■ 
 
 Sff
 
 AT LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT OF 
 R, L. Linscott
 
 ^^
 
 A BRIEF HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 Roman Literature 
 
 FOR 
 
 SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 
 
 Translated and Edited from the German of 
 HERMANN BENDER 
 
 BY 
 
 E. P. CROVVELL and H. B. RICHARDSON, 
 
 PROFESSORS OF LATIN IN AMHERST COLLEGE. 
 
 
 i ■ < 
 
 e •> "' ^^ '*.' ',' ''j' 
 
 GINN & COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1879, ^X 
 H. B. RICHARDSON, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Wasliington 
 
 88.2 
 
 < C < C c 
 
 •:• 
 
 ,'«,«'• 
 
 « ft «. • • 
 
 • * ••• .* • ••• r«* • « 
 
 gt>t gtbtnatmn grt<< 
 
 GINN & COMPANY • PRO- 
 PRIETORS ■ BOSTON • U.S.A.
 
 P.4 
 
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 THE present Outline History of Roman Literature is spe- 
 cially designed to meet the wants of schools. It is in- 
 tended primarily to contain what a gymnasium student needs to 
 know, and at the same time all such material taken'from Roman 
 literary history as can well be employed in Gymnasium instruc- 
 tion. For this reason, completeness of treatment has from the 
 outset not been designed. On the other hand, I trust I have 
 not omitted anything essential to the purpose already stated. In 
 respect to form, I have had in view brevity and compactness of 
 statement, together with the greatest possible comprehensiveness 
 and precision. 
 
 As regards the arrangement of the work, I have in the main, 
 within the separate periods, followed the principle of division 
 according to topics, yet it has not seemed to me expedient to 
 preserve entire consistency on this point in the case of those 
 poets and prose-writers who have lieen active in more than one 
 department. I have preferred, in each case, to give the full 
 treatment of these writers under the head of that department in 
 ivhich they were most important; for example, Cicero under the 
 head of Oratory. This inconsistency, by means of which a con- 
 nected and complete view of such literary phenomena is gained, 
 seems to me justifiable. 
 
 It will not be required of a teacher, who prepares a work like 
 
 i 
 
 407238
 
 ii AUTHORS PREFACE. 
 
 the present, that he shall have made special investigations in 
 every direction. What may properly be demanded is, that he 
 show thorough knowledge of the literature itself, — not merely of 
 school literature, — and independent judgment. I trust that these 
 necessary requisitions have been met. 
 
 The accompanying tables contain all the names cited in the 
 text. 
 
 In the preparation of the work I have received very kind 
 assistance from my honored teacher. Professor Dr. von Teuffel, 
 of the University in this place, not only through the abundant 
 information drawn from his History of Roman Literature, but 
 also through personal advice, for which I herewith express to 
 him my most heartfelt thanks. 
 
 H. BENDER. 
 
 Tubingen, April, 1876.
 
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 THE favorable reception given to Professor Hermann Ben- 
 der's " Grundriss der Romischen Literaturgeschichte," 
 published a few years since in Germany, and its extensive 
 adoption as a text-book in the secondary schools of that 
 country, suggested its translation for the use of schools and 
 colleges in America. 
 
 The author enjoyed peculiar advantages in the preparation 
 of the work, from the fact that he was a pupil of the late 
 Professor Dr. Teuffel, of the University of Tiibingen, the cele- 
 brated author of a complete History of Roman Literature, 
 lately made accessible to English scholars in a translation. 
 
 In preparing the present manual, the aim has been to faith- 
 fully reproduce the original, both in subject-matter and form, 
 with only such slight changes and omissions as seemed to 
 be demanded for clearness of expression. 
 
 For the convenience of teachers and students, numerous 
 references have been made to the best English works on 
 Roman Literature, and also to valuable treatises on particular 
 authors. 
 
 The somewhat meager table of contents has been greatly 
 enlarged, so as to furnish a complete analysis of the work. 
 Also the charts at the end have been thrown into much 
 more convenient form than in the German edition. 
 
 Ill
 
 IV PREFACE. 
 
 It is hoped that the work, as thus constituted, will meet a 
 want, long felt by classical teachers, of a text-book on Roman 
 Literature, which should contain, in compact and convenient 
 form, what every student ought to know, and which at the 
 same time should serve as a basis for courses of lectures or 
 for more extended study. 
 
 No reference has been made to American editions of Latin 
 authors, since it has been taken for granted that teachers are 
 well acquainted with them. For a complete bibliography of 
 Latin Literature, teachers are referred to the admirable work 
 of Professor Mayor, published by Macmillan & Co. 
 
 Special acknowledgements are due to Mr. G. H. Stock- 
 bridge, late of the L^niversity of Leipzig, for very valuable 
 assistance in the work of translation and in the revision of the 
 proof-sheets, and also to Mr. W. G. Hale, Tutor in Harvard 
 University, for many timely suggestions. 
 
 Amherst College, 
 
 Dec. 20, 187J. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 THE changes in the present edition consist mainly in the 
 insertion of the Author's Preface, the recasting of certain 
 paragraphs, and the correction of a few typographical errors. 
 
 Amherst, March, 1880.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 C. — Cruttwell's History of Roman Literature. 
 Con. — Conington's Miscellaneous Writings. 
 
 Diet. Antiqq. — Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 
 Mer. — Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire. 
 Mom. — Mommsen's History of Rome. 
 Parry. — Parry's Commentary on Terence. 
 
 Pn. — Papillon's Comparative Philology applied to Latin and Greek 
 Inflections. 
 B. — Roby's Grammar of the Latin Language. 
 Ry. — Ramsay's Roman Antiquities. 
 S. — Sellar's Roman poets of the Republic. 
 
 T. — Teuffel's History of Roman Literature, translated by Wagner. 
 W. — Wordsworth's Fragments and Specimens of Elarly Latin. 
 Wh. — Whitney's Language and the Study of Language.
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Late development of Roman 
 
 Literature i 
 
 Character of the Romans . . i 
 Their lack of imagination . . i 
 Their practical tendency . . i 
 Comparison with the Greeks . i 
 Attitude of contempt towards 
 
 Greek culture i 
 
 Want of time for literary pur- 
 suits I 
 
 Character of Roman Litera- 
 ture in the first five centuries 2 
 Comparatively late develop- 
 ment of poetry 2 
 
 Lack of a native Heroic Epos ; 
 the reason for this .... 2 
 
 Need of an impulse from with- 
 out 3 
 
 Indebtedness of Roman Liter- 
 ature to the Greek .... 2 
 
 Gradual advance of Greek 
 ideas 2 
 
 2. The Italic language .... 3 
 The Latin language .... 3 
 
 The Alphabet 3 
 
 Slovir development of the lan- 
 guage 
 
 Influence of Ennius and Cicero 
 Special adaptation to prose . 
 Characteristics of the Latin . 
 Stages of its decline .... 
 
 3. Periods of Roman Literature 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 PRE-HISTORIC to 240 li.C. 
 
 Struggle for political supremacy 7 
 Independent development of the 
 
 Romans 7 
 
 The practical direction of prose 
 
 and poetry 7 
 
 Character of archaic Latin . . 8 
 
 Literary barrenness of this period 8 
 
 I. Poetry. 
 
 Lack of a national Epos ... 8 
 
 Niebuhr's theory refuted ... 8 
 
 The Carmen. Versus Saturnius 8 
 
 Songs on historical subjects . . 8 
 
 Hymns to the dead 9 
 
 Carmina triumphalia .... 9 
 
 Sacred songs 9 
 
 Carmen Saliare, Carmen Ar- 
 
 valium 9 
 
 Ritual precepts 9 
 
 Epitaphs 9 
 
 The Drama 9 
 
 Its origin 10 
 
 Fescennini 10 
 
 Satura 10 
 
 Atellana 10 
 
 Rude character of the above . . 11
 
 VUl 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 II. Prose. 
 
 Crude and fragmentary nature 
 
 of early prose ii 
 
 Conservative spirit of the Ro- 
 mans II 
 
 Official Documents : 
 
 Treaties ii 
 
 Leges regiae 12 
 
 Commentarii regum .... 12 
 
 Commentarii magistratuum . 12 
 
 Libri magistratuum .... 12 
 
 Priestly Literature : 
 
 Libri pontificum . . . 
 
 Commentarii pontificum 
 
 Fasti 
 
 .Annales pontificum 
 Private chronicles 
 Laudationes funebres 
 Leges XII Tabularum 
 I us Flavianum . . 
 First prose-writer : 
 
 Ap. Claudius Caecus . 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 12 
 12 
 13 
 13 
 13 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 From Livius Andronicus to Cicero 
 
 General character 14 
 
 Growing influence of Greek 
 
 culture 14 
 
 Causes contributing to it . . . 15 
 
 Opposition to it unsuccessful . 15 
 
 Its restriction to the aristocracy 15 
 Growing unpopularity of the 
 
 national writers 15 
 
 Influence of Ennius 15 
 
 Prominence of comedy . . = 15 
 Beginnings of oratory, history, 
 
 and legal writings 16 
 
 I. Poetry. 
 
 a. — T/ie Drama. 
 
 The national popular comedy. 
 Satura and Atellana .... 16 
 Chief representatives : 
 
 Novius 16 
 
 L. Pomponius 16 
 
 Popular character of comedy 16 
 The Hellenistic Drama. 
 The Roman Theatre. ... 17 
 Unpopularity of the actor's 
 
 profession 17 
 
 Classes appealed to by the 
 
 drama 17 
 
 240-70 B.C. 
 
 Hellenistic comedy. 
 
 Fabula palliata 17 
 
 Its prototypes 17 
 
 Its general character. ... 17 
 
 Scene of the palliata . ... 18 
 
 Different varieties i3 
 
 Combination of two or more 
 
 plays 18 
 
 Chief representatives : 
 
 Livius Andronicus ... 18 
 
 Ennius 18 
 
 Cn. Nasvius 18 
 
 T. Maccius Plautus ... 19 
 His life and extant writings 19 
 Characterization of Plau- 
 tus 20 
 
 His wit and vivacity . . 20 
 
 Character of his verse . . 20 
 
 His fame in later times . 20 
 
 P. Terentius 20 
 
 His life and writings . . 20 
 Comparison between Ter- 
 ence and Plautus . . . 21 
 His defects and excellences 21 
 Elegance and dignity of 
 
 his language .... 21 
 
 His fame 21
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 IX 
 
 Statius Cascilius .... 21 
 
 Luscius Lavinius .... 21 
 The National Drama. 
 
 Fabula togata 22 
 
 Its general character ... 22 
 
 Chief authors : 
 
 Titinius 22 
 
 T. Qiiinctius Atta .... 22 
 
 L. Afranius 22 
 
 Tragedy. 
 
 Hellenistic tendency .... 22 
 
 Comparatively slight cultiva- 
 tion 22 
 
 Faults of the Roman tragic 
 
 writers 22 
 
 Fabula praetexta 22 
 
 Chief authors : 
 
 Livius Andronicus. ... 22 
 
 Cn. Naevius 22 
 
 Q. Ennius 22 
 
 M. Pacuvius 22 
 
 L. Accius 23 
 
 b. — The Epos. 
 
 Its character 23 
 
 Chief authors: 
 
 Livius Andronicus .... 23 
 
 Cn. Naevius 24 
 
 Q. Ennius 24 
 
 His life and chief work . . 24 
 
 Character of the Annales . 24 
 
 Use of the hexameter . . 24 
 
 Genius of Ennius .... 25 
 His work a great national 
 
 Epos 25 
 
 His estimation in later 
 
 times 25 
 
 Satura ; its new meaning ... 25 
 Chief representative : 
 
 C. Lucilius 25 
 
 His life 25 
 
 His sharp criticism of pub- 
 lic affairs 25 
 
 IL Prose. 
 
 General character rude and un- 
 developed 26 
 
 Comparison with early German 
 prose 26 
 
 a. — History. 
 
 Annalistic character 26 
 
 Discussion of its trustworthi- 
 ness 26 
 
 Writers in Greek : 
 
 Q. Fabius Pictor 26 
 
 L. Cincius Alimentus ... 27 
 C. Acilius Glabrio .... 27 
 A. Postumius Albinus ... 27 
 
 Latin writers : 
 
 M. Porcius Cato 27 
 
 27 
 27 
 
 27 
 27 
 28 
 28 
 28 
 
 His life and character . 
 His versatility .... 
 The Origines .... 
 Character of the narrative 
 Introduction of speeches 
 Cato's authorities . . . 
 Cicero's estimate of him 
 
 Cassius Hemina 28 
 
 L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi . . 
 C. Sempronius Tuditanus . . 
 L. Caslius Antipater .... 
 Writers of contemporary history : 
 P. Rutilius Rufus . . 
 Q. Lutatius Catulus . 
 Sempronius Asellio . 
 L. Cornelius Sulla . 
 L. Cornelius Sisenna 
 Claudius Quadrigarius 
 Valerias Antias . . 
 C. Licinius Macer . 
 
 28 
 28 
 28 
 
 28 
 28 
 28 
 28 
 29 
 29 
 29 
 29 
 
 b. — Oratory. 
 
 Favored by the character of the 
 Romans, and by the freedom 
 of their political life .... 29
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Necessity to the political aspirant 29 
 
 Cicero's requirements for the 
 
 orator 30 
 
 Most important orators : 
 
 M. Porcius Cato 30 
 
 S. Sulpicius Galba .... 30 
 
 C Gracchus 30 
 
 M. Antonius 30 
 
 L. Crassus 30 
 
 Q. Hortensius 30 
 
 Rhetorica ad Herennium . . . 31 
 
 Cornificius 31 
 
 c. — Special Sciences. 
 
 Jurisprudence 31 
 
 Development of Roman law 
 
 normal 31 
 
 Beginnings of legal science , 31 
 
 Legal tradition in certain fam- 
 ilies 21 
 
 Chief writers : 
 
 S. ^lius Paetus 31 
 
 P. Mucius Scaevola ... 32 
 
 Q. Mucius Scaevola ... 32 
 
 Archaeology 32 
 
 Chiefly occupied with linguis- 
 tic matters 32 
 
 Zealous pursuit of philologi- 
 cal studies 32 
 
 First Roman philologist : 
 
 L. iElius Stilo 32 
 
 Domestic Economy and Agri- 
 culture 33 
 
 Cato 33 
 
 Mago 33 
 
 Condition of other sciences . . 33 
 
 THIRD 
 
 Golden Age of Roman 
 
 Predominance of Greek culture 34 
 
 Roman students in Greece . . 34 
 
 Greek teachers in Rome ... 34 
 
 Contempt for the Greeks ... 34 
 
 Real dependence upon them . 34 
 Translation of Greek works in 
 
 the schools 34 
 
 Development of the book-trade 34 
 
 Founding of public libraries. . 35 
 Consequent increase of literary 
 
 activity 35 
 
 Diverse character of the Cicero- 
 nian and Augustan Ages . . 35 
 Freedom of literature under the 
 
 Republic 35 
 
 Its restraint under the Empire . 36 
 Withdrawal of poetry to the 
 
 court 36 
 
 Importance of oratory in the 
 
 Ciceronian Age 36 
 
 Its highest development in Cicero 36 
 
 PERIOD. 
 
 Literature, 70 B.C.-14 a.d. 
 
 Cultivation of rhetoric, history, 
 
 and philosophy 36 
 
 Comparative unimportance of 
 
 poetry 36 
 
 Diplomatic character of litera- 
 ture under the Empire ... 36 
 Supression of individuality . . 36 
 Cautious treatment of oratory 
 
 and history 36 
 
 Prominence of the professions . 37 
 Courtly tone of poetry . ... 37 
 Increased attention to literature 
 
 in the provinces 37 
 
 None of the great Augustan 
 authors native Romans ... 37 
 
 I. Poetry. 
 
 a. — 77/1? Drama. 
 The artistic drama little culti- 
 vated 38 
 
 Its restriction to limited circles. 38
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 XI 
 
 Its retreat before the Mime and 
 
 Pantomime 3^ 
 
 The Mime: its character and 
 
 subjects 38 
 
 Chief representatives : 
 
 Decimus Laberius . . • ■ 39 
 
 Publilius Syrus 39 
 
 The Pantomime: 
 
 Its development by Bathyllus 
 
 and Pylades 39 
 
 Its general character ... 39 
 
 b.— The Epos. 
 
 Its extensive cultivation ... 39 
 
 Its varieties 39 
 
 Chief representatives : 
 
 Cicero 40 
 
 P. Terentius Varro .... 40 
 
 L. Varius 4° 
 
 Pedo Albinovanus .... 40 
 
 Rabirius 4° 
 
 Lucretius Carus 40 
 
 His didactic poem de reriim 
 
 natura 40 
 
 The poet's purpose ... 40 
 
 His difficulties and success 41 
 
 His literary importance . . 41 
 
 P. Vergilius Maro .... 41 
 His life and character . 41-42 
 
 Order of his poems ... 42 
 
 1. Bucolica 42 
 
 Their character and fame . 42 
 
 2. Georgica 43 
 
 Their subject 43 
 
 Aim of the poet 43 
 
 Degree of independence . 43 
 
 Their gciieral character. . 43 
 
 3. ^neis "43 
 
 Subject of the poem ... 44 
 
 Virgil's purpose .... 44 
 
 Defects of the poem ... 44 
 
 Its finest parts 44 
 
 Its great fame 44 
 
 Minor poems of Virgil. ... 45 
 
 Virgil in the Middle Ages . . 45 
 
 Gratius Faliscus 45 
 
 Manilius 45 
 
 c. — Satire and Epistle. 
 
 Character of the satire .... 45 
 
 Its poetic form 45 
 
 Deviation from this form by 
 
 Varro 45 
 
 Q. Horatius Flaccus .... 46 
 
 His life 46 
 
 Description of his person . . 46 
 
 Varieties of his poems ... 47 
 
 Probable order of publication 47 
 
 1. Satires ...._.... 47 
 
 Varied character of their 
 
 contents 47 
 
 Their careless style ... 48 
 
 Their effect upon the reader 48 
 
 2. Epistles ...."... 48 
 
 Their beauty of style ... 48 
 
 Questions discussed in them 48 
 
 The finest ones 48 
 
 3. Odes 49 
 
 Their time of publication . 49 
 
 Imitation of Greek poets . 49 
 Growing independence of 
 
 Horace 49 
 
 Reflective character of the 
 
 odes 49 
 
 Their beauty of thought and 
 
 expression 50 
 
 4. Epodes 50 
 
 Their relation to the odes 
 
 and satires 5° 
 
 Subiects of the epodes . . 50 
 
 General estimate of Horace . . 50 
 
 Reflective cast of his mind . 50 
 
 His sound common sense . . 50 
 
 His aim 50 
 
 His independence in social 
 
 relations 50
 
 Xll 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE, 
 
 His importance as a poet . . 51 
 Comparison between Horace 
 
 and Virgil 51 
 
 d. — Lyric Poetry. 
 
 Its growth in importance ... 52 
 Copying the elegy from the 
 
 Alexandrian poets .... 52 
 Introduction of the erotic elegy 
 
 by Catullus 52 
 
 General character 52 
 
 Lyric poets of the Ciceronian 
 Age : 
 
 C. Licinius Calvus .... 52 
 
 C. Valerius Catullus .... 52 
 
 His life 52 
 
 Subjects of his poems . . 52 
 
 Character as a poet ... 53 
 Lyric poets under Augustus : 
 
 Cornelius Gallus 53 
 
 P. Ovidius Naso 53 
 
 His life in Rome . . . ■ 53 
 
 Banishment by Augustus . 53 
 
 Cause assigned by Ovid . 54 
 
 His writings 54 
 
 His facility in versification . 55 
 Lack of earnestness ... 55 
 Comparison with the Ger- 
 man poet Heine ... 56 
 Superficiality of Ovid's po- 
 etry 56 
 
 Popularity of the Metamor- 
 phoses in the Middle Ages 56 
 
 Albius Tibullus 56 
 
 His life and writings ... 56 
 
 His elegiac nature. ... 57 
 
 S. Propertius 57 
 
 Subjects of his poems . . 57 
 Cultivation of the erotic 
 
 elegy 57 
 
 Smoothness and finish of 
 
 his poetry 58 
 
 Quintilian on the Roman elegy . 58 
 
 II. Prose. 
 
 a. — Oratory. 
 
 The genus Asiaticum .... 58 
 
 The genus Atticum 58 
 
 The genus Rhodium .... 58 
 Their most prominent repre- 
 sentatives 58 
 
 Restriction of oratory in the 
 
 Augustan Age 58 
 
 Supplanted by Rhetoric ... 58 
 
 Oratory of the schools . ... 59 
 Orators of the Ciceronian Age : 
 
 Caesar 59 
 
 M. Calidius 59 
 
 C. Mummius 59 
 
 C. Curio 59 
 
 M. Caslius Rufus 59 
 
 Asinius PoUio 59 
 
 M. Valerius Messala .... 59 
 Chief representative in the Au- 
 gustan Age : 
 
 Cassius Severus 59 
 
 Quintilian's characterization of 
 
 these orators 59 
 
 M. Tullius Cicero 59 
 
 Survey of his life and writ- 
 ings 59-61 
 
 His activity in different de- 
 partments 61 
 
 1. Orations 62 
 
 Quintilian's judgment of 
 
 Cicero as an orator . . 62 
 Cicero's oratorical endow- 
 ments 62 
 
 His zeal for knowledge . . 62 
 
 Character of his orations . 62 
 Most important ones . . 62-63 
 
 2. Rhetorical writings .... 63 
 
 Cicero's acquaintance with 
 
 the theories of the schools 63 
 
 His dissatisfaction with 
 
 them 63
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 xni 
 
 Practical nature of his own 
 system 63 
 
 His rhetorical works in de- 
 tail 64 
 
 b. — Cicero and Philosophy in Rome. 
 
 Unfriendly reception of Greek 
 philosophy by the Romans . 64 
 
 Expulsion of Greek philosophers 
 from Rome 64 
 
 Later popularity of Greek phil- 
 osophy 65 
 
 Predominance of Stoicism . . 65 
 
 The different systems, with their 
 representatives 65 
 
 Dependence of the Romans in 
 philosophy 65 
 
 Constraint of Cicero's political 
 life 
 
 His wide but superficial ac- 
 quaintance with the Greek 
 philosophers . . ' . . . 
 
 His preference for the New 
 Academy 
 
 His hostility to Epicureanism 
 
 Cicero's chief service . . . 
 
 Form of his writings . . . 
 
 List of his philosophical works 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 66 
 66 
 66 
 66 
 
 c. — Cicero's Letters. 
 
 The four collections 68 
 
 Their publication by Tiro and 
 
 Atticus 69 
 
 General character of the letters 69 
 
 Their value as an historical 
 
 authority 69 
 
 The diverse nature of the let- 
 ters 69 
 
 Description of tlie collections . 70 
 Popularity of Cicero's letters in 
 
 antiquity 70 
 
 General criticism of Cicero . . 70 
 
 Existing spirit of hypercriticism 70 
 
 Defects of Cicero's character . 71 
 
 His historical significance . . 71 
 
 Virtues and services of Cicero . 71 
 
 d. — History. 
 
 Activity in this department . 
 Artistic treatment of history . 
 The writers chiefly men en 
 
 gaged in politics .... 
 Diversity of subjects in the Cice- 
 ronian and Augustan Age 
 Writers of the Ciceronian Age 
 T. Pomponius Atticus . 
 M. Tuilius Cicero . . . 
 Q. /Elius Tubero . . . 
 C. lulius Cassar . . . 
 
 His life 
 
 His position as an orator 
 Works on various subjects 
 His most important works 
 Survey of their contents. 
 General characterization o 
 
 Caesar 
 
 His literary style . . . 
 
 His motives in writing . 
 
 Continuation of Cresar's his 
 
 tories by Aulus Hirtius . 
 Cornelius Nepos .... 
 His life and writings . . 
 His purpose in writing . 
 His sincerity and aim at im 
 
 partiality 
 
 Defects of his works . . 
 Theory to account for them 
 C. Sallustius Crispus . . 
 His life and chief writings 
 
 1. Catilina 
 
 Most interesting portion 
 
 2. Bellum lugurthinum . . 
 
 Its general character . 
 
 3. Historiae 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 72 
 72 
 73 
 73 
 73 
 73 
 73 
 73 
 
 74 
 74 
 74 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 75 
 76 
 
 76 
 
 76 
 76 
 76 
 76 
 77 
 77 
 77 
 77 
 77
 
 XIV 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Martial's judgment of Sal- 
 lust 77 
 
 Sallust's historical insight . 78 
 Contrast between his life 
 
 and his writings .... 78 
 
 His impartiality 78 
 
 His strength and his weak- 
 ness 78 
 
 Peculiarities of his lan- 
 guage 78 
 
 Writers of the Augustan Age : 
 
 Augustus 78 
 
 M. Vipsanius Agrippa ... 79 
 
 M. Valerius Messala ... 79 
 
 Asinius Pollio 79 
 
 T. Livius 79 
 
 His life and writings ... 79 
 
 His aim in writing history . 79 
 
 Livy's qualities of mind. . 80 
 Judgment of the ancients 
 
 concerning him .... 80 
 His stand in religion and 
 
 politics 80 
 
 Defects of his work ... 80 
 
 His authorities 81 
 
 Excellences of his work . . 81 
 
 His popularity 81 
 
 Pompeius Trogus 82 
 
 lustinus 82 
 
 The acta senatus and acta populi 82 
 
 c. — Special Sciences. 
 
 M. Terentius \'arro. .... 82 
 
 His life and learning ... 82 
 
 The scope of his works ... 83 
 List of his most important 
 
 works 83 
 
 General criticism 83 
 
 Value of \'arro's works ... 84 
 
 S. Sulpicius Rufus 84 
 
 A. Ofilius 84 
 
 C. Trebatius Testa 84 
 
 M. Antistius Labeo 84 
 
 C. Ateius Capito 84 
 
 Writers on Archaeology and 
 Philology : 
 
 P. Nigidius f'igulus .... 84 
 
 M. Verrius Flaccus .... 84 
 
 Pompeius Festus 84 
 
 lulius Hyginus 85 
 
 Architecture 85 
 
 Vitruvius Pollio 85 
 
 Geography 85 
 
 Agrippa 85 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 
 
 The Silver Age of Roman Literature, 14-117 a.d., from 
 Tiberius to the Death of Trajan. 
 
 Imperial despotism unfavorable 
 
 to literature 86 
 
 Suppression of freedom in 
 
 speaking and writing ... 86 
 
 Consequent insincerity ... 86 
 
 Character of the language . . 87 
 
 Changes in style 87 
 
 Influences favorable to literature 87 
 Prominence of poetry and rhet- 
 oric 88 
 
 Learned character of the for- 
 mer 88 
 
 Predominance of the Epos . . 88 
 Its cultivation by the emper- 
 ors 88 
 
 Its artificiality 88 
 
 School oratory and learning. . 88 
 
 History still under constraint . 88 
 Literary importance of Spain 
 
 and Gaul 89
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 XV 
 
 I. Poetry. 
 
 a. — The Drama. 
 Predominance of the Mime and 
 Pantomime 89 
 
 89 
 
 89 
 89 
 
 89 
 89 
 
 89 
 90 
 Lucanus 9° 
 
 Absence of acting dramas 
 Tragic poets : 
 
 Pomponius Secundus 
 , Curiatius Maternus . 
 
 Seneca 
 
 His ten tragedies . 
 Their authenticity . 
 French imitators of Seneca 
 
 b. — The Epos. 
 
 Nero 
 
 M. Annseus Lucanus . 
 
 His life and writings . 
 
 His poem, Pharsalia 
 
 His repubhcan bias . 
 
 His Stoicism . . . 
 
 General character of his 
 C. Valerius Fiaccus . . 
 C. Silius Italicus . . . 
 
 His life and writings . 
 C. Papinius Statius . . 
 
 Character of his poems 
 
 The Silvae .... 
 Writers of Didactic Epos 
 
 Germanicus .... 
 
 Caesius Bassus . . . 
 
 Lucilius Junior . . 
 
 c. — Satire and Fable 
 
 Abundance of materials forSat- 
 
 Its restriction to literary and 
 
 cial matters .... 
 
 Crabbedness of its tone 
 
 Its chief representatives 
 
 A. Persius Fiaccus . 
 
 Nature of his satires 
 
 ks 
 
 90 
 90 
 90 
 90 
 90 
 91 
 91 
 91 
 91 
 91 
 91 
 92 
 92 
 
 92 
 92 
 92 
 
 92 
 
 93 
 93 
 93 
 93 
 93 
 
 Seneca 93 
 
 His attack on the emperor 
 
 Claudius 93 
 
 Petronius Arbiter 94 
 
 His satirical romance . . 94 
 Abstract of the story ... 94 
 Its coarseness and wit . . 94 
 Question of identity dis- 
 cussed 94 
 
 Decimus lunius luvenalis . 95 
 
 Subjects of his satires . . 95 
 
 Their origin 95 
 
 His views on mankind and 
 
 religion 95 
 
 His power of vivid portrayal 95 
 Languidness of his later 
 
 satires 95 
 
 The most interesting satires 96 
 The Fable : 
 
 Phaedrus 96 
 
 His fables 96 
 
 Aim of the poet 96 
 
 d. — • Lyric Poetry and Epigram. 
 
 Artificiality of Lyric Poetry . . 96 
 
 Csesius Bassus 97 
 
 Statius 97 
 
 Aruntius Stella 97 
 
 Sulpicia 97 
 
 The Epigram 97 
 
 M. Valerius Martialis ... 97 
 
 His life 97 
 
 Character of his epigrams . 97 
 
 His excellences 97 
 
 Lessing's estimate of him . 97 
 
 His defects 97 
 
 II. Prose. 
 
 a. — History. 
 
 Suppression of free thought . 
 Fate of A. Cremutius Cordus 
 
 98 
 
 98
 
 XVI 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Writers on contemporary history : 
 
 Augustus 98 
 
 Tiberius . 98 
 
 Claudius 98 
 
 Agrippina the Younger ... 99 
 
 Vespasian . 99 
 
 Aufidius Bassus 99 
 
 Pliny the Elder 99 
 
 Fabius Rusticus 99 
 
 Cluvius Rufus 99 
 
 Velleius Paterculus .... 99 
 His life and writings ... 99 
 His summary treatment of 
 
 the earliest history ... 99 
 Diffuseness of the latter part 
 
 of his work 99 
 
 Its subjective character . . 99 
 Its artificial style .... 99 
 Excellences of the work . . 99 
 Valerius Maximus .... 100 
 His collection of models for 
 
 rhetoricians loo 
 
 Arrangement of the work . 100 
 The absurdity of its style . 100 
 Its value as a compilation . 100 
 
 Q. Curtius Rufus 100 
 
 His history of Alexander the 
 
 Great 100 
 
 General belief respecting the 
 
 time of writing .... 100 
 Defects of the work . . . 100 
 The author's purpose. . . 100 
 His imitation of Livy. . . loi 
 His skill in dramatic group- 
 ing loi 
 
 Cornelius Tacitus loi 
 
 Discussion respecting the 
 
 place of his birth . . . loi 
 His life and writings . . . loi 
 I. Dialogus de oratoiibus . . loi 
 General character . . . loi 
 Discusssion of its authen- 
 ticity 102 
 
 2. De vita et moribus lulii 
 
 Agricolas 102 
 
 General character . . . 102 
 
 3. Germania 102 
 
 The monographic charac- 
 ter of the work . . . 102 
 Its satirical purpose . . 102 
 
 4. Historiae 102 
 
 Most interesting portions 103 
 
 Time of composition . . 103 
 
 5. Annales 103 
 
 Its relation to the His- 
 toriae 103 
 
 General character . . . 103 
 
 Characterization of Tacitus . 103 
 
 His carefulness in research 103 
 
 Nature of his authorities . 103 
 
 His ruling political princi- 
 ple 103 
 
 His admiration of the Re- 
 public 104 
 
 His reluctant recognition of 
 
 the Empire 104 
 
 The underlying bitterness in 
 
 his writings 104 
 
 His conscientiousness and 
 
 chief excellences . . . . 104 
 
 Lack of philosophical creed 104 
 
 His position in religious 
 
 matters 104 
 
 His doubt concerning the 
 
 divine government . . . 104 
 
 Development of Tacitus' 
 
 style 105 
 
 Its dignity and solemnity . 105 
 
 b. — Oratory. 
 
 The great number of rhetorically 
 
 educated men ic^ 
 
 Lack of freedom and opportuni- 
 ty of speaking 105 
 
 Restriction of oratory .... 105 
 
 Its retirement into the schools . 105
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 XV 11 
 
 Seneca the Elder io6 
 
 Character of his writings . . io6 
 Their importance for the his- 
 tory of oratory io6 
 
 M. Fabius Quintihanus . . . io6 
 His Ufe and character . . .106 
 His Institutio oratoria . . . 106 
 His preference for Cicero . . 107 
 Scope of the work .... 107 
 
 Pliny the Younger 107 
 
 His life and writings .... 107 
 
 His letters 107 
 
 Comparison with Cicero's let- 
 ters 107 
 
 The man as seen in his works 108 
 Most interesting letters . . . 108 
 
 c. — Philosophy. 
 Activity in this department . . 108 
 Character of philosophical wri- 
 ters 108 
 
 Predominance of .Stoicism . . 108 
 Punishment of Greek philoso- 
 phers 108 
 
 Seneca the Younger 108 
 
 His life and character . . . 108 
 His sincerity of purpose . . 109 
 Loftiness of moral view . . . 109 
 Tradition concerning him . . 109 
 
 His style 109 
 
 Varieties of his works . . . 109 
 Th.^ EpistulcB ad Liicilium . no 
 Seneca's views compared with 
 Christianity no 
 
 d. — Special Sciences. 
 
 Writers on Law : 
 
 Masurius Sabinus no 
 
 Sempronius Proculus . . .110 
 The two schools of law . . .110 
 
 Science of language no 
 
 Interest of the Emperors in 
 
 it no 
 
 Claudius no 
 
 Grammarians and Commenta- 
 tors: 
 Q. Remmius Palsemo . . . in 
 Q. Asconius Pedianus . . .111 
 M. Valerius Probus . . . .111 
 
 ^milius Asper in 
 
 Flavius Caper . " m 
 
 Velius Longus m 
 
 Mathematical writers : 
 Sextus lulius Frontinus . . in 
 Life and writings . . . .in 
 
 Hyginus m 
 
 Their works on military sub- 
 jects in 
 
 Geography 112 
 
 Pomponius Mela 112 
 
 Pliny the Elder 112 
 
 His life and writings . . . 112 
 Scope of his work .... 112 
 
 His style 113 
 
 Cornelius Celsus 113 
 
 Scribonius Largus . . . .113 
 
 Agriculture 113 
 
 Moderatus Columella . . .113 
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. 
 The Later Empire, after the Death of Trajan, 117 a.d. 
 
 Comparative unimportance of 
 poetry 114 
 
 Literary importance of the prov- 
 inces 114 
 
 Decline in politics and literature 114 
 Lack of independence . . . .114 
 Artificiality of literature . . . 114 
 
 Pedantry 114 
 
 Archaistic tendency 114 
 
 Style of the provincial writers . 115
 
 XVIU 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Political confusion of the third 
 
 century 115 
 
 Triumph of Christianity . . . 115 
 
 Decay of the old Roman charac- 
 ter 115 
 
 General estimate 115 
 
 I. Poetry. 
 
 a. — Lyric. 
 
 The Pervigilium I 'ever is . 
 Decimus Magnus Ausonius 
 
 His life and writings . . 
 
 Variety of his works . . 
 
 His Idyll Mosella . . . 
 Aurelius Prudentius Clemens 
 
 116 
 116 
 116 
 116 
 116 
 116 
 
 fi. — Epic. 
 
 General character 117 
 
 Claudius Claudianus . . . .117 
 Character of his poems . . . 117 
 Christian poets : 
 C. Vettius Aquilius luvencus . 117 
 Flavius Merobaudes . . . .117 
 Apollinaris Sidonius .... 117 
 
 Dracontius ■ . . 118 
 
 Venantius Fortunatus . . .118 
 
 c. — Didactic. 
 
 Nemesianus 118 
 
 Festus Avienus 118 
 
 Claudius Rutilius Namatianus . 118 
 
 His descriptive poem . . .118 
 Fable 119 
 
 Avianus 119 
 
 II. Prose. 
 
 a. — Oratory. 
 
 Cornelius Fronto .... 
 
 His life and character . . 
 His reliance upon rhetoric 
 His archaistic preferences . 
 
 • 119 
 . 119 
 . 119 
 
 • "9 
 
 . 119 
 . 120 
 . 120 
 . 120 
 . 120 
 . 120 
 . 120 
 . 120 
 
 L. Apuleius 
 
 His life 
 
 Character as a writer 
 
 His Aletamorphoseon . 
 
 Imitation of Lucian 
 
 Other works of Apuleius 
 Q. Aurelius Symmachus . 
 
 His orations and epistles 
 
 b. — Philosophy. 
 
 Opposition to it 121 
 
 Marcus Aurelius 121 
 
 Mystic character of philosophy . 121 
 
 Apuleius 121 
 
 Christianity opposed to philos- 
 ophy 121 
 
 Effect of this opposition . . . 122 
 
 Boetius 122 
 
 His life and w orks .... 122 
 His de consolatione . . . .122 
 
 c. — History. 
 
 Activity in this department . . 122 
 
 Lack of freedom 122 
 
 Influence of rhetoric .... 122 
 Biographical treatment .... 122 
 
 Compendia 122 
 
 Ecclesiastical history .... 122 
 C. Suetonius Tranquillus . . . 122 
 His life and writings .... 122 
 His biographical works . . . 123 
 Importance of his extant work 123 
 Its anecdotical character . . 123 
 Defects of the work • . . 123 
 
 Floras 123 
 
 His writings 123 
 
 L. Ampelius 124 
 
 Granicius Licinianus .... 124 
 
 Marius Maximus 124 
 
 Scriptores Historias Augusta? . 124 
 Their biographies of the Em- 
 perors 124 
 
 Value of their writings . . . 124
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 XIX 
 
 Aurelius Victor 124 
 
 His historical works .... 125 
 Works ascribed to him . . . 125 
 
 Eutropius 125 
 
 Ammianus Marcellinus . . .125 
 His life and writings .... 125 
 The author's standpoint . . 126 
 
 His style 126 
 
 Defects of the work .... 126 
 
 Sulpicius Severus 126 
 
 Orosius ......... 126 
 
 Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorius . 126 
 
 His works 126 
 
 lordanis 126 
 
 Gildas 126 
 
 Gregorius of Tours 126 
 
 Official state-records . . . .126 
 
 d. — Special Sciences. 
 
