment, and to prevent accidents, must 
 be blinded by winkers, which are net only objectionable on account 
 of their weight, but because they mar the beauty of the eye, one of 
 the horse's best features ? It is a question somewhat difficult to 
 answer; but, on the other hand, winkers have such a body of sup- 
 porters that the balance of evidence or opinion against them is not 
 sufficient to justify their total absence, although I have not the 
 slightest hesitation in asserting that they may be safely dispensed 
 
32 
 
 with in nine cases out of every ten. As a proof, I have only to 
 point to the 3,000 horses employed by the Midland Railway Com- 
 pany, and 2,000 by the North-Eastern and London Companies. 
 These animals are neither troubled by winkers or crupper docks, and 
 in performing their daily work (which is as heavy as that done by any 
 other class of horse), instead of exhibiting nervousness or unruliness, 
 they show a degree of docility and sagacity only possible with un- 
 obstructed eyesight and perfect freedom of limb. The following is 
 an instance : 
 
 The Company's coach, called "The Experiment," began running on the loth of 
 October, 1825. One of the drivers named Dixon delights to tell of a sagacious 
 grey that was fertile in expedients when emergencies arose. On one occasion, 
 perceiving that a train, which had run amain, must rush into his dandy cart, he 
 took a leap for life over the side and escaped. In a similar peril, a leap over the side 
 being impracticable, he sprung on to the coal wagon in front, and stood like an 
 equestrian statue on a pedestal. But the time came at last when there was no 
 escape, and the poor old grey was destroyed. Gateshead Observer, 1857. 
 
 I have said that bearing-reins have been widely condemned of 
 late years, and this condemnation I consider deservedly merited 
 when pointed at the gag, as this method of bearing up is both cruel 
 and highly injurious. This remark, however, does not apply with 
 the same force to the bearing-rein in its simple form, and the most 
 impartial summing-up of all that has been said for and against them 
 would not justify me in saying that they are always to be dispensed* 
 with, for, as a writer on coaching says, bearing-reins have their uses 
 and abuses. 
 
 In Rawlinson's " Ancient Monarchies" we learn that the use of 
 the bearing-rein was practised by the Egyptians, but that it was 
 either unknown to or disapproved by the Assyrians, who, in driving, 
 
 * I quite agree with Mr. Philipson on the question of bearing-reins. Per- 
 sonally I have always discarded them, but it is impossible for me to ignore that job- 
 masters, not when they are showing horses for sale, but when they are simply 
 exercising their cattle, use them ; therefore, under certain conditions, I take them 
 to be an advantage. Still we must remember that job-masters take care that their 
 breaksmen have "hands," and that is just what so few gentlemen or gentlemen's 
 coachmen possess. NlMSHivlCH. 
 
33 
 
 used reins which were separate, not stitched or buckled together, 
 and were held in the two hands separately. The right hand grasped 
 the reins, whatever their number, which were attached at the 
 horse's right cheek, while the left hand performed the same office 
 for the remaining reins. 
 
 On going to press I have received the following from Colonel 
 Pedler which bears most notably on the subject : 
 
 I think we don't all of us know as much as we think on all occasions. The 
 other day I saw a superb cart horse (and exquisite creatures they are, I think, I class 
 them with big dogs) dragging a heavy load up the steepest hill I ever saw such a 
 load conveyed. I spoke civilly to the carter to put him in a good humour, and 
 then begged him to take off the horse's bearing-rein. He replied that the horse 
 would pull himself on to his knees at once. I begged him to try, but he said he 
 had tried, and I saw from his manner that he had, and on watching the horse I saw 
 that he looked as if he would pull himself down. To the best of my recollection 
 I have never driven with a bearing-rein. I was bred to look on them as wrong and 
 cruel, and as I have seen them 99 times out of 100, I have always seen that they are 
 so. On buying harness I have always made the bearing-reins into pillar-reins. 
 But I think that a loose bearing-rein, allowing a horse to put his head everywhere he 
 can require to, but yet preventing accidents of various kinds, may be the least of two 
 evils, but the happy medium should be preserved, and the bearing-rein not kept on 
 an instant longer than requisite even then ; and to put a bearing-rein of any sort 
 on many poor old cracks one sees with them, must, in my opinion, be at all times 
 far more than ridiculous. 
 
 "Nimrod," in one of his sporting essays, said: 
 
 There are many horses sometimes whole teams that will not face anything but 
 the cheek; and where is the arm that could bear the weight of four horses leaning 
 upon it for an hour or more together perhaps at full gallop ? How much soever 
 humanity towards horses may be enjoined, regard for our own species must prevail, 
 and no horse in a coach or a post-chaise is safe without a bearing-rein, and for this 
 reason, he is in constant danger from having his head at liberty, of loosing his bridle 
 by rubbing his head against the pole or against the other horse, and then an accident 
 is almost sure to happen. 
 
 Although I do not wish to be dogmatic about the disuse of 
 crupper docks, I cannot help expressing my belief that they are quite 
 unnecessary in the majority of cases, and when used in conjunction 
 with a gag bearing-rein, are, as Paddy said, a capital arrangement 
 for cutting a horse's tail off. 
 
34 
 
 To a young horse they must be a perpetual source of annoyance, 
 but again, I will show the reader where they are somewhat advan- 
 tageous, although, for my part, I would use them as little as possible. 
 Where it is desired that an equipage should be showy, the docks 
 if made full will set off the horses' tails, and a double advantage 
 arises from making them thus full appearance and safety. For, 
 as a horse intending to kick straight-way tucks in his tail, so by 
 making the crupper dock very full his ability to tuck in his tail is 
 diminished, and his disposition to kick may likely be modified. 
 Thus, I would lay down as an axiom use docks as little as 
 possible, but when you do, have them made very full. 
 
 Lord Arthur Cecil has honoured me with his opinion on this 
 subject, and I have the greatest pleasure in giving the following 
 extract from one of his letters, not merely because it supports my 
 views, but because of its value as the opinion of one of the most 
 distinguished authorities of the present day on all matters apper- 
 taining to horses and driving. In speaking of carriage harness the 
 noble writer says : 
 
 I think that the present system, both in single and double, very nearly approaches 
 perfection, though if horses were carefully broken in for the purpose I see no use in the 
 winkers. In crowded towns only I approve of bearing-reins, so far as they make a 
 horse careful on his feet and give the driver considerably more power in a short pull up, 
 
 Of cart harness his lordship says : 
 
 I very strongly disapprove of winkers, but consider that the want of them must 
 only be begun on young horses. Bearing-reins are ridiculous, as horses require to 
 be able to lower their heads to the line of draught in a heavy pull. . . . Crupper 
 docks are of no use. ... I may say that though I disapprove of winkers, I 
 know of exceptions in nervous horses, or even ip cunning ones where the want of 
 winkers is dangerous, in nervous ones they are frightened when they see the shafts 
 descending on them while being yoked, and cunning ones decline to stand straight, 
 or can see to take an opportunity of bolting when their driver is unaware, but these 
 are only exceptions. 
 
 I have not shown a breeching, as I think the breeching unneces- 
 sary when a light modern-built carriage is used with a powerful 
 brake. At the same time a light breeching, when properly placed, 
 has many arguments in its favour. 
 
PL A TEXJV 
 
Let us look for a moment at the arguments for and against 
 breechings. Nimrod said: 
 
 Many of them (the coachmen) dislike them as cumbersome to their horses, 
 particularly in hot weather, and say further, that however useful they may be in 
 holding back when necessary, yet they give them a trick of "sitting upon them," 
 as they term it, whenever an opportunity offers, and not getting away from the 
 coach when wanted to do so. 
 
 Now, if the breeching is so placed that a horse can sit upon it, he is 
 better without it, as it is then far below its proper position, and, 
 instead of assisting him, causes trouble by taking his legs from under 
 him when holding back. The proper height for a breeching is the 
 height of the hame-pulls from the ground carried round the rump, 
 and, with a breeching in this position, the horse can hold back with 
 perfect ease, and retain the full use of hind legs. Besides, the collar 
 is kept off the neck, and any strain on the hame strap avoided. 
 
 Although many London omnibuses have dispensed with pads, 
 and take the reins direct through the hame rings, they, the pads, 
 have a distinct and useful office to fulfil. To what else but the 
 belly-band of the pad can the martingale be attached which secures 
 the kidney link and pole chain in case the hame strap at the 
 top of the collar gives way ? Pads, too, provide a fulcrum or lever 
 in case of pulling horses, and, for the proper placing of reins, could 
 not be dispensed with in the case of a four-horse team. The utility 
 of the usual strap which connects the trace buckle with the pad, 
 and still less of the belly-band from trace to trace, is much more 
 questionable, and it would be much better for the leather and labour 
 bestowed on them, to be allotted to hip straps, which are an 
 undoubted source of safety in the case of a kicking horse. These 
 hip-straps, as also breechings, if employed, may be sustained by a 
 strap from the hames to the rump, in case the use of cruppers is 
 dispensed with. The illustration (Plate XVI.) shows how this may 
 be done, but I should prefer that the breeching, instead of being 
 secured to a square D at A, should pass through the strap which at 
 that point should be doubled. I show the reader thus how, for both 
 breeching and hip straps, he may dispense with crupper dock, but, as 
 I have previously said, I do not wish to be dogmatic about the matter. 
 
36 
 
 It may be said that pads are quite unnecessary, except for unique 
 appearance, to the leaders in a four-horse team. In their absence you 
 place a diagonal strap from the upper side of the trace buckle to the 
 upper part of the hames. (See Plate XIV.) I am writing, of course, 
 on the supposition that collars are used, and not breast straps. It 
 was in this way that Lord Arthur Somerset and Mr. Charles Hoare, 
 than whom no better coachmen exist, harnessed their leaders in that 
 very fast coach, the "Rapid," which ran in '78 from London to 
 Beckenham, and the practice has been maintained, but not in- 
 variably, by the professional Selby, who then worked for them, on 
 other coaches of his own. 
 
 The condition of the horse, so far as regards harnessing, appears 
 to be slowly though steadily improving, which may be regarded as 
 an indication that the barriers of prejudice are being removed, and 
 that we are now willing to make departures from customs that have 
 always been considered " the thing," provided there is anything to 
 be gained by doing so ; but although a remarkable unanimity of 
 opinion does exist on the subject, there are many little matters open 
 to discussion. The proper length of traces, for instance, is a fruitful 
 source of dispute. Some distinguished writers are in favour of 
 putting horses close to their work, while others equally clever hold 
 a contrary opinion. Nimrod, in one of his letters, says : 
 
 The traces of coach-horses should be as short as possible : they cannot be too 
 near to their work. Those of the wheeler should just admit of his hinder leg clearing 
 the wheel, and those of the leaders not more than sufficient to clear their tails of the 
 bars. 
 
 I regard this as the correct view when referring to a four-wheel 
 carriage, but with two-wheel vehicles the rule should be reversed, 
 and the horse kept well forward of his work. Mr. G. A. Thrupp, 
 in his able " History of Coaches," is in favour of giving horses 
 greater license than is customary in both single and double harness, 
 and, although I incline to Nimrod's view of the matter in the case of 
 four-wheel carriages, I should be doing an injustice to Mr. Thrupp's 
 good intentions did I omit to quote his remarks. They are as 
 follows : 
 
37 
 
 I think this principle of allowing the horse greater scope for exertion is 
 particularly worth the attention of coachbuilders. The manner in which our horses 
 are confined by tight heavy strapping and traces, by tight pole chains, by bearing- 
 reins and the indiscriminate use of blinkers to the bridles, has been much overdone 
 in England. If a horse with a heavy load, driven fast over slippery roads, should 
 stumble, it is most difficult for him to recover himself ; he falls, is sometimes pushed 
 along by the impetus of the carriage, and is more or less injured in his limbs or 
 nerves by the accident, whilst it is difficult for him to rise again until the harness is 
 unstrapped and the carriage is removed from above him. We also harness our 
 horses too closely to their work in the two-wheeled carriages. We have thought 
 only of the ease of turning and moving the whole vehicle in crowded or narrow 
 ways, without observing the advantage of the long shafts over short shafts. If the 
 shafts are considered as levers by which the horse supports and moves the weight 
 behind him in a two-wheeled cart, it will be at once obvious that (although whilst these 
 levers are parallel with the road) it does not so much signify whether they are long 
 or short ; yet the moment they point upwards and especially when they point down- 
 wards, the difference between long and short levers is felt severely by the horse. 
 
 I think, therefore, that in future years the growth of public opinion 
 
 will be in favour of longer shafts and poles. 
 
 The length of traces, however, cannot be said to affect the 
 harness maker, as by the medium of the shoulder-piece buckles they 
 may be lengthened or shortened at pleasure. Occasionally the 
 buckles are fitted at the other end of the trace, in which case 
 shoulder-piece buckles are unnecessary. This looks much lighter, 
 and a chain end is often used to take the roller-bolt or hook, 
 particularly in coaches and other sporting carriages (see remarks 
 above). I have shown that draught is easiest when the trace takes a 
 slight rise from the roller or bar to the hame pull, and this remark 
 applies with equal force to leading traces, as nothing looks worse 
 than a leader with traces sloping down to the shoulder. This is 
 almost unavoidable when a small horse is used, and in this case 
 long traces are to be preferred, as the point of draught can be 
 carried further back. 
 