 Law 127 
 
 Highest development under the 
 
 Emperors 127 
 
 Civil law 127 
 
 Later codification of legal au- 
 thorities 127 
 
 Most important jurists : 
 
 Salvius lulianus 127 
 
 Sextus Pomponius 127 
 
 Gaius 127 
 
 His introduction to legal 
 
 science 127 
 
 iEmilius Papinianus .... 128 
 His responsa and quccs- 128 
 
 tiones 128 
 
 Domitius Ulpianus 128 
 
 lulius Paulus 128 
 
 Herennius Modestinus .... 128 
 Collections of constitutiones : 
 Codex Gregorianus .... 128 
 Codex Hermogenianus . . . 128 
 Fragmenta Vaticaua .... 128 
 Codex Theodosianus . . .128 
 
 Corpus iuris 128 
 
 Its separate parts : 
 
 Codex lustinianeus. . . 128 
 
 Institutiones 129 
 
 Digesta or Pandects . . 129 
 
 Novellas 129 
 
 Philology and Archaeology . . 129 
 
 Their high standing 129 
 
 Encyclopaedic character . . . 129 
 
 1. Compilers: 
 
 Aulus Gellius 129 
 
 His iXoctcs AtticcB .... 130 
 
 Importance of the work . . 130 
 
 Nonius Marcellus .... 130 
 
 Macrobius Theodosius . . . 130 
 
 Martianus Capefla .... 130 
 
 His writings 130 
 
 2. Writers of text-books and 
 
 commentaries : 
 Terentius Scaurus .... 131 
 C. Sulpicius Apollinaris . . 131 
 
 Helenius Aero 131 
 
 Pomponius Porphyrio . . .131 
 
 Plotius Sacerdos 131 
 
 Terentianus 131 
 
 luba 131 
 
 Marius Victorinus . . . .131 
 
 ^lius Donatus 131 
 
 Flavins Charisius 131 
 
 Diomedes 132 
 
 Servius Honoratus .... 132 
 
 Priscianus 132 
 
 His grammatical works . . 132 
 
 Geography 132 
 
 C. lulius Solinus 132 
 
 .^thicus Ister 132 
 
 The itinerarla 132 
 
 Notitia and curiosum iirbis 
 
 RomcB 132 
 
 Maps 132 
 
 Astronomy 132 
 
 Firmicus Maternus (pagan) . 132 
 Firmicus Maternus (Christian) 133
 
 XX 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Military science . . 
 Flavius Vegetius . 
 Scope of his work 
 
 Medicine 
 
 Marcellus Empiricus 
 Cselius Aurelianus 
 
 Agriculture .... 
 Gargilius Martialis 
 Palladius Rutilius . 
 
 133 
 
 133 
 ^33 
 133 
 133 
 ^33 
 133 
 ^33 
 133 
 
 e. — Patristic Literature, 
 
 The Church Fathers .... 134 
 Minucius Felix 134 
 
 His Octavius 134 
 
 Tertullianus 134 
 
 His character and writings . 134 
 
 Cyprianus 134 
 
 Arnobius 134 
 
 Lactantius Firmianus . . . 135 
 Beauty of his style .... 135 
 His acquaintance with the 
 classics 135 
 
 Ambrosius 135 
 
 His personal character . . 135 
 Hisliymns 135 
 
 Hieronymus 135 
 
 His learning 135 
 
 His translation of the Bible 135 
 
 Aurelius Augustinus .... 135 
 
 His versatility 135 
 
 His ecclesiastical impor- 
 tance 135 
 
 The de civitate Dei . . . 135 
 The confessiones .... 136 
 
 Pope Leo I ...... . 136 
 
 Pope Gregory I 136
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. 
 
 IT was only at a late period that Roman literature rose to 
 any thing like a high plane, namely, after the time when 
 the Romans came into more active interco.urse with the 
 Greeks, and received from them abundant and varied in- 
 citement. The Roman character was in itself poorly adapted 
 to literary development. There were wanting just those 
 qualities which fit a people for literary and especially for 
 poetical productions, and by which the Greeks were distin- 
 guished, — wealth and creative power of imagination, fine 
 sense of form and instinctive appreciation of the beautiful, 
 tendency towards the ideal, and free development of indi- 
 viduality. The peculiarities which make up the Roman 
 character lie in the domain of the practical, — keen intel- 
 lect, dispassionate reflection, a cast of mind masculine in 
 its earnestness yet not youthful, inclination to work, ener- 
 getic striving after the real, restraint of individuality by the 
 interests of the whole, strict subjection of the individual to 
 the state. 
 
 The hterary activity of the Greeks appeared to the Ro- 
 mans as an aimless pastime and as busy idleness ; even the 
 Roman otium — at least in the earlier times — was filled 
 with a more earnest activity than the free and easy otium 
 Grtzcum, and the lively TroXvTrpayfj.ocrvi'r] (busy curiosity) 
 of the Athenians. On this account the Romans stood for a
 
 2 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 long time in an exclusive and contemptuous attitude towards 
 the Greek mind ; indeed, even when the higher circles had 
 long begun to allow themselves to be penetrated by the 
 elements of Greek culture, they displayed, in public at 
 least, in view of the continued unpopularity of such Grecian 
 tendencies, an aristocratic disdain and an often affected con- 
 sciousness of their own superiority. With their conscien- 
 tiousness in the service of the family and the community, 
 the Romans had neither time nor inclination for purely 
 literary occupations. For more than five centuries, there- 
 fore, nothing was produced except in such departments as 
 from the outset made no demand for artistic perfection, as, 
 for example, the popular farce, or such as served a defi- 
 nite practical purpose, as, for example, the sacred lyric, 
 the writing of matter-of-fact chronicles, and the collection 
 of legal formulae. 
 
 In close connection with this stands the fact that among 
 the Romans — in distinction from most other nations — 
 prose, which can confine itself more to essentials, was de- 
 veloped to classical perfection before poetry, for which 
 beauty of form is a chief consideration. 
 
 The reason why the Heroic Epos, which forms the earliest 
 and at the same time the brightest ornament of Greek poetry, 
 did not make its appearance in Rome as a native produc- 
 tion, is found in this fact, that the unimaginative Romans 
 had no mythology rich in imposing figures and events, and 
 that in their religion the idea outweighed the symbol. 
 
 Since, thus, literature found unfavorable soil with the 
 Romans, a strong impulse from without was necessary in 
 order to set Roman literature in motiori ; accordingly, Ro- 
 man poetry in its highest forms rests in reality upon Greek 
 foundations ; and also prose, even in those departments 
 ■which in their nature and origin were peculiar to the
 
 INTRODUCTION, 3 
 
 Roman nation, particularly in oratory, has derived its artistic 
 form from the Greeks. This permeation with Greek ele- 
 ments did not find its full and unhindered completion until 
 in the sixth and seventh centuries of the city, and there- 
 fore all that was produced before this time, though often 
 possessing originality and strength, is still crude and unde- 
 veloped, only an attempt at and beginning of artistic sym- 
 metrical production. 
 
 The Italic language, like its sister languages, Greek 
 and Sanskrit, is a member of the Indo-European family of 
 languages. 1 The Latin is a dialect of the Italic language. 
 By its side stand the coordinate Umbrian and Sabellian 
 (Oscan) dialects, which, however, gradually fell into disuse.^ 
 
 The alphabet of the Latin language was borrowed from 
 the Greek, probably before the founding of Rome. It con- 
 sisted originally of twenty-one letters, but suffered in the 
 course of time many changes, k, for example, disappear- 
 ing, and g being added. There were changes, also, in the 
 orthography and pronunciation, r, for example, being often 
 substituted for s, while the aspiration of the mutes first 
 appeared in the time of Sulla, and the doubling of the con- 
 sonants not before Ennius."^ 
 
 Thus the Latin language did not obtain rules and perma- 
 nency in orthography, pronunciation, and grammar until the 
 time when literature at Rome had begun to take a loftier 
 flight, i.e., in the sixth and seventh centuries of the city. 
 Moreover, the acquaintance with the Greeks had a great 
 
 1 Pn. II ; Wh. 192. 
 
 2 C. 9 ; Mom. i. 33 ; Pn. 12 ; W. 2. 
 
 3 C. II ; Mom. i. 281 ; Pn. 46; R. i. 21 ; W. 5.
 
 4 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 influence upon the development of the language. Among 
 the Romans themselves, Ennius marks an epoch in the 
 formation of the language by introducing the hexameter. 
 Not until the time of Cicero, however, did classical Latin 
 take the place of archaic. 
 
 The entire character of the Latin language, as well as 
 of the Romans in general, was peculiarly suited to prose. 
 In earlier times, especially, the language was too stiff and 
 angular to serve as a light and flowing dress for poetry ; and 
 in general those qualities do not prominently belong to the 
 Latin language which are found in the Greek, and which led, 
 of themselves, to their use in poetry. These are lightness 
 and elegance, freedom and flexibility, natural euphony and 
 rhythm. 
 
 The qualities which characterize the language of the 
 Romans are, rather, an intelligence aiming at precision of 
 expression, logical accuracy and syntactical completeness, 
 rhetorical dignity and moderation, and an immobility 
 amounting almost to clumsiness. Thus the Latin language 
 was especially suited to use in prose in the practical de- 
 partments of jurisprudence, legislation, oratory, and annal- 
 writing, which has chiefly to do with the statement of facts. 
 
 Prose reached its highest development among the Ro- 
 mans in Cicero, but it was not until the Augustan Age that 
 it acquired the roundness, grace, and flexibility necessary for 
 poetry. If, therefore, we call the Ciceronian-Augustan Age 
 the classical period of prose and poetry, from that time on 
 a gradual decline in the language becomes noticeable. Sim- 
 plicity and naturalness disappear more and more ; the lin- 
 guistic sense, as well as the clearness of distinction between 
 prose and poetry becomes turbid ; artificial adornment and 
 rhetorical overloading get the upper hand ; the cultivated, 
 literary language becomes more widely separated from the
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 language of the people ; provincial elements win themselves 
 a place. Thus arise successive periods of decline, which 
 have been termed the Silver, Brass, and Iron Ages of the 
 language. 
 
 The following periods of Roman literature are to be dis- 
 tinguished : ' — 
 
 I. — The Pre-Historic Period, to Livius Andionicus, 240 B.C. 
 
 II. — The Archaic Period, from Livius Andionicus to Cicero, 
 240-70 B.C. 
 
 III. — The Golden Age, 70B.C.-14A.D. 
 
 1. The Ciceronian Period. 
 
 2. The Augustan Period. 
 
 IV. — The Silver Age, 14-117A.D. 
 
 V. — The Period of Positive Decline (Brass and Iron Ages), 
 117 A. D. to the Sixth Century. 
 
 iC.s.
 
 I
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 Pre-Historic, to 240 B.C. 
 
 IN the first five centuries the Romans had too -little time 
 and too little culture and freedom of movement to be 
 able to achieve any thing important in literature. It was a 
 time of contest and struggle ; externally, for the existence of 
 the city and state, and for winning and maintaining the su- 
 premacy over Italy ; internally, for placing the constitution 
 on a firm basis and fixing the rights of the patricians and 
 plebeians.' The Roman people were in great measure cast 
 upon their own resources ; they advanced according to 
 their own national standards and laws ; not, however, as if 
 isolation had taken place, — there was no lack of contact 
 with the Greeks in Lower Italy ; but this contact was not 
 continuous, not sought, and not understood, and hence it 
 lacked that deeper influence without which the Romans 
 could not attain to a literary development. Poetry was still 
 a thing of natural growth, without art or form, and having 
 no ideal content. The practical ends of social life, of his- 
 torical and family tradition, and of religion, gave it direc- 
 tion. In like manner, prose served only practical interests 
 and needs. No genius had yet appeared to furnish rule and 
 
 1 C. 23.
 
 8 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 form to the language and literature, or give them a higher 
 content. The language of this early period was scarcely or 
 not at all understood in the time of Cicero and Horace ; 
 and while it has for us a high historical and linguistic inter- 
 est, it has none from a literary and aesthetic point of view. 
 
 I. POETRY. 
 
 In Epic poetry the Romans have nothing which is worthy 
 to be mentioned beside the writings of Homer among the 
 Greeks. Neither in this nor in any subsequent period did 
 the national spirit of the Romans produce such an Epos. 
 Niebuhr's theory of a national Epos containing the oldest 
 Roman legends presupposes a poetic endowment, and espe- 
 cially a myth-creating imagination, such as the Romans did 
 not possess.' 
 
 On the other liand, a rhythmic form is not wanting, which 
 was employed in all cases outside of the simplest notices and 
 records. This is the carmen {casmen, from cano), some- 
 thing intermediate between prose and poetry.^ This carmen 
 employed the so-called versus Saturnius, which appears 
 most frequently in the form 
 
 and which is characterized by a division into an Iambic 
 and a Trochaic half, as well as by a certain proportion of 
 accented syllables (the unaccented syllables can be sup- 
 pressed), while, in other respects, it appears to be well-nigh 
 without rules.3 
 
 This rhythm was used in the oldest songs on histori- 
 cal subjects, which — perhaps generally with musical 
 
 1 C. 26; Mom. i. 291. 2 C. 25; T. i. 79. 
 
 <* C. 30 ; Mom. i. 296 ; W. 396.
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 9 
 
 accompaniment — were sung at table ; ^ also in hymns to 
 the dead {nenice), sung originally, perhaps, by the rela- 
 tives, later by professional mourners ; in the carmina 
 triumphalia, both as responsive song and with the re- 
 frain lo triumphe ! and especially, also, in sacred songs, 
 such as the Carmen Saliare^ which the Salii chanted in 
 their festal processions in honor of Mars, and the song of 
 the Arval Brethren, sung in May on tlie occasion of the 
 ambarvalia (circuit of the fields), which, by a discovery 
 made in Rome in 1777, has been in part rescued from 
 oblivion.^ 
 
 Besides the above, there were rhythmic ritual precepts, 
 of which an example is seen in the tab nice Igiwince'^ found 
 at Iguvium in 1444, oracles, formulae relating to the weather, 
 incantations, and the like. Also, epitaphs employed the 
 same rhythm ; for example, that of L. Corn. Scipio, consul 
 298 B.C. : ^ — 
 
 Cornelids Lucius | Scipio Barbatus 
 
 Gnaivod patre prognatus | fortis vir sapiensque, 
 
 Quoids forma virtu- | tei pari'suma fuit, 
 
 Consol censor aidi'Iis | quel fui't apdd vos, 
 
 Taurasia Cisadna | Samnio cepit, 
 
 Subigit omne Loucanam | opsidesque abdodcit. 
 
 The Drama appeared early in the form of a popular 
 play, which found fruitful soil in the bantering disposition 
 
 1 Cic. Tusc. i. 2 ; iv. 2. Hor. Od. iv. 15, 25, seqq., and elsewhere. 
 
 2 C. 15; T. i. 81; W. 564. 
 
 3 The beginning reads — 
 
 Enos, Lases, juvate ! 
 
 Neve lue rue, Marmar, sins incurrere in pleores; 
 
 i.e., Nos, Lares, juvate neve luem ruem (^ ruinam), Mamers, sinas incur- 
 rere in plures. C. 14 ; Mom. i. 294 ; W. 385. 
 
 * T. i. 83 ; Diet. Geog. s. Iguvium. 
 
 5 C. 17 ; Mom. i. 579 ; Pn. 237 : R. i. 41S ; T. i. 97 ; W. 397.
 
 lO ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 inherent in the character of the people, and in the talent for 
 observation and improvisation peculiar to the Italians. ^ The 
 germ of this lay already in the form of the responsive song 
 (for example, that of the Arval Brethren) ; and when music, 
 dancing, and disguises were added, the national comedy 
 was complete, though it was, indeed, without plan, and im- 
 provised at will as a sort of carnival play. 
 
 The Fescennini,^ for example (so called from the town 
 Fescenninum,-^ in southern Etruria), possessed this simphcity, 
 and were far from being suited to stage representation. They 
 were exhibitions of a rather loose character at country festi- 
 vals, abounding in rude personal jokes, and confined in later 
 and more cultivated times to wedding occasions. 
 
 The Satura'' also had a primitive character. This was 
 a comic representation, accompanied with song, dance, and 
 flute-playing, conducted at first by the country youth, but 
 after the erection of a theatre in Rome, 364 B.C., it was 
 placed in the hands of professional ballad-singers and actors 
 {hisfriones). It was thus somewhat more subject to rules, 
 and better suited to the stage, than the Fescennini.^ 
 
 After the drama as based on rules of art came into vogue, 
 the Satura was employed as a lively after-play {exodium). 
 The same fate was also suffered by the Atellana,^ a play 
 introduced into Rome soon after 210 B.C., that is, not until 
 the Second Period. This, in other respects similar to the 
 Satura, was characterized by certain standing figures,'^ and 
 
 1 T. i. 2. 2 C. 28; Mom. i. 295. 3 Cf. Hor. Epp. ii. i, 139, seqq. 
 
 ■• Either scil. lanx, a disli filled with all sorts of fruits, i.e., tutlifrutti 
 potpourri : or = song, masquerade of the Saturi, " full people." 
 
 6 T. i. 5; C. 29. 
 
 6 Sc. fabula, so called from the Campanian town .Atella; also called 
 ludicrum Oscurn. T. i. 12; Mom. i. 297. 
 
 ■^ These were Maccus, the harlequin ; Bucco, the gourmand ; Pappus, the 
 bamboozled old man = pantaloon ; Dossenus, the sly pickpocket ^=dcttore.
 
 FIRST PERIOD. II 
 
 was represented not by regular actors, but by masked Ro- 
 man youth, and so had a liigher character than the Satura. 
 
 All these representations depended, for the most part, 
 upon improvisation and not upon written compositions, and 
 from their lack of plan and unity, as well as from their 
 rough and uncouth nature, had no real literary importance. 
 Not until the following period did the Satura and Atellana 
 receive artistic treatment. 
 
 II. PROSE. 
 
 Literary prose was not developed in Rome until in the 
 course of the sixtli century of the city. The pioneer writer in 
 prose literature was the elder Cato. All the literary remains 
 of the earlier period consist, with few exceptions, of short, 
 crude records of events, laws, formulae for worship, and the 
 like, in which also the Saturnian verse was not unfrequently 
 employed. 1 The conservative spirit of the Romans, the 
 tenacity with which they held to tradition, prompted them 
 to make official as well as private records of past events, for 
 the most part, indeed, with a panegyric tendency and with- 
 out historical conscientiousness. 
 
 Official documents of an historical nature were : a few 
 treaties- belonging to the earliest times, — for example, 
 that of Tarquinius Superbus with the Gabii, written upon 
 bullock's hide, and the treaty with the Latins (493 B.C.), 
 engraved upon a brazen pillar.^ 
 
 Ancient in subject matter, but in respect to the time 
 of their writing incorrectly referred to the kings, were the 
 
 1 C. 35 ; T. i. 40. 2 T. i. 84. 
 
 3 The commercial treaty with Carthage, usually assigned to the year 
 509, Is referred by Mommsen and others to the year 348.
 
 12 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 leges regiae,' old laws established by precedent, later 
 called Ills Papinanum ; also the commentarii regum, 
 which, without doubt, contained formulae and instructions 
 concerning the ofificial duties of the kings. 
 
 The commentarii magistratuum- were a sort of 
 business hand-book for those filling the secular offices, and 
 among these the statistical tables of the censors, tabuhe 
 censorice, were of special importance. The names of the 
 officers were recorded in the libri magistratuum, of 
 which those written on linen were called libri lintei. 
 
 Priestly literature was more extensive than secular. To 
 this belonged the libri pontificum,^ which contained the 
 ritual for religious services and the axioms of priestly law ; 
 also the commentarii pontificum, probably a collection 
 of legal decisions. In like manner, also, libri and com- 
 mentarii of other colleges of priests are mentioned, — for 
 example, those of the augurs. 
 
 The priests also had charge of the fastij^* which were lists 
 of the festivals, court-days, and games, together with brief 
 historical notices, and from which the calendar took its 
 origin. Under the name fasti are included, also, lists of 
 the consuls {fasti consiilares), of the triumphs {fasti triiim- 
 phales), and of the priests {fasti sacerdotaks). 
 
 The annales pontificum^ — also called annates maximi 
 — were intended for public use. They were brief records 
 of the most remarkable events, in particular of the prodigies, 
 posted up on a white tablet in a public place. Copies of 
 these annals afterwards formed a collection of eighty books, 
 
 1 W. 253 ; C. 15 ; Clark : Early Roman Law. 
 
 2 C. 88; T. i. 93; Mom. i. 586. 
 
 « C. 88, 104 ; Diet. Antiqq. 941 ; Ry. 328 ; T. i. 86. 
 < Diet. Antiqq. 522 ; Ry. 366 ; T. i. 87 ; W. 539. 
 6 Mom. i. 588 ; C. 103 ; T. i. 91.
 
 FIRST PERIOD. I3 
 
 and were considered a main authority for the earliest his- 
 tory, though tliey were not so in reality, on account of their 
 prevailingly priestly character and standpoint, and especially 
 since the oldest annals were destroyed in the Gallic con- 
 flagration, 390 B.C. On the other hand, several private 
 chronicles ' reached back without doubt beyond this time, 
 having probably been begun in the noble families at a very 
 early period. Though the main purpose of these records 
 was the glorification of some particular family, yet they were 
 more reliable than the laudationes funebres,^ or funeral 
 orations, which were likewise written and preserved in the 
 family archives, and contributed not a little to. the corrup- 
 tion of Roman history. 
 
 The leges XII tabularum,^ which were committed to 
 memory in the schools as late as Cicero's time, and wliich 
 were destroyed in the Gallic conflagration, were yet in exist- 
 ence in a restored copy in the second century, a.d. The 
 legis actiones, commonly called ius Flavianum,'' and pub- 
 hshed, together with the fasti, in 304 B.C., by Cn. Flavius, 
 served as a commentary to the laws of the twelve tables. 
 These actiones were originally in the exclusive possession of 
 the Patricians. 
 
 The first and only Roman that appeared in this period as 
 a prose writer was Ap. Claudius Csecus,^ Censor in 312, 
 whose oration against the peace with Pyrrhus, held in the 
 senate in 280 b.c, was extant for a long time after, 
 
 1 C.325; T. i.94- 
 
 2 Diet. Antiqq. 559 ; Ry. 426. 
 
 3 W. 503; C. 15; Mom. i. 365; Ry. 151; T. i. 99; Hadley: Roman 
 Law, 74. 
 
 * Mom. i. 598 ; Ry. 244; T. i. lOO. 
 5 C. 34; Mom. i. 580.
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 Livius Andronicus to Cicero, 240-70 b. c. 
 
 THIS period, in which Rome attained the summit of 
 its poHtical greatness, was, in a hterary point of view, 
 still incomplete and immature. 1 The national productions 
 still remained clumsy and crude ; the language itself needed 
 to be shaped and moulded, but, to that end, the imitation 
 of Greek models permitted as yet too little independence 
 and freedom of movement, and only near the close of this 
 period did Greek culture become so far prevalent as to 
 gradually fit the Romans for original productions of a 
 higher order. 
 
 The artistic literature of the Romans rests, however, en- 
 tirely upon a Greek basis.- Greek influence, which had 
 never been entirely wanting, became ever deeper, more 
 general, and more potent. Intercourse with the Greeks in 
 Lower Italy, and, after the first Punic war,^ in Sicily, and 
 also, after the second Punic war, in Greece and Asia Minor ; 
 the influence of Ennius in Rome after 204 ; the warm re- 
 ception of the new culture on the part of most of the noble 
 families, especially by the Scipios ; the presence of numer- 
 ous Greeks in Rome ; the spread of the Greek language and 
 
 i C. 23; T. i. 103. 2 c_ 26. Mom. i. 298, 600; ii. 492. S. 5, 8. 
 
 8 Cf. Cell. N. A. xvii. 21 : — 
 
 Poenico bello secundo musa pinnato gradu 
 Intulit se bellicosam in Romuli gentem feram. 
 
 14
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 1 5 
 
 the multiplication of Greek authors ; the employment of 
 Greek poets in the instruction of the youth ; the increasing 
 intercourse of the nations consequent upon the extension of 
 the Roman empire ; — all these causes naturally contributed 
 to this result, that the unyielding nature of the Romans bent 
 or gradually gave way before the power of the higher for- 
 eign culture. The opposition of the conservative element 
 (like that of the elder Cato) against innovations, and the 
 repeated banishment of Greek philosophers and orators 
 from Rome, was no longer of any avail.' 
 
 This process of development brought with it, liowever, 
 this result, that only the aristocracy, on the one hand, were 
 caught and permeated by this incoming stream of culture, 
 while, on the otlier hand, those literary workers who kept to 
 the national track could no longer maintain their place on a 
 level with the culture of the time, and lost their attractive- 
 ness for the more refined circles. Ennius, as an apostle 
 of Greek culture, exerted a revolutionizing influence, not 
 only on the form of literature, but also on the language 
 itself.- The hexameter, which he introduced, since it fixed 
 the quantity, compelled the giving up of the prevalent laxity 
 and variety of the Saturnian verse and the scenic metre 
 as to quantity, position, and the like, and aided much in 
 forming the literary language. 
 
 In poetry the drama, and especially comedy, still occu- 
 pied the foreground, but with a prevailing tendency to 
 follow Greek models ; ^ by its side stood the epos, repre- 
 sented especially by Ennius. 
 
 1 Cf. Hor. Epp. ii. i, 156, seq. ; — 
 
 Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes 
 Tntulit agresti Latio. 
 
 T. i. 106 ; C. 91. 134 ; M. ii. 563. 
 
 2 C. 71 ; T. i. 109, 133. 3 -p. i. 16; Mom. ii. 503.
 
 l6 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 In the field of prose we find beginnings of oratory, his- 
 tory, and legal writings, which are, in part, very respectable ; 
 nevertheless, in spite of the great advance made by the 
 Romans in this period, everything still bore an archaic 
 stamp, for which the later, classical period had little taste 
 and understanding,' and which did not again find a lively 
 appreciation until the second century, a.d. 
 
 Of the poets of this archaic period only the patriarch of 
 poetry, Ennius, enjoyed the honor of such men as Cicero. 
 In point of time, however, Livius Andronicus stands at 
 the head of this period. 
 
 I. POETRY. 
 
 a. — The Drama. 
 
 Although the National Popular Comedy still con- 
 tinued, yet it was gradually giving way before the Hellenistic 
 drama. The Satura and the Atellana were not, indeed, 
 suppressed, but they were only attached as afterpieces (ex- 
 odia) to the artistic drama, and, to that end, they, also, were 
 composed according to rules of art.- This was done, near 
 the close of this period (about 90 B.C.), by the poets 
 Novius and L. Pomponius, otherwise not known to 
 us. It lay, however, in the nature of these farces that they 
 should preserve a popular character, calculated to excite 
 general merriment ; that they sliould be rude, and even, at 
 times, obscene, as well as retain the standing figures and 
 certain stereotyped subjects.^ 
 
 1 Cf. Hor. Epp. i. I, so, ff. 2 c. 82; T. i. 5, 14. 
 
 8 The ridicule of certain classes, such as peasants, fullers, and pimps; 
 also, in connection with these, mythological subjects.
 
 SECOND PERIOD. l^ 
 
 Far more important, however, became the Hellenistic 
 Drama. At the same time, it may be noted as character- 
 istic of Rome that, in spite of the great production of these 
 plays, and in spite of the fact that women were admitted 
 to the exhibitions, where the attendance was free, and so, 
 at all events, not small, yet a permanent and conveniently- 
 arranged theatre, such as was first built by Pompey, 56 B.C., 
 did not exist in this period.' It is also worthy of note 
 that the actor's profession remained in disrepute, and, 
 moreover, that only freedmen and slaves appeared upon 
 the stage. 
 
 The artistic drama, hke the other varieties, still reckoned 
 upon the taste of persons in general less cultivated, and 
 having little appreciation for serious and deep subjects ; 
 hence comedy occupied decidedly the foreground, and 
 especially the fabula palliata,'- i.e., the comedy com- 
 posed after Greek models. 
 
 This style of poetry found its prototypes in the New Attic 
 Comedy of the third and fourth centuries, B.C., the chief 
 representatives of which were Menander, Philemon, and 
 Diphilos. For the most part, a love story forms the subject 
 of these pieces, and the characters are rather stereotyped : 
 fathers, sometimes over-strict and avaricious, sometimes in- 
 dulgent and generous ; young men, some light-minded and 
 some discreet ; parasites, courtesans, and finally slaves, 
 tricky, but faithful to their love-sick young masters, and 
 ready to serve them in all kinds of dirty work. The ma- 
 terials for the plays are taken from everyday life ; they are 
 not lofty in tone, and they avoid all reference to politics ; 
 hence the subject was always a general one, of wide appli- 
 
 1 C. 41 ; Mom. ii. 500. 
 
 2 C. 46; M. ii. 509; T. i. 19; Schlegel : Dramatic Lit. 204.
 
 1 8 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 cation, easily understood, and suited to mimic representa- 
 tion, — all the better adapted to Rome, since the government 
 did not favor political allusions on the stage. 
 
 Although the scene of the paUiata was laid on Greek soil, 
 still additions of a local character are not wanting. The 
 technical arrangements are entirely Greek ; the chorus is 
 wanting, and the text is divided into dialogue {diverbiutn) 
 and chants {cantica), with flute accompaniment. The 
 metre is, for the most part, handled with skill, but not yet 
 fixed in form. According to a greater or less vivacity of 
 movement are distinguished, /f?/^///^ motorics (especially in 
 Plautus), statoricE, and 7nixtce. 
 
 Not unfrequently one Latin play is put together from two 
 or more Greek ones, a proceeding which was called contam- 
 ination {coiitaminare)} 
 
 The following are the chief representatives of the paUlata : 
 Livius Andronicus- (about 2S4-204 b.c), who came 
 at an early age to Rome as a prisoner of war, was set 
 at liberty by a certain Livius (Salinator?), and became 
 a writer of comedies and tragedies, as \\-ell as of epic 
 poems (see p. 23). He was also an actor. — Ennius (see 
 p. 24). — Cn. Naevius^ (about 264-194), a native of 
 Campania. He was punished at Rome with imprisonment 
 and banishment for his plain-speaking on political matters, 
 and died at Utica. His first piece was produced in the 
 year 225. He was a popular, bold, and original genius, 
 and his consciousness of his own literary importance is ex- 
 pressed in his epitaph composed by himself in Saturnian 
 verse : — 
 
 1 C.53; Wr.9. 
 
 2C. 37; T. i. Ill; Mom. ii. 498; S. 56; Con. i. 298. 
 
 8 C. 38 ; T. i. 113 ; Mom. ii. 519 ; S. 58 ; Con. i. 302.
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 19 
 
 Immortales mortales | si foret fas flere, 
 Plerent divEe Camenae | Naeviiim poetam 
 Itaque postquam est oici'no | traditus thesadro, 
 Obliti sunt Romai | loquier lingua latina. 
 
 Far more important, however, is T. Maccius Plautus, 
 a native of Sassina in Umbria. He was of humble birth, 
 and was forced by poverty to become a common laborer 
 (factotum to bands of actors, and a worker in mills), and 
 afterwards a play-writer to gain his support. ^ He died 
 in 184. 
 
 His plays are, without exception, palUatce. From about 
 130 which have been ascribed to him, the le;irned Varro 
 selected 21 as genuine. These, with one exception, are 
 extant.- They are entitled : Amphifruo (a parody on a 
 mythological subject, the so-called fabula rhinthonicd)^ 
 Asinaria (comedy of the ass), Aulnlaria (comedy of the 
 money-pot, imitated in Moliere's "I'Avare"), Baccliides 
 (treating of the twin sisters Bacchis), Captivi (without love- 
 plot, very moral in tone, and declared by Lessing to be 
 the most excellent jjlay ever put uj)on the stage), Ctir- 
 cnUo (corn-worm, name of the parasite), Casina (proper 
 name), Cistellaria (little chest: half the play extant), 
 Epidicus (proper name), Mostellaria (ghost comedy), 
 Mencechmi (proper name, imitated by Shakspeare in the 
 "Comedy of Errors"), Miles Gloriosus (the braggart sol- 
 dier, imitated by A. Gryphius in the " Horribilicribrifax "), 
 Alercator (merchant), Pseii dolus (proper name), Pcenuliis 
 (remarkable for several Punic words), Persa, Rudens (the 
 cable), Stichus (proper name : half the play extant), Tri- 
 nummiis (the treasure), Truculentus (the grumbler). 
 
 1 Cf. Hor. Epp. ii. i, 175. ^ C. 46; T. i. 117. 
 
 2 C.44; T. i. 115.
 
 20 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 The best plays are, perhaps, Bacchides, Captivi, AuUilaria, 
 Menaechmi, Miles Gloriosus.^ 
 
 The following epitaph, said to have been written by him- 
 self, may serve to characterize Plautus : — 
 
 Postquam est mortem aptus (adeptus) Plautus, comcedia luget, 
 Scsena est deserta (ac) dein risus jocus ludusque 
 Et numeri innumeri simul omnes collacrimarunt. 
 
 Plautus is distinguished by a popular, ever-ready wit 
 adapted to a rude public, by genuine, telling humor, by 
 vivacity of dialogue and skill in handling the language and 
 metre." On the other hand, the arrangement and complica- 
 tion of the plot is not always satisfactory. In prosody, 
 Plautus forms an intermediate grade between the Saturnian 
 verse and the Greek metres. In the freer treatment of the 
 metre is seen the influence of the popular speech.^' Plautus 
 was ranked high in later times, especially by Cicero and 
 Varro. He was less acceptable to Horace.'' Single plays, 
 particularly the Captivi, were long read in the schools, and, 
 in the earlier times, were brought out on the stage. 
 
 P. Terentius, born at Carthage in 185, was somewhat 
 younger than Plautus. He was brought as a slave to Rome, 
 and there set at liberty. The fact that he was received into 
 the society of Scipio Africanus and C. Lselius gave rise to 
 the opinion that they were the authors of his plays. ^ He 
 died at the early age of twenty-six (in 159), while on a 
 journey in Greece. Of the works of Terence we have six 
 palliake, mostly imitated from Menander, and in part com- 
 
 1 Other critics add the Trinummus and Rudens. 
 
 2 C. 47 ; T. i. 125 , Mom. ii. 523. 
 
 8 Wagner's Aulularia of Plautus: Introduction. 
 
 4 Cf. Epp. ii. I, 170, seqq. ; ii. 270, seqq. 
 
 6 C. 50; Mom. iii. 542; Wagner's Terence : Introd. 2; Parry: Introd. xx.
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 21 
 
 binations of two or more plays : Andria (maid of Andros), 
 Eunuchus (the Eunuch, a play which brought 8000 ses- 
 terces), Heaiitontimorunienos (the self-tormentor), /%^r»i/V, 
 Hecyra (mother-in-law), Adelphi (the brothers, the most 
 successful play of all). 
 
 Terence forms, in many respects, a contrast to Plautus.^ 
 In Plautus we find the natural, popular tone, in Terence, 
 the colloquial language of the cultivated circles ; in Plautus, 
 originality and inventive faculty, in Terence, dependence 
 and imitation ; in Plautus, sparkling wit, in Terence, re- 
 flection and study ; in Plautus, nature, in Terence, art ; 
 in Plautus, roughness and boldness, in Terence, smooth- 
 ness and moderation \ in Plautus, a vivacity often farcical, 
 but always telling, in Terence, measured calmness. 
 
 In general, Terence is lacking in the virtus ac vis comica; 
 he excels in cultivated, elegant language, dignity, artistic 
 arrangement, and correct delineation of character.^ For this 
 reason he was a favorite author in the Middle Ages. He 
 was much read and played, especially in the schools, on 
 account r ■" his moral tone."^ 
 
 Amon the remaining composers o{ palliatce were Statius 
 Caecili ..s,'' an Insubrian, who came as a prisoner of war to 
 Rome, and appears to have taken a position, in respect to 
 time and style of composition, intermediate between Plautus 
 and Terence; and Luscius Lavinius (or Lanuvinus), a 
 rival and enemv of Terence. 
 
 1 Mom. iii. 538; Wagner, 8 ; Parry, xvii. 
 
 2 C. 51 ; T. i. 146; Parry, xxiii. On the metres and prosody of Terence, 
 see Parry, xxvii. ; Wagner, 12 ; and on the relation of Terence to the " New 
 Comedy," Parry, 487. 
 
 3 The Eunuchus was translated into German as early as i486, and all 
 the plays in 1499. 
 
 * C. 48 ; T. i. 135 ; Mom. ii. 523.
 
 22 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Before the much-fostered palliata, the national comedy, 
 fabula togata,^ retired into the background. This had 
 for its subject the daily life of the lower classes, espe- 
 cially the small gossip of the municipal towns ; and since 
 Rome and its citizens could not be brought upon the 
 stage, the scene was customarily laid in a Latin country 
 town. 
 
 Little has been preserved of the togata. Its chief authors 
 were Titinius, a contemporary of Terence ; T. Quinctius 
 Atta, who died in 77 ; and especially L. Afranius, who 
 wrote somewhere about the year 100. 
 
 In Tragedy,- also, the Hellenistic tendency prevailed, 
 but the greater expense of production, as well as the pub- 
 lic taste, which sought after fun and entertainment, caused 
 tragedy to be less cultivated than comedy. Moreover, the 
 Roman tragic writers did not strike the right tone, in that, 
 with them, seriousness and pathos too often degenerated 
 into heaviness and bombast. Their model was, for the most 
 part, Euripides. 
 
 Beside the tragedy based upon Greek models, the Ro- 
 man national play, fabula praetexta,^ which dealt with 
 historical subjects, could attain to no very important posi- 
 tion. In the department of tragedy are to be mentioned ; 
 Livius Andronicus, whose plays treated of mythological 
 subjects, taken chiefly from the legends centering about 
 Troy; Cn. Naevius, who also \\xo\q prcEtextcE ; Q. Ennius ;■* 
 especially, however, M. Pacuvius ^ and L. Accius,*^ (At- 
 
 1 C. 55 ; T. i. 25 ; Mom. ii. 525. 
 
 2 C. 56; T. i. 16; Mom. iii. 536; S. 129; Con. i. 294. 
 
 3 C. 38 ; T. i. 19. 
 
 4 C. 58 ; S. 89 ; T. i. 131 ; Con. i. 304. 
 6 C. 62 ; T. i. 134 ; S. 143 ; Con. i. 309. 
 
 6 C. 65 ; T. i. 167 ; Mom. iii. 537 ; S. 153 ; Con. i. 317.
 
 SECOND PERIOt). 23 
 
 tius). The former was born at Brundisium about 220 B.C., 
 and died at Tarentum about 132. He was brought to Rome 
 by his uncle Ennius, and was a painter as well as an author. 
 His works consist of twelve tragedies and one prcetexta enti- 
 tled Paulus (probably referring to ^milius Paulus). Accius 
 lived about 1 70-94, and was author of about forty tragedies 
 and several/rf^/^jc/^^, of which, for example, the Decius treats 
 of the voluntary death of the younger P. Decius Mus, near 
 Sentinum. Cicero, Horace, and others give Accius high 
 rank as gravis, ingeniosjis, altiis poeta. He also wrote Di- 
 dascaliea (a history of Greek and Roman poetry), Prag- 
 viatica (treating of literary history), and Annales. 
 
 Of all these tragedies and prsetextse only fragments are 
 extant. 
 
 Z>. — The Epos. 
 
 The Romans could not possess an heroic epos of their 
 own, like the Homeric, because the needful legendary 
 material, as well as gods and heroes, were wanting. Hence 
 the national epic writers were obliged to confine themselves 
 to historical subjects instead of mythological. 
 
 Livius Andronicus, indeed, the first epic writer in 
 point of time, contented himself with a heavy translaticvi 
 of the Odyssey^ in the Saturnian metre, which was in later 
 times no longer readable, though, according to Horace,* it 
 was used by Orbilius as a school-book. 
 
 The following epic writers turned their attention resolutely 
 
 1 The first verse reads, according to Gellius, X. A. xviii. 9 : — 
 
 Virum mihi Camena | insece versutum. 
 
 2 Epp. ii. I, 69, seqq.
 
 24 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 and with success to the history of their native land. Thus, 
 in the first place, Cn. Naevius,^ still, however, in the 
 Saturnian metre, treated of the First Punic War? This 
 work, of which only fragments remain, has been well com- 
 pared to the rhyme-chronicles of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Naevius was far surpassed by Q. Ennius.-^ The latter 
 was born, 239, at Rudiee in Apulia, was taken to Rome by 
 Cato on his return from Sardinia, found there an apprecia- 
 tive reception in aristocratic circles favorable to Hellenic cul- 
 ture, especially from Scipio Africanus the Elder, and from M. 
 Fulvius Nobilior, obtained Roman citizenship, and died 169. 
 His chief work (besides comedies, tragedies, and saturce) 
 was the Annaks, which treated, in 18 books, of the history 
 of Rome from yEneas to his own times. In respect to 
 metre, forms of speech, inflections, and word-formations, 
 this work marked an era through the introduction of the 
 hexameter in place of the Saturnian verse. "• It is true, the 
 hexameter of Ennius was somewhat awkward ; for example, 
 
 Gives Romani tunc facti sunt Campani, 
 or, 
 
 Introducuntur legati Mintuinenses ; 
 
 also in bad taste, as 
 
 O Tite, tute, Tati, tibi tanta tyranne tulistl, 
 
 and forced, as in the well-known tmesis : 
 
 Cere comminuit brum. 
 
 But we also find places of great poetic power and beauty ; ^ 
 
 1 C. 39 ; Mom. ii. 540. 
 
 2 According to Cicero, Brut. 19, 75, luculente sad minus polite. 
 
 3 C. 68 ; T. i. 129 ; Mom. ii. 542 ; S. 68 ; Con-, i. 329. 
 < C. 71 ; S. 91, 107. 
 
 * See Cic. de Div. i. 20, 40, seqq. 48, 107, seq. de Off. i. 12, 38.
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 25 
 
 for Ennius was a man of remarkable talent ; he possessed a 
 lively imagination, warm feeling, and a great faculty for 
 moulding forms and language.' His work, though it was 
 long looked upon by the Romans as their greatest national 
 epic, put the artistic, Hellenic epos in place of the naive 
 national one. Ennius was particularly admired by Cicero. 
 Quintilian says of him,^ " Ennium sicut sacros vetustate 
 lucos adoremus, in quibus grandia et antiqua robora jam 
 non tantam habent speciem quantam religionem." 
 
 The Satiira,^ too, acquired a new meaning through En- 
 nius, inasmuch as he gave this name to a collection of 
 miscellaneous poems of a didactic nature, written in different 
 metres. His successor in this department was C. Luci- 
 lius,'* born about 150 at Suessa Aurunca in Campania, of 
 equestrian family. He was a friend of the younger Scipio 
 Africanus, and died 103. In his poems, varied, indeed, in 
 form and contents, but without elegance and finish, Lucilius 
 subjected, in a bold and witty manner, public affairs and 
 personages to sharp and searching criticism ; and in so 
 doing, he gave to the Satura the character which has since 
 been associated with the name Satire ; to wit, that of an 
 invective poem. In this respect Horace gave it its com- 
 plete form. 
 
 n. PROSE. 
 
 Prose, in both oral and written form as necessity or pre- 
 ference dictated, was, indeed, employed in the senate and 
 in the forum, by orators and jurists, historians and profes- 
 
 1 S. no; T. i. 133. 
 
 2 Inst. Orat. x. i, 88. 
 
 3 C. 75 ; T. i. 32 ; Mom. ii. 539 ; S. 159. 
 * T. i. 171 ; Mom. iii. 551 ; S. 168.
 
 26 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 sional men, but it had not been brought to any high perfec- 
 tion of style. 1 For this reason, the prose writers beibre 
 Cicero, whose continuous succession began with Cato, and 
 of whom our knowledge is very incomplete on account of 
 the relatively small range of what has come down to us, 
 were, with few exceptions, even in Cicero's time, regarded 
 as rough, antiquated, and scarcely readable. To this archaic 
 prose, German prose before the Reformation presents an 
 analogy. 
 
 a. — History. 
 
 For a long time historical composition was mere annal- 
 writing, a dry, chronological recording of the events of the 
 year,- — a plane of literature which corresponds in some 
 degree to the chronicle-writing of the Greeks before Herod- 
 otus. These annals were, for the most part, written by men 
 active in politics, or, at least, interested in them. The older 
 chronicles, down to the time of the Gracchi, though by no 
 means entirely accurate, were yet, on account of their naive 
 simplicity, more trustworthy than the later ones, which, 
 although or because gradually more attention was paid to 
 form and critical treatment, displayed a more conscious 
 distortion of history in the interest of the state and of par- 
 ticular families and persons, and betrayed the prominence 
 of party considerations. Some of these annals were, to ali 
 intents and purposes, autobiographies. 
 
 The earlier annalists wrote in Greek, doubtless on account 
 of the clumsiness of the Latin language. Thus Q. Fabius 
 Pictor,-' the same that was sent to consult the Delphic ora- 
 cle in 216, wrote, after the Second Punic War, a History of 
 
 1 Mom. ii. 544; T. i. 40; C. 87. ^ C. 89 ; T. i. 149. 
 
 2 T. i. 43 ; Mom. ii. 550 ; S. 192.
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 27 
 
 Rome from ^neas to his own time, of which much use was 
 made by later historians, especially by Livy. It is uncertain 
 whether the Latin annals which bore his name were a sepa- 
 rate production, or a re-shaping of his Greek work by himself 
 or some one else. Other writers in Greek were, L. Cin- 
 cius Alimentus, a younger contemporary of Fabius, and, 
 somewhat later, C. Acilius Glabrio and A. Postumius 
 Albinus. 
 
 The first to write in Latin, and the one who thus became 
 the real founder of Latin prose literature, was M. Porcius 
 Cato,' born at Tusculum 234. He was consul in 195, 
 censor (hence called Censorius) 184, died 149. He was 
 the last genuine type of the old Roman character, yet in 
 connection with his laborious political and military activity, 
 he was not only a copious and many-sided writer, the first 
 prose author that could be read in later times,- but, also, 
 — and nothing gives a more striking proof of the irre- 
 sistibility of Greek culture, — in spite of his anti-Hellenic 
 prejudices, he condescended in extreme old age to master 
 Greek. 
 
 He wrote a historical work in 7 books, which he entitled 
 Origines (Beginnings) because the first three books con- 
 tained an account of the rise and growth of Rome under 
 the kings, as well as of the origin of the Italian cities, prob- 
 ably in connection with their subjection to the Roman 
 dominion. Book IV contained the First, Book V, the 
 Second Punic War, Books VI and VII, the later wars 
 down to 149. 
 
 The narrative, though enlivened by geographical and 
 mythological notes and curiosities, was still uneven and 
 crude, and perhaps, also, not impartial to the nobility. The 
 
 1 T. i. 153 ; C. 91 , Mom. ii. 546. 2 cic. Brut. 18, 69,
 
 28 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 introduction of speeches, especially those delivered by the 
 writer himself, was an innovation. As authorities, the old 
 Roman legends and traditions were used ; also his own 
 experiences, and probably Italian municipal records. The 
 work was highly valued by later writers ; Cicero ^ styles Cato 
 gravissi?nus aiictor. Only a few fragments of the work are 
 extant. — Cato also prepared a collection of witty sayings 
 {dTro(f>OeyiJ.aTa) ; those of his own which were particularly 
 apt and pungent were collected afterwards. 
 
 Concerning Cato as an orator, see p. 30 ; as an agricul- 
 turist, see p. ;^;^. 
 
 To the earlier annalists, who, in the old, established way, 
 treated in archaic language of tradition and history from 
 ^neas to their own time, belonged Cassius Hemina, 
 a contemporary of Cato, L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi, 
 Censor 120, and C. Sempronius Tuditanus. The list 
 of younger annalists began with L. Caelius Antipater,- 
 who, about 120, wrote a Histo7-y of the Second Punic 
 War, with somewhat more attention to style and rhetorical 
 form. 
 
 Among writers of ai^folu'ograpliies or contemporary his- 
 tories, may be mentioned, P. Rutilius Rufus, who was 
 consul in 105, was banished as an aristocrat, and died about 
 77 in Asia, — a man of the noblest character and well edu- 
 cated in philosophy and law; Q. Lutatius Catulus, who 
 was consul in 102, and died in 87 ; Sempronius Asel- 
 lio, who aimed at objective treatment, and wrote with 
 special reference to the internal relations of the state ; L. 
 Cornelius Sulla, the dictator, who wrote memoirs from a 
 one-sided, personal, and party standpoint ; L. Cornelius 
 
 1 Tusc. iv. 2, 3. 
 
 2 C 100; T. 190; Mom. iii. 562.
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 29 
 
 Sisenna^ (119-67), who wrote a History of the Marsian 
 War and that of Sulla, and who, in spite of his artificial, 
 antiquated style, was preferred by Cicero to all earlier 
 annalists. 
 
 On the other hand, more comprehensive works, reaching 
 down to their own times, were written by contemporaries of 
 Sulla: Claudius Quadrigarius, who wTote at least 23 
 books, beginning with the Gallic conflagration ; Valerius 
 Antias, who began with the earliest times, and is notorious 
 for his exaggerations, especially in numbers, which were only 
 gradually recognized as such by Livy, who cited him often. 
 Hence he exerted an injurious influence upon the trust- 
 worthiness of later writers. C. Licinius Macer (died 
 in 66), likewise beginning from the earliest times, wrote 
 from a democratic standpoint, and distinguished himself 
 by industrious use of the old records. He was much used 
 by Livy. 
 
 fc. — Oratory. 
 
 The natural talents and character of the Romans, their 
 practical nature, their bent toward precision, pathos, and 
 effect, were all favorable to oratory. Especially the open 
 and free character of their political life early led to the 
 frequent employment of oratory.- A certain degree of ora- 
 torical readiness was indispensable to every one that de- 
 sired to make himself popular and to advance in the 
 political career. Hence, even before the more intimate 
 acquaintance with the Greeks, oratory was esteemed and 
 cultivated ; for a long time, it is true, without art and 
 method, although instruction and practice in oratory went 
 
 1 T. i. 213 : Mom. iv. 715. 2 f. i. 52 ; C. 105 ; S. 190.
 
 30 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 with the Roman from youth through his entire pubHc Hfe.^ 
 Only through the influence of Greek rhetoric did Roman 
 oratory acquire form, system, and artistic treatment, both in 
 theory and practice. 
 
 But seldom or never could an orator unite in himself ah 
 the qualities which Cicero- requires, — a broad culture, 
 especially in philosophy, knowledge of law and history, the 
 power to change from grave to gay speech, the ability to be 
 at one time abstract and at another concrete, and, according 
 to necessity or pleasure, to convince and charm the hearers, 
 and put them into any mood. 
 
 Those orators who marked epochs in the history of 
 oratory were, according to Cicero (Brut.) : M. Porcius 
 Cato,-^ the first (after App. Claudius Caecus) to commit 
 his orations (over 150 in number) to writing. His char- 
 acter as an orator is set forth by such expressions as : 
 Orator vir bonus est dicendi peritus ; Rem tene, verba se- 
 quentur; S. Sulpicius Galba, consul in 144, who, under 
 Greek influence, made use of rhetorical adornment ; C. 
 Gracchus,"* who, though not a man of thorough culture, 
 was yet as eloquent as he was rich in thought ; the two 
 orators, M. Antonius, consul in 99, and L. Crassus,^ 
 consul in 95, of whom the former was remarkable rather 
 for natural gifts, memory, imagination, and vivacity of ac- 
 tion ; the latter for a finer culture, legal knowledge, choice 
 language, and wit. 
 
 The transition to the perfection of Roman oratory in 
 Cicero is formed by Q. Hortensius*' (114-50), the repre- 
 sentative of the gt'fii/s Asiaticum, which, in contrast to the 
 
 1 Mom. ii. 553; iii. 529. ^ Mom. iii. 563; C. 114; T. i. 185. 
 
 2 Brut. 93, 322. 5 c. 118; T. i. 204. 
 8 C. 109; T. i. 154. 6 c. 124; T. i. 251.
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 3 1 
 
 simplicity of the genus Atticum, was marked by a florid, and 
 often overloaded style. 
 
 Of the works of all these orators only a few fragments are 
 extant. We possess a hand-book of Rhetoric, in 4 books, 
 entitled Rhetorica ad Herenniinn} which was compiled for 
 practical purposes, from Greek sources, but from an inde- 
 pendent Roman standpoint. It was written about 80 B.C., 
 probably by a certain Cornificius, at all events, not by 
 Cicero. 
 
 c — Special Sciences. 
 
 Among these. Jurisprudence ^ stands at the head, for 
 which, as well as for oratory, the Romans were especially 
 fitted. Roman law developed itself in a normal manner, 
 with a national character and independence. The syste- 
 matic development of criminal and especially civil law kept 
 pace with the mainly consistent development of the Roman 
 constitution. After the legal code had become generally 
 known through the lus Flavianum (see p. 13), there soon 
 appeared a succession of learned men, who, by collecting 
 and publishing explanations, legal opinions, judgments, rul- 
 ings, and the like, founded the science of law with a success 
 and influence all the greater from the fact that legal knowl- 
 edge was absolutely necessary for the political career. 
 Gradually there was formed a legal tradition, which was 
 cherished in single families, as especially among the Much, 
 Aelii, and Sulpicii, and which was passed down like an in- 
 heritance, as it were, from father to son. 
 
 S. iElius Paetus,^ consul in 198, was the author of the 
 first law-book, under the title Triperiita, an interpretation of 
 
 1 C. 132; T. i. 222; Mom. iii. 565. 3 x. v. 163; Mom. ii. 555. 
 
 2 T. i. 61, 208 ; C. 129.
 
 32 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 the Laws of the Twelve Tables, later called the ius ^liamim, 
 and regarded as the cradle of Roman law. Also, Cato and 
 his son Marcus wrote legal works. 
 
 From the family of the Mucii came the celebrated jurists 
 and authors, P. Mucius Scsevola,i consul in 133, and 
 afterwards pontifex maximus, and his still more famous 
 son, Q. Mucius Scaevola, consul in 95, who also be- 
 came pontifex maximus, and was murdered in 82. The 
 latter was the first to lay down a uniform and well-arranged 
 system, and, by this means, as well as by training a large 
 number of pupils, he exercised a great influence upon the 
 following period. 
 
 Archaeology 2 busied itself partly with hnguistic matters, 
 and partly with antiquities in general. In the former case, 
 it had to do with fixing the written language, with etymology 
 and the interpretation of words ; in the latter, with the 
 explanation of the antiquities referred to in the earlier 
 literary productions. Grammatical studies received a power- 
 ful impulse from the Greek Crates of Mallos, who taught 
 in Rome 159 B.C. Antiquarian studies, particularly those 
 pertaining to language, gradually became the fashion, and 
 were pursued with zeal ; especially since the Latin language 
 was brought into close connection with the Greek. The 
 real founder of these studies in language and antiquities, and 
 the first Roman philologist, was L. iElius Stilo,^ born at 
 Lanuvium about 150, the most learned man of his time, 
 teacher of Varro and Cicero. He interpreted the oldest 
 literary remains, such as the song of the Salii, the Twelve 
 Tables, and the early poets. 
 
 1 C. 131 ; Mom. iii. 566-568; H. 62. 
 
 2 T. i. 50; M. ii.552. 
 
 ' T. i. 200 ; C. 133 ; Mom. iii. 564.
 
 SECOND PERIOD. ^^ 
 
 In Domestic Economy and Agriculture, Cato wrote 
 a complete hand-book, entitled i/e re rustica} which is still 
 extant ; also a work on the same subject by the Carthaginian 
 Mago was translated into Latin by order of the senate, after 
 the conquest of Carthage. 
 
 Other sciences, such as Geography, Mathematics, and As- 
 tronomy, were not treated in a literary way in this period, 
 although many Romans were not without a knowledge of 
 them. It was not until the time of the Emperors that mili- 
 tary science found systematic treatment. 
 
 1 T. i. 159; C.95-
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 The Golden Age of Roman Literature, 70 B.C.-14 a.d. 
 
 THE most flourishing period of Roman literature is 
 characterized and measured by the positive predomi- 
 nance of the Greek mind. The amnis abinidantissimus 
 Grcecannii disciplinaruvi et artium ^ showed at this time its 
 fructifying power in all directions.- An acquaintance with 
 Greek works in art and science, with their home and places 
 of nurture, especially with Athens, became more and more 
 a necessity, or, at least, the fashion, for Romans in good 
 society, who generally spoke and wrote Greek with ease, 
 and were wont to pursue their studies in Athens, Rhodes, 
 and other parts of Greece. 
 
 On the other hand, a great number of Greeks made their 
 appearance in Rome, and were employed as teachers of 
 rhetoric, tutors, readers, and the Hke. It is true they were 
 often held in light esteem (Graeculi) on account of their 
 windy and bombastic style of talk, yet they were indispen- 
 sable. For, with all the apparent prudery towards everything 
 Greek, which was manifested even by men like Cicero, with 
 all their boasting of the superiority of tlie Roman mind and 
 nature, there yet prevailed an utter dependence in everything 
 pertaining to artistic form. Greek writings, especially ora- 
 tions, were translated as exercises in the schools and else- 
 where. By means of the increasing book-trade, Greek 
 
 1 Cic. de Rep. ii. 19, 34. 
 
 2 T. i. 227 et seqq. ; C. 141 ; Mom. iv. 681 ; Mer. ii. 530.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 35 
 
 authors received a quicker and more general distribu- 
 tion. Public libraries were founded by Asinius PoUio and 
 Augustus. Hence arose a lively, and, indeed, irresistible 
 impulse to literary activity. The otium, devoted to the 
 Muses, gained its rightful place beside the negoiium, in 
 the service of the state. On a lower plane, beside this 
 Hellenistic tendency, was the national literature, represented 
 by only a few, as Lucretius and Varro. It was, however, by 
 no means independent of Greece. 
 
 Within this unity of character, however, there was mani- 
 fest, both in politics and in literature, a wde difference 
 between the first and the second half of this period, between 
 the Ciceronian and the Augustan Age, the last stage of the 
 Republic, and the beginning of the Empire. i On the one 
 hand, extreme activity in political life ; on tlie other, a 
 systematic quieting and suppression of the same ; there, 
 freedom even to license; here, limitation and restraint, — a 
 shaping of thought and word with an eye to court favor; 
 there, an almost exclusive bent toward public life ; here, an 
 accommodation to the will and taste of the court and the 
 emperor ; there, the studies which have to do with political 
 life — oratory and political literature — prevailed ; here, those 
 departments (particularly poetry) in which the peaceful de- 
 velopment of artistic form, that is, the aesthetic principle is 
 prominent ; there, practical results and material success were 
 kept in view ; here, perfection of form and the satisfaction of 
 the aesthetic sense were all important. Thus each half of 
 the Golden Age serves to supplement the other ; what the 
 one has in a greater degree appears less prominently in the 
 other, — the excellence of the one is the lack of the other. 
 Under the circumstances, however, it was inevitable that, 
 
 1 T. i. 384.
 
 36 ROMAN LITERATURE, 
 
 with the empire, while taste, elegance, and perfection of form 
 increased, independence, freshness, and energy should de- 
 crease. Literature, especially poetry, withdrew from public 
 life, from the market-place, and from contact with the masses 
 of the people, into the study, the salon, and to the court. 
 Its popularity was lost in the aristocratic exclusiveness of 
 fine culture. 
 
 In the Ciceronian Age (80-40 B.C.), oratory held the 
 first place in importance. ^ It was then that it found its 
 widest sphere of action, its most abundant success, and 
 reached in Cicero its highest development. Hand in hand 
 with it went the theoretical development, rhetoric, which 
 was, for the most part, in the hands of the Greeks. Histor- 
 ical writing also flourished, but its most important represen- 
 tatives, Caesar and Sallust, wrote from a political, or rather 
 personal, standpoint.^ Philosophy had its chief representative 
 in Cicero, learning, in Varro. In this stormy period, poetry 
 found few prominent representatives, — the didactic epos, 
 Lucretius, lyric poetry, Catullus.^ The drama passed into 
 the mime. Cicero is to be regarded as the central point of 
 the literary life of this period, the creator of the normal 
 prose style.^ 
 
 After the establishment of the Empire, political activity 
 came to a standstill, nay, even to a state of torpor. Regard 
 for the monarch made caution and diplomatic behavior 
 necessary ; the voice of political literature ceased to be 
 heard ; the principle of equalization and levelling, not only 
 of the parts of the Empire, but also of minds, crippled and 
 suppressed individual peculiarity and independence of char- 
 acter. Oratory and history, which flourished under the 
 
 1 T. i. 229; Mer. ii. 536; Mom. iv. 723. 
 
 2 Mom. iv. 719. 3 T j_ 232. 
 * T. i. 235 ; Mom. iv. 677 ; Schlegel : Hist, of Lit. yj.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 37 
 
 Republic, were now treated in a manner suited to the cir- 
 cumstances.' The former retired from the forum, partly into 
 the Senate and the courts, and partly into the schools ; the 
 latter turned its attention chiefly to the older periods. In 
 their place, the professions, as being politically safe and 
 possessing practical value, took a broader field. Poetry 
 increased in importance, being favored at court by Augustus, 
 Maecenas, and others, but it was confined to the narrower, 
 educated circles.- It was — and, indeed, consciously and 
 purposely — no longer popular, but courtly in tone and 
 correct in sentiment, often more remarkable for the form 
 than the contents. By many, poetry was written according 
 to technical models, mechanically, and because it was the 
 fashion. Machine poetry {invita Minerva) came into vogue, 
 furthered by the public recitations introduced by Asinius 
 Pollio. 
 
 In respect to particular departments, lyric poetry (Horace, 
 Ovid, TibuUus, Propertius) and epic (Virgil) were promi- 
 nent; also, didactic (Virgil, Ovid) and satiric (Horace); 
 the drama remained unimportant from a literary point of 
 view. On the whole, an extremely active production showed 
 itself; but, in the case of the majority, on account of the 
 lack of individual poetic impulse, originality, and inward 
 truth, poetry was only a thing of fashion, based on ostenta- 
 tion. 
 
 The more distant parts of Italy, and even single provinces, 
 became more and more possessed with this literary move- 
 ment, particularly through the development of the book- 
 trade, which was furthered especially by T. Pomponius 
 Atticus.3 All the famous writers of the first rank in the 
 
 1 T. i. 385 ; Mer. iv. 563 ; C. 246. 
 
 2 T. i. 387; C. 242; Schlegel: Hist, of Lit. 71 ; Sellar: Roman poets of 
 the Augustan Age. ^ T. i. 234. 
 
 407238
 
 38 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Augustan Age were not native Romans, but originated from 
 Italian country towns. Yet, at least in prose, the specific 
 Roman urbanitas stood more or less positively and con- 
 sciously in contrast with the provincial tone. 
 
 I. POETRY. 
 
 a. — The Drama. 
 
 The Artistic Drama in its different varieties — palliata, 
 togata, prgetexta — found few new writers. 1 The new plays, 
 such as the tragedies of Asinius Pollio, Ovid, and Varius, 
 were designed for the more limited circles, and for reading, 
 and hence the public presentations were confined to the 
 older plays. In Comedy, Roscius shone as an excellent 
 actor ; in Tragedy, ^sop.^ After the time of Sulla, however, 
 both the artistic and the popular play were more and more 
 crowded back by the Mime and the Pantomine. 
 
 The Mime -^ was old Italian, nearly related to the Atella- 
 na, and mainly distinguished from it by the even greater 
 prominence given to gesticulation > The Mime was marked 
 by caricature in the farcical action, and in the often im- 
 provised dialogue, seasoned with personal allusions ; by the 
 forced striving to excite laughter ; by an obscenity carried 
 t© the very extreme, the female parts being played by 
 women. The subjects were taken mostly from every-day 
 life, particularly from married life, and occasionally from 
 mythology. The play was principally in the hands of one 
 actor, called the archimimus, and the other players (such 
 
 1 Mom. iv. 689. 2 c. 212. 
 
 3 wz/iof, a term used to denote both the play and the actor ; in Latin 
 also called planipes. 
 1 C. ao8 ; T. i. 8.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 39 
 
 as the parasite) were subordinate to him. The language was 
 common plebeian, and the flute served as accompaniment 
 in the song and dance. 
 
 Among the writers of Mimes were the Roman knight 
 Decimus Laberius (105-43 e.g.), who was compelled 
 by Cassar to appear publicly on the stage as a punishment 
 for his boldness ; and his younger contemporary, the senten- 
 tious Publilius Syrus, of Antiochia.' These writers in- 
 troduced the Mime into literature. 
 
 In the time of the Emperors, the Mime was displaced by 
 the Pantomime (Ballet), which, under Augustus, was devel- 
 oped into a special art by Bathyllus and Pylades.- 
 The subject of the Pantomime was almost always mytholog- 
 ical, and, indeed, for the most part tragical. The play itself 
 consisted of a union of solo dancing, chorus singing, and 
 loud orchestral music. It was the task of the dancer to 
 supply the lack of a text by mute action. The Pantomime, 
 therefore, demanded and produced, on the one hand, the 
 highest gracefulness and smoothness, elasticity and litheness 
 of movement, — in truth a " speaking dance " (diserte sal- 
 tare) ; but, on the other hand, it led to a one-sided predom- 
 inance of sensuous attractions, and, like the modern ballet, 
 from an aesthetic and moral point of view, had a corrupting 
 effect. 
 
 b. — The Epos. 
 
 Far richer and more fruitful was the cultivation which the 
 Narrative and the Didactic Epos found, as well as the nearly 
 related varieties, the Poetic Narrative, the Satire, the Poetic 
 Epistle, and the Idyll. The Narrative Epos was further divi- 
 ded into the Historic, whose subjects were taken from Roman 
 
 1 C. 210; T. i. 310; Mom. iv. 692. ^ C. 211.
 
 40 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 history, and the Heroic, which had to do with mythological 
 subjects, and which rested entirely upon Greek models, 
 especially Alexandrian. Virgil's ^neid was a combination 
 of both kinds. 
 
 The chief representatives of Didactic Poetry were Lucre- 
 tius, Virgil, and Ovid ; of the Satire, Varro and Horace ; of 
 the Poetic Epistle, Horace and Ovid ; of the Idyll, Virgil, 
 and, in single poems, Horace. 
 
 Prominent among the numerous epic writers are Cicero,^ 
 with his unfortunate epic poems, written for his own glorifi- 
 cation, de suo consulatu, composed in the year 60 B.C., 
 and de temporibiis meis (concerning my misfortunes), 
 written in 55 ; P. Terentius Varro- from Atax (Ata- 
 cinus) in Gallia Narbonensis (82-37 B.C.), who both 
 worked over Greek originals with skill, as, for example, the 
 Ai-gonautica of Apollonius Rhodius, and wrote a poem en- 
 titled bellum Sequanicum, probably in honor of Csesar ; 
 also, satires and elegies; L. Varius, the well-known friend 
 of Virgil, and writer of epic poems in honor of Ccesar 
 {de morte Casaris) and Augustus ; Pedo Albinovanus, 
 author of a Theseis, and an epos concerning the occurrences 
 of his times ; Rabirius, author of a poem concerning the 
 civil war between Octavian and Antony, 
 
 In Didactic Epos, the most prominent writer was T. 
 Lucretius Carus,=^ a Roman knight, who lived 98 (95?)- 
 55 B.C. He was the author of an unfinished didactic poem, 
 in 6 books, entitled, de rerum natura. It was the object of 
 the poet to free the mind from the burden of the fear of 
 the gods and of death, and, in general, from the varied 
 
 1 C. 184, 213 ; T. i. 305. 2 c. 231 ; T. i. 362. 
 
 8 C. 220; T.i. 338; S. 199; Mom. iv. 694; Munro's Lucretius; Schlegel; 
 Hist, of Lit. 66.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 4' 
 
 forms of superstitton * by a rational contemplation of nature.^ 
 The Epicurean philosophy served him as a means to this 
 end : — the gods do not trouble themselves about men, 
 and death puts an end to all things. The dr>' subject- 
 matter and the unpoetic character of the soulless, mechan- 
 ical Epicureanism, as well as the then existing poverty of 
 the Latin language in philosophical terms, presented the 
 greatest difficulties to the poet ; still, his enthusiasm for the 
 idea, his energetic grasp of the system, his earnest, inde- 
 pendent cast of mind, his wxestling with subject-matter and 
 language, and his high poetic talent, manifesting itself in 
 the very contest with these difficulties, render the work 
 one of the highest interest. Yet, on account of the an- 
 tique coloring, and the often abstruse contents, it is not 
 always easy to understand and enjoy. Lucretius exercised 
 a great influence upon subsequent poets, among them 
 Horace and Ovid. By the later writers, with a perverted 
 admiration for antiquity, he was preferred to the poets of 
 the Augustan Age. 
 
 In the department of Epic Poetry, however, P. Ver- 
 gilius Maro^ rises above all others.'' Virgil, the son of a 
 farmer in easy circumstances, was born at Andes, near Man- 
 tua, on the 15th of October, 70 B.C. He pursued his stud- 
 ies, especially rhetoric and philosophy, under Greek teachers 
 at Cremona, Milan, and, after the year 53, in Rome. He 
 then returned home, lost his estate twice by the distributions 
 of land in 41 and 40, but recovered it on the petition of 
 Asinius Pollio and Maecenas, came into intimate relations 
 
 1 Artis relligionum animum nodis exsolvere pergo. i. 930 f. 
 
 - Naturae species ratioque. ii. 60. 
 
 3 C. 252; T. i. 406; Mer. iv. 573; Kennedy's Virgil: Introd.; Sellar: 
 Roman poets of the Augustan Age, 59. 
 
 * Vergilius was the original manner of writing ; Virgilius did not come 
 into use until the Middle Ages.
 
 42 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 with the latter in 39, and thenceforth lived highly esteemed 
 by Augustus, Horace, and others. He dwelt, for the most 
 part, in Campania, in comfortable circumstances, though in 
 poor health, and died at Brundisium, on his return journey 
 from Athens, on the 21st of September, 19 B.C., and was 
 buried near Naples. An ancient epitaph on him reads : — 
 
 Mantua nie genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc 
 Parthenope, cecini pascua rura duces. 
 
 As a man, Virgil was an aniiiia Candida, gentle, pure 
 in morals, amiable, true-hearted, bashful and awkward in 
 appearance ; ' as a poet, especially fitted for the expression 
 of gentle and deep emotions and tender relations, for 
 drawing idyllic pictures, sentimentally conceived and carried 
 out. Hence he was a sincere and enthusiastic admirer of 
 the era of peace brought about by Augustus. Not original 
 in flow of fancy, nor impelled by genius to write poetry, he 
 worked slowly and laboriously with a definite object in view, 
 patiently and incessantly polishing, and so became a model 
 of correctness and elegance. 
 
 The probable order of his poems is as follows : in the 
 years 41-39 (or 37?) Eclogse H, HI, V, I, IX, IV, VI, VHI, 
 VII, X; in the years 37-30, Georgica ; 29-19, ^neis. 
 
 I. Biicolica^ consisting of 10 idylls, also called EclogcE, 
 a kind of poetry which is really foreign to the Roman mind, 
 not national in its character. Virgil imitated Theocritus, 
 but mostly with an intermingling of personal relations. 
 Hence the shepherd characters are in the main allegorical 
 persons."^ The situations are taken from the circumstances 
 
 1 Cf. Hor. Sat. i. 3, 29, seqq. 
 
 2 C. 259; T. i. 411; Mcr. iv. 575; Conington's Virgil, i. 2; Sellar : A.u- 
 gustan poets, 132. 
 
 3 For example, Ed. i. Tityrus = Virgil ; Eel. v. Daphnis = Caesar.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 43 
 
 of the poet,' and thus he writes with a definite purpose in 
 view, — a method of treatment of which this kind of poe- 
 try, naturally naive and popular, does not admit. Never- 
 theless the Bucolics were greeted with great applause on 
 the part of the Roman public, not in spite of the allegory, 
 but on account of it, and especially on account of their 
 elegance of language and versification. 
 
 2. The Gforgica- were written at the suggestion of 
 Msecenas. The subject was Italian agriculture. Book I 
 treats of farming, II, of the culture of trees, III, of cattle- 
 raising, IV, of bee-culture. 
 
 The main object of the poet was to bring these old Roman 
 occupations into honor again, especially in the -eyes of the 
 cultured proprietors of large estates, with no intention that 
 the poems should be considered a hand-book for the common 
 peasants. In some particulars, Virgil depended upon Greek 
 models, as Hesiod, Aratus, and others ; on the whole, how- 
 ever, the treatment is independent, because the subjects 
 suited his individual genius and his personal experience. 
 The tone is warm and lively, the language skilfully used, and 
 the episodes-'^ give occasion for the most pleasing variety, so 
 that the poem " is the most perfect production of any con- 
 siderable length that Roman poetry has to offer " (Teuffel). 
 
 3. The ^-Eneis,^ in 12 books, was not completed, and 
 
 1 Cf., for example, Eel. v., relating to Caesar; i., thanks to Octavian ; ix., 
 complaint about the second loss of his estate; iv., praise of Pollio ; x., to 
 Corn. Gallus. 
 
 2 C. 261 ; T. i. 413; Mer. iv. 441 ; Schlegel : Hist, of Lit. 72 ; Coning- 
 ton's Virgil, i. 124; Sellar, 174. 
 
 3 Especially ii. 136-176, the praise of Italy ; ii. 323-345, the praise of 
 spring; ii. 458-540, the praise of country life; iii. 339-383, the shepherd life 
 of the Scythians ; iii. 478-566, the Noric cattle pest ; iv. 315-558, the myth 
 of Aristaeus. 
 
 * <2. 265 ; T. i. 415 ; Mer. iv. 443 ; Conington's Virgil, ii. 2 ; Sellar, 292.
 
 44 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 hence it was Virgil's wish at his death that it be destroyed. 
 It was published, however, by his friends Varius and 
 Tucca, but without additions (hence the 58 incomplete 
 verses). The poem treats of the adventures of ^neas 
 after the destruction of Troy, his arrival in Italy, his alli- 
 ances and contests with the inhabitants. The model for 
 the first six books is the Odyssey, and for the last six, 
 the Iliad. 
 
 Virgil's purpose is, on the one hand, to trace Rome back 
 to the settlement of the Trojans in Italy under the special 
 leadership of the gods, and, on the other, to show the de- 
 scent of the patrician families from the Trojan colonists, 
 especially of the Julian family, from ^neas's son lulus. 
 The poem was, therefore, a glorification of the Roman 
 people and the Julian dynasty. However, the legend of 
 ^neas had too little footing in the national consciousness, 
 and hence Virgil was obliged to weave in a multitude of 
 learned notes, acquired by industrious study. The least 
 successful part of all is the character of JEneas himself, 
 who appears not as the strong hero of antiquity, but as a 
 weak, sentimental man, led like a puppet by the gods {J>///s 
 ^neas) . 
 
 The finest parts of the poem are those in which passion 
 plays the chief part ; before all, the episode of Dido in the 
 fourth book. Here Virgil reaches the height of his theme. 
 The language is carefully polished, yet — particularly when 
 compared with that of Homer — not simple and naive, but 
 rhetorical, and often needlessly pathetic. 
 
 It was inevitable that the poem should win great applause 
 with the Romans, especially with the higher circles, on 
 account of its loyal and patriotic motive, its scene reminding 
 them of home, and, also, from the national and local allu- 
 sions, and the stateliness of the verse.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 45 
 
 Besides the above, lesser poems have been attributed to 
 Virgil, — Culex, Moretum (the most successful), Copa, 
 Catalecta, Ciris ; ' it is, however, certain that Virgil did not 
 write the Ciris. They are mostly idyllic pictures of every- 
 day life. 
 
 Virgil was held in great honor by the Romans.^ His 
 poems soon came into use in the schools, and were often 
 imitated and interpreted.^ They were also used as oracles, 
 the book being opened at random {Sorfes Vergiliance). 
 
 In the Middle Ages the person of Virgil was invested with 
 a multitude of romantic legends. He was considered a 
 miracle-worker and magician. Dante represents himself as 
 led by Virgil through the infernal regions. 
 
 Among the writers of didactic poetry under Augustus may 
 be mentioned : Gratius Faliscus, author of Cynegetica 
 in 536 hexameters, and especially Manilius,'* the person- 
 ally unknown author of Astronomica, in 5 books, which, by 
 their originality, in spite of the bias for astrology, testify to 
 a many-sided culture, and are very correct in fonn. 
 
 c. — Satire and Epistle. 
 
 The Satire had received from Lucilius the character 
 of a criticism of the existing state of things, and had taken 
 on the form of poetry. From this form M. Terentius 
 Varro (see p. 82) made a deviation, inasmuch as he 
 united poetry and prose in his 150 books SaturcB Menip- 
 
 1 C. 257 ; T. i. 420. 
 
 2 Cf. Prop. iii. 32, 65, seq. 
 
 Cedite Romani Scriptores, cedite Graii, 
 Nescio quid maius nascitur Iliade. 
 
 3 Commentary of Servius in the fourth Century. See p. 132. 
 * C. 313; T. i. 487.
 
 46 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 pece} In very arbitrary form,- and with loose connection, 
 Varro treated of philosophical questions and the condition of 
 his times. His standpoint was the national Roman one of 
 the good old times, and hence opposed to modern ideas. 
 Only fragments of his works remain. Satire received its 
 highest development from Horace. 
 
 Q. Horatius Flaccus-'was born at Venusia"* on the 8th 
 of December, 65 b.c.^ He was the son of a freedman,^ who, 
 however, had him carefully educated at Rome.''' Becom- 
 ing acquainted with M. Brutus at Athens, he accepted the 
 post of tribunus militum^ in his service, but was unable, at 
 Philippi, to save the fortunes of the Republic b\- his bravery.^ 
 After being deprived of his estate by the distribution of 
 lands under Octavian, he became a scribe for the qusstors, 
 and devoted himself to writing poetry.'" Through his poems 
 he became acquainted with Virgil and Varius, and through 
 them (in 39), with Maecenas ; " after which time, received 
 also into the circle of Augustus' friends, he lived in the 
 most comfortable circumstances. In the year 37 he accom- 
 panied Maecenas to Brundisium,'- and received from him 
 (in 2,Z) a modest but fuiely-situated estate near Tibur, — the 
 often-mentioned Sabiiium.'^ He died on tlie 2 7t]i of No- 
 vember, 8 B.C., fifty-seven years of age. In jjerson, Horace 
 
 1 The name Saturne Menippese comes from the fact that Varro imitated 
 the cynic Menippus, who had written such satires. T. i. 238 ; C. 144 ; Mom. 
 iv. 704. 
 