 Some people seem to imagine that a horse is benefited by the 
 use of breast straps instead of neck collars, but this is a decided 
 mistake. Breast straps are certainly light and can be utilised for any 
 horse, no matter what his size, whereas a neck collar will only fit one ; 
 but with breast straps the point of draught is misplaced and the 
 action of the shoulder is interfered with. A good neck collar 
 
38 
 
 enables us to locate the draught at its proper position, and that is 
 much higher than is possible with breast straps ; the shoulders are 
 thus left free. By a good neck collar I mean such an one as is repre- 
 sented in Plate X., Fig. 4, a collar that fits close but does not nip; 
 nor must it be slack or allowed to roll and scald the shoulders, as 
 would the collar shown by Fig. 5 , which is a fair representation of cheap 
 work. It must be small and well laid back at the throat, but full and 
 of good dimensions at the draught and upwards. Such a collar causes 
 no pressure on the throat, the circulation of the blood is not impeded, 
 and the respiratory organs are perfectly free. If the hames are made 
 to conform to the sweep of the collar and fit closely within the roll at 
 all points the shape is preserved and, as a consequence, the horse is 
 comfortable. It may be asked, where are such collars to be had ? 
 And I would answer, they are very scarce and difficult to obtain 
 except from first-class makers ; but when gentlemen refuse any 
 other collar than that which fits their horses such collars will become 
 plentiful, but only then. Fig. 3, Plate IX., is a front view of a collar 
 with hames connected at the bottom by a chain instead of a strap. 
 This looks very well in traps of a sporting character. 
 
 An attentive observer will notice that our tramcar and omnibus 
 horses (I of course refer to the horses of properly managed com- 
 panies, and not to the miserable hacks that sometimes ply for hire) 
 work more easily in neck collars than in breast straps ; and, not- 
 withstanding the hard work done by those animals, sore necks and 
 similar evils are rather the exception than the rule. 
 
 The shape of the pad is another matter that does not generally 
 receive the attention it deserves. If a pad is not made on a suitable 
 tree, and stuffed to suit the shape of the horse's back (z>., to bear 
 on the fleshy part of the back and not on the spine), there is con- 
 siderable risk in its use. If too tight, the pad usually presses on the 
 spine and causes pain, which may result in the horse trying to rid 
 himself of the nuisance, and though he may not succeed in accom- 
 plishing this, it is within the bounds of probability that an accident 
 happens to both carriage and driver. It was to this cause that 
 "Nimrod" used to attribute many cases of "milling." It is the 
 same with single-harness saddles or pads, and the buyer should 
 
39 
 
 make it his especial duty to see that they fit closely without being 
 tight, and easy without rolling about, and thus necessitating a tight 
 belly-band or girth. 
 
 There is also a point or two about the bridle, which, though in 
 appearance slight and trivial, are not undeserving of notice. Bridles 
 can usually be made to fit heads of various sizes by means of the 
 straps which, in ordinary cases, are capable of being let out or taken 
 up a few holes, but it is necessary to exercise great care in placing 
 the cheek pieces when winkers are used, in order that the horse's 
 eyebrows may not be chafed ; it being a common practice to make 
 winker-straps too tight to secure a close fit, which causes the winkers 
 to chafe. 
 
 As the driver's control over his horses entirely depends on the 
 reins and bits, buyers should select these items with more, than or- 
 dinary care, especially the former. It is of the first importance that 
 the reins be of the very best leather, whether they be single leather, 
 round, or double leather. The greatest reliance can be placed on 
 single leather reins, as the slightest crack or flaw on either side of 
 the leather can be detected without trouble. As single leather reins, 
 of the best quality, are exceedingly strong, the hand parts may be 
 made light, and are, consequently, much more pleasing to handle, 
 especially for a lady ; but this cannot be said of double leather reins, 
 the stitching of which allows defects to be hidden. 
 
 New reins are slippery. To obviate this, wash them well with 
 tepid water, then allow them to dry, and taking a little powdered 
 resin, rub it on both sides with a soft cloth. Of course this is only 
 applied to the parts which pass through the hands. 
 
 Bits, having been so fully discussed in every journal concerned 
 in the matter, however slightly, it would appear unnecessary to say 
 anything about them ; but it cannot be too often repeated that, in 
 selecting bits, the buyer should be guided by the temper and dispo- 
 sition of the horse. A double-ringed snaffle will suit almost any 
 horse, and if a little extra power is needed, a jointed or twisted snaffle 
 may be used. In particular cases, the sliding-mouth bits and those 
 having small ports may be resorted to, but they are frequently used 
 when there is not the slightest need for them ; and if the simple 
 
4 o 
 
 bits were properly placed on the bridle, so that the mouth-piece 
 rests on the tusks, they would be found very efficacious, whereas 
 the reverse is generally the case. If a bit is very tight, a horse 
 cannot be expected to obey his driver, as it stops the circulation and 
 deprives the mouth of feeling. On Plate X. I have shown several 
 patterns of bit mouth-pieces, and would draw the reader's attention 
 to No. 5 as a specimen of horse-torturing appliances. 
 
 In addition to the suggestions made in a previous chapter on the 
 selection of leather, I can only add that the strapping should on no 
 account have a greasy appearance. Double-leather strapping should 
 be rounded or thick in the centre and tapered towards the edges ; 
 this simple precaution prevents the strap rubbing off the hair. 
 
 The best guide in forming an opinion on the workmanship is the 
 stitching, and, although experience again steps in here, it is worth 
 remembering that all stitching should be very regular, with the 
 threads tightly drawn down ; irregular stitching on the under-side 
 at once stamps a trace as badly made. 
 
 These rules are probably the best that can be given on paper, 
 for, as I have said, experience is ever the best guide ; but if these 
 points were remembered and attended to by purchasers, deception 
 would be difficult to practice. 
 
 As silver-plated furniture is almost universally used for best 
 harness, it is as well purchasers should be careful to have their 
 transactions with houses of good repute, who sustain their business 
 on the merit of their wares. The terms best and superior are words 
 so elastic in this day, that vendors of cheap harnesses often attract 
 customers by low priced goods, assuring them that the quality is 
 indisputable ; whereas a short period of wear proves that the cheap 
 market is the dearest in the end. Plated goods can vary in quality 
 twenty to twenty-five per cent., and to the casual observer the 
 difference cannot be detected, for perhaps no other article is open to 
 more deception than silver work. Saddlery and harness advertised 
 as " great bargains in quality and price" should be cautiously 
 approached. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR THE CARE AND PRESERVATION OF HARNESS. 
 
 Whatever may be the value of the horses, the reputation of the coachbuilder and 
 harness-maker, or the skill of the driver, a turn-out is never perfect unless it be 
 fiesh and brilliant. 
 
 The care and preservation of carriages and harness are consequently matters of 
 importance to " connoisseurs " interested in appearance and economy, and to builders 
 desirous of acquiring the credit due to their good work. 
 
 As few of those interested, especially of the ormer class, seem to have a knowledge 
 of the most essential and even indispensable requisites for the proper care of harness, 
 we trust this little work will supply a want.* 
 
 A careful coachman will pay great attention to his harness room, he will dust it 
 frequently, will polish the wood and brass fittings, and, when opportunity offers, 
 will take a pride in pointing out to his friends its good order and neat appearance. 
 He will also be careful to keep everything scrupulously clean, and when brushing 
 or polishing his harness, will select some place where cleanliness is of less importance 
 than in the harness room. If from any cause the room is to be shut up for a lengthy 
 period, it is advisable to cover up the harness, saddles, and all objects not placed in 
 cupboards or cases, protect them from dust. 
 
 GENERAL CARE OF HARNESS. It is not absolutely necessary to clean harness, 
 as is the case with carriages, after each time of using. Should there be no mud, nor 
 very much dust upon the harness, it will be sufficient to brush the oil leather, to 
 dust and wipe the japanned leather, and to rub the buckles and other mountings 
 with a dry rag. 
 
 It is, however, necessary to wash with a sponge, but without splashing, any parts 
 of the harness which shows signs of sweat from the horse, especially such parts as 
 the insides of the collars, the leather panels of the saddles, the girths, c. This 
 washing should take place as soon as the horses have been unharnessed and rubbed 
 down ; each part being removed in its turn from the hook which it occupied whilst 
 the horses were receiving the attention of the coachman. 
 
 * For the care of carriages, see Appendix. 
 
42 
 
 This partial cleansing being terminated, the harness should be placed on trestles 
 provided for the purpose and furnished with hooks and shelves, after being brushed 
 the parts above-mentioned should be rubbed over with a greasy rag dipped in neat's 
 foot oil. 
 
 WASHING. Should the harness be muddy each part must be taken separately 
 and washed with a sponge, special care being observed in handling the japanned 
 leather, which must afterwards be dried with a soft damp chamois leather; the oil 
 leather may be wiped with an old chamois leather, that has been worn out on the 
 carriage, the various parts are then put on a blacking up trestle, placed in the shade, 
 and when quite dry the blacking up may commence, an essential operation after 
 washing. 
 
 BRASS, PLATED, AND POLISHED MOUNTINGS. Brass and plated mountings are 
 the most difficult parts to clean; no acids or pigments of a corrosive nature should 
 be employed, or, at least, only if used with the utmost care, and when the mountings 
 are tarnished with verdigris. All " polishing liquids " and " metallic powders " burn 
 or scratch the leather and varnish with which they are sure to come in contact, no 
 matter how careful the coachman may be in their use ; the remedy is apt to become 
 worse than the disease. 
 
 Careful coachmen keep the brass or plated mountings clean by frequently and 
 energetically rubbing them with a woollen rag, or a small chamois leather, known in 
 France under the name of a " pean a argenterie" and when spotted, they use only a 
 greasy substance, or a nearly impalpable powder, to avoid scratching. The mount- 
 ings so treated should be washed with a soft sponge before again rubbing them with 
 a dry rag. 
 
 Whiting and spirits of wine may be used with advantage for all silver-plated 
 mountings. 
 
 The polished parts may be kept a little greasy, and, when necessary, cleaned with 
 a burnisher or otherwise. 
 
 We would allow a little more latitude in the use of plate powder, whose effects 
 are deleterious chiefly when brought in contact with patent leather, especially 
 when used for arms, coronets or monograms, with which harness is frequently 
 ornamented. 
 
 Harness makers generally supply a guard, in the shape of a piece of leather cut 
 out to fit round the outline of the various ornaments and so protect the surrounding 
 leather during the process of cleaning. Plate powders and acids will, nevertheless, 
 penetrate the interstices of the ornaments, and, in spite of brushing and sponging, 
 will gradually effect their work of destruction ; the less the care exercised in their 
 use the more rapidly will their deleterious effects be perceptible. 
 
 In some establishments a piece of flannel, moistened with lemon juice, is used to 
 clean brass mountings ; soap is applied in the same manner to silver-plated mount- 
 ings, but both are used carefully and patiently. 
 
43 
 
 Brushes are important factors in the production of good work ; three are neces- 
 sary a hard brush to remove the dirt, a soft brush to apply the blacking, and a 
 polishing brush. 
 
 The harness having been taken apart and brushed or washed as required, a little 
 blacking is poured into a plate or flat vessel and applied by aid of the blacking 
 brush to each portion of oil leather, which is then exposed to the air to dry. 
 As soon as it has acquired a dull or bluish tint, it is ready for the polishing brush. 
 
 Over the polish obtained by the brush, a little bees'-wax must be applied, in 
 order to render it waterproof ; a brilliancy will be thus obtained, which cannot be 
 dimmed even by the action of rain. 
 
 The waterproof blackings are composed of bees'-wax, which is 
 the proof, the ivory black, indigo, &c., give a colouring, and mix up 
 into a paste. This blacking is very clean and waterproof, but the 
 turpentine or naphtha used is not good for leather.* Prepared 
 blackings, such as Harris' or Harding's, save time and trouble, and 
 are as good as anything that can be procured. 
 
 BROWN LEATHER. The preceding remarks are applicable to the black leather 
 parts of harness; in regard to brown leather some preserve it pliable by moistening 
 it, after it has been washed and dried, with a mixture of white wax and oil which 
 they prepare themselves. This plan we consider good, if the leather is afterwards 
 carefully brushed. 
 
 More frequently a brown paste of a similar composition is employed and applied 
 in the same manner as that used for black leather. 
 
 In any case, we recommend for brown leather the use of separate polishing brushes. 
 In fact a harness room should contain as many sets of brushes as there are kinds of 
 leather, if the harness is to be kept in proper order. 
 
 JAPANNED LEATHER. The japanned leather in a harness should be treated in 
 the same manner as the japanned leather on a carriage, either by washing it with 
 water simply, or with a little soft soap ; carefully drying it afterwards with a soft 
 chamois leather, if necessary, using a little wadding or a small piece of flannel 
 dipped in linseed oil, to remove stains. I recommend for the patent leather on 
 the saddles, collars, and winkers, the use of an old silk handkerchief with the feather 
 duster. The old, soft silk will not scratch the surface and will restore the original 
 brilliancy of the leather. 
 
 * The most beautiful specimen of well blacked and polished harness I ever saw 
 was in the harness room of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, and I learnt that nothing 
 but Everett's liquid blacking, the same as employed for shoes, was ever used. But 
 then there was a good workman to apply it, and head coachmen who took care to 
 see it done. NlMSHlviCH. 
 