 ■■2 Prose and poetry, an intermixture of Greek words and sentences, 
 variety in the metre. 
 
 s C. 280; T. i. 433; Mer. iv. 452; Macleane's Cominentary : Introd. 
 
 * Sat. ii. I, 34, seq. 9 Od. ii. 7, 9, seqq. 
 
 5 Epp. i. 20, 27; Od. iii. 21, i. i" Epp. ii. 2, 50, seq. 
 
 6 Sat. i. 6, 6, seqq. H Sat. i. 6, 54, seqq. 
 T Sat. i. 6, 71, seqq. 12 g^t. i. J. 
 
 8 Sat. i. 6. 48. ^^ Sat. ii. 6, i, seqq.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 47 
 
 was short and fleshy ; ' his dark hair he lost in his later 
 years.- 
 
 The poems of Horace are, in part, Satires and Epistles, — 
 both together also called Sermones, — and, in part, lyric 
 poems. Odes and Epodes. As regards the time of publi- 
 cation. Sat. I was probably published in the year 34, Sat. II 
 in 30, and, also, the Epodes, at about the same time with 
 the latter; Odes I-III in 23, Epp. I in 20, Carmen Sseculare, 
 16; Od. IV was composed after 18, and Epp. II after 17. 
 His latest production was probably Epp. II, 3, the Ars 
 Poetica. 
 
 I. Satires. "^ — The contents of the Satires are extremely 
 varied. A specifically invective motive is not found in all of 
 them. In some, Horace presents to a cultivated public 
 rather his own life-experiences and maxims of conduct, 
 rarely, indeed, without occasional side-thrusts and stabs ; 
 thus, in Sat. I, 4, II, i, he sets forth the nature of his satire ; 
 in Sat. I, 10, his relations to Lucilius ; in II, 6, his relations 
 to Maecenas and the happiness of country retirement ; in I, 
 6, the enjoyment of modest independence ; in II, 2, the 
 praise of frugal contentment. In most of the Satires, how- 
 ever, Horace makes a target of particular moral obliquities, 
 or, at least, weaknesses, and ridiculous phases, either of the 
 existing time or of mankind in general; thus, in I, i, the 
 constant discontent of men with their lot ; in I, 2, the ex- 
 tremes to which the passions may extend ; in I, 9, the 
 despicable forwardness of many in their attempt to get into 
 the higher circles : in II, 3, the exaggerations of Stoic Phil- 
 osophy ; in II, 5, legacy-hunting ; in II, 8, the plebeian boast- 
 fulness of the rich parvenu. 
 
 1 Sat. ii. 3, 309; Epp. i. 20, 24. - Epp. i. 7, 26. 
 
 • C. 292 ; T. i. 439 ; Mer. iv. 449 ; Schlegel : H^st. of Lit. 74.
 
 4^ ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 To such a variety of contents this may be added, that 
 Horace, in accordance with the form of the Seniio, i.e., of the 
 conversation, does uot proceed in detail according to careful 
 arrangement, but, though fully conscious of his theme, goes 
 on with easy carelessness ; furthermore, that he does not so 
 much attack with sharpness and moral indignation what is 
 really immoral, as make the perversities which present a 
 laughable side, the petty doings of men in social and literary 
 life, the object of good-natured ridicule, yet without any 
 lack of earnestness when occasion demands ; and finally, 
 that lie keeps himself far removed from the captious and 
 vexatious sphere of politics. All this contributes toward 
 awakening and preserving in the reader a good-humored 
 state of mind and a lively interest, especially since, for the 
 most part, such traits of human character are made promi- 
 nent, as, unrestricted by national or local bounds, are found 
 at all times and in all places. 
 
 2. Epistles.' — The Epistles are written from the stand- 
 point of one who takes a settled and calm view of life ; and 
 they are also shaped with greater care than the Satires. 
 Beginning, at the start, with personal matters and relations 
 (to which only the shorter Epistles are confined, as, for exam- 
 ple, I, 4, 8, 9, 2o), but generally going beyond these, Horace 
 treats of the most varied relations of life, and especially Hte- 
 rary life, in a style rich in apt maxims, but never over-adorned 
 nor wanting in taste, and lays down in these letters, with a 
 calm and comprehensive understanding of life, the results of 
 long observation and experience. Those Epistles are of es- 
 pecial interest which treat of his relations with Maecenas,^ as 
 well as those of the second book, in which Horace sets forth 
 his literary views, and places as the ultimate goal, the imitation 
 
 1 T. i. 448 ; C. 293 ; Mer. iv. 457. 2 s. i. i, 7, 19.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 49 
 
 of Greek perfection of form in contrast to the affected return 
 to tlie old Roman poets ; ' he also shows the false sesthetic 
 theories of the times, which seem to him enough to render 
 the poet's avocation unendurable.- The richest and most 
 comprehensive Episde is II, 3, Ep. ad Pisones, designated 
 by Quintilian as Hber de arte poetica, in which Horace, 
 without professing to be full and systematic, discusses, with 
 excellent and independent judgment, a series of literary 
 questions, with special reference to the drama.^ 
 
 3. Odes.'' — In respect to time, the first three books of 
 the Odes lie between the Satires and Epistles. To these 
 was added, later, the fourth book. The lyric writings of 
 Horace take their root in the imitation of Greek models, 
 and especially of those ^olic melic poets, who portray in 
 the simplest form the common human feelings and senti- 
 ments ; namely, Alcaeus, Sappho, and Anacreon. He rises 
 gradually, however, with an increasing consciousness of his 
 powers, to an independent position. In harmony with the 
 thoughtful nature of the poet's disposition, his lyrics are 
 essentially poetry of the reflective kind, his poems are in 
 general the product of industry and study ; for this reason 
 lofty flights of imagination and stormy feeling are excluded, 
 but not warmth and inwardness of sentiment.^ Those Odes 
 are the most successful which present in easy style the pic- 
 ture of an otium contented with itself, in agreeable, nat- 
 ural, and human surroundings, or which set forth in quiet 
 tone the worldly wisdom of the poet, — Odes in which Horace 
 expresses his own peculiar nature ; ^ while those which strike 
 a higher tone, not quite corresponding to the genius of the 
 
 1 Epp. ii. I. 2 Epp. ii. 2. 3 c. 295 ; Macleane, 696. 
 
 * C. 287; T. i. 442; Schlegel: Hist, of Lit. 73 ; Milman's Life of Horace, 
 
 5 Cf. Od. iv. 2, 31, seq. 
 
 6 For example, B. i. 4, 7, 22, 37 ; ii. 2, 3, 7, 9, 10, 14 ; iii. 13, 21.
 
 , 50 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 poet, or at discord with it, as well as those Odes which are 
 prompted by external motives, make a less harmonious im- 
 pression.' Throughout all, however, we find an abundance 
 of true and finely-expressed thoughts ; and the form, first 
 artistically wrought out by Horace according to the various 
 metres, became, by virtue of a constantly-increasing correct- 
 ness and elegance, a model for the technique of the Roman 
 poets, which paved the way before them, and was never 
 afterwards equalled.^ 
 
 4. Epodes.-^ — The Epodes are related to the Odes in 
 form, and to the Satires in subject-matter.'' They contain, 
 for the most part, attacks upon individual persons in a tone 
 prevailingly sharp, and sometimes cynical. 
 
 The personality of tlorace is reflected in his poetry in an 
 uncommon degree.^ He is preeminently endowed on the 
 side of the understanding and reflection ; his views and 
 principles are not taken from any given system of philoso- 
 phy, though he speaks of himself as an Epicurean, but they 
 are the outflow of an eminently sound common-sense, of 
 shrewd and sharp observation, and of a self-contained, har- 
 monious nature. His aim is to acquire restfulness and 
 contentment by a cheerful, but temperate enjoyment of life, 
 by calmness in view of external things, and by an ever-ad- 
 vancing culture and inward deepening. In his relations 
 with others, kindly, social, and reliable, he still preserves 
 his independence, and, when necessary, disagrees even with 
 
 1 As, for example, iii. 1-6. 
 
 2 Quint. Inst. Orat. x. i, 96: Lyricorum Horatius fere solus legl dignus ; 
 nam et insurgit aliquando et planus est iucunditatis et gratias et variis 
 figuris et verbis felicissime audax. 
 
 3 This name, which did not originate with Horace, denotes the union of 
 a long with a short verse. Horace himself calls these verses iambi. 
 
 4 C. 286; T. i. 441. s T. i. 437.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 51 
 
 the highest personages, as, for example, with Augustus, when 
 his own views do not accord with the wishes of others. 
 In fuhiess and variety of thought, wealth of practical ex- 
 perience, charity of judgment, kindly humor, and grace 
 and elegance of form, Horace is a poet of never-failing 
 interest and never-waning importance. For this reason he 
 has always found admirers, imitators, and commentators, as 
 scarcely any other ])oet has done. Indeed, the one-sided 
 presumption of his faultlessness has led to error, as when, for 
 example, Hofman Peerlkamp in Holland (in 1834), and 
 others since his time have attempted summarily to cast out 
 as not genuine the less perfect parts of his works. 
 
 From ancient times the scholia of Porphyrid (about 200 
 A.D.) are preserved. A collection of scholia made in the 
 seventh century bears the name of Aero. 
 
 Virgil and Horace, though sustaining relations of inti- 
 mate friendship, still form, in many respects, a contrast to 
 each other. Virgil was tall, lank, sickly in appearance, stiff, 
 and almost offensively awkward in his movements ; Horace, 
 short and thick-set, sleek and well favored, moving in society 
 with the ease of a man of the world ; Virgil, shy, slow, and 
 stammering in his speech ; Horace, ready in conversation, 
 witty, and sharp, upon occasion ; Virgil a feminine, gentle, 
 introspective nature ; Horace, cultivated by contact with the 
 world, grasping outward circumstances with sure hold, and 
 using them for his purposes ; Virgil, a man of the heart, 
 religious, and earnest ; Horace, a man of the understanding, 
 with a bent toward philosophic calm, undisturbed either by 
 external things or by passion ; Virgil, devoting himself from 
 conviction to Augustus as his benefactor, and the author of 
 universal peace ; Horace, with all his devotion, still keeping 
 at such a distance as to insure his independence ; Virgil, as 
 a poet, rhetorical and lofty, of almost feminine gentleness
 
 52 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 and tenderness ; Horace, natural, clear, transparent, full of 
 manly, self-reliant consciousness. 
 
 <?. — Lyric Poetry. 
 
 Up to this time Lyric Poetry had occupied a subordi- 
 nate position ; but it rose in this period, particularly under 
 Augustus, to a higher plane. This was true in the highest 
 degree of the Elegy, a variety of the Lyric which was copied 
 after the Alexandrian poets, but in which the Romans ex- 
 celled the originals in form and subject-matter ; but especially 
 of the erotic Elegy, which, already introduced by Catullus, 
 was treated with skill and success by Ovid, Tibullus, and 
 Propertius, while Horace confined himself to the writing of 
 Odes. Roman lyric poetry, turning away from political life, 
 took its subject-matter from the sphere of those sentiments 
 and emotions which are common to humanity, and which 
 lie at the basis of song in all times. 
 
 Among the lyric poets of the Ciceronian age, the most 
 important one" (excepting C. Licinius Calvus, of whose 
 writings only a few verses are preserved) is C. Valerius 
 Catullus, born at Verona, 87 b.c, of a wealthy family to 
 which the peninsula of Sirmio in the Lago di Garda belonged. 
 He lived chiefly at Rome, in the higher, light-minded circles, 
 was with the propraetor Memmius (57-56) in Bithynia, and 
 died about the year 53. 
 
 His erotic poems have reference to a woman bearing 
 the pseudonym Lesbia, probably the sister of the notorious 
 P. Clodius. Other poems relate, among other things, to 
 the death of his brother, which took place in Bithynia ; to 
 his relations with both friends and enemies, — as when he 
 
 1 The greatest lyric poet of Roman literature. T. i. 373.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 53 
 
 sharply attacks Caesar, not so much on political grounds as 
 from personal antipathy against Caesar's favorite, Mamurra. 
 
 Among his longer poems (not including his imitations of 
 Alexandrian poems), the ]iymn on the marriage of Manlius 
 Torquatics deserves special mention. Catullus achieved his 
 greatest success, however, in his short love-songs and pic- 
 tures of every-day life. He is a thoroughly naive poet ; 
 impetuous in love and hate, he is frequently tender and 
 ardent ; full of cheerful humor, he is often cynically harsh 
 and sharp ; always characterized by skilful handling of his 
 very varied and occasionally rare metres.* The common 
 collection, arbitrarily arranged, contains ii6 poems.^ 
 
 Under Augustus lyric poetry was chiefly represented by 
 Cornelius Gallus, Ovid, Tibullus, and Propertius. 
 
 Cornelius Gallus,-^ born at Forum lulii, 69 h.c, was a 
 friend of Virgil (who addressed his Tenth Eclogue to him), 
 and for a long time, also, of Augustus ; but having fallen into 
 disfavor with the latter after his administration in Egypt, 
 he committed suicide in the year 26. None of his poems 
 have been preserved.'* 
 
 P. Ovidius Naso was born March 28, 48 B.C., at Sulmo, 
 in the country of the Peligni. He was the son of a well-to- 
 do Roman knight, pursued rhetorical studies at Rome, filled 
 judicial offices for a short time, then made a journey to 
 Greece and Asia, was married three times, was suddenly 
 banished by Augustus, in 9 a.d., to Tomi (near the modern 
 Kostendsche), on the Black Sea, and died there in the year 
 1 7, unpardoned, in spite of the most urgent complaints and 
 
 1 As, for example, the Galliambus in the poem entitled Atih. 
 
 2 C. 233 ; S. 337 ; T. i. 373 ; Mom. iv. 702 ; Ellis's Commentary : Pro- 
 lego m. 
 
 3 C. 298 ; T. i. 431. 
 
 * A romantic treatment of his career may be found in Becker's " Gallus,"
 
 54 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 entreaties. As the cause of this hard treatment, Ovid men- 
 tions 1 carmen et error? By carmen is doubtless to be un- 
 derstood the ars amatoria, which may have been offensive 
 to Augustus on account of its frivolity. On the other hand, 
 concerning the term error we can only make conjectures. 
 If Ovid, with his somewhat effeminate nature, accustomed 
 to the sensuous and the intellectual enjoyments ot Rome, 
 displayed little composure in exile, it finds its excuse, per- 
 haps, in the nature and position of Tomi. 
 
 Ovid's earliest poems belong to the department of erotic 
 elegy : A mo res, in 3 books, published 14 b.c. ; Epis/ulce^ 
 (or Heroides), imaginary love-letters by women of the He- 
 roic Age, for example, Briseis, Penelope, Phaedra ; Ars 
 amatoria, in 3 books, published, probably, 2 B.C. ; as the 
 counterpart of this, Rcmedia amoris, one book, and the 
 JMedicamina faciei, only partially preserved. All the above 
 were written in a light, and some in a frivolous tone. The 
 15 books Metamorphoseon,'^ written in epic metre, are taken 
 from mythological sources. They deal with such myths, 
 from the beginning of the world to the apotheosis of Caesar, 
 as end with a metamorphosis. The myths are freely handled 
 after Greek models, and often loosely connected with each 
 other. On account of his banishment, the work was not fully 
 completed. Simpler, more practical, and more earnest are 
 the 6 books Fastoriim,'' a calendar written in elegiac metre, 
 which contains, in addition to astronomical data, a connect- 
 ed mythological and historical account of the origin of the 
 
 1 Trist. ii. 207. 2 c. 309; T. i. 471. 
 
 3 C. 306; T. i. 473; Mer. iv. 462; Palmer's Ovidii Heroides. " The Loves 
 of the Heroines is the most elevated and refined in sentiment of all elegiac 
 compositions of the Romans." Mer. iv. 463. 
 
 ^ C. 308 : T. i. 477- 
 
 * Mer. iv. 463 ; Ramsay's Ovid ; Paley : Ovid's Fasti.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 55 
 
 Roman festivals. The completion of this work, also, which 
 had been planned to consist of 1 2 books corresponding to 
 the 1 2 months, and which, in spite of the author's superficial 
 methods, contains a great number of important notices re- 
 specting the old Italic religion, was rendered impossible by 
 his banishment. 
 
 At Tomi, Ovid wrote, in elegiac metre, the Tristia in 5 
 books, — complaints respecting the troubles of the journey 
 and of life in a strange land, together with a letter to Augus- 
 tus, ^ and letters to his wife ; EpisfulcB ex Ponto, 4 books, 
 consisting of letters to various persons whom he mentions by 
 name ; then, Ibis, an abusive poem against an anonymous 
 person ; finally, an incomplete didactic poem entided Hali- 
 eiitica (132 Hexameters), treating of the fish in the Black 
 Sea.2 
 
 Other poems, especially a paurgyric on Augustus, written 
 in the Getic language, are not preserved. 
 
 Ovid possessed a poetic nature, richly gifted and hap- 
 pily endowed ; but as a poet, no less than ar, a man, he is 
 without earnestness and self-control.^ His talents manifest 
 themselves, therefore, chieflv in his uncommon facilitv of 
 \'ersification, which became to him a second nature and a 
 necessity ,'' while the labor w-hich is necessary to supplement 
 even the best natural gifts quickly becomes distasteful to him. 
 Hence what he says in special reference to political activity^ 
 may be applied also to his poetical labor. Even the ancient 
 
 1 Book ii. - T. i. 479 ; C. 310. ^ -p j ^69 ; Mer. iv. 464. 
 
 * Trist. iv. 10, 26 : Et quod temptabam dicere versus erat. 
 5 Trisl. iv. 10, 37-40 : — 
 
 Nee corpus patiens nee mens fuit apta labori, 
 Sollicitaeque fugax ambitionis eram. 
 Et petere Aoniae suadebant tuta sorores 
 Otia iudicio semper amata meo.
 
 56 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 critics lamented tlie fact that he gave himself up too much to 
 his ready skill in form, and to the wealth of his imagination/ 
 and that he likes to see a stain upon what is pure and per- 
 fect in order that it may thus seem piquant.^ In this re- 
 spect he may be compared to the German poet Heine. 
 
 Living for a long time in happy circumstances, moving in 
 the high circles of the capital, and penetrated with modern 
 views and customs, Ovid is the poet of fine, courtly, but also 
 of light-minded, superficial, and frivolous society. His tal- 
 ents serve only to entertain, without stirring deeply. He 
 treats his subjects with pleasing playfulness, with keen wit, 
 and not seldom with open or concealed irony, but he sinks 
 too often into wordy jingle and trifling, because earnestness 
 and moderation are wanting to him. 
 
 In the Middle Ages the Metamorphoses in particular was 
 much read, and a paraphrase of it was written in German 
 couplets, about the year 1200, by Albrecht von Halberstadt, 
 at the suggestion of the landgrave Hermann of Thiiringen. 
 
 Albius TibuUus was born, about 54 b.c, of a wealthy 
 equestrian family, nor was he left without means after his 
 losses by the distribution of lands in 41. He attached him- 
 self to Valerius Messala, whom he accompanied in 28 to the 
 Aquitanian war, and died in 19. 
 
 After some practice in Alexandrian versification, ■* TibuUus 
 reached his highest plane in the sotigs addressed to his be- 
 loved 06113,"^ and in those on the relations of Sulpicia and 
 
 1 For example, Quint. Inst. Oiat. x. i, 98 : Ovidii Medea, — a tragedy not 
 extant, — videtur mihi ostendere, quantum ille vir praestare potuerit, si inge- 
 nio suo imperare quam indulgere maluisset. 
 
 2 Sen. Controv. ii. 10, 12 : Aiebat decentiorem faciem esse, in qua aliquis 
 nsevos fuisset. 
 
 ^ Cf. the panegyric on Messala, iv. 1, if this is, indeed, by him. 
 * Book i.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 57 
 
 Cerinthus.' In Book II the relation to Nemesis forms the 
 subject. Book III is not by Tibullus, but by an unknown 
 imitator. 
 
 Tibullus is the greatest Roman elegiac poet, a truly elegiac 
 nature, revelling in the passion of love, in the sentimental 
 portrayal of peaceful, frugal, idealized country life, with a vein 
 of longing and sadness,- simple, warm, and sympathetic, pos- 
 sessed of fine taste and a power of artistic shaping, as com- 
 plete as it is naive in its manifestation.^ 
 
 The younger contemporary of Tibullus was S. Proper- 
 tius,^ born about 50 c.c. in Umbria, probably at Asisium. 
 He lost a part of his property in the distribution of lands in 
 41, then lived in Rome, where he made himself acquainted 
 with the Alexandrian writers, especially with Callimachus. 
 He was introduced to Maecenas about 26, after the appear- 
 ance of his first book of poems, and died in 15. 
 
 The subject of Book I is his first, complete love for 
 " Cynthia." ^ It was published by Propertius himself in the 
 beginning of 26. Books II and III (or, according to Lach- 
 man, II-IV) appeared later. Book IV (or V), which con- 
 tains several pieces having reference to the early history of 
 Rome, similar to the Fasti of Ovid, was probably not issued 
 till after the poet's death. 
 
 T\\Q Erotic Ekgy is with Propertius the immediate outflow 
 of his nature and his life. He is sensuous, passionate, and 
 full of imagination.*^ The enjoyment of his poems is not un- 
 frequently disturbed by mythological additions, which border 
 
 1 iv. 2-7, while iv. 8-12 are perhaps by Sulpicia herself. 
 
 2 Cf. especially i. I, 3, 10; ii. i. 
 
 3 Horace addressed to Tibullus, Od. i. 33 and Epp. i. 4. C.301 ; T. i. 460, 
 * Paley's Propertius : Preface. 
 
 5 A mistress of his, whose real name was Hostia. 
 
 6 C. 303 ; T. i. 241.
 
 58 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 upon overloading and obscurity. They owe their smooth- 
 ness and finish, however, to the study of the Alexandrian 
 writers ; and the same is true, indeed, of their forced concise- 
 ness of expression. 
 
 Quintilian says,' concerning the Roman elegy : Elegia 
 Graecos provocamus, cuius mihi tersus atque elegans maxi- 
 me videtur auctor Tibullus, sunt qui Propertium malint ; 
 Ovidius utroque lascivior, sicut durior Gallus. 
 
 II. PROSE. 
 
 a. — Oratory. 
 
 In contrast to the genus Asiaticiim, — the overloaded, 
 bombastic style of oratory, — stood the genus Atticuni, the 
 other extreme, associated chiefly with the name of Lysias, 
 and characterized by artificial simplicity, homeliness, and 
 sobriety of expression. Midway between these stood the 
 genus Rhodium. The genus Asiaticum was chiefly repre- 
 sented by Hortensius, the genus Atticum by Caesar, M. 
 Brutus, Cselius Rufus, and others, — later by Asinius Pollio ; 
 the genus Rhodium, by Cicero. In the Augustan Period, 
 political activity, and, with it, oratory, had to disappear from 
 the public stage.- It retired into the Senate, into the sittings 
 of the centumviri, but particularly into the schools and 
 audience-rooms ; while, in the place of public, practical 
 oratory, appeared rhetoric and the oratory of the schools ; 
 in place of the orator, appeared the rhetorician.^ Indeed, 
 even in the time of Sulla, rhetoric had been introduced into 
 Rome by Greek teachers, and Cicero had joined with his 
 practice the writing of theoretical books ; but the condition 
 
 1 Inst. Orat. x. I, 93. " T. i. 385; C. 319; Mer. iv. 431. 
 
 3 Cf. Tac. Dial. 14: novorum rhetorum — veterum oratorum.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 59 
 
 of things under the Empire first brought rhetoric to its full 
 development.^ No regard was now paid to practical ends ; 
 the subjects were invented ; the main thing was practice in 
 form and skill in delivery. The school-orations were divided 
 into confroversice, siiasoricE, and laudationes, or vituperatioties? 
 
 x\s public orators in the first half of this period, may be 
 mentioned (besides Hortensius, see p. 31): Caesar^ (sum- 
 mis oratoribus aemulus),'* M. Calidius, C. Memmius, C. 
 Curio, M, Caelius Rufus ; somewhat later, Asinius 
 Pollio, who represented the extreme of the Attic style, was 
 hard and antiquated, after the model of Thucydides, and 
 M. Valerius Messala, who more nearly resembled Cicero 
 in style ; in the Augustan Period, Cassius Severus, who, 
 on account of the aggressiveness of his oratory, was banished 
 about 12 A.D. 
 
 Quintilian -^ thus characterizes these orators : Vim Cresaris, 
 indolem Cselii, subtilitatem Calidii, diligentiam Pollionis, dig- 
 nitatem Messalae, gravitatem Bruti, acerbitatem Cassii re- 
 periemus. 
 
 At the head of Roman oratory stood M. Tullius Cicero. 
 
 Survey of His Life and Writings. 
 
 B.C. 
 106 
 
 90, seqq. 
 
 Jan. 3. Cicero born at Arpinum. 
 
 Instructed in oratory at Rome 
 by Greek teachers, especially 
 Molo ; became acquainted 
 with the orators Antony and 
 Crassus ; introduced to the 
 study of law by Q. Mucius 
 
 1 T. i. 3Q2, 537. 
 4 Tac. Ann. xiii. 3. 
 
 2 T. i. 544 ; C. 321. 
 5 Inst. Orat. xii. 10, 11. 
 
 3 C. 196; T. i. 314.
 
 6o 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Screvola, Augur, and Q. Mu- 
 cius Scaevola, Pont. max. 
 
 
 89 
 
 Cicero in the army of Cn. Pom- 
 peius Strabo; instructed in 
 philosophy by Phsedrus and 
 Philo. 
 
 de inventione (the year un- 
 certain). 
 
 81 
 
 
 His first oration : pro Quintio. 
 
 80 
 
 
 Oratio pro S. Roscio Amerino. 
 
 79-77 
 
 Went to Greece, Rhodes, and 
 Asia Minor for purposes of 
 study. 
 
 
 77 
 
 Married to Terentia. 
 
 
 75 
 
 Quaestor in Sicily. 
 
 
 70 
 
 Engaged in the suit of the Si- 
 cilians against Verres. 
 
 Orationes Verrinae, 
 
 69 
 
 ^dile. 
 
 
 68-43 
 
 
 Epp. ad Atticum. 
 
 66 
 
 Prsetor. 
 
 Oratio de imp. Cn. Pompei. 
 
 63 
 
 Consul; called />a/er pafn'ce on 
 account of the suppression 
 of the Catilinarian conspira- 
 cy ; goes over to the party of 
 the Optimates. 
 
 Orationes iv. in Catilinam; pro 
 Murena. 
 
 62 
 
 
 Orationes pro Sulla,pro Archia. 
 
 62-43 
 
 
 Epp. ad Familiares. 
 
 60-54 
 
 
 Epp. ad Quintum fratrem. 
 
 58 
 
 Cicero, banished, goes to Thes- 
 salonica. 

 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 6i 
 
 B.C. 
 
 57 
 55 
 
 54-51 
 
 53 
 
 52 
 51-50 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 43 
 
 Sept. 4th, returns to Rome. 
 
 Vacillates between the Trium- 
 viri and the Senate. 
 
 Augur. 
 
 Governor in CiHcia, iniperator. 
 
 Cicero goes in June to Pompey 
 at Dyrrhachium. 
 
 In September returns to Italy; 
 forced stay at Brundisium. 
 
 September. His return to Rome 
 is permitted by Ci^sar. 
 
 Divorce from Terentia ; mar- 
 riage with Publilia. 
 
 Death of his daughter Tullia; 
 divorce from Publilia. 
 
 Joins the murderers of Caesar. 
 
 Dec. 7. Murdered. 
 
 de oratore. 
 de republica. 
 
 Oratio pro Milone. 
 
 Oratio pro Lig., Brut., Orator, 
 de legg., paradoxa, de part, 
 orat. 
 
 Oratio pro Deiot., de fin., 
 Acad. (Consol., Timseus). 
 
 Or. Phil. xiv. (Sept. 2, 44-Apr. 
 22, 43), Topica, de opt. gen. 
 or., Tusc. disp., de nat. deor., 
 de sen., de div., de fato, de 
 amic, de officiis. 
 
 Cicero performed an important work for oratory, partly by 
 means of his orations, and partly by means of his theoretical 
 writings.
 
 62 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 I. The Orations. — Of Cicero, as an orator, Quintilian^ 
 says : Apiid posteros id est consecutus, ut Cicero iam non 
 hominis nomen, sed eloquentise habeatur. 
 
 Cicero was created, both physically and mentally, to be an 
 orator. Besides a good voice, and a tall and attractive fig- 
 ure, he possessed an excellent memory, a power of rapid 
 grasp and combination, fiery feeling, vivid imagination, quick 
 and telling wit. To these natural gifts were added a bound- 
 less desire for learning and wisdom, tireless industry, and 
 zealous and systematic study. Cicero's orations are distin- 
 guished by resisdess energy, moving pathos, variety and rapid 
 change of sentiment, fiery delivery, often by redundance 
 of expression, by a brilliant use of those means especially 
 which appeal to the senses and feelings of the hearer ; in a 
 less degree by moral earnestness and a regard for accuracy, 
 in which respects Cicero is certainly inferior to Demos- 
 thenes.- 
 
 Of Cicero's orations, fifty-seven are preserved entire, and 
 about twenty in a fragmentary condition. All that is known 
 of thirty-three others is, that they were delivered. Among 
 those preserved, the following deserve special mention : ^ pro 
 Quifitio, the first oration pronounced by Cicero ; pro S. Ros- 
 cio Amerino, interesting from the fact that in it an attack is 
 made upon Chrysogonus, a favorite of Sulla ; the Verrincp, 
 against C. Verres, the plundering praetor of Sicily, together 
 with the introductory divinatio in Cceci/ii/f>i, through which 
 Cicero maintains his right of impeachment. These orations 
 against Verres are also important for the understanding of 
 Roman provincial government. Further, (fc imperio Cii. 
 Pompei, by which Cicero secured to Pompey the supreme 
 
 1 Inst. Orat. xi. 112. 
 
 2 T. i. 265 ; C. 169; Mom. iv. 726; Mer. ii. 422. 
 
 8 Long's commentary on Cicero's orations ; Forsyth's Life of Cicero.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 63 
 
 command in the Third Mithradatic War ; /n L. Catilinam, 
 deHvered on the ytli and 8th of November, and the 3d and 
 5th of December, (^t^ ; pro Murcna, a defense of the consul, 
 Licinius Murena, de ambitu, spiced with witty sallies against 
 the judges ; pro Sulla, a defense against the charge of com- 
 plicity in the conspiracy of Catiline ; pro Archia, gaining of 
 the right of Roman citizenship for the poet Archias : pro Sestio, 
 against a charge of vis, together with an extended account 
 of the affairs of the Roman parties ; pro CcbUo, interesting in 
 its relation to the history of morals ; pro Milone, defense of 
 Milo, charged with the murder of P. Clodius, not finished in 
 its present form until a later time ; pro Ligario, a petition to 
 Caesar in behalf of Ligarius, an adherent of Pompey ; pro 
 Deiotaro, defense of King Deiotarus of Galatia, charged 
 with an attempt upon the life of Cassar ; the 14 Philippicce^ 
 against M. Antonius, of which the most important is the 
 second, which was, however, produced only in written 
 form. 
 
 2. The Rhetorical Writings.- — Cicero had made 
 himself perfectly acquainted with the theories of the schools, 
 through the instruction he had received from Greek rhetori- 
 cians, and from the study of Greek theorists and orators, 
 especially of Hermagoras (second century, B.C.), Aristotle, 
 Demosthenes, and Isocrates. Nevertheless, his scientific edu- 
 cation and his practical career caused him riot to remain sat- 
 isfied with existing theories, but to keep constantly in view 
 the requirement and experiences of Roman praxis. His 
 writings contain, therefore, a system resting, for the most 
 part, upon his own experience. They are, in detail, as fol- 
 
 1 T. i. 277; C. 168; King's commentary; Mayor's Second Philippic: 
 Introd. 
 
 2 T. i. 280; C. 180; Mom. iv. 728.
 
 64 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 lows : de inventione, in 2 books, a crude work of his youth ; 
 de oratore, in 3 books, in form a dialogue, set in the year 91, 
 in which the two great orators, L. Crassus and M. Antonius, 
 take the chief part. In vivacious tone and beautiful, compact 
 language Cicero speaks, in Book I, of the proper training 
 for an orator ; in Book II, of the manner of treating the sub- 
 ject ; in Book III, of form and delivery. Bnifiis, sive de 
 Claris oratoribus, also in dialogue form, is a condensed his- 
 tory of Roman oratory ; Orator ad M. Brutum describes 
 the ideal orator ; partitioiies oratories is a kind of rhetorical 
 catechism ; Topica is an explanation of Aristotle's Topica ; 
 de optitno genere oratorum treats of the Asiatic and the 
 Attic style. 
 
 6. — Cicero and Philosophy in Rome. 
 
 The second department in which Cicero worked in a 
 productive manner was that of Philosophy. 
 
 The first contact of the Romans with Greek philosophy 
 was no friendly one. Ennius, it is true, translated the writ- 
 ings of the Greek rationalist, Euhemerus ; but the very 
 thought that danger threatened from this rationalistic move- 
 ment in religion, which disintegrated and destroyed the 
 traditional world of deities, and also the idea that philos- 
 ophy, — which had, indeed, at that time, passed its culmi- 
 nating point in Greece, and appeared in Rome essentially 
 as Sophism, — stood in the way of healthy, practical aims 
 and occupations, had this result, that, so late as the year 
 155, the three philosophers who came to Rome as ambas- 
 sadors from Athens, Carneades, the Academic, Diogenes, 
 the Stoic, and Critolaus, the peripatetic, were, at the insti- 
 gation of Cato, sent away as quickly as possible. Never- 
 theless, the younger generation made themselves accjuainted
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 65 
 
 with Greek philosophy, and it gradually became a require- 
 ment of education to have heard Greek philosophers. ^ 
 
 Of the prevailing systems, Stoicism, with its earnest 
 morality and its practical direction, suited the Romans best, 
 because it conceded most to positive religion, and, in gen- 
 eral, adapted itself to Roman institutions. Beginning with 
 the younger Scipio, the majority of statesmen and jurists 
 were Stoics. 
 
 Q. Sextius Niger- and his son of the same name, 
 who wrote in the Greek language in the time of Caesar and 
 Augustus, both followed a system made up of Sfoic and 
 Pythagorean doctrines. In connection with this, Epicurean- 
 isfu, and the New Academy, which cherished scepticism, 
 also found adherents ; the former, especially, in the poet 
 Lucretius.'' Others did not attach themselves to any one 
 system, but took from each what suited them. This Eclec- 
 ticism was specially represented by Cicero. 
 
 On the whole, the Romans remained entirely dej)tndent 
 upon the Greeks in philosophy, without producing any thing 
 original. The main point with them was, always, not the 
 theoretical, but the practical side of philosophy ; accord- 
 ingly, Cicero "* designates philosophy as i?ene vivendi dis- 
 ciplina. 
 
 According to the custom of the times, Cicero pursued his 
 philosophical studies at first only as a means for rhetorical 
 education. He did not write upon these subjects until 
 after free political activity became impossible for him 
 through Caesar's supremacy. On the basis of an acquaint- 
 ance with the Greek philosophers, many-sided, indeed, but 
 
 ^ T. i. 66, 231; C. 134; Mom. iii. 512, iv. 667 ; Ritter : Hist, of Ancient 
 Phil. iv. 75; Grant's Ethics of Aristotle, i. 273. - C. 334. 
 
 3 S. 224; Mom. iv. 669; Ritter, iv. 84. * Tusc. iv. 3, 5.
 
 66 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 superficial and desultory, without capacity or need for deep 
 and original speculations, he wrote, in a very short time, a 
 large number of philosophical treatises, which betray, only 
 too clearly, the haste of their preparation. In his efforts to 
 establish a certain balance between theory and practice, he 
 shows the greatest preference for the New Academy on 
 account of its Sophism, that being in harmony with the aims 
 of the advocate and orator ; also for Stoicism, on account 
 of its moral tone. On the other hand, he is no friend to 
 Epicureanism, which was understood by the Romans as 
 really affording license for sensual pleasures. He is only 
 superficially acquainted with the older systems of Plato and 
 Aristotle. Cicero's main service consists in this, that he 
 rendered Greek philosophy accessible to the Romans, and 
 an object of lively and general interest, in a terminology for 
 the most part created by himself, and enriching the Latin 
 language.' In imitation of Plato he throws his writings, for 
 the most part, into dialogue form, but he is far from reaching 
 the freshness and vivacity of his model. 
 
 The philosophical writings of Cicero are given below, in 
 chronological order.^ The de repiiblica, in 6 books, discusses 
 the best form of government.^ The dialogue is conducted by 
 the younger Africanus, Laelius, and others, and, with the ex- 
 ception of the Somnium Scipionis, preserved by Macrobius, 
 and belonging to the sixth book, scarcely any thing is extant 
 
 1 T. i. 263, 290; C. 174; Ritter, iv. loi, 108 et seqq. ; Schlegel, Hist, of 
 Lit. 69; Reid's Academica : Introd. 
 
 2 Cf. de div. ii. i ; C. 178. 
 
 3 T. i. 290; Ritter, iv. 157; Mom. iv. 728. " Tlie Republic — a work to 
 be named with all honor, and indescribably attractive, even in the frag- 
 ments of it which our age has been privileged to recover — concludes with 
 a vision of the noble-minded elder Scipio, which is radiant with faith in the 
 divine origin of the Kosmos and the immortality of the soul." Bunsen: 
 God in History, ii. 373.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 67 
 
 but the first two books, and these, even, not in complete 
 form. Most of this was discovered in 1822 by Cardinal 
 Angelo Mai in a Vatican palimpsest. The second book 
 contains an essay on the earliest Roman history, especially 
 the constitutional history. The de Icgibus is not complete. 
 From the probable number of six books, only three are extant, 
 and those in corrupted form.^ The work contains an outline 
 of church and state law, based upon the principles of the 
 Stoic philosophy. The paradoxa is a discussion of Stoic prin- 
 ciples. The cousolaiio was occasioned by the death of TuUia ; 
 only fragments are extant, as is also true of the Hortensius, 
 a recommendation of the study of philosophy. De finibus bo- 
 noruin et malorum^ in 5 books, is a resume of the doctrines 
 concerning the highest good and evil taught by the Greek 
 philosophers, with criticisms on the same. The academical in 
 4 books, is a survey of the theories of knowledge, with special 
 reference to the Academics ; Tusctilanct disputationcs,^ in 5 
 books, contains res ad beate vivcndiiin maxinie necessarias, 
 and treats, (I) de contemneiida inorte, (11) de tolerando 
 dobore, (III) <be cegritudine ienie/ida, (IV) de rcliqiiis animi 
 perturbationibus, (V) ad beate vivenditm virtutem se ipsa 
 esse contentani; the most interesting books are the first and 
 the fifth. The Tiinceus is a working-over of the dialogue of 
 Plato of the same name, — a fragment. De natura deorit/ii,^ 
 in 3 books, is a presentation of the views concerning the Deity, 
 and his relation to the world, especially from the standpoint 
 
 1 " The De Lc^ibiis is fraught with all that was loftiest and best in what 
 apprehension of a divine agency in human affairs yet lingered in the ancient 
 Roman polity, culture, and manners." Bunsen. 
 
 2 T. i. 295 ; Ritter, iv. 145 ; Arnold's School Classics ; De Finibus Bono- 
 rum et Malorum. 3 i-_ i_ 296. 
 
 4 Arnold's School Classics ; Tusculan Disputations. 
 
 5 T. i. 298 ; Bunsen, ii. 370.
 
 68 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 of the Epicureans (I), the Stoics (II), and the Academics 
 (III). De divinatione, in 2 books, sets forth in Book I, 
 the Stoic doctrine of soothsaying, and, in Book II, argu- 
 ments against it that are often humorous. Cato niaior, sive 
 de senectute, is a treatise in praise of old age, put in the 
 mouth of Cato, written in a popular vein, and especially 
 attractive on account of its cheerful, quiet tone, as well as 
 style. De fato, a fragment, was written in opposition to the 
 Stoic doctrine of fate. Lcelius, sive de amicitia, is a treatise 
 in praise of true friendship, such as rests upon a moral basis, 
 written in a vivid style, and put into the mouth of Leelius 
 the younger. De officiis, in 3 books, contains a system of 
 ethics, sketched with a free hand from the teachings of the 
 Stoics. 1 Special attention is given in Book I to the nature of 
 the honestian, in Book II, to the nature of the utile, and 
 in Book III, to the question of a conflict between the two. 
 The writings de gloria, de virtutibus, as well as translations 
 from Xenophon and Plato, are not extant. 
 
 c — Cicero's Letters. 
 
 The art of letter-writing gained literary significance 
 through Cicero. We possess four collections of Cicero's 
 letters : ^ ad farniliares^^ in 1 6 books ; ad Atticum, in 1 6 
 books ; ad Qiiintum fratreiii, in 3 books ; ad Brutuni, in 
 2 books. These letters, 864 in number (including the 90 
 addressed to Cicero), extend from the year 68 to July 28, 
 43. They are not, however, evenly distributed over this 
 period, no letter, for example, being extant from the year of 
 
 1 Ritter, iv. 150; Mer. ii. 415; T. i. 302. 
 
 2 Lcighton's Critical History of Cicero's Letters. 
 
 3 This title first came into use with the edition of Stephanus, in 1526, 
 while the other title, ad diversos, is neither the original one nor good Latin.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 69 
 
 Cicero's consulship ; also, the period before the civil war is 
 represented by a relatively smaller number than the following 
 period. The publication, although contemplated by Cicero, 
 was not arranged for by himself, as is shown by the publica- 
 tion of many letters, which set his character in an unfavor- 
 able light ; but it took place soon after his death, or, at all 
 events, under the reign of Augustus, with the special cooper- 
 ation of his freedman Tiro, and his friend Atticus, who was 
 able to give the letters value in the book-market. So much 
 is beyond a doubt. Moreover, in ancient times, many more 
 letters of Cicero were in circulation than we now possess. 
 
 These letters are an incomparably valuable authority for 
 the history of that time, so much so that Nepos says of those 
 written to Atticus : ^ Quae qui legat, non multum desideret 
 historiam contextam illorum temporum. They are, of course, 
 different in their nature ; - some being of a more official 
 character, planned for publication, at least eventually, and so 
 more carefully considered and more reserved ; some — and 
 this is especially true of the letters to Atticus — serving only 
 the ends of confidential communication, and therefore reveal- 
 ing Cicero's most personal relations and thoughts, joys and 
 sorrows, sympathies and antipathies. Accordingly, the lan- 
 guage is sometimes formal and carefully chosen, sometimes 
 careless and hasty, only hinting at much, and often obscure ; 
 now earnest and measured, now lively and witty.-^ 
 
 1 Nep. Att. 16. 
 
 - C. 183 ; T. i. 284 ; Mom. iv. 721 ; Watson's Select Letters of Cicero ; 
 Abeken's Life and Letters of Cicero, transl. by Merivale ; Forsyth's Cicero, 
 i. 72. 
 
 3 " Notwithstanding the manifold attractions offered by the other works 
 of Cicero, the man of taste, the historian, the antiquary, and the student of 
 human nature would willingly resign them all rather than be deprived of 
 the epistles. Whether we regard them as mere specimens of style, at one
 
 70 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 The order of the letters in the collection ad Atficiim, is, 
 in the main, chronological ; on the other hand, the col- 
 lection ad familiares is arranged, for the most part, accord- 
 ing to the persons addressed ; thus, for example, Book VIII 
 contains only letters of M. Cc-elius to Cicero, and Book XIV, 
 only letters of Cicero to his family. While the collection ad 
 Attictim contains only letters by Cicero himself, 90 letters 
 from others to Cicero are included in the ad familiares, 
 especially from M. Caelius, Caesar, Pompeius, Munatius Plan- 
 cus, Decimus and Marcus Brutus and Sulpicius Rufus. In 
 the collection ad Qitinfitmfrafrem, I, r, is especially impor- 
 tant, a letter which contains a complete list of instructi'ons 
 concerning the official duties of a Roman governor. Re- 
 specting the genuineness of the letters ad Brutiim (at least, 
 those of the second book), scholars are not agreed; it is 
 doubted by the majority. 
 
 In ancient times, Cicero's letters were much read and 
 quoted ; manuscripts, however, were first discovered by 
 Petrarch in the fourteenth century. 
 
 Concerning Cicero as a poet, see p. 40 ; as a historian, 
 see p. 72. 
 
 x'^s regards the judgment concerning Cicero as a writer and 
 as a man, an often depreciative hypercriticism has come in of 
 
 time reflecting tlie conversational tone of familiar every-day life in its most 
 graceful form, at another sparkling with wit, at another claiming applause 
 as works of art belonging to the highest class, at another couclied in all the 
 stiff courtesy of diplomatic reserve; or whether we consider the ample 
 materials derived from the purest and most inaccessible sources, which they 
 supply for a history of the Roman constitution during its last struggles, 
 affording a deep insight into the personal dispositions and motives of the 
 chief leaders, — or finally seek and find in them a complete key to the 
 character of Cicero himself, unlocking, as they do, the most hidden secrets 
 of his thoughts, and revealing the whole man — their value is altogether 
 inestimable." Ramsay.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 71 
 
 late,' in place of the earlier unqualified admiration. It cannot 
 be denied that Cicero can be charged with great deficiencies 
 and weaknesses ; especially does he lack independence and 
 firmness in political life ; he allows himself to be swayed by 
 fortunate and unfortunate circumstances ; is dependent upon 
 the moment, and capricious ; even in the literary field, 
 where his chief importance lies, he betrays a straining after 
 effect in his orations, and haste and superficiality in his 
 philosophical writings. 
 
 But in spite of all this, Cicero is and will remain a remark- 
 able character in history, and Varro's verdict will have to be 
 accepted as true : Qua maior pars vitre atque ingenii stetit, 
 ea iudicandum de homine est.- 
 
 Cicero, although living in an extremely corrupt period, 
 was pure in his manner of life, unselfish and incorruptible ; 
 a sincere patriot, bending his efforts toward the good, the 
 beautiful, and the true ; gentle toward his own family, obliging 
 to his friends, and especially ready to advance the interests 
 of younger men ; humane in the treatment of his slaves ; a 
 man of feeling and sentiment, possessed of extraordinary 
 intellectual capacities, a rare gift of speech, a strong imagi- 
 nation, and an abundance of esprit and wit. His activity in 
 the field of literature marks an advance in the development 
 of universal culture. For the Roman world he was a price- 
 less mediator of the elements of Greek culture. He raised 
 Latin language to the highest plane of development in form ; 
 and although he was not a complete Roman character, still 
 he furthered the interests of general culture in many direc- 
 tions. 
 
 1 Especially through Drumann and Mommsen. 
 
 2 Forsyth's Cicero, ii. 319 ; T. i. 261 ; Ritter, iv. 99.
 
 72 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 d. — History. 
 
 Writers of history in this period were numerous, and, 
 as a result of the growing acquaintance with Greek models, 
 the perfecting of the Latin language, the increasing at- 
 tention paid to rhetorical finish, and the growing interest 
 in higher culture in general, there arose an artistic and 
 methodical treatment of history, which, confining itself, on 
 the one hand, to the history of the times, or to particular 
 events, or embracing, on the other, the entire field of Roman 
 history and even universal history, proceeded on a definite 
 plan, and employed a method of presentation, well thought 
 out and suited to the subject-matter. The historical writers 
 were chiefly men who lived in the midst of political activity, 
 or, at least, belonged to a particular party, and hence his- 
 torical works represented, in some degree, the party stand- 
 point ; memoirs were also frequently written. ^Vhile, in the 
 time of the Republic, when there was freedom of speech, 
 historians turned their attention chiefly to tlie present or 
 the immediate past, the later historians saw themselves, on 
 account of the limitations introduced by the empire, obliged 
 to seek out more remote subjects.' 
 
 In the first half of this period, the writers were : T. Pom- 
 ponius Atticus," who compiled an accurate tabular view 
 of the entire field of Roman history, entitled (liber) An- 
 na/is, and wlio wrote in a similar way concerning several 
 aristocratic families; M. Tullius Cicero, who wrote a 
 detailed account of his consulship, which has not been pre- 
 served ; and Q. iElius Tubero, who treated of Roman 
 history up to bis own time. 
 
 Far more important, however, are the names that follow. 
 
 1 Ritter, iv. 9; T. i. 230; Mom. iv. 719. 2 f, ;_ i^g^
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 73 
 
 C. lulius Caesar, born July 12, 100 b.c, was a nephew 
 of Marius, through whose influence he became flamen dialis 
 in 87 ; in 8;^, he married the daughter of Cinna, and on 
 that account was reluctantly spared by Sulla ; 80-78, he 
 was in Asia ; in 78, accuser of the Optimates ; in 76, with 
 Molo in Rhodes; in 68, quaestor in Spain; in 65, aedile ; 
 in 63, pontifex maximus ; in 62, praetor ; in 61, governor in 
 Further Spain ; in 60, triumvir with Pompey and Crassus ; in 
 59, consul ; 58-50, proconsul in Gaul. He began, in 49, the 
 civil war against Pompey and the government of the Opti- 
 mates ; 48-45, gained the supreme power by defeating Pom- 
 pey at Pharsalus, and the Pompeian party in Africa and 
 Spain; was assassinated March 15, 44. 
 
 In addition to his unusual versatility, Caesar had also the 
 gift of oratory in uncommon measure. As an orator, he was 
 placed by the ancients by the side of Cicero, at least as 
 regards talent.' He treated the language itself in two books 
 entitled //e analogia. In his youth he also wrote verse. 
 Against Cato he wrote two atiticatoties. A work on astron- 
 omy is also ascribed to him. 
 
 Most important of all, however, are his Commetitarii de 
 bello Gallico and de bello civili? The former work contains, 
 in 7 books, the exploits of Caesar in Gaul, from 58 to 52 : 
 Book I, the victory over the Helvetians and Ariovistus in 
 the year 58 ; II, the conquest of the northern and north- 
 western peoples of Gaul in 57; III, the maritime war 
 against the Veneti, and the batiles with the Aquitani, 
 Menapii, and Morini in 56 ; IV, the conquest of the 
 Tencteri and Usipetes, the first passage of the Rhine, and 
 the first expedition to Britannia in 55 ; V, the second 
 expedition to Britannia, the destruction of fifteen cohorts 
 
 1 T. i. 314 ; C. 196. 2 c. 188 ; T. i. 317 ; Mom. iv. 720.
 
 74 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 by the Eburones in 54 ; VI, the restoration of peace in the 
 north, the second crossing of the Rhine, and the annihi- 
 lation of the Eburones in 53 ; VII, the conflicts with Ver- 
 cingetorix, and the final subjugation of Gaul in 52. 
 
 There is a geographical excursus in Book IV (1-3), con- 
 cerning the Suevi ; in V (12-14), concerning Britannia, and 
 in VI (11-28), concerning Gallia. 
 
 The Commeiifarii de bello civili contain : Book I, the 
 breaking out of the war, the expulsion of Pompey from 
 Italy, and the hostilities in Spain ; II, the contests about 
 Massilia, Caesar's appointment as Dictator, and Curio's defeat 
 in Africa ; III, the further progress of the war to the begin- 
 ning of the Alexandrian War. 
 
 In these writings the lines of Caesar's character are most 
 distinctly seen, — clearness of understanding, keenness of 
 judgment, sureness of perception, quickness of combination, 
 a calm mastery of things in the midst of the greatest external 
 confusion, facility, or rather apparently an entire absence of 
 labor, in his work ; on the other hand, also, a soberness of 
 mind, nay, even a coldness of temperament, which grasps 
 and desires only that which is real and useful, and that spe- 
 cifically Roman way of looking at things, which accords to 
 the foreigner no claim to an independent existence. In 
 respect to style, even the ancients praised the elegance, 
 ease, simplicity, and clearness of Caesar's Commentaries.^ 
 But in just this apparent objectivity lies a great art ; for 
 these works are, in reality, written from motives of personal 
 interest, being intended to justify partly his treatment of the 
 Gauls, and partly his appearance on the scene of action 
 
 1 Cic. Brut. 75, 262: valde probandi, nudi enim sunt, recti et venusti, 
 omni ornatu orationis velut veste detracta. Schlegel : Hist, of Lit. 70; Mer. 
 ii. 392 ; Froude's Caesar, 544.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 75 
 
 after the year 50. This purpose pervades the whole, but it 
 may be traced more clearly in his exposition of the causes 
 which drive him irresistibly onward, and of the motives 
 which ever seem to him right and imperative, than in his 
 narration of the events themselves, which (more indeed in 
 the bello Gallico than in the generally less carefully written 
 bello civili) is, perhaps, on the whole, in accordance with truth. 
 
 Without doubt, the Commentarii de bello Gallico were 
 written in the years 52 and 51, and published in 51 ; the 
 Commentarii de bello civili were composed, but not pub- 
 lished, in the last year of his life. 
 
 Continuations of these works are : dc bello Gallico liber 
 VIII, and bcllitm Alcx-anilrinum, both without doubt written, 
 and indeed skilfully, by Cssar's legate, A. Hirtius ; also 
 the far inferior writings concerning the bellinii Africannm and 
 bellin/i Hispaniense by imknown authors of little cultivation.' 
 
 Cornelius Nepos, born about 94 b.c, in Upper Italy, 
 lived for the most part in Rome, without office, on friendly 
 terms witli Catullus, Cicero, and especially Atticus, and died 
 about 30. He was the author of several works that have not 
 been preserved : Chfonicon, Exeinpla, Vila Catonis antl 
 Ciceronis, particularly, however, of the work de viris illustri- 
 bus, which treated, in at least 16 books, of a great number of 
 statesmen, generals, poets, etc., and in such a manner that 
 Greeks, Romans, and barbarians stood in contrast with each 
 other. Of this work, the book entitled de excclleniibus duct- 
 bus exterarum gentium is presen'ed. It consists of 19 bi- 
 ographies of Greek generals, arranged mainly in chronological 
 order, together with the biography of the Persian Datames, 
 of the Carthaginians Hamilcar and Hannibal, and of Cato 
 Maior and Atticus.^ 
 
 1 T. i. 320; C. 195. 2 c_ igS; T. i. 323; Mom. iv. 719.
 
 76 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Nepos followed, as it seems, the purpose, on the one hand, 
 of extending historical knowedge among the public at large, 
 and, on the other, of exercising a moral influence upon 
 the same. Hence, his language is simple and popular ; he 
 manifests sincere rejoicing at the good and abhorrence of 
 the evil ; he strives to be impartial even to a Hannibal, but 
 he falls into the error of almost always seeing an ideal char- 
 acter in the hero of whom he happens to be treating. In 
 general, there is a lack of independent and comprehensive 
 historical views ; the material is often selected without judg- 
 ment ; instead of what is really important, often details of the 
 nature of anecdotes are made prominent, and there appear in 
 addition not a few obscure and erroneous statements, which 
 testify to his haste in consulting his authorities. ^ These 
 failings, together with the fact that the style is monotonous 
 and impure, have led to the supposition that a certain i^mil- 
 ius Probus, in the time of Theodosius, worked over the exist- 
 ing collection after the original of Nepos. Sufficient reasons 
 for the acceptation of this theory are not at hand. For the 
 same reason the question whether Nepos is adapted to use 
 in the schools has been answered by many in the negative. 
 
 C. Sallustius Crispus was born in 86 B.C. in the Sabine 
 town of Amiternum. In his youth he led a gay life at Rome j 
 became quaestor about the year 59 ; in 52 tribune of the 
 people ; was an oj^iponent of Cicero and Pompey, and on this 
 account (ostensibly, however, on account of his bad life) was 
 expelled from the senate in 50, but was restored by Caesar, 
 made praetor, and, in 46, sent as proconsul to Africa, where 
 he amassed great wealth.- After Caesar's assassination, he 
 devoted himself entirely to literary pursuits, and died in 35. 
 
 1 Thucydides, Xenophon, Theopompus, and others. 
 
 2 Horti Sallustiani at Rome.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 77 
 
 Sallust wrote three works : Catilina, Bellum lugurthinum, 
 and HistoricB} 
 
 1. Catilina^ or de coniurafiojie Catilince. liber, gives an 
 account of the conspiracy of Catiline in the years d^, and 
 62, in connection with which the moral corruption, espe- 
 cially of the nobility, is disclosed for an ulterior purpose. 
 The services of Cicero, Sallust's former opponent, are not 
 depreciated ; also, Cato is treated without bias, and Caesar 
 with decided partiality. 
 
 Of special interest are the orations of Caesar and Cato 
 (c. 51-54) on the action of the senate concerning the 
 punishment of the arrested conspirators, and the character- 
 ization of both men. The work was probably published in 
 the year 42. 
 
 2. Bellum Iiigurthiniim gives an account of the war against 
 the Numidian king Jugurtha (111-106), in which the 
 stress falls upon the portrayal of the corrupt condition of 
 affairs at Rome under the misrule of the oligarchy, which 
 was exposed especially in the orations of the tribune of 
 the people, C. Memmius (c. 31), and of C. Marius (c. 85). 
 
 At the close of the war, and over against the terror 
 Cimbricus, Marius appears as the support of the Roman 
 State. 
 
 3. Historic^- embraces the period from 78 to 67. Only 
 fragments remain ; in particular, a few orations, which bear 
 witness to a riper historical skill than those found in the 
 Catilina and the Jugurtha. 
 
 Sallust is called by MartiaP /;7;««i- Roniana iti Jiistoria, 
 and rightly so, considering that he was the first to treat 
 historical writing as an art, with a conscious method in 
 the choice of subject and form. His chief model was 
 
 1 C. 200 ; T. i. 344. 2 c_ 202. 3 Mar. xiv. 191.
 
 7^ ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Thucydides. Although confining himself essentially to 
 the history of his time, Sallust yet shows a comprehensive 
 survey of general Roman history, and a correct insight 
 into the epochs of internal development in government, 
 culture, and morals. i The existing corruption impels him 
 to a moral pathos, which, in view of his manner of life in 
 earlier years, some have been disposed to consider insincere 
 and affected ; but it has not been sufficiently borne in mind 
 that a change in his moral principles and views was possible 
 in later years. 
 
 Although personally belonging to the democratic party, or, 
 as it might be called, the imperial party (that of Ctesar), 
 and endeavoring to show the inherent weakness of the 
 republican government, still, he is unpartisan and just in his 
 judgment even of aristocratic celebrities, such as Metellus, 
 Cato, and even Sulla, and not blind to the real character 
 of such a demagogue as Marius. His narrative, however, 
 is incomplete, and often inaccurate, especially in chrono- 
 logical matters. His main strength lies in the delineation 
 of character and in psychological arrangement. The signifi- 
 cance of prominent individuals in the progress of history is 
 sharply brought out.- 
 
 Sallust's language is often artificially antiquated, studied, 
 and obscure ; but it is rich in thought, forcible and apt in 
 characterization, plastic in portrayal and description, often 
 dramatic in its vivacity and realism.^ Some of the writings 
 ascribed to Sallust are not genuine, as, for example, two 
 epistulce ad CcBsarem, invectiva in Ciceronem, and others. 
 
 In the Augustan Period, historians stand in the first rank 
 among prose writers."^ Among others, Augustus and 
 
 1 Cf. especially Cat. 6-13; lug. 41, seq; T. i. 348. 
 
 2 Cf. especially Cat. 53. 3 q^ 204. 
 
 * T. i. 386.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 79 
 
 his friend M. Vipsanius Agrippa treated of their own 
 time; the former in 13 books, de vita sua, and an index 
 rerum a se gestarum, the greater part of which was dis- 
 covered in a copy in the temple of Augustus at Ancyra in 
 Galatia, — the so-called monuinentum Ancyranum ; Agrippa, 
 in an autobiography and in memoirs y Also, M. Valerius 
 Messala wrote memoirs, perhaps in the Greek language. 
 
 Asinius PoUio- (75 B.C.-5 a.d) wrote from a republican 
 standpoint'' a History of the Civil Wars beginning with the 
 year 60 B.C. This work was not completed and has not 
 been preserved. 
 
 By far the most prominent historian of the Augustan 
 Period is, however, T. Livius,' born at Patavium (Padua), 
 59 B.C., without doubt from an illustrious family. He was 
 trained in philosophy and rhetoric at Rome ; soon took up 
 his permanent residence there, where he came into intimate 
 relations with Augustus ; remained without office or political 
 activity, and died i 7 a.d. in his native city, where a mauso- 
 leum was raised to him in 1548. 
 
 Besides rhetorical and philosophical writings (dia/ogi), 
 which have not come down to us, he wrote a history of 
 Rome, from yEneas to at least 9 B.C., in 142 books,^ entitled 
 ai> urbe condita libri. Of these liave been preserved Books 
 I-X and XXI-XLV, which embrace the period 754-293 
 and 218-167. Tlie loss of the other books is poorly sup- 
 plied by the periochce or epitomce. 
 
 Livy's purpose was,*^ in contrast to the unsatisfying and 
 degenerate present, to call to life again the better past, which 
 
 1 T. i. 393. " T. i. 398. 3 Cf. Hor. Od. ii. i. 
 
 ■* T. i. 492 ; C. 322 ; Mer. iv. 436 ; Seeley's Livy : Introd. 
 
 5 Probably designed to reach the number of 150, to the death of 
 Augustus. 
 
 6 Cf. prcefatio.
 
 8o ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 appeared to him in an ideal light, and, in his history, to hold 
 before his contemporaries a picture of morality. ^ 
 
 For this Livy possessed the necessary qualities, — some of 
 them, indeed, in rich measure, — a vivid imagination, moral 
 sensitiveness, a warm heart, love of the truth, a genuine sym- 
 pathy for the good and noble, and a natural oratorical power, 
 cultivated in the schools of rhetoric. 
 
 The ancients gave prominence to the following qualities 
 as belonging to him : Mira facundia, jucunditas, candor, 
 lactea ubertas.- Livius candidissimus omnium magnorum 
 ingeniorum jestimator.^ In religious matters he holds 
 fast to the traditional and positive as the foundation of 
 the Roman state. He attaches value to prodigies and 
 ceremonies, although he sometimes gives utterance to fatal- 
 istic views. In political matters he is an admirer of the 
 Republic and of the rule of the Optimates,^ yet probably 
 without any deep, settled conviction, and, at all events, 
 without any dangerous inclination to oppose the Empire. 
 The weakest side of his work is his account of the internal 
 development of the Roman State.^ Concerning the eariier 
 Roman government, especially the true relation of things 
 during the conflict between Patricians and Plebeians, and 
 also concerning military affairs, he has often incorrect, and 
 even radically false, views ; also, he does not trouble him- 
 self carefully to study the existing records and monuments ; 
 he brings, rather, the externals of history, especially wars, 
 into the foreground, 
 
 1 See, especially, praef. § lo : the present offers no hope, and cannot be 
 improved, — nee vitia nostra nee remedia pati possumus; history presents 
 enough examples both of those things which should be done, and of those 
 which should be left undone. 
 
 2 Quint. Inst. Orat. xi. loi. 3 Sen. Suas. vi. 21, seq. 
 * Hence called by Augustus, Pompeianus, Tac. Ann. iv. 34. 
 
 6 C. 327.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 8l 
 
 Among the Roman annalists he makes special use of the 
 later ones ; among others, of Licinius Macer and Valerius 
 Antias, whose untrustworthiness he discovers only in the prog- 
 ress of his work. He employs them often without discrimina- 
 tion, consistency, or independent judgment. From the third 
 decade on, he makes use, for the most part, of Polybius, 
 but without the requisite care ; on which account, mistakes, 
 repetitions, and contradictions not unfrequently occur. The 
 arrangement of events is, in the main, the traditional annal- 
 istic one.' 
 
 These failings, however, are gladly forgotten in view of 
 his love for the truth, only now and then repressed by 
 patriotism and tradition, — as, for example, in his treatment 
 of Hannibal ; — in view of his generous, humane temper of 
 mind, the grace, clearness, and ease of his presentation,^ 
 the charming poetic coloring with which lie invests par- 
 ticularly the oldest history, and the brilliant rhetoric which 
 he displays in the numerous speeches.^ 
 
 Livy's talents found, even in his lifetime, great recogni- 
 tion,'* though Asinius PoUio thought he discovered a certain 
 provincial tone (Patavinitas), the nature of which is, for us, 
 at least, difificult to discover. 
 
 As early as 500 a.d., the work was divided into decades, 
 of which the third, containing the Second Punic War, — the 
 finest part of the work, — was most frequently read and 
 copied.^ 
 
 1 C. 325. 
 
 2 Quintilian compares him, in this respect, to Herodotus. 
 
 3 T. i. 497 ; C. 329 ; Mer. iv. 438 ; Schlegel : Hist, of Lit. 74. 
 
 ^ According to Pliny, Epp. ii. 3, a man made a journey from Gades to 
 Rome for the express purpose of seeing Livy. 
 
 5 In the seventeenth century, the philologist, J. Freinsheim, born at Ulm, 
 and Professor at Upsala and Heidelberg, attempted to supply the missing 
 books in Livy's style.
 
 8^ ROMAN LITERAIURE. 
 
 Pompeius Trogus, a contemporary of Livy, wrote his- 
 tori(B philippitLt in 44 books, a universal history from Ninus 
 down to his own time, in which special regard was paid to 
 Macedonia and the period of Alexander's successors, while 
 Roman history was treated with comparative neglect. The 
 work is extant only in the brief, dry compendium made by 
 lustinus, probably about the year 150 a.d. The epitome, 
 which professedly " omitted what was neither entertaining 
 nor necessary," was prepared with little judgment. 
 
 The acta senatus^ and the acta populi- (Romani) 
 constituted an historical authority. The former were pro- 
 tocols of the senate, which, according to a regulation of 
 Caesar, were, after the year 59, recorded and published, but 
 which, afterwards, according to an edict of Augustus, were 
 only recorded ; the latter,'^ a daily record which contained all 
 sorts of official and private news, and was kept up through 
 the entire period of the emperors, but of which no genuine 
 remains are preserved. Both of these acta were placed for 
 safe keeping in the Tabularium, and could there be con- 
 sulted for literary purposes. 
 
 e, — Special Sciences. 
 
 M. Terentius Varro^ was active partly in the depart- 
 ment of history, and pardy in different fields of special 
 science. He was born in 116 B.C. at Reate in Sabinum ; 
 was a follower of Pompey, for whom he fought unsuccess- 
 fully in Spain in the year 49 ; was pardoned by Caesar, and 
 appointed superintendent of the public library ; Avas pro- 
 scribed in 43, but made his escape, and died in the year 
 27. He was the most learned man and the most prohfic 
 
 1 t^iiO ciiW&A publica, ox diurna. "^ Aler. iv. 330. 
 
 2 T. 1. 379 ; Mom. iv. 722. * T. i. 236 ; C. 142.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. S;^ 
 
 author of ancient Rome, a polyhistor in the highest sense. 
 His knowledge and his writings embraced almost all con- 
 ceivable subjects. The entire number of his writings 
 amounted to over 70 works, in more than 600 volumes. 
 Among his poetical productions, the Satiira MenippecE 
 (see p. 45) are worthy of special mention. Of his prose 
 works,^ the most important are : Libri IX disciplinarum, 
 an encyclopaedia of the sciences, especially of the later 
 so-called seven liberal arts, the trivium {^grammar, dialectics, 
 and rhetoric), and the quadrivium {arithmetic, geometry, 
 astronomy, and music), and, besides these, medicine and 
 architecture ; the imagines, or hebdomades, in 15 books, con- 
 taining portraits of celebrated Greeks and Romans, with 
 short metrical explanations. Roman antiquities were treated 
 in the libri XLI antiquitatum, of which res humance em- 
 braced 25 books, and res divince 16; and in a series of 
 monographs, as, for example, de gcntc populi Romaui, de 
 vita populi Romani, cetia{= alri'i), explanations of Ro- 
 man customs, etc. The history of literature was represented 
 by numerous writings having special reference to the tech- 
 nique of the drama; law, by libri X de Jure civili ; phi- 
 lology, by libri XXV de lingua Latina,^ of which. Books V-X 
 are preserved, though incomplete and corrupt, — a collection 
 of material which he had not worked over into proper shape ; 
 agriculture, by libri III re rum rusticarum, almost entirely 
 preserved, and treating of tillage, cattle-raising, poultry- 
 breeding, and fish-culture. 
 
 In all these works the subject-matter possesses for Varro 
 the chief interest, while little value is attached to the form. 
 Hence the language is uneven and frequently mixed with 
 plebeian and archaic elements. Not unfrequently, however, 
 
 1 T. i. 241 ; C. 146. 2 T. i. 247 ; C. 151 ; Mom. iv. 730.
 
 84 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 a quaint humor appears. His standpoint is specifically Ro- 
 man, yet he does not ignore Greek culture. On account 
 of the abundant material which his works contained, Varro 
 was much used by later writers, especially by Augustine, 
 and thus many separate passages have been preserved. 
 
 Other writers on special sciences follow. In Law, S. 
 Sulpicius Rufus ^ and A. Ofilius were important. The 
 former was born 105 B.C., was consul in 51, and died in 43 ; 
 he was a friend of Cicero, and the most learned jurist of his 
 time, and also the author of numerous works ; Ofilius, his 
 pupil, was also a very prolific writer, and held in high esteem, 
 especially by Caesar. C. Trebatius Testa, born about 
 90, was a high legal authority in Augustus' time. His pupil 
 was M. Antistius Labeo- (60 b.c.-ii a.d.), who, in re- 
 spect to thorough and comprehensive learning, as well as 
 independence of character and political attitude, stood far 
 above his rival, C. Ateius Capito (34 B.C.-21 a.d.), who 
 courted the favor of Augustus, and was preferred by him. 
 Both were copious writers. 
 
 Archaeology and Philology were represented (besides 
 by Varro) by P. Nigidius Figulus=^ (d. 45 b.c), who 
 wrote commentarii grammatici, in 30 books, as well as works 
 on theology and natural science; also by M. Verrius 
 Flaccus,'* a freedman, whom Augustus chose as teacher for 
 his grand-children, and who died under Tiberius. He wrote 
 fasti, and a very learned antiquarian work, de verbonun signi- 
 ficatu, of which, probably in the middle of the second cen- 
 tury, A.D., Pompeius Festus made an epitome, which has 
 been in part preserved, from which, in turn, a priest named 
 Paulus, living under Charlemagne, made excerpts. In spite 
 of the corrupt form in which the epitomists have left this 
 
 1 T. i. 257 ; C. 157. ^ T. i. 327 ; C. 158 ; Mom. iv. 669. 
 
 2 T. i. 387, 526. * T. i. 511 ; C. 333.
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 85 
 
 work, the extant portions are of value as a repository of 
 facts. lulius Hyginus,^ a freedman of Augustus, and 
 director of the Palatine Library, wrote numerous works on 
 geography, history, agriculture, etc. ; also commentaries 
 on Vifgit. His 277 Fables, a hand-book of Mythology, the 
 present form of which does not, however, go back to 
 Hyginus, and 4 books de astronomia, are, in great part, 
 preserved. 
 
 In Architecture, we possess 10 Books de architectura, 
 by the architect Vitruvius Pollio.~ Books I-VII treat 
 ,of buildings, VIII, of aqueducts, IX, of instruments for 
 measuring time, X, of machines. The work is dedicated 
 to Augustus, and is rich and comprehensive . in its con- 
 tents, but is written in an uneven and often awkward 
 style. 
 
 For Geography, — besides the already-mentioned writ- 
 ings of Varro and Hyginus, and exclusive of notes of travel, 
 and occasional remarks in historical and other works, — the 
 survey of the Roman Empire was important, which was 
 set on foot by Caesar, and completed under Augustus in 19 
 B.C. In this undertaking Agrippa -^ took an active part, by 
 drawing up lists of mountains, bodies of water, and bounda- 
 ries of places, and also by sketching a map of the world ; 
 for which reason, after his death, a tablet representing the 
 world, and based upon this sketch, was placed by Augustus 
 in the colonnade which bore Agrippa's name. 
 
 1 T. i 515. 2 T. i. 522; C. 331. 3 T. i. 217; Mer. iv. 323.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 
 
 The Silver Age of Roman Literature, 14-117 a.d., from 
 Tiberius to the Death of Trajan. 
 
 THE Ciceronian and Augustan Periods left to the 
 following generations an unusually rich literary inher- 
 itance, but the rule of tlie imperial despots from Tiberius 
 to Domitian (interrupted only by the brief reigns of Ves- 
 pasian and Titus, 70-81), that is, almost the whole of the 
 first century after Christ, was extremely unfavorable for in- 
 creasing this inheritance, or for making it profitable and fruit- 
 ful. The persistent suppression of freedom in thought, word, 
 and deed ; the closing up of those avenues of activity in 
 which the Roman mind had shown an original and creative 
 power, namely, oratory and history ; the complete cessa- 
 tion of political life, resulted either in resignation and apathy, 
 or in stifled animosity and secret opposition, or in servile 
 fawning and flattery.^ Prevented from speaking in a simple, 
 natural, and straightforward manner, the writers of this 
 period sought to supply the want, of which they were only 
 too deeply conscious, by a pathos incommensurate with the 
 subject, by a pretentious, but often empty, play with figures 
 of speech and sententious phrases, by a sort of significant 
 obscurity and conciseness, and by a forced striving after 
 contrast and striking effects. Just as in life, so in speaking 
 and writing, there was a lack of naturalness and frankness ; 
 
 1 T. ii. 2; C. 341; Mer. V. 261; Schlegel : Hist, of Lit. 75. 
 
 86
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 87 
 
 men were conscious of being watched everywliere and at all 
 times, and thus were obliged to be watchful in return ; 
 since their true thoughts and feelings had to shun the light 
 of day, they fell into a habit of playing a part, into a false 
 artificiality, into a disgusted aversion to what was near and 
 healthy, into affectation and mannerism, and in these de- 
 viations and wanderings which were, in themselves, a clear 
 sign of retrogression and approaching downfall, they became 
 wont to see even an excellence and an advance ; they came 
 to delight in this state of things, and, consciously or uncon- 
 sciously, helped to make it worse. For the same reason, 
 the language of the so-called Silver Age took on a very 
 different character from that of the Ciceronian, or even 
 of the Augustan Period.' The vocabulary became much 
 changed, partly by the invention of new words and phrases, 
 and still more by the loss and rejection of those which had 
 hitherto been in use ; rhetorical figures took the place of 
 the proper and natural expression ; the rounded periods of 
 a Cicero or a Livy were broken up into short, detached 
 sentences, often having scarcely any connection with each 
 other ; the law of objectivity, the universal law of language, 
 was destroyed by subjectivity and arbitrariness ; prose and 
 poetry were massed together without preserving definite lines 
 of demarcation, and without a fine sense of the difference 
 between them. The type of this style is Seneca; Quin- 
 tilian in vain attempted an opposition to it. 
 
 Although, in spite of all unfavorable circumstances, there 
 were still influences which were favorable to literature, — 
 knowledge and use of the literary treasures of earlier times, 
 the increase of the book-trade, the ever more frequent found- 
 ing and using of libraries, the frequenting of public readings 
 
 1 T. ii. 4.
 
 88 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 {recihttiones), — nevertheless, all this was of service to litera- 
 ture only so far as the latter was inoffensive and without dan- 
 ger to the government. Hence poetry and rhetoric stood in 
 the foreground ; both were universally employed in the edu- 
 cation of youth, and hence universally practiced. ' Poetry, 
 however, was followed, in the main, from no inward im- 
 pulse, was without originality and inner truth ; it acquired a 
 learned character, for which reason the poets of this period 
 were often called docti ; hence the unreal and manufac- 
 tured lyric poetry of this period is worthless. 
 
 Epic poetry is most abundantly represented, especially be- 
 cause this could draw rich and exhaustless material from the 
 safe realm of mythology. The Greek and Roman poets of 
 the Augustan Period, particularly Virgil and Ovid, were 
 imitated and reproduced ; such poetry won praise and 
 money {Iionos et pi'mnium), since even the majority of the 
 emperors had a taste for it. Domitian himself introduced 
 a poetical contest with the conferring of a poet's wreath 
 upon the victor. On the whole, however, it was only an 
 artificial, labored, amateur poetry, or a restrained, calculating, 
 servile poetry. 
 
 Oratory, in the lack of a public theatre of action, confined 
 itself to the exercises of the schools, taking the form of 
 declamationes, suasorice, especially controversicB^ in which, 
 by preference, such questions were discussed as lay far from 
 reality, nay even from probability and possibility. 
 
 Learning, especially as represented by the elder Pliny, 
 took an important position beside oratory. 
 
 History, during the period of depotism, was obliged either 
 to be altogether silent, or, when it did not flatter, to be 
 cultivated in secret. A greater freedom of movement, which 
 
 1 T.ii. 7. 2 T. i.544; C.321.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 89 
 
 made a new impulse possible for historical writing as well 
 as for satire, began first under Nerva and Trajan. 
 
 Rome remained, it is true, in this, as in former periods, 
 the central point, controlling literary culture and production ; 
 yet literary names appear more and more not from Italy 
 alone, but also from many provinces, especially Spain and 
 Gaul. 
 
 I. POETRY. 
 
 a. — The Drajtna. 
 
 On the stage the Mime and the Pantomime^ (see p. 38), 
 in this, as in the foregoing period, retained a. decided pre- 
 dominance. Whatever else was produced in the drama, 
 especially in tragedy, was mostly designed, not for represen- 
 tation, but for private reading and recitation. As tragic poets 
 are mentioned : Pomponius Secundus,- who lived under 
 Tiberius and Caligula, and was reckoned by Quintilian as the 
 foremost tragic writer of his time ; somewhat later, Curia- 
 tius Maternus"^ (the same that appears in the Dialogus of 
 Tacitus), who composed mythological tragedies ?C(\(S. pi-cetextce 
 of a liberal tendency, as, for example, the Cato. 
 