44 
 
 STEEL WORK. When unharnessing the horse the bits and chains should be 
 thrown, just as they come from the animal's mouth, into a pail of clean water where 
 they should be allowed to remain a short time not longer than half-an-hour. On 
 being removed from the water they should be carefully wiped dry and, if free from 
 rust, should be polished with the burnisher. If, on the contrary, any rust be apparent, 
 it must be at once removed by the use of a little damp silver sand, very soft and 
 fine, applied by means of small pieces or strips of old chamois leathers. When the 
 rust has disappeared and the sand been removed by careful wiping, a burnisher is 
 used to restore brilliancy. 
 
 The care of steel work generally is greatly facilitated by the use of a board fixed 
 against the wall, and furnished with nails and hooks, to which the various articles 
 may be attached, leaving both hands available for cleaning and polishing. This 
 board, which we consider indispensable to any establishment of importance, is 
 frequently mounted with sliding hooks, allowing articles of varying dimensions to 
 be attached to them. 
 
 The same process is followed for bits, bradoons, pole ends, splinter hooks and 
 sockets, stirrups, spurs, &c. Pole chains and curb chains are cleaned and easily 
 polished by rubbing the links against each other in a duster or rubber, adding a 
 little silver sand in case of rust. To clean the chains, a long bag is used, made of 
 some stout material, sometimes of leather. This bag has a handle at each extremity, 
 a little straw is inserted with the chains, and when, from the backward and forward 
 movements of the bag, the straw becomes reduced to chips, the chains will have 
 acquired a brilliant polish. 
 
 In a well kept harness room the steel work should never be greased, except in 
 the case of a prolonged absence of the family from home. Careful coachmen will, 
 however, during wet weather, wipe the chains with a greasy rag just before going 
 out, to prevent rust and obviate the labour inseparable from its removal. On 
 returning to the stables the grease is at once removed and the chains again polished. 
 
 BROWN LEATHER SADDLES, BRIDLES, &c. Brown leather saddles, bridles, 
 martingales, &c., are washed with a sponge and water, or if need be, with soap and 
 a brush. To prevent them hardening we know of nothing better than good milk 
 rubbed in with a linen rag. We recommend this application more especially for 
 saddles; it may be rather costly but it is certainly excellent. To repolish them use 
 a little wax or specially prepared English paste, such as Propert's or Jamieson's, 
 applied with a brush as to other parts of the harness ; to remove stains, some 
 coachmen use a liquid called lemon water ; we do not approve of this composition, 
 it not only bleaches the leather where applied but burns and destroys it. 
 
 CARE OF VARIOUS ARTICLES. Girths and surcingles should be washed with 
 soap and water, and a brush if necessary ; white girths should be pipe-clayed and 
 carefully beaten when dry. Pipe-clay is also used for some kinds of apron straps, 
 for the lashes of whips, &c. Stable halters and bridles are cleaned in the same 
 
45 
 
 manner as similar portions of the harness, as they happen to be of black or brown 
 leather, &c. All covers and horse clothing, whether of tick or of wool, should be 
 washed, and on no account put away dirty. To protect woollen materials from 
 moth, a liberal use should be made of camphor and pepper ; they should also be 
 frequently aired and brushed. This caution is specially applicable to the woollen 
 parts of saddles, which never spoil so surely nor so rapidly as when out of use and 
 left to take care of themselves. 
 
 STABLE REQUISITES. I do not enumerate here all the various tools and 
 utensils necessary for the proper care and preservation of harness; I have mentioned 
 the most important of them. I consider that when procuring them economy 
 should never be studied at the sacrifice of quality. Besides requiring frequent 
 renewal, cheap tools are generally difficult to use, and in most cases produce inferior 
 work; we would recommend the purchase of these articles at a coachbuilder's or 
 harness maker's, who, in addition to being competent judges of tools which are daily 
 used in their establishments, are not likely to supply goods that will not tend to the 
 preservation and good appearance of their own manufactures, for which they wish to 
 obtain the credit due to good work and the increased business which a reputation for 
 excellence is sure to bring with it. 
 
 An intimate business acquaintance of mine, who has been con- 
 nected with the trades of which I am treating for a considerable 
 number of years, has kindly contributed the following : 
 
 Cleanliness, as it applies to harness, is an important feature as a preserver and 
 beautifier. Leather, from its very nature, if habitually allowed to remain dirty 
 will become hard and rigid, and more susceptible of decay, whereas by careful 
 attention on the contrary, it retains its suppleness and softness; qualities so essential 
 both for wear and appearance. The furniture, especially silver, deteriorates if the 
 chamois skin and elbow effort is too long neglected, and here I would observe how 
 necessary it is that proper materials should be used in cleaning furniture. The 
 manufacturer or vendor is often blamed for what the groom ought to be held 
 responsible for, by using those ingredients which, by their roughness, so seriously 
 injure and destroy plate. Among the numerous preparations afloat I could advise 
 "Goddard's Plate Powder" as a good and useful article. It can be obtained from 
 all respectable chemists. 
 
 The same gentleman, in the following interesting remarks, 
 carries us back a long way: 
 
 A generation or two ago (I am writing in 1882) the usual mode of transit in 
 Wales was on horseback, either single or by pillion, the latter being commonly 
 adopted in attending markets or fairs. The principality could not boast of much 
 vehicular traffic. Harness,/r0/<fr, came into vogue with the two-wheeler gig, which 
 
46 
 
 in those days was built in a style we now look upon as very antique. As a com- 
 mercial traveller I first took my journies in one of these gigs which supplanted the 
 saddle-bags of my predecessor. Subsequently as trade and roads improved my gig 
 gave place to a phoeton. I am now speaking of something like forty-five years ago. 
 I well remember how the Welsh villagers gaped at my " set out," and saluted me 
 with halloas and amusing expressions of surprise. On one occasion I put up at a 
 village inn known under the sign of the " Unicorn ;" very humble and unpretending, 
 but for all that the head hotel. The duties of " mine host" included those of the stable 
 and the office of "John the ostler." This worthy functionary, after spending some 
 time in adjusting the harness previous to "putting to," brought out.the animal, and 
 wheeling about, at length placed the steed's head, as the showman said (when 
 shafted) "where his tail should be." Upon being remonstrated with, he, with good 
 humour, so like a Welshman, exclaimed, "Why, indeed, indeed, sir, you do have 
 such clever harnish, I do not know hardly how to use it. Indeed, we do not never 
 see such fine harnish." Times have changed since then. The Welsh gentry and 
 the Welsh farmer know how to appreciate a good set of harness, and the groom 
 takes a pride in keeping it bright and nice. A pride which every true groom ought 
 to possess. (Note. The above was my personal experience.) 
 
 For some of my remarks on leather, harness, harness mountings r 
 &c., in this and preceding Chapters, which accord with my own 
 experience, I am indebted to the old established firm of Messrs. 
 Lowe, Sleigh, Bevan, & Co., Coach and Saddlers' Ironmongers and 
 Manufacturers, Birmingham. 
 
 MEASUREMENTS FOR HARNESS. 
 
 In ordering harness it is somewhat common to give merely the 
 height of the horse, but to ensure a perfect fit it is essential that 
 the horse be measured for at least two of the items, viz., the collar 
 and the saddle. Little difficulty can exist in the case of the collar as 
 there will in most cases be an old one to guide the purchaser, and 
 it is therefore only necessary to give the length from A to B, and 
 width from C to D, see Plate X., Fig. 3, (allowing \ an inch to f of 
 an inch for the shortening of the old collar). In the absence of an 
 old collar the size round the horse's neck at the point where the 
 collar rests should be given. 
 
 For a saddle it is necessary that the girth be given, and it will 
 also conduce to a good fit if a rough description of the horse is 
 supplied. 
 
47 
 
 Such a description with the above particulars are usually 
 sufficient, but, when preferred, the horses quarters may be measured 
 for the breeching, and the throat, nose, and forehead for their respec- 
 tive bands. For single driving reins state the length from hand 
 to billet, exclusive of the latter. In ordering pair-horse driving 
 reins it is advisable to give separately the length of the reins and 
 the length of the couplings. When possible, it is also desirable that 
 the description of carriage for which harness is intended be given 
 to secure proportion. 
 
 THE BLACK HORSE. For description see Bewick's " Quadrupeds," page 10. 
 From the original wood block, igoo. 
 
BIRTHPLACE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON, WYLAM-ON-TYNE. 
 
THE CAPE CART. 
 
 Bv XIMSHIVICH. 
 
 ON TRACTION. 
 
 THE result of the investigations of the Dublin Society, assisted 
 by Richard Lovell Edgeworth, F.R.S., on draught, weight, &c., 
 of carriages more than fifty years ago, may be found in the work 
 entitled Edgeworth on Roads and Carriages, The following are 
 some of the most salient remarks in it bearing on traction: 
 
 The higher the wheels the more advantageous is the draught ceteris paribus 
 
 Experience has determined that the hest height of wheels is from 
 
 5 feet 6 inches to 5 feet for carriages that move swiftly, and that, for heavy carriages, 
 
 wheels seldom are found useful beyond the diameter of 6 feet The 
 
 friction of the box of a wheel upon a well-polished axle-tree, when it is well greased, 
 is equal to about one-fifth of the pressure of the load. So that, where the wheels 
 are 52 inches high and the axle-trees 2 inches in diameter, the circumference of the 
 wheel will move twenty-six times further than the inside of the box does at each 
 revolution, but as the friction between the box and the axle-tree is only one-fifth of 
 the pressure of the load, the actual friction will be only one-fifth of the twenty - 
 sixth part of the load, or nearly 130th part of the weight of the carriage. 
 
 As I am only going to deal with a two-wheeled vehicle, I omit 
 here much that was put forward in Edgeworth's work on the re- 
 spective merits of high and low, and long or short coupled carriages, 
 but the following extract from the Carriage Builders' Art Journal 
 (1859), affords some pertinent observations which the purchaser of a 
 four-wheeled carriage would do well to bear in mind. 
 
 Mr. Edgeworth, no mean authority, made this question (long or short couplings), 
 the subject of experiment. He constructed a machine, with perch, that could be 
 lengthened, and placed in the middle when adjusted to 1 foot 6 inches a weight 
 of 28 pounds. This was drawn at the rate of five-and-a-half miles per hour, by a 
 force of 12 Ibs. The perch was then lengthened to 3 feet, and the same weight 
 placed thereon, when it was moved at the same rate by the same amount of power. 
 
This experiment was often repeated with the same result. His cone usion, there- 
 fore, was that the draught was in the latter case 110 greater. But Mr. Edgeworth's 
 experiment did not go far enough. A perfectly level, plain, and rigid model, 
 capable of carrying ten times the weight put on, is very different to a long coupled 
 carriage with the weight suspended between, instead of over the axles, as every 
 strain and twist of the carriage, from the roughness of the road, is increased in 
 proportion to the length; therefore, the shorter a carriage can be coupled, and 
 the load placed as near as possible over the axles, the better in point of draught. 
 
 Alexander Cumming, F.R.S., who reported to the Board of 
 Agriculture, in 1799, on the "Effects of Carriage Wheels/' says: 
 
 The several resistances that conspire to retard the progress of a carriage wheel,. 
 so far as they occur to me at present, are : 
 
 1. The innate force or inertia of matter. 
 
 2. The opposition of gravity in gradual ascents. 
 
 3. The opposition of gravity in getting over fixed obstacles. 
 
 4. The friction of the axis. 
 
 5. The friction or partial dragging at the rim of all wheels that are not truly 
 cylindrical. 
 
 6. The resistance to the rim in passing through sludge or any other substance 
 that is partly fluid and non-elastic. 
 
 7. The resistances of substances that have a degree of elasticity, by which they 
 partly recover their position when the wheel has passed, but not suffi- 
 ciently strong to raise the centre of gravity of the carriage. 
 
 8th and last. The tenacity or cohesive attraction of substances that adhere to- 
 the wheels, such as clay. 
 
 On these grounds it is maintained that a two-wheeled vehicle,, 
 with comparatively high wheels, affords the best form of traction, 
 and that if you can attach to it a pair of horses side by side, with 
 such harness as may secure first, safety; second, comfort you 
 obtain horse-power and easy draught in their highest and best form. 
 
 It is further submitted that, with the Cape method of harnessing, 
 these objects are attained in a more useful form than with the old- 
 fashioned curricle. Not that for park or town this is a vehicle to be 
 contemned, but there is nothing new about it to be pointed out to 
 carriage buyers, or the builders they employ. It is not yet so far 
 extinct but that any respectable builder will supply one built on the 
 old-fashioned and, sometimes, very graceful lines. See Plate XXIII. 
 
With these observations I will now (by permission of the Editor 
 of the Field] reprint some of the correspondence that has taken place 
 in his columns on this subject, together with some private letters 
 which may serve to elucidate the question. 
 
 About the end of 1877, and during the spring of 1878, there 
 might have been seen in the streets of London, at times, a cart so 
 peculiar that it gave rise to the following letter (5th January, 1878) 
 from the author to the Field: 
 
 TWO-WHEELED CAERIAGES WITH Two HOUSES. 
 
 The other day I saw drawn up, at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, a two-wheeled 
 dog cart with two smart cobs in it, harnessed, not in curricle fashion, with the bar 
 connecting the pads, but with what I understand Americans term a "yoke" across 
 the pole end, and about eighteen inches from it. The ends of this yoke had straps 
 passing over the withers of each horse, by which, at a push, the pole was prevented 
 falling; but the general method seemed rather to be the balancing of the seats of 
 the cart. The horses had breast-pieces, not collars, and pole chains, in addition to 
 the yoke. An American tells me he does not remember having seen anything of the 
 kind out there. The reason I draw attention to it is, that it seems a very practical 
 application of the power of two horses to a two-wheeled light vehicle, which I need 
 not point out a tandem is not. I have driven pickaxe teams hundreds of miles in 
 old coaches and privately; but although safer than a tandem, I cannot say I 
 like that single leader, and young men may be sure that a tandem is not the process 
 by which to learn driving or the use of hands. Perhaps some of your readers may 
 know something of this new rig, and supply a better description than my hurried 
 examination permits me to do. 
 