 From this period are extant only the 10 tragedies'^ of the 
 philosopher Seneca, of which 8 are complete and 2 incom- 
 plete. They all take their subjects from Greek mythology, and 
 are composed according to Greek models, but are so rhetori- 
 cal in their composition that their dramatic character is there- 
 by lost. Seneca's authorship of these ten plays is not to be 
 doubted ; on the other hand the prsetexta Octavia, also 
 ascribed to him, wherein the fate of the unfortunate wife of 
 
 1 T. i. 8. 3 T. ii. 116; Mer. vii. 30. 
 
 2 T. ii. 32 ; C. 350. ■* T. ii. 49 ; C. 374.
 
 90 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Nero is treated, certainly did not originate with Seneca. 
 On account of the correctness of the versification and the 
 abundance of maxims, these tragedies served as models for 
 the French tragic writers, Corneille, Racine, and others. An 
 unfinished tragedy of Lucan is mentioned. 
 
 b.—The Epos. 
 
 ■This was partly historical and partly mythological. A 
 poem by the emperor Nero, entitled Troica} is cited, from 
 which, probably, the aAojo-is 'lAtou was taken, which Nero 
 sung with the accompaniment of the cithara, at the burning 
 of Rome in the year 64 a.d. 
 
 The most important epic poet of this period was M. An- 
 naeus Lucanus,- born 39 a.d., at Corduba in Spain. He 
 was the nephew of the philosopher Seneca ; was educated at 
 Rome, and, for a long time, the favorite and panegyrist of 
 Nero ; afterwards, however, he fell into disfavor, ostensibly 
 because Nero was jealous of Lucan's fame as a poet.^ For 
 that reason, he took part in the conspiracy of Piso, and, after 
 the discovery of the same, was compelled, in the year 65, to 
 commit suicide by opening his veins. Of his poems of vari- 
 ous kinds,'* there remains only the Pharsalia^ (incomplete), 
 in 10 books, which treats of the civil war between Caesar and 
 Pompey to the time of C?esar's blockade at Alexandria, wTit- 
 ten in a very, one might say, too historical manner,^ and with a 
 positive and designedly one-sided party bias for Pompey, as 
 the representative of freedom, for Cato and the Republic. 
 
 1 T. ii. 37; C. 353. 2 T. ii. 82; C. 359; Men vi. 235. 
 
 3 Tac. XV. 49. 
 
 4 He wrote among other things, saturnalia, s'llvcB, epigrams, a tragedy 
 called Medea; also prose works. ^ C. 361. 
 
 6 Hence it is not without value as an historical authority.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD, Ql 
 
 As a zealous Stoic, the poet exhibits an honorable, but 
 somewhat fickle disposition, and a talent, strong and fresh, 
 but, on account of his youth, not as yet possessing requisite 
 moderation, and not trained to a full and even sense of form.^ 
 Pathetic speeches and descriptions are quite too prominent. 
 The finest portions are the characterizations of dilTerent per- 
 sons, as of Pompey and Caesar,- and of Cato Uticensis.^ The 
 defects of the work were correctly apprehended by the 
 ancients.^ 
 
 Besides Lucan the following epic writers are worthy of 
 mention : C. Valerius Flaccus,^ who, under Vespasian, 
 wrote 8 books entitled Argonautica, after the model of Apol- 
 lonius Rhodius, correct in form, but in a style diffuse, de- 
 clamatory, often artificial and obscure. 
 
 C. Silius Italicus,^ who was born 25 a.d., was consul in 
 68, and lived afterwards in the most enjoyable circumstances 
 in Campania as a man of wealth ; but in 10 1, on account of 
 some bodily suffering, he died a voluntary death by starvation. 
 An ardent admirer of Virgil, but possessing only ordinary 
 ability, Silius wrote an epic poem, in 1 7 books, entitled Pu- 
 nka, which contains an account of the Second Punic War 
 up to the triumph of Scipio, with servile imitation of Homer 
 and Virgil in style, and with a close following of Livy '^ in 
 subject-matter. 
 
 P. Papinius Statius^ was born about 45 a.d. at Naples, 
 and died about 96. He was a flatterer and freedman of Do- 
 
 1 C. 364. 2 i_ 129-150. 3 ii 380-391. 
 
 ■* Thus Quintilian (Inst. Orat. x. i, 90) says: Lucanus ardens et conci- 
 tatus et sententiis clarissimus et magis oratoribus quam poetis imitandus; 
 and Servius, in a note on Virgil (^5n. i. 382) : Lucanus videtur historian) 
 composuisse non poema. 
 
 5 C. 419; T. ii. 114. S T. ii. 120; C. 421 ; Mer. vii. 222. 
 
 "^ 'Maiore cura quam ingenio, as Pliny says, Epp. iii. 7. 
 
 8 T. ii. 123 ; C. 423 ; Mer. vii. 229 ; Con. i. 348.
 
 92 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 mitian, and wrote, besides an unllnished Achilleis in i^ books, 
 a Thebais, in which the legend of Eteocles and Polynices is 
 treated in a diffuse, florid, and artificial style, full of mytho- 
 logical learning. The Silvce, as corresponding to the nature 
 of the poet, which was suited to light versification, are far 
 more successful and enjoyable. These consist of 32 occa- 
 sional poems, in 5 books, which were thrown off in careless 
 style,' and which treat of deaths, births, partings, the eques- 
 trian statue of Domitian, and the like, for the most part in 
 epic metre, partly, also, in Alcaic, Sapphic, and Phal^cian 
 (pendecasyllabic) metres. 
 
 Numerous attempts were made in the department of the 
 Didactic Epos, as for example, by Germanicus,- the son 
 of Drusus, who translated, with tolerable skill, the Pheno- 
 mena of Aratus of Soli, an astronomical text-book ; perhaps 
 also by Csesius Bassus,^ a friend of Persius, and editor 
 of his Satires, to whom a didactic poem entitled de mefris is 
 ascribed ; furthermore, in the time of Nero originated a 
 poem entitled Aitna, which treats of volcanoes, and which, 
 made up of 645 correct hexameters, maintains a somewhat 
 dry tone, and, in contrast to the popular belief, assumes a 
 rationalistic standpoint in regard to myths. The author is 
 supposed to be Lucilius Junior,'* who was imperial pro- 
 curator in Sicily, and is known through his correspondence 
 with Seneca. 
 
 c. — Satire and Fable. 
 
 Satire had, indeed, in this period, a rich and even abun- 
 dant material at its service, but it could not venture upon the 
 
 1 In contrast with the Thebais, a work of twelve years. 
 
 a T. ii. 9 ; C. 349. 3 T. ii. 87 . C. 356. ' 4 T. ii. 95 ; C. 372.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 93 
 
 political arena so long as the imperial despotism continued,^ 
 and it was obliged, therefore, to confine itself to literary and 
 certain social matters. Not until the time of Trajan was 
 the Satire allowed a greater freedom. Under the pressure 
 of despotism, it assumed a bitter and crabbed tone, as in 
 the cases of Persius and Juvenal ; Petronius alone did not 
 suffer his good humor to be disturbed. 
 
 The chief representatives of the Satire are given below. 
 
 A. Persius Flaccus- was born 34 a.d., at Volaterrae 
 in Etruria, and was educated at Rome, chiefly by the Stoic, 
 Annseus Cornutus. He lived only till the year 62. He 
 possessed a morally pure mind and manner of life, was 
 inspired with the Stoic ideal of virtue, and hence was at 
 variance with the spirit of his times ; but he lacked vivid 
 poetic endowment and an adequate knowledge of life and 
 reality. Persius wrote Satires which, indeed (at least, the 
 first, in whicla the poetical standpoint of the author is set 
 forth), are not without life, but which are, on the whole, 
 only theoretical treatises on Stoic doctrines ; for example, 
 Sat. IV discusses self-knowledge ; V, the true freedom of 
 the wise man, i.e., of the Stoic ; VI, hfe according to nature. 
 On account of their obscure sententiousness and concise- 
 ness of language, their forced metaphors and looseness of 
 development and connection, the Satires of Persius are 
 very difficult of comprehension ; still, they were admired 
 even in antiquity on account of their ethical tendency, and 
 were much read, especially in the Middle Ages. 
 
 The philosopher, Seneca, wrote a pohtical Satire^ entitled 
 Indus de ftiorte Claiidii (also called Apocolocyntosis, — trans- 
 
 1 Only against the emperor Claudius did Seneca feel himself permitted 
 to direct his Apocolocyntosis. 
 
 2 T. ii. 79; C. 355 ; Mer. vi. 233 ; Conington's Persius : Introd. 
 8 C. 2)11 '> T. ii. 47 ; Mer. v. 463.
 
 94 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 formation into a pumpkin), in which he again took up the 
 form of the Satura Menippea (see p. 45) . This is a venomous 
 Satire on the apotheosis of the weak-minded emperor Clau- 
 dius, by whom Seneca was banished to Corsica in the year 41. 
 Claudius is compelled to throw dice in Heaven, always with 
 a goblet that has no bottom, so that the dice constantly fall 
 through ; he is then given over to Caligula as a slave and 
 spy, and finally to Menander, a freedman of yEacus. In 
 comparison with Claudius, Nero is extolled. 
 
 The satirical romance of Petronius Arbiter ^ (originally 
 consisting of 20 books) had also the form and character of 
 the Satura Menippea. Of this work, however, only a series of 
 fragments remains, in particular the cena Trimalchiojiis, a 
 description of a feast in the house of an enormously wealthy 
 upstart, who, though of very plebeian manners, and utterly 
 lacking in taste and culture, yet makes a foolish exhibition 
 of himself- with disgusting boastfulness. The scene of the 
 story is laid in Lower Italy ; the story itself is put in the 
 mouth of different persons, especially of the freedman En- 
 colpius, and hence the language varies according to the 
 grade of culture of the speaker. The work abounds in crude 
 and often very coarse elements ; is, however, full of spirit 
 and wit, and highly interesting as giving a knowledge of the 
 moral and social condition of the times, as well as of the 
 colloquial language, especially of the lower classes. Accord- 
 ing to the description of Petronius' character as given by 
 Tacitus, it is, perhaps, not improbable that the author is 
 identical with the C. Petronius who, according to Tacitus,^ 
 was the confidant and maitre de plaisir of the emperor 
 Nero, and was compelled by him to commit suicide in 66 
 
 1 T. ii. 88 ; C. 394; Mer. vi. 164. 3 Ann. xvi. 17, seq. 
 
 2 Putidissima iactatio, Pelr. ^^ 73.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD, 95 
 
 A.D. It is, however, more certain that the work was com- 
 posed in the time of Nero. 
 
 The most important satirist of this period is Dec. Junius 
 luvenalis, who was born at Aquinum (about the year 50?), 
 received rhetorical instruction at Rome, was, for a tune, ad- 
 vocate, and also tribunus militum in Britain under Domitian, 
 and was banished in extreme old age, probably under Ha- 
 drian, either to Egypt or Britain, ostensibly on account of 
 an allusion to a favorite of the Emperor in Sat. VII, 90. It 
 is probable that he died in exile. 
 
 Of Juvenal we have 16 Satires ^ in 5 books, arranged ac- 
 cording to the time of their composition, which, though not 
 written until the time of Trajan and Hadrian,. treat almost 
 entirely, so far as matters are not considered which pertain 
 to man in general, of Romans and Roman affairs under the 
 reign of Domitian. 
 
 Juvenal's satire ^ is an outcome of Domitian's reign of ter- 
 ror. The poet expresses his feeling in I, 89 : facit indig- 
 natio versum, — his indignation makes him a poet. In 
 consequence of what he has experienced and felt, he is a 
 pessimist in his view of mankind ; a nihilist, in respect to re- 
 ligion ; as a delineator of customs and as a poet, a realist, 
 and the last, indeed, to an extreme. He portrays in its most 
 naked hideousness the vicious society of his time, — so 
 vicious as boldly to flaunt its vice, — -with a rhetorical 
 pathos of delineation reaching to the offensive and disgust- 
 ing ; yet the language is for the most part forcible, drastic, 
 and moving, though sometimes difficult to understand. 
 
 The later satires'^ have a less passionate, more languid tone 
 than the earlier, a fact which is explained by the increasing 
 
 1 T. ii.156; C. 442; Macleane's Commentary : Introd. ; Mayor's JuvenaL 
 
 2 C. 445 ; Mer. vii. 228, 273. 3 Mer. vii. 276.
 
 96 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 age of the poet, but which has given occasion to critics' 
 for groundless and untenable doubts as to the genuineness 
 of Satires X, XII-XV, and separate parts of other satires. 
 
 The most interesting satires are : I, the standpoint of the 
 poet ; III, the disagreeable features of life in the metropolis ; 
 IV, an anecdote from Domitian's time ; V, the misery of 
 clients ; VII, the position of literary men. 
 
 The Fable, styled by Seneca- intemptatuin Romanis 
 ingeniis opus, was first treated as a special kind of poetry 
 by Phsedrus,-' of whom nothing is known except that he 
 was a native of Pieria, that he came to Rome as a slave, was 
 set free by Augustus, and was persecuted under Tiberius on 
 account of some offensive verses. 
 
 His 92 fables of animals, for the most part imitated from 
 ^sop, and written in iambic trimeter, form 5 books. Some 
 anecdotes are intermingled with them. They have for their 
 object the moral improvement of the reader, yet, at the 
 same time, they preserve a sprightly tone.'* They are, on 
 the whole, metrically correct, and written in fluent, if not 
 (especially in the later books) quite pure, language. Whether 
 the fables contained in the appendix are to be ascribed to 
 Phgedrus is doubtful. 
 
 <?.— Lyric Poetry and Epigram. 
 
 Lyric Poetry was represented in this period by no im- 
 portant production, although the preparation of lyric poems 
 according to set rule and pattern was a very common occu- 
 
 1 Among them, O. Ribbeck. 
 
 2 Consol. ad Polyb. 8, 27. 
 
 ' T. ii. 32; C. 349; Mer. v. 262. 
 
 * Cf. prolog, to Lib. I : duplex libelli dos est : quod risum movet et quod 
 prudenti vitam consilio monet.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 97 
 
 pation, so that many persons considered it a duty, from time 
 to time, perhaps every day, to produce something in verse. 
 
 Quintihan^ mentions Caesius Bassus, the friend of 
 Persius (see p. 92) as a l>Tic poet. Among the best lyrics 
 belong the silvce of Statius^ (see p. 91). Erotic poems 
 were written by Arruntius Stella,^ a friend of Statins, and 
 Sulpicia,'' the wife of Calenus, to whom is ascribed, also, a 
 satire which is, without doubt, of later origin, and has often 
 been appended to the works of Ausonius or Juvenal. 
 
 On the other hand, the Epigram found skilful treatment 
 at the hands of M. Valerius Martialis,^ who, born at 
 Bilbilis in Spain about the year 40, lived chiefly at Rome in 
 limited circumstances, althougli he was rewarded by Domi- 
 tian for his flatteries with the ius trium liberorum and the 
 office of tribune. About the year 98 he returned to Bilbilis, 
 received an estate there as a present from a domina Mar- 
 cella, and died in the year 102, probably at the same place. 
 
 His epigrams,'' 1555 in all, in 14 books, together with a 
 liber spectaciilorum, are partly mere mottoes for presents''' at 
 the Saturnalia, and partly real epigrams witli a designed 
 point at the close, in which the whole effect lies. They are 
 written in elegiac, phalaecian, and choliambic metres. Mar- 
 tial had a remarkable gift for seizing upon the ridiculous 
 and piquant, and also upon the common, the ugly, and 
 the obscene, and combining them into a short poem 
 with endless wit and surprising turns of thought.*^ Les- 
 sing says of him : " Only a few have made so many epi- 
 
 1 Inst. Oral. x. i, 96. ■* C. 434. 
 
 2 T. ii. 126 ; C. 424. * C. 429. 
 8 T. ii. 133 ; C. 425. 
 
 ' T. ii. 128 ; Paley and Stone's Commentary : Introd. 
 
 " For example, liber XIII, xenia and liber XIV, apophoreta. 
 
 8 C. 432 ; Mer. vii. 231 ; Con. i. 429.
 
 98 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 grams as Martial, and no one has made, among so many, so 
 many good ones, and so many really excellent ones." Un- 
 fortunately, the enjoyment is not seldom destroyed for the 
 respectable reader, both by the abjectness of mind with 
 which Martial celebrates, importunes, and glorifies his patrons, 
 especially Domitian, and by the ruthless wounding of the 
 moral sense, of which he himself is well aware. The former 
 is not justified by the poverty of his condition, nor is the latter 
 sufficiently excused by an appeal to the taste of the public, 
 the demands and i>et fancies of his patrons, or the precedent 
 of other poets and his own pure manner of life. 
 
 11. PROSE. 
 
 a. — History. 
 
 An objective apprehension and representation of the 
 present and the immediate past (up to the last period 
 of the Republic) necessarily became lost in the century 
 of despotism ; partly in consequence of tlie unlimited flat- 
 tery, partly on account of hatred toward the government.' 
 The free-thinking and free-writing historians could find no 
 place under the Julian dynasty and Domitian. A. Cre- 
 mutius Cordus^ was forced to commit suicide under Ti- 
 berius. His afifiales, which treated in a liberal manner of the 
 close of the Republic, were ordered by llie enslaved senate 
 to be burned, and yet tiiey were widely circulated and read.^ 
 
 The portrayal of their own times was undertaken, for the 
 most part, by the rulers themselves. Not only Augustus, 
 but also Tiberius, Claudius,'' and his wife, the younger 
 
 1 Libidine assentandi vel odio adversus domlnantes. Tac. Hist. i. i. 
 
 2 T. ii. 15 ; C. 349; Mer. v. 182. 
 
 8 Cf. Tac. Ann. iv. 34, seq. * T. ii. 9, 36; C. 352.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 99 
 
 Agrippina, and later, Vespasian 1 wrote commentaries. 
 Aufidius Bassus wrote, under Tiberius, a history of the 
 civil wars and the war against the Germans ; the elder 
 Pliny continued this work, writing 20 books bellorum Ger- 
 manic, and 31 books a fine Aufidii Bassi. Also Fabius 
 Rusticus,- who seems to have been still living in the year 
 108, and Cluvius Rufus wrote the history of their time. 
 All these works have been lost. The following, however, 
 have been preserved : — 
 
 Velleius Paterculus, tribunus militum beginning with 
 the year i a.d., served under the command of Tiberius in 
 Germany, and was made praetor on his recommendation. 
 The year of his death is unknown. He wrote historice Ro- 
 mano; ad M. Vinicium cons. (a. 30) til>ri II? The introduc- 
 tion to the first book, and the time from the rape of the 
 Sabine women to the war with Perseus of Macedonia, have 
 been lost. Velleius begins with the earliest history, which, 
 however, he throws off very summarily, paying special atten- 
 tion to the chronology. Afterwards the narrative becomes 
 constantly more diffuse, only at last to empty itself into a sea 
 of immoderate and verbose glorification of Tiberius. There 
 is a lack of exhaustive preparatory study, the apprehension 
 and choice of material is subjective and dilettant, induced 
 more by interest in persons (as when he comes to speak of 
 his commander in the war) than in things. The style is far- 
 fetched, often inflated to the panegyric tone of the court, 
 with an artificiality far removed from good taste. But at the 
 same time evidences of sound judgment often appear, and 
 there is no lack of apt and drastic characterizations.^ 
 
 1 T. ii. 100. - T. ii. 109. 3 y ij_ 17 ; c. 344 ; Mer. v. 230. 
 
 * For example, that of C. Marius. ii. 11 ; of Mithridates of Pontus, ii. 18 ; 
 of Pompey, ii. 29 ; of Cato Uticensis, ii. 35 ; of Caesar, ii. 41, and of others.
 
 lOO ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Valerius Maximus ^ was not an historian but only a 
 compiler of notes and anecdotes. He wrote, under Tiberius, 
 factoruni et dictorum ttietnorabilium libri IX, of which two 
 compendia from the fifth and seventh centuries are extant. 
 They were probably written as a collection of models for 
 rhetoricians, and for the purpose of earning money. The 
 examples, taken alternately from Roman and foreign history, 
 are arranged according to certain topics, as de religione, de 
 niiraculis ; according to the different virtues and vices, and 
 the like. The treatment is in the highest degree lacking in 
 judgment and taste, frequently even nonsensical and childish, 
 while the style is often absurdly sprawling and needlessly 
 pathetic. In addition to this, there occasionally appears 
 disgusting flattery of the imperial family. At the most, 
 some value can be ascribed to the compilation for the 
 material it contains, though it is much too uncritical 
 and rhetorical to be able to serve as a reliable historical 
 authority. 
 
 Q. Curtius Rufus,- probably a rhetorician, wrote histo- 
 ricE Alexandri Magni libri X (of which I and II have been 
 lost), with close dependence upon the existing authorities, 
 especially the Alexandrian Clitarchus. The common ac- 
 ceptation now is, that he wrote at the beginning of the reign 
 of Claudius,^ though by some he is placed under Augustus 
 or Vespasian. 
 
 Curtius exhibits no great historical sense, and, indeed, 
 little understanding of military affairs. Only the good 
 fortune of Alexander is made prominent, while his impor- 
 tance as a statesman is not recognized. The book was 
 intended to furnish entertaining reading, for which reason 
 
 1 T. ii. 20; C. 346. - T. ii. 54; C. 392. 
 
 ' The passage, x. 9, 3-6, accords best with that supposition.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. lOi 
 
 special stress is laid upon what is wonderful, full of adven- 
 ture, and exciting to the imagination. 
 
 As regards style, the imitation of Livy is very evident in 
 the choice of words and phraseology. Still, the periodic 
 sentences of Livy are, for the most part, broken up into the 
 short, disconnected sentences with poetic coloring which 
 were suited to the taste of that time. 
 
 Finally, Curtius is skilled in dramatic grouping and effec- 
 tive delineation ; especially the speeches are prepared with 
 careful attention to rhetorical rules. 
 
 Cornelius Tacitus, ^ born of a family of note, probably 
 not after the year 54, excels all other historians either of this 
 or of any former period. The conclusion that Interamna 
 (now Terni) in Umbria was his birthplace has been drawn 
 from the fact that the emperor Tacitus, who had the his- 
 torian's works carefully collected, was a native of that place. 
 But this does not prove that Tacitus was really born there 
 any more than the fact that the citizens of Terni had a 
 monument erected to him in the year 15 14. 
 
 Tacitus pursued rhetorical studies at Rome under Marcus 
 Aper, lulius Secundus, perhaps, also, under Quintilian ; mar- 
 ried, in the year 78, the daughter of lulius Agricola ; filled 
 the ordinary offices up to the prgetorship under Vespasian, 
 Titus, and Domitian ; was absent from Rome (as ambassa- 
 dor?) in the year 90 and after; became consul under 
 Nerva in the year 97, and died, probably in the beginning of 
 Hadrian's reign. 
 
 His writings, arranged in chronological order, are the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 I. Dialogiis de oratoribus^ a dialogue on the decline of 
 oratory in the time of the emperors, which is represented as 
 
 1 Schlegel : Hist, of Lit. 76 ; C. 449. 2 t. ii. 172 ; C. 450.
 
 I02 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 occurring in the year 75, and in which Curiatius Maternus, 
 M. Aper, luUus Secundus, and Vipstanus Messala appear as 
 the speakers. This dialogue was written under Domitian, 
 and was denied by many to be the work of Tacitus on ac- 
 count of its style, which, in imitation of Cicero, was somewhat 
 diffuse and florid. But the whole spirit of the production 
 points unmistakably to Tacitus. 
 
 2. De vita et moribus lulii Agricolcc} written in 97 or 98, 
 a biography of the father-in-law of Tacitus, who was gover- 
 nor of Britain from 78-85, and who, having been recalled by 
 Domitian, in spite of, or rather on account of his famous 
 deeds, died under the suspicion of poisoning, in the year 93. 
 The biography is not really a laudatio, but is a work rhetori- 
 cal in style, written in loving remembrance of Agricola. 
 
 3. Gennania- (also de situ, moribus et populis GermanieB), 
 probably written in 98, and intended primarily to be simply a 
 monographic study for a larger historical work, perhaps (if 
 it be true that Tacitus was in Germany as an ambassador) 
 founded upon what he himself had seen. In contrast 
 to the corrupt condition of things at Rome, he pictures 
 the freedom and spontaneous morality of the Germans in 
 an ideal light, although the satirical purpose of the work 
 may not be looked upon as the chief one. The first part 
 (c. 1-27) treats in commune de omnium Germanorum en- 
 gine ac moribus ; the second (c. 28-46) of the separate 
 tribes, in geographical order. This work is the chief author- 
 ity in all ancient literature for our knowledge of the ancient 
 Germans. 
 
 4. HistoricE^ originally consisting of 14 books, of which, 
 however, only Books I-IV and a part of Book V have been 
 
 1 T. ii. 174; C. 451. - T. ii. 177. 
 
 ■^ T. ii. 181 ; C. 452 ; Mer. vi. 372, vii. 236.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 103 
 
 preserved. The work contained an account of the period 
 from Galba to the death of Domitian (69-96). The extant 
 portion embraces the year 69 and a part of 70. One of the 
 most interesting parts is the excursus on Palestine and the 
 Jews.' The work was composed under Trajan. 
 
 5. Annales^ (more accurately, ab excessu Divi Augusti 
 liber), in 16 books, of which, however, only Books I-IV and 
 XII-XV have been preserved entire, V, VI, XI, and XVI in 
 incomplete form. The work was a history of the Julian 
 dynasty from the death of Augustus to that of Nero, to which 
 the NisforiiC formed the chronological continuation. The 
 years 29-31, 37-47, embracing, among other things, the en- 
 tire reign of Caligula, are wanting ; also, 66-68. The work 
 was written between 115 and 117. The arrangement, though 
 annalistic in design, still often allows the events of several 
 years, when related to each other, to be brought together in 
 the narration. 
 
 A projected account of the time of Augustus, to be fol- 
 lowed by a history of the reigns of Nerva and Trajan, was 
 never written by Tacitus. 
 
 Tacitus writes on the basis of a careful and exhaustive 
 study of the authorities.^ These were partly oral traditions, 
 partly older documents and writings, such as the acta 
 diiirna, and perhaps also the acta senatus, various memoirs, 
 as those of the younger Agrippina, the historical works of 
 Cluvius Rufus, the elder Pliny, and others. He strives 
 earnestly to proceed in a critical and impartial way,"* but 
 from the outset he holds firmly to the political opinion that 
 
 1 V. 2, soqq. 
 
 2 T. ii. 183 ; C. 453 ; Frost's commentary on the Annals ; Nipperdey's 
 Annals, translated by Browne. 
 
 3 T. ii. 163 ; C. 455 ; Mer. vii. 238. 
 
 ^ Sine ira et studio, Ann. i. i ; fides incorrupta. Hist. i. x.
 
 I04 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 the rule of the senate during the good old times of the 
 Republic was the ideal one, and that the rule of the emper- 
 ors is a necessary evil. Politically, therefore, he is a pro- 
 nounced aristocrat and an admirer of the Republic. True, 
 being hard pressed, he makes so much concession to the 
 actual state of things, as to assume the position of resigna- 
 tion and reluctant recognition, yet he is so thoroughly 
 embittered by despotism, and that, too, the despotism of a 
 Domitian, under whose bloody suspicion his own relatives 
 had to suffer, that only under the reign of a Nerva does he 
 reluctantly acknowledge the union of liber tas andprincipatus. 
 Accordingly, there may be seen under all that he writes this 
 bitter humor,' which causes him to doubt even concerning 
 the government of the gods, and leads sometimes to one- 
 sided and hypercritical judgments.- 
 
 On the whole, however, Tactius earnestly endeavors to 
 give a really adequate account by means of a thorough in- 
 vestigation and portrayal of the caiisce and rationes, the ex- 
 ternal and internal causes and reasons of things ; ^ in which 
 attempt he displays a perfect mastery in psychological 
 analysis and in characterization, above all in the history of 
 Tiberius.^ A fixed philosophical way of looking at things, 
 taken from an existing system, Tacitus does not have. 
 Moreover his religious views are not entirely settled and 
 logical. He is sometimes inclined, in view of what he is 
 compelled to see and hear, entirely to discard the thought 
 of a divine government of the world, yet fatalistic touches 
 
 1 Mer. vii. 274. 
 
 2 This has led recent writers, especially Adolf Stahr, to the much more 
 one-sided and partizan assertion that Tacitus is an uncritical, prejudiced 
 writer, nay, even malicious, and a wilful distorter of the truth ; and that he 
 has in manifold ways knowingly corrupted history, with aristocratic crab- 
 bedness, especially in his account of Tiberius. 
 
 8 Mer. vii. 234. ^ Ann. i.-vi.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. I05 
 
 occasionally appear in spite of the psychological and objec- 
 tive design. 
 
 The style ^ of Tacitus still bears in the first work {Dialogus) 
 a Ciceronian imprint, reminds one distinctly of Sallust in the 
 second and third {Agricola and Germania) , but he rises in 
 the fourth and fifth {HistoricB and Annalcs) to a full inde- 
 pendence. Tacitus is earnest, stately, and solemn (cre/Aj/os), 
 full of conscious gravity as an aristocrat, never swept away 
 into a passionate tone, ponderous in thought, and compact 
 in style. By his conciseness he arouses thought and imagi- 
 nation ; he avoids the common and low, and is attracted by 
 the extraordinar}'. 
 
 fc. — Oratory. 
 
 In this period, as in the previous one, there was no lack 
 of rhetorically educated men, some of whom were also active 
 in literary work, and published orations ; there were want- 
 ing, however, freedom and opportunity, courage and appre- 
 ciation for public free speech. Oratory was carefully confined 
 to the senate and the courts of the Centumviri (civil courts), 
 which had nothing to do with politics ; it was, therefore, in- 
 evitable that oratory should fall more and more into disuse.'-^ 
 The rhetorical exercises of the schools were, therefore, all 
 the more eagerly pursued, in which the entire stress was laid 
 upon form, expression, and style, upon ingenious and ele- 
 gant turns of expression, upon witty and subtle conceits, 
 figures, and contrasts, — in short upon everything that could 
 
 1 C. 454 ; Frost's Annals of Tacitus : Life, etc. ; Botticher's Essay in 
 Smith's Tacitus. 
 
 2 This decline, most intimately connected with the political develop- 
 ment, and the contrast between the old and the new oratory, are treated by 
 Tacitus, dial, de orat. T. i. 385 ; C. 246.
 
 Io6 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 produce a momentary effect.' The svibject-matter of these 
 rhetorical exercises can be seen from the work of the elder 
 Annaeus Seneca,'' which is a very valuable contribution 
 to the history of oratory, and is entitled oratoruni et rhetorum 
 sententice, divisioiies, colores. This work, which was written 
 not long before his death at the request of his son, contained 
 lo books of controversicB, of which about half are preserved 
 entire, and the rest in a compendium of later date ; also one 
 book of suasorm, essays upon subjects discussed in the 
 schools. The task was zealously undertaken by the author, 
 in rehance upon his extraordinary power of memory, but in 
 the course of his work, he himself became disgusted with it, 
 — a sign of his good sense. 
 
 The most important rhetorician of this period, however, 
 was M. Fabius Quintilianus,^ born at Calagurris in 
 Spain, probably while Tiberius was still on the throne ; he 
 was appointed by Vespasian as the first salaried teacher of 
 rhetoric in Rome, an office which he filled for twenty years ; 
 he was afterwards called by Domitian to be the tutor of his 
 grand-nephew, received the honors of a consul, and died 
 about the year 98. 
 
 He was a man of noble and benevolent disposition, com- 
 prehensive learning, and cultivated and temperate judgment. 
 The only one of his writings that has been preserved is a 
 work written after he had retired from the office of a public 
 teacher. It is in 12 books, entitled institutio oratoria, a 
 complete introduction to the study of oratory, in which, 
 contrary to the corrupt fashionable tone of his contempora- 
 
 1 T. ii. 7. 
 
 2 Father of the philosopher, and a native of Corduba in Spain ; he lived 
 from about 54 B.C. to 40 A.D., mostly in Rome. T. i. 544; C. 321; Mar. 
 iv. 432. 
 
 8 T. ii. 320 ; C. 407 ; Mer. vii. 225.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 107 
 
 ries (in particular of the philosopher Seneca), the writer sees 
 in the older orators, especially Cicero, the ideal of an orator. 
 Book I treats of the preparatory grammatical studies ; II, of 
 the elements and essence of rhetoric ; III-VII, of iuventio 
 and dispositio; VIII-XI, of elociitio, together with memoria 
 and proniintiatio ; XII describes the finished orator. The 
 tenth book is especially interesting, since it contains a parallel 
 view and characterization of the most important Greek and 
 Roman poets and prose authors. 
 
 One of the most learned pupils of Quintilian was C. 
 Plinius Csecilius Secundus,' commonly called the 
 younger Pliny. He was born at Novum Comum (Como) 
 in the year 62, became consul in the year joo, was gov- 
 ernor of Bithynia 111-112, and died, doubtless soon after 
 his return to Rome. 
 
 He was an advocate of very wide practice. Of his 
 speeches we still possess the panegyricus^ a eulogy on 
 Trajan in return for the gift of the consulship. The speech 
 is much injured by the strongly-exaggerated praise which 
 it contains, the pompous studiedness of its style, and its 
 diffuse rhetoric. Much more attracti\e and interesting are 
 his Epistiiliv^ in 9 Books,"* which he uTOte with a view 
 to publication during the years 96-109,^ and afterwards 
 actually published. These letters, from the fact that they 
 were intended for publication, come very far, it is true, 
 from making the fresh impression of immediateness char- 
 acteristic of Cicero's letters ; one sees clearly that the smooth, 
 uniform style is not a product of the moment ; yet they give 
 us a very valuable and varied picture of that period, espe- 
 
 1 T. ii. 187 ; C. 437. 2 T. ii. 192 ; Men vii. 439. 
 
 3 T. ii. 190 ; C. 439 ; Mer. vii. 250 ; Church and Brodribb's Pliny : Introd. 
 
 4 Exclusive of his correspondence with Trajan. 
 6 Possibly 96-111 or 112.
 
 Io8 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 cially of the often frivolous literary activity, and show us 
 the writer as a man not at all genial, indeed, and even vain 
 and pedantic, yet well-meaning, and humane even to tender- 
 ness, very eager to learn and to know, interesting himself in 
 everything, striving sincerely for the good and the beautiful. 
 A separate book is formed by the correspondence between 
 Trajan and Pliny, during the governorship of the latter in 
 Bithynia, in which, especially, the letters (96, 97) relating to 
 the treatment of the Christians are valuable. Book VI, 16, 
 contains a description of the eruption of Vesuvius in the 
 year 79. 
 
 Concerning Tac. dialogus de oratoribus, see p. loi. 
 
 c. — Philosophy. 
 
 Philosophy found in this period, as in the preceding one, 
 not a few disciples. They were, however, for the most part, 
 dilettanti, who treated philosophical subjects without exhaust- 
 ive study and without logical system. The majority in these 
 troublous times inclined to Stoicism, especially men who were 
 opposed to the government. ^ At the same time, exaggera- 
 tion and ostentation were sometimes carried to extremes. 
 The great number of Greek philosophers who flooded Rome 
 brought philosophy into disrepute, and caused Vespasian and 
 Domitian to banish them from Italy. 
 
 By far the most important philosophical writer is L. 
 Annaeus Seneca,- born about the year 4 a.d. at Corduba 
 in Spain, son of Seneca the rhetorician (see p. 106). He 
 was educated at Rome, became senator, was banished by 
 Claudius to Corsica in the year 41 at the instigation of 
 Messalina, was recalled in the year 49 at the request of 
 
 1 For example, Paetus Thrasea, Lucan, Persius, Helvidius Priscus, and 
 others. ^ x. ii. 40 ; C. 378 ; Ritter, iv. 174 ; Farrar : Seekers after God.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 1 09 
 
 Agrippina, became tutor of Nero, was consul in 57, and, 
 in the year 65, was compelled by Nero to commit suicide 
 by opening his veins in a bath, on a charge of participa- 
 tion in the conspiracy of Piso. 
 
 Not always living up to the teachings of the Stoa,' to 
 which he subscribed in the main, and free, neither in his 
 life' nor in his writings, from vanity and striving after effect, 
 Seneca nevertheless sought as far as possible to exercise a 
 healthful influence, and showed not only a rare versatility 
 of talent, an uncommon wealth of thought, a fine faculty 
 of observation, and a sound, practical mind, keeping itself 
 free from the exaggerations of the Stoics, but also, for that 
 time and society, a surprising loftiness of moral view.- In 
 this he outstrips his time, inasmuch as he both abandons 
 that which is specifically Roman and adopts a cosmopolitan 
 humanity ; for which reason. Christian tradition has even 
 made him a Christian and a friend of the apostle Paul. 
 
 Seneca's style,-* the antipodes of the Ciceronian,^ is forced 
 and ornamental, according to the taste of the period. It 
 moves, for the most part, in brief, disconnected, and often 
 paradoxical sentences and phrases and piquant antitheses. 
 The same thought is forever varied, ingeniously indeed, but 
 not seldom to weariness. 
 
 Of Seneca's writings, which are preserved only in part, 
 some are poetical,-'' some prosaic, and some of the latter, 
 
 1 This is shown by the fact that he had great wealth, was indulgent 
 toward Nero's sensuality (of necessity, it is true, and to avoid something 
 worse), and that he excused the murder of Agrippina. 
 
 2 C. 382; Mer. vi. 112, 231; Ritter, iv. 180. 
 
 3 T. ii. 42 ; C. 390 ; Mer. vii. 225 ; Ritter, iv. 175. 
 
 ■* According to Quintilian, Inst. Orat. x. i, 129 : ahiindans dulcibus vitiis, 
 and according to Caligula's correct comparison. Suet. Calig. 53 : arena 
 sine cake. 
 
 5 Tra^^xdicE (see p. 89). Also a part of the Apocolocyntosis (see p. 93) 
 is in poetry.
 
 no ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 again, relate to natural science,^ and some to morals.^ Of 
 most general interest are the 124 EpistiiltR ad Liici/iiim^ 
 (see p. 92), written, like Pliny's epistles, with a view to pub- 
 lication ; they are, in reality, popular treatises, containing an 
 abundance of apt observations and rules of morals, as well as 
 many characteristic features of life at that time. A corre- 
 spondence with the apostle Paul (14 letters), ascribed to 
 Seneca^ by the church-father Hieronymus (about 400), is not 
 genuine, but rests on the correct perception that the moral 
 views of Seneca are often aUied to those of Christianity in 
 a surprising degree. 
 
 d. — Special Sciences. 
 
 The most important points respecting the special sciences 
 in this period are the following : — 
 
 In Law, Capito (see p. 84) was followed by Masurius 
 Sabinus,^ who lived from Tiberius to Nero, and was the 
 author of a much commentated work, /idti III iiiris civilis. 
 Labeo was followed by the somewhat later Sempronius 
 Proculus. The two schools were commonly called, after 
 these men, the Sabinian^ and the Proculian." Both schools 
 had distinguished literary representatives. 
 
 The Science of Language became more and more an 
 object of study in connection with Rlietoric. Many of the 
 emperors took a lively interest in it. Claudius had under 
 consideration a reform of the alphabet, and wished to intro- 
 
 1 Naturales qucBsfiones libri III, used as a text-book in physics in the 
 Middle Ages. 
 
 2 For example, de ira libri III, de beneficiis libri Til, several cofisola- 
 tiones, de tranquillitate animi, and others. T. ii. 46 ; C. 379. 
 
 8 T. ii. 45 ; C. 385. 4 T. ii. 48 ; C. 386 ; Mer. vi. 230. 5 t. ii. 27. 
 
 6 Also Cassian, from Cassius Longinus, a pupil of Sabinius. 
 ■^ Hadley's Introd. to Roman Law, 63.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. Ill 
 
 duce three new letters. ^ Vespasian appointed Quintilian as 
 teaciier of philology. 
 
 The following writers were distinguished as gramma- 
 rians and commentators : — 
 
 Q. Remmius Palaemo,- from Vicenza, the author (un- 
 der Claudius) o{ z grammar which was much used ; Q. As- 
 conius Pedianus,-^ who wrote under Claudius, Nero, and 
 Vespasian, and from whom we have commentaries on five 
 of Cicero's orations (among them, pro Miloiie), containing 
 valuable material, but not preserved entire; M. Valerius 
 Probus'* of Berytus, about the year 60, a critical commen- 
 tator, especially of the Roman classic poets ; under Domi- 
 tian, ^milius Asper ; ^ under Trajan, Flavjus Caper*' 
 and Velius Longus, from both of whom works de ortlio- 
 graphia are preser\'ed. 
 
 Among mathematical writers, the land surveyors, 
 agrimensores, or gromatici," are worthy of special mention. 
 Of these the most distinguished were Sex. lulius Fron- 
 tinus*^ and Hyginus.^ Frontinus, born about the year 40, 
 was consul three times, served as general in Gaul, Britain, 
 and Germany, was curator aquarum in 67, and died about 
 103. Of his works on surveying only extracts are pre- 
 served. As curator aquarum he wrote a work entitled de 
 aquis urhis Roma libri II, which is valuable for the infor- 
 mation it contains. Hyginus wrote under Trajan a work 
 on surveying which has been preserved only in fragments. 
 Both were also writers on military subjects, Frontinus, as 
 
 1 F= consonantal f, D antisigma, for bs and/^, I- representing an inter- 
 mediate sound between i and u. T. ii. 38 ; C. 11. 
 
 2 T. ii. 29 ; C. 348. 6 T. ii. 200 ; C. 442. 
 
 8 T. ii. 62 ; C. 393. "^ From groma, a measuring-staff. 
 
 4 T. ii. 73 ; C. 394. 8 T. ii. 147 ; C. 410. 
 
 6 T. ii. 151 ; C. 412. 9 T. ii. 203 ; C. 442.
 
 112 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 author of a lost work on tactics, and an extant one of strate- 
 gemata (military stratagems), in 3 books, together with a 
 fourth, strategematica, as a supplement ; Hyginus, as author 
 of a work entitled de iniinitionibtis, and perhaps also of 
 another, de limitibiis. 
 
 In the department of Geography, may be mentioned 
 Pomponius Mela,' from Tingentera in Spain, author of 
 the oldest Roman description of the world that has come 
 down to us. He wrote under Claudius, after older written 
 authorities, 3 books entitled de situ orbis (or de chorogra- 
 phid). To geographical literature belong also, wholly or in 
 part, the Gerinauia and Agricola of Tacitus, the Natiirales 
 Qiicestiones of Seneca, and especially Books III-VI of the 
 NatiiraUs Historia of C. Plinius Secundus^ (the elder 
 Pliny). He was born in the year 23 at Novum Comum, 
 served in the year 45 in Germany, was afterwards imperial 
 procurator in Spain, was employed by Vespasian as an effi- 
 cient officer in the financial and marine department, and 
 perished on the 24th of August, 79, during an eruption of 
 Vesuvius, as a sacrifice to his scientific zeal.-^ He was the 
 uncle of the younger Pliny, and the most industrious and 
 learned man of his time."* Besides his historical works (see 
 p. 99), and his writings on tactics, grammar, and rhetoric,^ 
 which have not come down to us, he wrote the extant work, 
 Naturalis Historia^ in 37 books, an encyclopaedia of natural 
 science, embracing astronomy, geography, anthropology, zool- 
 ogy, botany, mineralogy, and many departments of medicine. 
 This encyclopaedia, written with the aid of the works of nearly 
 
 1 T. ii. 64, i. 77; C. 394. 3 cf. Plin. Epp. vi. 16; Mer. vii. 58. 
 
 2 T. ii. 102 ; C. 400. * Mer. vi. 187 ; vii. 264. 
 
 5 As, for example, de iaculatione equestri, dubii sermonis libri VIII, 
 studiosi libri III. 
 
 6 T. i. 72, ii. 104 ; C. 404 ; Mer. vii. 226.
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. II3 
 
 five hundred writers, representing nearly 2000 volumes, is 
 an exceedingly rich mine of curiosities, and contains almost 
 everjthing worth knowing, though, to be sure, it is often 
 enough crudely put together, and without the critical care 
 which could be desired. Since an abundance of material 
 was of foremost importance to the author, the style ^ is, for 
 the most part, dry, and at times also marked by rhetorical 
 artificiality. It is lofty in those places where the greatness 
 and majesty of nature and the universe are set forth, though 
 Pliny stands in opposition to the popular belief in the gods. 
 
 Of the encyclopedic work of Cornelius Celsus,^ writ- 
 ten in the time of Tiberius, there are still extant 8 books de 
 fuedicina {de re medica), including surgery.^ In the same 
 work, the science of war, agriculture, rheto7-ic, and practi- 
 cal philosophy wtx^ also treated. Inferior, from a scientific 
 and literary point of view, is the collection of prescriptions 
 {compositiones medicamentorum) of Scribonius Largus,"* 
 private physician of the emperor Claudius. Of these pre- 
 scriptions, 271 are extant. 
 
 Agriculture, as such, was treated by Moderatus Colu- 
 mella ^ of Gades, a contemporary and countryman of Sen- 
 eca, in his work de re rustica Ubri XII. The production 
 bears witness to the author's technical knowledge, candid 
 disposition, and good taste. Of this work, Book X, con- 
 cerning gardening, is written in heroic metre, after the ex- 
 ample of Virgil, though by no means equal to the model. 
 
 1 T. ii. 107 ; C. 406. 4 T. ii. 60 ; C. 393. 
 
 2 T. ii. 25 ; C. 347. 6 T. i. 73, ii. 57 ; C. 393. 
 
 3 T. i. 74.
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. 
 
 The Later Empire, after the Death of Trajan, i i 7 a.d. 
 
 THIS period is a time of continual decline, both in poli- 
 tics and literature. 1 The capacity for original and in- 
 dependent production, which, up to this time, had appeared 
 at least in individual cases, ceases entirely. In its place, we 
 find uncertainty, perversity, and dulness of judgment and 
 taste, a slavish and unintelligent imitation of earlier and es- 
 pecially archaic writers, an affected and distorted style, an 
 artificial rhetoric, dressed out with wordy ornamentation, but 
 wanting any important inner significance answering to the 
 lavish use of outward means. Instead of independent pro- 
 duction, there appears a boastful and ostentatious display of 
 pedantic and often laboriously-gathered knowledge. 
 
 The corruption of taste shows itself, especially, in the 
 archaistic tendency, which places the classic standard authors 
 below the ante-classic writers. The chief representative of 
 this tendency is the rhetorician Fronto. As a consequence 
 of the intellectual barrenness and tameness, and also of the 
 persistent advance of Greek sophism and rhetoric, which 
 found high favor and abundant reward in the cultured 
 circles,^ poetry comes to occupy a less prominent position 
 than prose. 
 
 The provinces become more and more important in the 
 
 1 T. ii. 205, 337. 
 
 2 Especially with a number of the emperors, as Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, 
 and Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 114
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. 115 
 
 department of literature. A number of \\Titers, especially 
 Christian writers, spring up in Africa. Their latinity is char- 
 acterized by a want of logical accuracy, by intemperateness 
 of expression, rhetorical overloading, and an arbitrary con- 
 struction of words and sentences. Moreover, Gaul, expe- 
 cially Lugdunum (Lyon), becomes an important seat of 
 rhetorical instruction. 
 
 ^Vhereas the earlier emperors of this period, as Hadrian 
 and Marcus Aurelius, and also Alexander Severus, took a 
 lively interest in literature, it was compelled, in consequence 
 of the political confusion of the third century, to retire into 
 the background. 
 
 Not until after the triumph of Christianity, and the recon- 
 struction of the empire by Constantine the Great, did more 
 important writers. Christian as well as Pagan, appear. Mean- 
 while, the specifically Roman character was steadily dying out, 
 especially since, by the edict of Caracalla, which extended 
 the right of Roman citizenship to the provinces, universal 
 equality was being furthered through the agency of the state. 
 Literary production took refuge, partly in the bosom of the 
 Christian church, and thus became the property of the Chris- 
 tian clergy • (patristic literature), partly at the court, where, 
 without free, ideal movement, it was compelled to yield itself 
 to the service of special, practical ends, particularly the glori- 
 fication of the emperors (panegyric literature), and the ex- 
 tension of legal learning. This period, if one considers at 
 the same time content and form, produced scarcely a writer 
 of the first or even of the second rank ; on the other hand, 
 in the special sciences, particularly in the Department of 
 Jurisprudence, important, and in some respects great and 
 standard work, was done. 
 
 1 T. ii. 468.
 
 Il6 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 I. POETRY. 
 
 a. — Lyric. 
 
 Lyric poetry is represented in this period by only a few 
 names worthy of mention. Of uncertain date is the Pervigi- 
 lium Veneris} a glorification of Venus Genetrix and of Spring, 
 in 93 well-constructed trochaic septenarii. Half lyric, half 
 epic, are the poems of Dec. Magnus Ausonius^ of 
 Burdigala (Bordeaux), in Gaul ; a poet of fine parts, and es- 
 pecially successful in the form of his verse. He was a teacher 
 of the emperor Gratianus, became consul in 379, and was 
 converted to Christianity, though he made little use of it in 
 his writings. In his later years, he lived under Theodosius I in 
 his native place, absorbed in literary pursuits. His poems are 
 very varied in form and content ; epigrams and epistles; poems 
 on living and deceased persons ; on emperors and celebrated 
 cities. His idylls are best known, and among these, the 
 tenth, entitled Mosella, a description of a journey on the 
 Moselle, from Bingen to Trier, in 683 hexameters, charming 
 on account of the variedness of its contents, and the sensi- 
 tive appreciation of nature displayed in it. 
 
 Among poets specifically Christian, special mention should 
 be made of Aurelius Prudentius Clemens,^ who was 
 born in Spain in 348, was a rhetorician and high official, and 
 died about the year 410. He composed odes in praise of 
 the martyrs, and hy^nns in Horatian metres ; also dogmatic^ 
 polemic, and epic poems. 
 
 ^ T. ii. 247 ; C. 468. 
 
 2 T. ii. 385. 
 
 3 T. ii. 431 ; Trench, 121 ; Schaff : History of the Christian Church, iii. 
 594 ; Ozonam : Civilization in the Fifth Century, ii. 196.
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. II7 
 
 6.— Epic. 
 
 Epic poetry in this period is partly mythological, partly 
 employed for panegyrics, — poems in praise of emperors and 
 other persons in high standing, together with corresponding 
 depreciation of their opponents. Claudius Claudianus ' of 
 Alexandria is, for his time, a brilliant representative of both 
 styles. He composed, about the year 400, numerous /c'^'wj-, 
 some on historical subjects^' some on mythological^ also 
 epistles, idylls, and epigrams, mostly in elegiac metre. There 
 appears everywhere great skill in the treatment of the form, 
 vivid imagination, extended acquaintance with the classic 
 poets, and enthusiasm for the greatness of Roiiie ; but these 
 excellences are dimmed and injured in their effect by the 
 insignificance of the material, which the poet endeavors in 
 vain to conceal and make good by rhetorical exaggeration. 
 
 Less important than the pagan Claudianus are the Chris- 
 tian poets : — 
 
 C. Vettius Aquilius luvencus,* Spanish presbyter in 
 the time of Constantine the Great, and author of a Netv 
 Testament History in hexameters ; Flavius Merobau- 
 des,^ Spanish rhetorician, and author of a poet/i on Christ, 
 and of historical poems in praise, especially, 0/ the comman- 
 der, ^tius ; Apollinaris Sidonius^ (about 430-488), 
 from Lugdunum, bishop of Clermont, and writer oi panegyrics 
 on several of the emperors, abounding in pedantic phrase- 
 
 1 T. ii. 438; Ozonam, i. 170. 
 
 2 For example, poems in praise of the emperor Honorius, and especially 
 of Stilicho, with attacks upon the minister Rufinus and the eunuch Eutro- 
 pius in Constantinople. The poems are written without any essential warp- 
 ing of the facts. 
 
 3 Three books de raptu ProseipitKs. 
 
 4 T. ii. 346. 5 T. ii. 490. 6 x. ii. 499
 
 Il8 • ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 ology; Dracontius^ of Carthage, author of mythological 
 epics, also of a didactic poem, de deo, and others ; Venan- 
 tius Fortunatus,^ in the sixth century, bishop of Poitiers, 
 and writer of an epic i?t honor of St. Martin of Tours, and 
 numerous poems iji praise of persons in high standing. 
 
 c — Didactic. 
 
 In Didactic and Descriptive Poetry, the following 
 names are worthy of mention : Nemesianus-^ of Carthage 
 (about 280), writer of a didactic poem on hunting entitled 
 Cynegetica ; Festus Avienus'* (about 370), writer of 
 poems on astronomical, historical, and especially geographi- 
 cal subjects ; particularly, however, Claudius Rutilius 
 Namatianus,''' a native of Gaul, who was prsefectus urbi 
 in 414, and who, in 416, described his homeward sea- 
 voyage from Rome to Gaul^ in a charming style, orna- 
 mented with numerous episodes of a descriptive and 
 personal character. The poet is an enthusiastic adherent 
 of ancient Rome "^ and the old Pagan religion, and a de- 
 cided enemy of Jews ^ and Christians.^ 
 
 1 T. ii. 519. 2 X. ii. 563 ; Trench, 131 ; Schaff, iii. 595. 
 
 8 T. ii. 308. 4 T. ii. 382. 5 T. ii. 470. 
 
 6 De reditu suo libri II, of vviiicli tlie second book has not been pre- 
 served entire. 
 
 ■^ Cf. i. 47-164 ; especially verse 53, seq : 
 
 Obruerint citius scelerata oblivia solem, 
 Quam tuus ex nostro corde recedat honos. 
 
 and 81, seq: 
 
 8 i. 397, seq: 
 
 9 i. 525, seq : 
 
 Omnia perpetuo qua servant sidera motu. 
 Nullum viderunt pulchrius imperium. 
 
 Latis excisje pestis contagia serpunt 
 Victoresque suos natio victa premit. 
 
 Non rogo deterior Circeis secta venenis? 
 Tunc mutabantur corpora, nunc animi.
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. I19 
 
 A collection of Fables, afterwards much used as a 
 school-book, is that of Avianus,' who, about the year 400, 
 reproduced 42 yEsopian fables in elegiac verse, after the 
 model of ^sop, Babrius, Phcedrus, and others. 
 
 II. PROSE. 
 
 a. —Oratory. 
 
 Rhetoric, with Cornelius Fronto- as its most able and 
 illustrious representative, stood for a long time foremost in 
 the estimation of the public. Fronto was born at Cirta in 
 Africa, lived about 100-175, became consul in 143, was 
 the teacher and friend of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. 
 He was affectionate (^tAoo-ropyo?) and sincere in disposi- 
 tion, in his literary efforts and productions the type of a 
 period spending itself in complacent speechifying. Of his 
 writings we possess some works on rhetorical subjects, and 
 also some letters,"^ the latter, for the most part, unimportant 
 in subject-matter. 
 
 Fronto lays all the stress upon rhetoric, to be sure, with 
 a sincere belief in it alone as a saving power. In respect 
 to language, Fronto is a worshipper of the most ancient 
 ante-classical writers and orators, — of Plautus, Ennius, 
 Cato, C. Gracchus, — and also of Sallust. He recognizes 
 Cicero with reluctance.'' With him. as w-e have said, the 
 entire value lies in rhetorical ornamentation (ciKoi/es, verba 
 
 1 T. ii. 462. - T. i. 58, ii. 229; C. 463; Mer. vii. 460. 
 
 3 Correspondence with Marcus Aurelius, L. Verus, Antoninus Pius and 
 ad amicos : also letters in Greek. 
 
 ^ For example, he characterizes the orators thus, ad Verum Impcrat : 
 Contionatur Cato infeste, Gracchus turbulente, Tullius copiose; in iudiciis 
 saevit Cato, triumphat Cicero, tumultuatur Gracchus, Calvus rixatur.
 
 120 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 notabilia, deminutiva, and the like). But just this artificial- 
 ity and corruption of taste seemed to his contemporaries the 
 highest excellence. 
 
 Another distinguished African rhetorician was L. Apu- 
 leius* of Madaura, born about 125, who was, at one time 
 and another, active in many places as a rhetorician and an 
 advocate, and was also celebrated as a magician. As a 
 writer, he was very versatile, productive, and pretentious ; 
 his style is original, full of needless word-coinings and 
 strange distortions of sentences, bombastic and overloaded, 
 yet of a drastic vividness and not without pleasing humor. 
 The best known of his writings is the fantastic romance, 
 Metamorphoseon libri XI ^ which contains the experiences 
 of a man who was changed by magic arts into an ass, 
 together with many stories of robbers and necromancy, of 
 which Thessaly is most frequently the scene, all ending 
 in the glorification of the Isis mysteries. The whole is imi- 
 tated from the Aoi;Ktos of Lucian, only it is carried much 
 further, and changes are made that are not always fortunate. 
 Books IV-VI contain the well-known (allegoric?) legend of 
 Amor and Psyche. Of the remaining writings of Apuleius, 
 the following deserve to be mentioned : Apologia, a defence 
 against the charge of necromancy, written in a comparatively 
 simple style; and Florida, an anthology of orations and 
 declamations. 
 
 As a rhetorician of the later time, may be mentioned Q. 
 Aurelius Symmachus the Younger,^ consul in 391, of 
 whom we possess 9 orations (not one, however, in complete 
 form), some of which were delivered in the Senate, and 
 some were panegyrics on the emperor Valentinian I and Gra- 
 tian. We also have a collection of epistles in 10 books, 
 
 1 T. ii. 257 ; C. 469. - T. ii. 261 ; C. 471. » T. ii. 397.
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. 121 
 
 composed after the model of the younger PHny, in which the 
 letters of the tenth book are the most interesting, wherein 
 Symmachus, in the year 384, intercedes with the emperor 
 Valentinian II for the restoration of the altar of Victoria to the 
 Roman curia, whence it had been removed at the command of 
 Gratian ; — that is, he interested himself in the maintainance 
 of heathen worship, — an endeavor which was not successful, 
 serving only to call out several controversial writings on the 
 side of the Christians ; for example, from Bishop Ambrosius 
 of Milan. 
 
 b. — Philosophy. 
 
 Although philosophy was opposed by rhetoricians like 
 Fronto, yet it was furthered by several emperors, especially 
 by the Antonines, and in the person of the strict Stoic, Mar- 
 cus Aurelius,' who wrote in the Greek language 12 books 
 oi Self- Examinations (eis avrov), even attained to the im- 
 perial throne. Nevertheless, it could no longer develop a 
 strong and healthy life ; it degenerated often into obscure 
 mysticism and vain love of the marvellous, as in the case of 
 Apuleius (see p. 120) who wrote philosophical books de 
 miindo, de deo Socratis, and others. 
 
 In Christianity, there grew up against this a new and vig- 
 orous opponent, which, indeed, often made use of the 
 weapons of pagan philosophy and rhetoric. By this opposi- 
 tion many energetic spirits were spurred on to the attempt of 
 renewing philosophy, among them Anicius Manlius Tor- 
 quatus Severinus Boetius,^the son-in-law of Symmachus, 
 (see p. 120) consul in 510, and executed in 525 at the com- 
 mand of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric, on the charge of 
 
 1 Farrar : Seekers after God, 303 ; Mer. vii. 490 ; T. i. 69. 
 ' T. ii. 525 ; Milman's Latin Christianity, i. 443.
 
 122 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 traitorous connections with the court of Constantinople. Al- 
 though a Christian, he was enthusiastic for classical antiquity. 
 a translator of many works, particularly those of Aristotle. 
 He wTOte matlieynatical, grammatical, and other works, but 
 he is chiefly knowTi through his de consolatione, composed in 
 prison, and testifying in somewhat involved, yet easily intelli- 
 gible language, written alternately in prose and verses of 
 various metres, to a mind morally refined, permeated much 
 more by the spirit of ancient philosophy, especially of Plato, 
 than by that of Christianity. Also, theological writings, as, 
 for example, a work on the Trinity, are incorrectly ascribed 
 to Boetius. 
 
 c — History. 
 
 There were numerous writers of history in this period, but 
 the freedom of thought and word necessary for a lofty flight 
 was wanting ; the influence of rhetoric asserted itself in this 
 department of literature as in all others. ^ In place of objec- 
 tive arrangement and choice of material, of psychological 
 treatment, of broad and comprehensive views, appeared an 
 undue attention to what was merely personal, a biographical 
 treatment of history, with an uncritical preference for the 
 insignificant and for anecdotes, and an enumeration of 
 details not seldom amounting to frivolity. The ancient his- 
 torians were made accessible and enjoyable to the taste of 
 the public through compendia. With the triumph of Chris- 
 tianity, historical writing turned its attention more and more 
 to biblical and ecclesiastical matters. 
 
 C. Suetonius Tranquillus,- born about the year 75, 
 wrote a part of his works as far back as the reign of Trajan. 
 He was a rhetorician and an advocate ; for a long time, also, 
 
 1 T. i. 46. * T. ii. 210 ; C. 457.
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. 1 23 
 
 private secretary of the emperor Hadrian, who, however, 
 dismissed him, whereupon he devoted himself to study and 
 authorship in the most widely-separated departments, history 
 of civilization, science of language, chronology, and the like. 
 From his writings^ have been preserved fragments of the 
 work de viris illiistribus, concerning literary celebrities of 
 Rome up to the time of Domitian ; among these fragments 
 the vita, of Terence and Horace are important, but especially 
 the vita Caesarum,- written in 120, consisting of biographies 
 of the first twelve emperors, from Caesar (the beginning of 
 whose reign seems, however, to be wanting) to Domitian. 
 This work is very valuable in subject-matter, carefully com- 
 posed, with an extensive use of authorities, and a striving 
 after objectivity. In consequence, however, of the interest 
 attaching to the subject-matter itself, anecdotes and person- 
 alities prevail ; also things insignificant and low are not 
 passed by unnoticed, and in view of the division of the sub- 
 ject according to certain headings (such as faults, virtues, 
 outward habits, and the like), the chronological order, as 
 well as the inner connection, and especially the psychologi- 
 cal arrangement, are neglected. The language is simple, 
 natural, and easily understood.-^ 
 
 The following liistorians stand at a considerable distance 
 below Suetonius : — 
 
 Florus'i wrote, probably under Hadrian, belloriim om- 
 niutn anno rum DCC libri II, Roman history from Romulus 
 to Augustus, arranged, generally, according to the wars, 
 without strict chronology, and with many errors as to matters 
 of fact. Anachronisms, not to say designed falsifications, 
 appear, and, worst of all, a tasteless and artificial teleology /;/ 
 
 1 T. ii. 214 ; C. 459. ■- Mer. vii. 248. 3 c. 460. 
 
 •* Possibly identical with the poet and rhetorician, P. Annius Florus. 
 T. ii. 216 ; C. 462.
 
 124 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 maiorem gloriam populi Romani. At the same time, he 
 betrays a complete lack of historical insight and psychologi- 
 cal apprehension. The style is rhetorically overloaded, full 
 of stereotyped words and phrases, sometimes, however, in 
 clear moments, picturesque and to the point. 
 
 A certain L. Ampelius,' otherwise unknown, wrote under 
 Antoninus Pius, a dry encyclopaedic manual, entitled liber 
 memorialis, on geographical, mythological, and especially 
 historical subjects. 
 
 We possess only fragments of the work of his contem- 
 porary, Granius Licinianus, who wrote an outline of 
 Roman history. The writings of Marius Maximus^ are 
 entirely lost. He wrote, about the year 230, biographies of 
 the emperors from Nerva to Heliogabalus, and was much 
 used by later writers, especially by the scriptores histo- 
 rise Augustae,^ some of whom, as ^Hus Spartianus, Volca- 
 cius Gallicanus, and Trebellius Pollio, wTote under Diocletian, 
 and some, as Flavius Vopiscus, yElius Lampridius, and luHus 
 Capitolinus, under Constantine the Great. Their work (it is 
 uncertain when and by whom it was collected) contained 
 the biographies of the emperors, from Hadrian to Numerian 
 (117-284), written in monotonous style, in halting language, 
 moving on generally in short sentences, without a proper 
 separation of the important and the insignificant, and with- 
 out- an arrangement suited to the subject. Nevertheless, it 
 is very valuable for the history of this period on account of 
 the lack of other authorities. The authorship of all the 
 biographies is not certain ; the most are by Spartianus and 
 Vopiscus. 
 
 Several works bear the name of Aurelius Victor,'' who 
 was governor of Pannonia under Theodosius the Great : de 
 
 1 T. ii. 239 ; C. 468. 2 X. ii. 296. 3 t. ii. 320. « T. ii. 370.
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. 1 25 
 
 CcEsaribus, from Caesar to Constantine, an uncritical collection 
 of material in an excessively compact style ; also an epitome de 
 Ccesaribus, which deviates in many ways from the original, 
 and extends further, reaching to the time of Theodosius 
 the Great ; moreover, it depends upon other authorities, 
 and, on the whole, is more easily understood than the de 
 Csesaribus. Both productions are, perhaps, compendia 
 of a larger work of Aurelius Victor. Of unknown author- 
 ship are two other writings, which likewise bear his name : 
 de viris illustribus, covering the period from Procas to 
 Cleopatra, and written with general good sense ; and origo 
 gentis Romancr, from Saturn to the death of Romulus, a 
 silly production having not the least value. 
 
 To the same time with Aurelius Victor belongs Eutro- 
 pius,' who wrote, under Valens, z. bi-eviarium historice Ro- 
 mance, in 10 books, covering the period from the foundation 
 of Rome to the time of Jovian. It is, in general, unpretentious 
 and true to facts ; but, in the earlier books, it is dry and be- 
 trays a total neglect of the inner relations of things ; in 
 depicting the time of the emperors, however, it is fuller and 
 fresher, containing many good characterizations.- The work 
 was afterwards much used as a school-book. 
 
 The work of Ammianus Marcellinus^ is valuable as 
 an historical authority. He was born in Antiochia ; after 
 long service in the army, he wrote, about the year 390, at 
 Rome, 31 books ret-um gestarum, in which the period from 
 Nerva to Valens was described. Only Books XIV-XXXI 
 are extant, embracing the time 353-376. Ammianus, as 
 an enthusiastic worshipper of Julian the Apostate, writes from 
 
 1 T. ii. 372. 
 
 2 For example, that of Trajan, viii. 4; that of Constantine the Great, x. 
 7; that of Julian, x. 16. 
 
 8 T. ii. 407.
 
 126 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 a pagan standpoint with impartiality and fidelity to the truth. 
 His intentions are honorable and his judgment good, and he 
 often writes from a recollection of what he himself has seen 
 and experienced. His style, on the contrary, is forbidding 
 and unenjoyable on account of its excessive condensation 
 and affectation. This was the result of wide reading without 
 proper digestion, of an attempt to utilize his extensive collec- 
 tion of notes, and of an unripe half-culture, comprehending 
 least of all the spirit of the Latin language. 
 
 Works were written from the standpoint of Christianity 
 by the Aquitanian presbyter Sulpicius Severus ^ (about 
 400), and his contemporary, the Spanish presbyter Oro- 
 sius,~ who wrote outlines of universal history, from Adam 
 down to their time. Both works are without special value. 
 Further, Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorius=^ (-orus?), 
 who lived from 480 to 575, and was private secretary of 
 Theodoric, and in the year 540 and afterwards was in 
 the Bruttian monastery, Viviers, wrote a chronicle from 
 Adam doivn to sigA.D.; also, a history of the Goths, pre- 
 served, unfortunately, only in the scanty epitome of the 
 Goth lordanis'i (about 550); and 12 books variarum, a 
 collection of official documents, as well as numerous theo- 
 logical and encyclopcedic zvorks. 
 
 The Briton Gildas ^ wrote, in the sixth century, a History 
 of Britain, from 449 a.d. ; and a History of the Kingdom of 
 the Fratiks was written by Gregorius of Tours (Bishop in 
 573 and afterwards) with a mind open to historical truth, in 
 spite of his orthodox prejudices. 
 
 An important authority for the statistics of the later Roman 
 Empire are the official state records, written at the close of 
 
 1 T. ii. 448. 3 T. ii. 539- ^ T. ii. 549. 
 
 2 T. ii. 47a. * T. ii. 547.
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. I 27 
 
 the fourth century, and entitled, Notitia dignitatiim et admin- 
 istrationum onmiiim tain civilium quam iniiitarium in parti- 
 bus orientis et occidentis} 
 
 d. — Special Sciences. 
 
 Among the special sciences, that of Law- occupies the 
 foremost place. From tlie outset a national Roman science, 
 it attained its highest development under the emperors, from 
 Hadrian's time to about the year 230. Civil law was admira- 
 bly set forth by the eminent jurists, who lived, for the most 
 part, at the imperial court, and were held in great esteem, 
 while their opinions, decisions {responsa), and manuals 
 became standard in the administration of justice. Thus, 
 after legal productions ceased about the middle of the third 
 century, there arose in their place, in tlie fourth century, an 
 active zeal for collecting and codifying the existing legal 
 authorities. 
 
 The most important jurists are given below : Salvius 
 lulianus,'* aside from independent works, compiled and 
 published, under Hadrian, in the year 131, the so-called 
 E die turn popetuum. This was a collection of opinions of the 
 Roman prsetors, from the time of the Republic, and a weiglity 
 legal authority in later times. His contemporary. Sex. 
 Pomponius, was the author of numerous works, which 
 were afterwards much used. The four books Institutionum 
 (introduction to the science of law), which were writ- 
 ten by Gaius"* about the year 160, and are, in great part, 
 preserved, were much used as a text-book. They became 
 the basis of the Institutions of Justinian. Two other very 
 
 1 T. i. 78. 
 
 2 Sandars' Justinian : Introd. ao, Am. Ed. ; T. i. 64 ; Hadley. 
 
 3 T. ii. 219; C. 462. ■* T. ii. 244; C. 466; Hadley, 71.
 
 128 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 important jurists were ^Emilius Papinianus^ and Do- 
 mitius Ulpianus.- The former, prsfectus praetorio under 
 Septimius Severus, and afterwards executed by command of 
 Caracalla, was tlie author of much-used responsa and quces- 
 tiones. He was distinguished by great breadth of views, in- 
 dependence of apprehension, and strong moral sensibility. 
 Ulpianus, a native of Tyre, praefectus praetorio under Alex- 
 ander Severus, and assassinated in 228, was the author of 
 numerous writings, which are much cited in the Justinian 
 Digests. lulius Paulus.^a contemporary of Ulpianus, was 
 active in the same line, and his writings were much used, 
 especially in the Pandects of Justinian. Herennius Mo- 
 destinus,"* a pupil of Ulpianus, may also be mentioned. 
 
 Among the collections of those constitutions which origi- 
 nated during the time from Hadrian to Diocletian, the first 
 was the Codex Gregorianus,^ which was begun by a jurist 
 Gregorianus ; then followed the Codex Hermogenianus 
 in the last part of the reign of Constantine the Great, and, at 
 the same time, the Fragmenta Vaticana.^ About a hun- 
 dred years later (438) appeared the Codex Theodosi- 
 anus,^ which contained, in 16 books, the constitutions that 
 had been published under Constantine the Great, and which 
 was afterwards the standard in the eastern empire until the 
 Codex of Justinian. Finally, the key-stone of this imposing 
 legal structure was the Corpus luris,^ which was prepared 
 in the reign of Justinian by a commission of jurists, at whose 
 head stood Tribonianus. The separate parts of this Corpus 
 luris are as follows : The Codex lustinianeus of the year 
 
 1 T, 
 
 2 T. ii 
 
 268; Hadley, II. 5 T. ii. 325. 
 
 283 ; Hadley, 10. 6 x. ii. 348. 
 
 3 T. ii. 287. 7 T. ii. 485. 
 
 * T. ii. 289. 
 
 *T.ii.S53; Hadley, 3; Sandars,23; Milman's Latin Christianity, i. 484,
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. I 29 
 
 529; the Institutiones, taking the place of the original 
 Cod. lust, in 533 ; the Digesta, or Pandects,' and an en- 
 larged edition of the Cod. lust, from the year 534. To these 
 were added, after the death of Justinian, three private collec- 
 tions, Novellae, written mostly in Greek. This Corpus 
 luris made the earlier wTitings superfluous by absorbing 
 them, so far as their essential contents were concerned, 
 established the final stability and uniformity of law, and 
 served ever after as a foundation for its later unfolding 
 and development. 
 
 Of the remaining special sciences, Philology and Ar- 
 chaeology - were most cultivated. Under Hadrian, Anto- 
 ninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, the learned men in this 
 department, especially those of Fronto's school, were highly 
 respected and well paid. Nevertheless, independence, cer- 
 tainty, and correctness of judgment began to disappear, and 
 the process of making compendia and plundering from older 
 works was carried on more widely, yet often without taste 
 and critical care, with the one-sided, more or less perfunctory 
 purpose of accumulating materials and getting a collection of 
 notes. The outcome of this activity was, partly encyclo- 
 paedic collections and compilations of all kinds of antiquarian 
 notes, partly elementary books on grammar, metre, orthog- 
 raphy, lexicography, and partly commentaries on the earlier 
 poets, particularly Virgil. 
 
 The following names are especially worthy of mention : — 
 
 I. Compilers: Aulus Gellius,^ born about 130, 
 
 studied in Athens, and lived afterwards in Rome. He made 
 
 it his life-work to make compilations from the older writers, 
 
 and he put the results of his long, industrious studies into the 
 
 1 Excerpts from the most distinguished jurists, in 50 books, 
 
 2 T. i.51. 3 T. ii. 254; C.465.
 
 130 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 20 hooks JVoc^es AtticcB^ which (except Book VIII) are ex- 
 tant, and embrace language, literature, jurisprudence, phil- 
 osophy, and natural science. Gellius appears in the work as 
 a pedant, of no independent judgment, giving himself com- 
 pletely to his work ; but, so far as the material is concerned, 
 his compilation is very valuable to us, — all the more, inas- 
 much as some of the authorities used and cited by him have 
 not come down to us. 
 
 About the year 280, Nonius Marcellus,- probably from 
 Africa, wrote a lexical work entitled, compcndiosa doctrina 
 per literas, which shows, to be sure, very little judgment and 
 knowledge, but which has some value on account of its 
 citations. 
 
 About the year 400, a similar compilation to that of Gel- 
 lius was prepared by Macrobius Theodosius,-^ in his 7 
 books Saturnalia.'^ He made a liberal use of Gellius' work, 
 and discussed the most widely-separated subjects, in par- 
 ticular the peculiarities of Virgil. Moreover, we have a 
 commentary by Macrobius on Cicero's Somnium Scipionis^ 
 which is thus preserved to us. 
 
 Martianus Capella,"^ from Madaura in Africa, a country- 
 man of Apuleius and related to him in style, wrote about the 
 year 430 an encyclopaedic work, partly in prose, and partly 
 in verse, after the model of Varro. He made, moreover, 
 free use of Varro as an authority for the content of his work. 
 After describing, in Books I and II, the wedding of Mercury 
 
 1 So called, because the work was begun in Attica during the long win- 
 ter nights. 2 x_ ii_ 214. 
 
 3 He filled high offices, and, in his later years, probably became a 
 Christian. T. ii. 452. 
 
 4 The name comes from the fact that the form chosen for the work is 
 that of a conversation held during the Saturnalia. 
 
 6 From de repub. VI. 6 T. ii. 464.
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. 131 
 
 and Philologia, he treats, in Books III-IX, of the seven artes 
 liberales, — gi'ammar, dialectics, rhetoric (the trivium of the 
 Middle Ages), geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music 
 (the quadrivium). The work was very frequently used in 
 the Middle Ages as a school-book. 
 
 2. Writers of text-books and commentaries 
 (commentarii) : Terentius Scaurus,^ author (under Had- 
 rian) of a Latin Gfaiii/iiar and a treatise on poetry, be- 
 sides several commentarii ; only the work de orthographia is 
 extant; C. Sulpicius Apollinaris- of Carthage, teacher 
 of Gellius, and writer of qucestiones epistolicce ; Helenius 
 Aero, "^ who wrote about the year 200, commentaries on Ter- 
 ence, Horace, and Persiits ; on the other hand, the collection 
 of scholia on Horace, bearing Acro's name, is from the sev- 
 enth century ; Pomponius Porphyrio (about 200-250), 
 writer of still extant scholia on Horace ; Plotius Sacerdos,^ 
 writer (under Diocletian) of an extant ars grammatica, to- 
 gether with a treatise on metre; Terentianus^ (Maurus), 
 from Mauretania, likewise under Diocletian, who wrote an 
 elementary book, de Uteris, syllabis, metris, of which the por- 
 tion devoted to metre has been presented ;^ luba^ (about 
 300), probably from Africa, writer of an elementary hook 
 on metre, which was much used by later writers ; Marius 
 Victorinus^ (about 350), writer of an extant treatise on 
 metre, also oi commentaries on the Pauline Rpistles ; iElius 
 Donatus'^ (about 350), writer of a grammar, and a com- 
 mentary on Terence, — both extant, the commentary, how- 
 ever, not in its original form ; Flavius Charisius ^^ (about 
 
 1 T. ii. 224; C. 463. 3 x. ii. 278. 5 "P. ij_ 227. 
 
 2 T. ii. 235 ; C. 467. 4 -p. ii. 326. 
 
 6 In describing the different metres, he always employs the metre of 
 which he is treating. 
 
 7 T. ii. 291. 8 T. ii. 360. 9 T, ii. 364. i" T. ii. 378.
 
 132 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 380), WTiter of a grammar, a part of which is extant; 
 Diomedes, who wrote in the same period, and often cov- 
 ered the same ground as Charisius ; Servius Honoratus^ 
 (about 390), writer of a commentary on Virgil, — very valuable 
 in subject-matter ; Priscianus"^ (about 500), writer of insfi- 
 tutiones grammaticcB, in 18 books, a most complete grammati- 
 cal treatise, which, in connection with Donatus, Diomedes, 
 and Charisius, was in universal use in the Middle Ages, and 
 exercised the greatest influence on the treatment of gram- 
 matical subjects. 
 