 This letter produced several replies. All of them agreed that 
 the querist was right in supposing that the equilibrium was main- 
 tained by balance of the seats, and in one of them it was observed 
 that the two-wheeled carriage described was evidently the Indian 
 tonga, common enough in the Bombay Presidency. Another writer, 
 " Charley," was kind enough to enter more fully into details. This 
 is a precis of what he says in his letter to the Field (i2th January, 
 1878): 
 
 In reply to "NimshivichV query, relative to two-wheeled carriages with two 
 horses, allow me to state that I am at present, and have been for the last three years, 
 driving a two-wheeled dogcart, with a pair of horses abreast. The cart is a Norfolk 
 
shooting cart, built by Thorn, of Norwich, with adjusting shafts, and I can very 
 strongly recommend it as being thoroughly good; and the shafts can be removed in 
 a couple of minutes, and the pole attached. 
 
 The pole runs underneath the whole body of the cart, and this, from past 
 experience, I recommend. There is only one pin, which goes through the front of 
 the cart into the pole. The end of the pole fits in the ordinary socket. 
 
 A lancewood bar, 5ft. long, 6in. in diameter (? circumference), is strapped on 
 to the pole in front of the horses' breasts. This must not be fastened tightly, in 
 order to give play to the pole. A strap goes from this bar round the collar of each 
 horse (there should be a small piece of leather sewn on the top and sides of the 
 collar, to prevent the strap moving on to the horses' necks). This bar must pass be- 
 tween the pole chains to prevent the pole from rising or falling too much. 
 
 AA, strap to go over collar ; BB, buckle ; CO, pole chain over and under ; D, leather ; E, strap for 
 
 pole with buckle. 
 
 The above is a rough sketch, to try and explain more clearly. The leather on 
 the centre of the bar is to prevent the pole chafing the bar. "Nimshivich" must 
 be careful and move the steps at the side of the trap, or they will more than likely 
 touch the horses going down hill and cause an accident, and he cannot make the 
 pole long enough to avoid this. 
 
 The idea is not my own, but borrowed from the Cape cart. Nearly every one in 
 the Cape of Good Hope drives a pair in a dogcart in the manner I have tried to 
 describe. I have myself driven there for six years, and three at home, and find the 
 yoke perfect for either rough or smooth roads. I often drive forty Irish miles in 
 the day without distressing my horses. 
 
 Another great advantage is, if one horse falls, he cannot bring his companion 
 down with him. 
 
 I attach the swingle trees to the place where the shafts are fixed to the body of 
 the cart. I altered the cart myself after purchasing it from Mr. Thorn. 
 
 I need scarcely add that the chief thing is the balance. I can balance my cart 
 so well, that merely leaning forwards or backwards, as the case may require, going 
 up or down hill, is sufficient without moving the seat or anything else, and often 
 take my groom, myself, and another with baggage, for a journey. 
 
 CHAELEY. 
 
53 
 
 In a subsequent number of the Field a correspondent (" Speed") 
 asked "What advantage this method had over the curricle bar," and 
 "Charley" replied in the Field (9th February): 
 
 In reply to "Speed." my reasons for preferring the Cape fashion, instead of a 
 cm-ride bar, are as follows: 1. If horses are harnessed Cape fashion, and one falls, 
 he will not bring down his companion, which is more than likely with a curricle 
 bar; besides there is no chance of the bar breaking from a horse falling, which 
 once happened to me at the Cape. 2. The pad for the curricle bar must be made 
 heavier than the usual pad for double harness; and if the pair are not exact in pace, 
 and, I may add, size, the bar will shift backwards and forwards no matter how 
 lightly it may be girthed and the consequence is sore withers or back, and most 
 likely both. 3. With the Cape bar, any pair may be driven, no matter as to pace 
 or si/e, which is a very great advantage in a colony where one has often to drive 
 curious pairs. Four-in-hand can be driven with a cart harnessed Cape fashion ; 
 but I fancy it would be dangerous with the curricle bar. I very often in the Cape 
 drove four-in-hand in my dogcart. 4. A curricle bar would be a very difficult thing 
 to get in any colony, whereas any piece of wood will do for the bar in front. 
 
 There was another letter from "Glencairn,"* in April, describing 
 the vehicle in use in India, to which reference is made hereafter, but 
 I will now give two other letters from the Field (i2th January) 
 bearing on the subject: 
 
 TWO-WHEELED CARRIAGE WITH Two HORSES. 
 
 The harness that your correspondent, " Nimshivich," writes about in the Field 
 of January 5th is in common use throughout South Africa. Its object there is its 
 cheapness. A collar can only fit a certain size of horse, whereas this method is 
 self -adapting. It is also very much lighter than a collar. 
 
 Your correspondent is right in supposing that the equilibrium is maintained by 
 balance of the seats, which are made to shift backwards or forwards. 
 
 Edinburgh, Jan. 9. A. C. M. I. 
 
 The two-wheeled carriage seen by " Nimshivich," as described in your paper of 
 the 5th, is evidently the Indian tonga, common enough in the Bombay Presidency. 
 
 In the ordinary tonga the yoke is padded, and rests on the neck in front of 
 withers, with a strap round the neck, and fastened by a leather button on the end of 
 the yoke. No traces, the whole draught being from the neck. 
 
 The best tongas I know are built at the German mission at Nassick, and cost 250 
 rupees (25), with lamps, cushions, hood, English springs and axles. A pair of 
 country "tats" (or ponies) cost from 50 rupees; a tip-top pair can be bought for 
 
 150 rupees. UMPIRE. 
 
 * Colonel J. P. Pedler. 
 
54 
 
 This Indian tonga is described hereafter, by " Glencairn," in a 
 private letter to me, but it evidently has nothing in common with 
 the Cape method of harnessing. 
 
 This writer contributed the following letter to the Field, on the 
 1 3th April, 1878: 
 
 TWO-WHEELED CARRIAGES WITH Two HORSES. 
 
 " Charley,'* in your issue of January 9th, has conferred a boon on certain of the 
 public, viz., those who live amongst genuine across-country roads, consisting of only 
 
 two ruts and there are many tracts of that description on Dartmoor and in Ireland. 
 
 Of course two horses may be driven anywhere on the best of roads in a two-wheeled 
 carriage, as a luxury, and a delightful trap it is. The horses in that case can travel 
 between the wheels, and may be poled up short, as in ordinary carriage work. But 
 I am now considering the case where a man has a two-wheeled carriage and one 
 horse, but is unable to travel in the across-country tracks, because, although the 
 wheels can run one in each rut, the horse cannottravel over the stones, holes, andbushes 
 between the ruts. Roads of that description abound in wild countries, where the 
 heavy traffic consists of carts or wagons drawn by bullocks in pairs, who go in the 
 ruts, leaving the intermediate space untrodden ; and there are many roads of the 
 sort on Dartmoor and in Ireland, where there is very little traffic, and that little, 
 being drawn by one horse, does not wear away the space between the ruts, because 
 there is not enough of it, yet the wheels make two smooth ruts. 
 
 Then let the man with his dog cart and one horse exchange his horse for a pair 
 of ponies. These are even better than a pair of horses for this purpose, because 
 their small feet can pass each other in the narrow rut, where a large horse's foot 
 would strike the other fetlock sometimes. A pony goes in each rut, and the wheel 
 follows. 
 
 For this purpose the splinter bar must be as wide as the axle, and so must the 
 yoke. They call the yoke a " neck bugle " at the Cape. And the swingle trees 
 must be attached to the very end of the splinter bar in other words, in front of 
 the wheel; for otherwise the pony when in the rut would not be in front of his 
 work. This also obliges very long pole straps, and therefore, to prevent the trap 
 running on to the ponies, a very long pole. Half of the swingle tree projects 
 beyond the trap, which would not do in crowded places of course, but is of no 
 consequence on a moor. 
 
 The harness must be made with breast straps and breeching. If " Charley '' 
 will try breast straps instead of his collars, and put on breeching, he will not find 
 his trap run on to the horses, and may replace his step. The communication 
 between the breeching and the pole straps is perfectly direct with breast straps, but 
 with collars breeching does not act at all. I am convinced that the reason of breast 
 straps being universally adopted at the Cape is because they allow of breeching 
 acting so thoroughly. 
 
I think "Charley" will find that his yoke need not be nearly so thick. I have 
 always seen them about an inch in diameter, and, if he will try the breast straps and 
 breeching, I am certain he will no longer find the trap run on to the horses. Of 
 course, breast straps are very poor draught compared to collars, but this is of little 
 consequence in a light two-wheeled trap. 
 
 I may remark that breast straps are almost always made too broad and slung too 
 low, thereby cramping the point of the shoulder ; the breadth of two stirrup leathers 
 is ample for a breast strap, and it should be kept well above the point of the 
 shoulder. They require most careful adjustment. I have always had them made 
 of the men's crossbelts, without any padding, oiling them well; the buff leather 
 takes up plenty of oil, and is then very soft. The " D " for pole straps is fastened 
 on by a piece of leather sewn to the centre of the breast straps. Of course, the 
 line of sewings must be horizontal, not vertical; the latter would weaken the leather 
 very much. 
 
 The balance is always made as even as possible by a sliding seat; but, should 
 there be a little extra weight in front, it becomes much lessened at the end of the 
 pole, which is a lever. 
 
 The foregoing is the Cape cart, and, if made very low like the Indian pony carts, 
 it is, I think, the best in the world for very bad roads. Of course the cart may be 
 made in various ways. The distinction between the Cape and Indian fashion is in 
 the harness. The Indian fashion is equally adapted for an animal to go in each rut ; 
 and the cart is generally made very low, so as to suit the very worst roads. You sit on 
 a platform immediately on the top of the springs, and the footboard is suspended 
 from the platform, and hung so that it is about on a level with the axle. It should 
 not be lower than the axle, for there are often stones, stumps of trees, &c., between 
 the ruts, and there should be nothing to catch in obstructions which the axle can 
 pass over. 
 
 In the Indian cart, as in the Cape cart, the ponies must be attached in a line 
 with their work that is, in front of the wheel so that they can run in the ruts. 
 The manner of harnessing the ponies varies in India, and is sometimes very 
 barbarous; indeed, no native has the very least idea of a horse or a dog, or of any- 
 thing concerning their management. None of the Indian methods of attaching the 
 ponies resemble the Cape plan. The best is as follows : 
 
 The pole is bent upwards in front to a level with the ponies' backs, and 
 terminates a little in front of their withers. It runs through a yoke, which rests 
 in grooves made in the saddle for that purpose. A pin through the end of the pole 
 prevents the yoke from being dragged off the pole, and a pin eight inches or so 
 further back (the yoke is between these two pins) prevents the pole from running 
 through the yoke, and consequently stops the trap from running on to the ponies. 
 There are no pole straps ; the trap is kept back entirely by the saddles. The space 
 between the two pins on the pole allows the yoke to travel, so that the ponies must 
 
pull by the traces, unless the arrangement is faulty; and, as the yoke revolves on 
 the pole, one pony, in case of falling, does not drag the other down with himself, 
 A small strap and buckle on top of the groove in the saddle prevents the yoke from 
 jumping out, and the ends of the yoke are turned down about nine or ten inches at 
 an angle of 45, so that the ponies cannot possibly get further away from the pole 
 than the breadth of the yoke, which is also the breadth of the ruts. 
 
 A spring fixed horizontally along the pole under the splinter bar takes off the 
 knee action, which is otherwise very great indeed ; the pole plays under the splinter 
 bar on the spring, in an iron loop fixed to the splinter bar, and the end of the pole 
 should be attached under the middle crosspiece of the body of the trap by a 
 horizontal pin, which it can play on. 
 
 I fear the foregoing will scarcely be clear to a person who has never seen the 
 trap. My address is with the editor, and I would gladly help any one with further 
 particulars through the post. 
 
 The Cape cart harnessing is far the best, I think ; the exceptions to perfection 
 in it are that it must have breast straps, and that on roads where the horses are 
 obliged to go in the ruts the pole must be very long, to enable the pole straps to be 
 long enough to allow of the horses going in the ruts, without their also permitting 
 the cart to run on to the horses' hocks. The Indian fashion admits of collars, and 
 has a pole less than the length of the horses. On the other hand, the Cape fashion, 
 from the pole being hung in front of the withers, gives no knee action, and there- 
 fore requires no spring on the pole to counteract the same. 
 
 Bombay, Feb. 20. GLENCAIBN. 
 
 I think that this last observation, viz.: That the Cape method 
 gives no kind of knee action, decides the question of its superiority. 
 On the 1 5th June there appeared a letter from the same well- 
 informed writer bearing on the subject : 
 
 I quite allow that " Nimshivich's " plan* in the Field of April 20th may be 
 substituted for breeching. I adopted a modification of it myself; but I prefer the 
 breeching because, if you keep the cart back by the saddles, the strain after all 
 comes eventually on the crupper, and that I do not like ; also the shoulders art- 
 pressed on, and that when going doion MIL The modification which I adopted i* 
 this and I should like "Nimshivich" to try it : First, let me say that the ordinary 
 plan is for a strap to be fastened from each side of the saddle into the breast strap. 
 By this arrangement the tension from point of pole to saddle is not quite direct ; 
 there is an angle where the straps from the saddle are sewn to the breast strap, and 
 the sewing is very apt to give way. My plan is this: I sew a long strap on to a 1> 
 on the inner side of the saddle (the off side of the near horse, we will say), and 1 
 
 * This plan is not of sufficient importance to be reproduced here. N. 
 