 In the department of Geography, may be mentioned a 
 geographical, historical compilation {Collectanea reru?n vie- 
 morabilium), written with little taste by the grammarian C. 
 lulius Solinus,^ in the middle of the third century, — a 
 work which, in the portion devoted to geography, was chiefly 
 dependent upon the Naturalis Historia of Pliny ; also, a 
 Cosmography, from the seventh century, ascribed to a cer- 
 tain .ffithicus Ister ;^ moreover, other unimportant writings. 
 Of special worth are the Itineraria,^ or guide-books for travel- 
 lers on land and sea, which originated in the fourth century ; 
 moreover, the two catalogues of the regiones of Rome, the 
 Notitia^ and the Curiosum Urbis Romce ; finally, the maps,^ 
 one of which, made in the time of Alexander Severus, served 
 as a basis for the tabula Peutingeriana, a traveller's map of 
 the Roman Empire, prepared at Colmar in 1265. It was 
 named after its former owner, the learned Augsburg coun- 
 cillor, Conrad Peutinger, and is now in the Court Library in 
 Vienna. 
 
 Astronomy, or rather astrology, found a zealous fol- 
 lower in the Sicilian rhetorician, Firmicus Maternus,^ 
 
 1 T. ii. 413. 3 T. ii. 312. s t. ii. 366. ' T. ii. 78. 
 
 2 T. ii. 535. < T. ii. 576. 6 t. ii. 368. 8 t. i. 71, ii. 353.
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. 133 
 
 who, in the time of Constantine the Great, inspired by a holy 
 zeal, wrote 8 books Mathesios, from the standpoint of the 
 Neo-Platonic superstition. This pagan Firmicus Maternus 
 must not be confounded with a contemporary Christian 
 Firmicus Maternus, who addressed to the sons of Constan- 
 tine the Great a work de errore profananim religionum, 
 urging them on to the annihilation of heathendom. The 
 greater part of this work is extant. 
 
 Important for Military Science is the Epitome ret 
 militans of Flavius Vegetius,^ a setting forth of Roman 
 miUtary science, written about the year 390. Book I treats 
 of the levying and training of recruits ; II, of military disci- 
 pHne ; III, of war itself; IV, of the art of siege, in partic- 
 ular. 
 
 In Medicine, may be mentioned a dispensatory (de 
 medicamentis), written under Theodosius I, and bearing the 
 name of a certain Marcellus Empiricus;^ but especially 
 the two works of Caelius Aurelianus ^ of Numidia, one, 
 a treatise on chronic and acute diseases,'' and the other a 
 medical catechism.^ Moreover, in the fifth century and 
 aftenvards, many medical writings were translated from the 
 Greek. 
 
 The partly-extant work on Agriculture written by Gar- 
 gilius Martialis,^ who lived in the third century, belongs 
 also to medicine, so far as it contains the art of healing 
 animals and other medical references. Much was trans- 
 ferred from this work into that of Palladius Rutilius'' 
 (fourth century) consisting of 14 books relating to agricul- 
 ture. 
 
 1 T. i. 75, ii. 416. 2 T. ii. 420. » T. ii. 488. 
 
 4 Tardarum et celerum, or chronicarum et acutarum passionum. 
 
 5 Medicinales responsiones. 
 
 « T. ii. 294. ' T. ii. 365.
 
 134 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 e. — Patristic Literature. 
 
 Among the authors who wrote in the immediate interest 
 of the Christian Church, for the defense and justification of 
 Christianity against Paganism, and for the establishment and 
 development of Christian doctrine and form of government, 
 — the so-called Church Fathers,^ — the following are worthy 
 of special mention : — 
 
 Minucius Felix, ^ a Roman advocate, wrote, at the close 
 of the second century, the dialogue Octavius, in which the 
 superiority of Christianity to Paganism is shown, especially in 
 relation to morals and civilization. The work is written in 
 a scholarly tone, reminding one of Cicero and Seneca, and 
 in a comparatively natural style. 
 
 Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus^ (150-230) of 
 Carthage, was a rhetorician and an advocate in Rome, and 
 afterwards a presbyter in Carthage. He was a montanist, and 
 an original, fiery spirit, seeking to grasp the divine in concrete 
 form, an ascetic enthusiast and a keen dialectician. His 
 language was full of character, but arbitrary and peculiar. 
 Among his numerous writings the Apologcticiis of the year 
 199 is of special worth. Thascius Csecilius Cyprianus,'* 
 bishop of Carthage, martyred in 258, is important in the his- 
 tory of church government on account of his work de unitate 
 ecclesicB. Arnobius,^ of Sicca in Numidia, wrote, about 295, 
 7 books adversus nationes (heathen), in declamatory, un- 
 even language, and without a deep understanding of Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 1 T. ii. 207, 338. 
 
 2 T. ii. 272; Holden's Octavius of M. Felix: Introd. ; Schaff: Hist, of 
 Christian Church, i. 525. 
 
 3 T. ii. 275 ; Woodham's Apology of Tertullian : Introd. ; Schaff, i. 512. 
 
 4 T. ii. 299 ; Schaff, i. 519. ^ T. ii. 329 ; Schaff, i. 527.
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. I35 
 
 On the other hand, Lactantius Firmianus ^ (under Dio- 
 cletian) , a rhetorician in Nicomedia, and afterwards teacher 
 of Crispus, son of Constantine the Great, is regarded as the 
 Christian Cicero, so far as style is concerned. His wTitings, 
 among them, especiall)-, insfitiitionum divinaruffi libri VII, 
 exhibit an intimate acquaintance with the best classical 
 writers and poets, and a cultivated, tolerant mind. 
 
 A powerful champion of the glory of the church was 
 Ambrosius,^ who died as bishop of Milan in 398. He was 
 more important on account of his personal character than on 
 account of his writings. He took a prominent part in ad- 
 vancing church music, was a A\Titer of rhymed hymns^ in 
 iambic dimeters, but not of the later so-called Ambrosian 
 Hymn, " Te Deum laudamus." 
 
 An extremely learned and copious wTiter was Hierony- 
 mus'* of Stridon in Dalmatia (336-420), " the disputator and 
 dialectician of the contending church," at the same time in- 
 timately acquainted with classical literature and a connoisseur 
 in Hebrew. The most important of his works is the Latin 
 translation of the Bible ^' the foundation of the still received 
 Vulgate. 
 
 By far the most prominent of all the Church Fathers was 
 Aurelius Augustinus,*^ who was born at Tagasta in Nu- 
 midia, 354 a.d., was bishop of Hippo Regius, and died in 
 430. He was an extremely versatile spirit, who united in 
 himself the most varied gifts and talents. He was of the 
 greatest importance for the development of ecclesiastical 
 dogma. Among his many writings the 22 books de civitate 
 
 1 T. ii. 330 ; Schaff, iii. 955. 3 Trench, 86 ; Schaff, iii. 590, 
 
 - T. ii. 423 ; Schaff, iii. 961. 4 T. ii. 425 ; Schaff, iii. 967. 
 
 5 His translation of the Bible is in its way a masterpiece. T. ii. 427; 
 Schaff, iii. 972. 
 
 6 T. ii. 441 ; Schaff, iii. 989.
 
 136 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Dei^ are most worthy of mention, a historical, philosophical 
 work, which exhibits a thorough knowledge of Roman and 
 Greek literature, and has preserved to us much from both. 
 His confessiones is his most popular work.^ 
 
 Among the popes may be named Leo the Great ^ 
 (Leo I), pope 440-461, the founder of the greatness of 
 the papal throne, and a strenuous defender of church unity. 
 His writings are partly sermones (delivered on festival occa- 
 sions), partly epistulce, written in comparatively pure style. 
 Gregory the Great '^ (Gregory I), pope 590-604, also 
 deserves mention. He was a man of monastic tendency, 
 disdaining grammatical rules and worldly science. His most 
 important works are his epistles and hyinns. He was like- 
 wise active in the furtherance of church music. 
 
 1 The grandest and most characteristic work of later Roman literature. 
 Schlegel, 138 ; Schaff, iii. loio. 
 
 2 Schaff, iii. 1005 ; Shedd's Introd. to Am. Ed. 
 
 « T. ii. 480; Schaff, ii. 314. * T. ii. 569.
 
 SURVEY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.
 
 138 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 P^ 
 
 >3 
 
 
 Eh 
 H 
 O 
 
 fin 
 
 c3 
 
 a 
 
 tuO 
 C 
 O 
 
 . (n 
 
 TO ra oi 
 
 > ;3 
 
 C/3 
 
 X3 
 3 
 C/3 
 
 P c -r- 
 
 TO r- r- O 
 
 Era (13 c 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 bO 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 U 
 
 73 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 fa 
 
 'a, 
 W 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 o 
 tn 
 0) 
 fa 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 ;-! 
 ■d 
 
 a . 
 
 *H 3 
 
 en 
 
 "3 
 w 
 
 
 3 
 
 .5 
 I— I 
 
 o 
 IS 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ul 
 
 
 
 <u 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 CJ . m 
 
 
 
 ula praetext 
 ula togata. 
 ula palliata 
 Andronicu 
 Nasvius. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 X3 ^ XI >• • 
 
 a! 
 
 
 n! rt ri •- C 
 
 73 
 
 <;fafafa JU 
 
 3 
 ^S 
 
 '> 
 
 0! 
 
 t/T 
 
 3 
 
 '5 
 
 I— t . 
 
 ^ 3 m « 
 
 to S 3 .5 
 
 • • i5 -1=4. • • 
 OE-i 73 P4 ^ J h J 
 
 i: to 
 
 !5 o' S 
 3 ^ ra 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 . CI- 
 
 .5 5 
 §^. 
 
 P 
 o 
 I— I 
 c^ 
 
 H 
 Ph 
 
 EH 
 JX2 
 
 I— I 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 O 
 I— ( 
 P^ 
 
 w 
 fi 
 
 izi 
 o 
 o 
 w 
 
 02 
 
 o 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 o
 
 FIRST AND SECOND PERIODS. 
 
 JV 
 
 bo 
 
 OQ 
 
 m 
 O 
 
 
 13 
 
 C3 
 
 t/7 
 
 n! 
 
 S ui' 
 
 3 ■" 
 
 b/) • C 
 tu 5 o 
 ^^ d a. 
 
 1J S o i^ 
 
 1- OJ J o 
 
 t/) G "^ C 
 
 <" C 'H " 
 '''JS X! - 
 
 (u o .-t: o 
 JCJJU 
 
 nl 
 
 C 
 3 
 
 ^ £ 
 
 " 3 
 
 C 
 
 ■" FT 
 
 o 
 
 • bo 
 
 C rt 
 
 6^ 
 
 3 
 
 W o 
 
 CTvU 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 "3 
 
 
 o 
 > 
 
 o 
 m 
 
 6 
 
 (3 
 
 o 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 u 
 
 d. 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 CJ 
 
 o 
 U 
 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
 SJ 
 
 to .=: 
 
 to U 
 
 s ^ 
 
 O r- 
 
 Wo' 
 
 
 J c 
 
 
 3ii 
 
 t/i 
 
 w 
 
 'E 3 
 
 rt 3 
 
 
 S o ^ 
 o b S 
 c— 2 
 
 :^ li 3 
 
 fc<Q- 
 
 o s; 
 
 23 
 
 c-.:^7i 
 
 C3 . 
 
 U-i .3 
 
 o 
 
 o o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 '3 
 o 
 
 Oh 
 
 -IU< 
 
 Ef_ 3 
 
 
 
 1-1 ■« . 
 < a 
 
 3C/3 
 
 — • 3 O 
 •- 3O. 
 
 " .3 
 
 bCC 
 (-■'^ "" 
 
 
 Uh-!<UU 
 
 «2 2 
 
 !zi O 
 
 O HH 
 
 WW 
 M Ph 
 
 O 
 o
 
 140 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 
 Id 
 
 OQ 
 
 13 
 
 Eh 
 H 
 O 
 
 
 3 
 > 
 
 
 aj 
 
 ■*^ 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 :^« 
 
 
 
 ■5 ^ 
 
 hH 
 
 .^9 
 
 >» 
 
 h^l 
 
 j-p 
 
 
 . 03 
 
 
 uo 
 
 &. 
 
 n 
 
 i 
 
 CO 
 
 pi 
 
 •rH 
 
 (0 
 
 O 
 
 ■■5 
 > 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o o3 
 
 a> 
 
 3 
 
 •S ^ 
 
 g< 
 
 OJ O 
 
 3 
 C 
 ni 
 > 
 o 
 c 
 
 35 
 
 •-'•a 
 
 . 1; 
 
 to 
 
 rS 3 
 
 ,?^ 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 • 
 
 in . 
 
 E3 
 
 
 •f-t 
 
 =3§ 
 
 1: 
 
 CO 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 •0 
 > 
 
 w 
 
 UH 
 
 fc 
 
 
 
 
 tA 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t/i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 as 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 U^ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 cn 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 
 :3 
 
 
 Ti 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 ni 
 
 > 
 
 
 C3 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 3 ui 
 
 ""J _: 
 
 3 ~ 
 
 SQCu 
 
 r-, TO 
 
 e - 
 ■3 "> 
 
 SiJ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 CO
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 I4V 
 
 
 D. 
 
 < 
 
 00 
 
 X 
 
 ■3 
 a c] ® 
 
 
 > 
 
 (£ 
 
 0< .2 T3 
 
 a3 
 
 o 
 
 o a » 
 
 •03 
 
 be 3 
 
 Pi 
 
 o 
 - u 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 i-s 
 
 o 
 ■ftm 
 
 CO 3 
 
 
 S2 rt 
 
 
 3^ . 
 
 ;-• 
 
 *.n rt 
 
 ,"" 
 
 ^,^ V, 
 
 H 
 
 Or- u 
 
 
 . .h 
 
 ^ 
 
 <U 
 
 c/) C 
 
 > . 
 
 S5 
 
 4^ 
 
 tc to . 
 
 "■2 0.2 o 
 C (E aj .'S 
 
 cs<5 (fi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •1^ 
 
 
 
 
 >» 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •;3 
 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 (h 
 
 
 
 
 
 0! 
 
 CO 
 
 6r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 Pm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vi 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 l>3 
 
 3 
 
 
 W) 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 4J 
 
 3 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ,2 
 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 cS 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 U) 
 
 
 « 
 
 U) 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 ^ 
 
 7i 
 
 
 SS 
 
 y 
 
 3 
 
 
 (tf 
 
 a 
 
 'J 
 
 
 
 
 -) 
 
 S 
 
 'J 
 
 tn- ) 
 OS 
 
 < 
 
 
 > 
 
 en 
 
 U 
 
 w 
 
 C/1 
 
 3 := 
 
 g O 
 en C 
 
 o o 
 << 
 
 0} 
 
 3 
 
 O 3 
 ^< ^ 
 
 I'M 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 G. 
 
 5 ■ 
 
 eu = 
 
 OO- h 
 
 a) r 2 S 
 
 9 5^ 
 
 o 
 a. 
 
 C3 
 
 a 
 
 M> 
 Is 
 
 3 
 
 « 9 '-a 
 
 ft? o o H 
 
 H w o 2^ 
 
 o 
 
 CO
 
 142 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 a 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 to 
 
 »— I 
 
 
 to 
 u 
 
 J3 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 pi 
 
 cl 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 o 
 c 
 
 fc 
 
 C/2 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 a, 
 
 nl 
 
 U 
 
 3 
 o 
 
 'S 
 
 c8 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C/J 
 
 
 
 l/l 
 
 
 3 
 
 .2 
 
 .2 
 
 ■PH 
 
 g 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 
 +-> 
 
 !-• 
 
 T 
 
 tt! 
 
 < 
 
 (/: 
 
 c 
 
 . 
 
 . 3 
 
 to" 
 
 p 
 
 ;3 « 
 
 <j 
 
 el ^ 
 
 ca 
 
 d- 
 
 tL, 
 
 o H 
 
 , 
 
 3d 
 
 rt 
 > 
 
 C/3 
 
 rt 
 
 (/J 
 3 
 
 '5 
 '5. 
 Ou 
 
 a 
 
 c8 
 
 3 
 
 ■a 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 o 
 
 (U 
 
 tn 
 
 if) 
 
 3 
 
 '5 
 o 
 
 £ 
 
 5 
 
 Du, 
 
 3 
 B 
 
 rt 
 
 c 
 
 i~. 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 
 u 
 
 J 
 
 o 
 
 (D 
 
 
 > 
 rt 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 Wo 
 
 Ho 
 
 O W 
 Pm Ph 
 
 t^
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 
 
 143 
 
 l3 Ci O 
 
 ^1 
 
 CO TC 0} 
 
 
 .s 
 .S'5 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 £ to 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 O (U 
 
 7:' 
 
 o ri t: 
 a— o 
 
 ^ o a; 
 
 o <^ V 
 Oh c/3 
 
 s s 
 (I4 
 
 
 O P 
 
 U 
 
 :3q 
 
 72 
 O 
 
 P4 
 
 '3 
 
 Mathemat- 
 ics and Ar- 
 chitecture. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 c 
 
 
 -2 '*' ^ 
 
 -■ 
 
 
 
 
 S3a 
 
 1 
 
 
 U 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 n3 3 J8 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 E-S 
 
 «2 8--5 = 
 
 c3 3-1 tfl a; "^ 
 
 rt 'P 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 5 — ' 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■"d. 
 
 E r~ 
 
 n, 
 
 C D 
 
 br, 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 (J 
 
 
 
 ci 
 
 > <a-c- 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 li 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 tn 
 
 lA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 1 
 
 
 i." 3 
 3 C 
 
 . 3 
 
 FL3 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I'i 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 E^ 
 
 1/5 SP 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4? c« 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 ^Xl 
 
 73 Oh 
 
 UJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • >5 
 
 ^ n. 
 Q-i ° 
 
 c8 
 o 
 
 (D 
 fl 
 O 
 CO 
 
 c 3 
 0) - 
 
 !« 03 
 
 M 
 
 ^ ^ c ^ 
 O ..3 
 
 o3 ■£. 
 tn .3 
 
 E.Spi:2^-, 
 
 4-1 
 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 ^ 
 
 a; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 >a,u 
 
 ai 
 
 J3 
 
 fa 
 
 o 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o cq 
 
 Ph Ph
 
 144 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 -a 
 
 r3 
 
 31 
 
 <6. 
 
 in 
 
 O 
 
 02 
 O 
 
 PL( 
 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 O D. 
 
 3 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 73 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 o ^• 
 
 so 
 03 li, 
 
 3 
 C 
 
 •< i 
 
 3 
 S 
 
 « 
 
 
 O 3 
 
 <D 
 O 
 
 c3 
 
 ,•> 
 
 03 ■ 
 
 "3 "■' o 3 
 0^3 3 
 
 3 3 
 
 .3 > 
 
 0-3 P 
 
 O 
 
 -a 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 0) 
 
 :2 7:.0 u o o 
 
 J3 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 < 
 
 1-3 ° 
 '^Ph 
 
 Eh 
 H 
 O 
 
 be a> 
 
 
 3 
 B 
 
 .2 
 
 S 
 2; 
 
 3 
 u 
 
 C 
 0) 
 
 3 
 
 > 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 
 0} 
 
 • I— I 
 
 •a 
 
 i— I 
 
 O 
 
 'H CO 
 
 £! <" 2 
 
 35^ 
 
 c 
 
 "C to 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 
 +3 
 03 
 
 g 
 
 to 
 
 •l-H 
 
 I— I 
 
 03 
 
 c 
 o 
 ■a 
 
 c75 
 
 •s§ 
 
 — o 
 
 O OJ 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 6^ l-H 
 
 ad 
 
 Cm < m 
 
 ^ Oh m 
 
 8 
 
 CO 
 
 8 
 
 to
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. 
 
 145 
 
 ^3 
 
 3 . 
 C X 
 
 H 
 
 0) fl 
 EH 
 
 to 
 
 0. 
 >. 
 O 
 
 3-S 
 
 95 
 
 'S 
 o 
 
 B 
 
 < 
 
 >> +3 
 fl . to 
 
 o 
 t/) 
 
 O 
 
 Oh 
 
 goa 
 
 3-2 
 
 .a 
 
 o 
 
 <B 
 
 "'I 
 
 3 C3 
 
 u 
 
 li^zi .2 
 o o 
 
 c 
 
 il 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 c 
 050 
 
 ■■5 •^' '"^ ■^' 
 
 o 
 
 72 
 
 ^^ 
 
 i£ in 
 3 ;3 
 
 in in 
 
 3 3 
 
 (n 3 
 3 C 
 
 c 
 "5. 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 Bm 
 
 en 
 
 M 
 
 SS 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 ^ +a 
 
 
 
 oJ 
 
 ^ , 
 
 r 
 
 3 « 3 
 
 = ° 3 
 
 i^ tn ■;= 
 
 .2 3 c 
 
 > « rt o 
 
 en --; 
 3 ? 
 
 > 
 
 a 
 
 U 
 
 3 
 c 
 
 7j 
 
 -J 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 w 
 
 a 
 
 =1 
 
 t-5 
 
 en tn 
 3 3 
 
 c •;:: 
 = 2 
 
 "5 ~r 
 
 " c 
 in O 
 
 35- ; 
 
 > >i\ 
 
 rS V J 
 
 a 
 
 0^ 
 
 ft 3 
 
 a fl s 3 
 
 w . 
 
 E-l« 
 P-i W 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 in 
 
 3 
 C 
 
 8 
 
 CO 
 
 eg 
 
 Mo 
 o -^ 
 
 O L- 
 
 o 
 
 T3 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 •a 
 o 
 U 
 
 01 7: 
 ft o 
 
 on 
 
 OH 
 
 o
 
 INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Accius, 23. 
 
 Acilius Glabrio, 27. 
 
 Aero, see Helenius. 
 
 Acta senatus, 82. 
 
 Acta populi, 82. 
 
 j'Elius Donatus, 131. 
 
 yElius Lampridius, 124. 
 
 jElius Psetus, 31. 
 
 iElius Spartianus, 124. 
 
 ililius Stilo, 32. 
 
 yElius Tubero, 72. 
 
 /Emilius Asper, iii. 
 
 (Emilius Papinianus, 128. 
 
 jf^milius Probus, 76. 
 
 yEsopus, the tragedian, 38. 
 
 jEthlcus Ister, 132. 
 
 yEtna, 92. 
 
 Afranius, 22. 
 
 African latinity, 115. 
 
 Agriculture, 33, 113, 133. 
 
 Agrippa, see Vipsanius, 
 
 Agrippina minor, gg. 
 
 Albius TibuUus, 56. 
 
 Ambrosius, 121, 135. 
 
 Ammianus Marcellinus, 125. 
 
 Ampelius, 124. 
 
 Anna;us Lucanus, go. 
 
 Annseus Seneca, rhetorician, 106. 
 
 Annseus Seneca, philosopher, 8g. 
 
 Tragedies, 89. 
 
 Satire, 93. 
 
 Philosophical writings and epistles, 
 108. 
 Annales maxlmi, 12. 
 Annales pontificum, 12. 
 
 Annalists, 26, 27, 28. 
 Anthropology', 112. 
 Antistius Labeo, 84, no. 
 Antonius, M., orator, 30. 
 Apollinaris Sidonius, 117. 
 Apuleius, 120, 121. 
 ArchEeology, 32, 84, 129. 
 Archaic prose, 25, 26. 
 Architecture, 83, 84. 
 Arithmetic, 83, 131. 
 Arnobius, 134. 
 Arruntius Stella, 97. 
 Artes liberales, 83, 131. 
 Artistic Drama, 16, 17, 18. 
 Asconius Pedianus, in. 
 Asinius Pollio, 59, 79, 81. 
 Astrology, 132. 
 Astronomy, 33, 112, 131, 132. 
 Ateius Capito, 84, no. 
 Atellanae, 10, 16. 
 Atticus, see Pomponius. 
 Aufidius Bassus, 99. 
 Augustinus, 135. 
 Augustus, 78, 98. 
 Aurelius Cassiodorius, 126. 
 Aurelius Symmachus, 120. 
 Aurelius Victor. 124. 
 Ausonius, see Magnus. 
 Avianus, 119. 
 Avienus, see Festus. 
 
 Bathyllus, 39. 
 Boetius, see Manlius. 
 Book-trade, 34, 37, 87. 
 Botany, 112. 
 
 147
 
 148 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Caecilius Cyprianus, 134. 
 Caelius Antipater, 28. 
 Caelius Aurelianus, 133. 
 Caelius Rufus, 59. 
 Caesar, see lulius. 
 
 Ccesius Bassus, 92, 97. 
 
 Calidius, 59. 
 
 Calpurnius Piso Frugi, 28. 
 
 Carmen, 8. 
 
 Carmen Arvalium, see Sacred songs. 
 
 Carmen Saliare, see Sacred songs. 
 
 Carmina Triumphalia, 9. 
 
 Cassiodorius, see Aurelius. 
 
 Cassius Heraina, 28. 
 
 Cassius Longinus, no. 
 
 Cassius Severus, 59. 
 
 Catullus, see Valerius. 
 
 Celsus, see Cornelius. 
 
 Charisius, see Fiavius. 
 
 Chronicles, 13, 26. 
 
 Church Fathers, 134. 
 
 Cicero, see Tullius. 
 
 Cincius Alimentus, 27. 
 
 Claudius Caecus, 13. 
 
 Claudius Claudianus, 117. 
 
 Claudius, Imperator, 98, no. 
 
 Claudius Quadrigarius, 29. 
 Cluvius Rufus, 99. 
 Codex Gregorianus, 128. 
 Codex Hermogenianus, 128. 
 Codex lustinianeus, 128. 
 Codex Theodosianus, 128. 
 Columella, see Moderatus. 
 Comedy, 17, 22. 
 Commentarii magistratuum, 12. 
 Commentarii pontificum, 12. 
 Commentarii regum, 12. 
 Contaminare, 18. 
 Cornelius Celsus, 113. 
 Cornelius Fronto, iig. 
 Cornelius Gallus, 53. 
 Cornelius Nepos, 75. 
 Cornelius Sisenna, 28. 
 Cornelius Sulla, 28. 
 Cornelius Tacitus, loi. 
 Cornificius, 31. 
 
 Corpus iuris, 128. 
 Crassus, L., orator, 30. 
 Cremutius Cordus, 98. 
 Curiatius Maternus, 89. 
 Curio, sg. 
 
 Curiosum urbis Romae, 132. 
 Curtius Rufus, 100. 
 Cyprianus, see Caecilius. 
 
 Dialectics, 83, 131. 
 
 Didactic poetry, 37 7(9, 40, 92, 116, 118. 
 
 Digesta, 129. 
 
 Diomedes, 132. 
 
 Domestic economy, 33. 
 
 Domitius Ulpianus, 128. 
 
 Donatus, see jElius. 
 
 Dracontius, 118. 
 
 Drama, 9, 16, 38, 89. 
 
 E. 
 
 Edictum perpetuum, 127. 
 
 Elegy, 52. 
 
 Encyclopaedic literature, 82, 112, 129. 
 
 Ennius, 14, 15, 18, 22, 24. 
 
 Epic poetry, 8, 23, 37, 39, 88, 90, 116, 117 
 
 Epicureanism, 65. 
 
 Epigram, 97, 116, 117. 
 
 Epistle (poetical), 39, 40, 48, 116, 117 
 
 Epistle (prose), 68, 107, no, 120. 
 
 Epitaphs, 9. 
 
 Erotic poetry, 52, 53, 56, 57. 
 
 Eutropius, 125. 
 
 Exodium, 10, 16. 
 
 Fable, 96, 119. 
 Fabius Pictor, 26. 
 Fabius Quintilianus, 106. 
 Fabius Rusticus, 99. 
 Fabula palliata, 17. 
 Fabula praetexta, 22. 
 Fabula rhinthonica, 19. 
 Fabula togata, 22. 
 Fasti, 12. 
 Fescennini, 10.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 149 
 
 Festus Avtenus, 118. 
 Festus, see Pompeius. 
 Firmicus Maternus, 132. 
 Flavius Caper, 11 1. 
 Flavius Charisius, 131. 
 Flavius Merobaudcs, 117. 
 Flavius Vegetius, 133. 
 Flavius Vopiscus, 124. 
 Florus, 123. 
 
 Fragmenta Vaticana, 128. 
 Frontinus, see lulius. 
 Fronto, see Cornelius. 
 
 Gaius, 127. 
 
 Gargilius Martialis, 133. 
 
 Gellius, izg. 
 
 Genus Asiaticum, 30, 58. 
 
 Genus Atticum, 31, 58. 
 
 Genus Rhodium, 58. 
 
 Geography, 33, 84, 85, 112, 132. 
 
 Geometry, 83, 131. 
 
 Germanicus, 92. 
 
 Gildas, 126. 
 
 Gracchus, C, 30. 
 
 Grammar, see Philology. 
 
 Granius Licinianus, 124. 
 
 Gratius Faliscus, 45. 
 
 Greek influence, 2, 7, 14, 30, 34, 64. 
 
 Gregorius I (Magnus), 136. 
 
 Gregorius Turonensis, 126. 
 
 H. 
 
 Helenius Aero, 131. 
 Herennius Modestinus, 128. 
 Hexameter, 24. 
 Hieronymus, 135. 
 Hirtius, 75. 
 Historical songs, 8 
 History, 16, 26, 72, 88, 98, 122. 
 Horatius, 46, 51. 
 
 Satires, 47. 
 
 Epistles, 48. 
 
 Odes, 49. 
 
 Epodes, 50. 
 Horace and Virgil, 51. 
 
 Hortensius, 30. 
 Hyginus, 85. 
 
 Hyginus (Surveyor), iii. 
 Hymns to the dead, 9. 
 
 Idyll, 39, 40, 42, 116, 117. 
 
 Iguvinae tabulae, 9. 
 
 Institutiones, 129. 
 
 lordanis, 126. 
 
 Italic language and dialects, 3. 
 
 Itineraria, 132. 
 
 luba, 131. 
 
 lulius Ca;sar, 59, 73. 
 
 lulius Capitolinus, 124 
 
 lulius Frontinus, in. 
 
 lulius Paulus, 128. 
 
 lulius Solinus, 132. 
 
 lunius luvenalis, 93. 
 
 lus jElianum, 32. 
 
 lus Flavianum, 13. 31. 
 
 lus Papirianum, 12. 
 
 lustinus, 82. 
 
 Tuvencus, see Vettius. 
 
 L. 
 
 Laberius, Dec, 39. 
 
 Lactantius Firmianus, 135. 
 
 Latin language, 3. 
 
 Laudatlones funebres, 13. 
 
 Law, 16, 31, 83, no, ns, 127, 130. 
 
 Leges XII tabularum, 13. 
 
 Leges regiae, 12. 
 
 Leo I (Magnus), 136. 
 
 Libraries, 35. 
 
 Libri lintei, 12. 
 
 Libri magistratuum, 12. 
 
 Libri pontificum, 12. 
 
 Licinius Calvus, 52. 
 
 Licinius Macer, 29. 
 
 Livius Andronicus, 18, 22, 23. 
 
 Livius, T., 79. 
 
 Lucanus, 90. 
 
 Lucilius, C, 25. 
 
 Lucilius Junior, 92 
 
 Lucretius, 40. 
 
 Ludicrum Oscum, lo.
 
 150 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Luscius Lavinius, 21. 
 Lutatius Catullus, 28. 
 Lyric poetry, 37, 49, 50, 52, 96, 116. 
 
 M. 
 
 Maccius Plautus, 19. 
 Macrobius, 130. 
 Msecenas, 41, 46. 
 Magnus Ausonius, ii5. 
 
 Mago. 33- 
 Manilius, 45. 
 Manlius Boetius, 121. 
 Marcellus Empiricus, 133. 
 Marcus Aurelius, 115. 
 Marius Maximus, 124. 
 Marius Victorinus, 131. 
 Martialis, see Valerius. 
 Martianus Capella, 130. 
 Masurius Sabinus, no. 
 Mathematics, 33, in, 122. 
 Medicine, 83, 112, 113, 133. 
 Mela, see Pomponius. 
 Memmius, 59. 
 Merobaudes, see Flavius. 
 Military writings, in, 113, 133. 
 Mime, 38, 89. 
 Mineralogy, 112. 
 Minucius Felix, 134. 
 Moderatus Columella, 113. 
 Monumentum Ancyranum, 79. 
 Mucius Scaevola, P. and Q., 32. 
 Music, 83, 131. 
 
 N. 
 
 Naevius, 18, 22, 24. 
 
 Namatianus, see Rutilius. 
 
 Nemesianus, 118. 
 
 Nenise, see Hymns to the dead. 
 
 Nepos, see Cornelius. 
 
 Nero, go. 
 
 New Academy, 65. 
 
 Nigidius Figulus, 84. 
 
 Nonius Marcellus, 130. 
 
 Notitia dignitatum, 127. 
 
 Notitia Urbis Romae, 132. 
 
 Novellae, 129. 
 
 Novius, 16. 
 
 Octavia, praetexta, 89. 
 
 Ofilius, 84. 
 
 Oratory, 16, 29, 88, 105, 1 19. 
 
 Orosius, 126. 
 
 Ovidius, 53. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pacuvius, 22. 
 
 Palladius Rutilius, 133. 
 
 Palliata, 17. 
 
 Pandects, 129. 
 
 Panegyric Literature, 115. 
 
 Pantomime, 39, 89. 
 
 Papinianus, see VEmilius. 
 
 Papinius Statins, 91, 97. 
 
 Patristic literature, 115, 134. 
 
 Pedo Albinovanus, 40. 
 
 Persius Flaccus, 93. 
 
 Pervigilium Veneris, 116. 
 
 Petronius Arbiter, 94. 
 
 Peutingeriana tabula, 132. 
 
 Phaedrus, 96. 
 
 Philology, 32, 83, 84, no, 122, 129, 131. 
 
 Philosophy, 64, 108, 113, 121, 130. 
 
 Plautus, see Maccius. 
 
 Plinius maior, 99, 112. 
 
 Plinius minor, 107. 
 
 Plotius Sacerdos, 131. 
 
 Pompeius Festus, 84. 
 
 Pompeius Trogus. 82. 
 
 Pomponius, L., 16. 
 
 Pomponius Atticus, 69, 72. 
 
 Pomponius Mela, 112. 
 
 Pomponius Porphyrio, 131. 
 
 Pomponius Secundus, 89. 
 
 Pomponius, Sextus, Jurist, 127. 
 
 Popular Epos, 8, 23. 
 
 Porcius Cato censorius, 27, 30, 32, 33. 
 
 Porphyrio, see Pomponius. 
 
 Postumius Albinus, 27. 
 
 Praetexta, 22. 
 
 Priscianus, 132. 
 
 Proculus, see Sempronius. 
 
 Propertius, 57. 
 
 Provincial literature, 37, 114.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 15 1 
 
 Prudentius Clemens, 116. 
 Publilius Syrus, 39. 
 Pylades, 39. 
 
 Quinctius Atta, 22. 
 Quintilianus see Faoius. 
 
 Rabirius, 40. 
 
 Recitationes, 37. 
 
 Remmius Palaemo, 11 1. 
 
 Rhetoric, 50, 58, 88, 105, 113, 114, 119, 
 
 131. 
 Rhetorica ad Herennium, 31. 
 Ritual precepts, 9. 
 Roscius, comedian, 38. 
 Rutilius Namatianus, 118. 
 Rutilius Rufus, 28. 
 
 Sabinus, see Masurius. 
 
 Sacred songs, 9. 
 
 Sallustius, 76. 
 
 Salvius lulianus, 127. 
 
 Satire, 25, 37, 40, 45, 47, 92, 97. 
 
 Satura, 10, i6, 25. 
 
 Satura Menippea, 45. 
 
 Saturnius versus, 8. 
 
 Scribonius Largus, 113. 
 
 Scriptores historiae Augustas, 124. 
 
 Sempronius Asellio, 28. 
 
 Sempronius Proculus, no. 
 
 Sempronius Tuditanus, 28. 
 
 Seneca, rhetorician, see Annseus. 
 
 Seneca, philosopher, see Annseus. 
 
 Septimius Florens TertuUianus, 134. 
 
 Servius Honoratus, 132. 
 
 Sextii Nigri, 65. 
 
 Sidonius, see Apollinaris. 
 
 Silius Italicus, 91. 
 
 Sisenna, 28. 
 
 Solinus, see lulius. 
 
 Stage, the, in Rome, 10. 
 
 Statins Csecilius, 21. 
 
 Statius, see Papinius. 
 
 Stoicism, 65, 109. 
 
 Suetonius, 122. 
 Sulla, see Cornelius. 
 Sulpicia, 97. 
 
 Sulpicius Apollinaris, 131. 
 Sulpicius Galba, 30. 
 Sulpicius Rufus, 84. 
 Sulpicius Severus, 126. 
 Surveyors, 161. 
 Symmachus, see Aurelius. 
 
 Tacitus, see Cornelius. 
 
 Terentianus, 131. 
 
 Terentius, P , 20. 
 
 Terentius Scaurus, 131. 
 
 Terentius Varro, polyhistor, 45, 82 
 
 Terentius Varro Atacinu?., 40. 
 
 TertuUianus, see Septimius. 
 
 Theatre in Rome, 17. 
 
 Tiberius, 98. 
 
 Tibullus, see Albius. 
 
 Titinius 22. 
 
 Togata, 22. 
 
 Tragedy, 22. 
 
 Treaties, 11. 
 
 Trebatius Testa, 84. 
 
 Trebellius Pollio, 124. 
 
 Tribonianus, 128. 
 
 Triumph, songs of, 9. 
 
 Tucca, 44. 
 
 Tullius Cicero, 59. 
 
 Epic Poems, 40. 
 
 Orations, 62. 
 
 Rhetorical writings, 68. 
 
 Philosophical works, 64. 
 
 Letters, 68. 
 
 Historical works, 72. 
 
 Character, 71. 
 
 V (U). 
 
 Valerius Antias, 29. 
 Valerius Catullus, 52. 
 Valerius Flaccus, 91. 
 Valerius Martialis, 97. 
 Valerius Ma.ximus, 100. 
 Valerius Messala, 59, 79 
 Valerius Probus. iii.
 
 152 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Varius, L., 40, 44. 
 Varro, see Terentius. 
 Vegetius, see Flavius. 
 Velius Longus, iii. 
 Velleius Paterculus, 99. 
 Venantius Fortunatiis, 118. 
 Vergilius, 41, 51. 
 V^errius Flaccus, 84. 
 Vespasianus, 99, m. 
 
 Vettius Aquilius luvencus, 
 Victorinus, see Marius. 
 Vipsanius Agrippa, 79, 85. 
 Vitruvius PoUio, 85. 
 Ulpianus, see Domitius. 
 Volcacius Gallicanus, 124. 
 
 117. 
 
 z. 
 
 Zoology, 112. 
 
 K.yc
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 
 
 APR 1 2 1943 
 
 OCT 2 8 1M6 
 MAY 3 1947 
 
 JUN 1 t ^55f) 
 
 JUL % 6 19Se 
 
 FEB 6 " 1961 
 
 jm^ #e 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^\»^' 
 
 ,- »» 
 
 Hfyp LP-USft 
 
 NOVl P7 
 
 Form I>-9 
 
 20m-l,' 42(8519) 
 
 at-^- 
 
 u 
 
 \^t 
 
 aC^S!^' 
 
 UMIVKRSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 AT • 
 LOS ANGELES 
 LIBRARY
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 AA 000 436 690 2 
 
 /
 
 p 
 
 wm 
 
 r.i\i>?ii r,t<v^iy,'.^y'ILyJVla■l^^t■.*:)('ylku,\\^^nvAw^^^i,.\■tm■iXll^'t>^