PLATE XV 
 
PLATSXP1 
 
57 
 
 sew a buckle on to the near side of the saddle, then, in putting the horses to, I pass 
 this long strap through the pole chain D of the breast strap, and fasten it to the 
 buckle provided for the purpose on the outer side of the saddle. The strain which 
 ensues in going down hill is then in a perfectly direct line from the point of the 
 pole to the saddle. I consider cruppers essential for this plan, and I do not like 
 cruppers. 1 do not have any cruppers with breeching, nothing behind the hip strap 
 which supports the breeching, and I do not even have any saddles when driving 
 Cape-cart fashion with breeching. A light strap, like a bridle rein, goes from the 
 top of the neck-support of the breast strap back to the croup, and to it is attached 
 the hip strap; this is a lovely light tackle. A word about sore shoulders. I never 
 drive with anything but a swingle bar, and that not fixed by a band of leather eight 
 inches broad, which defeats the object of a swingle bar, but by a bolt running 
 through it vertically, or by an eye playing on a hook. I think a proper swingle 
 bar is a help to preventing sore shoulders, besides having other and most important 
 advantages. Even in a four-wheeled carriage and with a pair I always put swingle 
 bars, and the following is the best way to fix them, viz. : Put them on top of the 
 splinter bar, bring an iron support from the f utchells to the top of the swingle 
 bar, and make an eye in the end of it; drive a bolt through this eye, the 
 swingle bar, and the splinter bar, with a nut underneath. On this bolt the swingle 
 bar revolves beautifully. You can have the ordinary roller bolts on the swingle bars. 
 I have written to " Nimshivich," who is evidently one of those who knows what he 
 is talking about. I consider that with swingle bars a horse is always pulling with 
 both shoulders instead of with one at a time alternately; also that the evil of uneven 
 traces is nullified. I consider breeching with breast straps to be an immense relief 
 to horses ; on coming to a descent they sit, and seem to rest, in the breeching, just 
 keeping their legs moving, and allowing the strap to propel them along. 
 
 GLKNCAIEN. 
 
 From "Glencairn" to the author, i8th May, 1878: 
 
 I have tried to convey to you, by the enclosed (Plate XVI.), an idea of the Cape cart 
 harness without saddle or crupper. The strap round the trace conies in very useful 
 to prevent the breeching from getting up under the tail as I have known occur 
 without it. Also, if a horse kicks he lifts the trace and does not kick over it. 
 
 Letter to the author from Spencer Todd, Esq., Commissioner 
 for the Cape of Good Hope, to the Paris Exhibition: 
 
 40, Avenue de Saffren, 
 
 Paris, 17th November, 1878. 
 
 I have your note of the 16th, and wish I could help you to a photograph or 
 drawing of a Cape cart, but see no chance of doing so until I get back to the Cape. 
 
 E 
 
The one exhibited here, now sold, was purchased by the local Commission at the 
 suggestion. I might almost say entreaty, of Sir Bartle Frere, who alone, at the Cape, 
 really felt how advantageous these exhibitions were. 
 
 Until very lately the only conveyance used at the Cape, that is out of Cape 
 To\fn, was the Cape cart. In shape it is a dog cart, but it has a tent or hood of 
 canvas lined with baize or cloth. The commoner carts have this hood fixed on them 
 only in the Eastern Province, and more recently in Cape Town is this hood made, 
 like that of a buggy, to shut down. 
 
 I have no idea of drawing, but No. 2 may give you some notion of what the 
 common old-fashioned cart is. No. 1 is the improved reversible hood. These carts 
 are very light. They generally hold four people, but as passenger carts they are 
 longer and broader in the body, so as to give three seats for three persons on each ; 
 
PLATE WE 
 
59 
 
 when of course they hold nine, including the driver. I wish the British public 
 could know something about a capital Cape institution, for the cart is that. We 
 don't use curricle harness but support the pole (it requires very little support when 
 properly balanced, and that is done by shifting the front seat back or forward) by a 
 bar of wood placed under it, in front, across the chests of the horses. Two straps 
 pass over the necks of the horses. 
 
 I shall be in London in a few days, and should my friend, who is a member of 
 the club whence you date your letter, be in town I may call and tell you more, 
 being always glad to get anything that appertains to the Colony I have made my 
 home made known. SPENCEB TODD. 
 
 " Glencairn" subsequently favoured the author with the following 
 sketch and description of the Indian cart pole, from which it is clear 
 that the whole arrangement varies considerably from " Charley's," 
 inasmuch as the latter has a straight pole and the yoke in front of 
 the ponies, whilst here the yoke rests on the saddles or pads: 
 
 INDIAN CART POLE AND YOKE. 
 
 A B pole; C D yoke, which rests on saddles; E pin through pole which prevents 
 yoke from being dragged off ; F pin through pole which prevents cart from running 
 on to the ponies ; Gr centre of yoke in the form of a ring which travels on the pole 
 from E to F, without this play it is found that the ponies are often pulling by the 
 saddles instead of by the traces. This ring also revolves on the pole, so that if one 
 pony falls the other is not dragged down ; the pole is of wood, the yoke of steel ; 
 H H territts ; the hand rein only is passed through a territt, the coupling rein goes 
 under the yoke, and through a yoke territt in the harness to the other pony's bit, 
 the saddles have no territts ; the saddles are rather " pack saddle" looking things, 
 they have a groove, or crutch, on top, in which the yoke rests. 
 
 N.B. There is no territt on the outer side of the harness. The hand rein should 
 go direct from the territt on the yoke to the bit. This gives immense power, and is 
 the more valuable as the ponies are generally stallions who spend their time when 
 
6o 
 
 out of harness and sometimes when in in fighting like bulldogs. I ought to say 
 that this way of fixing the reins is merely a plan of my own, and that no one has, 
 up to the present, paid me the compliment of adopting it. Every one else has four 
 territts on the yoke. 
 
 From "Glencairn" to the author, 24th January, 1879 I- 
 THE INDIAN CAET. 
 
 I have succeeded in getting a photo, or two of the " Indian cart" to send you r 
 and hope they may be explanatory. Most people drive with breast straps, not 
 collars. I also send a photo, of the way I arrange the Indian cart myself, and 
 which I much prefer, because it admits of pole straps and breeching. I look on 
 the latter as most important. My ponies really rest in it going down hill. They 
 sit in it and just move their legs while the cart propels them. The yoke merely 
 supports the pole by my plan, does not keep the trap back at all, as the loop on 
 which the pole is slung can travel along the pole. After all, the only distinction 
 from the English curricle is the yoke, turned down at the ends, instead of a regular 
 curricle bar and the far stronger saddle. Both are a great improvement in the way 
 of strength and safety I think. 
 
 All these pictures were taken from my own little cart, into which I can put 
 either description of pole or yoke. I keep the ordinary pattern because, when travel- 
 ling post. I find it convenient to have the one that strange stablemen understand. 
 Also I put breast straps on those occasions for the same reason. 
 
 To give you an idea of the size of things in these photos. I may mention that the 
 ponies are exactly thirteen hands, or rather, the near wheeler is, the other being less. 
 
 If I do drive mine on the Indian pattern when not travelling post then I employ 
 collars and not breast straps ; for if you cannot have breeching (and you cannot 
 employ it with the Indian pole which conies to a level with the withers), I see no- 
 advantage in breast straps. By-the-way, with breast straps and breeching, I have 
 the " Dee" for pole-pieces not in the centre of the breast strap, but at the point of 
 the inner shoulder or thereabouts, the intention being to have it at the nearest 
 point to the end of the pole. I contend that this is mechanically proper. Please 
 do not suppose that I commend the Indian style of harnessing, for I consider the 
 keeping the cart back by the top of the saddles pressing on the withers to be the 
 worst I know. And I drive my cart either with my modification of an English 
 curricle or " Cape" fashion, merely adopting the low centre of gravity for bad roads- 
 and the ponies being able to go in the ruts. 
 
 Field, 1 7th September, 1881: 
 
 THE CAPE CAET. 
 
 The present made by the young princes to their august parents of a genuine 
 Cape cart may again draw attention to a useful form of vehicle where it is desired 
 
*- A 
 
 PLATE SIX 
 
PLATE XX 
 
PL A TEXX1 
 
PLAFE3X1II 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS TO COLONEL PEDLER'S LETTER. 
 
6i 
 
 to attach two horses to one with two wheels. By the courtesy of Col. Kingscote, 
 Master of the Horse to H.R.H., I have heen permitted to inspect the above, and so 
 far as harnessing, yoke, &c., goes, I find its arrangements are similar to those 
 described by " Charley" at the time I first mooted the subject in your columns ; but 
 there is much greater space for ingress in front of the wheel than what was 
 suggested by one of your correspondents at the time, who spoke of the possible 
 necessity for removing the front step. There is quite two feet from front of wheel 
 to splashboard. The small size of the Cape horses is Avell denoted by the whiffle- 
 trees in this example, and I fancy that H.R.H. will have to lengthen these to adapt 
 them to even moderate sized cobs at home. This cart holds six persons conveniently, 
 the near front seat moving to permit passengers to seat themselves in the centre 
 seats, and the light roof or canopy, with its well-arranged sides, might be copied 
 with advantage. Solid good work, sensible tyres overlapping the felloes, and general 
 excellence justifies that meed of praise which is due from us at home to colonial 
 brethren for practical examples, and it should be paid to the constructor, Mr. King, 
 of Cape Town. 
 
 Perhaps, if he sees this, he may send you the average weight of such carts. I 
 estimate this one at 8 cwt., but another competent judge tells me he thinks it is 
 quite 11 cwt. NIMSHIYICH. 
 
 Field, 22nd October, 1881: 
 
 CAPE CAETS AND CUKEICLES. 
 
 It is now some time ago that " Speed" put a question in the Field as to what 
 superiority the Cape cart had over a curricle. 
 
 1. The curricle is the most difficult tackle in use for putting the horses to, or 
 for taking them out. The Cape cart is the easiest of any two-wheeled carriage, 
 whether with one horse or two horses* 
 
 2. It would be almost impossible to drive a team of four or more in a curricle, 
 the wheelers would get sore backs and girth galls; in the Cape cart, it is simple, 
 and a common practice, to drive four or six horses, and the only wrench on the 
 wheelers, if any, is on the breeching. 
 
 3. In case one horse falls, there is no strain on the harness of a Cape cart; if the 
 same accident happens with a curricle, the bar must be pulled off the other horse's 
 saddle. By the way, 1 have never been able to understand why the steel pin on a 
 curricle saddle, on which the bar rests, is made so high, thus giving great leverage 
 for breakage. 
 
 4. If the pole straps are loose enough to allow of the horses going in the ruts (so 
 very great a desideratum in rough countries), then, in case of a bad shy or any 
 restiveness, one or both of the horses would inevitably get free from a curricle bar; 
 and the consequence, at such a time, too, with horses already alarmed, may be 
 imagined. With the Cape cart tackle, a horse cannot getaway in this fashion; in 
 short, the curricle harness is highly dangerous, and the other very safe. 
 
62 
 
 5. It will often (indeed, always, unless the traces are of very accurate length) be 
 found that the horses in a curricle are pulling by the saddle. It is common for 
 them to keep the trap back, going down hill, by the saddle. These very great 
 mistakes cannot happen with the Cape cart tackle. And there is no knee action. 
 
 I would strongly recommend breast straps for the Cape cart in preference to 
 collars, the breeching acts so much better with breast straps. With a pole of very 
 full length you may then go down any hill comfortably, although the pole straps are 
 let out to enable the horses to go in the ruts. I sent "Nimshivich" a description 
 of a harness of my own invention for a Cape cart, which harness is, I think, the 
 lightest and simplest that could be used with safety. It would, of course, be 
 possible to drive a Cape cart with nothing but collars and traces; but in case of the 
 slightest kick a horse would get his leg over the traces, and, unless the pole was 
 very long, the trap, going down steep hills, would run on to the horses if the pole 
 straps were let out for ruts; but on a good road, and with the consequent short pole 
 straps, the case would, of course, be no different from that of any ordinary four- 
 wheeled carriage. I observe that the glorious fire brigade drive without trace lifters; 
 but they have a very workmanlike -looking strap on the hames territt, which answers 
 the purpose sufficiently, as their horses, though in the pink of condition, get the 
 kick taken out of them in the first half-mile. The fire brigade tackle is, to my eye, 
 the most workmanlike to be seen anywhere ; and it would, under certain circum- 
 stances, be perfectly adapted to the Cape cart the neck bugle being a light steel 
 bar running through the pole strap ring on the hames, and having a pin at each 
 end to prevent its slipping out of the ring. The pin would, of course, be removable, 
 to take the horses out or put them to, and would be kept from falling out by a 
 small leather strap and button. GLENCAIBN. 
 
 P.S. The seat of a Cape cart must be made to slide, so that a balance may be 
 preserved at all times. 
 
 1 2th November, 1881: 
 
 DRIVING CUKEICLE. 
 
 " Glencairn" can perhaps tell me how to overcome three difficulties when driving 
 curricle. I use a curved steel bar under the ponies, such as was in general use for 
 our galloping mail gigs fifty years ago. This bar works in a holder, shaped like a 
 tuning fork, the head of the holder passing through a hole in the pole. The bar 
 has vertical and horizontal play : 1st, unless the ponies trot exactly in unison the 
 cart joggles so as to nearly shake your teeth out ; 2nd, when holding back, the bar 
 strikes the ponies behind the elbows, making them back or threaten to lie down 
 (I have no breeching) ; and 3rd, the backhands, though working easily through the 
 saddles, have a tendency to jerk the pads in towards the pole. A friend showed me 
 his Cape fittings two half circles joined to a ring working on the pole, but it did 
 not give him satisfaction. Any hints will oblige. DTJNEDIN. 
 
63 
 
 The answer to "Dunedin" only appeared in the Field, 01 
 January yth, 1882, owing to the clever writer "Glencairn" being 
 absent from England: 
 
 HEAVY TWO-HOUSE CABTS. 
 
 The plan mentioned by " Dunedin" in the Field of November 12th is called a 
 "belly bugle." It is not adapted for trotting work; it is used for heavy loads, 
 dragged at a walk, because a very heavy load would require constant shifting with 
 a neck bugle, unless the road was quite level. 
 
 It is many years since I was in South Africa, but I clearly recollect that the 
 belly bugle was only used for heavy and slow work, for which purpose it is, in my 
 opinion, much inferior to a plan a sort of modified and very safe curricle of 
 which " Nimshivich" has drawings. 
 
 I here beg to say that there is no occasion to speak of Cape carts ; any cart will 
 do, if the seat is made to slide, and the wheels are of suitable height for the horses. 
 The proper and explanatory term would be Cape " harness." I refer to light fast 
 work and the neck bugle. The belly bugle is also a South African tackle, but there 
 is no occasion for a sliding seat or any particular height of wheel with it. 
 
 GLENCAIEN. 
 
 In December, 1881, there was some further correspondence in 
 the Field, between a "Conservative Whip" who advocated tandem 
 as the best application of horse-power, and the author who main- 
 tained that the Cape system was better. This drew forth the 
 following practical letter: 
 
 TWO-WHEELED CAET WITH PAIE OF HOESES. 
 
 I notice in your paper some difference of opinion as to the merits of driving a 
 pair of horses poled to a two-wheeled cart. I have had a good deal of experience 
 with that kind of team, and find it answers very well indeed, there being less and 
 easier motion than with shafts; and I consider it safer. I tackle mine with yoke 
 attached to pole in front of the horses. The yoke is hung with straps to top of the 
 collars; the cart is kept from tilting by martingales which divide under the horses, 
 and snap on each side of the breeching; thus allowing a good hold back when going 
 downhill. The cart should be properly balanced with shifting seats. An ordinary 
 light pole answers. Tackled thus, I can drive horses of different sizes, but the 
 cart must not be very high. I use pole chains. 24th Dec., 1881. A. V. 
 
 The lithographed designs for a Cape cart and harness accompany- 
 ing these remarks have been made for me by Messrs. Atkinson and 
 Philipson, whose experience and judgment have been of the greatest 
 service to me in accurately representing the kind of vehicle that I 
 think may be introduced with advantage both at home and in the 
 colonies ; see especially Plate XVII. 
 
TURF HOTEL, NEWCASTLE. From the original wood block. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 DIRECTIONS TO COACHMEN THEIR DUTIES THEIR DRESS 
 HINTS ON DRIVING, &c. 
 
 IN 1796, one Felton, a coach-maker, made some observations, the 
 common sense of which will be my best excuse for reproducing 
 them here : 
 
 It is by the coachman gentlemen are usually biased in what is to be done in 
 the repairs or alterations of the carriage; and who from interested motives or 
 capricious whims often go to extravagant lengths, abusing the implicit confidence 
 their masters place in them, not only to the sacrifice of their property, but to the 
 injury of the carriage, which often becomes a kind of property to the coachman or 
 eoachmaker, and the proprietor a dupe to one, or both, of their artifices. Coach- 
 makers are too frequently made subservient to the coachmen, owing to the influence 
 they have with their employers, and are therefore obliged to countenance the 
 impropriety of their orders if they wish to preserve their customer. Therefore by 
 stating what the probable expense for repairs may be for any length of time, a 
 person may judge whether or not he has been taken advantage of by one or the 
 other. It is in consequence of frequent and expensive repairs, which gentlemen 
 often experience, that induces them rather to job or hire than purchase a carriage, 
 supposing by that means to know the extent of their expenses; but in that they are 
 frequently disappointed, by a number of charges for extras and what is termed 
 accidents, which often exceed the expense of their own carriage. 
 
 I omit Felton's estimate, which would not be applicable now. 
 
 It is also essential to know in what manner a carriage may be best preserved, 
 both in strength and beauty ; for by neglect or ignorance a carriage is as much 
 injured as by use. This depends entirely on the care of the servant, and it is a 
 matter of consequence to the proprietor to examine as scrupulously into the merits of 
 the coachman respecting his knowledge of a carriage, as it is of his experience among 
 horses or his skill in driving them. A proper qualified coachman, made independent 
 of his customary emoluments, is as valuable a servant as any in a gentleman's family; 
 
66 
 
 but otherwise, is as likely to be one of the worst, as his expectation of perquisites often 
 produces extravagant expenses to his master and brings discredit on the builder; 
 it is therefore, for a gentleman to consider his own advantage, and make an adequate 
 allowance to his servant for the emoluments he deprives him of, whereby he may 
 secure to himself treble advantages. 
 
 Felton observes on the subject of coachman's tools : 
 
 It is very impolitic in many people not to furnish their servants with proper con- 
 veniences, for want of which they frequently incur treble the expense in one year 
 as would supply, ' for many, all the necessary requisites for the coachman's use, 
 with which lie might employ many of those leisure hours while the carriage is 
 unemployed, equally to the improvement of himself and the benefit of his master. 
 
 The requisites whereby a servant can make himself useful ought not to be 
 denied him. 
 
 These are, I quote now from the latest information, sponges, 
 chamois leathers, dusters,* water-brush, clothes brush, paint brush 
 and bottle of black paint, pails, setter, oil, turpentine, rotten stone, 
 whiting, powdered charcoal, washers' leggings, water hose of India- 
 rubber tubing, 3 to 6 yards long with rose end where the cistern is 
 so placed as to allow a pressure of water. Notice well that I have 
 omitted an article which is found in almost every stable, viz. a 
 spoke brush. Such an article ought never to be allowed to enter 
 an establishment. Use one of these before every particle of mud 
 and road grit is removed (how seldom is this the case) and you by 
 degrees produce on the soft varnish the same dull surface that glass 
 manufacturers obtain on their hard glass by a similar process. The 
 following tools are also useful : S. wrench, hammer, and wheel 
 wrench. The latter should be found in every stable, but not for 
 the purpose of a coachman oiling up his wheels. There are few 
 men in the best coach making establishments who are allowed to 
 oil up wheels till they are thoroughly acquainted with the work. 
 The greatest care is required to so adjust the washers, nuts, &c., that 
 there may be no undue wear on the various parts, which soon causes 
 permanent rattling in the axle boxes. Felton observes that the 
 
 * Gard's plate cloths are worth attention here, because, after being used for 
 cleaning and polishing bright metal parts, they serve as dusters afterwards. 
 
67 
 
 coachmaker is usually applied to for the most trifling job which the 
 servant might do if he had the materials. Certainly we cannot lay 
 down a hard and fast line where the duties of the coachman end, and 
 those of the coachbuilder begin. It must depend on the handiness 
 and good-will of your servant. At any rate he should have no 
 excuse in the lack of tools. On cleaning carriages Felton says : 
 
 A carriage ought always to be cleaned, if possible, immediately after use, before 
 the dirt dries on it ; but when that cannot be effected, and the dirt is stiff, sluice it 
 well and give the water time to loosen it, as by rubbing it when dry the small stones 
 will scratch the paint and particularly injure the varnish on the panels. In placing 
 the setter to clean and raise the wheels care should be taken that it does not press 
 on or rub against any part, but that the bearing may rest on the pin only, as frequently 
 the timbers are much bruised by this inattention. Soft water is preferable, if to be 
 obtained; sea water is a great hurt to the paint, as the salt penetrates through the 
 colour, and on the ironwork it totally destroys the paint and leaves the iron bare 
 and rusty. The ironwork should always be wiped perfectly dry, particularly the 
 spring, as the wet or damp gets between the plates, which occasions them to rust 
 and to blister out at the edges. 
 
 The following "Hints for the Preservation of a Carriage" are 
 from the Hub, of New York. They repeat, in some instances, what 
 has been said elsewhere, but they are terse, neat, and pregnant, and 
 would not bear reduction : 
 
 A carriage should be kept in an airy, dry coach-house, with a moderate amount 
 of light; otherwise the colours will be destroyed. 
 
 There should be no communication between the stables and the coach-house. 
 The manure-heap or pit should also be kept as far away as possible. Ammonia 
 cracks varnish, and fades the colours Both of the painting and lining. 
 
 Whenever standing for days together, a carriage should always have on it a large 
 cotton cover, sufficiently strong to keep of the dust without excluding the light. 
 Dust, when allowed to settle on a carriage, eats into the varnish. Care should be 
 taken to keep this cover dry. 
 
 When a carriage is new or newly-painted, it is better for it to stand a few weeks 
 before being used. It will stain or spot, even then, unless care be taken to remove 
 the mud before it dries on, or as soon afterwards as possible. A carriage should 
 never, under any circumstances, be put away dirty. 
 
 In washing a carriage, keep it out of the sun, and have the lever of the " setts " 
 covered with leather. Use plenty of water, taking great care that it is not driven 
 into the body, to the injury of the lining. Use for the body a large, soft sponge; 
 when saturated squeeze this over the panels, and by the flowing down of the water 
 the dirt will soften and harmlessly run of ; then finish with a soft chamois leather. 
 
The same remarks apply to the under-parts and wheels. Never use a "spoke 
 brush," which, in conjunction with the grit from the road, acts like sandpaper on 
 the varnish, scratching it, and of course removing the gloss. If persisted in, it will 
 rub of the varnish and paint even down to the wood. Never allow water to dry 
 itself on a carriage as it invariably leaves stains. 
 
 Enamelled-leather heads and aprons should be washed with soap and water, and 
 then rubbed very lightly with linseed oil. 
 
 In cleaning brass or silver, no acid, mercury, or grit should be used; the polish 
 should be obtained solely by friction. 
 
 To prevent or destroy moths in woollen linings, use turpentine and camphor. 
 In a close carriage the evaporation from this mixture, when placed in a saucer, the 
 glasses being up, is a certain cure. 
 
 Be careful to grease the bearings of the fore-carriage so as to allow it to turn 
 freely. If it turn with difficulty, the shafts or pole will be liable to strain or break. 
 
 Examine the carriage occasionally, and whenever a bolt or clip appears to be 
 getting loose tighten it up with a wrench, and always have little repairs done at once. 
 Should the tires of the wheels get at all slack, so that the joints of the felloes are 
 seen, have them immediately contracted, or the wheels may be permanently injured. 
 "A stitch in time saves nine ! " 
 
 Examine the axles; keep them well oiled, and see that the washers are in good 
 order. Castor oil is considered the best for oiling; sperm oil will answer; but never 
 use sweet oil, as it will gum up. Be careful in taking off the axle-nuts not to cross 
 the thread or strain them when replaced. 
 
 Keep a small bottle of black japan and a brush always handy, to paint the treads 
 and steps when worn by the feet; nothing helps more than this to keep a carriage 
 looking tidy. Lay on the japan as thin as possible. 
 
 Never draw a carriage out of, or back it into, a coach-house with the horses 
 attached, as more accidents occur from this than any other cause. 
 
 Headed carriages should never stand with the head down; and aprons of every 
 kind should be frequently unfolded or they will soon spoil. 
 
 As a general rule, a carriage, with gentle work, retains its freshness better than 
 if standing for long periods in a coach-house. If the latter be necessary, draw the 
 carriage out occasionally to air. 
 
 See that the coach-house doors can be so fastened as not to blow to by the wind. 
 
 Do not use oil cloths in carriages. Covering the bottoms of carriages with oil 
 cloths is a fruitful source of trouble, causing, as it does, the bottoms to rot by 
 retaining the moisture between the wood and the cloth. Any article that is air-tight 
 should not be used unless care is taken to remove it when the carriage is not in use. 
 Grass mats are more cleanly and comfortable and less injurious. 
 
 For instructions in keeping, cleaning, and preserving harness 
 the reader is referred to Mr. Philipson's observations, page 41. 
 
6 9 
 
 THE GROOM OR COACHMAN'S DRESS. 
 
 Having guided the coachman in his duties let a word or two be 
 added on his dress. A perfect equipage meaning thereby, carriage, 
 horses, harness and servants necessitates that the latter should not 
 be slovenly in their attire. 
 
 Seeking information on the subject of liveries, more particularly 
 as appertaining to breeches, the department in which so many fail, 
 the author applied to Messrs. E. Tautz and Sons, 495, Oxford Street, 
 (not to be confounded with any other firm) and this is what they 
 say: 
 
 1. We may make two pair of breeches for two men who take the same fit and 
 one shall put them on properly and the other like a sloven. 
 
 2. As a principle, we exact that all men who wear breeches shall be careful to 
 ob.serve the following rules : a. Their breeches' buttons must run perfectly straight 
 down the front of the leg as near the shin bone as possible. J. In putting their 
 breeches on they shall be careful to pull them up quite close under the knee so that 
 the top buttons are placed as high as possible, c. That four buttons be always 
 allowed to show above the top, and that their boots be made sufficiently long to 
 admit of this being done with a "breeches -knee" as short as possible. Nothing 
 makes a man's leg look so short-legged as a long knee to breeches and a short boot. 
 
 3. Captain Cooper of the Dorking Coach, one of our oldest customers, who was 
 a great authority upon such matters, used to say that nature had provided man with 
 an indication when the top buttons should go in the shape of the small hollow, or 
 knee-pan, which is found immediately under the knee-cap, which not only tells us 
 how high the breeches should be pulled up, but shows the line (well in front} which 
 the four buttons above the boot should take. The accompanying sketches show this 
 roughly, but we venture to say accurately. 
 
 Smart. Slovenly. 
 
yo 
 
 4. Following this, as a consequence, we may say that the shorter from the knee 
 to the top of the top-boot the smarter a man's leg will look, and the breeches makers' 
 art is quite wasted unless the wearer is careful to see that these rules are observed. 
 
 5. Folding an overcoat so that it hangs neatly over the rail is very important. 
 It should be buttoned first, then laid on the table in the servants' hall with the 
 buttons next to the table, it should then be smoothed and the sleeves carefully laid 
 at length and so turned over that no difficulty or hitch occurs in permitting the 
 smooth breast part to hang down outside. 
 
 To what Messrs. Tautz and Sons have said about folding, the 
 author will only add that, for some reason which he is at a loss to 
 explain, the French coachman or groom has a knack of neatly 
 folding his overcoat which our English servants would do well to 
 
 copy. 
 
 How TO DRIVE. 
 
 As in the case of most English trades, the old-fashioned practice 
 of apprenticeship is much more needed for the man who would 
 become an efficient whip than reading written precepts. So I will 
 refer the tyro to Mr. Houghton's remarks below, and put down here 
 only those few practical hints which experience has taught the 
 writer must ever be retained in the mind of those, whether of gentle 
 or simple, who seek to drive horses properly. 
 
 i. Driving gloves should be a full size larger than such as you 
 would otherwise wear. Without this precaution you are liable to 
 have your fingers most seriously cramped. Always have a pair of 
 worsted gloves about you in case of rain, they are the only things 
 through which the reins do not slip. 
 
 2. If it is your object to learn to drive four-in-hand, do not 
 attempt to mount the box until you have practised to make a 
 double thong, which you will do best by mounting on a chair in 
 the garden fc and placing four strings or reins in your left hand in 
 their proper position, i.e. the fore finger between the leaders' reins, 
 the near rein being above it; the second finger between the wheelers' 
 reins, the near wheel rein being above it and next to and below the 
 off leader's rein. You will then with the whip in your right hand 
 practise making a double thong. This double thong, to give a 
 rough and general indication, is the result of smartly striking the 
 
centre of the curve formed by the thong when the end of it is in 
 your hand with the crop or end of the stick. That is one way. 
 Another is by throwing the curve upwards and catching it with the 
 stick. The same principle underlies both methods. It is the sharp 
 collision of the curved thong and the end of the stick that produces 
 the double thong. Unless you can make it easily and well you 
 cannot drive four horses like a workman. 
 
 3. Mr. Birch-Reynardson in his " Down the Road," says : 
 
 Always have an apron on your box ; it hides a bad seat and a pair of bent knees. 
 Sit straight on your box, with your elbows close to your side, your hands well down, 
 your shoulders well back, your head erect, and your eyes well in front of you. Do 
 not set your back up like a "pig in a rage," and do not bend over your footboard 
 as if you were looking after the stump of the cigar you have just dropped. Above 
 all, do not sit with your knees bent. Start quietly off the crown of a hill. If your 
 pole-chain breaks, look out for loose gravel or fresh broken stones; they are a 
 wonderful help in times of need. Always have a chain-trace in your boot. 
 
 To which may be added : 
 
 Never crack your whip punish a lazy one don't disturb those that are doine: 
 their work well. Also would I add, in the interests of the fair sex, that a coachman 
 should point the whip, when in a state of rest, towards, but a little behind, the 
 shoulder of the near wheeler, and not, as I have too often seen, in a line parallel 
 with the box seat, whereby the parasol, and sometimes even the bonnet, of the fair 
 passenger is disturbed. A shy woman will say nothing, but be rendered uncomfort- 
 able by such a display of ineptitude. 
 
 The following observations by the editor of the Hub (New York), 
 form as complete a treatise on the science of driving as any writer 
 has hitherto put together : 
 
 SUGGESTIONS ABOUT HARNESSING. 
 
 First of all the horses should be measured for their collars, which should be 
 made to fit exactly, or they will otherwise be sure to wring the horses. Some mark 
 the collars as follows :^" n. 1." for near-lead, "o. 1." for off-lead, "n. w." for ^near- 
 wheel, and "o. w." for off wheel. When a horse has worked for some time the collar 
 takes the shape of his neck and becomes easier for him. A horse should have his own 
 collar as much as a man should have his own boots, and in case he is made to shift 
 from place to place as some coachmen prefer that he should do he should always 
 carry his collar with him. 
 
72 
 
 The rules for fitting the bits and bridles should be the same as in harnessing 
 tandem. The lead-reins are often run through head terrets on the wheelers' bridles, 
 being considered by some as good form for the park, but others consider this 
 objectionable, as it throws weight on the wheelers' heads, and a hard-pulling leader 
 under these circumstances must naturally worry the horse behind him. The 
 simplest and best way, when you have a pulling leader, is to let the lead-rein pass 
 underneath the throat-lash. Some may ask, "Why not pass them through a D or 
 ring below the rosette ? " to which we would reply that, passing underneath the 
 throat-lash will save the wheel-horse from all worry and bother from his leader's 
 hard pulling, or any other troublesome movement the latter may be guilty of. 
 
 The mode of attaching the lead-bars to the poles should be as in England, 
 namely, with the crab at the end of the pole, and not with a hook underneath, as 
 we have seen in some French coaches. The latter might do where there were tln*ee 
 leaders abreast, as were formerly driven in France (frequently from a single bar) ; 
 there is but one opinion on this subject among coaching men in England at the 
 present time, and this is in favour of a crab at the pole end. Attention should be 
 paid to having the draw-bar of the drag clear the bands on the front wheels, and 
 the measurement from the outside of one bar to the outside of the other (of lead- 
 bars) should fully equal that of the draw-bar, so that where your leaders go your 
 drag will follow. 
 
 Reynardson advises the use of bearing reins, saying: " Your team will look 
 smarter, and yon will have more comfort, for all four horses seldom carry their 
 heads right, and it is a great nuisance for the driver to have to carry his horses' 
 heads, to prevent them from lolling against the pole-hook, and perhaps catching 
 their bits in the pole-chains, which I have seen occur more than once." We object 
 to bearing-reins on principle, as giving the horse too little freedom of his head, and 
 being liable to choke him in going up hill, as has happened to more than one horse. 
 For road use the best authorities agree upon the absence of the bearing-rein except 
 for park use. 
 
 In regard to buckled reins, Reynardson says : " Formerly all reins were buckled, 
 but gradually it became the fashion to let them hang down unbuckled, and then to 
 have no buckles at all, and for twenty years I never saw such a thing as a buckle. 
 It's a safe plan, nevertheless, to buckle your reins; and with the thin, dandy, new. 
 
 slippery reins of the present day it is positively necessary, or they will easily slip 
 through your fingers." A member of the New York Coaching Club suggests a 
 convenient substitute for buckling reins, which commends itself to us. He says : 
 "As you have spoken of the buckles on the reins, I will say that for a long time, in 
 
73 
 
 all my driving, I have had my reins made with two loops, just like that which is 
 always behind the buckle, sewed on to the rein in place of the buckle, one at the 
 end where the buckle usually is, the other about five inches behind it. The end of 
 the other rein passes through these loops, fitting them so tightly that a small amount 
 of force is necessary to pull it out. This serves all the purposes of a buckle in case 
 a rein is accidently dropped, and can be undone in an instant by a pull. In my 
 opinion it solves the question of 'buckle or no buckle' entirely." 
 
 Have your reins long enough, strong enough, and broad enough not less than 
 a full inch in width; they will then be stiff enough for you to slip them up between 
 your fingers, instead of pulling at them from behind your hand. Never omit to take 
 a pair of worsted gloves with you, as, on a wet day. they are the only preventive of 
 reins slipping. 
 
 HINTS TO FOIJR-HOESE COACHMEN. 
 
 The following points have in part been suggested by Malet's "Annals of the 
 Road," Reynardson's " Down the Road/' and Sidney's "Elementary Hints," gathered 
 by him from Tim Carter, the consulting counsel of the younger members of the 
 London Driving Clubs; but we have introduced many additional hints gathered 
 from some of the four-horse drivers in this country, including Jack Reford, Fownes, 
 Jennings, George Irvine, and members of the New York " Coaching Club," which 
 we hope will be found of value. 
 
 A four-horse coachman needs to have courage, decision, good eyesight, a flexible 
 hand, and strength in the arms and back. 
 
 As a beginner, he should first practise with a coach and pair, and should wait 
 until he has these under perfect command before the leaders are hooked on. The 
 mere exertion of holding four horses going freely is so great that a pupil who has 
 not developed the muscles of his left arm, by the use of Indian clubs or other 
 gymnastic exercise, will very likely find himself disabled before he has finished his 
 first lesson of fifteen minutes. We know this by experience. The preparatory 
 training of the muscles of the left arm is, therefore, highly important, especially in 
 the case of slight men, who, in this art, are at a disadvantage as compared with 
 muscular or heavy men. 
 
 The gentleman who desires to become proficient in four-horse driving should 
 first obtain the services of a teacher, choosing some really good coachman who has 
 had long experience and fully understands the business; if he has learned his art in 
 England, all the better. From him you will be able to pick up a multitude of 
 points that will be of constant service to you, and indeed, without such instructions 
 at the start, and from a competent teacher, you will probably always lack that con- 
 fidence, knowledge of details, and elegance which every gentleman coachman ought 
 to have if he would be distinguished from the common hack driver. Great care 
 should be taken at the start to acquire proper habits, for nothing is so difficult to 
 cure as a bad style. 
 
74 
 
 The first few lessons will be well employed by sitting 1 beside your teacher on the 
 box, he holding the reins and you watching-" his every movement and learning by 
 heart his instructions. The information thus gained will be of lifelong service to 
 you as a coachman. 
 
 The next lessons should be devoted to practising how to mount, how to sit, how 
 to hold the reins, how to start, how to turn to the right and left, how to stop, and 
 how to dismount. We will endeavour, further on, to briefly explain each of these 
 processes. 
 
 I. MAKING TIP TOUR TEAM AND HARNESSING. 
 
 The leaders should be of about the same size and height as the wheelers, though 
 some prefer that the former should be taller. Sidney tells us that the most expen- 
 sive four-horse teams in England match in height, action, character, colour, and age; 
 and as to age, he adds, that " some of the best horses in London teams are perfect 
 patriarchs," but then, they have never done any real work. The leaders should have 
 courage and style and be both free and docile. 
 
 Temper in harness-horses is much to be regarded. Most coachmen agree that a 
 horse should never know his place, but that he should go wheeler or leader, and on 
 both sides; Nimrod, on the other hand, strongly advises that, "if a horse, working 
 constantly in a coach, fancies his place, he should have it, and in nine cases out of 
 ten he will pay for the indulgence." 
 
 Wheel-horses have the hardest place, as they are at work up hill or down; 
 nevertheless, if favour be shown it must be to the leaders, for you may drag a tired 
 wheeler home, but if a leader cuts it, you are planted. Always put your freest horse 
 on the near side, as you will then have him better in hand than if he were on the 
 off-side. 
 
 If a leader is weak, and cannot take his bar, pole up the wheeler that follows 
 him, and the latter will place him by the side of his partner. 
 
 A horse -with a tender mouth is difficult to handle in coach harness, particularly 
 if he be a leader. A ring-snaffle is a safe bit for such a horse on all occasions. 
 
 In case of a hard-mouthed horse, try a well-twisted ring-snaffle that will 
 generally bring him to his bearings. This bit may not look well enough for use on 
 a private drag, in which case the coachman should consult his own ingenuity in 
 devising something to relieve the weight from his arms. We object to severe curbs, 
 partly on the score of cruelty, and partly from having seen cases in which a horse 
 would pull against a curb, no matter how severe, and where, on substituting a light 
 bit, no further trouble was experienced by the driver. Make each horse as comfort- 
 able as possible ; he will appreciate it, and show it by his work. 
 
 A hard puller is generally safest, and more in place at the wheel, and he will 
 pull less with a free partner than with a slack one. 
 
 A kicking wheeler should be put on the near side, where he will be more under 
 the control of the coachman. With gentlemen's teams, very fresh in condition, it 
 
75 
 
 often happens that a wheeler will kick over his trace, especially in a turn; this may 
 be prevented by adding a light hip strap, which, when the horse rises, will take the 
 trace up with him. 
 
 II. MOUNTING. 
 
 Before getting upon the box. walk around your horses' heads, and see that the 
 curb chains and coupling reins are all right, and, above all things, that the tongues 
 of the billet buckles are secure. Many bad accidents have arisen from want of this 
 precaution, and no man can be considered a scientific or even safe coachman who 
 does not see personally to these things. 
 
 See 'also that the wheelers are not too closely poled up, and thab their noses are 
 not pulled too closely together by reason of the coupling reins being too short, as 
 horses with their heads too close will neither go with comfort to themselves nor to 
 him who works them. 
 
 The coachman should always mount from the off side. 
 
 Before mounting take your reins in the right hand, in the proper position, and, 
 of all things, see that the ends are buckled or otherwise attached, as dropping a rein 
 has caused more than one bad accident. If the whip is not in the socket, it should 
 also be taken in the right hand with the reins. This leaves the left hand free to aid 
 you in mounting, which should be done as follows : Left foot on the hub, right to 
 roller-bolt, then left to step on front boot, thus bringing your right foot on to the 
 foot-board, which lands you on the box. 
 
 Having fully satisfied yourself that every horse is properly harnessed and bitted, 
 mount the box deliberately, your groom or grooms being at the horses' heads mean- 
 time, and mind that the team stands still until you give the word to start. This is 
 an essential part of the breaking of a gentleman's team that is too often neglected, 
 for it is essential for the comfort of the driver that a team, however high-couraged, 
 should wait until they hear his word, " All right, my beauties ! " or, " Now, Kittens ! " 
 or other similar order, before they start. 
 
 Having reached the box, change the reins from the right to the left hand, in 
 proper position, seat yourself comfortably, and see that all is right. Do not take 
 your whip out of the socket until your reins are adjusted. 
 
 III. How TO SIT. 
 
 A graceful, and at the same time a firm, seat on the box is a great set-off to a 
 coachman. He should sit as easy as possible, with his legs well before him, but not 
 too stiff as if doing hard work, for they would then become cramped and uncomfort- 
 able; and with the exception of a pliant motion of his loins, on any jolting of the 
 coach, his body should be quite at rest, even when he applies the silk. In handling 
 the ribbons, as little motion of the arm should be made as possible. 
 
 The driver should have a high seat, overlooking and commanding his horses, but 
 it is a mistake, and one that young coachmen are particularly guilty of, to sit too 
 
7 6 
 
 erect and stiff. It is essential that, in the event of a horse falling or the team 
 attempting to bolt, the driver should be able to instantly use his utmost strength 
 and weight to hold them and at the same time put on the brake, and this he cannot 
 do if he is standing bolt upright against a sloping cushion, according to the mistaken 
 fashion of to- day. 
 
 IV. How TO HOLD THE KEINS. 
 
 The mode of holding the reins and guiding the horses is practically the same as 
 with a tandem team. Place the reins as follows: Slip your forefinger between the 
 lead-reins, near side over the finger; and second finger between the wheel-reins, 
 near side on top. 
 
 Never divide your reins under any circumstances, as it is the worst of bad form, 
 and uncoachmanlike. 
 
 Having taken your seat, adjusted the apron and your reins, next take care to have 
 the leaders so in hand that, when they start off, they will be clear of the splinter bars. 
 
 V. How TO START. 
 
 Let your wheelers in every case start the coach, and the leaders will come to 
 their work as soon as they feel that the wheelers are under way. 
 
 On starting, the reins must be placed, and throughout the drive retained, at such 
 a length and in such position that you can pull up your team at any moment. 
 
 The wheelers should start the coach, and turn it round, without the leaders ever 
 feeling their traces, arid whenever the wheelers stop it, the traces of the leaders 
 should be slack. 
 
 The next important matter to be attended to is to get the four horses to start 
 together and work together. To effect this, avoid the use of the whip at the start, 
 as this tends to excite the horses; start them with a chirrup; when once on the 
 move gather them by equalizing your reins and get the horses straight. The only 
 case in which a whip is ever necessary in starting, is where one or more of your 
 horses will not face the bit, which often causes trouble at the start, and this should 
 be cured by words of encouragement rather than by blows. 
 
 Avoid this one common cause of trouble with horses at the start, namely, having 
 the reins so short as to catch the leader's mouth before he can straighten and feel 
 his traces, but rather let the reins be a little long until after the leaders are started, 
 and then take them in hand; this rule applies to all four horses, but with particular 
 force to the leaders, inasmuch as if they do not start off freely, the wheelers are 
 unable to. 
 
 " He who makes a good beginning has half finished his work/' and this applies 
 to driving coach horses. Harness them well, and they are much easier driven. It 
 is also with coach horses as with mankind: the physical strength is with the 
 governed, and we must, therefore, humour them a little. When starting, don't pull 
 
77 
 
 at their heads, but feel their mouths lightly, or they may bolt, throw themselves 
 down, or break through their harness. If old horses, and the stage commences with 
 a hill to go down, let them feel their legs for a few hundred yards before they are put 
 to their usual pace. 
 
 VI. HOW TO THEN TO THE ElQHT AND LEFT. 
 
 In turning or inclining four horses, more pressure on the reins is of course 
 necessary than with two horses. 
 
 When inclining the horses suddenly, as to give the road to a passing team, it is 
 important that the wheelers and leaders be inclined at the same instant, in which 
 case the wheelers and leaders will for a moment take up two different lines of 
 direction. 
 
 In all other cases, be careful to make your wheelers go over the same ground as 
 the leaders; observe the latter rule in turning at right angles, as into a cross-street 
 or into a gateway. 
 
 When in a turn, point your leaders well, that is, take proper ground for them 
 to make the turn, and let your wheelers follow them over the same ground. As 
 wheel-horses_are always in a hurry to make the turn, first "shoot" or steer them to 
 the contrary side, just as you have first pointed your leaders; for instance, if your 
 turn is to the right, catch up your near-wheel rein, or vice versa. This will keep 
 the head of your pole which you should have your eye upon just between your 
 leaders, and your wheelers will follow as if they were running on a straight road. 
 This also aids you to clear your coach of posts, gutters, &c. No man can make a 
 neat turn with four horses unless he "shoots" his wheelers at the same time that 
 he points his leaders. 
 
 Never turn a loaded coach short, even at a slow pace, for it is never safe when 
 there is not an even bearing on the transom beds. Brewster & Co., of New York, 
 have introduced a simple improvement which, in a great measure, obviates the 
 danger named; but even with this aid you cannot be too careful. 
 
 Although there are certain rules for passing and meeting other carriages on the 
 road, yet there are times when they need not be strictly adhered to, and a little 
 mutual civility and accommodation between coachmen is very desirable. Thus, if 
 you have a hill in your favour, and a loaded coach is coming up at the same time, 
 you ought, if you can do it with safety, to give the firmest side of the road to the 
 
 other coach. 
 
 VII. How TO STOP. 
 
 To pull up your team at a moment's notice is no easy matter to learn, and one 
 lesson may properly be devoted to this. Practice, and practice alone, can teach you 
 this; and unless you can do this, you have not proper control of your horses. Tim 
 Carter says: " If I get alongside of a young gentleman who has great conceit of 
 his own driving, the first thing I ask him to do, is to stop, and that suddenly, when 
 he least expects such a request." 
 
7 8 .. 
 
 The only rules that cati.be given about stopping are to put on your brake at 
 once as hard as possible, and put all the strength of your arms to the "wheelers, who 
 will naturally pull up the leaders and stop the coach. Some coachmen use the 
 voice, saying " Whoa ! " at the same time, but this is not considered good form, 
 unless your horses become unsteady ; then it is well to speak. 
 
 VIII. HOW TO DlSMOtTNT. 
 
 First put your whip in the socket. Retain the reins in the left band, and let 
 your right hand take a strong hold of the rail, then swing yourself round, putting 
 your right foot on step on front boot, left foot on roller-bolt, then right hand to 
 step, and lastly right foot on hub of wheel, which will bring you to the ground \\ itb 
 your back to the coach, and your left hand well to your side. If this ends your 
 journey, unbuckle your reins, and throw the near-side reins to the horse-keeper, 
 who is supposed to be at the near-side ready to take the team in hand, retaining the 
 off-side reins until the wheelers are uncoupled, and the leaders taken from the bars. 
 
 IX. USE OF THE WHIP. 
 
 Having learned, be careful not to overdo the thing by making a display of your 
 skill when there is no necessity for it. The whip should be used as little as possible. 
 
 Nimrod, in speaking of whipping coach-horses, says: "One of the best proofs 
 of a good coachman is to see his right arm still; and although, for the safety of his 
 coach, he ought to be able to punish a horse when he requires punishment, yet he 
 should, on all accounts, be as sparing of the whip as he can. Horses may be 
 whipped till they become callous to w r hipping, and therefore slow; and in the 
 condition in which coach-horses are now kept, a pound of Nottingham whip-cord 
 will last a good coachman his lifetime. The very act of throwing the point of the 
 thong over the wheelers' heads or letting it fall on their backs, as a fisherman 
 throws his fly upon the stream, will set half the coach horses, in these days, into 
 a gallop. 
 
 Remember, also, that a free leader should not be hit while making a short turn, 
 or he may break his bar or the pole hook. Neither should leaders be hit when 
 going over a bridge which is much raised, or when the pole points upward, as their 
 draught on the end of it would be liable to snap it in the f utchels. 
 
 Speaking to coach-horses from the box is nowadays considered bad form, but it 
 is not without its effect. Nimrod gives an example of a terribly slow team which 
 were cured by a new driver, who pounded them well with a broom handle before 
 harnessing them for the trial trip, at the same time speaking to them in a certain 
 rough language, and ever afterward it was only necessary for them to hear that 
 voice to make their best paces. 
 
 X. ACCIDENTS. 
 
 Birch Reynardson gives some excellent points or "dodges" under this head, 
 which merit brief mention. He begins by saying: "Never get into a mess if you 
 
. 79 
 
 can possibly keep out of one; 'discretion is the better part of valour;' there is no 
 great art required to get into a mess, but there is sometimes much difficulty in 
 keeping out of one." "A coach is a dangerous thing if all don't go right; and 
 though I have seen men do their best to upset a coach without succeeding, still, 
 when least expected, it's as easily done as upsetting an old woman's apple-stall." 
 
 Always carry a spare trace, or, what is better, a chain trace ; it takes but little 
 room in one of the boots, and often proves a friend. True, it is seldom wanted, but 
 a trace sometimes goes when least expected, and in such a case, if you have not a 
 spare trace of some kind, you're "in a fix," and if at night, "in a regular fix" as 
 helpless as a pump without a handle. The chain trace should be about a foot and 
 a half longer than your ordinary leather trace, with a ring at one end, big enough 
 for your chain to drop through, to make a loop to go over your roller-bolt, and a 
 hook at the other end that will go into the links of your chain, that you may take 
 your trace up or let it out. as you would do with a leather trace and a buckle. 
 
 The brake-block should be of hard wood (oak is preferable), twelve to fourteen 
 inches deep, and with a curved bearing-surface. The smaller iron blocks, sometimes 
 used, are not to be recommended, as they touch the wheel at only one point, and do 
 not bite as wood does; their unserviceableness is evident from the fact that, in 
 going down an ordinary hill, the skid has to be used as well; moreover the noise 
 which iron blocks cause is very disagreeable even painful to many. Be careful 
 that your connecting bar be made stout, and in proportion to the size of your 
 brake -block. 
 
 In case your horses run away with you, and you lose control of them, keep cool, 
 steer them in the middle of the road, keep the wheelers away from the splinter-bar, 
 and look out for a piece of gravel or loose stone road, to assist you in retarding 
 them. 
 
 Recollect that if your pole chains go, or get loose, going down a hill, and no skid 
 on, it is a somewhat serious business. 
 
 XI. DKIYING A PICKAXE TEAM. 
 
 Birch Reynardson says : ' Should you come to grief with one of your horses 
 should one fall down dead, or get the staggers, or break one of his legs, or from 
 some cause be so full of pain that yoii are obliged to take him out of the coach, and 
 drive home without him, of course you must leave him on the road, and make a 
 'unicorn.' or what we used to call a 'pickaxe team.' For making the said 'pickaxe,' 
 particularly if going a long journey, it is a prudent measure to carry a spare small 
 bar, with an eye or ring set contrary way to the usual eye on a small bar. The 
 ordinary eye will not let your small bar sit the right way on your pole-hook. As a 
 set of spare bars is generally carried behind a drag, a bar of the description I name 
 may as well be carried instead of one of the ordinary small bars, as you never 
 require more than one of either kind, and the bar I have named is the only useful 
 
8o 
 
 one in case of the sort of accident I have mentioned. Should you put your main 
 bar on, you would find that, from the span being wider in the main bar than in the 
 ordinary bar, your traces would not be long enough, and if you did get them on, 
 when your leader was pulling hard up hill, the hooks of your main bar would be 
 liable to be broken. This I have seen happen, and though, luckily, one is not often 
 called upon to drive a 'pickaxe/ the wrinkle is worth knowing. In coaching days 
 of old, a bar such as I have described was generally to be found in the hind boot. 
 
 Having learned the above points, day after day should be devoted to their 
 practice, for successive weeks, until the pupil performs the requisite movements 
 instantly and mechanically. It would be well for you to practice at first with an 
 old team that have learned to obey the slightest indication and to do half the driver's 
 work for him, but a man is not a coachman until he can hold, turn and stop, fresh, 
 fiery horses, not all of the same temperament, and feel perfect confidence of his 
 mastership over them. 
 
 Practice first on level roads, clear of traffic; then try crowded thoroughfares 
 and steep hilly roads, where the duty devolving upon you will be materially increased 
 and new occasions for "points" from your instructor will constantly present them- 
 selves. The pupil should never be tired of asking questions, and the instructor 
 never tired of answering them. 
 
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